Encyclopaedia Britannica [1, 12 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Editorial Preface
Abbreviations
Initials
ABBE
AERO
AERO
AERO
AGRI
AIRS
AMMU
ANTA
ANT
ARCH
ARME
ARMY
ARMY
ARTI
ARTO
ASTR
AUST
AUST
BACT
BALK
BANK
BAVA
BELG
BIRR
BOTA
BRID
BULG
CAME
CANA
CARP
CHAM
CHAN
CHEM
CHIN
CHUR
CITY
COAT
CONV
COST
CURR
DARD
DEMO
DIPL
DRES
EAST
EAST
EAST
EGYP
ELEC
ENGL
ENGL
ENGL

Citation preview

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA TWELFTH EDITION ey

VOLUME | ABBE - ENGLISH HISTORY

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA NEW

FIRST SECOND THIRD

VOLUMES

edition, published in three S j

os s

BRITANNICA

volumes,

1768—1771.

ten eighteen

5 =

1777—1784. 1788—1797.

FOURTH

a

twenty

a

1801-—T810,

FIFTH SIXTH

5 vs

5s s$

twenty twenty

S “a

1815—1517. 1823—1824.

twenty-one twenty-two

p

SEVENTH EIGHTH

J 5

7

NINTH TENTH

n »

i

twenty-five ,, hinth edition and eleven supplementary volumes,

1875—1889. 1902—1903.

1830-1842, 1853—1860.

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

,„ »

published in twenty-nine volumes, eleventh edition and three new volumes,

IGIO—IQIE. 1921—1922,

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA THE CONSTITUTING,

BRITANNICA

NEW VOLUMES

IN COMBINATION WITH THE EXISTING VOLUMES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION,

THE TWELFTH

EDITION

_OF THAT WORK, AND ALSO SUPPLYING A NEW, DISTINCTIVE, AND INDEPENDENT LIBRARY OF REFERENCE DEALING WITH EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE PERIOD

I910 TO I921

INCLUSIVE

Tue First or Tut New Vortumes

VOLUME XXX ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY

Lonpon-

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY, LTD.

New York

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

1922.

BRITANNICA,

INC.

DEDICATED

BY PERMISSION TO

THE TWO HEADS OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND AND OF THE BRITISI1 DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS EMPEROR OF INDIA AND

WARREN PRESIDENT

GAMALIEL

OF THE

UNITED

HARDING

STATES

OF AMERICA

EDITORIAL

PREFACE

F it had not been for the World War, there would not have been any occasion, so early as 1922, for a Supplement to the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, as published in 1911. But for the exceptional situation so created, the original intention not to take in hand anything equivalent to a Twelfth Edition until a ae later date would undoubtedly have been maintained. So colossal a convulsion, however, as that of the war, with consequences shown in so many unexpected directions and radically changing the world-outlook under the new conditions, made the need for this prompt addition to universal history absolutely imperative, as a record and illumination of so peculiarly dark and complex a period. The gap between 1911 and 1921 is all the more noticeable because, from the middle of 1914 onwards, authentic history could not be written at all, as had been practicable normally under earlier peace conditions, im such periodical publications as have usually served the requirements of the public for purposes of reference on contemporary affairs. The very nature of the war, and of the war conditions which persisted even after the Armisticc, not only involved the imposition of secrecy, the cutting off of intercommunication, and even an interested perversion of fact in much that was given out for belief, but also led to a state of paralysis and aphasia in the spheres where, before the war, independent observation and

judgment were to be found. Attention was monopolized everywhere by conditions of urgency and emergency, and concentrated upon the immediate conduct of life, while

almost every expert, whether in scholarship or in science, was living, so to speak, from hand to mouth, with his accustomed intellectual activities interrupted, suspended, or diverted. In such circumstances there arose inevitably a clear call for the publication of a Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica at as early a date as was practicable after the war, conformably with the arrival of a stage in post-war reconstruction which would once more enable its Editor to secure a reasonable modicum of the disinterested inter-

national coöperation on which the value of the Encyclopædia Britannica, as a critical record of world-history, has so long depended. These New Volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica accordingly follow precedents established during the 154 years since it made its first appearance in 1768. Betwcen its Third (1788-97) and Fourth (1801-10) Editions, a two-volume Supplement (1801) to the Third Edition was published; and while the Fifth Edition (1815-7, a reprint of the Fourth) was still current, and the reédited Sixth (1823-4) was nearly ready for issue, a “ Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Editions,” edited by Macvey Napicr, appeared in

six volumes during 1816-24. In 1902 again, by way of supplement to the Ninth Edition (1875-89), there were published eleven New Volumes, forming in combination with it the Tenth Edition, for the general editorship of which the present writer, taking over the task early in 1900 from the late Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, was responsible. Incidentally vu

viii

EDITORIAL

PREFACE

those eleven New Volumes set a new precedent in publications of this kind by being prepared and issued simultaneously, and the same method was subsequently adopted in the preparation of the Eleventh Edition (1g1z). Had it not been for the war, the twenty years between the average date of the Ninth Edition (25 Volumes, 1875-89) and the date of its supplementary New Volumes, which were added to form the Tenth Edition (1902), may be regarded as indicating the length of interval which might well have been expected to follow the publication of the Eleventh Edition before it in turn had a supplement added to it, to form in combination with it the Twelfth Edition. The course now taken, however, is. directly in line with Macvey Napier’s great Supplement (1816-24) to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Editions. The extent of that Supplement exhibited, indeed, a notable advance in the whole standard ofthe Britannica as a work of original scholarship and expert authority—the result of the copytights having recently passed into the hands of the enterprising publisher Constable: but its interest in this particular connexion lies in the fact that it was coriceived as a response to the pressing demand for a comprehensive survey of the situation resulting from the Great War which had just ended at Waterloo in 1815. In 1816, when the first volume of Macvey Napier’s Supplement appeared, the same need was felt for an authoritative record and reconsideration of the new developments during the convulsions of 1793-1815 as has arisen now in respect of the decade ending with 1921, and for very similar reasons. Anyone who still cares to examine that remarkable Supplement of 1816-24 will find that the ideals of public service in education set before themselves by Constable and Macvey Napier (as expressed by the latter in his Preface to the Sixth Volume) were identical with those which animate the Encyclopedia Britannica to-day. ‘The present writer, having made this examination, with knowledge of the many difficulties of his own’ task a hundred years later (on the first subsequent occasion of an engrossing conflict having upset the world), is bound to testify to the admirable way in which, amid evidence of similar obstructions and complications, Macvey Napier carried out his scheme. His. Supplementary Volumes, organized at the conclusion of the Great War of 1793-1815, formed the only critical and universal survey then available of the period just ended. ‘They brought together a mass of valuable material which was afterwards incorporated in later editions; indeed much of this information, fresh from the sources, could only have been placed on record by being obtained at that time—a consideration which is encouraging to the Editor of the present New Volumes in eee to the pa value of the material embodied in them also. In one respect, possibly, Macvey Napier may appear to have had an advantage over the present Editor, or a somewhat easier task, in that he had eight years over which to spread the publication of his volumes—first issued in parts. But his successor a hundred years later is too conscious of the real advantage given to the public. by imme-

diate and simultaneous production, and indeed of the superior quality which such a work possesses when the whole of it has been under editorial control at one time, to take this

superficial view. Having himself organized the production of these New Volumes within a single year—a year, moreover, characterized by post-war unrest and unsettlement— he may perhaps make this difference of method some excuse, however, for any imperfections in them which may be found in the light of later events or of knowledge undisclosed

ix

EDITORIAL PREFACE

while they were in the making! The generous reader may patdon some incidental defects or omissions, in consideration of his having the use, practically at once, of the full Supplement, as complete as it could reasonably be made, and not having to wait several years

for a succession of volumes with long intervals between them. In the latter case each volume would be apt to exasperate him by cross-references from its articles to others in a volume still inaccessible; each earlier one, furthermore, would become relatively out-ofdate as soon as the next one appeared; and the whole must lack organic unity, because the subject-matter, as distributed in one volume or another, must necessarily have been

dealt with at different dates from dissimilar viewpoints.

m

‘These New Volumes, systematically arranged, in accordance with the traditional

standards of the Encyclopedia Britannica, so that the articles may be adapted either for continuous reading or for occasional reference, have been planned as a guide to an appre-

ciative understanding of contemporary affairs. The reader has before him what may be described as an international stock-taking, by carefully selected authorities, of the march of events all over the world from 1909-10 to 1920~1, and of the nature and critical value

of such. advarices as were made in the principal branches of knowledge during that period.: In this respect the New Volumes aim at giving a key to the problems of to-day, so far as these contemporary problems are bound up—as indeed they are to an unprecedented extent—with the new social and economic issues which only began to emerge in their present magnitude, or to impress themselves on the public, as the result of the tremendous

upheaval caused by the World War. Yet it is necessary, in the interests of a publication which is essentially educational, to add one proviso. It remains as true as ever that contemporary human life and interests are organically related not only to the imniediate developments of one preceding decade but to those of a succession of earlier decades and epochs, back to the abysses of time. The great Drama is of the Ages, and can only be appreciated with all its Acts on record. The eye which looks only at the passing scene is too often colour-blind. The roots of the Post-War World go down into the Pre-War World. Its proper interpretation can be found only in the light of all that earlier history on which we can look back—as we cannot do on contemporary affairs—with assurance that it

ig seen in perspective and in ordered values, as the result of an accumulation of disinterested criticism. The Post-War World is the residuary legatce of the Pre-War World, from which it inherits the whole basis of its intellectual equipment. The present survey of recent happenings, indispensable though it may be as an account of the Post-War World, can only therefore be utilized perfectly, when it is regarded as an integral part of the unitary library of education represented in all the thirty-two volumes now forming the complete Twelfth Edition. The structure of that great edifice, with its contents, is not substantially

affected by the fact that it has been built with an Annexe for housing more recent 1 It may be noted here that, though bibliographical references, representing a selection of the most authoritative books or documents published since ro10, are plentifully made in the New Volumes, it was impossible, merely by way of supplement

ta the bibliographies attached to articles in the Eleventh Edition, to include them systematically, except in appropriate cases

where this course was demanded by the nature of the supplementary articles. No attempt has been made, when otherwise there was no substantial reason for adding a supplementary article at all to the account given of a subject in the Eleventh Edition, to adda list of later books published about it. Nor, indeed, in the Editor’s judgment, would it have been in accord» ance with the objects of the Brifannica to give the cachet of “ authority ” in this way to many contemporary publications

which can hardly be said to have earned that title. The bibliographical references in the Britannica are especially valuable as

critically directing the reader to the best sources, outside its own articles, for more detailed information; but the very nature of many of the articles in the New Volumes, as being the latest (or even the only available) authoritative accounts of purely coms

contemporary. developments, made it unnecessary—if indeed it would not be misleading—to direct the reader to

paratively ephemeral publications by less responsible writers,

x

EDITORIAL PREFACE

acquisitions, in the shape of these New Volumes. They are designed as having behind or ‘beside them the main body of the work—the earlier Volumes of the Eleventh Edition mugh were constructed in the closing years of the Pre-War World. It may be pardonable for the present writer, at the end of the twenty-first year of his occupancy of the position of Editor of the Encyclopedia Britannica, to emphasize in retrospect one specially valuable characteristic of the Eleventh Edition, in supplying to-day an authoritative digest of world history and the progress of knowledge up to the last few

months before it was originally published in r911. Its value does not merely depend on the benefit secured to the reader of these New Volumes by its having also been produced as a whole at one date, so that its accounts of every subject, organically distributed under appropriate headings, represent uniformly a single editorial policy (identical with that of to-day), a common terminus of time in the facts dealt with, and a common standard of

criticism in the viewpoints of its contributors—so far as expert opinion at any one moment is ever in agreement. This in itself is, no doubt, a great convenience in the linking up of the later information provided in the New Volumes.! But there is a still more important quality attaching to the Eleventh Edition, of which indeed its Editor was not himself fully aware during the critical years of its preparation. It required the experience obtained

during the gestation of these New Volumes to teach the Editor how much simpler a matter it is to create such a “ Library of Education’? when the world is at peace and is progressing normally, as it was in the -years preceding 1911, than when, as recently, it is everywhere in convulsion, nobody being able to tell from week to week what he would be doing next, or where some new complication or even revolution, political, economic, industrial or scientific, might break out, to the upsetting of any attempt at orderly statement of the progress of events and the crystallization of opinion. Though it was not so realized at the time, it is now evident that the maximum service which the Encyclopedia Britannica could have performed for the public of to-day was the production of the Eleventh Edition in 1911, before the war of 1914-9 cut a Grand Canyon gash in the whole intellectual structure of the world. For what would have happened if the complete new edition which would follow the Tenth Edition had not been undertaken until several years later—say, after the Armistice? In that case it would still have been necessary, in some way, to keep what may roughly be divided as the Pre-War and Post-War Worlds distinct. The account of the Post-War World would then substantially be what appears in the present New ‘Volumes; for this must, in any case, start at a convenient point before the war, in order to

make the break intelligible, and it must differ in scope and perspective from the part devoted to the Pre-War World, in proportion as its new problems require a different sort of discussion according to their bearing on the future rather than as continuations of past history. But so far as the Pre-War World is concerned—everything, that is to say, except ‘the contemporary developments of the decade preceding 1921—it may þe asserted, without fear of contradiction from anyone who can appreciate the responsibilities of an Editor of the Encyclopedia Britannica, that, if the task had not been undertaken till after 1914, it would have been absolutely impossible to produce to-day anything so comprehensively authoritative or critically complete as is actually available in the shape of the Eleventh Edition owing to its having been produced just before the war. tReference by volume and page (e.g. ‘see 2.4937’) Is accordingly made, as a rule immediately after the headings of articles in the New Volumes (but also elsewhere in their course, as seemed useful), to places in the earlier volumes where accounts of the same subjects, leading up to the point where the account is now resumed, may be found,

EDITORIAL

PREFACE

xi

In the present writer’s judgment it is very remarkably the fact that, however carefully the contents of the Eleventh Edition are tested, as representing the highest standards of international research and criticism, whether in Science or in Art or in historical informa-

tion, up to 1911, nothing substantial has occurred since to diminish its value or alter its perspective. The reason is that it was fortunately produced at a quiet period, when there was every opportunity for obtaining sure, authoritative and orderly sutveys, in a worldsociety which was evolving along known lines of “normalcy”—to use President Harding’s favourite expression—fairly calculable in advance in accordance with well-informed expectations, and permitting of a reasonably final judgment on the sequence of contemporary progress in relation to the past. To-day, on the other hand, the whole atmosphere of scholarship and thought has temporarily been vitiated by the world upheaval, and the coöperation enlisted for the Eleventh Edition is unattainable under present conditions. It is not too much to say that the service done by the Encyclopedia Britannica for the public, by bringing together in the Eleventh Edition its unique combination of the world’s ripest judgments on every sort of subject, could not have been rendered to this generation at all if that Edition had not been completed before the war. As the composition

of the present New Volumes shows, it has still been possible for the Editor to enlist the most highly qualified experts, and writers officially connected with Government Departments or Services, for dealing with matters familiar to them (and often known only to them) in the course of the past decade. But the writing of contemporary history by persons who have been chief agents or eyewitnesses is one thing; it is quite another to recreate the whole drama of the far-reaching past. To do that, as it was done in the Eleventh Edition, needs a type of mind and will which for the present has largely ceased to function along

the pre-war ways. Irrespectively, indeed, of the question whether as good a complete edition as the Eleventh could have been produced de nove now, it would cost in any case at least twice as much to make as it did in 1911, and it would have to be sold at a far higher price. But, from the editorial point of view, the important fact is that it could not be made to-day so as to have anything like the scholarly value of the work produced before the war by the contributors to the Eleventh Edition. Neither the minds nor the wills that are required for such an undertaking are any longer obtainable in any:corresponding degree, nor probably can they be again for years to come. This is partly due to sheer “ war-weariness,” which has taken many forms. A shifting of interest has taken place among writers of the academic _ type, so that there is a disinclination to make the exertion needed for entering anew into their old subjects—a necessary condition for just that stimulating, vital presentation of old issues in the light of all the accumulated knowledge about them, which was so valuable

a feature of the Eleventh Edition; the impulse has temporarily been stifled by the pressure of contemporary problems. Many of the pre-war authorities, moreover, have died without leaving any lineal successors, and others have aged disproportionately during the decade, while the younger generation has had its intellectual energics diverted by the war to work of a different order. Again (a most essential factor), it would have been impossible to attain the same full measure of international coöperation, among representatives of nations so recently in conflict, and in a world still divided in r921 by the consequences of the war almost as seriously as while hostilities were actually raging.

xii

EDITORIAL

PREFACE

It is with some satisfaction that the Editor has been able to make afresh beginning in these New Volumes toward a revival of this codperation, by including German, Austrian and Hungarian contributors, in addition to those from the countries allied or associated with the British Empire and the United States during the war. In the material structure of the New Volumes, and their sub-editing, the same note of Anglo-American solidarity is struck as in the Eleventh Edition; and this is again emphasized by their being dedicated jointly to the two Heads of the English-speaking peoples, by express permission of King

George V. and President Harding. Nowhere except in Great Britain and the United States would it have been possible, under the world-conditions of 1921, to find the standard of poise and perspective required in their construction. Any other assumption, throughout these New Volumes, than that the terrible war of 1914-9 was won by those who had right and justice for their cause, would manifestly be impossible in the Encyclopædia Britannica; and historical justification for this belief is indeed given in the proper articles. On the other hand, many of the more violent criticisms of German action current during the war are.

now shown, in the Anglo-Saxon spirit of fair play, to have been exaggerated for “ propaganda” purposes. Opinion on the incidents and issues of the war-period will probably continue to be revised by succeeding generations over and over again, as the weight of evidence, so much of it still undisclosed, increases; but a start is made here toward the acceptance of such conclusions as already represent a judicial view, expressed without favour or malice, free from any conscious bias, and backed by a presentation of the relevant facts on authority that is either admittedly unimpeachable or so far unchallenged. It was an integral part of the editorial policy to put aside any war-prejudice in inviting the assistance of contributors from among the nations which had fought against the Allies, so far as might be practicable without the intrusion of “ propaganda,” especially for narratives of the domestic history of the enemy countries, about which so little informa-

tion had penetrated outside during the war-period. The list of writers of ex-enemy nationality, and of the articles contributed by them, shows that a considerable section of the contents, including the military history of the war itself (to which British, American, French, Italian, Belgian, German, and Austro-Hungarian soldiers have contributed), is derived from such sources; and this fact alone gives these Volumes a special interest. Con-. sistently with this policy, the Editor has encountered only very rare disappointments in carrying out his plan of obtaining the best contributors available from all foreign countries, including Germany and Austria, in order to provide the most authoritative information on their own affairs according to their own respective standpoints. In this connexion it will be noted that, for the first time in the history of the Britannica, the article on Japan is contributed by a Japanese. The Editor is glad here to acknowledge the help of the distinguished historian, Prof. A. F. Pribram, of Vienna, in organizing, with the collaboration of Dr. Redlich, the eminent Austrian jurist, the whole series of articles dealing with Austro-Hungarian subjects. He had also the valuable assistance of Mr. George Saunders, formerly The Times correspondent in Berlin, in obtaining the coöperation of German

contributors and in supervising the translation and editing of their articles; while Mr. George Adam, The Times correspondent in Paris during 1913-9, performed the same function in respect of France. In the case of Russia, the Editor was fortunately able to rely on the great authority of Sir Paul Vinogradoff. The Editor’s thanks for useful advice

EDITORIAL

PREFACE

züi

and assistance with regard to the articles on other foreign countries are due to President Masaryk (Czechoslovakia), Prof. H. Pirenne, Rector of Ghent University (Belgium), Prof. L. V. Birck of Copenhagen (Denmark), Mons. M. Beza, of the Rumanian Legation in London (Rumania), Mons, D. Caclamanos, the Greek Minister in London (Greece), Mons. H. N. Bronmer, of the Netherlands Legation in London (Holland), Baron Alstrémer, the Swedish Chargé d’Affaires in London (Sweden), and Mons, Erik Collbran, a the League of Nations. -So many individuals have, in one way or another, smoothed the Editor s path, either by suggesting the best-qualified contributors or by giving helpful advice on the subjectmatter of articles, that he-can only make a rather arbitrary selection here in naming some of the more conspicuous. Practically every national Government, cither directly or through its accredited representatives, has aided his attempt to give international authority to the New Volumes, by encouraging the use of its own sources of information; and British official coöperation, as also Amcrican, has been generously sanctioned and utilized. By the courtesy of, the Naval Intelligence Department of the British Admiralty, the editorial staff had access to all the historical materials it had collected from various parts of the world for secret service during the war, including the handbooks of statistical and general information which had been privately printed by the Government for the use of British officers and political agents while the war was still in progress, and which were only partially “released” for publication afterwards. In this connexion acknowledgment may be made here, once for all, of the permission accorded by the Geographical. Section of the British War Office (capplemnented by that of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office), and by the French Service Géographique de P Armée, to reproduce British and French staff-maps, and also by the Librairie Militaire Berger-Lerrault, of Paris, to reproduce some of their maps of the battle arcas. In different specialist spheres, the following acted as technical consultants: on Biology and Zodlogy, Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, secretary of the Zoological Society of London; on Botany, Prof. F. W. Keeble, of Oxford University; on Mathematics, Prof. G. H. Hardy, of Oxford University; on Aeronautics, Lt.-Col. Mervyn O’Gorman; on Medicine and Surgery, Dr. R. McNair Wilson; on Civil Engineering generally, Mr. H. M. Ross, editor of the Times Engineering Supplement; on Electrical Science and Engineering, Prof. J. A. Fleming, of University College, London. Each of the “above was responsible for suggesting contributors on the subjects named, and assisted in coérdinating their contributions. On military matters Maj. C. F. Atkinson acted for the Editor in obtaining the coöperation of a large number of expert advisers, at home

and abroad, and he was responsible for organizing all the articles dealing with military history and equipment. On naval affairs uscful advice was given by Rear-Adml. Sir W. Reginald Hall, M.P., and Rear-Adml. H. W. Richmond. Mr. Humbert Wolfe, of the British Ministry of Labour, and Mr. R. Page Arnot, of the unofficial Labour Research Department (the intelligence office of the British Labour movement), assisted, from different points of view, in planning the articles dealing with Labour developments, while valuable advice was received on their economic aspects from Sir Hubert Llewellyn

Smith and Mr. Sidney Webb. The Editor’s thanks are due to all these counsellors; and also to Lord Stamfordham, for material in connexion with the biographical article on King George V., to Sir Godircy Thomas as regards that on the Prince of Wales, to Sir

xiv

EDITORIAL

PREFACE

Hercules Read for suggestions as to the treatment of Archacology, and especially to Lord Justice Sir William Younger and Lord Newton, jointly and severally, for their help in securing the undertaking, by thcir colleague Sir Reginald Acland, K.C., of the article on “ Prisoners of War,” which represents the first judicial review of the evidence officially

taken by Sir William Younger’s committee on that subject. In crediting the editorial staff as a whole with a loyal fellowship which alone rendered possible, by the coöperation of its various departments, the production of the New Volumes in so short a time from their inception, the Editor-in-chief must express his warmest acknowledgment of the services of the three principal assistant-editors in London—Dr. Henry Newton Dickson, D.Sc., formerly professor of Geography at University College, Reading, and Literary Director of the Naval Intelligence Department of the Admiralty

during the war; Professor Walter Alison. Phillips, Lecky Professor of Modern History at Trinity College, Dublin (who was able to follow up his previous association with the Eleventh Edition, as principal assistant-editor, by devoting his vacations, and such other time as he could spare, to this work); and Mrs. W. L. Courtney (Janet E. Hogarth), who, with an efficient lieutenant in Mrs. Guy Chapman, was in charge of the work done by the ladies who formed part of the staff. Apart from a general participation in headquarters control, Dr. Dickson was especially concerned with the subject-matter of geography and statistics, and with the selection of maps and illustrations, Prof. Alison Phillips with political and constitutional history, and Mrs. Courtney with the biographical articles and those dealing with the Women’s Movement, and with the making of the Index, which thus supplements the Index to the Eleventh Edition under the same guiding hand which had been responsible for the great Index to the main body of the work. As Editor’s Secretary, keeping touch with all departments, Mr. Arthur Bollaert Atkins also resumed his former rôle, with an efficiency which was invaluable to the editorial organization. The New York branch of the editorial staff, under Mr. Franklin H. Hooper, as American Editor, with Mr. H. R. Haxton and Dr. G. C. Scoggin as his principal assistants, acted in concert

throughout with the London office, more particularly in arranging for articles by American contributors or dealing with American affairs. The Editor-in-chief was assured beforehand of the sympathetic and experienced collaboration he enjoyed in this respect by the fact that his editorial association with Mr. F. H. Hooper for such purposes had already been continuous since the year 1900. In secing the New Volumes finally through the press, he had the advantage of having the combined force of the British and American editorial staffs brought to bear on the critical revision of the work as a whole. Asarchitect both of the Eleventh Edition and of the superstructure which now converts it into the Twelfth Edition, it has been the present writer’s privilege to be served by an international company of practical builders, supplying the world’s best available materials and masonry; and he has been inspired by the ambition of cementing and adorning, in the completed edifice, that great movement for Anglo-American coöperation, on whose progress from strength to strength the recovery of civilization after the World War of 1914-9 must so largely depend. HUGH CHISHOLM. Christmas 1921.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESE VOLUMES A

A.S.E.

AA.=

Anti-Aircraft;

AAG, =

Association. Assistant Adjutant-Gen-

=

A.C..L=

A.C, of 8. =

fa ag Oy >> >>> jy il nr

m4il

aps pp p> pæ nm 5 i ll

Psq

Ala.= =

A.L.G.P. = Als . „Lor. =

A.L.V.F. =

A.M.3.= ANZAC. = A.O.C. =

A.Q.K. =

A.P.C.= A.P.D. t=

Ariz. = Ark. = A.S.C. =

A.V.S.

Force. Air Force (British). Air Force Cross (British). Anglo-French Expeditionary Force. Air Force Medal (British),

American

Federation

of

Adjutant-General. Aircraft Inspection Department (British). Australian Imperial Force. Artillerie Lourde=Heavy artillery (French). Alabama. Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers. Artillerte Lourde à grande puissance=Super-heavy artillery (French). Alsace-Lorraine. Artillerie Lourde à voie ferrée= Heavy railway ar-

=

Az.=

Comité Nationale de Secours

sion fuze (German).

tional Committee for Relief and Feeding ae gium). county,

ef d'Alimentation =

born.

Company.

Chief of Staff (U.S.AJ Colonel. Colorado. Commander; Connecticut,

British Expeditionary Force (in particular

Coťtnwalt.

in France

ety (British).

Berkshire.

Centte-pivot (artillery). Commanding Royal Artillery, i.e. commanding a ‘formation or station

Brake Horse-power.

Breech-loading (artillery; as

distinct from Q.F.). Brigade-Major (British).

British Medical Association, Bn. =

Bucks. = bus. = . Baz

Battalion,

Brigadier-General. Buckinghamshire. bushel or bushels.

Brennsiinder=Time fuze (Getman).

circa =round about (Latin), Corps d’Armée=Army Corps

CRA = C.R.B, =

Commanding Royal Bret:

Crh,

Calibres-radius

spy service (French). Tetronitromethylaniline

a

CF.=

|

cf. = Cc .G.S. >

C.H.= Ches.= C.G.T.=

(Chemical Ex-

pl

Chaplain to the Forces

(British). confer=compare (Latin). Chief of the General Staff (British). Companion of Honour. Cheshire, Confédération Générale du tion of Labour (F w Commander-in-Chief (British).

ee

(British). of head or

C.W,S.s

ogive (artillery). cubic feet. Cumberland. Codperative Wholesale So-

cwt. =

hundredwiight:

Cro. cub. ft. = Cumb. =

ciety.

D died; also penny or pence.|

Director (e.g. D.M.O, = Director of Military Opera-

tions); as prefix of office-

abbreviations= Deputy

D.A.=

(e.g. D.D.M.I.= Deputy Director of Military Intelligence). Déltachement d' Armée = Army gtoup (French);

Direct Action (fuze); Direction de LlArriére =Directorate of the Rear Zone (French). Equivalent to British L. of C.and American 8.0.5. D.A.Q.M.G.= Deputy Assistant Quartermaster-General.

D.B.E.= D.C.=

Travail =General Federa-

C.-in-C. =

neers, 2.¢,

formation

Captain.

Central Asia. Cavalry. Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Corps de Cavalerie = Cavalry Corps (French). Contre-Espionnage= Anti-

(British),-

Commission régulatrice aus tomobile= Motor regulation staff (French). Commission for Relief in Belgium.

CRE=

(French).

Corps d'Arméc Colontale= Colonial Army Corps (French). California. Cambridgeshire.

;

Charity Organization Soci-

Brigadier-General, General Staff appointment (British).

Brig.-Gen.=

Na-

Commanding Officer (British).

barrel or barrels. Battery; battalion, Bavarian. Before Christ. Brigade. Bedfordshire.

Australian and New Zealand Atmy Corps. Army Ordnance Corps (since 1918 R,.A.O.C.), Armee-Oberkommando=

1918 R.A.S.C, (British).

(British).

Army Veterinary Service. Aufschlagsiinder = Percus-

and Belgium),

-

eral Staff (British), Court-martial. Central Midwives Board.

eg Penin. == Balkan Peninsula.

Army Medical Service.

Supreme Army Command

partment (British).

Chief of the Imperial Gen-.

B b.=

tillety (French).

(Austro-Hungarian); Headquarters of anarmy, with numeral, e.g. A.O.K. 2 (German). Army Pay Corps; since 1918 R.A.P.C. (British), Army Pay Department (British). Arizona. Arkansas. Army Service Corps; since

Criminal Investigation De-

of

Army Veterinary Corps; since 1918 RAV.C,

Assistant Chief-of-Staff (U.S.A.).

Labor.

A.L.A,M.

A.V.C.

American Expeditionary

gp]

=w hy haas

Argentina, Brazil, Chile. Abtetiung=Detachment, sub-unit (Getman Army). acre or acres. Artillerie de Campagne, Artillerte de Corps = Field artillery, Corps artillery —followed by numeral (French). Army Council Instruction (British).

Society

Engineers. Artillerie de tranchée= Trench artillery (French),

Anno Domini=In the year of our Lord (Latin); Artillerie divistonnaire= Divisional artillery (followed by numeral) (French), Admiral.

A.D. =

BE

Amalgamated

=

A.T.=

eral.

ac. =

ó

Act

(British); Automobile

A.B.C. = Abt =

A.C.

Army

D.C.A.=

Dame of the Order of the British Empire. Division de Cavalerie = Cavalry Division (French); District of Columbia. Défenses Contre Avions: (or Aéronefs)= Anti-Aircraft Defence (French).

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESE VOLUMES

xvi D.C.M.=

DeL= dept.= D.E.S.=

Distinguished

tions

(French).

Dev. D.F.C.=

DF.M.= D.G.=

D.G.V.0.5

DLs DIC.=

Conduct

Medal (British). Delaware. department. Direction d’Etapes et de Services = Directing staff of a line of communica-

of

an

Devonshire.

Distinguished Flying Cross (British) (British);

Division d'Infanterie = Infantry Division (French), Division d'Infanterie .Colo~

niale =Colonial Infantry Division (French).

D.O.R.A.=

Defence of the Realm Act

D.O.RE.=

District Officer Royal Engi-

D.S.C. =

D.S.M.=

D.5.0.= Dur. =

and

percussion fuze(German).

Deputy

Electro-motive force.

E.N.E. =

Eléments

Fia.= FIAK. = F.M. =

F.M.L.= f.o.b. = Fr.Eq. Afr. =

F. S.R. =

ft. =

ft.? =

fte a

(Latin).

non

l

endiviston-

nées = Troops not included in divisions (“corps troops” or “army

G.H.0.=

Fusil Mi-

light

machine-gun, l Field - Marshal- Lieutenant (Austro-Hungarian),

ILA.= ib. or ibid, =

abidem=in the same place

independent Labour Party

inch or inches, ` square inches,

and Austro-Hungarian}.

cubic inches.. Indiana,

a

Infantry,

Islands. Industrial Workers of the World. . ,

Intelligence

J “ Tour” =“ Zero day ” fixed . for attack (French).

Jewish Colonization Asso-

Generaloberst = General. in Command

behalf of (German),

Indian Army.

(Latin). Infanterie- Division = Intantry Division (German). id est=that is (Latin). Indicated Horse-power, Illinois.

General. Headquarters (British and U.S.A.).

ciation.

(German).

K

General Officer Command‘ing (British).

soVvernor. Grand Quartier-Général = General Headquarters (French Field Armies), gramme or grammes. Gare régulatrice = Regulating station—rail trans-

` port (French). l General Staff (British and U.S.A.); General Service (British). G5.G.5.= Geographical Section General Staff (British). Gas-Schute-Ofiisier = AntiG.5,0,= gas Officer (German). G.S.0.1,2,3= General Staff Officer, Ist, 2nd and 3rd grade (Brit-

G.V.C. =

Königlich = Royal, or Kaiserlich=Imperial (German).

Kansas.

Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.

Kavailerie-Division =Cavalty Division (German). kilogram or kilograms. Katserlich-Kéniglich = Im-

erial-Royal (Austrian vandwehr), kilometre or kilometres.

K.T.D.=

ish).

Gardes des Voies de. Communicalion = Linc-of-Communication defence troops

K.u.K. =

(French).

H

H.A. = Hants. = H.E. = Hereford. = Herts. =

H.G. =

hhd. = H.M.S. =

Honvéd (as prefix in Austro-Hungarian designations); “ Heure =Zero hour, hour set for attack (French). Heavy Artillery;

Ky. =

King’s Regulations (British rmy). , Kavallerie - Truppendivision =Cavalry Division (Austro-Hungarian). Katserlich und Königlich= Imperial and Royal (Austrianand Hungarian designation of common army).

ns

kilowatt or kilowatts. _ Kentucky,

L Landwehr La.=

Austrian). Louisiana.

(German

Latvia.

and

Ligh Explosive. Herefordshire, Ilertfordshire.

Latv.= . lb. = Lancs. = L.C.C. = Ldst.=

armies (German). hogshead or hogsheads.

Lith. = L.M.G.=

Landsturm (Austro-Hungarian and German). Lithuania. Leichtes Maschinengewehr = Light machine-gun

L. of C.=

Line

Heeresgruppe=Group of ery ’s Ship (Brit-

ish).

Field Service Regulations

H.Qu.=

Hauptquartier = Headquar-

(British). foot or feet, square feet.

H.P.=

ters (German). Horse-power. Hors rang =Supernumer-

E.R, =

kw,=

less fre-

quently, horse artillery; high-angle (gun). Hampshire. i

Headquarters

cubic feet.

tions); Island, Towa. im Auftrage = By order, on

= “full ” general (German

H.Q.=

free on board. French Equatorial Africa.

Ia. = i.. =

I

and Operation branches; General Staff (U.S.A.). General-Kommando = Army corps headquarters (German). Gloucestershire. “Greenwich Mean Time.

F

Marshal;

Instanianée = Instantaneous

of the British Empire.

GIGI,GI.= Maintenance,

ing (Latin).

trailleur =French

cte.)

General,

Esthonia. et sequentia =and the follow-

Field

(followed by

N=Nord,

(French), = gallon ọr gallons, Galicia. Grand Army of the Republic (U.S5.A.). Grand Cross of the Order

a ert. =

peh w aaa

troops ”) (French). Essex.

First Aid Nursing Yeomanry Service (British). _Fernkampfartillerie = Supers heavy artillery (German). figure or figures (illustration), Florida. Fligabwehrkanone=Antiaircraft gun (German).

d'Armées = Group

WH I cog QOC G by

Durham,

Editor, Egy ptian Expeditionary Force.

ae I,=

=

(in French fuze designa-

General der Artillerie General der Infanterie | General der Kavallerie }

Distinguished Service Cross (U.S.A. and British). Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A, and British). Distinguished Service Order (British).

E.M.F,=

fig. =

I

Depression Rangefinder.

exempli gratia =for example

F.AN.Y.S. = FEKA. =

k

Quartermaster-

egs

et seq.=

be ya B

General. Division de. Réserve=Reserve Diviston (French),

East.

Huntingdonshire. Horse Transport. High Velocity (gun).

Hunts. =

its functions

of Armies

E=Est,

(British).

E.= Ed. = E.E.F.=

Esth. =

Groupe

neers (British). Dorsetshire,

E

Ess. =

i OOO P iIt

ice).

Doppelstinder=Time

DRF. =

Gold. Georgia.

e

Dopp Z.ee

DR. =

Staff, and (British),

Director-General of Voluntary Organizations.

H.V.=

H.T.

General Staff branch of the

Distinguished Flying Medal

Director-General (e.g. D.G. A.M.S. = Director-Generat Army Medical Serv-

furlong or furlongs.

Four-wheel Drive.

G egrea

army

Division,

Dorset.= D.0.M.G.=

fur. = F.W.D.=

(British and

_ary (French Army).

ound or pounds.

.

Lancashire,

London County Council.

(German),

Leics. = Lincs. = Lt. ==

Lt.-Comm. = Lt.-Gen, =

of

Communications

(British). Leicestershire,

Lincolnshire. Lieutenant,

Licutenant-Commander, Lieutenant-General,

ABBREVIATIONS M

USED IN THESE

Member of the Order of the

Royal Air Force (British).

N.U. W.W. =

R.A.O.C. =

-Royal Army Ordnance

R,AS.C. = R.C.S.=

Royal Army Service Corps (British). Royal Corps of -Signals, since 1919 (British). Rive Drotte = Right bank (of

Suffrage Societies (BritIsh), National Union of Women Workers (British). New York,

N.Y. =

` British Empire.

O

_ Military Cross (British); Master of Chemistry. Maryland.

Ohio.

M.g.H.=

M.G.K. =

Montana. . Military Secretary, Mechanical Transport. mit Verzögerung = Delay» action fuze (German).

Minenwerfer = Trench Mor-

—.

QOb> h e r

tlil

Norf.= Northants. = Northumb. = N.O.T. =

Notts. = N.S. =

N.U.R. = N.U.S.E.C, =

North, Navy and Army Canteen Board (British), North Africa. North America, _ North Carolina. Nitro-cellulose, Tubular, North Dakota. Nebraska. Nevada. New Hampshire. Nominal Horse-power. Naval Intelligence Division (British). New Jersey. New Mexico, Norway. Norfolk. Northamptonshire. Northumberland. Netherlands Overscas Trust.

Nottinghamshire. Gregorian, or new style, Calendar (see 4.994). National Union of Railwaymen (British). National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship (British).

Royal Military Academy (Woolwich); Royal Marine Artillery (British).

Royal Military College (England).

Royal

(French Army); Post of Command (US.A.) =

Royal Navy (British).

Royal Naval Reserve (Brit-

Par

(British).

ordre = By order; by

ish).

command (French); Post

Royal Naval Volunteer Re-

fice.

serve (British).

Poland.

roods. rupees. Railway Operating Division (British Army in France). Rules of Procedure (British

population.

Posie-retard = Delay-action fuze (French). Pounder (Gun designation). President. Professor. pint or pints.

Pres. =

Prof, = pt. = P.V. =

Pigeon

Military Law).

R.T.O.

voyageur = Carricr-

pigeon (French),

Railway Transport Officer

(British and U.S.A.).

=

pe

Rutt, = R.W. =

ImQ.A.LM.N.S. Queen Alexandra’s perial Military Nursing Service (British).

Q.A.M.E.N.S. Queen Alexandra’s Military

Q£. = Q.G.=

preoa Alexandra’s Royal

aval Nursing Service (British). Quickfiring (artillery).

Quartier

Général = Head-

quarters (French).

Headquarters

Q.G.A2= Q.M.A.A.C,

Families Nursing Service (British).

7

of the IL

Army (French). Queen Mary’s Army Auxil-

iary Corps (W.A.A.C.) (British). Quartermaster-General. Queen Mary’s Needicwork Guild (British). quarter or quarters. quart or quarts.

quod vide= which

(Latin), for reference.

Reserve (in troop designa-

tions). Royal Artillery (British). Royal Automobile Club (British),

arrant

etc.) (British).

(lor pay,

i

S S.= S, = SAE. =

South.

Salop =

Shropshire.

S.C. =

South Carolina. South Dakota,

shilling or shillings. Socicty of Automobile Engineers,.

S.D. = seq. =

seguens, sequentia =the lowing (Latin).

Sil. = 5.M,0, =

fol-

Silesia.

Senior Medical Officer of a ormation or station

$.M.T.O.

=

Som, = 5.0.5.

S.P.R.= S.P.V.D, = sq.f *tl Ii S.R. =

(British). Senior Mechanical Transport Officer of a formation (British), Somersetshire.,

=

see

R

í

oya

Q

Q.A.R.N.N.S.

In-

Army).

P.O.=

P.R=

ar

Light

Royal Naval Air Force (British), ee Royal Naval Air Service

Parcs et Convois=Trains and columns (French

Pol.= pop.=

Marine

fantry (British).

battle or advanced headquarters (British),

P. et Cv. =

tar (German).

N

Royal Instityre of British Architects.

Royal Irish Constabulary. Royal Marines (British).

Pennsylvania, Pour amplation =Authorized for issue of documents (French Army). Poste de Commandement

nie = Machine-gun Company (German). Master-General of the Ordnance (British).

Military Medal (British). Ministry of Munitions (British). Missouri. Monmouthshire.

a river) (French).

P

Maschinengewehr-K o m pa-s

Minnesota. Mississippi. Muzzle-loading.

ta a 1A

Royal Garrison Artillery (British). gua Horse Artillery (British). Rhode Island.

Artillery

(British).

Percussion (fuze).

(German).

- fantry (British). Michigan.

ilI

Julian, or old style, Calendar (see 4.994). Officers’ Training Corps. ohne Verzögerung = Directaction fuze (German). Oxfordshire.

Royal Field

ounce or ounces,

Military Intelligence; formerly also Mounted In-

> A by 1 azi

Oregon.

Royal Flying Corps (British). Rive Gauche =Left bank (of

Major-General, General Staff of anArmy (British).

Mit geschrinkter Haftung= With limited liability

Corps (British).

a river) (French). Royal Engineers (British). Regiment, Reserve,

Ordnance Survey (British);

plied, as a rule). Major-General in charge of administration, regional commands (British). Machine-gun Corps.

Royal Army Medical Corps (British),

Officer Commanding (British), Obersie Heeresleittung =Supreme Army Command (German), Oklahoma.

unterstand = Reinforced concrete machine-gun emplacement (German). Mediterrancan Expeditionary Force (British 1915-7). Mesopotamia. Machine-zgun (heavy im-

=

R.D.=

British Empire.

Maine. . Maschinengewehr- Eisenbeton-

M.G.G.S. =

:

Officer of the Order of the

- Middlesex.

M.G.C.

XVIE

R.A.F. = R.A.M.C. =

mile or miles. Major. Major-General. Massachusetts.

VOLUMES

N.U.W.S.S. = National Union of Women’s

Services

of Supply,

Rear

Zone (U.S.A.), equivalent to British L. of C.; also wireless call for life-sav-

ing. Society for Psychical

search. Society for Prevention Venereal Disease. Squadron. square feet.

Reof

Sans retard = Direct-action

(of fuze).

_

USED IN THESE

ABBREVIATIONS

@ef

XVII

5.5.=. S.S.F.A.

=

Secret Service. Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Fami-

T.S.F. =

Télégraphie sans fil =Wire-

less telegraphy (French),

lies Association (British).

$.5.S.E.=

Société

Staffs. = Stellv. =

Staffordshire.

Suisse

de

Surveil-

U

lance Economique= Swiss Society for Economic Su-

Pii

Ukraine, United States, United States of America;

x

United States Navy,

pervision.

Stellvertreter,

stellvertre«

tend= Substitute,

acting

deputy (German Army).

Suff. = Sur. = Sus. =

Suffolk,

Surrey. Sussex,

u.,

oy

United States Ship.

V

T Territorial (British Army)

Time (fuze). Territorial Army (British, since 1919). Torpedo-boat destroyer,

Trains de Combat =“ Com-

bat trains,’’ “ first-line transport" (French). _ Territorial Officers’ Decoration (British) Tennessee. Texas.

Territorial Force (British, till 1919). Territorial Force Nursing _ Society (British). Trench Mortar.

Temps

win nin

ag aa

United States Army,

Moyen

V.A.D.

=

‘Victoria Cross (British). Volunteer Officers’ Decora-

V.C.= V.D. =

tion (British).

TPS.

=

=

temporarily provided with artillery (German). videlicet =namcely. Vermont. Volunteer Training Corps (British).

Viz. = Vt. =

V.T.C.=

Corps

telegraphy (Power

buzzer, etc.) (French).

Werfmine =Shell of Minenwerfer

W.0. = Worcs. = W.R.AC, =

W.A.FE.F,

=

(German).

War Office (British Gov't.). Worcestershire,

Women’s Reserve Ambulance Corps (British), Women’s Royal Air Force (British). Royal Naval Service (British). Women’s Social and Politi.

W.R.N.S.= © Women’s W.S.P.U.=

Wumba. =

cal Union (British). Waffen- ynd Munitions. Beschaffungs-Aml =War Office for Munitions ' (German).

W.U.S.L.= W.Va.=

W.V.R = Wyo. =

yd. = Y.M.C.A, =

West.

Women's

(British

Women's United Service League (British), West Virginia, Women’s Volunteer Service, Wyoming.

Y

Ww

Mean

Trinitrotolyene (High Explosive). Tleraphic par le Sol=

Earth

and U.S.A.). Westmorland, Wiltshire, Wisconsin.

Westm. = Wilts. = Wis. = WM, =

chiefly of formations

Time (French). ENT.

War aeann

Verstirkti=Reinforced,

Verst, =

de Green-

wich = Greenwich

Washington.

Wash. = W.D. =

W.R.AF. =

Virginia. Voluntary Aid Detachment; nursing service, Territorial Force (British).

Va.=

VOLUMES

aay (

Binary A.C.)

(British). mee West Africa Frontier Force,

Yorks. = Y.W.C.A.

yard or yards. Young Men’s Christian Association. Yorkshire,

=

Young Women's Christian Association,

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXX. TO IDENTIFY CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH _ THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED.

À. B.

ANTON BEtre.Her, Dr. Juris.

Austrian Empire; "Tagine a Drama.

A.C. D.

ALFRED C. Dewar, Capt. R.N. (REv.), B.Lrrr. (Oxon.). Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution. Late of the Historical Section,

A Tee inistration: Blockade: Convoy;

A. D. H.

Sm ALFRED Danm HALL, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Chief Scientific Adviser and Director-General of the Inteligence Department,

Naval Staff, Admiralty.

Coronel; Dogger Bank. icultire Agric

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Author of The Soil; Fertilisers and Manures; A Pilgrimage of British Farming; Agriculture after the War; etc. À. E. Ev.

A. Fl.

Artuur Ernest Everest, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.LC. Joiht-author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters (Perkin and Everest). Author of various papers on Colouring Matters, etc., in Proc, Roy. Soc., Journ. Chem. Soc., etc.

Botany: Chemistry of Sap Pigments of Plants.

ALEXANDER Friemino, M.B., F.R.C.S.

a

London,

of the Department of Systematic Bacteriology in St. Mary’s Hospital,

A. F. Pr.

ALFRED Francis PriraM, Pu.D. Professor of Modern "History in the University of Vienna. Vienna Academy of Science; etc.

å.G.L.

ALFRED GoopMAN Levy, M.D., M.R.C.P.

A.G. W.

Apa Gowans Wavrte, B.Sc., A.LE.E.

Antiseptics. Aehrenthal; Austrian Empire:

Austro-

Hungarian Foreign Policy, Berchtold, Count L.: Burian, R. S. von; Charles (Emperor ofAustria);

Member of the

Czernin, Count,

of

Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest.

:

(eres

|

Editor of the Electrical Press Limited. Author of, The Electrical Industry; Electricity Supply ¢:United Electricity in Locomotion; The All-Electric Age. G Kingdom.)

A. H. Br.

A. H. C.*

ALFRED H. Brooxs, B.Sc., D.Se. | Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. In charge of geologic and topographic surveys and investigations of mineral resources of Alaska. Vice-Chairman of the first Alaska Railroad Commission.

A. H.Late Curisrre, . Director, Westminster Technical Institute.

{ Arts and Crafts (in part:

A. H. Ch.

ARTHUR Harry Cuurca, M.A., D.Sc. _ University Lecturer in Botany, Oxford.

{Botany:Gen General M orphology.

A. H. Gi.

ARNOLD Hartiey Gipson, D,Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.LMecn.E., F.R.Ar.S. Professor of Engineering, University of Manchester. late Professor of Engincering, St. Andrews University. Member, Board of Trade Water Power Committee; Hon. Secretary, Conjoint Board, Water Power Committee.

of the Air Ministry I.C.E. Committee.

Member

Aeronautics: Aero- Engines,

President, British Association, Section

9, 1927F,

-A complete list, showing all contributors to the New Volumes (arranged according to the alphabetical order of their surnames) with

the articles signed by them, appears at the end of Volume XXXII.

xix

INITIALS

XX å. H. McM.

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

COLONEL SIR ARTHUR Henry M’Maron, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.0., K.C.LE., C.S.1, F.S.A., F.LS., ete. Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, r911-4. British High Commissioner in Egypt, 1914-6. See biographical article: M’Mauon, Sir ARTHUR

Afghanistan,

HENRY.

A. J.G.

A. J. M.

Rev. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., D.D. Principal and Professor of Systematic Theology in the Scottish Congregational College, Edinburgh. Assistant Editor of Peake’s Commentary on the- Bible.

Church History: Free Churches: Presbyterian Church of Scotland,

SQUADRON LEADER ARNOLD JOHN Mitey, O.B.E., R.A.F. Design Branch, Directorate of Research, Air Ministry, in charge of Seaplane Development. “Assistant Director, Air Department, Admiralty, June rors to June 1916; Senior Flying Officer Naval Air Station, Felixstowe, August 1916 to June 1917.

Aeronautics: Seaplanes., ‘íArmy: Ausiro- Hungarian

GENERAL Moritz AUPFENBERG-KOMAROW.

A-K.

(in part);

See the biographical artide: AurFENBERG-KoMAROW, Moritz.,

|

Beck, Graf von;

| Conrad von Hötzendorf, A. T

Bo,

ÄRTHUR Lyon Bow ey, Sc. D. ~ Professor of Statistics in the University of London. Statistics; Wages in the United Kingdom; etc.

Author of Elements of ( Cost of Living.

A.L. C.

COLONEL ARTHUR LaTHam Concer, U.S. ARMY

Å. P.

Sir ARTHUR PEARSON, BT., G.B. E. (died 1921). -~ Chairman of the "Blinded Soldiers and Sailors ae Committee. President ofBlindness. the National Institute for the Blind. Author of Victory over Blindness; The

A.S.D.

"Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), C. M.G. Legion of Honour, ‘co-editor of The Military Historian and Economist,

Conquest of Blindness. See the biographical article: Aucusrus Seiss Downine, A.B., M.A., L.H.D., LL.D. Assistant Commissioner

for Higher Education

Education, University of the State of New York. A. S: E.

Formerly

and Director of Professional

Plumian Professor of Astronomy and "Experimental Philosophy and Director ‘of the Observatory, Cambridge. Author of Stellar Movements and the Structure ‘of the Universe; Space, Time and Gravitation.

B. E. P.

GENERAL OF BRIGADE BARTHÉLEMY EDMOND PALAT.

Bast KENNETH LONG.

B. W. D.

Brian WESTERDALE Downs, M.A.

C. C. H. C. E. C. C. E. W. B.

|

Astronomy,

{Army: British, |

Late French Army. Commanded a Division ro15-6. Author of La Grande Guerre sur le front Occidental; Les Batailles d’ Artois et de Champagne; and, under the pseudonym ‘Pierre Lebaut court,” of La Defense Nationale, 1870-1 and other works, including a general bibliography of 1870-1.

B. K. L.

C. B. C,

Education: Uniled States (in part).

Apraur SranteY Eppincron, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S.

‘Mayor-Generat Basit Fercuson Burnetr-Hircuc ock, C.B., D.S.0., p.s.c. Director-General of Mobilization and Recruiting, War Office.

C. Br.

United States;

Gene Battles in, (in part),

PEARSON, ŞIR ARTHUR.

B. B.-H.

c. A. D.

Army:

Editor of the Cape Times. Formerly Forcign Editor of The Times.

Champagne, Battles in (in part). { Botha, General.

Fellow and Lecturer in Mediæval and Modern Languages and English, Christ’s ( Cambridge. College, Cambridge. CLype Aucustus Duntway, Pr.D., LLD: © President of Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. ‘the Press in Massachusetts.

Author of Freedom of

Cart BrockHAusen, Dr. Juris... Professor of the Science of Administration in the University of Vienna.

Colorado.

Austrian aes (in part);

Badeni,K

Wine

Commanner T. R. Cave-Browne-Cave, C.B.E., RAF, F.R.AES., A.MI.MECH.E., AMLN.A, In charge of Airship Experiments and Research at the Admiralty and the Air

Ministry. Lecturer in Airship Engincering, Imperial College of Science. Airship Member of the Acronautical Research Committee. Formerly Engineer Officer, R.N. Airship Pilot, 1913. In charge of Non-rigid Airship Design and Construction at Kingsnorth, 1914-8., CHaRrLES Carsak HAWKINS, M.A., M.LE.E,., Assoc. AMERICAN I.E.E.

Aeronautics: Airships.

Author of The Dynamo. Joint-author of Papers on the Design of Alternate Electrical Engineering Current Machinery. (in part). MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES Epwarp CALLWELL, K.C.B, Director of Military Operations, War Ofħce, 1914-6. Author of Small Wars, .

©

Nov, 1918

T

24

16 4

+

.

140 (45, unpatd) to maintenance side

programme for furnishing free instruction to enlisted men. The outbreak of the World War gave new force to the proposals for reorganizing the naval administration, and by the Act of March 3 1915 Congress created the office of chief of naval operations, the incumbent of which by the subsequent Act

of Aug. 29 1916, was promoted to the rank of admiral and assigned 13 officers above the rank of lieutenant-commander of the navy or major of the marine corps as assistants.

The chief

yga

40

of naval operations was “charged with the operations of the flect and with preparation and readiness of plans for its use in war.’ By regulation his duties were defined as including

Signals (now Signal Dept.) «af *Plans o kt ws Mercantile Movements (lapsed) |

... casa ...

28 It 39

manocuvres, target practice, drills and exercises and the training

*Local Defence Div'n (post war)

wee

nil

*Trade .

+

o

ai

Anti-submarine

DAR

Mine-sweeping { Defence

ae

Me

l

-*Training and Staff Duties

*Gunnery Division . . *Torpedo Division (post war) Total « >o

Secretarial:-—

Secretary

s.

Chief Censor Publicity

e

>»

a

¢

‘

e

a

*Statistics

;

;

Total-

s-o

ao

{ Personnel:—

*Mobilization a *Recruiting . s *Royal Marine Office *Paymaster Director

LY

DENE

tena

à

l

Technical:—

*Hydrographeť -*Navigation.

« =.

«© e

+ s

*Torpedoesand Mining

.

*Naval Construction *Naval Engineer-in-Chief *Electrical Engineering *Naval Ordnance . *Naval Equipment

,

a

19

wee

25

cathe,

.

35 3

.

117

i torpedoes)

vase

10

‘Warship Production. Auxiliary Vessels . *Armament Production

af à

ses ..

.

.

.

i

Finance Division

è

P

a7

ie

Costings Division . a > General Merchant Shipbuilding p

Admiralty Labour Dept...

Materials and Priority . *Research and Experiment *Works .

hac

.

.

Total.

Edison as chairman.

37 50

4

59 46

Secretary Danicls’ interest in education for enlisted men has already been noted. An order issued by the Navy Department in Dec. 1913 provided for instruction of enlisted men, petty officers and warrant officers serving on board ship, the purpose being partly to supply deficiencies im school training and partly to fit them for promotion. Training was also instituted at the various naval stations, and schools for assistant paymasters, yeomen, cooks, bakers, commissary stewards, hospital apprentices, machinists’ mates, musicians,

49

57

21

i ...,

86 165

ae sien

106 67

wee

146

103

220

302

1,818

mess attendants, painters, plumbers, electricians, blacksmiths, and carpenters were maintained. Thus enhsted men could prepare themselves to engage in civil trades at the end of their period of navy service. With the outbreak of the war much of this educational work was temporarily suspended. By the Act of Dec. 20 1917 the

Supply:— X Stores

o

`

*Victualling. *Transport .

Total

”

.

s s s œ ys > Ss

Finance:

*Accountant General.

*Contract and Purchase

“Greenwich Hospital .

e

>

.

46

19 31

30 , 116 (4 unpaid)

number of midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy was fixed as follows~-five for each senator,. representative and delegate in

tel

86

243

appointed each year at large, and 100 appointed annually from

à >-

e

.

«

.

.

..

‘Total

Summary: Naval Staf. Secretariat. Personnel

110

46

7

163

a. s s

à a

Technical > Maintenance Supply Finance Grand Total .

+= ;

:

It was a voluntary body whose function

was to give expert advice when called upon. Secretary Daniels also established an advisory council composed of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the chief of naval operations, the chiefs of bureaus, the major-general commandant of the marine corps and the judge-advocate general of the. Navy Department.

69

3

act

Airship Production

from the administrative standpoint, well prepared to undertake

its new duties and responsibilities. In his report for 1918 Secretary Daniels stated that the war had necessitated no change in the organization of the Department, which had easily expanded to meet the emergency. During the war the Navy Department had the assistance of the War Industrics Board, the Council of National Defense, the National Research Council, the Aircraft Production Board and the Naval Consulting Board, The Naval Consulting Board, composed of civilian inventors and engineers, was first established in 1915 with Thomas A.

58 6

94 48 32 245

De

(now Armament Supply}.

is 5. 2 16 69

A 68 « 27 à sia « | §34and

. .

x e

bee

er 5 2 10 27

.

and its dutics distributed among the other bureaus. The value of the new method of organization became almost immediately apparent; within ro months after the passage of the first Act (1915) plans for the mobilization of the U.S. naval force were approved and ready to put into effect. Thus, when the United States entered the World War the Navy Department was,

17 10 15 4

er

à

reduced to seven, the bureau of equipmént having been abolished

1:36

« [NavalStaff| >ses -> Io P

mining, the naval defence districts and the coastguard when operating with the navy. The duties of the previously existing bureaus were limited to activities subordinate to milttary operations. By the Act of June 30 19174, these bureaus had been

12.

45

*Compass Department . *Dockyards and Shipbuilding (Director of Dockyards)}

80 (2 unpaid)

.

n . . «

munication, the aeronautics service, the division of mines and

oa

45

+

*Admiral of Training (post war)

of the flect for war. Under his direction were also placed the Naval War College at Newport, the office of naval intelligence, the office of gunnery exercises and engineering performances, the operation of the radio service and other systems of come

4 ni _ 336

S

Physical Training and Sports . *Naval Education . . . *Chaplain of the Fleet > g *Medical Director Gencral . Total > a a a. ors

the direction of all strategic and tactical matters, organization,

6

es sas 27

a

.« «a e s . a General

7

cae

s

a

:

ata

>

a

37

27 45

27

302 86 163

97

i

297 (1 unpaid) 112

7

416

336 136 1,818 243 416

Congress, one for Porto Rico, two for the District of Columbia, 15

enlisted men of the navy. AAs a war measure the President was authorized in 1918 to reduce the course of instruction at the Academy from four to three years; in 1919, however, the full four-year course was resumed. During the participation of the United States in the

World War three training camps for officers of the marine corps were held. In accordance with the Naval Militia Act of 1914 various

states organized divisions known as the U.S. Naval Volunteers, to

which were assigned naval officers as instructor-inspectors of the militia. A later Act (Aug. 29 1916) created the U.S. Naval Reserve

‘force, with which, in 1918, the naval militia was amalgamated.

‘he

Act of 1916 also provided for a Naval Flying Corps, for special engineering officers, for Naval Dental and Dental Reserve Corps,

and for taking over the lighthouse service in time of war.

The Naval Appropriations Act of 1915 repealed section 9 of the

Personnel Act of March 3 1899, which authorized the retiring of

ADOR-—-ADVERTISEMENT

TI

motion. As a result there were no means of promotion in the commissioned personnel of the navy except through vacancies created

and self-interest. The interests of the writer and of the readep of the advertisements were identical. Even so, the results were amazing. In.1917 a leading American banker said it was im-

new law changed promotion by seniority, so that line officers above the

possible to float a loan of $3,000,000,000 because there were “ only 275,000 investors In the country.” But after widespread

officers in certain circumstances for the purpose of accelerating pro-

by death or statutory age-limit retirements.

In 1917, however, a

rank of licutenant-commander were promoted by selection, the ques-

tion of proved ability being the controlling consideration, Much comment was aroused in i919 when a new fleet organization was put into effect, by which two divisions of practically equal strength, the Atlantic fleet and the Pacifc feet, each having a commanderin-chief of the rank of admiral, were created. Some critics regarded this as a violation of the principle enunciated by Admiral Mahan | that the fleet should never be divided. Secretary Daniels stated that with the Panama Canal open the two fleets could effect a junction in either ocean and “ carry out the plans already formulated for opera-

advertising there were more than 6,000,000 individual sub-

scribers to this loan, and the amount was greatly over-subscribed, For the last of the American war loans, the “ Victory Loan?”

floated after the Armistice, nearly 21,006,000 subscribers were obtained—one for every five of the country’s population, ine cluding women and children.

War advertising enlisted much new talent in writing and

ting as one ficet before any enemy could try conclusions with us,” illustrating, The foremost artists and writers on both sides of J, Swiss statesman, a member of- the Atlantic volunteered their services and competed for the ADOR, GUSTAVE (1845a family of Vaud, which in 1814 obtained the burghership of honour of having iheir productions used. With professional

advertising men, printers, engravers and lithographers all giving

Geneva, and grandson of Jean Pierre Ador, who first obtained this right, was born at Geneva Dec. 23 1845. He studied

their best, the result was an excellence in form and character

law at the academy (now the university) of Geneva and in 1868 became an advocate. In 1871 he'started his political career as member of the communal council of Cologny, and was twice mayor; in 1878-9 and 1883~s. He was a member of

their proper application would not have been possible without the knowledge gained in advertising for ordinary business

the cantonal Parliament 1874-6, and continuously from 1878 to rors save for a short break in 1902. In 1878-9 he represented

purposes during previous years (sce PROPAGANDA). - In the years before 1915 remarkable advances had been made,

that had never been achieved before. While the tide of patriotic

emotion raised by the war brought new resources to advertising,

a

The number of articles of trade-marked, advertised merchandise

member of the executive of the canton of Geneva, being put in

had increased rapidly. Stimulated by advertising revenue, scores

charge of the Department of Justice and Police. He resigned after an unfavourable clection in 1880, but once more became member of the cantonal-exccutive in 1885, and for 12 years had charge of the cantonal finances. In x889 he became a member of the Swiss Conscil National, and remained so till ro17. being

for the paper on which they were printed. Posters and advertising

Geneva in the Swiss Conscil des Etats. Then

elected its president in 1901.

he became

He was president of the cantonal

executive in 1890, 1892, and 1896. In 1894 he became lieutcnantcolonel in the Swiss army. In 1914 he founded in Geneva the association for facilitating communications between prisoners-ofwar and the central Geneva agency, and succeeded in giving this

enterprise great importance and @ wide-spread extension.

After

the enforced resignation of Arthur Hoffmann, Ador, in order to soothe the Entente, became a federal councillor or member of the

of weekly and monthly publications had obtained circulation running into hundreds of thousands, and some had passed the million mark, Great daily newspapers had a similar growth and could afford to sell their copies ata price which did not pay

signs had passed from their former rude state to a high degree of attractiveness,

At the same time came a remarkable improvement in the character of advertising. Misleading advertisements and advertising of questionable merchandise or of uncertain financial offers were gradually weeded out. Publications found it

unprofitable to accept advertising that was offensive to their better clients.

The Association of Advertising Clubs of the

Federal Executive in June 1917 and was entrusted with the Department of Foreign Affairs. Towards the end of 1918 he was

vigilance committees were appointed to eradicate misleading or

elected by Parliament to be the Swiss President for 1919, but retired from the Federal Executive at the end of his year of office.

become a business of high principles and well-defined ethics.

ADVERTISEMENT

(sce 1.235).—The

great public service

rendered by advertising during the World War was one of the

most striking features of the progress made in this form of business during the decade 1910-20, k Before 1915 no Government in modern times had attempted

to raise subscriptions to a loan through the persuasive methods

World adopted “ Truth in Advertising”

as their slogan, and

untruthful advertising of whatever products,

Advertising had

One of the most powerful influences in the development of advertising along sound business and ethical lines was tbe advertising agency. Beginning more than half a century before as an agency for the selling of space in publications, the modern advertising agency grew into a service institution, acting on

The custom was

behalf of its clients in planning advertising campaigns, selecting the mediums to be used, preparing advertisements, attending

merely to publish the prospectus, and leave it to the investor to form his judgment of its merits. It was-not till the floating of the 43% War Loan in 1915 that the British Government took any

agency attracted well-cducated young men in Increasing num-

of commercial advertising on a large scale.

to all the details of engraving, type-setting and plate-making

and performing many other incidental services, The advertising

definite steps to depart from precedent. At an carly stage in its bers and represented a recognized field for the employment of subscription, when it was feared that the result would not be as talent. All advertising is more or less a compctition for public attengood as had been hoped for, a Treasury official asked the advice of a well-known London journalist, and at his suggestion it was ‘tion. As the volume of advertising increased the competition decided to spend {100,000 in advertising under his: direction. became more keen, and resulted in improvement of both the A little more than £60,000 was actually spent in advertising, writing and artistic treatment of advertisements. One of the and the subscriptions to the loan eventually realized nearly most notable features in recent years has been the use of illustra£600,000,000, Later, this new departure was followed, but only tions in colour, made possible by improved processes of colour-

after stereotyped official methods had again proved inadequate, in the-campaigns for National War Bonds. after Dec. 1916, by a considerable extension of advertising, while in the United

States it was freely employed in the raising of the (see War Loans Pupriciry CAMPAIGNS). Before this, advertising by poster had been fectively in England to gain enlistments for the connexion, and in the loan advertising of 1915

Liberty Loans

engraving and by the perfection of high-speed colour printing presses. One popular magazine in America, with a circulation approaching two million, has contained more than 50 full-page advertisements in colour in a single issue. Every one of these

employed efarmy. In this

pages was printed by four-colour process, and gave a faithful reproduction of the subject. This has made it possible to display all sorts of merchandise, including foods, in their natural tempting

and following

colours, and textiles with all their shades and patterns, as well as

to reproduce beautiful paintings for their attractive value. Pereffectivencss and power that had never been imagined. It is haps. as a result of this achievement in colour printing, there true that the subject dealt with was in everyone’s mind; the- has been @ remarkable improvement in the artistic worth of appeal was to patriotism, to emotion as well as to cold reason advertising illustrations. Celebrated painters and illustrators no

years, both in Great Britain and America, advertising reached an

AEHRENTHAL, ALOYS LEXA VON

T2

longer find it beneath their dignity to make pictures for ad-

of the advertiser. Unless it bears the stamp of truth and sincerity

vertising purposes, especially as the bids for their services run

it is ineffective and defeats its own purpose, This individuality of a business house as well as the conditions under which it operates and the ficld from which it may seek

to large figures. Similar improvement has been achieved in typography, engraving and lithography, and in all the mechanical processes of reproduction.

As the volume of advertising expenditure has grown, so has the number of publications which derive their chief support frorn advertising. These publications have been divided more and more in recent years into groups or classes, each with an appeal to a certain class of the population. The number of general

publications

reaching

all classes has been

correspondingly

reduced. The most prominent class publications are the women’s magazines, chiefly of monthly issue, of which in 1921 there were four or five in America with more than a million circulation. These magazines deal with home problems, dressmaking, cooking, care of children and kindred subjects, and are the most valuable mediums for the advertising of foods, textiles and all houschold commoditics. There are similar class publications devoted to business interests, the world of books, motion pictures, the theatre, fashionable society, sports of one kind and another and all classes of commercial and industrial enterprises. The signifieance of this tendency is that advertising of each kind may be placed before the readers it especially interests, with a

selected audience and less waste of circulation. Each succeeding year has seen some enlargement of the possibilities of advertising. Paid space has been used in increasingly large amounts in political campaigns, local and national, presenting the records of candidates and showing photographs of themselves and their familics, It is used more and more to. influence public opinion on behalf of one cause or another. Industrial disputes, involving strikes or lock-outs, have led employers and employees alike.to appeal through advertisements to the public for sympathy and moral support. Public service institutions have used advertising to put themselves in a better light before the public or. to explain the necessity for increased | revenue. In one notable case, advertising was used to turn business away. The American Telephone & Telegraph Co. was seriously affected by the entry of the United States into the World War. It could not obtain the supplies it needed; the Government took thousands of its highly trained workers; and at the same time demands on its service increased enormously. The Company was wise enough to advertise, explaining why its Service was deficient, why applicants were kept waiting for`

installations, and also imploring the public neither to conduct unnecessary conversations over the wires nor to prolong use

beyond the time required. Similar advertising was employed by the American railways in the period immediately following their

rcturn from Government control to private management, but in this case the explanation of inadequate service was followed by an appeal for higher passenger and freight rates to provide

custom must all be considered carefully before embarking on an advertising campaign. It is well to seck the expert assistance of an advertising agency of established reputation.

The implements

of advertising are many, including newspapers, wecklies, magazines, trade publications, outdoor displays, cards in railway cars and the sending of circulars and booklets to persons whose names have been sclected on some sound principle, Each is more efficient for one purpose than another, and knowl-

edge and judgment are needed to plan a campaign that will achieve results at economical cost. The advertising policy of a business house and the selection of an advertising agency and advertising manager should be a concern for the exccutive heads who direct the permanent interests of the business. For advertising, once entered upon, is a continuing influence. The advertising for any one weck or any one month, unlike that week’s or month’s buying or selling, cannot be regarded as a completed transaction.

Advertising, it already has been said, is

an expression of character. It reveals the character of the advertiser, and immediately begins to form a consciousness of the particular house or merchandise advertised in the mind of

the public. It hag an influence also on the advertiser’s own organization. The workman in the factory and the salesman in the shop judge from the advertising their employer’s sincerity and desire to serve. If the advertising is such that they can take pride in it; if it is attractive in appearance; if it is placed in the right environment; if it is a worthy representation of the purposes and ideals that animate the business—then the advertising will stimulate every cmployee to greater efforts and enhance the moral of the organization. Every advertisement tends to

create or destroy the one great business asset, reputation, The steady growth of advertising is assured. While there are

no authentic data on the amount spent for advertising, it has been estimated that the expenditure for all forms of advertising in America in 1920 was upwards.of $1,200,000,000, an increase of approximately 100% in five years. Individual industrial firms in

Great Britain spend as much as £200,000 a year on advertising, and the total expenditure there on all forms of publicity is estimated at over a hundred million sterling annually. With the growth in public intelligence and the realization of the power of advertising, it is likely to be still more widely employed in the future. The modern business concern is adopting advertising as a part of its fixed business policy; not as an expedient for occasional use but as an element of business to be constantly

employed,

AEHRENTHAL,

l

ALOYS

LEXA

VON, Count

(1854-1012),

Austro-Hungarian statesman (see 3.25; 0.951), was born at GrossSkal, Bohemia, the son of Baron (Freiherr) Johann Lexa von Achrenthal and his wife Marie, née Countess Thun-Hohenstein, and began his diplomatic carcer in 1877 as attaché to the Paris embassy under Count Beust. Ie went in 1878 in the same capacity to St. Petersburg, and from 1883 to 1888 he worked at -© utmost interest to students of economic trends, It is certain that | the Forcign Office in Vienna under Kalnoky, with whom he advertising has been Jargely instrumental in changing buying formed close relations, In 1888 he was sent as councillor of habits and in introducing many things which have quickly embassy to St. Petersburg, where he exercised considerable become a part of everyday life. The chief function of advertising influence with the ambassador, Count Wolkenstein, Recalled in is the saving of time. Information, whether as to merchandise 1894 to service in the Forcign Office, he undertook important or controversial or public issucs, can be placed before great duties, and in the following year went to Bucharest as ambassanumbers of the population almost over night. Public education dor, Here he succeeded in strengthening the relations between on any subject can be effected in days or weeks, where years the courts of Vienna and Bucharest, the secret alliance which were required by old-fashioncd methods of canvassing. For King Charles had concluded in 1883 with the Central European this reason it has been possible to build up entire new industries Powers being renewed on Sept. 30. In 1899 he became amon advertised products within a short period. In political life, bassador in St. Petersburg, where he remained until his and in financial operations, advertising has served to eliminate appointment as Forcign Minister in Oct. 1906. Achrenthal the secrecy and ignorance which invite deceit and fraud. The at this time thought that Austria-Hungary must, even at the whole tendency is to take the public into confidence and play the cost of some sacrifice, come to an agreement with Russia. Jn this game in the full light of fair and frank publicity. Advertising is sense he endeavoured to continue the negotiations successfully no weapon for dark causes and no advocate for unworthy goods. begun by his predecessor, Prince Franz Liechtenstein (b. 1853), To. be effective it must be a sincere expression of the character for the bridging over of the differences on Balkan questions

revenue for rehabilitation, During the same period, the Chicago meat-packers, facing threatened Federal action for the further regulation of their activities, entered upon an elaborate advertising campaign to convince the public of their blamelessness. All these varied developments of advertising have been of the

13

AERONAUTICS between Vienna and St. Petersburg, in order to create a basis for a permanent friendly relation between Austria-Hungary and Russia. He played a principal part in concluding the Miirzsteg Agreement of 1903. During the Russo-Japanese War he took a strong line in favour of a benevolent attitude on the part of the Vienna Cabinet towards Russia. When, in Oct. 1906, he succeeded Count Goluchowski as Foreign Minister he at first maintained the views which he had professed as ambassador. He was determined to preserve the interests of Austria-[Jungary in the Balkans, but also showed himself prepared to meet the Russian wishes in the Dardanelles question. Accordingly he entered into negotiation, after the outbreak of the Young Turk revolution in the summer of 1908, with Isvolski, arranging with him Sept. 15 at the chdleau of Buchlau, in Moravia, an agreement which aimed at securing for Austria-Hungary the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Russia the opening of the Dardanelles to Russian warships. It was only when Isvolski’s proposals were wrecked on the opposition of England, and the Russian minister protested against the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had meanwhile been accomplished, and supported. the Serbs in their opposition to Austria-Hungary, that Achrenthal abandoned the idea of a friendly accommodation with ithe Russian Government, In the sharp struggle during the annexation crisis, not only with Russia and Serbia, but with the Western Powers, he held with tenacious energy to his purpose, and, powerfully supported by Germany, succeeded in carrying out his intentions after excited negotiations which threatened to lead to war. The annexation of Bosnia and [Terzegovina was acknowledged by the Powers; an agreement was reached with Turkey; Serbia, after long hesitation, was obliged to submit. For this achievement Achrenthal was rewarded by his master by elevation to the rank of Count (Aug. 18 1909), while at the courts of his opponents he was hated but respected. This was the zenith of his political career. Few at this time realized the danger which arose later from the closer adhesion of Russia to the Western Powers, especially as Achrenthal took the greatest pains to prove in all quarters, after the conclusion of the annexation crisis, that Austria-Hungary cherished no farreaching plans of conquest. In this spirit he offered the most decided opposition to those circles at the court of Vienna which advocated a bloody reckoning with Serbia. He held fast by the Triple Alliance, for he saw in this the surest bulwark of peace. He sought to form the most intimate relations with the German

increase of the army and the reorganization of the army and navy, but he opposed the far-reaching demands of the War Minister and the chief of the general staff. Achrenthal married in 1902 Pauline, Countess Széchényi. He died Feb. 17 r912. Even during his lifetime the estimate of his political policy fluctuated violently. On the one hand it was blamed as provocative, on the other as weak. After the disastrous result of the

World War, bringing with it the downfall of the Habsburg Monarchy, it is still more difficult to answer the question whether the path pursued by Achrenthal in forcign affairs was the right one. It is certain that the Entente Powers were drawn more closely together by the active part played, during his period of office, by Austria-Hungary in Balkan affairs. It is true that the chances of success for the Central Powers in an international struggle were better in the years r909 and rorr than in 1914. But the question remains undecided whether, if his activity had been longer continued, Aehrenthal would have been able to maintain the position of Austria-Hungary as a great power without an appeal to the decision of arms. There is no doubt that Achrenthal was a statesman of considerable mark, a man of wide knowledge and well-ordered intelligence; he was ambitious, but not vain, and an untiring worker. Moreover, in moments of great excitement he was able to maintain outward calmness. He was convinced of his own value, but had no desire to parade it. The Emperor Francis Joseph esteemed him, stood

by him in the good and evil hours of his administration of foreign affairs, and repeatedly refused to accept his tendered resignation. See B. Molden, Alois, Graf Aehrenthal: Sechs Jahre auswärtiger

Politik Oesterreich- Ungarns (1917); and the article “Achrenthal ” in the Deutsche Nekrologen (vol, xviii, 1917, pp. 230 5é@.). l

(A. F. PR.) AERONAUTICS (sce 1.260)—Between roo9 and 1921, Aeronautics, an infant to start with, had not grown as a child grows, but irregularly.

One member had prospered at one time and one

at another. Thus we find that enterprize in flight was early in advance of all appliances; then engines developed for a period; later, structural design. Though aerodynamic theory had been far ahead it was badly neglected for a spell and was once again fostered; with this study secret and semi-magical wing shapes disappeared; after that came methodical production, first in units and subsequently in bulk; then came pilotage and the elements of commercial lying. The seaplane, though Jess risky than the aeroplane, advanced even more fitfully and never caught it up; Empire, but insisted on the independence of the Habsburg the airship, which was earlier and safer, still lagged behind beMonarchy, and energetically repulsed all efforts on the part of the German chancellery to set limits to that independence. One of cause it made less appeal to sensation and cost much more. The his most difficult tasks was to adjust the ever-recurring conflicts - engine, though once in advance, fell behind, and only now (1921) with Italy, who, while officially supporting the political action of is again full of promise. Landing-grounds ard night alighting the Triple Alliance, often embarked on courses directly opposed facilities have advanced but little, meteorology progresses slowly against fog, the enemy, but aerial navigation is at last appearing to the interests of Austria-Hungary. A succession of agreements which he concluded with the Italian Foreign Minister, Tittoni, as a Science. By taking such of these elements as have separate stories and justified his efforts, and enabled him to maintain correct relations with the Italian Government. Yet, by the maintenance of his keeping them distinct in the several sections which follow, it is peace policy, which had the full approval of the Emperor hopedto present more clearly the progress and prospects of acrial Francis Joseph, he came into serious conflict with the party led science than by showing a scrics of moving pictures of the infant by the chief of the general staff, Conrad von Hötzendorf, which prodigy in motion as a whole. Achievements and Performance (see Section I.).—The twelve years championed a policy not afraid of energetic, warlike methods. of labour of the American Wrights culminated just before 1909 in The battle, carried on on -both sides with tenacious endurance, the birth of the art as we now know it. Hazardous flights on the ended in 1911 with the victory of Aehrenthal and the resignation straight or in figures of eight; a-circle over Paris; the crossing of 24 miles of sea; the excelling of the speed of an express train, a velocity of Hötzendorf.

In the solution of questions of internal policy Aehrenthal, as Foreign Minister, only took part in so far as they seemed to him to affect the interests of the monarchy as a whole. With the Czechs, who on his accession to office had shown some suspicion on account of his intimate connexion with the leading members of the loyal Bohemian landed aristocracy, he succeeded in maintaining reasonably good relations. As against the Magyars, he upheld the view that the unity of the monarchy must not be shaken, and he therefore offered a determined resistance to the attempts of the party of independence to intrench on the rights of the Crown in military matters. Ile realized the need for an

once deemed monstrous and now insignificant; the scaling of the Alps; looping and inverted flying; leaving the craft by parachute; releasing the first 1,000-lb. weight; firing the first gun; discovering

how to get out of a spin; alighting by night, etc.—each of these was an experience and a token of growth. Each scemed perilous

and astonishing, yet they had become so common by 1921 that it was already difficult even to remember the sense of wonder. Design (see Section II.).—The advance of design occurred away from the public vision, nor were its milestones of progress coincident with the landmarks made by the great performers who relied more

on their own tact in the air thanon the tested and thought-out qualities of their craft.

They chafed

under the cautions of those who

made stress calculations. Each ‘ stunt ” was performed before any human being knew if it was safe. How and why was design altered

14

AERONAUTICS

and bettered under the circumstances? Yet strength factors were introduced, down pressures forescen, fine lines provided, wing shapes

and controls improved, alighting gear developed and instability cured. This is the subject matter of Section II. which is closely allied

to Section Il.

,

:

Aerodynamics (see Section ITI.).—Aerodynamic theory had risen out of the void at the bidding of the applied mathematician before 1909, but it developed at the call of designers who would have been

tied to the repetition of old methods had not theory justified departure. Once aerodynamic theory was established their inspiration could take wing. i

The deductions? from wind tunnel experiments on models 2 ft. long could be but surmises till the principle of dynamic “ similarity ” emboldened designers to transfer the wind tunne! results to the 40-ft. machines. “Scale effect,” “slipstream effect,” pressure distribu-

tion, phugoids, and the like, had to be verified on the full-sized

aeroplane and measured in the course of fight with the coöperation of a few keen fliers, at a time when pilots at large were almost antagonistic to “ theory.” Mathematics had.been applied to the motion of aeroplanes through the air in advance of even the earliest flight, and several separate starts were made. England, represented by F. W. Lanchester, was easily first. Lanchester made great strides, at a time when he had no wind channel for his model verifications. Bryan came independently; L. Bairstow had the wind tunnel, of which he has indicated the arrangement in Section VI. and greatly

advanced the problems.

It was KE. T. Busk who in 1913 in his own

person as flier verified the theories he had formed and achieved stable flight on‘ RE 1” (see Plate J., fig. 1). America had led in initiating practical flight; France in model experiments, rotary engines and

speed records; Germany in length of aeroplanc flight and in rigid airships; but in the matter of stability and of scientific analysis on both model and full scale, Britain took the lead before the war

and still kept it in 1921. Something of each national temperament

is disclosed by these specializations. ; Construction and Materials (see Section IV.).—Aircraft constructional methods are to be regarded from two points of view— the one where a féw craft are to be made as perfect as possible, and the other where bulk production is demanded. Before 1914 there was no output of aircraft in Britain other than by units; in France there was some manufacturing, in America a Httle, and in Germany rather more. These countries had factorics roper where repetitive processes were employed. An army, small in numbers, was deemed in Britain to need correspondingly few aircraft, A large navy neglected them. When bulk production

came it came with a wili, but designs that were admirable for unitary construction were found ill adapted to bulk manufacture, and the

British story of changes in material and methods which is outlined in Section IV, ts typical of the war period everywhere. i

The tautening of fabrics with cellulose acetate, the evolution of

the fairshaped strut and wire, the steerable tail skid, sewing the fabric to the wing ribs, covering the wheel spoke with fabric, were among the step-by-step advances which all belong to the period before large outputs were contemplated, i.e. the period when, for example, joints were machined from the solid steel bar. The plywood body, the spars of built-up wood, the standard relation of radiator to engine size, the pressed metal turnbuckle and the thorough interchangeability of detail parts belong to the “ bulk output ” periad, as also incidentally much speeding-up of processes and methods, the evolving of glues and cements, fine castings, new alloys and the wide-

spread use of tests not hitherto commercialized but known to be good by the few. It would be truer. to say that the World War disseminated the science of acronautics rather than that it fostered it. The war did foster the technics of quantity production. Aero Engines (see Section V.).—Man would have flown long before

he did but for the lack of a light engine. One ewt. per horse-power

was about the weight of the commercial gas engine, and to fly he wanted one twenty times lighter, The French rotary engine of

1909-10 was the most real promoter of aerial experience of its

time, for it weighed 4 lb. where a motor-car engine weighed ten, How and by what grouping of parts, increases of compression and refinements of design this weight has been cut down to 2 Ib. with fuel economy on a similar scale, appears in Section V. Here it will

only

be noted that the Germans on the basis of airship experience

had inclined rather éarlier than others to big powers on aeroplanes,

and their aeroplane successes on aerodynamically inferior craft were due to big engines.

Their engines were water-cooled, rather

heavy but reliable. The radial air-cooled engine of the French has been mentioned above. The British service was late to realize how very big the war acro engine must be, and developed an air-cooled, non-rotary and some good water-cooled motors eventually of

adequate sizes. The Americans made good use of the experience

poured in upon them from Europe when they began in 1917 to

tackle the Liberty engine of 450 H.P. Apart from size, the advances in view to-day are considerable. The means for protecting ourselves

from the fire risks on crash due to petrol are also being evolved.

Navigation (see Section VI.).—Aerial navigation, as distinct from piloting with the ground in view, developed tardily everywhere,

though first in Britain. It was a surprise to find that raiding airships 1 See “' Flight,” 1912, pp. 32, 33-

from Germany disclosed no up-to-date navigating apparatus when they were brought down, nor had their aeroplanes any turn indicator

to guide them when immersed in cloud or fog. Even after seeing the Lucas compass. (see Plate L, fig. 2) on a

acroplanes they did

not appreciate or copy it, nor its principle of the “space-damped "

vertical card, spherical bowl and long period; nor was there anywhere an instrument to compare with the British apparatus figured in Section VI. The air speed indicator that uscs the principle of Pitot was also a British idea, which displaced the earlier French

flat. plate pressed back by the wind against a spring, and other such

speed-mcters.

Control of Air Traffic and Air Stations —Air stations and the rules

evolved to control traffic have a section (VIL) to themselves. The carly stations were ficlds and each flier a law to himself. When the

Air Convention of Oct. 1919 is:‘ratified all aircraft will be taboo that have not a specific.factor of strength and an adequate field of view

for the flier.

As we progress all stations will give wireless warning

to those approaching them when they are immersed in fog and will afford facilities for night alighting. The movement is in this direction, ‘The mobility of aircraft makes international agreement on all rules for alighting, racing, and signalling warnings very important.

Bodies flike the Royal Aero Club in Britain exist ia cach county and

meet annually for these purposes. Seaplanes (see Section VIIL.).—The seagoing seaplane is relatively

backward.

Yo make a craft light enough to fly and heavy enough

to stand the buffets of the open sea up to the speed needed to quit the waves in flight is a problem which was not fully solved even under the war stimulus.. It was tackled too late—by Britain no less chan the others. Even the high-speed ‘ float ” seaplane was neglected in England but it eventually advanced in Germany to be a formidable offence against the air enemics of the submarine. Theirs was not, however, a craft that could ride out a sea. The American NC3 made a record by riding on the water for 150 miles in its Atlantic crossing. it was an achievement to withstand the sea so long even though the craft was travelling backwards all the 150 miles. Section VIH shows that scientific work is being applied to the problem, notably in the matter of stability when changing from waterborne to airborne

conditions,

l

Airships (see Section IX.).—Airship knowledge gave to Germany

technical advantages which would have been even more valuable to Britain. They did not use on aeroplanes the identical engines of their airships, but the experience of large acro engines of the utmost rehalility and economy was there. The dominant advantages of airships are that they fly for long hours, carry large weights, do not descend for an’ engine failure and can safely fly by night, In consequence of night flying they are able on long journcys to outstrip the aeroplane in specd from point to point.

ilish cost of housing

and the numbers required to handle them on the ground were their

chief hampering factors, but the wonderful development of the mooring mast, a British device, has improved the position. The towing of airship by airship and by submarine, the protection of fabric from deterioration, the use of non-inflammable gas are all landmarks in their evolution, The kite balloon and the parachute also need mention, though opinions differ as to the advisability of giving the latter to the commercial acroplane as a life-belt is given to the liner.

It is of little use unless the jump is made over 200 ft.

from the ground; if a high wind is blowing the parachutist meets the

ground with the sideways speed of the wind and it absorbs 18% of the useful (passenger) load.

This position Is, however, the result of

great advances which have asirdi

not ceased.

Each sectional aspect of aeronautics between 1909 and 1925 divides itself into three periods: before, during and after the wat. The dominant emotions and aspirations of those periods governed

men’s thoughts whether they were flying, designing, calculating; experimenting with engines, model aeroplanes or safety devices; evolving navigational instruments, tests for pilots against giddiness, or parachutes to save the lookouts on kite balloons. Before the war the aircraft builder starved although it was early accepted that frontiers, rivers, chasms, forests and entrenched positions could be crossed by anyone brave enough to fly, but that acceptance was half-hearted. It now amazes one to realize that in rgtr the speed of flight was regarded as a defect for the military aeroplane, or that vulnerability by gun-fire from the ground was its supposed weakness. The Governments demanded that their aeroplanes should be transported in crates, or towed with folded wings to their jumping-off place (see Plate I, fig. 3). An acroplane was a mute observer; no means of continuously transmitting observations—say of artillery fire or enemy movements— or for making photographic records had been tried out, accepted as good or prepared in quantity. Imagination is greater than

‘fact when the imagination is active: all these effects could easily be, and were, imagined once flight was admitted—but the state is a herd, and extends its imaginative power like a herd to the distance of the next meal or next year’s crop. All nations econo-

AERONAUTICS

5

mized in aircraft research. Only individuals in any army, navy

British Avro and BE2 taught the possibility of a wide speed

or populace appreciated it. Its exponents were a butt for attack. Still it was war or the fear of war that was responsible for what

range to the French and others, and generally aircraft

became

international.

O'G.)

there was. War has often been the great inciter of technical advances—it accounted for the Roman roads and for the modern steel industry when battleship plates were founded and forged. Such industries have in the past made some compensation to the world for their malignant first inspiration, So, too, will aircraft -jn its civilian uses and in many indirect ways. The exact calculation of stresses, the exact adaptation of material to meet them, the most radical economy of avoidable weight, all of which are in the essence of engineering progress, have been enforced upon the new enginecr physicist of aerial science, and young and brilliant aircraft engineers have, since the Armis-

tice, been thrown into industry generally, imbued with the exactjade and thrift of mechanical material Jearnt under the grave

penalty attaching to small errors in strength, weight or quality or design for aircraft construction. The introduction of the scientific idea was an intense uphill

struggle.

Flying was first in the hands of men of enthusiasm

rather than of precision, the pioneers were more courageous than scientific or critical. Dynamic similarity, the theorem of three moments and the like were uninteresting to the small makers, and all makers were ina small way. The data for the calculation of acroplane stresses were insufficient to move the larger firms to quit the imitative methods of design which were the beginnings

of the industry.

The risks from obvious misadventures, from

fliers’ errors, from bad landing-grounds, etc., were so great

that the hazards to he guarded against by calculations and wind-

I. PERFORMANCE OF AEROPLANES, 1909-1920 The Arena of Aeronautics in r909—The achievements in 1909 had been latent in the effort of the previous 40 years; that which appeared sudden was the outcome of protracted experiment and the driving force of great personalities. The date recalls the names of Wright, Voisin and Farman. The year 1908 had made power-driven flight a reality. Farman had flown from Chalons to Reims; Orville Wright had flown for over an hour in

America; Wilbur Wright heid the Michelin Cup with a flight of 124 km. in France.

In 1909 man little knew at what bitter cost he would maintain

the conquest of the air; yet the toll of life served but as a stimulus. ‘The International Conference that was held in London consoli-

dated the position of the Acro Clubs of the various countries with a view to the advancement of aeronautics as an organized movement. The great natural flying-ground at Pau soon made it the Mecca of aeronautics. There Wilbur Wright created the first

flying-school, and among his pupils were names now famous. At the aero show in London the public inspected and handled ma+ chines that really flew. At Farnborough, Cody was experimenting with a machine that. was to glide down a wire. Blériot, who had

emerged from crash after crash unscathed, flew from Étampes to Orleans, 25 miles. His little machine hopped over hedges and trees, its diminutive engine humming above the roar of the Paris» Orleans express, the windows of which were white with faces

tunnel experiments appeared few and negligible by comparison. Before the war public pressure had a rather doubtful directing

upturned to see the new wonder. On a memorable Sunday morning (July 28 1909), Blériot set out from France without a

influence. If it was not explicitly said that such appliances must be frail and dangerous, it was assumed. In one country after

watch or compass to fly the Channel; his monoplane was lost in the haze; but he emerged triumphant towards the cliffs of Dover, where he Janded on a slope and crashed. His feat, eclipses all others of the year, and is the forerunner of the crossing of the Atlantic 10 years later, The analogy goes further, for Hawker’s failure to cross the Atlantic is reminiscent of that other

another the ministers were rather upbraided by the air industry and dismissed eventually for failing to spread themselves on large orders than urged to develop the basis for strength and balance, by expenditure now proved justifiable on precise calculations, laboratory work and mathematics, finer metallurgy, woodcraft and chemistry, instruments and navigation such as are recorded in the succeeding sections. The main efforts made on the scientific side have been individual, and for those individuals are mainly unrequited. Many are

dead—scarcely heard of —E, T. Busk; K. Lucas; R. M. Groves; B. Hopkinson; Pilgrim; Pinsent; Usborne; many others lived on

in 1921 to see the result of their work, which was unparalleled

failure of Latham’s to wrest the prize from Blériot. The year is memorable for flying meetings which roused public enthusiasm in many countries: at Reims, Brescia, Berlin, Cologne, Blackpool and Doncaster, At Reims Latham covered 06 m., while later in the year Paulhan climbed to 600 metres, a

dizzy height in those days. The Comte de Lambert, a pupil of Wright, flew from Juvisy round the Eiffel Tower and back, the first flight over a town. In Germany Herr Grade won a {2,000 prize for the first German to fly a figure of eight round two posts

in brilliance of achievement. Fortunately the names of the performers of heroic flights live on, and many—unavoidably there placed 1 km. apart. At the close of the year Farman held the | Michelin Cup with a fine flight of 234 km., made at Chalons. are omissions from so great a list—appear in Section I. The Flying Qualities of the Early Aeroplanes——So rapid has In 1911-2 the compelling necessity for providing in the interests of fliers a margin of strength for aircraft, calculated upon been their development that it is worth recalling what these early the stresses induced by its speed and by its manocuvres, was acroplanes were like. The factors which govern the balance of an first accepted. So far as we know, this importation of an engincer- aeroplane and the respective functions of the movable and fixed ing standard was British, and was imposed upon foreign sup- surfaces used for its control during flight were, in 1gog, ilk understood. The probable, possible and impossible were all one. pliers for the first time. The various nations, each wanting to know how the other was Acroplanes were built by eye and developed by trial and error; getting on, would purchase a few examples abroad; a proceeding the- light acro engine was in its infancy. Wilbur Wright laid the naturally coupled with any known precautions for the home foundation of acroplane control as we now conccive it, but hamflier whose person would be risked in testing them. In any coun- pered it by combining the movement of the vertical rudder with try the industrials regarded foreign purchases with some jealousy, the warping of the main planes for turning in the air. The pio_ since a tenuous air vote was seen to be expended elsewhere than neers flew almost by blind instinct; they had but the vaguest idea with the home constructor; still an informative exchange of tech- of how to remedy a loss of control; some were even inclined to { doubt that remedies existed; atmospheric disturbances and sonical knowledje ensued. | The 20 H.P. engine of Wright and the 35 H.P. engine of Green called “air pockets’ were referred to with awe; instruments were seen to be too small by any who knew the so H.P. Gnome which now assist. the maintenance of balance, attitude and flying in flight. The speedy monoplane of Nieuport (French 1910) speed were unknown, and when suggested were objected to; it showed Britain the value of smooth external lines for the craft. was all that human concentration could do to make proper use The Wright biplane (U.S.A.) bore only 2 Ib, per sq. ft. of wing of the control surfaces to maintain equilibrium, not only because area, and Farman followed its lead in France, The uses of heavy the equilibrium was essentially of an unstable kind, but because loading, as in the De Haviland craft, appeared later, when its the control surfaces themselves were often incorrectly designed demerits were envisaged and difficulties, such as the high speed of and thus treacherous or inadequate. It was on such machines alighting, overcome simply by the great skill and courage of that the early pioneers committed themselves to the air, break»

fliers.

The German Zeppelin taught much to Britain,

The

ing records over land and sea.

AERONAUTICS

16

The Pre-War Years——The chief flight of the year 1910 was Paulhan’s from London to Manchester, by which he won the Daily Mail {10,000 prize (April 27 and 28 1910). The race was

gallantly contested by Grahame-White. If skill and tenacity had been the determining factor, the prize would have been hard to award. The chances of the race aroused the greatest enthusiasm and to the many incredulous one more demonstration was thus given of the possibilities of the aeroplane. During the year flying meetings were held at Heliopolis, Wolverhampton,

Bournemouth,

Blackpool

and Lanark,

the

flying performances at which demonstrated the advance that had been made on those of the previous year, At Bournemouth England lost one of her best fliers, the Hon. C. S. Rolls, who had

previously made the double journey across the English Channel, His statue stands at Dover, gazing out over the waters that he

crossed. Most British pilots were flying on aeroplanes that were wholly or partly French, but it is to be noted that Moore Braba-zon won the British Michelin Cup with a flight of 19 m. on an all-British machine. At Lanark Chavez on a Blériot monoplane reached a height of 1,794 metres, a prelude to his magnificent

flight over the Alps, the tragic sequcl to which was his fatal accident on landing. Legagneux, however, created a record by reaching a height of 3,100 metres. .

Moisant flew from Paris to London but, though he quickly reached English soil, various troubles delayed his arrival in London till three weeks later. On the continent, Leblanc won

the £4,000 prize for the Circuit de L’ Est. Grahame-White went to ‘America and brought back the Gordon Bennett Cup, which Curtis had won the year before. The contests for the British Michelin Cup and the Baron de Forest prize brought forward new fliers. Sopwith, competing for the former, flew 100 m. at Brooklands, which had been opened as a flying-ground the year before, thus beating Cody’s distance of 97 m. which had previously stood; competing for the latter he few from Fastchurch well

into Belgium, At the close of the year Cody, after an exciting contest with

Sopwith and Ogilvie, held the British Michelin Cup with a distance of 185 m. in 4 hours 47 minutes. In France Tabuteau held

the International Michelin Cup. with a distance of 582 km.in 7 hours 48 minutes.

It was in 1911 that the aeroplane was first tried in warfare. Hamilton, an American, carried out a flight over the town of Ciudad Juarez during a Mexican rebellion. In their campaign in Tripoli the Italians also realized the value of the aeroplane for reconnaissance. In England the idea of the time was that, for bombing, aircraft would be uscless and contrary to international] usage; on the other hand, the first British attempt was made to run an aerial post between Hendon and Windsor. Capt. Bellenger, a Frenchman, flew from Paris to Bordeaux in 5 hours ro minutes net time, a distance of 690 km., while later Fourny remained in the air for 1z consecutive hours, covering a

pure instinct, and thus set out on long and arduous flights with increased confidence in their own powers and in the reliability of the aircraft they flew. One of the most prominent features of the year 1912 was the active part that the British and French Governments took in the development of aircraft for war. ‘The French Minister of War held a great review of military flicrs and aeroplanes, and British. aircraft took a conspicuous part in naval and military manoeuvres. The Cody pusher biplane won the £4,000 prize in the War Office trials on Salisbury Plain in the summer, during which the

tractor biplane BEz2 reached a height of 9,500 feet.

In Sept.

four army fliers lost their lives in two accidents in monoplanes, which led to close restrictions being placed on their method of

bracing in England. In March the French Government had imposeda ban on certain monoplancs until the defects were removed

as the result of a report by Blériot on their structural weakness. Garros won the Grand Prix of the Aero Club de France for the: Anjou Circuit of 685 m. at 45 m.p.h.; Sopwith the first Aerial Derby at 59 m.p.h., a race round London of 81 m.; Védrines the Gordon Bennett Cup in America at 105 m.p.h.; Audemars flew from Paris to Berlin; the two British Michelin Cups were won by Hawker and Cody, the first with a duration of 8 hours 23 minutes, and the second with a flight over a circuit of 186 m. in 3 hours 23 minutes; in France Daucourt for the Pommery Cup flew 550 m.

in a single day at 63 m.p.h., while at the meeting at Leipzig Hirth reached a height of 4,100 metres. World’s records were made in height by Garros, who reached 5,610 metres; in distance by Fourny with 1,010 km.; and in speed by Védrines with 174 km. per hour, over 5 kilometres. In the spring, flying had suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Wilbur Wright from typhoid fever. Apart from the establishment of the fundamental meri of the tractor biplane the year was notable rather for a steady improvement in strength and detail than for any radical departure in type. From this time it becomes increasingly difficult to single out individual performances. Achievements deemed impossible three years befote became commonplace events, The year 1913 was one of great. progress. Long cross-country flights were proving day by day the faith that fliers had in the aero engine. Seguin in France covered 1,021 km., Legagneux reached a height of 6,120 metres, while Prévost attained the speed of 203 km. per hour, over 5 kilometres. It was a brilliant year for him; he won the Schneider Cup for seaplanes at Monaco, covering 150 nautical m. in 3 hours 48 minutes, and the Gordon Bennett Cup at Reims at 124 m.p.h. Helen won the International Michelin Cup with a distance of 16,096 km. Captain Longcroft won the Britannia Challenge Trophy by a magnificent flight from. Montrose to Farnborough via Ports-

mouth on a BE2.aeroplane built by the Royal Aircraft factory.

Hamel won the second Aerial Derby at 76 m.p.h., while Pégoud in France and England gave some of the most marvellous demondistance of 720 kilometres. Garfos made a height record of strations in the new art of aerobatics that the world had ever 3,910 metres. London was linked with Paris by a notable non- seen, including looping, inverted flying and quitting his aetoplane stop flight by Prier, which foreshadowed the acrial services of in a parachute. In Dec. 1913 the REx, the first aeroplane stable to-day. longitudinally and laterally, was flown for 35 minutes without The year 1911 saw many races: the Paris-Madrid race won by hand or foot control; and this, which may be regarded as the Védrines at 50 m.p.h., in the course of which the French Minister. greatest technical advance in aetodynamics, is to the credit of of War met his death and the premier was seriously injured; the Busk, an Englishman, who both made the flight and applied the European Circuit, divided into nine stages, with the recently theory on which the aeroplane was designed. The last previous opened Hendon flying-ground at the end’ of the seventh, which attempt of the kind was by Dunne, who a few months earlier was won by Lt. Conneau flying under the name of “‘ Beaumont ”; had flown for one minute with “ hands off.”

the Daily Mai race round Great Britain of 1,010 m., also won by “ Beaumont ” with Védrines as a close second. The Gordon Bennett Cup was won for America at Eastchurch by Weyman flying a Nieuport monoplane at 79 m.p.h., and the

International Michelin Cup for France at Gidy-Lhumery by Helen with a distance of 1,252 km. in 14 hours 7 minutes at 56 m. per hour.

The increase in performance over the previous year may be referred chiefly to the development of the aero engine. It would be difficult to say that flicrs were more skilful, but it is certain that they were able to substitute knowledge and experience for

The year 1914, just as it marked a turning point in the affairs of nations, altered the whole character of flying. Fot seven months the ideas of safe, stable flying and safe alighting were dominant; then the World War came down like a curtain and blotted them out in favour of widely different objects. During those months,

Sykorsky, in Russia, had been proving the weight-carrying possi-

{| bilities of the aeroplane, and had risen to 300 meires, carrying 15 passengers, At Farnborough, an SEg (sce Plate I., fig. 4) flew at 130 m.p.h. and climbed 1,400 ft. ina minute. Linnekogel had reached a height of 6,350 metres in Germany, though just before

the war Oelrich beat him by reaching 7,860 metres. Landmann

AERONAUTICS

17

in Germany remained in the air for 21 hours 48 minutes, while | climb became truly effective when firing through the propeller Bochm further improved on this unofficially with a time of just was devised by a Frenchman, adopted by Germany, and then with feverish haste by the Allies. The French and Germans, more over 24 hours. ‘The Schneider Cup for seaplanes was won for England by zealous about bombing, were for this purpose introducing large Pixton, who covered 150 nautical m. in two hours at Monaco on twin-engined aeroplanes and experimenting with armoured ones. a Sopwith biplane fitted with floats. The Aerial Derby, the Speeds rose to over 100 m.p.h., and aeroplanes flew and fought London-Manchester-London and London-Paris-London races at heights of 15,000 ft., whither they were driven by the increaswere all won by Brock. Notable events on the Continent were the ing intensity of the anti-aircraft fire and by the advantage to be Prince Ilenry Circuit of 1,125 m. in Germany, in which there derived from a swift descent to pounce or to retract. Night fying. were 4o competitors, and the Security competition in France; which had been tentatively practised for exhibition before the war, was taken seriously, as its potentialitics for bombing, for the although most of the big international races had to be cancelled. The World War.—The ingenuity that sought for speed at low depositing of spies and for other conveyance were realized. heights suitable to the race-course or for the maximum climb was Stable acroplanes with special alighting gear and a clear forward by no one appreciated as vital for war purposes, either in France field of view were needed for the repelling of airships by night. or Germany, and least of all in Britain; acroplanes were for re- The loading of war acroplanes was increased and was only connaissance—they should fly slowly—and the very inferior limited by the absolute necessity of reasonable landing speeds; anti-aircraft guns would not impede their flying low; it was not even then fast scouts taxed the skill of most pilots. Seaplanes, till many months elapsed that the margin of speed and climb was whose aerial performance was always poor compared with that. of found to be decisive as to who should be the victor in mortal com- acroplanes, were of great use in conjunction with naval operabat held in the upper air. The diverse needs of war stimulated tions, and took part in the Gallipoli campaign. In 1916 the air services came more and more into prominence. the development of specialized types, which were evolved as fast as production considerations would admit. The prime use The cry for higher and yet higher performance was insistent. remained, as forescen, reconnaissance, but to maintain and sup-

port this other craft were called into being; the possibilities of the aeroplane as a bomb-dropper were as yet hardly called for. The early war pilot went into battle armed more as a sportsman than asa soldicr. But he was attacked, and had either to be made self-defensive or to be escorted by fast, high-powered, swift-climbing fighters. In rors the artillery on the ground came to rely almost entirely on acrial “ spotting,’”’ and the small single-seater fighters had to sweep hostile aircraft from the skies to allow such machines fitted with wireless to pursue their work uninterrupted. Bombing was also rapidly developed. The first time a 1,000-lb. weight was released by Goodden from an aeroplane was an event calling for a special communication to the Secretary of State that by big bombs the nerves and arteries of the enemy might be continually harassed and disorganized. Owing to freedom of movement in three dimensions air supremacy was a far more difficult and comprehensive thing than naval supremacy. It was never achieved save locally and for brief periods by any Power, and then only by concentrating organizations of the greatest mobility and flexibility at some place and time. The requirements of quantity, coupled with the demands for change, came so rapidly that the development and expansion of the aerial arms of the Great Powers are difficult to grasp. Of the innumerable acts of courage, the endurance and self-sacrifice, the skill of the pilot in war, it is impossible here to attempt a record. Here and there the names of great pilots stand out. But if one be mentioned, a hundred others would claim justice. Such were the changing fortunes of war, so many and so astounding were the feats of daring, that with deeds not unworthy of a Ball, a McCudden, a Bishop, a Nungesser, a Garros, a Guynemer, a Védrines, an Immelmann, g Richthofen, a Boelcke ora Voss, many

a ilicr passed through the war without fame or praise.

It was only during 1915 that the specialized type of acroplane began to appear. The two-seater aeroplane with an engine of up to 150 H.P. was uscd promiscuously; for reconnaissance, artillery “ spotting,” any bombing there was, and fighting as well. Types in use by the British were BE2C’s, Avros and Blériots, with small engines below roo H.P.; by the French, Caudrons, Breguets, Farmans, Voisins, Blériots and Moranes; by the Germans, LVG's and Rumplers, with engines over 120 H.P. and up to 160 H.P.; the maximum speeds seldom exceeded 80 m. per hour. Later in the year the single-seater, originally intended asa scout, was used for fighting. The 80 H.P. Bristol scout and other tractors used by the British were handicapped by their inability to fire forwards, the direction of best aim; the various models of Nicuport and Morane scouts used by the French were also adopted by the British, while the Albatross and Fokker scouts

The French Spad flew at 130 m.p.h. and reached over 20,000 feet. .The German Albatross scouts manocuvred magnificently at great heights, and high-flying reconnaissance Rumplers with cameras photographed back areas. Bombing flights up to 800 m. were carried out, notably by the French. Night bombing and even night reconnaissance became general, first on moonlight, and then, as the flier’s skill increased, on dark nights. Accessories for night flying, such as wing tip flares, were developed. Airships had already proved vulnerable to aeroplane attack, and a German airship was brought down in flames at Cuffley on Sept. 3 1916 while engaged in raiding England by night. Kite balloons were attacked and brought down with incendiary rockets and bullets. Flying became organized, and aeroplancs patrolled in larger and larger formations and in layers, each unit being allotted its respective duties, signals being made by coloured lights, ‘Slower aeroplanes were escorted by fast fighters; other fighters, like hawks, moved on mobile offensive patrols. As peace seemed no nearer in 1917, redoubled efforts were made in the air. America joined in, and American fliers joined British squadrons, finally forming their own; the Italians had developed large twin-engined Caproni triplanes; the Austrians, the Turks,

all realized what air-power meant. The British used large twinengined flying-boats against the submarine. The Germans eventually attacked with big float-scaplanes of remarkable speed. Scouts were flown off lighters at sea against airships, and off the decks of battleships and “‘ mother ” ships. Formation flying was developed and acrial fighting of the ficrcest intensity was the prelude to every big land operation.

The British SEsA’s and

Sopwiths, the French Nieuports and Spads, the German Albatrosses, Rolands and Fokkers, swept the sky in “ circuses ” 30 strong, and the effect of superiority of performance was hard to distinguish from sheer skill in handling.

As the last and bitterest struggles of the World War were

being waged in 1918, acrial activity reached its zenith. The deep hum of aircraft practically never ceased by night or day, in fair weather or foul.

Large twin-engined Handicy Pages and

German Gothas flew farther and farther afield on bomb raids;

retreating armies in the East fled before the onrush of death from the air. Aeroplanes flew low and attacked anything they could find on the ground. Large flying-boats patrolled vast expanses of water. The night was full of the attackers and the attacked, for fighting scouts had learnt.to seek out and fight the night bomber. Engines had become more and more powerful and had reached 400 horse-power. The height at which an acroplane could fly was limited rather by the physical endurance of the pilot, even with the help of oxygen, than the possible “ ceiling ” of the acroplane. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say of the acro-

planes used in the first and last phases of the World War that

were used by the Germans. Engines up to 200 H.P. were coming their relative effectiveness as fighting implements was commenin. The so-called “scout” became a real fighter; its speed and- surate with that ofa bow and arrow and a modern rifle.

AERONAUTICS

18

The Art of Flying in War.—Wf, in war, higher performance was the prime means of gaining the position to strike, controllability was essential to direct the blow. Pégoud had given a glimpse of the possibilities of aerobatics In 1913, and during the war these possibilitics were explored to the uttermost. Probably owing to

temperament, the French led the way. The pilot of a fighting aeroplane simply came to regard his machine as a mobile gun platform, whose motion must be in sympathy with his lightest touch to enable him to get his sights on the target. In fightingscouts the guns were integral with the aeroplane, the nose of which was controlled so as to point them at the target. With opposing machines of equal performance the striking position had to be gained by manoeuvre, confidence in which was inspired by a good view of the opponent. In order to use his guns effectively, the pilot’s arcs of view had therefore to be made as large as

possible. Though “looping” itself was little used, half-loops and “ Immelmann ” turns enabled the pilot to turn rapidly while gaining height.

r

+

+

aay

oe

ti $

x

.

Giee-.--

`

i

-©

i

£

d

Aa %,

Ea

Fic. §.—Immelmann Turn.

the desired control. An added safety was that stable aeroplanes would automatically tend to recover from a spin after loss of

control, and that, unlike unstable aeroplanes, they would tend to return to a normal attitude if they became inverted unintentionally or during the course of violent manocuvyes. Great as was this advance in aerodynamic knowledge, problems equally great remain, the solution of which can.only be reached by constant and arduous experiment. The Return to Peace.—Civil aviation was mainly restarted by the conversion of war types, which were not so well suited as if designed for the purpose. Specialization of type commenced in two directions: aeroplanes destined for travel and transport and those designed for racing. The year 1919 saw wonders as great as any that had gone before. On June r4th-isth Alcock crossed the Atlantic on a Vickers-Vimy with twin Rolls engines in 16 hours 12 minutes, by which he won the Daily Mail £10,000 prize, and for which he was knighted. Of Hawker’s plucky attempt and descent into midof the navigation of Whitten Brown, his companion; above all, of the human endurance underlying the feat, it is impossible to ‘speak in measured terms. Just prior to Alcock’s achievement there was onc of a different kind, a triumph of organization for the

a”

~~

some time many looked upon stability with disfavour. Gradually,

however, a neutral stability was found to be compatible with

Atlantic; of Alcock’s battle with driving mist, cloud and darkness;

r” P

by the confidence which stability inspired in night flying. But it then seemed that stability impaired controllability. By 1916 so Strongly did war pilots desire the maximum of contro] that for

Americans; for Lt.-Comm. Read and his crew came from America

to England ve the Azores and Lisbon, including the remarkable

hy,

Treet

=

Tio

~—p

dee

Until 1916 spinning nose-dives had merely been associated with loss of flying speed and control, almost always with fatal results. A courageous demonstration of the method of recovery from a spin by Goodden, and later the practical application of the theory by Lindemann, both at the Royal Aircraft factory, did much to prevent future accidents. A spin came to be regarded, not with fear, but as a means, if erippled, of cluding attack, French pilots again pointed the way in the art of “ rolling,”a manoeuvre in which the aeroplane is rolled about its longitudinal axis. In 1917 this manocuvre was widely practised. The development of an aerial combat was so swift that the first few seconds might decide the fate of one of the opponents. It was

rather in a brillant combination of the manoeuvres described

passage of 150 m. under power on a rough sea, in the flying-boat NCq4. In the late autumn Ross-Smith and his brother flew another Vickers-Vimy to Australia in 28 days, won the {10,000

offered by the Australian Government, and were both knighted. High-powered racing acroplanes again appeared. Janello, in an Italian seaplane, put up a fine performance for the Schneider Cup at Bournemouth at a speed estimated at r40 m.p.h., but, though virtual winner, had unfortunately to be disqualified. Gathergood won the Acrial Derby at 129 m.p.h. on a De Haviland acroplane. Racing machines reached speeds of 170-and 180

m.p.h., and chmbs were made to over 30,000 feet. In 1920 Van Ryneveld flew from England to Cairo, and thence after many adventures to the Cape. He crashed two acroplanes on the way, and arrived at his destination on a third supplied by the South African Government; but considering the conditions for

above, calculated to make effective striking possible while preflying in Central Africa his achievement is of the first rank. senting an elusive target, than in the use of any single manoeuvre, The Schneider Cup and the Gordon Bennett, two classic races, that the war pilot put his trust. He had to study the characteriswere won respectively for Italy by Lt. Bologna in a Savoia seatics of the aeroplane he was attacking, single or two-seater or plane at Venice with an average speed of 106 m.p.h., and by large bomber, gauge its weakness, divine the mentality of its Sadi Lecointe at Etampes at 169 m. per hour. Courtney won the pilot and pit his skill against it; but it was grit and the will to fifth Aerial Derby in a Martinsyde racer with an average speed close and finish it that alone could be the decisive factor. | of 153 m. per hour, At Étampes the Farman “ Goliath,” a large To make possible the achicvements of the fighting pilots, passenger machine, remained aloft for 24 hours to minutes, beatand to solve aerodynamic problems continuous experiments ing all duration records. In America Maj. Schrocder on a Le l'ère with new engines were carried on behind the scenes. High perbiplane with a supercharged engine reached a height of 33,000

formance and controllability were not achieved without the

incessant labour of scientists and designers, who were not alittle baffled by the conflicting and rapidly changing demands often expressed with emphasis rather than illuminating precision; by

the time new features in design could be given air trial the original demand had changed out of recognition. And for military requirements something more than controllability was required; for besides having to control the aeroplane the pilot had to examine maps, operate wireless, watch many instruments, navigate, care for his guns, and keep a perfect look-out. If the controls were temporarily released the aeroplane ought in

some measure to look after itself; in other words, be stable. In 1914 the BE2, and later the FE2, acroplanes were altered so as to be stable longitudinally in partial conformity with Busk’s REz design. They were thereupon called BE2C and FE2B; with these the flicr’s hands were free, and with them no less than

seven airships were brought down, a result no doubt assisted

feet. The fast American and French racers continually raised the speed record, until Sadi Lecointe on a Nicuport reached 313 km, per hour over a measured kilometre. By the end of 1920 racing machines had reached a specd of nearly 200 m.p.h., a military

type scout had climbed to 20,000 ft. in 15 minutes, a large commercial machine had climbed to 15,000 ft. with a weight equiva-

lent to 26 passengers, fliers had climbed over six miles into the alr, and an aeroplane had remained aloft for over 24 hours.

To promote safety, experiments were

carried out to reduce

landing-specd while retaining a reasonable top specd by means of wings variable in flight, a problem to the solution of which Handley Page offered a notable contribution. In spite of these and other difficulties so little risk now remains that the number of miles flown for every accident is something hke 35,000, or oneand-a-half times round the world, The years from 1909 to 1920 reveal a story of progress that, even allowing for the extraordinary stimulus of the World War,

AERONAUTICS is surely without parallel in the annals of engineering. And in this story may be found the hint of a tremendous future. See also:-—The Royal Aero Club Year Books (1911-9); Fligh) (Jan. 1909 to Dec. 1920, the Official Organ of the Royal Aero Club);

19

its use. It has been suggested that the thick wing, in spite of greater head resistance due to the wing, might prove superior by making possible the suppression of all external bracing, and

Captain McCudden, Five Years in the Royal Flying Corps (1918). (R. M. H.)

IL DEVELOPMENT OF AEROPLANE DESIGN Design of Lifting Surfaces -—The determination of the forces

acting upon a body moving through a viscous fluid, such as the atmosphere, is a problem so far not amenable to mathematical solution, and design must therefore be based upon experiment.

A vast mass of experimental data has been obtained by testing models in wind tunnels (by Eiffel in Paris, by Prandtl at

Lv

Gottingen, at the National Physical and other laboratories) and

or dimension along the flight path. The ratio of the span to the

chord has been termed the “aspect ratio.” Aerodynamic efficiency increases with increasing aspect ratio; but it is desirable to limit the aspect ratio for constructional reasons and in order

to reduce the room required for housing. The greater acrodynamic eMciency, moreover, becomes neutralized alter a point by

10

15

20

alone as the Angle varies.

at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough. A'very useful amount of information had been acquired before the war,

but this has been greatly extended during the war period. Lifting-surfaces of various shapes have been used in the design of aeroplanes, disposed in a variety of ways. It was immediately evident that the span or spread of the wing across the Hne of flight should be large in comparison with the “ chord ”

&

Fic, 6b.—Variation of the ratio of lift to Resistance for the wing

by experiments upon acroplanes in flight, principally in England

Ò

5

10

18

20

REAR EDGE o & 1D S . 2 Fra. 6a.—Variation ofthe Lift | Fig. 6c.—-Travel of Centre of and Resistance of a wing with Pressure as Angle of Attack

Angle of Atrack. varies, the German Junker and others have designed aeroplanes on these lines.

the head resistance due to the additional external bracing re-

The term “ wing” is commonly used of the half of a liftingsurface on one side of the aeroplane, the whole surface constituting a “ plane.” Thus a monoplane has one pair of wings.

used is in the region of six to one.

quired.

A compromise must be made, and the average figure It was also evident

that

A tandem aeroplane has two or more pairs of wings arranged

the wings should be cambered along the line of flight.

The

as the name implics. The terms “ biplane,” “ triplane,” “ quad-

early acroplane wings had approximately the same curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Wind-tunnel experiments, however, showed that the curvature of the under surface had but small influence compared with that of the upper surface, a result

ruplane ’’ denote that two, three, or four planes are superposed.

which enabled the designer to increase the thickness and in-

Langley’s “aerodrome ” is an early example of the tandem aeroplane. This type is inconvenient structurally and aerodynamically very incilicient. The rear plane acts upon air to which a downward trend has been imparted by the plane in front. The

ternal strength of the wings and reduce external bracing.

reaction upon the rear plane is therefore inclined backward by

Extensive wind-tunnel research has been carried out to find the best cross-section shape of wings. Greater lift can be obtained from: highly cambercd wings, but thinner wings offer less resistance to motion at small angles. An aeroplane should have as large a speed range as possible. While a wing of high

the angle through which the air bas been “ downwashed ”

lifting-capacity is required to fly slow, small resistance is required for fast flying, that is at fine angles of attack.

A greater

speed range is obtained by the use of wings of small curvature {about 1 in 15), the same lower limit being attained by the use of a larger area to carry a given weight. Wind-tunnel experiments further determined the extent to which the curvature

should be greater towards the leading edge of the wing.

` Early writers sometimes stated the requirements of a wing as consisting purely of a high ratio of lift to resistance at some angie of attack. The requirements are in reality more complex.

To secure a wide range of speed a high ratio of lift to resistance is required at fine angles (fine in comparison with the angle at which the wing attains its greatest lift at a given speed) and in

addition a high value of this ratio is required at the intermediate angle at which the aeroplane climbs. This is not all. For longitudinal stability the travel of the centre of pressure

when the angle of attack varies should be small, as this travel on a curved surface produces instability. The wing section best meeting all these requirements is probably the British Royal Aircraft Factory’s No. 15, designed carly in 1916. te

ee.

—

ee

Length of Chord: st

Se

Rear Spar

Leading {

‘Trailing

Foge i =—

eee: see A

ae

see

eae!

apnea

TRC

ChordLing of Motion thio: Air,AngleofIncidence (Atack}—

eee

a

‘Edge ee

Fic. 6.—Wing Section R.A.F. 15.

The resistance of a wing must, however, be considered in rela‘tion to the resistance of the external bracing attendant upon

by the leading plane, In multiplane systems in which the planes are placed one above the other, cach plane operates in

air whose motion is influenced by the others, and the ratio of resistance to lift is less than the ratio which cach would experience if acting alone. If, however, the planes are placed at a sufficient distance apart, so that the gap between is roughly equal to the chord of the planes, the mutual interference produces an effect comparable with that due to a reduction in aspect ratio such as is found necessary in the design of a monoplane. Using the same aspect ratio a given area is disposed in a biplane in half the span required in a monoplane. The biplane forms a gocd structure, the planes forming the flanges of a box girder. In the monoplane the bracing wires make small angles with the planes, with consequent high tension in the wires and

high compression in the spars of the wing. In the biplane the

wires make obtuser angles with the planes. In reviewing the examples of the two types, it is found that the monoplanes are relatively of heavy wing loading and low aspect ratio. In the triplane the upper and lower planes may form the flanges of the girder, or the structure may consist of two girders superposed. This does not possess the same structural superiority over the biplane, as does the latter over the monoplane. The triplane arrangement provides a means of reducing span by increasing height. An early example of the triplane is that designed and flown by A. V. Roe in 1909. A Sopwith triplane was used by the British army during the war. The type may be suitable to large aeroplanes, in which reduction of the weight of the structure

and of bulk is especially needed. The great majority of aeroplanes have been of the monoplane

and the biplane types, the latter predominating since 1912. The first acroplanes to fly were biplanes and by far the larger number of aeroplanes in use to-day are of this type: The

monoplane appeared about the opening date of the period under

“AERONAUTICS

20

CLL ALkak rlnd aade

LLLLL ELL LLp

Fic. 7b,—Early Blériot Aeroplane.

(Tractor Monoplane.)

tors and Rudder in Rear.)

AN —

ae

Fic. 7.—Early Wright Aeroplane.

(Eleva-

signed “tractor” biplanes. During the war the monoplane was more largely used by the French and the Germans than by the British. The names most associated with the monoplane

are French: Blériot, Morane, Nieuport. The “ Fokker ” monoplanes used by the Germans take thcir name from a Dutch designer probably inspired by the French designs. During the

years 1914-8, the biplane was in the ascendant, but the monoplane was afterwards revived in the form of the acroplane with thick “cantilever”? wings without external bracing. The monoplane appears to be a type convenient in small sizes, but

unsuited for the larger acroplancs,

(Propeller Biplane.) (Elevators

in Front; Rudder in Rear.)

discussion, and on an aeroplane of this type Blériot crossed the Channe) in July r909. It was more cleanly designed than the biplane of that date and was regarded as the faster type. It was largely used for trick flying, and figured ever more widely in aeronautical exhibitions. At the outset of the war it had still

a reputation for speed, but had found a rival in the better de-

Fic, 8.—Modern Tractor Biplane.

Position of the Airscrew.—Airscrews have been described as “tractor”

or “ propeller”

according

as the airscrew shaft

is placed in tension or in compression by the thrust, and corresponding aeroplanes are usually called by the same names, The first biplanes, those of the Wrights and the Farmans, were

of the “propeller” type, colloquially “ pushers”; almost all monoplancs were “ tractors.’ . . In the tractor, monoplane or biplane, the order of disposition of the component parts is gencrally from front to rear:—airscrew, engine, crew; and the body is prolonged to carry stabilize ing and controlling surfaces at the rear. In the pusher the order is reversed and the controlling surfaces are carried on an open frame (‘‘ outriggers ’’) in front, at the rear, or in both positions, Ona “ pusher ” the field of view forward is superior, and great

stress was laid upon this by the British War Office after the military trials in 1912. The necessity of aerial fighting was proved in 1914, and the tractor was found unsuitable owing to

the obstruction in the most effective direction for firing. Pushers were therefore ordered for fighting, at first carrying pilot and gunner, and later carrying only one man with a machine-gun fixed in the acroplanc,

The situation was completely altered

by the device of firing through the airscrew disc, The blades

were at first protected by deflector plates, but shortly after

mechanism was used to time the fire between them, the invention of Constantinescu, a Rumanian. The aeroplane was directed . bodily y at the target, The“ iractor ” then replaced the “ P pusher” p Fic, 7a.—Early Farman Aeroplane. (Propeller Biplane.) (Elevator in Front; Rudder in Rear.)

fighting aeroplane; but “ propeller ” airscrews continued to be used on seaplanes, on aeroplanes for night duty against Zeppelins,

and on large twin-engine aeroplanes.

AERONAUTICS The “ tractor ” is the more convenient design, slightly better aerodynamically and reputed safer in a “ crash.”

Total weight

Area of lifting surface Load borne per unit area Load factor . . .

Structure weight of % of total weight.

.

3.

.

_ The “load factor’ is the number of times the weight of the craft which the wings will support; a measure of the strength. Using one of the light engines now available, the power

unit to give a speed of 100 m. an hour will-weigh about onequarter of the total, leaving 40 to 45% for fuel, crew and cargo.

VALET CAS ALN LSS)

Fic. 9.—Propeller Biplane of 1914-16.

Weight and Head

Resistance-—The

aeroplane designer is

continually interested in the relative importance of weight and head resistance. At the start attention was naturally concentrated upon the production of a light structure. Knowledge of the resistance to motion of bodies of various shapes was meagre and was most probably gauged in the mind of the designer by the frontal area exposed, irrespective of shape. It was not realized that a-strut of circular section offers twelve times the resistance of a strut of the best ‘‘ streamline ” or “ fair” shape

of the same. frontal arca.

The light biplane structure of the

Wrights and the Farmans contained a network of struts and wires offering a very high resistance, To reduce resistance,

exposed parts may be “ faired,” which involves adding weight; and the number

of external parts may

be reduced,

which

Wing Loading and Horse-Power.—The liit of a wing is proportional to its surface, the atmospheric density, the square of the speed and the angle at which it meets the air measured from the angle giving no lift and up to an angle near that known as the “critical angle.” At this angle the lift is a maximum (if the other factors be supposed constant) and above it the lift decreases. The wing in passing through this angle is said to be “ stalled.” Stalling occurs when flying as slowly as possible. After stalling it is no longer possible to increase the lift by de-

pressing the tail of the aeroplane and it Is necessary to dive in

order to recover flying speed. This has been a frequent cause of accidents when flying too low to have room for a dive. More-

over, the wings. when stalled have lost their normal tendency to oppose rotation about the line of flight and now tend to “ auto-rotate”’? or act as a windmill. The aeroplane may therefore drop one wing and pass into a steep spiral glide known as a “spinning nose-dive ” from which it may be brought to normal flight by the same diving process reducing the angle of attack of the wings. There is no danger in the stall or the spin

so long as there is space for the recovery and knowledge of the action required. 160

again increases the weight of the structure. Wrights and Farmans may be contrasted with the fast monoplanes and biplanes, the latter employing only a single bay of struts on

either

side, and finally with the unbraced monoplanes of Junker and Fokker. Streamline ” wires were first designed for the British army

50

dirigible “ Beta” in r1912, and fairshaped wires were in 1914 fitted to aeroplanes designed at the Royal Aircraft Factory.

They have since become the most usual bracing of British aeroplanes. They offer approximately one-cighth of the resistance of cable of the same tensile strength. Their metallurgy required careful study, and hence in other countries cable has continued to be used, frequently duplicated, the cables lying one

behind the other with a wood “ fairing ” between them. Struts of streamline shape were in use at an earlier date, The bodies of aeroplanes have improved in form, the crew has been protected from wind pressure, and the spokes of wheels have been covered in with fabric.

The drag of a biplane of moderate speed is made up roughly as follows: ; nS Main planes ‘ Bracing of main plancs

Body ao

a

Undercarriage Tail sunaces

cus

. w

HE

Oe,

ce.

0000 Go we

G

. 30% , 20%

aaa w w a

a A eB

&.

e

ts,

o

. 30%

st.

These figures show the importance of careful design of all parts. Mauch of the resistance of ihe wing-bracing occurs at the joints of wires and struts to the planes, and the resistance of the body is largely due to the necessity of cooling the engine, either by

water radiator or by flow of air over the cylinders.

The weight of the complete structure, excluding the power unit, fuel, crew and other load borne, is about one-third of the whole weight of the aeroplane, but varies with the total weight, with the weight carricd per unit of area of lifting surface, and

with the strength of the structure. The following figures are averages for a number of British acroplanes:—~

o

o

6

10

15 jbs./sq, ft.

Fic. 10.—Curve showing lowest speed of flight possible with given wing-loading and the usual thin wings.

Wing-loading, the weight borne per unit area of sustaining _ surface, determines the speed at which the wings become stalled and therefore the slowest alighting speed. With constant loading, as the speed of aeroplanes increases, wings attack the air at ever finer angles, very soon passing the angle of lowest

resistance for a given lift. To increase speed it therefore becomes | desirable to increase the loading, or in other words to reduce the area of the wings. This reduction has also the merit that it

reduces the bulk of the craft, the resistance of external bracing and the weight of the wing structure. To attain the greatest height heavy wing-loading is not required, and the best loading for a high ceiling would to-day be considered a light loading. For fighting, power of rapid manocuvre is essential. The aeroplane of light loading can be turned in a smaller circle. The total weight is, however, approximately fixed by military considerations, and light loading implics large wing area and consequent greater resistance to angular acceleration, so that the lightly loaded aeroplane cannot so quickly be “banked” to the correct angle for the turn. Given the wing area, the aeroplane having the lighter loading is the more manoeuvrable; given the weight, the heavier loaded aeroplane is at least the equal of the other. Acroplanes carry a larger area of sustaining

surface than they require, except for alighting, and it is the

AERONAUTICS

22

difficulty of bringing the aeroplane to land at. high speeds which prevents the increase of loading beyond zro Ib. to the square foot.

In commercial use, economy dictates an increase of loading;

safety demands that the aeroplane may alight at speeds and in

a space impossible with high loading.

Attempts have been

made to make the wing area or the wing shape variable in order to reduce the lowest speed. of flight, while retaining the other

advantages of heavy loading. None has so far been successful.

purpose—the reconnaissance two-seater aeroplane—and

the

speed is more than half as great again. Aerodynamically there is little difference between the two aeroplanes. As the power of engines grew their weight per horse-power was reduced. To save two pounds in every four on an engine weighing onethird of the whole aeroplane was important.

The largest engines developed were insufficient for the larger aeroplanes, into which two engines were commonly built, and

in some cases four or more.

100.

Š ZRIED

50.

pL Lal l

A

Fic, 13.—Large Twin-Engine Aeroplane.

Two separate power units have been regarded as conducive Q

100 h.p/1000 Ibs.

50

Fic, 11.—Diagram showing specds attained by British aeroplanes at a height of 10,000 feet. The speeds vary between the upper an lower curves. The base is engine power at ground level per 1,000 pounds of total weight, The dotted lines are lines of constant ratio

of tractive force to weight, marked with the values of this ratio,

30,000 [FEET

to safety. Experience has so far not confirmed this. It is essen- ` tial that the power of one engine alone should be sufficient to fly the aeroplane, and the “ twin-engine ” aeroplanes used during the war were not all provided with so large a total power. Again, the engines were carried on either side of the centre and the line of thrust of each offset by a considerable amount. This introduced difficultics of control, because rudders were unable to balance the offset line of thrust at the low speed at which the aeroplane could be flown level on one engine only, and there was danger in the event of sudden failure of one engine near the ground. The table gives some particulars of a few typical aeroplanes through the period under review. The figures are approximate:—

20,000

Flying|

Wright

x

Farman

.

1908

1908 ] 1909 . 1909 1910

Blériot ‘. Roe triplane Dunne

10,000

670

are uncertain,

British War Office trials

50

109 h.p./1000 ibs,

Fig. 12.—Diagram showing greatest effective height attainable by British military aeroplanes. These vary between the upper and lower curves, The base is engine power at ground level per 1,000 pounds of total weight.

During the period 1909 to. 1921 the speed attained by aeroplanes was more than doubled. The rate of climb and the height attainable have increased in a larger ratio. Greater knowledge and better design have improved the acrodynamic efficiency of the aeroplane; but the improvement of performance is in the

main due to the use of larger engines.

In 1918 four times the

power was being used that was used in 1914 for the same

IQIŻ e

BE2C

.

|H.P.

1,009

Aeroplanes in

o

Wing

ing

400 1,700 I9QII | 1,400 191x i 750 | The horse-power and speed given above

Cody Roe biplane.

o

Lift-

Date |weight] sur- Horse! load | per Speed, bs ‘Jb. | face ‘}power|lb, per|r000|m.p.h. sq. ft} Ib.

Name

;

Bristol Fighter SE„5a 7

j

1,500] to

e`

. {19X45

. [1916-7 «

|IgI6-7

Sopwith Camel . [1916-7

| '

2,140

370 |" 400 250 230

2,800 2,000

1,480

Handley Page | oe So! cs 1916-7 114,000 1,640 De Haviland 9A 1918-9 | 4,220 Martinsyde F4 . 1918-9 | 2,290 De Haviland TOR es 8 1918-9 | 9,000 Handley Page V/1500

The Large

Up

45: to

2,150}

to

Os cw

80

125 145 AAONA Y NOD 120

90

1918-9 |24,100 |2,900 |T,4.40

Aecroplane—For

the same

75 80 115 130 110

aerodynamic

per-

formance, the lifting-surface of an acroplane must be propor-

23

AERONAUTICS tional to the weight. If aeroplanes of all sizes were constructed of the same materials and geometrically similar in all parts, the weight of the structure would increase with increasing size as the cube of the linear dimensions, that is, as the 3/2 power of the total weight. This does not in fact obtain, because geometric similarity would give greater strength to the larger aeroplane; also the design may be elaborated and materials

clear field of view forwards. The early biplanes with an elevator in front and rudder at the rear disappeared about 1914; the monoplanes

conformed to the modern usage. Both clevators and rudders are usually hinged portions of fixed surfaces, but in some cases the entire surface has been movable and constituted the elevator or rudder, The latter arrangement has not provided stability if the controls were abandoned. Later the fixed horizontal surface was made adjustable

by the pilot during flight and known as a “ trimming tail plane,” a device much used by the British from 1916 onwards. It enabled the

worked to relatively finer dimensions; and moreover, large acroplanes are not designed to have the same strength as smaller craft, as they are less sharply manocuvred. Nevertheless, the weight of the structure is to be expected and is in fact found to become a larger proportion of the total weight as the size increases. It is therefore disadvantageous to increase size indefinitely and there is in fact a best size depending upon the duty to be done, To carry an indivisible unit of cargo, such as a large bomb, an aeroplane of at least a certain size is required; hence we find size increasing. Sometimes it is preferable to carry a total load

operates the clevators and whose Jateral movement provides latera} control. The rudder bar and the lever are moved in the direction in which it is desired to move the aeroplane. In larger acroplancs rotation of a wheel mounted on the fore-and-aft lever actuates the ailerons, the fore-and-aft control remaining as before. The lever or wheel is generally connected to the control surfaces by steel cables, although shafts in torsion and tension or compression mem-

jn a smaller number of larger aeroplanes, because the weight of the crew becomes less in proportion to the cargo carried, so that every square foot of wing and every unit of engine power of a flect carrics more useful load. Initial outlay and iue] consumption are reduced and there is further an economy of pilots. At some point the larger aeroplane requires a larger crew, and for

Balanced control surfaces, although in use from.an early date, only became necessary as the size of aeroplanes increased, A part of the surface to be balanced is carried in front of the hinge and this surface is most frequently the rear portion of a fixed element, the part brought forward of the hinge being extended beyond the end of the fixed element. This so-called “horn” balance proved unsatisfactory. If a large “ horn” were used (adequate to give ease in

war the larger “ bomber ” must carry a number of gunners and

offensive armament for defence against more mobile attackers. The optimum size for a commercial service with a sufficient

volume of traffic is what would be termed to-day a large acroplane (say 7,000 lb. at least). The actual size depends to some extent upon the speed of the service, which governs the relative costs of fuel and personnel, and also upon the distances. “The first large aeroplane flown was the Russian Sykorsky in

1913. Large aeroplanes were demanded in rors for bombing and were increasingly used during the war. The Handley Page (13,000 Ib. gross) was extensively used by the Bnitish. The * Gotha ” and others were used for raids on London. The same Handley Page aeroplanes and a subsequent design were employed on a passenger service between London and Paris through-

flier to vary the speed of flight at which no pressure upon the con-

trolling lever. was required, and effectively increased the range of control resulting from the application of a definite force.

The arrangement of control levers or wheels, at first very diverse,

became standardized in 1915-6, and consists of a "rudder bar'

operated by the feet and a band lever whose forc-and-aft movement

bers have also been used.

normal flight), there was overbalance at low speeds, or when the aeroplane sideshipped, and the controls would then tend to “ take charge,” A more uniform effort results if the balancing projection is run the full span of the hinge, which must then be set back behind the fixed element. The front edge of the balanced surface is sharp and its movement takes place behind the bluff end of the fixed

element. Alternatively separate balancing surfaces in advance of the hinge have been rigidly attached to the moving clement and

placed above the fixed element.

HINGE

2

ne +

ES

out rọrọ and 1920. The “ Vimy” (12,500 Ib. gross) crossed the Atlantic, flew from Cairo to the Cape, and from Europe

to Australia, and has been used on a London-Paris commercial

service. Controlling Surfaces.—Stability in aviation is discussed in Section III.

EXAMPLE OF HORN BALANCE FIG. 14.

Complete inherent stability is obtainable by a proper dis-

- tribution of weight and subsidiary surfaces and suitable arrangement

of the main planes. The planes are commonly inclined upwards from root to tip to secure a righting couple if one wing tip falls and the aeroplane begins to sideslip. vertical surface at the rear, known as a fin, is gencral although the rudder may entircly replace this surface. The travel of the “ centre of lift ” of the wings is such

as to produce instability, and a subsidiary horizontal surface is required either in front or in the rear. To secure “ longitudinal ”

stability, the centre of gravity must be sufficiently forward in relation to the main planes, and the load on the subsidiary surface maintains equilibrium. The acroplane has three degrees of angular freedom and has almost invariably employed three means of control: elevators, to produce a “ pitching ’’ motion, and so govern the angle of attack of the wings and the speed of flight; rudders to pro-

duce motion about the vertical axis; and warp or ailerons, to secure jatera! balance and adjust the angle of ‘‘ bank.” The early Voisin

aeroplanes had no control for lateral balance. The aeroplane when turning has a natural tendency to bank, which is accentuated or

reduced by sideslip outwards and inwards respectively if the wings are inclined upwards from root to tip or fitted with a vertical surtace above the centre of gravity. The Voisin aeroplane carried curtains between the planes to provide this righting couple and was sufficiently

controllable for the requirements of the pioneer content to achieve

flight. ‘ Lateral’ control is desirable and is clearly necessary for rapid manoeuvring. The Wrights obtained this by twisting or “warping ” the wings, and this method was extensively used up to the end of 1914. Control has been more generally obtained by means of hinged portions of the wings at the rear near the wing tips. Elevators have been placed both in front and in the rear: rudders always in the rear. They have constituted the whole, or only a part of, the necessary stabilizing surfaces. Control with a single rudder requires an effective “ keel’ surface, which is adequately provided

by the body of the acroplane and the exposed struts of the structure. The tendency of design towards the " tractor ” type places elevators

and rudders most conveniently at the rear end, and this gives a

EXAMPLE OF SET-BACK HINGE BALANCE Fic, 14a,

Two Mcthods of Balancing Ailerons. The imperfection of balancing obtained has led to the development of relay motors to reduce the effort. In these, power derived from the air by a small windmill is brought into play whenever the

flier attempts to move the controls.

Relay motors had been but

little used up to Ig2I.

Chassis or Undercarriage —The Wright aeroplane alighted upon skids. It was launched by a catapult. The French pioneers took the air under their own

power, and the Farman

and

Blériot used wheels. From 1909~14 combined wheels and skids were used. The wheels were commonly sprung by means of

rubber cord. The skids mightbe brought into action if the alight-

ing were imperfectly executed, and were carried well forward to prevent the acroplane from turning over forwards when landing. Sometimes additional wheels were fitted in a forward position in place of the skids for this purpose. Under the tail a wheel was often fitted, but a small skid was used alternatively. Wing-tip whecls or more commonly light skids were used to

protect the wing tips from contact with the ground. In Blériot’s

24

AERONAUTICS

undercarriage the wheels were mounted as castors to facilitate landing across the wind. This was subsequently abandoned. The common arrangement of undercarriage comprises a pair of wheels a little forward of the centre of gravity of the aeroplane and a small tail skid. The wheels, of wire-spoke construction

with pneumatic tires, are carried on an axle of stec] tube at-

tached to two V-struts from the acroplane by rubber cord. The tail skid is also sprung by means of rubber and is mounted on a swivel. Stcering on the ground was improved in 31912 by

arranging the tail skid to be moved by the rudder bar. The use of skids and wheels ahead of the main wheels was gencrally abandoned early in the war, except in the case of large aeroplanes.

Steel springs have been used, but rubber is superior to stcel because it stores more energy for a given weight. Hysteresis in rubber is also much greater than in stecl. To avoid bouncing after the first shock the energy received on impact should be restored as little as possible. This requirement led to the design of undercarriages containing a combination of steel spring and

oil dashpot, such as the “ Oleo” design fitted to the Breguct and to the Royal Aircraft Factory’s “BE2”

in rọr4.

This

form of “ shock absorber” was chiefly useful for night flying. Methods of Construction.—The first experimenters built their aeroplanes of wood and fabric with metal at joints and in the form of piano-wire bracing. The aeroplane of to-day uses spruce for beams and struts and steel for joints and tension members, the latter in the form of stranded cable, or “ rafwires,” 7. rods rolled to a “ streamline” section. Wings and body are covered with linen, pulled taut by “ dope,’ and varnished or painted

for protection from sunlight and moisture.

Frames composed

entirely of metal were used as early as 1911, but wood remains

in general use, cxcept for the tropics. Steel tubes have been extensively uscd in parts, notably for the part of the body to which the engine is attached, for struts between the planes, and in the undercarriage. The use of steel tubes for the enginebearers gave place to wood owing to the greater absorption of vibration obtained. The wings in the common type of biplane contain two wood spars of I or box section forming the flanges of a truss braced by wood or stcel struts and cables or solid wires, To these spars are attached transverse ribs which give the shape of the wing and a light wood edge completes the frame. The linen covering is sewn

on to this with a seam along the rear edge; stitched to every rib

since 1914. The body is most often a frame of wood compression members and wire bracing, Bodies built of three-ply wood, with or without reinforcing members, have also been used. These retain their shape better and, being infinitely redundant structures, have eel some advantage against rifle fire; but the former have. en preferred apparently as being more easily repaired and inspected and allowing of a more certain calculation of stresses. Metal construction advanced further in Germany than in other countries. Junker produced aeroplanes without external bracing, strength being obtained by the use of thick wings, These contained

in place of the usual two spars a number of steel tubes interconnected by tubes forming triangles. The wings were covered with aluminium sheet corrugated

so that the air flowed along the corrugations.

The

interconnecting tubes and the corrugations replaced the usual ribs,

Great Britain has experimented with spars and ribs of steel and: duralumin, and secured the necessary strength without increase of weight; but metal construction is still in the experimental stage

The principal difficulty in the use of steel lies in the prevention of

local buckling due to the thin gauge of metal required to secure a light structure. Welding ts unreliable owing to the impossibility ot detecting weakness in the finished part, and joints are made by rivets or bolts. Bodies have been made of duralumin on the same

became the necessary basis of design. In an aerial combat the wings

may have to sustain over three times the normal load, and it is not

practicable to design a fighting aeroplane for the accelerations which could be produced by flattening out too rapidly from a steep dive, in which a speed of over 200 m. an hour may be reached. The determination of the load variation possible is one part of the problem of specifying the strength required of the wing structure. We must also know how this load is distributed over the surface, along and across the wing, and how it is shared by the different members of the structure. The important factor is the variation. of the “centre of pressure”? on the wing, As the angle between the wing and the direction of motion decreases the centre of pressure moves backward with increasing rapidity. It may be noted here

that in a nearly vertical dive at high speed, although the lift of the: wings is small, there is a large couple acting upon them tending to twist them and to turn the acroplane over on its back; this is resisted by the action of the tail. A number of the early accidents occurred in the course of a “‘ vol piqué,”’ or steep dive.

Rough calculations were probably made of the strength of the

early aeroplanes, and in 1911-2 those supplied to the Government were tested by inverting them and loading the wings with sand. Spars of wings were also tested separately, but as a rule both the strength required and the strength realized were uncertain quantitics, A number of accidents to monoplanes led 'to this type becoming suspect. Early in 1912 Blériot forwarded a suggested explanation to the French War Office, which resulted in the suspension for a few months of the use of monoplanes by the French army. Later in the year accidents to monoplanes in England led to a suspension of their use by the War Office, although the navy continued to. usc them. A committee was appointed and reported early in 1913. It decided that the accidents were due to the construction of these monoplanes, but not to anything inherent in the monoplane system. They recommended that the wings should be braced internally against drag (a remarkable omission previously), the main bracing wires

duplicated and made independent of the undercarriage, and the fabric well fastened to the ribs, especially on the upper surface. Makers were to supply evidence of strength; official inspection and investigation of accidents were instituted; and the question of stability and the danger of the ‘‘ vol pigué”’ and recovery were to be investigated, Prior to this, efforts had been made in England to impose a factor of strength based on the load in straight Jevel flight through steady air, The same factor has since been termed the “ load factor.” In

1914 the British Advisory Committce for Acronautics issued a report on “ factors of safety,” regarding the load factor as the product of two factors, one representing the number of times maximum load might exceed the normal load, and the othera factor to cover possible faults of material and workmanship. The first factor is based on the accelcration due to a banked turn combined with a gust, and to recovery from a dive. Forty-five degrees was the steepest angle of bank considered advisable and it is recommended that to secure safety acroplanes should not be dived to a speed exceeding the normal by more than 20 per cent. The committee advised that the structure should have a factor of safety of at least 2. under the acceleration so obtained. A factor of from 6 to.8 (which had been worked to by the Royal Aircratt Factory since Igi2) was recommended, to be increased to 12 if this should become possible,

There is no record of the obligatory use of such factors in France or Germany at this date.

During the war the problems involved were investigated both

mathematically and by experiment,

Loops and mock fights were

carried out at the Royal Aircraft Factory by aeroplanes fitted with an

accelerometer and with tension meters on the wires. The distribution of pressure over wings has been measured in wind tunnels (first by Eiffel in Paris) and on aeroplanes in flight at Farnborough. It is now possible to specify the strength of the various members of an aeroplane with sufficient accuracy for any manoeuvres required. The “‘ load factor ” demanded has never risen to 12, but now ranges from 4 to 8, the lower factor for the large aeroplane which is not so

violently manocuvred. The adequacy of these factors has been confirmed by expcricnee, The need for extreme lightness precludes the use of the factors of

safety currently used in other branches of engincering, and instcad accuracy of stress calculation and careful inspection and testing of materials are imposed. It became the practice of the British Governlines as those built of three-ply wood. ment to check by its own officials the strength of cach design by The Strength Required in the Structure.—The acroplane structure is detail calculations of stresses and by 2 proof load on one acroplane subjected to a very variable load. In straight flight the wings of a type. Other governments followed. Since 1918-9 Great Britain support the weight of the craft. A sudden gust, or change in the requires that an “ air-worthiness certificate "* be obtained before direction, or speed of the relative wind, momentarily increases or a type may be used for commercial purposes. Drawings are subdecreases the load. To estimate the extent of this, the proportion mitted by the applicant from which calculations of stresses are made which any possible gust bears to the speed of flight must be known. by the Air Ministry. On a banked turn or when returning to level flight after diving, _ The calculation of stresses proceeds upon the usual lines, comthe wings must provide an accelerating force, depending upon the mon to other branches of engineering, but with rather greater acrate of. turn and the speed of flight. The pioneers were content to curacy of detail. The theorem of Three Moments is applied to the fly warily, and the accelerations necessary when they turned were spars, which require treatment as beams continuous through a small. The larger variations. in loads were due to gusts. They flew number of supports and subjected to end load. Acronautical only in the calmest weather, but their speed was slow. As soon as the practice has somewhat extended this theorem. A theory of the aeroplane was used for trick flying, the effect. of gusts became strength of struts of tapering section has been evolved. Knowledge

relatively insignificant, and the accelerations due to. manoeuvres

of the mechanical properties of timber has been much extended,

AERONAUTICS

25

The Airscrew—The Rankine-Froude theorems on propulsion by the sternward projection of a stream of the surrounding fluid by

able pitch. Thése have been experimented with, notably at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, with some success; but they have not

propellers of the greatest practicable diameter.

charge to ground-level density should come into use, the variable airscrew would become necessary. Such devices are, however, still in an experimental stage.

the use of a screw-propeller, or other means, are well known, These state that the highest efficiency is attained by the projection of the greatest amount of fluid at the lowest speed, and indicate the use of The only waste

considered is the kinetic energy imparted to the fluid. An upper limit of efficiency is thus determined in terms of the diameter and the thrust of the propeller and the speed of motion. The design of marine screws proceeds mainly upon empirical lines based upon experience. The early airscrews, were designed by a similar process

of trial and érror.

F. W. Lanchester (Aerodynamics, 1892), regarding the airscrew blade as a twisted aeroplane wing rotating about one tip as it advances through the air, assumed that the total reaction may be obtained by integrating the forces which would act upon elements at successive radii if these were clements of a complete wing. This

method of treatment, which was also advanced by Drzewiecki, has provided the basis of airscrew design. As first apphed, the theory

was incomplete, chiefly because it ignored the fact that the blades

in following each other act on disturbed air. For example, if the number of blades be increased, the theory indicates no fall in the efficiency, and reactions chased proportional to the number of blades, which experiment showed to be untrue. Moreover, the effi-

ciency so calculated might excced that given by the Rankine-Froude

theorems. It was therefore sought to combine the two aspects of the action of the airscrew in one theory, and the further theorem of

Froude that the stream has reached

half the final velocity at the

propeller disc appeared to provide a means of estimating the degree of aan of the air in which the blade acts. It is generally agreed that the original theory is over-corrected by this modification. he blade clement under consideration is itself partly causing acceleration of the stream, and this acceleration is the total and

the not.

merely the initial disturbance of flow in the neighbourhood of the element. Figures for the reaction on the elements were obtained by testing a small wing of the same section in a wind produced artificially in a ‘‘ wind tunnel.” This wing produces a disturbance of flow equivalent in an airscrew to an acceleration. It was found in practice that the assumption of an arbitrary ac» celeration less than one-half of the final acceleration made it possible by the use of the theory of Lanchester to predict the aerodynamic performance of an airscrew with a valuable accuracy. The combined theory leads to two important conclusions, completely verified by experience. Firstly, the efficiency increases with increasing ratio ofthe pitch at which the screw operates to its diameter up to an optimum value seldom employed in practice.

Secondly, for given

thrust and speed the diameter must be so large that it acts upon a sufficient mass of air per unit of time to attain a satisfactory efficiency.

The latter brings the theory into conformity

law of Rankine and Froude.

with the

The former in practice brings the

been used so far in service.

If any device for preventing the loss of

engine power with increasing height by an initial compression of the

The number of blades in an airscrew is commonly two, but four

blades have been extensively used, The two-bladed airscrew has an advantage in convenience for storing and transport. The use of more

blades reduces vibration due to errors in blade angles, and eliminates

gyroscopic vibration when the acroplane is turning, and vibration due to aerodynamic causes both when the axis of rotation is inclined to the line of flight and when the aeroplane is turning. Airscrews have been almost universally made of timber, which should be

continuous through the boss from blade tip to blade tip. This has prevented the use of three blades. In deciding the number of blades, two or four, the designer is largely guided by the blade area required,

which depends upon the speed of motion of the blade and the power

transmitted. Thus a slow-running airscrew has conveniently four blades, whereas for a high-speed screw two blades are preferred.

A four-bladed high-speed screw might require such narrow blades

that in order to resist the bending due to the thrust they would be so thick as to reduce the efficiency seriously.

At the speed of flight of an aeroplane the changes of pressure of the air flowing past the wings amount only to a small fraction of

the atmospheric pressure.

The blade tips of airscrews, however,

commonly reach speeds of 800 {t. per second, approaching the veloc-

ity of sound in air. It follows that while the wmgs may be regarded

as operating in a fluid of constant density, the compressibility of

the air may have important effects in the case of the airscrew. With increase of blade speed effects must be anticipated similar to

the phenomenon of cavitation experienced with

marine

screws.

Such effects in a gas may, however, occur gradually with increasing

speed.

Experiments with small.model wings in a wind tunnel in

America showed a fall in lift and increase in resistance at speeds in the neighbourhood of 600 ft. per second at large angles, and it is clear that the distribution of low pressure over the upper surface cannot continue indefinitely, It appears, however, that airscrews so far designed have been free from any marked effect of this nature,

The efficiency estimated has been attained in practice, although

designers to a certain extent miscalculated the power required to drive airscrews as the speed of the blade tips was increased. The error cannot, however, be ascribed to the effects of compressibility owing to uncertainty as to many other factors involved. On the whole the method of aerodynamic analysis led to sufficiently accurate design.

-

The screw-propeller as a mechanism for the transmission of power is convement and efficient. In the airscrew narrower blades

airscrew designer into conflict with the designer of aeroplane motors,

can be used than in the marine propeller, and efficiencies as high as 85% have been attained with airscrews of high pitch and large

internal-combustion engine than are demanded by this condition

diameter, smaller fast-running airscrews giving efficiencies of 75 per cent.

Higher crankshaft speeds are required to produce a light-weight

for high airscrew efficiency. This has resulted in a large number of

aeroplane engines being arranged to drive the airscrew through a

reduction gear. The point at which gearing becomes desirable in ractice is not casily determined. It depends upon a number of actors. Among these are a small loss of energy in the gears, added

weight and cost, various practical reasons for dispensing with addi-

tional mechanism if this is not of sufficient value and the adverse

effects of the greater torque of the slower running airscrew upon the control of the aeroplane, which must be offset against the gain in airscrew efficiency. In this question is also involved the considera-

FORWARD

tion of the strength of the airscrew to resist the stresses due to ro-

tation. This imposes a limit upon diameter, decreasing as the speed of rotation is increased, which may result in a further reduction of

efficiency for the high-speed airscrew.

During the war large aeroplanes were built for which single engines of the re power were not available. In so far as two enpie were sufficient, these were placed on either side of the main ody of the aeroplane, each driving a separate airscrew. It became

necessary ultimately to install four engines in a few aeroplanes and these were placed in pairs driving two pairs of airscrews in tandem.

The design of the rear propeller in this arrangement involves an

FORWARD

Fig. 15.—Variation Thrust,

Torque,

and

ciency of an Airscrew forward speed at rate of revolution.

SPEED

Fic. 1§a.—Variation of Thrust at constant Torque.

SPEED

of Eff-

with

constant

Owing to the light weight and high tensile strength of timber for its weight, the designer has found

in wood

his most convenient

estimate of the rate at which air is supplied to it by the screw in front. With the same limitation of diameter the efficiency of propulsion attainable is approximately the same as if the two engines wete coupled and drove a single airscrew of the same diameter, but

material, African walnut has proved the best timber when the stresses are most severe. Honduras mahogany is satisfactory for most purposes. Spruce and poplar have also been used, but are not suitable for higher powers and speeds. The screw is constructed

is less than would be obtained by the use of four separate systems

of planks, or laminations, about an inch thick, glued together and

of flight, both when the craft 1s flying level at full speed, and when

far as possible along the blade. The method of construction secures. a good approximation to this requirement. Timber has the advantage of large hysteresis and consequent power of damping vibrations. The Wright brothers’ airscrews were made of spruce cut from a single piece of timber. An interesting design appeared in

of propulsion, The tandem system is preferred for reasons of compactness and the difficulties of control attendant upon the use of a number of lines of thrust. The aeroplane propeller, unlike the propeller of ship or airship, is required to transmit the full power of the engine at different speeds it is TE slow in order to climb. The airscrew cannot be designed to discharge both functions in the most effictent manner possible in each case. This was of little consequence in the early days of flight when the range of flying speed was small; but as the range was in-

creased, some attention was paid to the design of airscrews of vari-

cut to shape. The grain of the wood should be straight and run as

1913 in the ‘‘ Garuda” airscrew, of laminated wood construction

with the blades tilted forward so that to a large extent stresses due

to rotation neutralized those due to thrust.

The forward tilt was

obtained by bending the laminations during manufacture, a rather

questionable practice.

This method of balancing stresses has not

AERONAUTICS

26

been developed beyond carrying the most forward lamination to the tip of the blade and succeeding laminations to smaller radii, owin

to the method of construction and the nature of the material used. It has recently been stated that this forward tilt renders the blade liable to twist under load. The stresses in the blades have been calculated by crude methods which give an approximation to the stress along the grain. Fracture

has, however, almost invariably occurred across the grain, in the ear-

In dealing with dynamics, the forces acting are frequently given by a simple fundamental law such as the theory of gravitation when accounting for the motion of planets and comets, and very many of the more complex reactions have been worked out, The corresponding fundamental theory of fluid motion has-been known for more than half a century, but application to the determination of air resistances has proved to involve mathematical problems beyond the capacity of the times. Recourse has therefore been made to direct experiment, and in the early

lier airscrews, by failure of the glued joints. Workshop practice has now so far improved that the strength of glued joints 1s equal to the strength of even hard woods across the grain. The evident need for knowledge of torsional stress in an dirscrew blade led to the practical stages of acronautical development almost every new idea could soliton by G. I. Taylor and A. A. Griffith in 1916 of the problem of torsion of prisms of any section. The mathematical equations had be tested. The number of variables under review has now grown

already been stated and the new development was the provision of an experimental method of solution. Theory can now indicate the shape of blade required to avoid twisting under the loads imposed in

flight. Apart from the reduction of stress, this is of great value to

the designer, who cannot with any certainty predict the performance of an airscrew if the blades twist iri an unknown manner in flight. In order to protect the blades from moisture the airscrew is varnished, or painted, and to protect against sand on land and spray on the sea, the tips have in some cascs been sheathed in metal, but the practice of covering with fabric (dating from 1912-3) has re-

cently found more favour. Japanese lacquer has also been used as a protective covering. Several early airscrews (e.g. Breguet's) were entirely of metal, commonly aluminium blades bolted to a steel tube, a method ont ossible with the low powers and speeds of rotation of the period. lériot crossed the Channel with a small, high-speed, laminated wood

screw.

Experiments with steel construction have

and steel may in time come into common

use.

proceeded slowly

Failure has been

largely due to the unreliable nature of welding, and to brittleness produced in the process.

For production in moderate quantities,

wood requires far less outlay. A modern development is the airscrew with detachable blades, so far in a purely experimental

stage. It allows of adjusting the pitch of the blades, if the airscrew has been imperfectly designed or the conditions of operation be altered, and of replacement of a damaged blade without renewing the whole. Lf the blades are of wood, shorter lengths of timber may be used, but it is doubtful if this can be regarded as an inherent advantage of the system, because the difficulty of attaching wood blades to a centre are probably as great as the difficulty of making a satisfactory joint at the centre of an airscrew constructed entirely of

wood. The airscrew whose pitch is variable in flight is a particular case of the detachable blade screw, and the chief diftcully in the design of such a screw for high speeds of rotation is that of making the joint between the blades and the centre, In Britain and in America airscrews have been tested before use in flight by “ spinning ’’ by means of an electric motor. This test has been applied to new designs, to airscrews whose strength has been suspected by an inspector, and to samples taken from batches. The practice was in force in this country jn 1914 and has been continued, Flight conditions are not reproduced by the test, because the airscrew is not advancing through the air, and because the crankeffort variation and vibration of the engine are absent.

so greatly as to exclude such a. method on the ground of cost, and a period of fundamental experiment is being entered on. The object of such experiments is to find out what is happening to the air disturbed by the passage of a body in such a way that the results can be applied, with a reasonable degree of approximation, to a large number of related problems. Some success has been obtained in the case of airscrews, where the experimental data are so used that it is unnecessary to test every new design of airscrew. Extension to the aeroplanc is gradually taking place. For the same reason—expense—experiments on models have

been used to cover the main field of inquiry, and the costly and frequently dangerous experiments on the full scale have, on the whole, been directed to crucial tests of the validity of the use of models, There has, of course, been a great amount of testing of aircraft in connexion with their value as fighting craft. At the present time, the value of such testing as an.aid to design is very limited, detailed analysis being required to indicate lines of progress.

It then happens that the most comprehensive view of the subject of aeronautical principles is obtained from those acrodynamical laboratories which deal with experiments on models,

experiments carried out under almost ideal conditions in the artificial air current of a wind tunnel.

The theory of the use of

models! becomes of great importance in acronautics and has been studied extensively, When the maximum possible use has been made of the theory the position remains onc for experiment,

and full-scale coöperation is found to be essential for establishing a sound position. ‘The theory of models has great value in showing the correct. type of experiment and the method of comparison with the full scale. Finally, it is now known that when certain precautions are observed in model tests the applica-

tions to full scale have an accuracy sufficient to give them a high value as an element in progress.?

The thrust

loading is more severe, the centrifugal loading less severe. Experience has, however, given considerable confidence in the test. In France the only test applicd has been a loading of the blades to counterfeit the air forces, without rotation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,—British.—Reports and Memoranda of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1909-19) and the ‘Acronautical Research Committee

(H. M. Stationery Office); L. Bairstow,

Applied Aerodynamics (1920); G. P. Thomson, A pplted Aerodynamacs (1920); A. J. S. Pippard and J. L. Pritchard, Aeroplane Structures (1919); H. C. Watts, Design of Screw Propellers for Aircraft

(1920); È. C. Vivian and W. Lockwood Marsh,A History of Aera-

nautics; technical periodicals:—Aeronautical Journal; Flight; Aeronaiutics; The Aeroplane. American.—Reports of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (Government Printing Office, Washington); technical periodicals :—Awiation; The Aerial A ge. - . French.—G. Eiffel, Nouvelles recherches sur la Résistance de lair ef l'Amation (1919); technical periodicals :—L'Aerophile; L' Aviation.

German.—Yechnical periodicals:—Zeitschrift fiir Flugtechnik und Motortuftschifffahrt. (R. McK. W.)

TII. AERODYNAMICS Experiments and Calculations on the Principles of Flight.— The recent history of the development of aeronautics rests largely on experiments on aircraft or models of aircraft and their parts. That branch of investigation which is least related to any other subdivision of engincering is the study of the forces which are experienced by a body when moving through the air.

The air forces due to motion are dealt with under the general

head of “ Acrodynamics.” A knowledge of air resistances is a primitive necessity in connecting the subject with the much older and well-established subject of “ Dynamics.”

A. Air Intake

B. Working Section

D. Position of Airscrew

©, Aerodynamic Balante

E. Distributor

Fic. 16.—Wind Tunnel, Laboratory Experiments.—(a)

The Wind Tunnel.—The num-

ber of first-class wind tunnels in existence in the world in July 1921 was probably between twenty and thirty. Of these, seven were at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, three 1 Report, Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1909~10, p. 38.

? Report, Scale Effect Sub-Committee A. C. A., 1917-8, Rand M, 374-

AERONAUTICS

27

at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, and a number distributed amongst the private aeronautical firms of Britain.) America has a number of channels of generally similar

advantageous.

type,” but with a unique example in one instance where the speed

the working section of the channel. For experiments on wings, struts, etc., these departures from uniformity are unimportant but

of the air current is very high.4 The oldest of the wind tunnels of importance in the development of aviation is that of Eiffel,‘ and from it in 1909-10 came a number of experiments on wing forms at a time when flyiIng-machines were becoming realities.

The Eiffel type of wind tunnel has been used elsewhere and in France a new installation has been erected at St. Cyr The other European wind tunnels of note are in Italy (Rome), at

Göttingen University (Germany) and Koutchino (Russia), Owing to the general upheaval in Russia the last-named laboratory is closed, but it earned distinction in the years of its activity particularly in dealing with interesting experiments on fundamental points in the theory and practice of the day.

_ In general conception all wind tunnels agree in attempting to obtain a uniformly distributed, non-fluctuating air stream; and the tendency has been to increase the dimensions and the

velocity attained in passing from one installation to a succeeding type. Economy of power for a given extension of experimental range is, by the principles of dynamical similarity, more readily obtained with large dimensions than with high speed. The best criterion, other things being unchanged, is the product of diameter and velocity, and judged on this standard the largest installations of the various countries do not differ materially.

At the Royal Aircraft Establishment

(formerly called the

Royal Aircraft Factory), Farnborough, a speed of 100 m.p.h. (nearly rsoft. per sec.) is reached in anairstream 7 ft. square. At

the National Physical Laboratory a speed of rro ft. can be produced in a stream 7 ft. deep by 14 ft. in width and forces on a model of the order of 200 lb. are there contemplated, The Jarger Eiffel tunnel gives an air speed of 40 metres per second (130 ft. approximately) on a circular section about two metres in diameter. The tunnel at McCook field (America)

gives the very high speed of 500 ft. to a circular stream of air about 3 ft. im diameter.

The experimental section of an Eiffel type wind tunnel consists of an air stream as it crosses an open room from wall to

wall, through a specially devised nozzle and collector.

The

National Physical Laboratory type and others use a working

section of the stream in the centre of a chute with solid walls. There are no striking advantages of either type so far as can be

seen at the present time. The great desiderata are uniformity of distribution of velocity across the stream and freedom from large pulsations. Uniformity of distribution is almost automatically secured by using a straight air stream. Once curvature

has been introduced by the turning of corners the difficulties of producing uniformity are formidable. On the other hand the delivery of large volumes of air—nearly half a million cub. ft.

Some variation of velocity distribution from point

to point along a wind channel is then to be expected, there being a

retardation of flow at the walls and an acceleration in the centre.

This change of flow is accompanied bya fall of static. pressure along’

in the case of long models of airship forms there is introduced a poron: resistance large in comparison with that proper to the airship model. It has been suggested, and experiments are being carried out tg give effect to it, that the objectionable effects of the wind

channel be minimized by the substitution of a slightly diverging chute might in the working section for the usual parallel

part. It appears

to be possible by such device to increase substantially the ease and ' accuracy of tests on airship forms. The motion of the air in the wind tunnel is eddying and on this account a difference from motion through still air exists, So far, however, no suspicions have been aroused as to the inapplicability of model tests on this ground. Some eddies produced in the working of a tunnel are worthy of mention. If light sawdust be sprinkled over the floor of the building housing a wind tunnel, below the intake, it

will be noticed that isolated miniature whirlwinds are produced.

Some of these are vigorous and the base will clear a track amongst the sawdust whilst the core extends upwards to the tunnel intake.

The spin in such eddies is great and the effect of the forces experi-

Being spasmodic, the effect is easily differentiated from that of the mean flow and an observer at an aerodynamic balance is conscious of a sharp blow on his apparatus. To climinate these whirlwinds sufficiently a honeycomb is placed across the intake, the cells being small compared

enced by a body in the air flow is considerable.

with the dimensions of the whirlwind.

Some 10%, to 20% of the energy of the power plant may be dissipated by the frictional resistance of the honeycomb and some appreciable length of tunnel is

required to permit of the levelling-up of the flow before reaching

the working section.

The design of a wind tunnel will be seen to involve much study if more than a very moderate degree of refinement of experiment be contemplated. The. following briel description of a tunnel intro-

ducing modern knowledge may be of interest (sce fig. 16).

. The wind tunnel is housed in an unobstructed chamber a little longer than itself, a space of one and a hall diameters between the intake and wall being sufficient for the satisfactory admission of air from the chamber to the tunnel. The cross section of the room should he 25 to 30 times that of the channel, otherwise the return flow of air from delivery to intake will produce fluctuations of undesirably large magnitude. The tunnel-proper is straight and is placed symmetrically in the building, this being effective in securing symmetry of air flow in the working section. Taking the diameter of the section— whether square or citcular—as a standard, the tunnel would have an

overall length of 10 to 15 diameters made up of a parallel working section and intake four or five diameters long, having a rounded entrance and honeycomb, a cone connecting this working section toa circular race enclosing the airscrew, which may be of similar length,

and a discharge section to the end of the room.

The airscrew giving stcadiest flow is onc of small pitch-diameter ratio but otherwise similar in characteristics to those used in aerial. locomotion. The pitch-diameter ratio may be 0-4 upwards, the higher values giving rather greater cconomy of power and less steadiness. With careful design of airscrew and cone the divergence from channel to airscrew can be made large with resulting economy of power and no loss of steadiness,

he most modern method of dealing with the delivery stream is to

divide the building into two parts by an openwork brick wall. Eddies in the return flow are thereby broken up to dimensions which

per minute in the large tunnels—requires special consideration if large eddies in the room wiih consequent pulsations in the flow are to be avoided. There is an opinion, supported as yet

do not greatly affect the steadiness of the air when it again enters the intake, In one instance, in addition to the partition wall, there is a

only by crude experiments, that the N.P.L. type of channel is somewhat less fluctuating than the Eiffel type. For the delicate

delivery is in the form of a jet which imipinges on the end wall of the building, and splashing over it, reaches the corners and forms rollers

adjustments required in the measurement of stability coefficients high value attaches to the steadiness of the air stream. In dealing with efficient wing forms, where the lift may be more

than 20 times the resistance, it is important that the direction of the air stream

be accurately known and remain fixed; one-tenth of a

degree is considered to be the maximum permissible error. It is found by experience that in a parallel walled channel the wind sets itself parallel to the walls with the accuracy desired. Freedom from

large variations of velocity across the section depends not only on

the straightness of the chute but also on the distance over which the

air has been in contact with solid walls. From some experiments by Stanton it appears that the final distribution of velocity in tubes is

not reached for some 20 to 50 diameters behind the open end. On

the score of space required and power needed such proportions are

unrealizable in wind channels and in other respects would be dis-

1 Report, A. C. A., 1912-3, R and M, 68. 2 Mass. Inst. of Technology,

3 McCook Field,

ate

4 Eiffel, La Résistance de lair et l’ Aviation (Dimod & Pinet, 1910).

5 La Nature, Oct. 2 1921.

structure closely surrounding the delivery from the airscrew; this

along the four walls. The structure.over the jet is designed to break

up the stream more completely than the porous wall alone. Instead of the free jet spreading at the wall it is distributed through holes in the covering structure, the spacing being such that equal volumes of

air are delivered through cach unit of area of the distributor. The number of openings per unit area is small near the wall of the building

and increases to cover the whole area just before the airscrew section.

It is possible to reduce the velocity at which the air returns

to the room to 5% of that in the jet without the introduction of appreciable back pressure af the airscrew.

Methods of Measurement of Velocity of Air-—Having secured uniformity of distribution and a degree of steadiness sufficient for the type of experiment to be performed, it is necessary to be able to measure the air speed. No simple means is known of obtaining a standard of reference using a wind channel alone, and only one measure—possibly two—of absolute air speed appears to have been made under precision conditions. The particular measurements made on a whirling arm and in the William

Froude National Tank at the National Physical Laboratory

AERONAUTICS

28

gave a standard anemometer which is easily maintained and reproduced and which is accepted throughout the world.

the study of the motion of water or any other fluid will give the essential information. A striking experimental investigation of

The essential parts of the anemometer are an open-ended tube facing the air current and a parallel walled tube with its axis along the wind, the walls of the tube being perforated by small holes. The

a square plate was observed and photographed.?

open-ended tube is usually referred to as a “ pitot "' tube, the name

being that of one of the early users, whilst the perforated tube is

designed to give what is called * static pressure.” If the perforations

of the static pressure tube be some six diameters behind the closed end it appears that all such tubes give the same reading, independent-

ly of size from a fraction of a millimetre upwards, and that the pres-

sure inside the tube is the same as that on a body moving with the

air stream.

The pressure in the pitot tube is higher than that in the

static-pressure tube and the difference, being due to the motion of the air and the stoppage of a central stream by the pitot tube, is usually referred to as ‘dynamic pressure" or “ pitot head.” The size of the pitot tube ig unimportant and there is little difficulty in reproducing the standard tubes so that they agree with each other within a fraction of 1%. This represents generally the order of accuracy of aerodynamic measurements, but forcertain simple comparisons of force and speed an accuracy of 1/5 % is attainable.

The experiments on the whirling arm at the National Physical Laboratory showed that the dynamic pressure of the anemometer

was proportional to the square of the speed through the air.

On

physical grounds it is known that the dynamic pressure is also proportional to the density of the air, So long as the compressibility of the air does not enter into the effects of motion, the constant of

proportionality is found to be equal to one-half, with a probable error

of the order of '/:0%. The extreme range of speed was from a few

in. per sec. to 50 ft. per second. On the principles of dynamical similarity, to be explained later, experiments at a speed of 20 ft, per sec. in water can be used to give information as to what happens at a

speed of 250 ft. per sec, in air. Using the William Froude

National

Tank for the purpose, the dynamic pressure of the “ pitot-static ”’

tube anemometer has been calibrated to within 1% up to speeds of

250 ft. per sec, inair. Over the whole of this range the formula for dynamic pressure

given by

p= to ( 1435)

(1)

the reality of the law of equivalence in certain cases was made at the National Physical Laboratory. The motion of air past

Smoke ad-

mitted to the current showed fluid impinging on the plate and spreading in the water. At a very low speed it was casy to detect a’winding of the air round two axes roughly in the direction of the stream. A section of the stream across these axes would have shown particles moving ìn spirals winding inwards. This was a permanent state. At a higher speed a very noticeable change occurred in the type of motion. Instead of the spirals retaining a steady position, the smoke showed instability had occurred, and periodically loops formed. across the two axes,

broke away and travelled down stream. It is known by the principles of dynamical similarity that it is possible to produce

similar flow in water. Exact conditions for the second experiment follow from those of the first. Further photographs* show that the comparison of types of flow is exact within

the limits of observation. Neither of the motions described is calculable and the principle of dynamical similarity offers no assistance to understanding why an eddy occurs or what its type will be. It says, quite definitely, that if a given type of motion, cddying or otherwise, exists under certain circumstances, there are sometimes a great number of other cirə cumstances in which the same type of motion must occur,

and it lays down in precise terms the other circumstances in thcir relation to the given type. The instance given above re» lated to change of fluid; other changes might be those of velocity

or size. Clearly the change of size covers the relation between model and full scale. The applications of dynamics to similarity depend on fundamental theories. The common ground exists in Newton's laws of motion but

is an accurate representation of observations on the pitot tube

anemometer. In this formula, ~ is the pressure in force per unit arca, p the mass of unit volume, v the velocity of the air past the pitot

superimposed on this common ground are a number of special cases. In investigating: the motion of fluids at ordinary velocities, physi-

cists have identified the property of viscosity; at high velocities compressibility matters and so on. The physical properties of fluids rand the quantities involved in motion are expressed in terms of as all the quantities are measured in a self-consistent set of dynamical numerical factors and dimensions, e.g. 10 ft. per sec. means a velocity nits the equation is satished. The second term in the bracket will of a certain magnitude, the numerical factor 10 and the dimensions be seen to be small in comparison with the first up to speeds of 200 ft. and sec. being necessary to give full meaning to the idea of the ft. per second. The velocity of sound being a little more than 1,000 particular velocity. If a complete dynamical equation be written ft. per second it will be seen that the second term is less than 1% of down it must, if true, satisfy the condition that the numerical values the first within the range considered. This 1% is a measure of the of the two sides of the equation are equal and that, independently, effect of the compressibility of air and illustrates a general rule-— the dimensions are equal. The latter point may be sufficient to give that, for the purposes of aeronautics, air may be considered as an useful mathematical form to the physical ideas. For example, imaincompressible fluid. The statement is far from true as applied to gine an aeroplane to be gliding down through still air at some known the motion of a shell fred at usual velocities and may need modifica- speed. The resistance or drag will depend on its shape and size, its tion in aeronautics when applied to airscrews. In ordinary practice speed, the density of the air and the viscosity of the air. For the the tip speed of an airscrew is upwards of 600 it. per sec. and a few moment it will be assumed that the drag ts dependent only on the experimental forms have becn made to reach tip speeds of 1,200 ft. quantities cnumerated.

and a the velocity of sound in undisturbed air at the place. So long

per second, In the former case the effects of compressibility have not yet been disentangled from other effects, whilst in the latter

some preliminary observations show marked changes of type ol flow as a result of high speed and the introduction of modifications due to

compressibility of the air.

Dynamical Similarity—The understanding of the laws of air motion in aeronautics and gunnery has been greatly assisted by the theory of dynamical similarity. An early formula was given by Lord Rayleigh! and had a marked influence on progress, not only in Britain but abroad. In the later publications of the Advisory Committee for Acronautics numerous references

are made to aeronautical applications of the principle.

.

All the world is familiar with the idea of similarity in some form or other and there is little difficulty in appreciating the

statement that human beings are similar to each other or, more accurately, are nearly similar; the horse would not be included

so readily in the category of animals similar to man. The idea of dynamic similarity extends to motions what is more usually applied only to concrete bodies. Motions may be exactly similar, nearly similar, ot very different, and in the case of an invisible fluid like air the eye is no guide to comparison. It is true that air may be coloured by smoke and the motion followed and that some work has been carricd out on such basis. When it is found,

however, that the fluid may be changed without loss of essential

characteristics of the motion, a new line of attack is opened and 1 Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1909-10, p. 38.

.

*

L

b

Force has the dimensions My where M is the symbol for mass, L

for length and T for time. Velocity, v, is represented by K density

ia L? by M L and viscosity by 7

(See footnote 9

Expressed in the form of an equation the assumptions so far made amount to R=flo, l, n »}

(2)

where R is the resistance, Z a typical linear dimension of the body

and f a functional form which depends on the shape of the body. Ft is common to include in f the presentation of the body to the wind as well as its shape, but this can be excluded at will by introducing angular coördinates into the arguments of the function. The principle of dynamical similarity states that f may only have such a

form as will make the dimensions of the two sides of (2) agree. For

methods of finding the most general expression for f, consistent with dimensions, reference may be made to textbooks, etc.*; it is found

that (2) cannot have a more general form than

R=pPvF (2) 2 Advisory

Committee

for Aeronautics,

(3) and Applied Aerody>

namics, L. Bairstow.

3 Ibid.

.

4 The coefficient of viscosity used in dynamics is denoted by » and

referred to as the ‘ kinematic coefficient of viscosity.”

The other

common coefficient p is related to v by the equation «=~ ». 5 Applied Aerodynamics, L. Bairstow, p. 380.

AERONAUTICS No dynamical

equation depending on the quantities mentioned

earlicr can exist which is not included in (3). For the purposes of comparison of resistances it has been found convenient by the aerodynamical laboratories to tabulate the value of Fu for various

bodies and to use the symbol dp for it. Equation (3) may then be written alternatively as vl R

i

the pressures over a section of the upper and lower wings of a biplane were measured.

The types of variation of pressure on the full scale are faithfully

reproduced by the model and in three of the four comparisons the

actual numerical agreement is complete within the accuracy

of

measurement, The difference on the fourth comparison has not bean explained and some doubt exists as to its reality. Repetition of the

and in this form several points of importance are evident. To make the case specific, consider the resistance of a sphere in air.as obtained

from a wind-tunnel measurement.

29

speed is a function only ofzL, Special photographic anemometers ? were made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for use in flight and

If the dimension / be identified

with the diameter d of the sphere it will be noted that = is an experimentally determinate quantity and from it values of kp are

determined. An examination of the dimensions of &p will indicate that they are zero; the coefficient is therefore a pure number and so

of international validity. Another method of statement would be to say that the numerical value of Rp is independent of the system of units used so long as the system is self-consistent,

Meas-

urements of force may be made in dynes, mass in grammes, lengths in

experiments has not yet been made.

Generally, however, it is clear.

that in heavier-than-air craft the use of models is amply justified.

ra airen the lack of full-scale experiment precludes any statement

of value. In the course of the investigations of the variations of kp with speed and size it was found that changes of appreciable magnitude occurred at the lower speeds of wind tunnels but that the values tended toa limit, It is the value of & atthe limit of capacity of wind tunnels which is taken in default of correcting factors determined

from a comparison between full-scale and model experiments.

On

the score of cost it is not practicable to increase the size of wind channel or the speed of the wind indefinitely and the highest value of vi appears to be obtained most economically by large size rather than high speed. There are some other advantages of size; the com-

centimetres and timc in secs. to meet the standards of the physicist. Alternatively the engineer may use the force unit of lb. weight, the slug as a unit of mass, the foot for length and the sec. for time, or, if he prefers it, the force unit of poundal, the mass unit of pound, and the foot and second. In all cases the tabulated values of kp would be identical. There are further advantages of the system; kp is

pleteness of detail possible increases with the size of model and one of the claims in favour of the large 7 ft. x 14 ft. channel at the National Physical Laboratory is that the model will be so large that an air-

almost independent of size and speed, so that comparison between model and full scale is readily made by comparison of the corre-

The Effect of Compressibility on the Motion of Air—~The law of corresponding speeds expressed by the relation ts =constant is

independent of the air density and for most aeronautical purposes

sponding values of kp. The extent to which the two agree is a measure of the utility ol experiments on models,

screw can be fitted to it and the combination of airscrew and acro-

plane tested under conditions very closely resembling those in flight.

peculiar to the assumptions made in obtaining (4) as to the experimental factors which have appreciable effects on resistance. There

Equation (4) also shows that kp depends on asingle variable zs, is an indefinitely large number of laws of corresponding speeds, each Jaw being applicable under limited conditions. The method of findnot separately on v, J or vy. On theoretical grounds alone therefore ing the appropriate law is clear; the process begins with a statement we may say—for our special assumptions—that $» will not change of the physical quantities and measurements involved and concludes if the velocity of the same body be doubled in a fluid having twice when an equation of the correct dimensions has been found. The the viscosity. The kinematic viscosity of air is 12 or 13 times that of conditions may be so complex that the answer, when obtained, is of

water at ordinary temperatures and hence the resistance coefficient will be the same if the velocity of air be 12 or 13 times that of water. Stanton has shown that this is true for smooth and rough pipes by testing with the two fluids in the same apparatus? The law was used

in the calibration of the pitot-static pressure tube.

z may be kept constant in many other ways; if air be the fluid used in two experiments, then v and } may vary so long as the product is constant. A model aeroplane to one-tenth scale would give a resistance coefficient on test equal to that on the aeroplane at onetenth the speed. Since the speeds of flight reach 200 ft. per sec. this law is inapplicable to the complete acroplane, for compressibility of the air would be very important in the model test at 2,000 ft. per second. In testing streamline struts or wires, it is easily possible to make models larger than the reality and so to extend the cquivalent

speed from that of the wind tunnel to that of flight.

It should be noted, however, that failure to satisfy the law of

corresponding: speeds, #.e, v/ =constant, does not necessarily imply

failure to obtain similarity of flow between model and full scale. In most of the experiments known to us, resistance varies very

little value; in general the theory of dynamical similarity is useful

only when the number of important variables is less than five, The difficulty here indicated can be seen, if, instead of limiting the problem to a fluid characterized by density and viscosity only, an extra property defining its compressibility is included. There are various ways of expressing compressibility and the most obvious would be through an elasticity modulus, Density is included already in the properties considered, and the velocity of sound in a fluid is determined by the ratio of the modulus of elasticity to the density. It has then come to be usual to assume that the velocity of sound a

is a convenient variable. when investigating the effects of compres-

sibility of a fluid on the resistance to the motion of a body through it. The equivalent to equation (2) for the extended problem is

R=f, (0, 1,2, », @) and restricting the form of f to that which satisfies the theory of

chinensis

{ol

ir e Eer

r

6)

To satisfy the theoretical conditions which guarantee the con-

closely as.the square of the speed and the hypothesis that an exact law existed is worth examination. ae Since R varies as v it followsfrom (4) that kp is independent of

stancy of &p it is necessary to satisfy simultaneously the equations

v and further that $o must then þe a constant for all values of 2

for such variations of size, speed and fluid as are at disposal, Once

vl

i

constant,

v

an constant

It needs little effort to see that if R varies a little from proportion-

the fluid is specified, vy and @ are given and no law of corresponding speeds exists. Various proposals have been made to use a gas such as carbonic acid in one experiment and air in another, but little use appears to have been made of (6) in the form given. he formula for the pressure due to a pitot tube anemometer— (1)—is a particular case of (6). That the form of (1) agrees with (6) can be scen by an expansion of the functional operator of the latter

applications of model results. Since there is no absolute theoretical

in powers of Z, using Maclaurin’s theorem. Such an expansion will be useful so long as the effect of compressibility is small and the

In such a case the law of corresponding speeds is of no importance, for kocan be deduced from a test at any speed on any size of body,

ality to v? the motions in model and full scale will be nearly similar and that the function 24 is relatively unimportant, It is on this variation from strict theory that aeronautics depends in many sanction except in the case of corresponding speeds, the identity of

the values of Rp on the model and full scale must be tried out in a

sufficiently large number of typical cases if reliability is to be estab- | argument = small. There is a further simplification in the case of lished. This has in effect been done for acroplane wings. the pitot tube since the resistance does not depend measurably on It is exceedingly difficult to determine from flight experiments the 2, From experiments on the issue of steam from the nozzles of resistance of the wings of an acroplane, for the flying apparatus must be compiete with body, undercarriage, airscrew and engine, all of turbines and the measurements of pressure on a shell in flight it which materially affect the resistance of an aeroplane. The comparison of the pressures at chosen points on an acroplane wing in

appears that in many cases

flight and on a model of it in a wind tunnel is far less difficult and has been made? The theory which Jed to equation (4) leads also to the conclusion that the pressure divided by air density and square of

piy? =F: a (7) is a type of formula applicable to the maximum possible pressure on

r Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1911-2, p. 41. Ñe Report, Scäle Effect Sub-Committee, A.C.A., 1917-8, R and M, o. 374

ft. per sec. and upwards.

ed

a moving body for speeds ranging from a few in. per sec. to 2,000

3 Report, A.C.A., R and M, No. 287., p. 504, 1916-7.

AERONAUTICS

30

Apart from efficiency there is a limit to the greatest force which can be obtained at a given speed by a wing of finite area. Omitting very special complex wings for the moment, the limiting force at any

It is possible that a correcting factor will be introduced into the

design of airserews to allow for compressibility of the ait. In such a case, resistance coefficients based on (7) would provide the first approximation to a rational formula. Ta Tests of the Water Resistance of Flying-Boat Hulls.—Applications

given speed is obtained when. the wing is inclined at 15° or 20° to

the wind. One of the most efficient types of wing form for high-speed

of dynamical similarity extend over the whole range of physics and an exhaustive discussion would lead far away from aeronautics. One other illustration is required to show the origin of the law of corre-

sponding speeds apphed in naval architecture to surface-moving

craft. Experimentally it has been found that the resistance of sur{ace craft at high speeds depends greatiy on the generation of waves. Jf attention be concentrated on this new aspect of resistance it will

þe found—by methods already indicated—to

give the law of corre-

sponding speeds associated with the name of Froude. f At any point of a wetted surface the pressure is proportional to the head of water above that point and will be increased if a wave crest exists in the neighbourhood. The pressure depends on the head and on the weight of unit volume of the water; alternatively the weight may be expressed as the product of the density of the water

and the acceleration due to gravity. Now consider the problem of

similar motions between a ship and a model of it. The scale of the | model must apply to the scale of the waves if similarity is to exist. It can be said therefore that the resistance depends ona linear dimen- f

Fic. 17b.—F iow past wing. 20°. Below critical angle,

sion J, velocity of test», density of water p and the acceleration due

to gravity g. The appropriate formula then follows and proves to be

R=pl*F; (|)

:

(8)

2

`

2

The Jaw of corresponding speeds is therefore —— = constant. When dealing with comparisons of motion on the earth's surface, g

is constant and the law states that the speed of test for the model varies as the square root of the scale. This condition ensures that the waves in model and full-scale trials shall be similar. Equation (8)

may apply in other cases, such as the disturbed motion of model and actual aeroplanes in free flight, the governing factor being the dependence of the motion on gravitational attraction. = Summary of the Aeronautical

Uses of Dynamical Similarity.—In

measurements of resistance to the motion of a body through viscous fluid the correct law of corresponding speeds is that = =constant;

this is applicable so long as the velocity of motion is not more than about one-quarter that of sound. At higher velocities, compressibility

of the fluid modifies the flow, the changes depending on a further factor = , ie. on the ratio of the velocity of the body through the fluid to that of sound in the fluid. If the wave-making resistance alone be considered the law of corx : >. 2 responding speeds for terrestrial surface craft is y = constant; where resistance depends partly on wave-making and partly on viscosity it is generally assumed that the twọ can be treated by

special assumptions.

À very accurate method of treatment of the

complex problem does not lead to practicable formulae. The Resistances of Bodies of Various Shapes.—A somewhat sharp division exists between the resistances of wings and aerofoils and those other bodies with which aeronautics is concerned. In the latter cases the resulting air force is either directly opposed to the motion or is little inclined to it. In the case of wings at the most efficient angle of presentation the resultant force is almost normal to the

direction of motion. Since there is always a real drag the direction of the resultant force must fall behind the normal but the amount may be less than three degrees. It has been found experimentally that all aeroplane wings—

whatever their variations of shape—have certain common characteristics. The best ratio of lift to drag is obtained only at a particular angle of attack of the wing to the air and a considerable loss of efficiency is incurred if, as is usual in aeroplanes, departure from this

flight has a Hmiting lift of about 7 Ib. per sq. ft. at a speed of 50 m.

per hour. Other forms of fixed section are known which give 12 lb, per sq. ft. at the same speed. The general experience of all experi-

menters with aerofoils has been that, so long as the shape of the sec-

tion is invariable, high loading at the angle of maximum lift cannot

be obtained at the same time as high efficiency for maximum speed. Much attention has been paid therefore to flexible and variable wings; if it were possible to vary the area of a wing at. will without

introducing unreliable mechanism or adding greatly to the weight of the wing structure that solution would offer the maximum aera~ dynamic advantages. It should be pointed out here, that the addition of weight to an aeroplane in such a place as not to add directly to the resistance leads to an immediate and calculable indirect ine crease of resistance at a given angle of incidence; the amount may be estimated as about one-eighth of the weight under favourable condis

tions. So far no satisfactory proposals exist for the mechanical variation of the arca of the wings of an aeroplane. More practical success has met the endeavours to vary the section of a wing of given size $0 as to obtain the advantages of high lift and consequent low speed for alighting and high efficiency at flying speeds. It has already been shown that either condition may be obtained by a wing of fixed section. A further general observation is that the high-speed wing ig thin and flat whilst the high-lift wing is thick and greatly curved. Means of constructing flexible ribs for wings to admit of continuous

change from one shape to another have been developed and the mechanical difficulttes do not appear'to be insuperable, A less obvious method of attack has shown greater promise. Mr. Handley Page?

found by experiments in a wind tunnel that the properties of high lift could be obtained by allowing air to pass through the front part of a wing from the lower to the upper side. By dividing the wing of an aeroplane into a small aerofoil hinged at its leading edge and a

large main wing the device becomes both mechanically and aero-

dynamically effective.

The motion of an aeroplane is now realized to be dominated by

other considerations than those of lift and drag and it may be that a particular high-lift wing would be useless because it led to failure of lateral control at low speeds. This point is of growing importance and aeroplane.design can no longer ignore the complex interactions of aerodynamic properties, For this reason it may be anticipated that

the full advantages from variable wings will not be obtained ime

mediately but that the processes of evolution will be followed. Past history has been simpler; early experiments by Langley (1896) covered the properties of flat plates used as aerofoils and laid the

general foundation of practical aviation. Lilienthal later showed that } curved surfaces were more efhcient than flat ones ‘and attention was

given to sections suggested by bird wings, a subject of interest still occupying the minds of designers. With little guidance as to good forms, the early pioneers of flight, Wilbur and Orville Wright, Farman, Blériot and others, introduced wing sections in the period 1906— 10 and on these Eiffel based his first series of experiments.’ Design then began to be regularized. One of the more promising wing sec-

tions examined by Eiffel in his wind tunnel at the Champs de Mars,

designated

“Blériot

Factory forthe BE2A.

11 bis,’ was adopted by the Royal Aircraft

In 1911, the

National Physical Laboratory

adopted this form as the starting-point for systematic variation of

wing form. In the series of experiments which followed,’ the thick« ness of the wing was changed, also its shape on upper and lower sur. faces and the bluntness of the nose, and in each case measurements of lift and drag were made. From this series it was possible to make a

Fic. 17a.—Flow past wing

rational chotce of wing section to fit the conditions of the day. The

8°. Below critical angle. angle to the extent of 5° or 6° he permitted,

absolute maximum of aerodynamic efficiency demanded a wing too

At the highest speed

of flight of the aeroplane of 1921 it is improbable that the lift exceeds

2 times the drag. whilst the maximum ratio exceeds twenty.

1J puy. Royal Aeronautical Society, 1920. .

* Résistance de lair et ? Aviation, 1910-1,

3 A.C.A, I911-2, pP. 73-77.

AERONAUTICS thin for structural reasons and the Royal Aircraft in the early days of 1913 designed the RAF6 wing on the basis of these experiments for the development of the aeroplane BE2. At a later stage, as engines of greater power were produced, further experiments led to improvement of wings at small angles of incidence and RAF6 was replaced by RAFr15 (May 1915). It was found that the advantages of the latter at high speeds were appreciable in spite of the increase of wing area necessary to maintain a reasonably low landing speed.

“Many attempts have been made to introduce new wing forms and those showing value on preliminary test have been investigated. It

has invariably been found that guesses have been inferior to the

results of systematic investigation.

In order to facilitate comparison

all results of wing tests are—in Great Britain—reduced to a standard form. Different expressions are common,in France and America but neither of the latter is international in the sense of being nondimensional. In accordance with principles of dynamical similarity, the measured forces, lift and drag, have been divided by air density,

wing area and sq. of speed in order to deduce lift and drag coefficients. A centre-of-pressure coefficient is obtained by expressing the position of the centre of pressure by the ratio of its distance from

the leading edge to the chord of the wing. The results are usually shown in curves as well as tables and, if uniformity in scale be adopted

for the curves, comparison of wings is greatly facilitated, since superposition immediately indicates the relative advantages and disadvantages

It is clear to most workers in the subject that the angle of inci-

dence of a wing is a convenient but arbitrary variable. A more usc-

ful relation than lift to angle of incidence and drag to angle of inci-

dence is that of drag to lift, and it is very common to

find in the

records of the acrodynamics laboratories the value of drag coefficient lotted on a base of Sift coefficient. The idea was in effect used by iffel in 1910 in a system of polar diagrams. When comparing wings for a given duty astill further variation is sometimes made; the area of a wing depends on the specified landing speed and on the maximum lift cocfficient. Only when both these quantities are included can

3I

butit is still sufficiently fine to have its unsuitable disposition of radiator. There edge as to the best arrangement, and cooling and body form remains one of uncertainty.

resistance increased by an is little systematic knowlthe problem of engineengincering difficulty and

Performance of Aeroplanes.—Rapid devclopment—also costly —was facilitated by the construction and test of numerous aeroplanes for war purposes.

Not until 1917 did the measure-

ment of engine power and acroplane performance in Britain. reach the stage of generality and accuracy necessary for the purposes of cstimate and prediction. Other countries entered the field at still later dates and it will be seen that aviation is stil in early infancy.

Progress is now less rapid, the main ©

aerodynamic features having been brought to a state at. which the work of all the better designers produces nearly the same result. So true is this statement that curves can be drawn

relating engine power to speed of fight, rate of climb and total weight curves which show what a designer can attain but rarely exceed. The greatest changes in 1917-21 were in the power plant and here limits are becoming clearly discernible. ‘The changes in the weight of the acroplane structure duc to more

advantageous use of material were also small, and in all directions new advance can only be won by assiduous study. The period of striking progress is over and has given place to one in which greater training and knowledge are required than in the

past. This is particularly true in matters relating to the reliability and safety of aircraft. Stability —The idea of stability as applied to motion is very old and standard methods of dealing with mechanical problems

were gradually developed by the mathematicians of the last century. Laplace applied his knowledge to an examination of the stability of the solar system, f.e. he accepted the theory of gravitation as accounting for observations and made an extenlift coefficient to maximum lift coefficient has direct uses, sion to see whether the motion was permanent or in a state of Further elaborations have been used, one of which, due to the change. The ideas of stability are quite different from those of Royal Aircraft Factory in r911, is equivalent to the plotting of performance and at the present day it is safe to say are not horse-power on a basis of speed. A new point is thus brought into prominence for it is seen that the choice of wing form to meet given understood by designers with the degree of intimacy which leads requirements is affected by the resistance of the rest of the aeroto incorporation in design. Itis true that some rough generaliza» plane. Brief notes on the character of this additional resistance will tions exist and are acted upon; by placing the centre of gravity be made at this point. The aeroplane as a whole is made up from various parts: wings for | of an aeroplane very far forward longitudinal stability is ensured whilst a rearward position tends to instability and danger. support; bedy for holding the engine, pilot, load and control organs, the criterion be of greatest value. [fit be presumed that the condi-

tion of prescribed landing speed is to apply to an aeroplane with different wings it can be shown that at other speeds the lift cocfhcients of the respective wings will be proportional to the maximum lift coefficients. Hence a curve of drag coefficient on the ratio of

ard the undercarriage for leaving the ground and alighting. The same organs are required by float seaplanes and amphibians but in the boat-type seaplanes the body and alighting gear are combined into one structure. The wings themselves are usually supported

Similarly, the fin’s dihedral angle on the wing is known to affect lateral stability, Present-day (1921) aeroplanes border on

neutral stability for the conditions of straight forward flight and this has come about by trial and error, corrected by the position to test and fit wings which are designed to be strong enough | likes and dislikes of a pilot during aerial fighting. So long as the

by struts and wiring which add to the resistance and there is a disto support the weight of an aeroplane without ‘external bracing

wires. It is desirable here to emphasize the fact that the result may not be an effective reduction of resistance owing to the less advan-

tageous types of wing section which must be used and to the greater mechanical difficulties of construction. The resistances of the body and undercarriage are easily appre-

pilot be alert and the aeroplane of moderate size, say less than

6,000 lb. weight, it is possible to control the craft In the air in the condition in which it leaves the works. The few attempts to

aeroplane. At high speeds the added resistance is roughly equal to that of the wings whilst for the most efficient fight the proportion is

make very large acroplanes, 20,000 to 5o,ooo lb. in weight, have led to early disaster owing to the inability to approach, on such scale, the necessary degree of refinement of control and stability. Alternatively it may be said that the attempt to develop large aircraft has overstepped the reasonable limits of

more nearly 1 to 2, the wings having the greater resistance,

caution and has placed on the pilot a strain which he is physically

ciated; both vary very closely as to the square root of the speed

and

are scarcely changed by alteration of the angle of incidence of the There

js a loss due to the engine which is not quite so evident as that due incapable of withstanding. to the body. If watcr-cooling be adopted, the engine may be totally Even in the smaller craft there are many which in normal enclosed and so have no direct effect on the air flow, but in order to maintain the cooling, radiators in the wind are required. It does not flight ‘require the unremitting attention of the pilot and which matter whether the engine be air-cooled or water-cooled, a certain if left to themselves for a minute would be in a dangerous and

minimum resistance to motion must be incurred to provide the cool-

probably uncontrollable condition of flight. This is not a necesExperiments have indicated a relationship between the heat dissipated from a hot surface and the skin friction given by the mo- | sary state for an aeroplane and there is no insuperable difficulty, tion of a fluid over that surface, and the best known radiator is the given training, in ensuring, without an appeal to trial in the air, honeycomb type. Disturbance of the air by a cooling surface which that an aeroplane will fly itself for long periods. The opinion is such that the motion is violently eddying involves a higher resis| has been expressed that aircraft of the present day would be of tance for a given dissipation of heat. ing.

The placing of the radiator in the wind near the acroplane may ‘commercial value were the obviously removable defects dealt

have important secondary effects. The body is made to approach a with. Reliability of the engine installation is probably the most streamline form as closely as possible in order to reduce its resistance | urgent need, but following that comes the application of the and the approach to the best results is found to depend greatly on known theories of stability. the choice of shape. The magnitude of the possible effects of shape Broadly speaking the quality called stability is readily deon resistance is most clearly shown by experiments on airship forms. The resistance of an airship envelope is only from §% to 2% of that fined. An aeroplane is taken into the air and a given state of of a disc which would cover the section at the maximum diameter. motion produced by the pilot and maintained for some time. It is truethat the aeroplane body is far removed from this condition This operation docs not involve stability but requires adequate

1 See Flight, Jan. 13 1912, ‘ An Aeroplane Study,” M. O'Gorman.

control.

When flying stcadily suppose that the pilot ceases

AERONAUTICS

32

to operate but keeps his muscles rigid and without disturbing the motion deliberately produces a condition in which the aeroplane has to control itself in gusts of small size. If the motion be stable, no great changes will occur as a result of the pilot’s relinquishing of control. A small amount of pitching, rolling, yawing and side-slipping, ete., will occur but on the

whole the speed of flight and the angle of incidence will remain at the same value as at the beginning; the wings will not change their angle of bank greatly nor the turning increase or decrease. An instability, and in contradistinction to stability there are many instabilities possible, will magnify the effects of a gust with

greater or less rapidity and the motion will depart from the initial state to some other stable state. It rarely happens that this second state is a comfortable one, An aeroplane which is unstable in normal flight will usually be stable upside down and may be so stable in that position as to be uncontrollable,

The time taken to pass from one state to another is often only a matter of a few seconds, rarely as Jong as a few minutes.

In the very early days of flying the problem of getting into the air at all took first place in importance. The aviators of 1908-10 kept a very close watch on the weather and one of them

had a standard test for satisfactory conditions.

Standing with

his feet apart, he dropped a feather from the level of his shoulders

and if it fell outside his fect the wind was too great for flying. The record of these early years and the shortness of life of the

aviators are sufficient testimony to the consequences of the

extreme forms of instability,

The revolutionary step which

made it possible to kecp the air for an hour instead of a few minutes was made by the Wright brothers when they introduced wing warping as.a lateral control; there is little reason to doubt the statement that flying still remained an acrobatic

feat. A study of the technical papers of the period 1908-14 will show how slowly the idea of banking! an aeroplane entered into the development of aviation. It is noted in March 1912 as a

possible cause of accident that the pilot “is reported to have endeavoured to rise when making a turn.” Not until April 1913 do we find vertical banking by Chevillard followed by upside-down flying and looping by Pégoud in Sept. of that year. A prominent place in the technical journals was devoted to accidents and a perusal of these shows that all types were Hable

to fail as late as 1913. A series of accidents to monoplanes occurred in Britain and their right was suppressed temporarily in Sept. 1912, whilst a committee was formed to investigate

causes and to suggest lines of development.

The findings of

this committee? have had a marked influence on British aviation

and the paragraph relating to stability is here quoted:— “The Committee desire to urge the importance of the general investigation into the stability of aeroplanes, whether monoplanes

or biplanes. The experimental data at present available are not sufficient to allow. a complete theory to be formulated. It is understood, however, that the work of the Advisory Committee has now been carried to the stage at which the problem can be attacked with hope of success, provided that the necessary facilities—a large wind channel in a sufficiently big enclosed space—be put at their disposal,

and the Committee recommend that the Advisory Committee be asked to continue the further investigation into the stability of the aeroplane as a matter of great urgency, and more especially to exam-

ine the question of inherent lateral stability, suggestions towards the solution of which have been given by the experiments of Lanchester and the calculations of Bryan.”

The investigation here started Jed directly to the stability experiments on REx and BE2, a combination of full-scale flights at the Royal Aircraft Factory and model and theoretical preparatory work at the National Physical Laboratory. Before

dealing with the results, a return to early times will be made to indicate the position of the theory of stability.

Up to the end of 1909 the chief writers on the stability of the aeroplane were Bryan,? Ferber,‘ Lanchester,’ and Soreau,$ 1 Flight, Feb. 17 1912. , 2 ae of Dptl. Comm. on Accidents to: Monoplanes, 1912 (ed, 6506),

p.

9.

5; Baan. and Williams, “ he Longitudinal Stability of Aerial |

Gliders,” Proc. R. S., vol. Ixxiii,, 1904, p. 100. 1 L'Avialion. * Aerodonetics, Lanchester,

* Société des Ingénieurs Civils de France, and in a volume: “ Etat actuel et avenir dè l'aviation,”

The most. complete method was that by Bryan. The papers all advanced the study of the subject in some measure but the appearance in 1911 of Bryan’s book Stability in Aviation laid the foundations of the subject as now known to us. About the same time other workers were entering the field, amongst whom

may be mentioned Knoller,’ Bothezat ® and Reiszner.® From that time the theory of stability has been far ahead of practice. Developments have been made te cover circling flight, disturbed

motion and the effects of gusts, but all are natural extensions of the theory of dynamical stability as given by Routh and applied

by Bryan to the aeroplane. There is little doubt that further extensions will be made as required, but the immediate need is the devotion of existing knowledge to practice to a far greater extent than has hitherto occurred. As in other branches of

research the World War has had an adverse effect in curtailing

opportunities for reasoned progress. In March 1913 a report was issued showing the possible applications of the theory of stability in numerical detail. The mathema-

tical analysis cannot be useful unless a number of quantities, known

as resistance derivatives, can be obtained from experiment. The report in question represents the first, systematic attempt to apply experimental research to the evaluation of the quantities required for application of the theory. A discussion is given of the meaning and origin, from the physical side, of the resistance derivatives and rough estimates were made as to the ranges of the quantities for then existing aeroplanes. For one condition of flight more accurate data were obtained and a table of some 18 derivatives deduced covering the longitudinal and lateral stabilities of an aeroplane in normal flight. There are a number of approximations which assist ‘in the

understanding of the relation between cause and effect which were of

importance in the infancy of the subject.

By such a preliminary examination

on the model scale, the

phenomena to be looked for on the full scale were clearly defined. The now well-known “ phugoid ”’ oscillation was then unobserved and only indicated by calculations. Jt is indeed possible that up to that date longitudinal stability did not exist apart from the very special design of Dunne. The mathematical theory indicated quite clearly that special shapes were unnecessary and that aeroplanes, ` of more usual form could be made stable by attention to the dis-

position of weights and the arrangements of the aerofoil surfaces, In particular, the importance of a dihedral angle on the wings and, an adequate fin and rudder were shown in relation to lateral stability,

In the course of the 12 months which followed great progress was

made; in a series of papers" from the National Physical Laboratory, the effect of varying essential quantities, such as the centre of gravity

of the acroplane, the amount of area of the tail planc, the extent of

the dihedral angle, rudder and fin area, etc., was examined in detail, It was shown that partial experiments on lateral stability would fail

since there is a relation between the dihedral angle on the wings and the appropriate fin and rudder area. Further, the exact method of inherent adjustment of an aeroplane to gusts was shown and the details of flight of a longitudinally stable

aeroplane in a natural wind obtained.’ This was done not only for uncontrolled but for controlled flight. By the summer of 1914 the

investigation of the effect of natural properties of an aeroplane on mechanical devices for controlling it were being envisaged, but the

outbreak of the war broke the continuity and the subject still remains

at that point of theoretical development.

In the meantime full-scale experiments were being made at the

Royal Aircraft Factory.% A few extracts from these reports are of historical value and are here reproduced :-— “ Although

completely controllable

under all circumstances by

means of the elevator, it has been found that the BEZA aeroplane, fitted with the old tail plane (TPs) was not stable with the elevator free or even locked. . . . Two methods of experimenting have been

adopted:—(a} Variation of the section and plane form of tail.

(b)

Variation of the position of the centre of gravity of the aeroplane

relative to the position of the wings,” “ Experiment (1) with tail (TP 1). Arca of tail 61 sq. feet. Centre

of gravity

at 0-38 of the mean chord. behind the leading edge. At a

height of about 2,000 ft. the elevator control lever was held in a

fixed position. After a short time, a steady dive developed, which was

allowed to continue so long as it was considered safe by the flier, in this instance during a flight of about 500 yards. There was no tendency for the path to revert to the horizontal. . . . It was found that there was just as much tendency for a stcady rearing to be developed asadive. ET

. 2.” o

a

PP

SRI

PP pil

ee

7“Uber Langstahilitiit der Drachenflugzeuge,” Ztschr. für Flug-

techntk und Motorluftschifffahrt, July and Aug, 1911.

£ Étude de la Stabilité de l'aéroplane (Dimod & Pinet, 1911).

» Ztschr. für Flugtechnik und Motorluftschifffahrt, Feb. to 1912.

R and M, No, 77, Advisory Committee for Acronautics, 1912-3. it Reports, Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1913-4, pp.

216-286. . E Reports, Advisory Çommitteefor Aeronautics, 1913-4, Pp. 385-394

AERONAUTICS “ Experiment (2). Another tail was tried (TP2)

A long

glide was also made with the elevator locked. Dunng these flights a marked improvement in the behaviour of the machine was obtained, damped phugoids being described. . It may certainly be said,

however, that with TP2 and the other conditions of this experiment, BE2 was proved to be capable of flying indefinitely with the elevator locked in winds with gusts up to 30 m. per hour "’ “Experiment (3). The same tail plane was fitted and the conditions were approximately the same except that the centre of gravity

was considerably further back. . This very backward position of the centre of gravity, of course, made the aeroplanc quite unstable, and increasing dives or rearings were performed almost as soon as

the elevator was locked. .

=

>

complex design for safety was removed and dangerous instability rarely exists so long as a pilot is alert. The introduction of

aerobatics and the training of pilots to loop, spin, roll, cte., at

the same time as it inspired confidence in the ability to control an aereplane also led to conditions far removed from those of normal

straight flight. It was then found that the stability of aircraft under extreme conditions has great

importance,

particularly

when the angle of maximum lift has been reached or exceeded. A very large proportion of accidents arises from engine failure

whilst near the ground. In holding up the nose of the aeroplane whilst attempting to turn back into an aerodrome, the pilot

“ Experiment (4). The centre of gravity was brought forward and a considerable improvement was obtained, It was now found that even with the clevator free, damped phugoids were obtained, In the absence of gusts at the time, these phugoids were started by movements of the elevator control lever. When the machine had been

not infrequently stalls the craft and violent lateral instability results. Recovery from the effects of this instability is rare and much study has been made of the phenomenon.

and it was found that after two or three complete oscillations the

but the mcthods of removing it are far less clear.

forced to assume a sharp dive, the control lever was totally released

amplitude became too small to be noticed, . . .

The same

cause which produces instability removes the effectiveness of the controls; it is probable that high-lift wings have charac-

particular aeroplane in question their wider significance un-

teristics antagonistic to those of stability and further investiga-

oscillations was found to be about 20 seconds.” " Apart from the practical utility of these experiments in developing the

There is now little doubt as to the cause of this instability

The period of

derties the fact that they agree with and confirm the model experiments on the full scale both as regards the characteristics of the tail planes and the interference of the main planes with them; and the

two sets of experiments give data from which a tail can be designed

for any aeroplane to give any degree of longitudinal stability required.” It appears from recent investigation of accidents that the type of instability described above is not avoided in all modern aircraft. The effect of the instability is serious and epidemic failures to control have been traced to this cause alone? Some photographic records of

longitudinal motion taken at a much later period will be found as reproductions in the Wilbur Wright lecture? for 191g. The actual time required for the testing of longitudinal stability is now so short that the Production of records has, been made an addition to the older

established performance trials. Progress has been steady but rather slow and the influence of the tests is not yet evident in new design. In the ease of lateral stability the records of the carly experiments at the Royal Aircraft Factory are of equal or greater interest with those on longitudinal motion:— “REx rolling stability experiments, by Mr. Bush, . . . The wing flap controls were entirely abandoned and the aeroplane was

flown 72 m. with two turns without their use. The rudder was used for steering or was kept straight to avoid complicating the investi-

gation.

tion of the subject is required before satisfactory design for

speeds less than that of stalling can be reached. ; More recent papers on various aspects of stability will be found in the reports of the socicties and bodies? dealing with aeronautics; there are no striking developments but much solid work has been done by a few workers in the subject. There are difficulties in the nature of variation of nomenclature which make the comparison of work laborious and in an attempt to

deal with this aspect of the problem of stability the Royal Aeronautical Society, acting as a sub-committee of the British Engineering Standards Association, has drawn up and recommended the.use of a particular set of symbols and axes of reference. Stillin its infancy as regards application, the subject merits greater attention. It is scarcely likely that the degree of stability—still undefined—thought suitable for military use will be that correct for civil uses. Extreme manocuvrability is considered to be essential in the first and safety in the second. Whilst not wholly incompatible it is clear that a degree of stabil-

ity can be introduced without discomfort in a straight and uneventful flying which is disliked for the purposes of aerial (L. Bw.) low side, which brought the dihedral angle into effect, righting the fighting. machine. In both the above experiments the recovery from a roll IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS OF MANUFACTURE seemed rather slow, and it was decided to double the amount by The aircraft pioneers, being their own designers, builders “ The evolutions of the aeroplane bore out the theoretical expectations. Disturbance by a gust was followed by side-slip towards the

which the wings were bent up.”

“The results of the above experiments weré sufficiently satisfac-

tory to warrant the abandonment of the warp and the use of wings

with flaps for REs and other aeroplanes in course of design,”

** Rotative Stability.—The rotative stability with the rudder in a fixed position was next examined. Up to this point the acroplane had been usually steered on a straight course, which made recovery quicker, When the rudder is fixed, however, disturbance of level is

ollowed by a turn towards the low side as well as a side-slip,

If

and financicrs, used the simplest design, manufacture assembly, and the cheaper materials.

and

Between 1912 and 1914 came a striving for efficiency; fixed charges were relatively high, and research costs were extremely

great for the small output of the day; this conduced to the quest for the best materials and made costly machining to reduce

weight and establish types permissible. In the World War the aerodynamic advances made in this way were used, but as bulk production set in before schemes and tools for bulk production velocity. The manoeuvre if not controlled ends in a spiral] dive,” existed, aeroplanes had to be made regardless of cost until the “Dec. 8 1913,——In this experiment, the rudder was adjusted for tools were evolved. straight flight and then held fast by the feet, friction of the heels Standardization of materials, of sizes and of parts and comagainst the floor making absence of movement certain. When all was . the directional stability is too great, the increased speed of the outer

wing will counteract the restoring effect of the side-slip, and the aeroplane will continue to turn with increasing bank and angular

ready the acroplane was disturbed by the wing flaps, which were then returned to their normal. position. ‘The experiment is rather delicate,

as any want of symmetry will cause the aeroplane to be stable when rolled in one direction and unstable in the other, It appeared, how-

ever, that the aeroplane was just stable, righting herself slowly.”

“ Complete stability test.—The aeroplane was flown from Long

Valley, Aldershot, to Froyle near Alton, and also from Froyle to

Fleet, distances of 64 and 8 m., without the use of wing flaps or elevator The wing flaps were left free as usual and the elevator was locked.

The flying was very comfortable, and the pilot considered that re-

connaissance under these conditions would be considerably easier for a pilot alone,”

For normal flight the description of lateral stability given in these abstracts still represents the position.

The experiment is

still delicate and it may be doubted whether any acroplane has an appreciable degree of lateral stability. The early work on stability cleared the way to a large extent; the temptation to ? Accidents Investigation.

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,

Jan. 1919. R and M No. 617, also R and M Na. 629, Dec. 1918. 2 Supplement to Aeronautical Jour., July 1919. XXX,

-2

ponents, notably bolts, nuts, bracing connexions,

piping con-

nexions, etc., common to most types of aircraft, had previously to 1914 been. started, but was extended in 1915 to cover tubes, bracings, methods of jointing, length of bracings, wheels and axles, airscrew bosses, etc. Also some of the larger components, wings, elevators, rudders, and ailerons, which could be utilized on more than one type, were standardized. Master and workshop gauges were made and distributed to ensure interchange-

ability. Continuous records of tests led to the selection of the most suitable materials, and to standard specifications. These have been continuously evolved up to the present day, and their

dissemination has spread far and wide much acquired knowledge. 3 Reports of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to date, Jour. of the Royal Aeronautical Society.

.

Reports of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,

United States of America.

u Applied Aerodynamics,” L. Bairstow.

“ Aeronautics: A Class Text,” E. B. Wilson,

“ Aeronautics in Theory and Experiment,” Cowley and Levy.

AERONAUTICS

34

The earliest steps in England, or indeed anywhere, to unify such standards were taken by the Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough

in 1913.

They were

extended

and improved

as experience developed under the Aircraft Inspection Department (A.I.D.) in England (towards the end of 1915), and later under the British Engineering Standards Association, which in

1921 was instrumental in founding in Paris the “ Comité Inter-

national pour |’Unification Acronautique ” to internationalize the same work.

timbers were tried in 1918, the peculiarities of each being allowed for: uebec Spruce (Picea alba and Picea nigra, Link,).

hite Sea White Deal (Picea excelsa, Link.),

White Sea Red Sea Yellow Deal (Pinus sylvestris, Link.). West Virginia Spruce (Picea rubens, Sargent). North Carolina Spruce (when this is the same as West Virginia

Spruce, but grown in North Carolina).

Louisiana Red Cypress (Bald.) Port Orford Cedar (Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, Murt.). New Zealand Kauri (Agathis |Dammara] australis), Canadian White Pine (Pinus Strobus, Link.).

Oregon Pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasiz, Carr.), Components.—Fuselages, wings, undercarriages, tail planes and | Cypress, which is very variable, Hable to brittleness and unsuitable

controlling surfaces, prior to 1914 were not, save in one or two cases,

designed as self-contained units, i.e. their manufacture was usually

completed during

erection into the aeroplane, This involved hand-

fitting, trial and error adjustment, constant, inspection and slow production, while spares were not interchangeable. oe

By 1915 each component became a unit in itself, made to limits,

corresponding with the connexion points, and interchangeability was saferuarded by the use of jigs and fixtures. By 1919 even components were subdivided into standardized parts, and the assembly of contponents into a complete aeroplane could be effected after delivery to the field. The jigs and fixtures were usually confined to the

location of junction fittings on which the structure was erected.

These replaced the fixtures of rg15, which held all members of the

for glueing, was barred in 1918. Oregon pine, which is liable to fracture under shock, and may split when cut into small dimensions, must be restricted to struts and used in the solid. Small knots in the deals can be allowed in laminations if the knots be distributed to obtain uniformity of the member. Laminated struts were used in

1919, with fabric binding to safeguard against the opening out of

joints, Early in 1918 box sections, which have all the advantages of

laminating, were used, and their use continues. About 1915-6 the glucs used in the above processes were classified

into three grades:

(1) the best for airscrews;

stressed joints; (3) for unimportant details. tained at a constant 70° Fahrenheit.

(2) for less highly

Giue shops were main-

Micro-investigation of glued

component in position during construction, but proved not to be

joints proved the value of carefully preparing the timber and glue;

moval from the fixture.

for long periods before glueing. Roughing of the surfaces to be glued was adopted to secure keying,

satisfactory, owing to the distortion of the finished piece on re-

.

Girder types of construction, such as fuselages, wings, etc., were latterly constructed to jigs rather than on fixtures, in order that their truth of erection might be more permanent. Monocoque constructions, however, were always built on cradles or moulds, which

definitely determined their final shape; the individual members, being free from initial load, were free from distortion on removal from the mould,

The development of portable gauges (gauge points mounted on

tensioned wires) occurred in 1916.

.

In 1917 component junctions were designed so that all positioning

was determined by one joint, clearance in one direction being allowe

timber was aged to prevent warping, by storing in the 70°-F. rooms

In 1915-6 it was found that if an entire series of laminations were

glued in one operation before clamping the first joint would become

chilled before the clamping occurred,

Later, by using trained crews

and special appliances for quick glueing and clamping, the en bloc

process of glucing with the more rapid output became possible and

satisfactory. Where hcated-glue rooms could not be used, ‘ liquid ”

glue or jelly glues (containing an ingredient which delays the setting point of the glue, thus allowing of ordinary temperatures—s5° F,

to 60° F.—with ample time for assembly of parts) were adopted.

Metal Fittings.—In 1910 fittings for the structures, attachment of

on the remaining joints; the gauging of components was simplified

hracings, etc., were made of mild steel, a metal selected, no doubt,

seded by simpler ones used in conjunction with a measuring operation.

thickness to ensure against flaws. Oxy-acetylene welding was often used in joints, even in some that were subject to stress, Tubes ard plates were welded together to make sockets, and bent to shape with-

thereby, and many of the more costly gauges could thus be super-

Woedwork.—Wood

is eminently suitable for light construction

and for obtaining a rapid output by machining.

The mechanical

properties and suitability of various timbers were little known in

because it could be worked cold.

out heing subsequently normalized,

This was often used in double

Failures at welds Iéd to the

1913. Bamboo, the lightest timber, was found unsuitable in about

substitution in 1915 of mild-steel drop forgings.

1911; it lacks uniformity in size, and is difficult to connect at the end of members. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and hickory (Carya alba, Hichora ovata) were early used, but bickory is scarce, and variable

ances too small for the stamping industry at that time. The correct temperature for forging and subsequent heat treat-

in its mechanical properties, and ash is heavy as well. Ash is restricted to use where high flexibility and shock-resisting are essential. Silver spruce (Picea Sitchents, Carr.) was introduced in 1913 for

spars, struts, longerons and other members, being uniform, light and

suitable for machining for weight reduction. Between 1913 and 1915 accurate information of the strength and elasticity of this timber was acquired. Methods of converting the timber for the various uses were determined in order to eliminate defects peculiar to coniferous timbers, such as spiral grain,cross and diagonal grain, dote or rot, gum pockets, alternating hard and soft grains,

low density, wide-ringed timber and brittle or lifeless timber (brash). The great demand in 1916 in England fed to the importation of

unseasoned timber, needing to be conditioned for use. The French and Americans had already experience of this. Kilns were erected in England (on the Sturtevent system of drying). Humtidities, temperatures and time periods of drying were determined. Control of the moisture-content of timber was found to be essential. ‘The larger acroplanes in 1916 and 1917, and the demand in excess

of supply for best of spruce of long lengths, led to spars being made of

short lengths joined together, the joints being situated at points of low stress. A study of various joints in 1918 led to the adoption

These were ma-

chined all over to save weight and to get the size accurate to toler-

ment of the forging in high tensile stecl was not currently known, The facilities were lacking, and the control of the temperatures needed was left too much to the estimate of the skilled operative, Stampings brittle and unreliable for use, as well as difficult to machine, were made. In 1915-6 the impact test, long known but little used, was supported by the War Enyineering Committee of the Royal Society, and was found valuable for ensuring that the material

so tested would bear prelonged shock stress.

By 1917 the call for speedy output led to a reversion from forgings to sheet-metal sockets and fittings, using a low carhon sheét-stcel of

26 tons’ ultimate tensile strength. The pressings were shaped in jigs which ensured an adequate radius at the bend, and they were nor-

malized to remove strains due to bending or punching,

plicated fittings were

built up of simpler pressings

Where com-

these were

riveted and soldered together to avoid welding. Dip-brazing of such constructions came in in 1918, with the advantage that the

temperatures could be better controlled than when brazed with a blow-pipe. Such pressings are interchangeable and need less gauging and inspection. Turnbuckles, universal joints, shackles, etc.,

hitherto machined from the bar, were re-desigued for quicker manu-

facture from sheet metal. Bracings.—In 1910-1 8o-ton stcel “ piano wire” was much used for bracing the structure, but the fastenings for this had only some

60% of the strength of the wire; the loops stretched, and the struc-

ture was soon distorted.

Flexible cables spliced on to wiring plates

_and adjusted by turnbuckles were then used with greater safety, but

these also stretched and increased the air resistance, to reduce which wooden fairings were apphed to the cables. Solid wires swaged to

streamline form, and left thick at the ends for screwing, were made as carly as 1911, but they were difficult to manufacture. In 1913 this fair section was abandoned for the elliptical, to allow of rolling instead of swaging the rods, while a special steel] and heat treatment evolved by the Royal Aircraft Factory overcame the difficultics. These of the plain vertical scart joint with an inclination of 1 in 9, reinforced by bolts through the splice, and bound with fabric (sce fig. 18). Shorter. timbers glued together as laminations then became permissible for all spars, and defects could thus cither be cut out or reinforced. Joints in these laminations, after being.admitted for a

period, were ruled out in 1919.

To supplement the supplies of silver spruce in 1917 the following

wires were not generally adopted til], in 1915, standardized aeroplanes

led to a demand which warranted bulk production.

Wires of streamline section were swaped, not roiled, because these

unsymmetrical sections tend to curve over sideways as they pass out

from the rolls, ‘The clliptical-section wires were called “ Rafwires,” to distinguish them when they were standardized. The screwing of

the end of these wires was carried on after heat treatment (at 550°

C.). Subsequently the wires were tempered at a lower temperature

AERONAUTICS (450°C.), and later the tempcring was abandoned. tie-rods. were made from the same

Round swaged

steel as the streamline wires

drawn to an ultimate strength of 80 tons per sq. in. without any sub-

sequent heat treatment.

The adoption of tie-rods and streamline

wires for bracing extended the period for which the acroplane retained

its truth, while it was improved both in speed and climb by the fair wires. l . Flexible cables used for controls consisted generally of seven strands, each of 19 wires of 90-ton tensile,

Fo increase the war out-

ut a single lay cable of larger strands was used. This cable could not Pe spliced, and joints were made by turning the ends, wrapping with wire, and soldering—a process that requires much care. © | In a few cases in 1919 the structures were built on the strut-tic

principle without wire bracing; this gave quick crection and maintained very well the truth of structure, :

moan

Dope.—The fabric stretched over the wings bécomes slack after

1 i

i

exposure to alternations of humidity. Prior to 1909 rubber cotton fabric was tried, and alternatively the plain cotton was tautened by

è

i

a, =~

painting with flour paste. In 1909 thin shects of cellulose acetate were applied over the cotton, and later the substance was dissolved in acetone and applied with a brush, camphor being used to keep the coat pliable; however, the camphor evaporated, and thereupon the

dope cracked on exposure.

The search for a suitable softener that

did not evaporate from the dope was prosecuted. Tetrachlorethanc was tried with success, but it proved dangerous to the operatives applying it in enclosed places. Moreover, sunlight decomposed tetrachlorethane; to yield hydrochloric acid, whic eventually at- | tacked the fabric. , . A

In 1916 benzyl-alcohol was tried with success. When the evil effect of light on linen and dope was discovered in England a pig- | ment varnish was introduced by the Royal Aircraft Factory (P.C.10) which protected the fabric and dope from light and increased the life of both. In 1916 a nitrocellulose dope was introduced, to economize in the acetic-acid radicals which were in demand elsewhere for exbuilt-up stand pivoted abdut the propeller shaft axis, is held and the plosives, From 1916 onwards the acetate and nitro dopes were used ; torque measured with a graduated bar and counterpoise. to them benzyl-alcohol was added to render the film plastic, and To vary the power. absorbed at a given speed, the Fell type of triphenyl-phosphate to render the film waterproof and fireproof,. Escargot (see figs. 19 and 19a), introducing Butterfly valves in the

After removing all saponifiable grease from the fabric the dope was applied by hand in three to five coats, till 1918, when spraying was introduced for the coats other than the first, which needed to be well brushed in. Constant temperature and low humidity are required in

dope-rooms to avoid the solvents,

deposit of water due to evaporation of the a

ute

ty

.

Rubber Hose.-~Rubber tube introduced in pipe lines to give flexibility is deteriorated by petrol and oil. In.1916 some resistance to

petrol was introduced by using pure para heavily loaded with mineral matter and rather over-vulcanized, This withstood boiling petrol for one hour, and immersion for 23 hours, but its life in use is very short and it frequently required renewal after four months, Engine Testing.— The airscrew, the flat plate air brake, the electric

dynamo and the water dynamometer of Heenan and Froude were used for tesling aero engines.

Later the Escargot reaction torque brake was evolved, correspond-

ing in principle to the Heenan and Froude water brake in that an air

fan brake is retated inside a closely fitted case, into which the air is

drawn through central ports and expelled centrifugally through tangential outlets at top and bottom; the engine, mounted on a

tangential outlets, was developed late in 1917. Restriction of the air outlet from the Escargot perforce reduces the work to be done by the

fan on the air, which tends to retate with the fan and so increase the

speed of the engine to a correspanding degree. A power curve range

is thus obtained comparable with that given by the Heenan and Froude brake. The Eseargot mcthod provides a ready means of cooling air-cooled engines by taking special ducts from the outlets to the engine cylinders, whereas the Heenan and Froude brake requires a separate cooling-fan and driving-motor.

In determining the useful H.P. of rotary engines, ‘‘ windage loss," or the power absorbed by the engine itself, had first to be determined for each type, and then deducted from the total nominal power, calculated on the weight bar reading. Originally the bench tests comprised an endurance test of four hours, followed by complete dismantlement and examination for defective parts, excessive

wear, reassembly, and final one-hour test, the engine being run throughout at normal speed and at full throttle, petrol and oil consumptions being recorded in both tests. Subsequently all-round experience and increased reliability of materials and their treatment

permitted of a reduction of this endurance test, first to three hours,

and then to two hours, with a final half-hourtest. The engine through-

out, save for the last five minutes, was throttled down to 90% and sometimes even to 80% of full power at normal speed, to prevent the

overheating of and detonation in the relatively high compression engines. Such engines were designed to give full power at 5,000 ft. height rather than at ground level.

Standardization of the actual flow measurement of carburetter

jets in place of orifice-diameter calibration made it possible to tune up engines for bench tests on a few minutes’ running only. Also standard jets suitable for flight purposes were substituted for benchtest jets before delivery, so that the time of tuning-up on installation of the engine into the aircraft was diminished. In 1916 a petrolflow meter, whereby the aetual flow into each carburetter is indicated, facilitated the determination of petrol consumptions. Crank-shufts-—The acro-engine materials were covered by definite specifications originally issued by the Royal Aircraft Factory. The chemical composition was closely defined, heat treatment provided for, and an Izod Impact Test added to the usual tensile test, to give some indication as to the shock-resisting power of the material.

The Izod Impact Test, though it does not reproduce the alternating

and fatiguing stresses of actual running, has proved to be indispensable in detecting steel which has been improperly heat-treated.

“ Temper brittleness ” induced in alloy steels by slow cooling from the tempering temperature, even after correct initial heat treatment, is detected by the 2-3 ft. tb. obtained as compared with the 25~30 ft. lb, with the identical steel if properly heat-treated and quenched after tempcring. This brittleness, which obviously unfits stecl for crank-shatt use, cannot be detected otherwise than by the impact test, since the usual tensile results and micro-structure examination in no way differentiate between the sound and temper-brittle conditions.

FIG, 19.

j

Early in 1915 the British Aeronautical Inspection directorate suggested the following nickel chromium steel for crank-shafts, connect-

AERONAUTICS

36

ing rods, etc., with good results:—Carbon 35%; Nickel 3:5 °%: Chromium 0-6-1 %, l l Difficulties attended the manufacture of crank-shafts for 12-cyl+ inder engines which, in order to reduce the overall length, employed roller main bearings. At first such crank-shafts were produced from billets twisted through 120° at the main journal, which provided

only 4 in. length in which to effect the twist, necessitating so high a twisting temperature that no subsequent heat treatment could restore the structure to a uniform and satisfactory condition.

‘The

use of a billet of double width involving a twist of only 60° was then tried, with improved but not entirely satisfactory results. Finally

such crank-shafts were produced from a hillet first pressed or crinkled to a general crank-shaft form to provide a continuous grain flow throughout journals, webs and pins, and finished finally by drop stamping and twisting, where necessary, the main journal through 60 degrees.

The climination of all sharp corners, as in keyways and the undercutting of webs in grinding journals and pins, was found to be of the utmost importance to prevent fatigue failure. .

Rough machining before heat treatment was also required, es-

pecially in the rotary single-throw crank with large variations in mass of section, to secure uniformity of condition.

Cylinders.—In

1914 air-cooled cylinders were of mild steel for

rotary and cast iron for stationary engines.

The steel cylinders were

machined from the solid billet; by 1916 forged blanks were used, By 1915-6 cast-iron cylinders were cast from metal patterns and machine-moulded, and a close limitation of chemical composition adopted to secure clean casting of the thin sections, and to overcome distortion and cracking in running. To eliminate casting stresses cylinders were normalized after casting, and set aside for some weeks to | age” before machining, ; , For water-cooled engines having separate cylinders cast iron (with

a sheet-stecl jacket pressed to shape, and welded on, or a copper jacket electrically deposited) was used. To allow the jackets to expand, crinkles, both circumferential and round the exhaust valve seatings, and sparking-plug bosses were introduced, as the local

expansion of the jacket differs from that of the cylinder when

running.

A

Later, mild-steel cylinders turned from forged blanks were used in

teu of cast iron.

Valve pockets, sparking-plug

bosses, and thin

sake of the rigidity of the cylinders oneto another.

At first, following

12:5% to 14:5% zinc, 25% to 30% copper, alloy with virgin aluminium, The pouring temperature is 660°C. The percentage of scrap is high, say, 10% to 15 % in the simplest forms of block, and up to 30% or 40% for more complicated designs. To overcome the porosity of castings, stove enamelling of the interior of the blocks or the application of water-glass under pressure is used. The Royal Aircraft Factory experiments in 1915 led the way inaircooled stationary cylinder engines in the use of aluminium heads gilled for cooling, using a steel Hiner and inserted valve seatings. For rotary-engine cylinders in one instance a thin steel liner was shrunk into a finned aluminium shell which formed a jacket, the head of steel being secured to the liner with a plain metal-to-metal joint by pate from the head. tothe crank-case, thus securing the cylinder as a whole. Cylinders of all types. before erection on engines are tested inter-

nally = 450-500 tb. hydraulic pressure, and for the jackets Lu 30-40 pounds.

Connecting Rods.—Connecting rods, as regards material, followed crank-shaft practice in the standardization of, plain nickel chrome stccl, heat-treated to give 50-60 tons’ tensile strength. The 6-cylinder and early 8- and 12-cylinder types conformed to motor-car practice in the use of solid ‘'H ” section shanks and white-metal big-ends, without a bronze bush, the cap being held usually by four bolts or studs. To reduce the crank-shaft length of

certain “ V” type engines the connecting-rods on one side of the engine were provided with lugs to carry a wrist-pin, this wrist-pin, on one side of, and parallel to, the big-end bearing, carrying the auxiliary connecting-rod. Alternatively to the same end a pair of rods superposed. In one case, a hollqw circular sectioned shank carried an integral big-end, white-metalled internally and externally, the second rod, being fork-ended, oscillating on the sleeve formed by the

first rod. The comparatively thin and flexible section of the inner rod sleeve, however, enhanced the difficulty of white-mctalling and

led to cracking in running. A further development therefore (of square hollow sectioned shank) provided a bronze shell rigidly gripped by the forked ends of the outer rod, while the inner rod oscillates on the middle portion of the shell, which is white-mctalled internally to provide the main bigend bearing, as shown in fig. 21.

sheet jackets were then welded on as first tried by Vickers in 1909. Aero-engine cylinders are also cast. together in one block for the

motor-car practice, cast iron was used for this. Towards the end of 1916, however, aluminium, with its low weight and high heat con-

'

oot potas

N

T

3 y

A

io T N? i

N

i i

ife

A

cd

N N

AN A

Mt

ductivity, took its place. The first prominent ‘ Mono block ”’ (see fig. 20) comprised a mild-steel cylinder liner complete with head and valve seats, screwed into. an aluminium block which took four cylinders, and constituted a complete enclosed water-jacket. The liners were not in contact with the cooling water, and with bigger cylinders overheating and loss of contact between the liner and the surrounding aluminium jacket occurred particularly in the flat head. A natural development, therefore, was to remove the top of the liner, leave it open, and Ict the aluminium itself form the combustion head of each cylinder. Two difficulties then had to be overcome :—(1) The rovision of a gas-tight joint between the top of the liner and the jacket and head; (2) the insertion of rings in the head to form valve seatings. ‘The first was overcome by screwing the liner hard up against the shoulder in the head, and the second (which was achieved without distortion or burning of the seatings) by casting-in or expanding-in steel or hard bronze rings. ‘Yo improve further the cooling of the cylinders, the lower portion of the aluminium jacket in contact with the liners was omitted, the liner being held only by a

screw thread of some I-in. depth at the top and a rubber joint and ordinary lock nut ring at the bottom. The form of, aluminium cylinder head and jacket casting is complicated, and experiments, both as regards method of casting and choice of aluminium alloy, led to the selection of a niixture of

Connecting-rods of rotary and radial engines consist usually of one master rod, hall or roller-bearinged, with the big-end enlarged to form circular lugs to secure wrist-pins carrying the plain or auxiliary type of rod of the remaining cylinders. One exception provided a bigend consisting of a separate lead bronze shell (in two halves bolted together) mounted on ball béarings and provided on the inside with white-metalled concentric grooves in which oscillate the concentrically formed heels of the connecting rods.

Initially, the ordinary small-end bronze bush system with gudgeon pins fixed in the piston was used. Later, variations with loose bushes and loose gudgvon pins were developed, the pins in the latter being

secured endwise in the piston by wire circlips let into grooves on the outside edges of the piston bosses, Rough machining before heat treatment is necessary on the rotary type master-rod stamping which has a large big-end mass and a comparatively small stem seclion, to secure uniform structure and freedom from quenching cracks. ‘The elimination of all sharp corners and abrupt changes of section is essential. l Main Bearings.—Ball, roller and white-metal bearings are to be found in various types. The two former permit of high loading and

reduce the length of the engine (bearing loads approximating to 100 % over normal practice being found to give a total life commensurate with the rest of the engine under service conditions}. White-metal main bearings, usually bronze shelled, are secured cither by separate loose caps bolted on or studded to the top half crank-casc; or, as in usual German practice, by the bottom half crank-case itself, which

carries the lower halves of the whole of the crank-shaft bearings; this adds to the rigidity and general strength of the engine, but increases the difficulty of production and fitting. Valves —Valve breakage, originally a trouble, was almost eliminated

by the standardization of valve steels and by stamping the valves

AERONAUTICS 90 that the grain flow in the valve head swept continuously and uniformly from the rim into the throat and stem, thus providing strength to resist sheer at all points of the head, ‘The original practice, before

bulk production warranted the use of stampings, had been to turn valves from the solid bar, a procedure which gave in the head a grain flow parallel to the stem. oe For exhaust valves a steel having 14% tungsten and $ 5% chromium is necessary in certain of the ‘ hotter” stationary-type engines. For the cooler-running engines a high-chromium stainless steel gives satisfaction, Fither of such steels would be satisfactory for inlet valves, but, for economy of such high-grade materials, a

plain nickel steel is used with great success, V.

(R. K. B.-W )

Arro ENGINES

Historical Résumé.—For many years mechanical flight was delayed for want of a light engine, and indeed from the first flight to the present day (1g2r) the aeroplane was ahead of its

prime mover.

Flight. should have been possible in 1901 when

Manley, in the United

States, built for S. P. Langley a five-

cylinder radial petrol engine developing 52 H.P. and weighing only 2-9 lb. per H.P. By bad fortune this engine was, however, never used in flight until 19:4, when it was mounted in the Langley aeroplane for which it was intended. |

. For their first flights in 1903, the brothers Wright built a four-cylinder car-type engine of 12 H.P. weighing 12-7 1b. per H.P. By 1905 it was improved to rọ H.P., with a weight of 9:5 lb. per H.P. and, as redesigned in 1908, gave 35 ILP. and weighed 5'5 lb, per H.P.

~

The aero engine proper dales from about rọoọ, and ihe progress made is traceable reliably by the results of competitive tests held from time to time, Such tests were carried out in France,

1909-11-13, in coöperation with La Ligue Nationale

Aericnne and the Auto Club de France; in England in 1909-1274; in Italy in 1913, and in Germany in 1912-4. A certain section in England centred its hopes erroncously on the use of very small engines. A. V. Roe made the wonderful achievement of flying an aeroplane with only 9-10 H.P. in rgo9. The Alexander prize of rorr at first stipulated for engines of only 25 H.P, ‘This was increased by the Advisory Committee at the request of the supt. of the Army Aircraft Factory to admit “40 to 75 H.P.” and was won by 24 hours’ continuous running

by a 50-60 H.P. Green sent in on Sept. 11 rgr11. This engine weighed 296 Ib. complete, and developed an average of 53-5 H.P.

The British Government

compctition of 1914, although

won by a rro H.F. Green engine, was chiefly useful in showing the merits of the 100 H.P. Gnome and the 90 H.P. RAF,

Both of these did yeoman service in the war, but soon proved to be too small. In Germany, the development of the airship led to the earlier

study of larger acro engines, although the German competition of 1914 was won by a 100 H.P. Benz, weighing 4:2 lb. per H.P. . The importance of the acroplane in war service gave an immense

impetus io engine development along two main lines: (a) An extensive development of high tensile stcels and aluminium alloys, and a more scientific use of the materials, led to a diminu-

-tion of the weight; (b) attention to detailed design, guided by scicntific investigation, greatly increased the mean effective pressure developed in the cylinders and the thermal efficiency.

37

the crank-shaft, which was fixed. Weight was economized by making the cylinders of steel, with very thin walls, and the difficulties due to distortion of such thin cylinders with heat were ingeniously met by using a brass obturator ring, as sub-

stitute for the cast-iron piston rings which are universal in other engines,

i

Jn 1909 a number of rotary engincs of powers ranging Irom 30 to 100 H.P. were available.

Of these the roo H.P

Gnome

was the most powerful. In 1913 a 14-cylinder Gnome of 160 H.P was launched, and on a British army aeroplane achieved the fastest flight up to that time, namely 130 m. per hour. At the outbreak of war in 1914, the roo H.P. Monosoupape

Gnome, and at à slightly later stage the rro H.P. Clerget and the 100 H.P. Le Rhone came into current use, and the 160 H.P. Gnome was, unfortunately from the war fighter’s point of view, discarded on the score of complication.

In France in

1917 a higher-powered Monosoupape developmg 150 U.P. was put into commission, while in Great Britain the BRr and the BR2 rotaries, developing respectively 150 and 220 H.P., were produced, Including the propeller boss the later Mono-Gnome weighed 2-03 lb. per H.P. and the BR2 2:21 lb. per H.P, In 1914, and indecd at a later stage, none of the rotary engines were quite satisfactory; the type suffers from certain inherent disadvantages,

It is liable to the distortion and over-

heating of its cylinders; the carlier examples required special precautions against catching fire; its petrol and oil consumptions

are high; and it requires frequent dismantling and overhauling. In spite of this the best of these rotaries formed the basis on which European air experience was founded, and as recently as 1912 the best aero engines (from the point of view, be it under-

stood, of the aeroplane’s performance, which is dominantly a matter of weight) were probably the Gnome rotaries weighing

from 3'0 to 3:5 lb. per H.P. At this time long-distance fights were exceptional and therefore their large fuel and oil consumption was not so serious. Throughout the war, and especially in its carlier stages, they gave their best service in machines of the single-seater high-speed class, in competition, with the heavier water-cooled vertical engines on which the German air service relied almost entirely,

When the distance of flight was extended, the water-cooled car-lype engine came

to the front partly because

the smaller

weight of fuel to be carricd compensated for the greater weight of the engine itself, and partly because it was at that time more reliable.

The following table shows the total weights of engine,

fuel and oil, for flights of different duration, in the case of a typical air-cooled rotary engine weighing 2°25 lb, per H.P, and consuming iro lb. of fuel and oil per H.P, hour, and of a water-

cooled engine weighing 4-0 lb: per H.P. and having a total consumption gf œ55 lb. per H.P. hour. Weight of engine, petrol. oil (Ib. per hr) Duration of flight (HEE)? e ake oe

Rotary air-cooled

engines ,

,

Water-cooled engines

I

2

3

4

5

10

3°35 | 4:45 | 5°55 | 6°65 | 7:65 | 12-25 “55 1 5:10 | 5°65 | 6-20 | 6-75

“55

For longer flights than 32 hours the water-cooled engine is here augmented, while at the same time fuel consumption was shown to involve a smaller gross weight. It was largely emulation of the rotary which forced the pace reduced. Modern aero engines may be divided into two classes:—(a) of the progress on the car-type engine. This led to the replaceEngines which are devclopments of the motor-car type, te. ment of cast iron by sheet metal for water-jackets; to the use of all the water-cooled vertical, Vee, and broad-arrow engines; thin steel instead of cast iron for cylinder barrels and of alu(b) types designed specially for aerial flight, z.e. the radial rotary minium for cylinder-head castings; and to thease of two, and in some cases three. rows of cylinders operating on a single crankengines and the air-cooled Vee engines. The rotary air-cooled type, which was one of the earlicst of shaft and mountéd on a common crank-case. The use of steel these, was almost entirely due to the French, e.g. the Gnome, or aluminium alloy instead of cast iron for the pistons had In some few Le Rhone and Clerget engines. In this type minimum weight been initiated in experiments for motor-cars. was the objective. The arrangement of the engine, with its cases air-cooling was adopted, e.g. in France the 7o H.P. cightcylinders radiating star fashion in one plane and operating on a cylinder Vee Renault of 1912, and notably in England the o0 H.P eight-cylinder Vee RAF of 1913-4, and the 140 single crank, afforded a crank-shaft and crank-case of minimum dimensions and accordingly gave a motor of extremely light H.P. twelve-cylinder Vee RAF 4a, all of which had. cast-iron weight. To increase the cooling by air draught, and save the L-headed cylinders. The last-named engine weighed 4-0 Ib. per - weight of a fly-whecl, the cylinders were made to rotate round H.P. and gave excellent service during the war. The speed of rotation was also increased so that output was

AERONAUTICS

38

Still the car engine of given cylinder capacity remained appreciably heavier than the contemporary rotary, until careful studies in 1916-17-18 were made to increase the output

per unit of cylinder volume, and the thermal efficiency. The volumetric efficiency was increased by improving the design of the inlet pipes, valves, and valve gearing, and the combustion space of the cylinder. The thermal efficiency and the mean effective pressure were increased by augmenting the compression. Since high compression is only practicable with a

compact and symmetrical combustion chamber-the L-headed

cylinder was replaced by the overhead valve-cylinder. Moreover, since high compression necessitates good cooling of the cylinder, the water-cooled engine gained a distinct relative advantage over the earlier air-cooled engines which were, in general, inadequately cooled. As a result of these steps in the detail design, the brake mean effective pressure was raised from the 75 to 9g lb. usual on cars, to as high as 130 1b. per sq. in. in the best modern acro engines, while at the same time the petrol consumption was reduced to approximately o-45 lb. per B.H.P.

hour, a value some 4o% better than that of the average car engine. In many cases the output was also improved by increasing the speed of the engine. The speed of the rotary engine was limited to about 1,200 revolutions per minute, by the stresses due to centrifugal force. Jn the fixed cylinder engine, however, much higher rotational speeds could be adopted by attention to the balarice of the moving parts, and to the design of the bearings, These speeds now

range from 1,460 to 2,100 revolutions per

minute, reduction gears being used for the airscrew drive in the case of the larger and less rapidly flying aeroplanes. The resultant weight economy was considerable. Thus the 300 I.P. Hispano-Suiza water-cooled Vee, rotating at 2,000 r.p.m.; weighed only 1-80 lb. per H.P. and the 450 H.P. Napicr “ Lion” of 1921 only 1-89 lb. per H.P. In each case these weights include that of the propeller boss, but not that of the radiator and its water, which would add approximately o 55 1b. per H.P.

These advancés in the car type of aero engine were accom-

panied by improvements in the specialized type.

In 1912 the

up to 6 in. and up to 50 B.H.P. per cylinder, give an output and

fuel-consumption of similar order to those from the best watercooled cylinders. . No air-cooled engine with these large cylinders reached the stage of production in quantity during the war. A number of British radial engines were, however, developed in 1918, and of these the ‘“‘A.B.C. Dragonfly,” having nine steel cylinders, giving 300 H.P, and weighing 2-22 lb. per, H.P., and the 450

H.P,

“ Cosmos Jupiter,” having nine steel cylinders with

an aluminium patch containing the inlet and exhaust ports bolted to each head, and weighing 1-42 lb. per H.P., are worthy of mention.

As compared with these it will be recalled that the 130 Mono. Gnome of the same date weighed 2-03 Ib. per H.P. A 12-cylinder Vee experimental engine with aluminium cylin-

ders was built at the Royal Aircraft Factory in 1916-7 and gave

excellent results in flight and on the test bed. This developed 210 H.P. and weighed 3-0 lb. per II.P. Prior to 1914 the American acro engine was mostly of the car type, and was outdistanced during the first two years of the war by the more intensive development in those countries actively engaged. At that time the 160 H.P. Curtiss was probably the most outstanding engine in America, and when the United

States declared war in 1917 her need for high-powered acro engines became acute. In May x917 it was decided, in confer-

ence with the Allied Mission in the United States, to design and build the Liberty engine, of which an 8-cylinder model was completed for test on July 3 ror7. This was not put into production, as advices from France indicated that demands for increased power would render it obsolete before it could be produced in quantity. Efforts were then concentrated on a 12cylinder model, the first of which passed its 50-hour test on Aug. 251917. This engine isa watcr-cooled Vee, originally developing 400 H.P. and weighing 2-0 lb. per U.P. More recent improvements have increased the output to sro H.P, and reduced the

dry weight per ILP, to 1:75 Ib. or about 2:3 1b. with cooling water and radiator.

The progress in the average aero engine in service between tg10 and 1918, in power, weight, and efficiency, is shown in the following table. The main details are abstracted from the

radial engine with fixed cylinders was represented by a few examples of which the o-cylinder, water-cooled “ Salmson ”

report of the American

developing 110 H.P., the 6-cylinder, water-cooled “ Laviator ”

Aeronautics in 1918:— Weight

Engine

tb.

Average in service». it

íí

L]

as

tt

ít

ét

ti

tt

it

309 437 512 579 603 693

4i

pi

`

developing 80 H.P., and the 6 and ro cylinder, air-cooled “Anzani”’ developing 60 and 100 H.P. are among the most noteworthy. The Salmson was developed at a later stage as a 74-cylinder, two-row engine of 200 H.P. and the Anzani as a 20cylinder, four-row engine of 200 H.P. These engines were French, but since 1914 British designers have greatly advanced the science of the air-cooled engine. : The fixed radial engine has a number of features of superiority over the rotary. It cnables a normal type of carburetter and of piston to be used; it eliminates the large windage losses; while since the cylinders are not exposed to centrifugal stresses aluminium alloys can be used. This light and highly conducting metal has greatly helped air-cooling. Owing to the greater ease of installation of the air-cooled engine in an aeroplane, the absence ofa fragile radiator liable to freeze on descent from great heights, as well as to its adaptability to work in the tropics, much attention was paid during the war to the design of aircooled cylinders. A composite construction using aluminium alloy for cylinder heads was cvolved at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, between rors and ro21, with the result

that air-cooled cylinders became available which, for diameters

National Advisory

Weight

per H.P.

577 $ 3:9 3 7 3 I 2 8

Committee

for

Average petrol (lb. per B.H.P.)

1b.

. 72

‘65

‘60

“6

Since the water-cooled engines cannot function without radiator and water, an addition of o-55 Ib. per H.P. has been

made in their case to render Table A comparative. The weights after deduction of 0-55 Ib. are actual measurements, and include those of the propeller boss and of the gear, if any. In cases where the respective makers produce a scries of engines of different powers, only representative examples have been quoted. During the latter part of the war, the demand for engines of large H.P. for bombing aeroplanes and dirigibles led to the production of many expcrimental engines, which were available by 1927, e.g, the 800-900 H.P Sunbeam Coatalen, the 850 H.P Fiat, the 1,000 H.P. Lorraine Dietrich, and the 1,000 H.P. Napier “ Cub.” Types of Engines.—Of the total heat from the fuel, 25% to 35%

passes through the walls and piston and must be dissipated by watercooling or direct air-cooling if the normal operation of the engine is to be maintained.

Water-or air-cooling have their respective advantages and dis-

advantages. For the water-cooled engine is claimed :-=

(1) A lower cylinder-wall temperature; a reduced tendency to aedburning of exhaust valves and pistons; and morc effective lubri-

cation.

AERONAUTICS

39

TABLE A.— Details of the Principal Engines Available in 1918 for Service. Country Great Britain

Engine , | Beardmore Green “4° i :

, . oe Te ae Rolls Royce Eagle oh “ Faleon:

Type . ae. ;

« «

. “a a . «

.

+»

«| cai: Og

6cyl. WC. a “a WG % PHS AO Vee WiC...

0. -«

r2 2

*

VeeWCL. Vee WC..

12°“

Vee WC. WC

Ve “ Napier Lion. . {12 “ Sunbeam Arab. «ww | 8 OU

ee Macri. Siddeley. Puma s BiHibecgs Oe ca RACK... 4 ke BRI a e Uae ce a a

France,

,

Mong-Gnome $

l .

lialy

. 6 “ oye e | et G E Ce oe et I a EE io = 2} 9 “ ee Som, Be Oo A.B.C. Dragonfly © . a} 9 ® Cosmos Mercury’ š ; _ {14 “ . |HispanoSuiza. s u 8 cyl. “ 5 4 eg y WS Renault. ... « + + 12 “ Lorraine Dietrich. . . «1 8 “ Canton Unne ewe Se a Oe Anzani. . ,. «© . ». | 10 “* Le Rhone , > a |. «| 9 “ Clerget © eae wp 3; 9“ n Fiat =

. ar

.

«a < ae

Isotta Fraschini

Germany.

,

.

oray @ «=

.

«|

H.P. a Gh,

sj.

AEROPLANE: See AERONAUTICS. Variation with Height—The lift is constant as the ship ascends AEROTHERAPEUTICS.—The term “ acrotherapeutics,” as a until a height—termed “ the pressure height ’—is-reached at which | the gas spaces have become full and further expansion involves the special branch of medicine, might convey the idea that there are loss of gas. When descending, the lift will similarly. remain constant, special diseases due to aviation which require special treatment, Lift =V(pa—ph).

AEROTHERAPEUTICS But such is not the case, as there is no special “ flying sickness ” brought about solcly by the pursuit of aeronautics. Although certain authorities have inclined to recognize some mechanical effects owing directly to the reduction of atmospheric pressure ‘upon the body, this is only of importance in connexion with the air enclosed within the cavity of the middle ear and to a lesser extent as regards gas inside the intestines. Changes of absolute pressure of the atmosphere produce no mechanical effects since the altered pressure is transmitted equally in all directions through the semi-fluid body tissues. The suggestion has also been made that, owing to the diminution of atmospheric pressure, the airman may he liable to a special discase, somewhat akin to that experienced by the diver or the worker in compressed

61.

To acquire the art of flight, therefore, a number of iiiki and coördinated movements are necessary.

It is common

ex-

perience that certain people are found heavy-handed or heavyfooted and not likcly to acquire the art of flying. In the apt pupil these codrdinated movements are at first all made as the result of conscious effort, but later they pass into the realm of the automatic, so that eventually the expert pilot does not have to think how he flies~he just wishes his machine to perform a certain evolution and it occurs.

No clements come into the mechanical problem of flying that are not required for driving a motor-car or taking part in various sports; some men have more aptitude for flying than others,

just as some have more aptitude forgames.

To mitiate the coérdinated movements necessary for flying, the pilot relies upon certain sensory impressions, Vision is the most important, Without facilities for using his eyes a man Is not able to fly. It has been found that experienced pilots cannot from the surrounding air. When the air pressure is diminished, satisfactorily perform even a simple evolution with the cyes this nitrogen is again given off. If the diminution in pressure be blindfolded. It is also well known that pilots cannot {ly level in rapid, then bubbles of gas are liberated inside the blood vessels, fog and may even get upside down. This is due to the temporary in the safne way as bubbles of gas are liberated when fluid is eclipse of the sense of vision; unaided by instruments, man will removed from a siphon of acrated water. These bubbles then - never be able to fly in a fog successfully, circulate in the blood and produce symptoms, according as they Besides good visual acuity it has been found that harmonious. working of the muscles moving the eychballs is necessary, particu-: become lodged in the various parts of the body. - At first sight, therefore, it might be supposed that an airman larly for successful landing, and is lacking tn a great percentage making an ascent, in other words subjecting himself fairly rapidly of bad landers. By careful training it has been found possible to: to a diminution of the surrounding air pressure, might be liable bring about good visual judgment of distance and to turn bad: : to symptoms arising from the same cause as docs “ diver’s landers into good ones. For successful flying, next to vision and perhaps almost equally: palsy.” This, however, is not the case, since the diminution in pressure is not sufficiently great or rapid to bring about any important, come the sensations from the skin and muscles. A’ liberation of gases held in the blood plasma. In “ diver’s palsy ” pilot flics very largely by the “ feel ” of his machine. In addition: and “ caisson disease ” one is dealing with a reduction of pressure to the “ feel ” of the controls, he derives much information from: of from two to five atmospheres, whereas in flying one is generally the “ feel ” of his seat, from the direction and change of direction: dealing at most with a diminution of pressure of a little more than of the wind on his face. He is also aided by hearing the singing half an atmosphere, which Is reached relatively slowly, and is of the wind in the wires. Hearing is of importance also in flying easily within the margin of safety for the rate of decompression in in so far as it enables a pilot to detect a failing enginc, to operate’ compressed-air work. The idea, therefore, that airmen are wireless and to hear a telephone above the roar of the engine. According to some people it has been thought very necessary. subject to any special “ flying sickness ”’ of this nature may be that a man should have a good sense of balance, but experience dismissed, Because it is stated that there is no “flying sickness ” it does has shown, as already mentioned, that “ balance sense ” is not sufficiently developed in any man to enable him to fly level in a not mean, however, that flying may not cause bodily breakdown. Flying imposes a very definite stress upon the body, especially fog. But for flying it is not sufficient to be cndowed with a mechaniwhen flights are carried out for long periods at high altitudes, cal and mental aptitude; a consideration of prime importance is When to this is added the stress of offensive and defensive warfare in the air it is obvious that bodily breakdown as the result of physical endurance to resist the stress of high flights or flights of “strain”? is likely to ensue. But the signs and symptoms of long duration, For endurance it Js particularly important that a “flying strain’? are varicd and might occur in an individual man be fit as regards his respiratory and circulatory mechanisms.. quite apart altogether from flying. In the World War it was -This has been shown by the examination of fit pilots as well as of found that “flying strain” was most generally characterized subjects who have been deemed in need of a rest or who have by a gradual loss of power to fly high, associated in varying broken down as the result of flying strain. The examination of successful flying officers showed that they degrees with symptoms of respiratory, cardiac and nervous werc possessed of an cflicient respiratory capacity. The examinaderangement, ‘such as breathlessness on exertion, quickened heart-beat; exaggerated reflexes, marked tremor of fingers and tion of officers taken off flying through “ flying strain ” showed eyelids, and loss of neuromuscular control as exemplified by that their capacity was very much diminished. It was found by’ power to balance on one leg. Mental symptoms, generally in the careful observation that this fall was due chiefly to ineffective working of the “ exhaust ” or expiratory site of the respiratory form of anxiety neurosis, might or might not be present. In many cases it was difficult to say whether breakdown was to be attrib- “bellows.” The individual had lost his power to expire fully to uted primarily to the effects of flying or to the nervous strain of the greatest extent. He, therefore, could not empty his lungs. acrial warfare, but such symptoms were frequently found to occur satisfactorily. Such-a condition makes for deficient ventilation and the subject becomes very like a motor-engine in which in those who had taken no part in active service in the air. In order to appreciate the correct medical measures which the exhaust valves are defective and incomplete scavenging of must be taken in respect of the care of flying personnel, it is the cylinders results, Hence we find that the airman in this necessary in the first place to consider the human machine in condition easily gcts breathless on the ground and certainly canrelation to flying. The aviator provides the controlling and not fly to heights at which formerly he did not notice AR URNE codrdinating mechanism on which the satisfactory performance abnormal in bis breathing. For endurance and high flying, therefore, it is especially imof the aeroplane depends. The pilot adds the aeroplane to himself—the “ joy-stick,” engine controls and so forth are append- portant that a flier have an adequate ‘“ bellows capacity ” and ages to his hands, the rudder bar an extension to his feet. By that the “ bellows ” be particularly effective on the exhaust side. An efficient expiratory force is, therefore, very necessary to the appropriate movements of his upper and lower limbs man is now pilot. able to fly, just as previously by appropriate arm and leg moveExamination of successful flying officers also showed that the ments he was able to indulge in games or to control other forms effective pilot is possessed of an efficient circulatory system. of mechanism, as, for example, a motor-car. air. The cause of “diver’s palsy,” “ caisson disease,” or “ com-

pressed-air illness ” is now thoroughly well established. When man is subjected to an increased air pressure he dissolves in the fluid portion of his blood a considerable amount of nitrogen

AEROTHERAPEUTICS

62

Observation has shown that there is a marked difference between the fit and unfit pilot in this respect.

For example, the fit pilot

is possessed of a regular, fairly slow pulse which gives the impression of a delightfully easy-working piece of mechanism. It is not greatly quickened by exercise and speedily returns to its normal rate. The pulse of the man unfit for flying, or unfit to learn to fly, is unduly quickened by exercise and takes considerable time to return to normal. Circulatory efficiency also depends upon the pressure maintained in the arterics both during and between the beats of the

heart.

With the beat of the heart the pressure in the arterics

rises: during the rest period it falls. In some people it may fall

greatly,-in others but a little. The examination of successiul flying officers has shown that in them the fallis not great, whereas in the tired or inefficient individual the difference in the pressure during and between the beats is relatively large. The importance of a good pressure between the beats will be appreciated when it

is realized that if the fall of pressure be great enough, fainting may result.

l

The efficiency of the circulatory mechanism of the body is intimately bound up with the efficiency of the respiratory mechanism. The abdominal cavity has sufficient vessel capacity to take the whole of the blood of the body and, in the upright or sitting posture, blood, by virtue of the effect of gravity, will tend to stagnate there unless its return to the heart is aided by the movements of respiration, In inspiration the downward thrust

not the case in respect of flying. In an acroplane the length of sojourn at high altitudes is insufficient to induce any acchmatization, beyond possibly a transitory concentration of the blood plasma. In flying the effect of increasing altitude is in the first place a deepening of the respiration in order to secure the oxygen necessary to maintain the bodily functions. At the same time the heart quickens, and thus is established the beginning of a “ vicious circle.” For an increase in the rate of the heart-beat-

means an increase im the amount of work done by the heart,

and this increased work entails an increased oxygen consumption, the supply of which is diminishing; thus each factor reacts unfavourably upon the other. All the devices 10 render the respiration and circulation effictent will, therefore, be called into play to meet the changing conditions, so that with prolonged and repeated stress a breakdown of the respiratory and circulatory mechanisms, involving also the nervous system, is to be anticipated, unless appropriate measures are taken to mitigate the ill elfects.. This has been found to be the case.

The effects of flying at great altitudes were observed as the result of the high flying which became necessary during the World War.

In the earlier stages of the war such flying was the

exception rather than the rule. Owing to the increasing altitudes reached by aeroplanes, however, it became eventually quite an ordinary event for high-flying aeroplanes to maintain an altitude of from 20,000 to 22,000 ft. for several hours. When this first of the great muscle separating the chest from the abdomen, the took place it was-found that after a time the pilots and observers diaphragm, acts like the piston of a pump and squeezes blood began to suffer from the effects of prolonged exposure to such upwards into the heart, since it is prevented from escape in any altitudes. In the air the chief among these effects were breathother direction by means of valves placed in the vessels. During _lessness, muscular weakness and diminution of judgment followed. expiration the muscles of the abdominal wall and of the lower by great bodily fatigue. This, when frequently repeated, led ribs squeeze inwards upon the abdominal contents and again to the signs of breakdown already given. Another effect of high altitudes was the onset of drowsiness or force blood upwards to the heart. The importance of these acccssory pumps to the circulation is sleepiness. In some cases this was excessive and pilots have well exemplified in the crucifixion of a man, In the vertical stated that they have fainted at great heights and cannot reposture the immobilization of the limbs and the restriction of the member landing, whereas they have actually been sufficiently action of the respiratory and abdominal muscles cause blood to awake to fly the machine and land it in their own aerodrome stagnate in the lower limbs and the abdomen, thereby con- with verbal assistance from the observer. At great altitudes there is, therefore, cither a gencral slackening tributing the principal cause of death. Since in the machine the pilot is rendered relatively immobile of moral and loss of offensive spirit or else a feebleness of judgment which may Jead a pilot into unnecessary difficulties. in a sitting posture, it is of the greatest importance that he be possessed of efficient respiration and good abdominal tone, in The effects of high altitudes upon judgment are insidious and order that an adequate circulation may be maintained. The constitute for the aviator a subtle danger. Some flying officers eventually complained of headaches which importance of good abdominal tone is further emphasized by the following experiment. If a hutch rabbit, with its flabby, pendu- at times came on while in the air, but more usually after landing. Vomiting and bleeding from the nose were very. rare indeed. lous abdomen, be held in the vertical posture, it will soon become unconscious owing to the lack of tone of its abdominal wall; a Cases of syncope were infrequent, As with “mountain sickness,” the symptoms described wild rabbit, on the other hand, will not do so, owing to the fact that, on account of the exercise taken jn its free open-air life, above are chichy due to oxygen. want and it was found that with the provision of oxygen apparatus on high-flying machines it has developed the tone of its abdominal musculature. This emphasizes the value of sporl in developing the respira- these symptoms were greatly alleviated. As is well known it has been shown that the administration tory and circulatory mechanisms, and for this reason all airmen are advised to take up sports which, besides giving eye and limb of oxygen (1) tends to keep an efficient slow pulse; (2) tends to codrdination, also give physical endurance by toning up the keep up a good arterial pressure; (3) keeps off the onset of disrespiratory and circulatory mechanisms. The importance of tressful breathing; (4) mitigates any ill effect due to excessive sports and games in the life of the flying man cannot be over- deep breathing; (5) increases the power for nervous concentration emphasized,

In addition to the power of endurance the pilot must also be possessed of quick perception and judgment, which, besides enabling him to learn to fly, will help him to meet any sudden emergency which may arise while he is in charge of his machine in the air. He must thercfore possess good mental and nervous stability. Such stability is. of even greater Importance in the service pilot who may be called upon to undertake combatant service in the air, Since anit has been known that the chief cause of “ mountain sickness”or “ altitude sickness” is lack of proper oxygenation of the Dd owing to the rarefaction of the air breathed. Experiments conducted in rarefaction chambers as well as at high altitudes, such as Pike's Peak and Monte Rosa, have fully proved this point. In respect of life at high altitudes, however, a certain degree of bodily acclimatization “takes place, which is

and muscular work,

In. flying, particularly in high flying, it is important that the pilot be able to accommodate

himsel to the effects of

diminished pressure upon the air enclosed within the middle car and the air passages connected with the nose. Any hindrance, for cxample, to efective ventilation and drainage of the frontal sinuses in the brow may lead to headaches of varying duration. As regards the ear, the external orifice affords a wide passage

by which alterations of air pressure are easily transmitted to the car drum; on the other hand the Eustachian tubes, leading from the throat to the middle ear, are narrow passages which normally open only during the act of swallowing, and therefore do not so readily transmit changes of pressure. Any catarrhal condition or congestion of these tubes, therefore, tends to produce difficulty in the equalization of pressure within and without the tympanic.

cavity.

Generally spcaking, during an ascent the ears are.

AEROTHERAPEUTICS unconsciously “ cleared”? by swallowing, which under ordinary circumstances is sufficient to open the Eustachian tubes and equalize the pressure on both sides of the car drum. Occasionally a very graduated sclf-inflation, Just sufficient to open the

tubes, may be required to dispel a sensation of fullness in the ears. If, however, owing to very marked obstruction of the Eustachian tubes, no equalization of pressure has taken place, then at 20,000 ft. the pressure in the external auditory meatus is approximately 380 mm., while in the middle car it is still 760 mm. (ground level), a difference of 380 mm. tending to push the drum outwards. Jf, on the other hand, during the relatively

slow ascent to this height equalization of pressure is made, but, owing to Eustachian obstruction, little or no equalization is made during a rapid descent, then on reaching ground level there ‘is through the external ear a pressure of 760 mm. but only about 380 mm. in the middle ear, a pressure which forces the drum painfully inwards, Such an “ invagination ” of the drum is sometimes found immediately after landing in pilots who complain of deafness, discomfort or pain in the ears, headaches, dizziness, nausea and, in certain cases, vomiting and fainting in the air, In less severe cases, inspection of the ear drums often shows marked distension of the blood vessels. On enquiry it is usually ascertained that the symptoms complained of have come on

during descent or immediately after landing, and are in many cases attributable to difficulty in equalizing the pressure within ‘and without the tympanic cavity. It has been found also that one-sided obstruction of the Eustachian tubes may cause vertigo ‘and incoérdination in the air. The importance to the aviator,

therefore, of adequate ventilation and drainage of the middle ear through the Eustachian tubes under rapidly varying degrees of atmospheric pressure is manifest. Broadly speaking, any condition of the nose or throat which causes or is likely to cause post-nasal or pharyngeal catarrh is a potential factor in the causation of Eustachian obstruction. Abnormal conditions of the nose, throat and ears which are apparently of trifling importance on the ground tend to become considerably aggravated in the air. Free nasal respiration and a healthy condition of the upper respiratory tract are necessary in the aviator. From what has been written it will be seen that the medical measures to be taken as regards flying consist in (a) the careful

selection of flying personnel; (6) the effective care of those

selected.

In the main the case for careful selection has been presented. The great necessity of nervous stability, efficient respiration and circulation has ‘been shown. Attention has also been directed to ‘the important part played by vision, as well as to the necessity of a healthy state of the cars and upper air passages. A word may be added here as to the importance of vestibular stability. As already mentioned, a man cannot fly level in a fog. In certain countries, particularly in the United States, great importance was at first attached to the supposed ‘‘ motion-

sensing functions” of the vestibular apparatus. On them the ‘success or failure of candidates for flying was believed largely

to depend.

The sensitivity of the vestibular apparatus was

tested by means of “rotation tests.”

As the result of special

investigation, so great an importance is not assigned to these tests in England. Generally speaking, rotation tests therefore are only employed when a candidate gives a history of giddiness, train or swing sickness, suggestive of undue sensitivity of the vestibular apparatus. At first no special medical examination was made for flying,

but early in the World War medical officers with squadrons collected considerable evidence which proved that a special examination was necessary. They were constantly seeing pilots who were breaking down or had actually broken down from causes which should have precluded their admittance to the flying services. In addition’ to visual defects, otitis media, and conditions resulting in Eustachian obstruction, numerous instances of gross nervous instability were observed amongst unfit flying officers, who could never have been accepted for the service had details of their past histories been elicited at a medical examina-

63

tion. In the selection of flying personnel the importance of the past history of the candidate cannot be overestimated. Nowadays candidates in England, both for military and civil aviation, are submitted to:~I. A surgical examination, comprising, in addition to measutement of height and weight, observations as to any existing surgical abnormality, congenital or the result of injury or disease, which is

likely to impair the efficiency of the individual. II. A medical examination, including enquiries as to previous occupation, family and personal medical history, an investigation of the various systems, including special tests for flying efficiency

lif. An examination of the eyes from.the point of view of normal

acuity of vision and also of good ocular muscle balance.

Normal

colour vision is also demanded. IV. An examination of the ears, nose, throat and buccal cavity, including tests of hearing, the patency of Eustachian tubes, and, when deemed necessary, the sensitivity of the labyrinthine apparatus. An assessment in which, after such further examination as appears necessary, a decision is formed as to the candidate's fit-

ness for flying.

The special tests employed in the assessment of efficiency are as follow:—-

For respiratory efficiency :— x. Measurement of the respiratory capacity by means of a

| spirometer.

2. The length of time during which the breath can be held after

full expiration and full inspiration, 3. Measurement of the expiratory force—that is, the height to ees a subject can force a column of mercury with the cheeks and ips held.

For circulatory efficiency :-— 4. The pulse rate sitting, standing and after regulated exercise (lifting the body weight on and off a chair five times in fifteen seconds). j ,

5. Measurement of the systolic and diastolic arterial pressures.

For nervous stability and neuromuscular coérdination:— 6. Observation of knee jerks and other reflexes. 7. Observation of presence or absence of tremor of eyelids, tongue and fingers,

8. The ability of the subject to stand steadily on one leg for 15 seconds with the eyes closed and hands to side. 9. The ability of the subject to raise from table to shoulder level and replace again an unstable rod placed on a piece of board.

Tests for endurance and resolution (testing respiratory and circulatory efficiency and nervous stability):—~ 1o. After full expiration and full inspiration, the length of time during which the subject can support with the breath held, a

column of mercury at 40 mm., the rate of the pulse being counted meanwhile.

The standards for these tests, which are used as adjuncts to the clinical examination, have been set by the examination of efficient pilots who have rendered satisfactory aerial service. ‘Results have also been obtained from larger numbers of pilots who have partially or wholly broken down. The duty of forming a fina] decision as to the candidate’s fitness for air work rests with the assessor, a medical officer of wide experience. His decision is based upon a review of all the facts and observations recorded by the examiners, checked and

supplemented by ‘an examination on his part of such points as appear doubtful. Apart from the elimination of cases which fail to satisfy the requirements in respect of the special senses of sight and hearing or show signs of organic disease of a gross or potentially disabling nature, the assessor’s main duty is to ensure that the accepted candidate is possessed of a mental aptitude and a degree of stamina and nervous stability adequate to withstand the stress of training and of. subsequent service in the air.

In forming an opinion on these points, no attempt is made

to determine the temperamental suitability of candidates by elaborate psychological methods. In most cases the assessor is

able 10 gain an insight into the candidate’s general ‘‘ mental make-up ” by interrogation as to his motives for wishing to fly, by ascertaining his keenness for sports and games and by obtaining details as‘to his service, if any, in the war. The evidence

as to the soundness of the stock from which the candidate

AFGHANISTAN comes, the illnesses from which he has suffered, the stresses to

by medical officers in respect of the ill effects of too much smok-

‘which he has been exposed and the manner in which they have been borne, are of prognostic importance. Reliable impressions

ing or alcohol also play a part in the effective care of flying personnel. Advice may also be given in regard to the efficient protection of the body.

are also formed in many cases in the course of ordinary clinical

‘examination, additional aid in arriving at a decision being afforded by the candidate’s method of performing the various tests of the cardiovascular, respiratory and neuromuscular sys-

tems. When deemed necessary the psychomotor reflexes may be measured. After admission much devolves upon the medical officer in the way of careful supervision. As in other branches of the medical profession, the success of the medical officer in preventing ‘breakdown from flying strain depends largely upon his mental aptitude for, and his attitude towards, his work.

To the medical

„officer the flying officers under his caré are so many human engines, and it is his duty to keep them as far as possible in fit condition, properly attuned, and to overhaul them periodically

-so that he can say whether they are wearing well or showing signs of strain, and, if the latter, to take necessary measures to prevent any disaster.

-

The medical officer should live as much.as possible among the officers under his charge; by this means he acquircs an intimate “knowledge of their characters, which he may use sympathetically and confidentially as occasion arises. Each flying officer is, so to speak, an individual unit, and requires his own special study. Much of the medical officer’s best work, therefore, is done in the mess, on the acrodrome, or at games.

For example, indications

of “fatigue? may be observed when apilot, usually efficient, begins to land badly, or returns from a relatively simple flight unduly exhausted; when a moderate drinker begins to take more than is good for him; or when a sociable pilot prefers always to sit alone quietly reading in the corner. A little tact and sympathy on the part of the medical officer under such conditions may make all the difference between recovery and breakdown. It should always be borne in mind that a certain number of pilots are liable to develop an “anxiety ” in regard to their occupation, especially as the result of the stress of early training or of prolonged service in the air. The first symptoms of such anxiety are best detected by a medical officer knowing each of ‘his pilots personally. Thus during the training stage much information can be gleaned by a quiet chat with an officer or cadet in regard to his sensations while in the air, either when ‘receiving dual instruction or when learning to acquire proficiency at aerial acrobatics. The stress of the first solo flight

The intensity of the cold varies with the season of the year

and with the height attained; it is accentuated also by the speed of the machine through the air. To prevent loss of body

heat while flying, special suits have been designed, the cardinal

principle of which is to keep the body surrounded by layers of warm air. In most cases this warmth is derived from the body,

but the warming of clothing by electric means has also been tried. For warmth purposes, great thickness of clothing is by

no means necessary. Underclothing should be loose-ftting; two thin garments of closely-woven texture, cither of wool or silk,

are better than one thick one. Research has shown that the warmth-giving power of clothing lics in the fineness of the mesh

rather than in its thickness. Care should be taken to avoid orifices through which the outside air can permeate. Tight clothing should be avoided, particularly clothing which tends to hamper the movements of the chest and abdomen or to restrict the circulation of the limbs. Frequently, however, it is necessary

to employ considerable additional protection for the legs, especially for the feet, and for this reason care should be taken to provide suitable additional protection in the form of warm,

loose-fitting stockings, For the protection of the face, a fairly close-fitting head and face piece of non-absorbent

and non-porous

material may

be made, the inner surface of which will not absorb the oil or grease with which it is advisable to anoint the face when severe

cold has to be endured. Over such, a woollen balaclava may be worn, and then a flying cap of close-fitting design. For the protection of the hands a series of suitable gloves may be employed; for instance, thin silk gloves covered by woollen gloves, the whole enclosed in a leather gauntlet, which can be easily removed for delicate work. Gauntlets provided with a specially adaptable finger muff are to be recommended.

In certain cases electrically heated gloves have also been’ employed. For the protection of the eyes well-fitting fur-lined triplex goggles should be employed. The fogging of goggles may be prevented by certain preparations which are on the market. Some pilots prefer to employ tinted goggles; this is especially necessary for flying in the tropics, otherwise the effects of glare are soon felt.

Jt must be remembered also

In regard to diet, gas-producing foods are best avoided, since

that a young officer is generally averse to showing any sign of what he fears may be deemed cowardice. Yet, during the stages

altitude causes expansion of the gases of the intestines, but in practice there is little need for the healthy person to worry about

must always be borne in mind,

of training, he is probably constantly repressing a tendency to be

‘afraid, which is only natural, With such an individual a frank discussion of his fear with the medical officer will frequently improve his condition. It is a great help, from the pilot’s point

of view, to be assured by a medical officer in whom he has con-

fidence that he is in good condition, or that he is not a coward, and that many other pilots who have eventually “ made good ” have been through the same stages of “ wind-up.” In gleaning information as to the “ anxiety state,” note should be made of such points as change of habits, restlessness, irritability, ten-

the constitution of his diet.

It is important, however, that no

flying should, under any circumstances, take place upon an empty stomach. Belore long flights it is advisable not to partake of food of too fluid a nature or of too much liquid. By this means the desire to urinate in the air during a flight is avoided. On very long flights, a supply of liquid food, such as sweetened cocoa or malted milk, may be carried in special thermos flasks. Inaddition compressed food in the form of tablets or chocolate may be provided.

Finally if “ flying strain ”’ supervenes the treatment necessary dency to jump at any sudden noise, or inability to concentrate. Enquiry should be made as to sleep and the nature of dreams or is such as would be applied to the condition of “fatigue” nightmares. The “anxious” pilot is particularly liable to in- arising in any other occupation. According to his chief symptoms somnia, anxicty dreams and nightmares. In his dream or the patient may pass for treatment of an anxicty neurosis to the nightmare he is nearly always performing something connected ‘neurologist or for the treatment of respiratory and circulatory with his daily duties, and failing in its performance. The symptoms to the general physician. But it is always to be importance of good refreshing sleep in a flying officer cannot remembered that the keynote of the effective care of flying be too strongly emphasized.

Periodic medical examination will also give indication of the onset of flying strain or fatigue, and if found, appropriate steps can be taken to prevent or mitigate it. Attention has already been drawn to the great importance of the use of oxygen for flights at high altitudes or of long dura-

tion, as well as to the great value of sports and games in promotIng flying skill and bodily endurance in pilots. Periodic advice

personnel lies in prevention rather than cure. (M. Er.) AFGHANISTAN (see 1.306).—The visit of the Amir Habibulla Khan to India at the beginning of 1907 was destined to exercise a powerful and beneficial influence on the attitude of the Afghan

ruler during the rest of his reign throughout periods of unusual crisis and strain. It gave him the opportunity of making acquaintance with British officials and Anglo-Indian society, and

the result was a new development of friendship and mutual

AFGHANISTAN confidence. The effect in Afghanistan of the Anglo-Russian Convention signed on Aug. 31 of the same ycar was not of a similarly happy nature.

Articles IIT, and IV. of the Convention,

which provided respectively for the establishment of direct relations between Russian and Afghan frontier authorities and

the maintenance of equality of commercial opportunity for British (and British-Indian) and Russian trade and traders, were interpreted by the Afghans as an attempt to interfere

with the economic autonomy and political independence of their country. Article V. laid down that the Convention would only come into force on the notification of the Amir’s consent to ils terms. This consent, though repeatedly pressed for, was never given by the Amir. From 1908 to 1914 the history of Afghanistan remained peaceful and uneventful, and was chiefly remarkable for the gradual introduction into the country of measures of civil, economic and military reform. Influenced by what he had observed in India, steps were taken by the Amir to open schools, increase facilities for the education of

the upper classes, establish factories, introduce telegraphs and telephones and to provide medical relief. The provision of improved military education and reforms in the training of the army were likewise taken in hand. For the above purposes a number of foreigners were imported into Afghanistan, and of these the majority were

Turks. It was, however, in the direction of public works that the Amir chiefly directed his energies. Great efforts were made, largely by means of forced labour, to improve the internal communications. Metalled roads were constructed between the principal local centres,

and good roads, realigned and fit for motor traffic, were constructed

from Kabul to Dakka and from Kabul to Kandahar.

Important

irrigaəlion canals were also constructed, notably the Nahr-i-5iraj

65

At 3 A.M. on Feb. 20 1919 Amir Habibulla Khan was shot in his bed in his tent at Kala Gosh while touring in the district of Lamaghan. His brother Nasrulla Khan, then at Jalalabad, at once proclaimed himself Amir of Afghanistan in his stead. Prince

Amanulla Khan, the third son of the late Amir by his principal wife, the Ulya Hazrat, who was then residing at Kabul as gover-

hor, was simultancously proclaimed Amir by the people of all

classes at the capital. His uncle Nasrulla Khan at once abdicated

in his favour, and his elder brothers, Inayatulla Khan and Hayatula Khan, and other members of the royal family, acknowledged hissuccession to the throne. The facts relating to the murder of Habibulla Khan have never been made known. Nasrulla Khan was charged with complicity and sentenced to imprisonment for hfe. In a letter dated March-3 1919 to the Government of India, Amanulla Khan announced his accession with

protestations of friendship to the British Government. Mischievous and unfricndly influences however, so Jong kept in check

by the wise, restraining hand of Amir Habibulla Khan, soon

began to display themselves. In April the new Amir proclaimed the independence externa] as well as internal of Afghanistan. In the same month a mission under Gen. Wali Mohammed Khan was despatched to Moscow to institute relations with the new Soviet Government. Grossly exaggerated and unfounded reports of rebellions in India and of British tyranny in India and Mesopotamia were spread broadcast by official agency throughout the country and frontier tribes, and exhortation was addressed to all to be prepared for a call to arms. This was quickly followed by the proclamation of a jihad (holy war) and the cupidity of the credulous Afghan people and frontier tribes was aroused by

from the Helmand river near Kala Bist; from the Kabul river near Daronta; and the Panjdch Argandab canal from the Argandab river promise of an easy conquest of India, near Kandahar.

,

The outbreak of war in 1911 between Italy and Turkey created,

as might be expected, a general wave of sympathy among the Afghans for their co-religionists in Turkey, and considerable sums of money were subscribed by the general public to Turkish funds.

When in Aug. 1914 war was declared between England and Germany the Amir was immediately informed by the Government of India and asked to maintain the strict neutrality of Afghanistan, and to this hc gave a solemn assurance on the understanding that the safety and independence of Afghanistan were not interfered with. On the entry of Turkey in Nov. 1914 into the war on the side of

Germany, the Government of India, in communicating the Amir, laid stress on the non-religious nature of the brought to his knowledge the. terms ofa proclamation British Government pledging immunity from attack

the event to struggle, and

issued by the of the [oly Places of Arabia. The intervention of Turkey under German influence could not fail to place the Amir in a very dificult position. Public feeling in Afghanistan was profoundly stirred by this event, and the trend of popular feeling under other conditions of rulership

might have led to far different results had not the Amir Habibulla

Khan, faithful to his pledge, maintained throughout the long years

of the war an attitude of strict and correct neutrality and enforced it upon his country, notwithstanding many temptations and inducements both from within and without his country. Within Afghanistan the voice of religious bigotry and fanaticism was loudly raised on the side of Turkey, while the opportunists proclaimed against

the fally of not taking advantage of so favourable a moment for successful aggression,

More seductive still were temptations from outside. Chief among them were the persuasions of an important mission which the German Government despatched towards Afghanistan in the spring of 1915. The party were selected to comprise such elements as

would be likely to appeal to Afghan sentiment—Indian seditionists were, both Mohammedan and Hindu, together with German and Turkish officers. The mission bore letters from the German chancellor,

and were charged to make important revelations regarding possible future relations between Afghanistan, Germany, Austria and Turkey. The mission reached Kabul through Persia towards the end of 1915, and were dismissed in May 1916, without effecting their purpose. The continuous and unwavering loyalty of Amir Habibulla Khan to his pledges to the British Government throughout the changing vicissitudes of the World War forms one of the most remarkable in-

cidents of that eventful period. He not only maintained throughout

the strictest neutrality of his country but successfully used his influence to preserve peace among the unruly tribes on the frontier, thereby diminishing demands on the depleted garrison of India. With the Armistice of Nov. 1918 the World War came to an

end, but Afghanistan was not long to enjoy the benefit of peace.

Early in May information accumulated to the effect that the plan of operations decided upon by the Afghan Government was to attack simultancously on three fronts under separate generals through Dakka, Khost and Baluchistan, by hordes of Ghazis (religious fanatics) supported by regular troops. Prompt measures were accordingly taken to rcénforce British forces on the Indian frontier. The arrival of Afghan troops at the western end of the Khyber

was reported on May 3, and active hostilitics opened on May 8 by the occupation by Afghan regular troops of the heights commanding Landi Kotal, From there they were immediately expelled, and the British force in the Khyber, advancing into Afghanistan, occupied

Dakka May 13. This prompt measure, and the menace it involved to the safety of Jalalabad, had an immediate and discouraging effect on the Afghan plan of operations, and was shortly followed on May 28 by the capture of the Afghan fortress of Spin Galdak which threatened the security of the southern capital of Kandahar,

In a letter dated May 28 the Amir addressed the Viceroy of India, definitely asking for peace and suggesting a cessation of hostilities, He was informed in a reply dated June z that an armistice would be granted on certain terms, which included

the withdrawal of all Afghan troops from wilhin 20 m. of the British front and the exercise of the Amir’s influence in restraining the frontier tribes from further hostilities. These terms with but slight modifications were accepted by the Amir in a letter of June rr, in which he agreed to send delegates to India to

discuss terms of peace and the reéstablishment of former friendly

relations between the Afghan and British Governments. These delegates duly arrived at Rawalpindi on the date appointed,

July 25, and peace was formally signed on Aug. 8. The preceding narrative of the warhas only referred to the brief

Operations in which British troops were engaged with forces of the Afghan regular army. Open hostilities by the latter against British forces may be said to have ceased on June 3. This, however, represents but a small portion of the actual fighting which took place between the outbreak of war at the beginning oF May 1919 andthe signing of peace in Aug. 1919. Throughout the whole of that period continuous conflict prevailed, now at one point, now at another, along the whole stretch of the north-west frontier of India from Chitral to Chaman, The rising of the frontier tribes failed, as such risings always have failed in the past, to be simultaneous, and the ardour of many tribes received a wholesome check from the news of

British successes and the capture of Dakka in the north and of Spin

Baldak in the south at the outset of the war. Nevertheless the call to jihad and the cupidity aroused by specious promises of plunder,

together with the encouragement and material support given by bodies small and large of Afghan regular troops interspersed along the frontier, succeeded in causing many of the great frontier tribes, Mohmand, Afridi, Wazir, Mahsud and Shiranni, to throw themselves

at one time and another against whatever appeared to be weak points

AFRICA

66 in the British line of defence or occupation.

Instances of loyalty to

the British Raj were, however, numerous.

In the north the tribal

levies of Chitral victoriously resisted continuous Afghan aggression, while in the Kurram and Swat valleys, and farther south in Galuchistan, all but afew tribes remained frm. Military operations throughout this period of struggle were of an exceptionally severe and ardu-

ous nature, owing not only to the great heat that prevails at that season of the year in the frontier tracts, but to the severe outbreak of cholera which occurred along the whole front and caused serious losses among the troops engaged. ‘The armistice of June 11, which

terminated hostilities between the regular troops on either side, had

but little effect on the guerrilla warfare raging along the fronticr, and

this continued, notably in Waziristan, until even after the signing of

peace on Aug. 8, . ‘The treaty of peace laid down that the British Government, in view of the circumstances which led to the war, would on their part withdraw the privilege, hitherto enjoyed by former Amirs, of importing arms, ammunition and warlike munitions through India; woul confiscate the arrears of the late Amir’s subsidy and grant no subsidy to the present Amir, but would be prepared, if the Afghan Govern~ ment gave proof, by good conduct in the meantime, of a genuine desire for friendship, to receive another Afghan mission after a period of six months, to discuss the settlement of matters of mutual interest

and the reéstablishment of fricndly relations. The Afghan Government on their part agreed to adhere to the Indo-Afghan frontier accepted by the late Amir, and also to assent to the carly demarcation of the hitherto undemarcated portion of the line to the west of the Khyber; British troops were to remain in their present positions until this demarcation be cffected. Demarcation was satisfactorily completed and British troops accordingly evacuated Dakka on Sept. 13. ,The Afghan fort of Spin

Baldak had been previously evacuated on Aug. I4. It will be noticed that the treaty of peace marks an important

departure from previous practice in that no mention is made in it of the dependence of Afghanistan on the British Government in external affairs, in regard to which previous Amirs, ‘Abdurrahman and Habibulla Khan, hac bound themselves to follow the advice of that Government. In a letter handed by the Foreign Secretary to

the Government of India to the Afghan delegate immediately after the signature of the treaty it was expressly stated that that treaty

left Afghanistan free and independent in its affairs both internal and external. Reference has been made to the despatch in April 1919 of an Afghan mission to the Soviet Government at Moscow, This mission, under Wali Mohammed Khan, reached Moscow in Oct., and were well received. Meanwhile, in Sept. 1919 the Soevict Government

of Turkestan despatched a mission to Kabul under M. Bravin, a

tinent, means factors, article

knowledge of its physical. features largely increased and of communication developed. Social and economic affecting all races, acquired new values. The present surveys these matters broadly under the headings:

(1) Exploration; (2) Communications; (3) History.

1. Exploration.—The largest unknown area of Africa in 1910 was in the Sahara, of which the central part only had been adequately explored. French officers had begun as early as 1904 to make itineraries in the Western Sahara, These were continued by Gen. Laperrine, Capt. Martin, Capt. Mougin, Capt. Augiéras and others.

A long-cherished design was realized on Christmas-day when, in

mid desert, a column under Capt. Augiéras coming from Algeria effected a junction with a column under Maj. Lauzanne which

had started from Atar in Mauretania, The result of these 18 years of work was that by 1921 a roughly accurate knowledge of the region had been obtained. The Western Sahara consists of a central dome (the Eglab) of moderate elevation, almost surrounded by great tracts of sand dunes. The ‘central dome,” though uninhabited, contains habitable regions, and is regularly traversed by organised bands of brigands who set out from Southern Morocco to pillage the tribes of Mauretania and the middie Niger. Abundant traces of ancient human occupation in the Western Sahara have

been, discovered; except that they arc pre-Islamic it has been impossible even approximately to fix their age. The great depression known

as the Juf, to the N.E. of Timbuktu, remained unexplored up to 1922.

But it was in the region bordering the southern end of the Eastern

Sahara, and in the Libyan desert itself that the greatest gaps existed

in the map of Africa in 1910. Several ol these gaps were filled, and the chief remaining problems in the hydrography and orography of Africa were solved by Licut.-Col. Jean Titho and his colleagues in an expedition extending from 1912-7. The main object of Col. Tilho was to ascertain whether the basin of the Chad was closed or belonged to that of the Nile, and that ihus there was, as tradition asserted, a water connexion between the Niger and the Nile (see 19.676). In a previous expedition (1908-9) Tilho had found that the Soro (the Bahr-el-Ghazal channel running E. of the Chad) was of the same level as ihe lake for a very considerable distance. The 1912-7 expedition discovered that a movntainous barrier encircled the basin of the Chad from N. to 5.E., that is,

it had no fluvial connexion with the Nile basin. But N.E. of the lake is a low-lying zone of which the lowest point is 520 ft. below the level of Chad. This point ts in the recently dried-up bed of the lake of Kirri and is some 250 m. from Lake Chad. Thus Chad was proved to be but the remains of a vast lake comparable in size

to the Caspian. The Titho expedition also explored the Tibesti and former member of the Russian impcrial consular service. In Nov. Ennedi (Eendi) mountains, and discovered another massif, that of 1919 the Soviet Government of Moscow, desiring to establish a more Erdi, connecting Tibesti and Ennedi. It also learned of the existence direct control by themselves of foreign relations in Asia, also sent in the Libyan desert of another mountain mass, the Jebel el Auniat a mission under M. Suritz, which reached Kabul in Jan. 1920. M. (about 150 m. S.E, of Kufra), with heights probably exceeding 4,000 Suritz, superseding M. Bravin, at once commenced negotiations with feet. Hypsometric determinations enabled the expedition to ascerthe Afghan Government, and in the course of the summer despatched tain of the chief summits of the niountain chains between to Moscow the draft of a treaty which, it is understood, provided for Chad theandheights the Nile. The highest’ points are Emi Kussi, 11,200 ft. the grant of a subsidy to the Amir, the supply of material assistance (an extinct volcano), and Tusside, 10,700 ft., in Tibesti, and (the) and expert instructors and the establishment of Russian consulates in Jebel Marra, 9,800 ft., in Darfur.+ The exact longitude of many both eastern and northern Afghanistan. places was determined by wireless time signals from the Eiffel In the meantime,. after a lengthy correspondence between the ‘Tower, chain’of astronomical positions completed the conIndian and Afghan Governments, it was decided that an Afghan | nexion ofandthe a maps the Niger, Chad and Nile. Some 7,000 m. o mission, as arranged in the treaty of peace of Aug. 8 1919, should be surveys were made of the expedition, Particular interest centred sent to India. They arrived at Mussoorie on April 14 1920, under the in the exploration ofby Tibesti, which had been seen by one European charge of Sardar Mahmud Beg Tarsi, the Afghan Forcign Minister, only (Nachtigal in 1869) it was reached by Comdt. Lofter and were met by a British delegation under Sir Henry Dobbs, the in Dee. 1913. It had beenuntil thought that Tibesti might prove a Foreign Secretary to the Government of India. The conference well-watered fertile region, but though it contains pasture lands,

lasted until July 24, when the Afghan delegation were presented with a statement of the gencral lines on which the British Government were prepared to discuss a formal treaty. Throughout this period the attitude of the Afghan Government in respect to questions under discussion was swayed backwards and forwards by outside concurrent events, notably by the steacy strengthening of the Turkish Nationalist position in Anatolia, the change of Government and the growth of Bolshevik influence in Persia, the outbreak of revolt in Mesopotamia, and by the increase of political agitation in India.

palm-groves, and flowing rivers it is mainly arid—a magnificent mountain-mass with deep gorges and serrated ridges, falling castward in giant stens; westward overlooking a boundless plain, Of the Libyan desert Mr. W. J. Harding King collected much information from native sources and himsclf investigated its northwestern fringe. Early in Jan. 1921 Mrs. Rosita Forbes, a young Englishwoman, reached Kufra from Cyrenaica, and the following month travelled to Jarabub by a new route. Except by a French

Nearer home also, a renewed outbreak of hostilities, fostered and assisted by Afghan agency, on the Indo-Afghanfronticr in Waziristan, led to lengthy military operations, and raised hopes in the mind

prisoner of the Senussites who was interned there in 1916, Kufra had only once before been visited by Europcans—by Rohlfs and Anton Stecker in 1879—and Mrs. Forbes showed that the extent

be indisposed to consider the question of changes in favour of Afghanistan of the Indo-Afghan boundary,

mapped. Evidence of increasing desiccation of the desert was obtaincd—one stretch of 350 m. traversed was without a well or

of the Afghan Government that the British Government would not On Oct. 16 1920 the Soviet Government of Moscow signed a treaty

with Afghanistan, subject to ratification by the Amir.

The cxact

terms of this treaty were still unknown in Nov. 1921, but were understood to be on the lines of the draft prepared in April by the Suritz mission. In Nov. 1920 the Turkish general, Jemal Pasha, arrived in Kabul on a special politico-military mission; and in 1921 a British

of the oases was less than supposed and their position incorrectly

water of any sort. In the upper Nile basin Capt. H. D. Pearson, director of sur-

veys ìn the Sudan, explored (ig11-2) in part the head streams of the Pibor, the main western branch of the Sobat. Captain H. A.

mission under Sir Henry Dobbs was also sent to Kabul.

Darley investigated other parts of the Sobat system and Capt. R. H. Leeke in 1912-4 explored the adjacent southern region— that between the Bahr-el-Jebel (Mountain Nile) and Lake Rudolf. The chief feature of the country was shown to be the escarpment

AFRICA (see 1.320).—Territorial changes in Africa between yġro and 1921 resulted in a repartition of large arcas of the con-

of the data obtained by the expedition.

(A. H. McM.)

1 These figures are subject to rectification on the full working-out

AFRICA forming the Nile-Rudolf watershed, which drops abruptly into the

67

Turkana plain on the Rudolf side, but slopes gradually westwards

Porh the Dar es Salaam~Congo route was so used for passenger raffic.

journey along the Congo-Nile divide, where it forms the frontier

With the Cape-to-Cairo scheme little progress was made in the period 1910-21. The railway from Cape Town via Bulawayo and the Victoria Falls, which had reached the Belgian Congo frontier in 1909, was however continued N. across Katanya to Bukama on the Lualaba (Upper Congo), the linc being completed in May 1918 —an_ addition of 442 m, in ten years, making a through service from

ta the Nile. It has heights ef 10,000 fect. The expeditions named nearly completed the exploration of the region between the Nile and Abyssinia. In 1915-6 Maj. Cuthbert Christy madea ten months’

of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The divide proved to be “ a continuous and more or less level strip of bush-covered country (mostly of ironstone formation), sometimes

as much

as two miles in width

but often only a few yards.” In Maj. Christy's opinion the divide

was perfectly suitable for the buikling of a railway, a roundabout link in the Cape-to-Cairo scheme. Mr.

I. N.

Jubaland.

Dracopoli

He reached

in 1912-3

the Lorian

explored

part

Swamp—which

of southern

reccives

the

waters of the Uaso Nyiro—and solved the problem of its outflow. He found that the Lake Dera issues from Lorian in a well-defined bed and, though usually dry in its lower course, is, through Lake Wama, a tributary of the Juba river. Mr. (afterwards Sir) G. F. Archer completed in April 1912, after over two years’ work, surveys connecting the triangulation of British East Africa with Maj. Gwynn's Abyssinian boundary survey. Captain R. E. Salkeld in 1913-4 further explored Jubaland, drawing attention to the over-

running of that region by the Somalis—the most recent. instance of the migration of African races. Ineast central Africa a survey by Capt. E. M. Jack, in 1911, of the region N.E. of Lake Kivu and W. of Victoria Nyanza resulted in making known a healthy highland region and added to the knowledge of the Mfumbiro range of active volcanoes. Karissimbi was

found to be 14,780 ft. high.

In Dec. 1912 Sir A. Sharpe and

Mr. M. Elphinstone witnessed the formation of a new volcano,

named Katarusi, which, following an earthquake, rose out of an old grass-covered lava-ficld, sending into the N.E. corner of Kivu

a river of lava which filled up a ‘ large bay.” The first survey along its whole length of the Congo-Zambezi watershed was~made in 1911-4 by AngSo-Belgian and Angio-

Portuguese boundary commissions, the principal commissioners being Capt. Everest (killed by a lion), Maj. E. A. Stecl and Maj. Reginald Walker (British}, Maj. Begraud and Capt. Weber (Belgian) and Capts. C. V. Cago Coutinho and V. da Rocha (Portuguese). As in the Congo-Nile watershed, it was found that many rivers ran for considerable distances parallel to the divide,

which is largely bush-covered.

Major Walker discovered that the

Luapula (the main eastern headstream of the Congo) did not, as was believed, issue from Lake Bangweulu, but was a continuation

of the Chambezi, which passes through the great swamp

5. of

Bangweulu.

Another boundary commission, under Capt. W. V. Nugent and Oberleutnant Detzner, in 1912-3 demarcated the NigeriaCameroon frontier between Yola and the Cross river. ‘Che frontier followed roughly ihe edge of the highlands overlooking the fertile

the Cape, on the same gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), of 2,598 miles.. In 1921 the construction of a further section of the railway to a more north-

erly point on the Lualaba. where navigation was casier than at Bukama, was begun, But from 1918 it was possible, by utilizing the Congo and Tanganyika systems, to travel alternately by train and

steamer from the

Cape to Cairo, with only two breaks~—together

not more than 300 m.—to be covered on foot.

The southern break

was from Tabora (ọn the Tanganyika railway) to Mwanza, on Victoria Nyanza; the northern from Nimule to Rejaf,'along the banks of an unnavigable stretch of the Upper Nile. '

These cross-Africa routes their function was to bring the nearest seaport, Thus Salaam the natural outlet

were valueless for through goods traffic:

the produce of Central Africa direct to the Tanganyika railway made Dar es for the trade of a large portion of the

eastern part of the Belgian Congo, With these main routes may

be mentioned the line (built 1916-8) from Qantara on the Suez Canal, across the Sinai peninsula to Gaza, which put Africa and

Asia in direct railway. communication, Cairo being linked with

Jerusalem, Damascus, Aleppo, etc,

;

With regard to trans-Saharan railways, from Algeria to the Niger

countries, surveys made in 1912-3 showed that there were routes presenting no engineering difficulties. From Msala, in the Algerian

Sahara, the route is by Anhet, W. of the Ahaggar (Hoggar) massif to the Niger at Tosaye (Burem), some 200 m. below Timbuktu. What was regarded as ihe first section of the trans-Saharan was the line from Biskra to Tuggurt, opened in 1914. From Tuggurt to

Tosaye by the route indicated is 1.470 miles. A line from Blida to

Jelfa, on the way to Laghwat, was also built. French projects to connect the Middle Niger with the ports of

the Guinea Coast were hindered by the World War. The scheme was for railways from Dakar (Senegal), Konakry (French Guinea),

Abidjan (Ivory Coast} and Kotonu (Dahomey) to be carried inland to the French Sudan (Upper Sencgal and Niger colony), and there united by a transverse line. Political and cconomic considerations induced the French to neglect the Gambia river {as being British), the natural outlet for the French Sudan—the Gambia is navigable

from the ocean. by vessels drawing 13 ft. up to 153 m. inland. Of the lines proposed, that from Thies (Dakar} to Kayes, on the Senegal, begun in 1907, has a length of 682 m., of which about 100 m. remained to be built in 1920. The French Guinea line from Konakry reached Kurussa (365 m.) in 910 and Kankan, in the French Sudan, 4rr m. from Konakry, in 1915. This led to much of the

plains of the Benue and was an instance where the straight lines

trade of the countries in the Niger bend going to Konakry.

During the World War exigencies of campaigning led to many additions to exact knowledge of the topography of tropical Africa, partly through the use of aircraft for survey purposes, Thus very useful maps, showing routes unsuspected on the ground, were made of Portuguese Nyasaland by airmen, In I920 Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, who passed over the whole length of the Nile basin in an acroplane, proved the value to geology of air reconnaissances by the discovery in the Bayuda desert N. of Khartoum, of the volcanic character of a range of hills. Between Old Merowe and Atbara the aeroplane crossed “a high and irregular range of hills running east and west. In the middle of them was a great plain looking like toffee poured out ona plate. From this a number of craters rose, two large,

made by 1921.

drawn on the map by diplomatists to mark international boundaries worked out fairly well in practice.

one with a sandy interior with thorn bushes, the other with a second

peak and crater inside the outer rim.’ From pieces of tufa recently obtained from the Nile Valley, N. of Khartoum, the existence of

some unknown Tertiary volcanic field in that region had been suspected. Exploration on the ground remained to be undertaken, but Dr. Chalmers Mitchell's observations would appear to be the first important geological discovery made from the air. 2. Communications.—The first railway and steamer route across Africa was completed by the opening in March rorg of a railway

from Kabalo on the Lualaba (Upper Congo) to Albertville on the west shores of Lake Tanganyika. The year before (1914) the Ger-

man railway from Dar es Salaam had reached Kigoma, on the cast

shores of Tanganyika. A partof this Atlantic-Indian Ocean route is by the Congo, the non-navigable stretches of the river being bridged by railway. An all-rail cast-west route across South Africa had also been effected in 1915, when a Jine was built from Prieska to Kalkfontein connecting the S.A. system with that of German South-West Africa. By this means Walfish Bay and Delagoa Bay

were linked by railway.

A second east-west all-rail route across

Africa will be provided by the railway from Lobito Bay to Katanga,

The Ivory Coast railway from Abidjan, traversing a dense forest region, reached Buaké (193 m.) in 1913. No progress northward had been in 1912.

The Dahomey railway had reached Savé (162 m.)

AN four Lines are of the French

standard West-African

gauge, namely one metre. Besides the railways the French built. many hundreds of miles of metalled roads, on which motor services connecting with the Niger countries were established.

In British West Africa local lines and extensions, on differing

gauges, were built during 1910-20;

there

was

no

unity

of plan

such as marked the French programme in West Africa. The bridging

of the Niger at Jebha, completed 1914, gave the chief Nigerian rail-

way, that from Lagos to Kano

service.

(704 m. long), an uninterrupted

In 1913 a new railway was begun from Port Harcourt, at

the mouth of the Bonny river.

It was completed to the Udi coal-

fields (751 m.) by May 1916. From Zaria, on the Lagos-Kano rail-

way, a branch line, built across the tinfield arca to Bukuru (243 m.), was completed in Dec. 1914. Surveys were made for an extension of the Port Harcourt-Udi linc northward across the Benue river and thence north-west to a’ point, Kaduna, on the Lagos~

Kano line. ‘The building of this extension, some 450 m. in length,

was begun in 1921.

Motor services ar¢ maintained in connexion

with the railways, which are Government owned.

|

In Morocco tht French, from 1912 onward, built narrow-gauge

railways for military purposes.

By 1920 these connected (1) Salfee

with Fez, and (2) Dida, on the Algerian frontier, with Taza, while

the section Iez-Taza was under construction. From Rabat via Casablanca another line was built to Marrakesh. ‘Fhe river dividing Sallee and Rabat was not bridged, but a ferry service was insti-

tuted. In 1918 the French Government decided to reconstruct the Hines on the normal gauge. Up to 1921 no progress had been made on the Tangier-Fez railway. In North-East Africa the decade 1910-20 saw the completion of the railway from Jibuti to Addis Abbaba, the capital of Abyssinia.

.

:

The greatest mileage of railways built in the period under consid-

where it will join the lines to Beira and other east-coast ports, as

eration was

constriction began in 1921. None of these lines was designed as a transcontinental route,

access to the ocean, The Germans provided their South-West Africa Protectorate with an extensive system of railways. In Uganda the British built a short railway linking Jinja, on Victoria Nyanza, with

well as to Cape Town. In 1920 some 600 m. of rails remained to be laid on this route. The surveys had been completed in 1920 and

in South

Africa

(see SOUTH AFRICA).

A line from

Beira to the Zambezi (in construction 1920) gave Nyasaland direct

68

AFRICA

the first navigable stretch of the Nife, and during the World War a

line connecting the Uganda railway with the Usambara railway in German East Africa was constructed. ‘The telegraphic system was greatly extended between 1910 and

1920, while from the first-named year gaps in the telegraph {ines

following Powers, territories governed under a mandate being

reckoned in the possessions of the Powers named:~ Great Britain

The

“rance Portagal

built stations in West and North Africa (Dakar, Algiers, cte.) and

Belgium

were increasingly filled bhy wireless telegraphy.

The first wireless

station in South Africa (at. Durban) was opened in rọro.

Germans by the middle of 1914 had just completed powerful wireless stations in Togoland, South-West and East Africa, The French

in 1920 had a trans-Saharan wireless service, there being two stations in the desert, Wireless stations in Egypt and the Sudan connected with Mombasa, Tabora and South Africa.

The World War gave a great impetus to acrial communications, and Cairo became the junction for services to and from Europe, Asia and the Cape. In 1919 an air route was laid out by British officers from Cairo to Cape Town, acrodromes being built at 24 different places, The distance by the air route was 5,206 m., compared with 6,823 m. by the Cape-to-Cairo land route, The first

attempt te fly across Africa was made in Feb. 1920 by Dr. P.

Chalmers Mitchell in an aeroplane chartered by The Times. At Tabora, a little over half way, the machine crashed (Feb. 27). The first to succeed in the enterprise were Col. Sir H. A, van *

Ryneveld and Maj. Sir C. J. Brand, of the South African forces.

They reached the Wynberg acrodrome, delays and

1920.

having

had

Cape Town, after many

to use three machines,

on

March

Their actual flying time from Cairo to Cape own

20

was

Italy Spain

ot

.

ae

ole

a ae ee ae oau H

Xk.

Liberia eee Abyssinia (Independent).

ag

go

Le

wm O a Oe

a

pe

ca .

e

we

RE.

x

;

ae

:

oe

e A

d

sq. mt.

.

.4,364,000?

-4,200,000 . 788,000

e ‘

+

© a

a 650000 140,000?

« 030,000

=

=

40,000 350,000

These figures give a total of 11,462,000 sq, m. as the arca of Africa. In the absence of definite surveys of large areas of the continent this may be regarded as a close approximation to accuracy, In rorq the German possessions in Africa had an area of approximately 1,030,000 sq. m.; the Turkish possessions (not reckoning the legal suzcrainty it possessed over Egypt) an area of some 400,0¢0 sq. miles.

The extinction of Turkish rule in North Africa had long

been foreseen and was no matter for regret. It ended a connexion

which had lasted five centuries and had been almost wholly evil in its effects. German sovereignty in Africa had dated from

and a comrade, flew from Algiers

1884 only and had been rapidly enlarged. Endeavours further to extend it had been a prominent factor in German policy for a decade before the World War began, and closely affected very

3. History—A summary statement of recent territorial changes aliords a guide to the course of events in Africa, In xoro the British self-governing colonies of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State were formed into the Union of South Africa, with a single government and one legislature.

African coast of the Mediterranean and z port on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. These desires conflicted with Italian and French ambitions, and in 1912 the issue on both points was decided against Germany. As to Morocco the Franco-German convention of Feb, g 1909 had recognized the privileged position of France in Morocco, but not a French protectorate over that country, and the sending of the German gunboat

72 hours, 40 minutes. French airmen,

At the same

Maj. Vuifleman

time

(Feb—-March

1920)

across the Sahara to the Niger at Gao, and thence to Dakar. The first regular aur service in Africa was established in 1923, with seaplanes along the Congo from Stanley Pool to Stanleyville, a distance of 1,000 miles4

In 1911 a considerable arca of French Equatorial Africa was

transferred to thé German protectorate of Cameroon, and in return Germany acknowledged a French protectoraie over the greater ‘part of Morocco, the protectorate treaty between France and Morocco being signed in April rora. In Nov. ror2 a Franco-Spanish

treaty defined the Spanish zones in

Morocco. In rote2 also Italy annexed the Turkish ailayets of Tripoli and Bengazi (Cyrenaica)}, to which they gave the common name of Libya.

In the same year the United States acquired

financial control of Liberia, part of its hinterland having passed

to France in toro. In Dec. 1914 a British protectorate over Egypt was proclaimed. In June 1919, by the Treaty of Versailles (which came into force Jan. 10 1920), Germany renounced

possession of all her oversea protectorates in favour of the principal Allicd and Associated Powers. These protectorates were placed under mandatorics, The Union of South Africa became mandatory for German South-West Africa, which her troops had conquered in rors, It was renamed the South-West Protectorate. Togoland was divided between France and Great Britain (it had been conquered by British and French troops in Aug. 1914). France became the mandatory for Cameroon,

but a small portion was transferred to (British) Nigeria. Cameroon had been conquered by Anglo-French forces in ror5~6. Britain became mandatory for German Kast Africa, renamed the Tanganyika Territory. A small fragment (the Kionga triangle) of German East Africa was, however, added to Portuguese East Africa, and the greater part of the provinces of Ruanda and Urundi to the Belgian Congo. German East Africa had been conquered, as to the greater part in r916, by British and Belgian

troops. An Anglo-French convention of Sept. rọrọ, ratified in 1921, settled the boundary between Wadai and Darfur, which had been in dispute since 1899. In 1820-1 Italy gained additions to Tripoli and Cyrenaica by arrangements with France and Great Britain; also the promise of an addition to Italan Somaliland at the expense of British East Africa. British East Africa, up to then a protectorate, was in 1920 annexed

to the British Crown and renamed Kenya Colony. As a result of these changes Africa was divided among the TA mail air service from Toulouse to Casablanca had been in-

stituted in 1920,

large areas of Africa.

Germany desired to secure a footi ng on the

“ Panther” to Agadir in July torr was a protest against what Germany considered an unwarranted extension of French influ-

ence in Morocco, and an intimation that if German treaty rights in Morocco were to be renounced France must make compensation. According to Prince Bulow, Germany—in rorr— “never had any intention of taking possession of any part of Morocco . . . England and Spain, besides Trance, would have opposed us there ” UZarperial Germany, 1913 ed.). Although this statement may be an after-the-event reflection the inter vention of Britain on the side of France was decisive, Germany

withdrew her opposition te the establishment of a French,

protectorate over Morocco, and accepted compensation in Central Africa. While the Franco-German negotiations were still in progress, Italy, by abruptly declaring war on Turkey and inyading Cyrenaica and Tripoli, deprived Germany of her last

opportunity—short of war—of gaining a footing in the Mediter-

ranearn.4

The alternative scheme to territorial acquisitions in North

Africa which Germany had prepared were indicated in a note addressed to France on July r5 ror, during the Agadir

crisis.

Germany then proposed that France should cede the

greater part of the coast and the interior of French Equatorial

Africa as far as the Sanga tributary of the Congo river, and

further renounce in favour of Germany her right of preëmption over the Belgian Congo. These proposals Germany was com-

pelled greatly to modify, but by the convention of Nov. 4 TOTI large tracts of French territory were added to Cameroon. On the south these additions made Spanish Guinea an enclave 2 Including Egypt and the Anglo-Feyptian Sudan,

* Including the Spanish zones in Morocco, #in view of the position publicly assumed by Germany in 1898

of friendship to Moslems in general and to Turkey in particular,

Germany had not sought direct rule over the Ottoman provinces in question. Turkish sovereignty was to be respected, but an AustroHungarian chartered company had been formed under German auspices for the exploitation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, and under the charter Austrian (in effect German) authority would have been imposed upon those vilayets. Italy, however, ever since the establishment of the French protectorate over Tunisia in 1881, had “ car

marked” Tripoli and Cyrenaica for herself. See the Memoirs of Francesco Crispi (London, rgi4) and H. H. Jokaston in Geog.

Jul. (vol. 44, pp. 280-1).

a"

ran

Atlas sta

Toot bled

e" E

R iA

” SOUTHERN TERRITORIES

A

SF.

Tp

wea Katalan o

=

ae

Jis

Car

ITRIPOLITANIA

he,

anes

[TRIPOLI 4 Vor. “Fezzan

oMurzu

Dongola ANG

Omdurmane Ki 3

EGYPTIAN DARFUR

El Fasher

El ObeidP

Ni UDA =Konak ry ey,

“Freetown a. Sherbro$ Morovia Ca.

AFRICA Natural Scale I: 32,000,000

English

Miles

500

1000

Kilometres

0

500

1000

international Boundaries lOl

30

German Colonies Main Railways

192

=-

m

N

>" j

AFRICA in Cameroon and gave Germany the southern shores of the Muni

69.

In the German colonies there was likewise considerable development, notably in the building of railways. It was a period too of

estuary. In the east the additions to Cameroon included two tongues of land which gave the protectorate direct access to material development in the British colonies and of prosperity the Congo river and ils great northern tributary the Ubangi. in Egypt and the Sudan, accompanied in Egypt by manifestations The Mittel Afrika scheme foreshadowed in 191x aimed at se- in favour of self-government. In South Africa the alliance of curing Germany’s supremacy, primarily economic and ultimately Dutch. and British, which had brought about union, had been political, in central equatorial Africa, The aim was to reserve | followed by a reaction among a section of the Dutch, but the. the Belgian Congo, Angola and Mozambique N. of the Zambezi majority of the people followed the Prime Minister, General as a German sphere and thus to link up Cameroon with the | Botha, and his colleagues in their Joyal adherence to the British South-West and East Africa protectorates. German industries connexion, When the World War broke out it was found that had need. of the raw material tropical Africa produces, and the German authoritics in South-West Africa had maintained moreover southern Angola was a good. ficld for European settle- for years clandestine relations with a number of Boer leaders ment. British statesmen were not unfavourable to German- and that they counted, at the least, on South Africa’s neutrality expansion in equatorial Africa—so long as it was.confined to the in the war; Germany had also established relations with elements economic sphere. In 1898—the year of Fashoda—Mr. A. J. in North Africa inimical to- France and Great Britain. Balfour and Count Hatzfeldt had concluded an agreement which ‘But the British command of the sea rendered it impossible divided Angola and Mozambique into zones in which Britain when hostilities began for Germany to succour her colonies. and Germany respectively were to give financial and economic And this led to proposals for neutrality in various parts of assistance to the Portuguese. This agreement was capable of Africa, The first such proposal was made, on instructions from various interpretations and in the following year (1899) another Berlin, by the acting-governor of Togdland to the French and agrecment, known as the Treaty of Windsor, renewed the British authoritics on Aug. 4 and 5, reasons of humanity ancicnt Anglo-Portugucse alliance, the object being to reassure and the presumed need of the- white races.to exhibit solidarity Portugal that the Balfour-Hatzfeldt agreement was not in in face of the negrocs being alleged. This proposal, purely local derogation of her sovereign rights in Africa. Neither the agree- in scope, was. not entertained (see Tocoraxp}. Later in the ment with Germany nor that with Portugal was published. month—Aug. 23—Germany made an.offer of neutrality in After the sctilement of the Morocco crisis of 1911 Germany the conventional basin of the Congo as defined in Article IL. endeavoured to come to a further understanding with Great of the Act of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5. ‘The Congo Britain. Negotiations in regard to the Portuguese colonies in Free State, in accordance.with the permission given by Article X. Africa were reopened by Baron Marschall, then ambassador to of the Act, had proclaimed its perpetual neutrality, and when Britain, and were cnergetically- taken up by Prince Lich- the Free State became a Belgian colony the obligation of neutralnowsky, who came to London as ambassador in Nov. ror2. ity was retained, No other state exercising jurisdiction within A new agreément was drawn up and its terms fixed. It the conventional basin of the Congo had, however, exercised affirmed the intention of the signatories to respect the sovereign the option given by Article X. of proclaiming its neutrality within rights of Portugal and went on to delimit the region in which that area, which included besides Belgian Congo about half of each party was, asfar as the other party was concerned, to have a French Equatorial Africa, a third of Cameroon, all German East free hand in respect to economic development. By Prince Africa, all British East Africa, all Uganda, all Nyasaland, Lichnowsky, and by the German Foreign Office, the new agree- Mozambique N. of the Zambezi, a small part of Northern ment was looked upon as a stepping-stone to political rights in Rhodesia‘and the northern part of Angola. Belgium had desired the regions concerned. By this agreement the whole of Angola to preserve neutrality in the Congo, At the outbreak of the war up to long. 20°. FE. became a German sphere, together with the M. Fuchs, governor-gencral of Belgian Congo, had been incocoa-producing islands of San Thomé and Principe: On the E. structed to observe a strictly defensive attitude, and on Aug. wf

n

%

i

coast the whole of Mozambique province N. of the river Likungo also became a German sphere Originally Belgian Congo

was, according to Lichnowsky, to have been included in the agreement, but Germany: refused the offer “out of alleged respect for Belgian sensibilitics.” In Aug. 1913 the agreement was ready for signature. But Sir Edward Grey, then British Foreign Minister, made it a condition of signing that the 1898 and 1899 agreements as well as the new agreement should be made public, with the obvious object of again reassuring Portugal. The German Foreign Office objected to publication, as detrimental to negotiations for concessions then proceeding with Portugal, and, as Herr von

Jagow (then Foreign Secretary) said, because the German press would regard the terms of the Treaty of Windsor and the Lichnowsky agreemcnt as contradiclory. Von Jagow said that publication of the agrecment would be better delayed until the Bagdad railway treaty—which was looked upon as a genuine. triumph for Germany—could also be published. In July igr4 Germar consent Lo the publication of the agreement was given—

but before the document could be signed the World War had begun. . During the period of these Anglo-German negotiations the French in Morocco, under Gen. Lyautey as resident general, had

adopted both a bold and conciliatory policy and had won

the respect of the majority of the Moors; the French also steadily developed their West African colonics and had brought under control the region between Lake Chad and the Nile basin. 1The Likungo lies about 120 m. N. of the Zambezi.

The Zambezi.

valley and all the territory S. to and including Delagoa Bay was reserved as the British sphere. Britain already had the right of preémption over Delagoa Bay.

7 M. Davignon, then Belgian Foreign Minister, asked the British and French Governments if they intended to proclaim the neutrality of their territorics in the conventional basin of the Congo, The bombardment of Dar es Salaam by British warships on Aug. 8 was a sufficient demonstration of the British attitude; but at first the French Government scemed disposed to entertain the proposal; so the Belgian minister in Paris informed M. Davignon on Aug. 9. But the French commander in Equatorial Africa had opened hostilities on Aug. 6, and on Aug. 17 Comte de Lalaing, Belgian minister in London, informed M. Davignon that neither Great Britain nor France could adopt his suggestion. Tostilitics in the conventional basin of the Congo had thus been proceeding for over two weeks when Germany made her

neutrality offer; on the day before it was East Africa had committed the first act Congo by ‘bombarding Lukuga, a port German démarche was made by Herr Secretary in the Foreign Office, io Mr.

made the Germans in of war in the Belgian on Tanganyika. ‘The Zimmermann, UnderGerard, the American

ambassador in Berlin, in a note which asked the aid of the United States to procure the neutralization of the conventional basin of the Congo. In a later note, dated Sept. 1§ 1914, Herr Zimmermann stated that Germany’s object was “ to. prevent an aggravation of the war which could serve no purpose,” which was not the view of Von Lettow Vorbeck, the German commander in East Africa,“ while prejudicial to the community of culture of the white race.” The Department of State at Washington confined itself to forwarding the German notes, without comment, to the governments concerned. Spanish aid was also sought by Germany. But France and Great Britain refused to entertain the proposals, while, the Belgian Congo

AGA

70

KHAN II.

having been attacked, M. Fuchs had been given permission, on Aug. 28, to aid the French in the Cameroon campaign. The efforts of Dutch nationalists in South Africa to save German South-West Africa from: invasion were equally fruitless,

In process of time the whole of Africa, except Abyssinia and the Spanish protectorates, was involved in the war (for the operations see the articles on the various countrics), The conquest of the German colonies was forescen in the negotiations which preceded Italy’s entry into the war, and Article XII. of the agreement signed in London on April 26 1915 between France, Russia, Great Britain and Italy, said:— In the event of France and Britain increasing their colonial terri-

tories in Africa at the expense of Germany, those two Powers agree

in principle that Italy may claim some equitable compensation, particularly as regards the settlement in her favour of the questions relative to the frontiers of. the Italian colonies of Eritrea, Somaliland and Libya, and the neighbouring colonies belonging to

France and Great Britain. At a meeting of the Supreme Council at Versailles on May 7 1910 it was agreed to form an inter-Allied Committce to consider

the application of Article XIII., which had already been the subject of negotiations. Italian desires went beyond the readjustment of frontiers. In north-east Africa she sought a position which would give her all the scaward approaches to

Abyssinia, In particular Italy desired to acquire Jibuti, the port of French

Somaliland, whence

a railway ran

to Addis

Ab-

baba. This desire was intimated to France in the negotiations preceding the signing of the London agreement of ror5. But Jibuti was the only French port on the Suez Canal route to the East and to Madagascar, as well as the only approach to Abyssinia France possessed, and she declined to entertain proposals for its surrender.

Italy, however, obtained from France a wel-

BisLioGRAPHY.—Exploration: Jean Tilho, “ The Exploration of Tiberte, Erdi, Borkou and Ennedi in 1912-1917,",Geog. Jul., vol. tvi. (1920); Capt. Augiéras, Le Sahara Occidental (1919): F. R. Cana, * Problems in Exploration:

Africa,” Geog. Jnl., vol. xxxviit.

(1911); “ The Sahara in1915,” ibid., vol. xlvi. (1915); I. N. Dracopoli, Through Jubaland to the Lorian Swamp (1914); Sir A. Sharpe, The Backbone of Africa (1921); Rosita Forbes, ‘‘ Across the Libyan Desert to Kufara,” Geog. Jnl., vol. Iviii. (1921). Geography, Climate, etc.: A. Knox, The Climate of Africa Garr); H. Hubert, Mission Scientifique au Soudan (1916); Documents

Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho (1906-9), 3 vols. (1910-4); J. W.

Gregory, “ African Rift Valley,” Geog, Jnk; vol, Ixi. (1920); E. H. La Schwarz, The Desiccation of Africa (N..D. 1918); K. Dove, Wirt-

Saee von Afrika (1917); R. Tjader, The Big Game of Africa (4911); T. Roosevelt, African Game Trails (1910).

Peoples and Languages: Oric Bates, The Eastern Libyans Ho: C, Meindorf, Introduction io Study of African Languages (1915); A. Werner, Introductory Sketch of the Bantu. Languages (1919);

Sir H. H. Johnston, A Comparative Study of the Bantu and SemiBantu Languages (1919); G. Foucart, Introductory Questions on African Ethnology (1919).

History, Politics, etc. C. H. Stigand, Administration in Tropical

Africa (1914); Sir H. H. Johnston, History of Colonization of Africa by Alien Races (new ed. 1913); zbid., “ Political Geog. of Africa before and after the War,” Geog. Jnl., vol. xiv. (1915); Evan Lewin,

The Germans and Africa (1915); The Disclosures from Germany

(1918) contains Prince Lichnowsky’s pamphlet, with translation, Herr von Jagow’s reply, and notes; L. Woolf, Empire and Come-

merce in Africa (N. D. 1920); J. H. Harris, Dawn in Darkest Africa

(1912); D. Crawford, Thinking Black (1912); N. Maclean, Africa in Transformation (1913); F. Baltzer, Die Kolonialbahnen, mit beson-

derer Berücksichtigung Afrikas (1916); Col. Godefroy, Zranssuhariens et Transafricains (1919).

Sce also the bibliographies under SOUTH AFRICA, EGYPT, etc. For current affairs consult the Geog. Jnl. and the Jul. of the African Society, and L'Afrique Française (Paris, monthly). (F. R.C.)

AGA KHAN III. (1877—During

rore-21

},Indian Moslem leader (sce 1.363).

the Aga Khan’s widening influence both on

come fectification of the Tripoli-Tunisia frontier, besides valuable railway and commercial privileges in Tunisia. The

Indian and international affairs was shown in various directions.

claim to extend the hinterland of Tripoli to Lake

Lord Minto, which submitted the case for encouraging abandonment of the studied aloofness of their community from Indian political life; and he was president of the All-India Moslem League thereupon formed during its first constructive years. He initiated the fund, and personally collected more than Rs.30 Jakhs, for raising the Mahommedan college at Aligarh to universily status, which was effected in 1920. In the immediate pre-

refused.

Chad was

With Great Britain the negotiations were prolonged;

the British Government, however, assented in 1919 in principle to a considerable readjustment of territorial claims in the Cyrenaican-Egyptian hinterland, that is in those regions of the Libyan Desert in which lay Kufra and other Senussi strongholds.

The oasis of Jarabub was assigned to Italy,

In East

Africa the British offered an addition to Italian Somaliland by the transfer to it from Kenya Colony of the western part of the valley of the Juba—a nich cotton-growing arca~together with the port of Kismayu, This offer was accepted in Sept. 1919,

but the Italians desired a larger concession and this led to delays in the final settlement. The proposal to transfer Kassala from the Sudan to Eritrea was not entertained. Meanwhile the arca

administered by the Sudan Government had been enlarged by the conquest of the tributary sultanate of Darfur in 1915. The distribution of the German colonics after the war has already been stated, The change of masters was readily accepted by the natives. The war itself stimulated trade in various parts of Africa and led to a development of communications (sce page 67, Communications). Politically the greatest movements in Africa in ror9-2T were

the

continuance

of the

separatist

campaign

by

the

Dutch Nationalist party in South Africa, and the insistent demand of the Egyptians for independence. These movements. are described in the articles SOUTH AFRICA and EGYPT. Another subject which raised large issues was the position of Indians in South and East Africa, but it was of less importance than the growth of race consciousness among the negroes, In-

He had headed the Moslem deputation in 1906 to the Viceroy,

war years he did much to soothe Indian Moslem sentiment in respect to the Turco-Italian and two Balkan wars. He was touring amongst his followers in East Africa when the World War broke out, and immediatcly cabled to the jamats or councils of the millions of Ismaihahs within British territories and on

their borders directing his followers to place themselves unreservedly at the disposal of the British authorities. Both in East Africa and on arrival in England he pleaded. for combatant participation in the war, but Lord Kitchener reserved him for services no one cise could render. When Turkey was drawn into the struggle the Aga Khan issued a stirring manifesto showing that the Allies had no overt designs on Islam, and calling upon the Moslems of the Empire to remain loyal and faithful to their temporal allegiance. His immediate followers provided a solid phalanx of whole-hearted support of Britain, which had a most steadying influence in sterilizing the efforts of impatient headstrong elements, Secret missions of great diplomatic im-

portance in Egypt, Switzerland and elsewhere were entrusted

to His Highness, and enemy anger found scope not only in

bitter newspaper attacks but in designs upon his life. His great influence was reénforced by his close and intimate contact with leading Allied statesmen and the breadth and liberality of his

crease of education and of Christianity, the employment of large

outlook on the problems of reconstruction.

numbers of Africans in industrics, and the lessons taught by the World War, were among the factors which intensified the fecling

study of Indian and Middle Eastern affairs in India in Transition (1918) was not without considerable effect in the final shaping of reforms under the India Act of 1919, and was consistent in

of racial unity, and led to manifestations of a new anti-white

movement—a movement different from the simple objection to

His remarkable

broad principle with his post-war criticisms of the British Gov-

interference by Europeans or Arabs previously displayed. The new movement had a consciousness of the necd of self-devclop-

ernment’s Mesopotamian and Arabian policy. The Aga Khan laboured unceasingly to secure mitigation of

ment and progress.

Not all the ferment among the negroes

the Allied terms toward Turkey, and joined in many repre-

was however anti-white, nor was there by rg2r any clear indica-

sentations, public and private, both at the Peace Conference

tion what form negro nationalism would ultimately take.

and subsequently, as to the

immense

importance to Great

AGLIARDI—AGRICULTURE Britain, the ruler of the greatest aggregation of Moslems in the world, of not depriving Turkey of a real independent existence. But the issue was complicated by many considerations, and British statesmen scemed Jess ready to accept his advice in peace than to usc his influence in war. To the G.C.I.E. and the

The value of Whitney’s and Cameron's suggestion lay in the way it directed attention to the soil solution as the seat of nutrition of the plant, and our ideas as to the character and formation of that solution have to be revised in the light of our more recent conceptions of the nature of colloids, A study of the behaviour of any soil towards

G.C.S.I. there was added in 1916 a salute of 11 guns and the tank and status of a first-class chief of the Bombay Presidency,

water, whether we examine such a character as the rate at which

the only previous instance of the grant of a salute outside the Indian territorial ruling. families being that of the first Sir Salar ung. (F, H. Br.)

sAGLIARDI, ANTONIO

(1832-1915),

Jtalian cardinal and

diplomatist (see 1.377). Noted for his strongly patriotic sentiments, he actively opposed the Temporalist tendencies which prevailed at the Vatican during a part of the pontificate of Leo XIIL At a time when clerical influences in France aimed at a restoration of the Temporal Power, Agliardi was frankly

favourable to the Triple Aliance as the best guarantee of Italy’s territorial integrity, and he eventually succeeded in convincing the Pope of the hopelessness of his schemes. With Leo’s subsequent social-Catholic activities he was in hearty

sympathy, and contributed much to their success. He enjoyed the personal friendship of many of the most eminent men in Italy, including Luigi Luzzatti, Antonio Salandra and the Marquis di San Giuliano. He died in Rome March ig rors.

AGRICULTURE (see 1.388). In the separate articles on different countries of the world, their agricultural progress between toro and 1929 is dealt with. [ere will be considered (1) the progress of scientific research generally, (2) the agricultural administration and regulations in the United Kingdom, and (3) the deyclopments in the United Kingdom during the World War.

Developments

in the United States roro-2z are

described under the heading Agriculture in the article UNITED

STATES.

I. PROGRESS Or SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. During rgo0~20 scientific research upon the soil was in the main directed to two sets of phenomena—the interaction of the various groups of organisms living in the soil, and secondly the -Yelation of the various soil constituents to water as a means of

interpreting the physical behaviour of the soil under cultivation.

Soil Research—Dealing first with the latter question, it has

Jong been obvious that the crude view which regards the soil as a mere mechanical foundation for the plant containing a certain amount of plant food—nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid determinable by analysis—must be abandoned. Infertile soils disclose in the surface layer sufficient plant food for a hundred full crops, and even the later modification of the hypothesis which laid stre$s not on the “total” plant food in the soil but‘on the amount that was “available,” f.e. soluble in some dilute medium such as carbon-dioxide-charged water anda solution of an organic acid akin to the cell sap of the plant, failed to provide a means of measuring fertility by chemical analysis. It was the failure of this chemical theory of the soil that led the American

investigators, Whitney and Cameron, to propound the view that what really matters in the soil is its water relationships. The plant’s roots feed in the soil solution, the liquid medium

held on the surface of and between the soil particles by surface tension, and as this solution is always saturated, e.g. with phosphoric acid and potash of which any soil contains more than the soil solution is capable of dissolving, then the actual amount of these constituents in the soil (above a certain very low minimum) and the extra amount supplied by fertilizers are matters of indifference. Apart from some other factors, it is the water supply that determines the growth of the plant and therefore the fertility of the soil. In its turn this hypothesis breaks down, because it takes too simple a view of the process of solution in . the soil, which it regards as a mixture of definite compounds possessing a definite: solubility like sodium chloride or other inorganic salts. Actual experiment showed that whenever soil extracts were prepared from soils of different fertility or when even the solutions actually existing within the soils could be removed by mechanical means, they displayed a varying con-

` centration in phosphoric acid and potash, Moreover the growth

71

of plants in such extracts is, within limits, proportional to the amounts of the nutrient constituents they contain,

.

water will drain through the soil or the rate at which successive portions of water will be removed from it by evaporation under constant conditions, shows that the soil docs not behave as if it were a mixture of mere rock particles of various grades of fineness. An artificial soil built up of particles of ground quartz of the same order of sizes as the soil behaves quite differently towards water, so again does a soil that has been ignited to a red heat. In the natural soil a number of the particles, especially those of the smallest size, exhibit colloid properties, which roughly means that they have a special power of holding water on their surfaces more and mote tightly as the amount of water diminishes, and also of holding and withdrawing from solutions, the ions, sometimes basic, sometimes acid,.of salts. These colloids are probably the particles of compound ajuminium silicates resulting from the decomposition of the felspars in the original rock basis; they are akin to the zeolites which can be found in a pure state. The humus or organic matter of the soil is also largely colloid, but the inorganic colloids themselves will account for most of the properties of the soil. As regards the water itself, the colloid theory explains certain facts which had much occupied the attention of the American investigators who have been studying the relation of plants to soil under arid conditions as a means òf extending cullivation upon the bad lands. Sachs had long ago shown that a plant would begin to wilt and be unable to take water from the soil before the soil was absolutely dry, again that a clay soil would hold water against the plant much more strongly than å sandy soil, wilting occurring when the clay soil has stil! 8% or more of water in it, whereas the sand will lose water downto I% before the wilting begins. Various attempts have been made to correlate the “ willing coefficient ’’ of the soil, i.e. its proportion of moisture when wilting sets in, with the “ hygroscopic moisture,” i.e. the amount of water a dry soil will absorb when in contact with a saturated atmosphere, and with the amount of water the soil holds when wetted and allowed to drain. But none of these conceptions mark any change of state; for example the curve expressing the rate at which evaporation will take place from soil is a perfectly smooth one without any discontinuities, and the points defining the willing cocfiicient or the hygroscopic moisture are only particular positions of equilibrium between the waterholding power of the soil particles and the external set of forces tending to remove water. In the same way the distinction between the water held by the colloids and the ‘' free water” in the soil, the latter being regarded as something different in kind and sharply marked off fram ithe colloid water, cannot be maintained. The colloid “ gels ” must be regarded as imbibing water and exercising some attractive action on all the water in the soil, though that attraction is infinitesimal when the soil is saturated and only

becomes a measurable force when the water has shrunk to small

proportions.

The colloids that hold water in the soil are also the-agents which control thé composition of the soil solution upon which the plant feeds. H the soil colloids are brought into contact with a solution of any of the fertilizer salts (except the nitrates with which the action is very slight) there is an instantaneous absorption of ammonia, phosphoric acid or potash as the case may be, that is never complete, the extent being determined by such factors as the relative mass of the soil and the fertilizer, the concentration of the solution and the nature of the accompanying ions, e.g. carbon dioxide in the soil solution. Speaking broadly, a fertile soil is one possessing a high absorptive capacity, that is as it were pretty fully charged, so that the equilibrium with the soil solution is mobile and the soil colloids

part freely with their nutrients to the solution as its strength is re-

duced through withdrawals by the plant’s roots.

The analytical

methods which attempt to determine say the “ available ” phosphoric acid by attdcking the soil with wéak acids really determine

somcthing much more complex in which the soil plays a part. The acid, whatever all the phosphoric acid, and then there is a of which is conditioned by the nature and ployed.

the absorptive power of its nature, first dissolves reabsorption, the amount strength of the acid cm-

Thus the result obtained is an empirical one, valid only for

comparisons of soils of similar type and constitution, to which limited

degree it is of service.

Lining Organisms.—The study of the living organisms of the soil has resulted in some reconsideration of the views formerly held as to the relative importance and function of the different groups.

Among the carliest of the organisms associated with the

soil to be specifically studied were those concerned with the process of nitrification and responsible for the conversion of ammonia (resulting from the breaking down of organic compounds

of nitrogen by other bacteria) first into nitrites and then into

AGRICULTURE

92 nitrates.

It was held that as plants (other than the legumes)

practically take in all their nitrogen as nitrates, then the rate of nitrate-making or the nitrifying power of a soil would be on one

side at Icast a measure of its fertility.

In the course of the

experiments on the partial sterilization of soil by heat or antisepties jt has become apparent that the nitrification organisms are very susceptible and may be killed off while the ammonia-

making organisms are still active.

Again acid soils have been

found in which nitrates are not produced. Yet in such soils plants grow freely, taking in their nitrogen as ammonia, not as nitrate. It becomes clear that nitrification is only the end process, and the rate at which it will proceed is determined in a normal soil by the rate at which the other organisms supply

ammonia. This is seen from the fact that nitrates will heap up in the soil, whereas the ammonia remains comparatively constant at a very low level provided that the soil is normal and nitrification is going on. For a long time the only organisms capable of “ fixing ”

nitrogen, t.e. bringing the free gas from the atmosphere into combination,

were

the so-called “nodule”

organisms

(Pscu-

domonas radicicola) discovered by Hellriegel and Wilfarth, which live in symbiosis with the leguminous plants. More recent investigations have discovered methods whereby these organisms can be grown and mace to fix nitrogen independently of a host plant, and have also cleared up the forms in which they exist in the soil and find their way into the roots of the leguminous plant. The attempts to improve the growth of leguminous crops by inoculation with strains of the particular organism have not been attended with any practical success, though soils, generally of the new

or reclaimed order, destitute of the nodule organism,

can now be effectively inoculated and thereby made to grow good crops of legumes, provided always that the soil is first made a fit medium for the organism by a supply of lime and appropriate mineral manures. Without this preliminary acid heath or peat soils would neither support the nodule organisms nor the leguminous crops and inoculation would be of no avail. But as “fixers”? of nitrogen apart from the leguminous plants Pseu-

domonas radicicola is inefiective compared with a widespread group of organisms isolated by Beijerinck, to which he has given the name of Azotobacter, Azotobactey-—These organisms, found in both virgin and cultivated soils from all parts of the world, are comparatively large oval bodies 4 to 5 p in length and 3 u in width, which differ from normal bacteria in containing glycogen and act as powerful agents for the oxidation of the sugars and other carbohydrates. From the carbohydrates they produce in the main carbon dioxide and water, but also small quantities of organic acids and of a characteristic deep brown pigment. It is by means of the encrgy derived from the oxidation that they are able to

bring nitrogen into combination and the nitrogen fixed under favourable laboratory conditions may amount to t% of the carbohydrate oxidized. To be effective Azotobacter requires certain conditions—a neutral medium with calcium carbonate present to neutralize the acids produced, for which reason the organism is generally absent from acid soils, also the presence of such nutrients as phosphoric acid and potash, and finally a favourable temperature. It has heen found at Rothamsted that a soil will accumulate nitrogen, as evidenced by an increased crop, alter the application of starch or sugar, carbohydrates containing no nitrogen, if these materials are mixcd with the soil in the carly autumn when the land is still warm and Azotobacter is active. On the other hand spring applications of carbohydrates are followed by a diminished crop, because at a low temperature other organisms in the soit which are consumers of combined nitrogen, attack the carbohydrate and by thcir multiplication withdraw some of the soil nitrogen from circulation and so reduce the supply for the crop. The great significance of these observations of the mode of action of Azotobacter is that they afford a solution of the problem of how the great stocks of combined nitrogen came to be accumulated in virgin soils, especially in certain black soils such as occur on the prairies

and in the Canadian North-West.

Of itself the mere growth and

dying down of vegetation for however many years repeated, could

not add to the stock of combined nitrogen in the soil. The plant

itself fixes ng nitrogen, but only draws upon the capital in the soil, restoring whatever it took out when the vegetation is allowed to die hack to the soil without loss. But the falling vegelation contains

carbohydrates derived from ihe air and if they are added to a soil containing Azotobacter under conditions favourable to its growth. the carbohydrate supplies the energy whereby the Asolobacter can fix some more nitrogen from the air and add to the stock in the soit, In this way the annual cycle of vegetation when the leaves fall back to the soil can result in a yearly accretion of nitrogen which in time may amount even to the remarkable accumulation found in the

deep black soils of Manitoba and similar “ steppe " Jands, soils that

are invariably found to be well supplied with carbonate of lime

also to contain the Asofebacter organism. The cluc to this interpretation of the accumulation

of nitrogen in virgin steppe and forest

soils was derived from the examination of the soils of the wheat field at Rothamsted. The soil of the unmanured plots which has been in arable cultivation for over half a century shows a steady decline in the amount of nitrogen it contains, a dectine which is approximately equivalent to the nitrogen which is known to have been removed in the crops harvested year by year. Doubtless the soil has suffered other losses of nitrogen by ae removal of weeds, ete., that cannot be estimate, but the analysis of the soil

shows that any recuperative processes which may have been at work restoring nitrogen tothe soil have only been able to repair these minor losses but not to restore any of the nitrogen removed in the crops. A portion, however, of the same plot was allowed to go to waste, Ze. it was allowed to cover itself with a natural vegetation of weeds and grasses, which were neither ent nor grazed but allowed to die back to the soil. After 30 years an examination of the soil of this wilderness showed it had been accumulating nitrogen at the | rate of nearly 100 lb. per ac. per annum, the greater part of which must have been due to the action of Azotobacter working upon the carbonaceous matter supplied by the decaying vegetation reaching the soil in the autumn and winter. On the arable lane, where the vegetable matter reaching the soil js minimal, only the roots and stubble of the crop, there is a steady loss of nitrogen; on the wilderness which

may

be compared

to a

natural prairie, the return of the vegetation to the soil causes nitrogen tọ accumulate not because of the nitrogen contained in its material, but because its carbonaccous matter supplies the energy

whereby the Azotobacter fixes nitrogen,

The Asotubacter group of

‘organisms, though not the only ones capable of bringing free nitrogen gas into combination, constitute the group which has played the fundamental part in building up net merely the vegetable soil but

the whole substratum of organic life in the world,

Soil Pretosoa—The outlook on the organisms in the soil has been entirely changed since Russell and Hutchinson showed the

part played by the protozoa in limiting the development of bacteria in the soil. The soil protozoa, which are large, definitely animal organisms of varied character—amotbac,

ciliates and

flagellates—exist in large numbers in all cultivated soils, and as they feed upon bacteria, any conditions which encourage the development of bacteria by increasing their food-supply stimulate

the multiplication of the protozoa which thereby put a check to the increase of the bacteria. Thus normally the number of bacteria in a soil, however rich and favourable to bacterial development the conditions may be, does not pass a certain limit because it is kept in check by the increasing number of the protozoa.

As the fertility of the soil among other things depends

on the rate of production by bacteria of ammonia and nitrates from the nitrogenous residues jn the soil, the fertility of the soil is also limited by the presence of the protozoa. Certain processes of partial sterilization of the soil, such as heating to the tempera-

ture of boiling water or even to 170°F. or again treatment for a time with some antiseptic, eg. chloroform or toluene vapour, effects a selective destruction of the soil organisms. The protozoa are almost entirely killed off, but many groups of bacteria, notably

the ammonia-makers, resist destruction though they may be

reduced in numbers.

But if after treatment the treated soil is

placed under normal conditions for growth, the bacteria that remain multiply with great rapidity and rise to a level of numbers

and activity they were unable to attain before, because now the protozoal check to their multiplication has been removed. In consequence the fertility of the soil is greatly increased, in

jact the yield from a given soil may be doubled. This discovery suggests immense potentialities of increased production from

the land but as yet it has not been found possible to apply the method of partial sterilization to ordinary ficld soils in the open. Heating would be inordinately expensive and the difficulty is ta

find an antiseptic that combincs cheapness with the right degree of

AGRICULTURE volatility and stability against the attack of bacteria. In greenhouses, bowever, where the soil soon becomes “sick” through the

excessive development of protozoa under the favourable conditions of moisture, temperature and manurial enrichment, the sterilization of the soil by heat has been worked out as a commercial process and is now part of the routine of all progressive cultivators under glass. Microfungi.—Great as is the attention that is now being given to the soil organisms in all agricultural laboratories there would appear to be room for more work upon one group—the microfungi, of which there is a large flora in the soil. It has been shown that when from one cause or another a soil becomes acid, many bacteria concerned in the decay of vegetable matter are entirely inhibited and may disappear. Fungi instead take up the work, but the broad character of the process thereby changes, the vegetable matter is not burnt away as carbon dioxide

but in part accumulates in the form of peat. The formation of a

peaty material is in fact a concomitant of an acid reaction in the soil

and the activity of microfungi rather than of bacteria, and this generalization fits in with many observations of the character of peat deposits. Often trees are found at the base of these beds where trees no longer grow; and it may be surmised that the trees grew on the original neutral land surface when it became fit for vegetation after the close of the glacial epoch. That soil being of a non-calcareous nature gradually accumulates actds arising from the decay of the vegetation falling upon it, whereupon under the prevailing climatic

conditions the further vegetable debris reaching the soil began to form peat. This accumulation of peat in its turn brought about the death of the forest.

Nitrogen.—During 1910-20 agriculture received great benefit from the working out of proceases on a large scale for bringing nitrogen into combination, processes which thus supplement the comparatively limited sources of nitrogen compounds afforded by the Chile deposits of nitrate of soda and the ammonia which is recovered as a by-product from the distillation or combustion of coal. Prior to the World War two processes had been established com-

mercially. At Notodden in Norway air is driven into a specially formed electric arc which results in the combination of nitrogen and oxygen so that the issuing gases contain about 1:25 % of oxides of nitrogen which are then absorbed by passing up towers where they meet an absorbing stream of water or milk of lime. The product, nitrate of ime, contains about 13°5% of nitrogen, and is a most

valuable fertilizer, quite as effective as nitrate of soda and on some soils more suitable. i

At about the same time as synthetic nitrate of lime was introduced, another nitrogenous fertilizer began to be manufactured on a large scale, calcium cyanamide or nitrolim. The body arises from the combination which ensues at a temperature. of about 600° C. between calcium carbide and pure nitrogen gas under slight pressure, with the resulting formation of a compound which in the

73

has increased the supply of nitrogen available as may be scen from the following table :—

Metric Tons of Nitrogen - Productive Output Capaci apacit

Output Chile Nitrate Ammonium sulphate (by-product) Cyanamide

Haber process Arc process

oe.

; a,

1912

1917

411,329

465,000

272,007 22,435 ats

340,000 190,000

1660 y

471,000 413,000 325,000

9,907

100,000 27,000

308,000 33,600

715,678

1,123,000

1,550,600

It should be noted, however, that the 1920 figures are not actual but only potential supply, if existing plants are worked up to their capacity.

Potash —As the only extensive potash deposits in the world that had been commercially developed—Stassfurt and Alsacc— were in German hands, there was during the war a great shortage of potash fertilizers outside central Europe. Great cforts were made to develop processes for the extraction of potash from felspars and other natural sources, but without much success. _ The only method which proved of value was the discovery made in the United States that the dust which accumulates in the flues. through which the gases from blast furnaces are led contains a not

anconsiderable amount of potash in a readily soluble form, one-half indeed consisting of sulphates and carbonates soluble in water, Different grades of flue dust can be collected: the finest is a creamcoloured material containing as much as 60% of potash. The dust. was collected and used for agricultural purposes during the war though only some 15,000 tons per annum were obtainable in Great

Britain,

It is now worked up for industrial purposes, but the output

of potash salts from this source cannot exceed a few thousand tons

per annum

agricultural

in the United Kingdom.

The supply of potash salts for

purposes since the war has been entirely changed by

the transfer to France of the Alsatian deposits which occupy an area of some 77 sq. m. between Mülhausen and Colmar in Alsace. This deposit consists of two beds, the upper about 4 ft. thick, the lower about 113 ft., which form practically unbroken strata at an approximate depth of 1,800 ft. and present no difficulties in mining. The

material is very uniform in composition, consisting in the main of sylvinit, mixed chlorides of potassium and sodium, containing about 20% of potash reckoned as K.Q. It can be used for agriculture in its

crude state and though the development of the field is still very incomplete the former German monopoly of potash supplies is thereby broken down. Another extensive deposit is known in Spain, but it has not reached the stage of commercial development and is generally considered to be controlled by the German company which works the Stassfurt deposits.

Super phos phates.—During the war the manufacture of superphosphate in the United Kingdom was considerably re-

soil decomposes mainly into ammonia and calcium carbonate. Cyanamide as a fertilizer requires a certain amount of care in use

stricted, onthe one hand by the withdrawal of sulphuric acid for

soda or sulphate of ammonia. Hs manufacture, however, received an imnense impetus during the World War, as it was the simplest and

supphes were completely cut off and reccipts from the North

and on the majority of soils has not proved so effective as nitrate of most readily available process for bringing nitrogen into combination, from which by further steps ammonia and then the nitrates and nitric acid required in explosives could he obtained. The United States and many European countrics have immensely developed the manufacture of cyanamide, which must in future be available

as fertilizer either used directly or after prior conversion into some

convenient compound of ammonia. A : The war period was also marked by the development on a gigantic scale of a new process, which had only been finally worked out to the manufacturing stage in Germany in 1913—the Haber process of bringing nitrogen and hydrogen into combination as ammonia. In the presence of a suitable catalyst of activated iron these elements will unite at pressures of 250-300 atmospheres and a temperature approaching 000° C. to the extent of 8% or so of the mixed gases.

The ammonia can be removed and the remaining gases passed round again into the catalyser. Great as are the difficultics of working at these temperatures and pressures the Haber process is cheap in power and materials. It was the mainstay of the supply of combined nitrogen for explosives to Germany during the war, and should become a most important future source of fertilizer to the agriculturist.

During the war the demand for nitrogenous fertilizers greatly increased ín all countries; the United Kingdom for example increased her consumption of sulphate of ammonia from 60,000 tons to 269,000 tons per annum, part of this being of course substitution for the pre-war use of 80,000 tons of nitrate of soda, which was no longer available.

Potentially,

however,

the establishment

of so

many war plants for the manufacture of synthetic nitrogen products

|

the manufacture of explosives, and on the other by the shortage of tonnage for the importation of phosphate rock. American African deposits fell to something like 500,000 tons per annum.

In consequence British farmers were compelled to resort mainly to basic slag of which this country produced about 400,000 tons per annum, though prior to the war only some 280,000 tons had been consumed by British agriculturists. With the extended programme

of arable

farming

the

demand

for phosphatic

fertilizers was greatly increased and the whole of the basic slag produced at home was absorbed, though the output was increased to as much as 565,000 tons from the year ending May 1919.

Unfortunately this increase in amount was accompanied

by a decline in character, owing to changes in the processes generally adopted for making steel. The Bessemer process has been almost displaced by the openhearth process which produces a slag fess rich in phosphoric acid. ‘The practice has also been adopted of adding Auor-spar to the furnace in order to induce the formation of a more fusible slag, but thereby the solubility of the phosphoric acid of the slag in the weak citric . acid generally used in testing its quality becomes impaired. The bulk of the basic slag now sold contains only about 10% of phosphoric acid against 15 to 20% in the older types of slag and the phosphoric acid is no longer soluble in weak acids.

The new type of basic slag

proves, however, little less effective, unit for unit of phosphoric

acid, as a fertilizer, but freight charges, always a large item in the -

cost of basic slag to the farmer, now become doubled for the amount of phosphoric acid that is carried, apart from the increase in these

AGRICULTURE

74

charges per ton. Attempts were in 1921 being made to replace basic

slag by finely ground mineral phosphates as a fertilizer for grass

land.

ground

American

experience has always been favourable to these

phosphates,

and

recent

experiments

in England

have

demonstrated that they effect in poor pastures the same encouragement of clover as is obtained from basic slag, even upon such un-

promising land as the clays in the dry Essex climate. The phosphate

rock from Nauru Island, that has passed from German hands into the control of the British Government, may prove of special value

Bs application in this finely ground but otherwise untreated conition.

Plant Breeding——Probably the plant breeders have during 1900-20 rendered the greatest services to agriculture, inasmuch

as improvements in this direction—~the introduction of new varicties giving large yiclds, better quality and more resistant to diseasc—are at once appreciated by the farmer and require no alterations in the methods of cultivation. It has been found possible to apply Mendelian principles with comparative simplicity and accuracy to the breeding of new varieties of plants, especially of cereals, and the results achieved have already

expericnced considerable commercial development in the case of wheat, barley, oats, maize, sugar-cane and. cotton.

The value of

the Mendelian principle lies in the power it gives of combining in one of the selected descendants of a cross-bred individual unrelated valuable characters: possessed by the parents separately. Jn the case of wheat Biffen has shown that among the Mendelian characters that are transmitted as unchanged units are such quantitative propertics as the resistance to disease, the normal percentage

of nitrogen in the grain and the “ strength ” of the flour resulting from it, the stiffness of the straw, etc. One of the chief desiderata as regards English wheat has been an improvement in its strength, i.e. the capacity to yield a spongy ¢laslic dough which will bake into a light loaf of large volume. ‘This strength factor which is connected with the amount of gluten and therefore with the percentage of nitrogen in the flour is as a rule the property of spring wheats grown in a“ steppe climate " with a short period of growth, with considerable rainfa)l in the early months exchanged for great heat and almost complete dryness before harvest. Wheats from Hungary, South Russia, Manitoba and the great plains of North America possess this quality, and Leclerc and Leavett have shown by sowing the same seed in different states how potent ts the effect of environment and climate in determining the percentage of nitrogen and the strength of wheat. Asa rule any of the strong wheats brought either from continental or American sources Jose their strength completely when grown under English conditions, One wheat, however, of Galician origin but widely grown in America under the name of Red Fife, so widely indeed as to be the dominant constituent of such commercial grades as Manitoba and No. 1 Northern, does

to a Jarge measure retain its strength in iengland, the strength in this case being congenital and not the product of environment. Red File is, however, a poor cropper on most English soil, yielding but 3 qr. per ac. where the typical English wheats will yield four or five. Biffen has, however, employed it as a parent in the hope of combining the strength of the one parent with the cropping power of the other and one of the results of this cross, a wheat called Yeoman, issued to the public in 1915, is on its congenital solls—the warmer

parts of England and Wales of a discase of potatoes, generally found in old cottage garcdens'and allotments, which causes the potatoes to degenerate into a mass of dark corky excrescences and will in bad cases destroy the crop entirely. The disease is due to the attack of a lowly organised fungus, and the difficulty of dealing with at is due to the fact that once established in the soil the spores or some resting form of the fungus retain their life for an indefinite period of many years. Once the soil has become infected no practicable means has been found of cleaning it; even leaving the land down to grass for

ten years has been found ineffective. Considerable areas in the industrial districts of Lancashire, Cheshire, Stafford and Shropshire, North and South Wales are subject to the disease and it became more widely distributed throughout the West of England as a result of the great shortage of seed potatoes in 1917, which

caused men to plant anything that was available without inquiring into its origin.

The consequences would undoubtedly have been the complete

destruction of potato-growing in those districts had it not been observed that one or two types of potatoes could be found growing unharmed in some of the old infected gardens. Further examination proved that these varictics were really immune to the disease, how-

ever heavily infected the soil, and though in themselves they possessed little commercial value they were at once employed as seed parents and have become the source of a new race of potatoes immune to wart diseases. Many of these are now proving to be good market varieties of heavy cropping power and by their aid potatogrowing has been rendered possible in the infected areas which otherwise inevitably would have spread until the whole country would have been involved. As the disease has also obtained a foothold (its Original habitat is unknown) in North America, Holland, Belgium and Germany, the value of this discovery of immunity is difficult to overestimate. From the study of this and other cases the conviction gains ground that the most fruitful method of dealing with plant disease will always be by the search for immunity rather than by methods of treatment. »

Selection—In the improvement of cereals considerable advantages have been derived by working on another principle than that of breeding, t.e. pure line selection, Very little improvement in a variety can be effected by what may be called “mass selection.” If in going overa feld of wheat a collection is made of the longest ears, or again if the heaviest grains are sorted out, no perceptible improvement is visible in the crop grown from the selection, not even if the process is repeated generation

after generation.

The superiority of the individuals selected has

been due to some accident of nutritionand is not transmissible to the offspring. If, however, the selected individuals are sown

separately, here and there among them will be found one which in the next and succeeding gencrations still preserves some superiority which is congenital to it and is maintained in succeed-

ing generations cven when the seed is worked up to a large crop. An ordinary variety, say of wheat, really consists of an indefinite

mixture of sub-varieties each of which, for many generations at least, breeds true in the case of cereals which

are self-fertilized.

Thus “ pure lines * may be selected from single seeds of such self-

fertilized plants and worked up to commercial] stocks of seed. These

pure lines may have some superiority, never, however, great, in ' cropping power over the mixed variety from which they are derived, and are also appreciably more uniform in such details as time of that the miler can use it without any mixture of strong foreign tipeaing and length of straw. wheats, such as are necessary to the extent of 40% or more. with lt bas become evident that every commercial variety of cereals, ordinary English wheat. Another of Biffen’s wheats, Litde Joss, even if of deliberately cross-bred origin, will be improved by pure by its power of resisting rust, has proved a very heavy cropper and is line selections from time to time. now extensively grown on soils that remain fairly dry and warm

and better soils of the east and south-east of England—probably the heaviest cropper grown.

Further, the quality of the grain is so high

throughout the winter. Saunders in Canada has effected a very cons

siderable extension of the wheat area by the introduction of a wheat called ‘“ Marquis,’ another hybrid with Red Fife as one

parent, which combines the good quality of Red Fife with a shorter

period of growth and an earlier growing safe in wide areas, as was Hable to ruin through the harvest had been completed

ripening habit, thus rendering wheatin parts of Alberta, where the crop onset of carly autumn frosts before On the average Marquis ripens six

Nutrition—It was still difficult in 1921 to discuss in any detail the progress that is being made in the study of animal nutrition, in regard to which the teachings of the scientific man

have had much less effect upon the practice of the farmer than has been. the case when the nutrition of the plant has been concerned,

i

The great shortage of cattle food during the war, notably in 1917

days earlier than Red Fife and thus in the Central Prairie region

and 1918 when no tonnage could be Seanad for cattle food, cid reveal

generally be grown safely though Red Fife is liabic to be caught, In part the extension of Marquis may be put down to its superior cropping powers, but for one reason or another it has largely displaced all other spring wheats in the North-West. In 1918 the area „under Marquis in Minnesota, the Dakotas, Montana, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta was estimated to amount to 20,000,000

that British meat and milk production had fallen ito, and secondly, the enormous waste that had been going on. It was estimated that the normal output of meat, milk and other animal products did not represent one-half, possibly not more than a third, of the amount

where frosts are expected between Aug. 27 and Sept. 2 Marquis can

ac and the crop in Canada alone to 129,000,000 bus.——all the produce of what was but a single plant in 1993!

Immunity from Discase-—The inheritance of Immunity from disease is best illustrated by the discovery of potatoes immune to wart disease. About 1897 attention was drawn to the prevalence in certain

two things, first, the dependence upon imported corn and oil seeds

that could have.been obtained, not merely theoretically, but even in

properly informed practice.

At the same time certain lacunae in

our theory were disclosed, which prevent the scientific man

from

setting out with any accuracy the limits within which the fattening of animals will proceed most economically. It will be seen that the problem is a very complex one. On the one hand, as regards the amount of food fed over and above the maintenance ration, the law of diminishing returns is found to hold for the amount of daily

increase; on the other hand, the slower the rate of fattening, the

AGRICULTURE greater must be the non-productive consumption of food on maintenance only, ? aR Again in the later stages of fattening the law of diminishing re-

turns operates in another fashion, in that the increase of weight may be put on as offal fat of comparatively low value instead of as edible fat in the ‘ meat” portions of the carcass. Much more -exact information is therefore being sought as to the relations of the live weight increase to the progress in consumption of food and again to the changes in the composition of the carcass as the

; fattening process advances. On the other side of the nutrition question recent work upon “ vita-

mines ” and accessory food factors is found to have its application to questions of animal nutrition. Not only the health and growth of certain animals, notably pigs, is in practice affected by the deficiency of the foods habitually used in these accessory factors, but again the fats arising from the animals, e.g. lard, bacon, even milk and butter fat, may in their turn become deficient as human foods because of the lack of. the accessory substances in the food of the animal. Enough work has been done to show that in certain special cases of indoor feeding of animals not only the broad energy- an tissuc-forming properties of the food have to be considered, but also the supply of certain accessories—energizcrs or detonators, whatever may prove to be their function. In practice the path of safety for all farm animals lies in a reasonably mixed diet, which includes some proportion of uncooked green food. Pigs and poultry have not in-

frequently been sufferers from diets insufficiently supplied with vitamines.

Animal Breeding —Although in 1921 such progress had not yet been made with the very complex subject of animal breeding as to enable economic results to be obtained similar to those which had accrued in plant breeding, still the ground was being prepared by certain initial investigations for the mode of inheritance of some of the desiderated qualities in domestic animals, ¢.g. sizc, prolificacy, quality of wool, etc. a Punnett, for example, in England has thrown some light on the inheritance of size in fowls and rabbits, and again on the inheritance

of fur, but by far the most important work in this direction has been done by Pearl in Pennsylvania. In studying the inheritance of milk

yields he has first of all endeavoured to obtain a single figure characterizing the performance of a cow, a sort of index number. By a study of commercial milk records he has constructed a type curve showing the variation in milk gen for a cow during successive calvings, whereby if its milk yield in any one year 1s known this figure

can be corrected to give the milk yield in the standard year used for comparison. A similar type curve can be constructed for the period of a lactation, whereby the yield for the whole period can be deduced from the yield ascertained during a particular month or less.

Having thus obtained characteristic hgures for cows, Pearl was in a

position to compare the performances of cows with their offspring by different bulls. By tabulating all such comparisons obtainable with regard to a particular bull a characteristic mark is obtained for the bull. Some bulls are found always to bring about an increase in the milk production of the daughter over the dam; other bulls which had a great repute in their day and a fine record in the show yard equally invariably gave progeny yielding Icss milk than their dams. The

75

land in the United Kingdom amounted to nearly 24,000,000 ac., and this had become by 1914 little more than 19,000,000 acres. The loss had been expericnced chiefly in England and Wales, where the shrinkage had been nearly 4,000,000 ac., from 14,943,000 to 10,998,o00acres. Thisrepresentsa great decline in the gross production of food, because it has been abundantly demonstrated that an acre of medium land under grass does produce only about one-third of the meat or milk that can be obtained from the same land if it is put under the plough and the crops are con-

sumed by stock. Moreover, whenever thereis a definite shortage of food the production of meat is in itself a wasteful process, from seven to ten pounds of real food being consumed by the animal in making one pound of food in the shape of meat or milk. The only gain in meat production is that the animal is able to convert coarse fodder like straw and waste materials like millers’ offals into human food, but an animal like a pig, which is largely fed upon barley and maize meal, equally edible by human. beings, becomes definitely wasteful of the resources of the country when a real food scarcity is declared. The comparison between the productiveness of grass and arable land may perhaps be illus-

trated most markedly by a consideration of the potato crop. An average yield of potatocs in England is about 6} tons per ac.,

which represents over 2,000 lb. of dry food when all allowances

have been made for waste. Under grass the same land would not produce more than 120-150 lb. of meat, z.e. about roo Ib. of dry food, or 160 gal, of milk, z.e. 170 Ib. of dry food. Nor does the animal food, pound for pound of dry matter, possess more than a slight superiority over the potatocs in its power of maintaining human beings. Before ihe War.—Roughly speaking, in the years immediately preceding the World War the United Kingdom was only producing about 42% of the food consumed by its people. The greater portion had to be imported, and this applied particularly to wheat of which only about one-fifth of the normal consump-~ tion was produced at home. This dependence of the nation upon external supplies of food was its great weakness revealed by the war. Not only was there the danger that the German submarine campaign might prove successful and force submission by starvation, but, even as it was, the country’s effort was hampered by the necessity of allocating to food supply so large a proportion of the available tonnage necded for other purposes and of employing part of the naval strength to protect 11. Again, the purchasing power and credit of the country were continually

impaired by the enormous sums spent abroad for food. The external food bill amounted to over {220,000,000 4 year

value of this work in connexion with milk recording and breeding

before the war, and during its latter stages this had risen to three times that sum. The enemy was not slow to realize that this was Britain’s vulncrable spot. The attack failed, but the economic

award being based upon the milk tests of the bull's progeny. The

consequences pressed grievously upon Great Britain after the war. The recovery of Britain was deferred by the enormous

is evident; indeed in Denmark for some years the underlying principle has been appreciated in that prizes are offered.for bulls, the difficulty attaching to the application of these results lies in the disinclination of farmers to retain bulls for service for more than two or three years; they are cast before there is any opportunity of testing the milk-producing quality of their offspring. (A. I). IT.)

II. ADMINISTRATION AND LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

purchases it must continue to make abroad in order to keep its people fed, and ihe sacrifices it must make in order to maintain the foreign exchange at a high level in order to meet these purchases.

It had often been argued that in case of emergency the grass lands of Britain constituted a great reserve of fertility which As was inevitable, the World War gave rise in all countries to could be drawn upon for the growth of corn and other crops, a great body of emergency enactments and temporary legisla- but when the occasion came it was proved how little of this tion affecting agriculture. Beyond these, however, the years rescrve was immediately available. Neither the men nor the 1917-21 saw a large volume of legislation which aimed at the

reorganization of agriculture in Great Britain, and also inaugurated a definite agricultural policy, the main features of which found expression in the Corn Production Act of 1917 and the Agriculture Act of 1920. The principles underlying these Acts first were set out in the report of the commission appointed in tors under Lord Milner, and still more fully in the report of the sub-committee of the Reconstruction Committee under the chairmanship of Lord Selborne, Briefly, these committees found that the position of the United Kingdom had, as demonstrated by the war, fallen into great insecurity in consequence of the neglect of agriculture which had been going on during the previous 4o years. In 1872 the arable

horses, not even the buildings or the implements, required for arable farming, existed any longer, All the inertia of the farming community came into play against conversion, and despite the efforts of the Statc, armed with compulsory powers, proffering

compensation against loss and assisting with fertilizers, seeds and machines, less than a further 2,000,000 ac. of grass land got broken up during the fateful years of 1917 and 1918. Once the art and means of arable farming have been lost, it is only slowly and at great expense that they can be improvised. Concurrently with the decline in the production from British land in consequence of the conversion from arable into grass there had been a corresponding decrease in the agricultural population, which in England and Wales alone had fallen from

AGRICULTURE

76

1,260,371 in 1871 to 951,674 in 1901, though by rozz it had again risen somewhat, to 1,002,743.

This reduction of the agricultural community was not to be viewed with equanimity.

A population dependent entirely upon

manufactures gives rise to an unstable State, subject to violent fluctuations of prosperity because the causes that determine

employment are apt to affect all industries simultancously, Politically a country population is more sober and cautious, just as it is healthier and more reproductive and both physically and temperamentally better fitted for steady enduring work. Jt was these two motives then that led to the legislation under review—the desire to ensure a greater production, of food and the

better cultivation of British land, and the desire to increase the

rurak population, neither of which could be attained if the old laissez faire policy were persisted in.

New British Policy —What had been the origin of the danger-

ous situation in which the nation found itself in r914? Taking extent of the arable land as an index, the high-water mark of English. agriculture was reached in 1872, The later seventies were marked by bad seasons culminating in the disastrous experience of 1879. At the same time rapid progress was being made with the opening up of the American prairies for. corn-

growing and with the cheapening of ocean freights. This was a

period of immense, expansion, in the new lands of the world; it saw the growth of the Middle West both in the United States and Canada, the agricultural settlement of the Argentine and

other South American lands, the development of Australian wheat-growing areas and the commercial exploitation of

southern Russia. As a consequence, prices of the great agricultural commodities, corn and meat, fell rapidly and con-

tinuously during the eighties and ninctics, Wheat from an aver-

age of 54s. 8d. per qr. in 1871-5 fell to 228. rod. in 1894; the average return per acre on an arable farm for both corn and meat, estimated at 165s. in the first period, dropped to about roos. between 1894 and sooo. As the rate of wages rose during the

period and no great compensating factor was at work (other

than the perfecting of the sclf-bindcr, which had made wheat-

growing for export possible in the new countries), British farming was unable to adjust itsclf with suflicient rapidity to the vastly diminished returns. The great depression resulted in. the ruin

one answer from every man who loves his country. We must go forward. How is it to be done? You must have a settled policy with

regard to agriculture.

The first condition is security to the cultiva-

tor: security in the first place against ruin through the violent fluctuations of foreign agriculture.”

Acts of 1917, 1919, 1920.—The method by which this security . was given in the “Corn Production Act” of 1917 and the “ Agriculture Act ” of 1919 embodies a novel principle. Instead of a protective duty, which enhances the price to the consumer, a bounty was given to the producer if the avcrage market price of wheat or oats fell below certain guaranteed figures. In the Corn Production Act certain guaranteed prices were set down for six years ahead, but at that time it was vain Lo make forecasts of the trend of prices, and actually none of the guarantecs then given, ever came into operation. By the Agriculture Act of 1920 basal priccs of 68s. for wheat and 46s. for oats were taken for the

year 1919, and commissioners were appointed who were charged to determine from year to year how far the average costs of production of wheat and oats had changed in that year from those of the basal year roro, whereupon the guaranteed figure of 68s. or 46s. was varied in like proportion. Jf for example the commissioners found that in 1923 the cost of production of a

quarter of wheat was on the average 20% less than in 1910, the price guaranteed by the Act would become 54s. 5d. Should then the average price actually obtaincd by farmers, as ascertained

by the official corn market returns [rom Sept. 1 to March 31, amount to 52s. rid. and thus leave a difference of 1s. 6d. per quarter between the guaranteed and realized price, the Government would be liable to pay 1s. 6d. per quarter on all the wheat produced. But since the verification of the actual quantities grown presents great administrative difficulties the crop is assumed to be 4 qr. to the acre, and the undertaking of the Act was to pay four times the difference between the average realized price and the guarantee on every acre of wheat grown, five times the difference in the case of oats, on the assumption of an average crop of s qr. to the acre. It will be scen that the pay-

ments made to any Individual were independent of the actual price he happened to obtain for his particular sample. The normal course of trade is not interfered with and the grower gets the benefit of any superiority of quality or favourable markct conditions he may possess, The guarantees were confined to wheat and oats, not so much to increase the specific production of those cereals as to encourage arable farming, since one or both of these crops formed an inevitable part of every rotation in the United Kingdom.

of a large proportion of the old farmers, in a wholesale loss of capital, and, worst of all, in an entire loss of confidence in an industry that had ccased to control the priccs of its main products. The industry met the situation by a drastic reduction of expenditure and the conversion of arable land into grass on Inevitably the State was involved in a considerable liability in which the labour bill was small. The process was aided by the, any year in which a break in prices might occur after harvest but in continued development of the milk trade. From 1900 onwards which the costs of production had not been affected. These are, the course of prices turned upwards—the world’s population

was growing up to the food supply, and the new farming adjusted to the changed conditions began to become steadily prosperous.

But the memory of the great depression remained, confidence was small and capital mistrustful. Mcn hesitated to adventure their money in a business which was liable to a break of prices such as had occurred within all too recent a date. Such were the conditions that had led to the dependence of the nation upon forcign food and particularly upon foreign corn; hence the object of the policy was to give the arable-land farmer security that he should not in future be subjected to a devastating break in prices such as had occurred in the cighties and nineties of the

last century. With this security in the background it was thought the current conditions would be favourable cnough to bring about an extension of the arable area. As the Prime Minister said in his famous speech to agriculturists in Oct. 1919:— “The Agricultural industry is the greatest industry in the State.

It ought therefore to be a primary concern of every Government and of every Statesman to do what in them lies to promote that industry. I regret to say that in no civilized country has the State done so little during the last generation to foster agriculture. I hope that record will now be rolled up and that there will begin a new era in the

relations of the State with the greatest and the most important of its

industries . . . The question is ‘ Are we going back to the dismal pre-war conditions or are we merely going to maintain the progress which has been made?’ Are we not going further? There can be but

however, precisely the occasions dreaded by the farmer mindful of the past, and the Act was designed to give the farmer such assistance as might save him from ruin, though it would not provide a profit, The State, however, only accepted this liability in order to bring about an increase of production; it recognized an obligation towards agriculturists, but on the other hand it required that the Jand should be put to proper use. In the Corn Production Act the Board of Agriculture was given power to enforce proper cultivation where the rules of good husbandry were being neglected and also to dictate the mode of cultivation or the use to which the land should be put for

the purpose of increasing the production of food in the national

interest. In case of failure to comply with the directions the Board

could cause the owner to terminate the tenancy, or, if the occupier

were the owner, could enter itself and cultivate.

These somewhat drastic provisions, which were exercised under

the Defence of the Realm Act during the war, were strongly opposed by both owners and occupiers and became greatly modified when the Agriculture Act of 1920 replaced the Corn Production Act. Practically under the new Act the powers of the Ministry of Agriculture were limited to the enforcement of cultivation according to the

rules of good husbandry.

Where an estate is grossly mismanaged to such an extent as to

prejudice materially the production of food thereon or the welfare of

persons engaged in the cultivation of the estate, the minister may, after holding a public inquiry, appoint some person to act as receiver and manager of the whole or a portion of the estate, an appeal being allowed to the High Court. The Ministry's powers were delegated to cultivation sub-committees of the al committees

of the county councils which had been set up by the Ministry of Agriculture Act of 1919.

There was, however, another public interest to be considered—

AGRICULTURE the condition of the labourers engaged upon the land,

In order

to give them security the Corn Production Act, whose provisions were renewed in the Agriculture Act, provided for the setting up of: an agricultural wages board, empowered to fix minimum rates

of wage for persons engaged in agricultural work, no such rate to be Jess than 255. a week for able-bodied men. The wages board con-

sisted of an cqual number

of representatives of employers and

workmen, together with certain appointed members nominated by the Board (Ministry) of Agriculture, District wages committees were set up for administration of the Act within their arcas, and these committees proposed local rates of wage and incidental regulations regarding their area for the confirmation of the central wages board.

As the setting up of the wages board coincided with a time of rapidly advancing wages in all industries the minimum rates of wage were

repeatedly advanced under its orders. amounted

In June 1921 the lowest rate

to 43s. 6d. per week of 52 hours in summer and 48 in

winter, and this rate prevailed in the English countics where the average rate of wages before the war was not more than 15s. An incidental result of the wage regulation was the practical abolition of all allowances which in many parts of the country were made to

labourers in lieu of cash, e.g. milk, potatoes, bacon, coal, etc. Ar deduction may still be made for cottages but the amount of deduc-

tion allowable is fixed by the wages board and may not exceed 3s. a week. It may be noted that with one or two comparatively small exceptions the minimum wage regulations succeeded in avoiding strikes in the agricultural industry during a period in which labour

conditions were very disturbed.

The Corn Production Act, and in its turn the Agriculture Act, thus represent a definite attempt on the part of the State to frame a constructive policy for agriculture in the national interest. The two maiù interests concerned, the farmers and the labourers, were given

some security of a return for their work, the State obtained increased production and some control over the use of the land. Should it prove, however, that even with guaranteed prices the occupiers of land were not responding by an increase of production to any payments made by ihe State under the guarantees, the purpose of the Act would be unfulfilled. To meet this the Act gave the Ministry power by Order in Council to give four years’ notice of the determi-

nation of its powers under Part J. of the Act, which

the system of guarantees,

tion of wages.

dealt with

the control of cullivation and the regula-

It should be noted that the Agriculture Act contemplated the delegation of the powers of the Ministry to control cultivation to committees of the county agricultural committces which were set up by the Ministry of Agriculture Act of 1919. This was a continua-

tion of the procedure adopted during the war, when the Board of Agriculture appointed county executive committees in order to carry out the orders under the Defence of the Realm Act for the increase of food production. The second part of the Agriculture Act of 1920 also contained a series of provisions amending considerably the Agricultural Holdings Acts, The main feature of this legislation entitles a tenant who is given notice to quit to compensation for disturbance. This compensation amounts

to one year's rent, or, if greater, to the proved

loss and expenses incurred in quitting the holding, up to a maximum of two years’ rent. Compensation is not payable to a tenant who was not cultivating his holding according to the rules of good husbandry, or who hac failed to comply with an order to pay arrears of rent or to repair a breach of covenant. The landlord may also demand that the question of the rent payable for the hokling shall be submitted to arbitration and if the tenant refuses to agree to this demand may then give him notice to quit without compensation for disturbance. Vhe Agriculture Act applied to Great Britain only, and the procedure of the Corn

Production

Act in setting up an

agricultural wages board for England and Wales was somewhat modified as regards Scotland and Ireland. In 1919 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act was passed, which, besides changing the title of the Board of Agriculture, set up a

council of agriculture for England and Wales, partly elective and

partly representative, which should meet at least twice a year for

the purpose of discussing matters of public interest relating to agriculture and of making representations to the minister. From these councils are selected the members of the Agricultural Advisory Commitice, which has the duty of advising the Ministry on all matters (except as regards fishing) relating to the exercise of the powers of the Ministry. These two bodies resemble in many respects the Council and Board of Agriculture in Ireland, though neither

of them possesses that control over expenditure which the Board of

Agriculture in Ireland can exercise over the expenditure of the endowment fund enjoyed by the Department of Agriculture in Ireland. The Act also provides for the setting up by the county council in each county and in certain county boroughs of an agricultural committee,

‘hese committees must set up sub-committees to

deal with small holdings and allotments, with the powers to regulate

cultivation delegated to them by the Ministry under the Corn Production and Agriculture Acts, and with drainage under the Land

Drainage Act of 1918. This committee may also, by the direction of the county council and with the concurrence of the Board of

Education, take over from the Education Committee the control of agricultural education.

77

Land drainage for gencrations has been the subject of Iegislation,

but it was evident that existing powers were inadequate to provide for the efficient management of the drainage of the majority of the

river basins of England and Wales. In many areas there was a multiplication of authoritics, many of whom possessed insufficient rating powers to be able to carry out works falling within their area but vital to the whole river basin. In other cases the area was inadequate or the existing commissioners of sewers failed to execute their duties. ‘The Drainage Acts of 1914 and 1918 gave the Ministry of Agriculture powers to make orders constituting drainage districts,

altering the boundaries of existing drainage arcas or enlarging their powers of levying rates or borrowing. The Ministry may also act itself in default of any drainage authority or may delegate its powers to a committee of the county council or councils of the area concerned, though its power of executing any such work of drainage and

of recovering from the owners affected is limited to schemes costing not more than £5,000. By means of these Acts and of the Defence of the Realm Act powers possessed by the county executive committees, much valuable work had been accomplished by 1921 in cleaning out the smaller watercourses and improving the drainage of many minor areas subject to flood or unfertile because of waterlogging. Larger schemes exist for dealing comprehensively with important arcas like the Ouse basin, which embraces some of the most valuable land in the Fens, but these schemes are likely to remain in abeyance

while ans difficulties of financial stringency and high cost of labour prevail, One of the heaviest tasks which was assigned to the Board of

Agriculture at the close of the war was the settlement upon the land of such ex-service men as desired holdings and could show their

suitability to occupy land. Under the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1908 county councils had been empowered to purchase land and equip it for small holdings, but it was necessary that the schemes they framed for this purpose should show a reasonable

prospect of being self-supporting on the rents that could be expected. ft was evident, however, at the close of rgr8 that [ttle setttement of ex-service men could be effected upon such terms. Not only had the

price of land, especially of Jand suitable.to small holders, increased

very largely, but the cost of buildings, equipment and adaptation, necessary in the majority of cases before a small holder can be placed

upon the land, had grown to three or four times its pre-war magnitude. No such rents could be charged as would make the small holdings pay, nor could county councils be expected to burden their rates with the losses that would accrue if the holdings were let at

reasonable rents. Accordingly, by the Land Settlement Act of 1919, the State accepted this Hability and allotted a sum of £20,000,000 for

the provision of holdings for ex-sarvice men. The Act retained the county councils as the agencies for the provision of small holdings, and strengthened their powers to acquire land compulsorily for the purpose by purchase or by hiring, In the main the {20,000,000 mentioned above has been lent to the county councils in order to enable

them to acquire land and adapt it for letting as small holdings. The county councils could not take up such loans, did not the Act further empower the Ministry for seven years after the passing of the Act to pay'to the county councils any losses they had incurred in the provision of holdings under approved schemes. The loss each year consists of the excess of the loan charges over receipts for rent together with administrative expenses. Then on April I 1926 a

valuation is to be made of all the land acquired by county councils

under the Small Holdings Act, and this valuation will be compared

with the habilities incurred by the council.

The Ministry will then

assume the responsibility of paying such portion of the loan charges due from the council as represented the excess of Jiabilities over the

valuation.

Finally the councils will be left as owners of the small

holdings that have been set up, with only such charges to meet as

might reasonably be acca to be covered by the rents in the then conditions of the land market. By the end of May 1921 some 34,000 applications for holdings had been received in England and Wales alone, 29,000 of which had been approved by the county councils; 277,000 ac. of land had been acquired, and 15,000 men had already been placed upon it. Slow as this progress may at first sight appear it has to be remembered that Jand cannot be acquired at short notice nor Sitting tenants displaced except at the cost of burdening the scheme with impossible charges

for compensation. The work of building and adaptation had also had to be carried out under the most difficult and burdensome conditions, at a time when

both labour and materials. of all kinds

were abnormally deficient. Inthe great majority of cases the holding created wag inevitably uneconomic, in the sense that the capital outlay on land, buildings and roads, fencing and other incidentals,

cannot be repaid by the rents which can be paid under anything like existing conditions, The total cost of the scheme to the State, ie. the expenditure that would have to be written off as not represented

by the market value of the resulting holdings, can only be estimated,

but seemed likely to amount to about £8,000,000. Undoubtedly the State accepted a very heavy financial responsibility in this scheme of land settlement for ex-service men, but it had to be taken as a

P repayment of the debt due from the State to the men who ought for it. As part of the national policy they were promised access to the land, and the conditions prevailing at the close of the war made it impossible to redeem that promise except at a loss.

AGRICULTURE

78

Education and Research,—From. the administrative point of. view the chief advance effected during 1900~20 was the organiza-_ tion throughout the United Kingdom of a scheme of agricultural education and research, State assistance to agricultural educa-

tion may be-said to have begun with the Technical Instruction| Act of 1889, but organized rescarch remained practically unprovided for until the setting up of the Development Commission in 1908. The scheme then adopted was furthered by the allocation of fresh funds for the purpose after the end of the war,

and most of the institutions contemplated were at work in 1921. The essential feature of the scheme is the provision of institutes,

each dealing with a particular aspect of the subject and as a

In Scotland three such colleges are attached to the universities

of Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Glasgow; in England there are departments of agriculture attached to the universities of Durham (Newcastle), Leeds, Cambridge, Reading (Oxford), and in addition

four residential agricultural colleges—the Harper Adams College at

Newport, Salop; the South-Eastern Agricultural College at Wye, Kent; the Midland College at Sutton Bonington and the Seale

Hayne College at Newton Abbot, Devon.

In Wales the University

Colleges of Bangor and Aberystwyth maintain similar agricultural departments, In ireland higher instruction in agriculture is given

at the Royal College of Science in Dublin and the Albert Agricutturat College at Glasnevin, while there are professors of agriculture at the Queen’s Universities of Cork and Belfast. i Intermediate education in agriculture is in'Scotland organized by

the agricultural colleges through extension lecturers attached to the various Counties. In England and Wales the county councils are The State exercises no direct control over the nature | the responsible authorities, and the Ministry of Agriculture pro-

rule associated with a university possessing an agricultural department.

an agricultural organizer for each county and gives assistance of the investigations conducted, other than the sanction ac- vides towards the setting up of a farm institute, intended to give instruccompanying its annual contribution, which is in the nature of a. tion by means of short courses for the sons of farmers, etc., who grant in aid. General policy is also reviewed at the mectings of a cannot Ieave the farm for the long periods demanded by the agri‘cultural colleges. In Ircland intermediate instruction in agriculture research council composed of the directors of the institutes and given at the Munster Institute, Cork, the Ulster Dairy School and officials of the Government departments concerned. ‘The staff is the four regional agricultural stations at Athenry, Ballyhaise, Clonof the research institutes are not civil servants but are engaged akilty and Strabane. by the respective governing bodies; the State docs, however, proSteady progress has been made in all parts of the United Kingdom vide for a stated scale of salaries with increments and superan- in the schemes for the improvement of live stock, by the dissemination among the smaller farmers of improved sires. In Ireland, where nuation allowances, The annual expenditure on the scheme the scheme came into operation in 1911, premiums, to which both the amounted to {140,000 for England and Wales for the year 1921~ Department and the local authorities contribute, are given towards

2, and to £5,400 for Scotland for the same period, but the Irish

expenditure cannot so easily be differentiated from the other commitments of the Department of Agriculture. The Experimental

Station at Rothamsted,

the oldest in the

world, has been greatly enlarged and developed as the Institute of

Research in problems of soil and plant nutrition, to which has recently been added a second institute dealing with plant pathology,

embracing entamology, mycology and helminthology. At Cambridge is situated the main institute for research in animal nutrition, and a

the purchase of approved bulls and other sires, and the success of

the scheme is manifest in the improvement effected in the quality of the store cattle exported for fattening to Great Britain,

In

England and Wales farmers are encouraged to form socicties for the purchase of a bull or the hire of a stallion, and a grant is made towards the cost of the sire, whicly in the case of a bull may not excced {20 or one-third of its cost. The work of forming societies for recording the milk yield of the cows of the members has been vigorously prosecuted, and the growth of the movement is shown by the fact that 637 cows obtained certificates in 1915 and 16.211 in

At Cambridge, also, investigations have been made dealing

with animal-breeding fram the genetic side and with problems of

1921, The high prices obtained for recorded cows and their progeny show the value that farmers attach to milk records. III. Tue War PERIOD

reproduction, and the plan was to draw all these threads together so

For a long time after the declaration of war no special effort

second station also cxists in connexion with the university of Aberdeen.

as to make at Cambridge 4h institute dealing broadly with animal was made in the United Kingdom to develop agriculture and husbandry in all its aspects, , l , Research in dairying problems is provided for by an institute in increase production of food. A measure to prevent the slaughterconnexion with the University College at Reading; and a second . ing of calves and pregnant animals was passed in ror4, but no station was projected in 1921 in connexion with the Agricultural other legislative action was taken until the close of r916. Pro-

College at Glasgow. The plant-breeding station and institute proper are situated at Cambridge; a second station, specializing mainly on grasses, clovers and fodder crops appropriate to the moister climates of the west, is associated with the University College at Aberystwyth; and a third station was planned in 1921 in Scotland. ‘Che commercial development of the products of the plant-brecders is provided for by the National Institute of Agricultural Botany, which has also:

recently been set up at Cambridge largely by contributions: from

trade sources. Research in fruit-prowing problems is dealt with by an institute

associated with the university of Bristol (Long Ashton) and.a second station situated at East Malling in Kent, further sub-stations being

in contemplation at Cambridge for the eastern counties fruit district

and elsewhere.

The Bristol centre also deals with cider-making and

with the various processes of fruit preservation, 10 which end a small commercial factory is maintained at Chiming Camden.

The Imperial College of Science in London maintains an institute for work in problems of plant physiology, utilizing for its experimental cultures various institutions near London, such as Rothamsted, the Lea Valley. Experimental Station which deals with glass-house problems, the East Malling Fruit Station, and the Experimental Gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Wisley. Men. tion should also be made of the John Innes Horticultural Institute at Merton, which under Mr, W. Bateson deals mainly with. genetic

problems, though this institution derives its income entirely from trust funds. Schemes for dealing with research on problems of agricultural

posals which had been made, such as those of the Milner Committee, to guarantec a price for wheat or to give other bounties on production, were turned down on the broad principle that any

interference with the free play of the market would impair the

confidence of the trader and reduce importation to a greater

degree than the increase in production. In r9rs in response to the general fecling farmers had increased their acreage of wheat by 430,000 ac, and of oats by 200,000, but this increase had chiefly been attained at the expense of the barley crop, for there

had been no increase in the total extent of land under the plough. In 1916, however, the wheat area went back by 280,000 ac., and a low yield per acre was obtained. The potato crop also was much below average. It may be noted here that, speaking gencrally, except in the magnificent harvest of 1914, the seasons during the World War were very adverse to arable cultivation,

being characterized by wet sording‘timnes and harvests, with spring droughts. It was not until 1917-8 that there was a favourable autummn and spring for sowing, but that promise was belied by a disastrous harvest-time for all the western and northern parts of the kingdom, with rains so heavy and protracted

that no inconsidcrable proportion of the corn crops were never

harvested. Intensified Production.—It was not until the close of 1916 that | ly concerned with research is the laboratory maintained by the any action was taken to stimulate production. By that time the Ministry of Agriculture. effects of the enemy interference with the free play of the market he complete scheme also provided an annual sum for grants in aid of particular investigations set on foot by individuals who might and the indifferent output began to be apparent in rapidly rising prices for all the prime food products—corn, potatoes, meat and not be attached to a research institute, and again for postgraduate scholarships in order to ensure a supply of properly trained workers. milk. At the same time the withdrawal of labour from agriculHigher instruction in agriculture is provided for by agricultural ture was bringing about a still. further diminution in the area colleges, which as a rule are attached to one of the local universities and have a distinet regional responsibility as to the provision of under wheat, of which at the close of ro1Q@ it was estimated that information and technical advice to farmers occupying land in the 15% less had been sown than at the corresponding season in the area allocated to the college. preceding year. The appointment of a Royal Commission on machinery and again with veterinary science were under consideration in 1921. As regards the latter subject the only institution main-

AGRICULTURE

79

Wheat Supplies, which assamed complete control of the purchases acreage without consideration of the character of the land. But of wheat and the operations of the milling trade, was followed by the mistakes made, if one is- to judge by the mass of the results the appointment of a Food Controller and a promise in Dec. of afterwards realized upon the broken-up land, affected but a small certain guaranteed prices for wheat, oats and potatoés. At this. proportion of the land ordered to be put under the plough. The time Rowland Prothero (afterwards Lord Ernlc) had become opposition both of occupiers and owners to the plough policy President of the Board of Agriculture, and he proceeded to sct must be set down to the grass-land tradition, which the great up a Food Production Department which would take charge of a depression of 1880-1900 had so firmly impressed on English national effort to obtain more food from the land. To this agriculture. department came as chief Sir Arthur Lee (afterwards Lord Lee None the less the programme was adhered to, and, aided by of Farcham), | favourable weather in the winter and spring of 1917-8, a reThe policy adopted aimed at obtaining an increased acreage markable increase in the cultivated area was achieved. The of arable land and as large a proportion of wheat and other| disturbed state of Ircland prevented the realization of the plans bread corn as possible. Success depended upon the coöperation which had been formed for a still further increase of g% in the of the farmers, upon securing additional labour and upon assisting cultivated area. The tables show what was actually obtained the farmer to obtain supplies of all kinds—horses, tractors, secds | in each of the three countries. and manures,

England a and Wales

The first step was to set up War Agricultural Committces in each of the counties of England, Wales and Scotland; in Ireland the existing statutory County Council Committees on

Agriculture were available for the same purpose.

In England

smaller executive committees were afterwards appainted, to whom were entrusted in the main the special powers which had been conferred by D.O.R.A. on the Board of Agriculture. District committees, and even In some cases parish committecs, were further appointed. The staffs required for the executive

Arable land Wheat Barley an Oats . Potatoes

to the plough land of that country. While this was going on during the spring of 1917 the county

= .

All crops other than temporary grasses

and fallow

committees were made up from the county council staffs and

officers of the Land Valuation Department and Inland Revenue, while district commissioners appointed by the central department for small groups of two or more counties served to bind the whole organization. As it was already Jan. 1917 before the Food Production Department was sct up, it was impossible to effect much increase in the crops of that year, and in practically all cases it was obtained by voluntary response to the appeal for greater production. In England and Wales a further 286,000 ac, were put under the plough; the increase in wheat was 50,000 ac., in oats 616,000 ac. and in potatocs 220,000 acres. Scotland, having suffered less loss of arable land in the generation prior to the war, had smaller opportunities for reconversion from grass into arable, but added some 50,000 ac. to the plough land. In Ireland, however, the greatest extension was. possible because of the much smaller draft that had been made on its man-power. An Order in Council was made requiring all Irish occupiers of more than to ac. to add 10% to their area under tillage, except in cases where the arable already amounted to §0% of the total cultivable area of the farm, and this. resulted in an addition of nearly 650,000 ac.

T914 IQIÓ IQI7 1913 ) ac. ac. ac ~ |10,998,254)11,051,101/ 11,246, 106/12 San 640 ee 1,507,498 1,912,208 1,918,485 2,550,001 + 4 1,504,771! 1,332,076| 1,459,796, 1,500,809 © } 1,929,626] 2,084,674] 2,258,909) 2,780,063 461,621; 427,945! 507,987) . 633,532

.

8,276,166) 8,038,905] 8.391.263! 9,894,695 Scotland

Arable land > Wheat eo‘ Barley. Oats.

.

| ror} ac.

>

|

1916 ac.

|

1917 ac,

1918 ac.

j3295. 487| 3,303, ee 3,360,562 | 3,453,495 60,521| 63,08 3 60,931 79,062 194,309] 169,739] 159,135 | 152,835

o‘

1

|

a

919,580]

Potatoes All crops other than

990,589 | 1,041,343 | 1,243,823

152,318 | 130,119]

147,717]

169,497

temporary grasses

and fallow

|

1,806,350 | 1,815,217 | 1,866,575 2,09 4,376

Ireland

1914 |F016| sory S

ac. ac. ac. 5,027,082 | 5,050,234 | 5,046,008 | 5,270,615

36,913 | 76,438}

172,289 1,028,758

All crops other than temporary grasses and fallow l

a D

124,082 o

583,069

executive Committces with the help of their district committees carried out a survey from farm to farm which revealed in all too many cases into what a state of neglect the land had been allowed

to fall. Notices were served calling for improved cultivation, and in the worst cases the tenancies were determined, the cxecutive committees either approving a new tenant, or taking the

Oats:

coe

oe

Potatoes . : All crops other than

iBJE,"169 I ‘GSI,878 1,796, 066)

1,838,356

3,877 964 H: 856] 4,763,989] 5,603,423

land under their own control. The central department framed a temporary grasses programme for 1918 which provided for the ploughing-up in and fallow 12,410, 268112,254,450]13,2¢ England and Wales of 2,000,000 ac. of permanent grass as com- pared with 1916, and in Scotland of 350,000 acres. A quota was | Speaking roughly, about 40% more grain was produced in fixed for each county, bascd upon such considerations as the area 1918 than in 1916, and if the potato crop is also taken into acwhich had been converted from arable into grass land since 1872, count the 1918 crops represent a saving in tonnage (and shipping the cxisting proportion of arable in the county, the labour still was the limiting factor in the prosecution of the war at that time) upon the land, etc. Each county in its turn divided its quota of 2,600,000 tons, Results would have been even better had it among districts and eventually among the parishes and the in- not been for the disastrous harvest weather, which caused the dividual] farms, orders fo plough certain ficlds being served upon total loss of something like 5% of the grain crop, and rendered the occupiers. These “ ploughing orders ” in many cases excited even more unfit for any other purpose than cattle-fecding. The violent opposition, and sustained attacks were made upon the Department on the specious plea that ignorant officials were ordering grass land, which was providing meat and milk, to be converted into plough land which would yield nothing. Time considerations alone permitted of no appeal from the order of the committees, who had perhaps acted in some cases on the

principle of making every man do a share proportional to his

occurrence of so continuous a succession of heavy rains was naturally regarded by the opponents of “ ploughing up” as a justification of their adhesion to grass. It did indeed put an end

to the plans which had been made for a further extension of the arable urea in 191g. Work on most farms had fallen badly into arrears, and land had become foul and weedy, so that it seemed

preferable to concentrate the available labour on the existing *

AGRICULTURE

80

tillage land rather than to attempt to increase its area in the face of the gencral opposition of the agricultural community. Labour Suppiy.—Turning now to the means by which this increased production was realized in war-time, the prime difficulty experienced was the lack of labour. Grass Jand had often been described as a reserve of fertility that in case of need could be

converted into crops, but this view had ignored the facts that laying down to grass is accompanied by the permanent loss of men and horses, implements and even buildings. When the need

comes tillage cannot be resumed machinery are no longer there.

at pleasure; the men and

In Jan. 1917, when the food

production campaign began, the 800,000 men employed in agriculture in 1914 had fallen to 562,000, andas about 180,000 of these were of military age and Iresh drafts were urgently needed for the army, some new sources of labour had to be tapped. The operations of voluntary recruiting, and the action of local tribunals in granting exemptions, had produced very uncqual results;

the castern and home counties, for example, had parted with a much larger proportion of their men to the colours. For a time in ror7 the calling-up of men from farms was suspended,

but the spring offensive of 1918 resulted in a fresh call for 30,000 Grade 1 men from agriculture, 22,600 being actually called up. Meantime, however, the War Office rendercd great assistance by the release of men on home service for short periods when the call for labour was greatest. In the spring of 1917, 21,000 ploughmen were lent for two months, together with about an

than 100,000 before the war. Some assistance was given to these workers by the supply of boots and other outfit for farm work. Considerable camps were also formed of college students for temporary labour in the harvests of 1917 and 1918, and these women did excellent service in flax-pulling and other seasonal operations, But the chief effort was to provide a mobile force of women’s labour from sources that did not usually furnish land workers, and at the beginning of 1917 the Women’s Land Army was organized. The recruits weré very carefully examined for fitness; indeed, something like 75 % of the first 47,000 who voluntecred were rejected, though by 1918 a considerable improvement in the material coming forward. became manifest. Most of the women had to be trained, even if only for a few weeks, and in addition to the facilitics provided by certain agricultural colleges and farm schools, over 600 special training centres were established. A minimum wage was laid down, at first 18s. and

later 20s. a weck, and in addition an. outfit of the necessary clothes was provided. Depots had also to be established where the women who were waiting for empleyment or temporarily unengaged could be housed, and the women were eventually distributed between farm work, the Forage Department of the

War Office and the Timber Supply Department. At first considerable prejudice had to be overcome on the part of farmers, and again great difficulties were experienced in assuring proper accommodation for the women on the farms, but by the

winter of 1917-8 some 7,000 were at work, and the number in-

equal number of other men with some experience of the Jand or

creased to 16,000 in the harvest of 1918, until the workmanlike

of horses, and these men did much to render possible the first

costume of the landswomen, with their breeches and smock,

increase of tillage land. Though 18,000 of these men in Category A had to be returned to the army in May 1917, almost an equal number of men on home service were released for the harvest of

became a familiar feature of all country life in Fngland and

that year. Other men were furnished by the military authorities

Wales, On ihe whole these women proved of most. service as milkers and in charge of stock and horses, for which many of them showed a special aptitude. Others again developed into

during the autumn and winter, until in the spring of 1918 there were about 62,000 men working upon the land though nominally

very efficient drivers of motor tractors,

engaged on military service.

on service, the demand for whole-time women’s labour to a large

Assistance was also obtained from enemy prisoners-of-war. Early in ror8 prisoners at work in France, who were skilled

ploughmen and had other agricultural experience, were brought across and established in camps of from 25 to 4o for work upon farms throughout England. The first prejudice against the employment of these men was soon dissipated as their skill and willingness to work became apparent, and eventually a certain

number were even allowed to be housed upon farms without guards. As a rule these men were employed upon the Department’s ploughing contracts or drainage operations, or other work.

that would absorb a gang of men and minimize the number of guards required, In the great majority of cases the German prisoners did excellent work ‘and even came to be preferred by farmers to the local labour that had been left to them. Nor did any trouble arise over discipline; the tale is told of the guard who was brought back to camp helplessly drunk, supported by two

of his prisoners, with a third carrying his rifle. Various attempts were made to recruit civilian labour permanently and for special harvesting operations, but with little success.

The only valuable recruits that were obtained were the publicschool boys, some 4,500 to 5,000 of whom were formedinto camps for the harvest-and did service that was much appreciated, and again the camps of Boy Scouts, who in their turn did first-rate

work for the farmers with whom their camp was placed. A certain number of “ conscientious objectors ” were told off for agricultural work, but the feeling against them in most rural districts was too strong to permit of their employment, and such of them as were engaged in camps proved of little use. The greatest part of the accessory labour required in order to carry out the agricultural programme of 1917 and 1918, was provided by women. The supply was organized by the Women’s War Agricultural Committee in the counties and by the Women’s Branch of the Food Production Department. In the first place the employment for part or whole time of the women resident in ihe villages, who, in England at any rate, had largely ceased to work on the land, was revived, with the result that over a quarter of a million were at work in 1978 as compared with less

After the war and the return of the agricultural labourers extent disappeared. Moreover, a large proportion of the landswomen, especially the educated women, had taken on this kind of work for patriotic reasons, and had no call to the life of an agricultural labourcr, so that the Women’s Land Army was disbanded in toro and very few of the workers so recruited remained in r92r upon the land. Undoubtedly, however, a certain number of women whose circumstances permitted were led to take up farming as a profession, and the whole movement, over and above the indispensable work it actually accomplished at a critical time, led to the diffusion through the community of a much better understanding of agriculture and rural life. Tractors —After labour, the provision of implements and especially of tractors proved the main difficulty of the Food Production Department... At the outset, in the early spring of 1917, with the immense urgency of getting land ploughed forthwith for the harvest of that year, it was necessary to buy every and any tractor available. Something under 500 were at work in three months, together with about an equal number of privately owned tractors which were controlled by the Department in order to get a maximum of work out of them. The Department engaged the ploughmen and operated the tractors, a charge being made to the farmers of 15s, to 20s. per acre for ploughing and half that rate for cultivating. Naturally the service did not pay its way; many of the tractors were far from efficient, and with the limited training that had been possible the drivers were at first unable to get a good average acreage worked per day. As experience of the various types of tractors accumulated it was decided to concentrate the main effort on the production of

the Ford tractor, the specifications of which were placed by Henry Ford at the disposal of the Government. It was found possible neither to manufacture any of the British types nor to undertake the production of the Ford tractor in England, so entirely had British engincering works been turned over to the output of war material. Instead, orders were placed with Mr. Ford, and delivery began early in 1918. By the end of the year the Department was operating 4,200 tractors, despite the withdrawal of the large numbers of earlier types, and a further 3,000

AGRICULTURE -had been sold to farmers from the supplies ordered by the De"partment. In the year 1918 650,000 ac. were ploughed and 580,ooo ac. were cultivated by the Department’s tractors, and in many districts where the means for arable farming had run low

the ploughing programme could have been carried out in no‘other way. Nor was it the ploughing only that was forwarded; the difficult harvest of 1918 was in many cases only won through the capacity of the tractor to get the binders over a large acreage in a short time. Great as were the expenses attending the tractor programme, it was justified not only by the immediate results but by the education it afforded the British farmer in the use and value of mechanical traction, an education which might have required a gencration under peace conditions. In addition to tractors, the Department obtained sanction for the purchase of 30,000 horses, and formed gangs of tcams to work under the district committees in parts of the county

8I

the sources were diminishing had no governmental stimulus been applied and when most of the production would have gone for export with the relatively enormous prices that were ruling outside the United Kingdom. There has been but little recognition of the amount the British farmer gained from the control over fertilizers that was exercised from 1917 onwards, Little need be said about the steps that were taken to ensure

the supply of seeds and other articles of agricultural consumption. The most striking result was the way in which the great dearth of seed potatocs from the 1917 crop was met.

More than 15,000

tons of seed potatoes were distributed in England and Wales, and, above all, the newly-formed allotments that had been so eagerly taken up in that year were furnished with the seed potatoes they needed. The opportunity was taken carly in 1917 to enforce a declaration of germinating capacity and purity of all seeds sold;

and this action, necessitated at the time by the scarcity of material and the resulting commercial temptation to sell inwhere the programme of ploughing-up grass land was beyond ferior sced, so commended itself both to farmers and the trade the strength of the farmers themselves, The numbers purchased : that it was embodied in a permanent fashion in the Seeds Act were limited by the skilled ploughmen available to go with them, but something like 10,000 horses were working under the orders of 1920. Allotments.—In no respects perhaps was the Food Production of the Department at the end of 1918, and an equal number had been lent to farmers. The steam-ploughing tackle existing in the © Department more successful in helping out supplies than in the country was also organized, and the owners engaged to keep their stimulus and assistance it gave to the creation of allotment gardens, particularly in urban centres. The powers conferred machines at work not only through the winter but also overtime and on Sundays. Facilities were given for the manufacture of upon the Department by D.O.R.A., which were delegated to

further sets of tackle, until there were go more at work by the autumn of 1918. A very great share in the programme of extra cultivation was accomplished by the energy of the steam-tackle owners. Indeed, between their first mecting in March 1917 and the end of that year over 1,000,000 ac. of ploughing and cultivation had been accomplished,

and 23,000 ac. had been mole-

drained. The Department also purchased in America, and loaned or sold to farmers, large numbers of other implements, the manufacture of which in Great Britain had been to a large extent suspended in favour of munitions.

Something like 5,000 binders,

as many harrows and proportional numbers of other implements, including nearly 500 threshing-machines, were thus obtained by the Department and disposed of to farmers. ` Fertilizers —The effect of two and a half years of war and the

of any unoccupied land for the purpose of letting it as allotments,

and even of cultivated land with the sanction of the Agricultural Executive Committee. These powers were freely exercised, and perhaps an equal amount of land was made available for allotments by voluntary agreement. Because of these private agreements it will never be known exactly how many allotments were provided during the war period, but over 250,000 were

added in England and Wales under the D.O.R.A. powers alone, and so rapid was the further growth that it was estimated in 1918 that the total number of allotments had been more than doubled. On the outskirts of all large towns the new movement was very much in evidence in the spring of 1917; unoccupied land of all kinds, building plots, waste land awaiting development, portions of commons, even parks and recreation grounds, were being divided up into plots of a sixteenth of an acre and hastily prepared for growing vegetables. It was often late in the season before the work began, particularly for heavy land such as the clays round London, but fortunately the season proved favourable and good results were obtained for the zeal and energy which had been put into the cultivation of what was often very

increasing shortage of tonnage had begun to be manifest carly in 1917 in a very marked disorganization of all the sources of supplies needed by the farmers—fertilizers, feeding-stuffs, seeds and minor but still essential articles like sulphate of copper and binder twine. The Food Production Department took charge, and achieved remarkable success in both extending supplies and regulating distribution to ensure equality of treatment and the saving of transport. In nearly all cases the or- unpromising material. The Food Production Department ganization was carried out through the trade concerned, the assisted in the supply of seed potatoes and other supplies; advice members of which formed associations and agreed to poel their and instruction were organized in conjunction with the Royal resources and limit prices. Practically the only nitrogenous| Horticultural Society, which enrolled the professional gardeners fertilizer available was sulphate of ammonia; shipping was no everywhere into a panel-of voluntary instructors. It was estilonger available from Chile for nitrate of soda, of which an mated that by r9r8 the number of allotments had increased in earlier large Government purchase could not be moved and had England and Wales from something like 800,000 to over 1,200,eventually to be resold. Prior to the war the production of ooo, and the increase was continued after the Armistice. The number relative to the population varied considerably, but in and sulphate of ammonia in the United Kingdom had exceeded about Leicester there was an allotment to every three households. 400,000 tons per annum, of which about 70% was exported, The benefit of the allotment movement to the community 1s while the home consumption for agriculture did not reach 70,000 tons, and indeed was not more than 78,000 tons in 1916. The difficult to overestimate. There was in the first place the actual addition in the food supply, which in England and Wales alone propaganda and distribution scheme of the Food Production Department secured the use of as much as 234,000 tons In the was set at 800,000 tons offoodinzo18. This home-grown supply year June 1917-June 1918. Basic slag was similarly dealt with, ‘without doubt helped to steady prices in 1917. Again, the grinding facilities were obtained, and the consumption was growth of fresh vegetables by urban populations, who under the increased by something like 200,000 tons. Owing to the shortage prevailing conditions would have had some difficulty in buying of shipping it was impossible to maintain supplics of phosphate them, contributed a very valuable factor in a war-time dietary. rock for the manufacture of superphosphate, but some, allevia- The development of allotments did contribute to keep down the tion of the scarcity was obtained by the diversion of shipping to growth of deficiency diseases like scurvy and probably of tuberNorth Africa, and over 750,000 tons of superphosphate were dis- culosis, to which the food conditions of 1917-8 were favourable. Lastly, very many pcople obtained a considerable relief from the tributed for the year ending June 1918. Thus the work of the Food Production Department did succeed war strain by the physical exercise in the open air and the new in putting at the disposal of farmers in the harvest of 1918 a interests developed by their allotments. To many people the substantially greater amount of fertilizers than they had been in war-time allotments revealed a deep-seated pleasure in the the habit of consuming prior to the war, and this. at a time when cultivation of the land, which had been obscured to them by

AGRICULTURE

82

residence in a town, and the strength of this feeling was made

‘Departments of Agriculture would be regarded as the guardians

manifest by the widespread movement that grew up after the war for the retention and extension of the allotment gardens. Of course, the close of the war necessarily led to the displacement of many of the allotments which had been formed.on land that could only be temporarily allocated for the purpose. Much of it had only been handed over on private agreements and was resumed for building or other industrial purposes. Recreation

of the interests of the agriculturists.

grounds and park lands could not be permanently alienated from the enjoyment of the general public. Even Jand which had been occupied under the D.O.R.A. powers of the Board, and of which possession could be retained until March 23 1923, had often to

be given up because its retention would have involved enormous claims for compensation when the land was immediately required for building purposes. Widespread as was the demand for security of tenure in allotments it was impracticable either to gratify it now, or to repair the want of foresight when the great towns were growing, by making allotments at the expense of the community on land which had already acquired a building value of {1,000 an acre or upwards. It might still be possible to provide for allotments on such land while it was vacant and.

Such an opposition of

interests was, however, rarcly allowed consciously to weigh.

The divergences of opinion grew from the fact that the Agricultural Departments were more seized with the necessity of increasing production, and apprehensive of the way in which

restrictions upon price might so interfere with the business of the farmer as to limit the total output of food. It may be useful to put on record some of the results of the control and the effect they had upon the course of production. During the years 1917-9 control was exercised over the prices of all the main articles of agricultural produce—egrain, meat, milk, cheese and butter, potatoes, eggs, Iruit, certain vegetables, wool and hay, though in the two latter cases the control was exercised by the War Office and not the Food Controller.

Two ends have to be satis-

fied in the control of prices of agricultural produce.

Primarily the

public have to be protected from excessive rises of price, due primarily

to the scarcity and then to the speculation and repeated dealings amongst the middlemen that inevitably follow. The farmer himself, the prime producer, is rarely in a position to take advantage of the public need and, in the current slang, “ to profiteer.”

The conditions

awaiting development, but only on condition that the occupiers

of the farmer's business are such that he 1s waiting on the price that is offered to him in the open market. Most of his output consists of perishable materials which must be sold forthwith, and he is rarely

would have to be prepared to move on at comparatively short

refuse to scli below an agreed price.

notice when building became imminent. Many authorities in 1921 were exercising with considerable forethought their powers to acquire land for allotments, and were acquiring land conveniently accessible outside the.zone of immediate development. Round many cities and towns a belt of allotment cultivation

could be seen to be extending, though the cultivators might

actually live at some considerable distance in the thickly popuJated inner area, Incidentally the Agriculture Act of 1920 gives an allotmentholder compensation for disturbance on similar lines to that enjoyed by occupiers of larger buildings. The growth of the allotment movement may be measured from a very full inquiry that was made of the numbers at the end of 1920. According to an early return in 1890 there were then 448,586 allotments in England and Wales of under one acre, to

which should be added certain railway allotments estimated as 39,115 in 1886.

At the end of x920 the numbers in England and Wales were as follows: No. of allotment

Land managed by county councils under Act

OETI e Sy. cae SBN Re NS Land entered upon by councils under R.A, Se te . 28", Be Wee . Land occupied by councils and used

ons

Other land used as allotment.

.

.

-

«

porarily under D.O.R.-A.

Totals.

.

.

.

.

3.,

we

ag D.O. ed tem-

«4

holders

Acres

329,471

46,963

198,299

14,369

56,456

4,141

595,157

95.754

45,182,383

161,227

Owing to the fact that in six cases the allotment land was let to associations of allotment-holders, the gross total of holders should be increased to about 1,330,000. It should be noted that one-half in numbers and considerably more than half in acreage

of the allotments in England

and Wales

were

still

provided in 1921 by private owners.) | Control of Agricultural Prices:—The pressure of the war and the increasing difficulty in obtaining supplies necessitated a resort to the fixing of prices for agricultural commodities, which materially affected the business of British farmers during the critical years from the beginning of 1917. The Food Controller was appointed in Dec. 1916, and the Act under which he was appointed gave him very complete powers to fix the prices of commodities and to take over stocks, to control distribution and otherwise deal with all articles of food produced within or entering the country.

As might be expected, considerable discussion and differences of opinion arose as to the methods to be adopted in dealing with

agricultural produce,

From the crudest point of view the

Food Controller might be taken as the agent of the vast majority of consumers, anxious therefore to reduce prices, whereas the

united into associations that are capable of exercising any pressure to

The rapid enhancement of prices

that follows scarcity is as a rule the work of the dealers between the

producer and the consumer, and the farmer is but a passive recipient of the share that accrues to him through the competition of dealers for his produce.

The second end to be attained in price control is the encouragement of production. It is possible to fix a price in the interests of the consumer which may be regarded as leaving a fair margin of profit to the producer, but which is followed almost immediately by a restriction in supply. High prices are of course an evil from the point of view of the consumer, tat in times of scarcity it is mare important to get tHe food in quantity than to get it cheap. It becomes neces- ` sary, therefore, to fix such a level of prices as will encourage the producer to make a ‘special effort to increase his output, and to this end it is never possible to base the price upon the average cost of pro-

duction of the article.

It is necessary to stimulate the produc-

tion of the poorer farmers, whose skill may be inadequate or who are working under comparatively unfavourable conditions. As a consequence it follows that the prices will be such as give excessive

profits to the more favourably situated producers.

This is specially

marked in dealing with agriculture—an industry which in the main is carried on by individuals working upona ¢omparatively small scale,

an industry in which the processes are not standardized and for which accounts showing the actual cost of production are very rarely available.

Considerable feeling was at times engendered against the farmers

in Great Britain on the ground that they were making very large profits out of the public need and the restriction of supplics, but looking at the question broadly, these excessive profits accrued in-

evitably to the men who by their skill or their situation were capable of comparatively cheap production, From time to time attempts were made to establish systems of differential prices, according to districts. This was tried, for example, with milk, oa the ground that the south-western counties could, asa rule, produce milk at a lower price than the mass of the country. Again, in 1918 differential potato prices were established by districts, according as they were regarded as adapted or otherwise to potatogrowing on a large scale. Speaking generally, these differential prices proved to be comparatively ineffective and were the cause

of yreat discontent and opposition amongst the producers. The main difficulty lies in the definition of districts within which the conditions of production are equal.

County boundaries do not represent

uniform conditions of soil and climate.

The object could only be

rightly attained by the scheduling of individual farmers into differ-

cnt classes and that is administratively

impossible,

Asa rule, the method of control adopted was to fix a maximum

price beyond which the article must not be sold, and to enforce this maximum price by the action of inspectors. It was found in all cases of real scarcity that the maximum price became a minimum,

and that the control amounted to the fixing of a flat rate of price for

the article all over the country.

there are then two alternatives:

Maximum prices having been fixed,

the Government may become the

sole buyer of the commodity, or it may still leave distribution to the

ordinary channels. It was found by experience that the Government can only become the sole buyer when it also controls the consumption of the article. The main examples of this type of action

during the war period were wool and wheat. In the case of wool the Government held the whole stocks, both of foreign and home-grown wool, and made its allocation from these stocks to the manufacturers

for defined purposes.

In the case of wheat the Government assumed

control of all the flour-mills and instructed them to accept delivery

of the farmers’ wheat at the fixed prices,

AGRICULTURE -Where the processes of manufacture and distribution are not so simple, as in the case of wheat and wool, the method of making the

Government the sole buyer of the output resulted in excessive ad~ ministrative difficulties. An example is furnished by the potato cro of 1918, which on Nov. I was taken over by the Ministry of Food. The difficulties were accentuated by the fact that the crop was a large one, rather more than the demand would normally call for, and that

it was not as sound as usual, so that in many cases the whole or part of the crop perished in the farmers’ clamps before it could be distributed. Under normal conditions the farmer who has potatoes of inferior keeping powers makes a sacrifice in order to get them away rapidly. He also looks the crop over from'time to time and rejects

potatoes that are becoming diseased and therefore dangerous to the

bulk of the crop. Once, however, the crop had passed into the Government's hands, the farmer naturally ceased to exercise the same

83

articles of cattle-food on which to feed his stock.

The farmer was

forbidden to use wheat and barley for stock if it-was sound and fit for milling, On the other hand he could buy no feeding-stuffs so cheap, and corn which had been damaged in harvesting or was otherwise unfit for milling purposes was more valuable to the farmer as stock food than the price fixed forsound corn

Inevitably this state

of things led both to carelessness in harvesting and storing corn and to a certain amount of evasion of the order forbidding the use of sound corn for feeding stock. That the extent of the evasion was not greater was due to the general state of public opinion at the time, but a more careful consideration of the question of parity of prices

would have removed the temptation and resulted in more corn being

available for the general publie. Another example may be scen in the case of butter. It takes from 2} to 3 gallons of milk to make a pound of butter, yet for various reasons at the time when milk was

care in handling it. The result in this case was a dispute as to the responsibility for the losses that occurred. The Ministry on the one hand alleged that the losses had been due to the initial unsoundness of the crop, for which the farmer must bear the responsibility. The

selling at 2s. a gallon or even higher prices, the price of butter was fixed at 2s. 6d. per pound. The result was the almost complete disappearance of home-made butter from the market. A still more noteworthy example of the difficulties arising from

due to the the Gov-

tervals from 1917 onwards and rose steadily from year to year as

farmer, on the other hand, alleged that had he remained he could have disposed of the crop and that the losses were Government’s delay in moving it to the consumer. When ernment attempts to replace by a new official organization

in control

the intri-

cate machine which custom has built up for the distribution of any

general article of consumption, the result is confusion and increased. cost. The ‘trade’? machine may cbe intricate and illogical, but it has been in the habit of working and it has been shorn of waste by competition. If the Government does not constitute itself the sole buyer of the predacon: it yet follows that it must assume the control of distri-

ution as well as of prices. Under normal conditions it is only by the offer of a price above the average that any locality distant from the source of supply, or otherwise unfavourably situated, can attract to itself the supphes that it needs. With a flat rate of price the producers will crideavour to sell as near home as possible. The near localities would thus become abundantly or even over-supplied, while the distant localities would have to go without. Not only must the Government control the distribution, but also it must

prices al] along thescale between the producer and the consumer,

fix

It1s

not sufficient to fix retail prices only to the consumer, nor, at theother end of the scale, producers’ prices only It was, therefore, found in

practice necessary to fix both the price to the consumer and to the producer, and also the percentage that could be taken by cach mid-

dleman in handling the commodity. This inevitably resulted in an increased margin between the prime cost obtained by the producer and the price finally paid by the consumer, because all the intermediaries between the producer and the consumer established their claim 10 a commission, whereas in practice some or other of them are generally cut out by competition, or have to take a lower toll

than that for which they are able to make out a case.

Speaking gencrally, when a Government has to make a bargain,

either with producers about price or with the members of a trade for their services, it fails to get good terms. The accounts of the weaker producers or agents arc always put forward, and the price is determined according to their needs and their expenditure. Moreover, the parties always deal in terms of round pennies and round shillings, whereas in normal working profit and loss is determined by eighths or sixteenths one way or other. The main difficulty, however, that besets the control of agricultural prices arises from the alternative nature of the farmer’s business. Asa rule he has more than one way. of disposing of his produce.

For

example; he may find it more profitable to turn his wheat into food for hens and sell cggs or poultry than to seli the wheat itself. He has

the alternative of selling his barley crop or grinding it into meal and

feeding pigs with it. His mifk can be sold as such or converted into butter, cheese or veal, according to which offers the greatest prospect of profit. It therefore follows that for no article of agricultural produce can the price be fixed without reference to the prices ruling for other products which may from the farmer’s point of view be alternative.

The farmer may evetr—though this is more dificult and

acts more slowly—vary his method of dealing with the land.

For

example, at the time when the land was most in need of corn production and the Food Production Department was engaged upon a strenuous

campaign to extend the area of arable cultivation, the farmer was able to obtain much greater profits from the production of meat and

milk on grass land than from corn upon arable land, because a proper

parity had not been established between corn and meat. In fact, the fixing of prices of agricultural produce should be preceded by a

price fixation and the alternative use of products is supplied by the later dealings with milk. Prices of milk were fixed at six monthly tn-

the shortage of labour and the cost of feeding-stuffs increased. The prices fixed were without doubt remunerative to the great majority

of dairy farmers, as can be judged from the expansion of cow-kecping and the abnormal rise In the price of dairy cows. Eventually when winter prices were fixed in the autumn of 1919 the public defi-

nitely revolted and the demand for milk declined all over the country. The season was also such as to produce an unexpected abundance of milk. Al wholesale milk-supply businesses must possess some alternative means of utilizimg milk and generally adopt cheesemaking in order to deal with their occasional surpluses. The Ministry of Food, in its anxicty to encourage winter milk production and

yet unable to fix a cheese price in parity with the price of milk, had

adopted the expedient of offering an allowance to wholesalers for all

cheese made in the autumn months. With the refusal of the public Lo buy milk freely this cheese grew into quantities altogether beyond anticipation,

at the same time the allowance did not make up for

the wholesalers’ Josses on the contracts at maximum prices they had made with farmers. The situation became impossible, and eventually early in 1920 control had to be abandoned, with the result of a

general breaking of contracts and a smart fall in price. A system of control of prices which will work well cnough and secure even

distribution during a period of scarcity lacks any power of adjusting itself to the other situation, which is always liable to arise, of supply

outrunning demand.

The public sooner or later revolts at the price,

whereupon the producer demands from the Government a market as

well as a price. The establishment of fixed prices, by obliterating the variations which under normal conditions meet variations mm quality, causes the deterioration of the general average of quality. Various examples were seen of this operation of a flat price. For example, in 1919 the finest grade of Cox's orange pippin apples had to be sold at prices below that which they normally obtained in pre-war times, because the maximum price for dessert apples, high as it was in comparison to pre-war prices, still made no allowance for the choicest grades. Nor is it possible under such conditions to remove these special articles from the control. If there are two prices the retailer

immediately removes the whole of his wares into the higher category and the consumer is faced with the alternative of paying the higher price or going without, : Another example of the effect of the flat rate of price might be scen in the general deterioration of quality of all kinds of cheese made during the war years. ‘The producer could get no higher price for fine quality, and since storage and thercfore the development of flavour is inevitably accompanied by loss of weight, the cheese was sold as quickly as possible without regard to its quality. Again, the fixing of a flat rate of price for mutton and lamb of all kinds resulted in a great diminution in the number of sheep kept upon the arable

land,

like the South

Downs

and the Hampshire

Downs.

These flocks derive their returns chiefly from the sale of lamb at comparatively high prices, but when the extra price for lamb was

unobtainable with their more expensive methods of production they became unprofitable. Between 1913 and 1919 the numbers

of sheep in England and Wales taken as a whole declined by 11-7 %, but the flocks in predominantly arable counties like Hampshire, Wilts and West Sussex lost about 40% of their sheep. The decline

in sheep fell in the main upon the arable land sheep because they could no longer obtain the normal differential prices for their output. scientific examination of all alternative conversions of one product One general conclusion may be drawn from the operations of into another which are possible to the farmer. It is possible to construct a scale of parity which shal! show the price relationship of controls during the later years of the war, a conclusion strengthsuch diverse articles as hay, corn, meat, milk and milk products. ened by a consideration of the parallcl events in Germany and Prices should then be fixed in accordance with this scale of parity, France where the pressure was greater—that State action has weighting those articles which it js desired to produce in the general interests of the community by giving them a rather better price than

the scale of parity would indicate. The neglect of this principle led to many difficulties and much discontent in particular cases. For example, in 1918 the prices at which the British farmer was called upon to sell his wheat, oats and bar-

ley were a good deal below the prices at which he could buy other

very little power to compel agriculturists to conduct their businesses along lines contrary to the interests or traditions of the farmers themselves.

For example, numerous orders and regulations were promul-

gated from 1914 onwards forbidding the slaughter of calves, even

i

84

AICARD, JEAN F. V.

to the extent of closing the markets to the sale of calves for slaughter and of forbidding the sale of veal. Though the measures had the approval of all the farmers’ organizations they were systematically evaded and were wholly without effect in checking the increasing slaughter of calves. Again, the orders that forbade the use of barley and wheat for feeding stock in 1917 and 1918 were not observed whenever the farmer was in any real difficulty about getting food for animals. No farmer will see live.stock starve and the agricultural conscience was salved by a consideration of the extraordinary mixtures of. waste material that were being purveyed as cattle-food at higher prices than the farmer was allowed to receive for his sound wheat

and barley, Again, in the rationing of the self-producer, the regulations declaring that a farmer might only retain so many of the pigs he killed at home, or so much of the poultry, milk, butter or cheese he produced, were simply ignored. It is impos‘sible to enforce such regulations except by a system of espionage

and inspection that is impossible in war-time for lack of men.

Rationing was carried out most successfully in Great Britain, and the great force behind it was the public sense of its need

and the feeling that it was being administered with perfect fairncss and no favour. Nor was the pinch of scarcity ever

AIR BOMBS

in many Shakespearean parts, and in ror4 he played Leontes and Malvolio in Granville Barker’s production of The Winter's Tale and Twelfth Night at the Savoy theatre. After serving during the World War he began management at the St. James’s theatre with Tolstoy’s Reparation in 1919, following it up by a production of Julius Caesar early in 1920. In 1921 he played Prospero in The Tempest at the Aldwych theatre, and John Beal in Lord Dunsany’s If AIR BOMBS.—Although the Hague declaration of Oct. 18 1907 contained a clause prohibiting, for a period extending till the next peace conference, the “ discharge of projectiles and

explosives from balloons or by other new methods of a similar nature,” this declaration was only ratified by Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, the United States and Turkey France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia and Spain did not sign it, and it

was therefore regarded as “ practically without force” (British

official Land Warfare, 1912, p. 24). The only limiting condition of acrial bombardment was, therefore, that applying to all bombardments, viz.: The prohibition of bombardments of undefended localities. The word ‘ undefended ” was not more

closely defined; and it could be, and by some far-seeing authori-

ties was, presumed that aerial bombardment of localities would severe enough to break down the general moral; the pcople at ` certainly figure as an element of the “ next Great War.” large did feel hungry and were irked by the restrictions in their In the article Arr Drrence will be found an account of the diet, but they could carry on and were not impelled to illicit principles of defence against air bombardment, as they were traffic in order to obtain food. But since the farmer saw no dire evolved in the World War of 1914-8. The present article deals need he felt no particular compulsion to change his ordinary way with the bombs themselves, as material weapons, and with of living. It is not that the farmer is less patriotic than his their accessories, fellow-men, but the war was far away from his countryside, and Projectiles dropped from aircraft, officially termed “Aerial he is an individualist by temperament and habit, less subject to Bombs,” may be classified as High Explosive Bombs (H.E. the crowd suggestion that draws the city dwellers into a common bombs), Incendiary Bombs, and Bomb Parachute Flares.

action, and with his accustomed routine as the most compelling factor in his psychology.

Should the occasion ever again arise it will be well to recognize that the agricultural community cannot be driven or subjected

to the external control that proved successful cnough with other

industries; it must be organized from within to codperate with the State. In this particular case agriculturists felt that their importance to the nation had been ignored in the early years of the war, and when the time came to regiment them in the. common effort there was always a tinge of opposition in their attitude to the measures that were then forced upon them.

1, High Explosive Bombs ~The principal use of H.E. bombs is ta

destroy material of all kinds; they are also used occasionally against personnel. They are a specics of common shell, but differ from gun shells as, owing to the absence of shock of discharge, their envelopes require Icss strength, and consequently the proportion of weight of charge to weight of projectile is higher. With regard to their striking energy, bombs and gum shells, when fired at high angles, are comparable; but the striking cnergy of low-trajectory gun shells, other things being cqual, is far beyond that of bombs dropped even from an extreme height. ‘The field of action of a bomb is not restricted, as is that of a gun shell, by its extreme range, but depends

upon the flying capacity of the aircraft employed; but the ballistic conditions under which a gun is used give an accuracy of fire which,

Speaking broadly, it may be said that, whatever criticism may

in the case of bombs dropped from aircraft, is reduced to a minimum,

be passed on the working of the control of prices in the United Kingdom during the war period, whatever may have been the defects in the system that have been noted above, these faults were inherent in the nature of the task and were not products of the administration. The farming community often felt itself oppressed, the consuming public often regardeditself as exploited, individual hardships were inflicted and in other cases ill-deserved profits were lightly piled up, but the control did work and did prevent an intolerable state of war between consumers ahd pro-

Light case bombs, pear-shaped receptacles of mild steel, weighing

High explosive bombs are classified as Light Case and Heavy Case.

when filled from 16 Ib. to 100 ib., were made in great numbers in the early years of the World War. They were all of the same type. The case Was made in two poe the heavier, the nose end, was a hemi-

spherica! casting; the body was ċonoidal, tapering towards the tail end and the two parts were joined by an angle steel ring. In the 65-Ib. bomb, for example, the nose end was -25 in. and the body ‘064 in. thick. As time went on the type developed; fig. 1 shows a Filled Amatol

ducers. Control there had to be, and one may look back upon it

as a reasonably successful improvisation, characterized by the national qualities of fair play and compromise.

AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848-1921), French poet and dramatist (see.1.434), published after 1910 a collection

fee ntral Tube =

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0etone

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Detonator 56 Gr, |

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Detonator 2b Gr,

Detonators $6 Gr,

of poems for children (1912) and Hollande, Algérie (1913), as well as variuus volumes of war poctry, a novel Arlette des Mayons

_ (1917), and two volumes of adventure stories, Un Bandit 4 la | Francaise and its sequel Le fameux chevalier Gaspard de Besse, both in 1919. He died in Paris May 13 1921. AINLEY, HENRY (1879), English actor, was born at Leeds Aug. 21 1879, and was educated for business; but a mecting with George Alexander and an engagement for a “ walking-on ” part turned his thoughts to the stage, and he joined F. R. Benson’s touring company for two years. He then appeared at the Lyceum theatre, London, in 1900as Gloucester in Henry V., and in 1902 at the St. James’s theatre as Paolo in

Stephen Phillips’s Paolo and Francesca.

We played Orlando in

As You Like It both at the Comedy theatre in 1906 and at His

Majesty’s theatre in 1907,

In r9z0 he appeared there again

230-Ib. bomb made of mild stecl,--128 in. thick in the body and in-

creasing to +375 in. in the nose,

It carries 140 lb. of 40/60 amatol.

AIR BOMBS Light case bombs have practically no fragmentation and depend

for effect on their charge alone. Heavy case bombs are made of single castings of steel or iron such as the heavy case rz2-1b. bomb

shown in fig. 2. Its cast-iron body varies from -§ in. tor in in thickness and it carries about 28 fb. of 80/20 amatol. The fragmentation of these bombs is of the highest importance.

Bombs are usually provided with a central tube running their

whole Jength, fitting into screwed sockets for which the bomb is tapped at nose and tail, except when the bomb, like the hght case

230-lb. bomb, is provided with a sharp nose, when atail socket alone

exists, This central tube is divided into two parts by a steel ring called the diaphragm for convenience im leading and keeping com-

ponents in their place. In the heavy case 20-1h. and 50-1. bombs, the tail is prolonged outside

the bomb proper

by a light construction

called a fairing, to provide a suitable shape for aerial fight. The 20-Ib. bomb is peculiar in having only a nose socket and in the shape of its central tube, Lifting lugs are attached to many bombs. They are made of wrought iron and are riveted to the case so as to be in the same vertical plane as the centre of gravity of the filled bomb, when the fatter is suspended in a horizontal position. At first bombs were released when horizontal; but now they are frequently suspended vertically from an eyebolt attached to the nose fuze or screwed it turns over in sometimes used quadrature, are

into the nose socket. When a bomb is thus released flight ancl falls nose first. Lifting bands of steel are in place of lifting lugs. Four vanes or fins, placed in riveted to the case of afl bombs about the tai end,

to ensure steadiness in flight. The interiors of bombs are varnished or lacquered; they are then Alled with high explosive. High Explosives used in H.E. Bombs.—Trinitrotoluene, known as

trotyl and T.N.T., is used as the main charge of a bomb or as a “topping to a charge of amatol, which on account of its hygroscopic

nature has to be protected from damp.

T.N.T., when compressed

into pellets, is also used in exploders and relays. Amatol is used as a

main charge for bombs, It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and T.N.T.; at first it consisted of 4o parts ammonium nitrate and 60

85

number of seconds may be Interpolated between the cap.and the

charge, thus forming an igniter which secures the desired delay

action. When a nose fuze is employed the striker ts on impact driven on to a detonator which causes a practically instantaneous explosion; but all tail fuzes must of necessity have a slight delay, for they only act after the speed of the bomb has been reduced considerably by mecting with some serious resistance, and this results practically in a delay of at least a quarter of a second, which delay can, as already explained, be extended up to 15 secs. by the use of igniters, It is evident, therefore, that a bomb set in action by a nose fuze hag

no chance of penetrating a target before explosion takes place; there is buta small crater formed and fragments of the bomb are scattered over a wide area, A nose fuze, therefore, is used with

heavy case bombs in the attack of personnel and light structures,

such as aeroplanes in transit, where crater effect is not required,

With tail fuzes, on the contrary, bombs falling in suitable ground

will

bury

themselves

before

exploding,

craters but scattering no fragments.

producing

considerable

Tail fuzes in connexion with

light case bombs are therefore employed in the attack of railways,

dumps, buildings, and for general local destruction. in the attack of certain buildings a combination of a nose and tail fuze is adopted. The shearing pin of the former is such as not to be broken as the bomb passes through the roof, while the tail fuze

has a delay which will cause an explosion inside the building. If in such a case a tail fuze only were used, should the bomb break up on impact, the delay action might entail incomplete detonation or

there might be no detonation at all. When bombs arc made of cast iron both nose and tail fuzes are always employed. Carriage of Bombs.—Filled bombs are stored with all sockets, ete., plugged; components are packed in their own receptacles. Before the various detonators, relays, fuzes, etc., which constitute the assemblage, are inserted in the central tube of a bomb, the latter is tested in the dropping gear; when all is proved to be satisfactory

the bomb is made “live”; but all safety devices are kept in opera-

parts T.N.T. (40/60 amato!); later on, 80 parts ammonium nitrate and 20 parts T.N.T. (80/20 amatol) was the mixture _adopted.

Tetronitromcthylaniline, known as tetryl, Composition Exploding or C.E., when compressed into pellets is used in exploders and relays.

tion till the moment of ascent, If a machine lands with bombs unexpended, all safety pins and other devices are made operative before the bombs are removed from the carrier. Sighting of Bombs,—]f a machine be flown directly on a target

Fulminate of mercury 1s used for detonators.

at a known

relays, detonators and igniters,

results cannot be expected,

constant

height and with a known constant

speed, a

Bomb Convponents-—Bomb components consist of fuzes, exploders,

sighting apparatus can be employed from which, however, accurate

are called an assemblage. The assemblage varies with the bomb and the purpose for which it is to be employed; but in every case an H.E.

theoretical considerations: a bomb, when released, wil} continue to travel with the velocity of the machine and wilf pass over a horizontal distance before striking carth, which will depend on this

Those selected for a given purpose

bomb is detonated on impact by the action of the striker of a fuze, which explodes a cap or patch of cap composition, detonating a relay or exploder, which detonates the main charge of the bomb.

Exploders are hollow cylinders of sheet brass or paper filled with compressed pellets of T.N.T. or C.E. They are provided at one or

both ends with metal envelopes or sleeves for the reception of the

particular detonator with which they are to be used. Exploders vary

in length and other details. Relays are exploders of a special kind, usually filled with pierced C.E. pellets; they are always next the fuze, to which they are sometimes attached by screwed thimbles called adapters. . . ot Detonators are copper tubes of various sizes and are charged with

from 45 gr. to Go gr. of fulminate of mercury according to the use for which they are intended. When they are to be fired by a striker they are closed by a cap, Ipniters are a special form of detonator, which carry between their charge and the cap a piece of match

designed to cause a certain delay (up to 15 secs.) between the moment of impact of the bomb and its explosion. The match composition consists of nitrates and chlorates of potash, etc., mixed with

Its use depends upon the following

velocity and the time taken to fall from the height at which the

machine altitude distance give the

is flying. If then a right-angled triangle be formed with an equal to the given height and a base equal to the horizontal passed over by the bomb, the slope of the hypothenuse will direction of the line of sight which must be employed.

The sighting apparatus is fitted with a horizontal wire which acts

as a foresight and with three other similar wires which act as backsights, cach for a given speed and height. Thus an observer using the backsight will have his fine of sight so directed that when it passes through the target he knows he must release the bomb. The heights and speeds provided for are: a height of 6,000 ft. and a speed of 90 m. an hour; a height of 10,000 ft. and a speed of

80 m. an hour; a height of 15,000 ft. and a speed of 7o m. an hour,

The foresight js capable of fore-and-aft moyement by which corrections for wind and density of the air can he given, Two fore-andaft wires in the apparatus, placed vertically one over the other, serve in preserving the proper direction of flight. Typical Bombs.—The following are typical bombs for the purposes

shellac and methylated spirit. Fuzes—Both nose and tail fuzes are provided for H.E. bombs.

named :—The 20-Ib, is a small heavy case bomb, capable of carriage by light machines; it is used in the attack of personnel, aerodromes

direct-acting fuzes (P.A, fuzes).

and road transport. {It is made of stcel, its actual weight being 24 db.; it will take a charge of 4 Ib. 9 oz. of 40/60 amatol or 4 Ib. of

The former are all on the percussion principle and are usually called

The first to be used by the British

was a modification of the No. 18 gun percussion fuze made for a

tapered fuze hole. The motion of the striker, however, was controlled

80/20 amatol. The 50-lb. bomb is a medium heavy case bomb for general use especially against material, and can be carried by the smaller bombing machines on long-distance raids. Its actual weight

by a collar carrying two small vanes, called arming vanes, The vanes rotated as the bomb descended, eventually screwing the collar off

is 49% lb.; it carries a charge of 10 Ib. 80/20 amatol; it is made of

No. 18 after undergoing the shock of discharge when fired in a gun.

cast iron, 2 in. thick in the body and jin. thick at the nose; the overall dimensions are 28} in. long by 7 in, maximum diameter, It is sometimes carried vertically slung from the eyebolt of the nose

the striker and leaving it free to act in the same way as it would in

A (tapered fuze hole being found an unnecessary refinement m the

nose bushes of bombs, the latter were tapped cylindrically and fuzes

with corresponding threads were adopted.

The latest development

is the D.A. pistol (see fig. 2) which is an ordinary percussion fuze fitted at the top with a cover to which the vanes are attached, as is also a hanging eyebolt for the suspension of the bomb, At the bottom end the fuse is attached by an adapter to a detonator and relay and the assemblage thus complete can he screwed into the bomb. In certain speejal nose fuzes the action of the vanes is. utilized to screw the striker into position. Safety devices exist in

all fuzes. ‘Tail fuzes are all of that type to which the term pistol was originally given. (Sce figs. 1 and 2.) The striker at ils upper end terminates in a screw upon which works a collar with vanes attached,

fuze, sometimes horizontally when it is attached

gear by means of a steel band.

to the dropping

The 112 lb. bomb js a larger heavy

case bomb (see fig. 2) used for similar purposcs in Jarger machines,

The 230-Ilb. bomb is a large light case bomb, used for crater production in the attack of railways and buildings (sce fig. 1).

Jn addition to these types of bomb, special bombs have been

designed for special purposes. Thus the 336-Ib. bomb was designed to effect demolitions by the distribution of heavy fragments, It

carried a bursting charge of 70 Íb. of compressed T.N.T. and the body was built up of bulged segments of steel rin. at their thickest parts. The 180-lb. bomb was designed as an armour-pieraing bomb,

It consists of a pear-shaped steel case varying in thickness from -g

is then only held in position by a spiral spring; on impact this spring

in. to 3-3 in. from tail to nose, being provided with a cap of mild steel on the same principle as a capped armour-piercing projectile

plodes the bomb.

or T.N.T.

As the bomb falls the collar screws off and releases the striker, which

is compressed and the striker is forced down upon a cap which ex-. Ii desired, however, a match

burning a certain

for agun, and carrying a bursting charge of 20 lb. of 40/60 amatol

AIR BOMBS

86

A light case 520-Ib. bomb has also been made for crater production

and for use against submarines. When used in the latter capacity it has a special fuze to obtain ‘‘ depth-charge”’ effect, a purpose for which the 65-lb, bomb was used in the early part of the World War. The actual weight of this bomb is 525 lb. and it carries 340 Ib. of 40/60 amatol. There is also a heavy case 550-lb. bomb, with a body

of cast stecl varying from +75 in, to 1-5 in. in thickness; it carries 180 Ib. of 40/60 amatol. As carrying power is developed, bombs tend to become larger:

thus in a recent professional lecture (see Journal of the Royal Artillery, March 1921) a bomb of 1,650 Ib. was spoken.of, and even heavicr types may be seen in the near future. 2.

Incendiary Bombs.—In. British bombs of present make the

following compositions are used:—Thermalloy,

which consists of

50 parts magnetic oxide of iron, 27 parts aluminium and 23 parts

sulphur; thermite, which consists of 76 parts magnetic oxide of iron and 24 parts aluminium; phosphorus; carcass composition,

which consists principally of ground saltpetre, to which is added ground sulphur, sulphide of antimony, black powder and powdered aluminium,

mixed

with

powdered

resin, tallow

and

turpentine.

The special match composition for igniters in incendiary bombs is approximately 34% chlorate of potash, 30% iron filings, §% each of powdered aluminium and nitrate of barium and 26% shellac

and methylated spirit.

The following are typical incendiary bombs:—The

modified

carcass bomb is made of tin plate, its overa!l dimensions being 19}

the tail socket. The bomb when burst in air spreads out a shower of burning phosphorus over a circle of some 250 yd. in diameter. The lumps of phosphorus slowly burn out in falling and about half are used up in the first 2,000 ft. from the point of burst. If the latter be 3,000 ft. above the target the bomb will be practically lost. The

special time fuze employed, the Medgelly fuze, is set in action by a striker, normally held back by a spring in compression, which is released by a trigger when the bomb is dropped. Lhe Ranken Part.—This dart, invented by Engr.-Com. F Ranken, was used for the attack of Zeppelins and for other purposes, It

consisted of a hollow tin cylinder, about the size of a large candle,

the bottom was closed by a pointed bullet of steel or iron, and its top by a lid of tin through which passed a spindle capable of vertical

movement and terminating at the end outside the dart in four flanges or vanes. The cylinder was filled with incendiary composition which was fired after the fashion of a Christmas cracker, For this purpose a strip of friction match. had one end attached to the cylindrical

body and the other to-the spindle. Then if the dart fell upon a Zeppelin from above, its sharp bullet point would enable it to penetrate the outer covering upon which, however, the four flanges or vanes would catch; a jerk would thus be given to the spindle causing

the match to be torn apart and ignited, and the dart, held fast in the cover of the Zeppelin, would burst into flames, 3. Bomb Parachute Flares.—These flarcs are used for reconnaissance at night, for illuminating and showing up ground held by the enemy, and for affording light to a pilot wishing to land in the dark. The flares are cylindrical paper tubes filled with aluminium

in. long by 5 in. maximum diameter. It is tapped at the tail for a composition and primed with magnesium composition; they are pistol. It carries 3} lb. carcass and 13} Ib. thermalloy composition, the total weight of bomb and pistol being 233 pounds. It has two sometimes called candles. They are lighted by means of pieces lifting lugs and is carried horizontal. During the loading of this of quickmatch attached to the primed end, the other end being bomb a former is employed to preserve the necessary cavity for the fixed n a cup arrangement which is attached by a wire rope to the reception of ihe firing arrangement which consists of the pistol, the parachute, Electric-Ignition Parachute Flare-Bombs are of two kinds almost special igniler and the adapter and its attachment. The special igniter similar in construction. One is used as a reconnaissance flare, the consists of a 28-bore Eley cap fitted with a copper sleeve containing a strip of instantancous fuze, and the adapter is a screwed ring other as.a landing flare to enable pilots to land in the dark. They are both launched by means of a launching tube attached to the fuselage socket to which is attached a nozzle-ended celluloid tube loaded with 5 gr. of match composition. On preparation for action the igniter is of the aeroplane, and so designed that as the bomb leaves the launchpushed into the adapter, the latter is screwed on to the pistol which ing tube an electric circuit is completed, and a platinum-silver wire bridge heated. This, by igniting a priming, sets a delay pellct in is then screwed into the bomb. action and, after the bomb has dropped some 1,000 ft., a powder puff The caseless incendiary bomb is made of thermalloy moulded over an iron framework; its overall dimensions are 27-8 in. by 5 in. is fired, which both ignites the candles and projects the parachute clear of the cylinder. The reconnaissance flare (with a 9 seconds’ (side of square of maximum scction). The total weight of the bomb delay pellet) burns for three to four minutes, weighs 6 Ib. 13 oz., is about 30 lb. of which 24} Ib. consist of thermalloy. The bomb can be stowed cither in a vertical or horizontal position, and it is fired and has a parachute weighing 11 0z. and measuring about 5 ft. G in. across when open. The landing flare weighs 5 lb. 43 oz., and has a by a tail fuze and special igniter, It is fired in a similar manner parachute of the same size as the other but of Taa material, to the modified carcass bomb, except that in addition to the pistol, weighing only 33 oz. The candies burn for from 2} to 3} min., special igniter and adapter, a length of instantancous fuze is placed and the delay pellet only gives one sec. delay so that the bomb opens below the nozzle of the celluloid tube. The baby incendiary bomb consists of three parts, the body, the after it has dropped some zo feet. In both bombs the candle power ‘RLJ cartridge and the cap or cover. The body is cylindrical and of thin is about 40,000, German Air Bombs.—The general characteristics of air bombs being plate tin, but is weighted at the bottom; in the centre of this weighted portion is placed a short pin or striker. A little above the latter are the same in all countries, British practice may be regarded as typical two suspending lugs for the cartridge, made by partially cutting and forcign bombs need not be dealt. with. Some notes on German air bombs are added, however, on account of the speciál interest out two small portions of the plate on opposite sides of the body and attaching to these projectiles, which for the first time for many bending them inwards so as to form a support. The cartridge, which centuries brought war to the very doors of the British people. is of the ordinary sporting shape, has a percussion cap in the centre The carlicst types designed by the Germans were so far ineffective of the base and rests on the two Jugs. The cap or cover is domethat as early as the spring of 1914 they were replaced by bombs of a shaped at the bottom, above which are three vanes with a circular type known as ‘‘Carbonite.” These bombs, which were used tbroughdisc on top of them. The assembled bomb weighs about 6 oz. and is about 6 in. long by 1 in. in diameter. The bomb ts carried on the out the earlier part of the war, were pear-shaped and solid, pointed, machine with the vaned cap downwards, but on release it turns over and had a propeller-actuated pistol of the same type.as those and falls with the vaned cap upwards. When falling from heights of described earlier in this article. ‘Their special characteristic was the form of air-drag used: instead of fins, a sort of inverted tin cap was over 30 ft. the lugs on which the cartridge rests are on impact sheared used, attached to the tail of the bomb by stays. The smallest of or bent sufficiently to permit it to set forward on to the striker, when these bombs weighed 44 kgm. (about io lb.), and the heaviest 50 kgm. the cap is exploded and the cartridge case ejected and the thermite (110 Ib.}. Small incendiary bombs of the carbonite type were alsa ignited simultancously. These bombs are always used in- masses, and used. There was, further, a grenade-like projectile thrown by hand, are packed in a special carricr which allows them to fall with a considerable spread; thus, to take a particular example, the 272 bombs

packéd in one form of carrier would, if released at a height of 5,000 ft., cover an area of 30 yd. by 80 yards. The carrier can be dropped

complete if it is desirable to get rid of the bombs specdily, as in the

case of a forced landing. With large bombing planes like the Handley Page, bombs can be distributed either by using several machines

which weighed 800 grammes (1% !b.), but this was criticized as being too small to be effective, as also was the 4} kgm. H.E. carbonite bomb.

In 1916, these bombs were replaced by a different type known as “P, und W., which continued in use to the end of the war. They

were torpedo-shaped! and were fitted with slanting vanes which not

only acted as an air-drag to keep the projectile nose down but also imparted rotation to the falling bomb, and so enabled the German designers to replace the propeller as an arming device by centrifugal the larger incendiary bombs, for with the latter a direct hit must be bolts, on the same principle as those of gun fuzes, As the height at secured upon a combustible target and the chances are greatly’ which bombs were released had by that time greatly increased, the additional time required for the arming of the fuze was of no imagainst this combination being achieved. As, however, the small portance. Time fuzes were also employed, chicfly for obtaining bombs descend in showers with a large spread and on impact further delay effects after impact. disperse their cartridges over the target arca, the chances of a sucThe standard sizes of these “ P. und W.” bombs were the 123 cessful attack are considerable. The 4o-lb. incendiary and smoke bomb can be cither burst on kgm. (27 lb.)—a thick-walled bomb with instantancous fuze—and impact to produce a smoke screen or burst in air for the attack of the 50, 100, 300 and 1,000 kgm. “mine” or thin-walled bombs, with bursters respectively of 23 kgm., 60 kgm., 180 kgm., and 680 kgm. kite-balloons, ete. It is made of tin plate -025 in. thick and carries One other form of air projectile should be mentioned as, although 30 lb. of phosphorus, Its overall dimensions are 1 ft. 10-75 in. long it was never used on any large scale, it had aeemoment by 8 in. maximum diameter. It is tapped at nose and tail and hasa ee eas of notoriety ge ee eea a n central tube for a burster containing C.E. pellets and black powder. Ea 1Torpedo-shaped bombs were also used by the French, who When used for smoke production a D.A. pistol is screwed into the nose and the tail is plugged, but when an air burst is required the named them “ pisciforme ”’ (fish-shaped) bombs, in contradistinction nose socket is plugged and a special time fuze is screwed into to “ piroforme ”’ (pear-shaped).

or by successive releases from a single machine. The small bombs provide a many-chance method of attack, which is not possible with

AIR DEFENCE in the carly stages of the war. This was the dart, a heavy bullet of heavier guns on the ground; (d) the searchlight, the sound locator, stecl sharpened to a point at ane end. These darts, released in the observer post; (c} the acrial obstacle; (f) local protection on showers, were intended to be effective against personnel. the ground, i.e. against bomb splinters and machine-gun fire, and (C.F. A.) camouflage, AIR DEFENCE. —Even before aerial navigation and aviation Each of these weapons supplements a deficiency in one or more had been developed to a practical point, the employment of aircraft in war for the attack of vulnerable places was discussed of the others; none is complete without one or more of the others acting in conjunction with it. From this it follows that, in from time to time in a speculative way, and in the seven or eight years preceding the World War the types and characteristics

of aircraft became so far definite that technical study could be brought to bear on the problem of defence, especially that of artillery defence. But this period of seven or eight years was short; military histery could give no lead; practical experiments were almost impossible. Moreover, in the existing state of international law, Nability to air aitack was understood to depend not on whether a place was vulnerable, in the sense that

its destruction would impair the capacity of the nation for carrying on the war, but on whether it was “defended,” i.e.

fortified in the conventional sense of the word, or at any rate held by a ground garrison against ground attack, Attention was therefore directed chicfly to the question of air attack on what according to the prevailing ideas were “military” objectives, and in view of the small numbers of aircraft then available such attacks were regarded as unlikely to affect the course of operations seriously, In these conditions, and especially in the absence of all data based on practical experience, it is not surprising that defence against air attack was everywhere in a rudimentary state at the outset of the World War. In the war itself, on the contrary, experience, data and methods crowded upon onc another from first to last, and through the clearer definition of the problems to be faced on the one hand und the constant process of trial and error on the other, it has become possible to formulate the main principles of air defence with some approach to precision. I. General Considerations,

Afr defence, as discussed in the present article, deals with

any anti-aircraft organization, coéperation in cffort can only be effected by organizing units of the air force, artillery and engincers under a single command, as in a formation of all arms in ground

warfare.

The following are some of the forms which attacks by air may take: bombing by airships, aeroplanes or scaplanes, singly or in formation; the harassing of troops on the ground or sea with machinegun fire by acroplanes or seaplanes, singly or in pairs; torpedoing ships at anchor, by scaplanes, probably in pairs or escorted by “scout ” (i.e. air fighting) machines. To these may be added, though they only indireetly affect the problems here discussed :-—photographic or visual reconnaissance, by acroplanes or scaplanes, singly; and aerial engagements, by aeroplanes in formation on hostile patrol, te. rcady to engage air-fighting groups of the enemy, or by acroplanes, singly or in groups, attacking machincs which are engaged in observation duties (especially artillery observation) in connexion with ground operations.

Anti-aircraft

:

unite are

concerned

primarily

with

hostile

attacks the objectives of which are on the ground or sea; the defence of objectives in the air is a secondary matter, but never-

theless important when air-force units are not at hand to undertake the duty themseives, It may not be amiss at this stage to mention a few of the peculiarities of sound and light. Although these properties are

generally known, their full importance in relation to air defence is seldom recognized by those who have little expericnce in antiaircraft work. Sound travels at a certain known rate, namely about 1,100 ft, per second. Aircraft are generally first detected

by ear. By the time the sound of a machine reaches the ear, the the arrangements which deny to enemy aircraft access to vulnerable points. By “access” is implicd the gaining of a position machine making it will have moved some distance away from the spot where it made the sound. A path of sound is deflected either directly over the objective or sufficiently close to it for the success of the attack. Amongst ‘vulnerable points” are in- by the different velocities of the various air currents through cluded bodies of troops and their matériel in the field, centres of which it passes on its way to the ground. A machine in the air is population, large magazines, arsenals, harbours, ports, dock- only visible to an observer on the ground by reason of ight rays yards, ships and convoys at sea, big industrial centres, and the reflected from the surfaces of the machine, reaching his eye in like, As with a flect, the primary duty of the air forces is to seck sufficient intensity to enable him to detect it. Thusa machine out the enemy air forces and destroy them; but the problem in (ying “straight into the sun” is invisible to an observer also facing the sun. A spherical or cylindrical surface reflects light the air is far. more difficult than on the sea, as 4 third dimension has to be taken into account, Ze. that of height. When we chicfly in the direction from which the illumination comes; remember what difficulties have been introduced into naval war hence, in the case of 4 balloon or airship? the observer sees the by the introduction of the submersible warship, slow as this is target best when he and a searchlight are on the same side of it. A flat surface reflects light towards an observer further from the and small as is its up-and-down range, and when we realize further that, in the air, opposing craft can pass at great heights source of tumination than its own position; thus an aeroplane both above and below cach other, move at speeds that are enor- {lying steadily in a searchlight beam is generally seen best when mous relatively to any rate of movement on or under the sea and it is between the obscrver and a searchlight. It docs not follow have to cope with extraordinary difficultics in detecting one that because aircraft are invisible to observers on the ground another’s proximity, it will be seen that the task in front of the the ground is invisible to an observer in the machine, and vice versa. The greatest difficulty is frequently experienced in air forces of any nation is the most difficult of all. There is no “ command of the air” while the enemy disputes gaining the correct focus for the eye, and, having gained it, to it. Therefore, against attacks by air, it Is a logical necessity to maintain that focus. This is a difficulty common to the observer provide ground defences, and to limit the radius of the air both on the ground and in the air, but whilst the former has only units allotted to coéperate with them. But though defence to look upwards, the laiter has in addition to look all round and against attack by air, as on the ground, may be active or passive, below his machine. Neither has the assistance of intermediate yet to be effective it must be both. Further, the conditions objects by means of which the focus of the cye can be altered under which aircraft move, by day and by night respectively, and held at definite stages. By day the observer in the air_is are so widely different, that the conditions of the defence must deaf, by night he is deaf and blind. A searchlight shining into

be correspondingly varied to meet them. It is not intended here to deal with operations launched over. long distances against enemy acrodromes and depots, such being the rôle of the air forces alone, but solely with the local defence of areas occupied by “ vulnerable points ” of the kind which have been enumerated above. The instruments of air defence are:~(a) the machine-gun on the ground; (b) the machine-gun in the acroplane; (c) the

the sky is only visible by reason of the particles of “dust ” or moisture in the path of the beam, In a perfectly clear or clean atmosphere the beam Ís invisible. 1 Unusually clear atmospheric conditions with a few bigh clouds

were responsible for popular rumours prevalent during the war in 194-8, to the effect that a new invisible searchlight had ‘been discovered which simply threw a disc of light far away up in the sky, and was otherwise quite invisible,

AIR DEFENCE

88

IT, Conditions affecting the vartous Instruments of Air Defence. (a) The machine-gun on the ground, on account of its com-

searchlight, owing to the differences in the reflecting surfaces of an

paratively short range, can only deal with targets flying at low

they can generally hold it whatever the gymnastics attempted by the target. On the other hand, if a target is illuminated by a comparatively large number of beams, say eight or ten, some of which

heights, ¢.g. up to 3,000 or 4,000 feet.

On the other hand, the

ease with which it can be handled enables it to cope with the rapid change in angular velocity of low-flying targets ina way which the heavier guns cannot do. Low-flying machines move over their ground targets with a very rapid angular velocity, and owing to their small height they are often invisible from the ground objective until at a close range. Every unit of an army, therefore, requires anti-aircraft machine-gun equipment for its own local protection,

(b) The machine-gun mounted in the aeroplane can attack its target at close range, and, if its own aeroplane is superior to the target in speed and in climbing and manoeuvre power, @1n main-

tain that attack until the combat ceases. It is therefore of great importance in air defence. Mention has already been made of the difficulties of secing objects other than on the ground, and of hearing; and to overcome

them it usually becomes necessary to direct the pilot and observer by signal (visual or wireless) from the ground, to assist them in finding the target which has been selected for attack. Other serious handicaps to the observer in the air are the un-

stable platform for his gun and the difficulty of estimating the range to his target. (c) The heavier gun on the ground acts in coöperation with

the machine-gun in the air, and in substitution for it when weather conditions or other reasons prohibit the use of the aeroplane. The gunnery problem is an extremely intricate one owing to the difficulties involved in range finding, the rates of change in angular velocity, the case with which a target can change its

height and course, and the fact that the target can only be engaged for a very limited space of time. The difficulties of the artilleryman originate from the time of flight of his projectile. On the other hand, he is not hampered as is the airman by the unstable platform and by the noise made by the engine.

(d) The searchlight has three réles to fulfil in air defence. (1) It points out the selected target to the defending aeroplanes. ‘At might the pilot is deaf and practically blind, and, unless he carries a searchlight in his machine, he must depend on those on

the ground to show him where the target is moving.

(2) It

illuminates it for the artillery. The artilleryman on the ground is blind, and cannot use his sights unless his target is well laminated so that he can see it. (3) It exerts a moral effect

deterrent to the attack.

It is necessary to read the personal

narratives of night-flying pilots, and to listen to their conversations, to appreciate tAe great moral effect which the systematic and unhesitating use of searchlight beams has upon them when

they are approaching their objectives on the ground. They know that once the searchlight succeeds in laying on them they become the target for every

gun

and aeroplane

within reach — an

experience to be avoided as far as possible. There are peculiarities in a searchlight beam which handicap the detachment to a large degree; the principal onc is the frequent Inalbility of a man standing close to a projector to see a target in the beam from it. This is sometimes due to a general prevalence of a local mist which diffuses light in all directions in the neighbourhood of the projector, but it may also be due to the blinding effect of a secondary cone of light close to the base of the main searchlight beam, which prevents the man close to the projector from detecting the light reflected from the target. At distances, however, vary-

ing from 6 to 20 ft, to one side of the projector, the effect of this

secondary cone of light is generally so slight as to cause no interference. Projectors have accordingly been provided with long control arms fitted with wheels or handles at the end, so that the man whose duty it is to manipulate the beam can do so with the mini. mum of outside assistance. An aeroplane can, by “ side slipping ” or otherwise executing some unexpected manoeuvre, generally escape from a single illuminating oe pe Roe es eee eek 3 * By day the visual signal may be given by. gunfire. By night it is more often made by the searchlight. For this purpose the Germans in Belgium erected large illuminated “ arrows” composed of incandescent lamps in troughs ef wood, designed to revolve on the roofs of concrete shelters.

aeroplane when viewed from different angles. If, however, three beams manned by good detachments succeed in training on it,

must be at a considerable range from the target, there isa marked

tendency for the latter beams to drop below the target altogether: although the detachments at these projectors are unaware of the fact that their beams are now useless, and may even interfere with

the vision~and

the target,

consequently the work—of

detachments

nearer

An incident which took place during the German airship raid on

London on the night of Sept. 2-3 1916, has been attributed toa reason of this nature. The Schiitte-Lanz airship SLrr, which was eventually burned that night and fell at Cufiley, was entering the area over London from a northerly direction. London itself was lying in what looked like a lake of mist, and the scarchlights, which could hear the attack approaching over them, were seeking for it through the mist. Presently the airship was “ picked up,” and immediately from all quarters of the defences searchlights could be seen moving across to get on to it, until there may have been any nuniber up to 20 beams shining in its direction. The airship seemed to hesitate, and then swung round until she was steering north again. She was seen to empty one or more of her water ballast tanks and suddenly disappear. ‘The searchlights lost her entircly for some minutes. Though, as is well known, she was eventually detected again and then held until she fell, there is little doubt that the searchlights were, in the first portion of the engagement, hampering each other in their work owing to the exposure of too many beams,

In the same engagement a searchlight near Kenton was quite

uscless owing to a dense mist surrounding it and the gun station

near by, The local reflexion of the light by the mist was so great that it prevented either gun or light detachment from secing the target. During the first years of the war discussions were often heard as to the advisability of throwing out searchlight beams, on the assumption that the target might not know where it was, and might there-

fore pass away without dropping any bombs; in other words that the exposure of searchlights invited the arrival of bombs. The answers to these suggestions are simple, viz. :— G.) The searchlights are there to be used, because guns and aeroplanes are blind without them. Guns and acroplanes cannot defend efficiently without secing their target. (ii.) There is no justification for the assumption that the enemy has Jost his way and does not know where he is. During the spring of 1917 a general «isplay of searchlights round London was arranged to test their efficiency ag a moral deterrent on airship commanders. Every searchlight in the London arca was given a prearranged arc through which the beam was to be moved slowly and regularly at a given signal, the movement to be continued indefinitely until the signal was canceJled or enemy aircraft became audible or visible to any of the detachments. The intention

was to expose all the beams (some 120) simultaneously as soon as

an attack was heading towards the London area, but whilst it was

still sufficiently far away to give the airship commander plenty of time to think matters over, and remind him of the aeroplanes and

guns which were waiting for him, and of the fate of some of his

predecessors, On the two occasions when this scheme was put into force the attacks stopped short of the defended area and never came near it, though the German official communiqué announced on each occasion that they had dropped bombs on London.

A searchlight and its detachment are very vulnerable when within range of shell and machine-gun fire. On some occasions air-

craft have occupied themselves in deliberately bombing searchlights, though the instances have been rare in England, and in no

case was harm done cither to the searchlights or to their personnel.

On the other hand, in the areas where ground fighting was in prog-

ress, searchlights formed a vulnerable target for machine-gun fire

from

low-flying aeroplanes,

paratively few.

though

actual casualties were

com-

The sound locator is an instrument which is intended to indicate the angle of elevation, and the bearing in azimuth, of aircraft audible but invisible from the ground. Many types of sound locator were invented and tried by the

various nations involved in the war, but none was eminently satisfactory. The fact of the matter was that but little was known of the vagaries of the paths of sound waves in the atmosphere. Durin and since the war, however, students have begun to appreciate an learn a few of its peculiarities, though at the present time knowledge of the subject is still little more than in its infancy. The pattern of

sound locator most commonty used in the war was one with four

trumpets, two for obtaining the direction in clevation and two for obtaining it in azimuth. In order to convey the information to the

searchlight

itself in as instantaneous

a manner

as possible, the

locator was provided with a “ring sight," on the edge of which

the searchlight beam was kept in contact by a “ layer,” who gave suitable directions to the men at the projeccor.

AIR DEFENCE A defect of this type was its inability to climinate certain sounds which had nothing to do with aircraft, such as those from petrol

tractors, motor bicycles, etc, on the ground in the neighbourhood. The Germans in Belgium had to give up using their instrument ata searchlight near Bruges, because of the noise made by the frogs in the dykes all round it. i Another pattern of sound locator has been constructed in cliffs on the shore by cutting a concave surface m the face of the cliff, and providing an appliance for collecting the sound waves at {heir point of maximum

concentration,

in such a way

as to indicate

approximately the direction of the source of the sound.

This pat-

tern was used on the British coasts and warned observers of the approach of machines from Belgium, when the latter were as far

89

cedure proposed was to send up a group of machines loaded with these “ mines,” on patrol well outside the defences, on any occasion when conditions were so favourable that a raid was proballe. The “mines” were to be released across a broad belt through which the attack would probably pass, as soon as a signal was made

from the ground that it had reached a suitable point on its course.

The idea, however, was never carried into eflect-——probably owing

to the danger involved to friendly machines,—~but nevertheless it had possibilities which gave considerable promise, especially for use over the sea.

{f) Bombproof and Splinterproof Protection,—Local protection

for personnel, animals and stores involves the provision of shelters proof against the bombs themsclves and their splinters, away as I5 to 20 miles. These locators also, however, were liable to error; and on one occasion a fleet of, motor-boats caused an alarm A bomb with a stout and heavy point, and provided with a which was only prevented from becoming public by the perspicacity means to keep it revolving so that the point travels first, will, if of the local anti-aircraft commander. | launched from a great height, penetrate most practicable forms The functions of the observer post, which may or may not be of shelter. A stout double roof of concrete with the sides sloping equipped with detector apparatus, are of great importance. fairly steeply, and provided with a “ sandwich ” of some resilient The duty of the observers is to detect the passage of aircraft and material between the roofs, will probably give protection to report their movements to the authority controlling the air what is beneath it, provided that the foundation supporting the defences, On these reports depend the warnings to the civil and roofs is a good one, military authorities within the defended areas. Such duties Many bombproof shelters made of concrete or big stones cemented

demand considerable physical strength to bear the severe strain

together were constructed in France and Belgium by all belligerents,

incurred by watching and waiting; and a high degree of refine-

but they were generally of small capacity, and provided for particular detachments whose duties necessitated their remaining in the vicinity at all times. It is not, however, possible to provide such pro-

tances of the posts from the objective, and those distances may

hit on, or an explosion very close to, the person or animal will finish the matter as far as they are concerned. A little-known fact is that the open spaces in a big city like London may amount in total area to nearly ten times that on which houses are actually built, the

ment in hearing and cycsight, owing to the necessity of detecting and identifying aircraft. at great distances. The speed of aircraft in the attack is the factor which determines the minimum dis-

involve the disadvantage of great isolation for many posts. The necessity of good and speedy means of communication between such posts and the controlling air defence authority to which they belong is obvious, However excellent an observer’s training may be, a report based solely on what he has heard must be open to

doubt, should it attempt identification of the class of the aircraft in question. (e) The aerial obstacle consists of some form of wire impediment hung from balloons, and intended to be such a menace to a flying

machine that it will either pass beside the obstacle or, more probably, fly at a higher level than the balloons supporting it. The Italian authorities claimed extraordinary success with the contrivances used in their defences. The French authorities were not so optimistic over the type adopted by themselves, and there is no proven case of success with the pattern used in Great Britain. The Germans at Bruges and Zeebrugge flew kites and balloons by wires of a very high tensile strength, and one Handley Page bombing machine with its crew was destroyed at Bruges by these means, «lhe balloons

were about 15 ft. in diameter, and were used

when wind power was insufficient to raise a, kite. The kites were of at least two patterns, but both were of the double box-kile type.

The lowr ends of the wires were wound on vehicles provided with gauges, oil baths, and lightning ‘‘carths,”” They were managed by a few small boys, pressed into the German service at the rate of a few francs a night. It was calculated that the wire provided an obstacle up to about 3,000 feet, i In Great Britain balloons moored by wire cables were arranged in lines, and at some distance below the balloons was a bridle con-

necting all the cables.

From this bridle at equal intervals were sus-

pended long thin wires of considerable tensile strength?

Any arrangement of obstacles suspended from balloons must be

tection universally; in most cases all that can be done is to minimize the danger as far as is practicable, and to accept the fact that a direct

chance that a bomb will fall on a house being therefore far less than is generally recognized.

The heaviest bombs used ‘by both sides in the war made craters

about 35 ft. in depth when dropped on ordinary soil and open ground, These bombs were fitted with fuses with a slight delay action, A light bomb with a very sensitive fuse wag used by the Germans with deadly effect against men and animals. The crater made by it was practically negligible, all the fragments flying outwards and upwards.

Protection

against

this type of bomb

was

afforded by low parapets of sandbags or sods, close to which troops could live; but horses were extremely difficult to protect against these so called “ daisy cutters."’ In the open, protection during a bombing attack will generally be best found by lying down—in a depression if one be available,

In houses it is difficult to say which position is the safest; a bomb with a delay-action fuse will probably blow the whole house up from

roof to cellar, while one with an instantancous fuse will probably blow the roof in. On the whole, it would appear that the safest position of all is near the chimney breast in a room on the first floor, and below the level of the window sill. Such a spot may give protection from débris falling from the roof, and from splinters from a bomb bursting in the road outside, but is of course not likely to be of any use if the whole house is blown up. Torpédo nets arranged in tiers about 10 ft, above cach other may provide a certain amount of protection against small bombs fitted with instantaneous percussion fuses, but they are costly and difficult to erect,

Camouflage-—Concealment of the ground target may take more than one form. The landscape may be studied from the air, and the vulnerable points treated in such a way with painting »

particularly vulnerable, both from the shell fire of the defence and from any machine-gun fire brought to bear by the attack, _ Many other forms of obstacles have been suggested from time to time, and perhaps one of the most ingenious was that of an aerial minefield. The inventor proposed to attach a small charge of explosive, sufficient to destroy an aeroplane wing, to a revolving vane: by a length of fine cord, The charge was fitted with suitable percussion firing arrangements. The vane was attached for the purpose of delaying the fall of the explosive through the air. Charge, cord, and vane were neatly packed together so that considerable numbers

and netting and so on, as to assimilate their appearance as far as possible with the surrounding country. Again, attempts may be

1A curious incident occurred during an air-raid alarm in London during ihe war. To the astonishment of the detachments one complete series of balloons came down with unexpected suddenness, all

a carefully arranged target of green, red, and white lights may successfully simulate and so protect an important railway

could be carried in a box provided with a simple release. The proa i es

being deflated by the rupture of their ripping panels. On examination, it was found that moisture had condensed on the ripping ropes and frozen there, until cach cord was about as thick as a man’s

forearm.

The weight had gradually increased on all with remark-

able regularity until the ripping point was reached, when each balloon in the series was deflated almost simultaneously. There wasa

heavy mist that night, and the temperature at the ground level was above freezing-point,

made to hide an important point with smoke clouds during a raid, but unless the work is very carefully done the smoke may invite attention to the possible objective rather than conceal it.

In any case it involves much careful organization, and may in the end prove very expensive. Lights and dummy buildings may be placed in exposed positions so as to form attractive targets for hostile bombing machines, at a safe distance but not too far from the point actually sought by the enemy. Thus junction. Concealment of the principal been suggested; but success would were of small size, and therefore importance. For a big objective

leading-in marks has frequently only be likely with obtects which probably of comparatively small

such as London, where there are such prominent guides in the nature of rivers, railroads and valleys

the expense of concealment would be enormous and the probability of success negligible, Moreover, the developments of wireless teleg-

AIR DEFENCE

90

raphy for directional and _position-finding purposes would almost entirely neutralize any such work if it were attempted, on account

1.32 waited near Dungeness for about 40 minutes, and then flew north over Tunbridge Wells, instead of following L31. She avoided

London, and dropped her bombs between Westerham and Oekene ham. Near Billericay she was destroyed by fire. Although there would appear to be much to commend such a course, “ fleet ” movements of airships in formation with the doubt that the moral effect is far greater than the material— intention of bombing were not carried out by the Germans. particularly in thickly populated districts where self-control, as a However, it does not necessarily follow that a big attack of gencral rule, will be found lacking in the population to a greater airships, either by themselves or convoyed by aeroplanes, will degree than amongst armed forces in the field. No result decisive not form part of an extensive bombing opcration in the future. to a campaign has been brought about by a raid of any kind of The arrival of such an aerial flotilla over a capital city at the itself alone. ‘This fact will probably be truce of aircraft bombing very outset of a war would do much to spread despondency and _ operations, provided that a country has taken suitable precautions alarm; and if such a feet succeeded in getting away unscathed, in peace against the chance of an overwhelming attack at the the attack might sufice to overturn all government in the state very outbreak of war. attacked. Written evidence was found during the war of the nervous appreAeroplane and Seaplane Attack—Bombing aeroplanes? by hension reigning in a certain German town after the British special reason of their speed, difficulty of destruction from the ground, raiding force known as the “ Independent Force, R.A.F.,” had been operating for a comparatively short time, One of the inhabitants and comparative ease of handling in unfavourable weather, form described a night of terror in which Allicd acroplanes had come in the most serious factor in air attack.

of the size of the target. (See also CAMOUFLAGE.)

II, Forms of Attack. The effects of bombing are moral and material. There is no

the early night and dropped their bombs and gone away.

No sooncr

had the inhabitants come out of their shelters to go to bed than they

were again summoned under cover, and the bomb dropping was repeated. Again they went to bed, and again they had to take cover—the performance continuing in this manner for some three or four hours. Asa matter of fact one solitary Allied acroplane paid a single visit to the town that night; the rest of the raid was purely imaginary, and the result of demoralization! Over another large town six long air raids took place during cight nights, One effect was that the clothing output from that district was temporarily reduced by 80%—a serious matter for the army, as a large proportion of the

The first aeroplane raid on London by day took place about noon

on Nov. 28 1916. This was carried out by a two-seater machine carrying about half a dozen light bombs and flying at a high altitudo, It was a courageous effort. Engine trouble brought the pilot to the ground on French territory, where he was caps tured with his observer. London was covered with clouds of aust which prevented all but a very few from ever seeing ithe machine. The success of the effort made it all the more surprising that it was never repeated; subsequent attacks in daylight were all made

force was depending on the district for its clothing.

by machines flying together in considerable numbers and not singly. The most notable was that which took place on July 7 1917. Before Sept. 1917, only a single attack on London was made by aeroplane by night. In that partichlar case (May 6-7 1917) the

danger, provided that store and ammunition depots are so designed

bombs on Hackney Marshes.

Bombing operations over disciplined forces in the field constitute on the whole a form of annoyance rather than a potential

as to be separated from cach other, and subdivided within themselves, in such a way that a fire arising m one section may be prop-

attack was made by a solitary machine which dropped most of its With these two exceptions, aeroplane and seaplane raids on Eng-

land by day and night were limited practically to coastwise towns and shipping at anchor till the beginning of Sept. 1917, when ference with movements of troops and stores by rail can be, and has aeroplane attacks on London by night were commenced seriously, been, caused by law-flying bombing machines, | These seem to have been made at first by machines in groups of

erly isolated and prevented from spreading to its neighbours,

Inter-

three to five in number, but at the end of the same month, tne Airship Attack.—Airships form targets of great size, and, if groups appear generally to have split up on reaching the English filled with inflammable gas—as were those of the Central Em- coast, cach machine taking its own line independently from that

pires during the war—are objects of considerable danger to their crews.

If and when a suitable non-inflammable gas is discovered

which can be produced cheaply for commercial purposes, the airship will become a serious factor in air-defence considerations. It possesses greater cndurance, radius of action, carrying capacity, accommodation, and facilitics for observation than “ heavierthan-air ” machines. Metcorological conditions, however, will always militate more.against the free use of airships than of acroplanes, which posséss higher powers of manoeuvre and performance.

During the war bombing operations by airships were not intentionally undertaken by the Germans over land targets by day, but ships at sea were frequently made the objects of such attention between dusk and dawn. Airships intending to attack

land objectives in the British Is. used to leave their sheds by day, and make their landfall while still over the North Sea, There they would wait until it was dark cnough to cross the coastline without

prospect of scrious interference, and make

for their various objectives—as a rule more or less independently, but sometimes in pairs. The return journcys were made independently. ‘ It has been held that at night it is hardly necessary to attack with more than one airship at a time, but there is no doubt whatever that simultancous attacks by two or more airships on

the same course add enormously to the difficulties of the defence. The German

raid on London during the night of Sept. 23-4

1916 affords a notable instance of airships setting out to attack in pairs, but failing to carry out their intention. L3r and 1.32 sailed on the task in company and reached Dungeness together. Thence Lar, commanded by a bold and skilful pilot, set her course straight across London at high speed, and eventually won through. Her consort hesitated, and was lost.

L31 passed over Purley and Croydon, and dropped a very brilliant

flare as she turned on a northerly course. This undoubtedly had the effect of distracting the ground defences from herself; for she

was scarcely seen as she passed over the metropolis, and bombed:

it heavily without damuye to herself. She reached home in safety,

lime onwards.

Machine-yun fire from fow-flying aeroplanes and seaplanes will

be encountered

wherever

targets present themselves:

troops in

action, in camp, or on the march, transport in movement,

troops

crowded on shipboard. Tut here again the principal effect will be moral rather than material. Where ships lie at anchor in open roadsteads, or in harbours which offer a direct line of approach from the sea of moderate length,

seaplanes will find targets vulnerable by the marine torpedo. The launching of the torpedo involves a close approach by the torpedo»

carrying machine to the surface of the sea, and complete occupation for the crew of the machine. These facts render it necessary that such machines be escorted by one or more fighting machines, whose duty it is to protect them from aitacks by air and if possible

from fire from the shore and ships. Various methods of active pros

tection suggest themselves—the destruction of. the machine, harass«

ing its aim, or deflecting the torpedo during the launching process. Photography of the ground for intelligence purposes forms @ highly important feature in aircraft work, With good lenses, phos tographic

machines

can

do their work at immense heights, thus

rendering their detection by the defence a matter of considerable difficulty. Acroplancs on hostile patrol constitute an armed guard whose duty it is to seek for enemy machines. Such patrols form targets

for air defence formations when they are within range and the air.

forces proper are not at hand to take up their challenge. Friendly: machines acting as auxiliaties to ground operations

especially artillery machines observing the results of gun fire—are 1The paragraphs which follow are applicable also in the main to seaplanes. Nevertheless the typical differences between the two

classes are not without importance from the point of view of the preparations

against

attack

by one or the other.

The principal

difference is that scaplanes require no landing ground or special arrangements for landing on ships. They can also take in their fuel from ships. On the other hand they find difficulty in ‘f taking off” in rough water. Their powers of manoeuvre are, however, comparatively limited. ‘hey come chiefly into the consideration of coastal air defence, owing to the necessity they are under of landing on water. But amphibious machines are certain developments of the near future, and wide canals such as that between Bruges and Zeebrugge have served as landing places and enabled seaplanes to operate from a point inland and safe from interference from the sea,

AIR DEFENCE at a serious disadvantage if attacked by enemy aircraft, as their

dutics tie them to a comparatively smali area at a fairly low height. _ To defend each of such machines by an aerial escort would absorb too great a number of fighting aircraft, and so the duty falls most frequently on the anti-aircraft artillery and such machines as are allotted for air defence work—provided that the latter can be directed to the spot in sufficient time to provide the protection required.

QI

A little time-table will show the time probably left to them to get up to, say, 10,000 feet.

oo

Time taken by attack to travel go to 48 m. say

Ship to shore : Coastguard to local H.Q. i Local H.Q. to main ILO. Main H.Q. to Air Defence H.Q. ,

IV. The Defence in General. Tt will now be realized that air defence is required both in the

f e E.

of a

.

minutes

ao Gs eS W f

Air Defence H.Q. to units ; Starting up machines, “ taxi-ing ” and taking off a

actual theatre of active operations in the face of the enemy, and

in aréas farto the rear of the fighting line, so long as the enemy has machines capable of rcaching those distant points and returning again from them. Bombing attacks may be met anywhere, i.e. | both in the forward arca of ground operations—the ‘ Front ”— and also in store depots, bases, ports, and large citics far removed from them. Low-flying machines with bombs or machine-guns

may be encountered far in rear of the “ fighting line,” but principally in or near it and over the communications immediately behind it; so that, as a broad general rule, the nearcr

the “linc” the greater will be the proportion of low-flying targets, and vice versa, Torpedo-carrying machines will be met with over the sea; and photography machines anywhere be-

, , Total (sa Leaving the machines to get their heights in »)

27

l

5 2 2 2 I 5

I 1

A single report of this nature would suffice to send out an alarm

far and wide, and turn the defence posts over a vast arca into seething points of activity; whilst there might be nothing whatever to show that those machines were hostile, or that if hostile they were going to attack the city in question. The initial probability was that they were hostile; and as they happened to be going west at a point 70 odd miles east of the city, the time required to get the defending aeroplanes into position would leave no option but te assume that the attack was coming to that city. Yet the attack in this instance might easily turn aside as soon as the coastline was

made, in order to procced to some other objective; there was no

certain indication beforehand of the real one, and there may never be,

tween the “line” and points far in rear-of it on the lines of

‘The foregoing example shows that the observer system of a defen-

communications.

sive organization for a big “ vulnerable point’ must extend to a

In order to place defending aeroplancs in positions favourable for engaging their targets, it is necessary to obtain information of the attack in sufficient time. This leads to two great essentials in any scheme of air defence, namcly:—(a) intelligence, and (8)

radius of from 70 to 100 m. from the probable main ohjective of hostile attack by air, if the executive is to have sufficient time to get its defences into a state of readiness for action, and the civilian population and railways properly warned of the approaching danger,

communications.

As soon as the attack enters the area in which anti-aircraft posts exist, each of such posts within sight or earshot of the

.

(a) Intelligence can be treated under three headings:— (1) during peace, and before the beginning of an attack in war; (2). during an attack; (3) immediately after an attack.

Intelligence before the beginning of an attack includes information obtained during peace of all the resources of a possible enemy; his preparations and probable intentions; with the numbers, details and performances of his machines both civil and military. On such information will the whole scheme of air defence of a country and its forces in the field depend. In peace such information can be collected, compiled, and as-

similated in a careful and comparatively slow manner.

attack becomes a potential source of information. .

But

directly a state of war arises, speed in the collection and trans-

mission of that intelligence to thosc whom it most concerns, $e. the executive in the air defence services, becomes the prominent factor. The authority responsible for the collection of that information has to add comparatively suddenly to his ordinary peace-time duties that of rapidly tracing the movements of both hostile and friendly aircraft, as by no other method can an officer check information sent to him by his observers, Only on the efficiency of the preparations made for the use of telephone, telegraph, and other signals can he hope to issue the warnings which will be required by the population to enable them to take cover during a raid. The state of war may even be heralded by the air attack itself, and there may only be a matter of a few hours for the transition from “intelligence duties during peace

and before an attack” to “intelligence during an attack.” It will be host to consider a concrete example, which will show perhaps more than anything else the necessity for speed. Take an imaginary city with an average radius of 12 m., with

its centre situated 30 m. west of the sca. One night a ship 60 m. east of that city reports a number of acropjanes as having been

heard passing high overhead, going west at an estimated ground speed of roo m. per hour. The message, which is probably sent “in clear,” is picked up by some coastguard station, which sends it to the local senior naval officer and so to the military garrison commander near at hand. hese officers, after digesting the report, and confirming it if possible, send it on through their respective headquarters to the central organ of the system. Thence it goes to the railways, to the police, and to air defence headquarters, who give the alarm to the railroad men, to the ctvil population, and to the

It remains

then for the commander of the air defences to organize a system of speedy intelligence within his own command, which can be supplemented by reports collected from police and railways, which may or may not assist in checking the reports reccived from the defence posts themselves. This system continues its work until such time as the attack withdraws to a point outside its boundaries, when intelligence is again required from outside sources until it is certain that the engagement is over.

Directly after the attack it becomes of importance immediately

to check the commander’s ideas of the battle, to supplement them with local details of what actually happened, and to compile as complete an account as possible, showing:~—Nature and numbers of aircraft employed on cach side; routes followed by attack and defence; casualties to personnel and material; number and nature

of bombs dropped; expenditure of ammunition; size, speed, and manocuvres of encmy machines; new features of machines, if any; efheacy of communications; weather conditions, etc. This report is of high importance and may enable a commander, if it is compiled and issued rapidly, to dispose his forces afresh in sufficient time should features in the attack show this to be necessary. © In this connexion, it is important to note certain peculiarities of air-defence information. A report on the position of aircraft it movement is incorrect the instant after the observation is made, unless the time of the observation is given. The value of the report decreases with every moment that elapses after the observation. Jo be of value at all it must specify whether the aircraft was secn or only heard; if the former, whether friendly or hostile; and the time of the observation. To be of real value, it should contain data as to the direction of Night, the number and type of the machines and their height. One of the outstanding curiositics of the air raids over England was the remarkable inaccuracy of the reports rendered by eyewitnesses which were received at the various headquarters.

To men who have been in

the services the hypothesis that the man “on the spot ” knows

squadrons, guns, and lights, ete, of the defences, respectively,

what is going on and therefore knows best what should he done, will be familiar, The history of anti-aircraft operations during

20 m. from the centre of the city, 2.e. about 40 to 45 m. from the source of the report. At the squadron aerodromes the pilots, who

the war abounds with instances showing the fallacy of that

The defending squadrons will probably be situated from 15 to

are waiting ready to start up the machines, “ taxi” over thè acrodrome, and then ‘ take off ? and begin to climb to predetermined

heights, as the real height of the attack cannot be known at the

moment.

hypothesis.

During the aeroplane raid of June 1917, over Sheerness, Graves-

end, Wrolham,

and Folkestone,

two

independent

reports

were

received of an airship approaching London in broad daylight from

AIR DEFENCE

92

a point between Gravesend and Wrotham. They were the onty intimations of any airship being present.

One of the reports came from

an officer, and one from a searchlight detachment; all had been

used to seeing airships at night and knew what they were like. They were closely questioned, and there is no doubt that they were

mistaken

but none of them was ever shaken in his conviction that

he had seen an airship, The gun detachment at Hyde Park were threatened by an angry crowd one afternoon in June 1917, because they would not open fire on a British machine flying high overhead. An air raid was actu-

ally in progress over East Kent at the time.

|

Howibs were reported one night as dropping in places up and

down the eastern portions of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, but a

duty officer sitting over a map in London could only trace the noises to echoes of a serious explosion which had taken place a short time

before in Lancashire; so he assumed the responsibility of declining

‘to give an alarm;

An ap

he was right. _

.

was reported as visible and audible over the scene of

the great Silvertown explosion in east London within a few minutes after the last explosion there had taken place; it was identified with a curious wisp of smoke which many spectators had noted in the

glare of the flames. The sound of the engines was purely imaginary Thin long clouds were frequently reported as airships on moonlight nights. . S

_

These few examples will show the unreliability of reports con-

‘cerning aircraft and bring into prominence the enormous responsibility resting on the shoulders of the “ duty officer,” who, sitting miles away from the scene in a closed room, has to decide whether an observer really has seen or heard what he has said he did.

In making observations on the movements of large cylindrical airships, a common cause of error is due to the lack of an appreciation of the effect of perspective.

An airship travelling

horizontally and straight away from an observer may give the impression of falling vertically, nose downwards. An obliquely approaching airship may appear to be gaining height, and vice

versa, although travelling at a constant height. Further, the observer on the ground is unable to assist himself by comparison of the size of the machine with other objects, the sizes of

which may be familiar, placed at gradually increasing distances from him, and between himself and the airship. The vagaries of the path of sound emanating from aircraft have proved extraordinarily. deceptive. An officer accustomed to ‘living in a shelter on a roof in the heart of London was able, while inside the hut, to detect sounds of aircraft which were quite inaudible to him when he was outside it. Local slopes and

wooded country lead to confusion in the intensity and direction of the source of sound. During the raid of May 23-4 1917 on the London area, airships were reported independently as “almost overhead” by three experienced anti-aircraft detachments in the neighbourhood of Hoddesdon and Hatfield, though no airships came nearer than within 25 m. of them; the mistake was probably due to peculiar and dense cloud

formations which lay over the London area at the time. During the

same engagement, bombs dropped between Braintree and The Wash were reported as clearly audible from Putney Heath and southwest of it.

In a civilized country, warning of an approaching attack by air is required by both civil and military populations. Here again the organization must be based on “areas.” It is not possible to decide beforehand the objective of attack by air, but

it is possible to fix the degree of probability of attack on the different vulnerable points in any country. In each of such vulnerable points certain precautions are necessary, such as the evacuation of the workers from an explosive factory, the dowsing of bright lights, or the control of railway traffic These precautionary measures take time to bring into force but it is nevertheless desirable.to bring them into force only at the very last moment, in order not to delay output or cause unnecessary alarm and congestion. It becomes necessary therefore to keep a quick and care-

ful record of the cnemy aircraft movements, to divide up the country into “ warning districts,” and to provide a good system of distributing the warnings. The movements of the attack are recorded by the “intelligence ” system. The sizes of the warning districts depend on the speed with which the attack may move, as well as on the time required to bring the precautionary measures into force. The system of distributing the warnings will rest with those civil

authorities who act as guardians of the public safety, who will probably use the civil telephone system.

Warnings and orders will normally be divided into: (a) preliminary warnings as to the approach to the.area of an attack; (b) definite military orders as soon as the attack has entered the. area; (c) messages cancelling (a) and (b). As regards railways, special arrangements are necessary. ° Complete stoppage of railway traffic creates such disorganization that weeks may be taken to recover from it. Failure of train service causes the assembly of huge crowds of would-be passengers at railway stations, and so the formation of “ vulnerable points ” in which a single bomb would cause immense destruction of life. The dislocation of the traffic suspends the punctual delivery of goods, and upsets transport arrangements throughout the whole country traversed by the railway system, as well as in the ports to which it is connected. The control of the traffic therefore remains in the hands of the railway authorities, who arc advised by the military authorities of the assistance the system may afford to hostile aircraft under ccrtain circumstances. Both the railway and military authorities render each other mutual assistance in the interchange of information regarding the progress of an attack by air. (b) Communications. —The rapidity with which aircraft move, and the uncertainty of their objectives, render necessary a very complete system of communications. Without such provision the intelligence gained cannot be collected or information and orders distributed in sufficient time to meet an attack before it arrives over its objective, or to enable precautionary mcasures for the public safety to be taken. Signals may be sent by wire, wireless, and visual means. Means of communication are required bet ween:— Points on land, Ships on the sea, Machines in the air,

and

points on land.

ships on the sea,

machines in the air.

Signal by wire is only possible between stationary points, Ze, those on land or the shore and anchored vessels afloat. Visual signalling between machines in the air and points on the ground is limited chiefly by atmospheric conditions, but also by the necessity of conccaling the position of machines in the air, As between points on the surface of the earth, intervening ground features as well as atmospheric conditions may interfere. In order to minimize the inevitable congestion which arises where the same wire circuit is used for the dual purpose of

collecting and distributing information, independent methods must be provided for the two processes wherever this can be arranged. As far as possible information should be collected by Wire circuits, put alter verification it may be distributed by any

method available. Wireless is of value between machines in the air to cnable formation commanders to communicate with cach

other and with the machines under them. Wireless signal facilities are also required to enable machines to check their navigation reckonings, and to assist them in Jocating landing grounds, particularly when fog or cloud prevail. For the communication of intelligence before the latter has been thoroughly investigated its use is a source of danger, owing to the ease with which wircless messages can be “picked up” and to the large proportion of inaccuracies to be found in messages concerning aircraft.

These broad principles apply to all “back ” areas, bat im “ forward ’? areas, where shell fire renders the maintenance of wire circuits almost impossible, resort to wireless alone may

be necessary, if the passage of aircraft intelligence is essential in the area affected. That the highest standard of accuracy and rapidity 18 required to make the service of communication efficient for crises in which minutes are precious goes without saying.

V. The Application of the Various Instruments of Defence. In order always to be as economical as possible, air defences must not be disposed too far from the arca they are intended to defend. As the attack can come from any direction, they must be disposed all round that area, To dispose ground defences along the boundary of a state with aeroplanes on patrol on

either side of them, in order to keep the invader out of the state

AIR DEFENCE at the outset, is to be “strong everywhere,” and consequently * strong nowhere.” Such a policy involves dispersion of available strength over unimportant Jocalities, reduction of control, loss of cohesion in effort, extravagance, and the achievement of a minimum of efficiency. The close defence of the localities which

are important to the state is the only sound policy. For the defence to be effective, the attack must be met and

defeated at the right height and outside the line from which it can achieve its object. Such at least must be the aim of the defence, however difficult it may be of achievement. That is to say, the defence must be outside the objective of the attack. This necessity plunges the matter at once into difficulties with what is known in the army as the “ chain of command.” An army works

by definite boundaries shown by real or imaginary lines on the ground. The air knows no boundarics,

It follows, therefore, that

those units of air defence formations which are ticd to the ground must be sited and organized for purposes of command with no regard to those imaginary territorial boundaries necessary to the ordinary army of the ground, and solely with regard

to the whole areca in which the vulnerable point or points are situated. In one respect the sea has an important bearing on the nature of aeroplane attacks. The risk of being shot down on the return journey while still over water, with little or no hope of rescue,

tends to make a circumspect pilot fly high over his objective, even if this be some distance inland, as he must evade detection till he has gained such a start over the pursuers as will enable him to pass the sea in safety even with a damaged engine. This was apparently the policy of the Germans during the raids on London in Sept. rory. Whether, in any given case, the pilot will thus sacrifice some of the effectiveness of his attack in order to give himself better chances of a safe return, will depend on his personal character, the traditions of his corps and the free hand or limiting instructions that he receives from his superiors.

From the point of view of the defence this has its drawbacks. It is difficult to decide a priori, or even during the progress of the attack itself, as to the probable height of the enemy when the basis of the decision is practically conjecture. Another effect of the seacoast on anti-aircraft defences may be to limit them in arca. The defences must extend over an area outside the

vulnerable point; but, in cases of ports on the open sea, that arca is limited to the ranges of gun and searchlight on the edge which

iluminated,

93 Unless the searchlights succeed in their object,

the attack is invisible.

It is not possible as a rule to illuminate SR

targets in a

searchlight beam simultaneously, although during the war as many as five have been held in the beam simultancously for a few minutes; nor is it likely that any method of illuminating a formation of, say, 22 machines simultaneously, for any length of time, would: be practicable., The outer ring of guns, therefore,

would normally remain inactive by night unless the absence of a

defending aeroplane gives an opportunity for a gun to engage an enemy target.

By day and by night the acroplane in defence can only move a certain maximum distance on patrol without running the risk of allowing an attack to slip past in rear of it; the acroplane also requires a certain minimum distance on one side or other of its patrol line in which to manocuvre and bring its enemy to battle. Suppose for the purposes of illustration these measurements be taken at 15 and 10 m. respectively.

The aeroplane patrol area,

and the battle and pursuit area, must be kept as clear as possible of gunfire areas and areas containing vulnerable points of any size. The width of the gunfire area will depend on the probable height at which the attack is delivered. Assuming that the latter is 190,000 ft. and that the gun can command a horizontal range of three miles at that height, the belts of gunfire may be taken at six miles in width. Observer posts must be between 70 to 100 m., away, as has been shown, in order to gain time for the defences to get into position, if they are to meet the attack as it comes in and not bring it to account merely as it is returning home. In the case of a vulnerable area represented by a circle of a radius of 5 m., the area immediately outside that will be a belt for gunfire from 3 to 4 m. in width; the next a belt of ro m. for the acroplane battle and pursuit area; then one of 6 m. for the outer gunfire area; and 2 final belt from 45 to 75 m. wide covered with a network of observer posts, each of which can be from to to 15

m. from each other, This arrangemént provides for the problem of defence by day. By night it is necessary to consider the disposition of the searchlights, and it will have been seen that one of their functions is to indicate the approximate position of attacking aircraft.

To be of any value they must be able to do this throughout the vulnerable area, the adjacent gunfire arca, the battle and patrol

borders on the sta. area, and fora sufhcient distance outside the Jatter (say 4 to 5 m.) Some typical instances of the use of the various instruments of to enable the acroplanes patrolling in defence to move into defence may now be considered. The defence has to provide position to meet the attack. This gives the total area through against attacks both by day and by night. By day the instru- which searchlights must be disposed, the projectors being at the ments of defence and their adjuncts are: the machine-gun in the angles of triangles whose sides measure approximately 2,500 to air, the heavy gun on the ground, the sound locator, and the 3,000 yards. Owing to accidents on the ground, trees, houses, observer post. By night the machine-gun in the air. must be railway stations and the like, the actual distribution of scarchmanned by a crew specially trained in night fighting, and in lights throughout the area often appears 1o be indiscriminate; addition there is the searchlight. By day and by night the object it is inadvisable as a rule to place a searchlight nearer than from of the defences is to break up the enemy attack and destroy it in 200 to soo yd. from a gun. Again, by night, the difficulties detail. By day the massed attack must be broken up by gunfire of determining the height of the attack are so great, that it before the acroplanes on the defensive are launched against it; becomes necessary to dispose the aeroplanes in defence at this entails guns outside the defensive aeroplane patrols, which different heights. Assuming this difference to be. 1,000 ft., again are outside the vulnerable point. ‘Then in support of the and that there are five machines one above the other, with the aeroplanes (t.e. in rear of them) more guns again are required to lowest at about 8,000 {t., the highest will be at 13,000 feet. The

repel such of the attackers as succeed in penctrating the acro-

degree of endurance to be expected of a pilotflying on patrol

plane patrol area, And lastly, throughout the area of the vulnerable point itself, provision must be made for attacking by gunfire any hostile machine which muy succeed in penctrating so far. The attack will probably be audible and visible throughout the greater part of its course. In certain conditions of thick

at night may not exceed a tour of two hours in the air, -Yhese data, combined with a knowledge of the average lengths of the summer and winter nights, will be sufficient to give some indication of the minimum numbers of machines and pilots required in the problem of night defence. The number

by day is also affected by the probable frequency and size of

cloud or haze it may be invisible from the ground, but this fact,

the attacks.

though increasing the difficulties, does not alter the disposition of the defences,

It will now be easy to realize the enormous scale of defences required if any appreciable degree of efficiency is to be attained. A simple diagram will illustrate this general disposition of

By night the attack is broken up in an entirely different manner. Both attacking and defending machines being in darkness, the attack is, as it were, reconnoitred by the search-

defences.

light, and the targets selected by the latter are isolated for engagement by the apparently simple process of keeping them

dicated in these diagrams, but the principle illustrated can be

Few “vulnerable points” are as symmetrical as those in-

applied to areas of almost any shape.

AIR DEFENCE

94 FT

All that can be done is to increase the intensity of the gunfire

O

belt to seaward, arid to provide aircraft detector posts and instruments with a directional value in azimuth rather than vertically.

The latter serve as a partial substitute for the observer cordon by giving somewhat distant warning of the approach of aircraft.

The defence of towns and ports separated from enemy territory by sea alone thus requires maintenance m a state of mstant readi-

ness for action, and so calls for a greater complement of personnel than would be the case in defences situated inland.

Outer Gunfire Area eee Beg

Soa

2

SN

aaen

w0--77

6-77

eae Baitle and Pursuit Area, Inner Gunfire Area

CA

‘Vulnerable Point

.

The areas on either side of the dividing “ ine" between opposing

forces in the held, up to a distance of some miles from the dividing

line, were generally described during the World War as “ forward ” areas. The areas behind the forward areas were usually termed “back” areas; the latter term, however. was not gencrally taken to refer to places outside the ‘ theatre of war,” though from the point

of view of aircraft action it was just as applicable. In “ forward " areas vulnerable points in the nature of men, guns,

-

animals, and ammunition stores are numerous, but as a rule well distributed. In “ back" areas they all tend to greater concentra-

tion. Protection is therefore more easily afforded in the former than in the latter, and so the better targets for bombing machines will be found as a rule in “ back ” areas. The nearer the “line”? the more intense will become the fire of hostile ground artillery; this precludes the free use of scarchlights nearer than about 5,000 yd. fram the “line,” and necessitates the

Fic, 1— Day. FT yack D

distribution of anti-aircraft artillery in smaller fire units than is

O

possible at a greater range from the enemy.

= SER Ve

Targets will be far more numerous in the forward area than in

rear of it, throwing much more work on the anti-aircraft artillery situated near the tine.

'

Applying the principle, as illustrated in the figures, te the prob-

lem im the field, a distortion of the diagram results, ag in the cases

f

jereeran Battle .and Pursuit Area, Inner Gunfire Area

Vulnerable Point

of coastal towns. The outer ring of guns (fig. 1} is formed by the guns ‘' in the line * and such as can be spared to protect the flanks and rear of the force. Within that ring, guns will be concentrated closely around

vulnerable

points such as munition dumps,

hospi-

tals, etc., whilst the defending acroplane will patrol in the space

which may be available between. The maintenance of communication between the forward guns in the shell area becomes a matter of great difficulty and may require provision of special apparatus.

By night the guns “in the line” must rest as far as passible,

6--7

and employ

Searchlights

in

perforce be curtailed, and the aeroplane patrol lines withdrawn

themselves

with observation

duties.

to

the aeroplane battle and pursuit area nearest

the * line” must

points which will admit of sufficient scarchlights operating between them and the attack,

VI. Some Possibilities of the Future. Fic. 2— Night. By taking the maps of any state and applying these principles to the important towns, jt will readily be seen that the matter is in yeahty considerably more complicated than it at first appears. For example, the defence area for Birmingham cannot be separated from that for Coventry. The defence of London is closely associated with that of Woolwich, and both of these are intimately linked with the defences of Gravesend and of Chatham; so that it eventu-

ally becomes necessary to look upon the whole district south of a

line between the Wash and the Bristol Channel as a single area to be provided with defences under one command. Therefore this

whole area will, for purposes of air defence, have an organization independent of all those ordinary commands and military formations whose activities are limited by conventional lines on a map.

„a The same line of reasoning applies to forces in the field with their forward ’’ areas, ines of communication,

and bases; and necessi-

tates the problem of air defence being considered with reference to the whole area of active operations, and not merely to that of all

the independent vulnerable points within it.

The principle illustrated in the diagram will be found applicable

to most cases, provided that consideration is given to the relative urgency of demands for gua and aeroplane defence combined, and of acroplane defence alone. For the civil population, whilst applanding the courage and success of the airman, is ever apt to mingle with its praise a demand for a gun. A gun is tangible and comforting; it can be seen and heard; and so it produces on the population a moral elect which may be more than counterbalanced by the interference

it may cause to the defending airmen.

An instance, already alluded to, in which the principle requires modification, is that of coastal towns and harbours, few of which

can be situated geographically so as to adimt of the all-round dispo-

sition of defence illustrated. Here the sca intervenes to cut off observer posts, scarchlights, and guns, in addition to restricting the

arca of manoeuvre fdr the defending aeroplanes by night.

This

inroad into the defences offers the enemy an avenue of approach, and necessitates considerable strengthening of the batterics within range of and covering the sea in the neighbourhood. A certain

amount of defence may be afforded from vessels afloat, but reliance cannot be placed on them for anything more than a temporary assistance, as they may only be present for uncertain periods.

Some limit to the spced of aircraft and the height at which they can fly must be assumed, and, as far as the possibilities can

at present be imagined, heights up to 30,000 ft. and speeds of 200 M, per hour, together with powers of long endurance in the air, may come within the range of practicability during the next

zo years or so. A successful development of the helicopter would bring about a great change in the power of manoeuvre otf aircraft, and enormously increase the difficulties of the defence, Detection

of approaching aircraft will be rendered difficult by the silencing of the machinery; their destruction by fire will be hampered by the introduction of metal protection. Wireless aids to navigation will decrease the difficulties of the pilot in thick weather, im-

provements in the landing power and stability of machines will

increase their Immunity from storms; and all these conditions will call for a greater state of readiness in the defence. On the other hand, improvements in artillery will be necessary, and will follow as a natural consequence. Inventions for the detection of the locus of the source of sound will facilitate the accuracy

of searchlight work, These factors, in their turn, will impose greater caution on the attack and give greater confidence to pilots patrolling in defence. Acroplanes now used in defence will in the course of years become less localized in their work, and will develop a tendency to operate more and more like battlefleets at sea. Such aerial fleets operating from their bases will be likely to carry their own armaments and searchlights, and to

be accompanied by what we may call their “ destroyer flights,” which will assist them to seck out and find the cnemy themselves. The improvements which will produce this tendency will onby mature gradually, and danger will lje in the endeavour of the

ground or air services to assume entire responsibility for defence against air raids before being in a position to do so. There must

be a long transition period during which coöperation between

air and ground units must be the strongest link in the chain of

AIRD, SIR JOHN—AIR RAIDS defence.

Only in proportion as the air services become of a more

stabilized nature, and anti-aircraft artillery improves, will the

need for close coöperation diminish, it will never entirely disappear. The inability of the British navy to prevent short raids on the East Coast towns of Great Britain during the World War must not be forgotten; in like case, no country will ever be able to make good a defence against aerial raiding attack by aircraft alone. Consequently a nation must guard against exposure in the transition period to dangers which the air services or ground services of themselves alone cannot avert. Local ground defences will always be a necessity; and reliance on them will become greater owing to the many and devious paths of approach open to the enemy taken in conjunction with the reluctance of a nation to expend the huge sums necessary to provide aircraft to watch them all.

Every disease produces its own remedy; and in the end only the highest degree of excellence attainable by the arms of defence on the ground, acting independently of the units in the air, will procure the maximum of immunity for vulnerable points.

(M. Sr. L. 5.)

AIRD, SIR JOHN, rsv. Bart (1833-1911), British engincer, was born in London Dec. 3 1833, the only child of John Aird, contractor for gas and water plant. He joined his father’s

95-

aeroplane, it was left to the lighter-than-air machines to cause the first serious damage and loss. In the evening of Jan. 19

1g15, two naval airships approached the coast of the eastern

countics between Yarmouth and Cromer.

They separated and

dropped bombs on both towns. One of the raiders went out to Sea again at once; the other, handled with greater boldness, proceeded to King’s Lynn, dropping bombs as it went. Four people were killed, including two women, and the material damage was estimated at £7,000 or £8,000. On April 14 the redoubtable. Mathy, boldest and ablest of all German air commanders, began his activities over England. Commanding Lo, a new and improved type of naval airship, he made a considerable tour over the North. On this occasion

he was not particularly successful, most of the bombs falling harmlessly in open country. At Walsall, however, he succeeded in singeing the hair of a woman who was washing a little girl by the fireside. The following night Lg returned, accompanied by two other ships, and caused some damage in Suffolk. The next four raids were on @ similar scale. Bury St. Edmunds was bombed in moonlight from a height of some 3,000 ft., the airship trusting to patches of fog to escape. Southend, always a favourite “* fortress ” for attack, suffered twice, three people being killed.

On May 17 Capt. Linnarz, very active about this time in com-

business at 18, and was entrusted with the removal of the Crystal Palace buildings from Hyde Park and their reérection at Syden-

mand of one of the military airships, while over Ramsgate des-

ham. We took part in many enterprises at home and abroad, such as the Hampton and Staines reservoirs, the waterworks of

first timc; but his orders forbade him to go inland, and this most tempting of targets had to be left for another occasion.

Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Moscow, Bahia, Para, Calcutta, Simla

The opportunity soon came. Qn the night of May 31 1915 Linnarz succeeded in bringing his ship over the metropolis, in

and Berlin, and later (in the joint firm of Lucas & Aird, afterwards John Aird & Co.) the St. John’s Wood railway, the Hull & Barnsley railway and docks, the W. Highland railway and the great Assuan dam across the Nile. He represented N. Padding-

ton in Parliament as a Unionist from 1887 to 1905, and was its first mayor in 1900. In roor he was created a baronet. He made a fine callection of pictures by British painters, the iHustrated catalogue to which was printed in 1884. He died at Beaconsfield, Bucks., Jan. 6 1911. AIR FORCES: sce FLYING CORPS. AIR RAIDS.—Air-raiding by airships, and still more by acroplanes, was carried out during the World War in most of its geographical arcas.

German bombers were particularly active in

France, and many towns near the Rhine suffered severely in later times from the acroplanes of the British Independent Air Force. But nowhere can the history of the continual see-saw of success between raiding and air defence during the war be studied better than in the German raids carried out over England in general and against London in particular.

Their story during

Igt4-5, 1916, 1917 and 1918 will here be narrated. 1914-5.— Directly Great Britain came into the war, the German High Command began to encourage their public with prophecies of the havoc the Zeppelins were about to work in England. Disillusionment came quickly. The experience of

cried the lights of London, more than ṣo miles away, for the

reply, so the Germans alleged, for a bombardment of Ludwigshafen. This raid was,carried out in full moonlight, a fact that shows how much there was to learn at the time in the art of air defence. The great size of the thickly populated arca of London makes

it an ideal target for promiscuous bombing. There was on this night only one raider, armed with an inefficient type of bomb, but 4r people were killed or injured, and more than £18,000 worth of damage was caused. The bombs all hit the eastern part of London north of the river; one of them fell into a tank at John Walker’s whisky distillery in Whitechapel. Fortunately

the tank contained water only. Further raids in Yorkshire and Kent on June 4 had little result, but two nights later Mathy again attacked the north,

this time doing much more harm than before.

He found Hull,

came down low over it, and killed 24 people, besides wrecking some 40 houses. The people of Ilull, exasperated by this ex-

perience, broke out and smashed up a number of shops supposed to be German, but a better revenge was in store, for another airship, LZ37, that attempted to raid on the same night was totally destroyed by Lt. Warneford while it was returning home

near Ghent, and fell in flames, one member only of the crew escaping alive. The first serious military damage in England was done by a single ship that raided the north on June is. Some some of the smaller airships, attempting to work by day over works in Yarrow were hit, 18 men killed and a number injured. In commenting on the first raid on London on May 31, the Belgium and Lorraine, was by no means encouraging. Three | were destroyed at once, and it became evident that for airships Press had to come to the conclusion that it was in the nature of to fly low in daylight over enemy territory was to invite certain a trial trip, and this view was justified by the series of nine disaster. Hence it was that, although reconnaissances over the organized raids that took place in the latter part of 1915. The North Sea towards England were begun by airships, the first series opened inauspiciously for the Germans, a Zeppelin engaged in bombing Dover being hit by a new 3-in. gun that had just actual attacks were made by acroplanes. In Dee. 1914 a couple of bombs were dropped in the sea off been mounted there. She struggled across the Channel, losing Dover, and three days later, on Dec. 24, the first German pro- gas rapidly, and fell into the sea near Ostend, where she was jectile hit English soil. A small bomb fell near the Castle at finished off by bombing aeroplanes. London was reached on four nights during this period. Twice Dover and broke some glass. Both these aeroplane attacks were in the nattre of a surprise, and the defences, such as they the results attained serious proportions, On Sept. 8 Mathy, were in those days, could take no action. On the following day now in command of L13, an improved type of Zeppelin, came in a seaplane dropped a few bombs at Shecrness, without effect. over the Wash, steered straight on London and bornbed the City This time both the ground and acrial defences took action; but deliberately and with considerable success. Fires broke out in British aeroplanes came in for most of the anti-aircraft fire from many places, and the damage done amounted to more than {£500,the ground.

A few half-hearted attacks by acroplanes and sea-

planes made during 1915 were ineffective, except that two women were killed at Margate in September.

The barren honours of the first attacks having fallen to the

oco.

Mathy also took part in the raid of Oct. 13, when his

ship bombed Woolwich. On this occasion the casualties were 7 killed and 128 wounded. ‘These losses were severe enough,

but they were nothing to what the German public was led to

AIR RAIDS

96

believe; it was during this time that many of the airship commanders began lying freely, and “ bombing ” places they never went near. The anti-aircraft defences had not yet been able to take the measure of the attack, and the good shooting of the Dover gun, mentioned above, was the solitary success that can be claimed for the ground defences up to the end of 1915. A few aeroplancs had been allotted to home defence, but they were quite unsuited for their task on account of their poor climbing power and their

inefhcient armament.

The pilots, also, had but little training,

and night landing grounds were few and very far between, so that ascents during rors for the attack of airships led in nearly all cases to fatal or serious injury to British pilots, and the

attempt was looked on as a forlorn hope.

1916.—The defences could do no better in the early raids of

1916, Nine Zeppelins manoeuvred over the Midlands on the last night of January, one getting nearly to Shrewsbury. Seventy people were killed. Out of 16 British deroplanes that went up in pursuit, 8 crashed on Janding. A month later 2 airships were able to sit over Hull and bomb it from a low height, without any interference from the defence. From this time, however, defence took an upward turn; the change for the better began to show about the beginning of April 1916 during the very next series of raids, L15, one of the five ships that attacked on March 31 1916, in attempting to reach Woolwich, was hit by the gun at Purfleet, it was.then attacked in the air by Lt. Brandon, eventually falling into the sea off the coast of Essex. Mathy’s ship was hit bya shell on the same night, but he managed to struggle home.

A wholesome dread of defended areas now began to be ob-

servable in the German tactics. For instance, during the last raid of this April series, Hull was undoubtedly saved from further bombing by some new guns just installed there. Fifteen airship flights were made over England and Scotland

airships left German sheds, nine crossed the British coasts, and the main attack was directed on London by three of the newest Super-Zeppelins, coming in from the east and south-east, Having crossed the Essex coast shortly before rr p.m, L33 was over east London ten minutes after midnight. Here she dropped twenty bombs. London, however, was no longer the helpless mass of former days.

The searchlights continually lit

up the hull of the airship, which, was at 12,000 ft.; she was badly holed by the guns, one of her engines was damaged, and she began to lose gas and fly clumsily. To add to her miseries, Brandon of the R.F.C. now brought his machine close up to her. For twenty minutes he stuck to her, pumping bullets into the fabric. As she laboured back towards the North Sea, the crew threw out everything they could lay their hands on, including the machine-guns. Ter commander crossed the coast at Mersea Island, going out due cast. But the certainty that his ship would fall into the sea was too much for hin; he turned her about and came to earth three miles inland at Wigborough,

near Colchester. A specimen of the latest type of Zeppelin thus fell nearly intact into British hands, Mathy meanwhile brought his ship. L3r in company with L.32 up the English Channel and, turning in over the Kent coast, made straight for south London, On the way he dropped a few trial bombs to test his sighting. Approaching the defences, he

handled his ship with great skill and succeeded in blinding some of the British searchlights, that were picking him up, by throwing

out powerful illuminating flares. Ife passed straight over the centre of London, crossing the Thames near London Bridge. South London and the extreme north suffered severely; but, for some reason, Mathy threw no bombs in the central districts, where he could have done most damage.

time, and went out to sea by Yarmouth.

He got clear away this

The handling of the

companion ship, L32, was not of nearly so bold a character.

Her

during this April period. Edinburgh was bombed with little effect; nothing came over London, although some bombs were

commander began to hesitate as soon as he had crossed the

dropped as near as Waltham Abbey. British losses were 84 killed during the series. Further raids at the end of April were organized in con-

Marshes. When eventually he started N, for London his courage again failed, and he kept edging off to the E. so as to avoid the central defences. His caution could not save him. As he crossed the Thames near Dartford he was picked up by Sights and attacked by guns. In order to risc he dropped most of his bombs in open country His efforts were of no avail. Brandon, who was still in the air, describes the ill-fated ship as being “hosed with a stream of fire.” This was the attack delivered by Lt. Sowrey,

junction with the naval bombardment of Lowestoft and Yar-

mouth, the whole operation being timed to coincide with the rebellion in Ireland. A large number of airships took part, but the result was small. London was saved from bombing by its defences on April 25. One Zeppelin ran out of petrol and was eventually destroyed on the coast of Norway. The shortness of the summer nights prevented further raids until the end of July, when four attacks were delivered, indicating an ever-increasing respect for the defences. Twenty flights over England produced infinitesimal results, if we except

coast of Kent, and he spent an hour circling about Romney

also of the R.F.C., who suceceded in setting the ship on fire in

followed on Aug. 24 by an attack on London by Mathy, now in command of L31, a new Super-Zeppelin; he showed his usual dash, skilfully avoiding the defences by making use of clouds. He threw several 240-lb. bombs, the largest then known; they caused a few casualtics and considerable damage in southeast London and round about Blackheath, The raid of Sept. 2 was

several places; she fell in a mass of flames at Billericay, in Essex. The British casualties on this night were 41 killed, including one aeroplane pilot. The enemy would hardly see in this an adequate return for the loss of two new airships with their crews. On the night of Sept. 25 four ships raided the north, bombing Sheflicld, where 29 people were killed, and narrowly missed Manchester. Two other ships, whose commanders had already become noted for their caulion, came up to the Norfolk coast but would not cross it. Mathy, on this occasion, took his ship on an entirely new line. Passing through the Straits of Dover, he flew up the Channel as far as the Isle of Wight, where he turned N.

carried out by 14 ships and was a determined attempt on Lon-

and went straight over Portsmouth.

the loss, at Hull, of ro lives. An abortive raid on Harwich was

He dropped no bombs on

the fortress or dockyard. Near Hastings he went to sca again action of Lt. Robinson of the R.F.C., who did not hesitate to on what was to be his last voyage to Germany. attack the military airship SLiz, although she was under very Yet another serious attempt to bomb London was made heavy gunfire at the time. As he fired his third drum of ammu- . on the night of Oct. 1. Eleven ships started from Germany. nition into her, she burst into flames and fell, a burning mass, Three of them made an innocuous tour over Lincolnshire. near Cuffley. The sight of this disaster was too much for the Mathy in L3r came in over Lowestoft about $ P.M. and as usual Soon after passing other commanders, who turned tail and made the best of their steered’ an excellent course on London. Chelmsford, however, he found that the outer defences on that way home. British casualties included only three killed. The next series of raids, begun on Sept. 23 1916, was of side of the capital were ready for him. A searchlight picked him great importance. The German command were not deterred by up. He therefore turned and steered N.E. for some 15 minutes. previous losses from again risking their best airships and pilots Turning again he flew S.W., in order to get into position for his favourite dash down wind over the city. After drifting a few in the attack of London. They conceived, not unreasonably, don.

She metropolis was undoubtedly saved by the brilliant

that if London could be terrorized, they might touch the moral of the British Government, and so produce an appreciable effect

om the conduct of the war.

On Sept. 23 1916 the weather condi-

tions over the North Sea were favourable for raiding,

Eleven

moments towards Ware, he set his engines going and started for north London at full speed. Suddenly a heavy gunfire was ‘opened on him, and he decided to abandon his attempt. He

threw out all his bombs, at the same moment executing a very

AIR RAIDS remarkable right-hand turn that must nearly have broken the back of his ship. The pursuing aeroplanes were close upon him. He did all that was humanly possible to save his ship, He tried flying towards the W. on a zigzag course, rising and falling, in order to escape from the lights that continually held him, and from pilots who would not be shaken off. An airship once caught

in such toils has little chance of escape. The end came quickly. Lt. Tempest came up to the ship at 12,700 ft. and brought her down in flames at Potter’s Bar. Thus perished Mathy, the bravest and most skilful, as well as the most successful, of all the German commanders. The fall of Mathy’s ship had an immediate effect on three other raiders, who all made a sharp turn for home the moment they saw it. After his victory, Tempest crashed

on landing at North Weald Bassett, but was unhurt,

During

the whole of this great raid the only British loss was one man killed. The defence of London had now definitely got the better of the lighter-than-air attack; after this period no German airship ever flew intentionally over the metropolis. Deterred by the victory of the London defences, the German command turned thcir attention to the north for the final effort of 1916. They met with no better success. Of the ten ships that left Germany in the course of Nov. 27, eight came over land. One was destroyed on the coast near Hartlepool before midnight by Pyott of the R.F.C, She fell blazing into the sea. Although the pilot dived away at once to avoid the flaming mass, his face was scorched by the heat as she fell, Another raider, Laz, after a remarkable journey right across England to Cheshire, was caught in the early morning just as it was growing light, when she was Icaving the coast at Yarmouth. Three British naval aeroplanes came up with her. Cadbury attacked first, but exhausted all his ammunition; his experience was destined to be useful to him on a subsequent occasion, Another pilot then tried, but his gun was frozen up and jammed. The third pilot, Pulling, then went right in to within 6o ft. of the ship, under a heavy fire from her machine-guns, and succeeded in setting her alight. It is a curious fact that machine-gun fire was kept up from the gondolas for a considerable time after the hull had begun to burn. She fellintothescafrom 8,000 ft. and sank at once. Other raiders, sceing the disaster near Hartlepool, turned for home again without attacking. Those who came in over land found that the ground defences were very different from what they had expected. The guns and lights were successful in keeping the raiders off their targets. The British losses were one man and three women killed. During 1916 eighteen raids were made on England by acroplanes and seaplanes. They were nearly all of the “tip and run” variety, and consisted in coming over the coastline, dropping a few bombs haphazard and getting away as soon as possible. The attacks were delivered with no apparent military purpose, and they had practically no effect. The first aeroplane attack on London was made on Nov. 28 1916 by a single machine; the weather was misty and the first intimation was the fall of six small bombs between Brompton Road and Victoria station. The raiding machine had an engine failure on the return journey and was forced to land within the Allied lines near Boulogne. Lt. Ilges, the pilot, had set out to take photographs and bomb the Admiralty. Before the beginning of 1917 the defences had quite definitely beaten the attack, so far as concerned operations by airships against London. Over the rest of England the airship commanders were tending more and more to avoid defended places, consequently the damage they could do was limited to objectives of secondary importance. It is a significant fact that of the nine Zeppelin commanders who attacked in Jan. 1916 three had been killed and two others taken prisoner, their five ships being destroyed by the action of the defences, before the end of the year. 1917.—The three airship raids of the first half of 1917, carried out under the conditions indicated above, produced little result other than the loss of two of the raiders, one being shot

down while on the way home by a French gun near Compiégne, the other being destroyed by one of the defending aeroplanes near Harwich. On the night of May 6-7 a single German aeroplane XXX 3

97

appeared over the East End of London, and dropped a few small bombs.

The attack, in itself, was unimportant, but it afforded an

indication of what might come later. Before the end of 1916 it had become evident to the German command that, if effective bombing was to be kept up on targets that were worth attacking, it would be necessary to try new methods. Early in 1917, therefore, they began equipping a

squadron with special machines suitable for bombing England systematically, This formation, known as the 3rd Bombing Squadron, was distributed in aerodromes about Ghent, roughly 170 m. from London. The new machines, of the Gotha type, were capable of flying with a full load of bombs at 12,000 ft. and over. They carried a crew of three, pilot and two machine gunners. In May ror7 the squadron was ready for action, and as soon as the weather became favourable the attacks were to begin. The raids, with the exception of two minor attacks on Harwich, were aimed at London, but on the first two occasions unsuitable weather caused a failure, and the bombs were unloaded in other places. The first attempt on London came on May 25 1917. The 3rd Bombing Squadron, 16 machines strong, left Belgium early in the afternoon and made the Essex coast about 5 P.M. On the Continent the sky was generally clear but there were thick banks of cloud over Essex. The task of navigating to London was found too difficult and the leader had to give up the attempt. He therefore turned S. over Essex and crossed the Thames about Gravesend, afterwards making a course S.E. Bombs were dropped on the Canadian camp at 5horncliffe, where there were 106 casualties. The worst effect was produced in Folkestone itself. One bomb fell in a crowded street and killed 33 people, mostly women who were out shopping. Over

England the opposition to the raid was entircly without effect, but one raider was brought down in the sea by a British machine working from Dunkirk.

The second unsuccessful attempt was made on June 5; 18 machines, practically the full strength of the 3rd Squadron at that time, left the Ghent aerodromes about 2 r.m. They made the Essex coast as on the previous occasion, but this time they turned S. carlier. They bombed Sheerness with some effect, the town and dockyard both being hit several times. ‘The guns at Sheerness succeeded in hitting one of the raiders, which fell into the river off Barton’s Point. A large number of machines went up in pursuit. They were nearly all too slow and climbed too badly to do any good. The third attempt on London was more successful. The whole of the 3rd Squadron started in the morning of June 13,

taking the same course across the North Sea as before. A few machines were detached to bomb Margate and Shoeburyness. Probably this was done to confuse the defence arrangements. The main formation of 14 machines held on N. of the river to London, which was reached a little before noon. A few bombs were dropped in the East End and near the Royal Albert Docks; then, at a signal from the leader, the formation loosed 72 bombs over a small area having Liverpool Street station as its centre. The station itself was hit by three bombs. The casualties were severe—159 killed and 424 injured. One roo-lb. bomb hit a school in Poplar. On striking the building the bomb was torn in half before the fuse acted, and only half the charge exploded; even so, 17 of the children were killed. A few isolated attacks were made on the raiders without success. One machine got into touch with the enemy over Ilford, but the observer, Capt. Keevil, was killed and the pilot’s gun jammed. Such gunfire as was brought to bear in the London arca was badly directed and had no effect.

The next raid on London on July 7 was also successful.

Twenty-four machines started; they were first seen well out to sea soon after 9in the morning, flyingat about 10,000 feet. Coming up to the coast, two machines were detached, as on the previous occasion, in order to attack Margate, where a couple of houses were wrecked. The main body of 22 machines, flying in diamond formation, crossed the Essex coast near the mouth of the Crouch

river about 9.45 AM., and they came

on towards London,

98

AIR RAIDS

gradually climbing, until they were about 13,000 ft. over Brent-

turned their attention to raiding’ with acroplanes by night. Practically no answer had been found at the time to this form of attack, which had been carried on for more than a year on the western front in France. Searchlight staffs, in their then state of training, found great difficulty in picking up or holding an aeroplane in their beams. Gunfire, which could only be aimed roughly in the direction of the encmy, was so inaccurate as to be it a difficult target for the anti-aircraft guns. The machines flew negligible. It was not thought possible to fly during darkness in two divisions, which drew apart as they came under fire. The | fast scout machines of sufficient climb and performance. Furthermajority of the shell fired into the brown of the enemy burst harmlessly in the interval thus left. Individual machines flew with a more, it must be remembered that a pilot in the air at night switchback movement, alternately diving and climbing in order to can only see another machine when he is close to it, and that make the task of prediction at the guns more difficult. The antithe noise of his own engine deafens him to other sounds. At the aircraft guns fired a very large number of rounds, but produced no time there was no way in which the pilot could receive information effect at all on the enemy. The aeroplane defences again showed a lamentable lack of plan. Eighty-seven machines went up, of all from the ground. For these reasons it, scemed difficult to find sorts and sizes. A few were efficient fighting machines. Many of any means on which to base plans of defence against night them, for all the good they could do, need never have left the aeroplane raiding. l ground. No scheme existed by which a combined attack could be The first group of night attacks came in the beginning of delivered. In consequence, the enemy were quite weil able 1o at off such isolated, though gallant, attacks as were made. ey Sept. 1917, and one of these reached London itself. The raid brought down two machines. All that the British pilots were able to on Sept. 2 was a quick affair at Dover and of little importance. wood, The course of the raid ran by Enfield, where the formation turned 5., over Edmonton and Tottenham. On the way to the City, St. Pancras and Shoreditch were bombed. The City itself received 26 bombs, one of them starting a small fire in the General Post Office. The German formation was well handled in the way of making

accomplish was to finish off one lame duck, a machine that was in difficulties from engine trouble. Ft fell into the sea off the coast of Essex and the crew were drowned.

The failure of the defensive arrangements, or rather the complete lack of efficient arrangements, began to cause considerable agitation in the public mind. The Germans were touching the nerve centre, and the British Government found it necessary to order a complete reorganization. The London Air Defences were to be formed as a separate command. It was to include all

the means of defence, both from the ground and in the air, General Ashmore was brought from France to take charge. On the formation of this new command several distinct problems presented themselves. Night raids on London by airships, although not very likely, were still possible; it was obvious that night raiding by aeroplanes would have to be faced. But the most threatening danger lay, for the moment, in day raiding by aeroplanes in force. To mect this, a ine of guns was established to the E. of London some 20 m. out; and inside this line strong patrols of aeroplanes, working in formation, were organized. Careful plans were laid to ensure that the guns and aeroplanes

would

really coéperate and not interfere with each other.

A system of signals and directing arrows on the ground was installed to assist the pilots in finding the enemy. Outer patrols of aeroplanes near the coast could deal with the homeward

journey of the raiders. The new arrangements were soon tested; on Aug. 12 a party of nine Gothas made the Jand near Harwich. After following the coast to the Blackwater, they turned inland for London. The communication system of the defence control worked well,

and the squadrons immediately defending London were at the required height in plenty of time to mect the enemy formation.

The German commander, however, would not face the defences of London itself, and turned his formation about before they reached the outer line of guns. A number of bombs were unloaded on Southend as thé enemy made off, and 32 people were killed. The Germans were pursued out to sea, but an exasperating series of gun-jams robbed the British pilots of success, and the only bag was onc Gotha that was flying badly and was brought down in the sea by a naval machine,

On the folowing night, Sept. 3-4, about 10:30, hostile aeroplanes

were reported near the North Foreland, and warnings were sent out by the central control a few minutes later when it was clear that they were coming up the Thames. Unfortunately there was serious telephone delay in getting the warning out at Chat-

ham, and before cover could be taken a bomb had fallen on a drill hall in which a large number of naval ratings were asleep. No fewer than 130 were killed and 88 wounded. Although on this night the defence was ineffective, certain points emerged which gave hope for the future. Three stouthearted pilots went up in Camels, fast scout machines, and

found that it was by no means impossible to handle them at night.

In fact, being small and light, they were even easier to

land than heavier machines, which would run on longer on the ground. The idea also was evolved of barrage fire, a curtain of bursting shell to be put up in the path of the raiders, The last raid of this moon period, on Sept. 4, reached London.

The attacking machines, between 20 and 30 in number, began to come up to the coast soon after rò P.M. While isolated attacks were made on Dover and Margate the majority of the raiders made for London. The barrage fire, organized since the previous night, turned some of the pilots, but ro raiders reached the metropolitan area, and bombs were dropped in widely separated localities. The City, Paddington, Stratford, Hornsey, Holloway and Regent’s Park, all suffered. One bomb narrowly missed Cleopatra’s Needle. Considering the magnitude of the raid, the damage caused was small, and the total casualties for the night included only nine killed. Favourable weather and good moon conditions at the end of Sept. and beginning of Oct. 1917 produced a sustained series of raids, opening on the night of Sept. 2ath with an attack on London by aeroplanes, in conjunction with an airship raid on Hull and the north. The first aeroplanes were reported approaching Kent as early aS 7 P.M., and by 8:10 p.m. some 21 machines in seven groups had come over the coasts of Kent, Essex and Suffolk. Dover was heavily attacked, the gas-works were hit and several houses were damaged. Nine at least of the pilots attempted to attack London itself, but considcrable improvement had by this time been effected in putting up barrage fire, which was successful in turning back all but three of ihe attackers. Of these three, one dropped bombs about Deptford and Poplar, doing but Little damage; the other two passed right over London from north to south. A bomb dropped in Southampton Row killed 13 people

An attempt on Aug. 18 was frustrated by bad weather. Many of the German machines were blown over Holland, where some of the pilots, thinking they were over England, dropped bombs! An abortive attack on the Midlands by cight airships on the night of Aug. 21 was followed by the last day attack on England on Aug. 22, when Capt Kleine, commander of the 3rd Squadron, who had not taken proper cover; others fell near the Ritz Hotel started out with 13 Gothas to bomb Sheerness and Dover. A | and into the river opposite the Houses of Parliament. Although number of naval machines turned the Sheerness bombers from 27 English machines went up they failed to find any of the enemy; their objective, and the German formation, harassed by the the gunfire brought down one of the Gothas, which fell in the British pilots, whecled south by Ramsgate. Here the anti-airriver near Sheerness. craft guns, working with great accuracy, shot down two of the The attack on the north was carried out by 10 airships under raiders, A third was shot down off Dover. Capt. Strasser. After concentrating off Flamborough Ulead The increased efficiency of the defences, both in machines and six of them came over land. Although Hull was found, the raid guns, decided the Germans to abandon day attacks, and they had very little success. This was partly owing to the cloudy

AIR RAIDS weather that prevailed. But the main reason for the failure is

99

To avoid gunfire and aeroplane attack while over England,

traceable to the gradual improvement of the defences, which had the ships flew at an immense height, well over 16,000 ft. At driven the airships higher and higher on each successive raid. On this altitude the efficiency of the crew is much impaired by this occasion none of them flew under 16,000 ft. while over the height sickness and the intense cold, Another and fatal condition land. At this height the difficulties of navigation are greatly was produced by the weather. Near the ground the air was increased and the probability of successful bombing diminishes. . misty and there was very little wind, but at the height of the On the following night, Sept. 25, 10 aeroplanes attacked. airships a strong gale was blowing from the N., and in this the Of the three that approached London, one was turned off Zeppelins drifted blindly S., thħe navigators being prevented by the barrage fire; the other two, coming in from the S., did by the ground mists from correcting their course, One airship a little damage in Camberwell, Southwark, and Bermondsey, passed over London without recognizing it and dropped a few where nine people were killed. The barrage fire at Dover was heavy bombs;one of 50 kgm. fell in Piccadilly outside Swan & particularly successful on this night, and the attack on that Edgar’s shop and caused some casualties. Owing to the peculiar place completely failed. conditions of the night, sound carried very badly, and this ship The attacks were continued on the 28th, when some 20 crossed London unheard, Eight other airships, in the course of machines came over; the night was cloudy and a few only ap- their southern drift, passed, without knowing it, within easy reach of the metropolis. proached London; they were all kept off by the barrage fire, The barrage was again singularly effective on the following Realizing that, on account of the ground mists, searchlights night, Sept. 29. Out of the 18 or 19 machines that came over would have no chance of lighting up a high Zeppelin, the defence only four penetrated far enough to bomb London. Of the ordered them to remain covered unless an airship could be heard. remainder a large number were turned back by the fire put The London public were inclined to complain that the usual up by the outer ring of London guns. The Dover guns again did display of lights and barrage fire was lacking. The lights, well; keeping off attack and bringing one of the enemy down had they been turned on, must have produced the worst results. in flames. Thirty defending pilots went up on this night; none of They could not light up the enemy, but they would be sufficient them found the enemy, although one was so close to a German to show the attackers where London was, and to enable them to machine that the anti-aircraft guns had to stop firing on it. correct their course for drift. As it was, London was saved from On the next night, Sept. 30, the Germati pilots showed more a combined attack and the raid ended in disaster to the attackers. pluck; of 25 that attacked, eight got over London and bombed One airship only returned to Germany in the usual way; places as far apart as Highgate, Edmonton and Woolwich. six got back after flying over Holland or across the Allied lines. Considering their numbers, they were singularly unlucky in the The remaining four were destroyed during the following day results: six people were injured and the damage was under £8,000. on French territory. The last raid of the series on Oct. 1 was made by about 18 Aeroplane raiding was resumed during the moon period at the machines; a few penetrated the defences and dropped bombs. end of October. An attempt on the 20th failed on account of bad One attacked Highbury, damaging a large number of houses; weather; another on the 31st was carried out by 24 machines. another bombed Hyde Park and the neighbourhood. One bomb Considering that a good many of them got over London, the fell into the Serpentine, killing most of the fish there. Only one effect was small—one woman killed and damage to the extent of British pilot saw anything of the hostile machines. about £23,000. During these raids a large proportion of the attackers had The weather in Dec. 1917 was generally unfavourable for been turned before reaching their target. The defences had long-distance raiding, and only three attempts were made on done fairly well, but they were still far from complete. The London. The defences showed steady improvement. Two outer ring of guns was not installed on the W. of London, and Gothas were brought down by anti-aircraft gunfire during a it was plain that the German pilots were feeling round by the N. raid in the early morning of Dec. 6 on which occasion the for this gap. Germans lost a third machine in the sea on the way home. On The barrage fire was expensive in ammunition and there was a the night of the r&th, improvements in the searchlight control doubt if the supply could be kept up. Doubts had even arisen and the special training of the night-flying pilots began to make as to the use of the barrage—one Cabinct minister describing it themselves felt. Twenty-seven defending machines of the best as “ self-bombardment.” A few casualties from the gunfire were performance went up, and three combats took place. inevitable until people realized that even the lightest cover would As a result, one of the Gothas was so damaged that it fell into protect them from the fragments of high-explosive shell. In the sea off Folkestone and was destroyed. On this night the new spite of casualties, however, it was plain that the public looked © Giant” aeroplane came over London for the first time. It upon the barrage fire as a comfort. It is significant that a dropped one 300-kgm. bomb in Lyall Street, near Eaton Square, Christmas fund got up by the Star newspaper for the men working making a large crater but doing little serious damage. The at the guns had to be closed down from over-subscription. whole raid, however, cost London more than £300,000 in damage. Progress had already been made in night flying, on fast On Dec. 22 the last raid of the year was frustrated by unmachines, but the defending squadrons had not nearly reached favourable weather; one Gotha was forced by engine trouble to the necessary efficiency in machines or pilots. descend near Margate, where it was destroyed by the crew. The “ Aprons,” a new defence devised aftér the raid of 1918.—In the five acroplane raids of the first quarter of rog Sept. 5, were only beginning to be installed. These were there was a tendency to replace the smaller Gotha machines by A Gotha was destroyed by a defending screens of wire that could be raised to 10,000 ft. by Caquot the new “Giants.” balloons, and were designed to limit the range of heights in aeroplane on Jan. 28. During this raid a bomb dropped by a which the defending pilots would have to seck the bombers. Giant fell on a building in Long Acre that was being used as an The Central Control as organized in Sept. 1917 could give air-raid shelter, and 38 people were killed. no information to pilots when once they had been sent on On the following night, Jan. 29, one of the Giant machines their patrols, but schemes to rectify this had already been was pursued half round London by four of the defending initiated. On the whole, although the attack at this ime had scouts. The reason for its escape is curious. The British pithe best of it, there were reasonable hopes that this condition lots saw over their sights a machine they imagined to be of would-not last much longer. Gotha size. The actual machine, being a Giant and very The airship raid of the night Oct. 19-20 1917, which be- much larger, was therefore a good deal farther off than they came known in London as the “silent raid,” has points of thought, and they were firing at too long a range to be effective. special interest. The weather conditions were the dominating The crew of the Giant became panic-stricken and were within feature both as regards the attack and the defence. an ace of landing when the British machines drew off. Eleven airships met on the evening of the roth off the YorkThree Giants, unaccompanied by any smaller machines, shire coast for an attack on the industrial centres of the Midlands. attacked on Feb. 16; the only one that penetrated to Lon-

AIRSHIP—ALABAMA

100

don demolished a house in Chelsea Hospital with a 300-kgm. bomb.

The raid of March 7 1918 was remarkable as being the

only occasion on which acroplanes attacked London in the absence of any moonlight.

The navigators of the attacking

Giants were helped by a bright aurora. This made the night unusually light, and gave a constant bearing of fair accuracy to the pole. Warrington Crescent was badly hit, most of the houses being wrecked. To turn to the airships, the disaster of Oct. 19-20 1917 was followed by the destruction of four more ships by explosion in their sheds, and raiding was not resumed until the nights of March 12 and 13 1918. Both these raids were’ made at an immense height, and although Hull and West Hartlepool were bombed, the damage did not amount to much. The casualties comprised nine killed on the two nights, Five airships of the newest and largest type, under Capt.

Strasser, attacked the Midlands on the night of April 12.

Although more than seven tons of bombs were dropped in the neighbourhood of big towns, the result was very small, and only five people were killed. The end of the airship raiding came on Aug. 5-6 1978. Five ships came up to the coast of Norfolk, no bombs were dropped on Jand, but L7o, the latest word in airship construction,

was destroyed, with Capt. Sirasser on board, by Major Cadbury, flying a DII4 machine.

In the great aeroplane raid of May 19 1918 the Germans made their maximum effort in this form of attack; between 30 and 40 Gothas of the 3rd Bombing Squadron took part, with at least two Giant machines. Thirtcen of the raiders managed to get over London, The casualties included 49 killed, and £130,000 worth of damage was done in the London areca alone. But the defence had by now made very real progress. Eighty-four aeroplanes, nearly all of excellent performance, went up in pursuit, and all landed safely. The anti-aircraft guns fired upwards of 30,000 rounds. The plans worked well in that the defending pilots were assisted instead of being hampered by the gunfire and searchlights. The Germans lost seven machines—three shot down in air combat, three destroyed by gunfire, and one from engine failure. & This success of the defence was final, and London was saved from further bombing. The Germans turned their attention to Paris, which now sustained a long series of raids.

A new system of, defence control was in course of being installed in London at this time, but it did not come into full operation until Aug., and it was therefore never tested in an actual raid. It provided a method by which the defence commander could follow the course of raiding machines, and could instantly transmit information and orders to the pilots in the air by wireless telephone. It was calculated that this system would increase the power of the defence at least fourfold. A proof of the efficiency of defence by aeroplanes, assisted by a good organization on the ground, was furnished by a squadron, manned by pilots trained in the London methods, that was sent to France in June 1918 to cope with night bombing near the line.

In a very short time they accounted for 26 German machines, and they practically stopped bombing in their area, with no loss to themselves.

Conclusion.—We have now traced the way in which raiding and defence grew up together, and the eventual success of adequately equipped and organized defences. In addition to. casuallies—1,413 killed, 3,407 injured in all—and damage, the German raids on England produced actual results by no means negligible. A night raid stopped munition work over a large area. In order to establish a defence, men and material were kept back from France. This was particularly felt in the case of acroplancs and pilots. Two hundred aeroplanes of the best. performance and 200 highly trained pilots were available about London at a time when they would have been of the utmost value on the western front. The moral effect of raiding is found to depend net so much on actual damage as on the success or illsuccess of defensive measures.

In London,

the barrage, the

“aprons,” and the aeroplane defence did much to allay fears that had arisen when there was apparently no answer to the attacks. (E. B. A.) AIRSHIP: see AERONAUTICS, AITKEN, JOHN (1839-1919), British physicist, was born at Falkirk Sept. 18 1839. He was educated at Falkirk grammar school and Glasgow University, and trained as marine engineer at R, Napier & Sons, Glasgow. He lived at Falkirk, where he carried out his great experiments on atmospheric dust in relation to the formation of clouds and mists (1882), on the formation of dew (1885, see 8.136) and on the laws of cyclones (1891). His instrument for counting the dust particles in the air (see 8.714, 18.279) has been utilized in principle by many later workers. He also invented new forms of thermometer screens and powerfully aided the development of meteorology. He was elected F.R.S. in 1889 and was awarded the Royal medal in 1917, He also received the Keith medal (1886) and Gunning prize

(1897) from the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in whose Trans-

actions and Proceedings most of his valuable contributions were published. He died at Falkirk Nov. 14 1919.

AKHWAN MOVEMENT, areligious revival or reform, confined mostly to the Nejd districts of Arabia. The term akhwan, or ikhwan, signifies “brethren,” and the tenets of the brotherhood are those of Wahabism revived and intensified (sce 28.245).

The movement, recognized by Ibn Sa'ud, Emir of Nejd, had taken definite shape after 1910; and in ro2z it still seemed likely to have far-reaching effects upon the attitude of the people of Central Arabia towards other Arabian communities and even to the outer world.

ALABAMA

(see 1.459).—In 1920 the pop. was 2,348,174 as

against 2,138,093, in 1910, an increase of 210,081, or 9:8 %, as

compared

with 309,396, or 16-3%, in the preceding decade.

Although the proportion of urban pop. was greater than in 1910,

yet in spite of the marked development of mining and manufacturing interests, more than three-fourths of the inhabitants were still rural and chiefly agricultural. The urban pop. (inhabitants of cities of 2,500 or more) was 509,317; the rural, 1,838,857. The growth of pop. in the chief cities is shown in the following table:-— : Birmingham . Mobile Montgomery.

Bessemer

cel

. © ,

Arniston

:

i

« r .

« «8 a

1920 178,270 60,151 43,404

1910 132,685 51,521 38,136

Increase per cent. 344 16:8 14:0

‘

:

175734

12,794

38-6

ue

-@

18,074

10,864

719

Selma . & #3 15,607 13,649 14-2 The distribution of pop. by race was as follows: whites, 1,447,032;

negrocs, 900,652; Indians, 405; Chinese, 59; Japancse, 18; all others, 8. During the decade 1910-20 the white pop. increased 17°8%, while the negro pop. decreased 0-8 %, due to male negro

migration to northern industrial centres, Agriculture -—There were 256,099 farms in 1920; 262,901 in 1910, a decrease due to the negro migration noted above, but there was a marked increase in total production.

The state

Department of Agriculture estimated that in 1920 there were harvested 5,630,000 tons of commodities compared with 5,203,000 tons for the year roro. The same department made the following estimates of the acreage, production and value of cropsin 1920: Crops

Corn

.

Cotton . Cottonseed Peanuts

a 3

Hay vo. Velvet beans Cowpeas

a

g

s

$67,057,000

a

1,440,000 743,700

3,324,000 tons 440,100 tons

27,123,000 7,914,000

47,900

Wheat

Soy beans Tobacco. Total harvested

9,622,000

11,250,000

99,900 59,700

8,917,000 gal. 10,298,000 gal.

346,939,000

366,000

6,833,000 bus.

6,740,000

23,000 3,000 11,117,900

227,000 bus. 2,100,000 lb.

Oats

:

5,113,000 bus.

53,515,000 7,839,000 5:936,000

3,215,000 bus,

179,800

n

660,000 bales 296,700 tons 9,024,000 bus,

17,585,000 bus,

Sweet potatoes

Sorghum syrup Sugar-cane syrup

Value

67,234,000 bus.

2,868,000 -409,700

532,200

Trish potatoes

Production

4277000

. ; Pia

Acres

>.

68,000

680,000 bus.

8,340,000 10,643,000 1,594,000

88,000 420,000

$235,520,000

ALAND ISLANDS The above estimates did not include the acreage grazed or “ hogged ” and not harvested, which the state department of

Agriculture placed in 1920 at 1,344,000 ac. with an approximate value of $20,001,000. The Statistical Bureau of the U.S. De-

partment of Agriculture estimated the value of all crops in Alabama in the year 1920 at $240,000,000.

:

Tol

monthly. At the same session a graduated income tax, ranging from 2% to 4% was levied; but the Een Court decided that it was repugnant to the constitution and null and void. By a decision of the Supreme Court handed down Feb. 3 1921, the amendment to the constitution hereafter noted, authorizing the issue of $25,000,000 highway improvement bonds, was declared to have been irregularly adopted and not a part of the constitution;

as the decision was rendered by a divided bench of four Industries and Transportation.—Three new lines of material but judges to three, an application for a rehearing was pending, and if progress during 1910-20 were notable: (1) The use of hydro- not granted, an effort was to be made to have the amendment reelectric power; (2) shipbuilding; and (3) the utilization of the submitted for adoption according to the strict terms of the concanalized Warrior and Tombigby rivers from the heart of the ‘stitution by an extra called session of the Legislature. the period from 1910 to 1921 the Government inland mineral district to tidewater at Mobile. A private of History.—During Alabama remained in the control of the Democratic party, with corporation. completed a great dam across the Coosa river and little more than nominal opposition by the Republican party, the was in 1920 delivering electricity for lighting and power purposes educational, property and other qualifications for voters under the

to the chief centres of population and industry in northern and central Alabama; and the same company in 1921 began another great dam across the same river which would increase greatly the power available. In the meantime the U.S. Government

state constitution of 1901 having climinated the bulk of the negro Republican voters. It was only in the presidential election of 1920

that there were indications of the development

of a real white

Republican party in the state. In that election that party polled

practically one-third of the vote cast, 31°9 %, thus securing the priviundertook the famous “ Wilson dam ” across the Tennessee river | lege of a primary for the nomination of candidates in the next elec» tion at the expense of the state Government. Before this time

at Muscle Shoals. The impetus given to shipbuilding at Mobile continued after the World War; and the great shipyard at Chickasaw, a suburb of Mobile, was in 1920 steadily sending down the ways ships of heavy tonnage, made from steel fabricated in the Birmingham district and barged down the Warrior and Tombigby rivers. The growth of down-stream tonnage of coal, iron, steel and timber on the canalized Warrior river continued for a year or two under private enterprise; but the closing months of the year 1920 marked a new era when the first ‘vessel

of a ficet of Government-owned and -operated self-propelling barges made its way down the Mississippi river to New Orleans and into the Gulf, then to Mobile and up the rivers to Birming-

ham and Cordova in the heart of the Warrior coal-fields.

A

balanced tonnage, up and down stream, was steadily being developed in 1921 by the transhipment at Mobile of manganese ore from Brazil, for use in making high-grade steel in the Birmingham district, and by the establishment of an all-water freight rate from New York and other eastern points, vie Mobile, to the various river ports, Mineral Production.—The Geological Survey of Alabama reported a decrease in 1918, as compared with the preceding year, in quantity but an increase in value of most of the mineral products of the state. In 1918 the production of coal was 19,184,962 short tons val-

ued at $54,752,329, with a coke production of 4,892,589 short tons valued at $28,394,272. The iron orc mined in 1918 amounted to 6,121,087 long tons with an estimated value of $15,334,561; the ross tons of pig-iron marketed amounted to 2,645,179, valued at $80,893,678. Another important mineral product was graphite, of

the crystalline variety, the value of which in 1918 was $999,152 as compared with $719,575 in 1917. It is estimated that Alabama furnished over 60% of the domestic graphite used in the World War, Education —-The impetus given’ to public education, under the administration of Governor Comer (1907-11) by the ercation of a system of county high schools and by more liberal Appropriations both for the common schools and for the institutions of higher education, lost none of its momentum under his successors. In the beginning of Governor Kilby’s administration the Legislature passed an Act, approved Feb, 6 1919, creating a commission of five members, appointed by the governor, to make a study of the educational system of the state with the object of determining its efficiency. The commission in turn invited the U.S. Bureau of Education to accept the task. The result was a series of Acts passed by the Legislature in 1919, constituting the School Code of Alabama. Among the most important of these Acts was one providing for a state Council of Education to codrdinate the efforts of the university of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn, and the Alabama Technical Institute and College for women at Montevallo, by assigning to

each special fields for higher education. The efficiency of the public-school system of the state was perhaps best shown by the steady

reduction of illiteracy. The total number of illiterates in 1920 was

278,082, of which number 210,690 were negroes, 65,394 native whites, and 1,893 foreign-born whites. During the two-year period between the school censuses of 1918 and 1920, the percentage of literates in the total population, white and negro, between the ages of Io and 21 years, increased 5.2 per cent.

Taxation and Finance-—Owing to the limitation in the constitution of 1901 of the rate of state taxation upon real and personal

property to 0-65 % upon assessed values, the Legislature in 1919, in an effort to increase revenues, incorporated in the general revenue

_bill among the license or privilege taxes a tax of two cents per ton on coal and three cents per ton on iron mined in the state, payable

factional differences in the Democratic party were fought out in the primary elections under state supervision, and the-general elections were merely formal ratifications of the choice made in the primaries.

It was not casy to distinguish clearly between the two leading factions that developed in the dominant party, but perhaps the terms “ Conservative” and ‘ Progressive’ sufficiently indicate the line of cleavage. The former insisted on the fullest protection to vested financial interests, and before the adoption of the Eighteenth (prohibition) Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, on a liberal policy of “ local option” in the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages.

The latter stood generally for strict control,

by the state, of corporate capital, especially in the matter of railway rate regulation, and for prohibition of the liquor traffic. Several amendments to the state constitution of 1901 were adopted during this period, most of them dealing with matters of local interest to countics and cities. ‘wo, however, were general in their scope: one providing for local option by counties and school districts as to increased taxation in the interest of public schools; the other authorizing the issue of state bonds to the amount of $25,000,000 for the construction of a complete system of highways, thus enabling the state to secure the national appropriations in aid of that policy. At its regular session in 1919 the state Legislature refused to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States providing for woman suffrage; but as soon as the requisite number of states had made it a part of the Constitution, Governor Kilby called a special session of the Legislature (1920), which promptly passed an Act providing for the registration of women voters and for otherwise carrying into effect the provisions of the Amendment. The total number of men enlisted for the World War in the state and inducted into the army was 73,811. As this did not include National Guard commands of other volunteers, the Alabama Department of Archives and Ilistery estimated that approximately 10% should be added. Alabama subscribed a total of $99,838,400 to the Liberty and Victory Juans. Recent governors were Braxton B. Comer (Dem.), 1907-18:

Emmet O'Neal (Dem.), 1911-5; Charles Henderson Don, 1915-9;

Thomas E. Kilby (Dem.), 1919~

T. C. McC.)

o

ALAND ISLANDS (sce 1.469).—The alarm that had been felt in Sweden for some years at Russia’s projected military works in the Aland Is. was intensified in 1915 when Russia openly began the construction of fortifications.

Sweden protested against this

breach of the Convention of Paris (1856), and Russia’s assurance

that the fortifications were merely temporary did not allay

Swedish hostility towards Russia which at times threatened a crisis. The Russian revolution of rory diverted attention from the fortifications to the larger question of the sovereignty of the islands. In Aug. ror7 the Aland islanders took steps to

consider reunion with Sweden, and as a plebiscite in Dec.

showed 95% of the population in favour of the proposal, a

petition to that effect was presented to the King of Sweden in Feb 1918. The King in reply echoed the hope of the dep-

utation that a solution of their desires might be found “in

concert with free and independent Finland.” In the same month Sweden sent a military expedition to the islands to protect the population from outrages by the Russian Bolshevik garrison

with which a small Finnish White force was unable to cope. The Russians were sent to Abo and the Finnish troops to northern Finland via Sweden. On the arrival early in March of German troops by invitation of the Finnish Whites, the Swedish force withdrew. The German garrison remained until Oct,

102

ALASKA

1918. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3 1918) and the subsequent treaty between Germany and Finland (March 7 1918) both stipulated that the fortifications on the islands

should be removed and not subsequently rebuilt. But the work

of demolition was repeatedly delayed. The Finnish Government opposed the Alanders’ wish for union with Sweden, but proposed

to compromise by making the islands into a separate Finnish province. The Diet persisted in this policy, and passed a bill for self-government for Aland in May 1920.. Meanwhile the appointment of a Finnish military governor caused resentment, which was aggravated (July 1918) by attempts to call the

Alanders, for military service on the mainland. They refused to

obey, at the same time expressing their willingness to serve in the islands under Swedish-speaking officers. Many of the inhabitants fled to Sweden in order to escape service. In Nov. 1918 the Alanders appealed to the United States, Great Britain, France and Italy, relying on the right of self-determination, An appeal to Finland at the same time drew an equivocal reply. In Feb. 1919 the Alanders submitted their case to the Supreme Council in Paris, Sweden supported their claim. The Peace Conference declined to deal with the matter, which was then referred to the League of Nations. A commission of three jurists appointed by the League reported (Sept. 1920) that the Council of the League was competent to make recom-

mendations since the dispute did not refer to a matter left by

international law to the domestic jurisdiction of Finland. The League thereupon appointed a commission to examine the

in the public land policy, which no longer prohibited the utilization of Alaska’s coal, petroleum and water powers; (3) the granting of a measure of home rule to the people of Alaska; (4) the improvement of transportation by the construction of a Government railway from an open port on the Pacific to navigable waters on the Yukon river, by the construction of many wagon roads (total roads and trails 4,900 m.) and by the installation of many lights and other aids to navigation (total 547); and (5) the great advance of her copper and salmon-fishing industries, and of gold mining until 1916. Public Land Policy.—The political history of Alaska has largely centred in a struggle for more liberal land laws. In early days it had been considered for the best interests of Alaska to transfer the lands to private ownership as quickly as possible Without too close a scrutiny of the means employed. This policy was completely reversed as a result of the conservation movement inaugurated under President Roostvelt. The aim of the movement, as first defined, was to prevent waste of natural resources; but this issue proving too academic to make a popular appeal, it gradually veered to a protest against corporate control of Jands and resources. ‘Though supported in the beginning by the best clement in the nation, it ultimately became involved in the bitter struggle between the Roosevelt and Taft wings of the Republican party. As practically all the lands of the Territory were still owned by the Government, the withholding

of the most valuable of these from settlement and development

played havoc with her industries.

Curiously enough, the most

ardent of the conservationists failed to recognize the urgent Opinion in Finland among both Finns and Swedes was strongly importance of conserving the salmon and halibut fisheries. As it opposed to the cession of the islands, and it was argued that to | was, the withdrawal of coal, oil and good timber lands as well as yield to the demand for self-determination of a fraction of the of water powers left the Territory with only mctalliferous Swedish population of Finland (about one-tenth) would be to deposits and fisheries on which to base its industrics, A very of the conservation movement was the reduce the doctrine to an absurdity. At the same time the important by-product opposition of the Swedes in Finland to the Alanders’ desire might development at Washington of a mania for the establishment of be regarded as biased by unwillingness to lose the weight of their reservations in Alaska. In this way there were set aside for vote and so lessen Swedish influence in Finland. Finland also various purposés, exclusive of mineral or forest withdrawals, maintained that her sovereign rights over Aland were not some 40,000 sq. miles. For many years the Alaska conservation affected by Russian domination in Finland or by subsequent issuc remained at a deadlock between the executive and legislaquestion.

events, and that Finland was not one of the “new” states that arose as a result of the World War; and that in consequence the Aland question was purely a domestic one in ‘which no other state nor the League of Nations was competent to intervene. On the other hand the Alanders showed themselves virtually unanimous in their desire for union with Sweden, to which they were closely allied in race, language and to a great extent in trade, and they maintained that their islands were sufficiently distinct

tive branches

of the Government.

Meanwhile

Alaskan

in-

dustries languished. With an abundant supply of fuel close at hand, she was forced to import coal and petroleum at great cost; her pulp wood was rotting in the forest, her water powers were undeveloped. Only gold- and copper-mining and salmon-fishing

increased,

Finally during the Wilson administration a leasing

policy for coal and oil lands and water powers was established by law. At about the same time the shortage of paper had a liberal-

from Finland geographically to give them the right of self- izing influence on the regulations relating to the sale of timber from the national forest. In 1921 the new laws were too recent — determination. The commission, after visiting Stockholm, Helsingfors, and to allow an estimate of their effect. . Government.—The struggle of Alaska to attain representation. the Aland Is., presented its report to the Council of the League at its session in June 1921. On June 24 the Council announced in Washington, lasting nearly 40 years, resulted in 1906 in the its decision that the islands were to belong to Finland, but -authorization of an elected delegate to Congress. At cach that they were to be neutralized from.a military point of view biennial election which followed, home rule was the only imand given full guarantees of unfettered autonomy. M. Branting, portant issuc, until finally in 1912 an Act was passed granting a on behalf of Sweden, said Sweden would bow to the League’s territorial government. ‘This continued the governor as a ruling under protest, and M. Hymans was appointed to preside presidential appointee, and (unwisely, though in accord with at a committee of Finns and Swedes to discuss details of the American tradition) provided for a bi-cameral Legislature. The upper chamber, or Senate, consisted of two senators from each guarantees. For a gencral account of the islands reference may be made to of the four judicial districts, serving four years. Sixteen repreHandbooks prepared under the direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, No. 48, Aland Islands; also Atlas de Finlande, sentatives formed the lower chamber, or House of Representatives, with text in French (1910). The Finnish side of the pen dispute four elected for two years from each judicial district. This equal representation for cach of the judicial districts gave the is set forth in The Aland Question andthe Rights 0 inland oie See also Sven Tunberg, Les fles d’Aland dans l'Histoire (1919), less-populated areas of the interior an unjust preponderance in and E. Sjaestedt, La Question des Iles d'Aland (1919). the Legislature, and in many instances worked against the best (R. N. R. B.) ALASKA (see 1.472).—The most important events in the his- interests of the Territory as a whole. Congress in the organic Act expressly retained the right of repealing all laws enacted by tory of Alaska ih the ten years ending with 1920 were:—(1) the extension of surveys and investigations of resources over the Alaska Legislature. Furthermore, the Territory was denied nearly half of the total area (586,400 sq. m.)'; (2) the change the right to enact laws relating to the excise, game, fish, furMost of the inland surveys and investigations, as well as a part of those made along the shore line, were done by the U.S, Geological Survey, which between 1910 and 1920 mapped about 50,000

sq. miles.

The Coast and Geodetic Survey charted the general

features along the entire coast-linc and covered about 10% of it in detailed surveys of important harbours and principal routes o navigation. In 1913 the International Boundary Commission coms pleted the survey of the Alaska-~Canadian boundary. ©

ALASKA bearing animals, or the existing Federal licence tax.

Tt was

provided that the capital should be at Juneau. ‘The first session of the territorial Legislature was in March 1913, and the first law passed gave the franchise to women. Since that date the most important legislation has related to mining, hours of labour, workmen’s compensation, banking and education. Heavy taxes were also imposed on the salmon-fishing industry, and from these the Territory derived a large part of its income.

103

extending from Cordova on the coast to the Chitina copper belt

(196 m.), was completed in 1910. Another line, the Alaska Northern Railroad (standard gauge), was built for 71 m. from the town of Seward, and then went into bankruptcy. A narrow-gauge railway 45 m.in length, connecting the town of Fairbanks with the goldnunes, was completed in 1904, and was later purchased by the Gov-

ernment. About 130 m. of railway were laid in various parts of the Seward peninsula and subsequently abandoned. In 1912 Congress authorized a special commission to report upon the Alaska railway situation. The commission recommended that 733 m. of

In 1916 the Legislature authorized a plebiscite on the prohibition railway be built, estimated to cost $35,000,000. The project included of the sale, transportation and manufacture of all alcoholic two lines: one to extend from Cordova to Fairbanks, using the Copper River railroad, with a branch to the Bering River coal-field; beverages. The vote was in the affirmative by 7,958 to 4,431. the other to run from Seward (utilizing the existing stub line) As the Legislature had no power to change the excise law, a through the lower Susitna valley to navigable waters of the Kuskopetition was submitted to Congress, which passed a dry law ior kwim river, wìth a branch into the Matanuska coal-field. In r914 authorization for not more than 1,000 m. of railway construction, Alaska in 1917. Education.—The white schools of Alaska were in 1920 under the cost limited to $35,000,000, was granted by Congress. A new commission was then appointed, and after extensive surveys conterritorial management and were supported by local taxes. Even firmed in general the former estimate of cost. In rọr5 the adminismost of the small settlements had schools, and five of the larger tration announced the selection of a railway route from Seward to towns supported high schools. The Territory founded an agricul- Fairbanks. The estimated cost of this was about twice as much as tural and mining college at Fairbanks in 1918, but as funds were for the route from Cordova to Fairbanks, Railway construction was begun in 1916, and by 1920 383 m. out of a total of 467 m, had appropriated only for the erection of a building, the school had

not been opened up to 1920, In 1919 there were 62 white schools in the Territory, with 147 teachers and 2,773 pupils. The education of Alaskan Indians and Eskimos was in the hands of Federal agencies, In 1919 there were in the Territory 70 Indian schools, too few to accommodate the children of the 25,000 natives. The Federal Government also made some provision for medical service for the natives, and maintained six small hospitals for the purpose. In addition to the Government schools, about. 35 sectarian missions were maintained by various churches for the

benefit of the natives. Many of these had boarding-schools. and a few had hospitals. Population.—in 1920 the pop. was $4,899, a decrease of 9,457, or 14°7 %, from 64,356 in 1910. The whites numbered 29,000, as against 36,400 in 1910; the Indians and Eskimos 25,000, as against 25,331 in rọro; and the balance was of Mongolian and other races. Juncau, the capital and an important mining centre, was the largest town, with a pop. of 3,058. Ketchikan, the most important fishing centre, had 2,458. Anchorage and Seward, on the Government railway, had respectively 1,685 and 652. Cordova, the coastal terminus of the Copper River railroad, had 955. Fairbanks, the chicf mining town of the interior, had 1,155. Nome, on the Seward peninsula, had 852, The white population of Alaska steadily increased until rors, when it exceeded 40,000. Subsequent losses were due to:—(z) enrolment in military service

of about 3,500 men, few of whom returned; (2) high wages in the States; and (3) decrease in the gold-mining industry. While in 1915 about 9,600 men werc employed in Alaska mines, there were only about 3,000 in r920, In addition to the.permanent residents of Alaska, between 25,000 and 30,000 men annually visit the

Territory to find employment, chiefly in fishing, but also in mining. There were also 2,000 or 3,000 tourists each summer. Mountaineering.—The mountain ranges include a number of the

highest peaks on the contment, which have exercised a fascination for the mountaineer. Many unsuccessful attempts were made to reach the summit of Mt. St. Elias (18,024 ft.) before the Italian Duke of the Abruzzi finally succeeded in 1897. Mount Wrangell, Alaska’s highest volcano (14,005 ft.), was ascended by Robert Dunn in 1908; and in 1912 Dora Keen climbed Mr. Blackburn (16,140 ft.). Several attempts were made between 1903 and roro to climb Mt. Mce-

Kinley, the highest peak in North America. William Taylor and Peter Anderson, prospectors, reached the summit of the N. peak (20,000 ft.) in t910, and Hudson Stuck and Harry P. Karsten the summit of the S. peak (20,300 ft). in 1912. Katmai volcano, in the central part of the Alaska peninsula, had been entirely dormant for more than a century previous to 1912. On June 6 of that year,

without previous warhing, the top of the volcano blew of and ejecta were thrown for at Icast 1,500 m., while the fine volcanic

dust encircled the world in the upper atmosphere.

Though one of

the greatest eruptions in historic times, it caused no loss of life, because the ejecta fell chiefly on the sea and in uninhabited regions, Railways. —At the close of 1910 there were 371 m. of railway in Alaska. This included 20 m. of the White Pass Railroad (narrow gauge) which ran inland from Skagway across the international boundary to White Horse in the Canadian Yukon (110 miles), This

line, while primarily serving Canadian territory, gave access during

the oper season of navigation to the settlements on the lower Yukon. The Copper River & North-Western Railroad (standard gauge),

been completed. ‘The entire system was to be finished by 1923. ‘The choice of the more expensive route and a policy of using only construction of the highest type brought the cost, at war prices, up to $52,000,000, with a probability that it would cost several millions more.

Commerce-—The value of the total products of Alaska from the

annexation in 1867 to the close of 1920 was more than $1,000,000,ooo. In 1919 Alaska produced minerals, furs, fish, etc., to the value of $71,000,000. During the same year the value of her imports

was $38,925,000, of which $1,449,000 was for merchandise from forcign countries. In r919 25 American vessels (tonnage 32,444) and 5 Canadian vessels (tonnage 4,870) were operated as common carriers to Alaska ports. These carried 295,490 tons of freight and 32,803 passengers northbound, and 278,200 tons of freight and 31,717 passengers southbound, In the same year a tatal of 270 private vessels (tonnage 118,169), chiefly engaged in fisheries, were operated

in the Alaska service and carried a total of 465,000 tons of freight

(north- and southbound), Nine river steamers were operated on the Yukon in the summer of 1919. These carried a total of 9,690 tons of freight and 1,370 through-passengers. One steamer was operated on the Kuskokwim river in 1919.

Mining.—From its small beginning at Juneau in 1880 up to the

close of 1920 Alaska mining yielded a total value of $460,000,000.

Of this 96% is to be credited to gold and copper deposits.

But the

mines have also produced silver, platinum, palladium, tin, lead, antimony, tungsten, chromite, coal, petroleum, marble, gypsum, graphite, barite and sulphur; and development work was done on deposits carrying nickel, iron and molybdenite, ‘The value of the total annual mineral production rose from $16,890,000 in 1910 to $22,000,0c0 in 1920, Alaska mines have produced $320,000,000 worth of gold, of which $220,000,000 is to be credited to the placers.

The largest gold production of any one year (1906) was $22,000,000, Since 1916, when the value of the gold output was $17,200,000, gold-mining has steadily declined, being only $8,000,000 in 1920,

This decrease was due to the world-wide stagnation of gold-mines caused by the economic conditions brought on by the World War, and to this primarily is due the loss of population already referred

to. In the past about 60% of Alaska’s population has directly

or indirectly been supported by the gold-mining industry. ‘Phe U.S. Geological Survey estimated the value of the placer gold reserves of Alaska to be at least $360,000,000. This was in addition to the gold in vein deposits whose value could not be estimated. Auriferous lodes bave been found in many parts of Alaska and developed in a small way. The only large gold lode mines were in south-eastern Alaska.

Before the war there were near Juneau a

number of large gold-mining enterprises operated at a lower cost than any others in the world. The small profits per ton were offset by the very large tonnage of ore. With the increased cost of labour and supplies mining greatly decreased at Juneau. Alaska copper-mining began in 1901, and up to the close of 3920 had pro-

duced 308,000 tons of metallic copper, valued at $127,000,000.

Stimulated by the war demand and high prices, the mines made their largest output of copper in 1916 (59,900 tons), In 1920 the Territory produced 35,000 tons of copper, chiefly from four large mines. Copper ores are widely distributed in Alaska, but most of the deposits are as yet inaccessible. The richest copper-mines thus far developed were those of the famous Kennicott group in the Chitina district. There are high-grade bituminous coals and some anthracite in both the Bering River and Matanuska fields, the latter within reach of the Government railway.

All Alaska coal lands were with-

drawn from entry in 1906, and patent was refused to all but a few claims previously entered. This interdict lasted until 1913, when a coal-leasing law was enacted. Coal-inining was still in the development stage in 1921, the entire production up to that time being anly 300,000 tons, The output of 1920 was 70,000 tons, chiefly

taken from a Government mine in the Matanuska field. The total

ALBANIA

104

estimated reserves of coal in the surveyed fields of Alaska were

herds used for dairying. The Government recently began the exper-

seepages were found at four localities on the Pacific seaboard: namely, Yakataga, Katalla, Iniskin Bay and Cold Bay, and also at

deer herds numbered in 1920 92,933 valued at $2,238,562 against 22,107 in 1910. This was the natural increase from the original 1,200 imported by the Government between 1892 and 1902. About

19,590,000,000 tons, of which 12,610,000,000 tons were lignite. Oil

several places near the N. Arctic coast.

Only at Katalla, 60 m.

E. of Cordova, was there any considerable drilling; here there was some oil-production from the only petroleum claim to which patent

iment of mtroducing yaks into this region. The domesticated rein-

70% of the herd was owned by the Eskimo, for whose support the

ammals were first imported. Some reindeer meat had been exhad been granted. The withdrawal in 1911 of oil lands from entry ported, and the amount promised to increase. stopped all development. In 1919 an oil leasing law was passed, Fur Industry—Between 1867 and 1920 Alaska produced furs to and the development of producing fields was expected to follow. the value of $90,400,000, of which $53,000,000 represents seal skins The total Alaska oil preauction to the close of 1920 was 60,000 - taken on the Pribilof Is. in Bering Sea. Up to 1910 the Govbarrels.’ Meanwhile, t the Territory was consuming about 5,000,000 ernment leased the seal-catching privileges on the Pribilof ls. barrels of imported petroleum products annually. ` The only considto private corporations, which killed 2,320,028 seal and paid the erable production of tin in North America was from the York dis" Government $9,474,000 in royalties. The tand killing of scal was ttict on Bering Sea, near Cape Prince of Wales. A total of 1,000 properly restricted, but pelagic sealing by vessels of various nationtons of metallic tin had been mined since operations began in 1900. ales destroyed an additional 976,000 seal. Pelagic sealing, being Alaska had produced in all about 9,800,000 oz, of silver and 5,000 on the high seas, could not be controlled by the American Governtons of lead. This had practically all been won from gold and copper ment; therefore a treaty was signed in 1911 between the United ores, for no large deposits of silver and lead had been developed. States, Great Britain, Russia and Japan, abolishing it and providThe mining of platinum and related minerals began in 1916, since ing that thẹ United States was to pay to Great Britain and Japan which time about 1,500 oz. of those minerals had been produced, each 15% of the catch made on the islands. Since 1910 killing has Demands. of the World War led to the mining of some antimony, been prohibited on the Pribilof Is. except by Federal agents, tungsten and chromite ores, but with the decreased value of these Thanks to these provisions, the seal herd has increased from 2 15,000 metals after the peace these operations ceased. Quicksilver mining in 1912 to 524,000 in 1919. In the latter year the Government sold had been carried on in a small way for many years. There were in 19,157 dressed seal skins, for which $1,501,600 was received. The south-eastern Alaska extensive deposits of high-grade marble which value of all furs shipped in 4919, besides the seal, was $1,500,000, of had been quarried on a large scale. which over half is to be credited to the fox. Fur farming increased | Fisheries —The total value of fish products which had been rapidly during the World War owing chiefly to the high value of marketed (1867-1919) was $418,000,000. In 1919 the output of the furs. Most of the successful farms are on small islands, and practifisheries brought in $50,282,000, of which $45,000,000 was for salmon. cally all are devoted to the raising of foxes, though attempts have Two small salmon canneries were built in Alaska in 1879; by 1919 been made to raise both mink and marten. the number had grown to 134. The fishing eu in I919 emsee Maj.-Gen. A. W. Greely, Handbook of Alaska (1909); Anployed 28,500 persons, of which 3,875 were Indians, Ninety per cent nual Reports. of Governor of Alaska (1910-20); Reports of 13th were engaged in salmon canning. The canneries can be operated during only from two to four months of the year, and much the larger part of the labour is imported. About 90% of the salmon caught in Alaskan waters are canned. In 1911 a total of 44,000,000 salmon were caught in Alaskan waters. This was increased in 1918 to 101,500,000, but fell to 58,000,000 in 1919. The enormous catch of 1918 was due to the stimulus of the war demands, and was undoubtedly in excess of the number that can be taken without permanently impairing the industry. In the early days of the salmon-fishing there were no restrictions, but, beginning in 1902, laws were passed

to regulate the fisheries. The latest law (1906) was a great improvement on those preceding, but is by no means adequate. As an addi-

tional precautionary measure, hatcheries were established.

‘There

were five of these operated in 1919, at which were hatched and liber-

ated 95,580,000 young salmon. In theory this should suffice to provide for the annual catch, but in practice only a small part survive as adult fish. The importance to the nation of conserving the Alaska salmon fisheries is indicated by the fact: that in 1919 a total of 133,680,000 Ib. of salmon were shipped from the Territory. The halibut fisherics are being depleted even more rapidly than the salmon, About 14,000,000 lb. are caught in Alaska and adjacent waters each year. The industry employs about 900 men and go small vessels. The halibut is all shipped fresh; much of it to the E. coast markets, and some to Europe. The number of cod on the Alaska cod banks is cnormous, but as yet they have been little exploited. The total annual catch is between. 10 and y1 million pounds, and the number of men employed is only a few hundred. Herring are found

in great abundance as far north as Bering Strait, Whale-fishing along the coast, once a very important industry, is now limited to a few shore stations, where the catch is chiefly utilized for making fertilizer, There has been some canning of crabs and clams. The Alaska crab, which is the same species as that found in the Pacific waters farther, south, is especially delicious. l Forest Products.—The national forests of Alaska include all the best timber lands (total area 20,000,000 acres). These are estimated to contain 77,000,000,000 {t. (B.M.) of timber suitable for lumber

and 14th Census; Report of the International Boundary Commission between the United States and Canada: Arctic Ocean to Mt, St. Elias, with atlas (State Department, Washington, D. C., 1918); Railway

Routes in Alaska: Report of Alaska Railroad Commission (1913); Report of the: Alaska Engineering Commission (1916); Alfred H. Brooks, “The Development of Alaska by Government.Railroads,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. xxviii. (1912); Information about

Alaska (Interior Department, 1917); J. L. McPherson, Alaska: Our Frontier Wonderland (Seattle Chamber of Commerce, 1921); Alfred H. Brooks, The Mt. McKinley Region (U.S. Geological Survey, 1911); Mountain Exploration in Alaska (American Alpine Club, 1914); Hudson Stuck, The Ascent of Denali (Mt. McKinley) (1914); A Winter Circuit of our Arctic Coast (1920); Ernest de K. Leffingwell, The Canning River Region, Northern Alaska (U.S. Geological Survey, 1919). See also the reports of U.S. Geological

Survey of U.S. Department

of Agriculture, of Commissioner of

Fisherics, Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, Reports of Governor of Alaska (Washington, D.C.), and of Commissioner

of Education for Territory of Alaska (Juneau, Alaska). i

(A. H, Br.)

ALBANIA (sce 1.481).—Up to 1908 the policy adopted by the national Albanian leaders may be summarized

as follows:—~

(r) To preserve the Ottoman Empire until such time as the

Albanian national ideal, surreptitiously propagated by the various national societies resident abroad, had entered’ into the consciousness of the Albanian people as a whole (a proccss

necessarily slow where 99% of the population was illiterate and in the face.of the opposition of both ‘Abdul Hamid and the Greek Patriarchate)—lest a premature disruption of Turkey might bring about the dismemberment of Albania herself at the hands of her Christian neighbours; (2) to press in the meantime

by constitutional means for an autonomous administration of

and pulp. Up to 1921 these forests had been used almost solely for Albania. . ae D local use, though some spruce had been exported for the manufacProminent among those in favour of these Fabian tactica ture of acroplanes and other articles which require great toughness of fibre. It was officially estimated that these forests were capable were Ferid Pasha Vlora, the Sultan’s trusted grand vizier, and of furnishing 2,000,000 cords of pulp-wood annually. A pulp-wood | his cousin Ismael Kemal. The keen appreciation by these statesindustry was developed in south-eastern Alaska in 1920. men of their country’s predicament was amply proved by subAgriculture —Alaska contains extensive farm lands adapted to sequent events. These events, however, they were unable to raising the hardier varieties of wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes and other hardy vegetables, and forage crops. The most promising control, In July 1908 the Young Turk revolution became agricultural fields were in the Tanana and Susitna valleys, both | imminent. -The Albanian mountain chiefs, throwing in their :

tributary to the Government railroad. Tests in this region showed ` lot with the-revolutionary movement, took the Jead by telethat sugar beets can be matured that contain a high percentage of . graphing to the Sultan to demand the revival of the constitution sugar. Extensive areas of agricultural land are also found in other

parts of the Yukon basin, and smaller patches here and there in the Pacific coastal region. The best-developed farming area was in the

neighbourhood of Fairbanks, where about 2,000 acres of land were under cultivation. Here a hardy variety of wheat was matured during five'successive years, and part of the flour for focal consumption was made in a small mill, There is an abundance of good grazing land in the interior, but the period of winter feeding is about

eight months,

Up to 1921 the only cattle introduced were small

of 1878. A few days later Maj. Enver Bey and the Committee of Union and Progress proclaimed the constitution at various places in Macedonia, and the II. and III. Army Corps threat-

encd to march upon Constantinople. On July 24 the Sultan bowed to the inevitable. Six months later he was deposed after his attempt at counter-revolution had: failed—an attempt

-undertaken with the aid of his Albanian bodyguard and with the

ALBANIA connivance of the Liberal union, headed by Ismael Kemal, wha had already realized that the aims of the committee were little more liberal than the old régime’s. The privilege of informing him of this decision of Parliament was reserved for another Albanian, Essad Pasha. The Albanians had at first hailed the Turkish revolution with enthusiasm. It scemed to promise the fulfilment of their most cherished aspirations: autonomy and the introduction of means of education in the national tongue. Albanians had never been slow to avail themselves of any opportunity of

105

nor was it his business. The inevitable result was that the following year, when the Turks were fully engaged in the war with Italy, the insurrection

broke out afresh.

The

Albanians

of

Kossovo joined in the revolt, seized Pristina, and published a

manifesto demanding a dissolution of Parliament and the holding of fresh and fairly conducted clections. Southern Albania joined the insurgents and success followed success. In May Uskub was occupied. In view of trouble brewing elsewhere the Turks had no alternative but to give in. By the terms of the cessation of hostilities, Albania was recognized by the educating themselves on national lines, as is proved by the Turkish Government as an autonomous administrative provphenomenal progress in education that had been made within ince comprising the four Albanian vilayets of Scutari, Kossovo, Albania itself during the years 1879-86, when the establish- Yannina and Monastir, and more or less the same conditions ment of Albanian schools was tolerated, as well as in the Al- already granted on paper were definitely ratified. Of all these banian colonies abroad. The names of men like the brothers concessions, however, by far the most important was the Sami and Naim Frasheri, the first a lexicographer and historian, recognition on the part of Turkey that Albania extended to the second a poet; of Wassa Pasha, founder of the society for the the four vilayets. This was the first official delimitation of publication of Albanian books in Constantinople in 1879; and the frontiers of Albania. of Prenk Dochi, who became Abbot of the Mirditi in 1888, The success of the Albanians was, no doubt, a considerable should especially be remembered in connexion with the obscure factor contributing to the outbreak of hostilities between but heroic efforts on the part of patriotic Albanians to cducate Turkey and the Balkan League in the autumn of rorz. The their countrymen prior to the revolution of roog. laiter were encouraged by the reverses sustained by the Turkish A ' Bessa” (pledge of honour) was taken by the mountain | army under their German leaders, and the grant of autonomy, tribesmen to suspend all existing blood feuds in honour of the were it allowed time to consolidate the national organization auspicious occasion. It soon became evident, however, that not of the country, threatened to jeopardize the aims of the league, only was nothing to be hoped for from the Young Turks but that which envisaged the partition of Albania. The latter suffered the triumph of the revolutionary movement was to prove a from possessing no effective central authority. Accordingly, more formidable menace to the cause of Albanian nationality when the war broke out in Oct., the Albanians were divided as to the right policy to pursue. The Roman Catholic Maltsors than the obscurantist tyranny of the Sultan. The Committee of Union and Progress had no sooner obtained a settlement of joined the Montenegrins; the Kossovo Albanians fought halfthe international questions arising out of the annexation of heartedly on the side of the Turks; the rest of the Albanians Bosnia-Herzegovina and of Eastern Rumelia by Austria-Hungary remained neutral. The Maltsors, moreover, withdrew from and Bulgaria respectively, than they actively set to work to the struggle before the end of the hostilities, being enraged at achieve their plan of Ottomanizing the subject races of Turkey. the cruel treatment by the Montenegrins of their Moslem The Albanian schools, which had recently been able to open neighbours. In fact, apart from the defence of the two fortresses their doors through private contributions, were again closed, of Yannina and Scutari, the safety of which was considered a the Albanian newspapers were again forced to migrate to foreign vital point to the life of Albania, the Albanians practically left lands, and the national movement was stopped. In the face the Turks alone in their struggles. During Nov. the greater part of northern and central Albania of violent protests a decree was issued that the Albanian language might be taught with the Turkish. instead of Latin was invaded by the Serbians and Montenegrins, and the greater characters and a number of school-books were actually published part of Epirus was in the possession of the Greeks. Albania in this manner. But the Albanians saw through the device and seemed lost. But at this juncture the prompt action of Ismael would have none of it. Heaps of the books were burned in the Kemal! partially saved the situation. After consulting with the Governments of Austria-Hungary and Italy, the two Powers market-places. Insurrection of rgr1-2.—At the same time an insurrectionary interested in the maintenance of an integral Albania, he landed movement broke out among the Moslem tribes in the north, in the nick of time at Durazzo before the capture of that town headed by ‘Isa Boletin, a natural leader of rare prowess who by the Serbians. Thence he proceeded on horseback to Valona rallied the mountain tribesmen disaffected by the attempt of and summoned there an assembly of representative notables the Young Turks to levy taxation from which hitherto they had from all parts of Albania. On Nov. 28 rgr2 the national flag, been exempt. The Turks, however, retaliated by ruthless efforts the black double-headed eagle of Scanderbeg on a blood-red to disarm the population. Whole villages were destroyed and ground, was hoisted over the town and a formal proclamation —what the proud clansmen would less easily forgive—their of independence was issucd together with a declaration of neutrality. This act gave the Austro-Hungarian and Italian chiefs were publicly flogged. In ro1z the insurrection assumed larger dimensions. While the Moslem tribes kept quiet the Governments the necessary lead for their diplomatic interRoman Catholic Malzia and Mathe tribes, instigated by the | vention. But owing to the championship of Russia of the allies’ cause, the only immediate result of this was the menace of a Montenegrins, formed armed bands, and in the spring attacked with success the ‘Turkish outposts on the Montenegrin frontier. gencral European conflict. It was left to England, the only Power with any pretensions to impartiality, to lend her best In April Torgut Shevket Pasha tried te suppress the movement with a large army, but notwithstanding the superiority of his offices to bring about an accommodation, and it was owing to forces, met with several reverses. In May Russia warned the the untiring efforts of Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Grey that eveniually a peaceful but by no means altogether satisfactory Ottoman Government not to extend hostilities against Montenegro, who was harbouring a large number of the refugees. In compromise was arrived at. A conference of ambassadors was asscmbled in London, and on Dee. 20 the principle of Albanian June Mirdita joined the rebels, proclaiming her own autonomy autonomy was admitted. The allies agreed to leave to the Great and setting up a provisional government, In the same month there was a great meeting of rebel chiefs, who drew up a state- Powers the task of delimitating the frontiers and defining ment of their grievances and a list of their demands under 12 the status of Albania and a clause was drafted to this effect headings, of which the most important were the recognition of for insertion in the ‘Treaty of London (May 1913) between the Albanian nationality and the use of the Albanian language in allies and Turkey On April 7 1913 Sir Edward Grey made the following statement to the House of Commons:— The agreethe schools and in all local administration. Balkan War, 1912-3—The Turks attempted to bribe and ment between the Powers respecting the frontiers of Albania cajole Mgr. Sereggt, Archbishop of Scutari, a brave and honest was reached after a long and laborious diplomatic effort. It patriot, to intervene, He protested that he had not the authority; was decided that the littoral and Scutari showd be Albanian,

ALBANIA

106

while Ipek, Prizren, Dibra and (after much negotiation) Jakova should be excluded from Albania. This arrangement leaves a large tract of territory to be divided between Serbia and Monte-

negro as the fruits of victory.” “Tt is to be borne in mind thatin making that agreement ”’— Sir Edward Grey added in answer to a question-——“ the primary essential was to preserve agreement between the Powers

themselves.” The natural rights of Albania were accordingly sacrificed for the sake of the general peace of Europe.

In pursuance of this decision two international commissions proceeded to Albania, the one to delimitate the northern and north-eastern, the other the southern frontiers. The dutics of the first were largely of a technical character, since with the exception of two or three small gaps the ambassadors had themselves traced the frontiers with some precision. The northern commission was, however, never called upon to report.

Thus half a million Albanians forming’ a compact ethnographical unit within the watershed which constitutes the natural geographical boundary of Albania were left without appeal to Montenegro and Serbia. The southern commission was given wider powers. Under the chairmanship of Lt.-Col. Doughty Wylie the work was undertaken conscientiously, and. resulted in the drawing of a frontier which may be considered in the circumstances a fair balance of conflicting cthnographical, geographical and economic claims. Rule of Wiliam of Wied-—Meantime the status of Albania was defined by the ambassadors. On July 29 1913 it was agreed to recognize her as a sovercign independent state under perpetual neutrality guaranteed by the Powers. A foreign prince was to be chosen as ruler. Dutch officers were commissioned for the organization of an Albanian gendarmerie and an international commission of control was instituted, composed of one

delegate from each Power and one Albanian representative, with authority for ten years to control the finances of the new State and to check the Albanian Government when acting beyond the limits of its jurisdiction.

On account of the mutual jealousies of the Powers, and especially of those of Italy and Austria-Hungary, it had become impossible to choose for prince any man of known purpose or courage. Prince Charles of Rumania. and the Duc de Montpensier were among the abler candidates turned down. Ahmet Fuad Pasha of Egypt was suggested but Ismael Kemal let it be

clearly understood that Albania intended to become a European State, and woud not accept an Eastern ruler. The choice eventually fell upon Prince William of Wied. When the international commission of control assumed the sovercignty of Albania at the request of Ismael Kemal in jan. 1914 pending the arrival of the prince, the number of governments ruling over the several provinces were three. First in priority was the Provisional Government of Ismael Kemal at

Valona.

The sccond was the international administration of

Scutari, with Gen. Phillips in command. The third was the Government of Essad Pasha in central Albania. This adventurer, after bringing about the murder, so it seems, of the Turkish commander defending Scutari, had betrayed the city in April 1913 into the hands of the Montenegrins on condition of being allowed to march out at the head of his armed followers, ‘These

he kept in hand, and on the withdrawal of the Serbs from central Albania he profited by the general discontent with the slow-moving over-cautious Government of Valona to establish a new government under his personal direction at ‘Tirana. Meantime the Montcnegrins had been persuaded by the Powers to evacuate Scutari and only the Greeks in the south remained in occupation of Albanian territory within the new frontiers. Essad reluctantly consented to hand over the reins to the international commission of control on the condition that he himself might head the deputation to Neuwied for the purpose

of offering the crown to Prince William. He continued, however, to intrigue against his chief, who bestowed upon him after his arrival at Durazzo (on March 7 1914) the post of Minister of War. The general situatidn was at this time exceedingly confused.

The country was rife with disaficction due to the endless

delays before the choice and arrival of the Mpret, to the intncate cross-currents of intrigue of Essad, Austria and Italy, and to the ghastly terror that the Greek irregulars—secretly supported but officially repudiated by the Greek Government— constituted in the south. Only a bold man capable of striking the imagination of his people could hope to succeed in these circumstances. Prince William, who even before his arrival had alienated the sympathy of many for having laid himself open to suspicion as implicated in the Austrian plots, revealed

himself before long a man of neither courage nor resolution. He remained.at Durazzo under the guns of Italian and Austrian warships, chicfly occupying himself in making and unmaking his Cabinet.

In the meantime Essad, who had the goodwill of the Italians, continued to intrigue with the object of discrediting the Prince, while the Austrians and the Nationalist Albanian supporters of Wied plotted with equal pertinacity for the overthrow of the powerful Minister of War.

The mistakes of the Prince were at

first entirely ascribed by the populace to Essad’s machinations, As a result, during the night of May 19, a group of armed Nationalists surrounded his house and Prince William’s Austrian guns were trained upon it. Essad’s life was only saved. by the

courageous intervention of an Italian officer. He was eventually placed upon

an Italian warship and transported

to Italy.

Immediately after his departure rebellion broke out among partisans at Tirana. It might easily have been crushed, Essad’s followers, though well armed, were limited to a thousand men and were detested by the vast majority of

his for few the

people. But Prince William at first hesitated, then blundered by bombarding the perfectly inoffensive village of Shuyak (Shyak), which raised the whole immediate countryside in

revolt, and finally lost all caste in the eyes of the Albanians by ignominiously taking refuge during an abortive attack by the insurgents on board a man-of-war, He was never again likely

to win the goodwill of his people. When the World War broke out in Aug. rgr4, he was still closely besieged in Durazzo. On Sept. 3 he abandoned the country. The World War-—The history after the outbreak of the World War may be very briefly told. Essad returned to Durazzo, and with the help of his friends the Serbs was able for a short time to

reéstablish

his rule in central Albania.

he

international

occupation of Scutari was. followed by a Serbian occupation. The Greeks took possession of the south until the advent of the Italians in 1915. The rest of the country fell under the authority of local chiefs. Essad remained faithful to his plan which foreshadowed the partition of his country between the Serbs, the Greeks, and himself, under Italian protection. In the absence of any authoritative Albanian Government he succeeded for a time in imposing upon the Entente Powers the notion that he represented the will of his countrymen. It was owing to this fact that the articles relating to Albania in the Pact of London were admitted and it is these articles which have given rise to grave difficulties attendant on the settlement of the country since the Armistice of 1918. The articles in question run as folows:— Article 6. Italy shall receive full sovereignty over Valona, the island of Sasseno and surrounding

territory of sufficient extent

to assure

defence of these points (from the Voyusa to the N. and E., approximately to the N. boundary of the district of Chimara on the $), Article 7.

Should Italy obtain the Trentino and Istria in accordance with

the provisions of Article 4, together with Dalmatia and the Adriatic Is. within the limits specified in Article 5, and the Bay of Valona

(Article 6), and if the central portion of Albania is reserved for the establishment of a small autonomous neutralised State, Italy shall not oppose the division of N. and S. Albania between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece, should

France,

Great

Britain

and Russia so

desire. The coast from the 5. boundary of the Italian territory of

Valona (see Article 6) up to Cape Stylos shall be neutralised. Italy shall be charged with the representation of the State of

Albania in its relations with foreign powers. Italy agrees moreover to leave sufficient territory in any event to

the E. of Albania to ensure the existence of a frontier line between Greece and Serbia to the W, af Lake Qchrida,

ALBERT I. In Nov. r916 the Italians had occupied Valona. autumn

of rors

the Austro-Hungarians,

In the

after overrunning

107

parties still entertained of imposing by force of arms Italian rule in Albanias.

Moreover, Giolitti had assumed power with a

Essad retired

large Liberal majority behind him, and he had made up his mind

to Salonika where he continued to pose for some considerable time as the true Albanian representative until he became finally

to tackle the Albanian question otherwise. The result was an agreement signed on Aug. 2 i920, by which Albania’s inde-

Serbia, occupied northern and central Albania.

Many Albanians adhered to the cause of the central pendence was completely recognized by Italy and the evacuation of the country by the Italian troops assured. empires. This was not unnatural since a victory for Germany The Serbs, who had attempted to profit by the occasion, would in all probability have given Albania an autonomous, if not an independent, government within wider fronticrs than had advanced on Tirana, but after some severe fighting had she could ever otherwise hope for. Under Bairam Tsuri, an been driven back to their original positions. Yet in spite of unsurpassed guerilero, Albanian bands harassed the Allied these successes the Government of Suleiman Bey fell in the lines of communication, which ran from Santi Quaranta to autumn. It was replaced by a Ministry under Ilias Vrioni, pending the election due to take place in the following spring Koritsa and Salonika. On June 3 ror7 Italy proclaimed the independence of all of a new Chamber, Mgr. Fa Noli was appointed Albanian Albania under Italian protection. This proclamation was sub- representative at Geneva and in Jan. 1921 Albania was formally sequently explained as not denoting a “ protectorate,” but it admitted to full membership of the League of Nations, all the could hardly be interpreted as anything but a formal repudiation parties (Italy, Serbia and Greece), at one time interested in her dismemberment, recording their vote in favour of the of the articles of the Pact of Londen. The French, who had occupied the Ersek-Koritsa road, replied by proclaiming the motion. republic of Koritsa. After three months the republic was BrB_ioGRAPHY.—Foreign Office Manual No. 17; Constantine A. discredited.

abolished, but the distriét remained under French rule until

May 1918, when it was handed over to the Albanians. Then came the retreat of the Austrians in the autumn of that year. Thus the greater part of Albania fell under the occupation of

Italy. An inter-Allied contingent on the other hand occupicd Scutari, while Serbian troops seized Mt. Tarabosh and advanced

their line considerably west of the 1913 frontier. In March 1920 the inter-Allied command at Scutari handed over their powcrs to a small Italian contingent, which in May tor still remained in the town as representing the Allied and Associated Powers pending the formal recognition of the Albanian State and the confirmation of its frontiers. Meantime important events had occurred which finally paved the way for the retéstablishment of Albanian independence. The Italians permitted the formation of a new national provisional government within their area of occupation, and Albania’s case was duly presented at the Peace Conference in roro. Ier representatives

included

Turchan

Pasha,

who

had acted

as

Prince William’s prime minister; Dr. Tourtuli of Koritsa, the eminent specialist in tropical diseases; Mgr. Bumci, Bishop of Alessio; and Mehmet Bey Konitza, later Minister of Foreign Affairs and representative of the Vatra, an important national society of Albanians resident in America which had risen during the last ten years under the able organization of Faik Konitza and Mgr. Fa Noli, to take a leading part in the cause of Albanian independence. ‘The general complications of the Adriatic question, however, prevented the Albanian case being concluded. President Wilson vetoed a proposal to partition the country. The Italians at the same time lost their initial popularity. It was generally understood that they had provisionally accepted a mandate for Albania, There were evident signs in any case of an intention on their part to remain in permanent occupation.

They treated the local authorilies with scant courtesy and seriously hampered the independent working of the central Government. The latter were also keenly aware that a permanent Italian occupation inevitably entailed the admission of at least part of the Greek and Serbian claims to their territory. It was in these circumstances that fighting broke out between Albanian irregulars and the Italian troops, which had been

greatly reduced in numbers and were suffcring badly from malaria. The Italians accordingly concentrated within certain strategical areas, and thus enabled a new and more representative Albanian Government to be formed in Feb. 1920, first at Lyusna and then at Tirana, under the presidency of Suleiman Bey Delvina Four constitutional regents were simultaneously appointed, namely, Mgr Bumci, Dr. Tourtuli, Abdi Toptani and Akif Pasha—ze. two Mussulmans, one Catholic and one Orthodox, Later in the year the Albanians under Bairam Tsuri again attacked the Italians, capturing many important positions and pressing them hard within the Valona arca itself. Italy was in no mood for further wars. The economic and social condition of the country forbade any hope the Italian Nationalist

Chekressi, Memoirs; Ismael Kemal, ‘‘ Albania and the Albanians,” Quarterly Review (July 1917); J. S. Barnes, “ The Future of the Albanian State,” Jour. Roy. Geo. Soc. (July 1918); A. Baldacci,

Itinerari Albanesi 1892-1902 (1917); E. Barbarich, Albania (1905); E. Durham, The Burden of the Balkans (1905; 2nd ed. 1912); High Albania (1909); The Struggle for Scutari (1914); K, Hassert, Streifzige in Ober-Albanien; Leon Lamouche, La Naissance de l'Etat Albanais; Louis Jaray, L’Albanze inconnue (1913); Au jeune roy-

aume d’Albanie (1914); W. Peacock, Albania

(1914); Sullioti,

Ser Mesi di regno in Albania (1914); Haskins and Lord, Some Problems of the Peace Conference (1920); Report of Dutch Mission in Albania (1914); Report of French Ministry of War (1915); Report of Italian Ministry of War (1915); Report of Italian Ministry of Marine (1917); Karl Steinmetz, Von der Adria sum Schwarzen Drin (1908); Eine Reise durch die Hochldndergaue Oberalbaniens (1904); Hin

Vorstess in die nordalbanischen Alpen

(1905); Bacon

Nopcsa, Das Katholische Nordalbanien (1907); Aus Sala und Klementi; Marchese di San Giuliano, Lettere dall Albania; Miiller, The

Oitoman Empire 1801-1913, Cambridge

Historical series oe . 5. BA.

ALBERT 1., King of the Belgians (3875), was born at Brussels April 8 1875, the younger son of Philip, Count of Flanders (1837-1905), brother of Leopold II., by his marriage with Princess Marie of Hohenzollern. The other children of this marriage were: Baldwin (b. 1869), Henriette, afterwards Duchess of Vendéme (b. 1870), a daughter who died in infancy, and Josephine, afterwards Princess Charles of Hohenzollern (b. 1872), The premature death of Prince Leopold, only son of Leopold II., on June 22 1869, made Prince Baldwin heir presumptive to the Belgian crown, but on the death of the young prince on Jan, 23 1891, Prince Albert became next in the line of succession. He was carefully educated, and showed a marked taste for engincering and mechanics, studying both naval and aerial construction. He received his training in military matters

at the Ecole

Militaire

under

Gen.

Jungblut,

and

also became a thorough all-round sportsman, taking much interest in mountaineering and later in aviation. On Oct. 2

1900 he was married at Munich to Princess Elisabeth (b. July

25 1876, at Possenhofen), second daughter of Duke Charles Theodore of Bavaria. Three children were born of this marriage: Leopold, Duke of Brabant (b. Nov. 3 1901), Charles,

Count of Flanders (b. Oct. 10 1903), and Marie José (b. Aug. 4 1906). Prince Albert also travelled widely, paying a visit to America in 1898, and in 1908 visitnig England in order to study naval construction. In April 1909 he went to the Belgian Congo in order to acquaint himself with colonial conditions, returmng in Aug. of the same year. On the death of Leopold II. on Dec. 1 1909 Prince Albert took the oath of fidelity to the Belgian constitution and became king under the name of Albert I, He occupied himself more especially with the organization of the army and in May 1913 gave his assent to the law which was designed to secure for Belgium an army of 350,000 men. He also interested himself in various social and legal reforms, while his scientific tastes did not prevent him from becoming a imend of art and

108

ALBERT, DUKE—ALBERTA

literature. The poet Verhaeren and the painter Laermans were on friendly terms with the royal family, the latter receiving

personal attention from the Queen when he was threatened with the loss of his sight,

On Aug. 2 1914, when the Germans sent their ultimatum to Belgium, King Albert at once prepared to defend his country. He himself took command of the army. He only left Antwerp at the last possible moment, and then established himself with the army on the Yser. During the whole of the war he remained with the troops, having his headquarters at La Panne, where he was exposed to the risk of enemy bombardments. He made continual visits to the front-line trenches, and even surveyed the enemy’s lines from an aeroplane. The Queen remained with him, acting as a nurse in the Hopital de Océan at La Panne. She also interested herself deeply in the welfare of the soldiers in the trenches, and superintended the establishment of canteens and aid posts. Prince Leopold, King Albert’s clder son, lived by his father’s wish the life of a simple soldier in the 12th Regiment. When the general offensive of Oct. 1918 was undertaken, King Albert was appointed commander of the northern army groups, consisting of both Belgians and French, which captured

the forest of Houthulst, the Flandernstellung, Thourout, Ostend and Bruges, and forced the passage of the Lys. On Nov. 13 ror8 the King and Queen made their entry into Ghent, and on

Nov. 22 into Brusscls, being received with enormous enthusiasm. Even before the signing of the Armistice the King had summoned at Lophem a number of politicians, and arranged a

new Government containing representatives of the three more important Belgian political parties.

After the Armistice the King occupied himself actively with

the improvement of conditions in his country, visiting the devastated areas, and contributing considerable sums to “ King Albert’s Fund,” which was devoted to providing temporary shelter for suffcrers from the war. He also undertook journeys to Brazil, Spain, France, the United States and England, with the object of studying trade conditions and finding new outlets for Belgian commerce. The popularity of the King and Queen, great even before the war, steadily increased, even the Socialist party taking many opportunities of expressing feelings of respect towards the royal family. King Albert declined the augmentation of his civil list which was offered to him by the Chamber

immediately after the war, Sce P. Nothomb, Le Ror Albert; Laurent, Le Rot Albert; Baron Buyens, Les hommes de la Guerre—le Rot Albert; G. Mathys, Le Prince Albert; Mousseau, Le Prince Albert au Congo; La Mort de Léopold ID. et PAvenement du Ror Albert (Recueil de Documents,

—__Year." |

Male.

1901 1906 IQII Igl6

41,019 108,283 223,989

32,003 77,129 150,674 219,209

277,256

The urban pop. amounted in 1916 to 188,749 and the rural to 307,776. There were 119,510 families inhabiting 113,347 dwellings, the average number in the family being 4-15. The origins of the people were as follows:—Canadian-born 241,357, English 70,068; Irish 36,420; Scotch 47,494; Welsh, etc., 1,500; French 17,679; German 12,486; Austro-Ilungarian 11,868, Scandinavian 9,825; Dutch 2,465; Indian 14,118, Polish 1,791; Russian 6,422;

Ukrainian 4,024; others 5,197.

Of U.S. immigrants of all na-

tionalities born in the United States there were 91,674, almost

precisely 50% of them being of British descent.

Edmonton is the capital, with a pop. estimated in 1920 at 60,000 (24,900 in 191). It is beautifully situated on the N: bank of the North Saskatchewan on a table-land overlooking and 200 ft. above the river. Itis the depôt of the fur traders of the northern forest and

the western headquarters of the Hudson's Bay, Company.

Edmon-

ton is the terminus of the Calgary and Edmonton railway, and a divisional point of the Canadian National railways. It owns and operates its own electric light and power plant, waterworks, sewerage,

telephones and street railway system.

It has flour mills, saw mills

and meat-packing plants. Strathcona, on the $, bank of the worth Saskatchewan river, is the seat of the university of Alberta, and a popular residential district.

Fort Saskatchewan, Vegreville, and Vermilion are thriving trading towns on the Canadian National railway. Calgary, the chief city of the southern district, and the principal business section of the province, is situated in the valley of the Bow river. It had in 1920 a pop. estimated at 75,000 while in 1911 the

pop. was 43,704. It is on the main line of the C.P.R. and the lines

of the Canadian National railway.

The manufacturing establish-

ments include meat-packing plants, flour mills, lumber mills, brick and cement works, It is the door to the magnificent scenery of the Rockies, and the great number of summer tourists has necessitated

the building of large modern hotels, Medicine Hat had in 1920 an estimated pop, of 10,000, and is the centre of a wide area of ranching and farming country. It is one of the large flour-milling centres and is known as the natural-gas city, having been supplicd with natural gas from the time of its inception. Bricks and drain pipes are extensively manufactured. The pop. of Lethbridge was estimated at 10,000. Itisa thriving coalMining, agricultural and railway centre, and is an important neigh-

bourhood for irrigation farming, the Dominion experimental farm

being situated there, Other local centres are Red Deer, Wetaskiwin, Bairmore, Camrose, Cardston, Coleman, Lacombe, Macleod, Pincher Creek, Raymond, Redcliff, Stettler, High River, Taber and Vegreville.

The Legislative Assembly of Alberta consists of 58 members,

with an Executive Council composed of eight members chosen of the Belgians (1914), MacDonnel (John de Courcy), The Life of from the. Legislature. The province is represented in the Do1909); Roux, Le Rot Albert; Percy, The Life Story of Alberi I, King

H.M. King Albert (1915) and Belgium: her Kings, Kingdom and People (1914). (J. P.)

ALEERT, DUKE OF WÜRTTEMBERG (1865), German general, the son of Duke Philip of Württemberg, was born in Vienna on Dec. 23 1865. As the King and Queen of Württemberg had no male heir, he was as nearest agnate the heir presumptive to the Württemberg throne. He passed through the different grades of a military carecer and was appointed general in command of the XI, Army Corps at Cassel in 1906 and in 1908 was entrusted with the command of the Wiirttemberg Army Corps. In 1913 he was advanced to the rank of Gencraloberst (colonel-general, immediately below field-marshal) and was appointed Inspector-General of the 6th Army Inspection. At the outbreak of the World War he took over the leadership of the 4th Army on the western front, was advanced to the rank of held-marshal-gencral in 1916 and appointed chief-in-command of the group of armies on the front in Alsace-Lorraine, which fought under his leadership till the end of the war. Since then he has lived as a private citizen on his Wiirttemberg estates. He married in 1902 the late Archduchess Margarete Sophie of Austria, the sister of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand who was, assassinated at Sarajevo. ALBERTA (see 1.499).—The pop. of the Canadian province

of Alberta in 1916 was 496,525. The increase since 1901 is shown in the following table:-—

minion Parlament by xz members in the House of Commons and six Senators.

High schools have been opened at all the leading centres,

and normal schools for the training of teachers are in operation at Calgary and Camrose. The province owns 250 ac. of land at Edmonton, where a well-equipped university has been

established. Alberta College, a Methodist theological training school, a Presbyterian theological training college, and other denominational institutions are affiliated with the university. Technical schools are established at Edmonton, Calgary, and Medicine Hat. Schools of agriculture are established at different points and there are nine demonstration farms; the university has a faculty of agriculture. Agriculture —Until the end of the 19th century southern Alberta

was regarded as only fit for ranching, but in 1902 the first irrigation

company was formed and received its charter. Since then numerous

irrigation projects have been undertaken, and a large area of land is

now farmed with the help of the water thus made available.

The

area of the land owned by the irrigation companies of southern Al-

berta made up in 1920 a total of ncarly 3,000,000 ac. of which 30% is actually irrigable land. The benefits of irrigation have been well demonstrated in southern Alberta. Besides making it possible to grow heavier and better crops it is possible to grow a greater variety. On dry land grain is the characteristic crop. Under irrigation heavy crops of alfalfa and roots are grown, which make profitable stockraising and stock-feeding possible without the uncertainties and loss

which accompany seasons of drought. More stock is.raised in south-

ern Alberta now than was raised under ranch conditions. The chief

ALCOCK, SIR JOHN—ALCOHOL credit for developing the irrigation system belongs ta the C.P.R. company,

whose

scheme

covers

about

1,000,000

ac. in the area

around Calgary, where a heavy thick black loam of from 4 to 8 in. in depth, with a subsoil of chocolate-coloured clay, constitutes a region well adapted to diversified farming. The source of water

supply is the Bow river. The soils of northern Alberta are for the

109

Natural gas under heavy pressure is found at many points throughout the province and is extensively used for power, fuel and light. In the Athabasca region and near the B.C. boundary there are decided indications of petroleam and a limited amount of coal oil is now beng refined. The tar sands of northern Alberta are a striking

feature in the gcological resources of the province.

It is estimated

most part characterized by high percentages of organic matter and

that the area of tar sands amounts to at least 1,000 sq. m. which

Alberta is to a large extent wooded, enjoying a greater rainfall, and

North Saskatchewan river have for years yielded some gold. The output of clay and stone in the province is valued at over $1,000,000

nitrogen, and are superior to those in the southern part of the prov- /- with an average thickness of 150 ft. would give 28-4 cub. m. or 4.700,000,000 tons of bitumen or 65 cub. m. of tar. The sands of the ince. Southern Alberta is of a true prairie character. Northern

is naturally better adapted for mixed farming. Alberta is adapted in

varying degrees to the growing of small grains, including wheat, oats, barley, rye, peas and flax, which can all be grown successfully and profitably from Medicine Hat to Fort Vermilion. In 1918 the wheat production of the province was 23,751,514 bushels, The oat production in the same year was 60,322,747 bushels. Ninety-six different varicties of native grasses have been identified in Alberta and of these

not less than 46 make excellent hay whilst there are at least 94 varieties of sedges and rushes, many of which make good hay and all

make splendid pasture during the spring and early summer. The true grasses occur on the uplands, and grow with wild pea, vine and vetches.

Native hay, western rye grass, blue grass, buffalo grass and

bunch grass abound in luxuriant stretches, These extend through the passes into the mountains and fill the valleys with a luxuriant growth of luscious plants for cattle. Such conditions constitute Alberta as a whole an ideal live-stock country. There is still however much land devoted to ranching in the foothill country W. of the Calgary-Edmonton railway. This consists of rolling land with good grasses on the knoffs, excelfent live springs and running water and plenty of natural shelter. Beef is also raised on proprietary ranches of the prairie country, on leased lands in the eastern and central parts, and on the edges of the settled parts of the Peace River country. The superiority of Alberta ranch beef is accounted for by the superiority of the ranch grasses, the climate and the usc of good beef bulls. The ranch cattlemen have always bought the best bulls obtainable of the Shorthorn, Hereford and AberdeenAngus breeds. The demand for pure bred stock is very active, and the establishment of pure bred beef herds has been going on rapidly. Building material and fuel in almost unlimited amounts are procurable in the forests of northern Alberta, the timber lands extending hundreds of miles on the N. side of the Saskatchewan river.

Poplar,

birch, pine, white and black spruce, douglas fir and larch are among the commercial trees in these forests belts. South of the North Saskatchewan the timber is principally cottonwood and poplar. In the foothills and river valleys considerable spruce is found. Sawmills have been established at various points. The output for 1918 was valued at $473,694 and represented a capital investment of $1,500,000. Over 26,000 sq. m. of territory have been set aside as forest reserves and Dominion parks.

annually. There are also large salt deposits in the northern part of Alberta. The annual mineral production of the province exceeds $15,000,000, Manufactures~—There are large and prosperous manufacturing establishments which supply local needs and engage in export business, Large abattoirsand meat-packing plants are located at Calgary and Edmonton. Throughout the province there are flour and sawpills, brick-yards and tile works, cement works, stone quarries and

other manutacturing enterprises. Communications.—In former days the North Saskatchewan was chiefly depended on for carrying freight by steamboats, but transport has been largely transferred to the railways which extend throughout the province in every direction.

The main line of the

C.P.R. sends a branch N. to Edmonton and another S. to Macleod.,

From

the Edmonton

branch there are two offshoots starting at

Lacombe and Wetaskiwin. Other branches diverge from the main line at different points, extending into the new districts. The great

passes of the Yellowhead and Peace river have also been made highways of traffic. The Canadian National railway lines connect Edmonton with Winnipeg and Port Arthur on the E. and with Vancouver and Prince Rupert on the W., the latter going through

the Yellowhead pass. The same system has also a line to Calgary from the IŻ, as well as extensions westward into the coal fields, Two other railways, built principally for colonization purposes, open up vast stretches of new country and are proving of inestimable value in connexion with the Peace river district and the northern country. These are the Edmonton and Great Waterways, and the Edmonton,

Dunvegan and B.C, railway; the latter has been taken over by the C.P.R. from the Government of Alberta. Sternwheel steamers ply

on oe rivers and lakes of the northern section during the summer months. Alberta was the first province of the Dominion to own and operate a telephone system of its own. In the year Jorr the province owned

and operated

3.500 m. of long-distance

lines and

about

2,500

m. of rural or farmers’ lines, and this service has been annually extended. W. L. G.*)

ALCOCK, SIR JOHN (1892-1919), British airman, was born in

In the mountain section of the province large areas have been set

Manchester Nov. 6 1892. He received his technical training there at the Empress motor works and obtained the flying

reservations and they are carefully guarded against both fire and illicit hunting. Rocky Mountain park, with Banff and Lake Louise as the chief centres, contains 3,800 sq. m., while Jasper park on the Grand Trunk Pacific is about 600 sq. m. larger. There is also a small reservation at Waterton lake. The Dominion Government under the direction of the Commissioner of Parks has taken steps not only to prevent the total extinction of the buffalo but has established parks for the protection and breeding of these and other native animals. The largest of these parks, 150 sq. m, jn extent, is at Wainwright, where nearly 3,800 of the former monarchs of the plains are living secure from slaughter. Fishing and Fur Trading.—The immense lakes of northern Alberta are heavily stocked with fish, the most important being whitefish and pike. Trout and pickerel are also abundant. The catch is used largely for local consumption but there is some export, and prospects of future farge developments. Fur trading is stiil an imortant industry in the northern section of the province of which

the beginning of the World War, being appointed instructor at

apart by the Dominion Government for forest and game preservation and for recreation. Good roads have been built through these

Sdmonton is the centre. Otter, mink, ermine, wolverine, marten, badger, squirrel, bear, fox, wolf and lynx all enter into the produc-

tion, Three companies, in addition to many private traders, are engaged in the trafhe. Coal.—Vast beds of coal are found extending for hundreds of miles a short distance below the surface of the plains. It may almost be said that the whole of the province is underlaid with coal, and it is

estimated that 16 %of the coal deposits of the world occur in Alberta.

Anthracite is only found in one small pocket near Banff, which was

opened some years ago but has not been operated for some time. Every other grade of coal ranging from the best bituminous to

ordinary brown coal or lignite is found. Broadly, the better grades are found next to the Rockies where the carbonifcrous strata have been subject to the greatest pressure, the quality falling off as we

proceed eastward. Owing to the general movement at the time of the formation of the mountains the strata of coal have been very much broken up. On this account coal-mining in Alberta, although the seams lie very close to the surface, is of a very difficult nature the mines must be closely timbered right up to the working face. Over §,000,000 tons are mined annually, to a value of over $10,000,000,

the mines being equipped for an output of 15,000,000 tons.

certificate of the R.A.C. in 1912.

He joined the R.N.A.S, at

Eastchurch and, later, chief instructor 1o the aeronautic squadron. He then went to the Turkish front, winning the D.S.O. for an attack on three enemy seaplanes, and also establishing a record

for long-distance bombing flights. He was taken prisoner by the Turks in 1917 and released after the Armistice, On June 135 1919 Alcock, as pilot, with Lt. A. W. Brown as observer, won the prize offered by the London Daily Mail for the first successful flight across the Atlantic. For this achievement both airmen were knighted. .On Dec. 18 rọrọ Alcock was killed by the crashing of his acroplane at Céte d’Evrard, north of

Rouen, in France. ALCOHOL (see 1.525).—Alcohol intended for potable purposes

has always been subject to a heavy duty in all countries.

In

the United Kingdom the duty on alcohol was raised in 1920 from

30s, to 72s. Ód. a proof gallon. Owing to its prohibitive price, duty-paid alcohol cannot be uscd for the many purposes for which it is essential, quite apart from the production of light,

heat and power. Its earliest employment in industry was as an illuminant, and dates back to the early part of the 19th century. In 1853 exhaustive experiments were carried out in England with a view to ascertaining whether it would be possible so to treat alcohol as to allow it to be used industrially without, at the same time, any risk of the revenue being defrauded. These experiments resulted in the legislation of 1855, when the use of duty-free alcohol mixed. with 10% by volume of wood naphtha, known as methylated spirits, was authorized for manufacturing purposes only. From 1861-91 methylated spirits prepared in this way were allowed to be sold by retail in Great Britain in small quantities for domestic purposes such as cleaning, heating

ALDEN, H. M.—ALDRICH, N. W.

Ilo.

and lighting; but use in large quantities, or in manufacture, was only possible under special authority and under excise supervision. The Netherlands legalized the use of denatured alcohol in 1865; in 1872 France permitted its use under a special tax, and in Germany its employment was authorized in 1879, the

other European countries following, Austria in 1888, Italy in 1889, Sweden in 1890, Norway in 1891, Switzerland in 1893,

and Belgium in 1896. In the United States the tax on distilled

spirits was repealed in r8r7, but was reimposed at the outbreak

of the Civil War in 1861, and it was not until 1907 that denatured alcohol became tax-free for general purposes. Alcohol was used in Germany for many years before the World War in increasing quantitics as a source of heat, but its application for light and power started about 1887. In 13905, in order to bring down its

price, a distillation tax was imposed, from which a refund was paid on alcohol used for other than beverage purposes. About

this date the output of alcohol in Germany and its use in stationary internal-combustion engines increased rapidly.

The chief

source

of other liquid fuels, Foodstuffs could not be grown in the United Kingdom at sufficiently low prices, nor in sufhciént quantities, to

produce alcohol commercially and on a large scale.

.

Investigations started in 1920 by the British Government, in connexion with the production of alcohol for power purposes, have shown, however, that there are large areas of suitable land in the British Empire where the cost of production would be comparatively low, and where it might be possible to grow vegetable substances

in excess of food requirements, and in sufficient quantitics to produce

alcohol for local consumption to replace expensive petrol.

It is ia

this direction, which is being actively followed up in the dominions

and colonies, that the production of alcohol for use in internal-combustion engines is most likely to advance so far as the British Empire Is Concerned. he use of non-foodstuffs, or ccllulosic materials, such as grasses, reeds, straws, peat, waste wood, sawdust, etc., is not yet possible, for, although research work is in preoer to discover a process that could be worked on a commercial basis in those regions where such materials exist in sufficient abundance, it has not so far led to any

definite results.

It would appear, however, that the production of

power alcohol within the British Empire from waste materials, which

can be collected and treated at low cost, offers the best chance of the solution of the problem of the supply to the United Kingdom of an

was the bounty-fed potato, and the industry was an alternative liquid fucl for internal-combustion engines, agricultural one worked on coéperative principles. s [Its manufacture from carbide is only possible where very cheap The first competition in connexion with alcohol as a fuel for power is available, and its conversion from the quantities of ethylene motor vehicles took place in France in 1901, followed in the removable from coal and coke-oven gas, even should a cheap process worked out, is not likely to add very materially to the world’s next year by German investigations, but its employment for this be hiquid-fuel supplies.

purpose did not make much headway,

The subject received

little attention in the United Kingdom, owing to the relatively high cost of home-produced alcohol as compared with that of imported petrol; aud the use of alcohol in England for generating

mechanical power was neither contemplated nor provided for by the Legislature before 1920, when, as the result of the con-

sideration of the position by the Government, following on a report by a Departmental Committee appointed towards the end of 1918, clauses were inserted in the Finance Act of 1920 legalizing the use of alcohol for power purposes.

Whilst alcohol is applied in motor engines in a similar manner to petrol, its vapour mixed with a proper proportion of air being drawn into the cylinder where it is compressed and ignited, it

Whilst the use of alcohol for power purposes, mainly in connexion

with stationary and agricultural engines, was common in Germany before the war, its employment in Europe and also in the United states for motor engines has not made much headway, nor was it apparent in 1921 that any active steps were being taken outside the British Empire to develop it for the purpose on any considerable scale. In France, where large stocks of alcohol were left over {rom

the manufacture of explosives during the war, it was unable to compete with petrol as regards price, and was only being used in com-

paratively small quantities, and mixed with benzol.

The German

production of alcohol had fallen off very much since the war, and little if any was being used for motors, benzol being the fuel principally employed. The manufacture of alcohol from the sulphite

lyes of the wood-pulp industry was contemplated, but carbide, although produced in increasing quantities, was not considered as a

possible raw material owing to its greater importance as a source of

cannot be used with maximum efficiency by itself in engines the fertilizer cyanamide. An alcohol monopoly law was passed in such as are fitted to modern motors because it requires a higher “July 1918. With cheap water-power Switzerland has considerable degree of compression than petrol engines are usually designed

to stand, and also because, unless special arrangements are made, a motor cngine will not start readily from the cold with alcohol alone. For these reasons alcohol has not been used to any extent in petrol motors. Mixing with benzol and/or petrol, or with ether in varying proportions, enables it, however, to be

employed successfully in them, until such time as engines specially designed for its use are available. Jn the event of its

capacity for producing carbide and alcoho! from it, but even in that country the ultimate cost of alcohol mace in this way was so high that its production after the war had not paid.

In Sweden, where

wood pulp is made in enormous quantitics, the manufacture of alcohol from the waste sulphite lyes is carried on, and it was estimated

that in 1920 the probable capacity was in the neighbourhood of

8,000,000 gal.; the actual production, however, amounted to about 2,750,000 gal. only. Norway also produces sulphite lyes and alcoho} from them ona smaller scale

here are several distilleries in the United States devoted to the

production being a commercial possibility it should, therefore, form a valuable addition to the liquid-fuel resources of the world (see FuEt).

production of industrial alcohol, with an estimated capacity of about 90,000,000 gal. ; in 1919 about 100,000,000 pal. were made, representing, however, only about 23 % of the estimated United States liquidfucl requirements for 1920. Some attention is also being given to the

In the appended table are given some comparative figures in connexion with commercial petrols and alcohol, taken from H. R. Ricardo's paper on ‘‘ The Inftuence of Various Fuels on the Performance of Internal-Combustion Engines,” published in 1921.

and the Philippines; and in Cuba, from the molasses produced as a by-product in the sugar refineries, (F, L.

i Alcohol and Petrol as Fuel.

J

{8 of]

>m | HSE] of 4 Petrols

à

;

god 28 on ERG]

BER Bes

IBS da Sade |

i

Hota

3ga]

OES

ees.

goa. | Bagh | EEES] jor sa|

Ug

(8.383 Ec ioa

TA AD FURS H=3. | 692") se EG Segl

from | 0-704

to

$

Osul CZES Še eee ya

4 : to

A

Alcohol

4 S|] gisal : A

bwy

or

EEREN

18,580 | o-414 | 36

0782 | 142 | 19,250]

l

95 Vo. %_ f o8rs 11,130 | 0-708 Alcohol is produced by fermentation from vegetable substances containing starch or sugar, from fermentable sugars produced by

from calcium

carbide and from the cthylene contained in coal and coke-oven gases. These vegetable substances may be divided into foodstuffs and nonfoodstuffs. If foodstuffs are to be employed it must be possible to grow them in excess of food requirements, and at a cost low enough to ensure that the price of the alcohol shall be about the same as that

jee

ee

i The lower calorific value plus the latent heat of evaporation at constant volume. .

Porto

Rico

ALDEN HENRY MILLS (1836-1919), American editor, descendant of John Alden, was born at Mt. Tabor, Vt., Nov. rr 1836. After graduating from Williams College (1857), under the

régime of Mark lopkins, he completed the course at the Andover Theological Seminary (1860); but he never took orders. He first contributed to the Adautic Monthly two essays on “The Eleusinia” (1859-60), and then apaper on “ Pericles and President Lincoln” (1863). These fruits of his classical studies show

o425 | 3

the hydrolysis of cellulosic bodies, and synthetically

manufacture of alcohol for power purposes in Hawai,

the influence

of De

Quincey,

who

was

the

subject

of another essay in the Atlantic (1863). He delivered twelve lectures before the Lowell Institute in Boston, 1863-4, on

“ The Structure of Paganism?

He was managing editor of Har-

per’s Weekly from 1863 to 1869, and then became editor of Harpers Magazine, which position he held until his death in New York, Oct. 6 19109, He was author of Ged in His World (1890); A Study of Death (1895) and Magazine Writing and the New Literature (1908).

ALDRICH, NELSON WILMARTH (x841-1915), American politician (sce 1.536), died in New York April 16 rọrs. While

chairman of the National

Monetary

Commission, he pro-

ALEXANDER—ALEXEYEV, posed, in roxz, far-reaching changes in the banking laws of the United States with a view to the creation of central reserves, a system afierwards adopied in the Federal Reserve banks. He retired from the U.S. Senate in ro11, after 30 years’ service. ALEXANDER, King of the Hellenes (1893-1920), second son of King Constantine and Queen Sophia, was born Aug. 1 1893, and ascended the throne of Greecc, June 12 1917, on the dcthronement of his father by the Anglo-French forces during the

World War (see CONSTANTINE). He, not unnaturally, looked upon his position at first as a mere temporary arrangement. The Government itself was meanwhile in the responsible hands of Venizelos, who had the confidence of the Allies. But the defeat of Germany, and Venizelos’s diplomatic triumphs at the Peace Conference, seemed to breathe a new spirit into the young King.

MIKAIL

expressing his conviction that in the final victory

111 “ our Yugo-

Slav people, united in a single statc, will also have their part.” During the rest of the war he remained at Serbian headquarters,

and shared his army’s victorious advance in Oct. 1918. On Dec. 1 delegates of the Yugo-Slav National Council in Zagreb formally recognized him as regent in all the Yugo-Slav provinces of the former dual monarchy, and he assumed the title of “ PrinceRegent of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.” The attempt made upon his life on June 28 1921, after he had taken oath to the new Yugo-Slav constitution, was the outcome not of any personal unpopularity, but of the subversive aims of the Communists and other revolutionary groups, who hoped to create confusion in the new State, owing to the lack of a direct heir to the throne. On Aug. 16 1921 Prince Alexander succeeded his father as King

From the day of his triumphal entry into Adrianople, he evidently took a more active personal interest in the prospect of being

of Yugoslavia. ALEXANDER, BOYD (1873-1910), British soldier and explorer,

the ruler of Greater Greece. This change in his attitude was indeed so marked that kis royal parents in exile in Switzefland were said to be greatly disconcerted; but it gave him an entirely

was born at Cranbrook, Kent, Jan. 16 1873. He was educated at Radley, and afterwards entered the army, joining the Rifle Brigade in 1893. In 1897 he led a scientific expedition to the Cape Verde Is., and in 1898 went on his first African journey to the Zambezi and Kafuk rivers. He was appointed to the Gold Coast constabulary in 1900, and took part in the relief of Kumasi. In roo4 he led a scientific expedition to Fernando Po, where he ascended Mt. St. Isabel and discovered various new species of birds. The same year saw the commencement of his most important work—the Alexander-Gosling expedition across

new popularity among the people. His sudden death on Oct. 27 1920, by blood-poisoning from the bite of a pet monkey, put a sudden end to all such expectations, and it seriously disarranged Venizelos’s plans. King Alexander was buricd amid widespread demonstrations of popular grief; buta fortnight later, in the gencral election, the Venizelist party was defeated. It is practically certain that, could this election have been postponed for a few months and a suitable successor to the throne found, King Constantine would never have been able to return, as he did, to Greece. But postponement was impossible after Venizelos’s

pledges to the Greek people; and, in the absence of any other serious candidate for the Greck throne, the old sympathies for

Constantine won the day. In Nov. 1919 King Alexander had insisted, against the advice of Venizelos, on making a morganatic marriage with a beautiful young Athenian lady, Aspasia Mano; and after his death a daughter was born to her in Paris on March 25 1921. ALEXANDER I, King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1888_), was born at Cettinje on Dec. 4 1888, the second son of Prince Peter Karagjorgjevié (later King of Serbia), and of Zorka, third daughter of Prince Nicholas of Montenegro. His mother died in 1890, and during his early years he of course shared the cxile of his father, who lived at Geneva. In 1899 he was sent to be educated at St. Petersburg, and in 1904 entered the corps des pages at the Tsar’s court. It was not till 1909 (nearly six years after his father’s election to the Serbian throne, in succession to the murdered King Alexander Obrenović) that the young prince came to reside permanently in Serbia. Soon after

his return his elder brother, Prince George, was obliged to renounce the succession (March 1909), owing to his unbalanced temperament and various incidents that occurred during the Bosnian crisis; and Alexander was thereupon formally recognized as crown prince. On the outbreak of the Balkan War he assumed nominal command of the First Army, and won his spurs at the battle of Kumanovo, subsequently serving with distinction throughout the campaigns against Turkey and Bulgaria. On June 24 1914 King Peter, whose health had completely broken down, appointed him as prince regent, and he thus held the position of commander-in-chicf when the World War broke out. He remained permanently at army headquarters, and shared with his soldiers all the privations of the retreat through Albania. On reaching the coast he fell i] and underwent a serious operation, but when already convalescent resolutely declined the proffered assistance of an Italian destroyer which had been sent te convey him across the Adriatic; he remained till all the refugees had been transported into safety, and eventually found his way on foot to Durazzo. After the exiled Serbian Government had established itself at Corfu, Prince Alexander and Mr. Pašić paid visits to Paris and London, where the Prince was received with warm ovations.

On April 5 1916, in receiving an important

deputation of British sympathizers (led by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Mayor, Lord Milner and Sir E. Carson),

he publicly identified the dynasty with the cause of unity,

Africa from the Niger to the Nile, which occupicd three years.

During this period he surveyed the shores of Lake Chad and explored a considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England by way of the rivers Ubangi, Shari and Nile. For his various discoveries he received gold medals from the Royal Geographical Societies of London and Antwerp, besides honours from other learned societies. He returned to Africa in 1908, and

was killed by natives

at Nyeri, in Wadai, April 2 1910,

Alexander published From the Niger to the Nile (1907), besides many articles and papers in scientific and geographical periodicals. See Herbert Alexander, Boyd Alexander's Last Journey, with a memoir (1912).

ALEXANDER, SIR GEORGE (1858-1918), English actor (sce 1.564), died at Chorleywood, Herts., March 16 1918. He was knighted in rorr. Among his later productions at the St. James’s theatre were R. 5. Hichens’s and J. B. Fagan’s Bella

Donna; Pincro’s The Big Drum and Louis N. Parker’s

The

Aristocrat; in this he made his last appearance together with the veteran actress Geneviéve Ward. ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856-19015), American painter (see 1.564), died in New York June rio1s. He received a first-class medal from the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, in rorz, and a medial of honour at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in rors. He had been president of the National Academy of Design since 1909. ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824-1911), Protestant Archbishop of Armagh and primate of All Ireland (sce 1.565), who resigned. his see Jan. 30 rgrt, and was created G.C.V.O., died at Torquay Sept. 12 rorr,

ALEXEYEV, MIKAIL (1857-1918), Russian general, was born

in 1857, and entered the army in 1876. He completed his studies

at the General Staff College in 1890, and joined the Russian General Staff. In 1904 he becamea general. He took part in the

war with Turkey in 1877-8. During the Russo-Japanese War he was the director of the operations on the staff of the II. Army. After further staff service he became in 1912 commander of the XIII. Army Corps. At the outbreak of the World War he was nominated chief of the staff of the south-western front. The first operations were skilfully carried on by him, and the great Russian victory in Galicia in 1914 was his work. In March 1915 he was called to command the group of armies of the northwestern front. A stupendous task awaited him here; eight armics were confided to him, but these masses were destitute of all means of combat. The events in Galicia in April 1915 had their repercussion further north, where the position became desperate, and the army seemcd lost. But by the end of Aug. the armies

ALGERIA—ALLBUTT, SIR T. C.

I12

were saved, thanks to the energy and ability of their commander. In Aug. 1915 he was nominated chief of the headquarters of the supreme command, and worked there with the Emperor, who had just assumed the supreme command. He served in this capacity during the successful campaign of 1916, until in Nov. a breakdown of health compelled him to give up his office, After the revolution of March 1917 he became commander-inchief, but in May 1917 he was dismissed. Recalled by Kerensky in Sept. he remained at headquarters only 12 days in order to exercise a steadying influence during the conflict between Kornilov and Kerensky, and then left, being unable to work with men who he considered had brought misfortune and shame on his

country.

At the commencement of the Bolshevik régime he

went to the south of Russia, where he soon became the Icader

‘of the “ Volunteer Army,” and took the field against the Bolsheviks. He died of heart disease Oct. 10 1918. ALGERIA (see 1.642).—The figures of the 1911 census showed a total pop. for Algeria of 5,492,560, of whom 752,043 were Europeans, Of these 558,572 were French, 134,746 Spaniards, concentrated specially in the department of Oran, and 36,661 Ttalians, in the region of Constantine. : The administration of the country was still in 1921 in the hands of a governor-general residing at Algiers, as supreme head of all the civil services, with the exception of the non-Mussul-

man services of justice, worship, public instruction, treasury and customs, which remained atlached to the French ministerial department. The governor-gencral has to assist him a general secretary and a Government council. Since 1900 Algeria has enjoyed a large measure of budgetary autonomy. The governorgencral submits a special budget to the vote of Algerian representative assemblies, or the financial delegations which were

created in 1898. The delegations are divided into three sections, one of which represents colonists, another non-colonising taxpayers, and the third native Mussulmans. The budget, when voted by the financial delegations, is submitted to the French

Parliament. The estimates for 1922, comprising both ordinary and extraordinary revenue and c¢xpenditure, amounted to 595,000,000 francs. The northern portion of the territory is administered under two systems, one civil and the other military. In the civil zone the administration is that in force in France. This zone is divided into three departments, Oran, Algiers, and Constantine, with prefects, general councils and sub-prefects as in France.

Each department elects two deputies and one senator

to the French Parliament, only French citizens having the right to vote. The military zone is divided into three administrative regions, under the control, subject to the governor-general, of generals of division. These regions are cut up again into sectors administered by officers of the Department for Native Affairs. In accordance with the composition of the population, three methods of local administration are employed. In the “ full” communes there are municipal councils, elected by the towns-

people; in the “ mixed”? communes public services are run by an administrator, assisted by a non-elected municipal council; the “ native’ communes are ruled by kaids with the assistance of native advisers, who are appointed by the governor-general. The colonization of Algeria was rendered difficult by the presence of a native population which alrcady had its own civilization, and was nomad and warlike in its Instincts. A start

was made in the region of the Tell, and then the mountains and high plateau-lands were taken in hand.

There has been a spon-

tancous flow of Italian and Spanish immigration, and a system of land grants and other concessions have attracted large numbers of immigrants from the south of France who have settled down well in the country.

Between 1904 and 1914, 206,000

hectares of land had been settled, of which 91,200 were free grants. Agriculture has made great strides in spite of the difficulty of irrigation. By a judicious system of barrages and canals, the torrential rains have been harnessed up and spread over the land. Much has been done also to fight the locust, and to carry out a methodical

policy of manuring. The results obtained have been brilliant. In the Tell wheat and wine are grown on a large scale, and indeed

Algerian wine has become a serious competitor with French wine. In 1920 Algiers exported 2,729,551 hectolitres of wine, of which 2,418,726 went to France. The crop of cereals, which fluctuates very much in consequence of the variable rainfall, gave in 1914, 18} million metric quintals; in 1915, 20 million; in 1916, 18 million; in 1917, 15 million; 1918, 30 million. Olive plantations produce about 300,000 hectolitres of oil a year. Vegetables, fruit, medicinal plants and cork are the other chief agricultural products of the Tell. Cotton is grown in the Oran and in Algiers, and great efforts have been made to increase the output of tobacco, of which over 24,000 tons were produted in 1918. On the tablelands the chief produce is alfa, which covers great areas. It is exported in very large quantities to Great Britain, where it is used in the manufacture of good quality paper, The alfa exports in 1916 were 811,997 quintals; in 1918, 118,900 quintals; and in 1920, 539,821 quintals, of the value of 124 million francs. Sheep form the chief stock of the country. Forests cover well over two million hectares, the Woods and Forests service

alone having that area under its control, Cork trees cover over 400,000 hectares. Mines —tThe country is rich in minerals, which, however, have not been thoroughly exploited. The chief mincral resource is iron, the exports of which in 1920 amounted to 1,114,438 tons, valued at 33,879,000 francs. There are large phosphate deposits in.the Constantine province, which exported 334,704 tons in 1920 to a value of 183% million franes. There are also copper, zinc, lead, and antimony mines. Coal deposits were discovered during the war, and the work of British and American prospectors in the Oran indicates the possibility of existence of oil fields of some size. In 1900, Algeria possessed only 1,771 m. of railway; that figure had by 1921 been brought to 2,228, and many new lines were being considered. The three chief ports handled the following trathe in 1920; Algiers, 6,264,735 tons; Oran, 3,975,762 tons; Bona, 1,106,362 tons, A great deal of work has been done in improving the road system of the country, and motor-ways have been built trom Tuggurt to Timbuktu, An aerial postal service has also been organized. Commierce.—The general trade in 1920 amounted to 4,342,000,000 frances, and special trade, that is to say, trade arising exclusively from the requirements and produce of the colony, amounted to 3,977,000,000 frances, of which 2,535,000,000 were imports, and 1,442,-

000,000 exports. Of this trade, France took respectively 1,991,862 francs, and 1,096,472 frances. These figures show a very large increase, the general trade in 1918 amounting only to 1,529,000,000 francs, and in 1919 to 2,287,900,000 francs. ih 1913, the last normal year before the war, the figure was 1,292,000,000, of which 729,000,-

ooo were imports, and 563,000,000 were exports.

In judging of

ee figures, the drop in the value of money has to be borne in mind. Native rights —The valuable help given by the native population of Algiers to France during the World War led, as it did in other

parts of the French colonial empire, to a wider recognition of the political rights of the native.

A law was passed, Feb. 4 1919, con-

ferring French citizenship on any native of Algeria who had either

served in the French army or navy, was ‘a land-owner, farmer, or licensed trader, knew how to read and write French, or was the

possessor of a French decoration.

Native Mussulmans who did

not receive French citizenship, are represented in all the deliberative

assemblies by elected members who sit with the same rights as those enjoyed by the French members of such assemblies. With some exceptions they are admitted to public service on the same footing as French citizens. In the beginning of 1919 the special Arab taxes, which were supported by the native population alone, were done away with, and their place was taken by income and property

taxes. It was proposed to form an Algerian consulting committee in Paris, in which natives would sit. l *

ALLBUTT,

SIR THOMAS

CLIFFORD

(1836-7.

), English

physician, was born at Dewsbury, Yorks., July 20 1836. He was educated at St, Peters, York, and Caius College, Cam-

bridge, where he took a first class in the natural science tripos in 1860. He studied medicine at St. George’s Hospital and afterwards in Paris, subsequently practising in London and Leeds. He carricd out many researches on the pathology of the nervous

system, and made important studies of tetanus and hydrophobia, He also devoted much time to the study of ophthalmoscopy, and was the inventor of the short clinical thermometer. He was consulting physician to many institutions, and from 188g to 1892 was a commissioner in lunacy. In 1892 he became Regius professor of physic at Cambridge, and in 1907 was created K.C.B. Sir Clifford Allbutt was a member of many Government committees, including the Home Office inquiry into trade diseases, and during the World War he was an hon. coloncl in the R.A.M.C. His published works include The Ophthalmoscope in Medicine (1871); On Scrofula (1885); Diseases of the Heart (Lane lectures, 1896); Ilistorical Relations of Medicine and Surgery (1905); Greek Medicine in Rome (Fitzpatrick lectures, 1909-10); Diseases of the Arteries and Angina Pectoris (1915) and Science in the School

ALLEN, SIR J.—ALLENBY, EDMUND H. H. (1917). He also edited Systems of Medicine and Gynaecology (1896,

1899, 1907). ALLEN, SIR JAMES (18ss-

daughters.

113

His younger son, John Hugh Alien, was killed in

action at Gallipoli.

), New Zealand statesman,

was born in South Australia Feb. ro 1855, and went to New Zealand about 1858. He was educated at Clifton College and St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he held a natural science exhibition. At Cambridge he played in the Univer-

sity Rugby football fifteen and took his M.A. degree; and he afterwards studied at the Royal School of Mines and won the Bessemer and de la Beche medal.

In 1887 he made a re-

markable entry into politics by winning the Dunedin East seat from Sir Robert Stout, then Premier and Liberal leader, by 19 votes. Losing this seat at the general election of 1890, he represented Bruce from 1897 1ill his resignation in 1920. He has always taken a special interest in educational, military and imperial questions; was a member of the Otago University council and served a term as chancellor; and from 1908-12 was a member of the New Zealand University senate.

Ile was for

many years an enthusiastic volunteer, and was promoted Leutenant-colonel in 1902. During the 21 years of Mr. Allen’s service in opposition he showed himsclf a keen critic of the Liberal administration, especially on financial matters. On defence questions he always spoke with authority and without party bias. The movement for compulsory military training, which came to a head in 1900, had his hearty support, and it is certain that the extension of the Territorial age-limit from the 22nd to the 2sth year, which Lord Kitchencr recommended, could not have been carried by the Ward government in roro without the help that Mr. Allen gave to it. When the Reform party came into power in 1912 Mr,

ALLENBY,

EDMUND

HENRY

HYNDMAN

ALLENBY,

ist

Visct. (1861- . ), British field marshal, son of Hyndman Allenby, was born April 23 1861, and joined the Inniskilling Dragoons in 1882. His first few years in the army were spent in South Africa, where he took part in the Bechuanaland ex~pedition. of 1884-5 and in the Zululand operations of 1888. After returning to England with his regiment he passed through the Staff College and in 1896 he married Adelaide Mabel Chapman. He went out to South Africa again as a squadron leader in 1899 and took part in the important cavalry operations by which

Kimberley was relieved, in the battle of Paardeberg, and in Lord Roberts’s advance to Pretoria and into the eastern Transvaal,

During the later phases of the South African War he made a great name for himself as a column commander, and he was for

his services promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel and colonef and given the C.B. He then commanded the 5th Lancers from 1902-5 and for the next four years he was at the head of a cavalry brigade, being promoted major-general in r909. He became inspector of cavalry in r9ro and, as holding that position, went out to France with the Expeditionary Force in 1914 in charge of the cavalry division. The work of his mounted troops during the retreat from Mons,

the subsequent advance to the Aisne, and the first battle of Ypres won great praise, and on a second cavalry division .armving

Allenby was appointed commander of the newly constituted Cavalry Corps. He was about the same time given the K.C.B. In June 1915 he was transferred from this to the command of the

sth Army Corps; but he held that position for only a short time Allen became Mr. Massey’s right-hand man, He held the three -as, in the following Oct. on Gen. Monro’s proceeding to the

onerous portfolios of Defence, Finance, and Education m the Near East, he succeeded that general as chief of the 3rd Army first Massey administration (1912-15). His prudence and which he led for nearly two years. His army was not called upon caution inspired confidence in his budgets, and both in military to undertake operations on any large scale during 1916, but it and in naval defence he gave the country a strong lead. His shared to some extent in the later stages of the battle of the proposal in 1913 to organize an Expeditionary Force of 8,000 Somme, In 1917, on the other hand, it was very heavily engaged men for oversea service was severely criticized, but its value in the Arras region during the spring months and won much was duly appreciated in the following year. Regarding naval valuable ground. Allenby had been promoted licutenant-general defence he insisted strongly on the inadequacy of a mere cash in 1916, and in June 1917 he was selected for the command of the payment to the Admiralty to discharge the obligations of a troops in Egypt and Palestine, where elaborate preparations had self-respecting state, and with Mr. Massey he laid, in the Naval .been made for an offensive campaign; he was at the same time Defence Act, 1913, the foundations of a policy of self-reliance, promoted general, The season was unsuitable for active operations on the horders with the proviso that the Dominion’s naval forces should automatically pass into the control of the Admiralty in time of war. of the Holy Land for the first three months after his arrival in As a member of the National Government which was formed Egypt, but these were spent in perfecting preparations for an

as a result of the Massey-Ward war coalition Sir James Allen

retained the portfolio of Defence, and he held it throughout the life of that Government (1915-9) and until his retirement from the succeeding Massey government in March 1920. It is impossible to exaggerate the value of his services in that capacity. He faced all the problems of organizing a young and untried democracy for the World War, first under a voluntary and then under a compulsory system, with a resolution that never faltered, and he saw it through. During the first year or two of the war the Defence Minister was probably the most unpopular man in the Dominion, but there was afterwards a strong reaction in his

favour, and towards its close the sterling value of his services was universally recognized. There was certainly no other man to whom the Dominion was more deeply indebted for the excellence of its war record.

advance, which began at the end of Oct. with the capture of Beersheba and the taking of Gaza a few days after. These successes were followed up relentlessly. Jaffa fell Nov. x7, the Turks were driven with Joss out of every position that

they tried to take up, and, after vain efforts on their part to bar the way to Jerusalem, that city was surrendered Dec. 9. Allenby, who had been given the G.C.M.G. for these achievements, materially improved his position during the next four months, but he was then obliged by events in France to despatch some of his troops to the western theatre of war.

During the summer of 1918 fresh forces from India and Mesopotamia took the place of the troops sent away, and in Sept. the British commander struck with crushing effect. By a sudden advance in great force the Turkish front was broken, the plain of Esdraeclon was flooded with mounted men,

During the long absences of Mr, Massey and Sir Joseph Ward the infantry moved irresistibly forward and, as the result of a on the business of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1916, 1917 and masterly combination of war, the enemy suffered an over1918 and_of the Peace Conference in 1919 Sir James Allen had the whelming defeat. All arrangements had been made in advance responsibilities of Acting-Prime Minister as well as those of for instantly following up the anticipated victory; within a very Defence. He retired from politics in 1920 in order to succeed Sir few weeks Damascus and Beirut had been occupied, troops had Thomas Mackenzie as the Dominion’s High Commissioner in been thrust right up to Aleppo, and not only Palestine but also London on July 31. Few statesmen who have so persistently all Syria wete in the hands of the Allies. Allenby’s brilliant violated the politician’s rule of putting all the best goods in the services were recognized by his being given the G.C.B., and, on front window have been privileged to retain the confidence the general distribution of honours for the war in 1919, he was of a democracy so Jong and to render it such admirable service. promoted field marshal and was raised to the peerage as Viscount He was made a K.C.B. in 1917. He married Mary Hill Richards Allenby of Megiddo and Felixstowe; he was at the same time of Somerset, England, in 1877 and has two sons and three awarded a grant of £50,000.

114

ALLENSTEIN-MARIENWERDER—ALSACE-LORRAINE

While engaged in his campaigns of conquest beyond the Egyptian borders Allenby had also been responsible for maintaining order in the Nile delta and for its protection against attack from without, matters that had at times given grounds

for anxiety as there was much unrest due to the abnormal situation that existed.

In rọrọ he was definitely appointed

British High Commissioner in Egypt. ALLENSTEIN-MARIENWERDER,

a region composed

of dis-

tricts of the former Prussian provinces of East and West Prussia, in which a plebiscite was taken, under the Treaty of Versailles, on June 11 1920. Art. 94-98 of the Treaty of Versailles provided that the East Prussian Circles (Kreise) of Allenstein, Osterode, Ortelsburg, Sensburg, Johannisburg, Létzen, Lyck and Neidenburg, in so far as they had not already been ceded to Poland, and further the West Prussian Circles of Marienwerder (east of the Vistula), Stuhm, Rosenberg and the section of the Circle Marienburg situated east of the Nogat, should declare by a plebiscite whether they desired to belong to Germany or Poland. Until the plebiscite should take place the administration of these Circles was taken over by interallied commissions for East and West Prussia respectively. The commissions were comsed of representatives of England, France, Italy and_Japan. Treo s for occupying the districts were provided by France, England

and

Italy. Two German commissions conducted

the negotiations

with the interallied commissions. The whole territory has an extent of about 15,000 sq. km., and a pop. of about 855,000, of which 695,000 belong to the East Prussian

plebiscitary area and 160,000 to the West Prussian. Racially the population in the East Prussian region numbers 428,000 Germans, 5,000 Poles and 172,000 Masurians, who are Slavs but of the

rotestant faith, In the West Prussian region the Circle Stuhm has 21,000 inhabitants who speak German and 15,000 who speak Polish: the Circle Marienburg has 26,500 German-speaking and 1,500 Polish-speaking; Rosenberg 47,000 German-speaking and 3,500 Polish-speaking; Marienwerder 17,500 German-speaking and 25,000

Polish-speaking inhabitants. The date of the plebiscite was fixed originally for June 11 1920. Long before that date a vigorous agitation was opened by both sides. There were repeated actual encounters in different places, mostly excited by Polish bands, the so-called Bajowkas, re-

neutral country, though scrupulously preserving a neutral attitude, rendered great services to the Allies by his intervention on behalf of prisoners of war and his efforts to ascertain the fate

of men reported “missing.”

(See further Spain.)

ALSACE-LORRAINE (sce 1.756).—As the result of the World War there is no longer any “ Alsace-Lorraine.” The erstwhile Reichsland, conceived by Bismarck in 1871, ceased to exist in Nov.

1918.

As before 1870, there are now again the French

departments of the Bas-Rhin (Strasbourg), the Haut-Rhin (Colmar) and the Moselle (Metz). The return of the former Alsace-Lorraine to the French mother-country took place amidst the indescribable pleasure of the restored populations.

In ro2t the three departments were passing through a transition period. The Germans did not occupy the country for nearly half a century without trying to leave their mark on it, without introducing their administrative methods and laws,

which sometimes differ completely from those of French administration and legislation. The Government in Paris came to the conclusion that to transplant the reconquered provinces in

a day from German to French ways would be to risk confusions

and upsets which it would be preferable to avoid; it was thought that there was a considerable work in legislative assimilation, adaptation and adjustment, to accomplish. It was for this

reason that after the Armistice a High Commission of the Republic was established at Strasbourg, comprising many departments and many different services. The General Commission of the Republicis directly attached to the prime minister’s office, the affairs of the three departments being centralized in the hands of the under-secretary of the presidency. The first High Commissioner, M. Georges Maringer, was replaced in April 1919 by M. Alexandre Millerand, who went

to Strasbourg with extended powers, and the title of General Commissioner,

Called in Jan. 1920 to the premiership

of

France, M. Millerand had as successor M. Gabriel Alapetite,

former resident-general for France at Tunis, and ambassador

at Madrid. Administration—The general lines upon which French legislation was to be introduced were fixed by the law of Oct. Prussia or in East. In both regions leagues which agitated for 17 1919, concerning the transitional administration of the rePoland were from the native Polish and Masurian elements of the covered provinces. This law settles the transitional methods to population, but in the course of the plebiscitary campaign be applied to administrative, electoral and financial organizathey went over to the Germans. The plebiscite, ultimately held tion. On the other hand, constitutional laws are not dealt with, | because thcy are ipso facto applicable by the reintegration of on July 11, resulted in an astonishing German victory. In the East Prussian region 98%. of the population voted for Alsace and Lorraine with France. The law of Oct. 17 rọrọ maintains in force the legislative Germany, in the West Prussian 92 %. e result was celebrated by joyous festivities in all the East and West Prussian polling centres. arrangements and local regulations (German law or special oth the districts were assigned to Germany on the basis of the vote; Alsace-Lorraine law) until the introduction of French laws cruited from Congress Poland, and the territory of Posnania which has been ceded under the Treaty. The Polish agitation, however, did not produce any marked results either in West

but, in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, a zone

om. broad and some 30 m., long on the east bank of the Vistula near

arienwerder and four villages with the harbour of Kurzebrack on

the same river were assigned

to Poland in order to secure for the

Polish State, at this point, the sovereignty over the course of the

Vistula accorded to it by the Treaty. cent East Prussian territory

The inhabitants of the adja-

are at all times to have access for them-

selves and their boats to the Vistula.

Three frontier communes

the south-west of East Prussia were also assigned to Poland.

in

On

Aug. 16 both the interallied commissions left the plebiscitary areas, which were thus once more subjected to German administration.

The agitation in favour of Germany had been to a considerable ex-

tent conducted by the so-called Me¢matsdienst, a patriotic German society which had spread its organization over the whole of the plebiscitary areas. (C. K.*)

ALMA-TADEMA,

SIR LAURENCE

(Laurens)

(1836-1912),

shall have been effected. The authority of the miltary gov-

ernors of Strasbourg and Metz is subordinated to the civil power. Article 4 of this law lays down in principle that it is for Parliament to decide what temporary measures shall be introduced pending the definitive introduction of French legislation,

The same law establishes that the French fiscal’system shall

gradually be substituted for that of Germany.

system is that of France,

The electoral The former Alsace-Lorraine has

kept certain laws passed during German the laws affecting social insurance.

rule; for instance,

In religious matters, the

Republican Government has respected the status quo~that is to say, the Concordat is maintained, also the denominational schools.

It is abundantly apparent that the Government is keeping 1.712), died at Wiesbaden June 25 1912. of his later works was “ Caracalla and the solemn promise made during the war by French statesmen exhibition of his works was held in London » and generals to the effect that the customs and beliefs of the people would be respected. The mission of the Commissioner(1886), King of Spain (see 1.736). General is extremely delicate. He has departmental responOn returning from a military review April 13 1913, an at- sibility in these three departments unknown in others. He has tempt against the King’s life was made by an anarchist, who to determine how, in what length of time, and with what preshot at him but only succeeded in wounding the horse. The cautions French Jaws can be successively applied there. In children born to the King are: Alphonso, Prince of the Asturias, submitting legislation, he has to inform Parliament as to the May 10 1907; Jaime, June 23 1908; Beatriz, June 22 1909; gravity of the disturbance which changes must make in settled Maria Cristina, Dec. 12 1911; Juan, June zo 1913; Gonzalo, habits and customs, and as to the difficulties accompanying Oct. 24 1914. During the World War. the King, as ruler of a the return to French rule. British painter (see The most important Geta ” (1907). An 1913. ALPHONSO XIII.

ALSACE-LORRAINE A consultative council has been provisionally instituted in connexion with the High Commission of the Republic.

It com-

prises 35 members, of whom 3 are senators, 6 deputics, 21 local

councillors, and 5 named by the decision of the prime minister. This body deliberates and pronounces upon all questions which fall outside the limits of any one public department, and are submitted to it by the Commissioner-General. It is compul-

sorily consulted on the budget of revenue and expenditure in Alsace-Lorraine and on all proposed modifications of the fiscal system in force; as also on all administrative or economic bills and regulations affecting the combined populations of the three departments. The consultative council is convoked by the Commissioner-Gencral at least four times a year. Thus the Commissioner-General has at hand a body in which the representatives of the different populations can show forth the interests of these latter and, by expert advice, can facilitate the study and solution of questions common to the Haut-Rhin, the BasRhin, and the Moselle. But this body is purcly consultative.

The Government of the Republic keeps its power of initiative and its responsibilities; Parliament remains the sovereign power.

Population.—The

recovered departments are administered

like the other French departments. The department of the Bas-Rhin (préfecture Strasbourg) includes 8 arrondissements: Strasbourg-Ville; Strasbourg-Campagne; Erstein; Haguenau; Molsheim; Sélestat; Wissembourg; Saverne. Its superficial area is 4786-37 square kilomctres. There are 561 communes. The pop. numbers 608,116. The department of the Haut-Rhin (bréfecture Colmar) includes 6 arrondissements: Altkirch; Colmar; Guebwiller; Mulhoube; Ribeauvillé; Thann. Area 3,5077 sq. km.; 386 communes; pop. 430,9388. The department of the Moselle (préfecture Metz) includes 9 arrondissements: MoselleVile; Moselle-Campagne; Boulay; Château-Salins; Forbach;

Sarrebourg;

Sarreguemines;

Thionville-Ouest;

Thionville-Est,

Area 6,227-8 sq. km.; 758 communes; pop. 554,445. The combined population according to the census of March 6 1921 is,

therefore, 1,593,549, as against 1,874,014 at the time of the last German census in 1910.

The falling-of in the number of the population can be attributed in the first place to the war. Alsace and Lorraine had lost in dead and

missing about 45,000 men. Moreover, militarist Germany kept in the three departments no less than 82,276 soldiers. ‘The German and

Austro-Hungarian

subjects domiciled in Alsace and in Lorraine

before the war numbered 301,764. The number of German civilians who had left Alsace and Lorraine after the Armistice up to April I 1921 was 76,467. These departures were partly balanced by the fact that many French subjects from the home country settled in the recovered provinces.

Before the war there were in the imperial

territory 1,428,343

Catholics, 408,274 Protestants, 30,483 Jews. The percentage of illegitimate births was 7-52. In 1921 in Strasbourg there were 165,835 inhabitants; in Mulhouse 98,393; Sarreguemines 14,318; in

Thionville 13,410; in Guebwiller 11,520; in Forbach 10,475; in Sélestat 9,846; in Ste. Marie-aux-Mincs 9,395; and in Sarrebourg §,290,

~ Agriculture.—Agricultural

production

in

1920

amounted

to

160,755 tons of wheat, §7,351 tons of rye, 71,829 tons of barley, 126,487 tons of oats, 1,025,424 tons of potatoes, 44,174 tons of sugar-heet. Alsace pravided one-eighth of the whole world production of hops: the crop of 1920 amounted to-3,355 tons. ‘The wines of Alsace are nearly all white wines, of an exquisite flavour and bouquet, yielding nothing to the German wines of the Moselle and the Rhine. Rich in alcohol, they arc very suitable for export. The Moselle produces in particular vins gris and red wince. The vintage of 1920 reached 725,000 hectolitres as against 734,000 in 1919. The value of the 1920 vintage was 124,000,000 frs. The average tobacco crop is 4,000,000 kilograms.

Mineral Wealth.—While petroleum and potash are found in Alsace

the Moselle is rich in iron ore and coal. The oil lands stretch out to the E. of Woerth (Wérth) in the Bas-Rhin, where the Pechelbronn ficid is situated. Between 1913 and 1921 about 3,000 borings were made and over 500 pumps were installed in this field. The average output during 1918-9 was 49,225 tons. The total yiek? up to 1921 had been about 900,000 tons, and the available supplies were estimated at 5} million tons. Oil refineries with a treatment capacity of 73,060 tons a year have been built at Pechelbronn.

The State

acquired these deposits in 1921, and handed over their exploitation to a private company, mainly formed by local interests. The return of the department of the Upper Rhine to France deprives German industry of the monopoly of potash, Potash was

discovered in large quantities in 1904 in Alsace by the Alsatian

115

Vogt. The area concerned covers about 200 sq, km. of country and

is to the N. of Mulhouse. for 1920 1,222,609 tons, the last pre-war figures. million tons was expected

The output for 1919 was 512,000 tons and This represents an increase of 249% over An annual yield of between five and six before long.

_ By the liberation of Alsace-Lorraine France became the largest.

European producer of iron ore, with an annual yield of 42 million tons. There are 50 mines in Lorraine. Output reached its height in 1913 with 21,133,676 tons, a downward curve being shown by later

figures, which are as follows :— Year 19iq4. I9I5 s.

E

1916 I9I7 1918 1919

š . . .

A

. . .

Tons

ee ee ee ee ee y 5 -aa š

z

P

:

a! .i% i y i ‘

: .

: .

ee 2 .

ey, 40.754.55% 13,286,302

13,614,139 10.477.673 7,137,206

; .

After the Armistice there was a steady drop in output, due to post-war difficulties of all kinds: the year 1919 was for the whole field a period of reconstruction. Output between Jan. and Sept. 1920 amounted to six million tons. The mines employed 17,237 men in 1913 as compared with 9,523 in 1919. fn 1913 German labour was 60% of the total, In 1920 it was 322%. The output of coal also reached its maximum in 1913, the figures being:

Year

Tons

1913

a

-

.

z

.

T1914 1915

a :

ee ‘

GON Ş

tas, .

Oa Eo

1917 1918

; ;

i :

i ;

; :

: ;

IQl6

1919

1.

sk

le

ll

.

.

.

3:795,262

“3k

; .

. .

2,856,752 1,960,963

:

‘ ;

.

2,636,802 2,662,046

BS

lS

2,027,684 2,310,589

The fresh fall in 1919 was due to strikes and the reduction in

working hours. Seven-tenths of the coal is consumed by local industry. The Lorraine salt mines produced 28,822 tons in 1919 as compared with 59,091 tons in 1913.

Public

Instruction.—Strasbourg

University

was

opened

by

President Poincaré on Nov. 22 1grg. By the end of 1920 the six faculties and the Pharmaceutical School had 1,889 students, The lectures are given in French,

Secondary education is provided by the many lycées created throughout the country. French naturally is the chief language, but German has been allowed to have the place which is its due in view of the special situation of the provinces. The language question has been more difficult to solve in primary schools. Before 1870 France had neglected the importance of teaching French in the primary. schools of Alsace. Since 1920 the teaching hasbeen in French throughout the country. An exception ts however mace for religious teaching (4 hours a week) Which is given in German

in those districts where the Alsatian dialect is the mother-tongue of the inhabitants. The religious character of schools has been re-

spected, In view of the bilingual character of the country a large amount of time is given to the study of German in schools. The population is very well educated. Before the war there were only cight illiterates among the contingent of army recruits (97,694). indusiry.—After 1880. Alsace-Lorraine had been turned indus-

trially towards Germany.

In 1914 Alsace-Lorraine exported 1,576,-

000 tons of good’, 908,000 tons of which went to Germany. In 1909 eight out of ten and a half million tons of exports went to Germany, while nearly five-sixths of -Alsace-Lorraine imports came from Germany. The preponderant part of Germany is naturally explained by the fact that while trade was free with Germany it was impeded with France by the customs wall, It is not possible by a stroke of the pen to change the commercial orientation of a country nor to find at once new markets for its products. Therefore the

Treaty of Versailles laid down that for a period of five years nothing

should be changed from the customs point of view in the relations

between the recovered provinces and Germany. In Alsace the textile industry is by far the most important, especially in spinning, weaving and printing.

France, thanks to the

restoration of the province, finds her productive power increased by 26% in spinning and by 30% in weaving. Large quantitics of sewing and embroidery thread are also produced. In Lorraine iron and steel industries are at the head. There are 68 furnaces with an annual capacity of 3,800,000 tons of pig-iron.

The production fell from 3,460,000 tons in 1913 to 1,129,000 tons in 1919, The steel output in 1913 was 22,260,000 tons and in 1919 it had fallen to 871,000 tons. ‘This drop is te be attributed entirely to

coal and coke shortage.

There were 22,000 workmen employed by

the industry.

Communications.—The railway system is excellent and had been developed greatly by the Germans, mainly from a strategic point of

view.

The railways have preserved their autonomy and constitute

a special system attached to the Ministry of Public Works.

In 1920

the traffic amounted to 2,253,000,000 tons of goods. ‘The canal system is good, but the great waterway is naturally the

Rhine.

The port of Strasbourg with its modern equipment is the

116

ALTMAN,

chief French eastern port. It handled 1,324,177 tons of goods during

the first ten months of 1920. Generally, the liberated provinces are among the richest of France. Deposits in savings banks in 1919 amounted to 462,281,426

francs. The best figure during the German occupation was 289,084,450

metre were no foreign consuls in Strasbourg during the period of

Germany’s occupation. Since the Armistice Great Britain, the United States, Belgium, Poland, Holland and Spain have established consulates there.

History—There is no need, after the World War, in. considering the rights of France to Alsace-Lorraine, to refer to the treaty of 1648, or to cmbark upon any misty historical researches in the period before the Treaty of Verdun of 1843. Documents

and facts since the end of the F'ranco-German War of 1870 are sufficiently illuminating.

Bismarck, on May 2 1871-—that is

to say, cight days before the signature of the Treaty of Frankfurt, declared:—“ We could do nothing but take these territories with theit powerful fortresses within the framework of Germany, so as to make of them a glacis of Germany against France.”

On Nov. 30 1875, he again gave expression to this

idea of the glacis, saying to the Reichstag:—“ We have conquered these. territories in the interest of the empire, in the course of a good war, and a defensive war, in which we had to save our skins. It was not for Alsace-Lorraine that our warriors

shed their blood, but for the German Empire, its unity, and the safety of its numbers. We have annexed these provinces so that Wissemburg shall not be the jumping-off place of in the next attack which they are planning, and God delay as long as possible. We have annexed inces so as to have a glacis . . .” This brutal glacis-theory is also expressed in a

the French which may these provconfidential

autograph letter, written by the Emperor William I., on Oct, 25 1870, in which the writer says:—“ After having made immense sacrifices for her defence, Germany wants to be certain that the next war shall find her better prepared to beat back the attack which we will have to expect as soon as France has recuperated her strength, or found allies. It is this side consideration alone, and not the desire to aggrandize my country, which is big cnough, which forces me to insist upon territorial

cessions which have no other aim but to push back the startingpoint of the French armies which will attack us in future,” German writers and historians have declared that Germany fought in 1870 in order to regain the “old German land” of

Alsace-Lorraine, which desired to return to the Germanic fold. The truth is much more simple, and is to be found in the words of Bismarck and the letter of his sovereign, The people of Alsace-Lorraine were treated as pawns, because the new Ger-

man Empire wanted a glacis.

The inhabitants of the two

provinces protested through their elected representatives against the treatment to which they were subjected. On March

4

x 1871, the deputies of Alsace and Lorraine raised their voices against separation from France. In the solemn declaration made at the Assembly of Bordeaux they said:—‘‘ We have been handed over despite all justice and by odious abuse of force, to foreign domination, and we have one last duty to fulfil. Once again we declare that we consider as null and void a pact which disposes of us without our consent. The vindication of our rights shall forever be open to us in the form and measure dictated by our conscience. Your brothers of Alsace-Lorraine, now separated from the common family, will keep for France, banished from her hearths, filial affection until the day when France again returns to take her place.” On Feb. 1 1874 elec-

tions were held in the Reichsland, and protested against the annexation were they made a protest from the tribune which they said:—“ On behalf of the Lorraine we protest against the abuse

all the candidates who returned. On Feb. 18 of the Reichsland, in inhabitants of Alsaceof strength of which

our country is the victim. Although in distant and comparatively savage days the.right of conquest may have sometimes become an eficctive right; although to-day it may still be justified when it is a question of ignorant and savage peoples,

nothing of the sort can be justified with regard to Alsace-

Lorraine.

Germany has conquered us at the end of the nine-

BENJAMIN teenth century, a century of light and progress; and the people which she has reduced to slavery is one of those in Europe with a most highly cultivated feeling for right and justice, Our heart is irresistibly drawn towards our French fatherland, In electing us our constituents have above all wished to pro-

claim their sympathy with France.” France signed the Treaty of Frankfurt, and although she always refused to accept the justice of the annexation of AlsaceLorraine, she continued to honour her signature. The inhabitants of the two provinces, however, were bound by no signature, and their protest against their lot passed through three phases:

active

protest,

1871-87;

passive protest,

1887-1900;

legal

protest, 1900-14. France took no official part in these movements, and it may be said that the rights of France to Alsace

and Lorraine were kept alive by the inhabitants themselves,

Germany crushed. the country under a system of dictatorship until May 1902; and ìt was not until rorr that Alsace-Lorraine was given a constitution, which, moreover, failed to satisfy any political party. Outwardly the situation was accepted, the inexhaustible riches of the country, especially the underground wealth, had been exploited by the Germans; industry, making a bound forward, had brought prosperity; but the relations

between the inhabitants and their conquerors were governed by a purely utilitarian spirit which did not conceal the unbridgable gulf between them. In 1871 Alsace-Lorraine was considered as a glacis for the defence of Germany, and this same theory again found utter-

ance in a different form on Oct. 9 1917, when Baron von Kiihlmann, then Minister for Foreign Affairs, declared that Alsace-

Lorraine was the shield of Germany.

The feelings of the inhabitants towards France were abundantly clear at the moment of the Armistice of Nov. 1918, and during the entry of the French troops to the capitals. On Nov. 12 1918, the Parliament of Alsace-Lorraine, elected by universal suffrage in 1911, transformed itself into a national assembly, and on Dec. 5 1918 the deputies, meeting at Strasbourg, made the following declaration: The deputies of Alsace and Lorraine greet with joy the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France. The National Assembly, faithfully interpreting the constant and unalterable desire of the people of Alsace-Lorraine, already expressed by its representatives at the Assembly of Bordeaux in 1871, solemnly declares that it holds as inviolable and indefeasible the right of the people of Alsace-Lorraine to be

made members of the family of France.” The president of the Assembly, the Abbé Delsaur, when the full declaration had

been read, exclaimed “Le referendum est fait!”

Four days

later the President of the Republic, adapting M, Delsaur’s historic remark, closed his speech by saying “ Le Plébiscite est fait!” A year later, on Nov. 16 19109, the people of the restored provinces took part as Frenchmen in the general elections. These elections really constituted a plebiscite. Al the different political parties had included in their programmes a statement with regard to the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, The Socialist election declaration said:—‘‘ To-day in complete agreement with the whole population of Alsace-Lorraine,

the Socialist party firmly and without restrictions supports the return of the country to France. The people of AlsaceLorraine are, and intend to remain, French.” The Radical proclamation contained this phrase: ‘‘ We are French, France is one and indivisible, we are a part of France, we are flesh of her flesh.” The Catholic and Democratic parties, in their joint manifesto, stated: “ This electoral demonstration must be a resounding echo of that made by your fathers in 1871. To Europe and the world you must solemnly renew the expression of your firm and unshakable desire to be, and to remain,

French.” (P, B.) ALTMAN, BENJAMIN (1840-1913), American merchant and art collector, was born July 12 1840 in New York City, and

died there Oct. 7 1913. As a young man he became interested in early European paintings and in Oriental art. His collection of Chinese porcelains was among the finest and his

Oriental rugs were remarkable.

Of the works of Rembrandt,

ALVERSTONE—AMERICAN whom he admired above all other artists, he possessed probably the Jargest private collection ever assembled. Velazquez was well represented, as were Van Dyck, Cuyp, Ruysdacl, Vermeer, and

many others. These collections he bequeathed to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Shortly before his death he secured the incorporation of the Altman Foundation, established for the welfare of the employees of the department store of B. Altman & Co., of which he was the head, thus crowning a career long devoted to unobtrusive philanthropy. ALVERSTONE, RICHARD EVERARD WEBSTER, 1st BARON (1842-1915), Lord Chicf Justice of England (see 1.775), died at Cranleigh, Surrey, Dec. 15 rors.

AMADE, ALBERT

GÉRARD

LÉO D’ (1856-

gencral, was born at Toulouse Dec. 27 1856.

}, French

He was the son of

an officer and was educated at La Fléche prior to entering the army in 1876. From 1887, when he became French military attaché at Peking, his military experience was peculiarly varied, and included, besides his four years in China, service as military attaché with the British forces during the S. African War, three years as French military attaché in London, and finally, as a general officer, the command of the expeditionary force in the Moroccan campaign of 1907. On the outbreak of the World War, he was, in accordance with the prepared scheme of operations which assumed Italy as an opponent, placed in charge of the “ Army of the Alps.” This group, however, had only a momentary existence. It became clear that Italy would remain neutral. D’Amade’s troops were taken to reinforce other fronts and he himself was placed in charge of a group of forces formed in the region of Lille and Douai to resist as best it might the unexpectedly wide sweep of the German invasion. Weak numerically, composed wholly of territorial units of the oldest classes, improvised in point of organization and ill equipped, D’Amade’s “army” was in no condition to attempt a vigorous counteroffensive or even a fixed defensive, and after a certain amount of fighting in the Cambrai region it was withdrawn to the extreme left, between Amiens and Abbeville, Gen. Maunoury’s VI. Army taking its place. In the spring of 1915, when a French contingent was formed for service in the Levant, D’Amade was appointed to command it, and in this capacity led the French forces in the Dardanelles landing of April, and the trench warfare that followed. A gallant and knightly soldier, already experienced in the ways of his Allies, he was exceptionally well fitted to hold a command which, half subordinate, half independent, presented all possible opportunities of friction, and in

fact few if any inter-ALied operations of the World War were conducted with so little friction as this. In May, however, he was recalled to France. AMERICAN LITERATURE (sce 1.831).—After the year 1910 the American novel developed mainly in the realistic manner, and in a rather remarkable way, the year 1920 being especially notable for the appearance of novels of distinction. The romantic

revival in English and American fiction, which began in the last decade of the roth century, had exhausted itself before roro. It was succeeded by what might be called the “life” novel, where the entire history of the hero or heroine is given; even where this rather loose biographical method is not attempted, the realistic novels from 1910 to 1921 were marked by a fidelity to

fact and a sincerity of composition which indicated promise for the future development of the art. Mark Twain and O. Henry died in 1910; Henry James in 1916; W. D. Howells in 1920. During recent years no one, either in the novel or in the short story, eclipsed the work of these

men,

But

some

important new

LITERATURE

trays with subtlety a young girl.

117

It should also be mentioned

that his sympathetic portraits of negroes were among the best ever

produced. Edith Wharton’s Age of Innocence (1920) is her masterpiece; it is a novel dealing with New York socicty in 1872, valuable for its consummate art and for the accuracy of its historical pictures. The new novelists, unknown before roro, deal—with the single exception of Anne Douglas Sedgwick, who lived in England—wholly with American life and character. Dorothy Canfield, born at Lawrence, Kan., in 1879, produced two novels, The Squirrel Cage (1912) and The Bent Twig (1915), the latter describing life in a university in the middle-west,

as well as The Brimming Cup in 1921, a remarkable study of a woman’s nature and the grounds of her marital happiness. Zona Gale, born at Portage, Wis., in 1874, took in Miss Lulu Belt (1920) a familiar subject and treated it with scrupulous sincerity. The same praise may be given to Sinclair Lewis, born at Sauk Center, Minn., in 1885, for his novel Main Street (1920), Mrs, Mary 5. Watts, born in Delaware Co., O., in 1868, wrote a series of realistic novels of American life, of which perhaps the best is the Rise of Jennie Cushing (1914). Henry Sydnor Harrison, born at Sewanee, Tenn., in 1880, produced one novel of unusual charm in Queced (1911), followed by another almost equally successful, V. V.’s Eyes (1913); his prolonged war service interrupted a promising career. Joseph IIergesheimer,

born at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1880, won his way to the front rank of American novelists by the extraordinary

beauty and

distinction of his prose style; he was a master of English composition, as shown in The Three Black Pennys (1917) and Jove Head (1919). Another distinguished American writer was Anne Douglas Sedgwick, born at Englewood, N.J., in 1873, who lived in Europe from childhood. Her powers, both of analysis and of style, appear to especial advantage in The Encounter (1914) and The Third Window (1920), while her short

story, Autumn

Crocuses (1919), is perhaps the best ‘piece of

fiction produced by an American under the influence of the World War. The experimental school of fiction had a representative in Theodore Dreiser, born at Terre Haute, Ind., in 1871r. Iis first novel, Sisler Carrie (1900), is perhaps his best. The Drama.—¥rom the literary point of view the drama was not important. No play of universal significance has ever been written in America, yet the work of Clyde Fitch (1865-1909) was clever and original; his best plays illustrated very well metropolitan society at the beginning of the zoth century. Augustus Thomas, born at St. Louis, Mo., in 1859, wrote many plays of western life, but his masterpiece is The Witching

Hour

(1908).

Booth Tarkington produced a successful and

brilliant comedy, Clarence (1919).

George M. Cohan, born at

Providence, R.I., in 1878, had an astonishingly successful career as librettist, producer and actor, which was, on the

whole, marked by a steady development; his play The Tavern (1920) was not only original, but had distinct literary merit.

Louis K. Anspacher, born at Cincinnati, O.,in 1878, produced an excellent drama, both from the literary and theatrical point of view, The Unchasiened Woman (1918). Fugene Walter, born at. Cleveland, O., in 1874, showed talent for melodrama, and. in one play, The Easiest Way (1913), for something higher. The death of Mark ‘Twain made George Ade, born at Kentland, Ind., in 1866, the leading American humorist; his Fables in Slang (1900) struck a new note of humour and criticism; his

plays, The College Widow (1904) and Father and the Boys (1907), exhibited a talent that the author did not choose to develop. He might have become the leading American playwright.

writers appeared and two veterans showed increasing power.

Poetry —The World War had a powerful effect on the ‘pro-

Booth Tarkington, born at Indianapolis in 1869, who had a wide

duction of poetry, but a revival had set in about the year 1970, which in 1921 had shown no sign of abatement. The general interest in poetry and the immense number of young poets were notable phenomena; yet it is truce that no great outstanding figure appeared—no one who for a moment could possibly rank with Poe, Emerson or Whitman. A leader in modern verse was Edwin Arlington Robinson, born at Head Tide, Me., in 1869, whose first volume appeared in 1896, but whose best work was certainly after 1910. In The Man Against the Sky (1916) and

reputation after 1899, began in 1914 à series of novels superior to anything in the preceding 15 years of his career. These later novels may be divided into two classes—those dealing with towns and those dealing with youth. In The Turmoil (rors) and

in The Magnificent Ambersons (1918) he analyzed and described life in American cities; in Penrod (1914) and in Seventeen (1916) he gave a faithful analysis of the character of the American boy and of the American youth; while in Alice Adams (1921) he por-

AMERY, L. C. M. S.— AMIR ‘ALI, S.

118

The Three Taverns (1920) he combined bold, serious thinking with dignity and grace in expression. A poct who by example and precept stimulated both the love and production of poetry all over the country was Vachel Lindsay, born at Springfield, Ul., in 1879. He was the nearest modern approach to the mediaeval minstrel. He tramped many hundreds of miles, paying for lodging and meals by chanting his own verses, many of which were written for oral effect. His four volumes of poetry, General

William Booth Enters into ILeaven (1913), The Congo (1914), The Chinese Nightingale (1917) and The Golden Whales of California (1920), contain works of melody, colour, and imagination. Robert Frost, born at San Francisco in 1875, wrote realistic verse mainly of country life in New England, of which North of Boston

(1914) is typical. A quiet sincerity, a sharp observation, a steady

but low fire of passion and imagination characterized his work, Edgar Lee Masters, born at Garnett, Kan., in 1869, suddenly achieved fame by Spoon River Anthology (1915). Intellectual vigour and irony are its distinguishing features. There Is a poetical epitaph for each of nearly 250 persons, each distinctly portrayed, and usually with penetrating scorn. Anna Hempstead Branch was born at New London, Conn., and was a conservative poet, writing in the traditional way with high seriousness, She had passion and imagination and was at her best in poems of home-life. Amy Lowell, born at Brookline, Mass., in 1874, was

remarkable

versatility was extraordinary.

as an experimentalist.

Her

She wrote much “ new ” poctry

in free verse and in polyphonic prose; but she was equally fine in ballads and narrative poems, written in conventional

metres. Perhaps her best book is Sword Blades and Poppy Seed (1914). Louis Untermeyer, born in New York in 1885, wrote many graccful lyrics, translated extensively from Horace and Heine, was an admirable paroclist, and compiled an anthology, Modern American Verse (1919), which gave a fair review of the field. Among writers of parodies and composers of light verse after the manner of Calverley should also be mentioned Franklin P. Adams, born at Chicago in 1881. One of the foremost lyrical pocts was Sara Teasdale, born at St. Louis, Mo., in 1884.

None of her contemporaries surpassed her in the art of pure singing.

Although

Henry A. Beers,

born

at Buffalo,

N.Y.,

in 1847, wrote sporadic verses all his life, his best volume is The Two Twilights (1917) where his qualities of meditation and passion found full expression, Brian Hooker, born in New York

in 1880, wrote notable sonnets and a powerful commemorative poem of the war, 4.D. ror9.

William Rose Benét, born at New

York in 1886, had creative imagination, shown particularly in Merchants from Cathay (1918). [lis younger brother, Stephen Vincent Benét, born in Pennsylvania in 1898, was an extremely individualistic poet, with remarkable imaginative power, evident in Heavens and Earth (1920). Percy Mackaye, born in New York in 1875, published many poems and plays; his collected verse—

which greatly varies in value—appeared in one large volume in 1916.

Conrad

Aiken, born at Savannah,

Ga., in 1889, had

the gift of singing speech, but his verse lacked thought. representative volume was Earth Triumphant (1914).

Alexander Percy, born high distinction, much of free verse will find in the works of Carl

A

William

in Mississippi in 1885, was a lyric poet of influenced by classical studies. Students the extremes of the method represented Sandburg, born at Galesburg, Hl., in

1878, His Chicago Poems (1916) are interesting for their local

colour and aim. America lost two poetsin the war, Joyce Kilmer (1886-1918), whose poem, Trees, seems destined to live, and Alan Seeger (1888-1916), whose posthumous volume had the stamp of genius. His lyric, J Have a Rendezvous with Death, was one of the most notable poems directly produced by the war. Many zoth-century poets are represented in the anthology called The New Poetry, edited by Harriet Monroc and Alice Henderson, published in ror7, The yearly anthology of magazine verse, chosen and edited by W. S. Braithwaite, is a fair indication of contemporary production, In miscellaneous literature from 1910-21, the most important work in history was the continuation of the History of the United States by James Ford Rhodes; a contribution to the

story of the development of the West was A Son of the Middle Border (1917) by Hamlin Garland; in scholarship, the continuation of the Variorum Shakespeare by the son of Horace Howard Furness; the most important and valuable biographical

work was the Life of Mark Twain (1912) by Albert Bigelow Paine, followed in 1917 by the Lelters; in epistolary literature the year 1920 was made memorable by the publication of the Letters of Henry James in the spring and those of William James in the autumn; the two best autobiographies of the period are The Education of Henry Adams (1918) and The Americanization of Edward Bok (1920). The most important contributions to political literature were the addresses and state papers of Woodrow Wilson, President during 1913-21. In addition many books appeared dealing with various phases of the World War. Among such may be mentioned James W. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany (1917) and Face to Face with Kaiserism (1918); Bernard Baruch, The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the

Treaty

(1920);

Adml.

William

S. Sims, The

Victory at Sea (1920); Brand Whitlock, Belgium: a Personal Narrative (1919); and Robert Lansing, The Peace Negotiations

(1921). (W.L. F.) AMERY, LEOPOLD CHARLES MAURICE STENNETT (1873— ), British politician, was born at Gorakhpur, North-West Provinces, India, Nov. 22 1873, and was educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford. He was clected to an All Souls fellowship in 1897, and, after travelling for a year in the

Near East, in 1899 joined the staff of The Times.

Ile acted as

chicf correspondent to that paper during the South African War, and was also editor of The Times IListory of the War in South Africa, In 1906 he stood as a Unionist and Tariff Reformer for Wolverhampton East, but was defeated, being also unsuccessful in 1908 and 1910. He was, however, elected to Parliament for Sparkbrook, Birmingham, in ro1z, retaining the seat at the election of 1918. From 1914 to 1916 he served with the army, first in France and later at Salonika, but in 1917 became assistant secretary to the War Cabinet, and from 1917 to 1918 was on the

personal staff of the Secretary for War. In Jan. rọrọ he became Under-Secretary for the Colonics, and during Lord Milner’s absence in Egypt in the winter of 1919-20 was acting secretary. In 1921 he was appointed Under-Secretary at the Admiralty. He has published various works, including The Problem of the Army (1903); Fundamental Fallacies of Free Trade (1906); The Great Question (1909); Union and Strength (1912).

AMIR ‘ALI, SEYYID (1849-

), Indian jurist and Moslem

leader, was born April 6 1849, of an Arab family tracing descent from the Prophet, which migrated from Persia and settled

at Mohan in Oudh in the middle of the 18th century. At Hugli College, Calcutta, he graduated in 1867, proceeding to his M.A. degree a year later. Receiving a State scholarship, he came to London and was called to the bar of the Inner Temple in 1873. Re had already published A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mahomed, the first of a series of books of Islamic modernist interpretation and apologetics which have given him a recognized place in English literature, viz. Tke Spirit of Islam (1893), Short History of the Saracens (1899; third ed. 1921) and Ethics of Islam (2893). For some years a lecturer on Mohammedan law at the Presidency College, Calcutta, and afterwards president of the Faculty of Law at the university there, his textbooks on Mohammedan law and other legal works are marked by careful scholarship and characteristic lucidity. He was for some time chicf presidency magistrate of Calcutta, but for the most part was engaged in practice, literature and non-official public affairs as a member of the Bengal Legislature and later of the Viceroy’s Legislature until 1890, when he was appointed a judge of the Bengal High Court, being the first Mohammedan to reach the bench in India. Retiring in 1904 and settling in England,

he was the first Indian to be sworn (Nov. x1g09) of the Privy

Council and to serve (unsalaried, but later with a small indemnity for expenses) on the Judicial Committee, where he gave the greatest assistance to his English colleagues in elucidating the intricacies of Indian law and custom. But his chief ambition

in life was the advancement of the Indian Moslems, both morally

AMMUNITION and materially, along practical and constitutional lines. While codperating with Sir Seyyid Ahmad Khan (see 24.277) in overthrowing communal apathy and obscurantism as regards Western education, he deprecated his advocacy of detachment from political activity. His establishment in 1877 of the Central National Mohammedan Association, with branches throughout India, the memorial to the Government of India he promoted in 1883, and the consequent resolution of the Governor-General (Lord Dufferin) in Council in March 1885, recognizing the strength of the Moslem claims, constituted a turning-point in the history of the community, and paved the way for its fuller political organization and the reservation of Moslem seats in the legislatures under the Morley-Minto and subsequent reforms. His sustained and anxious interest in the maintenance of Moslem virility and influence throughout the world was shown by vigorous and cogent contributions to newspapers and revicws. AMMUNITION (see 1.864-75).—The period of the World War witnessed important developments in the design of ammunition. Although the main effort was directed towards quantity production on a scale that no one had foreseen, and therefore to

the simplification of manufacture, yet on the other hand fresh designs were constantly called for to meet changing tactical conditions.

Air-fighting produced the need for “ tracer”? and

incendiary bullcts of rifle calibre and the attack of localitics from the air developed the air bomb; with the free employment of thin armour-plate, armour-piercing bullets, radically different from the armour-picrcing shell of artillery, became necessary; instantaneous fuzes designed to explode the shell just above ground came into general use for wire cutting; designs of grenades and trench-mortar bombs were brought out in profusion; and “ chemical warfare ’’ produced a varied ammunition which in principle was quite unlike ammunition of the customary kind. Moreover, the needs of quantity production and in many cases the shortage of raw materials hitherto supposed to be essential to the production of projectiles and their cartridges, themselves led to noveltics of design, and lastly in the attempt to increase the efficiency of older weapons brought out of the arsenals to tide over the shortage of artillery strength, the form of projectiles was revolutionized. The subject of munitions of war collectively—the organization of the munition effort in the principal countries, with its political, social and industrial ramifications, is discussed in the article Munitions. The present article deals with the technical characteristics of Projectiles for Ordnance (considered from the point of view of [a] design and purpose, [b] ballistic form and [c] manufacture); Cartridges (including ignition devices) and Fuzes for Ordnance; and Ammunition for small arms and machine

guns.

the case with a cylindrical body, and the supporting surface of

the shell is diminished. Besides the truce stream-lined shell, that is one with the body itself formed with a fine point and taper base, there is another class known as “ false-cap” shell which was first brought into use on a larger scale in the German artillery, and in which a body of normal form, or even not of projectile form at all is fitted with a long thin steel hood called a “ false ogive ” or false cap, or ballistic cap. This makes the shell in effect a ro-r1g c.r.h. shell with its centre of gravity well towards the rear, During the World War this device, fitted to shells of older models, gave important increases of ranging power in all natures of forms in which it was applied, though the joint was not always strong. enough or accurate enough to ensure the true centring of the projectile, The false cap is also found associated with the taper base in some cases, Apart from ballistic efficiency, the design of a shell is largely detcrmined by the stresses to which the projectile will be subjected on firing. The base must be of a strength sufficient to withstand the pressure of the propellant gases, and the walls of such a strength and thickness as will prevent fracture or distortion under the firing and rotating stresses.

The general trend of evolution during the war may be illustrated by comparing the characteristics of German naval shell designed before with those designed during the war. The former had thick walls and fairly small bursting charges, the head being struck with radii of less than 3 calibres and the total length being from 2} to 34 calibres. The latter on the contrary were made with thinner walls to contain a powerful bursting charge; the shape of the rear portion made stream-lincd. The head was tapered to a point and usually struck with radii of ro calibres; sometimes the head was formed by a false cap which in later types was welded to an adapter ring screwed into the shell proper. The total length was 4 to 5§ calibres. o

shape of the fuze was formerly not considered in relation to the contour of the shell; but when higher velocities were introduced, more attention was given to consideration of the contour of the fuze, as an element of the head shape, to obviating of “ yaw ” and to determining efficient shapes by means of experiments and empirical results derived therefrom. In further connexion with high velocity, long range and accuracy, the shape of the head was made more pointed, being struck with radii of several calibres, though the shape did not remain truly ogival as the centres were not on the line through the shoulders of the shell. Greater range and accuracy are aimed at by making the outer contour of the rear part of the shell tapered or “stream-lined” (in America the term “ boattailed ”’ is used), and this again requires the head to be still more pointed, in order to compensate for loss of range due to lessened stability, since any stream-linc, however small, necessitates the

1

2

3

cxf

Scale of Calibres

4

v2.7

ase,

Hota- in reality the heads of tha

S

fonger-polnted projectites are

wot truly ogival as drawa here

k ae

Che oe

%

24

f N, sto *

ay

“ey

vy t

line of centres

through

shoulders




The description which follows must be understood as a description of principle and arrangement only, a technical demonstration being

impossible without the actual fuze. It must be premised further that the clockwork clement is very small in size, being in diameter about equal to an ordinary wrist watch and in thickness to two such

watches. Lae ; Fuze, Time, Mechanical, No. 200.~—The clock train is driven, as in a watch, by a coiled spring in a barrel, but the escapement 1s original and peculiar. A straight stecl spring takes the place of the hai-spring,

AMMUNITION

132

which would be rendered useless by the effect of rotation and shock of

discharge, and as the length of the straight spring is adjustable, the movement of the pellets of the balance, and

therefore that of the

escapement wheel and the clock train, are controlled and regulated.

A horizontal hand, the position of which depends on the setting of the fuze, has on its under surface a notch into which fits.the upturned end of the lever at the top of the striker. When the clock train is

started the hand moves round with it, but is prevented from rising

and releasing the lever by a ring attached to the conical housing of

the fuze. This ring is provided with two slots into which the hand can fit; thus whea the clock is working the rotation brings the hand

into coincidence with the slots, and when forced up by the action of a small spring, it releases the upturned end of the lever. The striker pre-

vious to firing has been held in thesafe position by a collar on it which rests on a shoulder of the centrifugal bolt, but when this bolt is moved away by the rotation of the shell, the outer part of this shoulder still rests on a steel pin. When the upturned end of the lever is freed from the notch in the lower side of the hand, as previously described, it

flies out and rotates the striker so that the collar clears the steel pin and allows the striker to fall and fire the detonator. The setting of the fuze and the hand is accomplished by turning the housing with a suitable key, this housing being free to move before firing. On discharge it is very ingeniously clamped to the body of the fuze by means of steel pins in a ring in its under surface. This ring sets back and the pins are driven through the flange of the clock case, a groove being turned on its under side to thin the metal, and thus to allow of easy penetration. : The clock train, wound up like a watch, is started at the moment of firing by the setting-back of a detent, ; The British fuzes described above illustrate sufficiently the general principles on which fuzes are designed to serve the various requirements and to meet the various dangers. ‘There are, however, many interesting devices and expedients included in the design of French, German and other fuzes which are not usually employed in Great Britain, and the fuzes described below have been selected as exam-

ples of these devices and expedients. Some of these have been copied by British designers.

German Fuzes in general have some

marked

with the ground, ete, a moment before the shoulders of the shel! do so, thus detonating the shell before it has time to bury itself.

The

removable rod fits into a red which is supported by a creep-spring at its lower end and held in position up to the moment of firing by two centrifugal spring bolts. Below the point of the needle is a small

detonator in a holder also kept in position by two centrifugal spring

bolts. Below this.again is the main detonator, to which the Hash from -

the smaller one is communicated through a suitable channel. This main detonator communicates with the gaine by a fire-hole, but is screened from it by a centrifugal brass shutter, in which—out of line

with the detonator-gaine fire-hole—is a charge of explosive. On rotation being imparted to the projectile the striker needle 1s

freed, as is also the detonator holder below it, and these are then only

held apart by the creep-spring. The brass shutter swings outwards, bringing the explosive patch to its position under the main detonator. The fuze is now in aljl respects sensitive. On graze, the detonator holder flies forward and strikes the needle, which is

solidly supported by a plate on the rod kept (by a spring) bearing against shoulders cut in the body. Alternatively, on impact, the striker rod is pushed in, driving the needle on to the detonator holder,

In either case the detonator ts fired and the flash, relayed by the

patch in the shutter, passes to the gaine.

Split Brass Sleeve

PLAN

OF

CENTRIFUGAL SEGMENTS

‘Creep Spring

peculiarities.

Annular groove in ferrule

In the frst place, especially in pre-war designs, there is a tendency

Fic. 14,

to excessive complication, due to the desire to make one fuze answer for several functions. Ignoring the case of fuzes for

_ In the instantaneous fuze ‘ Granatziinder 17." (Gr. Z. 17), shown in fig. 14, the body is fitted in its lower portion with a bush carrying

universal shell, in which the complication resides rather in the shell itself than in the fuze, we find fuzes designed for time, impact and delay, or impact, delay and long delay, cach system having its own equipment of safety devices as well as suitable

five centrifugal segments, a split brass slecve and ferrule, and a detonator holder, to the top of which a creep-spring is soldered. The upper half of the fuze contains a needle pellet and spring, the upper part

of which is shaped to take the striker rod, and has projections that,

the use of pressed powder pellets or columns as a safety device

by a spring, are kept bearing on shoulders formed in the body, as in E.H,Z.16 C. On the shock of discharge the ferrule sets back, overcoming the support of the brass sleeve, and is locked in its rearward position by lugs on ihe sleeve which engage in an annular groove in the inner surface of the ferrule. The centrifugal segments are now free to take up rotation about their pivot pins, but as they are interlocked, owing to thcir shape and position, they can only move one at a time, and thus an appreciable interval elapses before the percussion pellet is free. The extremitics of the centrifugal segments (aided by the needle-pellet spring) take up the set-back of the needle pellet on shock of discharge, and the crcep-spring keeps the percussion pellet away from the needle during flight. On impact the striker rod is driven in and impels the needle pellet, which, overcoming the resistance of its supporting spring, fires the detonator. Should the striker rod mect with insufficient resistance to drive it in on impact, the percussion detonator will still fly forward on graze and fire its detonas

to scal the working parts until the shell is clear of the gun.

through the passage behind it,

setting arrangements.

In some cases the channels bored into the

fuze body with their cross-connecting channels and sealing devices are so numerous that the interior resembles a veritable

rabbit warren. One example only of these complicated fuzes will be described here. On the other hand, some of the devices employed are elegant in their simplicity, notably the interlocking shutter-leaves described in two of the examples below. Other points of special interest found in German fuzes are—in time fuzes the provision of devices to lock the movable time ring by set-back; and in percussion fuzes (and the percussion element of ‘T. and P. Fuzes) The Instantaneous Fuzes, known in Germany as “ sensitive’ (empfindlich), are quite unlike the British No. 106. Although it appears that the unwrapping device of No. 106 and spigot fuzes originated in a German trench-mortar fuze, it does not appear in any of the instantancous fuzes used with German guns and howitzers proper, all of which are characterized by a projecting striker rod. This striker rod (very long in the case of shell fitted with false cap) is only inserted at the last moment in the socket prepared for it in the fuze. These sensitive fuzes are all relatively simple and only instantancous effect is attempted. Pierie Acid Peilat ay Shutter «

Bolts

Detonator

Çentrifuvgat Segment

tor as it impinges on the needle, the flash passing into the shell

CENTRIFUCAL SEGMENTS SECTION AA. SECTION B.A,

‘Copper Gas Check ¥ Centmfugal Segments A B Bar Needle Detonator — meaa

Detent Sti rrup Spring-b SECTION

B

Loose Powder

Fic. 15,

This shutter device is also found in an interesting German base

Dretonating Compa.

fuze (fig. 15), in combination with a detent of the same class as that of the British 101 Fuze, but reversed. The fuze depends for its action on the inertia of a pellet which remains steady till impact, and then sets forward on to the needle. In travelling, the movable pellet is confined between the shutter and

FIG. 13.

The Instantaneous Howitzer Fuze 16 C. (E.H.Z. 16 C., fig. 13) is fitted with a projecting striker rod so that the fuze comes in contact

the bottom of its cavity, and set-back on discharge does not affect it.

But as soon as the shutter-leaves rotate out of the way it is perfectly free, not even a creep-spring apparently being fitted. On fring the detent flattens its stirrup spring, and sets back, and thereupon, under

AMMUNITION centrifugal action, the leaves of the shutter, one by one, rotate clear of the head of the inertia pellet. This is of a peculiar design, only found in German fuzes. On two sides the mass of the pellet is continued upwards to form walls or guides, and between these guides is

133

part of the fuze body, Here is a movable ring with an annular powder

channel on its under side that ignites at will both or only one of the

powder columns, in much the same way as the corresponding element ofa time fuze. In the upper part of the fuze, placed centrally, is the

In the upward motion of the ignition device. In the lower part of the fuze and in the gaine, also pellet, therefore, the detonator carried with it is impelled straight on | centrally placed, are the main detonator and the gaine elements to be to the needle. A further peculiarity is to be noticed in the top part described presently, ‘Through the body of the fuze run three parallel

the necdle, mounted on a fixed bar.

of the fuze.

This is a delay-action fuze, and in order to damp the

and distinct systems, each of which is seen in one of the three sections

tortuous channel before it can reach the loose powder which ignites the delay pellet.

tion device in the head, and with the main detonator and gaine below, in a different way.

violence of the detonator its flash is compelled to follow a long and

German percussion fuzes with optional delay are generally very elaborate; examples, however, may be given of the simple types. In the 1916 Howitzer Fuze (H.Z. 16) shown in fig. 16 the usual Centrifugal Bolt r Detonator

shown in fig. 17, Each of these systems conimunicates with the igni-

Centrally in the head of the fuze ts the ignition device, analogous to that of a time fuze and consisting of a detonator pellet controlled by a compressed spiral spring cap, and held away from the needle below it by a split brass sleeve. A flash:hole leads from this pellet to the powder channel in the movable ring, and a second flash-hole leads to the third of the internal systems, a powder column passing

down the body of the fuze body (see section C-C). This column

joins another of rather larger diameter which consists of compressed powder, and acts as a stop to a brass retaining rod. The rod holds down an annular or tubular container situated in the gaine which

is centred ona fixed guide rod and has beneath it a compressed spiral

spring, to impel it forward when the retaining rod above it is hber-

ated by the burning of the powder safety. Upon shock: of discharge the ignition pellet at the top of the fuze, overcoming the resistance of the split sleeve, sets back on to the

Picric Acids

- Detonator

needle and fres, the flash passing both to the powder in the movable ring and to the powder column which retains the brass rod (section

i

SECTION

C-C). When the movable ring is set for non-delay action, the flame passes from the powder in the ring to both the powder columns in sections A-A and B-B, but if set for delay it passes only to the column

Delay Channel

Fic. 16,

elements—a fixed needle and a movable pellet held by centrifugal

bolts, a creep-spring and a shutter containing a relay pellet—appear,

and need not be further explained.

The peculiarity of the fuze les

in the fact that between the detonator and this relay pellet the flash

has two alternative paths, one direct and the other through a delay composition arrangement, cither of which can be put into action in the setting of the fuze. Below the fire-hole into which the flash of the

first detonator passes are two channels, into both of which it goes. But if the direct channel is blocked by the screw-in valve, the only passage is through the combination of powder, dclay composition,

and perforated powder pellet in the delay channel; this gives the

required delay. In either case a relay detonator below the junction of the alternative channels passes on the ignition to the patch in the

shutter and so to the gaine.

The blocking or opening of the direct

channel is effected, as the drawing shows, by screwing a simple screw valve home or out. 2

Igniting Ortondtor

Brass Cantaner fied Parie Aed

E

Main Detonator

7 F

Brass Rotuning

NOTE—In all Sections the Fuze is set to Delay

PART

SECTION

A.A.

Detonator Dar Necdte

When the compressed

the retaining rod is free to move, and the brass container moves for-

ward under the action of its spring and fits over the main detonator. Ona impact, if the ring has been set for delay, one percussion detona»

tor (that in section A-A) fires and ignites the central delay, which then burns through and ignites the loose powder below; and so in sequence are fired the main detonator, the container fitting round it, and the gaine. If the ring be set for non-delay, both percussion

detonators (A-A, B-B) fire; but as one (section B-B) is in direct communication with the powder below the delay, the main detonator will be fired without any pause; in other words, the fuze behaves as

one constructed for direct action on impact. An objection common to all forms of powder safety is the risk of the powder becoming damp in storage or transport; if the safeties fail to ignite, the fuze will fail to act. No attempt need be made here to describe trench-mortar fuzes;

Prassel

Q.C.

i

Loose Powder

Powder lightly SECTION

r

leading to the delay powder (section A-A).

powder in the columns is consumed and the plungers are freed, the detonator pellets (or, in the case of delay, that in section A-A) can move forward on impact and will be fired by the needles, Meanwhile, in either case the column of powder in section C-C is consumed,

tgritin Ouionator Pressed, Powder

these are in the main impact or delay fuzes of a simple type designed to arm at low velocities. Practically all German trench mortars were rifled, and of the rest the most important types had cither a stick or vanes to keep the shell-nose first in descent, so that the difficulty which in England led to the production of the All-ways’”’ fuze scarcely existed for them. One curious development should, however, be noted—a chemical fuze giving I, 2, 24 or 48 hours’ delay according to the strength of the chemical used. In this, the needle was held off the detonator, against the cffort of a spring to decompress itself, by a wire which passed through a container full of corrosive liquid and was secured beyond it to a convenient point on or in the

th

arate Se

aN

Spring

Tehae

m

r

1

Central Delay

PART SECTION

Td

Besa Plunger

+

=

B.B.

Jee

aes Fj

h

Powder Tayebid Presseddh

INVERTED

1 Solt Gleeve

PLAN

Showing positions of the threa‘

systems and the Main Detonator

Fic. 17.

- The next example is more complicated, and introduces the device,

already alluded to, of powder, safetics, It is called “‘ 3904 Shell Fuze without Striker Rod” (Gr. Z.04 ohne Vorstecker), to distinguish

it from the same fuze with a long striker rod used with a false-cap

shell (fig. 17). Above the main detonator is a powder arrangement consisting partly of loose powder and partly of delay powder, with two percussion systems of the guide and bar-needle type above described. A hole from the pellet on one side (section A-A) leads to the central

Detonator Powder Pellet Detonator Holder Powder

delay, while a similar hole from the other pellet (section B-B) leads

to the loose powder under the delay, thus giving delay or direct action as required. The two pellets are hekl away from the harneedles by brass plungers with springs pressing on the closed-up tops of the pellet extensions, these plungers being themselves held in position by short columns of pressed powder. From these pieces of

pressed powder, columns of powder lead to a platform at the upper

body of the fuze. Kept in tension by the effort of the spring, the wire was gradually eaten through by the corrosive liquid, and finally

AMMUNITION

134

-parted, whereupon the spring drove the needle on to the detonator and exploded the fuze. French Fuges, in marked

(D. D. T. O'C.) contrast to German, are deliberately simple in type and the number of types also is limited. The four patterns described below may be taken therefore as fully represen; tative of French practice.

The typical pre-war percussion fuze is the direct-action fuze shown

in fig. 18. The action will be readily understood from the figure.

Before firing, a heavy ferrule is supported between a compressed spiral spring and a stirrup spring which surrounds the detonator

pellet.

On shock of discharge (aided by the decompression of the

spiral spring) the ferrule sets back, straightening the stitrup spring,

and fits over both stirrup spring and detonator pellet, being held there by the spiral spring acting as a creep-spring. On impact the

as the standard time-shrapnel fuze for the 75-mm. field gun. Unlike the British, German, and other T. and P. Fuzes, it is set, not by means of a movable powder ring, but by punching a hole at the appropriate point in a composition-filled lead tube by means of a fuze-setting machine called a débouchoir,

The time composition is contained in a sealed lead tube fitting into a spiral groove on the upper and slightly tapered portion of the body. Over the hody is 4 cover on which a long spiral scale is engraved, with graduations corresponding to the appropriate points in the composition worm which lies exactly under it. Certain points on the scale ar¢ marked with.a hole instead of a figure; these subsequently act as a relief for the gases and slag. To set the fuze a hole is punched by the débouchoir through the cover, lead tube, and body, thus

making free communication with the interior. The time ignition pellet (which carries the needle in this case) is kept away from the tonator is fired. The spiral spring can be adjusted for tension by fixed detonator by a coiled spring which it overcomes on shock of screwing the closing plug in or out. i discharge. The resulting flash from the detonator ignites a powder pellet, which gives a powerful flame filling the interior of this part A more highly developed design of the same class is Fuze 24/31 P.R. model 1916, distinguished by an, ingenious combination of of the fuze, and lighting the composition in the lead tube as it passes safety pellet and detonator holder which has been copied in the through the hole punched by the fuze-setter. The composition then British Fuze No. 134 (fig. 2). a care : burns along the tube until the flame reaches the end of the lead tube, As in other French fuzes, and in British, impact or delay effect is whence it passes by a cross channel to the magazine. (A peculiarity of the French fuze is that the flash from the magazine, instead of arranged by the design of explosive filling below the main detonator ` passing by a channel of its own to the interior of the shell, ignites the and not by that of elements in the fuze itself. ene ine French instantaneous fuzes are characterized by simplicity and detonator pellet of the percussion system, which thus acts as a relay.) ‘The percussion system consists essentially of: (a)a ferrule provided great projection from the nose of the shell, the latter being intended to ensure that the fuze shall act before the shoulders of the shell strike externally with a collar and internally with a spring catch device: (ù) a detonator holder, hollow to take the detonator and a magazine the ground and begin to bury themselves.

pellet and ferrule fly forward together on to the needle, and the de-

Striker rod

Striker head

of fine-grain powder underneath it, and provided externally with a

broad flange at the bottom and peripheral ratchet-like notches at the top; and {c} a strong retaining spring and weaker ereep-sprin g. Until the gun is fired the retaining spring, bearing on the collar of the

ferrule, keeps this pressed up against the top of the cavity; above the collar the creep-spring is under a slight compression, but this does not

Recess for

Fuze body

Shearing

f

+ . * a +

Safety collar

wire

Detonator

Fic. 19.

A simple representative is shown in fig. rọ, which is a cheap and effective trench-mortar fuze.

affect the security of the fuze. On discharge, the ferrule, overcoming its retaining spring, sets back over the detonator holder, where its internal spring catches engage under one or other of the peripheral ratchet-notches on the holder. The ferrule, compressed spring and detonator holder are now locked together. Held steady during

flight by inertia and the creep-spring, on impact they fly forward on to the needle.

(French trench-mortar projectiles are

vaned and so fall nose first.) The striker consists of a head, which in transport is kept off the head of the fuze by a safety ring, and a long striker which is kept centred by a wooden “ crayon ” in much the same way as the lead is held in an ordinary lead-pencil. Through the head of the striker passes a shearing wire of copper alloy (Cu 67%,

Zn 33%). Before firing, the safety ring is removed and only the shearing wire keeps the striker point off the detonator. This resists the shock of discharge (which is relatively slight in a trench mortar) but is sheared on impact. It will be observed that the fuze is not sensitive during flight, as the German fuzes and the British No. 106 are, but rehes for its instantancous effect chiefly on the fact that the

striker head takes the ground a moment before the shoulders of the shell do so. A fuze of this class when used with a rifled gun would have a centrifugal unwrapping tape similar to that of the British 106 Fuze in lieu of the safety ring. The actual detonator arrangements, not shown, may be varied in the usual way by introducing or omit-

ting a delay pellet. The lower end of the fuze is screwed to receive a steel gaine.

7 Ag

mava

b

AnI +

“REE

Eea

AlfD

Fic. 20.

The French T. and P. Fuze (Fusée @ double effet 23/31, fig. 20), designed in 1897, remained in service throughout the war of 1914-8

FIG. 21, In the illustrations, which are diagrammatic, the parts are not to scale, and details (e.g. the centring sleeve for the ignition needle pellet) are omitted so as to show the operation of the fuze more clearly,

AMMUNITION The construction and operation of the débouchoir or fuze-setting machine arc in general terms as follows (ligs. 24 and 22) :—

A hollow rectangular box contains in its forepart a fixed socket,

threaded internally.

A second movable socket (the shell holder) is

threaded externally in its lower part so as to be screwed up or down

135

insure that no moisture remains in the chemical mixture.

inspection it is inserted into the primer pockct

After

and a drop of

shellac placed in the joint between the primer and the cartridge case to provide water-proofing,.

Lhe Bullet (unless it be of special type such as armour-piercing) consists of a jacket surrounding a core. This jacket is made from cupro-nickel which, as furnished commercially, contains from 80%

to 85% copper and from 15% to 20% nickel,

The cupro-nickel is

furnished in coiled strips from which by automatic machines cups

are produced. These cups are subjected to a series of drawing operations after which the nose and profile of the bullet are formed by

swedging processes. ‘The core, of lead hardened with antimony er tin, may or may not be inserted before the bullet jacket is swedged to form. Finally, the composite bullet is resized and prepared for union

with the cartridge case.

In assembling the complete round the primed cartridge cases are shellacked in the mouth for water-proofing, and are loaded

ry ae ers

by automatic machines with a propellant powder charge weighing from 40 to 50 grains. The bullets arc then inserted into the mouths of the cartridge cases and secured by crimping the top Ree | ee eer aera edges of the cases into the cannclures provided (or otherwise,

FIG. 22.

in the fixed socket, and formed internally to take the shoulders of the shell, the fuze projecting downwards through a hole in the bottom of the holder. Fixed about the middle of this movable socket is a gear-wheel, and internally, in its bottom, is a small mortise into which

a tenon on the fuze engages so that the fuze and shell always occupy a

fixed position in the holder. The shell is inserted nose downwards in the holder, secured by the mortise and tenon, and the holder is then, by means of suitable gear in the box operating the gear-wheel,

screwed down into the fixed socket, carrying with it the shell and fuze, until the appropriate point in the worm scale of the fuze comes opposite a punching tool in the fixed socket, at which point the tool, operated by an external hand lever, punches the cover, lead tube and body as before described. The amount of screwing-in is determined by the number of turns {or fractions of a turn) of the holder gear-wheel, and the internal gear of the box which actuates this gear-wheel is so controlled by a handle on the top of the box that the position of the handle relatively to a dial! on the box exactly represents the position of the fuze scale relatively to the punching tool in the fixed socket. (In practice the handle is set and the holder socket screwed in first, the shell inserted and keyed next, and the actual punching comes last.) The French service débouchoir is made with two sets of elements

side by side having a common dial, corrector scale and setting han-

dle, but separate punching handles, This enables two fuzed shells to be set simultaneously for the same time of burning or successively for different times as desired.

AuTHoRITIES.—No recent book descriptive of fuzes has been

published, in the ordinary sense of the word. Information during the war period was circulated only amongst those professionally concerned. The information given above has been collected from various

apers and memoranda of this kind, and chiefly from those supplied by the authoritics of Woolwich Arsenal, to whom, and to Lt.-Col, G. O. Boase in particular, thanks are due. (C. F. A.)

MACHINE GUN, RIFLE AND PISTOL Since roro rapid strides have been made in the improvement of old and development of new designs of ammunition for machine guns, rifles and pistols, principally due to the World War. ‘The manufacture of small arms ammunition, used by the various nations, may be briefly described by outlining the operations necessary to produce a standard cartridge of any one country. In general, these operations would apply to the manufacture of any cartridge, although slight departures therefrom would be neccessary where the designs vary. The metallic components of a cartridge are the case, primer (without chemical

composition) and bullet, The Cartridge Case is made of cartridge brass which, as produced

commercially, contains about 67 % copper and 33% zinc. ‘The brass is furnished In strips, coiled in convenient lengths, which are passed through automatic machines to produce metallic cups, from which the finished cases are evolved by a series of processes gencrally similar to those described for heavy gun cartridge cases. The Primer, inserted in the head of the cartridge case, consists of a cap made of primer brass into which is inserted a percussion composition usually weighing from -25 to +40 grain, according to the character of the composition.

After the assembly of the components,

the primer is subjected to a drying operation for a short time to

1 The zero of this dial igitself adjustable relatively to a fixed fuze-

corrector scale.

29 and footnote.

For the ‘theory of the corrector see 2,692, par.

according to the design of the cartridge in question).

Small

"arms ammunition of the various countries is designed and loaded to give muzzle velocities varying from 2,200 to 2,800 ft. per second, with maximum

pressures never exceeding 60,000 Ib,

{27 tons) per sq. inch. Cartridge clips for quick loading are used in some form with practically all magazine rifles. The number of cartridges in a clip is usually five, placed one above the other. ‘These clips are usually made with a body of rust-proofed steel or brass containing a flat brass spring. The clipped, United ground

loaded ammunition, after being weighed, inspected and is classified and packed according to its future use. In the States, ammunition passed as suitable for both rifles and machine guns is packed for issue in bandoleers made of olive-

drab cloth, which generally contain six boxes cach holding two clips.

In most armies such individual packets of ammunition are put up in larger, metal-lined boxes, the number of rounds packed in a box and therefore its weight varying in different countrics according to the preferences of the military authorities in each.

Packing-boxes are provided with watertight metal liners.

In the

United States the packing-box when loaded with ammunition weighs approximately 110 lb.; in Great Britain (mark VII. ammunition), 75 to 8o Ib.

Ammunition for Machine Guns may be divided into two general

classes: first, that for use in machine ‘guns on the ground; and second, that for use mm aircraft machine guns. The extensive use of ammunition for machine guns in the World War involved no new processes of manufacture in order to adapt it to the particular weapons. It did, however, require a more rigid inspection system in order to insure that the ammunition produced was of a quality suitable to stand the wear and tear of machine-gun action, Ammunition for ground machine guns is generally the same as the ‘standard type used in the shoulder rifle, but more rigidly inspecte and tested. Several of the belligerents in the World War developed special types of cartridges having heavier bullets than their standard types for use in machine-gun barrage fire.

A number of special types of machine-gun developed for use by aircraft, all of which length as the service ammunition and may follows:— The tracer cartridge, as the name implics,

ammunition have been have the same overall be briefly described as

is loaded with a tracer bullet for use with machine guns where, as in aircraft work, it is essential to make the trajectory visible. The bullet differs materially from that of the service cartridge, in that the lead core of the latter is replaced by a conical lead slug in the nose of the tracer bullet jacket, in the rear of which there is inserted a gilding-metal capsule which contains the tracer composition. The ingredients used in the composition are dependent upon the type of trace desired. The red tracer involves the use of strontium salts with the necessary oxidizing agents, while the so-called white tracer gives off a greenish-white flame and involves the use ef the barium salts with oxidizing agents. The tracer composition is compressed into the capsule at a pressure to withstand that produced by the exploding cartridge and the length of trace can be regulated by the adjustment of the pressure or amount of oxidizing agents used in the chemical mixture. The composition is ignited by the propellant powder flash and burns with a bright light during a minimum of 500 yd. of flight. Tracer cartridges are generally loaded so as to give the same ballistics as the service ammunition at 500 yards. As these cartridges are placed in machine-gun belts, interspersed with service, incendiary and other types of special aircraft ammunition, adistinctive marking is provided so that inspection may be made of cach ammunition belt before the aviator goes into the air. aif Owing to the extensive use of observation balloons and dirigibles in the war, the demand was created for an incendiary bullet which

136

AMUNDSEN, ROALD—ANAESTHETICS

would ignite gases or other materials with which it might come in contact. Omitting technical detail, this form of bullet is organized to contain a charge of yellow phosphorus coated with copper phos-

phide or aluminium dust in the head, The base is sealed, but a small

hole is punched in the side of the bullet and closed with an easily fusible alloy containing a high percentage of bismuth. The heat generated by the passage of the bullet through the barrel of the gun causes this alloy to melt, at the same time causing the yellow phos-

studied medicine for two years. Later, however, he went to sea, and from 1897 to 1899 served as mate on the “ Belgica ” with Capt. Adrien de Gerlache’s Antarctic expedition. In 1901—2 he made an expedition to the Arctic regions which resulted in some valuable observations, and from 1903 to 1906 was in command of

the “Gjéa” on its voyage through the north-west passage

Upon exit from the barrel, the centrifugal

between the Arctic and Pacific oceans (see 21.953). The “ Gjéa ”

phosphorus through the side hole and upon contact with the air the phosphorus burns leaving a trail of smoke and fire streaming from

wards the end of r910 Amundsen started in Nanscn’s famous

horus to become molten.

orce produced by the spinning of the bullet throws the molten

the bullet. Incendiary builets burn over a range of approximately 300 yd. and are so loadect as to shoot similarly to service ammunition at

that range. Incendiary cartridges are distinguished from other types of ammunition by special markings, The use of various standard-calibre incendiary bullets against observation balloons and dirigibles was supplemented by the development of a larger calibre (11 mm.) tracer incendiary cartridge for use at longer ranges. The bullets are generally turned out of solid brass rod and are approximately 1:34 in. long, The tracer incendiary composition produces a white or a red flame according to the chemicals used. This composition is mixed and compressed into the brass bullets so as to withstand the pressure of the cartridge when fired. The flame from the propellant ignites the composition, which burns

for at least 1,200 yards. The cartridge case is of the rim type and is loaded with a propellant to give a muzzle velocity of 2,000 to 2,350 ft. per second, Combinations of the various types of bullets described above have

been tried out experimentally with different degrees of success. The inspection of all of these types is very rigid, as all ammunition for aircraft use must be specially selected, in particular because hang-

fires may he dangcrous in aircraft machine guns synchronized with

the propeller.

Many types of armour-piércing bullets were used during the World

War in order to attack the light armour-plate of aeroplanes, tanks, etc. This class of bullet, with its steel core, required considerable experi-

made a second Arctic expedition between 1910 and 1912.

To-

ship, the “Tram,” for the Antarctic regions, The polar continent was crossed under good conditions, the weather being excellent, while the arrangements for food and transport worked

without a hitch. The South Pole was reached between Dec. 14 and 17 1911, the Norwegian party thus outstripping by about a month the British expedition led by Capt. Scott (see ANTARCTIC

Recions). In June 1918 Amundsen Ieft Norway in the

Maud ”

with the intention of drifting across the Arctic ocean, but at the end of rọrọ was forced to abandon the attempt (see Arctic

ReGions). Capt. Amundsen has published Lhe North-West Passage (1907), and The South Pole (1912), and has reccived many honours from learned societies,

ANAESTHETICS (see 1.907)—In connexion with the progress made in 1910-20, it is somewhat remarkable that the agents for producing general surgical anacsthesia which were the first to be introduced, that is, nitrous oxide gas, ether and chloroform, not only remained in general use, but actually provided in greater part for the requirements of modern surgery. “Regional” anaesthesia, or analgesia as some prefer to call it, had, however, in part supplanted “ general ” anacsthesia. It consists in abolishing sensation in a restricted part of the body without affecting

mental work and may still be considered as in the development stage.

consciousness; it is effected by “ blocking” the conduction of

hardened steel core incased in a lead envelope.

The action may be

sensation through the nerves supplying the area concerned by applying to them a solution of a drug similar in constitution to cocaine, or by injecting this solution into the lower part of the spinal canal and so blocking the sensory fibres in the nerve roots

This soft mass of lead produces a protective coating for the nose of the steel core and thus aids penctration. The bullet is loaded into the same case as the service ammunition and is distinguished by special markings. A larger calibre of armour-piercing ammunition was developed by the Germans for the 13-mm. anti-tank rifle (sce Ripies). The bullet was of the armour-piercing type and weighed approximately 800 grains, while the cartridge case was of the semirimless type with a propellant charge of about 200 grains. This cartridge developed a muzzle velocity of about 2,450 f.s. and was very effective against tank armour. Further devclopments along this line may be expected in the future. Ammunition for Rifles —Each country has its standard rifle car-

and in the spinal cord itself. Regional anaesthesia has, however, as yet only a limited application, for although adopted as a convenient routine measure in some classes of cases and types of patients, yet it has been found by experience to have certain limitations, and in the case of spinal anaesthesia certain dan-

It consists principally of a cupro-nickel jacket, inside which is a

briefly described as follows :-— Upon striking the armour-plate, the jacket splits and a portion of the lead in the nose of the bullet is trapped between the hardened point of the steel core and the surface of the hardened armour-plate,

tridge which is of the same

shape and size and is manufac-

tured in the same manner as the machine-gun ammunition above described, Some of these cartridges are of the rimmed while others

are of the rimless. type. The standard calibres vary from +25 in. to +32 inch. Various other types have been developed for guard, test, and training purposes, such as the blank, dummy, guard, high-pressure, aud gallery-practice cartridges, Ammunition for Pistols—The ammunition used in various countries in automatic pistols is very similar, and a description of the manufacture of the United States type may be considered to be representative of all others, This cartridge consists of a drawn brass case with a primer inserted in its head.

The bullets, as a rule, have

jackets mada from drawn gilding metal or some other suitable material. Fhe manufacture of the cartridge case and bullet-jacket follows, in general, the process outlined for the manufacture of the

rifle-cartridge components except that the number of operations is

considerably reduced. The bullet is «45 calibre, weighs 230 grains and has its jacket tinned and filled with a core of lead hardened with about 2% of antimony.

The cartridge cases are all of the rimless

type and have a small cannelure located on the cartridge case in such

a position as to prevent a buflet from being pushed back into it. All pistol ammunition is loaded to give low velocities as compared with rifle ammunition. Calibre -45 cartridge, used by the United States, has a muzzle velocity of 800 f.s. and develops a maximum pressure of 16,000 Ib. per sq. inch. In addition te the pistol cartridges of the service type, there are blank and high-pressure cartridges for instructional and testing purposes. The ammunition made for automatic pistols of smailer calibre, used by travellers, police and others,

is in principle similar to that of the heavier +45 pistol. (W. L. C.)

AMUNDSEN, ROALD (1872-

), Norwegian polar explorer,

was born at Borge, Smaalenene, Norway, July 16 1872, the son of a shipowner, He was cducated at Christiania and afterwards

gers. Many persons, moreover, prefer the blissful ignorance of a gencral anaesthesia to full consciousness, and passive submission to a trying ordeal, even when they are deprived of sensation

and when the sight of the operation is hidden from them. General anaesthesia produced by the inhalation of a gas or vapour remains the routine procedure. The use of non-volatile drugs, such as morphia or hedonal, introduced by the mouth or by subcutaneous or intravenous injection, is not readily subject to control; once introduced these substances remain in the body until slowly excreted by the kidneys; the dose can be increased

but it cannot be decreased, and herein lics a danger. Inhalation anaesthesia on the other hand is susceptible of the most delicate

adjustment to requirements. The pulmonary route is adapted anatomically to meet the vital requirements of the absorption and excretion of the blood gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and is hence perfectly adapted for the passage to and from the blood of other gases and vapours.

The amount of a vapour absorbed

by the blood and the rapidity of its absorption are both proportional to its concentration in the atmosphere inhaled into the lungs? so that the task of the anaesthetist is mainly one of adjusting the strength of the vapour according to the result which is desired.

So also the amount which has been introduced into the blood can be rapidly reduced; it is partially exhaled on diminishing the strength of the vapour presented to the blood, and it becomes totally exhaled on withdrawing the vapour entirely from the inhaled atmosphere. This facility of the adjustment of anaesthesia is not shared by any other method, and it appears likely

to sustain inhalation anaesthesia in its present predominant position for some time to come. 1In the case of chloroform there is a deviation from the laws of the solution of vapours, but this is negligible at the low concentrations employed for anaesthetic purposes.

ANAESTHETICS Nitrous Oxide-—One of the surgical lessons of the World War was that persons suffering from severe shock and loss of blood from wounds did not progress favourably following operation under chloroform or ether, but that the prospects of recovery were distinctly improved when performed under the continuous inhalation of nitrous oxide gas. The reasons for this cannot be stated preciscly, but it may be said in general terms that nitrous oxide is less depressing, and further that owing to its exceedingly rapid exeretion consciousness and normal bodily conditions are quickly restored after completion of the operation. Nitrous oxide, or “ laughing gas” as it was formerly termed, is familiar as an agent for producing brief periods of narcosis, as for the extraction of teeth. When administered thus in a pure state it excludes the admission of air to the lungs, and if continued would cause complete asphyxta,,the problem of continuous administration is therefore the admission of sufficient oxygen to the lungs to satisfy the needs of the body. Air contains about one-fifth of ‘its volume of oxygen, but if nitrous oxide were diluted to this extent its partial pressure would be reduced to about 80%, which is too weak for the convenient production of its full anaesthetic effect, at least in the carly stages of its administration. Ft is possible, however, to reduce the amount of oxygen inhaled below the normal quantity without reducing the oxygen in the blood to the same degree; this is due to the fact that the absorption of oxygen by the blood is a process of loose chemical combination with the haemoglobin, which is not governed by the laws of the simple solution of gases. Oxygen may in fact be reduced to a proportion of one-tenth of an atmosphere without causing discomfort to the patient or even under ordinary circumstances causing the discolouration of the face known as cyanosis. It may even be reduced lower than one-tenth and yet be capable of sustaining life. The continuous administration of nitrous oxide mixed with oxygen is thus made possible by the provision of a sufficiently delicate mechanism to regulate and indicate the relative proportions of the gases. One form of indicator which has been generally adopted consists of pressure dials connected with the supply tubes from the cylinders of compressed gases; these register the pressures at which the gases are supplied,

and the proportions are in the same relation as the pressure of flow. Another form of indicator is that known as a “ sight-feed,” in which the gases bubble through a glass vessel containing water, the flow being regulated so that one bubble of oxygen passes for a given

number of nitrous oxide bubbles according to desire. The continuous administration of nitrous oxide and oxygen is not, however,

a method

which

is adapted

for all classes of cases;

the

relaxation of the body muscles is not sufficient for the convenient performance of certain operations; the narcosis is not always sufficiently deep, and it may have to be supplemented by an admixture of ether vapour; nor is it a method absolutely free from danger. Its advantages in the cases of profound shock referred to appear to

be undoubted, but how far it can be adapted for general purposes is as yet undecided. Ether-——The use of ether as an anacsthetic has received considerable stimulus from the introduction of the ‘‘ open’? method of administration. In order to induce anaesthesia in a muscular person, or to “get him under” in, ordinary phrascology, a strong vapour may

be required, as strong as 25% to 30% in some

cases,

anel it was formerly supposed to be impossible to attain sufficient concentration from ether sprinkled on a piece of fabric stretched on a frame or “ mask.” In order to attain this end a * close ” method has been in general use, in which the patient breathes to and from a rubber bag over a surface of ether. In this way the vapour becomes concentrated in the bag, but at the expense of the oxygen of the contained air, which becomes rapidly usec up, so that the inhaler must he removed periodically to allow of an inspiration of pure air in order to obviate total asphyxia. This method is effective, but

far from ideal; the patient is generally more or less “ blue ” from

partial asphyxia throughout the administration, there is a profuse secretion of slimy mucus which must be continually wiped away, the respirations are greatly exaggerated from ‘ re-breathing ” the carbon dioxide which accumulates in the bag, and they are often at the same time partially obstructed from the pressure of the closely fitting face-piece. ‘fhe after-effects are generally unpleasant and not infrequently distressing. In the “ open ” ether method the breathing is noiseless, effortless, and only slightly exaggerated, so that delicate abdominal opera-

tions can be performed with comfort. The flow of saliva is considerably less than in the closed method (probably from the absence of asphyxia) and this can be entirely abolished by the subcutaneous injection of a minute dose of atropine previous to the administration.

There is no sign of cyanosis, and the paticnt’s face remains a healthy colour throughout; the only restriction of oxygen is by reason of

the displacement of air by ether vapour which at a maximum will

be fess than one-third its volume, and as in the later stages of an

administration much fess vapour is required the restriction becomes entirely negligible. ‘he after-effects of ether, such as vomiting and malaise, are considerably less pronounced’than following a “ close ”’ administration. The application of the “ open"? method to ether inhalation has been brought about by an exceedingly simple adaptation. The liquid ether is applied to a pad of open-wove fabric, such as “ stock-

137

inette " or a number of layers of absorbent gauze, stretched over a

framework mask of which the margin is roughly adapted to the contours of the face; the mask rests lightly upon the face, a soft pad being interposed between its edges and the skin to prevent the entrance of air in this direction. In this way the inhaled air is made to pass through the meshes of the fabric, and in doing so every portion of it comes in close contact with the ether, and takes up a

greater proportion of vapour than it would if it merely passed over

the surface of the fabric, as in the ordinary way of procedure. The induction of anaesthesia by the open method is liable to be somewhat

prolonged,

an

undoubted

disadvantage,

but once

full

anaesthesia has been produced it is maintained without difficulty, and the results attained are in general more satisfactory than those of any other form of inhalation anacsthesia.

The “ intratracheal” method of etherization has im recent years

been in considerable requisition for specia! purposes. lt is conducted by passing a narrow tube through the larynx into the trachea almost to the level of its bifurcation. Through this tube a continu-

ous current of air and ether vapour is forced into the lungs at a pressure which keeps the lungs moderately distended, but not so much so as to abolish the natural respiratory movements. The air returns through the chink of the vocal cords by the side of the tube, and

this. continuous return blast blows away any solid or fluid particles, blood or pieces of tissue, in the neighbourhood, and prevents their

entering the trachea, an accident which may possibly occur in ordi-

nary inhalation methods. The advantage of intratracheal ether in operations involving the respiratory passages is therefore obvious; it is likewise a convenient arrangement. for operations upon the face,

which is left entirely uncovered; and in operations upon the interior of the thorax a proper acration of the lungs can be thus insured. Chloreform—Vhe form of sudden death which is occasionally encountered under chloroform anaesthesia has acted as a deterrent to its more extended employment in spite of its manifest conveniences. An earnest endeavour was made by an influential com-

mittee appointed by the British Medical Association to find a

method of preventing these chloroform deaths, by enquiring into the conditions of overdosage and devising apparatus for the precise limitation of chloroform vapour to essential requirements. The final report of this committée was issued in 1910, but the number of deaths from chloroform has remained practically undiminished since that time. An attempt has further been made to reduce the risk of overdosage by diluting the chloroform with ether in varying proportions, but this has proved to be futile as a prophylactic against death, for although the number of deaths under pure chloro-

form has fallen, the number under mixtures of chloroform has risen ten times in a period of ten years.

It is now becoming realized that the typical sudden chloroform

fatality is not conditioned by an overdose at all. It has long been. known that the majority of deaths occur in the very carly stages of anaesthesia before the patient is fully narcotized, and further enquiry into reports of fatalitics shows that there is generally some evidence of light anaesthesia preceding death, or else that overdosage can be ruled out of question. There is a further point brought out by these reports, which was in fact fully appreciated by John Snow in the middle of the last century; whereas in overdose the respiration is paralyzed before the circulation, in the typical chloroform death the outstanding feature is an absolutely sudden failure of the circulation, and the failure

of the respiration is a secondary result. In 1890, Dr. Robert

Kirk, boldly and with strong conviction,

advanced the theory that chloroform deaths occurred from underdosage, and although his thesis was supported by important experiments, he failed to formulate an acceptable theoretical basis for it. Dr. A., G., Levy, in 1911, reported certain cases of sudden cardiac failure that he had observed in animals obviously in a light stage of chloroform anaesthesia, and he succeeded in reproducing this death by the intravenous injection of small doses of adrenalin in lightly chloroformed animals, but the experiment failed under full chloroform narcosis. This at once accounted for those cases of syncope and death, a number of which had been recorded, following the injection of adrenalin into the mucous membrane of the nose for the purposes of certain nasal operations which were always con»

ducted under light anaesthesia, the form of this syncope being the same as in an ordinary chloroform fatality. l By following up this linc of research it was shown that sudden cardiac failure could be induced likewise by various procedures—-« excitation of the cardiac accelerator nerves either directly or through

a reflex mechanism, stimulating the excretion of the adrenal glands,

by intermitting the administration.of chloroform, or by withholding the chloroform during excitement and struggling; the event never occurred during deep narcosis. The underlying condition of the cardiac syncope was shown to be that of fibrillation of the ventricles, in which the ventricles are entirely deprived of their

power of propelling the blood through the arteries. The seeming paradox of too small a quantity of a drug being dangerous is susceptible of explanation although the theoretical points have not been fully worked out: a relatively small proportion of chloroform renders the heart “irritable ” and Hable to assume a sequence of irregular beats which may pass into fibrillation, whereas a larger

proportion of chloroform, by reason of its depressing effect, makes

ANCONA, ALESSANDRO—ANGOLA

138

the heart less irritable, and entirely annuls the tendency to fibrillation.

;

i

The revenue of the republic, amounting to ahout 32,000 pesetas per annum, is derived from the sale of wood from the state forests, the rental of summer pastures, a tax on inns and slaughter-houses,

Many years ago J. A. McWilliam expressed the opinion that a small tax on cattle and a poll-tax. The two suzerain powers ventricular ‘fibrillation would be found to account for otherwise unexplained sudden death met with in various conditions, and this receive a biennial tribute—France 1,920 franes and the Bishop of Urgel 920 pesetas; the latter also receives annual gifts in kind from demonstration of its occurrence under chloroform is the first coneach of the six communes. The principal industry is the raising of firmation of his views, Qn this theory the prevention of death under chloroform can be cattle, sheep and mules. There is a small tobacco factory at the coripassed by simple precautions, by making the induction of capital and a considerable amount, of poor quality, is exported to anaesthesia continuous and expeditious and thereafter continuously | Spain. Wax matches are also made. French and Spanish postage maintaining a full degree of narcosis. Chloroform should never be stamps, for the north and south respectively, are in use; the teleemployed if the conditions of the operation forbid the observance graphic arrangements are French. Both French and Spanish coins of these rules, and especially in those special cases in which a light are current. France has established schools in Andorra, and French influence is in the ascendent. degree of anaesthesia is required. These rules are practically a reversion to the injunctions of Simpson, who introduced chloroform as an

anaesthetic, and his colleague Syme, in whose experience only one case of death occurred in 10,000 administrations. Ventricular fibrillation is not always fatal; probably in more than half the cases the heart spontaneously recovers its normal beat, but this happy result can only occur in the first minute or two following the onset of fibrillation. After that time the only prospect of recovery is through the performance of cardiac “ massage.” This so-called “ massage” is a rhythmic manual compression of the heart, producing an artificial circulation; it 1s combined

with an

artificial ventilation of the lungs, and so oxygenated blood is suplied to the heart muscle keeping it alive and active, and giving to it a prolonged chance of recovery. In cats this experiment is uniformly successful m bringing about recovery, but in man there have hitherto been only relatively few successes. It appears to be the

case that failures have arisen from an imperfect appreciation and application of the principles of cardiac massage, and it is believed

that with better knowledge

the majority of cases of ventricular

fibrillation should prove amenable to this form of treatment.

(A. G. L.)

ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835-1914), Italian man of Ietters (see 1.951), died at Florence Nov. 8 1914. In 1904 he had been made a senator. Many of the most eminent contemporary philologists and students of literary history in Italy had been his pupils.

ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836-1917), English medical practitioner (see 1.959), died at Aldeburgh, Suff., Dec. 17 1917.

ANDERSON,

SIR ROBERT

ROWAND

(1834-1921), British

architect, was born at Forres in 1834, the son of a solicitor. He was educated at Edinburgh and entered the Royal Engineers,

ANDRASSY, JULIUS, Count (1860X, Hungarian statesman, son of the former Minister .of the Interior, was born June 30 1860. Deputy (1885), Secretary of State for the Interior (1892), Minister of the Court (1892), he became Minister of the Interior in 1906. As Minister of the Interior, as well as carlier in connexion with the language of command in the Hungarian army and against the régime of Fejervary, he maintained a severe struggle with the prime ministers Khuen-Hedervary and Stephen Tisza. In 1913 he delivered three speeches in the IIungarian Delegation against the conduct of forcign affairs, and in Parliament he opposed the plan for the centralization of the internal administration of Hungary. At the outbreak of the World War he supported the Tisza ministry, but opposed

Burian, the Foreign Minister, on the Polish and the Italian questions. In 1915 he pleaded for peace, and urged a wide extension of the franchise. In 1918, as Foreign Minister, he declared the alliance with Germany dissolved, and desired to conclude a separate peace.

Ile retired from office on Nov. 5,

was returned for Miskolcz to the National Assembly in Jan. 1920 as a non-party delegate, and later became leader of the

Christian National parity. In 1904 he was made an associate of the JIungarian Academy of Sciences, in recognition of his distinguished work as a historian. His works include: Ungarns Ausgleich vom Jahre 1867 (Hungarian and German, crowned by the Academy); Die Ursachen des

Bestandes des Ungarischen Staales und dessen verfassungsmassiger

He

Freiheit (3 vols., Hungarian, crowned by the Academy); The Development of Hungarian Constitutional Liberty (Euglish); and in

subsequently travelled widely in Europe, and later adopted the profession of architect. His first important work was his success-

sensolidaritdt des Deutschtwms und Ungartums and Diplomatie und Weltkrieg. (E. v. W.)

where he received his first training as a draughtsman.

-ful design for the Edinburgh Medical Schools (1875), and this was followed by a succession of important commissions, in-

Hungarian

ANDREE,

and German

RICHARD

Wer hat den Krieg verbrochen?

Interes-

(1835-1012), German geographer

(see

1.971), dicd at Leipzig Feb. 22 1912. cluding those for the offices of the Caledonian railway, Glasgow, ANGELL, JAMES ROWLAND (1869), American educaand Mount Stuart, Lord Bute’s house on the island of Bute tionist, was born at Burlington, Vi., May 8 1869. He was a son (1881-4), the Conservative Club, Edinburgh (1883), the dome of -of James Burrill Angell (d. 1916), first president of the university Edinburgh University (1886) and the Scottish National Portrait of Vermont and fourth president of the university of Michigan Gallery (1886-8). He also successfully carried out a series of (1871-1901). He was educated at the universities of Michigan restorations of Scottish cathedrals, including those of Dunblane (A.B. 1890; A.M. 1891) and Harvard (A.M. 1892), and spent a Cathedral, Paisley Abbey, Culross Abbey and the interior of year in Europe, chiefly at Berlin and Malle. In 1913 he was Dunfermline Abbey. Many of the best-known monuments in appointed instructor in philosophy at the university of Minnesota. Edinburgh are from his designs, and he was among the architects In 1894 he was called to the university of Chicago, remaining invited to submit designs for the Imperial Institute (1887), the there until 1920, as assistant professor of psychology and director Queen Victoria Memorial (1901), and the new buildings of the of the psychological laboratory, associate professor and, after British Muscum (1g04). In 1901 he was selected to superintend 1905, professor and head of the department. He was dean of the alterations which were being carried out at Balmoral Castle, the university facultics after ror1z and acting president durand in 1902 he was knighted. Sir Rowand Anderson was in 1876 ing 1918-9. In 1906 he was elected president of the American elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he Psychological Association, In 1914 was exchange professor at was in 1896 elected an honorary member. He was also member the Sorbonne, and in 1915 was special lecturer on psychology at of the Royal Institute of British Architects and in 1916 was Columbia. After America entered the World War i 1917 he was awarded the Royal gold medal for the promotion of architec- connected with the adjutant-gencral’s office as member of the ture. He died at Edinburgh June 1 1921. committee on classification of personnel in the army. He was ANDORRA (see 1.965) had, in 1913, a pop. of 5,210, distributed also a member of the National Research Council, serving as in 6 communes embracing 44 villages and hamicts, Alt. ranges chairman during 1919-20. In April 1920 he was elected president from 6,562 ft. to 10,171 ft.; alt. of Andorra la Vella, the capital, of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. In 1921 he was 7,sao feet. The trans-Pyrenecan railway from Ax-les-Thermes elected president of Yale to succeed Arthur T. Hadley, resigned. (Chemin de Fer du Midi) to Ripoll will pass within 2 or 3 m. of He was the author of Psychology (1904; 4th ed. revised, 1908); the frontier. A motor road, made by the French from Ax over Chapters from Modern Philosophy (1912) and An Introduction to Psychology (1918). the Col de Puymorens (alt. about 6,300 ft.) to Bourg-Madame on the Spanish frontier, is tapped by a branch road (under con-

struction in 1912) entering Andorra at Port d’En-Valira (alt. 7,580 ft.), and running down the Valira valley to the capital.

ANGOLA (PORTUGUESE WEST AFRICA) (see 2.38).—A census

taken in 1914 gave the pop. as 2,124,000, but this total was based

on figures supplied by the natives for the purpose of a hut tax,

ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D’—ANTARCTIC REGIONS

139

and did not include regions over which the Portuguese exercised

Kuneneriver valley, part of which was in German territory, was

no authority. In 1920 the pop. was estimated, with greater accuracy, at a Jittle under 4,000,000, or eight persons per sq. mile. There were some 30,000 whites, mostly Portuguese. Loanda (São Paolo de Loanda), the capital, had 18,000 inhabitants, of whom a third were whites. Surveys made since 1909 showed that the part of southern Angola suitable for European colonization was larger than had been

inhabited by the Ovambo, of whom some 20,000 were recruited by the Germans for work in the Otavi copper-mines. In ror3 the Portuguese forbade further recruiting in Angola; the Germans replied by presenting estimates to the Reichstag in ror4 for £150,000 towards building a railway from Otavi through the Ovambo country and 22 m. of the railway had been built when the World War began, Though Portugal was at the time neutral

supposed and that the plateau, which is free from tsetse-fly, was well

several conflicts occurred between the Portuguese and Germans

adapted to stock raising. Few settlers had been, however, attracted to this region up to 1921 and the development of the whole province was very slow. There was nevertheless an increase in cocoa, plantations, chiefly in the Kabinda enclave; coffee, though gathered mainly

in the frontier district. The surrender of the Germans in SouthWest Africa to Gen. Botha, in July rors, removed the German

menace to Angola and gave the province the British (South

Africans) as neighbours on the south. In an endeavour to break with the tradition that the colonics

from wild plants, was also cultivated in the Loanda hinterland and

other areas. Rubber was obtained mostly from virgin forest, but ceara, ficus and other trees were planted. Up to 1911 the many-

existed only for the benefit of Portugal the Lishon Government in

facture of rum was the leading. industry; in that year the factories

1974 granted them a measure of autonomy.

were closed by Government decrec, compensation being given to the factory owners and to the planters who grew sugar and sweet

The then governor-

gencral of Angola, Senhor Norton de Mattos, had already in-

potatoes for the production of alcohol. These planters were encouraged to grow sugar-cane for export, and the output for 1913-was 4,609 tons. Subsequently the industry languished. Fish-curing

stituted reforms and in 1913 had created a Department for Native

and Americans and their headquarters are at Lobito Bay. Forestry

on St. Thomé

and whaling are lucrative industries.

Affairs, which set itself to regulate the employment of natives, including the recruitment of labourers for the cocoa plantations

The whalers are Norwegians

and mining are both undeveloped, but the syndicate which since

and Principe Islands.

The result was some

improvement in the conditions of the natives, but the principle of compulsory Jabour was maintained, and abuses continued,

1908 has worked the Kasai diamond area of the Belgian Congo has

also concessions on the Portuguese side, and in 1920 the output of diamonds from Angola was estimated at 120,000 carats. ,

In 1920 Portugal again endeavoured to sct its colonial affairs in

External trade, owing to high protective tariffs, was mainly with

order, Another autonomy measure was Introduced and Senhor

000 to £4,500,000 yearly, with a tendency for exports to decrease.

Norton de Mattos was again (Oct. 1920) sclected to go to Angola, this time as high commissioner with wide powers,

Portugal; in the period of 1910-20 it was valued at from £3,500,Rubber, coffee, wax, sugar and palm-kernels, dried fish and whale

oil are the chief exports.

.

Lack of means of transport was a principal cause of the slow prog-

ress of Angola, The most important railway (of ihe standard South African 3 {t.-6 in, gauge), that from Lobito Bay by Benguella across

the southern plateau, had reached Bihe, a distance of 323 m. in 1914, when owing to the World War construction stopped. The railway, a British enterprise, was designed to serve the copper mines of Katanga, Belgian Congo, and work

on

the remaining

480 m.

to the Congo frontier began in 1921. A British company acquired

large land cencessions along the line and started ranches,

Farther

south a narrow gauge (60 cm.) railway 111 m. long goes from Mossamedes to the Chala Mts., serving a wheat-growing region with European settlements, including one of South African Dutch.

In northern Angola the railway (metre gauge) from Loanda was

`

See Angola (including Cabinda) (London 1920), a British Foreign Office handbook with bibliography; Hugo Marquardsen, Angola (Berlin 1920), a careful study of the geography and people, by the geographer of the Reichskolonialamt; the Awsarig Colonial (Lisbon)

and the Boletim of the Lisbon Geog. Society. ANNUNZIO,

GABRIELE

(F, R. C.)

D’: see D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE.

ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, 1ST Barr. (1843-1914), English jurist (see 2.84), died at Oxford June 4 1914. In 1909 he signed the minority report of the Divorce Commission, in

company with the Archbishop of York and Sir Lewis Dibdin. ANTARCTIC REGIONS (see 21.960).—The expedition planned

German agreement had been negotiated in 1913~4 and only awaited signature when the World War put an end to the

by Dr. W. S. Bruce for crossing ihe Antarctic continent in to1i~2, from Coats Land on the Weddell Sea to McMurdo Sound in the Ross Sea, was not procceded with, and two American expeditions which were contemplated at the same time did not advance beyond the stage of projects. Shirase (r910-2).—A Japanese expedition to Edward VII. Land was fitted out under the command of Lt. Shirase in zoro and left Japan in that year on board the “ Kainan Maru.” It entered the Ross Sea too late to make a landing, and after wintering in Sydney returned in rgt1-2, when a landing was effected on the Barrier in the Bay of Whales on Jan. 16, but no discoveries were reported and no account appears to have been published in any European language. Amundsen (rgto~2).—Capt. Roald Amundsen sailed from Norway in the “ Fram” (which had been fitted with internal combustion engines) in Aug. 1910 with the avowed intention of carrying out oceanographical work in the South Atlantic and of proceeding round Cape Horn to Bering Strait, where he proposed to repeat Nansen’s drift across the Arctic sea from a more easterly starting-place. The announcement of Peary’s attainment of the North Pole ih r909 convinced Amundsen that he could not raise sufficient funds for his proposed five years’ absence, and he determined to make a dash for the South Pole in order to raise money for the greater project. His change of plan

negotiations.

was announced to the world at Madeira in Sept., and on Jan. r4-

catried to Malanje (375 m.) and was bought in July 1918 by the Portuguese Government. Excess of expenditure over revenue continued to be a characteristic Of the administration, partly because, except for a hut tax on natives, there was no direct taxation.

Revenue was almost entirely

derived from import and export duties.

Deficits were made good

by grants made [rom Portugal and by transfers from the treasuries

of such Portuguese colonies as showed an excess of revenue. Annual

pai averaged, on a rough estimate, {500,000 and expenditure 700,000.

History —Southern Angola, in roog-11, was regarded. as a, probable choice by the Jewish ‘Territorial Association as a field for colonization, and Portugal enacted land laws with a view to that contingency. But Angola was rejecied by the Zionists as a home for Jews. Between I910 and 1914 chief interest in Angola centred in a very different scheme—the efforts of Germany to include the province in her economic and, ultimately, her political sphere. As far back as 1898 Great Britain had recog-

nized Germany’s right to “ assist ” the Portuguese to exploit southern Angola, but this had not prevented a British syndicate under Mr. Robert Williams from securing the concession for the Benguella (Lobito Bay) railway. On the building of this line from the coast to Bihe over £5,000,000 was spent. A new Anglo-

The new treaty would have recognized German

economic interests as supreme throughout Angola, except in its eastern section (see AFRICA: History), Meantime the Germans had pressed the Portuguese, and with some success, to grant them commercial concessions, and had made offers to buy up the British capital (900% of the whole) in the Benguella railway— offers which were rejected.

In southern Angola itself German agents and so-called scientific missions showed much activity. Not only did its highlands present many advantages for European settlement; the

torr the “ Fram ” was alongside the Barricr in the Bay of Whales, lat. 78° go’ S, long. 164° W. ‘The 116 Eskimo dogs were landed and a hut, “ Framheim,” erected on the Barrier 2} m. inland, the point of departure for the Pole being that originally proposed by Shackleton in 1907. On Feb, 15 rori the “ Fram,” under Lt. Thorvald Nilsen with nine men, sailed for an occanographical circumnavigation, with Buenos Aires as the first port of call. Amundsen started on his first depot-laying journey on Feb.

ro, and by April 1x had moved 3 tons of provisions to three

140

ANTARCTIC

depots in 80°, 81° and 82° S, respectively. A start for the main south journey was made on Sept. 8 but the cold proved too severe (~58° to —75° F.) for the dogs and the party returned to

REGIONS After landing the stores for the main base at Cape Evans the “Terra Nova,” under Comm. Harry Pennell, left on Jan. 2g

winter quarters for a month. On Oct. 20 rorr (with temp. ~s° to -23° F.) Amundsen left again with four companions, Helmer Hansen, Oscar Wisting, Sverre Hassel and Olav Bjaa-

1911, proceeded eastward along the Barrier and, after failing to land on Edward VII. Land, encountered the “Fram” in the Bay of Whales on Feb. 3. Scotts Northern Party (roz1-2).—The eastern party decided

land, four sledges and 52 dogs. At cach original depot they rested a day and gave the dogs a full feed from the stores; but on Nov.8 they left the depot in lat. $2° S., carrying four months’ provisions and travelling about 30 m. a day over the smooth Barricr surface, the men using ski. At every degree of latitude the sledges were lightened by forming a depot of provisions for the return journey. On Nov. 9 the mountains of South Victoria Land were sighted, and on the 11th another range of mountains was scen joining the

and then to proceed as a northern party to some point beyond Cape North, but this also proved unattainable, and a landing had to be made at Cape Adare on Feb. 18 rorz. Here a hut was erected and the northern party, under Comm. Victor L. A. Campbell and including Surg. Gen. Murray Levick, Raymond E, Priestley (geologist and meteorologist) petty-officers G. P, Abbott, F. V. Browning and H, Dickason, were landed with stores

Victoria Land range from the direction of Edward VII. Land, and thus forming the southern boundary of the great flat Barrier

surface, which apparently did not extend far beyond lat. 85° S. On Nov. 17 a large depot was left in lat. 85° S. at the base of the Queen Maud range which formed the continuation of the Victoria Land mountains, at a point zoo m. S. of the Beardmore glacier. From this point the climb to the Plateau began through

magnificent scenery of glaciers and peaks, the heights of which were estimated as 10,000, 15,000 and even 19,000 feet.

A way

was found to the summit of the Plateau by the Axel Heiberg glacier which was negotiated by the dogs with much difficulty,

to return with news of the Norwegian expedition to Cape Evans,

and sledges but no dogs. One of Borchgrevink’s huts built in 1899 was in good order, the other had been unroofed by a storm but both were serviceable. They passed a stormy winter and confirmed Borchgrevink’s conclusion that it was impossible to make any extensive journeys either on the sea-ice, which frequently

blew out to sea, or by land from this base. On Jan. 4 1912 the “ ‘Terra’ Nova” returned and took off the party, landing them with six weeks’ provisions a few days later in Terra Nova Bay, just S. of Mt. Melbourne, on the lower slopes of which much geological work was done. The ship failed tọ return in Feb, as cxpected, and the winter of tox2 had to be passed in an ice cave on

Four days were occupied in the ascent to a level stretch at 7,000 ft.; and severe weather compelled a halt at this point. for four days more. Here 24 dogs were killed, leaving 18 to work the three sledges. A start due S. was made on Nov. 26 and for two days severe blizzards made it impossible to see the surroundings, but the course lay on a descending gradient. On Nov. 29 a depot with six days’ provisions was made at the foot of the Devil’s glacier in

Inexpressible I. (about lat. 75° S.), the party subsisting mainly on seal meat cooked over blubber lamps devised with much ingenuity. This winter, spent almost without stores, was a triumph of adaptability to the hardest possible conditions, and although there was much illness the whole party was able to

lat. 86° 21'S. On Dec. 1 at a height of about 9,000 ft. the way led

way southward along the sea-ice close to shore. On Oct. 28 Granite Harbour was reached and stores left there by Griffith Taylor allowed of full rations of good food for the first time for nine

over a smooth ice surfacé on which it was impossible to use si, while under the tread it sounded like walking on empty barrels, and both men and dogs frequently broke through the thin crust of

ice. This tract, called “The Devils Ball Room,” proved the worst travelling of the whole trip. Next day in lat. 88° S. the highest swell of the Plateau, estimated at 11,000 ft., was passed and in a few days the weather improved, travelling was easy, and

march when a start for Cape Evans was possible on Sept. 30 ror2.

The Drygalski glacier tongue was crossed and the party made its

months. The remainder of the 7o-m. march to Cape Evans was assisted by several depots, and they all arrived at Hut Point on Nov. 6 1912, after triumphing over the most difficult conditions ever yet surmounted in the Antarctic. Scott’s Western Party (1g11-2).—During Jan., Fcb. and March

on Dec. 14 1911 the position of the South Pole was reached.

1911 Griffith Taylor, with Frank Debenham, Charles S. Wright

The total distance from Framheim of about 870 m. was accomplished in 49 days of actual travelling, the average daily distance being 17 miles. After remaining two days at the Polc to secure sufficient observations to fix the position, Amundsen and his party returned to Framheim in 38 days, picking up the depots in succession and making an average of 23 m. per day in fine weather without any untoward incident. The health of the men and tht Ir surviving dogs was perfect throughout the 96 days of the double journey. During the absence of the southern party Lt. K. Prestrud with Frederik H. Johansen and Jörgen Stubberud made a journey to Edward VII. Land with two sledges and 14 dogs. They were absent from Framheim (where Lindstrém the cook was left in charge) from Nov. 8 to Dec. 16 1911 and reached Scott’s Nunatak, which was found to reach a height of 1,700 ft. and was covered with thick moss. The “ Fram ” returned to the Bay of Whales on Jan, 11 1912 and the whole party sailed for home on Jan. 30, after the shortest and most successful expedition which ever wintered in the Antarctic. The one object, the attainment of the Pole, had been accomplished quickly and

dnd P. O. Edgar Evans, made an extensive geological survey and study of the ice phenomenon of the lower valleys of the Western Mountains, from Butter Point southward to the Koettlitz

easily and the meteorological observations were of great value in extending the conclusions of other investigators, Scolt (1gr0-2).—Capt. Robert F. Scott’s expedition, planned with the double purpose of reaching. the South Pole and completing the scientific study of the Ross Sea area, reached McMurdo Sound in the “ Terra Nova” on Jan. 4 ror1 (after seeking in vain for a safe position near Cape Crozier), and erected a commodious wooden house for the main base at Cape Evans on Ross

I, about half way between Shackleton’s base at Cape Royds and the old “ Discovery” headquarters at Hut Point.

No polar

expedition had been fitted out with greater care for the purpose of scientific research in meteorology, geology, glaciology and biology.

glacier in lat. 78° 20’ S., and after the winter at Cape Evans, Griffith Taylor made a second western trip with Debenham,

Lt. Tryggve Gran and P. O. Forde, completing the geological

survey of the lower mountain slopes W. of McMurdo Sound from Butter Point northward to Granite Harbour in Jat. 76° so’ S. This journey lasted from Nov. rọrr to Feb. r912 and was nich in Scientific results.

Wilson’s Winter Journey (rorr).—The finest adventure of the first winter at Cape Evans was the daring journcy in solstitial darkness via Hut Point to Cape Crozier and back by Dr. Edward

A, Wilson, Lt. H. R. Bowers and Mr. Apsley Cherry-Garrard, It lasted for 36days from June 27 to Aug. 1 1911, and the total distance traversed by man-hauled sledges was over 100 m., giving an average of about 4 m. per day out and 7 m. a day home. During a stay of ten days an effort was made to study the nesting habits of the emperor penguin, This journey was made in: the lowest temperature ever experienced in the Antarctic: many days had readings below -6o° F. and the worst was as low as -77° F, The snow in places was as granular and hard to pull through as sand, and only one sledge could be moved at a time,

so that on some days many hours’ work only made 2 m. in distance,

Scotts Journey of Capt. Scott’s steps were taken main expedition transport, means to man-haulage.

to the South Pole (1911-2).—The main object expedition being the great southern journey, at the earliest date to lay out depots for the of the following year. The vital point being had been taken to provide three alternatives There were landed at Cape Evans 17 Siberian

ANTARCTIC ponies, 33 Siberian sledge dogs and threé motor sledges on the design of which Scott had taken immense pains. The motors were practically useless on account of mechanical defects and were abandoned early in the great march. The health of the animals was a source of unending anxiety and much trouble was experienced in driving them. The route selected was at first about a day’s march to the E. of that taken by Shackleton and consequently far to the E. of that followed by Scott on the “ Discovery” expedition, the reason being to get the smooth Barrier ice beyond the influence of the great pressure ridges which disturb the surface near the mountains.

But the Plateau was to be reached by ShackJeton’s

way up the Beardmore glacier at which point the tracks converged. Depots were laid out by Scott in Jan. and Feb. rozz at Corner Camp in lat. 78° S., Bluff Camp nearly in lat. 79° S. and at One Ton depot which he had hoped to plant in lat. 80° S., but was

obliged by circumstances to place in lat. 79° 29’ S. only—a necessity which contributed to the greatest Antarctic disaster on record, In Sept. rorr, when the temperature was usually below

-40° F., Scott’s second-in-command, Lt. Edward R. A., R. Evans, took additional stores to Corner. Camp; but no more distant depots were supplemented before the main southern journey started. The two motor sledges left Cape Evans on Oct. 24 rorr, got over the sea-ice to Hut Point, safely ascended to the Barrier and broke down hopelessly, the first a few miles N. of Corner Camp, the second a few miles S. of Corner Camp on Nov, 3, Thence-

forward the southern advance was made by 16 people in three parties of four each, reinforced by two from the motor sledges and two with the dogs, one party ahead breaking the trail, the others following at intervals. Bad weather was experienced, frequent blizzards making the advance difficult,

Depots with stores were

provided for the returning parties at Mount Hooper in lat. 80° 35’ S. on Nov. 21 (Day and Hooper of the motor party, who had dragged a sledge so far, left to return three days later), at the Mid Barrier in lat. 81° 35’ S., at the South Barrier depot in lat. 82° 47’ S. on Dec. 1 and at the entrance to the Beardmore glacier in lat. 83° 30’ S, on Dec. ro. The last of the ponies had broken down and been shot, and from this point Meares and the dogteams returned northward. The party of 12 pushed on up the Beardmore glacier with three man-hauled sledges, and after leaving a depot in the middle of the glacier, reached the Plateau at 8,000 ft, on Dec. 21 1911 and left the Upper Glacier depot in lat. 85° 7° S. Here Dr, Atkinson, Mr. Wright, Mr. CherryGarrard and P. O. Keohane returned, and the party of eight went on with two sledges. Ten days later Three Degree depot was formed in lat. 86° 56’ §. and at this point Lt. Evans with Crean and Lashley returned. This party was attacked by scurvy as on the southern march from the “ Discovery” in 1902, and Lt. Evans broke down on the Barrier and was only rescued by the heroic exertions of his companions. The southern party—now consisting of five men: Scott, E. A. Wilson, H. R. Bowers, L, E. G.

Oates and P. O. E. Evans—made one more depot in lat. 88° 29 S.

and reached the South Pole on Jan. 18 1912, having made 69 marches averaging over 12 m. per day. His diary shows that in

the outward journey Scott’s mind was full of care and anxiety,

while the disappointment of finding by Amundsen’s record that he was not first to reach the Pole was a shock from which his spirits seemed never to recover,

The return journey was commenced without delay, but without any help from animal traction it proved too much for

REGIONS

141

The Winter of 1912 at Cape Evans.—During the absence of the

southern party the “ Terra Nova ” had reached Cape Evans in

Feb, 1912 and stores were landed, including seven mules from India and 14 dogs. Dr. Atkinson’s party, sent back by Scott from the Beardmore glacier, arrived on Jan. 28, and after seeing

to matters at the base, Dr. Atkinson went south with the dogteams in time to rescue Lt. Evans near Corner Camp on Feb. 22,

and as the latter was in a serious condition Atkinson stayed with him until he got him on board the “Terra Nova.” Cherry-

Garrard and Dimitri took the dog-teams back to One Ton depot to meet Scott, reaching that point on March 4 and remaining until March 10 in weather that made a further advance $, im-

possible, and they got back to Hut Point on the 16th with great

difficulty and in a very bad state. The ship left on March 8 to make a final attempt to relieve Camphell’s northern party and did not return, so the base party did not know what had happened either to the northern or southern parties. On March 26 Atkinson with P. O. Keohane set out from Hut Point and got as far as Corner Camp, where he turned, being satisfied that Scott’s party must have perished. He made one more journey, though it was

how very late in the season, and left two weeks’ provisions at Butter Point for the northern party, returning to Hut Point on

April 23, the day the sun disappeared for the winter. There were 13 souls in the Cape Evans hut that winter, with Dr, Atkinson in charge, Lt. Evans having returned ill to New Zealand and Dr. G. C. Simpson, whose meteorological work had been of unique value, having gone back to his duties in India. On Oct. 30 1gtz the whole party, under Dr. Atkinson, with Mr, C. S. Wright as guide, with seven mules and the dogs, set out from Hut Point, and on Nov. 12 the tent with the bodies of Scott, Wilson and Bowers was discovered in lat. 79° so’ S., and the records and collections brought back. During Dec. 1912 a party of six climbed Mt. Erchus, reaching the summit on the 11th, the sccond occasion of its ascent. The “Terra Nova” returned on Jan. 18 1913 and a few days later took off the entire party, reaching New Zealand on Feb. 12. The sensation produced by the tragedy of the expedition was profound and a large fund was subscribed for the benefit of the relatives of the dead explorers and for the promotion of polar research. The scicntific results of the expedition

have been worked up and are of the highest value in all departments. Australian Expedition (1911-4)-~An Australian expedition

was fitted out under the command of Dr. (later Sir) Douglas.

Mawson, with Capt. John King Davis as commander of the ship

and second-in-command of the expedition, for the purpose of exploring the coast of Antarctica S. of Australia. The expedition left Hobart in the “ Aurora ” on Dec. 2 rorz, and after landing a party with a wireless installation on Macquaric I. (lat. s5° S$.) the ship reached Adelie Land, discovered by D’Urville in 1840, and effected a landing in Commonwealth Bay, the position of which was subsequently fixed by wircless 1ime-signals as lat. 67°

S., long. 142° 40’ E. Dr. Mawson with 17 companions was landed here in Jan. 1912. The “ Aurora” proceeded westward close along the Antarctic circle. Balleny’s Sabrina Land, D’Urville’s Cote Clarie and most of the land reported by Wilkes were

found not to exist, though an enormous ice-tongue which might

well have been taken for part of the continent occupied the

Position of Termination Land.

Just beyond this point Mr,

Frank Wild was landed on a new coast called Queen Mary Land

in Jat. 66° 5., long. 94° E., and left with seven companions on

the men, Edgar Evans fell ill first and after causing fatal delay, he died on Feb. 17 on the Beardmore glacier. Oates, feeling his

Feb. 20 1912, the actual position being on a solid ice-shelf about

than cause further delay, and he left the tent on March x7 in

At the main base in Adelie Land autumn sledging proved impossible, and throughout the winter there was a continuous succession of terrific blizzards, wind with-an average velocity of

strength exhausted, had the heroism to sacrifice himself rather

79° 50’ S, never to return. The last camp was made in lat, 79°

40’ S., only rr m, from One Ton depot on March ro, and here during a blizzard which raged for several days Scott, Wilson and Bowers met their fate with heroism, Scott writing to the end. The immediate cause of collapse seems to have been cold, due to the deficiency of oi] fuel in the Mount Hooper depot, the reason

for which was stated to be evaporation through defective stoppers.

17 m. from the high land. The “ Aurora” returned to Hobart.

50 m.p.h. for the year, and sometimes with average houny velocity of over roo m.p.h. poured torrents of drift snow from

the interior into the sea. Only the fact that the hut was buried in the snowdrifts saved it from being carried away. No such weather has been recorded from any other part of the world. In the spring two caverns were excavated in the ice at distances

142

ANTARCTIC

of about s and 12 m. respectively from the hut towards the high inland plateau and were stored with provisions for summer sledging; the use of surface depots like those on the Ross Barrier was impossible owing to the wind. Five sledge parties started simultaneously in Nov. 1912, their paths diverging so as to cover the greatest possible area. The eastern sledging parties under Mr. F. L. Stilwell and C. T. Madigan with Dr. A. L. Maclean and others, mapped the coast and huge glacicr tongues as far east as

long. 150° 20’ E., reaching the farthest point on Dec. 18. The: land, with a surface rising to 3,000 ft. above the sea, extended far

to the cast and was named George V. Land. It stretched towards Oates Land sighted by the “ Terra Nova ” of Scott’s expedition. Good rock exposures were found containing coal and fossils. The magnetic pale party from the main base, under Lt. R, Bage

with E. N. Webb and J. F. Hurley, travelled out 300 m. with man-hauled sledges and reached 6,500 ft. above sea-level at a point only a few miles from that reached by Sir Douglas Mawson and Sir Edgeworth David from McMurdo Sound on Sir Ernest Shackleton’s expedition. The western party from the main base under Mr. F. H. Bickerton, with A. J. Hodgeman and Dr. L. A. Whetter, reached a point on the Antarctic circle in long. 138° E. on Christmas Day, travelling over the Plateau at a height of about 4,000 ft. An air tractor sledge started with this party but broke down after ro miles.

Dr. Mawson, with Dr. X. Mertz and Lt. B. E. S. Ninnis, using

dog sledges, set out for a long journey to the S. E, well inland of Madigan’s party, and had very difficult ground to cover, including many rises to over 3,000 ft. with intermediate descents to

near sca-level, where there were heavily crevassed glaciers. They had got out about 310 m. to nearly long. 152° E. when on Dee, 14 1912 Ninnis, with his sledge and dogs, broke through the snow

covering of a crevasse of enormous depth and was instantly killed. Many essential parts of the equipment were lost with the sledge, and only six dogs in poor condition were left. From this point the homeward track was laid farther S. than the outward so as to avoid the great ups and downs, and the travellers pushed on in frequent bad weather on short rations supplemented by the flesh of the dogs. Both suffered severely from the insufficient and loathsome food, and Mertz collapsed on Jan. 6 1913 and died the following day, leaving Mawson alone 100 m. from the hut. Aiter three days spent in cutting down the sledge and rearranging its load Mawson started on his lonely tramp, and after appalling difficulties, when nearly cxhausted, he stumbled on a food depôt laid out by a search party 20 m. from the hut on Jan. 29 1913.

It was Feb. 8 when he reached the hut and saw the “ Aurora,” but she was outward bound. A fresh relief party had come S. in the ship, and a second winter had to be spent in the hut, the isolation somewhat mitigated by wireless intercourse with Australia via Macquarie Island. Capt. Davis, after landing the relief party and taking off all the others, waited for the return of Mawson as long as he dared, having in view the necessity of relieving Wild’s party in Queen Mary Land, and the fact that every anchor on the ship had been

REGIONS Barrier ice formed Vahsel Bay, whence thé land rose to the S. and three nunataks were observed piercing the snow. Efforts to get. farther S. on a westerly course failed, and on Feb. 6 it was decided to erect the winter hut on an iceberg which appeared to be firmly frozen to the Barrier and to offer an easy passage for

dog-sledges to the land.

All stores were transferred to the

iceberg, when on Feb, 18 it suddenly began to move and ponies, dogs, stores and as much of the wood as could be saved were hurriedly reémbarked. Two small depots of provisions were afterwards laid out on the Barrier ice as a base for land parties

while the ship sought for winter quarters; but Capt. Vahsel feared the destruction of the vessel, and induced the leader to. change his plans and return to South Georgia for the winter in order to try again next year. The return journey was commenced on March 4 1912, but four days later the ship was beset by

young ice in lat. 74° S., long. 31° W., and remained fast, drifting with the winds and currents of the Weddell Sca all winter, on the whole westward and northward until the middle of August, when

she was in lat. 66° S. and Jong. 44° W. Thereafter the drift was

eastward and northward until she broke out of the pack in lat.

63° 40’ S. and Jong. 36° W. on Nov. 27 ro12 and proceeded for home. The drift lasted for 264 days and no land was sighted, although a sledge journcy was made westward to long. 45° W. in search of Morrell Land. Capt. Vahsel died during the drift, and the expedition broke up at South Georgia. Shackletan’s Weddell Sea Party (1914-6).—Sir Ernest Shackleton had completed his preparations for an attempt to cross the Antarctic regions from Weddell Sea to Ross Sea before the outbreak of the World War, and carricd out his expedition at the direct order of the Admiralty, which declined his offer of the ships and men for war service. He left England on Aug. 8 1914 in the “ Endurance ” and sailed from South Georgia on Dec.’5, with the intention of landing in Vahsel Bay and proceeding thence to the South Pole after wintering on the land. The pack was entered in lat, 57° S. and the ship worked her way S. between

long. 15° and 20° W. until on Jan. rz rors she sighted Coats Land, and followed new land named the Caird Coast to Luitpold Land. Here the “ Endurance ” was besct in the ice on Jan. 18 in lat. 76° 34’ S., long. 31° 30° W. and the voyage was at an énd. The “ Endurance” drifted in the pack as the “ Deutschland ” had done three years before, and on a nearly parallel track, moving N. about 10° farther W. and at almost exactly the same rate in the same latitudes. The ice was however much heavier, and in the terrific pressures which occurred the “ Endurance ” was crushed on Oct. 27, when the expedition of 28 men with 49

dogs abandoned her and camped on the floe. This was in Jat. 69° 5’ S., long. 51° 30’ W., and three weeks later the shattered wreck sank through the ice. ‘The attempt to sledge over the ice

westward towards the E. coast of Graham Land was unavailing, as the ship’s boats could not be left behind and were too heavy to drag. The party therefore camped on the drifting floe, keeping up scientific observations and maintaining their health and spirits though in continual danger from the flocs ridging up or lost in the fight with blizzards in Commonwealth Bay. He cracking asunder. The drift went on until April 9 1916 when the reached Wild’s base just in time, got the party safely on board floe, reduced to a triangle 100 yds. in the side, drifted into the and returned to Hobart. From their base in long. 98° E. Wild’s open sea in lat. 62° S., long. 54° W., and the party had to take-to party had travelled W. to the Gaussherg in long. 89° E., and E. their boats, after drifting 292 days in the ship and 165 on the bare as far as long. 101° E., mapping the glaciers which descended ice, 457 daysinall. North of lat..66° S. the drift of the “ Deutschfrom a platcau rising above. 3,000 ft., as well as scveral islands Jand ” had turned sharp to the E., but that of Sir Ernest Shackleoff the coast. The “ Aurora ” returned to Commonwealth Bay on ton’s floe continued in the main due N_; the difference may have Dec. 13 1913, and after taking the base party on board made been due to the opposite seasons or to other causes. The three another voyage to Queen Mary Land and carried out valuable boats safely reached Elephant I. in the South Shetlands, and a oceanographical work on the way back to Hobart. | shelter was rigged up of two boats, where 22 of the party were W. Fichner (ror1-2).—Lt. Wilhelm Filchner organized a left under the capable leadership of Mr. Frank Wild, while German expedition to the Weddell Sea in 1911, and sailed from Shackleton and five companions set out in the third boat, the South Georgia in the “ Deutschland” (Capt. Vahsel) on “James Caird,” for the almost desperate attempt to reach Dec. rr in that year and entered the pack seven days later-in South Georgia. The cffort succeeded in great measure through lat. 61° S. The ship went S. approximately on the meridian of the fine seamanship of Capt. Worsley, and the island was 30° W. and sighted land on Jan. 29 1912 in lat. 76° S.; about 2° S. reached in 16 days on May 10 after a voyage of over 800 m., but and 8° W. of Bruce’s Coats Land. The “ Deutschland ” pro- on the side farthest from the whaling stations. After a four-days ceeded along the new coast, named Luitpold Land, to lat. 77° rest Shackleton, with two companions, had recovered sufficiently 48’ S., long. 35° W. on Feb. 2 x912, where an indentation in the to cross the unknown snow-covered mountains, which had never

ANTHROPOLOGY been climbed before, and a steamer was sent round for the others. Sir Ernest

Shackleton

made

strenuous

efforts to rescue

the

Elephant I. party first in a small steamer from South Georgia,

143

dition (two vols. 1913}; R. E. Priestley, Antarctic Adventure, Scott's Northern Party (1914); G, Taylor, With Scott, the Silver Lining (1916);

Sir D. Mawson, The Home of the Blizzard (two vols. 1915); 7. K.

then in a trawler from Montevideo, then in a little motor schoon-

Davis, With the “Aurora” in the Antarctic (1920); Sir E. Shackleton, South (1919). (H. R. M.)

er from Punta Arenas, all of which were driven back by the ice floes near the South Shetlands, and finally in the “ Yelcho,” a tug from Punta Arenas, in which he reached the island on Aug. 30 1916 and brought back the whole party without a casualty,

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The earlier article (see 2.108), discussing the problem of man’s origin and the possibility of recovering fossils which would throw further light on early types of man, included the remarkable statement:—“ It seems as if anthro-

Shackletow’s Ross Sea Party (1914~7).—On the Ross Sea side

the “ Aurora,” under command of Capt. Aeneas Mackintosh, brought an auxiliary expedition to lay out depots on the Barrier to facilitate the latter part of Shackleton’s march from the Weddell Sea via the South Pole, The “ Aurora ” reached Cape Evans on Jan. 16 1915, and, while she remained there with the hope of

pology had in this direction reached the limits of its discoveries ” (see 2.119). This prediction has fortunately becn stultified almost every year since it was made, for later years have yielded an abundantly rich harvest of anthropological data and a clearcr vision of their significance. In fact they have witnessed a pro-

found revolution in every branch of the study of man. New and

wintering, Mackintosh and a sledge party laid out depots as far as important information has been acquired concerning man’s lat. 80° S. by Feb. 20. This was a better record than in Scott’s - ancestry, and the factors that brought the Primates into autumn journey of 1911; but it was midwinter before Mackintosh existence and transformed one branch of the Order into the found the ice strong enough to permit of his return to Cape Evans. human family. Hitherto unknown types of fossil men have

Early next summer he started 5, again; was at the 80° depot on

Jan. 6 1916 and with five companions reached Mt, Hope at the

mouth of the Beardmore glacier in lat. 83° 30’ S. on Jan. 20 where

he left a depot, The return journey was one of terrible hardship aggravated by scurvy, and the party narrowly escaped Scott's fate.

Mr. Spencer Smith died, but the rest reached Hut Point

been found in the Mauer Sands near Heidelberg, at Piltdown in

Sussex, at Talgai in Queensland, at Wadjak in Java and at Boskop in the Transvaal. So many examples of Neanderthal Man have been found at Le Moustier, La Chapelle-aux-Saints, La Quina, La Ferrassie, in Jersey and near Weimar, that we are now

able to get a very clear idea of the appearance and distinctive

on March 18 ro16. In their anxiety to get back to the Cape

features of the brutal species of man that preceded Homo

Evans party, Mackintosh and Hayward attempted the journey on the sea-ice on May 8, but the ice was not strong enough and

sapiens in Europe. Much new information has been acquired of the different races of Homo sapiens that made their way into

they were lost. It was July before the rest of the southern party reached Cape Evans.

On May 6 roxs the “ Aurora,” which had been frozen in and

western Europe after Jomo neanderthalensis disappeared from

the scene; and the discovery of their paintings on the walls of caverns in southern France and in Spain and their plastic art

made fast by many cables to the shore at Cape Evans, was blown out to sca with all the ice and was held fast for 315 days, during which time she drifted northward through Ross Sea nearly in the game direction and at nearly the same rate as the “ Endurance ” was drifting at the same time in the Weddell Sea. She had been severcly damaged by ice pressure; but Lt. J. R. Stenhouse, who was in command, rigged a new rudder, and when she was released on March 16 1016 in lat. 62° 27’ S., long, 157° 30° E., he brought

has been an astounding revelation of the genius and skill no less

the disabled vessel safely to New Zealand. The ship was repaired by the New Zealand Government and dispatched under the command of Capt. J. King Davis with Sir Ernest Shackleton

Elam, Sumer (and Babylonia, which succeeded it), Crete, the

on board, and on Jan. 7 1917 she reached Cape Royds and rescued

the seven survivors who had come safely through their two winters in spite of shortage of supplies, the winter stores not

having all been landed when the ship was blown away. All of the 53 men who returned from the expeditions of the “ Endurance ” and “ Aurora ” served In the navy, army or air force during the

World War, three being killed and five wounded. Scientific Results The scientific results of the expeditions described above could not yet in 192 be adequately summarized, for the war had retarded the investigation of the collections and the discussion of statistics. It would be impracticable to draw general conclusions as to the physical and biological conditions

of the Antarctic regions until the researches of all the expeditions had been published in a comparable form. All the inferences from earlier work required revision, but specialists of different expeditions had already committed themselves to views which could not be reconciled in the absence of full information from all explorers. This observation applies in particular to the general theory of the meteorology of the South Polar area, as expounded for the Gauss expedition by Prof. Meinardus and for Scott’s Jast expedition by Dr. G. C. Simpson.

The results of the Australian and German expeditions, which were for a great part of the time synchronous with those of Scott and Amundsen, required to be taken into consideration before a gencral theory of the atmospheric circulation within the Antarctic circle could be established. This is also the case as to geology, and the bearings of geological evidence on the probable nature and extent of the Antarctic continent, and the relations of that land mass to the other continents. See, in addition to the books referred to in the 11th ed., R. Amund-

sen, The South Pole (two vols. 1912); L. Huxley, Scott's Last Expe-

than the artistic feeling of these earliest known members of the species to which we, and all men now living, belong. . The brilliant researches of French anthropologists have made it possible to classify the phases of culture of the so-called upper palacolithic age and assign to each its distinctive features and its chronological sequence with reference to the other phases, Intensive studies of the older civilizations of Egypt,

Acgean, Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor, have made it possible

to understand the origin of civilization in a way that was undreamt of hitherto; and it is now possible confidently to sketch out the process whereby this common civilization was diffused into Europe, to Turkestan and India, to Siberia and China, to Indonesia and Oceania, until finally it crossed the Pacific to Central America and Peru. But perhaps the most profound change that was initiated in anthropology during the decade

1910-20 was the demolition of many of the dogmas which for

half a century had paralyzed ethnological investigation and prevented those who were collecting the evidence from appreciating its real significance. This fundamental change of view had not in 1921 been generally accepted by cthnologists, but there were already then very obvious signs that many of them were preparing to repudiate the fashionable doctrine, which had been expressed in its most extreme form in the earlier article in this Encyclopaedia. The Evolution of Man.—In spite of not infrequent attempts

to disprove man’s kinship with the apes, recent research in

anatomy, embryology and comparative pathology, as well as the conclusive tests of blood-relationship, has definitely estab-

lished the fact of man’s close kinship with the anthropoid apes, and especially with the gorilla. But this fundamental conclusion is not in any sense invalidated by the clear recognition of the further fact that the ancestors of man and the gorilla

respectively became differentiated the one from the other at least as early as the middle of the Miocene period. This does not mean

that man’s forebears assumed their human, characteristics at the period mentioned, but rather that the ancestors of the gorillas

and chimpanzees had begun to assume their distinctive special-

izations and to fall out of the race for intellectual supremacy which was eventually to be attained by the descendants of their

unspecialized Miocene brothers.

It is in the highest degree

ANTHROPOLOGY

144

probable that throughout the Miocene, man’s ancestors were

alongside the path leading to Barkham Manor, the residence

still simian.

All we know of them is that certain fossil apes

of Mr. Charles Kenward, near Piltdown in Sussex) fossilized

found by Dr. Pilgrim in the foothills of the Himalayas reveal curious little peculiarities of structure that serve to identify them in his opinion as members of the group of anthropoids from which the Hominidae were eventually derived—probably

fragments of the skull of a palaeolithic member of the human family quite unlike anything known hitherto (C. Dawson and A. Smith Woodward, “On the Discovery of a Palaeolithic Skull and Mandible in a Flint-bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex),’’

not until the latter part of the Pliocene (G. E. Pilgrim, “ New

Siwalik Primates,” Records of the Geological Survey of India,

xlv., 1915). But whether or not Dr. Pilgrim is justified in his claim that the newly discovered

Miocene

ape which he has

called Sivapithecus is the ancestor of man or not, it is quite

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. lxix. (1913)

and vol. Ixx. (1914); the best photographs of these highly signif-

icant specimens will be found in A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the Department of Geology and Palaeontology in the British

certain that in Miocene times the region of the Siwalik Hills was a great breeding-ground of anthropoid apes, and that the great variety of species and genera which were evolved there

Museum, first issued.in 191s).

included the ancestors not only of the orangs, the chimpanzees and gorillas, but also of the human family. The ancestors of the chimpanzees and gorillas spread west with man’s forerunners

provoked in 1913 as to the proper way of reconstructing the skull, there never was any real doubt as to the form of the brain case on the part of those who were studying the actual fossils, because these display the anatomical details which leave no room for any doubt on the points at issuc. The interesting feature of the cast of the interior of the cranium is the demonstration it affords that this extremely primitive “ Dawn Man,”

and reached not only Africa, where their descendants have sur-

vived until the present day, but also Europe where the fossilized remains of Dryopithecus are widespread. In the course of its wanderings between northern India and Africa human char-

acteristics emerged in one of these simian forms. The outstanding difference between the earlicst member of the human family and his simian cousin was the fact that his brain had developed a little further than the ape’s, so that he was

able to learn to perform acts of a higher degree of skill not only with his hands but with his vocal muscles, He had acquired the power not merely of a fuller appreciation of the symbolism of sound, but also of arbitrarily imitating sounds and of creating a vocal symbolism whereby he could learn from his fellows and communicate his ideas to them. It was the enormously enhanced power of acquiring knowledge and profiting from the experience of his fellows that differentiated man from the apes; and the peculiar features of the endocranial casts of the fossils Pithecanthropus and Hoanthropus suggest that the acquisition of the

power of speech may have been an essential part of the process of making a man from an ape.

If India has provided us with new light on the place and time of the separation of man’s ancestors from the other apes, Egypt has revealed the origin of the anthropoids, It was in 1901 that Dr. C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum, discovered

that the Egyptian Fayum was a veritable museum of hitherto

unknown fossil ancestors of several mammalian Orders.

His

prediction that important monkeys would be found there has been fully realized by the discovery of the very primitive Catathine Parapithecus and an anthropoid ape, Propliopithecus (M. Schlosser, “ Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Oligoziinen Landsiugetiere aus dem Fayum [Aegypten],” Beitrige zur Pal. u. Geol. Osterreich-Ungarns u. d. Ortents, Bd. xxiv., 1911). The discovery of a diminutive anthropoidas early as the beginning of the Oligocene period prepares us for the fact that it presents many signs af not

Sufficient of the cranium was

recovered to restore the whole of the brain case; and it is im-

portant to remember that, although a lively altercation was

Eoanthropus Dawsoni, a3 Dr. Smith Woodward has called him, had a brain which fell definitely within the range (so far as size is concerned) of variation of modern men’s brains. But it dis-

played some remarkable deficiencies, more especially in the

singularly poor development of those frontal, parictal and temporal areas, the noteworthy expansion of which is the fundamental distinctive character of the human brain. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the endocranial cast of the Piltdown man is the remarkable localized overgrowth of that particular part of the brain (the posterior part of the superior

temporal convolution) which in modern man is intimately associated with the appreciation of the acoustic symbolism of speech. As.a somewhat analogous boss is found on the endocranial cast of Pithecanthropus, the fossilized remains of which were found nearly thirty years ago in Java by Dr. Eugen Dubois,

it affords grounds for the view that the acquisition of speech may have been one of the essential clements in the transforma. tion of an ape into a man. It is of fundamental importance to realize that, in spite of its size, the endocranial cast of Hoanthropus reveals these indubitable traits of an extremely early phase in the attainment of human characters; and the brain was contained in a skull of a peculiarly distinctive type. For so simian is the form of the jaw that many anatomists and palacontologists refuse to admit that

it is human, and claim that a hitherto unknown chimpanzee expired at Piltdown in Pleistocene times on the same spot as

Eoanthropus and that the former left its jaw and the latter its

skull. This view is widely held, but chiefly by non-British anatomists (see, for example, M. Ramstriém, “ Der Piltdown Fund,” Geol. Inst. of Upsala, vol. xvi., 1919) who have never distant kinship with the peculiar Eocene Tarsioidea, a Sub-Order studied the actual fossils. Had they done so they would have of Prosimiac, one of whose members, the Spectral Tarsier, still realized that, in spite of its form, both the mandible itself and survives to-day in the forests of Borneo, Java and certain other the teeth lodged in it display undoubted human characters, islands of the Malay Archipelago. For some years intensive Moreover the cranium also reveals much more primitive feastudies have been made of the anatomy and embryology of this | tures than is commonly supposed by those who have not scen remarkable creature (see, for example, “ the Discussion of the and handled it. In fact there is no reason for withholding Zoölogical Position and Affinities of Tarsius,” Proc. Zoél. Soc. assent to the view that this remarkable cranium, which formerly London, 1919, published Feb. 1920); and these investigations lodged a brain of extremely primitive character, once formed have shed a great deal of light upon the factors that brought part of the same individual whose jaw had not yet lost all the the Primates into being and in one group of the Order initiated marks of the ape. further changes, especially in the cultivation of stereoscopic A vast amount of writing has accumulated since 1912 with vision and all that it entailed in the stimulation of brain-growth, reference to this remarkable skull, but most of this literature is which ultimately culminated in the emergence of human powers irrclevant and misleading, as the authors. have not seen the of foresight and discrimination (see Presidential Address to the material about which they write and have no adequate realizaAnthropological Section of the British Association, 1912). tion of the true state of affairs. Fossil Remains of Extinct Members of the Human Family.— As to the age of the Piltdown skull, precise information is

The conclusion to which the study of man’s ancestry had led investigators, that the brain led the way in the emergence of human characters, received a dramatic confirmation in 1912, when the late Mr. Charles Dawson and Dr. Smith Woodward announced that the former had discovered (in a patch of gravel

lacking. It was found in an ancient river bed along with rolled teeth of Phocene clephants and rhinoceros that had' been washed out of some older geological formation, and unrolied teeth of

early Pleistocene hippopotamus and beaver and the base of the antler of a red deer. From a consideration of all the evidence it

ANTHROPOLOGY is reasonable to assume that the Piltdown man lived in the early Pleistocene period, and this inference is borne out by the crude implements of flint and elephant-bone found along with the skull. The crucial importance of Eoanthropus depends upon the fact that it is so obviously close to the main line of descent of modern man. Yet it reveals such astounding simian resemblances that many—perhaps the majority of—recent writers want to claim its jaw as a chimpanzee’s, This in itself is a striking demonstration of the closeness of the affinity of primitive man and certain apes.

Although in r92z it was nearly thirty years since Professor Eugen Dubois discovered at Trinil, on the banks of the Solo river in Java, the fossil which he regards as parts of one individual, Pithecanthropus erectus, his monograph on the subject had not been published. Nevertheless the stream of writings on this ape-man was still flowing unabated. In Boule’s Les Hommes Fossiles (1921) the distinguished French palaeontologist still maintained that Pithecanthropus 1s not a member of the human family, but is an ape. Dubois himself maintains that it is neither a man nor an ape, but a creature really intermediate between them. But the endocranial cast of Pithecan-

thropus reveals the fact quite definitely and surely that as regards

its size, shape and the relative proportion of parts, this so-called ape-man of Java comes within the range of the Hominidae. Morcover, as has already been mentioned, its endocranial cast exhibits a fullness of the postero-superior part of the temporal area which suggests the acquisition of the characteristically human power of speech. The question is still debated whether the thigh-bone found in the same bed as the skull-cap of Pithecanthropus really belonged to the same individual. It is so obtrusively human that some authorities find a difficulty in associating it with the skull: but the balance of evidence is in favour of both being parts of one individual, the most primitive and the earliest known member of the human family, aberrant both in physical type and habitat. Controversy was still proceeding in 1921 as to the age of the Pithecanthropus remains, and new evidence provided by the Selenka expedition has been

used to strengthen the hands of those who object to the claim of Dubois that the remains belong to the Upper Pliocene and maintain that these carliest known representatives of the human family arc to be referred definitely to the commencement of the Pleistocene period (Selenka and Blanckenhorn, “ Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java,” Geologische und palacontologische Ergebnisse der Trinil-Expedition, Leipzig, 1911).

In 1905 the remains of Pithecanthropus represented the only known member of the family Hominidae which did not belong to the genus Homo. Since then, however, the remains of other forms have been revealed that surely deserve generic distinction, In 1907 a human lower jaw was found in the base of the Mauer Sands near Heidelberg, which was described by Schoetensack as a hitherto unknown member of the human family which he called Homo heidelbergensis. But its age and peculiar features remove it so far from all the members of the genus Homo that it is more in accordance with the proper perspective to follow Bonarelli who has created for its reception the genus Palacoanthropus. It is extremely massive and is unlike any other human jaw, not merely by reason of its size but also in the ape-like recession of its chin. . Neanderthal Man.—The fossilized remains of part of a cranium

and some long bones found in 1856 by some workmen in the Feldhofer Grotto in the Neanderthal Valley (between Elberfeld and Diisseldorf in Rhenish Prussia) are now generally admitted to represent a species of the genus Homo that is definitely differentiated from the species sapiens, to which all the living races of man belong. This extinct species is known as H. neanderthalensis, a name first suggested in 1864 by Prof. King of Galway. In 1848 a fossil skull was found at Gibraltar by Lt. Flint, but no attention was devoted to it until Busk described it in 1864; and it is now commonly supposed to be a female of the Neanderthal species; but Sera (Soc. romana di Antrop, xv. 1909) considers it to be more primitive and earlier than the true

Neanderthal people. Other examples of the Neanderthal species

145

have been found in the grotto of Spy (Belgium) in 1886, at Krapina (Croatia) in 1899, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints (La Corrèze, France) in 1908, Le Moustier in the Dordogne (19009) and in the same year at La Ferrassie in the same region. Another skull was found in the same region in roro, and in torr yet another at La Quina (Charente). To this remarkable series of skeletons found in France, which give us so complete a picture of the distinctive features of this brutal extinct species of our genus, is to be added fragments of two jaws found in 1914 at Ehringsdorf near Weimar in Germany (see Hans Virchow, Dia

menschlichen Skeletreste aus dem Käümpfischen Bruch im Travertin von Ehringsdorf bei Weimar, Jena, 1920). The vast literature that has accumulated with reference to the other examples of Iomo neanderthalensis will be found summarized in M. Boule’s Les Hommes Fossiles (Paris, 1921) as wel as in H. F. Osborn’s Men of the Old Stone Age (New York, rors) and W. J. Sollas’s Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives (London, end ed. 1914). Neanderthal man is now revealed as an uncouth race with an enormous flattened head, very prominent eye-brow ridges and a coarse face. The trunk is short and thick, the robust limbs are

short and thick-set: the broad and stooping shoulders lead by a curve to the forwardly projected head set on an abnormally thick neck. The hands are large and coarse and lack the delicate play between thumb and fingers which is found in Homo sapiens, The large brain is singularly defective in the frontal region. It is clear that Neanderthal man’s limbs and brain were incapable of performing those delicately skilled movements that are the distinct prerogative of H. sapiens and the chief means

whereby the latter has lcarned by experiment to understand the world around him, and to acquire the high powers of discrimination that enabled him to compete successfully with the brutal strength of the Neanderthal species. ‘The Neanderthal race of men, with their distinctive Mouster-

ian culture, suddenly disappeared from Europe, and were replaced by immigrants belonging to our own species, who brought with them to Europe the germs of the phase of culture known as Aurignacian. These newcomers were members of the CroMagnon race, a very tall people with large dolichocephalic skulls and relatively broad face. They probably entered Europe from the S., because their settlements are found chiefly near the Mediterrancan coastline, in northern Africa, Sicily, Italy, southern France and Spain. The coming of this superior race of highly intelligent men is revealed also by the sudden improvement in the technique of the flint-work and the appearance, especially in the caves of southern France, of mural paintings revealing new powers of artistic observation and skill in depicting the animals which these people hunted. There is revealed for the first time the genius and the aesthetic feeling of members of our own race.

At a later period the members of another race

(also dolichocephalic, but with much narrower and more harmonic face than the Cro-Magnon people) began to make their way into Europe from the East, probably by way of Poland and Moravia, Hungary and Bavaria, thence into France. ‘These people are often known as the Brünn race and their culture as Solutrian. The skeletons are found deeply imbedded in loess along with the bones of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, giant deer, reindeer, etc. Their culture is distinguished by the wonderful skill in flaking flint implements. Although it lasted only a short time in Europe and never extended as far as Spain or the Mediterranean area, this method of stone-working spread far and wide, to Egypt, Australia and America, and in the latter two countrics persisted until the present time. After the Solutrian came the Magdalenian phase of culture,

which marked the culmination of the skill and achievement of man before agriculture. This new development was not derived from the Solutrian art, but was brought into Europe and replaced the latter. It lacked the superb skill of the Solutrian flint-workers, but was characterized by a high degree of ability in painting and sculpture. For information concerning the culture of the Magdalenian epoch

in France and Spain see Osborn’s Men of the Old Stone Age; also the

ANTHROPOLOGY

146 books by Déchelette,

Manuel d'archéologte préhistorique, celtique et that thirty years

sallo VOGL, Paris, 1910-13 and Sollas, Ancient Hunters and Their

Modern Representatives.

The Magdalenian phase of culture in western Europe was succeeded by the Neolithic, a momentous

event, which was

heralded by the arrival in different parts of Europe of a variety

of races:—(a) an advance wave of the Mediterranean race which was soon to introduce the distinctive elements of the Neolithic

culture, but at first introduced the Azilian-Tardenoisian industry into Spain and France; (b) another offshoot of the Mediterranean race that made its way to Ofnet in Eastern Bavaria; (c) a race possibly of Nordic affinities that appeared on the coasts of the Baltic, but is known only by the Maglemose industry; and (d) a broad-headed advance guard of the so-called Alpine or Armenoid race (distinguished as Furfooz-Grenelle) found along with the dolichocephalic people at Ofnet and also in Belgium. The coming of the Neolithic people into western Europe marks the advent there of people who brought the rudiments of the great world civilization that was being built up in the Ancient East. For the cultivation of barley and wheat, the making of pottery, the weaving of linen and several other distinctive features of the Neolithic phase of culture are clearly instances of customs which had their origin in Egypt or its neighbourhood

at a time when western Europe was still in the so-called ‘‘ Upper Palacolithic ’ phase. Towards the end of the Neolithic phase in the W., when megalithic monuments make their appearance as crude imitation of the stonework of the Pyramid Age in Egypt (“ The Evolution of the Rock-Cut Tomb and the Dolmen,” Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway, 1913),

earlier he had found fossilized remains of members of the same race at Wadjak in Java (“ De protoAustralische fossiele Mensch van Wadjak, Java,” Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Deel, xxix., May 29 1920). Boskop Skull—About the same time that the discovery of the Talgai skull was announced in Australia the discovery was recorded of a very different type of fossilized skull from Boskop in the Transvaal (S. H. Haughton, “ Preliminary Note on the Ancient Skull Remains from the Transvaal,” Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, vol. vi., 1917). The fossils

consist of part of the brain case and jaw of a type of man differ-

ing profoundly from the earliest known inhabitants of S. Africa, the Bushman and the Hottentot.

They represent the remains

of a variety of Homo sapiens in some respects akin to the CroMagnon race, the earliest type of Homo sapiens known in Europe, ; l Oldoway Skull.—In 1914 also the fossilized remains of a human skeleton were found in Central Africa (H. Reck, “ Erste vor-

läufige Mitteilung über den Fund eines fossilen Menschen-

skeletts aus Zentralafrica,” Sitzungsberichie der Gesellschaft nalurforschender Freunde zu Berlin, 1914), but adequate information concerning this discovery is still lacking.

Early Man in America.—Although it is certain that at a relatively early period in the history of Homo sapiens there must have been an immigration (by the Bering Strait route into N.W. America} of ‘people sprung mainly from the proto-

Mongolian stock, living E. of the hcad-waters of the Yenisei

we get even more definite indications of the source and date of

river, no remains of really carly man in America have yet been discovered. The mere finding of implements of Palaeolithic types proves little, because the making of such implements has

the cultural inspiration to build such peculiar and distinctive

survived in the East, and the art may have been carried to

structures; and the close identity of their geographical distribution with those of the ancient exploitation of flint, gold, copper, tin, pearls, jet, amber and purple indicates clearly cnough the motives that attracted the culture-bearers to certain localitics and made them foci of new developments of culture (W. J. Perry). It is important to remember that in the home of their invention the working of gold and copper preceded the building of stone monuments by some centuries; but as prospectors searched for gold and copper ores they invaded territories and obtained these materials from them long before the metals themselves were worked or uscd locally, 7c. while the latter still remained in the

America within relatively recent times. Up to 1921, the most recent discovery of human remains supposed to be early was made at Vero in Florida in 1916, but the geological evidence showed that the fossilization had occurred in post-Pleistocene times. There is, however, still great uncertainty as to the age

of these remains, which do not differ in type from many modern American, Indians, The whole problem of early man in America has been explored in‘a severely critical spirit by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, who gives a full bibliography (“ Skeletal Remains suggesting or attributed to Early Man in N. America,” Smiühsontan Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bull. 33, Washington, 1907; ‘‘ Early Man in S. America,”

stone phase of culture. These are very cogent reasons for the belicf that the working of copper first began in Upper Egypt or Nubia (Reisner, quoted by Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians,

ibid., 1912; and “Recent Discoveries attributed to Early Man in

chap.t; see also Man, Feb. 1916, p. 26) and from there spread

America consisted of a colony of a proto-Mongolian race mixed perhaps to some extent with proto-Armenoid elements in the original Siberian homeland. In later ages, more especially between about 300 B.C. and 1000 A.D., this population in America has been very considerably diluted—more especially on the Pacific coast—by a stcady percolation of a variety of alien

to Palestine and Syria, to Elam and Asia Minor, Cyprus and the Aegean. It is probable that the making of bronze was first devised early in the third millennium in the neighbourhood of the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, perhaps near Meshed, and

from there the practice spread W. and S., and later E., until not only western Asia and Europe passed into a Bronze Age, but also eastern Asia and Central and S. America,

The Talgai and Wadjak Skulls.—At the mecting of the British

America,” zbid., 1918).

It is probable that the substratum of the early population of

elements into the N.W.

coast .from Asia and into Central

and South America from Polynesia and Micronesia in numbers sufficient materially to affect the physical type of the people of the western littoral and differentiate them from the castern

Association in Sydney in 1914 Profs. J. T. Wilson and T. W. Edgeworth David exhibited the fossilized skull of a boy of about

people.

1918 (Stewart Arthur Smith, “‘ The Fossil Human Skull found at Talgai, Queensland,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, vol. ceviii.). The interest of this earliest Australian skull lies in the fact that it conforms so closcly to the type of the existing aboriginal Australian, its only peculiarity

tation) see Clark Wissler, The American Indian (New York, 1917). Dr. Wissler’s book is also an invaluable summary of the present state of our knowledge of the geographical distribution of the arts and crafts of America, and a striking demonstration of the fact that the arts of agriculture, pottery, weaving, stone-working, metallurgy, etc., were diffused abroad in America from one centre somewhere in the region of Honduras. But he stoutly denies the conclusion (which

fifteen years of age, which had been picked up thirty years before in Queensland. A full account of this skull was published in

being the exceptional size of the palate and teeth, and especially of the large and salient canine teeth. The discovery of fossilized dog’s teeth in the cave breccias of New South Wales and Victoria go to prove that early man accompanicd by his dogs must have ferricd across Wallace’s line to make his way into New Guinea and Australia. The publication of the account of this proto-Australian skull stimulated Prof. Eugen Dubois to announce the information

For the evidence in support of this (but with a different interpre-

emerges so clearly from the evidence he presents) that the elements

of this exotic culture were planted in Central America by small groups of immigrants who had crossed the Pacific Ocean via Polynesia from Cambodia and Indonesia.

Classification of Existing Races.—RBetween toro-20 it became increasingly clear that the generally adopted classification of mankind and of early culture was unsatisfactory, and not in full accordance with the facts ihat are now available. The intro-

duction of the terms “Palacolithic ” and “Neolithic” by Sir

147

ANTHROPOLOGY: John Lubbock (afterwards Lord Avebury) served a useful purpose for a time in discriminating between the carly and the

later methods of flint-working before the discovery of bronze, But it is now known that the great break in the technique of stone-working did not occur at the transition from the Palaeo-

lithic to the Neolithic phase, but when the so-called ‘ Lower Palaeolithic” gave place to the so-called “ Upper Palaeolithic.” The vast significance of this great revolution in man’s history (at. any rate in western Europe) is emphasized by the fact that it coincided with the final disappearance of the species H. neanderthalensis and the coming of the members of the species to which we ourselves (and all existing members of the human family) belong, z.e. H. sapiens. The replacement of the degraded type of mankind with his crude Mousterian culture and the coming of H. sapiens with his greater skill and artistic. aptitude is surely the most significant revolution in the whole of man’s history. To discriminate between these two phases of culture, Elliot Smith has suggested the terms, “ palaeanthropic ” and ‘“neoanthropic’? to apply respectively to the extinct species and their works and H, sapiens and his achievements (‘Primitive Man,” Proceedings of the British Academy, 1917). All the races of man that exist at present belong to the species sapiens, but they differ profoundly in type and in the probable dates of their differentiation the one from the other. The most primitive race of all is the aboriginal Australian, who represents the survival of the earliest phase of IZ. sapiens with relatively slight change. After he separated from the rest of mankind he found a home in India, where he formed the substratum of the

aboriginal people called pre-Dravidian. The rest of this race wandered E. until they reached Australia, small remnants remaining in some of the Indonesian Is. as abiding witnesses of the ancient migration. Probably at a much later period the Negro and Negritto became differentiated from the rest of mankind and found their area of characterization in tropical Africa, from which place in later times negroid peoples drifted along the whole southern littoral of Asia to Indonesia and Melanesia. It is probable that the Bushmen and Ilottentot races represent early differentiations from the Negro stock. These two races, Australian and Negro, retain the black colour of skin which originally was probably common to all mankind and his nearest relatives, the gorilla and chimpanzee. After the Australian and Negro had been differentiated the rest of the human family attained a higher plane of development associated with a bleaching of the skin, a refinement of the features and a further growth and specialization of the brain. This palefaced stock became broken up during the glacial period into four main stocks which became isolated the one from the other. Probably the earliest to wander off and become segregated— possibly in the region of the Yellow river—was the protoMongolian group which in course of time became specialized in structure as the Mongolian race. The next group probably found its area of charactcrization in N.E. Africa where it assumed the less specialized, i.e. relatively primitive, features that distinguish the Brown or Mediterranean race. Two other groups became isolated in the N.—one, probably in Turkestan, assumed

brachycephalic traits and developed into the so-called Alpine

The whole racial problem was in 1921 still in process of reconsideration. The best collection of facts relating to the subject will be found in the new edition of Keane’s Mun, Past and Present, edited

by Quiggin and Haddon (Cambridge, 1920), but the headings of the chapters preserve the fallacies of the effete system of classification

that is now being discarded.

,

Only the most inveterate prejudice can blind one to the fact that the widespread movement of small groups of people in Polynesia (the chief ingredients in whose constitution were elements of the Brown and Armenoid races) served to link up America with the Old World, and to provide the means whereby the elements of the early civilization of south-eastern Asia were introduced into Central America and Peru. No ethnologist doubts for a moment that the early mariners reached Easter I., because the island is peopled, and the language and the culture of the islanders afford proof of the fact that they came from the West. But it must be apparent that for every ship that chanced to strike that microscopic islet in eastern Polynesia there must have been hundreds, if not thousands, that missed it and were swept on to the coast of America. The whole culture of this Pacific littoral affords corroborative evidence of the fact that these early mariners did plant in Central America and Peru the beliefs and customs which we know them to have had. Mr. Charles Hedley claims (Man, Jan. 1917, p. 12) that the

peoples of Oceania obtained from America the coconut and the sweet-potato as the result of such intercourse. The recent discovery (Chinnery) of the use of tobacco in the central highlands of New Guinea raises the question whether Amcrica learned the use of tobacco from Papua or the reverse.

The

very primitive and peculiar methods of smoking tobacco that Lt. Chinnery discovered in New Guinea suggest that if introduced from the East it must have occurred at a relatively remote period. The Diffusion of Culture —For half a century ethnology has been suffering from a grave reaction which it is only now beginning to overcome, Thus in the earlier article it was stated (se@ 2.119) !— ‘* Anthropological researches undertaken all over the globe have shown the necessity of abandoning the old theory that a similarity of customs and superstitions, of arts and crafts, justifies the assumption of a remote relationship, if not an identity of origin, between races. It is now certain that there has ever been an inherent tendency in man, allowing for difference of climate and material surroundings, to develop culture by the same stages and in the same way. American man, for example, need not necessarily owe the

minutest portion of his mental, religious, social or industrial development to remote contact with Asia or Europe, though he were proved to possess identical usages. An example in point is that of pyramidbuilding. No ethnical relationship can ever have existed between the Aztecs and the Egyptians; yet each race developed the idca of the pyramid tomb through that psychological similarity which ts as much a characteristic of the species man as is his physique.”

This once authoritative statement is cited at length to call attention to the actual teaching in ethnology which went far to sterilize half a century’s intensive investigation; and as the present tendency is to sweep away all such sophistry and introduce into ethnology the real scientific method, it will be useful to cxamine the claims of the system which has to be got rid of. Let us take the above five sentences as quoted seriatim. As

or Armenoid race; the other, somewhere to the N.W., retained its primitive dolichocephaly but developed the distinctively

it stands the first sentence would be altogether satisfactory if it really meant that ethnology utterly and totally disclaimed the

blond traits that are the obtrusive characteristic of the Nordic:

view that similarity of customs implicd racial kinship. The fact that a Japanese makes a steam-engine does not transform him into an Englishman! But as the second sentence shows, the ethnologists were confusing race and culture. The Japanese engineer who builds the steam-engine docs not do so because there is “ an inherent tendency in man to develop culture in the same way”: the fact that the making of a steam-cngine does not transform him into an Englishman does not preclude the recognition of the debt he owes directly or indirectly to Englishmen for the idea and for the methods of putting it into practice. Instead of it being “ now certain” that there is “ an inherent tendency in man” (in other words what the psychologist calls an instinct) to build steam-cngines or pyramids, both the facts

race. Within cach of the areas of characterization groups became isolated and differentiated in greater or less degree the one from the other. Moreover at the end of the glacial period, when the great ice-barriers disappeared there was extensive intermingling not merely of the formerly isolated groups of the same race, but also of different races. In Siberia especially there was a complex intermixture of Armenoid, Mongolian and Nordic peoples; and in western Asia and the Mediterranean littoral a variety of blends of Brown and Armenoid peoples. Jt was probably after a certain amount of such intermixture had occurred

near the head-watcrs of the Yenisei that an essentially protoMongohan people moved E. and crossed into America as the first inhabitants of the New World.

-of history and the principles of psychology teach us that there

. ANTHROPOLOGY

148

is no such specialized instinct. With reference to the protest that American man did not borrow mental, religious, social and industrial ideas from Asia, no one has provided more cogent illustrations of the fact that he did do so than the author of the disclaimer himself (see, for example, ‘On the Diffusion of Mythical Belicfs as Evidence in the History of Culture,” Report British Association, 1894, p. 774; “On the Game of Patolli,” Journal Anthropological Institute, vol. viii., 1879; p. 128). The series of step-pyramids that are scattered from Mesopotamia to Ceylon, to Cambodia and Java, to Japan and Shantung, to

1917), the Indonesian archipelago ought to preserve some evidence of the movement by which the custom of building stone monuments reached Oceania from the West. This evidence was revealed by Mr. W. J. Perry (The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia, Manchester, 1918), who rendered an even greater service by explaining the motives of the wandering peoples who were mainly responsible for distributing abroad throughout the

world the germs of civilization. Men prospecting for gold, copper, silver, tin and other metals, or for flint, turquoise, lapis lazuli, amber or jet, or divers searching for pearls or pearl-shell

Tahiti and the Marquesas, to Peru and Mexico afford so striking

were the means of planting the clements of culture in outlying

a demonstration, not only of the spread of a very definite and

places in the world and making them foci of civilization (“ The Relationship of the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines,” Mem. and Proc. Manchester

peculiar phase of culture, but also of the route of the diffusion that many of the reactionary school in ethnology have felt it incumbent on them to get rid of evidence that was so awkward | Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1915; ““ The Geographical Distribution of and obtrusive.

Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation,” ibid. 1916; “ An Ethnolog-

Jt was formerly claimed in effect that man had a pyramidbuilding instinct, which presumably was kept in check by the ‘vast majority of mankind, but burst its bounds ina chronological sequence among the peoples scattered along the coasts from Egypt to Central America. The more fully the details of these pyramids are studied the more complete is the demonstration of their derivation one from the other as the stream of culture moved from West to East. In Ceylon at Polonnaruwa we find pyramids of Mesopotamian design but built of stone like those of the Egyptians. The less ornate Khmer pyramids, such as

ical Study of Warfare,” ibid. 1917; “War and Civilization,” Bull, John Rylands Library, vol. iv., 1918). Since Perry put forward this illuminating suggestion its truth has been repeatedly confirmed by investigations in the British Is., in the Caucasus, in Hyderabad, in Siberia, in eastern Asia,

_

Ka-Keo

and Ba-Kong, of Cambodia, reproduce

the Sinhalese

models with singular accuracy: and then pyramids of the same type appear in western Peru and Equador, Central America and Mexico, the Mississippi Valley and the south-eastern region of the United States, the transference of the incentive across

the Pacific having been effected probably between the third and the tenth centuries A.D, The acceptance of ideas concerning the possibility of spontaneous gencration—with curious lack of knowledge and logic the ethnologists called it “ cvolution’’—of similar ideas and customs among widely distant peoples was paralyzing the study of ethnology and removing it farther and farther from the stimulating influence of serious discussion and honest observation. Dr. W. H. R. Rivers was mainly responsible for leading ethnology out of this morass. In his presidential address to

the Anthropological Section of the British Association in 1971 he exposed the fallacies of the popular ethnological doctrine and insisted on the importance of the diffusion of culture.

One

of the fallacies that had led ethnologists astray and facilitated the acceptance of the weird speculation of spontaneous generation of culture was the belief that useful arts could not be lost. One finds this view expressed in the earlier article (see 2.117):— “ Had

the Australians

or New

Zealanders,

for instance,

possessed the potter's art, they could hardly have forgotten it.”

ever

By demonstrating the fallacy of this argument and showing that even so vital an art as boat-building could be lost by an island people, Dr. Rivers (Report British Association, 1912, p. 598; also Festsscrift

Tilldgnad

Edvard

Westermarck,

Helsingfors,

r912,

p. 109) removed the only serious obstacle in the way of the acceptance of the truth of the diffusion of knowledge in the way we know it to have been spread abroad in historical times. From a detailed study of the technique of embalming Elliot

Smith became convinced that the evidence provided by mummics from the islands in Torres Strait was so conclusive a proof of the influence of Egypt as to leave no possibility of doubt as to the certainty of the spread of culture from Egypt to New Guinca and Australia; and as the result of an examination of methods of mummification in various parts of the world he put forward a theory of The Migration of Early Culture (Manchester, 1915), in which the evidence provided by the geographical distribution of megalithic monuments, sun-worship, ear-piercing, tattooing, couvade, artificial deformation of the head, the use: of the swastika, etc., was used to corroborate the reality of the diffusion of the ingredients of carly civilization. If, as this theory claimed,

the spread of culture took place in large measure by sea (“ Ancient Mariners,” Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society,

in New Guinea and Oceania, and especially in America. Work-

ing out the details of the geographical distribution of the different ingredients of civilization one is now able to reconstruct

the past history of the beginning of culture and its diffusion throughout the world. We now realize that the incentive that spurred men on to build up the artificial structure of civiliza-

tion was primarily the instinct of self-preservation. The realization of the dangers to life impelled men to seek for materials which they believed to be life-giving or death-averting. This was the original value attached to pearls and gold, to incense and jade, and to most of the things which the earliest members of our species sought for in the belief that no adventure was too hazardous and no danger or difficulty too great if by overcom-

ing it they could secure the elixir of life (Elliot Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon, Manchester, 1919). The Beginning of Agriculture-—If one single event more than

another can be regarded as the foundation of civilization it is surely the invention of agriculture. Much speculation has been made as to where and how this crucial event was brought about; but the breeding experiments of such investigators as Prof. Biffen of Cambridge and the late Mr. Aaronsohn (see Coulter, Fundamentals of Plant Breeding, 1914, p. 192) dispose

once for all of the popular view that primitive man more than sixty centuries ago produced the barley and wheat, which has been the staple foods of a large section of mankind since then,

by an claborate and long-continued process of experimental breeding. Having disposed of this anachronism, one is in a better position to appreciate the cogency and conclusiveness of the claim set up reccntly by Prof. Thomas Cherry of Melbourne

( The Discovery of Agriculture,” Proceedings of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, 1921), that the Nile valley was the place where barley was found growing in a natural state, and that agriculture associated with basin irrigation was invented simply by imitating the natural conditions which the proto-Egyptians had constantly before their eyes. Dr. Cherry has pointed out that in Egypt alone the climatic and seasonal conditions are favourable for the natural growth of barley; and we know that it was the staple dict of the earliest Egyptians (G. Eliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 41). The climatic conditions in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor are

such that the cultivation of barley became possible there only when men applied the lessons of artificial irrigation which they had acquired in Egypt. Dr. Cherry believes that wheat must have grown naturally on some of the smaller Aegean islands— he mentioned Melos and Naxos—and was first cultivated centuries after barley and by men who had learned the art of agriculture directly or indirectly from Egypt. But before the close of the fourth millennium the Egyptian technique of agriculture and irrigation had been adopted in Sumer and Crete and probably also in Syria and Asia Minor. Soon after-

wards it was to spread N. and E, to Turkestan and Baluchistan

ANTHROPOLOGY

149

and in the W. io Europe, as one of the distinctive features of

sixth dynasty lasted from 2920 to 2720 B.c. (Die Annalen und

the Neolithic Age there.

die Festlegung des Alten

The effect of the discovery of a means of securing a certain food supply capable of being stored for use in the lean periods of the year not only led, for the first time in the world’s history, to a settled community and a steady increase in population within the setilement, but in addition it gave men leisure to think of other things than the mere struggle for existence. It is no mere chance circumstance that the invention of agriculture is intimately related to the development of the potter’s art, to the building of more pretentious houses, to the weaving of linen, and the domestication of milk-giving cattle.

vided

the predisposing

circumstances

that

But it also pro-

compelled

the

organization of labour and the assumption of control of his fellow men by a leader who became a king, and brought about the curious result that the chief function of this earliest ruler was to be the irrigation engineer to the community, as we know to have been the case both in Egypt and Sumer. As this settled community in the Nile valley increased in numbers the necessity was forced upon it of making more ample provision for disposing of its dead; and out of the circumstances that attended these

events there came into existence the arts of the embalmer, the carpenter and the stonemason. Architecture had its birth in the proto-Egyptian necropolis. Ship-building also was invented in close association with this train of events:

and the

first great maritime expeditions of which any hint has survived had for their object the obtaining of materials needed by the

Reiches der Agyptischen Geschichte,

Berlin, 1919). This new estimate, even if it should prove to be

true, would not necessarily be fatal to Langdon’s claims, But

there are reasons of other kinds that demonstrate the derivation of Sumerian and Elamite culture from Egypt.

If it can be shown that Egypt was the home of the invention of

agriculture and irrigation, of the working of gold and copper, of the weaving of linen and the making of bricks, of the building of sca-going ships and the use of incense it necessarily follows that Sumer and Elam must have acquired these practices from Egypt, especially as Prof. Langdon rightly claims that the spread of culture took place mainly by sea-routes. As neither the Sumerians nor the Elamites are known to.have built sea-going ships nor to have had any motives for doing so, one naturally assumes, that the Egyptians (as the builders of the earliest known sea-going ships) took the initiative in opening up the communication by sea with the Persian Gulf, as we know they did with Crete and the coasts of Palestine, Syria and the Red Sea. But the facts brought to light by the French excavations in Elam seem to prove quite conclusively that the predynastic civilization of Egypt was planted there, probably by miners working the copper ore.

Perhaps the most valuable evidence bearing on the early inter-relationships of Egypt, Elam and Sumer and the wider spread of their cultural influence is afforded by the important study of early painted

pottery,

which

M. Edmond

Pottier

embalmer and the tomb-builder, Probably in the fourth millennium sea-going ships were already trafficking to Syria,

contributed to the valuable series of reports of M. de Morgan’s

Asia Minor and Crete, to southern Arabia and E. Africa (Elliot Smith, “ Ancient Mariners,” Journal of the Manchester Geo-

les Vases Peints de l’Acropole de Suse,” Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse, Tome XIII. ‘‘ Recherches Archéologiques,” itme Série, 1912, p. 27). According to him Susian ceramic ware 1s revealed as the product of a very primitive civilization; but in addition it recalls (or perhaps it would be more correct to say,

graphical Society, 1917). The Beginning of Civilization—After many years of fluctuating diversitics of opinion it is now widely admitted that there

is a very close genetic relationship between the earliest civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia. The identity of their burial customs, their methods of agriculture and irrigation, the use of bricks, cylinder seals and mace-heads, the use of copper and painted pottery, the weaving of linen and the choice and methods of preparing cosmetics, and above all their beliefs and religious practices—these and scores of other customs reveal the fact that the cultures of the earliest peoples of Egypt, Sumer and Elam were derived from a common source. The recent incident that compelled scholars frankly to admit the reality of the cultural link between Egypt and Babylonia in very early times was the acquisition by the Louvre of 4 predynastic flint-knife with a handle carved from the tooth of a hippopotamus which issaid to have come from Gebel cl-Arak near NagtHamadi in Upper Egypt (Bénédite, “Le couteau de Gebel el-Arak,”

Fondation Eugène Piol, Mon. et Mém., xxii., i., 1916). The design engraved on, the handle is claimed to be very un-Egyptian and to afford certain evidence of cultural contact with Sumer. But many scholars now claim that Egypt obtained the elements

of her civilization from Sumer (see, for example, Prof. S. Langdon, “ Early Chronology of Sumer and Egypt,” Nature, May 5 1921, p. 315). In support of this contention Prof. Langdon claims

that

“recently

discovered

dynastie

tablets

establish

Délégation en Perse (“ Etude Historique et Chronologique sur

reveals the germ of) certain highly perfected industries such as

that of the Greeks. It is, in fact, an amazing mixture of inexperience and skill—the sort of result one might expect to find when an industry which has been developed clsewhere is suddenly transplanted to a new country, and work requiring special skill is unavoidably entrusted to the incompetent hands of local artisans.

The Susian workmanship in fact displays clearly

the fact of the derivation of the ceramic craft from elsewhere. In the lowermost level in which there is any evidence of human occupation at Susa, pottery was found in association with copper and stone weapons. This suggests, according to Pottier (p. 60), that the pottery is Encolithic and that the first colonization of Susa took place in the Encolithic cpoch. For in this lowest level the evidence of the arts and crafts indicates that a fully-

developed civilization was present from the beginning of the Susian record preserved for us to study.

Linen, for example,

was found along with the weapons—an association with copper and painted pottery which further strengthens the proof of the Egyptian origin of the imported Susian civilization. Necklaces of lapis lazuli and turquoise afford evidence, according to Pottier (p. 61), of foreign relations.

‘They suggest, in fact, the

possibility of connexions with the regions around the southern end of the Caspian (13 and 14) where these stones are found

the date of the earliest kingdoms of Mesopotamia as early as and were worked in very early times. Discussing the date of these earliest Susian remains M. 5000 B.C.”’; whereas he attempts to fix the beginning of the first Egyptian dynasty by comparing the methods of year-dating of, Pottier (p. 65) thinks that they are slightly earlier than any of the known Sumerian objects: but he is not inclined to accord the famous Naram-Sin (2795-2739 B.C.) with those of Egypt, arguing that Naram-Sin borrowed his system of year-dating them an age many centuries earlier than the time of Ur Nina from Egypt and was contemporaneous with the last two kings of Lagash (2800 3.c.). It seems quite clear that there are no valid reasons for attributing to any Elamite or Sumerian reof the second Egyptian dynasty. He claims to have confirmed mains a date earlier, if indeed as carly, as that of the First the date circa 3200 B.c. for Mencs. But a wholly unexpected revision. of Egyptian dating has come from the German school Egyptian Dynasty. Now the proto-Egyptians had been working of archaeology which was responsible for the minimal date copper, making linen and painting pottery, for many centuries 3200 B.C. which Prof, Langdon claims to have established by before this earliest possible date for the commencement of Elamite and Sumerian civilization. Hence, as undoubtedly independent evidence. Prof. L. Borchardt has recently set forth at length a series borrowing did occur, it is clear that Elam and Sumer acquired of arguments, mainly based on astronomical data, to prove that the germs of their civilization directly or indirectly from Egypt, E the first Egyptian dynasty began in 4186 B.c. and that the or from the same source as Egypt.

ANTHROPOLOGY

150

-M. Pottier does not go so far as to make this claim, but he | p. 307) the most ancient pottery from Anau may be contemporary with that of Susa, but he believes it to represent an exten-

submits all the evidence that makes its adoption unavoidable :— “ En examinant les monuments égyptiens de l'âge préhistorique et des premières dynasties, tout le monde sera frappé des traits de ressemblance nombreux qu’ils présentent avec les trouvailles élamites des couches les plus anciennes. . . . (En Egypt) on retrouve des formes, des sujets, des détails de technique qui évoquent aussitôt le souvenir des antiquités de Suse; vases de pierre dure et d’albatre”

(p. 82).

M. Pottier discusses the

problem in its wider bearings (pp. 83-85), and elsewhere (pp. 67 et seg.) sets forth his views on the psychology of originality in invention and of the significance and the manner of cultural diffusion. Though he docs not claim that Susa borrowed from Egypt, he is quite clear that the proto-Elamite culture was imported from Susa, and he sets forth the evidence which in fact demonstrates that Egypt must have been the source of its inspiration. On p. 66 he again discusses the antiquity of the

proto-Elamite civilization and repeats his remarks about the earliest immigrants into Elam in these words:— Quand ces envahisseurs s’installérent sur les faibles hauteurs, de neuf a dix mètres a peine, qui bordaient la riviêre (J. de Morgan, Revue d’ Assyriologie, $909, p. 2), ils étaient déjà en possession @une civilization raffinée.’ They had copper weapons and utensils: their women had mirrors: they had fine clothes, ete. If it is indeed a fact that Elam was colonized before Sumer, the question naturally suggests itself why the newcomers were not content to exploit the fertile banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, but should have chosen the less attractive and rocky country of Elam for their settlement. The answer to this question has been provided in advance by Mr. W. J. Perry’s investigations (Memoirs and Proceedings, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 1615) which explain why civilized immigrants in other parts of the world have chosen certain regions to exploit and neglected apparently more attractive places. The Egyptian immigrants into Elam were undoubtedly prospecting for copper ore. In his book Les Premiéres Civilizations de Morgan refers to Elam as one of the two “foyers des inventions métallurgiques”? on the ground that copper implements were found in the earliest strata there and the mountains of Elam are “ riches en minerais cuivreux ” (p. 169). But it was the ore which attracted the foreigners and induced them to settle in Elam. There is evidence of various kinds to suggest that at or about. the time when the Elamite and Sumerian civilizations were founded there was a widcsprcad prospecting of the mineral resources of western Asia and the lands around the eastern Mediterranean. The objects of this search were gold and copper, lapis lazuli and turquoise, pearls and shells. We have already seen that the proto-Elamites had: lapis lazuli and turquoise and suggested that they must have gone as far afield as the Caspian to obtain these stones. That they did actually exploit this region is shown by the results of the Pumpelly Expedition (Ralph Pumpelly, Hxplorations in Turkistan, Carnegie Institution, 1908) in Russian Turkestan, where painted pottery of proto-Elamite type was found in the neighbourhood of certain ancient copper-workings. There can be no doubt that Susian prospectors went to the Caspian area to obtain copper ore, and incidentally got lapis lazuli and turquoise. In the lowest stratum in the northern kurgan at Anau, Pumpelly found hand-made painted pottery, cultivated wheat and barley,. turquoise beads, mace-heads, copper and lead, and rectangular houses of sun-dried brick (vol. i., p. 33). At a somewhat higher level he found in addition beads of lapis lazuli and carnelian (p. 42). It was only at a later time (his so-called “ Culture 3,” found in the southern kurgan at Anau) that pottery turned on the wheel was found: in the same level tin mixed with copper, and evidence of an “intentional alloying with lead’ was obtained; also figurines of a goddess and a cow. Of the earlicst culture Hubert Schmidt tentatively estimates the age as “in the third millennium,” the second in the latter half of the second millennium, and the third approximately 1000 B.c. Pottier also summarizes (op. cit., p. 71) the whole discussion: “ According to Hubert Schmidt (Revue archéologique, 19109, i.,

sion of Elamiteart to Turkestan.”

Ina great part of the Trans-

caspian region of Turkestan ‘au delà de l’Oxus,” north of the

Pamir plateau between Samarkand and Kashgar, the finding of objects made

of metal or pottery analogous to those of

Mesopotamia (Pottier, p. 70) affords additional evidence of the

diffusion of Elamite, Sumerian and Babylonian culture in very early times.

It is clear then that the search for copper ore, lapis lazuli and turquoise led to the diffusion of proto-Elamite culture far into Turkestan. But the same reasons led to its spread to Armenia, the Caucasus and Asia Minor in the west and at least as far as Baluchistan, and probably India, in the east. In Armenia and the Caucasus painted Susian-like vases do occur, but only very rarely (Pottier, p. 73), “ Cette poterie du Caucase, dont la date n’est determinée, est sans contredit afhliée par la tradition à la fabrique élamite ” (p. 74). In Galatia and Cappadocia painted pottery of the same type is found, which is certainly not of Aegean inspiration (p. 74). Similar pottery is

found also in Phrygia and Mysia (p. 76); and M. Pottier suggests that between early times and the period of the eighth and seventh centuries B.c. Susian influence percolated into Phrygia from the neighbouring lands. The geographical limes of the spread of this culture seem to have been determined mainly by the distribution of copper and gold. Elamite pottery has been found north of the Black Sea in Scythia (Pottier, p. 74). Without any definite reasons, so far as I understand his report, M. Pottier thinks that, although the designs upon the painted

pottery of the Thraco-Phrygian area are similar to those of the Susian ware, the inspiration was independent. However, he

thinks that Lydia and Caria, Syria and Palestine were influenced both by Elam and Egypt about the middle of the third millennium. Once one admits the motive and considers the times of the respective diffusions of culture, the process and the lines of spread become clear enough. When gold and copper acquired in Egypt for the first time an arbitrary value they were sought for far and wide, not merely in the Eastern Deserts of Egypt and Nubia, but also in Arabia and Elam, in Asia Minor, in the Caucasus and Turkestan. From Egypt there were two main lines of diffusion of culture—one E. to Elam and the other N. to Crete! and Asia Minor;? and from each of these centres secondary lines of radiation were established. One of the most striking illustrations of the extent of these secondary radiations and of the motives which prompted them is afforded by the remarkable centre of Elamite culture at the little village of Nal (in the Jhalawan district of Kalat state, lat.

27°40’, long. 66°14’) in Baluchistan (J. H. Marshall, “A New

Type of Pottery from Baluchistan,” Survey of India, Annual Report, 1904-5, Calcutta, 1908, pp. 105 ef seg.; for summaries see Revue archéologique, 1909, p. 156, also Pottier, op. cit., p. 72; Noetling, “ Ueber cine prähistorische Niederlassung im oberen Zhob-Thal in Baluchistan,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1898, pp. 460-470; also “Ueber prähistorische Niederlassungen in Baluchistan,” ibid., 1809, pp. 104-107). The pottery from Baluchistan is painted with designs clearly analogous to those found at Susa, of the culture of which it is

clearly either a contemporary offshoot or a persistent survival, On the evidence supplied by Marshall the latter explanation seemed to be the just onc; but Noetling has shown that the Baluchistan pottery occurs in what he calls ‘‘ Neolithic ” sites, and it is quite clear that the Elamite ceramic industry extended as far east possibly in the third millennium. The fact that it was found in association with gold deposits and ancient irriga-

tion works completes the proof of the motives and the identity

of the introducers of the anclent civilization,

The Baluchistan

centre of Susian influence possibly represents a stage in the migration of the knowledge of copper (from Egypt, via Susa and Baluchistan)’ to India, where an early Copper Age culture 1See Diedrich Fimmen, Die Kretisch-Mykenische Kultur (1921). (

el E. Cowley, The Hittites, The Schweich Lectures for 1918

1920).

ANTHROPOLOGY developed on the banks of the Ganges (W. Crooke, Northern India, 1907, p. 18: “ an age of copper is well marked by finds of

implements of remarkable shapes in the Ganges Valley ’’). The search for copper or gold attracted these earliest exploiters to Elam, to Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Black Sea

littoral, the southern shores of the Caspian and Transcaspia, and to Baluchistan; but it also led them much farther afield.

So that, long before the invention of bronze the germs of ancient civilization were planted in Turkestan and alonga series of goldworkings from the Oxus to Bukhara, to Issyk-kul and Kulja, to Barnaul, Krasnoyarsk and Minusinsk, which became the centre ‘where for many centurics the civilization of central Siberia flourished in spite of the fact that it was the lure for the greed of a vast continent and the home of strife (W. J. Perry, “ War and Civilization,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 1918).

But it was not merely the chain of golden sands along the line from Bukhara to the Yenisei that attracted the miners from the S., but also the gold and jade in the Tarim valley in pursuit of which the prospectors were led on from Kashgar to Kucha past Lop-nor to Suchan, Liangshan and Lanshan until eventually they discovered the gold and jade in the mountains $. of Si-ngan in Shensi. Settling down to extract this wealth they incidentally planted the germs of the civilization of China. Laufer’s memoir on The Beginnings of Porcelain in China (1917) (see also his “Some Fundamental Ideas of Chinese Culture,” Journal of Race Development, vol. v., 1914, pp. 160-174) affords irrefutable

corroboration of the fact that “ the entire economic foundation of ancient Chinese civilization has a common foundation with that of the West”

(p. r75).

“It is inconceivable

that the

(potter’s) wheels of India and China should be independent of those of the West ” (p. 175). All the facts brought together by Laufer point clearly to the conclusion that the world at large learnt the use of the potter’s wheel from Egypt (pp. 174-176). Many centuries later “ the incentive for the process of glazing pottery was received by the Chinese directly from the West, owing to their contact with the Hellenistic world in comparatively late historical times

The knowledge of glazing ren-

dered the manufacture of porcelanous ware possible; yet in this achievement the creative genius of the Chinese was not guided by outside influence, but relied on its own powerful resources ”

(p. 176),

Elamite civilization was diffused to Turkestan long before wheel-made pottery was made, because Pumpelly’s excavations revealed the fact that in the first and second of his culture-stages

151

invention of bronze prospectors for gold and copper exploited the line of deposits of these metals which forms a chain linking the valley of the Oxus to the upper Yenisei. The rich archaeological harvest collected around the sites of these ancient workings establishes this fact. Now if it be true—and the evidence at present available renders it probable—then the making of “bronze was invented with the help of the tin obtained from Meshed. Ancient tin mines were discovered in this region b

P. Ogorodnikov (compare Baer, Arch. f. Anthr

(ix, p. 265),

quoted by Terrien de Lacouperie, Western Origin of Chinese

Civilization, p. 322).

“ Strabo declares that it (tin) was pro-

duced in Drangiana, west of the modern Afghanistan, a district

partly coinciding with Khurasan, where its presence has been confirmed. It is also found in other parts of Persia, near Astcrabad and Tabriz” (C. H. Read, A Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age, British Museum, 1904, p. 9.) The exact spot where tin has been found at the south-castern corner of the Caspian

is indicated by J. de Morgan, Mission Scientifique au Caucase (1889). In her important monograph on Geurnia Mrs. Harriet Boyd Hawes brings forward the following weighty arguments in favour of the invention of bronze in the southern Caspian area. “When the Pumpelly expedition returned from Turkestan in 1904, one of the members brought potsherds indistinguishable at first sight from the briliantly mottled ware found at Vasiliki (Crete) during the same season. ‘The strong likeness between the two fabrics . . . is more reasonably cxplained by intercourse than by accident. Morcover, Dr. Hubert Schmidt . reports that a neighbouring tumulus (ncar the large one in which the pottery was found) gave him a three-sided seal-

stone of Middle Minoan type, engraved with Minoan designs— man, lion, stcer, and griffin. How shall we explain those evidences of Aegean influence in southern Turkestan? They must be brought in line with other proofs of contact. . . We see that at c.2s00 B.C. Asia Minor shared with the Aegean the

knowledge of bronze . . . we may suggest the probability that, long before tin was discovered in Europe, it was being brought overland through Asia Minor, and also by way of Transcaucasia and the Black Seca from distant Khorassan, Strabo’s Drangiana. ... Excavations at Elizabethpol in Transcaucasia have revealed a culture in early contact with the Aegean.”

One of the results of this intercourse between Turkestan and Asia Minor was the introduction into Europe of the appreciation of jade, which no doubt was responsible for stimulating

the people of Europe to hunt out and work the supplies of The routes followed by these early culture-bearers from nephrite which occur locally, Persia to central Siberia and to China respectively are mapped Terrien de Lacouperie makes the following statement:— out by the remains of ancient irrigation systems. Wherever “ The precious nephrite (polished celts) is found along the route gold was to be obtained from any of the streams or lakes these from Khotanin Turkestan, its starting point, to the Jaxartes, to the wandering prospectors settled to wash the sands for-the precious Oxus, then S. of the Caspian Sea, in Babylonia and Assyria, along the Northern Asia Minor shores, bordering upon ancient Troy, then metal: they also irrigated the land in their characteristic way passes to the Peloponnesus, where it directs its course to Crete, and, to grow crops to maintain themselves; and they left stone monunot touching Egypt, passes from Greece to Italy, where it is disments as memorials for their dead. The association of these - tributed among the Helvetian Lakes, the Megalithic monuments, of three classes of evidence, the presence of gold, ancient irriga- Armorica, etc.” (Western Origin of Chinese Civilization, p. 34.) Chinese Civilization:—There is no doubt that the cradle of tion and stone monuments, still blazes the paths taken by these ancient prospectors forty or more centuries ago. Detailed | Chinese civilization was in the Shensi province early in the third statements of two of these classes of evidence will be found millennium, and that the inspiration of this culture was provided by miners from the W. who were exploiting the gold, copper in J. Mouchkeboff’s Les Richesses Minerales due Turkestan (Paris, 1878) and H. Moser’s L’Irrigation en Asie Centrale ‘and jade of the mountains S. of Si-ngan-fu, and incidentally planting in China the much modified elements of Elamite (Paris, 1894). There is evidence of another kind in substantiation of the civilization which had been handed on from one mining camp intimate cultural link between early Egypt, Elam and Sumer, to another on the long route to China The occasional use of jade for scal-cylinders in Babylonia and between them and the Iranian and Turanian domains, The religious ideas and mythology reveal the closeness of the bonds and the value attached to turquoise there suggests that the people who were washing the sands of the Oxus, the Syr Daria, between these ancient centres, and especially the fact that much of so-called early Aryan beliefs and myths are really Egypto- Issyk-kul and the Hi for gold—and the presence of distinctive types of ancient irrigation works on the banks of these waters Sumerian in origin. But reference has been made to the intimacy of the early proves the reality of such exploitation—were also working the cultural bonds between Mesopotamia and Turkestan because it Tian Shan range and the neighbourhood of Khotan and Kashgår has a bearing upon one of the most important episodes in the for jade and turquoise. What strengthens the belief ın the reality history of civilization—the invention of the alloy bronze and of this suggestion is the fact that the peculiarly arbitrary and at Anau only hand-made pottery was found.

the inauguration of the Bronze Age. We know that before the

distinctive magical signifcance which was attached to pearis

ANTHROPOLOGY

152

and gold by the early sailors of the Erythracan Sea also by jade. The only reasonable suggestion that remarkable circumstance is that these ideas were the people of Turkestan from Mesopotamian miners,

was acquired explains this acquired by and that the

former came to attach to all the materials íor which the im-

migrants were searching the peculiar attributes which these immigrants themselves assigned only to certain of them. Hence~ jade came to be regarded, like pearls, as the giver of life and

resurrection and as a preventive of putrefaction of the corpse. The problem that must be solved in the explanation of the

symbolism of jade in China is the source of its inspiration.

Why

should jade be regarded as the giver of life and resurrection, the preserver of the dead and the bringer of good fortune? We know how and why the pearl came to acquire these magical attributes.

We know also that the ancient Persian word for

a pearl, margan, “the giver of life,” was adopted in all the Turanian languages; so that the word and the idea underlying

it spread E. as far as Kamchatka. The exact identity of the ideas concerning (and the methods of using) jade suggest that they must be derived from the pearl-symbotism, and the tentative explanation suggests itself that the people of Mesopotamia exploited the area in the neighbourhood of the Tian Shan mountains for gold and jade, and so transmitted to the people of

Chinese Turkestan ideas of the magical properties of jade which in course of time spread due E. to the head-waters of the Hwangho river. ! t The mountains south of Si-ngan-fu in Shensi Province produced

source; they gradually learned to appreciate the value of this tough and compact substance, and then set to hunting for natural supplies."

Substitute “ China ” for “ central Europe ” in this admirable statement, and it applies with equal force. For the Chincse had no reasons for attaching a special value to jade until they were inspired to do so by ideas which came to them from else-

where, Laufer claims that the question can only be settled on the basis of historical fact. His argument also implies that the idea of working jade spread from one centre. In other words, if we accept his teaching, the use of jade in Europe during the early Bronze Age was inspired by events in the Shensi province of China! What historical evidence is there, first, for assigning such a remote date for the exploitation of jade in China, and, secondly, for the transmission of the knowledge of these events

from China to Switzerland nearly 40 centurics ago ?

.

In Turkestan we find definite reasons for the appreciation of and the commencement of the working of jade. We have also found some evidence to justify the hypothesis that the making of bronze was invented in close proximity to Turkestan. The people who introduced the knowledge of bronze-making int

Europe, also introduced the appreciation of jade. If, however, we accept Laufer’s view that Chinese culture inspired the appreciation of jade in central, Europe in the second millennium B.C., or even earlier, presumably the channel

jade, gold, silver, copper and iron in the first. century B.C., as ex-

passed vie Turkestan. Part of his based upon the fact that the Chinese was unknown before the beginning if there was this early intercourse

Jade, p. 24).

can hardly be left out of account in considering the origin of Chinese ideas. Is it likely that the exact coincidence between these wholly arbitrary ideas in China and Babylonia respectively were independent the one of the other? Dr, Laufer him-

pressly stated in the Annals of the Former Han Dynasty . . . the distinguished physician T’ao Hung-King (452-536 A.v.), the author of a treatise on Materia Medica (Ming t pieh lu), states that the best jade comes from (Lan-t’ien): he mentions also the occurrence of jade in Nan-yang, Honan Province, and in the Lu-jung river of onking, also that brought from Khotan and Kaskgar’” (Laufer’s

argument (see above) was jade traffic with Turkestan of the Christian cra. But with Turkestan, the fact

that the Babylonians or whoever was exploiting the wealth of

that country, attached a special value to gold, pearls and jade

Laufer denies that jade was imported into China from Turkes-

self rightly scouts the idea of such independent development.

tan before the commencement of the Christian’ era; and also seems to be opposed to the idea that the magical value attached

If so he must admit that the Chinese ideas concerning jade must have been inspired by the West,

to jade in China was suggested by the West. " While from about the Christian era Turkestan became the chief

source for the supply of jade to China, to which Yunnan and Burma

were later added, neither Turkestan nor Yunnan came into question

in very carly times, The jades used in the period of the Chou, and most of those of the Han Dynasty, were quarried on the very soil of China proper. It was doubtless the Chinese themselves who, being acquainted with jade in thetr country, probably for millenniums, gave impetus to the jade fishing and mining industries of Turkestan. Also this case may throw a side-light on the nephrite question of Europe: home-sources do not exclude imports, and scarcity or ex-

haustion of sources may favor them” (Laufer, Jade, pp. 23 and 24).

But Laufer’s hypothesis of the origin in China of the special appreciation of jade will not bear examination. The search for gold in Turkestan was certainly begun by people from the South. There can be no doubt that the same people who washed the sands of these rivers of Turkestan for alluvial gold and freshwater pearls also inaugurated the practice of ‘fishing for jade.” The proof of this inference is provided by the fact that jade acquired precisely the same reputation and had attributed to it the same remarkable repertory of magical properties as these southern miners associated with pearls and gold. Dr. Laufer himself puts the matter in its true perspective when he is discussing the problem of European jade (p. 5).

Light is thrown upon these problems by the study of the metal implements found in Siberia and elsewhere. In his admirable Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age (British Museum, 1904), Sir Hercules Read summarizes the evidence. in an impartial manner?:— * At the extremities of the vast arca stretching from Lake Baikal through the southern Siberian steppes across the Ural Mountains

to the basin of the Volga, and even beyond to the valleys of the Don and Dnieper, there have been found, generally in tombs, but occasionally on the surface of the ground, implements and weapons marked by the same peculiarities of form and by a single type of decoration. These objects exhibit an undoubted affinity with those discovered in China; but some of their distinctive features have been

traced in the Bronze industry of Ilungary and the Caucasus: for example, pierced axes and sickles have a close resemblance to Hungarian and Caucasian forms. The Siberian bronzes have thus relationships both in the East and West; but their kinship with Chinese antiquities being the more obvious, it is natural to assume that

the culture which they represent is of East Asiatic origin.

tion ‘in historical times (which, however, were started by the disturbances in the gold region of the Altai,? and therefore tell against

Sir Hercules Read’s argument); and

the fact that the greatest

centre of discovery lies far away to the East in the basin of the Yenisei, in the ae of Minusinsk and Krasnoiarsk, are all

His argument is so apt and incisive that it is tempting to use it to demolish his own hypothesis:-—

points which may be urged in support of this view.”

“ Nothing could induce me to the belief that primitive man of central Europe incidentally and spontaneously embarked on the

implements are “ not of primitive forms ”:—

laborious task of quarrying and working jade. The psychological motive for this act must be supplied, and it can be deduceil only from the source of historical facts. From the standpoint of the gencral devclopment of culture in the Old World, there is absolutely no vestige of originality in the prehistoric cultures of Europe, which appear as an appendix to Asta. Originality is certainly the rarest thing in this world, and in the history of mankind the original

thoughts are appallingly sparse. There is, in the light of historical facts and experiences, no reason to credit the prehistoric and early historic populations of Europe with any spontaneous ideas relative to jade; they received these, as everything else, from an outside

The

presumable antiquity of Chinese civilization (which after all is only a presumption); the continued westward tendency of migra-

To the objections which we have interpolated in this quotation, Sir Hercules

Read himself adds others,

The Chinese

.

* Their prototypes are found neither in the Ural-Altaic region itself, where some objects may indeed be simpler in design than others but cannot be described as quite primitive; nor as yet within the limits of China itself ’’ (p. 107). 1 Pages 106-111 compare also the fuller and more recent summary of the evidence in the book by Minns, Scythians and Greeks, in which,

however, the statement is marred by an uncritical acceptançe of the dogma of independent evolution of culture.

2 See Perry’s Rylands Library Lecture, War and Civilization.

ANTHROPOLOGY The true solution of the problem will be reached when it is recognized that the basin of the Yenisei and China represent the two termini of a stream of culture which passed N, from the southern end of the Caspian Sea and divided at the Tian Shan range into two branches, one of which passcd more immediately to the Yenisei and the other via Khotan and Kashgar ultimately to China. Sir Hercules Read hints at the possibility of this explanation without, however, definitely committing himself to it:— “The similarities existing between the Far Eastern and Hunga-

153

up the solar theology at the end of the Fourth Dynasty the priesthood of Heliopolis made a bold bid for power “by putting

forward the prophecy that Re, the sun god, would be the father of the first king of the Fifth Dynasty by the wife of the high pricst of Heliopolis. Hence arose the custom of regarding the chosen people as “children of the sun” and believing in the virgin birth of kings and gods—arbitrary. elements of culture the widespread distribution of which throughout: the world is a striking token of Egyptian. influence in the upbuilding of rian groups will not be fully explained until the Bronze Age of southcivilization. The ingenious device of the Heliopolitan priestern Asia as a whole is far better known than it is at present (1904), _ hood to seize control of the State was not wholly. successful, but According to a view which has found some acceptance, the common resulted in a dual organization of the Government, the Helioelements may have been derived from some centre in southern or politan family controlling the priestly dutics and the Memphite south-western Asia, from which issued two streams of influence, one passing to the N. of the Caucasus, the other to China by a southerly (the old royal) family the civil administration. This splitting of route ” (p. 109). responsibility and control led to a rapid disintegration of the Further, in his account of the Siberian implements, Sir Hercules governing power and at the end of the Sixth Dynasty ‘the State was reduced to a condition of anarchy. But the effect of Read adds;— “The most characteristic ornament represents animals of local this remarkable experiment in’ government became widely species, bears, reindeers, wild goats, etc., the monsters characteristic diffused beyond the boundaries of Egypt; and the dual organizaof the later Iron Age tombs being absent. Sometimes the heads of tion of the community and the use of such phrases as “ son of animals are placed back to back so as to form the guards of daggers, a disposition which has some resemblance to those of daggers rep- the Sun ” were carried far afield, even to Oceania and America. resented upon Assyrian monuments”’ (p. 110). In the whole extent of the regions from Egypt to America we Correlating all the facts and suggestions brought together find traces of two well-marked phases of civilization. The earlier .

by de Morgan, Pumpelly, and interpreting them in demonstration of the vital copper, pearls and precious

Laufer, Read, Hawes and Minns, the light of: Perry’s illuminating

part played by the scarch for gold, stones, we find the general explanation secming to emerge quite definitely, even if the details still remain to be worked out.

From the third millennium the mines on the S.E. of the Caspian were being exploited and contact was established between Babylonians, Elamites and the population of Turkestan. The northerly extension of Mesopotamian cultural influence established further contact with the Meditcrrancan in the West, _ and both directly and indirectly with the strip of rich metalliferous country stretching along the Caucasus from the castern coast of the Black Sea to the Caspian. At the same time, from the eastern and south-eastern shores of the Caspian there was a further extension of mining activities E. and N.E. to the Oxus, to Samarkand and Ferghana, and to the S.E. of Lake Balkash. From the great southern Caspian centre of the Bronze industry

there were drifts of cultural influence to the Acgean and the

represents a form of social organization

essentially identical

with that of Egypt of the Fifth Dynasty:—sun-cult; a dual kingship, one ruling family being concerned with secular and another with priestly functions; and a dual division of the State, which even extends to individual villages. It seems probable that the priesthood which originally devised this dual organization realized the danger of the cleavage and the risk of disintegration inherent in it, and introduced the principle of exogamy to maintain the coherence of the community that was split into two conflicting moieties by compelling the members of the divisions to intermarry. In many places this phase of culture gave place to another derived directly from it by a process of inevitable disintegration following on the splitting off of daughter settlements. In this secondary process the sun-god became known as a war-god: the kingship ceased to be dual, and the dual organization of the State and the village tended to disappear with greater or

less rapidity according to local circumstances. In the early phase of dualism the two rulers were assisted

Black Sea, to Turkestan and China itself, in the administration by a council, the members of which The invention of the alloy bronze was an event of most were the representatives of local groups (the Egyptian nomes), momentous importance in the history of civilization; the deter- „usually clans‘ associated with some animal from which they mination of the exact place whence the knowledge of this pro- claimed descent. (The reason for this remarkable belief, known cedure was diffused to the ends of the earth is therefore a point as totemism, js probably to be found in the fact that the earliest of exceptional significance: hence the facts and arguments Egyptians regarded the milk-giving cow not merely as a fosterwhich point to the neighbourhood of the Caspian early in the mother but as the actual Great Mother of mankind. When the third millennium as the place and time of this event have been nomes adopted as badges a series of distinctive animals, these maternal functions were attributed to all of them.) Like the set forth here in some detail. Social Organization and Totemism.—One of the most potent kingship this totemic council was also dual, one section being factors in shaping the belicfs and customs of the world at large concerned with peace and the other with war. It often happened was the result of an ingenious device on the part of the priest- that the ruling power disappeared and then we find that the hood of Heliopolis to attain their own selfish aims, namely, of people deliberately maintained the council as the proper means of increasing their political power and influence and enhancing preserving the constitution with which they are familiar, Thus their social status. Until the period of the Fourth Dynasty in is produced a state of affairs commonly called the dual organizaEgypt the royal family controlled the whole of the priestly and tion in which the country is divided into two parts with different administrative functions of the State. The king was the high characteristics. Just as in Egypt one kingdom was known as the priest and his eldest son the grand vizier. Each of the admin- white crown and the other as the red, so in many parts of the istrative districts of the State—the nomes—was governed by a world one moiety is connected with the colour white (or a member of the royal family. Hence the whole government of light colour) and the other with red (or a dark colour). One is the State was concentrated in the hands of one family. But from associated with the sky and with peace and is regarded as the earliest times the priesthood of Heliopolis had played an superior, the other with the earth, the underworld, and war important part in Egypt. They were responsible for the as- and is regarded as inferior. A feature of the dual organization is the council of old men— tronomical calculations necessary for the prediction of the annual flood of the Nile, on which the welfare of the whole the gerontocracy—which is regarded as of the utmost im: country depended. At Heliopolis the first nilometer was sct up, portance. The various groups, of the dual organization in its and in all probability the first solar calendar was devised there. pure form appear to be what are callcd totemic clans. The basis In course of time it became the centre of the solar cult which of this system is to be found in the doctrine of theogamy, which superseded (or rather adopted and profoundly modified) the as we have seen was invented by the priests of Heliopolis to

Osirian belief in the river as the source of all life. Having built ‘serve their own personal ends.

154

ANTISEPTICS

There was a vast amount of speculation during 1910-20 as to the meaning of totemism, an impartial and full summary of which has recently been published by Dr. Arnold van Gennep (L'État Actuel du Probleme Totémique, Paris, 1920). But recent

rescarch (and especially the unpublished researches of W. J. Perry, which the present writer has been permitted to see and use) makes it abundantly clear that, wherever it is found, totemism has been derived directly or indirectly from the beliefs and practices associated with the ruling classcs in Egypt during the Pyramid Age, to which reference has already been made. When one investigates the more primitive forms of totemism and realizes the part played in them by such ideas as matrilineal descent from animals, virgin birth, children of the sun, and the belief in the protective value of animal crests, there can no loriger be any doubt as to the derivation of these conceptions. from Egypt of the Fifth Dynasty, In the foregoing account it has been claimed that a very intimate connexion exists between the dual organization and the

system of totemic clans. This is not an accidental circumstance, as is often assumed, but is the inevitable result of the conditions under which the dual system arose in Egypt. No doubt this will be regarded as a very heterodox claim; but the facts in proof of it are certain and their meaning quite conclusive. Although

the dual organization now survives only in India, Oceania and America, there are marriage customs with a much wider distribution, notably in Africa, which point to the influence of this social system in earlicr times. In Australia there are very complicated systems of rules to regulate marriage: but in many tribes they afford a very striking demonstration of the original connexion between the dual system and the totemic clans. The dual

blood from the vessels into the infected tissues, and by an emigration from the blood of the white corpuscles or leucocytes, which are amoeboid bodies capable of ingesting the microbes and destroying them. ae

With some infecting agents such as the typhoid. bacillus the

_ fluids of the blood have a great power of killing the microbes, but in most of the commoner infections this power is not so manifest and the leucocytes are the chief agents in their destruction, The quality of the fluids even in these cases is, however, of great importance in preventing the increase of the microbes, and in acting on them so that the leucocytes can readily take them up

and complete their destruction, Almroth Wright has shown that in cases of severe infection the power of the blood serum to neutralize tryptic ferments (the antitryptic power) is much increased, and by virtue of this increased antitryptic power the

growth of the microbes is greatly hindered in the serum.

He has

shown also that the alkalinity of the blood is of great importance in retarding the growth of some microbes such as those which

cause gas gangrene. He has also shown that the serum will act on the microbes by virtue of its opsonic action so that they can be taken up by the leucocytes and destroyed. These observations on the opsonic power of the serum form the basis for modern

vaccine-therapy, which has been of such benefit in combating many infections.

It has been shown that the leucocytes of the blood, and also the leucocytes which exude from the blood into an infected wound and constitute pus, have a very powerful action in

destroying the ordinary septic microbes, and these natural antiseptics have the great advantage over the chemical anti-

septics that they act mainly on the microbes which are imbedded

chicftainship still persists in Polynesia and New Guinea, as it in the tissues, and not merely on the microbes on the surface of did in Japan until the Shogunate became virtually extinct a the wound. In all wounds in which an infection has been esfew years ago. According to Géza Réheim (Man, 1915, p. 26) tablished the majority of the microbes are in the tissues well there are very definite traces of the same customs among the below the surface of the wound, and are quite inaccessible to Ural-Altaic peoples. He refers especially to the double kingship chemicals applied to the surface. of the Khazars as being essentially similar to the Mikado-Shogun During recent years research has been directed to the action system of Nippon. of chemical antiseptics on the natural defences of the body, and The vast importance of the study of social organization has it has been shown that the cells of the body are more susceptible been emphasized by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers within recent years to the chemicals and are more easily killed by them than are the (Kinship and Social Organization, London, 1913; History of microbes, so that it is clearly impossible to kill by means of one Melanesian Society, Cambridge, 1914), and in his hands the use of the ordinary chemical antiseptics the microbes imbedded in of the data relating to marriage regulations and relationship ‘the tissues, unless at the same time the tissues are destroyed. has become a most valuable instrument for investigating the Chemotherapy —The ideal method of using an antiseptic is problems of ethnology and the diffusion of culture. (G.E.S.) to introduce it into the circulation so that it reaches every ANTISEPTICS (sce 2.146)-—During recent years the study of portion of the infected focus and destroys the microbes. For antiseptics has proceeded mainly along two lines—attempts have the ordinary bacteria this ideal had not yet been attained in 1627, been made to produce more efficient antiseptics for use in the but remarkable advances had been made in this direction in cerordinary way by external application, and chemical substances tain infections. In xoxo Ehrlich prepared an organic arsenical have been elaborated which when injected into the circulation product which when injected into the body rapidly destroyed destroy the microbes with which they come in contact. At the the microbe of syphilis, and this product, salvarsan, or a later same time many studies have been made on the natural antisep- and more easily administered product ~of somewhat similar tics by which the body rids itself of infection. . constitution, neo-salvarsan, has revolutionized the treatment Antiseplics Naturally Occurring in the Human Body.—It is well ‘of this disease, Following Ehrlich, Morgenroth prepared a known that we are constantly coming in contact with disease- chemical substance which had a remarkable affinity for the producing microbes and yet only comparatively rarely does’ an pneumococcus (the microbe which causes pneumonia), and infection result. It is also well known that an individual who has destroyed it in very high dilution, whereas it had little lethal been living in a secluded spot which was comparatively free from action on other bacteria. It was found that Morgenroth’s infection, when brought into a city where infection is common, drug (optochin) lost much of its lethal power on the pneumococcus is very much more liable to infection than an individual who had when injected into the animal body, and also it had: certain been living in the city. The latter by coming in contact with the poisonous effects on the animal tissues, so that in practice it had microbes has developed a partial immunity to the common not been useful. The fact, however, that drugs can be prepared infections, so that, while the stranger will rapidly succumb to the that have a very specific action on one microbe oficrs same hope infecting microbe, the partially immune person will be able in that in the future there will be produced chemicals which’ will be many cascs to resist it. This immunity is due to an increase in able to destroy the ordinary disease-producing bacteria, without the amount of anti-bacterial substances of the body fluids, and damaging the tissues, and so give us an easy and certain remedy to a better organization for the mobilization of the defences of for the common infections. the body towards the point of attack. Chemical Antiseptics for Application to the Wound. -Prior ' In the simplest cascs, where microbes are introduced into the to the World War the use of antiseptics in surgery had been body by the instrument which inflicts the wound, there is very largely discarded in favour of “ aseptic ” methods, in which the quickly produced a dilatation of the surrounding blood-vessels aim was to prevent the access of the microbe to the wound. which increases the blood supply to the infected region. This is During the war, however, it was found that all wounds were followed by an increased transudation of the fluid portion of the infected with septic microbes, and many antiseptic methods

ANTOINE, ANDRE—ANTWERP were employed in the hope of destroying these microbes. At first, antiseptics such as carbolic acid and iodine were used, but they were found to be ineffective in preventing the spread of the infection. Then antiscptics of the chlorine group which were derived from bleaching powder came into vogue, and these were found to be much more useful, although their exact value

was obscured by the great advances made in the surgery of the wounds at the same time. These chlorine antiseptics act very quickly on the microbes, but at the same time they are very rapidly destroyed in the wound, so that after about ro minutes they have lost their antiseptic value. It was the common practice to instil these antiseptics into a septic wound every two

155

been made to “aseptic” methods, in which microbes are, as far as possible, excluded from the wound and the natural defences of the body are left to deal with the few microbes which may gain access, (A. Fi.) ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858French actor-manager (see 2.148), opened in 4897 his Thé&tre Antoine in Paris, which for to years he made famous as a home of modern realistic drama,

playing in particular the works of Brieux, Hauptmann and Sudermann, and staging a French version of King Lear. He returned to the management of the Odéon in 1906 and there.

produced Julius Caesar, Coriolanus and a large number of classical and modern dramas, but he retired in Feb. 1914. He

hours in the hope of keeping up a constant supply of the anti- was subsequently engaged In writing his memoirs, ANTWERP, Belgium (see 2.155).— Pop. (1914) 313,833; but, septic, but as the active agent is destroyed in about § or 10 minutes it follows that for the greater part of the time there including Borgerhout (52,126) and Berchem (32,257), total pop. was no antiseptic in the wound. Fleming has shown that in all | 398,216. The projected grande coupure, or cutting through the probability the beneficial action of these so-called antiseptics neck of. the loop in the river Scheldt immediately below Antwerp, was not in their power of destroying microbes but in their power was abandoned, and, in place of this scheme, three extensive of aiding the natural antiseptic defences of the body. wet-docks were constructed between 1903-14. In 1913, 7,742 In the simplest form these chlorine antiseptics were solutions vessels of aggregate tonnage 28,270,000 entered the port as of hypochlorous acid (ensol) or sodium hypochlorite (Dakin’s compared with 6,095 of 19,662,000 tons in 1905. The decision,: fluid), but later Dakin introduced more complicated organic taken in 1878, to change Antwerp from a fortress to a fortified. preparations, such as chloramine T. and dichloramine T., which position by the construction of an outer line of 15 forts and batwere more stable and contained a greater percentage of the teries at a distance varying from 6-9 m. from the enccinte was active agent. These later applications have never attained the nearly completed at the outbreak of the World War in ror4. A proposal to connect the two banks of the river by a tunnel popularity of the simpler compounds. Morison introduced into war surgery a procedure in which under the Scheldt was about to be taken in hand in 1921. the wound, after being thoroughly cleansed, was rubbed over with On Aug. 17 1914 the Belgian Government left Brussels for a paste consisting of bismuth, iodoform and paraffin (Bipp). Antwerp, and the Belgian army withdrew before the advance of This obtained a considerable popularity, and it was supposed to von Beseler’s army bchind the fortified lines. The bombardact by virtue of the iodoform, which is not in itself an antiseptic, ment of Antwerp began on Sept. 28 and lasted until Oct. 9, being broken down in contact with the blood fluids with the when the city surrendered. Nine-tenths of the population fied, liberation of iodine. Experiments showed, however, that there mostly to Holland. Some 300 houses (especially in the Marchéwas not sufficient iodine liberated to act as a Iethal agent for aux-Souliers, the Avenue d’Amérique and the suburbs near the bacteria in the body fluids, and it is probable that, like the forts) were destroyed, but the older and more important public chlorine antiseptics, this depended largely for its beneficial buildings (the positions of which were known to the Germans) action on its power of aiding and conserving the natural defences escaped damage. Under the harsh occupation of the Germans, Antwerp remained practically a dead city. On Nov. 19 1918, of the body. The last types of antiseptics to be introduced into war surgery the King and Qucen of the Belgians entered the city in state were the aniline dyes. The power of some of these dyes as anti- and attended a Te Deum in the cathedral. In Aug.-Sept. 1920, bacterial substances had been previously investigated. Church- the Olympic Games (7th Olympiad) were held in a newly man had shown that gentian violet would kill many varieties constructed stadium at Beerschot just outside the city. of bacteria (those which stain with Gram’s method) in a dilution Tue SIEGE OF 1914 of 1 in 1,000,000, or less, while it had little lethal action on other varieties which did not stain by Gram’s method. Another In the middle of the 19th century, the steady development dye, brilliant grcen, had been used in bacteriological technique of the city and its naval installations had made it necessary to for the isolation of typhoid bacilli, owing to its having a less enlarge the fortress, and so disquieting were the ambitions of lethal action on these than it had on the other and more common the new French Empire that it was decided to erect a national bacteria. Browning introduced into surgical practice another keep for the defence of Belgium at Antwerp. The new fortress dye of the acridine series, called by him flavine or acriflavine, was accordingly built between 1859 and 1870 under the direction which had been originally prepared by Benda at Ehrlich’s and after the plans of the celebrated Belgian engincer, Gen. suggestion for the destruction of trypanosomes (the parasites of Brialmont.! It comprised: (1) A line of detached forts (forts No. 1 to No. 8 sleeping-sickness). Flavine differed from all the other antiseptics in that it acted more powerfully in the presence of blood serum than it did in water. Great hopes were therefore entertained that it would be able to deal effectively with the bacteria in an infected wound.

It was found, however, that it was rapidly

fixed by the body tissues and by the dressing of the wound, and in practice it was ‘not found to have advantages over the other antiseptics In common use.

Towards the end of the war all the chemical antiseptic solutions

fell more or less into disuse and mofe reliance was placed on

and Fort Merxem on the right bank; Forts Cruybeke, Zwyndrecht and Ste. Marie on the left) placed at a distance of about 2; to 3m.

from the agglomeration of buildings, so as to protect these against.

bombardment.

These forts, about 2,200 yd. apart, built both in

masonry and in earth, were big batteries which embodied the lessons of the siege of Sevastopol. (2) A polygonal enceinte carried round the edge of the city. With over 1,000 guns the entrenched camp of Antwerp was considered the most powerful fortress in the warld. After the lessons of ‘the sieges of 1870-1 and 1877, however, it was con-

efficient surgery and the natural antiseptics of the body. The sidered necessary to extend the fortress’s sphere of influence greatcst advance in the treatment of infected wounds was the ' still further, in order to facilitate the operations of the Belgian efficient cleansing of the wound, the removal of all dead tissues, army when manoeuvring under its protection, and especially and the immediate closing of the wound so that the natural to enable it to make sorties in the direction of Brussels or in that antiseptic defences could exercise their functions to the greatest of Louvain without being cut off. As the water-line formed by advantage. It was found that when physiological salt solution the rivers Nethe and Rupel considerably impeded such opera-

was used the results of this procedure were as good as when chemical antiseptics were employed. Since the war conditions have been removed antiseptics have largely disappeared from surgical practice, and a return has

tions betwcen Lierre and the Scheldt (that is to say, on that part of the front which was most convenient for them), the forts of 1 A general plan of Brialmont’s fortress and details of its enceinte will be found in 10.693-694.

ANTWERP

156

Waelhem and Lierre and the Chemin de Fer redoubt were constructed S. of the Nethe as a sort of bridgehead. Mcanwhile the demands of the port were growing, and the city was becoming cramped within its enceinte. It was therefore decided about 1900 to extend the defensive system still further. The scheme adopted by the legislative chambers in 1906 provided

for:— (1) The creation of a principal line of defence, composed of detached forts about 5 to 11 m. from the limits of the Antwerp agglomeration, to shelter the city from bombardment by the artillery of that epoch. This line was, on an average, about 2 m, in front of the Rupel-

Nethe water-line, thus placing the crossing points of this line out of reach of heavy field artillery. Its total perimeter was 59 m., 46 m. on the right bank and 13 m. on the left, of which 6 m. were protected

by inundations. . , The forts, 17 in number, were disposed about 3 m. apart, and, in rinciple, permanent redoubts were to be built in the intervals. The forts were armed with one or two cupolas for twin 15-cm. guns, two cupolas for single 12-cm. howitzers, and four or six cupolas for single 7-5-cm. guns, The redoubts had only one 7-+5-cm. cupola. Forts and redoubts were constructed entirely of ordinary concrete, with vaults 2-50 metres thick at the crown and surrounded by wet ditches, 33 ft. wide. They all had traditores or ‘‘ Bourges casemates””

flanking the intervals with 7-5-cm. Q.F. guns.

The garrisons varied

from 100 to 500 men.

(2) The creation of an enceinte de sf@reté on the old fort line, the

service for ro years or more and their fighting value was very low. The cadres were entirely inadequate.

Unfinished works, conspicuous and: concentrated, proof only against, projectiles of 2x cm.; obsolcte artillery, lacking in observation-posts and in munitions; a garrison full of goodwill

but with inadequate cadres and untrained in the handling of modern weapons—such were the real means of defence of the legendary fortress of Antwerp in 1914. None the less the Belgians displayed, from the moment when

their territory was invaded, the utmost activity in preparing it. The unfinished forts were put ina state of defence by any means that came tœ hand.

The aprons for the cupolas were

banked up as best they could be. Distribution systems. were created for motive power, lighting and tclephones. The immediate foreground was cleared, though this did more harm than good, as it made the works very visible. The inundations were prepared. Forts and redoubts were united by continuous wire.

In the rear infantry trenches were constructed, cvitably showed well above ground on account level in-the soil, and the shelters, which were none were made merely with logs. The reserve artillery was established in battery positions, which gave

but these inof the watertoo numerous, of the fortress an average of

forts being organized for small weapons, Concrete redoubts were built

five old-pattern guns, firing black powder, per km. of front.

connected by a grile. This line of defence was to be 20 m. long.and

(3) ‘Phe demolition of the elaborate enceinte built in 1859 in the

A supporting position along the whole length of the Nethe was put in hand. The old fort line, and even the enceinte (which had been only partially demolished), were also organized as far

(4) Additional defences on the Lower Scheldt, including several coast batteries level with Doel to sweep the reaches of the river up

armament formed a serious handicap to the important, part which

at intervals of about 500 yd. and all these points d'appui were

5 to 73 nt. removed from the first line of defence.

immediate vicinity of the town. to the Dutch frontier.

—

These very extensive works had necessarily to be spread over several years, and in 1914, on the outbreak of hostilities, the transformation of the fortress had not been completed. (1) Even if the organization had been carried through according to plan, the fortress would not have come up to the standards es-

tablished by the siege of Port Arthur. The two positions of defence

were too shallow in themselves and also too far apart to support one another. The points d’appuz of these positions, in which the elements of permanent defence were concentrated on a small ground surface, very easy to locate, were conceived on a vicious principle. Monolithic concrete is not invulnerable to present-day siege,artillery;

the organs of defence should therefore be protected above all by their dissemination, by camouflage and by their irregular dispersion

over a large surface on the principle of the Metz Feste. The substructures and the armouring, constructed to resist the 21-

cm. mortar, were not calculated to face 28-cm., still less 30-5 and 42cm. projectiles,! A In July 1914 not one of the forts planned in 1906 was finished. Some lacked cupolas. Others had cupolas without concrete aprons, and these had to be improvised by pouring gravel, iron rods and cement round the cupolas. In some cases sacks of cement soaked with water, or even simple sandbags, had to suffice, _ The transmissions and canalizations were not established either

inside or outside the forts, neither was the machinery in place.

(3) For reasons of economy the I5-cm. cupolas had been provided

with old guns, formerly on wheeled carriages, which had a range of not more than 8,800 yd. and used black powder. The most recent guns, amongst them those of the traditore batteries, hastily installed,

were for the most part without laying instruments, oF the other guns available the most powerful was the 1889 model 15-cm. which hada were .F. ays

range of 11,000 yards.2_ Older guns or howitzers, of 12 or 15 cm.

also available, all using black powder. England sent six 4°7 guns, mounted on armoured railway trucks, and, in the last

of the siege, six 6-in. guns.

as possible. The unfinished state of the fortress and the mediocrity of its

Antwerp was destined to take in the operations.

(1) Asa great commercial metropolis, always abundantly supplied

with products of all kinds, Antwerp was an obvious centre for military depots and stores. Containing all the army’s arsenals and

supply magazines, it was a base of operations from which the army could under no circumstances allow itself to be cut off,

(2) By reason of its situation Antwerp offered to the Belgian field army a stronghold from which it could sally forth at any time it chose, to threaten the lines of communication of the German armies operating in the north of France.

(3) Through Ostend and Zecbrugge Antwerp had casy means of communication with England. Under the shelter of the fortress and the Scheldt English troops could safely land in Flanders; act in liaison with the Belgian army, operate against the German lines of communication, protect the Pas de Calais coast with its sea traffic,

vital to England, and prevent the Allied left wing from being turned

and enveloped.

To fulfil these important missions the fortress should have been complete and well manned. Failing these two conditions, it was of no importance save for the presence of the Belgian field army within

its walls.

The Belgian army had fallen back in the direction of Antwerp when, to avoid envelopment by the German I. and II. Armies, the Nethe position had to be evacuated (Aug. 18-20). Hence, too, after the sortie battles of Aug. 25 (Eppcghem,.- Hofstade, Werchter) and Sept. 9-12 (Aerschot, Haecht, Louvain) under-

‘taken for the purpose of codperating in the battle of the Frontiers and that of the Marne, the army returned in each case to the fortress, resolved to stay there as long as its communications with the sea were’ not in danger. When the German I, Army wheeled through and past Brussels on its way to France, it dropped the III. Res. Corps (v. Beseler)

No equipment for observation of ‘to face northward as a flank-guard against the Belgian field

fire and no observation posts existed, and the necessary survey work for firing by the map was incomplete.

There were ten aero-

army at Antwerp.

With some additions and changes, Bescler’s

The supply of ammunition was extremely modest, the 15-cm. guns being provided with 800 rounds, the others with only 125. Some

force? remained on the defensive, fulfilling this duty on the line Grimberghen-Over de Vaert-Aerschot. On Aug. 25 and again on Sept. 9 it had to meet serious sorties

for the guns, it speedily put them out of action. (4) The fort garrisons were chiefly of the oldest classes. The Lebel rifle with which they were armed was strange to them and they were entirely ignorant of the machine-gun. The men of the fortress battalions which garrisoned the intervals had had no military

sions its situation was at one time critical. After this, for a few. days, the front was quiet. But towards Sept. 20 reports began to come in of important German transport moves and of a quantity of very heavy artillery moving on the roads leading

planes and one balloon for the. fortress and the field army together.

French ammunition was hurriedly obtained, but, not being designed

1 Twenty-eight cm. howitzers were used by the Japanese at Port

Arthur 1904-5. The first German model of 30-5-cm. siege howitzer was designed as early as 1898. _F, A.) * Its 38-kgm. shell was powder-filled. An order for 8,000 H.E. shells had been placed in Germany in 1912, but the firm concerned failed to deliver them.

of the field army in Antwerp, and on the second of these occa-

1 The artillery of the field army of course excluded. 2? Till Sept. 8 Beseler remained under command

of I. Army.

eseler.””

(C. F. AN

From Sept.8 to Sept. 10 his force was under the VII. Army heada Finally on Sept. 17 the force was designated “Armecgruppe

ANTWERP from Maubeuge to the region N. of Brussels. The powerful matériel which had laid in ruins the foris of Liége, Namur and Maubeuge in succession was in fact now on its way to Antwerp. Soon it was established in position in all the region between the Dyeand the Grande Nethe, from Boortmeerbeek to Heyst

157

op-den-Berg.! The heaviest ordnance, 30-5-cm. and 42-cm. howitzers, had not only demolishing but also ranging power. They could install themselves in perfect safety beyond the extreme range of the Belgian guns, and regulate their fire as if on the experimental range.

SIEGE OF ANTWERP,I9I4 Positions of the defence and of the attack Artillery

ENN,

Fort Sabrnnck

ORedoubt Berendrecht,

German Siege Artillery

A

4_f Line of medium ond heavy areidlery aeoloyment

Bit erererBros

Stabroek

b

à

420m batteries Iettered a tof

weu

a 1: 2

Son Cappellen,Ñ

to show successy

Pasitians ofdamedattery

=

Original line of fire

eee

Subsequent fines of fira

Belgian Defences Redd’

mwa

Dorderen

Lines of defence (dejin bythe wire} Permanent warks

o Redovdts in inner hae

t Gravenwežé Ae >

ie

p 2 s Pulderboei O

i RX

fe “Hoboken ly

Oferiachaer

E

T Ft+

i ot Amand

Wavre

Ste Catherine

BY Ae eck$ h, — el EA Liezele f Tig

Mariekerke >

i

aiPBN

onck

binin

29

de Fer

4 edebbt

eK, REW favre 2

‘OBihasveld

aelhem

+e Catherine

BoeSse]

Aa

SX

Ercendonck

N

ta

4

Sohricgh Ramsdonck

Cappella honderzeel

ouBois -

`

I

b

Ho

p de

—

(

Sempst if Nieuwonrods

i

1 The total artillery strength Field Artillery

Guns

1

2

4

5

the Germans before Antwerp was: F. Gun 25 batteries F. How. 6

Heavy Field and Siege Artillery

g

oY

tocm. 13cm.

I5cm.

dotal

6 batteries 4

2

“

Long guns

6

7 MILES

Howitzers

150 pieces 36

ee

24 pieces mo “

2oee

48 pieces

15cm. 18 batteries

21 cm. 12

Howitzers Super-heavy Howitzers German and Austrian

German

30°5 cm. 4 batteries 42 cm. 2 i

72 pieces

48

™

120 pieces 9 pieces

4 13 pieces

(C. F. A)

158

ANTWERP

On Sept. 27 the German operations assumed the character of the beginning of a siege. The town of Malines received a violent bombardment and was evacuated. The artillery deployment of the attack was completed, and fire opened on the 28th. The Army Group Beseler comprised at that time the 37th Landwehr Bde. between Alost and Termonde, where it had served in flank guard since Sept. 14; the 4th Ersatz Div. (arrived

from Lorraine on the 26-27) between Termonde and the Willebroeck canal; the Marine Div. between this canal and the Dyle about Malines; the III. Res. Corps from the Dyle to the Antwerp-Aerschot railway (sth R. Div. on left, 6th R, Div, on right), and the 26th Landwehr Bde. N. of Aerschot, with a group furnished by the III. Res. C. further to the right front at Westerloo.

The specialist troops, besides the medium and heavy artillery

already alluded to, were two regiments and some additional units of pioneers, four railway companies, three kite balloons and a flight of acroplanes, a survey section and two searchlight sections. Gcneral von Bescler himself was an enginecr general and had been inspector-general of pioneers. Field-Marshal von der Goltz, Governor-General of Occupied

Belgium, had at his disposal some brigades, of which the 1st Reserve Ersatz Bde. and the 1st Bavarian Landwehr Bde. joined the Beseler Group directly, while the 41st Landwehr Bde. watched the left rear between Alost and Ninove, and the 38th

cover of this the infantry got into contact with the outposts of the fortress. The Belgian guns replied with vigour. Between the Scheldt and the Senne Belgian detachments energetically repulsed thcir assailants (4th Ers. Div. and Mar. Div.), notably on the outskirts of Blacsveld (S.E. of Fort Breendonck).

But E. of the Senne towards noon, the super-

heavy artillery came into action and began by engaging Forts Waelhem and Wavre Ste. Catherine.? At Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine the first 42-cm. shell picrced a concrete vault 24 metres thick. At 1 r.m. the gallery of the gorge front was demolished. Other vaults, including those of the fire-control room, suffered the same fate; a cupola was jammed, and the left traditore battery crumbled into the ditch. The other forts suffered Jess, The firing, after a pause in the evening, continued with intensity all through the night on most of the forts. On the zọth, W. of the Senne renewed attacks, especially heavy about Blaesfeld, were repulsed. Between the Senne and the Nethe the cannonade was even more violent than on the previous day, both the trenches in the intervals and the permanent works being engaged. From 5 a.m. Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine (which in fact was the point selected by von Beseler for the break-through) received 42-cm. projectiles at regular intervals of seven minutes, not counting those of 21 and go:5 cm,

Landwehr Bde. the right front near Beverloo Camp. Siege Operations.—It at once became clear that the attack was being concentrated on the south front of the fortress. The attack project elaborated by the Germans in pcace-time had made the east front the objective. On the other hand, an attack against the west front would have had the advantage of isolating the Belgians from Allied support. But von Beseler had not the necessary forces to prosecute a sicge on this side while still

covering the communications through Brussels against a sortic, In spite, therefore, of the fact that the Nethe and its inundations

lay behind the fort line, he had decided to attack the south front.!. Trusting in the thrice-proved powers of his weapons of attack, he set out to spare his infantry, to crush and throw into confusion the lines of defence by gunfire, ruin the mechanism of the organs of defence in the forts by mcthodic hammering, controlled by aircraft, destroy the guns in their cupolas and the garrison in their shclters—more certainly than would have been possible if they had been dispersed—before giving them a chance of fighting. These results attained, he would then cautiously advance his infantry and gain a footing in the shattered forts and pulverized lines of defence. The Belgian troops were thus faced with thé prospect of waiting stoically and in obscurity, without hope of riposte, under the fracas of a cyclopcan bombardment, till the moment when they should be blown wp or crushed at their posts.

Under such conditions they could not hold out very long. Tt was essentially a question of the number of mortars and the quantity of munitions possessed by the assailant and of the destructive power of cach separate projectile. Actually this unequal struggle lasted ro days and nights without truce, and this time was infinitcly precious in retarding the moment when

the Germans—rid at last of the menace of the Belgian army on their right rear—could frecly and with better chances renew their great effort to reach and envelop the left flank of the Franco-British armies. On Sept. 27 the Belgian ficld army was distributed on the most dangerous sectors as follows: The rst and 2nd Divs, between the Senne and the Nethe from Willebrocck to Lierre with the sth Div. in reserve N. of the Nethe; the 6th and 3rd Divs. between the Senne and the Scheldt; the 4th Div. at Termonde and the cavalry division about Alost-Wetteren to cover the communication between Antwerp and the sca. On the morning of the 28th the German cannonade was let loose along ihe whole iront between Termonde and Lierre. Under 1 His request for additional forces wherewith simultaneously to operate west of the Scheldt was refused by headquarters.

Ir ae Boe

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SHOWING

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PLAN OF A FORT AT ANTWERP ALL HITS OF CALIBRES ABOVE 21 CM. ® =HIT$

_ It is dificult to imagine the terrible situation of a garrison sub-

jected to such a bombardment. ‘The arrival of a 42-cm. projectile is announced. by a deafening roar. When it bursts in the masonry the whole mass of the fort shakes violently and scems to sink in the earth and to oscillate back to its original level. The blast throws men against the walls. Poisonous fumes and clouds of cement dust cause violent sickness and sometimes suffacation, Under such conditions, and in close confinement, it is casy to see why the men lost not only their powers of action but even, it seemed, their reason. The men’s quarters were destroyed, fires broke out, the air

became unbreathable and the greater part of the garrison took refuge on the berm of the ditch. A 42-cm. projectile went through the dome of one 15-cm. cupola, exploded, and tossed the voussoirs to a distance of about 30 feet. The second 15-cm. cupola was put cut of action by a 30-5. The other cupolas were either destroyed by being laid bare or made inaccessible by the obstruction of their galleries. One magazine was hit by a shell and blew up. The double caponier of the capital was completely ruined.

By 11 A.M. the fort had all its guns out of action and all means of defence destroyed. The survivors of the garrison were authorized to evacuate it as fire rendered it untenable. Forts * The artillery of medium and heavy calibre was deployed mostly

along the Malines- tleyst-op-den-Berg road, the rest behind Malincs, at ranges of 3,500 to 7,000 yd. from the two first and 5,000 to 9,000 from the two last-named forts. Of the super-heavy artillery two 30-5-cm. batteries (range 9,500 and 10,500 yd.) engaged Fort Waelhem and Chemin de Fer or Duffel redoubt; a 30-5 battery (8,500 yd.) and a 42-cm,

battery (11,300 yd.) attacked Fort Wavre Ste,

Catherine, an Austrian 30-5-battery (range 8,800 yd.) Fort Konings-

hoyekt, and a 42-cm. battery (range 9,000 yd.) Fort Lierre. Alt

these were two-gun batteries except the Austrian, which had four.

The ranges here given are approximate.

For positions sec map.

(C. F. A.)

ANTWERP

159

Waelhem and Koningshoyckt, less heavily bombarded, continued

part in the evening in repulsing the attack on the intervals.?

to reply vigorously On the 30th the situation grew worse.

Fort Lierre, after six hours’ uninterrupted bombardment from the 42’s, repulsed an attempted assault early in the evening. The same night (1st-2nd) the Germans tried in vain to pierce the interval between Fort Lierre and the Tallaert redoubt.

The rst Div. deployed

between the Heyndonck inundation and Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine was worn out by three days of bombardment and had to abandon its ruined entrenchments and transfer the defence to the N. bank of the Nethe, leaving Fort Waclhem to defend itself in isolation. The right of the 2nd Div., affected

by the retreat of neighbouring troops, and itself heavily engaged,

Between the Scheldt and the Senne the German infantry

made no move on this day. ‘The artillery, however, kept up a continuous hammering on the front of the Belgian 3rd and sth Divs., and especially on Fort Breendonck.

gave way at one time. The German infantry had not yct attacked! at any point, but all the works had suffered terribly except Fort Lierre. The artillery both of the forts and of the intervals maintained the struggle all day against the German gunners. Between the Senne and the Scheldt two powerful attacks on Blacsveld and on the sector of the 6th Div. were repulsed. l The Germans, expecting that by this time Fort Waelhem, Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine, and the defences to the N.E.

On Oct. 2 the Belgian rst and 2nd Divs. crossed the Nethe and pushed forward to regain the intervals lost during the night, but were checked by violent artillery fire, and King Albert therefore decided to transfer the defence to the north of the Nethe, and had all crossings destroyed. The evening was marked by the death-struggle of Fort Waelhem. Here the recent strengthening of the structure had consisted chicfly in overlaying one metre of conerete on the old brickwork of 1881, and, according to the Germans, the 21-cm. would be “ ripe for storming,” had fixed Oct. x as the day for shell falling in large numbers on the fort contributed as much to their break-through. Accordingly the Marine Div. was to its ruin as the 30-5’s of which calibre the fort received 30 effective attack Fort Waelhem, the trenches adjacent, and Chemin de hits out of 556 fired. The Tallaert redoubt and Fort KoningsFer redoubt, and the sth Res. Div. to storm Fort Wavre Ste. hoyckt were evacuated, being in ruins, the first-named owing to Cathcrine and the Dorpveld redoubt. The attack of the Marine the explosion of a magazine, the second owing to the havoc of Div. failed to reach Fort Waclhem (the Belgian ist Div. having the shells. On the fall of Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine the 42-cm. largely reoccupied the trenches evacuated the day before), but battery hitherto engaged against that fort was turned on to its right captured Elscstraat, and after a sharp initial repulse Fort Koningshoyckt, superposing its effect on that of four Austhe sth Res. Div. reached its objectives, while the Belgian 2nd trian 30°5’s, At Fort Lierre, after the fruitless attack of the Div., after prolonged resistance under bombardment, began previous day, the German artillery opened fite at 7:30 A.M. and battered successively all the organs of the fort. Several retreating to the Nethe. Meantime the works of the Senne-Nethe sector had been acroplanes aided in directing the fire, and here the single 42subjected to a final and terrible hammering. Fort Waclhem had cm. battery engaged obtained a higher percentage of hits than been mortally wounded.

A 30-5 projectile blew up a magazine

killing or grievously burning a hundred men who were sheltering in the adjacent postern. But the fort still claimed to be in a condition to fire, and, in fact, the assault on this fort was a

definite failure, as also was an attempt made in the night of the 1st-2nd. Fort Wavre. Ste, Catherine was carricd by the German infantry in the evening of the tst.?

The Dorpveld redoubt had been bombarded intermittently on the 29th and 3oth, and on Oct. 1 from 8:30 AM.

Towards

3 P.M. an assault was delivered. The only 7-5-cm. cupola being out of action, the survivors of the garrison held the rampart for half an hour, then abandoned the firing crest and took refuge underground; a company of the enemy’s infantry installed itself in the mass of the cupola and the craters of the earthwork, but the garrison kept up rifle-fire from the barrack windows.

The commandant of the work managed to get a friendly ficld battery outside to sweep with shrapnel the enemy installed over his head; reciprocally, his own traditore battery came into action about rr:30 P.M. to defend the interval. On the 2nd, towards 3:30 A.M., on their side, the Germans attacked the roof of the fort by mining, and the concrete, which was of poor quality, began to yicld in the right-hand part of the work.

From this point the artillerymen could be of no use, and they were withdrawn under cover of darkness one by one, under the

fire of a German machine-gun on the redoubt. Towards 5 A.M. a second mine, still more powerful, breached the vaulting, and the enemy took possession of the deserted floor. After defending for some time an improvised barricade which limited the assailants’ progress, the commandant and 12 men, the sole sur-

vivors, were forced to surrender about 6 Am. Fort Koningshoyckt, though violently attacked by go-5’s, took a vigorous 1 In its methodical advance it had reached the line of the Vrouwen-

vliet (Marine Div.); a line 700 yd. from Fort Wavre Ste. Catherine (sth Res. Div.); Wavre Notre Dame and Koningshoyckt

(6th Kes,

Div.); Berlaer (37th Lw. Bde.). On the 3oth the Germans were very anxious about their right flank, owing to Belgian activity in

the region E. of Fort. Kessel.

i

O (C F.A)

2 According to the German account the light flanking guns were

still in action when the fort was stormed, Authority had however been given fo the commandant (see above) to evacuate it, The fort received 44 hits (out of 500 rounds fired) from super-heavy calibres. ‘Observation difficulties, due to the country, seem to have made

control of fire unsatisfactory.

(C. F. A.)

elsewhere (32 out of 175 rounds). All the cupolas where put out of action, and all the chambers had to be evacuated in turn. By 5:15 P.M. the fort was practically destroyed and shortly

afterwards it was evacuated. till next day.

The Germans did not occupy it

On the 3rd the small Duffel (Chemin de Fer) fort, armed with six

5:7-cm.

cupolas, on which

the German

artillerymen

no

doubt disdained to waste a 42,° held the encmy engaged the whole day until its munitions were exhausted. ‘The commandant then blew up his defences and brought back his gunners and his wounded to the N. bank of the Nethe. The German infantry of the Marine Div., which advanced during the day and the night, occupied the ruined redoubt early on Oct. 4. The Belgian troops now began to be seriously disheartened. The forts, in which their confidence—though misplaced—had been supreme, had in a few days been shattered under their eyes by the blows of a monstrous artillery, and they knew that

their field artillery had nothing? but its own brave audacity with which to carry on the struggle. All its efforts were concentrated

on thwarting

the enemy’s active preparations

for

crossing the Nethe, where the infantry hastily erected new lines of defence.

The events of these days had left no illusions as to the fate in store for Antwerp’s fortified positions. that the 42-cm. or even the 30°5-cm. shell reinforced concrete vault of 2} meters or chrome-nickcl-steel domes of the cupolas.

It had been proved would pierce a nonthe 24-cm. (93 in.) Once fire had been

opened on a fort it was a question not of days but of hours to put it completely out of action. This being so, the idea that the entrenched camp of Antwerp could constitute a definite

place of refuge for the army and the Government had to be abandoned once for all, on pain of involving the army in the

surrender of the fortress.

But another and a far more scrious

3 According to the German account, the defenders were even

able to counter-attack on this part. of the line. 4 Tschischwitz says that the existence of the Tallaert redoubt came as a surprise to the Germans. C. F. A.) § After the ruin of Fort Waelhem, however, a 30°5-cm. battery was switched on to the redoubt, against which it fired "37 rounds 4

b

€ Ammunition supply had become a matter of anxiety by the eve-

ning of Oct. 3.

ANTWERP

160

menace threatened the army more and more as the days went on. For a fortnight past the ‘‘ Race to the Sea ” had been in progress in France. Each side, hoping to envelop the outer flank of the other or secking to protect its own flank from the same fate, was being led by a series of parallel and practically synchronous cfforts to displace the centre of gravity and the decisive point of the campaign towards the sca. Thus by the end

of Sept. the battle-front had been extended from the Oise to Arras and Béthune, and fresh German masses were traversing Belgium in a westerly dircction, The real peril to which the Belgian army was exposed lay in the possible failure of the Allied left to gain on the enemy’s right and join up with the Belgians on the Scheldt. Yet this junction must be effected at all costs, even if the fortress had to be abandoned in order to get Into contact with the Allies. The King was strongly in favour, however, of holding the

fortress until the last extremity, in order to bind the troops and material now concentrated before it, and also to gain the maximum of time for the formation of a Franco-British-Belgian front on the Scheldt and

the Dendre—the

natural rampart of the

coast, the Straits and England. To prevent the Germans from reaching the coast would be an inestimable service rendered to the Albes, and the King was determined not to relinquish the idea save In the last resort. Every day gained at Antwerp meant a French port saved—to-day Boulogne, the next day Calais, the next Dunkirk—and the withholding from the Germans of the Straits of Dover, the most important maritime artery in the world. Mr, Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, fully realized the capital role which the fortress might play in the war. With great foresight and initiative he had drawn the

British Assistance-—The immediate result of Mr. Churchill’s personal intervention was the arrival at Antwerp, on the evening of Oct. 3, of a brigade of 2,000 men of the British Royal Naval Division. The apparition, at dawn on the ath, of these the first Allies the Belgian soldiers had set eyes on during the two months of the war—aroused a wholesome enthusiasm among the dispirited defence troops, Unhappily, this assistance could þe no more than a moral stimulus for a fresh burst of energy. Meanwhile, the German infantry E. of the Senne advanced steadily as near to the Nethe line as the Belgian fire permitted, while the medium and heavy artillery moved up to new positions, and the super-heavy batteries, freed by the fall of all works between Waelhem and Fort Lierre inclusive, got into

place to attack Fort Breendonck on the left flank and Fort Kessel on the right—three German 30's batteries W. of Hombeck engaging the former, and the Austrian. 30°5’s at Heykant

and one 42-cm, battery? at Isschot the latter. On the 4th the six pieces concentrated upon Fort Kessel at ranges of 9,000-9,300 yd, quickly finished their work, the place being ruined and evacuated just before midday. It was not until the 6th, however, that fire was seriously directed upon Fort Breendonck. Gen. yon Bescler’s original scheme was that each unit on

the III, Res. Corps front should strive on its own account and at its own time to obtain a foothold beyond the Nethe, while the Marine Div. remained echeloned back on the left, and the

26th Landwehr Bde. advanced on the right as close to Fort Kessel as possible. The fire directed upon the half-exposed left of the sth Res. Div., however, soon made it necessary that the right of the Marine Div. should also attempt to advance. In this it was unsuccessful, and during the 4th the whole of the sth Res. Div. and part of the 6th-could do no more than approach

attention of the British War Office to the strategic importance

the water-line.

of Antwerp in the beginning of September.

On the sight of the 6th Res. Div., on the contrary, a bold advance carricd the Germans into Lierre, and there began in that town a prolonged and fierce struggle, the British Marine Bde. deployed along the Little Nethe and the sth Belgian Div. on the Nethe between Lierre (excl.) and Hit Ven (excl) compictely holding up both the right of the 6th Res. Div. and those

In the first days of

Oct. he came in person to the besieged fortress to take stock of the situation. The Belgian Command gave him a frank statement of its intentions, and King Albert informed him personally of the rôle he proposed for the Belgian army on the extreme left wing of the Allied front. Being entirely in agreement, Mr, Churchill returned in all haste to London to push forward the immediate dispatch of all the troops the French and English Governments could spare to Antwerp and Ghent. It was urgently necessary (z) to guarantee the effective union of the Belgian army with the general Allied front and (2) to bring about this union on a level with Antwerp, or, failing this, on a line as far cast as possible with its left resting on the Dutch frontier or the coast, so that the enemy could in no case scize and envelop the Allies’ extreme left wing.

Given the double aim which the King had in view, that of holding Antwerp as long as possible and not allowing himself under any circumstances to be cut off from the Allies, there was no time to be lost in transferring the main base of supplies from Antwerp to Ostend, whence the army could carry out its subsequent operations in concert with the Allics, The transport of materials and supplies and the évacuation of the manufacture and storage establishments, of the wounded, the prisoners and the recruits therefore commenced on Oct. 1. Although the only through railway connexion between the E. and W. banks of the Scheldt was that by way of Willebroeck, Pucrs and Tamise railway bridge, within range of the enemy’s guns, the trains followed one another night after night, with all lights out, until Oct. 7 without attracting attention. West of the Scheldt the evacuation transports and convoys were protected by the 4th Div. round Termonde, and the Cavalry Div. round Wetteren.!

1 A first attempt on Termonde had been made on Sept. 26 by the

37th Landwehr Bde. advancing from Alost down the left bank of the

Dendre. Not only had this been hung up at Gyseghem, half-way, but Alost itself in tts absence had fallen to an attack by Belgian forces from Wetteren. The 27th and 28th were taken up in recapturing Alost, which was thencelorward held, though the garrison was “constantly and severely worried by cavalry, cyclists, armoured cars and armoured trains’ in the words of the German account. A detachment of the brigade was sent up to watch the S. side of Ter-

monde, and one from the 4th Ers. Div. was similarly posted (not

troops of the 26th Landwehr Bde. which, on the fall of Fort Kessel, had pushed up to Klosterheyde, On the evening of Oct. g the German force in Lierre was still

pinned down by the fire of the Marine Bde. Further south, under cover of a very heavy bombardment, they had succeeded in crossing the river, but were held a short distance beyond it, along the road from Hit Ven to Lierre, with only precarious communications behind them. On Oct, 6 at dawn the sth Div, tried, by a general counter-

attack, to throw the enemy back to the S. of the Nethe. But with the whole mass of the German artillery free to cover its infantry the counter-attack was foredoomed. The Belgian guns vigorously supported it, and a determined attack near Ringenhof was for a moment successful and produced a crisis in the German line. But no more could be done. The assistance of Fort Broechem was at an cnd, since on this day it was taken under fire by the 42-cms, and the Austrian 30°s-cms. which had ruined Fort Kessel. and then advanced to their third positions at

Vythoek and Koningshoyckt respectively. More and more German infantry was, by one means or another, got across the Nethe, and the débris of the ist, 2nd and sth Divs. and the English Marine Bde. fell back little by little in the afternoon without fighting) at Baesrode.

The whole force on the left was

placed under the 4th Ers, Diy. staff, but until the arrival of further

troops from the governor-general’s forces (1st Res. Ers. Bde.) nothing could be done. On Oct. 4 the arrival of these troops, behind which the 1st Bay. Lw. Bde. was also coming up, released the 37th Lw. Bde. from Alost, and an advance was made by this brigade to Schoonarde on the Scheldt, with a view to forcing the passage there

and reaching Termonde from the rear. On the 4th, 5th and 6th, however, attempts to do so were repulsed by the defenders, and throughout the critical days the Germans were unable to interfere with movements in the Lokeren region, (C.F. A 2? The 42-cm. battery which had attacked Forts Wavre Ste.

Catherine and Koningshoyckt was a railway battery, and had to

remain inactive for the time being.

„F.A.

ANTWERP

sideration now dominated all others—the Belgian army must

recruits had dug some rough trenches.*

Meanwhile, along the Scheldt, the ecnemy’s attitude was ‘becoming more and more aggressive in the efforts to gain the crossings at Baesrode, Termonde and Schoonaerde. The

avoid being surrounded.

Belgian army—that of being invested in the fortress. The 6th

Div., which with the 3rd Diy, still held the fort line between the Willebroeck canal and the Scheldt, now received orders to cross the Scheldt at Tamise to reinforce the ath Div. and safeguard

the army’s communication with the west. Withdrawal of the Belgian Field Army.—The defence troops were becoming extremely fatigued, the bravest among them

being daunted by the uninterrupted bombardment and the persistent feeling of helplessness in the face of the weapons

which had pulverized forts and lines of defence in succession.

Soon the cnemy would be bringing up his batteries to bombard the city itself. If it had taken only a week to reduce the principal line of resistance constituted by the modern forts on the S. of the Nethe, still less would suffice to break up the old forts of the

sidered it too risky to commit his forces, very inferior as they

were, to a determined defence of this exposed position.2 He therefore placed the znd Belgian Div. and the English Div.

inner line. The fortress could now offer no prolonged resistance. Moreover, all hope of linking the Antwerp front with that of the Franco-British armies had to be abandoned. Two new

on the line of forts No. 1 to No. 8. These two divisions stoically endured there the usual bombardment throughout the days af the 7th and 8th, Meanwhile the main body of the Belgian army

English naval brigades, recently formed, had arrived in the fortress on the sth, bringing the effective of the Royal Naval Div. up to 10,000 men; a French naval brigade had been moved

1The German official account criticizes the inactivity of Gen.

Paris in not seizing the opportunity offered by the success at Ringen-

to Ghent and the British 7th Div. and 3rd

kof. Whether this criticism be well founded or not it shews that the position at that moment was regarded by the German command as critical. ? On the night of the 6th the German line ran from a point S. of Fort Brocchem, along the Little Nethe and in advance of the Nethe, to a point about ¢ m, W. of Duffel Station. The Marine Div. was still short of the general alignment, not having crossed the river.

Cavalry Div. under Gen. Rawlinson had and Ostend, Had these troops arrived combined operation against the left wing might have changed the face of the war. As Mr. Churchill said: —~—“ A weck earlier,

landed at Zecbrugge a few days earlier a of the besieging force But it was too late, the result would have been a certainty ... a little later 200,000 men could not have carried the operation through.”

On its left, the qth Ersatz Div. faced the line of the south-western

forts, of which Fort Breendonck was beginning to be subjected ta bombardment. ‘The left of the 4th Ersatz Div. was at St. Amand and Baesrode on the Scheidt, in touch with the forces operating at and

On the one hand, the Germans were threatening the line of retreat through Termonde.

On the other, Haison with the Allies

above Fermonde.

was compromised, for the German right wing in France was now hardly more than 30 m. from the sea, whereas the distance from

>

On the evening of Oct. 6 the Kimg

decided to separate the lot of the main body of the army from that of the fortress, and gave orders to cross to the left bank of the Scheldt during the night of the 6th-yth. The troops were then to continue their march westward. It was high time, for on the 7th, the Scheldt was forced at Schoonaerde, the Germans making every effort to throw back the ath Div. on Lokeren. _ The fortress was still to be defended to the utmost by Lt.Gen. Deguise, the governor. The garrison proper (personnel of the forts and fortress troops) with the 2nd Div. and the British Naval Div., some 50,000 men, were more than enough to do what could be done with the remains of the fortress. The Final Resistance-—-On the 6th Fort Broechem, battered all day by four 30'5’s and two 42-cms., had been put out of action and dismantled. The improvised line Aertselaer-ContichBouchout was merely 4 row of light shelter-trenches, lacking in depth and with both flanks in the air. General Deguise con-

situation of the Belgian 4th Div., on a front of 18 m., began to be serious. There lay the gravest danger which threatened the

from Dunkirk

161

the Nethe to Nieuport was 85 miles, This being $0, one con-

to the line Contich-Bouchout, where civilian labourers and

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&

=f .

eae ee

a

LN

ie

i oS

f

.

f Hemmoy

a aF LR. E we rg} E versita

i gi.

A

Wannseen mea » «© «© «

we «© « © «

317,000 a 51,000 « 106,000 4 «

10,060 80,000

b

-

-

=

.

564,000

This gives a percentage of dead to population of 1-56. If one adds to the above total 25,000 released sick prisoners who died during the period of demobilization, and 62,000 who died of disease during the same period, the number of deaths rises to 651,000. A revision and control of data dealing with losses was in 1921 being attended to, but the partial results ead then known led to the

belief that the first set of figures given was far inferior to the

reality, and that even those given by Senator Mortara would have to be increased rather than diminished. Demobilization, —On the cessation of hostilities the army began the reduction of its forces to something approaching pre-war strength. Demobilization could not be immediate or rapid owing to the necessity of keeping sufficient troops on the Armistice line and in

foreign territories; of having many troops under arms in the country

to repress the disorders likely to occur after such a war; of regulating the discharge of troops in accordance with means of transport avail-

able, taking into account also the probability of emigration oa the part of some of the men discharged and the possibility of employment at home for others. It was also advisable to keep numerous

units in the redeemed territories to employ them in urgent works of

reconstruction,

These and other considerations imposed a gradual

demobilization of men as well as of animals and material. Demobilization involved not only a reduction but also a transformation inasmuch as the army had to be organized on lines different from those of 1914 and in accordance with the lessons of the war.

The older classes of reservists were discharged first. The men were

given an insurance policy, a parcel of mufti clothes or a corresponding

sum of money and their fare to return to their residence in Italy or abroad, Officers were discharged after the men of their class.

Medical officers especially were kept in the army to attend on wounded and sick men and prisoners returning from internment,

By the end of June 1919, 14 classes had been discharged as follows:

ARMY

226

classes 1874 to 1876 in Noy. 1918; classes 1877 to 1884 in Dec. 1918; classes 1885 and 1886 in March 1919; class 1887 in April t919. The 1900 class~which was the last called up during the war and which had not fought—was discharged on leave and called up again at the end of 1919 and the beginning of 1920. With the discharge of these classes, and with that of other special categories of the younger classes, the total number of men with the colours, which in Nov. 1918 exceeded 3,500,000, was reduced on‘July © 1919 to about 900,000, of whom 72,000 were in the colonies, 54,000 in Albania, 27,000 in Macedonia, 9,000 in Asia Minor, 7,500 in France, and 2,000 in Russia. By the same date 225 generals and 76,000 other officers had been discharged.

During the latter part of 1919 nine other classes were discharged,

as follows:—class 1888 at the end of June, class 1889 at the end of

July, classes 1890 to 1892 at the end of Aug., classes 1893 and 1894 at the end of Sept., class 1895 at the end of Oct., class 1896 at the end of December. Immediately afterwards men belonging to the pre-war second and third categories of classes 1897 to 1899 were discharged, so that at the beginning of 1920 the Italian army consisted only of men of the first category of 1897, 1898 and 1899 classes.

At the same time 130,000 reserve officers out of the 165,000

in service at the time of the Armistice had been discharged. The principal reductions in the different units of the army up to the beginning of 1920 consisted of the breaking-up of 5 commands of

army, 21 commands of army corps, 45commands of infantry division, one commaud of cavalry division, 31 infantry brigades, 6 brigades of bersaglicri, 49 Alpine battalions, 12 squadrons of cavalry, 180 feld batteries, 80 mountain batteries, 105 heavy field batteries, 600 sicge baiteries. All the men of the 1897, 1898 and 1899 classes were discharged in Feb. 1921, when only the 1900 and the 1901 classes (the latter had been called up in Nov. 1920) were with

the colours. By this date the last men whe had fought in the World War had left the army. `

In rori the actual strength of the U.S, regular army was 4,838 officcrs and 70,250 men, of whom 56,753 officers and men were

stationed in the United States. Deducting the coast artillery, there was left, in the United Statcs, a mobile army of only This small force was distributed among.

49 army posts in 24 states and territorics with an average strength of 700 men to cach post, only one post having a capacity for a brigade. The result was a regular army extraordinarily expensive to maintain, the scparate units of which had no organization higher than the regiment. There was no opportunity for manœuvres on a large scale, little opportunity for the joint training of the sevcral arms, and no practical experience for the officers of the staff-work and leadership necessary to the handling of larger commands. A partial concentration of troops on the Mexican border in 1911 gave the U.S, army its first opportunity for a division. manœuvre.

.

.

Under the Act of 1901 the National Guard of the different states had been assimilated to the regular army in organization and equipment, and was recciving financial assistance from the

Federal Government in the shape of cquipment and pay for manoeuvres and the loan of officers from the regular army for training. In rorz this force was in far better condition than it had been at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War (1808), but it was still locally organized, was made up of men whose military association and activity were merely an incident added by intcrest and preference to their ordinary civilian occupation, and was affected by traditions and associations based upon state rather than national service. In rọrr the reported strength of the National Guard was 117,980 officers and men, and an Act of Congress authorized the president to increase the army establishment so as to provide 200 officers of the active list of the | regular army for duty as inspectors and instructors of the

organized militia and National Guard. Reorganization of r916,—-Successive Secretaries of War had vainly

urged upon Congress the necessity of a reorganization of the regular army on the basis of larger tactical units. In June 1916 there was

finally passed and approved the bill known as the National Defense Act. This provided for an increase of the regular army to a total not to exceed 11,450 officers and 175,000 troops of the line, including

the Ordnance

Department,

42,750 non-combatant

troops and un-

assigned recruits, and 5,733 Philippine Scouts, in all about 235,000 officers and men.

number from 7 to 11 major-generals and from 17 to 36 brigadiergenerals to provide the necessary gencral officers for the contemplated divisions and brigades and higher staff appointments. The period of enlistment in the regular army was altered to 3 years with: the colours and 4 in the reserve.

The National

Defense Act also

provided for bringing the organized militia of the several states into a

single national guard, the entire expenses of which were assumed hy the Federal Government. It was estimated that this force would ultimately reach in peace-time a strength of 17,000 officers and 440,-

ooo men of all arms, so apportioned that when assembled at the call of the Government it would constitute 16 divisions. The Act further authorized (a) an Officers' Reserve Corps, to be selected, trained and commissioned in time of peace for use in war only, up to and including the grade of major, and (+) an Enlisted Reserve Corps, specialists for the technical departments of the army, to be recruited in time of peace for use in war only. The General Staff Corps.—Before 1903 the American army had possessed no general staff. Since the carly history of the country there had been a commanding-general of the army and a system of semi-independent War Department bureaus, loosely coérdinated either with each other or with the line of the army, and there had always existed uncertainty and dispute as to the respective functions and authority of the Secretary of War, the commanding-general and the bureaus. In Feb. 1903 a Congressional Act abolished the office of commanding-general and created a General Staff Corps, to be. composed of 45 officers, with a chicf-of-staff who, under the direction

of the President and the Secretary of War, was charged with the supervision of all troops of the line and all the War Department bureaus. In actual practice, however, the scparate and combined

jealousies of the long-established bureaus, and still more the initial lack of training and experience in the first officers detailed to the new general staff reduced the latter almost to complete uselessness

and impotence. Nevertheless, the traditional national distrust of anything savouring of a military oligarchy caused Congress in

VI.—Unitep STATES

31,850 officers and men.

immediate effect. The general officers of the line were increased in

The number of regiments was to be increased to

65 of infantry, 25 of cavalry, 21 of field artillery, 7 of engineers, with an additional 2 battalions of mounted engineers, These increases were to be carried out by July 1921 and five annual increments, but the President was authorized, in case of emergency, to put them into

1912 to decrease the number of general staff officers to 36. The

National Defense Act raised this number to 57 to be reached, however, only in five annual increments, and with the proviso that not morc than half of these officers should be “ at any time stationed, or assigned to or employed upon any duty in or near the District of Columbia.” In connexion with the army Jegislation of 1916 Congress created also a Council of National Defense, to consist of the Secretaries of War, the Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, with an advisory commission of 7 specially qualified citizens; and to this Council was committed the task of studying and coérdinating the military, industrial and commercial resources of the nation in connexion with its defense,

The disorders in Mexico since 1911 had made almost continually

necessary the patrolling ef the long international boundary by the bulk of the regular army. In March 1916 a raid into U.S. territory

by Villa had led to the calling-out of the National Guard and its concentration along the border, while an expeditionary force of regular troops under Gen, Pershing was sent into Mexico. In Feb. 1917 the expeditionary column was withdrawn and the National

Guard organizations returned to their respective states.

The close

of this emergency, almost coincident with the entry of the United

States into the World War, left the regular army with a large percentage of its men due for discharge because of expiration of their terms of enlistment and left the National Guard in the throes of a combined demobilization and reorganization. 1917 to 1919.—In March 1917 the aetual strength of the regular

army was 5,791 officers and 121,797 men, of the National Guard 3,199 officers and 76,713 men, a total of 207,500 officers and men, In addition there were 97,295 enlisted men of the National Guard who had not yet taken the oath of federalization. The General Staff Corps, though by this date composed of trained and competent officers, had a total strength of only 41 members, of whom, under the law, only 19 could be stationed in or near Washington. Soon after

the declaration of war by the United States, April 6 1917, the evident:

and acknowledged

military unpreparcdness of the United States

led to tentative suggestions from the Allied Powers that such

forces as the United States had at its disposal be at least temporarily merged into the more experienced units of the Allied armies. But the Government in Washington considered that, in spite of popular enthusiasm, American sentiment would not tolerate any such absorption. Accordingly, the order appointing Gen. Pershing commander-in-chief of the American Expeditionary Force specifically charged him, while coéperating in all ways with the Allied military authorities, to “reserve the identity of the U.S. force.” It was further thoroughly understood and agreed on by the U.S. authorities that the mission of the overseas force was to be an offensive one. These two conceptions, maintained throughout the war, governed all war plans and activities of the United States both at home and abroad.

It was immediately decided, as a tentative programme,

(a)

to send overseas promptly a small but complete body of American troops, in the form of one tactical division to serve as a nucleus for the organization and training of American overseas troops and in order that some American troops might be put into the trenches at

the earliest possible moment, and (d) to follow this by an expedition-

227

ARMY ary force of sufficient size, if the shipping situation permitted, to

make American military participation an effective factor in the prosecution of the war. Accordingly,on May 28 1917 Gen. Pershing,

with a small staff, sailed for Europe and-in June the 1st Div, regular

army, 12,261 men, accompanied by 2,798 marines, was embarked, Mobilization.—On May 18 1917 there was passed and approved the Congressional Act known as the Selective Service law. It

provided that, in addition to the regular army and the National

Guard, there he raised for the emergency a national army, by selective conscription of men between the ages of 21 and 30, of which army the President was empowered to summon two units of 500,000

men each at such time as he should deem wise. The same Act removed, for the period of the emergency only, all restrictions as to the numbers and location of officers of the general staff. On July 3 the President called into service the entire National Guard and 16 _ divisional camps were established for their concentration and training. The first registration under the Selective Service law, June 5 1917, was carried out in the main by the voluntary efforts of citizens and gave a total of 9,587,000 registrants. The actual drafting into service was delayed by the necessity of waiting for the construction of the 16 divisional cantonments planned for the national army, and by the lack of equipment and especially of woollen clothing. The

first draft, Sept. 1917, inducted into military service 296,678 men, and up to Dec. 1 1917 there had been drafted from this first registration 496,043 men.

On Dec, 15 voluntary enlistments of men

be-

tween 21 and 30 were discontinued. From that date also all registrants were arranged in five classes according to their importance to the economic interests of the nation and the support of dependents. The men thus placed in Class I. were first rendered liable for military service, and in the sequel the four * deferred ” classes were never called upon:

In May 1918 Congress provided that the quotas of

the various states should be apportioned according to the number of registrants in Class I. instead of according to population. The final total registered, including those coming of age during the operation of the scheme, was upwards of 10,481,000 men. Of these there had been, on Nov. 11 1918, inducted into military service by the draft 2,801,635, or about 25 per cent.

In July 1918 it

became evident that the then extended military programme would soon lead to the exhaustion of Class I. In order to prevent the industrial disturbance and economic hardships incidental to calls on

the deferred classes, Congress provided for the registration of all males between the ages of 18 and 45, both inclusive, and made registrants liable to service in the navy and the Marine Corps as well

as in the army,

This registration, held Sept. 12 1918, yielded an

additional total of 13,228,000 registrants, but owing to the close of

the war these were never drawn upon. The following table shows, in round numbers, the recruiting from month to month:—

Month,

Drafted. 297,000 164,000 36,000

20,000

23,000 84,000 132,000 174,000 373,000 302,000 401,000 283,000 263,000 107,000 7,000

Voluntary

Enlistments.

All Ages,

Aggregate.

24,000

31,000 46,000 142,000

Outside Draft Ages

41,000

26,000

25,000 23,000 26,000

28,000

19,000

11,000

321,000 195,000 82,000 162,000

64,000 110,000 157,000 197,000 399,000 330,000 420,000 294,000 263,000

Replacements.—In April 1918 there were added to the 32 trainingcamps already functioning in the United States nine replacement camps of various arms. These were intended to supply the necessary replacements (British ‘“ drafts”) for the overseas troops, calculated at from 10% to 25% a month, and to obviate the necessity of draw-

ing upon divisions already organized and in training. New Officers, —One of the most serious problems which the War Department, in April 1917, was the securing of number of officers, To mect this need a first series of training-camps was opened on May 15 1917. Officers

confronted a sufficient 16 officers’ previously commissioned in the Reserve Corps were required to attend and in addition some 30,000 selected voluntary candidates were admitted, In Aug. there were graduated from this first series 27,341 officers, a number sufficient to meet immediate needs. A second series was opened in Aug, 1917 and a third in Jan. 1918. The first two classes were essentially civilian in character and largely from the university element, and because of the need for officers of all grades commissions

were granted up to the grade of colonel. The third class drew 90 % of its candidates from the enlisted ranks of the regular army and

its graduates were commissioned as second fieutenants. These first

three classes had supplied, 1o April 1918, a total of 57,307 new officers, War Department Organization —Gen. Pershing, who had heen given the greatest latitude in the carrying-out of his mission, had very carly established the general staff of the Expeditionary Force, selecting from the British and the French systems those features which seemed best. adapted to the basic organization of the American

army.

But the War Department in Washington was in this matter

dependent upon Congressional legislation. As the war progressed the system of separate and independent .bureaus eventually and inevitably developed a condition of affairs which threatened to jeopardize the success of the military programme. Each bureau,

absorbed in the sudden expansion of its personnel, and in its own

problems of supply, concentrated its efforts on its own needs without reference in gencral to the requirements of other bureaus or services or of the army programme as a whole, It was not until May zo 1918 that a Congressional Act made it possible to provide for: (a) a redistribution of the functions of already existing bureaus; (b) the creation of certain new agencies and services made necessary as the result of the development and experiences of the army overseas; (c) the reorganization of the general staff into five main divisions

in such a manner as to enable it to perform its proper functions of an

effective central controlling agency.

The American Expeditionary Force—The original tentative programme had contemplated in a general way the placing in

France by the end of 1918 of approximately 1,000,000 men. Between

July and Oct. 1917, after consultation with the Alies and a study by Gen. Pershing and his staff of Allied organizations, a more

definite programme was drawn up.

In order that the services of the

rear might keep pace with the arrival of the combat troops this plan was divided into six phases and contemplated the placing in France by Dec. 31 1918 of 1,372,399 troops consisting of 30 divisions, organized into 5 corps of 6 divisions each (4 combat, one training, one

replacement), with 2 regiments of cavalry, the necessary corps troops, army troops, service of supply troops, and replacements. It was decided that the American combat division should consist of 4 regiments of infantry (of 3,000 men each, with 3 battalions to a regiment and 4 companies of 250 men each to a battalion); one artillery brigade, of 3 regiments; one machine-gun battalion; one engineer regiment; one trench-mortar battery; one signal battalion; wagon trains; and the headquarters staffs and military police.

These with the medical and other units for each division made a total of over 28,000 or practically double the size of the French or German division. With 4 divisions fully trained a corps could take

over an American sector with 2 divisions in line and 2 in the reserve,

with the depot and replacement divisions prepared to fill the gaps in

the ranks,

In July 1918 an extension of the original programme was adopted contemplating, by July 30 1919, 80 divisions In France and 18 at home, based on a total strength of the American army of 4,850,000, A further extension, approved Sept. 3 1918, was communicated to the supply departments. It provided for an army of 4,260,000 (roa combat divisions) in France, with 1,290,000 (12 combat divisions)

in the United States, a total of 5,550,000 to be reached by June 30 1920. Up to the signing of the Armistice the troops were being transported to France in accordance with the July 1918 programme.

The needs of training in the overseas forces, and especially of first constructing the necessary facilities for the services of the rear for an independent American army, at first greatly delayed the entry into line of American troops. On Dec. 31 1917 there were in France only 176,665 American troops and but one division had appeared on the front.

On Nov. 11 1918, 40 American divisions had reached

France (7 regular army, 17 National Guard, 16 national army). At this date the American troops represented 31 % of the ration strength of the Allied forces in France and held 22% of the length of the western front. Toward the later stages of the war 2 American divisions coéperated with the Australian corps; 2 divisions assisted the French IV. Corps; and 2 divisions fought with the French VI. Army in Belgium, . During the Meuse-Argonne battle 29 combat

divisions operated on the American front.

Nov. 20 1918 Gen.

Pershing,

in France

after

estimating

losses,

reported

1,338,109

comhatant troops. Of the 40 combat divisions which had arrived the

infantry personnel of 10 had been used as replacement troops, leaving at that time in France 30 divisions organized into 3 armies of

3 corps cach.

Of these forces approximately 44% had been trans-

sorted overseas in American, 51% in British, 3% in Italian and 2% in French ships. Losses and Casualties-—Yo Nov. 18 1918 the losses were: killed in action, 35,556; died of battle wounds, 15,130; of other wounds, 5,669; of disease, 24,786; total deaths, 81,141; wounded, 179,625;

missing, 1,160; prisoners, 2,163. Total casualties, 264,089.

Of the

wounded about half suffered very slight injuries.

Other Fronts—In addition to its military effort in Europe the United States remained throughout the war under the necessity of maintaining its patrol organizations along the Mexican border.

The bulk of its cavalry with some artillery was thus employed, in Sept. 1918 an expeditionary force of 10,000 was sent to Siberia ja cooperation with other Allied troops. A small force of 5,000 men

sent with the Allied expedition to Murmansk formed part of the A.E.F, organization, One U,S. regiment served in Italy,

ARMY

228

Growth in slrength.and variety of services between March 1917 and Nov. 1918 (an round numbers.) Old Army | New Army March 1917. | Nov. 1918.

Service.

Infantry

‘

aoe

s

y

:

Engineer 46°, a Se ah 6 ld Field Artillery and Ammunition Train à ; Medical . f Quartermaster , Coast Artillery. Ordnance , $ Signal . : és Cavalry we ci PAE Gt aS Be 27 Motor Transport Militia Bureau.

974,000 394,000

9,000 7,000 8,000 21,000 1,000

389,000 300,000 228,000 137,000 64,000 52,000 29,000 202,000 103,000 27,000

army were increased by another 5 (the Kosovo, Vardar, Monastir, | Shtip, and Ibar divisions), all formed from the new territory acquired. The artillery was also increased by 10 batteries. Owing, however, to the very short time of peace which elapsed between the close of the 2nd Balkan War (July 1913) and the outbreak of the World War, the reorganization which had been contemplated could . only be carried out in part.

18,000

and it was organized, now for the first time, in four armies of three

3,000 Te b

ii

Chemical Warfare Tank . io, ty

és

31,000

14,000 549,000 185,000

190,000

3,665,000

ae di

Demobilization.mThe

problem of demobilizing was simpler for

the United States than for other countries.

not been withdrawn

Pivotal or key men had

from industry nor had the man-power been

drafted to the same extent.

Moreover, since all units contained a

fair proportion of men from all trades and commercial activities, it

had already been decided to demobilize by complete units as they could be spared. A few priority exceptions were made in the case

of coal-miners, railroad men, certain post-office employees, etc. Demobilization of emergency units still in the United States began immediately, The chief diffeullics were met in the regular army, where only a few thousand men were still serving under enlistment contracts entered into prior to 1917, and in the National Guard, where recruits and replacements had infiltrated every organization with drafted men. As under these conditions rapid demobilization would have meant the disbanding of practically all organized military forces in the United States, authority was granted by Congress, in Feb. 1919, to reopen voluntary enlistments for the regular army and National Guard. ‘To insure the return of all men as speedily as

possible to their former places in the economic Jife of the nation, the

general plan provided for the transportation of cach man, previous to discharge, to the demobilization camp in or nearest to the state from which he had entered the service. For this purpose 31 former train-

ing-camps were utilized. On arrival in the United States, unless sick or wounded, the men were immediately distributed to their proper

discharge camps.

There each soldier, after a final physical examina-

tion and other routine processes,

was

trained for his home or place of entry.

discharged,

paid and en-.

Men sick or still suffering

from wounds or infectious diseases were not discharged until cured or otherwise provided for. The initial lack of American tonnage

delayed for a time the return and discharge of the overseas troops, but between Nov. 11 1918 and June 30 1919 there were returned from France 1,610,074 men and officers, of which number 84 % were transported in American ships. The record for the month of June was 34,786 men, the greatest number shipped across in any one month.

a Now, 1919 there had been discharged, in all, 179,800 officers and 3,236,266 men. The discharge of men in the ranks was practically

completed on April I 1920.

VIIL—BALKAN

mande¢r-in-chicf had for his own disposal one cavalry division, one guard detachment (2 squadrons), one heavy field-artillery regiment, one sicge-artillery regiment, some railway and balloon troops. The total mobilized strength, representing the maximum effort of the

85,000 3,000

22,000

In Training . All Other .

The war strength of the mobilized field army thus comprised 5§

active infantry divisions, 5 divisions 2nd line reserve, 5 divisions ard line reserve, one Ersatz division of rst lint reservists approxImating in composition to an active division. In addition the com-

(A, L. C.)

ARMIES

(1) Serbia.—In 1911 the Serbian army consisted of § infantry di-

visions each of 4 regiments, one cavalry division, and special formations of mountain and siege artillery. The army thus comprised 20 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, 4 cavalry regiments of 4 squadrons, 7 f.a. regiments (45 batteries f.a., 2 batteries horse artillery, 9 mountain and 6 how.), 2 battalions of siege artillery, 24 battalions engincers, a cavalry telegraph section. The peace Strength of the army was 2,033 officers, 4,338 under-officers, 22,559 men. From 190} the Serbian army was raised on the compulsory system, by which all able-bodied Serbs became liable for military service on attaining 2 years, and remained so till the completion of their 46th year. The first two years were supposed to be spent with the colours, though in practice this was reduced to one and a half, after which the soldier passed to the Ist line reserve for nine years. He then passed

to the 2nd line reserve for six years, and to the 3rd line for the remainder of his period of liability. The yearly quota of recruits was during the years immediately preceding 1910 about 25,000, The infantry was equipped with a 7-mm. Mauser with a range of 2,000 metres. Each man carried 150 rounds on his person, The artillery before the outbreak of the Balkan War was in process of being equipped with the modern French field gun (75-mm. field and 70-mm. mountain guns). The older Weapons which were being replaced were the 85-mm. de Bange. There were no field

howitzers, but there was a sicge train with 72- and 15-cm. howitzers,

country, was about 260,000 men.

As a result of the Balkan War the 5§ divisions of the standing

On being mobilized at the end of July 1914, when Austria~Hun.«

gary declared war, the Serbian army totalled about 350,000 men,

divisions cach,

;

(2) Bulgaria.—In 1911 the Bulgarian army was organized in 9 infantry divisions of 4 regiments (formed into 3 army inspectorates which on mobilization formed 3 armies), and 11 cavalry regiments. The army thus comprised, on a peace footing, 36 infantry regiments (each consisting of 2 battalions, one non-combatant company, and

one machine-gun section), rf cavalry regiments (each of 3 quad-

rons), 9 field-artillery regiments (each of 6 battcries), 3 mountainartillery regiments (each of 4 batteries), 3 ficld-howitzer batteries, 3 si¢ge-artillery groups, 3 pioneer battalions, a telegraph, pontoon, and railway battalion, one mechanical transport company, one

cyclist company, one balloon company, 3 army service corps detach-

ments, 16 frontier companies. The total strength of the army was 3,591 officers and 55,709 men. The army was raised on the compulsory service system. Every Bulgarian was liable to military service

from his 20th to his 46th year. The classes were called up annually

and a man normally served two years in the active army (or three in the case of the special arms), and then passed to the réserve until the completion of his 46th year. The infantry were armed with the 8-mm. Mannlicher with a range of 2,100 metres, A few Russian Berdan riflés were to be found.

Each man carried 150 rounds on his person. The cavalry had Mannlicher carbines; only the guard cavalry had lances, The artillery was mostly of French pattern: the 75-mm. Schneider-Creuzot field gun, 10:3cm. ficld howitzer (Schneider-Creuzot), and 75-mm. Schneider mountain gun, with a few 12-cm, and 15-cm. Krupp and Creuzot howitzers, On mobilization each of the 9 peace infantry divisions split into 2. Each of the 4 companies of the 72 infantry battalions expanded. into a battalion. The 11 cavalry regiments, reénforced by mounted police, ‘formed one cavalry division of 6 regiments, and the (infantry) divisional cavalry. An infantry division on a war

footing thus consisted of 4 regiments of 4 battalions

each; 2-4

machine-gun companies; 10 batteries of 4 or 6 guns; 2 squadrons cavalry; one howitzer battery; 2 engineer companies. ‘The mobilized strength of the field army was about 350,000 men. In addition 72 battalions of older men (S00 strong) were formed for garrison and L. of C, duties. ‘There were thus about 400,000 men under arms.

After the Balkan War the permanent strength of the Bulgarian

army was slightly increased, proportionatcly to the increment of population, A 10th division—the Acgean or White Sea Divy.~—was raised, and the army on a peace footing numbered 85,000 men.

In Sept. 1915, 10 divisions of 24,000 men each were mobilized

according to plan, but as the World War progressed other formations were added. In 1916 an yrth Macedonian division was raised, mainly of Macedonians in the conquered territory of Serbia. Later a 12th division was raised, and towards the end of the war there were 14 divisions in the field. The system of splitting peace divisions into two, which had been followed in the Balkan War, had been’ dropped, hut a division formed 6 regiments, instead of 4 A Bulgarian division of full strength was thus 24 battalions—24,000 rifles and 2 regiments of artillery. An order of battle published by the Bulgarian general staff on Sept. 15 1918—two weeks before the

Armistice—shows a grand total of 877,000 men of all ranks under arms.

(3) Greece.—In 1911 an Act was passed which provided for the

reorganization of the Greck army, This reorganization contemplated 3 large divisions of infantry (27 battalions each), corresponding much

more to army corps than divisions, a cavalry division, a heavy

artillery regiment, and technical troops, At the outbreak of the Balkan War in r9r2 the total sumber of units which took the ficld was: 44 battalions of infantry, 16 cavalry squadrons, 47 batteries of feld and mountain artillery. These were organized into 4 (ac-

tive) divisions, cach consisting of: 3 regiments (of 3 battalions, and

3 machine-gun companies cach), 2 battalions of evzones (rifles), one cavalry squadron, 9 batteries field artillery or mountain artillery, 2 companies pioneers, ‘The remaining cavalry was formed into a cavalry

division.

In addition to these 4-active divisions there were also

3 or 4 reserve divisions, similarly constituted, The army thus mo-

bilized had a combatant strength of about 120,000 and a ration

ARMY

229

strength of about 185,000. The total number of men with the colours at the end of the war was 210,000, ; The infantry were armed with the Mannlicher-Schonauer rifle

war strength of the Rumanian army included 330-340 battalions of

mountain artillery were armed with the 75-mm. Schneider-Creusat, though some of the mountain batteries had the 7-5-mm. Schneider-

these 700,000 men were taken for the field army, so that there remained for use as Ersatz troops 160,000 trained men in addition to about 150,000 not yet trained.

first- and second-line infantry, 80 battalions of third-line infantry, and 112 squadrons of cavalry, while the artillery of the ficld army included 768 modern guns. The total number of trained men availiable

6-5 mm., or the French y1-mm. Gras rifle. The cavalry had lances, and carbines of the same pattern as the infantry rifle. The field and

when

Danglis (‘‘ screw-gun’'). The heavy artillery was all of old pattern. At the conclusion of the Balkan War a thorough reorganization of the army was undertaken. By the end of 1914 the army was, on

After the decisive defeat in Dec. 1916 the reconstruction of the army was seen to be a pressing necessity, and this was effected under a

French military mission.

6 years with the militia.

In 1913, out of a pop. of seven and a half

millions, Rumania took 0:66% as recrurts, and the peace establishment of the army amounted to 1-17%, without counting officers or administrative staffs. It was intended to increase the number of recruits to 52,000 in 1914. The peace strength of the army in 1913 showed 5,029 officers, 979. officials, 5,476 reéngaged non-commissioned officers, 85,791 men, In connexion with the new recruiting

law, it was also decided in May 1913 that the ‘ army of operations ” should consist of the active army (1st line) and the reserve (2nd line) while the militia (3rd line) was designed for employment in the interior of the country, as well as in rear of the army of operations. In 1913, before the mobilization against Bulgaria, the infantry consisted of 40 regiments, of which 32 had 3 and 8 had 2 field battalions to one Ersatz battalion. To each regiment there were one machine-gun section with 3 guns; 9 Jager battalions, each with one

machine-gun section of 2 guns; 12 fronticr guard companies; 2 gendarmerie companies; 80 reserve battalion cadres. In 1913 these would form, for war purposes as first-line troops: 40 infantry regiments of 3 battalions, 18 Jager battalions, 12 frontier guard companies. The second-line troops would comprise 40 reserve infantry regiments of 2 battalions, and the third line go militia battalions. In war-time one machine-gun section (2 guns) would be formed for each first-line battalion. The armament of the line and reserve troops consisted of Mannlicher repeating rifles, mark 93, calibre 6-5 mm, The field artillery was being extensively developed up to the summer of 1913. By the summer of 1913 the artillery establishment had reached the following numbers: 10 artillery brigade commandos; 20 ficld-artillery regiments, each of 6 field batteries and one Ersatz battery; 5 field-howitzer detachments of 3 field batteries and one Ersatz battery+ one mounted artillery detachment of 2 batteries; one heavy howitzer detachment of 2 batteries; one mountainartillery regiment of 4 batteries. In war-time 4 reserve field-artillery divisions of 3 foot batteries were to be formed for the reserve divisions of the infantry. The artillery armament included 7-5-cm. Krupp quick-fring guns, mark 1904 for foot, mark 1908 for mounted batteries; 12-cm. Krupp light field howitzers, afterwards gradually replaced by 10-5-cm. field howitzers, and 6-3-cm. Armstrong mountain guns. For heavy (fortress) artillery in 1910 there were two regiments, eath of 2 battalions of 8 and 11 companies respectively. By 1913 this arm had been increased by 3 companies.

In 1913, when Rumania mobilized in case of intervention becoming

necessary against Bulgaria, the war muster of the field army included 8,500 officers and 373,500 men. There were, in addition, 45,000 men of the territorial commandos in the interior of the country, and about 55,000 men not embodied. thus about 473,000 men.

The total number called up was

In Aug. 1914 Rumania, in view of the political situation, successively called up all the men of the previous seven-year classes. In Oct., however, the Government decided for armed neutrality, and the army reverted to a peace footing, The strengthening of the army proceeded nevertheless at an increasing rate up to the time of Rumania’'s entry into the war. At the end of Aug. 1916 the total

The work of reorganization carried out by

the French mission had excellent results. From July 1917 onwards the I. Army was again at the front. In the battles fought between the end of July and the middle of Sept. 1917, the army possessed an actually greater battle strength than when it entered the war.

ined with only 3 batteries ofmountain artillery, field artillery being retained as corps troops. There was practically no heavy ficld or siege artillery, On Bulgaria joining the Central Powers in Sept. 1915 the Greek army was mobilized asa precautionary measure, The total strength mobilized was about 150,000 combatants. When in

been practically entirely armed and equipped by the Allies at Salonika. They participated and gaye a good account of themselves in the final offensive against Bulgaria in Sept. 1918. (4) Rumania.—Under the Army law of 1908, amended in 1910, military service was universal, and lasted from the completion of the 21st to that of the 42nd year, 7 years being spent with the colours, 10 in the reserve, and 4 in the militia. In May 1913 a new recruiting law increased the total length of service to 25 years—from the 2Ist to the 46th year of age. The new term included 7 years with the colours, 12 years with the reserve, and

Of

declaration of war. Rumania put four armies in the field, one operating in the Dobrudja and three against Siebenbürgen. The ficld troops were formed into 23 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions.

ment, one regiment engineers, medical and intendance units. The total strength of a corps was about 30,000 combatants. The artillery organization was somewhat peculiar. Infantry divisions were pro-

divisions would finally be raised to take part in operations on the

860,000.

On Aug. 27, when Rumania declared war on Austria-Hungary, the

pendent cavalry brigade of 2 regiments, and a regiment of fortress artillery and fortress engineers. A Greek corps thus consisted of the fotlowing: 3 infantry divisions (of 3 regiments and one group of mountain artillery), one cavalry regiment, one field-artillery regi-

Salonika front. By the Armistice there were actually (in Macedonia} 9 divisions (3 corps) of about 60,600 combatants in fine. They had

entered the war iIn.1916 was about

mobilization and marching forward of the army had proceeded so far that the advance against Siebenbürgen immediately followed the

paper, organized into Š army corps of 3 divisions each, an inde-

June 1917 Greece joined the Alhes, 3 divisions (about 20,000 rifles) were already in being at Salonika, and it was expected that 10

Rumania

VIII.—Tue f

Grrman Army

In the four years up to the outbreak of the World War, intensified progress was made in the German army along normal

lines, but in Aug. 1914 there began and continued an astounding military effort which in many ways differed from that which the peace-time system had led observers to expect. To attempt to understand that effort, therefore, onc must return to fundamentals. General Ludendorff, in his Wer Memories, in saying that each of the various component states produced good divisions and poor divisions, adds—‘* Wiirttemberg and Baden had only good ones.” In this judgment the Entente intelligence staffs, whose specialty was study of the opponcnt’s quality, would concur, Yet in 1870 these two contingents had a very small share in victory, and in earlier times their troops, though figuring in many wars as components of this or that federal army, never won for themselves an outstanding reputation for high quality. On the contrary, these countries were the very home of the old German Gemütlichkeit, and in the, 18th century Burke quoted

Wiirttemberg as a model of a peacefully and constitutionally governed country. ae . In reality, two cultural waves, so to say, contributed to make the German army what it was: first, the tide of Germanic civilization which spread from the upper Rhine and Danube countries N.E. over the mountains and into the great plain of the Slavs, and secondly, the tide of Prussian “ objectivity ” and efficiency

which in the 19th century set in in the reverse direction, from N.E. to S.W. And it can be said without forcing the facts, that the military quality of Germany was fundamentally soundest at those two moments in history when, in 1813, the sense of civilization and nationality worked for the first time strongly upon the hard “ East-Elbians,” and when in 1914-5 the spirit of business and duty imposed by these East-Elbians upon the peaceful S.W. made their inborn nationalism an effective instead of an ineffective thing. p ae g The study of these currents is, of course, practically the same as the study of German history. But one thing may here be emphasized. No other basic hypothesis than that of continuing national characters can account for the fact that these two comfortable S. German states were awarded primacy in military quality by a Prussian commander-in-chief. Were it otherwise, the quality of the various contingents would simply have been measured by the length of the period during which their respective states had been subjected to the civil and military training of Prussia. Such a criterion has in fact been applied, but it proved false even in respect of the active army of peace-time. Nevertheless, as Prussian military idcas and methods provided the skcleton on which this spirit was made flesh, and which fortified the flesh against weakness, an objective account of the German army of the war period must begin with a schematic presentation of that skeleton. Higher Formations in Peace—The

growth of the. Prussian-

German military organization from 1815 to 1914 is shown by the accompanying Table A (The Roman numerals indicate the corps to which a division belonged at the time considered. When

ARMY

230

the corps numeral is in brackets, the division is attached to that

organization of ro12 there had been bitter controversy—the

corps as a third division.) It must be premised that the corps numbers indicate territorial districts -as well as military commands. The six “ Brigade ” districts of Prussia during the period of army limitation imposed by Napoleon became corps districts after 1815, and two others were added when for the first time Prussia acquired Rhine possessions adjacent to France. The annexations of 1866 pro-

general staff demanding five new army corps and the Reichstag

conceding only two—and no fewer than 17 supernumerary regiments (more than the infantry complement of two army corps) were left ungrouped after the 2oth and 21st Corps had been formed. These 17 were a fifth brigade and an eleventh regiment in the Guard, fifth brigades in the frontier corps regions

sth, 6th, 7th, oth, 14th, and ninth regiments in the and, r3th, 18th and 21st Corps. There were, therefore, in the active army of 1914, 50 divisions (two Guard, 1-42, and 1-6 Bavarian) and 17 supernumerary

duced three other Prussian corps and corps districts, and thereafter the course of evolution is sufficiently indicated in the table. After 1871, of course, all new districts were carved out of the

existing ones.

It will be seen from Table A that during the

infantry regiments.

Taste A.—Growth from r8rs to rord. N

German Empire

+

German Prussia 1815-60. | Confed.

1871,

1880.

1885.

1867. I Prussian Guard Diy,

‘

2 Prussian Guard Div.

n| Bi

2 Div.

a4

fEast Prussia.

3 Div. } 4 Div, f Pomerania

.

,

§ Div

z

.

i Div. |

.

a

a6 gj) gSa 2g

22a,

.

;

,;

2. .

| 6 Div. f Brandenburg J] 7 Div : 8 9 10 um (r2 13 i4 |as lib

;

|

Div. f Prussian Saxony. Div i Div. f Posen Div. Y o,

a

{ IL VIL. VIII. VIH

4

©

§.| 18 Div, | Mecklenburg,

g

lar Div 22 Div. f Kur-Hessen and Frankfurt 23 Div.) .

J24 Div. f Kingdom of Saxony |25 Div.|

26 Div

Grand Duchy Hesse-Darmstadt

27 Div, fWürttemberg 28 Div. |pad 29 Divy, f PAGEN

.

. e

30 Div. | Alsace-Lorraine

3r Div. 5

32 33

Div Div

£| 34 Div:

Blas Div

{Alsace}

.

137 Div.”

E 38 Div.

40 Div.

4r Div. 42 Div,

I Bav.

.

Kingdom of Saxony Alsace-Lorraine

e

.

Mi es a

xX.

Rae

XII

G

(XL)

a

MG

W -

4

n

.

ae na

pa

East Prussia

a

Bt

.

.

Kingdom of Saxony

SOS

VI.

Vil VII VIII VII.

I.

IV. Ve V, VI.

IV, V. Y: VI.

VII VIL. VILL VIIL}

VII VII VIII. VOI}

VI.

IX. X.

XII

(XI.

IX, X.

Xi: XI. XII,

XII. (X1)

K

XI, XI, Xij,

XII

(XI.)

III.

IIT. IV,

IX.

IX.

IX.

x,

x

x

IX.

XIIL. | (XI)

XIV XIV XV,

XV.

Sy

XV, ie fa

XV,

(XIL) (XV.)

si

;

i

f

.

i

;

i .

;

IB. |

3 Bav. { Kingdom of Bavaria (including 4 Bav. Bav. Palatinate) |

IIB. IIB.

6 Bav.

m

ai si

i

ae

. IB.

IB.

Ii. IIB.

.

IIB,

IIB. HB.

IX.

XIX

XIX

XVH | XVIH

XU

XIV XIV

XIV, XIV.

XIV. XIV.

XV

XV.

XLI, | XII

XI.

XV.

XV.

XV.

XXI.

(XL) XVI.

XII. XVI.

XII. XVL

XVI,

XVI.

XVIL | XVIL]

XVII. | XVII} (J)

age

IB.

VI.

XUI

A

iw

IX.

x.

XIV. RIV.

a

VI.

IV. y. V. VI.

XIL | XVIIL | XVII XI. XI XI XII. XII, XII

XIV XIV

XII

IV. V. V, VL

II.

HI. IV.

VII. VII. VIII. =VIL

XII, |

XIII

Ili.

HL. IV.

:

II. li.

VIL. VII. VIH VIIL]

XI

XHI

I.

ĮI. Li.

IV. V. V. VI. VI. VII VII VIII. VHL

XIII

IB.

5 Bav.

x.

I.

L

II. il.

XI

o

2 Bav.

IX.

IX.

xX. |

i

.

VIL

IX.

x,

XI. XI. XII

III. IV.

G

I.

J.

II. i.

III.

JII. IV.

IX,

3 i

a22,

I

IV. V. y. VI,

x.

XI, XI, XII

1912

G

G

I;

II Th

Ill.

IX.

*

N. Kur-Hessen

E. Prussia Lorraine

yI.

VII VII VITI, VIIL

Ig00..

G

G

I

HI. IV.

IV. V. V. VI.

G

G

I.

III.

is

:

S. Alsace

a

i

e

(Lorraine)

#136 Div. ¢West Prussia O]39 Div.

a

TI, i.

IIT, IV,

R

=” | 20 Div. f Hanover

ZES

Il. IL.

G

G

IX.

|

SS | ro Div, |0a towns

G

I.

I.

IV. V. V, I;

Vi.

.

a | 17 Div. | Schleswig-Holstein

“ ga

I.

I. il. H.

,

G

1.

G

i

Ill. IV.

Div. f Silesia .

Div , Div. ;Westphalia. Div.) Div. }Rhineland .

G

G

1890:

l

se

(I.) CT

(XIV.) XIX,

:

IR.

IB.

IIB. IIB.

. ive

IB.

IB.

IIB. IIB.

XVI.

XVIL

XVI.

XX. . XI,

XV.

XIX.

XX. XXI.

IB.

IB.

TIB. IIB.

ae

si

IIIB.

IIIB:

IIB,

a

ne

IIIB.

IHIB.,

HIB,

N.B.—Two Bavarian army corps (4 divs.), one Wiirttemberg and one Baden division took part in the war of 1870-1 as allies of the

N. German Confederation,

Units in Peace-—Each of the 217 infantry regiments had an Empire period the typical form of growth had been the creation of third divisions in certain corps (usually frontier corps) and establishment of three battalions and a machine-gun company of six guns. The field artillery consisted of a brigade of two regiments which from time to time coalesced in corps possessing districts of (in all 12 batteries) per division, one quarter of these batteries being their own. These third divisions themselves were the product of a of ficld howitzers. There were therefore 600 batteries in all. The gradual growth. Resources in men, and from time to time the cavalry, with its recent additions and groupings, numbered 110 regifavour of the Reichstag, allowed the formation, now here now . ments, of which 66 were in war to form 11 cavalry divisions, with 33 batteries of horse artillery and 11 cavalry machine-gun detachthere, of regiments and brigades supernumerary to the standard

corps establishment (2 divs.= 4 bdes. = 8 regts.). In cach of the greater reorganizations these supernumeraries had been swept together to form new divisions.

But over the last re-

iThese establishments were, in many cases, hurriedly brought in force at the last moment; the law of 1913 had authorized the necesSary recruiting and equipment but had spread it overa term of years.

ARMY ments (of 6 guns each). The remainder of the cavalry was to he allotted to the infantry, as divisional cavalry. The foot artillery had been, or was on mobilization, brought to a strength of 25 regiments, out of which came on mobilization a“ battalion” of four heavy field batteries per army corps, and also mobile sie ge trains of considerable strength, the DRA being fortress and coast artillery, For the mobile defence of fortresses there had also been created 16 fortress machine-gun detachments of 6 guns cach. The pioncers (engineers)

231

With a growing population, and with the competition of the navy for available funds, it was inevitable that there should be this divergence between the theory and the practice of universal service.

The reductio ad absurdum was reached when, with a

provided for considerable expansions in these branches.

population more numerous than that of France in the ratio of seven to four, and in a period of feverish war preparation throughout Europe, Germany was not able to maintain as many soldiers under arms as IFrance, This was the case from 1913 onwards, and it was due primarily to the expenses of the competition in naval armaments, Within the army itself there was no remedy, short

Strength dnd Recruiting —Although service was universal and obligatory in principle, yet in practice the growth of military establishments had naturally not kept pace with the growth of

tradition and influences combined to make this impossible. It was for the court and militarists in Germany an article of faith that the “ barrack-army ” was the blind instrument of government to be used against external or internal focs. This theory presupposes a discipline like in kind to that of a professional army; the civic characters inseparable from a nation in arms,

had a strength in 1914 of 32 battalions. Other technical formations are here ignored, owing to considerations of space, but it should be remarked that the most recent laws, those of 1912 and 1913, had

One other category of ee troops remains to be noted, the Jägers (light infantry). In all, 18 Jager battalions were in existence, some of them specialized to mountain warfare and the remainder (provided with a cyclist company cach) -to coöperation with the cavalry divisions.

population, and quite half of the able-bodied males of ay

age had received no military training whatsoever. The liabilities of the German citizen to military service s are shown in Table B.l

of reducing the term of service, and all political and military

however highly trained, were obstacles to that discipline, and any move towards converting the army into a citizen force was

anathema, even in the year in which the centenary of 1813 was

celebrated in a fever of national pride.

TABLE B.—Liability to Service. ma ; f 20-22 22-273 273-324 Men sclected at Ist muster for infantry | Active Reserve Lwhr, I.

do. for cavalry

2

2.

+ os

bie

Men put back twice and selected at [ 20-22 3rd muster for infantry

.

do. for cavalry

a

I7 to Ist

muster

Lsm. I.

a

a

‘a

Lwhr. II.

273-30}

Lwhr. I

Lwhr. If,

303-383

-

Lsm. I.

Active

22-24

24-294

293-344

.

20-22

22-25

25-29}

29}-32} = 324-384

Lsm. I. Men allotted to trained Ersatz reserve f 20-32% at Ist muster -> oge . \ Ers, Res,

Men allotted to untrained ee serve at 3rd muster ,

= 323-383

23-273

Reserve

Yet in Germany, as

re- f 20-22 sm. I.

Men finally assigned to Landsturm I. [ 20-22 at 3rd muster . . . , . (sml

Active

Reserve Reserve

Lwhr. i

Lwhr. Í.è

343-384

Tape il, Lit lI. 5

3°283-45

Lsm, n

323-38}

Lwhr. IT,

22-324

324-38}

Ers. Res,

Loa

T:

22-383 Lsm. I

It will be noted that the Landwehr is exclusively a force of | elsewhere, a few realized that the prevalent compctition in peace and Landsturm I. consists wholly of untrained strengths was leading nowhere, and that a great European war men. The Ersatz reserve, originally intended to produce part- would be won or lost by nations and not by selected and specialized trained drafts for the active army—and always legally on that percentages of nations. Schlieffen, the ablest soldier Germany basis—was in practice a category into which the physically had produced for 50 years, was one of these. Instead of 5o highfittest of the men excused from training were put, the remainder quality divisions, followed after an interval by garrison formagoing into (or rather staying in) Landsturm I. tions, he proposed to defeat France by the immediate bringing Table C gives statistics for recruiting in rg1z and 1912 into line of more than roo divisions in which active and reserve {the outbreak of war prevented those of 1913 from being pub- elements were intimately mingled, trained men,

lished) showing the practical application of the system.

As this view, though opposed to the prevailing opinion,.proved

TABLE C.—Recruiting, rgr1—2.

Muster:

(All figures include navy as well as army.) - IQI

Men of 20, first appearance Men of 21, sccond appearance Men of 22, third appearance Older special cases. 6 0)

a . , . os se wwe

1,271,384

Disposal:

(a) Struck off , es “ Excluded ” (criminals, etc, yee ‘permanently unfit”

.

2.

.«

«©

.

826

916 34,211

(8) Put back to following ee (aged 20 and (c) Acsionied to eive service. enlisted

Levied?,

Voluntarily

(not including volunteers below

muster age)

ie

,

ee

Totalofa,b,¢,d

A +

.

.

.

«

35,127

734563 _ 746,482 39,531

40,413

223,925

239.717

_ 263,456

280,130

e

-94,732 + 342,307

90,207 137,922

«

237,039 _ 228,129 « 3,273,384 1,289,868

(d Definitely ao eneitto inactive caterorits Ersatz reserve* Landsturm l.i

1,289,868

«35,500 36,326

217)

ror2

563,024 557,608 367,688 385,163 289,089 294,825 51574 __ 52,272

to be correct, it is unnecessary. here to discuss the last stages of competition in peace preparedness before war came in r914. It is, however, important to note that reservists were called up for refresher trainings in increasing numbers, and that a proportion of the professional officer cadre was set aside for the command of

reserve formations in'war. Still, these two facts did not indicate with certainty that reserve formations were to appear along with the active, on the first battle-fields. In France, similar measures were taken without any such implication,

When, therefore, the German masses poured through Belgium in Aug. 1914, precious time elapsed before the French G.O.C,

became aware that with nearly every identified active corps on the whecling wing of their opponents was a duplicate reserve corps. The surprise was great, for though it was a matter of t The retention of men in the reserve and other categorics for an

additional half-year was meant to provide for the event of mobilization -between Oct. and March, in which months the youngest class with the colours was still too little trained to mobilize with the rest. ‘ifnit-man's third appearance his case was bound to be disposed of cnnite

3 Of ha

roughly half, each year, were of the 20-year-old class

mustered for the first time. ; 41 By far the greater number in these categories had been put back

wice.

ARMY

232

calculation that men, equipment and officers were available, the

were constituted with the remainder and principally with Landwehr

soldicrly army of the Continent would put such formations into

its output of “ Ersatz ” formation? produced two or three Landwehr

professional soldier could not believe that the most rigidly the front line when there had hardly been time even to establish

military routine, let alone to revive the habit of march and manceuvre in the men.

Yet so it was.

Schlieffen’s ideas of mass and force, though

watered down by his successor Moltke, were translated into practice, Two months later, an even more surprising move was

made in the same direction—the cmployment of troops 75% of whom were entirely untrained at the outsct.

In Aug. 1914, the seven armies deployed in the W. included all

the 25 active corps except the rst, r7th and 20th, ro out of rz cavalry divisions (Gd., Bav., 2-9), and the following reserve corps:—Guard Res. Corps (3 Guard Divs. made up of super-

numeraty active units and rst Gd. Res. Div); grd Res. Corps (sth and 6th Res. Divs.), 4th Res. Corps (7thand 22nd Res. Divs.),

sth Res. Corps (gthand roth Res. Divs.), 6th Res. Corps (1rthand r2th Res. Divs.), 7th Res. Corps (13th and rq4th Res. Divs.), 8th

Res, Corps (15th and 16th Res. Divs.), roth Res. Corps (roth Res. Div. of Corps area, and 2nd Gd. Res, Div. so-called 4), 12th Res. Corps (23rd and 24th Res. Divs., from the two Saxqn Corps regions), r4th

Res. Corps

(26th and 28th Res, Divs. from

Wiirttemberg and Baden), 18th Res. Corps (21st and 25th Res. Divs. from the two Hesse, Frankfort and Darmstadt Corps areas), and rst Bav. Res. Corps (Ist and 18th Res. Divs.). After guarding the N. German coast for some weeks the 9th Res. Corps followed these (17th and 18th Res. Divs.). In the W. also were the 33rd Res. Div. formed at Mctz, and the 30th Res, Div. formed at Strassburg, and three momentarily independent Bavarian Res. Bdes.* .

The VIII, Army in the E. consisted of the yst, 17th and 20th active Corps, the rst Cav. Div., the rst Res. Corps (rst Res, Div, and 36th Res. Div.), the 3rd Res. Diy. formed in the H.

Corps district.

_ Thus, in the W., the theatre of the first great decision, 735 battle divisions were gathered of which 29} were reserve formations, and in the E. (E. Prussia) six active and three reserve divisions were left to meet the attack of the Russian Vilna and Warsaw armies. l

II., that is, trained men up to the age of 38}. Each army corps dis-

trict, according to the resources of the region and also according to

brigades, nearly all with a proportion of artillery and cavalry and engincers attached. In all, 99 regiments and some other units, making 314 battalions in all, mobilized in early Aug. 1914. Of these, 30 brigades were assigned to the W: to follow the various armies or to constitute the garrisons of fortresses (Metz, Strassburg, upper Rhine defences). Nearly all the remainder (about 17 brigades and several regiments as well), in the E., formed fortress. garrisons and. frontier

guards which were very

quickly drawn into the battles—indeed one

whole corps, the Landwehr Corps (3rd and 4th Landwehr Divs.), was constituted as a field formation at the outset, and others also were formed into divisions. In connexion with these brigades and their coming into line, it should be added that just as they had

relieved field troops of the necessity of occupying territory and guarding communications, so in turn they were after a short time relieved

by Landsturm battalions, formed all over the empire from what

remained of Landwehr II. and from the trained men of Landsturm IT. up to 42 years of age. Ersatz.—The term “ ersatz** (replacement or substitute) was

confined in normal usage to the category of reservists who were simply registered, not (asa rule) trained, and kept at call to fill gaps in the active army. It was, further, the official designation of the depot battalions which were formed on mobilization to provide drafts for active reserve or Landwehr units on service. But the resources of Ersatz battalions at the moment of mobilization were such that, in addition to allocating drafts for the field units, it was possible to create new units on a large scale, The principle followed in the case

of the infantry—which was applied to other arms with suitable

modifications—was for the Ersatz battalion of each regimental district to form and equip two service companies. ‘Thus cach brigade

district was able to produce a battalion (known as a brigade Ersatz

battalion), and the sum of these “ B.E.Bs.” with analogous units

of the other arms, appeared in the field in the last days of Aug. 1914

as ‘‘ Ersatz Divisions ’ (Guard, qth, 8th, toth, I9th and Bavarian). These divisions had an irregular organization; they consisted of two to four mixed brigades, each brigade having four or five battalions, four batteries, a half squadron of cavalry and an engineer unit.‘ In addition, the Ersatz battalions of a few reserve and Landwehr regiments also constituted B.E.Bs., and those of the reserve were

grouped in two mixed brigades (Res. Ersatz Bdes.). ‘The six divisions cited above all took part in the western campaign after the first few days of battle. They were provided wholly by the

Ersatz battalions of the western and central corps regions. In the E. a different system was followed,

It has been mentioned that three active corps, one and a half

reserve corps and about 17 Landwehr brigades had been assigned to the eastern theatre. But in the alarm created by the Russian advance on E, Prussia, an instant augmentation became necessary. The formation of " B.E.Bs.” was not attempted in the I., XX.

The 17 supernumerary infantry regiments also mentioned were absorbed in these reserve formations (with one exception)| and XVII. regions and only partially and temporarily tried in the V.

and

the Instructional

Battalion

(afterwards

famous

as the

“ Lehr Regiment ”) was expanded to provide the rath active unit of the Guard. Otherwise these formations were created entirely at the moment of mobilization. Their organization was similar to those of the active army, but for want of guns they were pro-

vided only with six batteries per division and had no heavy artillery of thcir own. In some reserve regiments machinegun companies did not exist. In sum, and allowing for the active units incorporated, one-third of the first baitle forces

were reserve (though certainly not improvised) formations. There were, however, yet other formations not so prepared

in advance which found themselves fighting before the end of August. On general mobilization, the reserve, Landwehr, Ersatz reserve and trained men of Landsturm II., up to 42 years of age, had been called out. Landsturm I.—the pool of untrained men of all ages—was left alone, but voluntcers presented themselves in enormous numbers. There were thus far more men than the depots could accommodate, and the volunteers were for the

moment only registered. Enough men remained in the trained

categories and in the Ersatz reserve not only to fill the active and reserve, but create (a) Landwehr and (b) so-called Ersatz formations, as well as units of Landsturm for guarding railways and other sensitive points and for the sedentary garrisons of forts. Landwehr.—Landwehr brigades were formed to carry out the secondary duties which, it had been supposed, would fall to reserve divisians.

The Ersatz, and to some extent the reserve formations,

having absorbed part of the resources of Landwehr I., these brigades 1 Staff was guard, but not troops. , , ? Other formations called “ Reserve” detailed later were so only in name.

and VI. Instead, the Ersatz battalions themselves were mobilized, every man who could be equipped being sent into the field, and only

the surplus remaining behind to form the nucleus of new draftfinding battalions. The German general staff, in this as in afl other cases, took great risks in improvising formations in the cast. Not

only Landwehr and Ersatz battalions but the most diverse units of all categories were put together in provisional regiments, brigades and divisions, first as mobile fortress garrisons but soon as field. troops.» It was no doubt considered that racial passion would give such forees a mihtary value as against the Russians that would compensate for their deficiencies of training equipment. These miscellaneous eastern formations constituted the Thorn, Breslau, Graudenz, Posen and Königsberg “ Reserves ” or “ Corps,” of which the two last named were equivalent to two divisions each, the others

to one each. The formation of the Silesian Landwehr Corps of two divisions has already been mentioned. Further, one so-called “ re-

serve ” division, the (original) 35th, was created from the readiest

elements of the Thorn mobile garrison, and yet another division was

thrown off before the Thorn reserve as such became fixed as a division. The five fortresses named in fact were so to say volcanoes from which in various pulsations regiments, brigades, and divisions were successively discharged.

By the end of Aug., therefore, the German forces in the field consisted of several categorics—the active divisions of peace~ time, the reserve divisions nearly cquivalent to the active in

* No Guard Landwehr infantry regiments were formed. . t Most Landwehr brigades were also constituted as mixed brígades—in their case two regiments with troops of other arms

attached, * As an example, Runge's regiment of Griepenkerl's detachment, Thorn Corps, which in the winter of 1914-5 seems to have consisted of half a mobile Ersatz battalion from the XVII. Corps region, half a mobile

Ersatz

battalion

from

the II. region,

the mobile Ersatz

battalions of the 1ọ1st and 107th Saxons and parts of three Landsturm battalions from Posen province and Alsace.

ARMY solidity of organization, the Ersatz and Landwehr divisions, improvised but composed wholly of traincd men and organized according to scheme; and wholly improvised, divisions hurriedly put together from miscellaneous sources in the fortresses of the east. Further, there were a number of mixed Landwehr brigades, both in the W. and the E., in addition to those forming parts of divisions, and a large number of Landsturm units, serving wholly

as garrison troops in the W. but not uncommonly incorporated in mobile Ersatz formations in the east. The operating forces as apart from the fortress garrisons and the troops allotted to occupied territory and lines of communica-

tion were divided into cight armies, I-VII. in France and Bel-

gium (in numerical order from right to left), and VIII. in E. Prussia. The Silesian Landwehr Corps (under Woyrsch) formed a separate command operating with the Austro-Hungarian armies.

The command was exercised by the Kaiser nominally, by the chief of the general staff (Moltke, Falkenhayn, Hindenburg) actually. In addition to supervising the castern front and controlling war policy, the great gencral staff in its war form (the “supreme army direction,” Oberste Heeresleitung or O.H.L.)

directly commanded operations in France. From first to last no special commander-in-chief was appointed for the western front.

In the E. the VIII. Army grew into a great organization, comprising at one time in x91r5 seven German armies, without

counting Austrian armies included in its scope, or the German Southern Army which was outsideit. This organization was under the contmander-in-chief E. (Oberbefeklshaber ost or Oberost), under whose headquarters the armies were grouped in two or more groups of armies! (/Teceresgruppen). But in spite of his title, the commander-in-chief E. exercised no powers of command over the Austrian front. Not until much later indeed was there unity of command in any form, As in the case of the Entente armies in the W., combined operations had always to be arranged between the German commander-in-chief E., through the chief of the general staff, with the Austrian higher command. Crises due to differences of opinion between the three authorities concerned. were naturally frequent, and only gradually, by providing more and more assistance by direct reénforcements,? did the German

command obtain an ascendency that was effective, and then it was the chief of the staff of the army and not the commander-inchicf E. who obtained and exercised it, In the W., there was a strong case for the formation of groups

of armies from the outsct. The expedient of placing one army

under the orders of another was tried occasionally, with unsatis-

factory results, Otherwise, the control of events in the Marne campaign was in the hands of a distant O.H.L. into whose business the castern front constantly thrust itself and which at one time (late Sept. 1914) seems to have had two heads. It was not

until trench warfare had set in that groups of armies were formed in France. In sum, then, partly through events and partly from unwillingness

to appoint

a commander-in-chief

in the only

theatre in which German forces were employed exclusively, the offices of chief-of-staff and of commander-in-chief E. came to be

overloaded with a mass of very varicd functions which ranged from advising on economic policy and negotiating with Turkish

staff officers and Lithuanian clergymen to weighing the pros and cons of a two-division operation. This was a considerable factor

in the final defeat. _ The strength in units of the three arms for both fronts and for the interior in Aug. 1914 may be taken, inclusive of Landsturm, as 1,700 battalions, 980 field and horse batteries, and 450-500

heavy (including immobile fortress) batteries.

_ Of these, approximately 987 battalions, 490 squadrons, and 820 field batteries of active, reserve and Ersatz formations, with, ? Heer in German implies always the army asa whole, the ‘ Host.” The Heeresgruppe is a major subdivision of the Zeer, and consists of several Armeen (armies) or Armeegruppen (army-groups, i.e. groups ` of corps either are small or too temporary in character to be regularly constituted as “ armies’ with defined areas and lines of + communication). tartare _?Finally, by allocating individual German battalions to Austrian

divisions.

233

behind them, some 165 battalions and 28 squadrons and 30 facld batteries of Landwehr, formed the western forces.

To these

should be added about 120 mobile batterics of heavy artillery (6-in. howitzers, 4-in. gun and upward). In order to arrive at a criterion of combatant strength it has become customary to use the infantry division as the unit, and to count unattached forces as equivalent to so many divisions, chiefly according to their infantry strength. It is calculated that there were in existence in

the first weeks of the war 123 German divisions, or their equivalents in Landwehr and fortress brigades. Of these 77 constituted divisions and the Landwehr, etc., equivalent of 20 more were in the western theatre on Aug. 23 (the date of “ high water ” in the first phase), and 26 divisions or equivalents in the field and the fortresses (chicfly the latter) in the E., of which 43 at most

could be considered as constituted divisions. In Sept. a naval

division (shortly afterwards expanded to a corps) was formed and added to the forcesin Belgium, for military duty and (later) for coast defence also.

Including engineers, communication troops, administrative troops and others of all categorics, the total ration strength of the army immediately after mobilization may be taken at about 5,000,000. The number of untrained men liable to service (including youths of 17~20) was about the same. The New Formations of Sept. r914.—The organization of all the above forces was cither existing or deliberately prepared for in peace, with the exception of the Ersatz formations, and even as. regards these latter, the idea of creating and employing them dates back to Schlieffen’s tenure of office. But, especially, all had the common characteristic that they consisted wholly of men traincd with the colours in peace.

The next pulsation of the national effort, in the last days of Aug. 1914, was the creation of a series of reserve divisions in which 75% of the rank and file were totally untrained. It has been noted that the Ariegsfrezwilligen, who presented themselves to the number of about a million, had merely been registered. As

soon as the mobilization tide had receded and the depots were free, viz. about the middle of Aug., these men were called up, and formed, with a percentage of trained men (chiefly Landwehr IL},

into new “ Reserve ” units—numbered in the case of the infantry regiments from zor upwards. These units were assembled in training camps, Officered by such retired and reserve officers as were still available, constituted into brigades, divisions and army corps, and within six to cight weeks of formation thrown into the furnace of battle at Ypres and Lodz, There were 13 of these divisions (43-54 R.D. and 6th Bav, R.D.), 12 constituting the 6 corps 22 R27 R. They have been described by German writers as “ the glory of the country and the shame of the general staff ”’—the glory of the country in that the flower of its young men composed them, and the shame of the general staff in that, with a universal-service system existing in Jaw and in practice, it had been unable to devise a system of service that would absorb and train them. These were the “ levies ” who advanced in masses, singing, under the rifle fire of the British Expeditionary Force at Ypreg and of the Fusiliers Marins at Dixmude, and who at Lodz, with the Guard Res Corps, first broke into the Russian positions and then extricated themselves from the most extraordinary ‘‘ pocket ” recorded in the history of the war.

The story of these divisions may be

interpreted in several ways, It will suffice here to say that their effort was the culminating point of the attempt to win the war outright, and that with its failure to do so, the German nation, not less than the army authorities, began to realize that the war

would be a contest of endurance. One more series of new divisions was created, however, before the policy of preparing for a war of endurance was applied to

recruiting, The class of recruits who would normally have joined ` for training in Oct. 1914 were called up when the depots were clear of the first ‘‘ new reserve ” regiments. These (infantry regiments 249-273 R.) with the remainder of the Kriegs/rezwilligen, were, unlike the preceding divisions, held back for intensive training before being put in the field. They constituted the 7sth-82nd Res. Divs. (38-41 R, Corps) and 8th Bav. Res. Div.,

234

ARMY

and were not put into the field till the “winter battle of Masuria”’ in Feb. 1915. These divisions (except the Bavarian) were constituted on a new organic basis—that of three infantry regiments under one brigade staff instead of four in two brigades, a form which, as will appear presently, came to be adopted throughout the whole army. In artillery strength they were however supcrior to all previous

reserve formations. ‘The original reserve divisions had only six 6-gun batteries, and the first new reserve divisions, hurriedly mobilized as they were, had nine 4-gun batteries. In these second new reserves, the number of batteries was increased to

12 (as in active formations, but with 4 guns in licu of 6 per battery).

With the creation of these divisions expansion proper ceased. Until rory no further divisions were formed otherwise than by regrouping existing units, and the intake of recruits of successive classes was, with very few exceptions, used for maintenance only. The end of Jan. rors, therefore, marks the close of the expansion period. At that date there were 147 infantry divisions, or equivalents of infantry divisions. Regrouping had naturally as its object the better strategic

and tactical utilization of these 147 divisions. The first step was to sort out the misceilancous formations of Ersatz and Landwehr, especially in the east. Accordingly, the Posen, ‘Thorn, etc., corps were recast, divorced from the fortresses from which they had already become separated, and constituted as the 83rd-89th Divisions. These were on the 4-regiment basis, and the regiments

after reorganization took the numbers 329-354 and 372-381 save that Landwehr units comprised in these divisions retained their original designations,

The battalions of Ersatz on the W. front (the “B.E.Bs.”) were regimented chiefly with numbers between 357 and 371. On both western and eastern fronts the Landwehr brigades still unattached were used to form divisions, bringing the number of

this category up to 19 (1-5, 6th Bav., 7-18, rst Bavarian.) The next step was a more important one. It had become clear,

first of all, that the army corps, as a working unit, was not supple enough, and as early as Sept. 1914 the practice had set in, both

with the Germans and with the French, of regarding the corps headquarters as an organ for the tactical and administrative management of any twr or more divisions which might be assigned to it. This led in sedentary warfare to the corps becoming an area or sector command, and in open warfare or for the handling of battle reserves as a headquarters told off to carry out a particular mission. Incither case, the inferiority of the German num-

bers in both theatres of war enforced a better arrangement of the corps commander’s forces than the 2 X 2 system gave. In the spring of 1915, therefore, two series of divisions, numbered

so-s8 (even numbers); 101~107! and 111-123 (odd numbers), 4th Guard and roth and 11th Bav., were formed by taking a regiment each, and also one-quarter of the divisional artillery, from

situation. The creation of the so-called sth Ersatz Div. and the 25th and 47th Landwehr Divs. (all three mixed brigades reén~ forced to the status of new type divisions) hardly amounted to more than a change of name,

The total of divisions and “ equivalents ” (the latter always diminishing as formations were regularized) remained stationary at the figure of 172 from July rors to the end of May 1916. The ration strength of the army was on March 31 1915, 5,020,672, and on March 31 1916, 6,767,144, and the losses had been as folows:—(8 months up te) March 31 rors, 281,389 killed, 205,048 missing, 835,612 wounded, 13,402 dicd of disease, etc., (12 months up to) March 31 1916, 376,954 killed, 121,040 missing, 897,475 wounded, 29,840 died of disease, etc. The “ defini-

tive” losses—dead, missing, wounded discharged as unfit—~ are difficult to establish; but if we take for wounded not returned to duty the figure of 29% (which is a high one), we arrive at a total of “definitive ” losses of all kinds of about 1,780,000 for the whole period. To repair these losses, and to increase the ration strength by some 1,750,000 men as well, the

intake of recruits necessary would be about 2,500,000. These recruits were (a). the Kriegsfreiwilligen, (b) the class ror4, called up somewhat after the normal date, (c) the class 1915 called up

before the normal date, and (d) the class 1916 called up before the normal year.

As early as the autumn of rors, in fact, Germany had been compelled to anticipate the conscription, to bring youths of 19 as well as those of 20 to muster, and to shorten the period of training to the minimum. The general policy followed was to considera class collectively as a means to be allotted to specific ends. Later in the war the practice was carried to the extent that even when called up, trained and ready, a class was under embargo and could not be sent into the front line until the chief-of-stafi, in consultation with the Government, should issue an order removing the ban. What may be called routine losses and wastage were made good

as a rule by returned sick and wounded or other experienced men rather than by recruits. Early in 1915, partly in order to have a reserve at hand, and

partly in order-to ensure an intensive training under realistic condi-

tions, the system of ‘ Field Recruit Depots’ was gradually intro» duced. When these had been established, men spent only half or less than half of the abbreviated training period allowed:in the Ersatz battalion at home and the remainder in the Field Recruit Depot a few miles behind the front. Eventually there was one depot per division, with an establishment (in 1917) of 1,350, of whom goo were recruits under training and the rest training staff and. re~ turned wounded waiting allocation. Further, as pools to meet losses which could not be covered by the depots of the divisions affected,

large training centres were created at Beverloo (the peace training

camp

of the Belgian

army)

and

at

Warsaw,

The

training

camps in Germany were of course utilized for home training, and in them from time to time new batches of divisions were created and assembled, The period spent by the soldier in training varied considcrably:, sometimes it was as little as one month in the Ersatz

50 or more existing active or reserve divisions. Thenceforward practically half the divisions of the army were on the new basis.

battalion and two or three weeks in the Field Recruit Depot or at Beverloo; in less critical times it might be four to five months in all.

One other formation of the spring of 1915 must be mentioned.

Hitherto, it will be noticed, little or no call had been made on the 5,000,000 men composing the untrained half of the male population of military age. This was because the maintenance of the country’s economic life was more necessary than ever as the

This was the Alpenkorps, a division formed for high mountain work when it became evident that Italy would enter the war. ‘This corps d'élite served in every theatre, not only in mountainous country, and at the last moment of the war was dispatched from France to attempt to stop the Allied advance in Serbia, It was exclusively Bavarian in composition. During the spring and summer of rors, to ensure against accidents, the effectives of units in 3-regiment divisions were considerably increased, company strengths of over 300 being frequent. Later, however, the precaution being seen to be un“necessary, some new divisions were formed out of this surplus; these were the 183, 185, 187 and 102, originally called flying (7.e. non-sector) “ brigades,” but from the outset practically equivalent to divisions of the new type. Practically no further additions were. made till the battle of the Somme and the intervention of Rumania created a new 1 The 108 and 109 were improvised during the eastern offensive of spring 1915,

x

blockade tightened its pressure. Nevertheless, a certain combingout of agriculture and industries began in the winter of 1915-16, Further, a law was passed in 1916 for the reéxamination of men who had been rejected by the annual muster commissions as permanently unfit.

From the summer of 1916 the situation of the German army

became very critical. The costly offensive of Verdun had been followed by the Allied offensive on the Somme, the Russian break-through at Lutsk, the sixth Isonzo battle, and immediately thereafter Rumania’s declaration of war. For the first time since 914 the Central Powers were face to face with a simultaneous

and prolonged strain on all fronts. Before describing the measures taken to deal with this crisis, it is convenient to review the changes which had taken place in the mcantime in the constitution of the fighting units themselves.

235,

ARMY The new type divisional organization has already been set forth, but within the infantry regiment itself there had been important changes, and there had grown up, besides, a great force of nondivisional troops, which were in some cases a pool from which allocations were temporarily made to armies as required, and in others were sector troops permanently allotted to particular parts of the front irrespective of the divisions occupying them. By now, the process of moving divisions into line and out to rest had become thoroughly established, though Verdun was the first battle in which the relief process was reduced to an almost mechanical system.

The changes may best be dealt with by arms. Artillery. —It has been noted above that in the great reorganization of the spring of 1915 the field artillery had been recast on the basis of the 4-gun battery. The number of batteries therefore shows

a large increase in that year, corresponding to the creation of new divisions. But in the main, the number of field guns and howitzers remained at the same level as in the spring of 1915. It was in the heavy and medium artillery (these were not differentiated in Germany) that expansion, as distinct from regrouping, occurred. The fortress’: guns were made mobile by various methods and old field guns of 9 cm. were brought out and emplaced as position guns

on the less important parts of the front, pending the production of modern weapons; and in these and other ways the number of batteries of ‘foot artillery” actually in the field was increased from about 150 in Aug. 1914 to about 1,100 by the autumn of 1915 and 1,200 by the summer of 1916. The batteries received various desctiptions, which need not be given here; substantially, they were grouped as required under.“ battalion ” staffs, and when actually in

line were under control of the divisional artillery command of the

sector. Thus was initiated a principle of organization which presently became general in the belligerent armies and was applied to field artillery also—that of dividing the artillery into a portion which belonged organically to divisions and moved in and out of line with them, and a portion which was under higher control; this portion was pay emplaced in the various sectors as a normal allocation, partly

cept in reserve to bring up the normal artillery strength of this or that sector to battle standard, as required, Machine-guns.—Probably no legend of the war period obtained a wider circulation or was averred with more authority than the assertion that Germany put into the field in 1914 an enormously superior force of machine-guns. The facts, however, were known throughout to the Allied intelligence staffs, and are, as regards 1914-5, in no way extraordinary.

At the outset, Germany had only just completed the equipment of

the active infantry with two guns per 1,000 rifles—the same scale as that of the British and French and Russian armies. The only difference was that they were employed in batteries, reyimentally, instead of by sections battalion-wise as on the side of the Entente, and this no doubt produced a battle-field impression of inferiority on the British and French side since where German guns were used at all, they were used in mass. There were further some 16 (on mobilization 32) fortress machine-gun detachments, and 11 horsed machinegun detachments allotted to the tr cavalry divisions, On mobilization, the majority of the reserve regiments were also provided with machine-gun companies, but for the armament. of the remainder and of Ersatz and Landwehr units the fortress machinegun detachments were called into the field at once. The first and secotid new reserves were sent into the field with one section of two

guns per regiment. From all sources, the total of machine-guns in service at the end of 1914 was not more than 2,000, as against a peace establishment of 1,600. But the Germans were the first to recognize the predominant réle of the machine-gun in trench warfare. Manufacture was started on a scale then considered adequate, and during 1915 there were large additions, The regimental companies, where missing, were created, and further a number of “ field sections ” or ‘‘ supplementary scctions *’ were formed and attached to regiments as required, Thus by the end of 1915 every regiment had, either in organic companies or in attached

sections, a force of 9 to 12 guns, though it was

not until after the middle of 1916 that the latter figure was reached universally, Meantime, 2 new type of machine-gun organization had come into existence, the “ M.G. Sharpshooter Troops,” each troop having six guns, These were selected from the “sections” of 1915, specially trained, grouped in permanent “‘ detachments ” (Abteilungen) and

attached to divisions as required for battle. Their début was at

Verdun in March 1916. By that date the number of guns in service had increased to about 8,000, and by the end of 1916 this figure was doubled.

At the period here considered, the light machine-gun, afterwards

the primary armament of all German infantry, had hardly come into existence. Expcriments had been made in the battle of Chamagne (Sept.—Oct. 1915) and elsewhere with units armed with the

adsen gun and styled ‘‘ Mfusketenbatazllone,”’ but the results were not promising, The success of the French fusi? mitrailleur and the

British Lewis gun, however, made action imperative, and towards

the end of 1915, to save the time which would have been lost in trying out and manufacturing a new model, the service heavy machine-gun was lightened sufficiently for use as an infantry weapon; This was not issued on a large scale till the end of 1916.: Trench Mortars

(Minenwerfer).—At

the outset of the war, the

trench mortar (adopted as the result of the siege of Port Arthur) was aclose combat weapon of siege warfare handled by sappers; in this rdle it figured at the sieges of Liége and Antwerp, where its bombs were highly effective. It was, however, the needs of trench warfare which brought it prominently to’the front, As in. other armies, the infantry felt the want of some short-range weapon which would enable them by curved fire to destroy and to harass the opposite trenches, and the creation of trench-mortar units soon followed, The Germans had. here a real advantage in that they already possessed experience of the design and manufacture of these weapons, and for a considerable period they had the upper hand in this respect. The standard organization was by sections of heavy, medium, and Jight Minenwerfer which belonged to the pioneer arm, which were permanently assigned to divisions and were allotted within the division as required, Other Minenwerfer units were rouped in battalions and constituted a G.H.Q. reserve, Later the ight Minenwerfcr sections were permanently assigned toregiments, the others continuing as divisional troops. Infaniry organization as such remained unaltered, though the establishment was reduced in 1916, in order to meet the demands for men which were created by machine-gun and Minenwerfer expansion, At the same time a process began which in the long run proved injurious to quality but for the moment justified itself, the formation of ‘ Assault” or “ Stornt” battalions. These were created, in anticipation of the Verdun offensive, in the winter of 1915-6, and were so successful that presently all infantry regiments and even

battalions and companics raised their own assault detachments or squads. In the assault battalions proper, all trench warfare means were combined within-the unit infantry guns, trench mortars,

machine-guns and light flamethrowers. ‘The separation of this élite from the bulk of the infantry was recognized by privileges and

distinctions of dress. The net result, however, was to deprive the infantry of a leaven of first-class men, who in 1918 could no longer be spared from the ranks of their units. Towards the close of the war, therefore, the assault battalions were broken up one by one, and all assault units came to be regarded as schools of offensive

tactics rather than as battle units. Cavalry.—Little change had occurred in the cavalry between 1914 and 1916. Divisional cavalry was gradually reduced. All the

cavalry divisions which had figured in the campaign of the Marne wcre sent E. by r915, and there they played a conspicuous part in the operations both mounted and in the trenches. At the period now being considered (middle of 1916) they were still true mounted forces, though employed in the line like others. Cavalry regiments were each provided with a machine-gun squadron in 1915,

Pioneers.—Besides the Minenwerfer and chemical-wartare troops

which had come into existence, other special services had been added to the pioneers, notably a large number of scarchlight scctions. Survey and sound-ranging units formed part of the artillery and not, as in the British service, of the engincers. The proportion of the pioneers themselves (British “ field companies R.E.”) was also augmented,

and much

use was made in 1915 of semi-permanent

“Infantry Pioneer Companies” which were in reality infantry working parties detailed for particular pieces of consiructional work, and retained as units till these were completed. From 1916, a large

number of new Landsturm battalions.

battalions were formed, as labour

The possibility of Rumanian intervention had been foreseen for some time, and in preparation for it four new divisions had been created by regroupings in the eastern theatre. These were the rosth, 197th, ro9th and 2ooth, all these were principally composed of Jiger battalions assembled in regiments, and the last named, like the Alpenkorps, was specialized for mountain

work. A little later the gist, 92nd, 93rd Divs. were formed in Poland for quiet parts of the front. Several mixed Landwehr brigades were also expanded into Landwehr divisions for the same service. At the same time the 1917 class was called up gradually (May~Aug. 1916) for training, 15 months before the

normal time, and the product of the March comb-out of industry was brought under training at the same time. These measures, however, were not sufficient. To meet the pressure on all fronts not only men were needed, but, still more, increased flexibility of manceuvre, and it became essential, therefore, to create new battle-worthy divisions. These were obtained partly by regrouping, and partly—in the carly months of 1917—by creating another batch of wholly new divisions. During the crisis itself, which extended from July r to Dec., and then, with a brief respite, from Feb. to May 1917, it was

ARMY

236

impossible to carry out regrouping with the smooth regularity of March 1915; the measures taken, therefore, extend over the whole period. They were as follows: (a) The constitution of new divisions (zo%—204 and 12th Bav) out of odd units existing in various theatres and of “ combings” obtained in the lines of

communication, the Ersatz battalions and other military establishments

in Germany.

‘The infantry regiments of these

divisions were numbered 401-416 and 26-28 Bavarian. (b) The regrouping of all old divisions still remaining on the 4-regiment basis as 3-regiment formations of the new standard type—z.e. the completion of the process which had been half carried out in March rors. This yielded the divisions 205~226, the 5th Guard Div., the 3rd Marine Div., and the Bavarian divisions 14th, 16th, and roth Reserve—in all 27,apart from some additional Landwehr divisions obtained in the same way. Certain divisions, which lost not one but two regiments in this regrouping process, were compensated by new regiments numbered 389-400, 417-441 and 477, these being formed by grouping experienced companies taken from existing regiments of every kind. Somewhat later, on the verge of the offensive of Caporetto, the Jager battalions still available and unallotted were grouped in a “ Jager Division,” the last high-quality formation created in the war. (c) The creation

been conquered into the bargain, the outlook for 1917 was dark. The Russian Revolution came, with its enigmas; unrestricted submarine warfare was proclaimed with the foreseen result of bringing America into the war on the side. of the Entente; and the British and Trench offensive was planned in a hope, almost amounting to certainty, that the defence would break down. Skilful defence, and sins of omission and commission on the side of the Entente, weathered this crisis for Germany, with a lower figure of losses than in any previous year, and Hindenburg and Ludendorff were able to collect such free reserves as allowed them to check the last Russian offensive, inflict two defeats which ended the war in the E., and to carry through the Caporetto offensive that so nearly ruined Italy. This they were enabled to achicve—so far as the factors were under their own control—by using up the class of 1918, by creating as many manœuvre units as possible, by employing every means

that presented itself to stiffen the sinking moral of the war-weary army,and by new tactical methods, of which the most characteristic element was the light machine-gun, These guns were already in the spring of 1917 available on the scale of three per company. By the close of the year most companics had six, and during 1918 the issue of both light and heavy machine-guns for defence

of a series of new divisions, in somewhat the same way as the old against low-flying aeroplanes was extended to batteries and to transport columns of every sort. Heavy machine-guns, too, had first and second new reserves, at training camps in Germany. The quality of these was, however, far below that of the ‘risen in number to one company of 10-12 guns per infantry battalion, besides those of the divisional “M.G. Sharpshooter new armies of ror4. Although 50% were returned wounded detachment” which numbcred 36. men and men drafted back from the fronts, the remainder The characteristic of the army of 1917-8 therefore became were of theclass 1918, called up nearly two years in advance. (d) The numbers of these divisions were 231-242 and 15th Bav, economy of man-power, through constant augmentation of machine-gun power. Whereas in rọr4 a 12-battalion active (regiments 442—476, and 30-32 Bav.). At the time of the creation of these, the old 8th Ersatz Div, took the number 243. division possessed 24 machine-guns, in the winter of 1917-8 a The creation of a series of divisions for home defences and garrison duty, which in effect were only groupings of existing

Landsturni (in some cases Landwehr) resources.

Of these only

the 251st, 2sand, and 253rd were actually formed as such. The Métz mobile reserve which had existed since Aug. 1914, was

numbered into this scrics; later it was freed from all connexion with the fortress, and a new Metz mobile reserve was formed in the Jast months of the war. These measures, in their ensemble, increased the number of divisions or ‘ equivalents’ (the last being by now very few) from 172 to 213 in Jan. 1917, and 223 in May 10917, the final total reached being 238 in Oct. 1917. The 1917 class, the combed men of March 1916, and the soldiers who could be claimed from

back areas, by no means sufficed to cover the needs of these new formations, at the same time as they made good the losses of Verdun; the Somme, Rumania and Russia, not to mention Arras and the Aisne. Already in Aug. 916 there began the examination muster of the r918 class, and by mid-November it began to join for training, though not one of its members had reached the age of 19. By now, too, the effective value of a

o-battalion division possessed 216 light and r42 heavy, or 358 ìn all. The rifle strength of the standard battle unit had been halved, and the machine-gun strength multiplied 15 times in about three and a half years, even without taking anti-aircraft machine-guns into account. The ratio of fire-power to men exposed had very nearly trebled. At this point, when the stage was being set for the final act, it is desirable to summarize in tabular form the number and distribution of German divisions (and “ equivalents ”) during the first three years in which manœuvre ox interior lines was constant. Table D forms, rightly understood, a summary of the history of the World War, so far as Europe is concerned, Directly or indirectly, it reflects. all its vicissitudes.

Amongst these divisions a certain classification in respect of

quality had been set up. In ror4 Landwehr and Ersatz and new reserve formations had been differentiated from active and reserve and from cach other in composition and réle, but with the constant and, till r977, somewhat haphazard replacements of

casualties, differences based on provenance had disappeared. Instead, differences based on battle experience had come into “class” had sunk considerably, because of the percentage force, and though largely accidental at the outset, they had bewhich had to be rejected not only for immaturity but for malnu- come effective through the machinery of replacements. Divisions recognized as “ shock-troops ” (a legacy of the trench-warfare trition as well. The ration strength of the army, taken on the same basis period) were dignified by the name of G rosskampfdivisionen in as the previous figures, had grown by March 31 1917 to 7,630,456, - their offensive aspect and Eingretfsdivisionen (“ Intervention” or counter-attack divisions) on thcir defensive; and they received but the loss of 311,034 killed, 26,016 dead of discase, 192,380 missing und aboul 250,000 disabled (of 875,107 wounded), in all the pick of the recruits and returned wounded. The rest, formations fit to hold the line merely, were currently called “ sector ” about 775,000, had compelled the recruiting authorities to find divisions, and received, in the main, less battle-worthy clements some 1,643,000 recruiis in the 12 months. And it was precisely in their drafts. A real, though admittedly undesirable, distincat this period (Oct. 1916) that, under the energetic pressure of tion was thus established. The Entente intelligence staff rated Hindenburg and Ludendorff—who had succeeded Falkenhayn the 203 divisions of the western front with which it was concerned at the moment of the Rumanian crisis—a great munition production campaign was started in Germany, which necessitated the in 1918 thus: 61 “‘very good,” 103 “ average,” 22 “ poor.” The difference was not reflected in organization, except in the recall to the factories of a large number (125,000 men in the sense that “ shock ” divisions were the first to be equipped to armies 716-17) of mobilized workmen and a check to the process any new scale that had been decided upon. Thus, such divisions of combing-out. On the eve of the battle of the Somme, the were the first to receive their complement of six light machinestrength of the German army in combatants only was ies In 1918 they received a fuller allowance in the W. and sgo,o000 in the E., or (neglecting the small forces in guns per company. of transport, and also, as part of their “ organic” artillery, tht Balkans and Turkey) 2,850,000 on all fronts. a group of medium guns (two batteries 15-cm. howitzers and In spite of the fact that the line had held both in the W. and in the E., and that Rumania, with its material resources, had one battery ro-cm, long guns) in addition to their field artillery.

ARMY TABLE D.—Distribution of Divisions.

‘Total Western | Eastern

Theatre. | Theatre.}|

Other

Theatres

eyes

u lents.

'

: : *

’

97

26

>

93 93 106

30 30 32

104

34

F01

46

99 101

TO5

106

:

:

me

c

114

47

ny He

:

118

+

64

64

107

oat 123 y:

123 123

138

65

56

46 47 47

47 46 45

147

7

147

i

These armies were grouped in groups of armies (Heeresgruppen) known by the names of their commanders—Prince

1 (Ital.)

171

Rupprecht (IV., VI, XVIL, II.), German Crown Prince (XVIIL,

Do

171

a

17I

Rien

172

8 (Balk.)

Thar

ti

172

“a

172

3

an

22

y

3

52

2oy 2

t

2

4i

209

7I

3

a

213

68

3

1

+

`

130

94%

'

135

92

.

139 144

1a

:

a

72 72

3i 3 o“

75

3

78

86

82

8i f

153

ns

74

ar

215

226 231

7

233

©

236 236

alk. y 2 (a

237

3

85s | 33

147

149

R

.

183

2

75

153

177 205

128

155

ae

172

173

205

i

To! 156

H

172

172

"

:

A

172 172

7

a

a

45

>

172

* S

49

aes

172

9 p

122

:

aa j

236

alk.

Gay | 238

Balk, 3 al)

3 (Balk.)

6 (Ital.)

238

Balk.

_

o

|

185

202

34

197

39

ial)

2 (Balk.)

po

VII., I., IIE), Gallwitz (V., C.), Duke Albrecht (XIX., A., B.). During Aug. 1918 a Heeresgruppe Bochn was created, between Rupprecht

and

the German

Crown

Prince, comprising the

XVIIL, the EX. (staff brought over from Russia) and the VIL, but did not last long. The XVIII. Army was then assigned to Rupprecht and the IX. staff was withdrawn, and the VH, returned to the German Crown Prince’s group of armies. Some 40 divisions remained on the castern front to overawe the Sovict Government to “ prevent the formation of an AngloBolshevik front,” and to occupy the corn lands of S. Russia. These were gradually ‘‘ milked ” of their best elements, and had a reduced artillery strength.

At this date (end of March 1918) the ration strength of the whole German army had increased to 7,917,170. The losses of the period April 1 1917 to March 31 1918—which must include some at any rate of the casualties of the “‘ Michael” offensive—had been 257,748 killed, 37,004 died of disease, 138,070 missing, 679,777 wounded; and the “ definitive ” losses may be taken at 650,000. Comparison of these figures with those for 1916-7 gives a measure of the relicf which was afforded to Germany by

the success of her defence and the breakdown of the Entente’s 1917 offensive. Only about goo,ooo recruits had to be found instead of 1,600,000 as in 1916-7. Recruiting policy was accordingly less desperate. The rọrọ class was called to the colours without haste-—though still two years in advance of the propet time—trained carefully, and acclimatized to war conditions on the quiet Russian front, in the winter of 1917-8. It was regarded by Ludendorff collectively as the means of replacing the casual-

238

ties to be expected in his great offensive. A great effort was made by drastic combing-out of industrics not only to obtain combatants but also substitutes for every battle-fit man who was still

238

Lorraincrs, hitherto employed almost exclusively on the eastern front, were to be brought over and incorporated in Rhincland

237

units, in whose provincial patriotism it was thought that the Alsatians and Lorrainers might be brought to share. This was

(Balk.) 49

VIL. (S. of Oise), I. (Reims), TT. (Champagne), V. (Verdun);

and thence to the Swiss border a scrics of army groups (small armies) known as C., XIX, Army, À., B.

154

n

*

125

in the open. warfare of rg14—-5, with a district or personal designation (e.g. Gruppe Lille, Gruppe Conta) as well. Certain corps staffs numbered above 50, which had neither troops nor home regions of their own, had been created in 1915~6 as reserve headquarters available for the control of particular operations. The corps or “ group ” were allotted to armies which from right to left (sea to Switzerland) were as follows:—IV. (Flanders), VI. (Artois), XVII. (Artois), II. (Picardy), XVIII. (N. of Oise),

161

jä

53

56

123

138

48

106

105

'

‘

237

The divisions in line were under corps staffs which though long fixed in sector still retained the old numbers they had had

serving in rear areas and on quiet fronts. Even the Alsatians and

238

82 NS Sek ls 240 208 a MayOtherwise, the equipment and organization of all the divisions assembled in France in March 1918 was the same:—thrce infantry regiments, cach regiment with its three battalions, three machine-gun companies, and three light Mincnwerfer detachments, the whole under an infantry brigade staff; one ficld artillery regiment of two groups guns and one group howitzers (in all nine batteries), which (with sector artillery or reénforcing artillery) was under the divisional artillery staff; (one M.G. Sharpshooter detachment of 36 M.G.); three heavy and medium Minenwerfer batteries which, a little later, were reformed, with the light M.W. units, as infantry regimental companies. In the case of attack divisions, a group of three batterics of medium artillery was included organically and up to 40 or 45 army batteries attached for the purposes of a particular battle. In one respect only was material preparation wanting. Tanks were not looked upon with favour, only a few units being constituted. All cavalry divisions in the W. were dismounted and acting as infantry in quict parts of the line. They were in process of reconstitution as infantry under the name of Schiitzen.

only an extension of a practice which had already been begun in 1916 of re-sorting the personnel of units according to their province of origin, as in the pre-war army.

The moral of the army was still good. In spite of war-wearl-

ness, it was felt that in onc last cffort peace could be won, For the first time the Germans enjoyed a numerical superiority and leisure for thorough battle training. If at home discontent was ready to break out in revolt, the effects were not at that period felt at the front, owing to an industrious propaganda, assiduous “ welfare work,” and largely to the disappearance of peace-time social barriers between men and officers—the latter, indeed,

being now for the most part either commissioned or made acting officers from the ranks, The offensive of March ror8 was launched, and was successf ul, but at heavy cost, and it did not win the war. Others followed it, always with the same result. By the end of April the 1919 class was largely absorbed, and preparations were being made for the call-up of the 1920 class. By the end of July 1919 men were practically exhausted, and the now incessant battle casualties had to be made good by retfirned wounded. Meantime

ARMY

238

numerical superiority disappeared with the accelerated arrival of American divisions in France. By July 1 the rifle strength of the Germans was 100,000 below that of the Allies. Two Austrian divisions, and converted cavalry divisions, which were brought

into action during the summer, were hardly more than a drop in the buckct. Company strengths could no longer be maintained. More and more the army became an army of machine-gunners,

practising the infiltration method in attack and the elastic method in defence, but in its growing disillusionment becoming less and less apt for either form, since both demanded a high moral in the isolated squad which formed the fighting unit. As early as May it was decided to break up certain formations and to use their personnel as drafts for others. This process was carricd out on a large scale from the end of July; 13 divisions

disappeared by the end of Aug., 1o more in Sept. and 3 more in the first days of Oct. The 1920 class, called up and trained, reached the field depots from Aug. onwards, but for political reasons sanction was refused for its employment in the front

line. This was the last resource, for unless a winter’s respite could be obtained, the most complete combing-out of home in-

dustries and agriculture—now in any case impossible owing to

the political situation—would not have yielded a sufficient sup-

ply of trained combatants. The sinking of moral in the army manifested itself in the “black day ” of Aug. 8. During that month and Sept., in spite of the stout resistance of many formations, the seritiment of defeat spread. At the last a final effort of propaganda convinced the army that by fighting hard, and only so, it might obtain honourable terms of peace. But it was too late, The cnd had come in Germany. With the evacuatior. of occupied territory and the march home to demobilization—in most cases self-demobilization-~the his-

tory of the Prussian and German army system built up by Frederick the Great, Scharnhorst and Moltke, came to an end. The losses in the concluding year, from April x 1918 to March 31 1919, are stated at 303,023 killed, 48,751 died of discase, 334,802 missing, and 823,498 wounded, representing a “ definitive ” loss of about 940,000. In the whole war, the losses amounted to 1,531,048 killed, 155,013 diced of disease, 991,340 missing, 4,211,469 wounded; or

a total of 6,888,870 for recorded military casualties. (C. F. A.) IX.—TAE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMY

Till a few ycars before the World War it could be said that no great state took as little care for its army as the Dual Monarchy. National differences and constant party conflict prevented anything more than the barest necessities of maintenance being provided for, and stagnation and even retrogression ruled in the army itself in consequence. This was especially true during the

period 1903-6, in which the constitutional conflicts in Hungary focussed themselves principally upon the question of the Common Army and led to difficultics of which the consequences were serious indeed, There were, however, in the last few years two causes at work which led to important developments. The first of these was the cternal Balkan question, which on two occasions—the Annexation Crisis of the spring of rq09 and the Balkan War of 1912-3—brought Austria-Hungary to the verge of war. Each time Austria-Hungary was unready for war. But the long-deferred modernization of the military system was, under the pressure of circumstances, taken in hand, at any rate so far as patching up the more obvious defects was concerned.

‘The greatest sins of omission in the past had been those affecting the artillery; the danger of war in the south-cast led to these being repaired, at any rate so far as the limited means allocated allowed of it, and also to machine-guns being pro-

vided. The latter had been under experiment with cavalry and mounted troops since 1903, and it was not until 1908 that their employment became general. The second important influence was that of the two-years’service scheme introduced in July rgt2. This was only brought into effect after a prolonged parliamentary conflict, for the Hun-

garian opposition had used the opportunity to try to obtain, by tactics of obstruction, the separation of the Common Army into two parts, and, at the least, the acceptance of Hungarian as a language of command. In these struggles the ministerial party finally had its way, but the reforms it sought to bring about were shorn in the process of most of their efficacy. Indeed, so low was the agreed peace effective of the units that the army, compared

with those of the other military powers, might fairly be regarded as having a militia character. The two-ycars’-scrvice principle was, however, made law and applied to all parts of the armed forces of the Dual Monarchy, These parts were five in number: (a) the Common or Imperial

and Royal (K.u.K.) Army, (4) the Imperial Royal (K.K.) Austrian Landwehr; (c) the Royal Hungarian Landwehr (Honved); (d) the Austrian (K.K.), and (e) the Royal Hungarian Landsturms. The basic principle of this partition was that the Common Army would form the first line in an external war, the two Landwehrs the second, and the two Landsturms the third.

An especial function of the last named was the garrisoning of fortresses and duty on lines of communication and in the interior. But in the last 20 years before 1914 the two Landwehrs had been

brought on to the same organic and tactical level as that of the Common Army, excepting only that their peace effective within

the unit was considerably lower, They were therefore in 1914 fit to be put into the first line at the outset, like the Common Army— as indeed it was essential that they should be, in view of the enormous numerical superiority that had to be faced. As it turned out, even the Landsturm, which had no peace-time existence at all, was sent into action at once, newly formed and ill equipped, on many parts of the front. The enthusiasm of the

younger

and the quiet resolution of the older Landsturm

men, however, showed their worthiness in spite of all defects, But the experiment was a costly one in lives, At the outbreak of war in 1914 the constitution of these forces was as follows: under the Supreme Command of the Emperor, and the direction of the War Ministry for the Common Army (and the Navy), the Austrian Ministry of Defence for the K.K. Landwehr and Landsturm, and the Hungarian ‘‘ Honved Ministry” for the Honved and Hungarian Landsturm. There were six general inspectorates, and 16 corps commands each with its own territorial region, Common Army.—tInfantry: 32 Inf. Troops Divs. (1.T.D.), each of 12-16 battalions and 7-8 batteries with 74 inf. or mountain bdes. Cavalry: 8 Cav. Troops Divs. (N.T.D.), cach of 24 squadrons and 3 batterics; 19 cav. bdes. Artillery: 14 field and 3 mountain bees., 42 feld-gun regts. (each 5-6 batteries and a depot cadre), 14 feldhowitzer regts. (each 4 batteries and a depot cadre), r4 heavy-howitzer divs. (each of 2 batteries), 10 horse-artillery divs. (each of 3 batteries), 10 mountain-artillery regts. (cach of 4 batteries of guns or howitzers, and depot cadre). Fortress artillery: 5 bdes.; 6 regts. {each of 2-3 battalions, and depot cadre); 8 independent battalions.

‘Technical troops: 14 sapper battalions, 8 pioneer battalions; one railway and one telegraph regt.; bridging battalion; flying depot cadre. Train: 16 battalions and mechanical transport cadres. K.K. Landwehr.—Infantry: 8 Landwehr divs.; 16 bdes.; 40 Schiitzen (Landesschiitzen) regts. (as in Common Army but of 3 battalions each). Cavalry: one cav. div.;2 bdes.:6 regis. mounted Schützen (organized as Common Army cav. regts.) detachments each

of 3 squadrons in Tirol and Dalmatia. itzers (each of 2 batteries),

Artillery: 8 divs. field how-

Honved.—Infantry: 7 district divs., and one non-territorial div.;

16 bdes.; 28 regts. (each of 3 battalions). Cavalry: 2 cav. divs.: 4 cav. bdes.; 10 cav, regts. (organized asin Common Army). Artillery: 2 ficid-gun regts. (each of 8 batteries and depot cadre),

The infantry was armed with the 1895 8-mm. magazine rifle, except in the case of third-line units which were largely armed with rifles of the 86, 86/88, and 90/91 patterns. The ficid gun was an 8-cm, Q.F., the field howitzer a ro-cm., of old model (as were also the heavy howitzers), but of good power. All these guns were of steel-bronze and therefore inferior, especially in range, to those of other powers. The siege artillery included 12-cM. guns, 24-cm. mortars, and 30-5-cm. tractor-drawn

mer-

tars—the last-named remarkable weapons which found employment in ficld as well as in siege warfare.

the fortress armaments.

There were, further,

The cavalry was uniformly equipped

(sword and carbine), and well horsed. Theoretical training was

ARMY carried to a very high degree, but its application to practice was not perfect. The directing organs—General Staff, Intendance— were adequate and well trained. In general it may be said that no army suffered from such unfavourable conditions for the formation and development of a sound and uniform military spirit as the Austro-Hungarian. All the more remarkable, then, is its actual performance in the World War, a performance which, in view of the handicaps, must be regarded as unique in history and can only be explained by the existence of a sentiment of military virtue, rooted in age-long traditions, which carried the army through to the very end. M obilization.—In spite of the fairly evident attitude of Russia, it was hoped in Austria-Hungary that the crisis of r9r4 would be confined to a war against Serbia and Montenegro, Three armies were formed in the south-east. But when on July 30 the first combats were taking place on the Drina and the strategic deployment was in full swing, Russia came on the scene. The mobilization, hitherto partial only, became gencral, and the bulk of the forces of the Dual Monarchy formed up in Galicia, nine corps proceeding thither direct while three corps already engaged against the Serbs, or about to do so, were drawn off to the north. Mobilization and concentration, as such, were carried out without a hitch, and the transfer of the II. Army to the N. also produced no delays worth mentioning. Infantry during the War.—The

infantry worthily sustained its

part as the “ keystone of battle,” and this is true not serving with the colours at the outbreak of war but Landwehr men, Landsturm men of all kinds who expectations. Apart from inconsiderable changes,

only of those of reservists, far surpassed the infantry

organization of 1914 was much the same as in 1910.

The peace

effective had, however, been augmented by the increase in the recruit

contingent. New drill regulations had appeared in 1911, and new field-service regulations in 1912. In Aug. 1914 the Common Army included 102 infantry repts., 4 Bosno-Herzcyovinian regts., 4 Tirolese Kaiserjager regts. (all at 4 four-company battalions), also 29 Feldjaiger battalions, one Bosn.-

Herz,

Feldjager. battalion, and

6 frontier companies

in Bosnia

and Herzegovina. The first reénforcement to replace casualties was provided for by 28 “march” regts., which followed the army

into the field.

The Austrian Landwehr had 37 inf. and 3 Tirolese

Landesschtitzen regts., and the Honved, 32 inf. regts.—all these being on a 3-battalion footing. The Austrian Landwehr possessed no “march” regiments, the Honved on the contrary had 16. On the outbreak of war, from the 1st and 2nd bans of the Landsturm

there

were formed 38 Austrian and 32 Hungarian Landsturm regiments, as well as many independent Landsturm units, the number of

which was temporarily augmented later when the Landsturm age

239

Numerically, the organization of the infantry remained unchanged

till the middle of r9r5. In the second half of that year three Feldjäger, two Bosn.-Herz. Jager battalions, a combined infantry regiment

and the 1o3rd Regt. were formed, and also a nuniber of fortress battalions for service in the Bosno-Herzegovinian named, however, were dissolved in 1916,

forts.

The

last

In Jan. 1916 the rogth Regt., and the 4th-8th Bosn.-Tlerz. Jager battalions were created. In June the frontier companies were cxpanded into battalions and in Sept. the 5th Bosn.-Herz. regt. was formed, In Jan. 1917 the 29th and 37th reserve infantry regts., the To5th-rogth infantry regts., and some combined “ half-regiments " were created from various sources, The creation of all these units was more or less in the nature of a temporary expedient imposed by the necessity of manning an ever-growing front. It was evidently desirable to systematize the process of expansion, and therefore in Oct. 1917 a complete reorga-

nization of the infantry was taken in hand, concurrently with a

reorganization of the infantry division itself. All regirnents were now uniformly organized on a thrcee-battalion footing, and from the fourth battalions available and the four newest Bosn.-Herz. Jager battalions, new three-battalion regiments were created, At the beginning of 1918, therefore, there were 138 infantry, 4 Tirolese Kaiserjager, and 8 Bosn.-Herz. regts., each of three battalions. In

May 1918 a 139th rept. was added.

talions, the (four) Bosn.-Herz,

The number of Feldjager bat-

Jager battalions and the frontier

Jager battalions remained the same. In the Austrian Landwehr there was no change in numbers, but in the spring of 1917 the regiments were renamed Schtitzen regiments, the Tirolese Landesschtitzen became Kaiserschtitzen, and the two Austrian regiments, 4th and 27th, formed as mountain troops, were

renamed ist and 2nd mountain regiments. he Hungarian Landwehr (officially styled Honved after the spring of 1917) formed in

the course of the war 17 new regiments, numbered 300-316. At the end of the war the Landsturm formations in existence were 15 regiments, 41 independent battalions, 4 Tirolesc battalions, and in Hungary 8 regiments and 16 independent battalions. Lastly there were 91 Austrian and 65 Hungarian Landsturm Jine-of-coummunica-

tion battalions.

Storm Battalions.—Patrols (squads) of picked men trained to grenade work and employed for special enterprises were already in existence in the spring of £916, especially on the Isonzo front. These were followed in the latter part of 1917 by storm troops proper, and

at the beginning of 1918 each infantry division headquarters possessed a storm battalion and each cavalry division headquarters and each independent infantry brigade a corresponding unit, all these being formed from the storm troops of regiments, brigades, etc. High mountain and guide companies were formed to train guides for troops engaged in the more difficult Alpine work. These numbered 20 and 13 respectively at the end of the war. Cyclist units existed even before the war (Jan. 1912), four companies from certain Jäger battalions being assembled asa unit. This unit did very well,

and in the war cyclist battalions were created in the Hungarian Honved, in both Landsturms (and in the Navy), Early in 1918 the

limits were extended to 18-55 years.

three battalions were named ist and 2nd, and Honved cyclists.

which rarely exceeded 800, Reénforcements were provided for in the war by sending up monthly one march battalion per regiment. Thus, in the course of the war, 48 march battalions were sent into the field for each infantry regiment. Five regiments (including the 3 Tirolese) of the Austrian Landwehr were organized as mountain troops. Independent Jager battalions were organized like infantry battalions, and had “march companies” as their reénforcement organ. Machine-gun detachments had been in process of formation for some years, and

Officers, men and horses were first-class. But the ideas and standards were out-of-date, The principle of using cavalry as a battle-arm still prevailed, whereas the Russian cavalry, having absorbed the lessons

Battalion strength was about 1,000 rifles, except in march battalions, which varicd from 800 to 1,000, and in Landsturm battalions

by 1913 all infantry battalions (and cavalry divisions) had them.

The detachment was of 2 guns in the case of the infantry, 4 in those of the cavalry. In 1915 Landsturm machine-gun detachments were

gradually formed for certain Landsturm battalions. In 1916 the number of guns in a detachment was doubled, in 1917 trebled. The last year also saw the introduction of the hand machine-gun (light machine-gun), each battalion forming (squads), each Schwarm having 2 guns.

a Zug

of four

Schwdirme

. The introduction of new methods and weapons in the war, of course, led in due course to the grenade, the shrapnel helmet and the

gas mask being added to the infantryman’s equipment. At the outset of the war regiments and independent battalions had pioneer

sections, but the available stores were inadequate and had at once to be increased. After 1916 the pioncer sections were expanded into “technical companies " (one per regiment or independent battalion) and consisting cach of an infantry searchlight, a trench mortar and a bombthrower section. The usefulness of these units, which possessed also some bridging material, was three or four times as great as that of the original pioncer section. The telephone equipment, introduced in 1911 but treated. as a stepchild, was augmented considerably in the war, and towards the end cach regiment had a section and each battalion a squad (Schwarm) of telephones, the first named having 26 posts and 52 km. of cable, the second 6 posts and 12 km. of cable. A further technical development was the introduction of the 37mm. infantry gun.

Cavalyy.—The Austro-Hungarian cavalry was, according to the ideas and standards prevailing before the war, superbly trained.

of the most recent wars, rarely showed themselves in big masses, but worked in mixed groups consisting of cavalry, machine-gun detach-

ments, artillery and cyclists.

In 1910 Austria-Hungary had possessed cight cavalry divisions of the Common Army, to which in 1912 were added two Ionved cavalry divisions, and on the outbreak of war a gth Cay, Div. formed

in the Austrian Landwehr. The regiments were: 15 Dragoon, 16 ' Hussar, 11 Ulan, 6 K.K. Lwhr. Ulan (these renamed mounted Schützen in 1917), 10 Hungarian Honved Hussar regts., and smaller

units in Tirol and Dalmatia. At the outbreak of war Hungary formed

10 Hussar half-regts. of Landsturm. In cach regiment further Ist and 2nd reserve squadrons were formed. The bulk of this mounted

force was grouped in 11 divisions (at 4 regiments per division) and the rest, including the reserve squadrons, allotted in pairs or threes as divisional cavalry to the infantry divisions or corps. The rôle of the cavalry divisions was exploration and screening, that of the divisional squadrons liaison and local scouting with the infantry. In both cases the performance of these funations met with unexpec-

tedly great difficulties owing to the thoroughly modern tactics employed by the Russian cavalry, which employed all the methods of dismounted fire fighting and rarely came to open mounted shock. This imposed at once a restriction in the cavalry methods of the Austrians. [Little stress had been laid on fire fighting in peace, but when position warfare set in in 1915, and still more when horses became scarce in 1917, mounted work fell more and more into the background. The equipment was revolutionized. The soldier was provided with wire cutters, grenades, obstacle material, etc. Already in the spring of 1915 the unserviceable uniforms of peace-time had given way to grey. The useless sabre was replaced by the bayonct. Thus, and in other ways, the arm rapidly adjusted itself to the new conditions. Even in the winter 1914-5 certain formations had $

ARMY

240

created dismounted sections, and these in time became the basis of Schützen divisionen of cavalry, analogous to infantry battalions. In the winter 1917-8 a thorough reorganization was carried out. The regiment which at the outset had comprised 6 squadrons of 150

sabres cach, one pioneer section, and one telegraph patrol, was re-

constituted on the basis of 2 half-regiments each of 4 squadrons dismounted; 2 machine-gun squadrons (8 guns each), 2 hand machine-

gun sections and a technical squadron, besides an infantry gun section comprising 2 trench mortar squads, 2 bombthrower squads, one searchlight squad, and one cavalry telephone squad. The equip-

ment of the individual man was assimilated to that of the infantry

reserve, one Honved reserve heavy field artillery regiments; 28. army, 4 Landwehr, 3 Honved mountain artillery regiments. At this period the introduction of 21-cm. mortars, of 38-and 42em. mortars and of 2q4- and 35-cm. long guns into the armament of the fortress artillery was in progress. These were completely modern guns, were motorized, and ranged to 15 km, in the case of the mortars and to 26~32 km.inthat of the guns.

‘'welve trench mortar battcries,

were also added to the fortress artillery. This organization remained substantially unaltered during 1917, the only noteworthy change being the transformation of the horse artillery already alluded to (summer 1917), the steady augmentation

in the number of fortress batteries and the increased employment of heavy naval guns. In connexion with the reorganization of the infantry divisions at the end of 1917 the artillery was of course recast also. In peace-time ments, I-2 machine-gun detachments, and a horse artillery division (three 4-gun batteries), consisted on the new basis of one (or 2) the artillery regiments, etc., had been so arranged that in each corps area an arlillery brigadier commanded all units of the arm in that brigade headquarters, 4 dismounted regiments, one storm regiment, area, In war each infantry division had originally a brigade of one sapper section, one telegraph company Gf required, one radio company) and one mounted squadron. From the available horse | artillery (one regiment field guns, one division howitzers °). In Feb. 7 1918 the organization took up its final form. The artillery regiments, artillery were formed ‘ mounted field artillery ” regts., each of 2 were uniformly reorganized with gun and howitzer batteries in each; gun, 4 howitzer, and y trench mortar batteries. In 1918 it was and the designation “ Field Artillery" was adopted by all, Each. planned to create brigades of horse artillery for the cavalry divisions, each consisting of one of the horse regts. anda heavy artillery regiment. artillery brigade (one per division, 4.e. 66) kena lorth consisted of 2 _ In March 1918 a r2th (mounted Schiitzen) Div. was created out of field artillery regiments, one heavy ficld artillery regiment and one mountain artillery group. The field regiments‘had 2 gun and 3 4 regiments of that category. i soldier. In each infantry and cavalry division there only remained mounted one squadron of divisional cavalry.

The cav. div., which had originally comprised 2 brigades, 4 regi-

Artillery.—No arm in any army was so completely transformed in

the war as the Austro-Hungarian artillery, Though worthy of its ancient reputation in point of science anc training, it suffered at the outset from inferior material.

Whereas Russia and Serbia taking to

heart the Iessons of Manchuria had modernized their guns, in Austria-Hungary these necessities were burked on political and financial grounds, It is true that the gun introduced in 1905 was a modern Q.F,

equipment, equivalent to Russian and Serbian weapons of the same

class. But the field and heavy howitzers, dating from 1880 and 1899

were, like the mountain guns and howitzers, obsolete and ineffective. Inadequate, too, was the fortress artillery. Apart from some 30-5-cm. mortar batteries, sent at the outbreak of war to the western front,

and some 24-cm., mortar batteries, only quite obsolete guns were

available. In the years preceding the war, indeed, the most urgently necessary steps had been taken towards modernizing of the artillery. In the first place numerical increase was necessary. As against the 72-54

howitzer batteries, and cither a trench

mortar

or an anti-aircraft

battery. The heavy field artillery regiment had 4-5 batteries, one only being armed with 10-4-cm. guns and the others with 15-cm. ile The mountain artillery group had 2 gunand one howitzer attery.

The artile, with cavalry divisions, was similarly reorganized and gradually provided with heavy artillery units. After providing for the above-mentioned mountain groups, there remained 14 independent regiments of that branch. These were constituted as a G.H.Q. reserve, and each consisted of 6 gun and 3 howitzer batteries. ‘At the end of the war the field and mountain artillery of the AustroHungarian army amounted to a total of 864 light, 328 heavy, and 324 mountain batteries, as against 369 light, 28 heavy and 74 mountain at the outset. The fortress artillery was also reorganized, and renamed " heavy

regiments and 7 battalions of fortress artillery, | During the war the development of the artillery was naturally

artillery.” Tlitherto its organization had varied according to its allocation to fortresses, but thenceforward it was formed in 14 regiments each of 4 groups at 4 batteries. On the verge of the Armistice 4 independent groups were created at Trieste, in Dalmatia, and in Montenegro. Technical Troops—In.1893 the previously existing engineer and pioneer corps were reconstituted as a single pioneer corps carrying out all engineer duties; this corps consisted of 15 battalions. In 1912 a new subdivision was Introduced. “‘ Pioncers”' were allocated to water work and ‘“‘ Sappers ” to land and fortress work—as had been the case before 1893. The pioneer corps then consisted of 8 fourcompany battalions and the sapper corps of 14 three-company battalions. At the same time a special bridging battalion (for semi-

ceaseless. -It began with the replacement of old-pattern guns and increases in the available numbers of field guns. At the beginning of

corps did their work well in the war, but they were far too small.

guns per division of other powers Austria-Hungary had only 42. After various augmentations in the jast two years the artillery consisted at the outhreak of war of 42 army, 8 Landwehr and 8 Honved field-gun regiments, each of § batterics (4 in the Landwehr

and Honved

divisions); 28 army and 8 Landwehr

ficld howitzer

divisions (each of 2 batterics); 9 army and one Honved horse artil-

lery divisions (each 3 batteries); 14 heavy artillery divisions (cach

2 batteries); TO mountain artillery regiments (cach of 4 gun and 2 howitzer battcries), and one independent mountain division!; 6

1915 the old field and heavy howitzers were replaced by Q.F. 10cm, and 15-cm. weapons, and a modern 10-4-cm. long gun ranging

to 12 km. was brought out. Further, two completcly modern mountain equipments (7-5-cm. gun and 10-em. howitzer models 1915, ranging to 7 and 8 km.) gradually supplanted the older types. In the course of the war the former ratio of howitzers to guns was greatly moclified, till finally the former preponderated. In succession, batteries were taken from the field-cun regiments and re-formed in new howitzer regiments, The heavy howitzer divisions were augmented and in part armed with the new 15-cm. cquipment, and, further, 11 1o-4-cm. heavy-gun batteries, as well as some heavy howitzer divisions in both Landwehrs, were created. By the end of 1915 the proportion of howitzers had come to be

about 50%, and at the end of the war there were three times as many howitzers as there were guns.

Up to the end of 1915 the mountain artillery had been augmented by 5 regiments, the fortress artillery by one battalion, while the number of 30-5-cm. batteries increased to 20. At that date the formation was in progress of motorized batteries of 15-cm. guns and howitzers (ranging to 18 and 12 km. respectively). At the beginning of 1916 all K.K. and Hungarian Landwehr howitzer divisions were grouped, by fours in the case of the Jight, by threes in that of the heavy, into regiments. At the same time greater attention was paid to the anti-aircraft artillery, which received modern as well as improvised weapons. At the end of 1916 there were: 28 army, 8 Landwehr, 8 Honved, 14 army reserve, 3 Hlonved reserve field-yun regiments, 9 horse artillery divisions; 28 army, 8 Landwehr, 8 Honved, 14 army reserve, 4 Landwehr reserve, 3 Honved reserve ficid howitzer regiments; 45 anti-aircraft batteries; 30 army, 8 Landwehr, 8 Ilonved, 3 army

1 Each of the 10 regiments formed an additional battery of guns

on mobilization.

permanent work) and a river-mining company were created.

Both

At the beginning of the war a oth Pioncer Battahon was in exis-

tence, and the number of companies in cach battalion had risen to 5 in the pioneer, 6 in the sapper battalions. The army was accom. panied in the field by a variety of technical formations such as tool columns and mobile parks, The bridging equipment consisted of 126 units, each capable of 53 miles of bridging. The inadequacy of numbers was made good inimediately after the outbreak of war by creating Landsturm sapper companies and numerous works detachments.

:

In the middle of 1915 a second bridging battalion was raised, and by the end of that year trench mortar, bombthrower and electro-

technical units were in existence,

The pioneer battalions had now

up to stx companigs and the sapper battalions up to ten. In 1917 a special battalion was formed for offensive gas warfare. Other technical branches were created to deal with close-combat means (air-

mining, powder-mining, bombthrower sections, compressed air, oxygen and = air-liqucfying stations); electro-tcechnical matters (searchlights, live-wire obstacles, accumulators, drinking water and pumping machinery, ventilators, boring tools) and other things, and

these were constantly augmented.

The thoroughgoing rcorganization of winter 1917-8 affected also the technical troops, The pioneers were abolished, and all technical services placed in the hands of the sappers, while close-combat means and searchlights were transferred to infantry, cavalry and artillery formations. Thenceforward the sapper corps consisted of 6o threecompany battalions (1 per division and the remainder to corps, etc.), I flamethrower battalion, and numerous bridging tool and other units.

To the sappers now belonged also the well-bormg and the electro 2In the 8 K.K. Landwehr divisions an army fun regiment of 4 batteries, a Landwehr gun division of 2, and a Landwehr howitzer division of 2. In the 8 Honved divisions, 1-2 divisions of an army gun regiment and one Honved gun regiment.

ARMY formations.

Searchlight units now consisted of one company (2

horsed 35-cm., 2 motorized 60-cm., 2 motorized 110-cm. projectors) per division, as well as a number of similar units under

G.H.Q.,

and odd formatione; further, each technical company or squadron of an infantry or dismounted cavalry regiment included a searchhight squad:

a:

Communication Troobs—Till May 1912 only one combined rail-

way and telegraph regiment existed.. This was divided at that date

into two.

The railway regiment consisted of 3 battalions, depot

cadres for personnel, track and for locomotives, and fortress light railway cadres at Przemysl, Cracow and Pola. The companies constituting these battalions were charged in war with the construction, operation and destruction both of standard gauge and of light railways. Consisting at the outset of 30 railway and 4 railway operating companies, this branch had risen at the end of the war to a

strength of 39 railway and 32 field railway companies. In occupied territory under Austro-Hungarian control 4 army railway commands

were set up (Poland, Serbia, Italy, Rumania) which had at their disposal 8 operating battalions and 28 operating companies, For

transport in mountain regions (Alps, Rumama, Albania) there were 4o telpher operating and 9 telpher building companies. The light railway service consisted at the end of the war of 3 locomotive and 21 motor and one horse operating sections, as well as 3 operating sections at Pola. Associated with the railway troops were some bridging detachments provided with iron-bridge equipment, Lastly should be mentioned armoured trains. The first of these, an armoured locomotive, was improvised in 1914 to reconnoitre the enemy during the Galician retreat. Vater five trains were built. The telegraph regiment consisted of4 battalions, one radio detachment, depot cadre and an administrative unit for stores. This regiment was the parent of all telegraph and telephone units which came into the ficld, but as with other arms and branches, expansions had to be regularized in the winter of 1917-8. ‘The reorganization

in that period reconstituted all telegraph

and telephone. units uni-

formly as “ telegraph companies," of which at the close of the war there were 159, as well as 65 line construction companies and 25 radio companics. Corps, army and higher headquarters had in all 72 radio posts, worked as 14 administrative groups, and there were 7 fixed stations for long-distance work. Flying Corps-—Numcrically Austria-Hungary was far behind

other states in the numbers of her flying troops. Till a few years before the war only captive and free balloons were in use, chiefly in fortresses, and modern aeronautics in Austria were practically followed only as a sport. However, a reorganization took place in

1913 which enabled the army to begin the war with one flying company of 6 machines at G.ILQ. and at each army headquarters, one

dirigible balloon company, and depot units. As in other countries,

necessity led to rapid developments from this nucleus. By the end of 1916 there were 37 flying companies allotted to the higher headquarters. In 1917 a specialization of flying units according to their

missions was begun; thenceforward there were divisional companies

for line and artillery work; deep reconnaissance companies, pursuit companies for air fighting, “ big machine’? companies (bombers), protective companies for escort of divisional machines, and photographic companies for map work. In Nov. 1918 the total of units was 82 flying companies, 32 balloon companics, I2 parks, 9 motor repair units, and 2 construction companies. Meteorological Service.—This

was attached to the flying service,

but provided for the requirements of alt others as well, and was represented in all formations from divisions upwards. Motor Transport Troops.—Before the war the use of motor transport for military purposes was limited. Yor liaison dutics between

eadquarters an Automobile Volunteer Corps and a Motorcycle

Volunteer Corps had been formed in Austria and an Automobile Volunteer Corps in Hungary some time before the war. But the first motor troops proper were created in the war itself, when the motorization of the train (ammunition, supplies, medical) and the necessity of regularizing the supply of cars, lorries, parts and fuel

imposed this step.

At the outset only a very small proportion of the train was motorized, the lorries coming from private firms by way of requisition. On formation the “ Auto troops ”’ were classified broadly as field troops and home service troops. The first named included by the end of the war 31 group commands and 238 auto columns, 39 ambulance columns, 10 postal columns. The auto troops at home were responsible for the transport of stores and supplies olall kinds to the army and for the training of reénforcements. drain. —The training of the transport corps (Train) in peace-time

was thorough.

The vehicles designed for mountain and normal

ground proved, however, too heavy for the-soft morasses of Galicta and Poland, and for the more forward echelons of transport local

vehicles had to be requisitioned.

On the other hand the special

241

The expansion of the army naturally entailed corresponding developments in the Train Corps, which underwent ‘a considerable reorganization in the winter of 1916-7. Simplification of supply

procedure and the replacement of heavy military wagons by light

vehicles of local types were the main features of this reorganization, Mountain Warfare Organization.—In Austria-Hungary the ors ganization of mountain troops had been carried further than any other state. At the outbreak of war there existed, as has been men-

tioned earlier, five mountain regiments of Austrian Landwehr (16

battalions) which were intended as a frontier guard in face of the

Italian Alpini. But in 1914 they were used against Russia, Serbia and Montenegro like any other regiment without regard to their special character, and although they in due course returned to the Italian theatre, they were not, as a special arm, augmented during

the war, though reénforced by a number of locally raised units.4 In fact, the generally mountainous nature of the frontiers and war

theatres of Austria-Hungary required rather that all troops, and not merely a specialized fraction, should be adaptable to hill warfare, Thus the troops normally quartered in Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, though not essentially mountain units, possessed a special organization in peace-time. The operations unit was the

“ mountain brigade ’’ which consisted of battalions detached from their regiments, of Bosno-Herzegovinian units, and of mountain

artillery. ‘There were 14 such brigades on the south-eastern front at the opening of hostilities, constituting the four divisions of the XV, and XVI. Army Corps. The brigade consisted of 4-6 battalions, sometimes one fronticr company, a troop of cavalry and 1-2 bat-

teries, and its engineer and administration services were organized for mountain work. The division had 2 additional mountain bat-

terics, and its headquarter services were partly on the mountain and partly on the normal basis.

As, however, all but one of the theatres of war in which the army

was called on to operate were mountainous, this organization was evidently insufficient. Even as early as the winter of 1914-5 there were many improvizations~-for example in the Carpathians battle, in which both Austrian and German divisions sent to reénforce von Pflanzer-Baltin had to be reconstituted with mountain transport— and towards the end of the war practically three-quarters of the whole army stood in hill country. Naturally, therefore, a procedure was arrived at whereby any formation on going to a mountainous theatre automatically took on the required form. In the reorganization of 1917-8, indeed, the mountain brigades proper, which meantime had increased in number to 33, became normal infantry brigacles, there being no longer any nced for them to retain

their special character, Totals of Units in rora and ror8.—A general comparison of the organization by units at the beginning of the end of the war summarizes clearly the changes which had taken place. In Aug. 1914 the front line’ strength of the army in units was about 1,000 bat. talions, 400 squadrons, and 2,800 mobile guns, In the summer of 1918 the detail is as follows: 262 infantry regiments, also 241 Ersatz battalions, and 170 battalions and 80 companies of volunteers, coast

defence troops, etc.; 12 mounted and 48 dismounted cavalry regiments; 132 field artillery regiments, 12 horse artillery regiments, 14 mountain artillery regiments, 66 mountain artillery groups, 14 mortar regiments, I gas projector unit, etc.; 60 sapper, river-mining and bridging battahons, etc.; 140 bridging trains; 112 boring sections; 82 flying companies, 32 balloon companies, 4 electro battalions, 240 telegraph companies, 8 battalions and 800 companics of railway troops, 10 searchlight companies and 400 searchlight squads, etc. The sum, as regards front-line strength, totals 1,200 battalions (including adapted cavalry), 72 squadrons, 7,000 mobile guns. Higher Formations: —At the beginning of the war there were 16 corps headquarters, and 32 divisions of the Common Army, 8

of the K.K. Landwehr and 8 of the Honved, with 9 army and 2 Honved cavalry divisions. On mobilization, 14 “march ” brigades, 2 Austrian Landsturm divisions, 10 Austrian and 8 Hungarian Landsturm brigades, 17 Austrian Landsturm territorial brigades, 9 Hungarian Landsturm L, of C. brigades and 5 Austrian Landsturm

march brigades, were formed in addition.

During the strategie con-

centration a XVII. Corps was formed, and in Dec. t914 an XVIIL

In Jan. 1915 the combined Corps Krauss in the Balkan theatre (formed Sept. 1914) became the X1X., and for the spring offensive of

1916 against Italy the XX. and XXIL were formed. Later in the same year the XXII. and XXII. cameinto being, and in 1917 the

Szurmay, Hofmann and Hadfy groups became the XXIV., XXV., XXVI. Corps, These 26 corps remained as such to the end of the

war.

All other temporary groupings, such as cavalry corps, were

dissolved when this special reason for their existence ceased.

The

custom of temporary grouping followed by dissolution prevailed also at the next lower echelon. Many temporary divisions existed especially in the earlier part of the war. But the order of battle was

equipment provided for mountain warfare was excellent.

regularized in the winter of 1917-8, in connexion with the internal reconstitution of the division, and finally there were 44 army, 10 Schützen (ex K.K. Landwehr), 12 Honved divisions, and g army

and for the transport of bridging, postal, medical and other forma-

these,

After the abolition of the regimental organization in 1910 the train consisted of 16 train divs. (one per corps), which in peace carried out all transport duties within the corps and its area, and on mobilization had to provide horses and drivers for all transport formations

tions.

The “division ’’ itself remained at home as a draft and

remount producing centre.

1 Of these the best known were the village riflemen of the Alps: known

as Standesschiiizen, formed the South Yirolese, Tiro-

lese, Carinthian,

Salzburg and Vorarlberg battalions.

Volunteer

rifle units were raised also in other parts of the Dual Monarchy.

ARMY

242

cavalry, 1 Schützen cavalry (Landwehr), and 2 Honved cavalry ivisions. The subdivision of infantry divisions into brigades of two regie ments remained unaltered; the cavalry divisions, however, after the reconstitution retained as a rule only one brigade staff. There

were

thus finally 8&8 army, 20 Schützen, 22 Honved,

10 Austrian

Landsturm, 1 Hungarian Landsturm brigades, and 11 army cavalry, 1 Schtitzen cavalry and 1 Honved cavalry brigades. The number of field artillery brigades had grown to 66. The

brigade organization of fortress (heavy) artillery had practically

disappeared. Armies.—The foreseen organization of the forces was in six armies, for which six general officers were designated in peace and functioned as inspectors. In Oct. 1914 the Pflanzer-Baltin group was formed in the E. Carpathians; this became the VIE, Army later. In Dee, 1914 the V: and VIE. Armies in the Balkan theatre were dis-

soived and reformed as a “ Balkan Force.” In were fence S.W.

May 1915, when Italy came into the war, three new armies createdl—a new V., the army group Rohr, and the Tirol DeForce—under the general command of a commander-in-chief front. About the same time the III. Army on the Russian

front was dissolved, but a new II]. Army was formed in the autumn

for the operations under Mackensen in Serbia. This I. Army shortly moved to Tirol where, with a new XI. Army and the Tirol Defence Force it constituted a group of armies for the Asiago offen-

sive, Shortly after that the [I], Army moved again, this time to the Russian front to aid in meeting Brussilov’s offensive; here, with a

new XII. Army, it constituted the Archduke Karl's group of armies. ‘On the entry of Rumania into the war a new I. Army was created. The former I. Army on the Russian front had been dissolved in

July 1916.

F

Ön the Italian front the Rohr group had meantime become the X. Army, and the Tirol Defence Force was dissolved. In the winter of 1917, after the Caporetto offensive, a new VI. Army was created to replace the departing German XIV. Army. The V. Army had already become, in the summer of 1917, the Army

of the Isonzo; for a time this army was subdivided into the I. and I{. Isonzo Armies, forming the Boroevic group of armies, while the X. and XI. Armies constituted the Conrad group of armies. In the FE. nearly all armies were dissolved during 1918, first the I. then the IIL, IV., VLI. The higher command on this side was then shared between the L, IV. and VH. “ General Kommandos." The Il. Army in Ukraine, however, retained its identity to the Armistice, under the name of K.u.K. Eastern Army. In Albania, meantime, the Austro-Hungarian forces had been

constituted as the Kövess army group. On the breakup of the Bulgarian front in the autumn of i918 all available forces were constituted as one group of armies under the same gencral. The End.—in Nov. 1918 the old Habsburg Empire dissolved in ruin, and with it the famous old army which had maintained its integrity through four years of trial. Its remnants formed nuclei for the national armies of Lhe successor states. Its record was closed,

and it passed into the eternity of history. X.—Tur

(A-K; E. J).

elements (Alaili) or from the more up-to-date products of the military schools (Mektebli); but even these latter, mostly scions

of better-class families, had hitle sense of accuracy and punctuality in the performance of their duty. There were even general staff officers who could neither read nor write. The Young Turkish movement had the effect of placing more energetic men at the head of the troops, but had also increased military amateurishness to such an extent as to become a positive danger to the army, and to make promotion henceforward dependent, not on efficiency and professional skill, but on political intrigue. The redeeming feature of the army was the quality of the private soldier, and particularly of the Anatolian peasant, No troops in stcadfast, self-sufficient and patient.

that out of a total pop. of 24,000,000

officers and 280,000 men.

The total war strength of Turkey was

reckoned on paper to amount to 24,000 officers, 1,300 officials, and 610,000 men. The forces actually raised in the Balkan War, however, fell far below these figures. An estimate of 450,000 men for the war army would be excessive.’ l The term of service was made up as follows: three years with the colours (Nizam), up to 29 years of age with the reserve (Ikhtiat), thence up to 38 years of age with the Landwehr (Redif), 39th and 40th years of age with the Landsturm (Mustafiz). In war all classes, ‘including the Mustafiz, were called up. The Ikhtiat brought up the ranks of the Nizam units to war strength; this process usually absorbed them all, as the peace strength of the battalions was-onl some 200 to 250 men, and their arms im proportion. The Redifs formed separate and complete divisions, organized in their local recruiting arcas. Any man liable to service could be released after three months on payment of {50 purchasing-out fine, and was thereafter liable only to service jn the older Redif classes. Thus it came about that only the poorer classes of the natioa actually served in the army. There was no organization of the officers, N.C.O.'s and mili-« tary officials not actually with the troops; so that in case of war the only reserve available consisted of the retired officers, of whom, however, as the pension was so small, very few were fit for service. The training of the men was very bad. The model units with their foreign instructors had in the short period of their existence been. made to leaven the mass of the army. Constant internal unrest allowed of no continued instruction. The periods of reserve training laid down by law were one month for the Ikhtiat, and one month every two years for the Redif; but the absence of reserve organiza. tion and shortage of money prevented these provisions being car-

ried out. The weakest parts of the Turkish army were the administratton and the supply and transport services (provisions, clothing, material and munitions). Peculation was wide-spread, and practically all the administrative personnel were hopelessly idle. The Young Turkish régime brought noimprovement. The work of the few German reformers, who under ‘Abdul Hamid were never, or practically never, allowed a free hand, proved entirely useless; moreover they were not always very suited to their task, which needed

considerable tact if it were to be successfully accomplished. When the Balkan War broke out Turkey was in the midst of her military reorganization. The greater part of the mass, who had been

far too long with the colours, were being sent home; a number of

Alaih, who so far had only been mechanically instructed in the rudiments of their duties, had replaced them, so that the whole army organization down to battalions and Redif depots had been suddenly changed. The greatest confusion naturally resulted,

In place of the 7 armies hitherto existing there were formed 14

corps and 5 independent divisions (in Kozani, Yannina [Janina], Scutari, Hejaz and Tripoli). The infantry brigades were done away with, and four divisions were formed, consisting of three infantry regi‘ments, cach of three battalions, and a field artillery regiment of two

TURKISH ÅRMY.

At the time of the Balkan War mobilization in 1912, Turkey possessed an army in which the officer corps represented the traditions of the Sultan ‘Abdul Hamid. Everything that might make for modern efficiency in war had for 30 years been excluded from the Turkish military curriculum. Ninety-five per cent, of the rank and file were illiterate; their main virtues were willingness and endurance. The officers also were in the main untrained; they were drawn either from the stupid and hidebound ranker

Europe were more

Official returns. showed

(of whom at most 15,000,000 were liable for service) men from 20 to 25 years of age numbered 1,080,000, and from 20 to 40 years of age 4,000,000. The paper strength of this peace army showed 20,000

The

Arabian soldiers were bad, the Kurds uscless in face of the enemy

and as helpless as children, the Christian and Jewish subjects of Turkey of no military value. The term of service in Turkey was three years for all arms. Mahmud Shevket Pasha has stated that 240,000 men per year became liable for service; of these some 110,000 to 120,000 were exempted, and of the rest only about 70,000 were actually enrolled.

or three detachments. Yo cach corps was allotied a rifle regiment, a cavalry brigade of Io to 15 squadrons, 6 to 9 heavy batteries,a pioneer battalion, a telegraph company, and a train battalion. Only a few corps, however, actually possessed all these units, ‘The distribution of the Turkish army in the various theatres of operations in the Balkan War was as follows: Commander-in-chief, Nazim Pasha; Eastern Army {around and east of Adrianople), ‘Abdalla Pasha, I., II., HE, and IV. Corps and.some Redif divs.; Western Army (Kumanovo area), Mahmud Shevket Pasha, V.,

VI. and VII. Corps and some Redif divs.; Southern Army (Yannina area), ‘Ali Riza Pasha, 22nd and 23rd Divs.; against Montenegro (Scutari area), Hasan Riza, later Essad Pasha, 24th Div. and Elba-

san Redif Division. The total strength of these forces came to barely 250,000 men, The Anatolian corps and Redif divisions only came into action in Europe after the defeat of the main armics by Bulgaria and Serbia. Soon after their arrival cholera broke out. Though it was

known that the VIL. Corps was infected with this disease, none the less it was dispatched to Europe, and the authorities, in order to set

public opinion at rest, stated that the epidemic was well in hand. The Eastern Army during its occupation of the Chatalja.lines lost in Nov. and Dec. more than 15,000 men, who fell victims to the

plague.

It may be estimated that of the 400,000 men mobilized by

Turkey at least 100,000 were killed, died or were severely wounded (most of these last named may be counted as dead), z.¢. 25% of the total strength. The complete military breakdown in the Balkan War forced even the Turks to the conclusion that the time. for undertaking

scrious reforms had come. For this purpose Turkey agrecd with Germany that the latter should send her a large military mission

under Gen. Liman von Sanders, which arrived in Constantinople in Dec. 1913. Great difficulties were met with in the task of remedying the existing defects in the Turkish military organization an training. ‘he military mission succeeded in effecting certain changes in the organization of the army, and in breathing into it a refreshin and living spirit; but the time which elapsed between its arrival an the outbreak of the World War was too short to carry out the

ARMY MEDICAL necessary radical alterations in their entirety. In view of the loss of territory consequent on the Balkan War, it was necessary to remodel the whole peace organization of the army, and distribute it

over the diminished arca of the empire,

- The total peace strength was now on paper 17,000 officers and 250,000 men, with 15,000 guns and 430 machine-guns; actually these numbers were never even approached. To each division was allotted a definite recruiting area, Area commanders were established after the German model, but did not effectively get to work prior to the World War. The organization of Redif divisions was also taken in hand; the personnel not actually called up for peace service were to form these units, which were to be utilized in time of

war to complete the first line units to full strength.

Great impor-

tance was rightly attached to the institution of new military schools, the inspection of which was undertaken by Liman von Sanders after he had handed over command of the I. Corps. A new Army Act

became law on May 12 1914, but its provisions were never strictly enforced. Its principal clauses were: Every Turk, except for the suite of the Sultan’s family, was liable to service from the age of 18.

The period of service commenced on the March 1 next following the

attainment of the age of 20, and extended over 25 years for infantry and train, for the other arms 20 years, and for the navy 17 years. The period of active service was in each of the above cases two, three

and five years; students were allowed an abridged term; physically unfit men were Hable to a special tax in lieu of service. Purchasing out was allowed after five months’ service at the rate of {50 Turkish; men thus liberated were transferred to the reserve and escaped all further Hability for military duty in peace-time. Christian subjects of the empire were excluded from the ranks of the

243

SERVICE

mations and organizations were in being: 4 army inspections, 13 general commands, 38 divisional staffs, 305 battalions infantry, 64

machine-gun companies,

115 squadrons, 211 ficld batteries,

124

heavy and fortress batterics, 47 pionecr companies, 4 fortress pioneer companies, 36 fortress construction companies, 42 searchlight

troops (equipped with one searchlight each), 21 telegraph companies, I wireless telegraph company, ro railway companies, 135 reserve squadrons, 17 service companies, 17 works troops and 51 train companies. The reserve squadrons were formed from the socalled Kurdish or Hamidie cavalry, and comprised 4 reserve cavalry divisions. ‘They were quite untrained and of no military value. They had all the characteristics of independent nomads, and were imbued with the bitterest ill-feeling against the Armenians.

The war organization provided at first for three and in Sept. rgr4

for four armics.

The original armies were

I. Army, Gen. Liman

von Sanders, I., IL, HI., IV and VI. Corps, one cavalry brigade and

one battery heavy howitzers; II Army, Jemal Pasha, V Corps and

(from Sept. 6 1914) VI. Corps, cavalry as for the other armies, and

all available heavy artillery; III. Army, Hasan ‘Izzet Pasha, X, and XI, Corps; IV Army, Zeki Pasha (later Jemal), VIII. and XII. Corps. The other troops of the peace army remained. for the time being unorganized in armies. But even with these few armics it was not possible to bring the troops up to full war strength with the reserves available; some companies were barely 100 strong even in

fighting troops. The War Office was reorganized from top to bot-

Jan. 1915. During the later stages of the war Enver’s policy of limiting the formations to a few well-organized corps and armies was given up; new formations were constantly being ordered, and old ones broken up or remodelled. For these the available man-power, armament and equipment were insufficient, so that the whole army became completely disorganized.

branches,

The army leaders were continually heing given other troops, and having to give up divisions and corps, so that their armies were

tom. man

The great general staff was also entirely remodelled, Gerofficers being placed at’ the head of the more important such as

and intelligence.

those

concerned

with

training,

mobilization

. Little or nothing could be done in the short space of time between

the Balkan and European wars in the direction of rearming the army,

so that the armament in the World War remained much as in the Balkan War. The infantry weapon was the 7-65-mm. Mauser repeating rifle, but older models were still partly in use. The field artillery had the 7-5-cm. Krupp field gun with recoil buffer and shield, 1904, 1909 and 1911 models; in addition there were a few old 8-7-cm. German held guns. The mountain gunsin use were the 7-5-cm. Krupp 1905 model; the Schneider 7-5-cm., which was somewhat more modern, was also in use. The heavy artillery had a number of guns of various patterns, many of which were fairly antiquated, only a few modern 15-cm. Krupp howitzers and Schneider-Creusot how-

itzers were available for use. using smooth-bore guns, which The fortress consisting as it did mainly of lack of money prevented any fortresses up to date. their short range.

Several howitzer batteries were still were as good as useless on account of artillery was completely out of date,

During the war the number of the armics was increased to nine.

constantly growing smaller. Thus the I. Army, which in 1914 was over 200,000 strong, had sunk by 1917 to about 3,000 men, and the Il, Army by 1978 to 5,000 men, and in 1918 there were in Palestine

three Turkish armies, none of which were stronger than an English

infantry division. All the armies, corps and divisions, however, still kept up their enormous staffs, The number of officers in'the German military mission increased in I916 to 200, in 1917 to 800; a large number of other ranks, mostly of the technical services, must be added. Of complete German units the personnel of a few batteries at the Dardanelles and the crews

of the ‘‘ Gocben " and “ Breslau’ fought with the Turkish army, Enver shrank from employing larger units, and in principle stood out against it. Only the so-called “ Yildekim ” (known to the Germans

as ‘‘ F '") Group consisted entirely of German troops.

(F C. E.)

ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE (Umitro Kincpom),—The British Army Medical Service never had such a task imposed on it

guns of 1880 and 1890. Morcover, steps being taken to bring the land

as during the World War, from which it emerged with its or-

The Turkish forces were mobilized in the first days of Aug. 1914, but there was only a month of armed neutrality in which to prepare

ganization tested by fire. Its dutics cover the care of the sick and wounded of the military forces, the preservation of their

for war. This respite was used by Germany to equip Turkey with practically evarything necessary for carrying on hostilities. Despite this German assistance the mobilization met with great difficulties.

A Turkish War Office return in the summer of 1917 (which must

however be accepted with caution) gave 1,478,176 as the number of recruits called up from Aug. 1914 to March 1915, 1,014,824 from March 1915 to March 1916, and 332,000 from March 1916 to March 1917. Figures as to enrolments from this latter date onwards are completely valueless. The grand total of all who served in the Turkish army from 1914 to 1918 amounted on this showing to 3,000,000 men. If we take into consideration the facts that many of these were counted twice or three times over it may be regarded as approximating to accuracy to reduce this total to 2,000,000, of whom some 750,-

ooo deserted and 500,000 were killed or invalided out of the service in the course of the war It is of interest to note that the officials in

Turkey who were not affected by the military law, always reckoned all men called up—that is, rounded up by the police—as being of military age whether they were really so or not. Thus it happened that many young men were exempted as not coming within the age limit of 48, while unfortunates of 50 and boys of 15 were given as being 20 or 30-years old, and therefore of military age.

The establishment of officers in the Turkish army reached its

maximum of 30,429 in the spring of 1917; the army, however, was at its greatest strength of 1,295,621 in the previous spring. Despite great efforts and reckless use of all possible man-power resources, this total could not be maintained in 1917; in the spring of that year only 1,200,344 men were present, and from that date on the total rapidly declined. l

The organization of the supreme army command was also the work of the German military mission, This wasin the hands of headquarters in Constantinople. The Sultan of course held the titular

post of commander-in-chief.

Enver Pasha being vice-commander-

in-chief. As the latter gradually assumed the political dictatorship of Turkey, divergence of views between the civil and military authoritics ceased to exist. In the first days of mobilization in Aug. 1914 the following for-

health, the supply of medical and surgical material, the main-

tenance and administration of military hospitals and the command of paticnts in them, the medical examination of recruits and invaliding of men unfit for further service, the education and training of itsown personnel, and the stratcgical and tactical

employment of a variety of medical units concerned with the collection, evacuation and distribution of casualties in war. Until 1873 the functions of an Army Medical Service had been carried out by a regimental system under which medical officers belonged to and wore the uniform of the regiments to which they were gazetted, and under which many of the sick and wounded were cared for in regimental hospitals. Soldiers enlisted in the combatant ranks were trained in hospital duties and formed a Medical Staff Corps, but they were not under the command of

the medical officers, In 1861 ““ Medical Staff Corps” was changed to “ Army men were chief, and when the

Hospital Corps,” but the pay and discipline of the directly under the department of the purveyor-inmedical officers had no military position until 1869, director-general for the first time was attached to the

military department of the War Office on the recommendation of a committee presided over by Lord Northbrook. In 1878 the personnel of the Army Hospital Corps was recruited by direct enlistment. In 1883 a committee under Lord Morley, after the Egyptian War, recommended that the Army Hospital Corps and the officers of the Army Medical Department should be merged into a “ Royal Medical Corps,” but this recommendation was not adopted at the time.

A compromise was made by

forming the officers into a. body called the “ Medical Staff ” and the menintoa corps called the “ Medical Staff Corps,” their

244

ARMY MEDICAL

original name. At the same time the officers of the Medical Staff took complete command over the personnel of the Medical Staff Corps, and their uniform was assimilated to that of the latter. Eventually, after considerable agitation on the part of the medical profession, Lord Lansdowne, then Secretary of State for War, announced, at a banquet given by the Lord Mayor of London

on May 4 1898 to the medical profession, that the Medical Staff and the Medical Staff Corps in future would be consolidated into

one corps, namely the Royal Army Medical Corps (R.A.M.C.), with military ranks and titles from private to colonel similar to those of other branches of the army. The ranks above colonel, however, retained the title of surgeon-general until 1918, when this title was abolished and replaced by that of major-gencral or lieulenant-general. PEACE ORGANIZATION

Administration.—The director-general of the Army Medical

Service is the administrative head. He has the rank of licutenant-general, His office is a branch of the adjutant-gencral’s department at the War Office. He is not, however, a member of the Army Council, but may be required to attend council meetings when his advice is desired on any special subject. His staff consists of a deputy director-general, who is a majorgeneral, eight officers of the rank of colonel, lieutenant-colonel or major (some of whom hold temporary appointments only con-

sequent on the World War) as assistant and deputy assistant directors-general, and colonels-on-the-staff or major-gencrals as directors of hygiene and pathology, The directors of hygiene and pathology have deputy directors, assistant directors and deputy-assistant directors of hygiene and pathology as assistants in their directorates. The administration of the Queen Alexandra’s Imperial Military Nursing Service (Q.A.I.M.N.S.) also forms a branch of the director-general’s office under the matron-in-chief assisted by two principal matrons and a nursing sister. In 1921 an inspector of dental services was added to the director-gencral’s staff on the formation of an Army Dental Corps, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. The director-general’s administration is assisted by an inspector of medical services, who is either a colonel or majorgeneral of the Army Medical Service. He visits all stations at home and overseas with a view to maintaining a uniform standard of training and efficiency. Ile reports to the adjutant-general. In all commands at home and overseas the director-general is represented by deputy-directors and assistant-directors of medical services. In some of the smaller garrisons the senior executive medical officer acts in an administrative capacity without being graded as a deputy or assistant director. The staff of these administrative offices varies according to the size and importance of the command or the conditions under which troops are serving. Thus in the small garrisons in the tropics where medical research is of importance there is a deputy assistant director of hygicne and pathology, although the administra-

tion may be in the hands of a senior medical officer only. In India there is a special administration for the Army Medical and Indian Medical Service. Officers of the latter, when employed on military duties, are under the administration of a director of

SERVICE

of the Royal Army Service Corps (R.A.S.C.), and military and

civil sanitary experts,

An Army Pathology Advisory Committee

under the director of pathology is similarly composed

of military

and civil pathologists of eminence who deal with technical questions

connected with rescarch into the causes of discase. Queen Alexandra's Army Nursing Board, of which Queen Alexandra is president

and the director-general chairman, is composed of the matrons-in-

chief of Q.A.I.M.N.S. and Territorial Force Nursing Service, of

matrons of some of the large civil hospitals and of ladies nominated by the president. There is also a Technical Advisory Committee on Voluntary Aid under the director-general, It is composed of representatives of the War Office, British Red Cross Society, Scottish

Branch of the Red Cross Society, the council of County Territorial Force Associations, and the St. John and St. Andrew’s Ambulance Associations. ‘These boards and committees meet at the War Office. Personnel.—The personnel of the Army Medical Service consists of officers, warrant officers, non-commissioned officers and men of the R.A.M.C. regular, special reserve, and territorial force, and of the

Army Dental Corps, together with the affiliated nursing services of

the regular army and territorial force, and the voluntary organizations recognized by the British Government under Article ro of the Geneva Convention of 1906. ‘The ranks of officers and men are the same as for other branches of the service. Officers and other ranks of the regular R.A.M.C. are under an obligation to serve in all parts of the world in peace or war; but only the officers serve in

India, where the duties of subordinate ranks are carried out by a

special Indian establishment consisting of an Indian Subordinate Medical Service, an Army Hospital Corps and an Army Bearer

Corps. The members of the last two are natives of India. The members of the Indian Subordinate Medical Service are Indian. born British or natives of India educated in Indian medical schools. The higher grades rank as commissioned officers and the lower as warrant officers. The special reserve is organized on a militia basis and serves on embodiment under the same conditions as the regular Royal Army Medical Corps. The Territorial Force R.A.M.C. is organized for war purposes only. It has a general list of officers for service

with

regimental

and

medical

units, a special list for

territorial force general hospitals; and another for sanitary services. The rank and file of the regular R.A.M.C. are formed into companies, of which in 1921 there were 35, in addition to four depot companies, Eleven of the companies had their headquarters in overseas garrisons. Both at home and overseas the headquarters of R.A.M.C. companies are at one or other of the larger military hospitals. They provide detachments for smaller hospitals and general duty. The number in each company varies in accordance with local requirements. The normal peace establishment of the regular R.A.M.C.

on the active list is approximately

1,100 officers

and 3,800 other ranks, but this is greatly expanded in time of war by calling up reserves of every description. During the World War it had expanded to some 15,000 officers and 120,000 other ranks, in the case of officers chiefly by granting temporary commissions to members of the civil profession. Training.—The. depot for training the regular R.A.M.C. is at Aldershot. Territorial Force R.A.M.C. are trained in a school of instruction in each of 12 territorial divisions by officers of the regular R.A.M.C., who act as adjutants of the nr There is a R.A.M, College mm London, where officers of the regular R.A.M.C., both on joining and before promotion to major, undergo a course of instruction in military hygiene, tropical diseases and other professional subjects. Training in field duties is carried out in the form of staff tours, camps of instruction and medical manœuvres. Training in sanitation is carried out in an army school of hygiene at Aldershot and in schools of hygiene established in commands. Military Hospitals —Military hospitals are established in all commands at home and abroad. They vary in size from large general hospitals, such as the Royal Victoria hospital at Netley with

tor of medical services in the headquarters of each army, a

over 1,000 beds, to small depot hospitals and detention wards in outlying posts. The number of beds normally maintained in peacetime in the United Kingdom is approximately seven thousand. In the World War this number expanded to more than 364,000; or, including beds in all theatres of war, to over 640,000. Medical Stores-—An Army Medical Store is maintained at Woolwich for the supply of medical and surgical material and equipment to all garrisons at home and overseas, with the exception of India, which has its own stores. Supplies are obtained by contract from manufacturing firms. They are distributed through the central

deputy director with each corps and an assistant director with each division. On their staffs are representatives of the directors of hygiene and pathology and other assistants.

The organization of the Army Medical Service for war does

medical services, who is a major-gencral or lieutenant-general

of the Army Medical Service, but the administrative appointments of the subordinate military commands in India may be held either by Army Medical or Indian Medical deputy directors and assistant directors. In war establishments there is a direc-

Advisory Boards.—Connected with Army Medical administration there are several advisory boards or committees composed of military and civil members. An Army Medical Advisory Board advises on gencral professional questions. It is presided ‘over by the director-general and its members are two consulting physicians, two consulting surgeons, the medical officer of the India Office and an officer of the Royal Army Medical Corps. An Army Hygiene Advisory Committee is presided over by the director of hygiene.

Its members include an officer of the Royal Engineers (R.E.) and

stores at Woolwich,

War ORGANIZATION

not come into existence until mobilization is ordered. Medical units, the equipment for which is maintained in mobilization stores, are then brought into being by the assembly of personnel, material and transport at places of mobilization assigned to each unit. Three zones of medical work are recognized: The collecting zone, the evacuating zone, and the distributing zone. In these zones there are medical services for the collection, transport

and treatment of sick and wounded, for the supply of medical

ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE and surgical stores, and for sanitary duties. Sick and wounded are collected in the first Instance by a regimental medical service and passed from it to the field ambulances of the divisions. They are cleared from the divisions by motor ambulance convoys, which convey them to casualty clearing stations, whence they are passcd down the lines of communication by rail, canal or road to the permanent hospital bases, and from there by sea-

going hospital ships to the hospitals in the United Kingdom,

‘The collecting zone may be regarded, therefore, as the area of work back to the casualty clearing stations; the evacuating zone as the lines of communication down to the sea bases or to the

United Kingdom, and the distributing zone as the area of the hospital bases and the home territory, The Regimental

Medical

Service-~Each

regiment

of cavalry,

battalion of infantry, brigade of artillery, ammunition column, squadron or bridging train of engineers and certain supply trains has an officer of the R.A.M.C. attached to it, together with a small detachment of R.A.M.C. other ranks for technical charge of water _ carts and water supplies, Sixteen men of the regiment are placed under

him

during

battle

as

stretcher-bearers;

and

a non-com-

missioned officer and eight men, trained in sanitary duties, also work under him.

Wounded are collected to a regimental aid post, which

is established by the medical officer in a shelter or protected spot

distance back by the remainder of the ficld ambulance or by other field ambulances where there is less exposure to enemy fire than at the advanced dressing station. Formerly both classes of ambulance had each To horse-drawn ambulance wagons, six of which in cavalry

field ambulances were light wagons, the remaining four being heavy - wagons of the same type as the 10 wagons of the field ambulance. Motor ambulance cars replaced a proportion of the horse-drawn wagons after-the British Expeditionary Force moved from the Aisne

he ambulance transport of the

cavalry ficld ambulance now consists of four motor ambulance cars and six light horse-drawn ambulance wagons; that of the field ambulance is seven motor ambulance cars and two heavy horse-

drawn ambulance wagons.

wounded to hospitals at the base.

Casually Clearing Stations ~—These are medical units which form

the link between the collecting and evacuating zones, or between the

divisions of the field army and lines of communication. Their function is to receive the sick and wounded from the divisional field ambulances. Sick and wounded likely to be fit for duty after a short period of treatment are retained, as are also those too seriously ill for further transport. The remaining sick and wounded, after receiving temporary medical and surgical treatment, are evacuated

as rapidly as circumstances and railway transport permit to the hospitals at the base. Casualty clearing stations are consequently organized with a convalescent or lightly wounded section, a hospital section, and an evacuating section. The number of casualty clearing stations allotted to an army is in the proportion of one for each division, but they are essentially strategical units and are army troops, the director of medical services being responsible for placing them where they may best receive and evacuate the number of

wounded anticipated in battle. They are mobilized’ with personnel and equipment for the care of 200 casualties at a time, but are capa-

ble of expansion to any extent in the field from local resources or by

bringing up additional equipment and stores from the base, whenever the nature of the operations admits of this being done. The organization of casualty clearing stations, therefore, depends very much

on the nature of the military operations.

The general principle upon which it is based is the mobilization of a light mobile unit in the first instance capable of following up an advancing army with

sufficient equipment and shelter for surgical work at an advanced

near regimental. headquarters.

Field Ambulances.—There are two forms of ambulances, the cavalry field ambulance for cavalry divisions and the field ambulance for divisions, They differed considerably in organization and transport before the World War, but since then the chief_difference is in their transport, A cavalry division has a cavalry fickl ambulance for each brigade of which tt is composed. Thus a cavalry division of four cavalry brigades would have four cavalry field ambulances. Divisions have three field ambulances each. Toth a cavalry field ambulance and a field ambulance are composed of a bearer division and a tent division, and are organized in two sections, each section being formed of half the bearer and half the tent division. In the bearer division there are 18 stretcher detachments. They bring wounded back from the regimental aid posts to an advanced dressing station formed by one of the tent sub-divisions at a point to which wheeled transport can come up. Wounded are conveyed from the advanced dressing station to a main dressing station formed some

to the Flanders front in i914.

245

motor ambulance convoys may be employed for conveying sick and

They are employed in battle in carrying

wounded from the advanced to the main dressing station, but may go forward in advance of the former where it is possible to do so. Their carrying capacity is two lying or eight sitting in the light wagon or light ambulance car, and four lying or 12 sitting in the heavy wagon or motor ambulance car. Field ambulances are divisional troops and come under the command of the assistant director of medical services of the division,

Motor Ambulance Convoys.—The first motor ambulance convoy

used by the British in war was organized at the end of Sept. 1914 during the battle of the Aisne. It was formed of ambulance cars sent to France by the War Office early in Sept. and was rapidly followed by similar convoys, some of which were provided by voluntary organiza-

tions, Previously the system by which sick and wounded were brought from the field ambulances to railhead was to load them in the lorries of the supply columns returning empty to refill. But the system broke down early in the World War partly because this form of transport subjected the wounded to serious discomfort and jolting, and partly because the requirements of supply services and medical services were in conflict with one another. A motor ambulance con-

voy consists of 50 motor ambulance cars; it is under the command of an officer R.A.M.C. with R.A.M.C. personnel for medical duties, and a RASC. personnel, under an officer R.A.S.C.,as drivers and mechanics. The number of these convoys allotted to an army-is usually in the proportion of one for cach army corps of which the army is composed, and one as an army reserve. They are normally army troops under the control of the director of medical services, who may, however, place them at the disposal of deputy-directors

of army corps. Their function is to clear the ficld ambulance main dressing station of sick and wounded to casualty, clearing stations at or near raitheads, and to perform all other ambulance transport

duties by road not carried out by the transport of field ambulances.

In the event of railway transport breaking down or proving insufficient to relieve congestion of sick and wounded in the front areas,

operating centre, and adding to it more extensive accommodation and equipment whenever circumstances permit. In its original composition a casualty clearing station had no transport of its own. During the World War three 3-ton lorries, were allotted to it. It was customary to group them in twos or threcs in the same locality.

The lorries of a group of three casualty clearing stations would thus be sufficient to carry forward the advanced operating section of one of the three, and then return for the others. original equipment,

including marquees

The weight of the

for 200 patients, was

21

tons, so that the nine lorries were capable of carrying this load. The heavier equipment and more extensive accommodation added during stationary warfare required 50 to 60 lorries for moving a casualty

clearing station by road, or a complete

train by

rail.

Casualty clearing stations are allotted two 3-ton motor lorries cach. Ambulance Trains —The evacuation of wounded by railway :s effected by specially constructed or by improvised ambulance trains. The former are composed of ambulance coaches with through communication and accommodation varying from 300 lying’ down to 600 sitting up. They are commanded by an officer of the R.A.M.C. and are administered by the director of medical services on the lines of communication, whose staff regulate their journeys in association with the railway transport staff and in accordance with the demands of the field army. They are mobilized as a rule in the proportion of one for each division in the field, but their number depends on the length of the journeys from front to base and the time taken to return. Improvised ambulance trains are made up of passenger coaches or goods vans specially fitted for carrying sick and wounded. The ambulance trains were of this kind at the beginning of the World War, and were organized to carry 396 lying down on stretchers laced on special frames constructed to carry three stretchers each. our frames were placed in each of 33 goods vans. Improvised trains subsequently were used in emergency only and were‘usually in the form of passenger coaches for transport of patients sitting up. When

these improvised trains are uscd rest and refreshment stations are

opened at intermediate halting places for supplying food and comforts and for removing patients unfit to continue the journey and transferring them to local hospitals. Rest stations for attending to patients pending their removal to hospital are also opened at stations where all classes of ambulance trains unload. They are formed by detachments from hospital units or by voluntary aid.

Ambulance

Flotillas—Although

ambulance

flotillas

f

of river

steamers or barges are war establishment units of continental armies, they are not definitely organized units of the British Army. They were formed, however, in 1914-8 for use on the canals in the north of France, and were composed of barges specially equipped as

hospital wards and towed by steam tugs. Each barge had 30 beds,

kitchen and stores, and accommodation for a staff of one medical

officer, two nursing sisters and nine R.A.M.C. orderlies.

Six barges

formed a flotilla, and four flotillas were organized, They brought seriously wounded from casualty clearing stations to such hospitals on the lines of communication as were on or near a canal, Hospital Ships—Passenger or other ocean-going ships are chartered in time of war and fitted out as hospital ships for evacuating sick and wounded from the sea bases of a theatre of war to the United Kingdom. Their number and carrying capacity depend on the nature of the campaign, but the most suitable are those which are neither too large nor too small. A ship carrying 600 to 800 patients in cots was regarded as the best during the World War. Hospitals are of two kinds, general and stationary. The former are fully equipped for all kinds of medical or surgical work. They are organized for 520 or 1,040 hospital beds, the smaller in the proportion

of two and the larger in the proportion of one for every division in the

ARMY MEDICAL SERVICE

246

field. They are situated at or near the sea bases but may be established in greater or smaller hospital centres elsewhere on the hnes of communication. The stationary hospitals are smaller and less fully

equipped than the general hospitals and are organized for 200 or 400

beds. They are intended to act as local hospitals for the sick of large

camps or other posts on the lines of communication, or as hospitals

for special purposes such as the reception and treatment of infectious diseases. They are mobilized in the same proportion as gencral

hospitals.

In the United Kingdom the ‘Territorial Force R.A.M.C.

mobilize 24 general hospitals in time of war, each of 520 beds. Convalescent Depots.—These form large camps at the bases or elsewhere where convalescents on discharge from hospital are made

physically fit to return to duty by convalescent treatment and

graduated physical training. There is no fixed limit to their numbers or size, During the World War a convalescent depot could accommodate from 1,000 to 5,000 men.

Medical and Surgical Supplies in War.—Two kinds of units are organized for maintaining and distributing medical and surgical supplies, the base depots of medical stores and the advanced depots. They are in charge of quartermasters of the R.A.M.C. The base depots reccive their supplics through the Army Medical Stores at Woolwich. They supply the hospitals and medical services at the

base and on the lines of communication, and are placed as a rule at the sea bases. Originally the proportion was one for every two divisions, but there was no xed preportion during the World War.

Asa rule there was one at cach sea base or advanced base. Advanced

depots of medical storcs are army troops under the control of the director of medical services of the army, and are allotted in the proportion of one for cach army corps. They are replenished from the base depots and supply the casualty clearing stations, the divisional medical units and other medical services of the field army. Sanitary Organisation in War.—lIn addition to the sanitary detachment of each regimental unit, a sanitary section of one officer and. 25 men is mobilized with cach division and for cach base. Sanitary squads of one non-commissioned officer and four men are also mobilized for each railhead or railway post on the lines of communication, The personnel of sanitary sections and squads act as sanitary inspectors, supervise the construction of sanitary requirements in camps and billets, and maintain sanitary establishments. Mobile Laboratories.—For special work in the field four classes

of mobile laboratories are organized. Mobile hygiene laboratories for chemical analysis of water and food supplies and for other hygienic investigations are allotted in the proportion of one to each army. Mobile bacteriological laboratories for medical and surgical bacteriological investigation are allotted in the proportion of two to each army. A mobile X-ray laboratory and a mobile dental unit,

in the proportion of one of cach to an army, are attached to oneof the casualty clearing stations. All these laboratories are constructed on motor chassis and can be placed in any arca as required. Nursing Services in War.—Members of the nursing services are employed in afl the general and stationary hospitals, in ambulance trains and flotillas, hospital ships and casualty clearing stations. Voluntary Organization in War.—Voluntary aid detachments of men and women are organized under County, Territorial Force Associations by county directors of the British Red Cross Society or St. John Ambulance Association. They have a definite composition and are registered at the War Office. On mobilization they undertake the opening and staffing of auxiliary hospitals throughout the United Kingdom and the local transport of patients who are being distributed to hospitals in the United Kingdom. Members of women’s Voluntary Aid Detachments (V.A.D.) may also be employed in nursing duties in military hospitals. In theatres of war the chief function of voluntary aid organizations is to maintain stores for supplementing hospital equipment and supplies by articles which may add to their comfort nail appearance, and by distributing gifts. Medical units offered by voluntary services. or private individuals are not recognized unless they are organized on the same lines as corresponding regular units and under the command of officers of

the R.A.M.C. Jn addition to the voluntary aid detachments, the St. John Ambulance Brigade and the St. Andrew's Ambulance Association maintain a home hospital reserve, the personnel of

making physical examinations of officers and enlisted men; managing

military hospitals; recruiting, instructing and con-

trolling the enlisted force of the Medical Department and the Nurse Corps, and furnishing all medical and hospital supplies except for public animals, In rg21 these functions persisted. COMPOSITION Medical Depariment.—In 191r the Medical Department comprised the Medical Corps, Medical Reserve Corps, Dental Corps, Hospital Corps (male), and Nurse Corps (female), to which could be added contract surgeons and other civilians. The National Defense Act of 1916 provided that the Department should consist of “ one surgeon-general, . . . who shall be chief of said department, a

Medical Corps, a Medical Reserve Corps, . . . a Dental Corps, a

Veterinary Corps, an Enlisted Force, the Nurse Corps, and contract

surgeons...’ Subject to the appointment of great numbers of officers in temporary grades up to and including that of majorgeneral, as authorized by war legislation, this Act covered the organization of the medical service during the World War, with the exception that a new temporary body was formed which was known as the Sanitary Corps and consisted of officers and enlisted men, not graduatcs in medicine, who possessed knowledge or experience of value to the Medical Department. The Act approved June 4 1920 stipulated that the surgeon-gencral should have the rank of majorgeneral and should have two assistants with the rank of brigadiergeneral; it added a new branch, the Medical Administrative Corps; under this Act the enlisted strength of the Medical Department could

not

exceed

5%

of the actual

commissioned

and

enlisted

strength of the army; the number of officers in the Medical Corps was fixed at 6-5 for every 1,000 of “ authorized ” (virtually actual) enlisted strength of the regular army.

As provided by Act of Apri! 23 1908, the Medical Corps of the army consisted of one surgeon-general with rank of brigadier-general, 14 colonels, 24 licutenant-colonels, 105 majors and 300 captains or first lieutenants, advancement being by seniority except in the case of lieutenants, who were promoted

after three years’ service.

The

scheme for promotion was modified by the Act approved June 4 1920, to provide that officers of the Dental and Mcdical Corps should

be promoted to the grade of captain after three years’ service, to the grade of major after 12 years’ service, to the grade of lieutenantcolonel after 20 years’ service, and to the grade of colonel after 26 years’ service, all subject to the satisfactory passing of the required cxaminations. On Oct. I 1921 there were 43 colonels, 87 lieutenant-

colonels, 483 majors, 474 captains, and 52 first licutcnants. Beginning with 1901 the Medical Department employed civilian dentists under contract. The Act of March 3 1911 established a Dental Corps, consisting of lieutenants in the proportion of one to cach 1,000 of actual enlisted strength of the army, but in no event to exceed 60. By an Act approved Oct, 6.1917 the Corps was made to

consist of officers of the same grades and proportionate distribution of grades as were then, or as might thereafter, be provided by law for the Medical Corps. On Oct. 1 1921, there were in the Dental Corps eight colonels, 15 licutenant-coloncls, 62 majors, 132 captains and 25 first lieutenants. The Veterinary Corps was established by the National Defense Act and took over the veterinarians formerly

assigned to mounted regiments and to the Quartermaster Department. On Oct. 1 1921 there were in the Veterinary Corps four colonels, six lieutenant-colonels, 17 majors, 25 captains, 97 first lieutenants and six second licutenants. The Medical Reserve Corps was established by Act of April 23 1908 for the purpose of securing a supply of medical officers available in emergency. The National Defense Act abolished the Medical Reserve Corps, as such, and established an Officers’ Reserve Corps, with sections corresponding to the various arms, staff corps and departments of the regular army. Under this Jaw a medical section of the Officers’ Reserve Corps, containing approximately 1,256 physicians, existed at the outbreak

of the World War.

On Oct. 14 1921 there were 5,816 officers enrolled

in the medical section of the Officers’ Reserve Corps, 3,747 in the dental scction, 390 in the veterinary section, 264 in the sanitary

which takes the place of the regular R.A.M.C. in the military hos-

section, and 491 in the medical administrative section.

the medical units of the war establishments.

by Act of March 1 1887, which directed that all necessary hospital services In garrison, camp or ficld, including ambulance service, should be performed by members of this corps, which was perma-

pitals in the United Kingdom when the latter are mobilized to form

At the beginning of the

war in 1914 the St. John Ambulance Brigade had ready a home

hospital reserve of 2,200 men and the St, Andrew's Ambulance Association 113, but these numbers increased so rapidly that by the end of 1915 over 15,000 of the St. John Ambulance Brigade were

serving in the military hospitals in Great Britain.

(W, G. Ma.)

UNITED STATES

Functions —By Army Regulations the Medical Department in 1910 was charged with the following duties: Investigating he sanitary conditions of the army and making recommendations with reference thereto; advising with regard to the location of permanent stations, the selection and purification of water supplies, and the disposal of wastes; caring for the sick and wounded;

A Hospital

Corps, composed of hospital stewards and privates, was established

nently attached to the Medical Department. The National Defense Act abolished the designation ‘“ Hospital Corps’ and substituted therefor an /énlisted Force, consisting of non-commissioned officers, privates first class, and privates. The Army Nurse Corps (female) came into existence in 1901. No appreciable change in its organiza-

tion was made until the Act of June 4 1920, when the members of the Nurse Corps were given relative rank, the superintendent having

that of major, the assistant superintendents that of captain, chief nurses that of frst lieutenant, and head nurses and nurses that of second lieutenant. ln respect of matters within the line of their duties, nurses were given authority, in and about military hospitals, next after officers of the Medical Department. Nurses in 1921 continued to be employed under contract for a period of eras

and did not receive the pay of their relative rank.

The

Medicat

ARMY MEDICAL Administrative Corps was established by the Act approved June 4

1920.

Appointees therein must have had enlisted service in the

SERVICE

247

the Medical Department only through the American National Red

Cross,

Before military patients are assigned to establishments

mainMedical Department. These officers act in the capacity of adjutants, | tained by the Red Cross Society these establishments will be placed mess officers, registrars, property officers, commanders of detachunder. the immediate direction of a medical officer of the army, ments, and the like, in medico-military units, thereby reheving Administrative Organization in the Theatre of Operations.—The medical officers of the necessity of performing these essential but theatre of operations is divided into (a) the combat zone, including non-professional duties, division arcas, corps areas and army arcas; (b) the communications National Guard—The organized militia, known as the National zone, including all territory from the rear of the combat zone tọ and Guard, possesses a medical department consisting of a medical corps, including the base. In a large expeditionary force a chief surgcon

dental corps, veterinary corps and entisted force, conforming

in

organization, discipline and equipment to like units of the Medical

Department of the regular army. The personnel, known collectively as sanitary troops, is divided into three groups: (a) those assigned to combatant units; (b) those organized into sanitary units such as medical regiments, hospital companies and ambulance companies;

and (¢) those belonging to state staff corps and, departments, PEACE-TIME ORGANIZATION

Surgeon-General's Office —Whether in peace or war, the surgcon-

general's office in Washington is one of the codrdinate bureaus of the War Department which function under the Secretary of War through the intermediate channel of the chief-of-staff.. The surgcon-gencral advises the War Department in matters relating to his bureau, coordinates all technical activities of the Medical Department through corps area or department surgeons, originates medical policies, compiles medical statistics, distributes personnel to the corps areas and geographical departments, and directly controls all matters relating to the purchase of supplies and the expenditure of appropriations for construction and repair of hospitals and employment of civilians, These functions did not change materially in character between 1910 and 1921 but the work expanded greatly; then the duties were divided between four divisions:—Personnel, Supply, Sanitation, and Museum and Library; the organization on Oct. 1 1921 included the following eleven divisions, cach being staffed with one or more officers specially selected because of their knowledge of the subjects handled: Administrative; Coérdination, Organization and Equipment; Dental; Finance and Supply; Hospital; Library; Personnel; Sanitation; Statistical; Training; Veterinary.

Aviation Service.—Detailed administration of Medical Department matters relating to aviation is handled by a medical officer

attached to the staff of the chicf of the air service.

Department and Corps Area Surgeons.—The continental United

States is divided for administrative purposes into nine “corps areas,” and the outlying possessions into three departments (Hawaiian, Philippine, and Panama Canal). A department or corps-area surgeon, as one of the staff of the commanding general of each

department or corps area, presides over the medical activities therein. Station Personnel—At all military stations, other than general hospitals, medical officers and a suitable detachment of enlisted men of the Medical Department are assigned to care for the troops and to administer the station hospital, which usually provides beds for

at least 3% of the forces. 1f the command is part of some or all of these medical officers and enlisted men attached to the combatant troops in preparation for General Hospitals.—Large institutions, known as

a tactical unit are nominally active service. ‘‘ general hos-

pitals,” are maintained (2) to afford better facilities than can be provided at station hospitals for the observation and treatment of obscure, complicated and serious cases, (b) to instruct and train junior officers, nurses and enlisted men, and (c) to furnish a nucleus

for expansion in time of war,

In 1910 there were four such bospitals

in the United States army, which number in 1921 had been increased

to six.

isducation,

Training

and Investigatiot.—The

Army

Medical

School, Washington, D.C., was established in 1893 with the object of training students in the duties which pertain to the Medical Department. The student body consists of officers of the Medical Corps, the Medical Reserve Corps and the National Guard, and of enlisted men in the Medical Department. From i910 to 1919 the regular

course covered about eight months, but’ it was shortened and instruction in the non-medical features of «a complete medicomilitary curriculum transferred to the Medical Field Service School,

established in 1920 at Carlisle, Pa,

WAR-TIME ORGANIZATION

Object of the Medical Department in War.—The objects of Medical

epartment administration in war are: First, the preservation of the strength of the army in the field by (@) the institution of requisite sanitary measures for preventing avoidable sickness; (b) the retention of effectives at the front; and (c) the prompt succour of wounded on the battlefield and their removal to the rear, thus preventing the unnecessary Withdrawal of combatants from the firing line to

accompany them.

Second, the care and treatment of the sick and

injured in the zone of the advance, on the line of communications, and in the home territory. Third, the promotion of general moral among the troops through the knowledge that efficient medical and

surgical attention is immediately available. Voluntary Aid and the Red Cross.—Organized voluntary aid may be utilized to supplement the resources and assist the personnel of

coordinates all Medical Department activities of the force, including the combat and communications zones; he organizes his office on

the basis described above for the surgeon-general’s office, Communications Zone.—The chief surgeon of this zone, as a mem-

ber of the staff of the commanding officer thereof, exercises immediate control over the Medical Department units therein, such as station and general hospitals, supply depots, training schools, central laboratories, hospital trains, boats and ships, ambulance parks, ete, The function of the Medical Department in the zone of communication is medical procurement, storage and supply, care of the troops within its area, evacuation of sick and wounded, and definitive hospitalization. The following are the more important units: The general hospital (formerly termed base hospital) is for definitive treatment, having a normal capacity of 1,000 beds but capable of crisis expansion by tentage to 2,000, These institutions provide every facility for the care of the sick and wounded: certain ones specialize on particular classes of injuries or diseases. ‘The authorized personnel consists of 40 officers, 120 nurses and 312 enlisted men of the Medical Department. ‘The station hospital (formerly styled camp hospital) has a standard capacity of 300 beds and servés the immediate local needs of troops belonging to the communications zone, ‘Che personne} consists of 13 officers, 35 nurses and 100 enlisted men of the Medical Department. A hospital train consists of 16 cars accommodating 360 patients, with a Medical Department personnel of four officers, 40 enlisted men, and female nurses as required. Combat Zone.—The, area covered by this zone includes the troops which are organized into divisions, corps and armics. The Medical Department personnel pertaining to an army, to a corps or to a division is administered by an army, corps or division surgeon respectively, under supervision of the surgeon of the next higher unit. The functions of the surgeon are codrdination, supervision and control of the medical service at all times and during combat parlicularly the relief or retnforcement of the actively engaged Medical

Department units by means of army, corps or divisional troops. The work concerns itself only with sanitation, care of troops, collection of casualties and femporary hospitalizatiun.

Army and Corps Medical Department Troops——To an army, in

addition to its administrative medical personnel, there are attached four medical regiments, 15 evacuation hospitals, 12 surgical hospitals, one convalescent hospital, one army laboratory, three army

supply depots, three army veterinary evacuation hospitals, and one veterinary convalescent hospital; collectively these form part of the army troops. The 15 evacuation and 12 surgical hospitals are for the temporary care of non-evacuable cases and the convalescent hospital is for those practically well and needing little attention, but not yet ready to return to duty, A corps has aa administrative medical organization similar to that of an army but smaller; it has

one medical regiment as part of its corps troops. The evacuation hospital has the primary function of taking over patients from divisional (field) hospitals, established by the hospital companies of a medical regiment, so that these mobile units may move with their divisions; provision is made for very complete surgical treatment if necessary. The capacity is 750 beds and the personnet 38 officers, 50 female nurses and 281 enlisted men. The surgical hospital supplements the evacuation hospital for the purpose of hancling near the front those cases requiring immediate operation. The bed capacity is 250 and the personnel consists of 19 officers, 20 female nurses and go enlisted men. The convalescent hospital has a bed capacity of 5,000 and a personnel of 21 officers and 153 enlisted men. _ Medical Department Troops Attached to a Dwtsion.—The infantry division, which is a basic tactical unit, has a Medical Department personnel of 148 officers and 1,375 enlisted men. Part of these are directly attached to combatant units; the remainder belong to the medical regiment, The regimental medical personnel cares for the sick and injured in camp and on the march; supervises local sanita-

tion; goes into action with the troops; and establishes battalion or regimental aid stations where wounded are collected and given

temporary care. The medical regiment, replacing the samtary train of the pre-war period, consists of a sanitary battalion, an ambulance battalion with 4o motor and 20 animal-drawn ambulances, and a hospital battalion of three hospital companies, cach operating a tent (field) hospital of 250 beds capacity. Its personnel consists of 68 officers (medical, dental and veterinary) and 860 enlisted men. The medical regiment of a division provides personnel for the division surgeon's office and for sanitation of the division area, collects wounded men by litter squads from battalion or regimental aid stations and transports them to the ambulances, maintains wheeled transportation service for movement of casualties,

supplies temporary hospitalization, procures and issues medical supplies for the command, renders laboratory service and collects,

treats and temporarily hospitalizes sick animals,

ARRIAGA—ARTILLERY

248 THE DEPARTMENT'S

WORK

IN THE WoọorLD WAR

Sanitary Achievements.— The value of a medical service in war should be measured, first, by the degree to which it preserves the

effective strength of the army by sanitary methods, and, second, by its success in evacuating and caring for the sick and wounded.

both respects the Medical

attained notable results.

Department

of the American

In

army

The success in preventing infectious dis-

cases and ‘losses from them, as compared with the Civil and SpanishAmerican Wars, is shown by the fact that only 6,445 fatalities occurred

as a result of typhoid fever, malaria, dysentery, smallpox, scarlet fever, diphtheria and other miscellaneous communicable diseases (excluding tuberculosis and pneumonia), whereas if the Spanish War

rates had prevailed there would have been 101,439 deaths, and if

the Civil War rate had prevailed there would have been 170,997 deaths from these causes.

Care of Sick and Wounded,—In the succour of the sick and wounded

great advances were made both in-the theatre of operations and in

the service of the interior.

Personnel directly attached to com-

batant organizations was greatly increased.

Mobile surgical hos-

pitals were organized and operated close to the front ; X-ray éxaminations were everywhere available; splints for use in transporting fracture cases were enormously improved, Motorization of ambulance service was carricd to an extent hitherto undreamed of. Base hospitals were enlarged to accommodate 1,000 patients or more, and were frequently grouped in-centres, sometimics aggregating 20,000 beds, including the crisis expansion under canvas. In such centres the individual hospitals specialized, one treating gassed cases, another head cases and others chest wounds, fractures, abdominal injuries and medical patients respectively. Laboratory service both at the front and on the lines of communication was expanded beyond all precedent. Professional services were more carefully coérdinated and supervised than ever beforc; the most expert personne! was divided into groups, such as operating teams, gas teams, shock teams, etc., for quick transport

by automobile or train to points

where need was greatest. Veterinary units were augmented in size and number, caring promptly for sick and wounded animals, In the zone of the interior hospital service was brought to the highest standard, the best professional talent of the country was mobilized, and notable progress was made in the treatment of the sick and injured, particularly in the dircction of physical reconstruction of the wounded, with a view to returning the individual to the community as a self-sustaining citizen, i , Physical [ixaminations.—Nearly 4,000,000 officers and men were given a careful physical examination by the Medical Department before admission to the military service and approximately the same number wete again examined before demobilization; careful records thereof protect the interests of both the individual and. the Government, Valuable data as to the physical status of the nation were obtained from an analysis of these examinations. Personnel.—On April 6 1917, the Medical Department personnel was not even sufficient for the peace-time necds of the small regular

army. The increase is shown in the following table :— November 30 1918 April 6 1917 (Approximate Medical Corps

»

491

.

.

342

Medical Corps

Veterinary Corps . Contract Surgeons.

. ,

62 181

Veterinary Corps. Contract Surgeons

450

Civilian employees

Medical Reserve Corps,

on active duty

Dental Corps...

Civilian employees

86

«Dental Corps

.

.

Sanitary Corps | U.S.A. Amb. Service

. 30,500 > 4,600

. .

2,000 940

+

10,700

. .

2,900 206

Nurse Corps 233 Reserve Nurse Corps on_activeduty. . . 170 Nurse Corps . 21,480 Enlisted Personnel. . 6,900 Enlisted Personnel . 264,000 Hospitals—When war was declared the army possessed four

general and 113 small station hospitals with a total’ capacity of 6,665 beds. At the height of military activities there were in the

United States 47 general hospitals, about go large base hospitals

(ranging in size from 800 to 3,000 beds each) and a great number of

smaller hospitals; the total capacity was over 130,600 patients. In the A.E.F. at the time of the Armistice, Nov, 11 mi there were in operation 153 base, 66 camp and 12 convalescent hospitals with a bed capacity of 283,553. By Dec. 5 this capacity had increased to 296,865 and with buildings already leased, under construction or authorized, would in due course have reached 423,722, with crisis expansion to 541,000. (W. P. C.)

ARRIAGA BRUN DA SILVEIRA E PEYRELONGUE, MANOEL JOSÉ D’ (1839-1917), Portugucse politician, was born at Horta, in the Azores, in 1839. He was educated at the university of Coimbra, where he took his degree in law in 1866. He became known as a strong Republican, and in 1882 was elected deputy for Funchal, in 1890 becoming deputy for Lisbon, His Republican principles caused him to be a figure of much importance

at the time of the revolution of 1910, and on Aug. 24 torr he was elected first president of the Portuguese Republic (see PorTUGAL). He resigned office in to15, and died March § 1917. ABRBOL, SIR WILLIAM (7839-1013), British engincer, was born at Houston, Renfrewshire, Feb. 13 1839. In his boyhood he was apprenticed to a smith at Paisley, and worked through several engincering shops until, in 1868, he was able to set up as a boiler-maker. In 1872 he took up construction in steel and started the Dalmarnock ironworks, becoming an expert in bridge-building.

The Caledonian Railway bridge at Glasgow,

the reconstructed Tay bridge (1882-7), Forth bridge (1882-9), the Tower bridge, London, and the Nile bridge at Cairo were amongst his principal achievements. Ie was knighted in 18900. He sat in the House of Commons for Ayrshire (S.) as a Unionist

member from 1895-1906, He died at Ayr Feb. 20 1973. See Sir Robert Purvis, Sir William Arrol (1913).

ARTILLERY (see 2.685).—Before the World War, the gencral mnilitary ideas of artillery procedure and purposes were somewhat the same in all countries.

It is proposed here to consider the lessons of the World War

in the order in which they were learnt. As the war progressed, fresh problems presented themselves, fresh necessities arose, and artillery methods, equipment, and organization had to be modified to mect them. The war on the western Europcan front may be divided into four phases: a dash by the invader into the cnemy’s country; a long period of immobile warfare, both sides entrenched; -and the breaking of the line, followed either by retreat and reconstruction or else by the full exploitation of victory. The first, or mobile, phase of a modern war is of the greatest importance; it decides whether the campaign is to be fought in the defender’s country or in the invader’s. When one country attacks another, it is the object both of her statesman and her soldiers to make the initial dash as rapid and effective as possible, so as to finish the campaign in the first stage, and to avoid the long war of attrition which results when two nearly equal

armies are entrenched.

Similarly, the defender endeavours to

crush the invading force at the outset, or to drive it back into its own territory, Therefore, in pre-war preparation, the requirements of trench warfare must be subordinated to those of mobile warfare. In the World War, at least four-fifths of the main Western campaign was fought in the trenches; and the only seriously contested campaign in which the first phase was carried through to a finish was the invasion of Rumania by the Germans. Even in Allenby’s brilliant Palestine campaign there was a long pause after the taking of Jerusalem. It scems highly probable that the longest, though not the most important, period of a future war will consist of trench warfare. Speculation as to the effect of new weapons, such as tanks, aircraft, and gas, in changing the nature of war, may be as misleading as regards the future as it has been in the past, and, at the least, it is necessary, at the present time, to provide for trench warfare as well as for

mobile warfare in the training and equipment of an army, I. MOBILE WARFARE Mobility.—The initial phase of a war’ requires a high degree of mobility. Once the invader has left his own railways behind, he must, at first, depend almost entirely on roads, He desires to advance at the rate of 50 miles a day, which is a very different matter from covering 10 m. an hour over short distances. The defender requires an equal degree of mobility to counter the attack. Motor transport for guns and infantry is the only means of attaining this marching pace. As regards the artillery, with which we are here concerned, the gradual disappearance of the civilian “van horse” will, in course of time, make it difficult to keep up horsed guns in peace time, and impossible in war. There is therefore a gencral agreement that the artillery must become motor artillery. It is obviously impossible to make such a change all at once; the question is, which nalures and formations should be converted first. Before dealing with

this point we may consider the types of artillery motor required.

249

ARTILLERY The weight of artillery opinion is against the automobile guncarriage, which is too large to dig in or conceal, and too vulnerable; morcover, the motor is uscless when the gun is in action, and might better be employed elsewhere.

Pulling a gun behind a tractor has

many advantages, and is economical of transport, since the tractor

carries the men and first supply of ammunition.

The difficulty is that

an ordinary Q.F. gun-carriage breaks up when drawn by a tractor at any pace faster than a walk. In March 1918, at the time of the German attack, the French brought up a large number of field guns drawn by lorries. These guns had to be fitted with rubber-tired wheels for the purpose. Again, in the autumn of 1918, the French (who were by then very short of horses) used field guns carried on lorries, with the gun-teams carried in motor-omnibuses converted

into horse-floats. Only sufficient horses to bring the gins into action were transported in this way. By the end of the war the French had

266 tractor-drawn batteries of divisional artillery, and 306 batteries

on lorries.

The French sometimes adopted a still bolder solution of the prob-

lem, namely, carrying the 7-ton caterpillar tractor on a special road lorry. Some authorities are disposed to think that this heroic method offers a better prospect of success than trying to produce a tractor that shall, be able to cross country and also to travel fast on the road without damage to the surface. For a light caterpillar tractor, capable of pulling a field gun across country, may be made to weigh 50 cwt. or less, so that a large 4-ton lorry can carry both the tractor and a 30-cwt. ficld gun as far as the point where the gun has to leave the road. However, the method of carrying one motor on another seems so wasteful that it is regarded as a last resource. The Italians have tried carrying the guns on lorries, with ramps to run them on and off, but find the system wastcful of transport; the gun takes up so much space on the lorry that there is no room to load

it to its full capacity with men and ammunition. In rg2r1 they were experimenting with low-travelling platforms, of which one or possibly two are to be drawn by elastic couplings behind a fast road tractor;

the platform, which carries a wheeled field gun, is on rubber-tired wheels and is supportect on road springs so as to run smoothly at 12 m.an hour. ‘These are for reserve “‘ army" field artillery, and the

guns are to be drawn into position by the horses, or cross-country

tractors, of the divisional artillery which they reénforce. There is one set of conditions under which the carrier has the advantage of the tractor, and that is in getting guns forward over the “ crater-ficld ’’ whenthis is very boggy. Inthe zone of contact of two hostile forces, when these are entrenched, the ground is pock-marked with shell craters, and in wet weather it may become a swamp into

which any wheeled vehicle sinks, even if it is atteinpted to drag it

behind a caterpillar, There are certain conditions of ground over

which a caterpillar can carry a gun, though it cannot drag it. These must, however, be considered exceptional, and toorare to justify the adoption of carriers in place of tractors. Moreover, the sinking of the gun may be obviated to a great extent by using ‘‘ girdles,” which are linked plates surrounding the wheels. Girdles are also used on wheeled tractors for crossing soft ground. A very important factor in the question of the motor transport of

artillery ‘is the necessity of using the agricultural motors of the country in time of war. The French are now endeavouring to produce an agricultural tractor, mobile on and off the road, which shall fulfil military requirements and shall also be used in very large numbers for agriculture. The introduction of a proportion of automobile gun-carriages, though spoken of by the French press, is a question which is still unsettled. The French guns up to the 6 in., and howitzers up to the 9-45 in. inclusive will be road-mobile, being divided into tractor loads, where possible not exceeding 5 tons net. Al heavier natures will be on railway mountings. In Italy, the intention is to have all the divisional artillery (which is to consist of field guns and field howitzers only) drawn by small agricultural tractors, road speed 5 m. an hour. ‘hese are not to be caterpillars but four-wheel-c rive motors, and it is considered that the

pattern adopted (Pavesi of Milan) will be sufficiently mobile across country, Girdles are carried for use on soft ground. The army field artillery will be drawn by fast road tractors as mentioned above. The corps artillery, consisting of 4-in. guns and 6-in. howitzers, will be drawn by wheeled road tractors of 50 and 55 H.P. These are also used for the component parts of heavy artillery loads up to the I2-in. howitzer inclusive. These also carry girdles for soft ground. The question of artillery transport is more urgent in Jtaly than elsewhere, since the country produces no artillery draught-horses. Italy is the only country which has actually begun the conversion of horsed to motor artillery; the United States and France, though they used motor artillery during the war, are sull only preparing to introduce it as part of their permanent organization, ‘The Italian “auioportata” army regiment of 48 field guns referred to above is the only such unit in existence. The reason why wheeled tractors, not caterpillars, have been preferred is that owing to the nature of the cultivation there is no prospect of cross-country agricultural tractors of the caterpillar type being used on any large scale. The United States are trying both tractors and automobile guncarriages; apparcntly they do not favour platform carriers.

The order of conversion of the different horsed artillery formations to motor transport will probably, in all countries, be on

the following lines: (1) All transport which keeps to the road, including ammunition columns; (2) all guns and howitzers heavier than the divisional artillery; (3) army field artillery;

(4) all first-line ammunition wagons; (5) guns and fighting battery wagons of the divisional artillery. It is, however, an open question whether army field artillery should not be converted to motor transport first of all, on account of the high

importance of having a reserve of field artillery, able to travel long distances at a fast pace, available on the outbreak of war. It need hardly be said that in future the artillery motors of the fighting formations will belong to the artillery and be driven

by artillery drivers, not by men borrowed from the gencral transport corps of the army, Road-Mobile Super-Heavy Artillery—One of the first surprises of the war was the reduction of the strong fortresses in Belgium

and

northern

France

by the German

super-heavy

artillery. These fortresses were designed to resist 6-in. guns ahd 8-in. howitzers, and the Germans brought up r2-in. and even 16+5-in. (42 cm.) howitzers by road to attack them.

The limita-

tions of the transport of heavy loads by road vary in different countrics, The British used 22-ton traction engines in- the §. African War of 1899-1902, at the end of which they were sold out of the service as too heavy for English bridges. The bridges on the continental “national” roads are stronger than most English bridges, and, on some routes, are capable of taking a gross load of 30 tons on four wheels.

The 42-cm. howitzer was

divided into loads, the heavicst of which was about 29 tons gross. It was no doubt built with regard to the roads by which it would have to travel. A short (2§-calibre) 9°2-in. gun or long 8-in, gun would make loads of the same weight. However, in France it has been decided, as mentioned above, not to transport superheavy ordnance by road, These pieces’ are all to be on railway mountings. The reason for this is the greatly increased range which was demanded of howitzers during the war; thus the British 6-in. howitzer in use in 1914, which ranged 6,000 yd., was replaced by a howitzer of the same calibre ranging 11,600 yd., and a similar increase of range was required of all pieces which, before the war, were classed as siege artillery. It is thercfore considered that it will always be possible to find or to build a position for heavy guns and howitzers on railway mountings within range of a fort or of any targct which they may have to cngage.

Liaison-—An early experience of the war was the breakdown of the method of coöperation of infantry and artillery which

had been taught in peace time.

The French were the great

exponents of this method. It consisted of liaison par le haut, which means, for instance, that the divisional commander details a groupe of three batteries to support the attack of a brigade of infantry; and liaison par le bas, which means that the in-

fantry brigade and artillery group commanders, and even their subordinates, the battalion and the battery commanders, keep up constant communication during the ‘fight. Under battle conditions, /iazson par le bas broke down at once. The British did rather better than the French, because they had five officers per battcry as against three, and because they were trained in the use of the concealed artillery position, which necessitates distant communications.

During sedentary war-

fare communication was perfect; every company in the frontline trench had a battery to support it, and the battery prided itself on putting over a storm of shrapnel within ro seconds of

receiving the call for assistance. But as soon as the troops left their trenches, in advance or retreat, direct communication between infantry and artillery units ceased altogether. Telephone lines were cut by the enemy’s fire; visual signallers were shot down, or, even if they succeeded in finding cover, the smoke and dust soon interrupted their view. Orderlics rarcly succeeded in getting through, and the few that escaped being killed or wounded arrived too late for their messages to be of

any use. Many devices were tried by the armics engaged; the German system of light signals was the least unsatisfactory.

But the direct and intimate coöperation of infantry and artillery units was never realized,

250

ARTILLERY

The Barrage—This breakdown of communications obliged

Wircless telegraphy may possibly be so developed as to be»

the contending armies to adopt a simpler.means of codperation,

come both directive and selective, so that a hundred stations

moved forward across the country by short leaps according to a pre-determined time-table. It is “halted ” on each successive objective for some ro minutes before the infantry assaults it, in order to intensify the effect. It is then moved forward again to screen their further progress, and, when the last ob-

and receiving messages becomes a practical fact, it will solve

and led to the general introduction of the “ creeping barrage ” may talk at once without mutual interference, or risk-of being (French barrage roulant, German Feuerwalze). Briefly, it is a “jammed ” by the enemy. Some progress in tbis direction screen of shells bursting on and close to the ground, which is has already been made. If this or other reliable means of sending

jective has been reached, it becomes a “standing” barrage to screen and protect the troops while they “ consolidate ”

the ground which has been gained. The infantry follow bchind the barrage, keeping just clear of the zone of bursting shell. They are screened from aimed fire

by the smoke and the dust thrown up, and the barrage is in-

tended to destroy any opposition asit passes on. If it succeeds in doing this, communication between infantry units and the supporting artillery becomes superfluous. It has proved practically impossible to control or check the pace of the barrage when it has once started, although the Germans attempted to do so by light signals. This is on account of the difficulty of passing the information from the particular infantry unit which wants a modification of programme 1o the particular battery or þatteries concerned with that part of the barrage, through a “ chain of command.” For at least one gun per 20 yd. of barrage front is used, and the batteries whose concentrated fire forms the barrage may themselves be widely dispersed, Similar crecping barrages are used to screen retreating troops,

though the problem is then more difficult, since the enemy dictates the pace of retirement. Such barragesare therefore made as simple as possible in plan and in execution. Other forms of barrage are uscd. “ Flank” barrages are used to screen the

flanks of troops, cither halted or in motion. “ Standing,” as opposed to “crecping,”’ barrages are used for many purposes, such as to prevent the enemy from réinforcing a portion of his line which is being attacked. A form of standing barrage often used for this purpose is the “ box ” barrage, consisting of one. barrage parallel to the front attacked and two at right angles to it, forming three sides of a rectangle. A “ preventive ” barrage is put down over the enemy’s lincs when he is supposed to be about to attack. A ‘ counter barrage’ is one put down when the enemy is actually attacking, so managed as to take effect

on his troops as they follow up thcir own barrage. In some instances a sham barrage, with no troops behind it, was used to divert attention from the real attack. Important as the barrage is, it cannot be considered a satisfactory substitute for aimed fire; it is an expedient which has to be resorted to when fire of precision cannot be carried out, Marshal Foch had occasion to warn the French artillery against trusting too much to it, In a circular issued in the summer of 1918, he writes:— “ The rolling barrage adopted by the Germans no longer meets the conception of the present war.

The artillery cannot pretend to

overwhelm the entire terrain of the attack with a rolling barrage,

even if redoubled. Its object is not gained by unloosing a brutal fire over a given zone and searching progressively at random with a fire directed straight to its front, without regard as to whether it is

followed by the infantry. It is better to attack definite points

and intensify the interdiction, the counter-battery, or the crushing

fire on certain points, reserving a part of the field batteries for accompanying the infantry in intimate coöperation with it,” `

Tn other words, it is unsound to abandon at the outset all fire of precision on important targets, and every endeavour to work in coöperation with the infantry, and, instead, to attempt to mow down all opposition with a machine.

The Barrage in Mobile Warfare-—Although the creeping barrage is primarily used in the deliberate attack on an entrenched position, cven in mobile warfare troops are frequently checked by an enemy holding an improvised position, and it may then be necessary to bring up all available artillery at once, and to form a creeping barrage to cover the attack. When an attack is led by tanks, it is necessary to have a barrage to conceal them, otherwise a great many arc hit.

the problem of communication between infantry and artillery, and the crude method of barrage will fall into disuse. Guns of Accompaniment.—As the creeping barrage advances . it is intended to destroy all opposition. But it was found in practice that enemy detachments provided with good cover, such as machine-gun sections with overhead protection, got underground while the barrage was passing over them, and then reappeared, causing very heavy losses to the attacking troops.

The French ascribe the majority of their losses in the last phase of the war to this cause. Now it would be extremely dangerous,

even if it were possible, to bring the barrage back to “ pound ” such a danger spot. By the time this had bcen done, the advancing troops might very possibly have disposed of the ma~chinc-guns by bombing, and have resumed their advance, in which case they would come under their own barrage fire. It is manifestly impossible to get the fire of distant guns on to a machine-gun nest in time, though something might be done by an aeroplane dropping a light-ball on it to attract the attention of the guns. The result of the failure of artillery support in this matter has been a gencral outcry for guns of accompaniment; that is to say light guns, either pack, motor, or hand-drawn, capable of advancing with the infantry, and of dealing with

machine-gun nests and strong points that have survived the barrage, and with tanks.

The matured German opinion is expressed in the following quotation from a document issued scarccly 10 weeks before the Armistice “The guns of accompaniment must engage at short range the enemy with whom the infantry is fighting at close quarters. By reason of their proximity to the infantry they can be fired at the right moment, and on the right target, more easily than the artillery in

rear.

Also, being at close range, they can fire on objectives which

cannot be observed from the rear.”

A light o-pounder, firing H.E. shell only, to an effective range of about 2,000 yd., is the type of weapon required. The British used their 3-7-in. mountain howitzer, firing a 20-lb. shell, when available; but the ammunition was considered. too heavy, and troops who possessed captured German light trench mortars, firing a 14-lb. shell, found this a better weapon for the purpose. The latest type of gun is the U.S. “ infantry howitzer,” which is carried so far forward as possible by a small cross-country motor vehicle, and thence whecled or carried by

hand. It fires a 6-lb, shell for direct fire, and a 9-lb. shell for

high-angle fire, These guns are required at the rate of about one per roo yd. of the front of the advance, or from r2 to 16 per division. The French have decided that a gun of accompaniment is to be introduced, and it is understood that it will be motor-drawn or motorcarricd, but no further details are available. The Germans, in 1917 and 1918, used.a variety of light guns styled “ infantry guns ” in addition to their infantry trench mortars, which were fitted for direct as well as for high-angle fire. But in the great 1918 battles their invariable practice was to detail onc, two or more batteries of the divisional field artillery, fully horsed, and with their own ammunition carriages, to support the divisional infantry attack by direct accompaniment (sometimes reénforced). After trying other methods, they finally adopted the practice of allotting sections, or even single guns, to the battalions engaged. These single guns or sections followed up the leading

lincs of infantry, running up by hand when the horses could not get forward tThe relation of the artillery commander to the infantry com-

mander, both being on the spot, was a difficult

question which was

never definitely solved. In practice, indication of task was as a rule the duty of the infantry commander, and choice of position and method that of the gunner.

But the latter remained free to engage

any favourable target without waiting for orders.

F. A.)

251

ARTILLERY

Gun-Carrying Tanks are here considered as gun-carricrs. A the gun to be light enough to be man-handled when the tractor war-time tank normally carried two short 6-pounder guns, one fails. The Amcrican infantry howitzer referred to above realizes on each side,and 200 rounds of ammunition; it could carry this idea, except that it is carried instead of being drawn. Artillery Fire at Tanks —The best means of stopping tanks another roo rounds if required. If the tank were made larger, it. could carry a 12-pounder or 18-pounder gun inside. When the gun is put outside, on the top, the machine ceascs to be a tank and becomes an automobile gun-carriage or a caterpillar carrier; these have becn discussed on pp. 248-40. The volume of firc from a tank is not sufficient to constitute a decisive factor in the combat. Fire with shrapnel and time fuze from a moving tank would be a waste of ammunition, and the tank would not last long if it stood still. The small H.E. shell is nearly useless against men in the open, and

the case-shot which the tank carries is effective only at very short range. ‘The guns of a tank cannot be expected to engage infantry manning a trench parapet, and keep down their fire, except when the tank succceds in getting astride of the trench and firing down it to right and left. Even then the effect is rather moral than material, since the infantry are protected by the traverses and indentations of the trench, which are specially designed to prevent enfilade. Practically, there are only two things that the guns of a tank can do, but these are both important.

`

They can destroy an enemy tank, and they can put a

H.E. shell into a machine-gun emplacement at short range, long before a message could be got through to a field gun a mile behind. For both these purposes the 6-pounder gun is sufficiently powerful, though it is possible that thickly armoured tanks may be introduced which will require a heavicr weapon to pierce them. Quite apart from its gun-power, the tank supplements and sometimes replaces artillery fire by its power of crushing obstacles, notably barbed wire and iron palisades. It remains to be considered whether the tank is a satisfactory substitute for the infantry gun of accompaniment. The advocates of tanks anticipate that in future an infantry attack will be carried out on the following lincs:—In front of all is the creeping barrage, closely followed by the infantry and the light tanks (‘‘ cruisers’) armed with machine-guns and possibly 6-pounders; behind these come 18-pounders or heavier pieces on armourcd automobile carriages (‘ battleships ”), and small. fast caterpillars (“ destroyers’) carrying tank-stopping ma-

chine-guns.

Just before the assault the “ cruisers” dash for-

ward in advance of the infantry, supported by the fire of the “ battleships ” and escorted by the “ destroyers.” The “ battleships ” also deal with machine-gun nests and strong points that have escaped the barrage. As the infantry continue their advance, the motor-drawn guns behind, which have been forming the barrage, advance by echelons to fresh positions behind “the infantry, and carry the barrage forward.

Supposing an attack on these lines to be carried straight through, no infantry guns, capable of fighting on their own wheels, would be required. But it is objected that if the infantry attack were checked, as is inevitable at times, their only guns of accompaniment would be the large and conspicuous “battleships,” which are very vulncrable when standing still. The same objection would apply in a retreat, which is a series of halts to check the enemy. It would appcar, therefore, that the infantry gun must be separable from its motor, so that it can fight, and conceal itself, on its own wheels. Neither the “‘ cruiser’ nor the “ battleship’ tank satisfies this condition, but it may possibly be desirable to introduce a tank which shall carry a light gun to the fighting front, dismount it, hand it over to the infantry, and then advance on its own account, with its machine-guns, aS a fighting tank. No tank of this kind has yet been tried, and morcover there is no present prospect of the large and expensive armoured “ battleships ” being provided in any army. Manufacture on the Jarge scale would probably not begin ull the outbreak of war. In the meantime, the infantry gun of accompaniment will have to be developed as an infantry

weapon, independently of the “Jand fleet.” Whether it should be motor-drawn, motor-carried, mule-carried or man-handled is still an open question. Many officers are in favour of a gun drawn by a small tractor, to take it as far forward as possible;

is still an open question. It would at first scem a simple matter to make direct hits on them, but in practice the enemy’s barrage and bombardment interpose a screen of bursting shells behind which the tanks can approach unseen. Moreover, it is not easy to find a position affording a good view, from which the gtinners

can lay over the open sights, within 2,000 yd of the front line. Indirect laying is too slow for moving objects. When preparing to meet tht German advance of March 1918, the Bnitish plan was to hide a number of field guns in or close to the front line, which were to keep silent till tanks appeared, and then fire on them. These guns were never heard of again; they were all destroyed by the intensive bombardment which preceded the attack. In some cases, land mines were buried under the barbed wire entanglements to prevent the tanks from “ rolling them out,” but these mines rarely survived the bombardment. They might be useful, however, if the enemy attempted a surprise attack with tanks without a preliminary bombardment. The best means of resisting a tank attack on an entrenched position would appear to be the provision of numerous small anti-tank guns in the trench area, as described below. In mobile warfare the conditions are somewhat different; in the autumn of ror8, when the British alone used 2,000 tanks, many of these were destroyed by the German rear-guard batteries, and by concealed guns left behind for the purpose. The Germans used heavy single-loading “ anti-tank rifles,” pending the introduction of large calibre “ anti-tank machine-guns,” and it is stated that a tank-stopping rifle grenade, fired from the muzzle of an infantry rifle, has lately been produced. It would seem, however, that in open warfare the most formidable opponent of the tank is the enemy tank, and it is probable that a

special type of light fast tank—a “tank destroyer ”—armed with one gun amidships, or even with a heavy machine-gun only, will be introduced. II.

Trencn

WARFARE

The lessons of the first phase of the war had been the necessity for a high degree of mobility, the breakdown of dircct liazson between infantry and artillery, and the weakness of permanent fortifications of old-fashioned type when attacked by modern guns. When the armies settled down to “ sedentary ” trench warfare, a fresh set of problems presented themselves.

At first, the trench system, however multiplied in detail, was simple and continuous in the ensemble; in 1915 4 system often consisted of three lines or skeins of trenches half a mile apart and connected by communication trenches. But, in the latter part of the war, different principles were followed, and a modern trench system is not a single strongly garrisoned linc, in which the troops would offer an easy target to artilicry, but a fortified zone two to three miles in depth. The front nearest to the cnemy is not a continuous parapet; it is dotted with inter-

supporting points of resistance, varying from a shell-crater holding three men to an armoured “ pill-box” or a fortified

“strong point’ held by a platoon with machine-guns -The actual front trench may be a mile behind the front of the system, and in any case is not visible to the enemy, It is dug on a reverse slope when possible, as a field of fire of roo yd. is quite enough for modern rapid-firing rifles and machine-guns. Even the front | trench is often not continuous, but consists of short Icngths arranged so that each can be enfiladed by guns, or more usually machine-guns, in rear. It is a chain of defences, rather than a

continuous barricr.

Behind the front trench is a network of

fire trenches, strong points, and communication trenches from one to two miles in depth; this is a styled the “ battle zone.” Behind this is the sccond-line trench, which forms the front of the “reserve zone.’ Still further to the rear there may be second and third trench systems and reserve lines. The ground in front of the battle zone is the outpost zone, and is not intended to offer serious resistance. Its function is to screen the

252

ARTILLERY

battle zone, and to delay an attack long enough to allow

done at special ranges behind the front, or, when this could not be done, by firing at known points in the enemy’s lines. The next Matter was to obtain an accurate map, with the positions

the battle zone to be manned. The field artillery have three sets of positions, known as forward, main, and reserve. The forward positions are in the battle zone, and the guns posted there arc intended to protect the out-

the cxact map range to be measured.”

post zone, and to support minor attacks made from this zone

was a great improvement in shooting, and consequent cconomy

of the batteries and their targets marked on it, so as to enable

The result of this work

(sce p. 253, Warfare between Front Trenches). The main positions are 3,000 to 4,000 yd. behind the front trench, that is, in the re-

of ammunition.

serve zone, some 1,000 yd. behind the second-line trench; the guns posted in the main positions barrage the front trench and support the infantry in the battle zone. The reserve positions are 3,000 to 4,000 yd. behind the second-line trench, and the guns, when they occupy them, barrage the second-line trench and support the infantry in the reserve zone. Normally about one-third of the divisional field artillery are in the forward positions and two-thirds in the main positions. The reserve positions are ready for occupation and supplied with ammunition!

the ammunition so that cach brigade had always one particular nature or brand of powder, except on special occasions, when preparations were made for a great attack. It was therefore customary, in trench warfare, to “register” all prospective

The medium and heavy artillery are behind the field artillery, and the wagon lines are out of ficld-gun range, that is, at least 5 m. from the enemy’s field artillery positions, Additional artillery positions are prepared, so far as the supply of labour per-

mits, for reénforcing units, which are put in when it is intended to attack, or when an enemy attack is threatened, All guns normally belonging to the front are in emplacements provided with overhead cover, and carefully camouflaged against the camera. All fire trenches and entrenched posts (called “ strong points ”’} are protected by entanglements of barbed wire. Artillery observing posts (“ O.P.’s ’’) from which the fire of the batteries is directed, are disposed wherever they can be concealed, and the whole system is connected up by an elaborate network

of telephone wires, the main lines being (in British practice) decply buried.

The arc of fire required of each battery has to be considered when siting and entrenching it. The following is a typical arrangement, subject to considerable local variation. It applies to a division of three infantry brigades of four battalions, three field-gun brigades of four batteries, and one field-howitzer brigade of four batteries, Each infantry brigade holds one unit of front, about 1,000 yd., and is supported by one ficld-gun brigade. Of the four batteries of this brigade, three cover their own unit

of front and can cover one more unit on each side, making 3,000 yd. of front; the fourth battery is a “ swinger,” and covers two units on each side of its own unit, making 5,000 yd. of front, All the field-howitzer battcrics are swingers. This arrangement enables the division to turn 13 field batteries on to any point on

its own front, and to turn 6 field batteries on to the front of

either of the neighbouring divisions when called upon. The medium, heavy, and super-heavy guns and howitzers are all sited, when possible, so as to engage any target within their range. Under these conditions, as soon as trench warfare began, artillery fire became a matter of very careful preparation and rapid execution. A battery was liable to be called on suddenly to fire on any one of a hundred different targets, visible from an O.P. or not. The first essential was to get every gun to shoot to map range. In open warfare, artillery firing at visible targets neglect the “ error of the day ”’ due to variations of temperature, barometric pressure, and wind, since this is corrected by direct. observation of fire. In the trenches this error became of great importance; it might, and did, make the difference between hitting the enemy or our own infantry. The daily “ Meteor ” telegram from the meteorological section of the army corps was supplemented by reference to the thermometer and wind-gauge whenever a battery opened fire. Worn guns were carefully

“ calibrated ” so that their error could be allowed for; this was 1 The British, who used 6-gun batteries, used to keep two guns of a battery forward and four in the main position; with 4-gun batteries it is not usually advisable to split them up. The Germans used to keep the whole of their ficld guns in the main and reserve positions, and these were further back than those described above; guns were sent up to the advanced positions for special tasks only, and were withdrawn as soon as these had been completed.

Unfortunately the varieties of powder supplied

caused a further complication.

It proved impossible to distribute

targets, or at least points near them.? Howitzers;—The necessity for scarching deep trenches and

penetrating overhead cover gave rise to a demand for more howitzers. The field gun, firing shrapnel, was invaluable when the enemy moved about their trenches, or showed themselves

over their parapets; at other times shrapnel was of little use, except for barrage.

The field gun H.E. shell was too small to

penetrate parapets, and the ficld-howitzer shell did not penetrate well-built dugouts. All the belligerents found that the most useful weapon for bombardment was the 6-in. (z5 of 15+5 cm.) howitzer, throwing a shell of roo pounds. The Germans in particular regarded this as their most important weapon for trench warfare. In 1914 the British army had only a few old-pattern 6-in. siege howitzers, but from 1915 they had a 6-in. Q.F.

howitzer ranging 10,000 yd., which range was afterwards. increased to 11,600 yd. by the issuc of stream-line shell. By the end of the war the British had 6,437 howitzers in France alone;

3,633 6-in. howitzers had been issued, and 1,458 were in the line on Armistice day, which shows the rate at which they were worn out. They fired over 22,000,000 rounds, Similarly in 1914 the French had only 300 howitzers of 155 mm., of which 104 were mobile. In 1918 they had 6,000 of this and larger calibres, The heavy and super-heavy howitzers, 8-in. (21 cm.), 9-2 or g-4-in. (24 cm.) and higher calibres were used for work too

heavy for the 6-in. For all calibres over 6-in., howitzers soon began to supersede

guns, though a few flat-trajectory heavy guns were used. The reason for this was a question of supply.

A howitzer firing at

45° gets its shell to the target with a much smaller powder charge than a high-velocity gun, and consequently lasts perhaps ro, times as long before it has to be retubed,

Increased Range-—The precision with which “ map fire” could be carried out by the methods described above led to headquarters, wagon lines, ammunition “ dumps,” and installations. behind the lines being shifted to greater distances from the front.

This created a demand for increased range. When the Germans

initiated the system of covering the front with a zone of “ pillboxes ” and small posts, and withdrawing the front trench (or its equivalent chain of short trenches) a mile behind the front of the defended zone, the ranges were still further increased. Even before this, the Germans had lengthened their field gun and brought out a strcam-line shell which increased its range from 6,000 yd. to 11,700 yd.; their old field howitzer ranged » 600 yd., their 1916 pattern 10,500 yd., and similarly with the 6-in. howitzer and larger calibres,

Other nations did the same;

the. French altered the trail of their 75-mm. field gun so as to get more elevation and increase the range to 11,000 yd. with stream-line shell, and introduced their short r9-cm. gun, converted

2 This resurvey often showed local landmarks to be 100 or 200 yd. from their positions as marked on the original maps. 3 Registration consisted of firing a series and noting the result, corrected to standard ‘ Meteor” conditions. These series were

observed from O.P.’s when possible, otherwise by aeroplanes or sound-ranging: Thus when an enemy working party was reported by an aeroplane in Trench 56, a battery commander got the order ‘Target 56 stop 25 shrapnel 25 HE Fire.” He looked up 56 in his

registration book, corrected the recorded elevation, direction, and fuze for ‘' Meteor ” and powder in use, gave his orders, and his guns

fired the 50 rounds in half a minute. The aeroplane observed the result, which was entered in the registration book for future reference.

ARTILLERY to an 8-in. howitzer. In guns designed since the war the increase of range is very marked; thus the United States require 15,000 yd. of range for their new field gun; the latest pattern of British 18-pounder issued during the war ranged ro,800 yd., and the

forthcoming pattern will probably range as far as the U.S. gun. Hundred~Mile Guns—This general increase of range culminated in the German gun or rather guns (colloquially called “ Big Berthas ”) which shelled Paris from a distance of 76 miles. As early as 1915 the Germans shelled Dunkirk from a point 25 m. distant with a 14-in. naval gun, and they proposed, if they succeeded in driving the Allies back from Calais, to use rromile guns which should command the whole of the British coast from Yarmouth to Southampton, and the whole of the London district. Such guns are not specially difficult to make, and both the British and the French artillery authorities had worked out the design of roo-mile guns some years before the war,

In

principle they depend on firing a shell upwards so as to clear the dense layer of air lying next to the earth, and to attain a height of some 25 m. where the air is so rarefied as to oppose practically no resistance to the flight of the shell, Seven of these guns were used against Paris in 1918, and at the end of the war the Germans had six more building; the British, French, and Italian Governments had each at least one of these guns building, but it is understood that none of these were completed. Owing to the high powder-pressure employed, and conSequent high temperature in the bore, the life of the German guns was only about ṣo rounds, after which they had to be rebored. For this reason the roo-mite gun marks about the limit of practical possibility with propellants now in use. But, if it were considered advisable, it would be possible to make a special powder giving lower tempcratures than the gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine powders now in use, and so increase the life of these guns.

Flashiess Powder,—During “sedentary”? warfare, any gun which fired at night within direct view of the enemy was liable to be marked down by the “ flash-spotting ” section opposite to it, who got cross bearings to it, after which it was soon shelled out. It was therefore necessary to mtroduce flashless powder, or else to add a portion of special chemical composition to the ordinary charge for all guns which could not. be hidden behind woods or hills. The United States have specified that it is to be used in their new field gun. Ranging by Aecroplane-~—Apart from the work done by aircraft in locating targets by direct observation or by photography, they were used during trench warfare for ranging on targets which could not be observed from the ground. The acroplane was from the first fitted with a wireless sending set; but it was only towards the end of the war that practical forms of receiving apparatus were evolved, and, generally speaking, messages to the aeroplane had to be sent by code signals, which were strips

253

takes about a day, and in certain conditions the method cannot be depended on or indeed used at all. In mobile warfare, soundranging may possibly be used to locate the enemy’s heavy guns. Warfare between Front Trenches.—Simultaneously with the: long-distance shooting at targets behind the fronts, constant fighting took place between the front trenches, which, early in the war, were in some places only so yd. apart. Even when the front trenches were shifted back behind screens. of defensive points, constant guerrilla warfare continued to be waged between the detachments opposite each other. ‘The need for trench artillery was soon felt, and was supplied by a new

class of

weapon. The original trench mortars had only a very short range,

and, as they had therefore to be kept close up to the front trench, the loss of life among the detachments was heavy. Later, longerranging trench mortars were introduced, which could be posted relatively far back, and were available for firing on our own front trench if the enemy broke into it.

Trench ordnance on wheeled mounts was used to some extent as accompanying artillery, especially the later pattern of the

German light trench mortar, which was fitted for direct ag well as for high-angle fire. But the excessive weight of the ammuni-

tion renders trench mortars unsuitable as substitutes for guns of accompaniment. Wire-Culting.—Very carly in the war it became necessary to find a means of destroying, or at least cutting lanes in the strong barbed wire entanglements which covered the whole front. At the period of the autumn battles of 1915, this was

done on the British front by the shrapnel fire of ficld guns. This was effective for wire-cutting only up to about 1,800 yd.; within that range it was found that lanes could be cut through a belt of wire 8 yd. deep with an expenditure not exceeding 10 rounds per yd. of front. Later on, thick steel barbed wire came into use, which could not be cut by shrapnel bullets; moreover,

the process of wire-cutling with shrapnel required precise and deliberate shooting, and had usually to be carried out on the day before the attack, thus forfeiting the advantage of surprise.

Howitzer H.E. shell with ordinary fuzes proved useless, as they made craters into which the network of wire fell back, making a worse obstacle than before. In 1916 medium trenchmortar shell with instantancous fuze came into use; these shell

made a crater not more ihan 6 in. deep, and blew away the wire from a circle about 5 yd. in diameter. But trench mortar ranges are very limited and it was not till the instantaneous fuze was adapted to H.E. shell for field guns and field howitzers that the range at which wire could be cut was increased to 4,000 yards, The French used the 75-mm., field gun, while the British mostly used the 4-5-in. ficld howitzer, As an alternative to the instantancous fuze, a percussion fuze giving a slight dclay

action was used with H.E. shell for wire-cutting, the object being

of white cloth laid out on the ground near the battery. Only

to burst the shell on the upward branch of its trajectory after impact, within a yard or so of the ground. Some success was

simple signals such as “' Ready to Fire ” could be used; it was

attained with this method when the ground was hard and the

therefore. necessary to arrange the details as to the target to be observed beforehand. Ranging was carricd out deliberately, the aeroplane sending down the result of cach shot.

Only one

stich series could be fired at a time on an army corps [ront, as, with the instruments then in use, if two aeroplanes had been

sending wireless at the same moment they would have interfered with each other. Until the means of wircless communication are improved, aeroplane ranging will remain too slow and elaborate 4 method for field artillery in mobile warfare, though it may be applied to heavy artillery. Sound-Ranging—This is described under RANGEFINDERS AND. Position FINDERS. It consists in measuring the intervals of time at which the sound of an enemy gun successively reaches three or more stations, and, from the differences, calculating the position of the gun. It also enables the point at which one’s own shell bursts ta be located. ‘The installation of these stations 1 The bombardment of Paris was spread over 140 days; firing took place on 44 days only. 183 8-in. shell fell in Paris, and 120 in the suburbs. The material cflect was slight (256 people killed in 43 months) and the moral effect, after the first day, inconsidcrable.

angle of impact small, so that the shell did not tend to bury itself. Wire-cutting with H.E. shell is a much quicker method than with carefully adjusted shrapnel bursts, provided that a sufficient volume of fire is obtainable (see section EFFECT supra). Counter-Batlery work is the attack of artillery by artillery with the object of destroying the material and inflicting disabling casualitics, or at least of neutralizing enemy fire for a certain time. In spite of the results achieved in locating cnemy guns by aircraft, flash-spotting, and sound-ranging, counter-battery work throughout the war generally failed to destroy them and their detachments, or even to silence them permanently.

How-

ever, when a battery was located it was usually possible to neutralize it, that is, to stop or much reduce its fire, so long as fire

upon it could be kept up. If a battery exposed itself in the open within range of artillery in position it was destroyed in a few minutes.

Therefore bat-

teries used concealed and camouflaged positions with overhead cover proof against field artillery. If such a position was located the battery was soon shelled out by the 6-in. and heavier howitzers, but it was rarely possible to destroy the guns without an

ARTILLERY

254 undue expenditure of ammunition,

The usual result was that

the gunners retired a few hundred yards (if they had no deep

of guns. Normally the line is held by about one gum to 30 yd including field, medium and heavy. For an attack, this number must be at least trebied.

reckoned that one position in four was occupied. The British and the French used to repair abandoned positions to encourage the enemy to go on shelling them. Flashes were fired from dummy positions for the same purpose. “ Silent ” positions,

front from Monchy to La Fére, had the following, counting normal establishments only :— 1 field gun per 19 yd. of front 1 field howitzer per 57 yd. of front 1 medium howitzer per 128 yd. of front 1 heavy gun per 128 yd. of front 1 heavy howitzer per 256 yd. of front I superheavy howitzer per 512 yd. of front. This alone amounts to one gun per 11 yd. of front: but in addition

dugouts) till the shelling was over, and then came back to their -guns. If they were shelled again they shifted their guns to another position. The ground in front of Vimy Ridge was a mass of positions from which batteries had been shelled out, and it was

The Germans, in their great attack of March 1918 on the 50 m.

from which the guns were not allowed to open fire till active operations began, were rarely located.

.

to this the four-gun field batteries were reénforced, as far as possible,

The Germans were fairly successful in neutralizing batteries with gas shell; concealed artillery positions, being usually in hollows. or woods, are specially vulnerable to gas attack.

by adding two guns from reserve. The extra guns were not harsed and the gunners were provided from personnel on the spot.!' There

If

were also a certain number of miscellaneous guns and a very liberal

equipment of trench ordnance.

such a position be thoroughly drenched with persistent gas it

sections of this front the concentration of gun-fire on the real fronts k oo was much heavier than these figures imply, as explained elow. . In the still more highly developed artillery attack of May 27 1918 on the Chemin des Dames the strength (according to Col, Bruch-

more difficult to locate concealed artillery positions. Ill. Tur BREAK-THROUGH During the three years 1915, r9r6 and 1917 numerous at tempts were made to break through the opposing line, the most

miiller, who was responsible for the arrangements) was—

I field gun per 26 yd, of front (not including about 30 batteries

notable being the German attack on Verdun. All these attempts failed; the less unsuccessful of them resulted merely in the cap- f

told off as accompanying artillery),

1 field howitzer per 47 yd. of front, r medium howitzer per 99 yd. of front, I heavy howitzer per 156 yd. of front,

ture of an unimportant strip of ground at a heavy cost. A dis-

cussion of the reasons for these failures would be beyond the limits of this article, From an artillery point of view it is morc important to consider the method of attack which was finally evolved, The two leading principles are the following:— (a) Surprise-—This implies the rapid and perfectly timed concentration of artillery and infantry units in the area of the attack, so that they arrive just when they are wanted.

Altogether it may be estimated that

the Germans, in this attack, had one gun per 9 yd. of the whole front attacked; but since the attack was pushed home only on alternate

becomes untenable, since men cannot work in gas-masks for a prolonged period. In future, flashless powder will make it still

r medium or heavy gun per 200 yd. of front, I superheavy gun or howitzer per 1,126 yd. of front, or

I field piece per 17 yd. and 1 medium or heavy or superheavy piece per 49 yd. In the aggregate 1 piece per 12 yd. irrespective altogether of accompanying artillery, additional guns, and trench mortars, In the battle of July 15 1918—the last German offensive—the

Ii, as is

trench-mortar strength was approximately one per 30 yd. fora con-

siderable frontage, and Jocally as much‘as one per 10 or 12 yd. Positions for Artillery——Assuming’ that, for an attack, the artillery of a front, normally one gun per 30 yd., has to be increased to one gun per ro yd., positions have to be prepared for

probable, the result of the attack is that the cnemy’s line is not broken, but is only bent back, successive surprise attacks are made by shifting the weight of the attack quickly to other points which may be ṣo or roo m. distant, so as to form salients in the enemy’s linc, which are then “ pinched out ” by attacking them from both flanks. This, at least, is the obvious course: and, because it is so, it may not be the best one. In some cases a commander may decide that he has a better prospect of surprising the enemy by renewing his attack on the original point.

the reénforcing guns. A certain number of spare positions with gun emplacements protected by overhead cover will already exist as part of the equipment of the front, but it is rarely

or so quickly that he has no time for counter-

possible to provide labour on such a scale that a defensive front is always kept ready to be used as an attacking front. If it be possible to bring up the whole of the reénforcing guns during the last night before the attack the preparation will consist principally of marking out gun positions and roads to them, and laying telephone cables to them and to the observing posi-

preparation.

tions. But even with motor equipment the concentration of the

(b) Wide Front—It is useless to make a narrow gap in the enemy’s line, commanded by his guns from both sides. It must,

whole movement of the troops into one night imposes such a strain upon the transport that it will usually be necessary to

Success depends principally on an organization which enables

guns and men in large numbers to be placed in readiness for ac-

tion in any selected area of attack cither without the enemy’s knowledge,

spread the movement over three nights, and in this case efficient camouflage must be provided for the guns which arrive before

roughly, be wide enough to allow for ro m, of shelled ground on each side, and a 20 m. passage down the middle; that is, about

the last night.

40 miles. The Germans in March r918 attacked on a som. front. Concentration of Artillery-~The first step is to prepare for

1 They were intended only to take part in the bombardment and

the concentration on the front of attack of a sufficient number

not in the advance which followed.

The following table, from the Revue d'Artillerie of May 1921, shows the densities of artillery strength in certain French battles of 1915-7: Yards of front per gun.

t field gun per

Champagne, Sept. 25 rg1§ ss Somme, July I 1916 . s. 2 . .

Aisne, April 16 1917 . . Verdun (Mort-Homme battle) Aug. 201917,

:

Malmaison, Oct. 23 1917.

:

7

.

`

.

36 yd. 36"

z2

"“

20

“

18 “

1 medium or heavy gun per

I medium or heavy howitzer” per 133 yl.

r medium or heavy gun or howitzer per 44 yd.

45 “

sg “

26 “

i

ane

66 yd. go “ —

68

z

29

I superheavy picce per —

“

ag

iS

121 yd.

255 Bs

aie

a

*The French had no field howitzers.

The French “ Offensive Instructions " of Oct. 31 1917 layY down a scale for the first-class offensive battle of about I field gun per 15 yd. 1 medium or heavy piece for demolitions per 30 yd. Beg eA et “ —“ counter-battery per 35 yd. Supereayy pieces approximately at I per 170 yd, lus I piece of trench ordnance per 30 yd., except in parts of the front reserved . or tank action).

ARTILLERY Registration—The reénforcing guns must be able to open

255

register their targets for them beforchand, the registration being spread over several days so as not to attract special notice.

bardment, it will still be necessary to deliver a heavy fire on targets behind the cnemy’s front as soon as the attack is disclosed. It will not be enough to bombard. railway stations and road junctions if the defender’s motor troops are independent of railways and

But calibration, study of atmospheric influences, and surveying?

roads. Therefore this fire will presumably be not so much a bom-

have latterly been so thoroughly applicd that it may be possible, in future, to rely upon opening effective fire by map without ranging. ‘This again requircs thorough preparation, which is possible when an attack is planned beforchand. So far as can be foresecn, there is no prospect of dispensing with ranging when

bardment of fixed points as fire for effect, directed by aeroplane observation, upon.the defender’s reénforcements. So far as can be judged the amount of ammunition required

fire at zero hour.

Usually the batteries belonging to the front

the troops are on the move,

‘Conduct. of the Attack. Bombardment-—In the great trench battles of 1916 and 1917 it was customary to begin with a bombardment of the enemy lines lasting a week or even more. This. was fatal to surprise action, and in 1918 the preparation consisted of some six hours or less of “ intense ” bombardment,

every gun firing at its highest rate.

for an attack will be increased rather than diminished, in view of the scattered targets presented by motor troops.

The Infaniry Atlack.—As soon as the “intense” bombardment has done its work on the outpost zone and the first line? the infantry advances, screened by 4 creeping barrage, preceded by tanks, and closely followed by guns of accompaniment. The bombardment is “lifted” from the first line to reénforce that on the second line; as soon as the infantry have taken the

The use of tanks may in

first line fresh waves of men pour through them to attack the future cnable this bombardment to be shortened, as will be seen. second line. When the second line is taken the field artillery of The Germans pressed their great attack, of March 1918, only the attack pushes forward by echelons to positions in or near on alternate sectors (of about 3,000 yd.) of the British line, the frst line. Later on the medium and heavy artillery push trusting to envelop the intermediate sectors. They were thus forward, enabled to concentrate nearly the whole of their guns on half

the total frontage, so that they had roughly one gun firing on every s yd. of the front actually attacked. .

It is not to be expected that the infantry will be able to ad-

vance on a Continuous front. After the thinly held ‘outpost system has becn rushed progress is by “ infiltration.” Wherever ‘A reasonable estimate of the ammunition required fer a- a weak. point is found the infantry pour through it, and the adsix. hours’ intense bombardment per mile of front seriously vancing streams of men, fed by the local reserves, spread out to attacked is 50,000 rounds ficld gun ammunition, 10,000 field right and left and envelop the defensive points that still hold out. howitzer, 5,000 6-in. howitzer, 2,000 6-in. gun, 500 heavy Tanks are here invaluable in leading the streams of riflemen, in howitzer, and 200 rounds superheavy howitzer. If the attack “ rolling out ” barriers of barbed wire, and in rushing the centres presses forward without a check for three days from the start, of defence. It is the involved and complicated nature of this then at least 50% more will be required on the second day, and warfare which prevents the main body of the artillery in rear the same on the third day if the enemy is rcénforced; at any from supporting the infantry in the scries of local combats rate it would be unwise to begin an attack without double the which characterize the advance through the trench system, above amount in hand. If the attack is seriously checked the and which renders it necessary to provide the infantry with intensive bombardment. will have to be repeated and a fresh guns of accompaniment, start made, ‘hese figures give a fair idea of the scale on which The process of infiltration outlined above is apt to produce guns and ammunition are used in modern warfare. irregular salients in the advancing line, which the artillery in The reason for this vast expenditure of ammunition is that the rear find it difficult to protect by barrage, and which are thercbombardment is not confined to the front of the position at- fore the more exposed to counter-attack. On this account it tacked—the front zone, as explained above, is a thinly held was the practice, at one time, to limit the objective—that is, to system of outposts—it is directed mainly on the real defensive. fix a line beyond which the troops were not to advance, so that zones and centres in rear, Targets such as railway stations, when this line was gained they should present a continuous front, bridges, and road junctions as much as ro m. behind the front protected by artillery fire, from which a further advance could have to be bombarded by the long-range guns and howitzers. be made. This system led to a great waste of opportunity. It Influence of Tank Action on Bombardment.—In the autumn may still have to be adopted on occasion; but the modern tendof 1918 the tanks achieved such success in breaking through ency is to gain every possible foot of ground, and to provide defences which had not previously been bombarded that it is reserves on a scale sufficient to “ feed” the salients so that they considered that in some. cases, provided that the ground is can spread out laterally and “ pinch out” the ground between favourable for tank action, it may be possible to shorten the them which is still held by the enemy. That is, every salient preliminary six-hours’ bombardment to half-an-hour, or even to must become an offensive, not a defensive, feature. Without dispense with it altogether, and to trust to the creeping barrage artillery support these offensive tactics would hardly succeed to protect the advancing infaniry and tanks (British Field against the defender’s ‘ strong points,” which are not merely Service Regulations, 1920, Part IL, para. 118 [6]). When this fire-trenches facing the front, but miniature forts prepared for method is employed all guns other than those firing the creeping all-round fire. It is necessary, therefore, that in addition to the barrage will concentrate on important points behind the cnemy’s guns of accompaniment part of the artillery in rear should press front simultaneously with the launching of the attack. forward boldly, so as to keep in touch with the infantry and be This is a new method of procedure, in which our present able with the assistance of-aeroplanes or of thcir own reconexperience is not sufficient to enable us to forecast the best noitring patrols to direct a heavy fire on any defensive work course of action with any confidence. The regulation quoted which still holds out. above is cautiously worded, and does not imply that the use of The action of the artillery in the attack may be summed up tanks will render bombardment unnecessary. Even if the tanks as follows: the bombardment weakens the defence and the are expected to succeed in rushing the first and second zones of barrage protects the attack. The guns of accompaniment sup-~ the enemy’s defences, they will certainly experience increased port the attack so long as the enemy continues to retire, offering resistance as they penetrate deeper into the position. In future only slight resistance intended to weaken the attack, When warfare tanks will not be the only motor vehicles on the battle- resistance becomes serious the divisional field artillery must be field. The mobility of the defender’s motor guns and motor in- in position and in communication with the infantry, so that fantry, both on and off the road, will enable him to bring up

reénforcements far more quickly than was the case in rgr8, Although the attack may be launched without any previous bom` 1The position of one gun in each battery (or other unit) is fixed

exactly by survey and marked both on the map and on the ground

before the guns arrive.

2 The word “line” is used in this description because no other accepted military term is available. In reality modern defensive systems consist of chains of detached works or trenches, supporting

cach other by their fire. The only continuous feature which marks a

defensive zone is the belt of barbed wire entanglement, and this itself is irregularly traced,

i

ARTILLERY

256 they can support it in local combats.

If the resistance becomes

obstinate and beyond the power of infantry and field guns to overcome, renewed,

the bombardment

by the heavy artillery must be

These tactics are repeated as each successive line, or defensive zone, is encountered. The process can be repeated indefinitely so long as the supply of men, guns, and ammunition can

be kept up, provided that it is possible to convey them to the fighting line. The latter has proved a very serious difficulty in the past, and has perhaps been more instrumental than any other cause in bringing great attacks to a standstill. It must be overcome by the work of the engineers in repairing roads and railways, and by the provision of improved cross-country vehicles.

Artillery in Defence-—Whether defence in the hitherto ac-

cepted sense is or is not the form of resistance best suited to modern conditions is a question which lics outside the scope of this article. For the present purpose it is assumed that the ground occupied is to be defended in the literal and tactical sense. In the ordinary defence of a position the method of meeting an attack varies according to the degree of certainty with which the encmy’s intentions have been anticipated, and the amount

of preparation which it has been possible to make. If the defender is fully prepared for the attack, and has massed his artillery to mect it, then he can reply to the initial “intense” bombardment with a similar bombardment, which will certainly render the attack ineffective.

If he knows when the attack is to be launched, but has not been able to reénforce his artillery, he can still put down a preventive barrage, just before “zero” hour, on the cnemy’s lines. This will weaken the attack, and may delay it. Even if the defender has had no warning, and is unable to oppose gun for gun to the attack, the mobility of motor artillery should, in future, enable him to reénforce his artillery (provided he has guns available elsewhere) within two days at mest. But the enemy will probably provide against this by making a holding attack on a very wide front, or on several fronts. The defender will be uncertain as to which of these is the real attack,

and will be afraid to take any guns out of the line. He must then depend upon his general reserve for the artillery reénforcements which he requires.

We will consider the case of a section of an entrenched front, held with the normal proportion of artillery (one gun to 30 yd.), attacked by surprise by a concentrated force (one gun to 10 yd.). It is clear that the attacking infantry must come out into the open when they advance, and that they are then

exposed to artillery fire. Putting down a shrapnel barrage at ro seconds’ notice on the enemy’s front line, and bringing it back over one’s own lines when neccessary, is of course part of the regular routine of trench warfare. But the attacker counts on

destroying or neutralizing the guns of the defence by his bombardment and counter-battery fire, and he is likely to succeed to a great extent as regards batteries which have previously disclosed their positions by firing.

It is thercfore necessary to

have “silent” batteries in the linc, that is to say, batteries

“ Silent ” batteries take part in this, since the smoke of the bombardment will conceal their positions. When the infantry attack is launched, then, assuming that the defender has stil] a

fair number of batteries cffective, as soon as the call is made upon them the field guns and trench mortars of the defence put down a heavy barrage on the enemy’s front-line and com-

munication trenches.

Medium guns and field howitzers barrage

probable assembly points, while medium-and heavy howitzers bombard the attacker’s gun positions, so far as these have previously been disclosed. Since the defence has been weakened by the bombardment it is probable that the attacker will capture the forward zone. It takes one gun per 20 yd to make a heavy barrage; the defender starts with only one gun per 30 yd., and may be reduced to one gun per 6o yd. at the end of the “ intense ”’

bombardment.

Of these at least a third will be firing on the

attacker’s guns and communications, so that the defender’s barrage will presumably be too thin to stop a determined attack, though it will cause a considerable number of casualties.

For this reason the defender will probably elcct to use a partial barrage, that is to say, a barrage of effective density, covering only part of his front, the remainder being protected by machine-

guns and trench mortars. If his telephone communications are thoroughly reliable he may be able to control this’ barrage so as to put it down, at a moment’s notice, in front of any part of his line that is attacked. Each battery will then have, say, three alternative sects of barrage orders, so that the whole barrage can be put down on any one of three sections of the front. But this method is so complicated and so hable to break down that few commanders would care to trust to it. As the attack gains ground the defender endeavours to keep his counter-barrage on the leading troops of the attack, and behind his retiring infantry; but owing to the inevitable breakdown of communications while the infantry are on the move it is not likely that this idcal will be completely achieved. When the defenders retire from the second zone of defence the attack will be getting within rifle range of the defender’s field guns.

The defender cannot afford to lose the whole of his. field guns, but it is desirable that some of them, say one-third, should remain in action till the enemy is within soo yd. of them, as they will

cause heavy loss by their point-blank fire. If well supported by the guns which have already retired they have an excellent chance of getting away. As the retirement continues the medium and heavy pieces have to withdraw to the positions prepared for them in rear. There are many details, such as the support of local counterattacks and the protection of “strong points” which have

held out against the attack, which cannot be entered upon here.

Speaking generally, the object of the defender when attacked by a greatly superior force is to maintain an orderly retirement,

with his line bending back but never breaking, taking heavy toll of the attacking infantry at every stage of their advance, until the attack is sufficiently weakened, or the defence sufficiently reénforced, to enable the defender to launch a general counterattack. Enfilade Fire —It has often been suggested that the best artillery

which, ordinarily, are never allowed to fire except on occasions when visibility is bad, and then only under precautions against

defence is that afforded by the oblique and enfilade fire of guns from adjoining sectors of the front, This theory broke down in practice.

sound-ranging. The may be 1,000 rounds ance can be fired by no difficulty, other

tablished in its neighbours’ territory, or else had a “ call” on some of its neighbours’ guns for enfilade purposes. So long as the line was not seriously bombarded these guns were very useful. But when the line was attacked in force it was quite hard enough to keep up communication from front to rear within a divisional area, and it proved impossible to direct the fire of the guns of other divisions. These often joined in on their own account to help a neighbour when they

normal expenditure on a divisional front a day, or less on quiet fronts, and this allowa small number of batteries, so that there is than the administrative one, in kecping

half the guns of a front in silent positions in reserve to repel an attack, Another necessary precaution is the provision of deeply buried telephone cables, proof against bombardment by heavy

artillery; and these must be laid not only to the ordinary gun and observing positions, but also tọ the positions in rear to which the artillery may have to retire.

As soon as the attacker begins his “ intense ” bombardment the guns of the defence reply with a similar bombardment, necessarily on a scale corresponding to their smaller number.

During sedentary warfare every division had enfilade sections es-

could sce what was going on, but their assistance could not be rehed on as part of the scheme of defence.

:

Within the divisional front the method of enfilade fire at short

ranges is constantly employed; every onc of the detached trenches and other works which constitute a defensive zone should be enfiladed from works in rear of if, and the approaches to it should be swept by oblique fire. Vhis duty is chiefly performed by machine-guns, but it is advisable, when

extra emplacements across their front.

possible, to provide the batteries in rear with

from which guns can fire obliquely or even

ARTILLERY Defence against Tanks.~In describing the defence of an entrenched position, no mention has so far been made of tanks, although the use of these is now one of the most important fea-

257

IV. Tue PHASE Or EXPLOITATION Tn France, in the latter half of 1918, after four years of trench

fighting, the retreat of the invader brought the combatants tures of the attack. And this is because the best method of deal- into the open once more, but under changed conditions. The ing with attacking tanks is still a matter of speculation, artillery had increased in numbers relatively to the infantry; Tanks advancing against a position are screened from the their ammunition supply admitted of a greatly increased volume aimed fire of distant artillery by the barrage which precedes of fire, and their range had been extended. Mechanical traction, them. If ordinary field guns are concealed in the front line to even for field artillery, had to a great extent come into use, destroy them, these are gencrally destroyed themselves by especially in the French army, and medium, heavy and even the bombardment. Some tanks may be hit by the defender’s “superheavy ordnance were able to accompany the troops in barrage, but this is likely to be either thin or partial. At a later the field. stage some of the tanks will be hit by those ficld guns which Under such conditions the troops had to adapt themselves remain behind till the attacking infantry are within 500 yd. of to a new method of warfare. The pre-war battery commanders, them. The uncertainty of defence by mines and by ditches has experts in mobile warfare, had been replaced by others whose been shown by experience. ‘Tank-stopping rifles and tank- training had begun in the trenches. Few of the officers and men stopping machine-guns are effective against the present tanks, had any knowledge of mobile warfare as thought and practised but those used in the next war will be proof against anything before the war, and even these found that they had to learn short of a gun. Eon their work afresh, 2 it is often assumed that attacking tanks will be engaged by Moreover, owing to the strain upon the munition factories the tanks of the defence. But when a position is subjected to a manufacture had come to be limited to projectiles of simple fully organized attack the latter will not find it easy to do this. design suited for mass production, and shrapnel had disappeared If kept well up to the front in readiness they will be destroyed from all but the field-gun equipments. In the French army, by the bombardment, to which they offer large targets. If even these had only 5% of shrapnel, the rest being IJ. E. shell. kept some 3 m. in rear till the attacking tanks appear, they The mobile phase did not last long enough for the employwill, even if their movements be correctly timed, have to pass ment of artillery in a war of masses to be thoroughly studied. through the attacker’s bombardment and barrage, and possibly The conclusions arrived at cannot be regarded as final, and are through their own barrage. Morcover, the tanks of the defence subject to possible modifications due to the more extensive use are presumably fewer in number than those assembled for the of tanks, motor artillery, and motor infantry. attack, so that even if they arrive in time they will be outIorse Artillery —TJhe old methods of manoeuvre are not matched, applicable to a war in which the line of battle is continuous, with The best solution of the difficulty would appear to be the no flanks. Whatever the general procedure sclected by the Provision of special anti-tank guns, large enough to put an attacker, or pursucr, he will keep close touch with the defender’s armout-picrcing shell into a tank, and small enough to be pro- line, and maintain pressure on it at all points so as to deny him vided with strong cover. A light mountain gun, capable of being freedom of manoeuvre. The object of the pursued is to break divided into man-loads, would be suitable for the purpose. away from the pursuer, and to lose touch with his troops, so as These guns might be in dugouts some 4oo yd behind the front to regain freedom of manoeuvre in order to counter-attack, line, where they would not be subjected to the full violence of to take up a defensive position, or both. In this nature of warthe bombardment. When this was lifted from the front line fare horse artillery are of great value. (In the coming age of preparatory to the assault, the anti-tank guns would be put motor artillery, the term “ horse artillery ” must be understood together and run up.on to platforms level with the tops of the to mean a more mobile arm than the divisional field artillery, trench. parapets, giving them sufficient command to sec the capable of working with the “ cavalry ” of the future, however attacking tanks as they charged tho front line. that arm may be transported.) The lessons of the first phase A regular defence in depth by anti-tank guns would have to of the western campaigns and of the Palestine campaign of 1918 be provided for, additional anti-tank guns being sited bchind still hold good. each successive line of defence, as well as in “ strong points.” The Altack.—The result of the continuous line of battle is These anti-tank guns would have to be “silent” guns, at that all attacks are, tactically, frontal attacks. Within the least so far as their own firing emplacements were concerned, limits of an army corps or divisional frontal attack there will be Their provision, on a scale. sufficient to stop a tank attack, local flank altacks; thus it is often easier 10 envelop a strongly would involve a considerable addition to the artillery of the held locality than to take it by direct assault. But these are dcicnce. For even if the infantry guns of accompaniment were minor operations which concern the trench mortars, the guns utilized as anti-tank guns, there would not be cnough of them. of accompaniment, and the gun-carrying tanks rather than the Infantry guns are required at the rate of one per 100 yd. of the main body of the artillery. front of the attack, or at most 16 to a division; while if a division Intimate codperation of gun and rifle is more necessary than holds 3,000 yd. of entrenched front it will require three lines of ever, owing to the increased fire-power of the defence afforded anti-tank guns sited 200 yd. apart, that is rs in cach line, or by the machine-gun. ‘The breakdown of liaison par le bas in 45, besides some 1g for “strong points.” This calculation the opening phase of the war has already been referred to; in shows that 60 anti-tank guns per divisional front gre required, the concluding phase this was still more marked, and the French or about one per 45-50 yards. especially complained that their artillery misused the increased It may be suggested that the anti-tank guns of the first line range of their field gun by keeping far in rear of the infantry, could withdraw to the second line, and then again to the third where communication with them was impossible, instead of linc. But since they have to remain in position till the attack- pressing forward to find out what was gojng on. But even if ing infantry have almost reached them, in order to deal with liaison is so far effective that the artillery know when the the tanks, there would appcar to be little chance of withdrawing infantry is checked by fire, it does not follow that they will be the guns, although the detachments may be able to escape. able to discover the source of the fire. Possibly the infantry may The expenditure of men and material for a special purpose not know themselves. Aeroplanes may be of great help both in which the above scheme involves is not to be undertaken lightly. locating it and in promptly conveying the information to the But it has become manifest that attacking tanks are safe from supporting artillery. It is even conceivable that battery comdistant artillery, and must be engaged by guns on the spot. manders will direct the fire of their guns from aeroplanes. But Therefore these guns will have to be provided; and, so far as the possibilities of “ liaison by the air” are still too vague to our present experience extends, the provision of numerous count upon. small guns in the trench arca secms to be the best answer to The Barvage.—Since, under present conditions, the artillery

the menace of the tank attack.

cannot always give the infantry direct support by killing the

ARTILLERY Defence against Tanks —In describing the defence of an [| entrenched position, no mention has so far been made of tanks, although the use of these is now one of the most important fea-

tures of the attack. And this is because the best method of dealing with attacking tanks is still a matter of speculation. Tanks advancing against a position are screened from the aimed fire of distant artillery by the barrage which precedes

257

IV. TuE PHASE OF EXPLOITATION In France, in the latter half of 1918, after four years of trench fighting, the retreat of the invader brought the combatants into the open once more, but under changed conditions. The `

artillery had increased in numbers relatively to the infantry;

their ammunition supply admitted of a greatly increased volume of fire, and their range had been extended. Mechanical traction, them. If ordinary field guns are concealed in the front line to even for field artillery, had to a great extent come into use, destroy them, these are generally destroyed themselves by especially in the French army, and medium, heavy and even the bombardment. Some tanks may be hit by the defender’s superheavy ordnance were able to accompany the troops in barrage, but this is likely to be either thin or partial. At a later the field. stage some of the tanks will be hit by those field guns which _ Under such conditions the troops had to adapt themselves remain behind till the attacking infantry are within 500 yd. of to a new method of warfare. The pre-war battery commanders, them. The uncertainty of defence by mines and by ditches has experts in mobile warfare, had been replaced by others whose been shown by experience. Tank-stopping rifles and tanktraining had begun in the trenches. Few of the officers and men stopping machine-guns are effective against the present tanks, had any knowledge of mobile warfare as thought and practised but those used in the next war will be proof against anything before the war, and even these found that they had to learn short of a gun. their work afresh. It is often assumed that attacking tanks will be engaged by Moreover, owing to the. strain upon the munition factorics the tanks of the defence. But when a position is subjected to a manufacture had come to be limited to projectiles of simple fully organized attack the latter will not find it easy to do this. design suited for mass production, and shrapnel had disappeared If kept well up to the front in readiness they will be destroyed from all but the field-gun cquipments, In the French army, by the bombardment, to which they offer large targets. If even these had only 5% of shrapnel, the rest being I. E. shell. kept some 3 m. in rear till the attacking tanks appear, they The mobile phase did not last long enough for the employwill, even if their movements be correctly timed, have to pass ment of artillery in a war of masses to be thoroughly studied. through the attacker’s bombardment and barrage, and possibly The conclusions arrived at cannot be regarded as final, and are through their own barrage. Moreover, the tanks of the defence subject to possible modifications due to the more extensive use are presumably fewer in number than those assembled for the of tanks, motor artillery, and motor infantry. attack, so that even if they arrive in time they will be outHore Artillery.—The old methods of manoeuvre are not matched. applicable to a war in which the line of battle is continuous, with The best solution of the difficulty would appear to be the no flanks. Whatever the general procedure selected by the provision of special anti-tank guns, large enough to put an attacker, or pursuer, he wiil keep close touch with the defender’s armour-picrcing shell into a tank, and small enough to be pro- line, and maintain pressure on it at all points so as to deny him vided. with strong cover. A light mountain gun, capable of being freedom of manocuvre. The object of the pursued is to break divided into man-loads, would be suitable for the purpose. away from the pursuer, and to lose touch with his troops, so as These guns might be in dugouts some 400 yd _bchind the front to regain freedom of manocuvre in order to counter-attack, line, where they would not be subjected to the full violence of to take up a defensive position, or both. In this nature of warthe bombardment. When this was lifted from the front line fare horse artillery are of great value. (In the coming age of preparatory to the assault, the anti-tank guns would be put motor artillery, the term “ horse artillery ” must be understood together and run up.on to platforms level with the tops of the to mean a more mobile arm than the divisional field artillery, trench parapets, giving them sufficient command to sce the capable of working with the “ cavalry ” of the future, however attacking tanks as they charged the front line. that arm may be transported.) The lessons of the first phase A regular defence in depth by anti-tank guns would have to of the western campaigns and of the Palestine campaign of 1918 be provided for, additional anti-tank guns being sited bchind still hold good, cach successive line of defence, as well as in “ strong points.” Lhe Atiack—The result of the continuous line of battle is These anti-tank guns would have to be “silent” guns, at that all attacks are, tactically, frontal attacks. Within the least so far as their own firing emplacements were concerned. limits of an army corps or divisional frontal attack there will be Their provision, on a scale sufficient to stop a tank attack, local flank attacks; thus it is often casier to envelop a strongly would involve a considerable addition to the artillery of the held locality than to take it by direct assault. But these are defence. For even if the infantry guns of accompaniment were minor operations which concern the trench mortars, the guns utilized as anti-tank guns, there would not be enough of them. of accompaniment, and the gun-carrying tanks rather than the Infantry guns are required at the rate of one per 100 yd. of the main body of the artillery. front of the attack, or at most 16 to a division; while if a division Intimate coöperation of gun and rifle is more necessary than holds 3,000 yd. of entrenched front it will require three lines of

ever, owing to the increased fire-power of the defence afforded

anti-tank guns sited 200 yd. apart, that is rs in cach line, or

by the machine-gun. The breakdown of liaison par le bas in the opening phase of the war has already been referred to; in the concluding phase this was still more marked, and the French especially complained that their artillery misused the increased range of their ficld gun by keeping far in rear of the infantry, where communication with them was impossible, instead of

45, besides some 15 for “strong points.”

This calculation

shows that 60 anti-tank guns per divisional front are required, or about one per 45-50 yards, It may be suggested that the anti-tank guns of the first line could withdraw to the second line, and then again to the third line. But since they have to remain in position till the attacking infantry have almost reached them, in order to deal with the tanks, there would appear to be little chance of withdrawing the guns, although the detachments may be able to escape. The expenditure of men and material for a special purpose which the above scheme involves is not to be undertaken lightly. But it has become manifest that attacking tanks are safe from distant artillery, and must be engaged by guns on the spot. Therefore these guns will have to be provided; and, so far as our present experience extends, the provision of numerous

small guns in the trench area seems to be the best answer to the menace of the tank attack.

pressing forward to find out what was going on. But even if liaison is so far effective that the artillery know when the infantry is checked by fire, it does not follow that they will be able to discover the source of the fire. Possibly the infantry may not know themselves. Acroplanes may be of great help both in locating it and in promptly conveying the information to the supporting artillery, Jt is even conccivable that battery commanders will direct the fire of their guns from zeroplanes. But the possibilities of “ laison by the air ” are still too vague to count upon.

The Barrage. —Since, under present conditions, the artillery cannot always give the infantry direct support by killing the

ARTILLERY and in their batteries many of the duties which the British consider can only be done by an officer are performed by warrant or noncommissioned officers.

The six-gun battery in peace, on the other

hand, makes for economy and it is doubtless on this ground that the

British authorities have decided, since the war, to retain it for field

batteries. Lai Distribution of Field Guns and Field Howitzers—In most armics, the divisional artillery consists approximately of 75% of field runs and 25% of field howitzers. It is a question whether the howitzers should be organized as a separate brigade, or whether each brigade

should consist of three batteries of guns

and ane of howitzers.

(It should be explained that the use of the term " brigade ” to mean a

group of three or four batteries of artillery is peculiar to the British army. Other nations restrict this term to the higher formations, commanded by a general officer, the unit corresponding to the British

“ brigade ” being designated greupe, battalion, A bieilung, division,

cte.)

The Germans, in 1915, distributed their howitzer batteries among

the gun brigades, but later on, they reverted to separate howitzer

brigades in the proportion of.two gun and one howitzer brigade per division, the three batteries of cach

being all on the four-gun basis.

The British broke up their howitzer brigades and distributed the batteries in 1916, and retained these mixed brigades to the end of the war. The difference in the training of the men is slight, and is concerned principally with the extra complication of the divisible charge used in howitzers. Now that it is proposed in most armies to use half-charges and super-charges as well as normal charges for long guns also, this difference is tending todisappear. During trench warfare, a howitzer brigade was never used as a fire-unit; its batteries were distributed along the divisional front. In mobile warfare, there are many occasions when the fire of field guns requires to be supplemented by that of. field howitzers, and few, if any, when a field howitzer brigade would be used alone. Assuming that the field howitzer isa light piece of the same mobility as the field gun? it appears that the mixed gun and howitzer brigade, consisting of three batteries of guns and one of howitzers, is the better organization of the two. Fighting Organization of Artillery during the War Period—Yor the standards of 1914, three types may be taken as representative; the German, the French and the British. Field and heavy field batteries only will be considered. The German army corps of two divisions possessed 144 field guns and field howitzers, and 16 heavy field (6-in.) howitzers. Only the latter-named were corps troops, all field artillery being divisional.

Each division possessed a field artillery brigade of two regiments,

each regiment having two Abteilungen of three six-gun batteries each. One of the four Abteilungen in each division was armed with 105-mm. (4:1-in.) field howitzers, the other three with the 77-mm.

field gun. ‘The corps heavy artillery formed a “‘ battalion” of 4 fourgun batterics. In the’ field artillery, the battery, besides its six guns, possessed nine ammunition wagons, and in all 17 vehicles. The personnel was 150 of all ranks with 135 horses. The Abteiiung had 480 officers and men, 400 horses and 53 vehicles. The light ammunition column, of which there was one for cach A bieilung, had 190 officers and men, 186 horses and 24 vehicles. In addition, there was the field artillery component of the less mobile ammunition column allotted to the division,

The heavy battery (230 officers and men)

in addition to its four guns had eight ammunition wagons and seven

other vehicles, with 120 horses in all. The battalion of four batteries numbered 960 officers and men, 520 horses and 80 vehicles. A light

ammunition column of 29 vehicles, 270 personnel and 190 horses carried the first reserve and a slow-moving column the second. Heavier artillery, some of which (2i-cm. mortar batteries) had for many years been organized for rapid movement, was allotted to armies as required.

The French artillery was divided into divisional and corps artil-

lery, armed uniformly with the 75-mm. gun. The few heavy batteries available were army artillery and there was no light howitzer. The field battery had four guns and no less than 12 ammunition wagons, with six other vehicles. The personnel was three officers and 170 other ranks with 165 horses. The groupe consisted of three batteries, with a total of 544 men (including 16 officers), 514 horses and 71 vehicles. The first ammunition reserve was an ‘artillery ammunition section” of 20 ammunition

wagons

(half slow-moving)

and

other vehicles. Each division had a regiment of artillery consisting of three groupes and cach corps, as corps artillery, a regiment of four groupes; there were thus 10 groupes or 30 batteries (120 guns) per corps.

The British army in 1914 did not possess the corps organization, and some elements usually under corps control were in this instance divisional, especially the heavy field artillery. The divisional artillery was under the command of a brigadiergeneral and consisted of three ‘' brigades ” (of three six-gun batteries each) of 18-pr. guns, and one brigade (similarly constituted) of 4'5in. howitzers, plus one four-gun battery of 6o-pr. heavy field guns.

The battery had two ammunition wagons per gun, making with other vehicles a total of 20. The battery personnel numbered 200 including D

SSS

rai

er

1 The reservation is necessary as some nations have no light field howitzers, and use the 6-in. as the divisional high-angle weapon.

259

five officers, with 174 horses. To each brigade was attached permanently a light ammunition column, consisting of a third ammunition wagon per gun, and 13 vehicles of different sorts for infantry ammunition? In all, the brigade with its ammunition column had 803 officers and men, 764 horses and 102 vehicles. The organization of the howitzer brigade was practically identical, except that its ammunition column did not supply infantry, so that the total of vehicles was smaller, viz. 89. The strength in personnel was 763 and in horses 719. The heavy battery had 19 vehicles including its guns,

and possessed an ammunition column of its own, consisting of a third ammunition wagon for each gun and one other vehicle. Thus in all, the unit had 24 vehicles. The personnel of battery and column together was six officers and 192 other ranks with 144 horses. The divisional ammunition column consisted of. 113 general service wagons (of which 81 were forartillery ammunition, 18 for infantry and one for special stores), personnel 15 officers, 553 other ranks, horses 709.

A general comparison of artillery strengths in men, horses

and vehicles (excluding those allocated to the service of infantry ammunition) shows the following:— Great Britain (two divs.)

7,640 officers and men, 6,136 horses, 996 vehicles, incl, 152 guns.

France (corps)

7,750 officers and men, 6,737 horses,-o43 vehicles, incl, 120 guns, Germany (corps)

7:830 officers and men, 6,850 horses, 975 vehicles, incl. 160 guns.

(In all the above figures, supply and baggage wagons have. been included.) This organization, designed for mobile warfare, broke down under trench warfare conditions. The organic artillery allotment of the division proved to be too large for normal trench warfare fighting and too small for battle. The army corps itself, as a standard unit, gradually ceased to exist, and was changed into a new form of army corps which—generally fixed in a particular area of the front—constituted a permanent framework, in and out of which different divisions constantly passed from ‘line ” to “rest” and vice versé. The exhaustion of the fighting energy of infantry and of artillery respectively when in the line proceeded at different rates, and the infantry of a division frequently had to be withdrawn and replaced by that of another while its artillery remained in position. The growth of the “dump” system of ammunition supply rendered the elaborate organization of horsed ammunition reserves largely uneconomical. Lastly, the range of guns permitting of artillery collaboration between adjacent divisional sectors—especially for counter-battery work—a common organization for the command of the artillery of several sectors was bound to come into being.

In the British, French and German artillery, accordingly, the divisional field artillery was reduced to a strength suited for a divisional sector in trench warfare; this artillery went in and out of line with its division. The remainder of the field artillery was formed into a mass of “ army reserve artillery,” the function of which was to double, treble or quadruple the divisional artillcrics in 2 battle area. This reserve, being wholly independcnt both of the area organization and of the divisional formation, could be brought into action as required and for as long as required. The medium and heavy artillery, similarly, was divided

into two portions, but the change was here less obvious, as little or no artillery of these classes had belonged organically to divisions. The one portion was substantially fixed to the area, the other placed in army reserve and used to reénforce the area heavy artillery for battle periods. The following diagram illustrates the evolution just described :— Medium and Heavy.

1914

jArmy (in-

Corps,

Field.

(Divisional,!

(Corps,

clusive of

where it | where it

artillery taken out

existed.) | existed.) T

of fortresses), Henkes fe

s :

cee

Army re- Corps heavy

serve heavy.

(sector).

:

Army reserve

field.

Divisional,

Divisional: field.

? Neither the French nor the German first reserve columns supplied infantry ammunition. r

f

ARTILLERY

260

other had three “ battalions ” each of two four-gun batteries,

The effective solution that this reorganization provided for the

problem of divisional reliefs, and incidentally the necessity for some such solution, are illustrated by the fact that in the prolonged Flanders battle of July-Oct. 1917 the average time spent in line by divisional artillery (which moved in and out with their infantry) was 33 days, while the average for units of the army reserve field artillery was 72 days. When fully developed—at the end of ro17—the higher organization of the British artillery in France was as followsi-—~

making 24 medium howitzers.

Thus, as in 1914, we find 42

guns per 12 battalions or six guns per 1,000 rifles, but the addition of numerous heavy machine guns to the rifle strength makes the proportion of guns, in relation to fighting frontage, somewhat less. Each divisional artillery possessed a battery of 12 medium trench mortars, The corps artillery (each corps had four divisions) comprised

one regiment of medium guns (4:7 in.) and one of heavy guns

Army IQ. and General Officer commanding Artillery in the Army. I. Corps ILQ. and

l

I

1

IL, III., etc., Corps (similar)

general officer

commanding artillery

of I, Corps

Army field

artillery (poo!) :

and, ard, etc., divs. similar

Bdes. otherwise

Bdes. allotted to rst div,

(varying in number).

and field howitzers}.

allotted

(field guns

E H.Q. ist div. and brig.-gen. Ist

divisional artillery,

|

Bde. Bde. (field guns

and field

Medium trench

mortars,

Army heavy artillery

Anti-aircraft

(pool)

guns in army

, Brig.-gen. heavy artillery [if ordered also I. Corps.

Heavy trench

mortars.

controls]

(organized by areas)

|

Heavy bdes. normally

Heavy brigades, or temporary

groups heavy,

in corps

area.

do. to II., IIE., ete.

corps operation,

howitzers area (num allotted to normally ber and I. Corps | belonging composition operation. to div.). vary). {number varices, also composition) (Thick lines show organic system, thin lines special battle system)

(At this period the field brigades were composed of three gun and one howitzer battery each; the composition of heavy brigades varied considerably, a ““ mobile” brigade consisting of two 6o-pr. and two 6-in. howitzer batteries, while others contained 9-2 and $-in howitzers in addition.)

German practice differed considerably from this, in that all artillery in a divisional area was under control of the divisional artillery commander, while in major operations the artillery of several corps together was. controlled for the occasion by a

“ gencral of the artillery” who was often neither a general officer in- rank, nor a permanent member of the army headquarters concerned. The average strength in batteries of a divisional sector (in the case of the German nine-battalion division) was—the six ficld-gun and three field-howitzer batteries of the division, and five to seven batteries of medium and heavy artillery belonging to the sector, or, in pieces, 36 light plus 24 heavy (irrespective of trench mortars). Figures have already been given for typical artillery strength in battle (in terms of yards of front per gun). The return to open warfare conditions in 1918 made further changes, chiefly in the direction of providing divisions with medium. artillery of their own and separating what had formerly been “sector” heavy artillery into calibres suitable for incorporation in mobile divisions and calibres best managed by corps headquarters. The Germans made a beginning with this | process in permanently allotting a group of one ro-s5-cm. gun

battery and two 15-cm. howitzer battcrics to each divisional artillery! But the best example of artillery organization as

(155 mm.) both “ motorized,” as well as four batteries of heavy trench mortars.

These artillery regiments were arranged, like

the medium regiment of a division, in three battalions each of two four-gun batteries; thus in all, the corps artillery contained 24 medium and 24 heavy long guns. The two regiments formed a brigade. Army reserve artillery (for an army of five corps or 20 divisions) consisted of four brigades (motorized) or 12 regiments of

heavy guns (6-in.), organized as above, and containing in all 288 pieces, and five regiments of field artillery (organized in the same way as divisional field artillery regiments) with 100 pieces. Lastly, under G.H.Q. direct was the Railway Artillery Reserve, consisting of 42 batteries (7.6. pieces) grouped in “ bat~ talions,” regiments and brigades.

Neglecting the last item, then, we find for an army of 20 divisions, about to be engaged in offensive mobile warfare and counting zor battalions of infantry and pioncers and 120

regimental and divisional machine-gun companics:— Field guns,

Medium. howitzers,

Medium guns,

H

eavy guns,

240 batteries di-|12ọ batteries in|120 batterics inj120 batteries in visional, 120 bat-jdivisional artil-icorps artillery. |corps artillery, teries in armyllery. 72 batteries in pool.

,

=1,440 pieces | =480 pieces

= 480 pieces

army pool.

=768 pieces

Total batteries 792; total pieces (excluding Railway Artillery and trench mortars) 3,168; or roughly 10 guns per J,000 of infantry,

pioneer, and machine-gun establishments, of which 4} belong to

conceived in 1918 for purposes of the expected mobile warfare,

divisional, 3 to corps and 2} to reserve artillery.

is that laid down (though never fully carried out owing to the

In the British and American examples quoted, an artillery staff under a brig.-gcn. or maj.-gen. is provided at the rate of about one per go guns (or including the field artillery pool one per 100), The German artillery staffs were in a smaller proportion. This

close of hostilities) for the American Expeditionary Force? The divisional artillery consisted of a brigade of three regiments, two being of field guns (75 mm.) and one of medium howitzers (155 mm.). The field-gun regiments consisted cach of two “battalions,” and cach “battalion” of three four-gun batteries, in all 24 guns per regiment or 48 per division. The 1 This was never completed, but a large number of divisions had

been so provided by the end of the war. 2 It must be observed that the American division was much strong-

er in infantry than a British, French or German, having in fact 12

battalions besides a considerable machine-gun organization.

question of higher artillery commands is still an open one, but

it is clear that under modern conditions no reversion is possible to the simple method of 1914, in which there was no effective artillery staff at a higher level than the division. War organization will necessarily include some proportion of these higher artillery commands, and peace organization must provide, if not these executive posts themsclves, at any rate the means of preparing the officers who may be called upon to hold them.

ARTILLERY Ammunition Subply— Before the war all armies were equipped with mobile ammunition columns, which served the needs both of infantry and machine-guns and of the artillery itself. As a rule certain columns in cach formation were supplied with limbered vehicles and field artillery horses, and were as mobile as the batteries, while the remainder, with vehicles of the ordinary army type, possessed the mobility of baggage columns only. In Great Britain a considerable advance toward simplifying the ammunition supply service had been made by introducing lorry transport, worked on the same system as that — which provided the army’s daily bread, and by attaching a light

261

will belong to the artillery, except the tank proper, in which the gun is only a subsidiary part of the armament. Finally, it is significant that in reducing the artillery to the

‘minimum imposed by the Peace of Versailles, Germany has chosen to retain both accompanying guns, anti-tank guns and scientific sections (flash-spotting, sound-ranging, meteorological

and survey) on the regular establishment of the arm. (II. A. B.; C. F. A.) VI.

THE EFFECT OF ARTILLERY PROJECTILES

It is of great importance to the soldier to know the probable

ammunition column permanently artillery. But when trench warfare front was based on a system of “ of .ammunition constituted by

to every brigade of field effect of artillery projectiles. On the one hand, the artillery set in, and all supply at the commander must know what nature of projectile to use for a dumps,” the mobile reserve given task, and how many will have to be fired, and, on the other, the troops must know what measures to adopt in order these brigade ammunition columns was not required. They were therefore put back into to escape the shell-effect, or to minimize it. The projectiles fired by land artillery are shrapnel shell, the “ divisional’ ammunition column, or second echelon of supply, which itself was recast on a much smaller scale In H.E. shel, and chemical, incendiary and illuminating shell. the more open warfare of 1918, however, it was found necessary They may also have to fire armour-piercing shell at armoured to return a portion of them to divisional control. forts and at tanks, though these shell are not part of their usual The batteries themselves retained, and necessarily so, all their equipment. : Shrapnel Shell.—This is the most efficient man-killing projectile original wagons. against troops cxposcd in the open or when manning a parapet, The organization, and nature of transport, required for re- _ serve ammuhition in the future depends principally on the The French calculate that in 1914, when their artillery fired little but shrapnel, the killed five men of the enemy for every ton of ammuorganization and motive power of the batteries. But it may be nition expended, whereas in 1918, when, after a long period of trench assumed. with some confidence that since mechanical transport warfare, the proportion was only 5% of field artillery shrapnel to improves every year in available numbers, trustworthiness in different conditions,

and freedom

of movement,

horsed am-

munition columns are a thing of the past. Even theatres of war for which mechanical transport is unsuitable to-day will be open to if to-morrow.

Organization of Artillery Motors —During the war -the personnel in charge of the artillery motor lorries, tractors, and other motor vehicles were not artillerymen, but were taken from the transport services. This was only a provisional arrangement, duc to the fact that the artillerymen were not competent to take charge of motor vehicles. As the motor replaces the artillery horse, this incongruity will naturally disappear, and the artillery will drive thcir own motors. This will presumably not apply to lorries used to transport guns behind the fighting line, as described

to the difficulty and expense of supply, especially as regards the fuze. The object of the designer of gun and ammunition, and of the

gunner who uses them, is to obtain a dense shower of bullets fying forward close to the ground. X © With a view to shrapuel effect, the gun-designer produces a gun with high velocity, long range, and flat irajectory. But a gun equipment of given weight can produce only a given amount of shell energy, which is measured by the product of the weight of the shell and the square of its velocity. Consequently there must be a compromise between a heavy shrapnel and a hight high-velocity one,

This has been solved differently by different nations, as follows :— Weight ;

Shrapnel].

lb.

above, since these lorries will be general transport,

available for other troops when not employed with the artillery. The leading principle is that all men who go into action with the guns, or who are available to replace casualtics in the fighting line, must be artillerymen. Special Artillery and Scientific Auxiliaries —The introduction of guns of accompaniment, to advance with the front line of the infantry, is contemplated in all armies. The question arises whether these guns are to belong to the infantry, like their own machine-guns, or to the artillery. It is urged on the one hand that the special knowledge required to use a field gun is such as the infantry cannot be expected to attain. On the other hand, infantry officers point out that the gun is not required for general artillery purposes, but merely as a large-bore machine-gun, and that the detachment must be thoroughly familiar with infantry work.

95 % of H. E. shell, they killed only one man per 4 tons of ammunition, The reduction in the proportion of shrapnel carried was due

The decision between these two views seems to depend

on whether the guns of accompaniment are to be used as batteries or as single guns. In the latter casc, they should be infantry, not artillery, weapons.

A more difficult question is whether tanks armed with guns are to belong to the artillery or to a separate tank corps. It is casy to draw the line between a fighting tank which has a gun as part of its armament, and a tractor which pulls a gun into action and then waits behind like a limber and team. These are the two extremes, but there are intermediate forms, such as the tank which carries a gun on a platform, capable of fighting cither on top of the tank or on the ground, and the tank which is an integral part of the gun-mounting, and is technically an automobile gun-carriage. It seems probable that all these types 1 In the new organization, that part of the divisional ammunition column which carried the second reserve of gun ammunition was

reduced to one-seventh of its former size.

Number Muzzle Number of Velocity Bullets [ee Bullets fs. fto the 1b,” Siu 1,930

43

1,605

4

Russia . France.)

.

1,740

Germany

:

1,52:

Great Britain .

38

260

45

The Russian and French guns are best adapted for shrapnel fire.

The French use a heavy far-reaching bullet, which, in their flattrajectory gun, gives a deep zone of shrapnel effect, suited to their bold method of opening fire, which is intended to produce a crushing effect on the enemy with the least possible delay. ‘The Germans were obliged by the low power and curved trajeotory of their ficld gun, in which muzzle energy was cubordimated to mobility, to abandon the idea of a far-reaching shrapnel and to accept the necessity of expending moré rounds for scarching a given depth. Another ‘consideration affecting the question of high velocity

versus heavy

shell is that the light shell loses its high remaining

velocity, which gives the forward impulse to the bullets, much sooner than the heavy shell, so that much of the power of the gun is wasted on overcoming air-resistance, instead of being communicated to the bullets. However, it maintains the initial advantage due to a low angle of elevation up to extreme shrapnel range, The loss of remaining velocity can be partly compensated for by increasing the driving charge in the shell. The shrapnel then acts as a short gun fired close to the enemy. But although this expedient is adopted to some extent in most equipments the limit of efficiency is soon reached, since the large charge reduces the bullet capacity of the shell, and the body has to be made with stout walls, or of very high-grade stecl, not always available in war-time, to prevent the shrapnel from blowing to pieces instead of acting asa gun. : Weight of Shrapnel Bullets —The weight of the shrapnel bullet, which is necessarily spherical, is of great importance to the effect. Elongated apne Du are out of the question, since there is no means of imparting rotation to them. AJL attempts in that direction have been failures. Of iwo spherical bullets the heavier will trave further before pitching into the ground, and so will havea longer period of efficiency. The heaviest metal practically available for shrapnel bullets is hardened lead. ‘Tungsten and other heavy metals have been proposed, but are not available in sufficient quantities for

ARTILLERY

262

war requirements. The weight of the shrapnel bullets contained in a

infantry Tungsten steel bullets containing 14% of tungsten would be as heavy for their size as bullets made of the ordinary lead-anti-

shell can therefore be increased only at the expense of their number. In the other direction, the minimum weight of the bullet is determined by the necessity for providing sufficient disabling energy. It has been found experimentally that a striking energy of 60 foot-

prevent their introduction.

from the point of burst with an initial velocity of 1,000 fs., as in the

and-percussion fuzes, constructed to burst cither in air or on graze The object of the percussion arrangement is almost entirely to assist

pounds is sufficient to disable a man.

In the case of a bullet starting

British 18-pr. at 4,000-yd. range, the striking energy after it has travelled 300 yd. is as follows :—

mony alloy, but difficulties of expense and supply will probably Percussion Shrapnel.—Shrapnel are invariably fuzed with time-

ranging by giving visible bursts on the ground. The bullet-effect of shrapnel burst on graze is negligible, as the shell rises steeply from the crater before it opens, and the bullets arc blown out in an upward Striking Energy. Weight of Bullet. direction, and lose their effective velocity before coming down again, Occasionally the ground may be so hard and the angle of impact 61+5 foot-pounds France. 38 to the pound so small that the shell ricochets low instead of forming a crater and Russia . 43 “ tt shower, viz. upwards. But generally speaking percussion fire with íi Germany 45 . shrapnel at troops in the open is a waste of ammunition, When a direct hit on a gun-shicld is made with shrapnel shell the It will be seen that under the assumed conditions the French bullet of 38 to the pound is the only one which provides sufficient striking shell docs not open till it has travelled several feet further, unless it hits the gun or some solid part of the carriage, and there is no bulletenergy at 300 yd. from the burst. Of the nations which took part effect on the detachment. As a rule, a direct hit from a field shrapnel in the World War, the French, the Japanese, and the United! States on a modern cellular ammunition box does not blow up the contents, (who had the French equipment) were the only ones who used the though it may explode a H.E. shell if it makes a fair hit on it, and heavy shrapnel bullet. The other nations (except the Russians) considered that the trajectory of their guns was not flat enough to it may sect fire to some of the cartridges. When percussion shrapnel are fired at a building the shell explodes carry a good proportion of the bullets to a distance of 300 yd., and as it passes through the wall, and produces good bullet-effect on consequently preferred lighter but more numerous bullets which gave a closer pattern over a shorter distance. It would seem: that anything behind, as in this case the check is sufficient to give the base the Russians, with thei powerful gun, would have done better to burster time to tenité. [t used to be held that troops were safe from shrapnel behind two walls, and this is literally correct, but there are use a heavier bullet. Technical Employment of Shrapnel, —A shrapnel should be burst so many windows in the front of a house that the shrapnel is liable Remaining

52-8

ái

éi

in air so that the axis of the bullet-cone passes through the centre of

the target.

This is a matter of ranging, and is dealt with clsewhere.

Further, the distance of the point of burst from the target should be such as to produce the greatest possible effect. This also is a matter of ranging, but the gunner must first know what is the correct

distance which he has to attain. This is determined by theory. The target surface of a man, measured at right angles to the trajectory of a shrapnel bullet, may be taken as 4 sq. yd. when standing, 3 sq- yd. when kneeling, and } sq. yd. when lying or firing over a parapet, The best effect is produced when the denelty of the cone of bullets is such as to provide one effective bullet for each man. The density depends on the target surface offered by each man; it is immaterial, as regards the best distance of burst, whether the

men are in a thin skirmishing line or shoulder to shoulder.

If the

distribution of bullets throughout the cone were uniform—that is, if the shrapnel gave a perfect “ pattern ”’—then at standing infantry the cross section of the cone should contain one bullet per 7 sq, yard, Taking a shrapnel containing 300 bullets, the cross section of the cone at the target would have to be 150 sq. yards. The apex angle of the cone being aboutt in 4, this would fix the best distance of burst at 55 yd. from the target. But the distribution of

bullets in the cone is not uniform. If it be assumed to be haphazard (which is nearer the truth), then, according to the Theory of Probabilities, the probable maximum effect is produced. when the cross section contains 1-24 bullets for each man. ‘This gives the best distance of burst for the above shrapnel as about 50 yd. against standing

men, 41 yd. against knecling men, and 35 yd. against men lying

or firing over a parapet. With the shrapnel of the British 18-pr., which contains 375 bullets, the best distances are 55, 45 and 38 yd. respectively. The question of the distance of burst is affected by the error of the fuze. If, for instance, the fuze be such that the shrapnel is Jiable to burst 60 yd, over or short of the desired point, then if this be fixed at 40 yd. from the target some of the shrapnel! will be wasted by bursting on the ground. Similarly, the error of the gun will cause “ short ”

rounds to burst on the ground.

In the British and in the French

services it has been laid down that the distance of burst for field guns is to be such as to appear from the battery 10 minutes of angle (in French notation 3 ‘‘ mils,” ie. riw of the range) above the target. This corresponds to a distance of burst of 70 yd., and rather less at longer ranges, and gives about 10% of bursts on graze. This distance has been fixed partly with reference to the error of the fuze (which, under war conditions of manufacture, is considerably greater than in peace lime), but principally for simplicity. When good fuzes are available better shooting is to be obtained by adherin to the theoretically correct distances given above. Towards the end

of the war the Germans used a number of very accurate mechanical time fuzes, and if these come into general use the service height of ro minutes above the target will no doubt be reduced.

Penetration —Even the heavy French shrapnel bullet will not pierce the thinnest of the steel gun-shields in use, and it is quite ineffective against infantry shields, loophole plates, and the plates of

a tank. These shields are all made to resist infantry bullets, which have much greater power of penctration than leaden shrapnel bullets. Steel shrapnel bullets will pierce gun-shields if the shrapnel be burst close up.! As the steel bullets are larger than leaden bullets of the same weight, their use entails a reduction of about 20% in the number of bullets in the shrapnel. For the same reason they do not fly so far, and shrapnel filled with them are less effective against

1 These were actually used to a smalf extent by the Germans towards the end of the war, possibly on account of shortage of lead.

to pass through them and burst through the back wall, and moreover,

under the fire of powerful modern field guns the front wall soon ceases

to exist.

Owing to the charge of black powder which it contains shrapnel has considerable incendiary effect on buildings,

Howitzer Shrapnel produces its characteristic effect by the bullets

striking downwards at a steep angle 40 degrees or more to the horizontal. The object is to reach troops behind a parapet or gunshield. ‘he depth of effect, being proportionate to the cosine of the

angle of impact, is much less than with a flat-trajectory gun. Precise

ranging and an accurate fuze are required to produce good effect. During the first or mobile phase of the war shrapnel fire from field

howitzers

gave excellent results; later, hawever, the difficulty of procuring good time fuzes for howitzers brought this class of shell into disrepute, and it seems probable that its use will be discontinued

except for light ficld howitzers, and even in these reserved to mobile wartare.

i

‘The theory of the effect of howitzer shrapnel is the same as for gun shrapnel. The weight of the bullet is increased to compensate for the low remaining

velocity.

The angle of descent

of the lowest

bullet, including half the angle of opening, is about 40 degrees to the

horizontal, so that a man would have to crouch very close behind a

gun-shield or parapet to escape being hit. When burst at effective height a field howitzer shrapnel, such as that of the British 4'5-in. howitzer, covers a space 35 yd. wide and 70 yd. from front to rear. Universal Shell.—These are combined shrapnel and howiizer shell; a type is described and illustrated in 1.869. The idea is that when burst in air at shielded guns the head flies forward and acts on impact asa small H.E. shell, powcrful enough to disable the gun if it strikes it, or to reach the men behind the gun-shield with splinters flying sideways or even backwards, while the body of the shell acts as an ordinary time shrapnel. If the whole shell is burst on impact it detonates like a H.E. shell. Such shell were used in the war, but their usefulness was always a matter of controversy and their complicated design made supply difficult, High-Explosive Shell—These were the principal projectile fired

by all natures of land artillery during the long period of trench

warfare in the western theatre of war.

They are of two kinds, thick-

walled shell and mine shell. The former have a comparatively small

burster and are intended to kill men with their splinters; the latter are thin-walled shell containing a large burster, and are intended to penetrate deeply’ before bursiing, and to destroy fortifications and material. Mine shell are fired from howitzers, in which they are exposed only to a low pressure in the bore. ‘In modern howitzers, which are required to range at least. 50%, further than those in use in

1914, the endeavour is made to keep down the pressure as far as possible by increasing the length of bore, thus getting more work out of the same charge. But the increase of range which can be obtained in this way is hardly sufficient, and heavier charges are inevitable. Mine shells for such pieces have to be made thicker in the walls to prevent them from collapsing in the bore, and tend to approximate to the thick-walled type. Thick-walled shell are almost always fired with instantancous percussion fuzes; occasionally they are fired with time fuzes to burst in air

The object of the instantaneous fuze is to burst the shell on the

surface of the ground before it has time to penctratc, so that the

splinters are not wasted by being smothered in the crater.

‘Thus,

early in the war, the German howitzer shell, for want of an efficient

instantancous fuze, used to penetrate deeply into the soft clay of

Flanders, and the result was a vertical eruption of mud and splinters which was harmless to men not actually on the spot struck, Instan-

iancous fuzes are also used to burst H.E. sheil in the act of passing.

ARTILLERY through a gun-shield, thin wall, thin parapet, etc., so as to produce splinter eflect on troops immediately behind it. When an instantancous fuze acts properly the effect, even on soft ground, is to form a saucer-shaped crater not more than 6 in. deep, in which no splinters are to be found. With flat-trajectory guns the splinters fly forward and sideways, and no reverse effect on troops behind cover can be expected; with howitzers fired so as to give angles of descent of 30 to 45 degrees a few splinters from. the base come back, but the re-

263

the latter up and out of their seatings, or racked the whole concrete mass so severely that the machinery was put out of action. Or, again, they ruined and blocked up the vaulted passages and so

prevented access to the cupola chambers. In future constructions it has heen proposed to guard against this

method of undermining by extending and strengthening the apron surrounding the cupola. The ground for 50 metres round it is to be protected by onc or more layers of blocks of hard cast-iron, one metre

verse effect is slight; with howitzers fired at angles of elevation be-

cube, each weighing 8 tons.

the effect is almost equal in all directions, The size and weight of the splinters are of great importance, Owing to their irregular shape small splinters do not fly very far. The object of the ammunition designer is to get as many effective splinters as possible. As the result of experiments it is considered

This method, if applied, will probably be effective against undermining. ‘Chere remains the possibility of damaging the projecting muzzles of the guns with heavy splinters from thick-walled shells, and of penetrating the armour with armour-piercing shell from high-

tween 45 and 65 degrees, giving angles.of descent of 55 to 75 degrees,

that the best man-killing weight is 25 grammes (0-88 oz.), though splinters as small as 10 grammes (0-35 oz.) may be effective close to

the point of burst. It is not always possible to realize this ideal; the. French field gun H.E. shell, weighing 11-68 Ib., gives only 50 effective splinters, averaging 100 grammes (3-52 0z.). The German 1914 ficld-gun shell, weighing 15 lb. gave 135 splinters averaging 1-68 ounces. A more recent projectile, that of the French 7-7-pr. trench gun, gives 90 splinters of about 1-2 ounces. Theoretically it is possible to design a shell so as to produce any required fragmentation. A violent H.E. burster tears a soft metal shell to minute fragments, while a mild burster in a hard steel shell merely breaks it into a few large pieces; the designer has to adjust the violence of the burster to the hardness and “ shock-test ’’ strength of the steel so as to produce the desired number of fragments, as uniform in weight as possible. But in practice the problem is a difficult onc, as the stresses to which the shell is subjected in the gun, and the shape and balance

desirable

for ballistics,

have to be taken

into account.

However, manufacturers produce a fair approximation; thus Krupp claimed to get 20 splinters of 25 gramines and over per kilogramme of field-gun shell, or about 9 per pound. The French field-gun shell is effective over an area of 25 sq. metres

only, but with large calibres much better effect is obtained.

Roughly,

a on howitzer shell, weighing 100 Ibs., clears an arca of 300 sq. ards. y During the war considerable success was obtained in firing thickwalled H.E. shell from flat-trajectory guns with percussion fuzes giving a slight delay action, so as to burst in ricochet in the air from 20 to 30 ft. above the ground. Ricochet fire is applicable only when

the angle of impact is so small, and the ground so hard, that the shell

has no tendency to bury itsclf.

With an angle of opening of about

120 degrees the downward and lateral effect is good, and the forward

effect is appreciable, though far inferior to that of time shrapnel. ‘This method was evolved by the French before the war; the ricochet effect is styled the “ coup de hache.” It was used also for wire-cutting. Mine Shell,—With howitzers above 6 in., mine shell, not man-

killing shell, are usually employed. With medium and heavy guns mine shell are not used except at long ranges, where the angle of descent is steep enough to ensure deep penetration, and even so, for

the reason above given, they have to have fairly thick walls and lose cotrespondingly in explosive capacity. Heavy high-velocity guns therefore usually fire only shell of the thick-walled type, bursting on graze and producing effect by the action of heavy splinters. There is now, however, a tendency to employ reduced as well as full charges with guns, in order to save wear, and with these it will be possible to use. efficient mine shell,

The burster of a mine shell is of such a nature as to do as much work as possible in displacing earth. A very violent explosive of

the fulminate type, even if it could be used, would be less effective than T.N.T. or amatol (see AMMUNITION) because its action is too local, and much of the force of the explosion would be wasted on pulverizing the earth at the point of explosion instead of shifting it. The fuze has to be made with a delay suitable to the ballistics and to the nature of the ground; if the shell penetrates too deeply it forms'a

‘“ylobe of compression”? or hollow chamber

beneath

the surface,

while if it docs not penetrate deeply enough much of the energy is wasted on the air. The mine shell of the German 15-cm. (5-9-in.) howitzer was effective; it penetrated to a depth of 3 to 4 metres, at which depth its burster of 18 lb. of picric acid gave good mine effect. Feffect on Tanks.—Tire from all natures of guns and howitzers is effective on unarmoured or fightly armoured tanks. The best pro-

These are to be sandwiched between

layers of concrete, and are.expected to burst all shell on the surface.

velocity guns. An attack with gas is also possible. Effect on Field Jénirenchments-—Gun emplacements

and duyouts require a “ bursting course ” of rails or stones at or near the surface of the carthen roof, otherwise the emplacementsare ¢asily penetrated. Even a field-howitzer shell with delay action will go through § ft. of

earth and blow ina timber roof beneath it. Double roofs of rails with an air-space of 8 to 12 in. between them are used when possible, and _ such a roof, with 5 ft. of earth and a bursting course on top of It, is

fairly safe against a single hit from a 6-in. howitzer shell For protection against 8-in. and heavier natures it is necessary to burrow

20 to 30 ft. underground. Concussion and Asphyxiation Effects of H.E:—A minc shell of 6-in. calibre and upwards does great damage when burst inside a building, dugout, or other confined space, by the force of its blast, irrespec-

tive of splinter effect. The same effect, to a lesser extent, is produced by thick-walled shell. Walls of buildings are blown out, and men in the room in which the burst takes place are killed by the concussion.

The idea that poisonous gases are produced by the detonation of high explosives is a mistake; only small quantities of carbonic acid gas and carbonic oxide are generated, and these, except in a deep dugout, are quickly dissipated by the inrush of air which succeeds

the blast. However, it was found at Li¢ge and Antwerp that the deeply sunk ammunition rooms below the armoured forts were rendered uninhabitable by the fumes from mine shell filled with picric acid which penetrated them or burst underground near them. ‘These were presumably acrid fumes due to the incomplete detonation of the bursting charges. High-Eexploswe Shell with

Time

Fuses.—These

were

originally

introduced for the German field gun, in order to attack troops in deep trenches. The method used was to burst the shell exactly over the trench, and to obtain effect by splinters striking downwards. But even under peace conditions of precision of fire it was found that an average of four shells were required to hit one man, and under war conditions the expenditure of ammunition was out of all proportion to the effect produced. In the war, the Germans occasionally

used time H.E. shell for annoyance, on account of their supposed moral effect on troops in trenches. Their use ccased altogether when time and percussion fuzes for I.E. shell were withdrawn. A H.E. shell has little or no incendiary effect. Snioke Shell.—These are used to form a screen between our troops and the enemy. In barrage fire time shrapnel produce quite enough smoke to make an opaque screen; but when a barrage is formed with

HE. shell, these are mixed with 25 % of smoke shell to make a good screen. This method was frequently used by the French, either be-

cause of shortage of field shrapnel, or because the barrage was carried beyond shrapnel range.

Incendiary Shell.—During the retreat the Germans used these shell

to set fire to villages which they had evacuated. Some were of the ancient “ carcass ' type, filled with black powder and grease, and

spouting flame from holes in the walls; others were filled with petro-

leum. The British introduced thernitt shell, filled with aluminium dust and fron oxide, which, when ignited, form molten iron. The. filling consisted of short cylinders of thermit, like firework stars, and the shell was preferably burst jn air like a shrapnel, so as to blow the stars out forwards. These were used to a small extent in the Allied advance towards the end of the war, and gave good results.

Illuminating Shell.—These contain firework stars, which are ignited by a time fuze at such a height as to give them time to burn out before reaching the ground. They are fired principally from field

howitzers.

Armour-Piercing

Shell—These

may

aes

have to be used against.

jectile is H.E. with normal or instantaneous fuze, as the delay action

armoured tanks, and turrets and cupolas of land defences.

of 3,000 to 4,000 yards.

it is supported, and the angle at which it is struck. The following table of penetration for the British 18-pr. gun used in the war may he taken as a guide. It is assumed in the table that the armour is efficiently supported and that it is struck at an angle not excecding 30 degrees to the normal. ‘The formula is:—

fuze is liable to cause the shell to pass right through and out again before it bursts. In one instance during the war.a German tank protected by 30-mm. (z°18-in.) hard steel armour was fired on by British 18-prs. firing ordinary thick-walled H.E. shell at ranges It was disabled, and on examination it was

found that several of the shell which had struck it had just failed to

penetrate. The effect obtainable described below. Effect on Armoured

with armour-piercing

Forts —The penetration of armour

shell is is dis-

cussed under Arniour-Piercing Shell, But this is not the only means

of reducing an armoured fort. The Germans obtained effect on the Belgian forts in 1914 chiefly by ‘‘ undermining " fire. The mine shell of their superheavy howitzers, with delay-action fuzes, buried them-

selves almost under the foundations of the cupolas, and either blew

The effect of field gun armour-piercing shejl against tanks depends

not only on the thickness of the armour but on the manner in which

z

vd

ca 2500 — 4Y where ¢ is the thickness of hard-faced armour in inches, v is the striking velocity in f.s., and d is the calibre of the gun in inches.

ë

ARTOIS, BATTLES IN

264 none

Penetrated

yards! of Armour

1,000

2:331

3:902

3,000

1:633

2:798

5,000

1-409

2-300

ya

With larger calibres the effect increases in a somewhat higher ratio But the number of rounds required for a given task cannot be ascer-

Penetration of Tank Armour by 18-pr. Thickness of Armour | Weight of 10 square inches.

2,000.

1-914

4,000

into the crater, A more reliable guide is the diameter of the crater,

3-204

1:520

6,000

tained directly from these premises, since much of the effect of subsequent shell falling in or near the same place as the first shell is. wasted by displacing the earth already lifted, which has fallen back

tons.

2944

1:32

a

2-215

The effect of armour-piercing shell, fired from high-velocity guns, in penctrating armoured turrets and cupolas, is given by the same

formula. As an example, a 30°5-cm. (12-in.) gun may beexpected to pierce the following thickness of hard-faced_armour:— Range, yards . 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 Penetration, inches 12°5 9°25 75 7-25 5 At 6,000 metres the 240-mm. gun penetrates 180 mim., and the 155-mm. G.P.F, gun penetrates 77 mm,

which varies according to the soil, In ordinary ground a 6-1n. howitzer mine shell, containing some 13 Ibs. of H.E. makes a cylindrical crater about 4 yd. wide and 3 yd. deep, of which depth about one-third is filled up by earth falling back into it. Hence to destroy @ 12-{t. parapet it must be struck by one 6-in. shell per 4 yd. of front, If a calibre be employed which gives a crater of less diameter than the thickness of the parapet, this will entail a great waste of ammunition. Thus the French found that under practice conditions of accuracy it took 12 rounds of field-gun shell per yard to breach a parapet 10 ft. thick, or perhaps 20 rounds a. yard under war conditions. ‘Therefore they consider that for practical purposes a 10-ft. parapet is proof against field guns and 4-2-in. field howitzers. At stout brick and concrete walls, H.E. shell with ‘‘ normal" fuzes (i. ¢. neither instantaneous nor delay action) are very effective.

The cupola must be massive as well as stout, or else the effect of

A wall 20 in. thick is cut down by an expenditure of two or three field

if the shell does not penetrate. In the Liége and Antwerp cupolas, which were intended to resist G-in. guns, lead cushions were used to

thickness at medium range. At field guns in the open, the French reckon 15 rounds of field-gun

the blow will be to displace it and jam the rotating machinery, even reduce

the “racking ”’ effect.

A small cupola of three metres

in

diameter cannot be expected tostand blows from heavy shell, though it may be stout enough to resist penetration. The striking energy of a 12-in. shell at 5,000 yd. is about 20,000 foot-tons, At the beginning of the war, a fort was at a disadvantage in that its position was. known, whereas it was fired on by long-range guns which could not be located, unless the aircraft of the defence retained the mastery of the air. The development of sound-ranging helps the

defence in this respect, provided that the instruments can be set up

in several forts connected by telephone, VIE.

EFFECTS OF COLLECTIVE ARTILLERY FIRE

gun shell per yard.

A field-gun shrapnel will picrce a wall of this

shell at 3,000 metres, or 25 rounds at 3,500 metres, to make a hit on

agun.

The British 18-pr., under experimental conditions, is capable

of making 60% of hits on a gun in action at 2,000 yd., 16% at 3,000 yd., and 5% at 4,000 yards.

Medium

guns such as the 60-pr. or

French 4-2-in. maintain their accuracy to longer ranges than field gins; a rough rule is to add one-third to the field-gun rage for the same percentage of hits; thus a 60-pr. is capable of making 16% of hits on a gun at 4,000 yards,

The following experimental results (Krupp) show the comparative effects of various natures of field-gun and field-hawitzer chelt fired at a battery of four guns inaction, a wagon beside cach gun:— ’

(a) PLE. feld-gun shell, percussion

fuze.

Range 5,000 metres,

These vary so much according to local and tactical considerations that no exact rules can be laid down. However, the following were rough working rules established during the war:—

Onc panes rounds disabled 1 gun, 1 wagon, and 11 dunimy men

Standing Barrage —To keep down the fire of riflemen in a trench, each man should be liable to be killed if he shows himself above the

(e) The same target, range 2,000 metres, fired at with 4:2-in. howitzer (presumably similar to the German service Geld howitzer). Time shrapnel. Twenty-four rounds fired after ranging had been completed with 11 rounds percussion. Result, 26 dummies put out of action out of 34.

parapet at least once a minute; therefore one shrapnel per minute should be burst in front of him. Taking the effective spread of

shrapnel! bullets at 25 yd., then 4 rounds per 100 yd. of trench are required. This is an “ ordinary ” barrage, and may be changed to a “heavy ” barrage of 8 rounds a minute or a “light ” barrage of 2 rounds a minute per 100 yd. as required. If a 4-gun battery has to barrage a trench of 300-yd. front, then at the “ordinary " rate cach gun will fire 3 rounds a minute, distributed over the 75 yd. allotted to it. To barrage a communication trench “end on,” 2 rounds a minute per 100 yd. of length are sufficient, when the line has been corrected to bring every burst over the trench. It is not necessary to barrage the whole Iength of a communication trench, which may be 2m. long; aeroplane photographs show the most effective barrage

points, namely the ‘defiles'’ at which there is no way round, Communication trenches may be so effectively barraged as to oblige

the enemy to risk the chance of coming and going across the open, Creeping Barrage:—Vhis may be of several different kinds, as described above. With time shrapnel, or a mixture of H. E. and smoke shell, fired from field guns, a battery can efficiently barrage

a front equal to its own normal front, or 20 yd. per gun.

(The French

reckon 15 metres per gun.)

In the British service the normal barrage rate was 4 rounds per field gun per minute for 2 minutes, then “ lift ” to the next range and - gepeat, and so on. On emergency a battery can cover a wider front

for short periods; the comparatively slow rate of fire is due to the

constant changes in elevation and setting of fuze, and possibly, in direction as well. However, this rate amounts to 240 rounds an hour per gun, which is about as much as a battery can do. The French reckoned 2 rounds per 15 metres of front per minute for

out of 34.

(b) The same, time fuze. One wagon damaged, 4 dummies put out

of action,

A heavy discount must be taken off these experimental results for

war conditions, especially in view of the quality of war-time fuzes. However,

the general inference

is that percussion H.E. shell is a

much shell, when takes

better projectile to fire at a battery in the open than time H.E. and that ficld-howitzer time shrapnel is remarkably effective the range and fuze can be correctly found, though it probahl much longer to produce effect with it than with H.E. shell, In duels between field batteries, such as often unexpectedly occurred

during the war, it is all-important to knock out the enemy’s guns

as quickly as possible, and percussion H.E. shell with instantaneous fuze is the best projectile to use.

Wire Cutting —The development, during the war, of the methods of cutting barbed wire by the fire of artery has already been described. With the British 18-pr. at ranges of 600 to 1,800 yd., a belt of ordinary barbed wire entanglement 8 yd. deep can be cut

through with an expenditure of about 10 yd. of time shrapnel per yard of front. The process is slow, as very precise shooting 1s

required.

A better projectile is 4-5-in. howitzer H.E. shell with

instantaneous fuze; each effective round, at ‘ranges up to 6,000 yd ,

clears a circle about 3 yd. in diameter, Howitzer H.E. shell with norma! or delay-action fuze makes a crater into which the network of wire falls back, and so makes a worse obstacle than before A §2 Ib. trench mortar bomb with instantaneous fuze clears a circle 5 yd. in

diameter.

The French in 1918 used field guns firing H E. shell,

a “ heavy ” barrage, down to the same per 45 metres of front for a “ light ” barrage. The Germans, in T918, advanced their barrage by

cither with instantancous fuzes or with a slight delay action to burst the shell on ricochet. The lines of fire were 5 metres apart at the target. Ata belt of strong wire 25 metres deep it was found that 600 rounds were required to clear a lane 25 metres wide. The ranges were from 2,000 to 4,000 metres. Tanks, when available, are much better wire-destroyers than artillery.

a than that of the Allies, although the nominal rate of fire was

height that the stars burn out before reaching the ground; otherwise

the best. With 11.E. shell instantaneous fuzes are best, unless there are no smoke shell in the barrage; in this case it may be better to use

vegetation. A star shell, properly burst, lights upa circle about 50 yd. in diameter effectively, and patrols are distinguishable up to about roo yards. For continuous illumination, four shell per minute per 100 yd. of front gives good results. (See also, eT the article

H bounds ” of 200 metres for field guns and 400 for medium guns and howitzers; after each hound the guns continued to fire at the same range (‘‘ pounding ’’) for some minutes, Owing possibly to worn guns, the German barrage was considered less dense and less effecigher. When firing a barrage with time shrapnel, the bursts must be kept flow, and a setting of fuze giving 50% of bursts on graze is considered normal fuzes, in order to throw up more dirt and make a more opaque

screen, Bombardment.—lt is found that a field H.E. shell displaces 4 cub. metres of earth per kg. of burster, or 2} cub. yd. per pound.

1A tank armoured in front only may require some 10 sq. yd. of armour.

Fire with Star Shell—-These are used for illumination, and are usually fred from field howitzers. They nust be burst at such a

they form a smoke screen on the ground, besides setting fire to dry

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AUSTRIAN EMPIRE tained by leading Rumanian politicians that so soon as her troops had crossed the Hungarian frontier Bulgaria and Turkey would attack Rumania, The negotiations carried on through the intermediary of Austria-Hungary between the Courts of Sofia and Bucharest had then, it is true, been proceeded with, but had broken down again, this time owing to the reciprocal distrust and the irreconcilable interests of the two Powers. At the same time it had become known to those in Bucharest how closcly the Turks had attached themselves to the Central Powers, and that they were holding themsclves in readiness to enter the World War on their side. Rumania consequently declared that she could no longer leave Bulgaria a free hand against Serbia. Thus under the new King of Rumania, Ferdinand, who was not bound. by ties of personal friendship with the sovereigns of Austria-Hungary and Germany, the party hostile to the Central Powers gained in influence. Ferdinand did indeed stand firm in-his neutrality, and he rejected Russia’s summons to hasten to the aid of the Serbians, who had been attacked by Austria-Hungary. But Czernin could not suc-

ceed in obtaining from him a binding declaration that he would not lct bis troops enter the field against the Central Powers.’

-Àt this time Germany and Austria-Hungary were equally powerless to decide the King of Bulgaria to take part in the Serbian War. Even the increased inducements held

Negotia~

tions with

Bulgaria.

out_. to him in this event by the: Vienna Government 3 . ryt

id not move him from this attitude of reserve. ‘This was due not only to his distrust of Rumania, Greece and Turkey and his fear of Russia, but also to his doubt as to whether by joining the Central Powers he would really be placing himself on the winning side, Accordingly he was forever changing his attitude and that of his Government according to the vicissitudes of the war. If the armies of the Central Powers met with success, they all showed a growing inclination to bring the treaty negotiations, which had never been allowed to drop for a minute, to a conclusion.

But if, as in Dec. 1014, unfavour-

able news reached Sofia as to the military situation of the Central Powers, then the old reasons for dragging on the negotiations were raked up again.

The fact that the Entente Powers

kept going further and further in their offers to Bulgaria, should she enter the war on their side or even should she remain neutral, contributed towards strengthening the resolve of the Bulgarian Government to put the screw on the Central Powers in the matter of their demands. Thus at the end of 1914 they demanded far-reaching concessions in the matter of their terri-

torial claims, and that under a written promise.

Austria-

Hungary was refractory for a time, but at the beginning of

rors declared herself prepared even for these concessions, but demanded, with the backing of the German Government, the

armed intervention of Bulgaria on the side of the Central Powers. But neither King Ferdinand of Bulgaria nor Radoslavov, the Bulgarian ministcr-president,

was willing to con-

cede this, for the military situation of the Central Powers was

for the moment unfavourable.

They declared their wish to

remain neutral.

The negotiations with Pumin and Bulgaria revcaled the fact that both Powers, different though their interests might be, followed a similar policy. They wished to delay aa a their decision as long as possible; they wished at the italy, right moment to join the side of the winning party so as to carry off the greatest possible advantages at the price of the least possible sacrifices. In these circumstances the importance to the outcome of the war of Italy’s decision increased every month, For a long time, until far on in the winter of ro14, the policy of leading Italian statesmen was dictated by the wish to preserve their neutrality while keeping up their armament, They accounted for their attitude by referring to the Setter and the spirit of the Triple Alliance; they ave their former allies friendly words, but maintained a cordial attitude towards the Entente Powers. At the same time they urged at Vicnna their demands for compensations by inter-

preting Article VII. of the Triple Alliance Treaty in their own favour. It was not at first clear what they meant by it. During

335

the official negotiations which took place between the Cabinets of Vienna and Rome, no word was spoken on the Italian side of old Austrian territories. But it was learnt at the Ballplatz, by way of Berlin, that Italy was thinking of the Trentino. Berchtold absolutely refused to listen to any such demands, He would not hear of a territorial indemnification on any ac-

count, and was warmly supported in this by Tisza, while Conrad even at that time, or at any rate in times of military mis-

fortune, considered that even Italian neutrality would not be too dearly bought at the price of great sacrifices. But neither the prayers of the leading military commander nor the unceasing efforts of Icading German political and military circles were able to change Berchtolc’s mind. He went on, indeed, with the negotiations, but spun them out without binding himself to anything. When San Giuliano died on Oct. 16 1914, nothing. decisive had yet happened, Even during the few weeks for which Salandra, the then Italian minister-president, directed Italy’s foreign policy, no energetic steps were taken. Salandra fell in with the feeling of the country.

It was not until Sonnino had taken over the leadership of Italy’s foreign affairs that a further advance was ventured on by Italy in view of the unfavourable military position of the Central Powers, and _ under the influence of that section of the Italian press which was active in the interests of the Entente. It was once more reported in Vienna. that Sonnino had spoken in Berlin of the cession of the Trentino, and that the German Government ‘was now advocating this sacrifice. But even now Berchtold refused to entertain the question, Francis Joseph, so it was said, would never give his consent to a diminution of his empire, Only Sonnino kept on his way unperturbed. At the beginning of Dec. 1914—-when Austria-Hungary was advancing upon Serbia—he had a declaration made at Vienna to the effect that the excited state of opinion in Italy compelled him to press for the adjustment of the question of compensations. Salandra supported him, by speaking in Parliament of Italy’s sacro egoismo, her just aspirations and legitimate interests, and, while giving expression to the pacific character of the Italian Government, he stated emphatically that neutrality alone was not sufficient to assure Italy’s intercsts in all circumstances until the end of the war. In the middle of December the negotiations between Vienna and Rome began afresh, but at once came to a deadlock. The German Government, which attached extraordinary importance to winning over Italy, now tricd to persuade the Ballplatz to make concessions. At the same time it sent to Rome Prince Bülow, who worked in the same sense, and represented concessions on the part of Austria-Hungary as a sacrifice, heavy indeed, but necessary in order to assure Italy’s neutrality. But Berchtold was still resolutely opposed to such a demand, and expressed this view also in his direct negotiations with the Italian ambassador in Vienna, the Duke of Avarna, Berchtold’s fall from power, and the appointment of Baron Burian to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian foreign minister

(Jan. 13 1915), made but little change in the position of the ar Vienna Government, Negotiations with. Succeeds Burlas :

Italy were indeed continued, but led to no rapproche- Berchtold, ment between the two opposing points of view. It was not till March 9 1915 that Burian expressed his willingness to discuss with Italy, in principle, the cession of Austrian terri-

tory. He did so under the impression of the unfavourable military position of the ‘Triple Alliance Powers—ihe Russians were fighting in the Carpathians, and Przemysl was about to fail—

and with the knowledge of the renewal in Feb. 1915 of the agreement between Italy and Rumania, which let it be feared that a declaration of war by Italy would be followed by that of Rumania; under increasingly héavy pressure, moreover, from the German Government, which, in the event of a favourable outcome of the war, held before the eyes of the Vienna Government, as compensation for the losses of the monarchy in Tirol, not only a loan in cash but also the rich coal-mines of Sosnovka. The opening of negotiations at once showed how far the Italian demands excecded what Austria-Hungary was now pre-

336

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

pared to concede. Sonnino asked for wide territories and their

On May 3 10915, in fact, the Italian council of ministers resolved

immediate transfer to the Italians. Burian firmly refused the to denounce the existing alliance with Austria and to claim full latter proposal, and only offered the greater part of Italian Southfreedom of action for Italy. In vain the Vienna Cabinet made ern: Tirol, and even this on condition that Italy should preserve yet further concessions, so that in the end these included almost a benevolent neutrality towards the Central Powers until the everything that the Italians had demanded. Sonnino continend of the war and leave Austria-Hungary a free hand in the ued indeed to negotiate, but he was always finding Balkans. Sonnino rejected Burian’s offers as insufficient, and — fresh reason for postponing a decision, On May fash during the next few weeks increased his demands. On April ro, 20 rors the Italian Government’ reccived from the mar on Sonnino’s instructions, a memorandum containing Italy’s Chambers the extraordinary powers necessitated by new conditions was handed in at Vienna. They made it clear the approaching conflict, and on the 23rd war was declared that Italy was no longer striving to complete her national by Italy on Austria-Hungary. growth while preserving her former relations with the HabsOne of the chief reasons which had decided Burian to offer burg Monarchy, but was aiming at the realization of her national such far-reaching concessions to Italy in April and May rors unity and at the achievement of complete supremacy in the was the pressure from the military higher command, and espeAdriatic. She demanded, among other things, the whole of cially Conrad, who never ceased to insist in his memoranda that S. Tirol, with the boundaries of the Italian kingdom of 18rr, Ttaly’s entry into the war would be followed by that of Rumania, Gorizia and Gradisca, and the conversion of Trieste with its and on this account adjured Burian to make every sacrifice in surrounding territory into a community independent of Austriaorder to avert the otherwise unavoidable catastrophe by winHungary; the cession of a number of the most important islands ning over Italy. That his fears were well grounded was all the in the Adriatic; the immediate occupation of these lands by the less doubtful, since it was already known in Vienna by Feb. Italians; the recognition of the full sovereignty of Italy over 1915 that on Feb. 6-23 the agreement concluded in Valona and its territory; and a declaration of Austria~-Hungary’s Sept. 1914 between Italy and Rumania as to their Faulvecal j désintéressement as regards Albania. In return Italy was pre- attitude in the war had been renewed for four months Banke pared to promise neutrality for the duration of the war, and to and had received an extension to the effect that the renounce for this period the construction in her own favour of two Governments bound themselves to render each other the provisions of the Triple Alliance Treaty. In spite of the mutual aid in the event of an unprovoked attack on the part extent of these demands, they were not flatly refused by Burian,

of Austria-Hungary.

The negotiations as to the cession of

since the military situation compelled him to continue negotiations, and German statesmen and generals pointed out to him the disastrous consequences which would follow if Italy went over into the enemy camp. The fall of Constantinople was threatening, the Russians were pressing relentlessly forward, Hungary seemed at their mercy, and it might happen that a

Austrian territory, which had been begun with Italy under the impression of this news, had now as their result that Rumania, too, raised the price of her continued neutrality. It was no longer only the Bukovina that was mentioned, but also Transylvania. But Tisza declared that he would not sacrifice a

declaration of war by Italy would be followed by Rumania,

with him. The result was an increase of the influence of the Triple Entente in Rumania, which was further heightened by and the breakdown of the negotiations conducted between Burian and Sonnino. The climax of this spirit of hostility to the Central Powers in Bucharest was reached on April 27 1915, when the Italian minister announced a declaration of war on the Habsburg Monarchy to be unavoidable. Only one thing could restrain Rumania, and decide her to maintain her neutrality: a great victory of the Central Powers over the Russians. And this now happened: the break-through at Gorlitz, on May 2 1925. Its effect was felt at once, Bratianu, the Rumanian minister-president, now declared that the position was indeed very critical, but that he ‘hoped to contrive to maintain neutrality; further news of the successes of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops: in Galicia and Poland contributed towards strengthening the Rumanian Government in their resolve not to give up their

and even by Bulgaria.

Then the hemming-in

of the Central

Powers would be complete and the seal would be placed upon their ruin. Burian could not cast doubt upon these arguments;

it was not without influence upon him that Conrad now advocated every concession to Italy, Burian therefore increased his concessions, but did not yield all that Italy demanded. He retreated, rather, step by step, always led by the hope that a new turn would be given to events in the theatre of war; he sought to hold the Italians in place without rebuffing them. But since the latter did not count upon achieving their demands

from Vienna, and were convinced that the Habsburg Monarchy would take back again what had been squeezed from it in the hour of need, should the military situation take a more favourable turn, they determined to bring to a conclusion the negotiations which they had long carried on with the Entente Powers. On April 26 rọr5 the Treaty of London was signed, which pledged Italy to enter the war by the side of her new allies at the end of a month’s interval. As compensation for this, it contained the assurance of an extension of territory for Italy

going far beyond that which she had demanded from AustriaHungary as the price of maintaining neutrality. Having- come to terms with the Entente Powers, Italy resumed negotiations with the Vienna Cabinet, not with the intention of pursuing them to any profitable end, but rather in order to find in the refusal of the Vienna Government to fulfil Italy’s demands just grounds for going over to the cnemy camp, and time to complete her warlike preparations. It was, therefore,

in vain that Burian, under pressure of both the Austro-Hungarian and German army commands and of the German Govern-

ment, went further and further in concessions to Italy. On April 21 1915 Sonnino declared that the points of view on either side were too wide apart for the differences to be bridged over; and on April 25 the Duke of Avarna, the Italian ambassador, who had up till then worked untiringly for a friendly understanding, expressed his opinion that a breach was inevitable. Even Prince Bülow, who continued the negotiations at Rome

square yard of Hungarian soil, and the Vienna Cabinet agreed Russia’s victories in the Carpathians

neutrality for the present.

In these circumstances even the

Italian declaration of war did not alter the Rumanian position, but the altered conditions of the war certainly influenced the attitude of the Vienna Government. Its interest in Rumania now sensibly declined, since her neutrality seemed assuted by the military situation. The desire of the Central Powers to arrive at a decision in their negotiations with Bulgaria became all the more urgent. Since Jan. ror5 the Turks had been successfully

defending the Dardanelles against thewie attacks of the oe . z ons with alied Western Powers, but their position was men- Bulgaria. aced by the fact that they lacked arms and munitions,

which Germany had bound herself to provide by the terms of a treaty concluded on Jan. 11’ 1915, with which Austria-Hungary associated herself on March 21 rg15. It was therefore necessary to establish secure communications with the Turks, and since all the efforts of the Central Powers to obtain the transport of arms and munitions through Rumania remained fruitless, it was necessary to try and make sure of a way through Bulgaria

up to the last moment, let it be understood that he no longer

into Turkish territory. The adherence of Bulgaria would also give a further advantage. With Bulgaria in alliance with the

believed the Italians to be in earnest in seeking a compromise.

Central Powers, Rumania would be less inclined to risk join-

AUSTRIAN ing their encmies, as in that case she would have to reckon

EMPIRE

337

the independence and integrity of Bulgaria against any attack

with Bulgaria, which had not forgiven the wounds inflicted by not provoked by Bulgaria herself, this guarantee to be valid the provisions of the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913. for the duration of the alliance, 7.e. till Dec. 31 1920, and after It was not an easy matter for the Cabinets of Vienna and that for a year, and so on until the treaty should be denounced Berlin to win over the Bulgarians. Both the King and Rado- in proper form. Bulgaria, for her part, undertook to give Austriaslavov distrusted the Rumanians and Turks, and feared the Hungary proportionate armed assistance in the event of the Grecks and Russians. Moreover, the far-reaching offers of the | monarchy being attacked by a State bordering on Bulgaria, Entente Powers were not without influence upon them. Their and demanding her aid. The second agreement, signed on the ame day, contained a pledge from Bulgaria that she would take attitude in their dealings with the representatives of the Central Powers was guarded, and they kept increasing their de- the offensive against Serbia, in return for which what is now mands. As early as the end of 1914 the Vienna Government, Serbian Macedonia—the so-called “disputed” and “nonin view of the unfavourable military position in Serbia and disputed” zones, as established by the Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty . Galicia, and in consequence of the. pressure exerted upon it of March 13 r912——was_ promised to her. In the meantime it was agreed that, in the event of an attack by Rumania on Bulnot only by the German politicians and military commanders, but also by Conrad, had declared its readiness to concede to garia or her allies—including the Turks—which should not the Bulgarians, in the event of their entry into the war on the have been provoked by Bulgaria, Austria-IIungary would consent to the recovery by Bulgaria of the territory ceded by her side of the Central Powers, the possession of those Serbian territories to which they advanced historical and ethnographical to Rumania by the Peace of Bucharest, and a rectification of claims; only, however, so far as they should occupy them with the Rumano-Bulgarian frontier as defined by the Treaty of Berlin. A. similar promise was made to Bulgaria, under the their own troops during the course of the war. The negotiations started at the beginning of rors on this basis were pro- same conditions, with regard to the territory ceded by her to tracted by the Bulgarians, for in. view of the unfavourable mili- Greece by the Peace of Bucharest. The military convention tary situation of the Central Powers at the time, King Ferdinand signed on ihe same day settled-the provisions for the carryingand Radoslavov did not think it expedient to enter into per- out of the impending joint offensive against Serbia, The negotiations between the Turks and Bulgarians, which had been manent engagements. They therefore declared that they could promise only to remain neutral, but demanded in return considgoing on for a year past, were also brought to a conclusion on erable extensions of territory in Macedonia, increasing their Sept. 6, thanks to persistent pressure from the Central Powers. claims in March and April under the impression of the Russian ‘Turkey gave in on the essential point by agrecing to a rectificavictories in the Carpathians and the danger threatening Turkey tion of the fronticr in favour of Bulgaria on both banks of the from the Western Powers. Burian, however, held firmly to the Maritsa. The significance of the adhesion of Bulgaria to the Central position that he could make territorial concessions only in return for active participation on Bulgaria’s part. The breakPowers lay in the facts that it secured their communications through at Gorlitz and the subsequent victorious advance of with Turkey, and also the possibility of.a victorious campaign the Germans and Austro-Hungarian troops also produced their against Serbia. The campaign now began and proceeded effect in Sofa. The negotiations with the Central Powers were according to programme. ‘Though valiantly defended by the carried on with more zeal; but they failed to reach a settleSerbs against overwhelming numbers, their country fell, towards the end of t915, into the hands of the Central Powers and Bulment, since the demands of the Bulgarians continued to be out of all proportion to any services which they seemed disposed garia. Shortly alterwards Montenegro shared the same fate. to offer in return, They declined to attack Serbia, refused a The year rors also brought “Congress Poland” into the military convention proposed to them by the Central Powers, possession of the Central Powers. After the fall of Warsaw but at the same time increased the price of their continued

(Aug. 5 roT5) General Governments were set up on

neutrality, The entry of Italy into the war against the Central Powers, and’ the increasingly extensive offers on the part of the Entente, added to the difficulty of the negotiations between Vienna and Sofia. But gradually the conviction gained ground in Sofia that adherence to the Central Powers would serve the

The Polish behalf of Germany at Warsaw and on behalf of Question. Austria-Hungary at Lublin, to which all governmental powers were handed over. At first the Central Powers had not contemplated the permanent acquisition of ‘ Congress

interests of Bulgaria better than. an alliance with the Entente.

for compensations at the end of the war. But after the fall of Warsaw, the Cabinets of Vienna and Berlin tried to arrive at an agreement as to the future destiny of Poland, The most diverse solutions were discussed, but no definitive agreement was arrived at by the end of the war. The idea of handing Poland back to Russia was indeed repeatedly advanced by Germany— both in the year rors and again very actively after July 1916—

For it would be easy for the former to concede the extensions of territory

desired

by Bulgaria

in Macedonia

at Serbia’s

expense, whereas the Entente Powers were bound to fear that similar concessions on their part woukl give olfence to their

faithful ally Serbia. The Triple Entente failed in their efforts to persuade the Serbs to consent, to this sacrifice by promising. them, in the event of ultimate victory, the possession, of Bosnia,

Herzegovina and Dalmatia, for Bulgaria demanded immediate possession of the Macedonian territories promised her, while Serbia wanted the transfer of these territorics to be postponed until she herself should have secured the extension of territory promised to her by way of compensation. It was only when the continued victorious advance of the

Germans and Austro-Hungarians in Poland made the prospects of the ultimate victory of the Central Powers in the

re Bulgaria.

World War seem very favourable, that the advantage to be gained by joining them was definitely recognized at Sofia. From July 1915 onwards negotiations were

energetically carried on.

The Central Powers insisted on the

Poland.”

It was merely considered as a pawn and an item

when Stürmer was at the head of foreign affairs in the empire of the Tsar. But since the condition of such a solution—namely a total separation of Russia from the Entente—could not be brought about, it was allowed to drop. The plan of dividing the whole of the conquered territory of Poland between AustriaHungary and Germany was also considered. But insuperable difficulties arose in the course of the negotiations, particularly

with regard to the frontiers of the respective territories. It was also foreseen that the Poles would not voluntarily submit to a

new partition of their country and that they would struggle for its reunion. It was feared, moreover, that far-reaching differences between the Allies would be revealed the moment

economic and military questions should come under discussion. The idea of annexing “Congress Poland” to Germany, first ventilated by a section of public opinion and in military circles in Germany, was rejected not only by the Vienna Cabinct but surmounted, the treaties between Austria-Hungary and Bul- also by the German Imperial Chancellor, since he feared the garia were signcd on Sept. 6 1915. ‘he most important article increase of Polish influence in Germany that would be bound to of one treaty contained a guarantee by Austria-Hungary of follow. The plan advocated for a time by Bethmann Hollweg,

signature of a military convention in addition to the treaty of alliance, and that Bulgaria should at the same time conclude a treaty with the Turks. After innumerable difficulties had been

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

338

of founding an "independent Polish buffer state, which should | ful. They accordingly continued to insist on important cessions be in economic, political and military alliance with the Central Powers, also split upon the opposition of the Vienna Government. Thus the union of“ Congress Poland ” with the Habsburg Monarchy; which Burian had proposed in Aug. 1915, and which had been advocated by the writings of Count Andrassy among

others, stood out more clearly as the only possible solution of

the Polish question. But this, too, presented great difficulties on closer examination. There were adherents of the idea of a personal union and on the other hand of an actual union; among the latter were those who were in favour of a trialistic form for the new greater Austria-Hungary, and those who advocated the incorporation of Poland in the Austrian State. Under the influence of the Hungarian Government, whose

spokesman, Count Tisza, protested in the strongest terms against the organization of the monarchy on a trialistic basis, the idea now prevailed of annexing Poland to Austria-Hungary and granting to the united territory of Poland, with the addition of Galicia, a far-reaching autonomy. ‘This had the further object of diminishing the damage to the interests of the GermanAustrians which was feared by wide circles in Austria and Germany. Since the autumn of rors negotiations were carried on between leading statesmen of Germany and Austria-IIungary on this basis. But the more deeply the question was gone into the greater were the difficulties which presented themselves. Bethmann Hollweg declared that the German people could only agree to such a strengthening of Austria-Hungary in the event of the German Empire coming out of the war with an equally large increase of territory. Economic and military objections were also advanced on the German side, and as a solution it was proposed to incorporate’ a small portion of “ Congress Poland” with Austrian Galicia, and out of the greater part of the rest to create a Polish State independent in form but in reality under the protectorate of Germany. But this proposal was firmly rejected by the Vienna

Government,

which for its

part advanced the idea of a genuincly autonomous State comprising the whole of Polish territory, which should be allied by a long-term economic and military agreement with both the Central Powers equally. But it was impossible to win the consent of the Berlin Government to this plan. - Such was the position when the Austro-Hunga rian troops

were defcated at Lutsk.

The result of this was that in Aug.

1916 the Germans carried the day with their proposal to found an independent State, practically comprising the former“ Con-

gress Poland” but subject

under a hereditary constitutional ‘monarchy,

to the most

far-reaching limitations

in military

and economic matters. On the Austro-Hungarian side the bestowal of the crown of Poland on a member of the family of Habsburg-Lorraine was waived. A more exact definition of the sphere of influence of the Central Powers was reserved for further discussion. But their subsequent course showed that the opposition of intercsts was too deep-seated for it to be possible to settle matters in a hurry. In Oct. 1916, therefore, they came to an agreement for the present to shelve the question of an independent Polish State. But in order to calm the Poles, who were anxious about their fate, and to secure the assistance of their armed forces for the Central Powers, a proclamation was issued on Nov. § 1916, in which a prospect was held out of the restoration of an independent. Poland as a hereditary constitutional monarchy closely attached to the Central Powers. But the two military governments at Warsaw and Lublin continued to administer the country. Even before this agreement had been arrived at, Rumania

of territory in the, Bukovina and Transylvania by Austria: Hungary in return for a continuance of their neutrality. To this, however, Burian, strongly influenced by Tisza, refused to agree, although not only the German Government but also Conrad von Hétzendorff actively supported Rumania’s demands, Thus the negotiations, which had been reluctantly continucd by Burian, remained without results. Even Bulgaria’s adhesion to the Central Powers, and the successful campaign against Serbia, did not produce any change in the attitude of the two Governments. The majority of Rumanian politicians counted on a rapid change in the military situation, and the Entente diplomatists made every effort to confirm them in this belief. But the Rumanian Government maintained its conviction that it must for the present preserve its neutrality. It was the

Russian victories at Lutsk and Okna which first led to a change in their views.

At the end of July 1916 the Vienna Cabinet was

aware, from its ambassador, Count Czernin, that preparations

for war were being completed in Bucharest, that negotiations were being carricd on with the Entente Powers as to the conditions of going over to them, and that the probability was that Rumania would draw the sword as soon as the harvest was garnered.

In spite of this, and though the news during the

next few weeks was more and more unfavourable, Burian firmly refused the demands made by Rumania for the maintenance of their neutrality, and was not to be moved from his resolve even by the German Government and Conrad von Hétzendorff. And so towards the cnd of August the union of Rumania with the Entente Powers was accomplished, in return for far-reaching

territorial

concessions .granted

by them

to

their new ally at the expense of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. On August 27—on the day of Italy’s formal rupture with Germany—followed Rumania’s declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, and hostilities began without delay. But the hope of the Entente that Rumania’s entry on their side would quickly decide the war in their favour was not fulfilled. After preliminary Rumanian successes against the weak troops of the Habsburg Monarchy, the armics of the Quadruple Aliance, fighting under German leadership, achieved a decisive victory. On Dee. 6 rors Bucharest was taken, and at the beginning of Jan. 1917 two-thirds of Rumania was occupied,

Yurkey’s danger had grown through the entry of Rumania into the war on the side of the Entente Powers. She, Ener, addressed herself to the Central Powers. with fresh demands. So early as Sept. 28 1916 Germany assured Agreethe Porte that, in accordance with her treaty engage- ments with ments, she would not conclude a separate peace, would LTRON allow Turkey a share, proportionate to her military efforts, in any territorial conquests, and would not agree to any peace. so long as Turkish territory was occupied by the enemy. Soon afterwards, on Jan. rz 1917, a further agreement was arrived

al between these two Powers, in which the abolition of. the Capitulations, which Turkey found oppressive, was contemplated. The provisions of these two treaties were expanded in a manner favourable to Turkey on Nov. 27 1917. The AustroHungarian Government, after long hesitation, associated itself on March 22 1917 with the German settlements of Sept. 28

1916 and Jan. rz ror7.

But her ratification. was not given.

A ireaty was signed between Austria-Hungary and Turkey on May 30 1918 as to the question of the Capitulations, which corresponded to the Turco-German one of Nov.. 27 1917, and

by which Austria-Hungary pledged herself not to sign any peace which should reëstablish the Capitulations.

had actually gone over to the Entente camp. The Central Powers had indeed not been wanting in offers to

Pma

the Rumanian Government between Italy’s entry

The success of the Central Powers in Rumania was a ray of light in the last days of the Empcror Francis Joseph I., who had entered the war with a heavy heart, and always

Entente,

into the. war (March 10915) and the conclusion of the treaties with Bulgaria (Sept. 1915), but had made their

remained full of anxious care as to the fate of his

concessions conditional on the active intervention of Rumania on their side: But the leading statesmen of Bucharest would

not agree to this; for in spite of the great military successes of

the Central Powers, their final victory seemed to them doubt-

First Peace Proposals.

empire. His armies and those of his allies had achieved decisive victories in several theatres of war in the course of the year 1916; they had occupied new territories, and in other quarters had successfully repelled the increasingly formidable offensive of their enemies. The battles on the

AUSTRIAN

EMPIRE

Isonzo had thrown the heroism of the Austro-Ilungarian troops into particularly clear relicf. But the number and military efficiency of their enemics increased, and since Great Britain commanded the sea and the United States supported them more and ‘more lavishly, the Entente armies had at their disposition vast masses of arms and munitions of every kind and also immense supplies of foodstuffs. he Central Powers, thrown, back upon their own industrial resources, and hampered in the import of foodstuffs and the production of weapons

by the British blockade, could not keep pace in the race.

For

this reason the desire to put an end to this internecine struggle of the nations grew from month to month, especially in AustriaHungary, where from the beginning of the war a great part of the population had only fought unwillingly for interests which were not regarded as their own, In the course of the year 1914 Francis Joseph, for his part, had not refused to listen to suggestions for a peace which should take into account the most important interests of his empire; he had approved the numerous proposals for peace which in the years 1915-6 had come from more or less authoritative quarters; but he had always insisted

‘most strongly that these negotiations must be conducted in full agreement with his allies, and especially with Germany. But all these peace proposals had proved abortive, since neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary saw the possibility of ending the war on any terms commensurate with the military situa-

tion and their desires. But in Oct. 1916, in order to prove to the public opinion of the world that it was not the insatiability of the Central Powers which stood In the way of peace, Burian proposed to the German Imperial Chancellor, at the general headquarters at Pless, that the Quadruple Alliance should inform their enemies, through neutral channels, of their condi-

tions of peace, and also publish them, in order to enlighten their own peoples as to their war aims and win over the neutral Powers to an active intervention with the enemy Governments. Bethmann Hollweg and the other German statesmen agreed in principle with Burian’s idea, But they declined, for their part, to communicate their concrete peace conditions, since they felt themselves bound, especially in the Belgian question, to advance demands which their enemies, and especially Great Britain, could not possibly accept. : On this: point Strained i Relations excited debates took place and serious conflicts bewith tween the Vienna and Berlin Cabinets, in the course of Germany, which the Austrians demanded the recall of Tschirschky, the German ambassador at the Court of Vienna, who represented the German point of view with uncompromising harshness. Even the sovercigns of Austria-Hungary and Germany took part in this conflict: The Empcror William sought insistently to convince his ally that Germany could not fall in with Burian’s plan. It was one of Francis Joseph’s last acts to invoke every means in order to accomplish a settlement of the outstanding difficulties. It was only after long negotiations— ‘Francis Joseph having in the meantime died on Nov. 21 1916 —that it was possible to reach a compromise. It was agreed to submit the proposal of the Quadruple Alliance to their enemies through the neutral Powers, and immediately to enter upon deliberations as to a peace, in which the peace conditions

of the Quadruple Alliance should be exactly defined. The death of Francis Joseph and the accession of the Emperor Charles to the throne of Austria-Hungary notably reinforced the peace party at Vienna. In his very frst declarations Charles emphasized his firm intcation of doing everything in hts power to ‘put an end to the terrible world conflict. En this attitude he was -most strongly confirmed by his wife, Zita, by her mother, the influential Maria Antonia of Parma, and by his brothers-inlaw, Sixtus and Xavier. On Dec. 12 1916 the peace offer of the

Quadruple Alliance was made public. It contained a promise to submit to a conference of the Powers proposals which should aim at assuring to their peoples existence, honour, and freedom of development, and. at laying foundations calculated to establish a lasting peace. In conversations with Germany, Austria-Hungary defined her stand‘point as follows:—She claimed. the integrity of her territory, triPeace Pro=-

posal of Dec. 1946.

|

339

fling fronticr rectifications as against Russia, a more favourable strategic frontier against Rumania, the cession to AustriaHungary of a small portion of the territory of the Serbian Monarchy and of larger portions to Bulgaria and Albania, and a more favourable strategic frontier against Italy; in addition to this the economic union of Serbia with the Habsburg Monarchy, and Albanian autonomy under an Austro-Hungarian protectorate. Independently of the peace activity of the Quadruple Alliance, Mr. Woodrow Wilson, who had shortly before been re-clected President of the United States, on Dec, 18 1916 invited the belligerent Powers to communicate their peace terms, and had a note handed in at London in this sense on Dee. 21. Both proposals, however, were declined by the Entente Powers. On Dec. 30 1916 Briand, on the part of France, declared the peace offer of the Quadruple Alliance to be a war manocuvre, and that all negotiations were uscless, so long as no security was given for the restoration of violated rights and liberties and the recognition of the right of peoples to self-determination. In the note drawn up in concert by the Entente Powers on Jan. 12 1917, in answer to President Wilson’s communication of Dec. 18, all the

blame for the outbreak of war was imputed to the Central Powers, and the demand was formulated, among other things,

for compensation for all war damages, the restoration of AlsaceLorraine to France, and from Austria-Hungary

in particular

proportionate cessions of territory to Italy as well. The German Government, which had by now fallen into more and more obvious dependence on the higher army command, thereupon resolved to carry on the war by the employment of the most extreme measures, the most important. and most promising of which was indicated in authoritative quarters to be unlimited submarine warfare. Baron Burian, meanwhile, had ceased to be Austro-ITungarian foreign minister on Dec. 22 1916, being succeeded by Count Ottokar Czernin, the former ambassador

at Bucharest.

Austro-Hungarian statesmen generally did not share the exaggerated expectations of German military

oo gyriaa.

circles as to the effects of the submarine campaign,

and Czernin in particular gave open expression to his doubts about the subjugation of England within a few months, which the German authorities seemed to regard as certain. He drew attention to the danger of an active intervention of the United States, if unlimited submarine warfare were entered upon. The Emperor Charles shared his minister’s views. But the continual pressure of German statesmen and the German higher comimand, powerfully supported by the Emperor William, at last succeeded in obtaining the consent of the Austro-Hungarian Government to the unlimited submarine warfare. The war was resumed by Germany and her allies by land, by sea and in the air. But the hope of forcing their encmics to thcir knees by decisive successes was not realized. During the year ro1r7 there were indeed moments in which it looked as if the final decision

would be in their favour. But their enemies, in spite of all the successes of the Central Powers and their allies, rejected all thoughts of a peace unsatisfactory to them. The opening of unlimited submarine warfare was followed immediately by the rupture of diplomatic relations between the Cabinets of Berlin and Washington, and on April ¢ American 1017 by the declaration of war on Germany by the Declara»

United States. It was not till Dec. 7 ror7 that the

Sieof

United States declared war on Austria-Hungary. on Meanwhile, since the successes of the submarine warfare, though in themselves considerable, did not produce the result foretold by Germany, the Emperor ‘Charles'ss inclination towards peace grew from month to month. Under the influence of his entourage he determined, by secret negotiations with

the enemy, to work for a peace which should include R

a guarantee of the integrity of the Habsburg Mon- Proposals. archy by the Entente Powers. His brother-inlaw, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon Parma, undertook the rôle of mediator. On March 24 the Emperor Charles empowered him, by letter, to declare to M. Poincaré, President of the French Republic, that in order to obtain peace he would

340

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

exert every effort in his power to support the just claims of France to Alsace-Lorraine. vis-à-vis his allies, In other questions too, notably in that of Belgium, the Emperor Charles showed a wish to further the desires of the enemy Powers as far as possible. On the other hand, there was no mention in Charles’s letter of any readiness to cede Austrian territory to Italy. Count Czernin, who was well informed as to essentials in the negotiations, but was unacquainted with the text of the imperial letter, endeavoured in the meanwhile to win over the German Government to the idea of peace. On March 27 r917 an agreement was signed at Vienna between him and Bethmann Hollweg which provided for a minimum and maximum pro-

gramme.

In the former the restoration of the territorial status

ee.

W. was laid down as the condition precedent to their

quo amle bellum of the Central Powers in the E. anà

soap ues, evacuation of the occupicd provinces of Russia eo. (except Poland), Serbia, Albania, Greece and Rumania; in the latter, which was to hold good in the event of the war taking a more favourable turn, provision was made for a permanent acquisition of enemy territory in proportion to their

respective military achievements. In this event Germany’s ficld of expansion was to be in the East, Austria-Hungary’s in Rumania. l Shortly afterwards, April 3 1917, the Emperor Charles and Count Czernin arrived at Homburg as guests of the Emperor Wiliam. Czernin here came forward with a proposal (the connexion with Prince Sixtus’s démarche being noteworthy) that

Germany might make concessions to France in Alsace-Lorraine, and as a substitute for her losses in the West take permanent possession of a Poland supplemented by Galicia. These plans found a basis in the prospect of concluding a favourable peace with Russia, which had opened up shortly before the abdication of the Tsar Nicholas IZ. in March, To reinforce his efforts, Count Czernin, on April 14, sent to the Emperor William a

report, drawn up by himself and the Emperor Charles in person, in which the internal situation of the Habsburg Monarchy was painted in the blackest colours, and its collapse, involving a revolution and the downfall of the dynasty, was represented as imminent: At the same time Czernin renewed in authoritative quarters in Germany his offer to compensate the German Empire for eventual losses in Alsace-Lorraine by the permanent

acquisition of Poland enlarged by the addition of Galicia. But the Emperor William and his counsellors refused to open negotiations with the enemy on this basis, and urged the continuation of the war. It soon afterwards became clear that the secret negotiations conducted by Sixtus of Parma with the Entente Powers would not lead to the results desired by the Emperor Charles and Czernin. For Italy held by her bond, and demanded the cession of all those provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy

which had been promised her by the ‘Treaty of London of April 26 1915, To this, however, the Emperor Charles, particularly in view of the military situation at the time, ncither would nor could consent. The negotiations with the Western Powe

having thus for

the present led to no tangible results, the Emperor, Charles and Kreurnach Count Czcrnin decided at Kreuznach (May 17-18 - Agreement. 1917) to come. to an agreement with the German with Government, in which there was no further men-. Germany. “% tion of the cession of Alsace-Lorraine, but in which

it was stipulated by Austria-IIungary that not only should her

integrity be guaranteed but she should receive considerable accessions of territory in. the Balkans.

Germany, furthermore,

agreed in the event of her being able to carry out “the territorial incorporation (Anglicderung) of Courland and Lithuania, together with the dependence (Anlehnung) of Poland contemplated on the German

side,” that “Rumania

so far as occu-

pied, with the exception of the Dobruja (frontier anterior to 1913) and a border strip to the S. of the Cernavoda-Constantza railway, falls as a separate State into the Austro-Hungarian sphere of interests, subject to a guarantee of Germany’s economic.

interests in Rumania.” On the fulfilment of these conditions Austria-Hungary consented to renounce her condominium in

Poland, and promised to declare her désintéressement, political and military, in Poland. On June 8 1917 the Empcrors William

II. and Charles signed. an agreement as to Poland's military forces, by which. their organization was placed entirely in the hands of Germany. The war continued. The Quadruple Alliance waged it with the exertion of all its military strength, and even now gained not inconsiderable successes.

On the western front

the Germans held at bay the attacks of the French and Gromiag British troops, lavishly furnished with war material, ywerriness, On the castern front the armies of the Alliance fought

successfully against the Russians.

In the S, the armics of

Austria-Hungary, stiffencd by German troops, undertook an invasion of Italy which led to the occupation of further Italian territory. But all these successes.did not suffice to compela desire for peace on the part of the enemy, while, in the countries of the Quadruple Alliance, war weariness, furthered by a skilfully managed propaganda on the part of the Entente, kept spreading to wider circles among the soldicrs and citizens of the Central Powers and their allics. This feeling among the people, and the recognition of the fact that the war could only be ended by diplomatic. means, decided Czernin to resume with the greatest energy his efforts to achieve a peace which should preserve the vital interests of the monarchy. In this he was strongly supported by the declaration made by the majority in the German Reichstag on July 19 1917 in favour of a peace by agreement, in which the forcible acquisition of territory, and oppressive political, economic and financial measures were repudiated, and the freedom of the seas and the renunciation by the enemy of the economic blockade of the Central Powers were demanded. Yet neither the Pope’s official efforts for peace northe secret Revertera-Armand (July—Aug. 1917) and Mensdorff-Smuts (Dec. 1917) negotiations led to tangible results, since the enemy had: exact information as to the critical internal situation of the Powers of the Quadruple Alliance, and, counting upon the strong support of the United States for the following year, made conditions to which, in view of their favourable military situation at ihe end of the year rory, Germany and her allics would not accede. At this time, moreover, the prospect was opening to them of concluding a favourable peace with their enemics in the E, which would enable them to fall with their full strength upon their encmies in the West.

The revolution which had taken place in Russia in March 1917 had not brought peace; on the contrary, the numerous negotiations which took place between the Central

Powers and Russia, having as their aim the conclu- Effect of

sion of a separate peace, dragged on inconclusively. Bolshevik Revolution The war went on; it was waged successfully by Germany, and brought wide territories in the East into the possession of the allies. But a decisive change took place for the first time in the attitude of the Russian politicians in Nov. 1017, when the second phase of the Russian revolution—the “ social revolutionary” phase led by Kerensky—was succeeded by a third, that of the “ Bolsheviks,” led by Lenin and Trotsky. As carly as the end of Nov. 1917 the new Government summoned all the combatant Powers to enter immediately upon an armistice and begin negotiations for the conclusion of a general peace, which should assure to eyery nation freedom of economic and

cultural development. When the Entente Powers refused to comply with this summons, the Russians on Dec. 3 entered into

a suspension of hostilities with Germany and her allies, which was to last till Dec. 17. On Dec. 15 the suspension of hostilitics was succeeded by an armistice, which was to last till Jan. 14.1918 and then be continued with‘ the right to deNegotiae

nounce it on seven, days’ notice.

} eacencgotiations

tions at

began on Dec. 22 at Brest-Litovsk. They were conAa k ductedin public. The upshot was that on Dec. 25 the Quadruple Alliance accepted the Russian proposals for the conclusion of a peace without annexations and indemnities as the basis for a general peace. At the suggestion of the Russian delegates, the negotiations were suspended for ten days and a request was addressed to the enemies of the Quadruple Alli-

341

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE ance that they should take part in further deliberations on the -basis of the resolutions adopted on Dec. 25. But the Entente Powers refused. Thereupon negotiations were begun (Jan. 9

forces of a Polish State which was not to be incorporated in

1918) for a separate peace between Russia and the Quadruple

and once more the attempt to reach a definitive solution of the

Alliance, But they did not run so smoothly as the majority of Austro-Hungarian politicians had hoped. Trotsky, the chicf of the Russian delegation, demanded full freedom for the plebiscites to be held in the Russian provinces occupied by the Central Powers, and with this object proposed that their troops

should evacuate them. On the rejection of this proposal by the German and Austro-Hungarian delegates, Trotsky protracted the negotiations in order meanwhile to introduce Bolshe-

vik ideas into the territories of the Quadruple Alliance. The progress of the negotiations was hampered by quarrels among the Russians, and by the appearance at Brest-Litovsk

Treaty with the Ukraine.

of an Ads Ukrainian : delegation which pressed for the a = : Establishment of a Russian federal republic. Since on

this question no agreement could be reached, the representatives of the Ukraine, on Jan, 24 19178, announced the com-

plete independence of the Ukrainian People’s Republic, and on Feb. 9 concluded a separate peace with the Quadruple Alliance, which, so far as, Austria-Hungary was concerned, left the frontier between the two States unchanged, Inspired by his eager-

Austria-Hungary þut merely joined to her by a personal union. To this, however, the Vienna Government would not agree,

Polish question had broken down.

The Poles, anxious about

their future and keenly desirous to make it as favourable as possible to themselves, took advantage of these differences to

continue negotiations with both sides, in order to secure for their State the widest possible territorial extension and the greatest possible measure

of independence.

‘They resolutely

protested against the cession of the district of Cholm to the Ukraine, and on March 4 1918, with the aid of the Poles in the Habsburg Monarchy, they succeeded in obtaining the signature, by the Powers concerned in the conclusion of the Peace Treaty of Feb. 9, of a protocol in which it was laid down that the frontiers between Poland and the Ukraine were to be settled by a new agreement, arrived at with the codperation of the Poles, and perhaps to be altered in favour of the Poles. The

negotiations between the Cabinets of Vienna and Berlin as to the future destiny of Poland still went on. The former clung to the Austro-Polish solution, but it was evident from many indications that the German Government showed less and less inclination to consent to it. In July 1918, after the luckless Austrian offensive in Italy, the German Imperial Chancellor,

ness to bring to the starving population of Austria, and above all 10 the inhabitants of Vienna, the longed-for “ bread peace,” which stipulated for the delivery of foodstuffs from the Ukraine, Czernin, in compliance with the violent desire of the Ukrainian delegation, carried out their demand for the incorporation of the district of Cholm in the newly created republic, and for the erection of East Galicia into an autonomous Austrian crown

the Austro-Polish solution. Poland ‘was to have the free choice of her future form of government, but before its establishment must come to arrangements with the Central Powers, permanently calculated to secure their economic and military interests, Austria-Hungary agreed with these proposals in prin-

territory.

ciple. But the negotiations which were now entered upon led,

The negotiations with Russia had meanwhile been continued. Czernin, zealously seconded in his efforts for peace by the Emperor Charles, pressed for a conclusion, but met a of with determined opposition from the German negotiaLitovesk, tors. On T’eb. 10 1918 Trotsky declared that Russia,

like all the preceding ones, to no definitive results, though they

renouncing a formal ircaty of peace, regarded the state

Count

Hertling, declared that he would no longer recognize

provided the Poles once more with the desired opportunity for fishing in troubled waters,

The ending of the war between Russia and the Quadruple Alliance also compelled Rumania to conclude peace with the

victors, having already, on Dec. 17 1917, had to sub- peace

of war against the Quadruple Alliance as at an end, and would

mit to an armistice.

reduce her troops to a peace footing on all fronts.

peace preliminaries were

But since

this solution did not mect with the whole-hearted consent of the Central Powers, Germany resumed. the struggie. The Austro-Hungarian troops did not enter into the war against Soviet Russia, but after a few days joined the march of the German troops into the Ukraine. The Russians, defeated by Germany in the field, now changed their tactics and: declared themselves prepared fo conclude a formal peace, which was signed on March 3 1918 at Brest-Litovsk. It brought the

Habsburg Monarchy no accessions of territory, but, by the

official retirement of the Russians from the ranks of their enemies, it involved a considerable strengthening of the Quadruple

Alliance.

|

Poland had become independent of Russia by the provisions of the Peace of Brest-Litovsk; but this did not settle the Polish question. The negotiations conducted by the CabThe Polish inets of 4 Vienna and Berlin as to the fate ofè Poland3 in Question, ; 1917, the spring and summer of 1917 led to no issue, since the conflicting interests of the two Powers concerned

were shown to be irreconcilable. The plan advocated by Austria, that the Archduke Charles Stephen should be made regent, and afterwards king, was accepted neither by the Emperor William nor by the German Government, In the autumn of 1917 the decision made earlier in the vear to abandon Poland to Germany and compensate Austria-Hungary in Rumania was given up, and the Austro-Polish

solution advocated

by the

Emperor Charles and Czernin was approved in principle.

In

the negotiations which followed as to the carrying-out of this plan, however, the old opposition of interests again became apparent. Germany declared that she would make her acquiescence in the Austro-Polish solution contingent upon the cession to her of large portions of Polish territory, as ‘rectifications

of frontier,” and, beyond this, upon her retaining a decisive

influence upon the utilization of the economic and military

After rather long negotiations the Treaty

signed at the château of with

Buftea near Bucharest on March 6 r918, and on May 7

Semania.

the definitive peace; but the latter was not ratified by Rumania.

Austria-Hungary received a favourable strategic frontier in the Carpathians, important economic concessions, and the promise of an immediate evacuation of the provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy still occupied by Rumania. King Ferdinand had to thank the personal intervention of the Emperor Charles for the fact that he retained his crown.

The successes in the East, gratifying though they were.in themselves, did not deccive the governing circles at the Ballplatz as to the danger on the verge of which they

hovered.

They knew that the filling-up of the` seri- a on of the

ously depleted ranks of the troops, the production of Momarchy.-

armsand munitions, the provisioning of the soldiersand ` of the population, would get more difficult every month. Reports kept coming in as to the increasing war-weariness of the troops, and the more and more openly expressed anti-dynastic sentiments of the non-German or non-Magyar portions of the popu-

lation of the monarchy, as to the correctness of which there could be no doubt.

All these reasons increased the desire of the

Emperor Charles and of Czernin to bring the war to an end as quickly as possible. As early as the autumn of 1917 the German Government had been informed from Vienna that AustriaHungary’s strength was exhausted, and insistently urged to sacrifices which might content the enemy. The same. point of view had been adhered to during the negotiations at BrestLitovsk. Germany was ‘to find in the East compensations for the cessions which she must make in the West in order to bring the enemy round the peace-table. For the negotiations secretly carried on by several Austro-Hungarian statesmen with the representatives of the Entente States had left no doubt as to

the fact that there could be no thought of a serious entry upon peace negotiations on the part of the Western Powers before

AUSTRIAN

342

Germany should have handed in precise declarations which

should meet their views in the questions of Belgium and AlsaceLorraine.

It was, then, very opportune for the Court of Vicnna

when President Wilson, in his message to Congress of Jan. 8

1918, defined the Fourteen Points, in which he perceived a suitable basis for the establishment of a lasting peace. It is true that sevcral of these points involved considerable. damage to

Austro-Hungarian interests: but in their entirety they seemed to afford Czernin the possibility of initiating peace negotiations. He endeavoured in divers ways, and especially Czernin’s .through the. mediation of> the+ King ofrh Spain, to, enter Peace Bfo . ,

forts, 1918, D40 negotiations with President, Wilson, but failed to attain his end. Equally fruitless were the informal conversations carried on by Austro-Hungarian representatives,

in intelligence with their Government, with Trench delegates in Switzerland and other places. Czernin firmly refused the demand of the Western Powers for the conclusion of a separate peace; but he continued his efforts at negotiation, though he knew that German headquarters had prepared a new campaign in the West which was intended to be decisive. At the beginning of April 1918, shortly after this German offensive had successfully begun, Czernin emphasized, in an address to a delegation of the Viennese town: counBurlan 3 Á : i h

again Foreign

Minister,

cil, his. loyalty to Germany, as, proved by his rejection of the French peace offers, which were con-

ditional on the recognition of France’s claims to Alsace-Lorraine. Clémenceau, the French prime minister, de-

EMPIRE mann’s fall, declared at headquarters in Spa that they could no longer hope to break the military spirit of the foe by forceof arms, Thus when Burian again approached the German Government, he no longer met with any opposition on prin-

ciple. Yet great differences presented themselves in the course of the deliberations as to the course to be adopted.

The Ger-

mans wanted to wait for an improvement of the military situation in the West and then begir negotiations with the enemy through a neutral Power—Holland or Spain—whie AustroHungarian statesmen advocated an immediate and open appeal to all the combatant Powers, At the beginning of Sept. 1918 the German Minister Hintze spent some time in Vienna in order to arrive at an agreed course of action. But since this could not be achieved, Burian. determined, without regard to Germany’s opposition, to have an appeal sent out to all the combatant States for the opening of peace negotiations. President Wilson answered, however, after a few days’ interval, that he had repeatcdly and in the plainest terms made known the conditions on which he was prepared to consider the conclusion of peace; hence the Government of the United States could not and would not accept a proposal for the holding of a conference concerning a matter in which it had already clearly made known its attitude and aims. And the Cabinets of Paris and London were equally cold.. The sole result of Burian’s new effort for peace was the increase of the Entente’s hopes of

victory. On Sept. 15 ensued a violent attack against the Bulgarian army, in the ranks of which war-weariness had for long

clared this assertion to be a lie, and, in the course of the pub-

past made serious inroads.

licist. feud that followed, published among other things the letter of the Emperor Charles to Prince Sixtus of March 24 1917, in which he alluded to his willingness to advocate with his Albes France’s “just claims” tọ Alsace-Lorraine. The

little resistance; great bodies of them laid down their arms, and returned to their homes. The Sofia Government, at the

Austro-Hungarian monarch’s loyalty to his alliance was thus placed in an cquivocal light, and Czernin’s refusal to accept full responsibility for the Emperor Charles’s proceedings led to his resignation, Count Burian being reappointed as his successor.

In order

to calm

the agitation of the Emperor

The Bulgarian troops offered but

head of which Malinov, who was friendly to the Entente, had for some months taken the place of Radoslavov, resolved to propose an armistice, which was granted on Sept. 29 under conditions which signified for the Central Powers the loss of the Balkans, King Ferdinand abdicated. These events, and the great successes of the English troops in Palestine, produced their effect upon Turkey. At the beginning of October the fall of Enver and Tal’at took place at Constantinople, and

William and the German statesmen and gencrals, the Emperor Charles had to make another “journey to Canossa” at Spa, thus the way was opened here too for a separate peace. An and there, on May 12 10918, he set his signature to agreements ‘armistice was concluded between Turkey and the Entente on Oct. 31 1918, which brought the Dardanelles and the Bosporus for a closer political and military union between the two coununder their power, and pledged the Turks to break off all relatries, the coming into force of which would have meant heavy tions with the Central Powers. damage to the independence of Austria-llungary. But since Meanwhile the catastrophe had taken place in Austriathe condition of the validity of this treaty, namely an underHungary as well. Encouraged by the repeated pronouncements standing between the. two Powers on the Polish question, broke down, the Spa agreement, too, remained a scrap of paper. Meanwhile Germany was putting forth her last strength in

the hope of achieving a decisive success. But her initial successes were

followed

by reverses.

Austria-Ilungary had

cece is

taken part in the battles on the western front, but

the War,

Olly within modest limits, In June 1918 she attempted

a sudden attack on Italy with the principal body of her troops. But here, too, the decisive victory which had been expected was not achieved. These failures, together with the ever-increasing lack of effective soldiers, arms, munitions and foodstuffs, deepened the longing of the pcoples of the Habsburg Monarchy for peace. In addition, the Emperor Charles became alive to the more and more open opposition of the non-Gernmian and non-Magyar peoples of his dominions, and

of President Wilson as to the right of nations to self-determination, the separatist ideas of those peoples of the monarchy which did not acknowledge German or Hungarian nationality became more and more articulate. There were disturbances in various parts of the monarchy, and these rire disruptive influences made it month by month Monarchy. increasingly difficult to keep the army cfficient for war. Both Austria-Hungary and Germany now decided to address to President Wilson the offer of an armistice, to be followed by negotiations for peace. To this offer the President at first made no reply; and thereupon the Emperor Charles, in order to save the dynasty, issued on Oct. 16 a manifesto in which he proclaimed that Austria,in accordance with the will of her peoples, was to be erected into a Federal State, in which every race would be free to establish its own form of body politic

likewise to the revolutionary spirit which was becoming conspicuous among the working-classes in many places, and he on the territory occupied by it. But the union of the Austrian Poles with an independent Polish State was not to be anticibegan to tremble for his crown and the fate of the dynasty. In proportion as the German hope of extorting peace by force pated by this. The imperial manifesto was only to apply to en For Hungary, where they were already working for of arms diminished, a more favourable prospect scemed to open . up for the efforts of Austro-Hungarian statesmen to put an a personal union and for a complete separation from Austria, the manifesto laid stress upon the- integrity of the Hungarian end to the war by way of diplomatic negotiations. At the end kingdom. It thus became clear to the Southern Slavs that they of July 1918, Baron Kithlmann, the German Secretary Aiello of State for Foreign Affairs, had been compelled to must no longer hope for a realization of thcir national aspirations within the bounds of the monarchy. But the Emperor Charles’s Peace. resign in consequence of hissaying in the Reichstag that expectation of conciliating the opinion of the Austrian Slavs by an end of the war through a purely military decision could not be expected. But by Aug. 14 Ludendorff himself, means of the manifesto met with no success. President Wilson, who had played a prominent part in bringing about Kühl- too, rejected the Vienna Cabinct’s peace offer. He declared

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF. hooks prepared under the direction of the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office, is a summary survey. The period 1875 to nized Czechoslovakia as a belligerent Power and the Czecho1914 is treated in an inadequate and one-sided way in fean Larslovak National Council as a belligerent Government, as well meroux, La Politique extérieure de VAutriche-Hongrie (2 vols., 1918). as the justice of the national aspirations of the Southern Slavs. The foreign policy of the monarchy is discussed in its connexion It was, therefore, for these peoples themselves to decide which of with world politics in. among other works, A. Debidour, Histoire dipiomatique de l'Europe, vol: iv, (1918); Ernst Reventlow, Politische the resolutions of the Austrian Government were acceptable -Vorgeschichte des grossen Kriegs (1919); Julius Hashagen, Umrisse

that the Government of the United States had already recog-

tothem.

Upon this the request for an armistice made by the

Emperor Charles at the beginning of October was declared to

be no longer in force. During October independent national representative bodies assembled in Praguc, Agram, Laibach

The Emperor’s dominions thus dissolved and.

and Vienna.

slipped from his grasp. These internal movements led to the disintegration of the armies, which up to this moment had fought bravely. The Governments of the several countrics.

constituting the monarchy, Hungary leading the way, summoned

their co-nationals to the defence of their particular

frontiers or called them back home. The Empcror Charles tried to save what still could be saved. He was prepared to conclude a separate peace with the enemy on terms which would make possible the continuance of the old monarchy, even though with diminished territory and as-a loose aggregation of separate territorial groups under the dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine. On Oct. 24 Count Julius Andrassy succeeded Burian as Foreign Minister, in order to begin negotiations for a separate peace. Three days later the office of ministcr-president was

der Weltpolitik, vol. ii. (2nd ed. 1919); Gottlob Egelhaaf, Geschichte

der neuesten Zeit, vol. ii. (8th ed.) and Heinrich Friedjung, Des Zeilalter des Imperialismus, vol. i. (1922). Friedrich Wieser’s study, Oesterretchs Ende (1919), and F. Kleinwichter'’s book, Der Untergang Oesterreich- Ungarns, throw more light on the internal disintegration of the Habsburg Monarchy, but also contain interesting discussions of foreign policy. Meisser’s Politische Chronik der Oesterreich- Ungarischen Monarchie (1910-8) and Schulthe’s Geschichtskalender (1910-8) contain extracts from the reports of the proceedings of the delegations and the Austrian and Hungarian

parliaments and other. important documents and speeches, Of the

official publications of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs should be mentioned: Diplomatische Aktensttiche betreffend die Ereignisse am Balkan, 13. August rgr2 bis 6, November 1913 (Vienna 1914); Diplomatische Aktenstticke betreffend die Beziehung OesterreichUngarns zu Ilalien in der Zeit vom 22. Juli 1914 bis 27. August 1916 (Vienna 1916); Diplomatische Aktenstticke gur Vorgeschichie. des Krieges 1914 and Diplomatische Aktenstiicke sur Vorgeschichte des Krieges: Ergänzungen und Nachtrége zum Oesterrcichisch-Ungarischen Rotbuch (3 parts [June 28-Aug. 27 1914], Vienna 1920). At the instance.of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs there appeared Richard Gooss, Das Wiener Kabinet und die Entsiehung des Weltkrieges (1919). A. F. Pribram’s Die politischen Geheimverträge Oesterreich-Ungarns 1879 bis 1914 (1920) also contains a detailed

history of the development of the Triple Alliance treaties (English trans. by A. C. Coolidge, 1920). Valuable information as to AustroHungarian foreign policy is to be found in memoirs of German and Austro-Hungarian statesmen and military commanders which have appeared since the end of the war. Among these may be especially indicated: G. Jagow; Ursachen und Ausbruch des Weltkrieges (1919); Paul von Hindenburg, Ans meinem Leben (1920); Theodor von. various cmissarics of the Habsburg Monarchy. Once more, Bethmann Hollweg, Betrachtungen zum Weltkrieg (1919); Erich.. however, they reached no result. At the end of October, after Ludendorff, Kriegsertnnerungen (1919); Urkunden der Obersten Heeresleitung über ihre Täligkeit 1916 bis 1018 (1920); A. von Tirthe revolution in Hungary (see Wuncary: IWistory), and when pitz, Jrinnerungen (1919); Karl Helferich, Der Weltkrieg (3 vols., increasing numbers of the troops fighting in Italy had started 1919); Kari Hertling, ditn Jahr in der Reichskanglei (1919); A. von homewards, the Austro-Hungarian army command asked for | Cramon, Unser: Oesterreich-Ungarischer Bundgenosse im Weltkrieg an. armistice from the Italians, who were victoriously advancing (1920); Ottokar Czernin, Im Weltkriegė (1919); Julius Andrassy,Diplomatie und Weltkrieg (1920); L. Windischgrätz, Vom roten zun against the demoralized and dissolving Austro-Hungarian

given to Heinrich Lammasch, professor of international law

and a well-known pacifist. On the same day renewed proposals for an armistice were made to President Wilson, and the peace pourparlers, which had never been entirely interrupted, were resumed in Switzerland with representatives of the Entente by

forces.

This was granted on Nov. 3 1918 on conditions of piti-

less severity.

Austria-Hungary had to reduce her army at

once to a peace footing—only

20 divisions were excepted; to

evacuate all enemy territories still occupied by her troops; to surrender to the enemy large portions of Austrian territory, and to hand over all war material actually in these territories, as well as the whole of her fleet. By this means all resistance was made impossible even after the expiry of the armistice. Utterly defenceless, the Emperor Charles had to place his own fate and that of the ancient monarchy in the hands of the victors. The latter also demanded free passage for their armies over all roads, railways and waterways of the monarchy. Germany’s resistance was thus to be broken by new dangers threatening her from the south. It was only under protest, and bowing to necessity, that the Emperor Charles gave his consent to these demands, which promised to be fatal to his ally.

The negotiations for a separate peace were indeed

even now still carried on by the diplomatists who remained

truce to the dynasty, bat they hardly mct with a hearing from the Entente Powers. The process of dissolution ran its course in the old monarchy. On Nov. rz 1918 the Emperor Charles renounced all share in the business of government in Austria; the Lammaseh Government retired.

The Emperor Charles did not, however, renounce

his crown. On the following day, in the Austrian National Assembly, a tepublic was proclaimed (see AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC or), which was at first intended to form a component part of

the new German Republic.

On Nov. 16 the republican form of

government was introduced in Hungary.

The ancient Austro-

Hungarian Monarchy had thereby ceased to exist, and its rôle as a European Great Power was at an end. BrBLioGRaruy.—Up to 1921 no comprehensive critical account had been published

of Austro-Hungarian

foreign

policy

in

1910-8,

The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary (1920), No. 1. of the hand-

schwarsen Prinzen

(1920); Auffenberg-Komarow,

Aus

Oesterreichs

Höhe und Niedergang (1921); Erich von Falkenhayn, Die Tätigkeit der Obersten Heeresleitung 1914 bis 19176 (1919); Matthias Erzberger, Erlebnisse im Weltkriege (1920); J. V. Szilassy, Der Untergang der. Donaumonarchie. (1921). Separate problems of Austro-Hungarian foreign policy are ireated among others by Leopold Chlumecky, Die Agonie des Dreibundes (1915); Wilhelm Fraknoi, Aritische Stu-_ dien zur Geschichte des Dretbundes (1916); Severus, Zehn Monate jlalientscher Neutralitdt (1915); Th. v. Sosnosky, Die Balkan politik Oesterreich-Ungarns seit 1866 (2 vols., 1914); Die Politik im Habsburgerreich (1912); Berthold Molden, Alois Graf Aehrenthal: Sechs Jahre dusserer Politik Oesterreich-Ungarns (1917). (A. E. PR.)

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF.—The republic of Austria, reconstituted after the collapse in 1918 of the old empire (see AUSTRIAN EMPIRE) is bounded on the E. by Czechoslovakia, Hungary

and Yugoslavia, on the S. by Yugoslavia and Italy, on the W. by Switzerland, Licchtenstein and the Lake of Constance, on the

N. by Germany (Bavaria) and Czechoslovakia.

Under the new régime, Austria had in Aug. 1921, including: the Burgenland (which was in process of being handed over by

Hungary), an area of 32,491 sq. m., somewhat less than that of Ireland. Its population is less than one-fifth that of England. It belongs almost entirely to the Danubian region and for the greater part to the Eastern Alps; a small part of it embraces the outlying spurs of this mountain

system, which form a con-

nexion with the Carpathian; and another part comprises the Austrian Granite Plateau; the most southerly portion of the Boic massif. But Austria’s frontiers, especially towards the Alps, are not natural boundaries, and their long extension is a source of geographical and economic inconvenience. Czechoslovakia received three minor border territories of Lower Austria; Italy advanced as ‘far as the Adriatic watershed, and even passed beyond it in various places in the basins of the Inn and Drau (Drava); Yugoslavia received South-Eastern Carinthia and Southern Styria as far as the Posruck and the Mur, Thus the

closed territories of Tirol and those of the Carinthian basin

;

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF 10

13

AUSTRI English

o

16 20

30

Miles

40 50

60 70

Kilometres

Landshut

O I0 2O 3040 50 6070

À

Frontiers not requiring delimitation frontiers to be delimitated

Old Frontier between Austria and Hungary Sang Railways

a td

12 Longitude East 13 of Greenwich

and Central Styria were cut off; the two. great natural triangular routes, that of German Tirol and that within Austria, and hence

population was Roman Catholic, 2-6 Evangelical, 2:98 Jewish, othet faiths 0-3 %. iiducation.—At the end of 1918 there were 4,102 free public primary schools (Volksschulen), with 17,497 teachers and 788,891 pupils; 331 higher elementary middle-class schools (Birgerschulen), with 3,310 teachers and 82,739 pupils; 362 private lower clementary

also the southern longitudinal railway of the Eastern Alps (Franzensfeste~Marburg) were split up between different states

(see CARINTHIA, STYRIA, TIROL). Population.—The

territories under Austrian administration

May 1920, which alone could be included in the census of

schools with 35,511 pupils; and 69 private higher cleinentary schools with 6,114 pupils; 1,875 teachers served these private schools. In

in

Jan. 31

1910 the average proportion of persons over 10 years of age who could both read and write was 95-70% (in Vorarlberg 99-12 %, in Carinthia

1920, embraced a portion of Lower Austria belonging to Czechoslovakia; on the other hand, electoral district No. I. of Carinthia and a few communes of Styria were occupied by' the Southern Slavs,

85-43%); o-80% (in Carinthia 2-28 %4) could only read and 3:5 % could neither read nor write. At the end of 1918 there were 37 inslitutions for training teachers—16 for men and 21 for women. In addition to the elementary schools there are three groups of higher schools: intermediate schools, professional and technical schgols,

and the disputed Burgenland (German Western Hungary) by Hungary. With these rescrvations the figures in the appended table hold good.

:

Territory

Lower Austria.

|

Upper Austrią Salzburg ©

. «a

. x|

Styria. Carinthia Tir .

+ . >

» a a

«| . 4

Total

>

‘

-|

Vorarlberg

TE

Carinthia, ZoneI. Burgenland. ,. .

Total

.

Pop.

Arca in | Dec. 31

Pop.

Jinai

sq. m. 1910. 1020... 4° 7,639 | 3,525,004 | 3,313,155 | 434 4,626 2,762

853,006 214,737

$57,234 213,877

185 77

6,304 3,017 4,787

952,590 | 946,721 299,091 297,257 304,713 306,153

151 99 64

30,140 | 6,294,639 | 6,067,430

201

1,005

667 1,684*|

145,408

72,138 345,082*

32,491* | 6.711,859*

133,033

(Miltelschulen) were Gymnasien (classical schools), 26 Realgymnasien, Reform Realgymnasien, etc. Gn which Latin. is taught); 39 Realschulen (modern, without Latin) and 26 Médchenlyseen (girls’ colleges) with, together, 3,135 teachers and 40,147 pupils. Of the girls’ colleges, one alee as a Gymnasium and two as Realgymuasien. But girls are required to attend the other intermediate schools: the number

rie =

— —

—

—

of girls’ colleges is diminishing.

The churches have

charge of religious instruction in the elementary and intermediate ;schools, In 1917-8, there were 9 quel and 32 second-class commercial schools, 19 higher technical schools and 53 special technical see and 4 intermediate and 38 lower agricultural and forestry

132

* Approximate. The returns show that, in consequence of the war and the shortage of foodstuffs in all countries from 1910+20, the populations of Upper Austria and Tirol decreased greatly during that period (the average decrease was 3:6%). In Vienna, the birth-rate had slightly

schools.

The higher educational establishments are:—Three universities

(Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck), each with four faculties—Catholic

theological, Jaw and political sciences, medicine, and philosophy; two technical colleges (Vienna and Graz}; the Evangelical theological faculty in Vienna, and that of Catholic theology in Salzburg. ‘There are also in Vienna the high schools of commerce,

agriculture and vet-

In 1910,

erinary science, the consular academy, the academy of plastic arts, the special school for medal and stamp engraving, the academy of music and graphic arts, and at Leoben the college of mining,

population of the mountainous districts is sparse; only Austria, thanks to Vienna, shows a dense population. Ex-

taken in 1910, it appeared that 40-14°% of the population was engaged in agriculture and forestry, 34-81 °% in manufacture, 17-40% in trade, and 7-65 % in other occupations. Not taking Vienna into account, 56:36% was engaged in agriculture and forestry. In aan 10-4 % A the land was unproductive (in Tirol 23-7 %; in Lower

increased, but in 1921 was still lower than the death-rate.

the proportion of males and females was as 1,000 to 1,024; in 1920 as 1,000 to 1,089. The nationalities of the inhabitants are not shown in the census of 1920; only the Czechs in Vienna and th Slovenes in Carinthia form important minorities.

‘The Lower

and “ high " schools. There are also higher and lower schools for forestry and agriculture. In 1917-8, 46 of the intermediate schools

.

Density

cluding Vienna it would show only 194 inhabitants.per sq. m. In the area covered by the census of 1920, 39°8% of the population was in 3,55£ communal districts having up to 2,000 inhabitants;

144% in 295 such districts having 2,001 to 5,000 inhabitants; 4-8% in 43 districts of 5,001 to 10,000 inhabitants; 2-8 % in 13 dis-

tricts of 10,001 to 20,000 inhabitants; 3-0% 20,001 to 50,000 inhabitants, and 2-5 % in two 100,000 inhabitants; 33:0% were, however, in 100,000 inhabitants (Vienna and Graz): In

in seven districts of districts of 50,001 to two districts of over 1910 94.12% of the

Agriculture and Forestry.—In the returns according to occupations

ustna

3-7

o)

Of the productive areas, 253:6% was arable (in Lower Austria

45-2% and in Vorarlberg 3-4°%), 1°7% gardens and vineyards (in Lower Austria 3:5 % and in Vorarlberg o-2%), 12°4% meadow (in Upper Austria 20-14% and in Tirol 7-4%), 17:8°% grazing-lands

(Vorarlberg 51-3 % and Upper Austria 2-7%), 42:5 % forest (Styria 54°4% and Vorarlberg 29-4%). The high Alpine lands of Vorarlberg, Tirol and Salzburg are characterized by the smallness of their total Ai

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF cultivated area and their large expanse of pasturage, and the country

of the Danube valley by its large area of arable and small] amount of

meadow-land.

‘The territories of Styria and Carinthia have an inter-

mediate character, being mostly thickly wooded.

A

The chief crops are rye, oats, barley, potatoes, maize, pulse, turnips and flax; but the supply falls far short of the demand. In 1913 3-5 °% of the arable land lay fallow, and in 1918 no Jess than 17-5 %. Fruit-growing is wide-spread, but vine-culture has attained importancein Lower Austria only. ‘Phe timber output, on the other hand, is very important, the forests in 1910 covering 11,912 sq. m., of which’ 8,576 were covered with pine forest and 926 with deciduous trees only. Stock-raising is important in many districts, but in 1921 by no means met demands. Excellent breeds of cattle are reared in Vorarlberg (Montafon breed), Tirol (fuxertal, Pustertal, ete., breeds), Carinthia and Styria (Noric Alpine breed).

In

1918, there were 1,841,883 hcad of cattle (of which 901,894 were milch-eows) and 1,260,875 swine. Good breeds of horses are raised, especially in Salzburg (Pinzgau breed), but the total maumber scarcely reached 200,000. There were some 300,000 sheep and a slightly smaller number of goats. Poultry abounds (some six million head

348

anticipated. They were thus prepared, sooner or later, to set themsclves up as independent states. Serious resistance was not to be expected, as the military débdécle had been. so complete as to prevent any possibility of stopping the process of disin-

tegration.

A premonitory symptom

had been the Imperial

Manifesto of Oct. 16 1918, in which the Emperor Charles an-

nounced his resolve, in accordance with the wish of his peoples, to transform Austria into a Federal State in which every nationality was to form 4 separate state-cntity within its own ethnographical limits. Not many years previously such a manifesto might have initiated a happy development by which the World War would have been avoided and Austria perhaps been con-

solidated. But now it was too late, and the manifesto was thus no more than a signal given in the highest quarters of the ap-

in 1918). Bee-cullure thrives in Carinthia and Styria in combina-

proaching gencral dissolution, Independently of the Imperial Manifesto, and by a procedure purely revolutionary, the German members of the former Austrian Reichsrat, on Oct. 21 1018, established themselves as the Provisional National Assembly of German-Austria, and as

coal (1-8 from Styria), 1-8 million tons of iron ore (almost all from

such established the new state of “ German-Austria,” for which

tion with the cultivation of buckwheat. Minerals: ~The mining output ol 1915 included some 75,000 tons of coal (almost all from Lower Austria), 2-4 million tons of brown Styria), 17,000 tons of copper ore (almost all from Salzburg), 12,500 tons of lead ore (almost all from Carinthia), 14,000 tons of -graphite (almost all from Styria), considerable quantities of magnesite (from Styria and J.ower Austria), some sulphur and ores of zinc and antimony, and (from Styria) bitumen. The output of salt was 160,000 tons; of which 100,000 tons were produced in Upper

Austria, the remainder in Styria, Salzburg and Tirol. Natural gas is obtained at Wels in Upper Austria. The most important mines are:—The iron mines in the Styrian Erzberg (Eisenerz and Vordernberg) and those of Iliittenberg in Carinthia; the copper mines of Mitterberg in Salzburg; the lead mines of Bleiberg in Carinthia; and the brown-coal mines of Kéfiach

and Voitsberg, Wies and Ejibiswald, Fohnsdorf and Veoben, in Styria, Wolfsegg in Upper Austria, The salt mines have already been mentioned. The smelting industries produced 500,000 tons of pig iron (almost exclusively in Styria), some 5,000 tons of copper (in Salzburg), about 8,000 tons of lead (in Carinthia), besides copper sulphate, mineral colours, a little silver and a very little goid. The output decreased after 1915 but was recovering in tg2t, With the exception of iron ore and magnesite, the minerals do not suffice to

meet the needs of Austria herself; she can only supply one-seventh part of the coal she requires. Manufactures.—Vhe industries of Vienna are very varied. Industrial areas of the first rank are;—Lower Austria, Vorarlberg and Upper Styria; next to them come Upper Austria and Middle Styria.

The largest iron works are in Styria (Eisenberg, Vordernberg, Hlieflau, Donawitz,

Zeltweg,

Kapfenberg,

Miirzzuschlag);

in Lower

Austria (Waidhofen an der Ybbs); in Upper Austria (Linz, Wels). There are also machine factories in the above territories, especially in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Iron smallware, such as scythes

and sickles, is chiefly made in the districts along the border between

Upper and Lower Austtia and Styria; Steyr is an important centre, Locomotives are made in Vienna, Wiener Neustadt, Graz and else-

where; small arms in Steyr, Vienna and Ferlach; carriages and automobiles in Vienna and Graz; bicycles at Steyr and Graz; river boats at Linz. Lower Austria (Berndorf and elsewhere) is noted for the manufacture of base metal goods,

Carinthia produces leaden

articles.

The cotton and woollen industries are important, especially in the Vienna district, Vorarlberg and near Linz and Graz. Important, also, are the jute industry of Lower. Austria and the manufactures of machine-made knitted goods in Vorarlberg.

The coarser kinds

a provisional constitution was adopted on Oct. 30. The new constitution, which was republican, was carried at once, and without the least resistance being encountered, though it was not till Nov. rz that the Emperor Charles issued a proclamation, countersigned by his last prime minister, Lammasch, in which he declared himself ready to acknowledge beforehand whatever decision German-Austria might come to concerning her future constitution, and renounced all share in affairs of State. The revolution out of which the new German-Austria emerged was thus not only bloodless, but was carricd through without any open struggle. It was, none the less, a revolution; for the constitution of German-Austria was not evolycd by any legal process out of the constitution of old Austria.

Between the two Hes

the break in the continuity of constitutional practice, and it is for this reason that German-Austria cannot, any more than

Czechoslovakia, be looked

upon

as identical with the old

Austria.

.

The Provisional Constitution.—The first provisional constitution of German-Austria, created by the resolution of Oct. 30 1918 and supplemented by several later laws (above all, that of Nov. 14 1918 on the taking-over of State authority in the Territorics, and that of Nov. 19 1918), exhibits an extreme type of democratic parliamentary government. The supreme power in the State, executive as well as Icgislative, was conferred upon the Provisional National Assembly. This exercised its legislative power directly through its enactments. Its executive power, however, was exercised through a Council of State (Staatsrat) elected from among its members, the three parliamentary partics—Christian Socialists, Social Democrats and German Nationalists—being proportionally represented.

The Council of Siate thus formed a parliamentary committee which functioned as a sort of head of the State. In contradistinction to the old Austrian Reichsrat, with

of woollen cloth are made in ‘Tirol and Vorarlberg; clothing, silk

its Upper and Lower House, the first legislative body of GermanAustria was organized on the single-chamber system. Each of

very important.

parliament, These three presidents were cocqual and occupied the chair week by weck in an agreed rotation. i The legislative power of the Provisional National Assembly was restricted, in that legislation on certain matters, which

goods and articles of luxury of all kinds are made in Vienna, hats in Vienna and Graz. Vienna is also noted for the manufacture of furniture. The wool, cellulose, pasteboard and paper, and papergoods industries of Lower Austria, Styria and Upper Austria are

Leather and leather goods are chiefly produced in ower Austria; shoes and gloves inaVienna. The Vienna district and the foot-hills of the Alps are flour-milling centres, white distilling

and malting are chiefly carried out in Vienna,

The chemical in-

dusiry is notably active in Vienna and its neighbourhood; also the manufacture

of colours and varnishes.

under the old system appertained to the autonomy of the so-

calied Crown Territories (Kronländer) of the Austrian Empire,

of ex-

was reserved for the Provisional Territorial Assemblies, which

there are chemical works in the Alps, when water-power is available.

had taken the place of the former Territorial Diets (Landtage)

plosives is centred

The

pottery

and

in Middle

glass-making

Fhe manufacture

the three parties elected a president to act as speaker of the

Styria (Deutsch-Landsberg), industries

and

are also noteworthy.

Vienna is the chief centre of printing and the graphic arts, and of artistic trades generally. The manufacture of tobacco is a State monopoly (there are fac-

toricsia Vienna, Hainburg, Fürstenfeld and other places).

(R. SL)

CONSTITUTION AND ADMINISTRATION

The collapse of the Austrian Empire in the autumn of 1918 was an event which all nationalities living within its frontiers

in which

the functions

of self-government

had been vested.

For these, under the style of “ Territories ?” (Länder), remained within their old frontiers—though, of course, only to the extent in which they formed part of the new State: viz. Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg and Vorarlberg, in their entirety; Styria and Carinthia, with the exception of arcas inhabited by Yugoslavs; Tirol, without its southern part mainly inhabited by Italians. Out of the former “crown lands,” Bohemia,

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF

346

Moravia and Silesia, which were inhabited by about 3% million

elected by the Territorial Assembly from among its own mem-

Germans, two new Territories were carved: ‘German-Bohemia and Sudetenland, each with a Provisional Territorial Assembly. In actual practice, however, the executive power of GermanAustria could not extend to these Territories, as they were held by the Czechoslovak State, to which they were eventually assigned. As the revolutionary constitution of the Territorial Assemblies and of the Territories themselves took place at the same time as that of the National Assembly and of the State, but independently, the limits between Territorial legislation

bers. This Territorial Government was subordinated to the central State Government in all matters of Territorial. ad-

and State legislation were not clearly defined from the very outset. The Territories became the centres of a movement in favour of an extreme form of federalism, and this led to the constitution cf Austria being ultimately that of a Federal State. A State law required essentially only a resolution of the National Assembly, which had to be registered and attested by the Council of State and published in the Government law

ministration, but there were no legal provisions for making this subordination effective. The central State Government could not depose a Territorial Government, nor could it in any way call it to account for disobedience; it was, in short, wholly dependent on the goodwill of the Territorial Government, which, since it was elected by the Territorial Dict, felt itself politically responsible to this alone. This led to a very serious loosening, almost indeed to the complete dissolution, of the administrative system of the State, and was one of the factors which ultimately led to the adoption of the Federal constitution. As regards the organization of justice and the relations of the citizen to the State, the new provisional constitution confined itself to adopting, more or less unaltered, the respective rules of

the old Austrian constitution. In the same way all the remaining private and public law of the monarchy, in so far as it was not

gazette.

inconsistent with the new constitution, was expressly taken aver

The Council of State had a suspensive veto on ieeiclation: but this was overridden by the simple passage of a measure a second time through the National Assembly, a bill then passed at once becoming law. According to the constitution a Territorial law to be valid required not only to be passed by the Territorial Diet but to receive the assent of the Council of State, which, in this as in other respects, had taken the place occupied

under an article of the provisional constitution, and thus, formally at least, given a fresh validity. The main task of the Provisional National Assembly, in addition to the creation of a provisional constitution, was to prepare the way for the Constituent Assembly, for which the framing of a definitive constitution was reserved. According to the clectoral Jaw passed by the Provisional Assembly, the Constituent Assembly was to consist of 225 members, who were

by the Emperor under the old Austrian constitution. In view of the actual power of the ‘Territories, however, the Council of State was unable to assert its right of veto. Apart from the 20 delegates, and an equal number of substitutes, elected as already described, the Council of State included ‘the three presidents of the National Assembly, who presided over it in rotation. Though the Council, thus con-

to be elected in 38 constituencies on the basis of equal, secret and personal suffrage for all citizens at least 20 years of age, without distinction of sex, and on the system of proportional

representation. Actually, however, only 170 members were returned, as no elections could be held in the territories occupied by Czechoslovakia, Italy and Yugoslavia. Of the 170 deputies,

stituted, was the supreme organ of parliamentary Government,

72 were Social Democrats, 69 Christian Socialists, 26 German

it did not itself carry on the administration directly, but through a Cabinet, nominated by it, consisting of so-called secretaries of

Nationalists, the three remaining being a Bourgeois-Democrat, a Czechoslovak, and a Jewish Nationalist (the two latter

State, who acted as heads of departments,

The Cabinet was

having supporters in Vienna only).

also to be presided. over by the presidents of the National Assembly in rotation, and it was only in the absence of these that the State Chancellor, whose functions werc in fact those of

The Constituent Assembly —Vhe Constituent National Assembly met at Vicnna on March 4 rorg. Before settling the

minister-president, took the chair.

The Cabinet was subject

modifications in the provisional constitution (laws of March 4

to the principle of ministerial responsibility, which could be

on Popular Representation and the State Government). Above all, the relation between State and Territorial legislation was regulated. In the first place it was decided that all legislative acts of the Territorial Diets were to be submitted to the central ‘State Government, to which was assigned the power of suspensive veto and, in the event of such acts being contrary to the

enforced in the special court for dealing with infringements of the laws and constitution (Staatsgerichtshof}, the functions of which had originally been transfcrred to a parliamentary committee of twenty. The whole machinery of administration was taken over from

the old Austria almost without a change. Only in the case of the offices forming an intermediate link between the administrations of the Territories and the State was there any drastic reform, Each one of the so-called “ Crown Territories” (Krontaider),

of which the Austrian monarchy was composed, constituted the area of an intermediate administration, at the head of which was a governor or Heutenant (Statihalter) nominated by the Emperor and subordinate to the central Government.. Side by side with this, however, the Territories existed as autonomous bodies politic, with an administrative system of their own in all matters not falling within the province of the central administration. This autonomous administration was exercised by the Territorial Diet (Landiag) through a Territorial Committee (Landesausschuss) elected from among its members and presided over by the president of the Diet, who was nominated by the Emperor. ‘This parallelism of ‘the autonomous and State administrations in the Territories, with the rivalry between them, had been one

of the worst. evils of the old monarchy; it was done away with under the provisional constitution of German-Austria by the simultaneous dermocratization of the intermediate administrative system. The whole administration in the Territories was declared to be a State concern; the autonomous and State administrative organizations were amalgamated and subor-

dinated to a Territorial Government, consisting of the head of the

Territory

(Landeshauptmann)

and several

definitive constitution it made one or two not unimportant

constitution, the right to challenge them before the court established to try constitutional cases (Verfassungsgcrichtshef).

Acts of the Territorial Diet needing the coéperation of the central Government for their exccution were made subject to the endorsement: of the latter. Drastic altcrations were made in the organization of the executive power.. The Council of State,

with its directory, was abolished, and its: governmental and executive powers transferred to the Cabinet, which was hence-

forth to be directly elected by the National Assembly. The election of the Cabinet was entrusted to the Principal Committee (Hauptausschuss), itself elected from the body of the Parliament, the three chief parties being proportionally represented. This Committee, through which Parliament exercised a decisive influence over the executive and without whose consent no important act of Government could be undertaken, to a certain extent took the place of the Council of State, but, unlike. this, without any public appearance of functioning as the head of the State. These functions—representation of the State in its relation with foreign Powers, more especially the ratification of treaties, the nomination of officials, the right of pardon, etc.— were entrusted to the president of the National Assembly; so

that in this way, too, the character of parliamentary Govern ment found outward expression.

The conclusion of the Treaty of St. Germain compelled a

substitutes | further alteration of the constitution of Gcrman-Austria.

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF

347

The legislative organ of the Federation is the National Council

the law of Oct. x rọrọ (on the form of the State) the frontiers | of the State were legally defined in accordance with the pro- (Nationalrat), of which the composition is the same as that of visions of the treaty, z.e. the Territorics assigned to the other the National Assembly under the provisional constitution, and “succession states”? were cut off. In these Territories there the Federal Council (Bundesrat). In the Federal Council the lived, in a solid group, nearly half as many Germans 4s the treaty individual Territories are represented in proportion to the had left to German-Austria, now sadly diminished. The name nuniber of citizens customarily domiciled in them, a principle of the State, which had hitherto been German-Austria (Deutsch- differing from that of Switzerland and the United States, where, | österreich), was legally altered to “the Republic of Austria ” in the Staatenhaus and Senate respectively, the subordinate (Republik Oesterreich), for it was only under this name that states have an equal voice whatever their size, but approximatGerman-Austria could obtain International recognition, The ing to the constitution of the German Reich, under which sentence “ German-Austria is a constituent part of the German the subordinate states were from the first represented in the Reich,” which had hitherto been embodied in the constitution Bundesrat, as later in the Reichsrat, according to their size. but had represented an aspiration rather than a fact, was now According to the Austrian constitution, however, the repreexcised, in accordance with Art. 88 of the ‘Treaty of St. Germain, sentation of the Territories in the Bundesrat is by no means strictly proportional. The largest Territory sends 12 reprewhich decreed the “ independence ” of German-Austria. Of the remaining provisions of the treaty affecting the sentatives, the rest in proportion to the number of their citizens; constitution of German-Austria, attention need only be called but no Territory sends less than three representatives, although to those dealing with the protection of minorities, which did the three smallest Territories—Tirol, Salzburg and Carinthia— not, however, add anything essential to the safeguards for would not be entitled to so many were the principle of propornationality and creed secured by the old Austrian fundamental tional representation strictly carried out. In order to correct . law of Dec. 21 1867 on the general rights of citizens of the State, the disproportion between Lower Austria, with its population of some 3,000,000, and the smaller Territories, whose population which had been adopted in the German-Austrian constitution. The Federal Constitdtion.—It was only under the greatest does not exceed 140,000 and 400,000, the Territory of Lower possible political difficulties that the Constituent Assembly Austria was divided into two parts—the Federal capital, Vienna, could be brought to fulfil its proper function, that of framing a and the Territory of Lower Austria, Vienna, with its 1,800,000 definitive constitution. From the very first the Federal character inhabitants, is the largest subordinate state. As the Federal Council is fundamentally concerned only with of this constitution was above all determined by the fact that this was the only possible way of overcoming the ever-increasing legislation, and only in very exceptional cases with executive tension between the Territories and the State as a whole. Morc- affairs, its members are deputed not by the Governments of the over, the provisional constitution had already contained certain Territories but by the legislative bodies, which are again styled Federal elements, and these had now to be developed in order Landtage (Territorial Diets), and they are elected on the system to give the Territories, constitutionally as well as in fact, the of proportional representation, As a legislative organ the Federal Council is in no way placed on an equality with the position which they claimed. Yational Council; it has a suspensive veto, but if the National From the point of view of technical organization a Federal State may exhibit one of two types of character. Jn one the Council again passes a bill thus vetoed, it becomes Jaw ipse legislative and executive power may be divided between a central Jacto. A further alteration of the legislative machinery establegislature and exccutive, whose activity constitutionally covers lished by the provisional constitution, was the introduction of the . the whole State, and a number of local legislatures and executives, constitutional referendum and of the right of popular initiative. The executive power of the Federation is exercised by the with jurisdiction over territorial subdivisions of the State, which are known as subordinate states, In the other, the legis- Federal Government, whose members are called Federal ministers latures and cxecutives of the subordinate states may share the and meet under the presidency of the Federal chancellor or vicelegislative and exccutive powers of the organs of the central chancellor; they are assisted in their several departments by State. The first of these types was already exhibited in the secretaries of State. ‘The Cabinet is composcd in the same way provisional constitution of German-Austria. To make the con- -as under the provisional constitution—clection by the National stitution of the Federal State complete, the Austrian Republic Council on the recommendation of the Principal Committec. An really only needed to give the subordinate states, ze. the so- important alteration in the provisional constitution was that called Territories (Lander), a share in the legislative and exec- the executive functions hitherto assigned to the president of utive powers of the central organs of the federation or super- the National Assembly were transferred to a special head of state, ‘The federal constitution created by the law of Oct. x the State, the Federal president, elected for one year by the 1920, however, was not confined to completing the provisional National Council and Federal Council meeting in joint session constitution by adding provisions to this effect; it was an under the name of Federal Assembly. To this Federal Assembly effort at a complete reconstruction of the State, in which an the president is responsible. The executive powers of the Federation are exercised in the attempt was made to balance the strengthening of the federalistic elements by an equivalent elaboration of a centralized legal Territories by Federal organs subordinated to the Federal Government, or, as a general rule, by the organs of the Territorial jurisdiction over legislative and executive acts. The division of legislative and executive functions between Government in the sphere of activity devolved upon them. the super-state, known as the Federation (Bund), and the sub- In the latter case the Territories function as organs of the ordinate states, known as Territorics (Länder), resulted in the Federation and are subordinate to it. For this reason the classification of affairs into four groups. With regard to the first Federation is interested in the constitutions of the Territories, group, which embraced the most important functions of the and the Federal constitution therefore contains far-reaching State—e.g. civil and criminal law, jurisdiction, forcign relations, provisions as to the organization of the Territories, and it is only etc-legislative and executive powers are reserved wholly to within the limits of these provisions that the Territories are the Federation, the Territories being completely excluded. In free to settle their own constitutions, So far as their legislatures the case of the second group, the Federation alone has the power are concerned, the Federal constitution prescribes the singleto make laws, but their exccution is the affair of the ‘Territories. chamber system for the Diets, as now established, and their elecIn the case of the third group, the Federation has the power tion on the same franchise basis as the National Council. The of legislation in so far as it may lay down general principles, Territorial Government is to be elected by the Diet, and is to but it is for the Territorics to give these principles practical consist of 1he Landeshauptmann and a number of other members, effect in laws and to see to their execution. All matters which In respect of the spheres of Federal activity assigned to the do not fall under one or other of these groups constitute the Territories by devolution from the Federal Government—that fourth group, which is wholly within the legislative and executive is to say, those in which the Territories act as the organs of this Government—it is the Landeshaupitmann and his subordinates province of the Territorics.

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF

348

who are alone concerned. In such cases the ultimate administrative authority is held to lie with the Federal Government, to which the Landeshauptmann is responsible. The Federal Government is now in a position to enforce this responsibility

by prosecution in the court established to try constitutional offences (Verfassungsgerichtshof). The Federal Government also

has an influence on legislation in the Territories. It is true that it can only exercise a suspensive veto over enactments of the Territorial Diets, which have all to be submitted to it; but in cases where Federal coöperation is needed in the execution of such enactments, these may not be made public without its consent. In the case of enactments, already published, which are contrary to the constitution the Federal Government has in

reserve the possibility of challenging them in the Constitutional

was clear that such conditions could not be maintained for any length of time, and that, in view of the connexion between paper money of fixed rate and State finance, it was impossible to continue this unity of currency. All the states concerned, which succeeded the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, were in such financial straits that they considered the continued recourse to the issue of notes a necessity. The note-printing press, however, was in Vienna, and the Austro-Hungarian Bank was actually under the deciding influence of the new German-Austrian Government. It was urgently necessary for the new states to obtain an independent currency, 7.e. to make themselves independent, so far as the printing of notes was concerned, of the Vienna noteprinting press. This was comparatively casy for those who had joined already existing states, but more difficult for the newly formed states which were obliged in the first instance to create

Court.

The weightiest influence of the Federal constitution is exercised through the special courts of law established under it to decide

a new currency. In these conditions the moncy problem, at the moment of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Mon-

cases of alleged violation of the constitution in matters of administration or legislation. Anyone whose tights have been . violated by an illegal decision or act of the Federal or Territorial authoritics, and who has failed to obtain redress through the

archy, was merely a technical problem of printing, and the

ordinary administrative channels, can appeal to the court for

the trial of administrative cases (Verwallungsgerichishof).

This

court has power to pronounce on the legality of such decisions or acts, and in certain circumstances to amend them. The members of the court, like all the Federal organs, are nominated by the president on the recommendation of the Federal Government, but this recommendation needs, in respect of half the. members, the consent of the Principal Committce of the National

Council and, in respect of the other half, that of the Federal Council.

The second court administering public law isthe Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichishof). OF this the president and vice-

question how io obtain printing-plates, banknote-paper and printing-ink appeared for the moment the most important points of currency policy. After the Malan Government as early as Nov. 1978 and the Rumanian Government in Feb. 1919 had made the necessary preparations to substitute respectively the lira and the let for the Austro-Hungarian “ krone,” in the territorics occupied by them, the Government of the SerboCroatian-Slovenian State proceeded in Jan. 1919 to mark the Austro-Hungarian

stamping them.

notes circulating within their territory by

On Feb. 25 rorg the Czechoslovakian

Gov-

ernment followed suit by stamping the kronen notes circulating

in their country. Then the Austrian Government could not remain idle. It could not wait until all the other states had passed from the Austro-Hungarian krone to a national krone.

It had to get rid of the Austro-lungarian krone, in order to

president, as well as half the members, are clected by the - avoid the danger of such notes as for one reason or another had National Council, the other half by the Federal Council. Its not been stamped by the other states returning to Germanprimary function is to decide disputes between authoritics as Austria and there increasing the inflation. The krone notes circulating in German-Austria were therefore also specially to their competence. As the State Court it furthermore hears marked, and, by a regulation of March 25 rọrọ having the charges brought by the National Council against Federal minisforce of Jaw, it was decreed that all notes not so marked would ters, by the Federal Assembly against the Federal president, not be legal tender within the Gcrman-Austrian State. by the Diets against members of the Territorial Governments, A decree of Feb, 27 ror9 had ordered the stamping over of all As a court of ordinance (Verordnungsgerichishof) it judges cases notes of the Austro-IIungarian Bank circulating within the terof illegal decrees appealed at the instance of the Federal ritory of the German-Austrian Republic, with the exception of courts or of those of the Territories. Lastly, as a constitutional court in the narrowest sensc, it decides, at the instance of the the notes for onc and two kronen (which also subsequently were Federal or the ‘Territorial Governments, whether Federal or ordered to be stamped), With the execution of this regulation Territorial laws are or are not constitutional. It‘has the right the German-Austrian currency was separated from that of the

to quash an illegal decree or an unconstitutional law. The Constitutional Court also acts as the central court for hearing petitions against elections to all bodies elected by the general

other “ succession states,” and there was only one special krones note, which was stamped as recognized legal tender for Austria.

special laws were still needed, aiming more especially at the reform of the administration both in the Federation and. in the Territories. It was hoped -that, in the spirit of democratic self-

The German-Austrian Republic also used the note-printing press as its chief expedient for covering the national expenses. At the time of the carrying-out of the stamping process, at the end of June rọrọ, the stamped German-Austrian notes in circulation amounted to 7:6 milliards of kronen; at the end of 1920 the circulation had risen to 30 milliards, In consequence there was 4 further depreciation in the exchange. On Dec. 31 1920 the

government,

dollar was quoted in Vicnna at 668 kronen, as compared to §

vote. It also judges in cases of violation of international law.

The law of the Federal constitution of Oct. 1 r920 did not complete the new structure of the Austrian constitution. Several

this administrative

reform

would

follow

the

lines of local government in England. Authorities—Sce

Kelsen,

Die

Verfassungspesetze

der Republik

Oesterreich (1919), and Die Verfassung Deutschoesterreichs (Jahrbuch

des opan Rechis, vol. 9, 1920); Merkl, Die Verfassung der Republik Deutschoesterreich (Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht, vols, 1 and 2, 1920). (H. K.)

| Finance and Banking—When in the last days of Oct. r918 the various parts of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy con-

kronen in pre-war times. The republic of Austria at first not only maintained the system of restricting exchange operations, introduced under the Empire during the war, but even made it more severe. Only in the summer of 1920 was any relaxation permitted, in so far as the forced release of foreign currencies obtained for goods cxported was generally cancelled. In Nov. 1920 further modilfica-

tions were made, so that by the end of 1920 the only resiriction of moncy transactions with forcign countries remaining in force was the prohibition to import or export kronen notes. The regular exchange operations on the Vicnna Bourse were, however, not revived. They were replaced by a system of restricted exchange business under the special supervision of the still existing Devisenazcntrale. forming new states (Poland), there existed in all these terThe general political conditions and the depreciation of money ritories one uniform paper currency in circulation, że, the. notes of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, enjoying a fixed rate. It had led to such an impasse that up to 1g2z the whole financial stituted themselves on one side independent states (the Austrian Republic, the Czechoslovakian Republic, Hungary, and the republic of West-Ukraine), and for the other part decided on joining already established nations (Italy, Rumania, Yugoslavia), or joined territories detached from other states and

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF system of the republic was in a state of uncertainty.

On the

one hand, the Austrian State, by the peace treaty of St. Germain, was made liable toward foreign countries for an amount not specifically determined. On the other, it was found necessary for political reasons to introduce a system of providing the population with cheap victuals. As these had to be obtained almost exclusively against payment in foreign currency abroad, and it was desired to sell at home at the lowest possible prices,

there resulted a considerable discrepancy between the expenses necessitated by this part of the State budget and the income derived. At the beginning of rọ2r the deficit of the Austrian budget was cstimated at hardly less than 50 milliards of kronen per annum. To cover this deficit the Austrian State, with the help of the Allied Powers, contracted loans abroad, and for the rest relied on the note-printing press. Only a small part of the expenses of the State could be covered by taxation, notwithstanding that all direct taxes were greatly increased and a new direct tax, an extraordinary property tax, was specially introduced in 1920. Of this property tax, the fixing of which required enormous preparation, if was permitted to make prepayments in Feb. 1920 under specially favourable conditions. Such prepayments brought in over 7 milliards of kronen, but more than half of these prepayments were made in war loan. The situation

of the Austrian State budget was therefore in 1921 a most unfavourable one. An improvement could only be expected on the one hand by doing away with the system, which could not be permanently maintained, of providing necessaries for the population below cost price at the expense of ihe State, and on the other by a radical reform of the many State and municipal enterprises

(post, telegraph,

telephone,

State

railways,

salt-

mines, tobacco manufactories, town railways, illumination and power works),

(L. v. M.) Titsrory

When in Oct. 1918 the break-up of Austria-IIungary became a matter of common knowledge (see AUSTRIAN EMPIRE), the

Germans of Austria also announced their right to self-determination. The impulse towards this movement came from the left wing of the Social Democrats who occupied the same standpoint

as the Independent Socialists of the German Reich. They had long opposed the view that the dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy, which was not highly industrialized, and the annexation to a strongly socialistic Germany of the Austrian territories with a German population (the Alpine territories, German Bohemia, and the Sudetic territories), which would thereby be

rendered possible, must necessarily involve a proletarian policy: and their views now completely gained the upper hand over the Great Austrian tendencies within the party. The “ provisional National Assembly ” of German-Austria

at its first

session (Oct. 21 1918) did indeed regard its connexion with the

authorities,

349

The Social Democrats piloted the State skilfully

through the first great vicissitude, though naturally in accordance with their own point of view, Above all, in order to check. any reactionary tendencies, they disbanded all bodies of troops belonging to the old army on their return from the front, and

placed ihe newly formed militia (Volkswehkr), manned by the proletarian classes, under the leadership of councils of soldiers who were faithfully devoted to them. But the very first two months cost the young republic serious losses of the territorial possessions which they ‘had claimed on the basis of the “right of self-determination.” The Czechs occupied not only all the Sudetic territories populated by Germans, but also a few strips of land on the borders of Lower Austria. The Yugoslavs, going beyond the Slovene territories of Southern Styria, stretched out their hands towards the purely

German towns of Marburg and Radkersburg.

The repeated

attempts which they mace early in 1919 to gain a footing also

in German portions of Carinthia were repulsed by the inhabitants, accustomed as they were to war... From the beginning of the Armistice German Southern Tirol—with Botzen and Meran— found itself in Italian hands. The “ Constituent Assembly ” was elected under the influence of the terrible economic consequences of the war and of the break-up of the monarchy. The Social Democrats won a relative” majority, with 72 seats out of 170. They formed a coalition for purposes of government with the second strongest party, the Christian Socialists, who represented the peasant and lower middle-class elements. At the head of the Cabinet was the State Chancellor, Dr. Karl Renner, who had already directed the Government

since the revolution.

The secretaryships of

State, which were of more political importance, were. likewise occupied by Social Democrats, who also sct the pace in other departments, Otto Bauer, who was followed ti the Ministry for Foreign Affairs as early as 1918 by Victor Adler, strove with all his strength for a union of German-Austria with the German Reich, in which endeavours he was supported by all

but a section of the Christian Socialists. negotiations conducted

The preliminary

with Berlin carly in rọrọ met with a

favourable result. Bauer counted very much in his plans upon the support of the Italians, to whom the Austrian policy of union might be welcome for a variety of reasons, As to internal policy, the object was to make the republican form of government lastingly secure, ‘The National Assembly set aside the

dynasty of Habshurg-Lorraine, banished its members from the country if they did not submit entirely to the laws of the republic, confiscated a great part of its family domains, and abolished the nobility. The leading party was particularly zealous in introducing numerous laws of a socialist nature, of which the early part of 1919 was especially productive,

The alarming conditions of Austria came daily more darkly

other national states of the old empire as not yet fully dissolved. But only nine days later (Oct. 30 1918) the new State was con-

into view. Famine.and misery forced the State straight into the

stituted in the fullest independence of the dynasty and of its former companion ‘states speaking other languages. The last impulse towards this radical procedure had been given by.

als and amateurs, seized at the means of self-protection. The several Territories (Lander), in all of whose Diets—with the exception of Lower Austria—Christian Socialist majoritics had been sitting since the elections in the summer of rox9, put up political and economic barriers against cach other, and sealed themselves off even more hermetically from Vienna. Both in town and country party organizations of every sort interfcred in administration—generally with the best intentions—and this resulted not infrequently in attacks on the freedom and property of their fellow citizens. The State Government was meanwhile powerless. The events in Budapest find Munich, where, in March and April 1919 respectively, Soviet republics had been set up, prompted to action the small Austrian Communist party, which had seceded from the Socialists of the Radical Left during

Andrassy’s overtures for a separate peace, which were regarded in wide circles in German-Austria as a betrayal by the Emperor of the German pcople, and gave rise to revolutionary demon-

strations in Vicnna. Under the influence of subsequent events in Germany the Emperor Charles was compelled to renounce, on Nov. 11 1918, the exercise of governmental functions, and

henceforward to recognize whatever form of government the people might choose. The day after, under pressure from the Social Democrats, the republic was proclaimed. In the new free State all three parties—the Christian Socialists, German National party, and Social Democrats—formally assumed a share of the responsibility of government. Thus from the outset power had passed almost entirely into the hands of the Social Democrats. ‘The bourgeois partics acquiesced all the more willingly in this, stnce they were of opinion that only the Labour party would be able to conjure away the dangers which threatened from the break-up of the old army and of the old

abyss of serious social shocks.

the days of the revolution.

Soldiers and civilians, profession-

In Vienna, on Easter Thursday

and on June 6 1919, excesses were committed in consequence of the plots of native and foreign Communists, which led on both occasions to loss of life. If more serious consequences were avoided, this was as much due to the admirable police of Vienna

as to the quict and reasonable attitude of the Socialist leaders,

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF

350

who were conscious of their responsibility, and the good temper of the German-Austrian populace. When it became clear that the Communist disturbances were to no small extent fomented by the Hungarian Mission in Austria, dissensions arose betwcen Vienna and Budapest, which were not settled till the Hungarian Soviets replaced their envoy, who had been involved in the affair, by a persona grata. On May r2 1919 the State Chancellor, Dr Renner, had gone with a delegation to St. Gcermain-en-Laye to receive the terms

the Treaty of St. Germain. The Klagenfurt basin also remained Austrian, thanks to the result of the plebiscite of Oct. to 1920, in which 60% of the votes were cast against Yugoslavia. Trade relations were established with the kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as with other statcs, at first on a

basis of exchange of commodities, but were later regulated by

With the exception of the Magyars,

commercial treaties. A variety of disturbances occurred from time to time in the relations with Hungary, where, at the beginning of Aug rọrọ, the Sovict system had broken down. While the Christian Socialists

all the countries formerly under the same Government as the

viewed the new course of events in Hungary with sympathy,

of the dictated peace.

German-Austrians had “associated” themselves with their . the Social Democrats and those with Great German sympathies enemies in the World War. It was in no small degree due to —the latter because they saw their national aims endangered— were anxious lest the revolution in Budapest might bring about a restoration of the Habsburgs in the basin of the Danube. Causes of discord soon made their appearance From the outset loss of former German territory and of 3,000,000 GermanAustrian subjects, combincd with unprecedentedly heavy Budapest offered a scarcely veiled resistance to the cession of economic burdens and restrictions, the acquisition of the Burgenthe Burgenland (German Western Hungary) to Austria. Austria land (German Western Hungary) and the promise of the declined to hand over Béla Kun and the other former “ people’s Entente to assist in the reconstruction of Austria seemed but commissaries ’’ who had taken refuge in Vienna, it even. found itself bound, in consequence of the Copenhagen Agreement poor advantages, the value of which remained to be proved. Otto Bauer recognized in the provisions of Article 88, which concluded with the party in power at Moscow, to aid the escape specifically forbade Austria’s union with Germany, and in the of the Hungarian Soviet Icaders to Russia, in order to obtain fact that Italy, in spite of the Italophil attitude of the Vienna | the return of their own prisoners who were still kept in Russia. Only a few weeks before (June 20 1920) the International Trade Cabinet, annexed German Southern Tirol for good, a complete defeat for his policy; and he resigned. Renner took over in per- Union Congress at Amsterdam had threatened Hungary with son the charge of forcign affairs. The Treaty of St. Germain a boycott. Since this had only been exercised with severity in was signed on Sept. 20 1919, with a few small modifications of the case of Austria, the Hungarians regarded the Social Demothe original draft; on Oct. 17 it was approved by the Concrats of Vicnna as having provoked it. ‘The growing estrangestituent Assembly; and in July 1920 it came into force. By ment found expression in a few unfortunate frontier Incidents, his open adhesion to “ Westcrnism”’ and the policy of the from the ITungarian side. It also had its effect upon the internal politics of Austria, for the Social Democrats sought to prove League of Nations, Renner made known Austria’s honourable from documentary evidence that Hungarian Government intention of taking her stand entircly on the basis of the Peace their counsels that the Treaty of Peace turned out to be even

more severe than that with Germany.

In comparison with the

Treaty, in which case she hoped for help from the Entente in her destitution, which had been made even deeper by the operation of the Treaty In Dec. roro the Chancellor found an opportunity of making personal representations in Paris as to the suficrings of his country, in Feb 1920 other Austrian statesmen were in a position to do the same. Indeed, on more than one occasion Austria reccived temporary assistance.

Morcover,

the general right of the Entente to a mortgage on all Austria’s

assets, provided for in the Peace Treaty, was so far limited ‘as to facilitate the acquisition from abroad of those commodities which were most pressingly necessary for the moment A special “ Austrian Section of the Reparations Commission’ was appointed to study the measures most necessary for a lasting cure for the ills of the body politic, and met in Vienna on April 17 1920 under the presidency of Sir William Goode. ‘Fhe international commissions which were to supervise the disarming of Austria by land, water and air, also came into operation. And thus Austria’s sovercignty no longer existed except in appearance. Renner’s first Coalition Cabinet was followed in Oct. 1919 by a second one composed of the same partics. It had also the task of establishing normal relations with the neighbouring states. The visit made by the Chancellor to Rome in April 1920 on the invitation of Italy—on which occasion he was also received at the Vatican—was a not unfavourable introduction to these efforts. Among the ‘ succession states ” it was chicfly Czechoslovakia to which the Social Democratic party, which was a5 influential as ever, felt itself drawn, not only for economic

reasons but also owing to the many points of contact which existed between its standpoint, with regard to Central-European problems, and that of circles in Prague.

The frontier questions

raised by the Peace Treaty were not settled in favour of Austria, which lost among other places the important railway centre of Gmund. In the economic negotiations advantage was taken by the Czechs of Austria’s dependence on the Bohemian coal supply On the other hand, in certain matters (naturalization, opiion, protection of minorities, division of collections and archives) a compromise was arrived at.

On the southern boundary Yugoslavia had to give up the strip of Styrian territory which had not been assigned her by

officials, in their various conspiracies against the Austrian Republic, had relied on the support of the Vienna Christian Socialists. At this point the coalition between the two great parties could no longer be maintained, The Christian Socialists had gradually become sick of it since the Social Democrats would not allow them as much influence as seemed in accordance with the increasing tendency of public opinion towards the Right. On the other hand, the Social Democrats, by their participation

in a “bourgeois”? Government, gave the Radical elements in their own party, as well as the Communists, a handle for attacking them, which threatened the carefully preserved united front of Social Democracy with serious danger. In view of this tension, an occasion which was not in itself of any special importance sufficed to split the Government coalition on June to 1920. Otto Bauer could justly remark, on reviewing the past, that his party, by its coöperation with the Christian Socialists, had achieved as much as was possible for a beginning. The Republican legislation had answered, in so far as that was within the bounds of possibility, to the desires and interesis of the urban proletariat. The position of the labouring class had also been recognized by the State. In the militia guestion the Social Democrats had entirely triumphed. Under the impression of the recent “ Kapp-Putsch ” in Germany they succeeded in forcing through a defense-law, which set up a machinery of soldiers’ councils for the professional army provided for by the Peace Treaty; secured all political liberties, including also the right of coalition to those who had completed their service in the defense force, and by this means assured to the Social Democratic party for a long time to come predominant influence over the State’s best source of power As a set-off to these successes the Christian Socialists had managed with difficulty to protect their peasant franchise against inconvenient innovations, and to prevent questions of Church and State, education and the like from emerging in a critical form. The place of the Renner Government was taken temporarily by a “Proportional Cabinet” (“Proporzkabinett”) in which every party was represented by delegates without undertaking

any responsibility for the Ministry as a whole, and it had to

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF

351

carry on business up till the new clections, which were fixed for Oct. 17 1920. Inthe meantime it was naturally incumbent upon

Hungary at Easter had also called attention once more to these political questions. This occasioned two scrious parliamentary the Constituent Assembly to carry out its own particular task conflicts, in the course of which the Michael Mayr Government. and give a definitive constitution to the “ Federal State of was at times only able to obtain a majority of one. It was further Austria.” Besides this the bill dealing with what had once been evident that in spite of its conservative character the Cabinet a considerable tax on property, namely the war-profits tax, had been unable to bring about an improvement in relations was passed, under pressure from the Social Democrats in with Hungary. lt could only have been purchased at the cost particular. of concessions which would practically have amounted to the At the new elections the Christian Socialists obtained 82 renunciation by Austria of the Burgenland (German Western: seats, the Social Democrats 66, the Great German party (formed Hungary). The position of the Government was only strengthfrom the old German National party and kindred groups) ro, | ened to a certain extent by the fact that in May rgaz all partics the German-Austrian Peasant party seven, the Bourgeois La- assured the Government of their support in the economic and bour party one. The distribution of the g2 seats in the newly financial measures desired by the League of Nations. l created second chamber, the Federal Council (Bundesrat), See Dr. Karl Neisser, Politische Chronik for 1918-20; Ein Jahr represented a similar balance of power. On Dec. 9 1920 both Houses joined in the Federal Assembly .(Bundcsversammlung)

in order to elect the Federal President, Dr. Michael Hainisch. ‘The new Cabinet, composed of Christian Socialists ancl officials, was under the presidency of the Christian Socialist Dr. Michael Mayr, who had already presided over the “Properzkabinctt,” While the Great German party assured the Cabinet of their benevolent neutrality, the Social Democrats went openly into opposition. They had had, indeed, to record a Joss of votes in comparison with the 1919 elections, but they had none the less succeeded——in contrast with the fraternal conflicts of most other

countries—in saving the party from disintegration. Even their relations with the Communists, thanks in no small degree to the platform of compromise adopted by the ‘‘ Workmen’s Councils ” which were common to both sections of the party, had been tolerable up to the summer of 1920, though bitter hostilities afterwards broke out on both sides. Thus in Feb. 1921 the Austrian Social Democratic party had the satisfaction of holding together, in the spirit of its principles and under its patronage

in Vienna,

representatives of all international

sections, from the Zimmerwaldians to the International Labour Association of Socialist parties. The tactical principles upon which this took place involved a compromise between the programme of action of the Second and the Third International, on which account the new Labour Association was given by its enemics the scornful title of the “ International Two and a Half.” The pitiable condition of the Austrian State grew worse and worse. Neutral and former enemy countries did all they could io save the country from the worst; in particular, powerful relief measures of every kind had saved the population of Vienna from dying of hunger. It is true that the want of codperation between the United States and the Western Powers had so far rendered

it impossible to provide that far-reaching assistance which might ensure lasting salvation for Austria. Sir William Goode’s plan for putting Austria into a sound financial condition, which clearly proved that the Austrian problem was not one of finance but a comprehensive. political and economic one, had to be shelved, like those

also propounded

by: Loucheur

and

Ter

Mculen. At the end of March to21 the Federal Chancellor Mayr learnt in London that the financial regeneration of Austria was to be handed over to the League of Nations, to which

Austria had belonged since Oct. 1920, The.“ Austrian Section ” of the Reparations Commission left Vienna a few weeks later (April 30 1921), the military supervisory commissions of the Allies having already been dissolved some time before. Financial delegates of the League of Nations arrived, to take up once again

the study of the Austrian problem. The continued absence of organized help from the Entente had meanwhile—in spite of the counter-activity of the Vienna Christian Socialists, to whom is chiefly due the idea of a “ Danubian Confederation ’’—strengthencd Austrian opinion in favour of union with the large economic ‘area of Germany. On April 24 1921 the overwhelming majority of the Tirolese declared themselves in this sense by a plebiscite which was carried out in defiance of the wishes of the Govern-

ment; the Dicts of other Territories proclaimed their desire to follow the example of Tirol. The ex-Empcror Charles’s visit to 1A, Michael Mayr (b. 1866), director of archives, professor of

- history at the university of Innsbruck.

Republik Oesterreich (1920); Qesterreichisches Jahrbuch, 1920 (1921);

Gustav Stolper, Deutschdsterreich als Sosial- und Wirtschaftsproblent (1921), i (E. G-H.)

Economic CONDITIONS The collapse of the Austrian Empire, as such, resulted in the rapid disruption of an extensive economic arca and entailed

the severance of an economically restricted) German-Austria, which contained only little fertile land, from the agriculturally rich territories of the seceding states. Thus the early cessation of the food supplies which the states had been sending into Austria rendered the position worse, especially as regards

Vicnna, and even then, in the days of the transition period, the authoritics had to appeal to foreign Powers to help in the relicf of the food shortage. The anxicty to procure the primary foodstuffs remained the main preoccupation of the Austrian Government in the course of the ensuing two years. Accordingly, if the harvest returns of the years after the war be comparcd to prewar showings, a marked falling-off of production is apparent.

In the territory comprising the new Austria the net returns of the yield of wheat, rye and barley, which in rọr4 amounted to 9,713,000 .metersentners, showed in 1919 only 4,518,000 mclerzentners, and in 1920 an estimate of 5,300,000 melerzentners. Even if the level of pre-war harvests should be attained, only about half the requirements of. the population could be met. During the last years which preceded the war an average produc-

tion of s million mz. of flour was established, while the requires ments at the time amounted to 9:5 million mz. The position was about the same with regard to other items of the supply of victuals. When the food problem became acute, especially as concerned Vienna, it immediatcly raised the. question of the future of this city as a metropolis; for Vicnna was the heart. of a large empire, the scat of the administration of a large number of provincial industrial undertakings, and the centre of commerce and banking. Were the people had spent the income’ which they derived from all parts of the monarchy. Only’ gradually was it shown, in the first year of the republic, that the. economic predominance of Vienna reposed upon a much more

solid basis than had been assumed in some quarters, At the time of the collapse the anxicty concerning the food supply found a parallel in the solicitude to obtain coal, since the Austrian output was almost wholly negligible. This, like many other products of primaryimportance, could be acquired only with great difficulty even in forcign countrics, and, save to the. .

extent in which it was obtainable on credit, could only be secured in moderate quantities by the release of counter-values.

_ The economic structure of the new Austrian Republic is best illustrated by employment statistics, which show that in rgro agriculture absorbed 40%, industry and commerce 35%, mer-

cantile avocations and transport 17%, the public services and the free professions 8% of the population settled upon its territory. It follows that the people were pretty evenly divided between agricultural and commercial pursuits; industry was for the most part concentrated in and around Vicnna, to which city 1,800,000 of the 6,500,000 inhabitants of the state belonged, Of the land by far the greater part is in the hands of larger or

smaller peasant proprietors; 38% is covered with forests, 24% is agricultural or horticultural, 16% grazing-land in mountainous regions, 11% meadows. Conditions are relatively favourable for

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352

the raising of live stock, as the census of April 1919 shows as many as 1,952,000 head of catile and 1,107,000 pigs, which in comparison to the returns of toro reveals a decrease of about 40% as regards the latter, of about 20% as regards the former. Austrian industry suffered gricvously from the disruption of the cconomic area. To quote but one example: The yarn which was spun in the territory of present-day Austria was for the most part woven in the countries S. of the Sudctic Mountatns. For the Austrian cotton-spinning industry, with its 1-2 million

spindles, could employ a maximum of about 30,000 looms, but only about 12,000 of these are situated in Austria, so that under present conditions two-thirds of the product of the Austrian cotton-spinners would have to be finished off abroad. The cloth, as a finished article, used to be made up in Vicnna and thence consigned tọ Hungary, Galicia, and elsewhere. Similar conditions prevailed also in other branches of industry in the old Austria, but, so long as there was but one connected, economic area, these conditions evolved themsclves naturally, being governed by the geographical position of the factory. The setting-up of customs tariffs along the frontiers of the states which arose upon the territory of the broeken-up Austria entailed serious difficulties for all industries, The fact that Austria was cut off from the areas upon which she was wont to draw for her supply of coal became a consideration of moment, since only 6%

of the demand could be met by the exploitation of her own resources, while the balance required had to be obtained abroad. Private establishments had to be rationed as regards coal, and the use of gas and electricity to be drastically curtailed. In Vienna it was at one time even necessary to cut industrial establishments off the power stations. Industry received but a

fraction of the coal it required, and the ironworks, in particular, suffered heavily in consequence. The principal industrics of the Austrian Republic are as follows:

First and foremost is the iron trade.

(Under normal

conditions the Hisenersberg in Styria furnishes from 20 million mc. upwards of iron.) The industry hes within the area of the Sidbahn and around Vicnna; it furnishes raw material and

semi-manufactured articles which also form an item-of the export trade. Very highly developed, it employed in pre-war days some 30-40,000 hands and manufactured scythes, tools, screws, wire of all kinds, hard iron wares, cte. The manufacture of machinery gave employment to about 21,000 workmen, its specialty being agricultural machinery. There are four factorics in Austria which construct locomotives, several which build wagons, motor-cars, ctc. Of the textile industry of the old Austria

the bulk is now outside her frontiers, but an important part has remained (in the Vienna area and the Vorarlberg). The great clothing industry of the old Austria had Vienna for its centre. Two branches of industry depended upon Austria’s wealth in forests—(1)

the important

timber

trade

(including

the saw-mills, of which 257 were worked by steam and 5,200 by water-power; further, the furniture-manufacture, occupying about 14,000 hands); (2) the paper industry, which under full pressure furnished, in partly manufactured articles, 12,000 carloads of cellulose and 10,000 of wood pulp; in wholly manufactured articles 7,000 car-loads of cardboard and 18,000 of ‘paper, more than half of the products named being available for export. Further, in the working up of paper Austria is capable

of good achievement. The electrical industry can employ some 25,000 hands, and the rubber and leather manufactures are of importance.

mentioned:

Another important

raw

material remains to be

within the territory of the Austrian Republic an

output of 200,000 tons of magnesite was reached in 1913, The two years succceding the war were industrially unpro-

ductive in Austria, because there was a lack of numerous raw materials, which were not to be had even for payment, since, owing to the universal shortage, difficulties were everywhere put in the way of export. After the débâcle, war industries came to a sudden standstill, The worst period of crisis was in the winter of 1918-9, and it was only in the summer of tọrọ that a slow

economic recovery began, based for the most part on the possibilities of cxport due to the conditions of the foreign exchange;

at this time began on a large scale the “ general clearance ” of Austria by foreign purchasers who could take advantage of the low value of the Austrian drone abroad as compared with its purchasing-power at home. . The development of industry was wholly dependent upon the quotation of the drone, for in the spring of 1920 a slight improvement of the exchange in foreign markets caused a noticeable halt in exports, which only revived in the month of August of that year when the exchange was again on the down grade, In the autumn of 1920 à continuous improvement in the situation appeared in almost every industry; the frequent curtailments of working-hours gradually ceased, and new hands were engaged. By the close of the year the furniture-manufacture,

clothing trade (including the specially prosperous shoe industry) and the Icather trade showed well. Only the metal trades, which continued to suffer greatly from the want of raw material, could not definitely improve; the locomotive works and the electrical trade were fairly occupied, but the position was especially bad in respect of the manufacture of agricultural machincry and motor-cars,

In accordance with the social and political conditions of the first year of the war, a large number of social-political measures Jong demanded by the working classes had been passed. Of these some had been prepared and planned by the Austrian Government before or during the war, but had partly been shelved owing to political difficulties or the opposition of the classes interested in maintaining the old conditions; partly they had been unacceptable to the Government,

Further measures of

ihe kind seemed called for by the conditions of the moment, which urgently demanded State assistance for the classes of the population most hard hit by the economic depression, especially the rapidly growing class of unemployed whose urgency threatened violence.

‘The most important measures were: enactment of

the legal eight hours’ working-day; new rules for work done at home and by children; prohibition of night work in bakeries; compulsory holidays for workers; compensation of workers and employees generally in the event of the transference of an industrial establishment or the sale of machinery abroad; legal regulation of collective bargains; establishment, on the analogy of the existing chambers of commerce and industry, of workmen’s chambers (Arbeiterkammern) as the official representatives of the “estate” of workers; improvement of the conditions of domestic service by a special law. A large part of this social-political legislation was occupied by the measures intended to combat the effects of unemployment. In addition to the common results of the ending of a great war, unemployment in Austria was Increased, not only by the special causes already mentioned, but by the stream of Germans expelled from other parts of the former monarchy, Thus as early as Nov. 1918 State aid had to be introduced for industrial workmen and employces. The sums allowed for relief were fixed on the basis of the relief given in case of illness, and in Vienna, as a rule, attained the maximum provided for, namcly six kronen, to which was added in the spring of rọrọ a small

bonus by the commune for fathers of families and in the beginning of 1920 a special additional grant by the State. The number of unemployed rose very rapidly: on Dee. r 1918 for the whole of Austria the total was 46,o00, on Feb. 1 1919 it was 162,000, on May 1 of that year the maximum of 186,000 was reached;

but the decrease was slow, since the returns of Aug. 1 still showed 133,000 persons out of work, Nov. 2 87,000, end-Jan. 1920 69,000

and end-April 46,000, The number of unemployed was always greatest in the Vienna area, where the maximum was reached at the beginning of May with 132,000 unemployed, while on

Nov. 22 there were 73,000 and end-April 1920 38,000 persons out of work. A very peculiar expedient was resorted to at the time when the conditions were at their worst. In order to occupy at any rate a part of the unemployed the factory-owners, who

on April 26 1919 employed a minimum of 15 hands, were from May 19 of that year compelled to employ additional workmen up to one-fifth of their previous establishment and replace every man whose employ came to an end by a new man. This

AUSTRIC

FAMILY OF LANGUAGES

measure, which was meant to remain in force for only a short time, was repeatedly prolonged all through 1920. Its terms allowed exceptions and modifications under certain conditions. But if industry was able to bear the weight of such measures at

all, if it was found possible to comply with them at any rate on broad lines, that is probably due to the fact that when they

were made trade was progressively improving. The recovery of industry and quieting down of the political situation made it possible from Aug. 1919 to effect the necessary

reduction in the relicf of the unemployed, and by May 1920 to subject the whole matter of the relicf of uncmployment to legislative regulation. With this object in view—apart from the fixing of a maximum period of time within the space of a year during which relief was given—all unemployment doles were subjected to rigid conditions; further, all aid accorded was based on the principle of insurance, inasmuch as the State advanced the sums required for relief but thereafter recovered a third of the amount from the employers and a like proportion from the

353

council of administration or the board of directors, though these were not conceded the right of speaking on behalf of the company or signing for it and had no claim to monetary compensation for services of this nature. The industrial councils un-

doubtedly proved useful in maintaining discipline in the factories during times of disturbance. The law of May 3o ro19, on the procedure in cases of expropriation of industrial concerns, lays down very general maxims which deal with the provisions of future expropriation bills. Of importance is only the proviso

that the process of expropriation is initiated by a resolution of the Government,

which

in itself entails definite legal con-

sequences. The provisions for indemnification in the case of future expropriation, about which a lively discussion had raged, are very vague.

The Jaw of July 29 1919 on socialistic enter-

prises secks, with a certain tendency to the idea of guild socialism, to remodel the legal forms of business undertakings so as at least to prepare for the transition to new economic forms. “ The socialistic institutions (gemeinwirtschafiliche Anstalten) are workmen by the contribution these were made to pay, so that founded by the State, by the Territory, by the Commune, or by it bore itsclf but a third of the total cost. The introduction of: a majority of these territorial corporations, with the object insurance against unemployment soon led to a considerable of transferring existing private and public undertakings to the decrease in the total of persons who received relief payments proprietorship or the administration of the socialistic institu(at the end of April a total of 46,000, of which 38,000 were tions, or of starting new undertakings in this form.” These Viennese cases, falling by the beginning of May 1920 to 19,000, institutions were to be conducted by, among others, the corof which 15,000 were Viennese). Thus from that time onward porations by which they had been established, the industrial the number of unemploycd in receipt of State aid decreased by councils of workmen and employees, and organizations representabout one-half. During the remainder of 1920 there was at first ing a considerable part of the consumers of the institution’s outa rapid increase in unemployment, which was connected with put. A series of such institutions was founded, partly in order the crisis then supervening (caused by the improvement in the to take over Government factories formerly engaged in turning exchange, which curtailed exports). By July the total of persons out war material. Further socializing measures were arrested by who were out of work and in reccipt of rclicf reached 24,800 the change in the internal political situation. (of which total Vienna accounted for 19,500), but thereafter ihe The economic condition of Austria noticeably improved in totals again proved susceptible of rapid diminution, so that by the course of 1920; “labour unrest” abated considerably, the end of the year the decrease was illustrated by a return of and by the beginning of r92z a distinctly favourable progress 16,600 persons out of work (of whom 13,700 were Viennese). was recorded in many branches of industry. This, however, By the end of 1920 unemployment in Vienna was greatest among could not obscure the fact that the development reposcd upon the metal workers (34,500) and unskilled hands (2,730), among thoroughly unsound basic conditions, especially upon the shop assistants (1,338), the employees of hotels and restaurants difference in the price level at home as against forcign countries (1,338), in the building trade (1,430), in the catering business with a healthy exchange, on a scale of wages which, calculated (7209) In this group, however, figures a large number of un- in foreign currencies, was extraordinarily low, while the national employed who were not in receipt of relief. budget was weighted with milliards spent in the cheapening of In the period which followed the termination of the war the food. As Austria could not within a measurable time meet her Social-Democratic party acquired a Icading réle in the govern- own food requirements she was dependent upon the export of ment of the country, its programme being to attain a new manufactured articles. It could only be hoped that, on a return economic order by the nationalization of private enterprise. to normal times, Austria, after the recovery of the exchange, would | A number of laws were actually passed with this end in view. become a suitable ficld for industry capable of mecting comThe law of March 14 rọrọ on the preliminaries of nationaliza- petition in the world market. The town of Vienna, thanks to tion lays down in Paragraph 1: “ On grounds of public utility its central position in Europe, must always be an emporium of suitable industrial concerns may be sequestrated for the benefit increasing importance and also one of the principal centres of either of the State, the Territories or the Communes, and may European trade. (K. P.; R. SŁ) be administered by the State, the Territory or the Commune, AUSTRIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES.—An addition must be or placed under the administration of public, legally recognized made to the classification of languages given in the article bodies.” For the elaboration of further legislation aiming at PHILOLOGY (see 21.426) as the result of the further rescarches nationalization a Government Commission on Nationalization since 1908 in the Malay-Polynesian’ fiéld and S.E. Asia. The was instituted and given the right to call as witnesses persons establishment of the ‘‘ Austric family ” of languages may well capable of giving information, inspect industrial establishments, be considered the most important achievement of these later take cognizance of the account books, etc. The law of May 15 years in the work of comparative philology. 1919, which set up the industrial councils, was also meant to The essential unity of the Oceanic languages, though partially serve the ends of nationalization, since on these councils the recognized long ago by Humboldt in his Kawisprache, was not comworking-men were to gain an insight into the administration of pletely demonstrated until much more recent times. The connexion undertakings and be trained for their future task of exercising between the Polynesian and Indonesian languages (including the geographically outlying Malagasy) met with ready acceptance, but a determining influence upon the industry. At the same time the affiliation of the Melanesian was not so easy. The difficulty was the system of industrial councils was so planned as to fit into the partly due to purely linguistic differences, the Melanesian type of economic order of capitalist individualism. ‘“ The industrial speech being superficially very different from the Indonesian and Councils are instituted in order to understand and to foster Polynesian, partly to the diversity of the races which raised the natural, but quite unjustifiable, presumption that the languages the economic, social and cultural interests of the working-men could not be of the same stock. It was, however, eventually proved and the employees in the undertaking.” They were to safe- that Melanesian could not be kept out of the Oceanic family, ` guard the observance of contractual obligations entered into and it has since been shown that Micronesia, though different in race, collectively, and the compliance with laws protecting the work1 Kern, “ De Fidji-taal,” Verhand, Kon. Akad. v. Wet. (Amsterdam, ing-men, etc.; under certain circumstances they could demand the 1886), Afd. Letterk., Deel xvi.; “ Over de verhouding van het Nuproduction of the balance-shect of the undertaking; in the case foðrsch tot de Maleisch-Polynesische talen,” Actes du VIe Congrès of public companies they deputed two representatives into the International des Orientalistes.

XK 7

AUTOMOBILE—AYLMER, SIR F. J.

354

falls linguistically into the Melanesian section.

Also it ultimately

became plain that of these three subdivisions Indonesian best represented the archaic family type, while Polynesian at the other extreme had gone furthest in the direction of simplification and decay.!. Thus was established, by the strictest scientific proof, the existence of the Oceanic or Malayo-Polynesian family of languages, extending from Madagascar in the west to Easter I. in the east,

and from Forniosa and Jlawaii in the north to New Zealand in the

fixes and infixes (in the case of Munda and Nicobarese, suffixes

as well). Both in structure and vocabulary they are altogether different from the large family, or agglomeration, of languages to which Tibetan, Burmese, Siamese and Chinese belong, On the other hand a considerable amount of work had been done, mainly by Dutch scholars such as Van der Tuuk, Kern, and Brandes, to analyze the structure of the Oceanic languages; they succceded

in showing that the superficial dissyllabism characteristic of the family was really the result of an ancient agglutinative system building upon originally monosyllabic roots.!! This left the way open to Schmidt to show £ that his newly formed synthesis of languages, which he proposed to call Austroasiatic, was ultimately related to the Oceanic (or as he would style it Austronesian) family, so that the own, but only a number of distinct groups between which no ultimate two could be conveniently grouped under the generic name “ Ausrelationship could be safely asserted? These so-called Papuan | tric.” Schmidt’s arguments were based both on similarity of languages (which have since been found in portion: of Dutch and structure and numerous cases of identity between the very roots of German as well as British New Guinea) are therefore to be regarded the two families; and so. far as they were confined to linguistic as a purcly provisional group, the time for their systematic classificaclassification his conclusions have met with general acceptance at tion not having as yet arrived. But it is quite certain that they have the hands of those best qualified to judge. But his attempt ‘to nothing whatever to do with the Oceanic family, though some of the establish a corresponding anthropological unity of the very diverse neighbouring members of the latter have undoubtedly been in- races speaking all these different tongues was not so successful and fluenced and to some extent modified by Papuan languages, and also | must be regarded as altogether premature. Most of these populavice versa, particularly in the matter of syntax.? Moreover there tions are blends, and though conccivably there may be some thin exists in an outlying corner of Eastern Indonesia a small enclave strain of common blood running through all of them, it is impossible comprising a number of closely related and very curious languages as yet to define it or correlate it with the common element of their which differ profoundly from their neighbours of the Oceanic stock. speech. Nor is any such assumption a necessary conclusion from the These are the languages of the northern peninsula of Halmahera (or linguistic data. The synthesis of the languages has established a ilolo), together with Ternate, Tidore, and a few other small adpurely linguistic unity, implying no identity of race and admitting jacent islands. In spite of some attempts that have been made to the existence here and there (e.g. among the Negritos of the Malay show their ultimate connexion with the Oceanic family,* it cannot Peninsula, in Melanesia and even in parts of Polynesia)" of traces be said that the thesis has been proved or even rendered very of older aboriginal languages embedded, like flies in amber, in the probable. It is at least as likely that they are remnants of some prevailing type of speech. archaic Papuan group, though the tribes that speak them are not BIRLIOGRAPHY.—Brandstetter, Tagalen und Madagassen (1902); -apuan in physical type.® Ein Prodromus zu einem vergleichenden Wörterbuch der MalaiopolyThe Oceanic languages having thus been delimited,® there renesischen Sprachen (1906); Gemeinindonesisch und Urindonesisch mained the further question of their source of origin. By an in-. (1911); Das Verbum . . . in vierundzwanzig Indenesischen genious comparison of purely linguistic data, Kern had shown? Sprachen (1912); An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics (1916); that the common mother-tongue from which they were derived must Ferrand, Essai de phonétique comparée du maluis et des dialectes have been spoken on some long coastline in the tropics, the east malgaches (1909); Kern, “‘ Taalvergelijkende Verhandeling over het coast of Indo-China seeming on the whole to be the most likely one. Ancityumsch, met cen Aanhangsel over het klankstelsel van het Here there were actually languages, such as Cham and its immediate Eromanga,” Verhand. Kon. Akad. v, Wet. (Amsterdam, 1906), neighbours, which were plainly in some way connected with the R., D. viii., No. 2; Schmidt, “ Ueber das Verhaltnis der MelaIndonesian branch of the Oceanic family. But no really satisfactory nesischen Sprachen zu den Polynesischen und untercinander,”’ attempt could be made to connect the Occanic with any of the differSitzungsb, d. Kats. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien, Phil.-hist. KL, Bd. cxli., ent groups of Indo-Chinese languages until the latter had been No. vi,“ Die Jabim-Sprache ’’ (Deutsch-Neu-Guinea); ibid., Bad. properly classified. This was done in part by Forbes? and carried exliii., No. ix.; Meyer, ‘‘ Die Papuasprache in Niederlandisch-Neufurther by Kuhn,’ but the final achievement was the work of W. Guinea,” Globus, xciv., pp. 189-92; Finot, “ Les études indochinoiSchmidt. In a serics of admirable monographs” he succeeded in ses,’ Bull. de VE. F. d' Extréme-Orient, viil., pp. 221-33; Cabaton, proving the intimate connexion of the aboriginal languages (Sakai “ Dix dialectes indochinois," Journal Astatique, Mars-Avril, 1905. and Semang) of the Malay Peninsula, the Mon-Khmer group, the pp. 265~344; Aymonier and Cabaton, Dictionnaire tam-frangais Palaung-Wa-Riang group of the Shan states, Khasi in Assam, Nico(1906). (C. O. B.) barese, and finally the Munda languages of India proper. -All these AUTOMOBILE: sce MOTOR VEHICLES. . are characterized by a structure based ultimately on monosyllabic south. ea Meanwhile further exploration and research had revealed the existence in New Guinea and some of the neighbouring islands of a number of languages which could not be fitted into this scheme of classification, and did not even apparently form any family of their

roots from which more complex words are formed: by means of pre1S. IL. Ray, * The Common Origin of the Oceanic Languages,” ‘‘ Hellas” Revue Polyglotte Internationale, Vic Année;

AVIATION:

Thalheimer,

bridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, vol. iii., Lin(1907) 106; Ray, Jour. Anthr. Insi. xxx.

_.), British general,

was born April 5 1862, and joined the army in 1880, He served

(1908), revicwed by Ray in Max (1908). ? Ray, “ The Languages of British New Guinea,” Jour. Anthr. Inst. xxiv., pp. 1§-39; tbid. xxvi., pp. 204-5; Reports of the Cam-

Man

sce AvRONAUTICS.

AYLMER, SIR FENTON JOHN (1862-

Beitrag sur Kenntniss der Pronomina der Sprachen Mikronesiens

guistics (1907). SW. Schmidt,

_ AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, ist Baron (1834-1913), English banker (see 3.51"), died at Ramsgate May 28 ror3..

in the Burma campaign and the Hazara expedition of 1891, and greatly distinguished himself in the Hunza-Nagar operations, winning the V.C. and promotion to brevet-major in 1892. He

took part in the Isazai expedition of 1892 and for his services in :

the relief of Chitral in 1895 was promoted brevet licutenantcolonel. After some years on the staff, he commanded brigades in India from 1904 to 1910, was promoted major-gencral in 1909, ‘and in 1912 became adjutant-general at Simla. This position he

*Schnudt, “ Die sprachlichen Verhältnisse von Deutsch-Neuguinea,” Zeitschr. f. Afrik. u. Ozean. Sprachen, Jahrg. v. and vi., espec vi. pp. 74-99. See also Van der Veen, De Noord-Halmahera' se

held until Nov. zo915 when, now a licutcnant-gencral, he was

(Anthr. Rev. and Misc. 50).

1 Kern, Bijdr. tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie (1891), Deel xl., pp. 493-530. See also A. Hueting,

‘“‘Iets over

de

Ternataansch-HNalmaherasche

(1908), Ix., pp. 3690-411

Lualgroep

Taalgroep,”

ibid.

(1915).

€ lt is hardly necessary to add that the languages of Australia and the now extinct dialects of Tasmania lie entirely outside this sphere. 7" Taalkundige gegevens ter bepaling van het stamland der Maleisch-Polynestsche volken,” Versl. en Med. Kon. Akad. v. Wet. (Amsterdam, 1889), Afd. Letterk Ille R., Deel 6. ë Comparative Grammar of the Languages of Further India. *" Beitrage zur Sprachenkunde Hinterindiens,” Siteungsd. d. K. Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Phil.-hist. Kl. (1889).

©“ Die Sprachen der Sakei und Semang auf Malakka und ihr

Verhältnis zu den Mon-Khmér-Sprachen,” Bijdr. tot de T L. en V. v, Ned.-Indië, 1901, Deel li., pp. 399-583; “ Grundzüge einer Lautlehre der Mon-Khmêr-Sprachen,”

Denkschr. d. Kats. Akad. d.

Wiss. in Wien, 1905, Phil-hist. KI., Bd. ii; “ Grundzüge ciner Lautlehre der Khasi-Sprache in ihren Beziehungen zu denjenigen der Mon-Khmér-Sprachen,” Abhandl, d. Königl. Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., 1905, 1 KL, Bd. xxiii., Abt. iii. and op, cit, inf.

summoned to Mesopotamia to lead the force being organized for relief of Kut. This was composed mainly of two Indian divisions

which had been fighting in Flanders and were arriving in driblets. The urgency of the situation obliged Aylmer to push up the

Tigris with little preparation; but he inflicted two severe defeats

upon the Turks before being brought up, 23 m. short of Kut, by the lines of Hannah on the left bank of the river. He halted for six wecks for reénforcements and war material before striking 11 Conveniently summed up in Brandstetter’s Wurzel und Wort

in den Indonesischen Sprachen (1910). : 2" Die Mon-Khmêr-Völker,” Archiv, f. Anthr., xxxiii., pp. 59109; and in French “ Les peuples Mon-Khmêr,” Bulletin de l Ecole Francaise d'Extrême-Orient, vii, pp. 213-63, vhi., pp. 1-35. .

13 Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, vol. ii, Language; Ray, “ The Common Örigin of the Oceanic Lan-

guages,” loc. cit, and Jour. Anthr. Inst., xxvi., pp. 204-5. * These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

AYUB KHAN—AZERBAIJAN afresh, this time on the right bank.

Iis plan involved a long

night march and assault on the encmy defenses, some 10 m. short of Kut, at daybreak. But one of his divisions did not arrive on time, and when delivered the attack failed; Aylmer was thereupon replaced by another general. He was given the K.C.B., and after returning to India he commanded a division there for some time Gen. Aylmer was the author of an important tactical study on Protection in War (1912).AYUB KHAN (1855-10914), Afghan prince, son of Shere Ali (see 3.77), died at Lahore April 6 1914.

AZCARATE,

GUMERSINDO

(1840-1917), Sah

politician

and lawyer, was born at León, Spain, Jan. 13 1840, and was educated at the university of Ovicdo, whence in 1858 he went to Madrid and graduated in Jaw, science and philosophy (1861). After obtaining a post as assistant in a public office he returned in 1868 to Madrid as assistant professor of comparative jurisprudence and in 1872 was appointed professor.

He was of the

little band of Liberals who preferred to resign in 1875 rather than submit to the famous Orovio decree limiting the liberty of the chair. He was, however, reinstated six years later and became one of the central figures of the group headed by Don Francisco Giner, to which Spain owes most of its up-to-date educational institutions. He sat as deputy for Leon from 1886 to 1890, from 1891 to 1895, and for later periods. In 1892 he became professor.of private law at Madrid. In politics he was a moderate republican. He was a keen student of English institutions and an admirer of English political life. In later years he accepted a sharein official administration, notably as the head of the Instituto de Reformas Sociales, which he had invested with his incomparable moral authority. He had also approved of the Reformist evolution, of Señor Melquiades Alvarez. The austerity of his political views was such that on being defeated at the last general election he fought, he refused a seat as senator for life, which was offered him by the. Government. ‘He died at Madrid Dec. 14 1917.

355

thus to attract to the new republic the Persian remainder of the old province of Azerbaijan, peopled chicfly by the same stock. Geographical Position.—looked at broadly the republic occupies the lowlands of two great Caucasian river basins—the Kuru and the Aras—enclosed by the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus

mountains, the watershed parting of the Black Sed, and the äijä This fertile territory, rich also in oil, has a coastline to the Caspian exceeding

400 m, and stands athwart the chief line of communication between the Black Sea and central Asia, Two-thirds of its population is a homogeneous race of Tatar origin closely related to the Anatolian Turk. They speak a form of Turkish, but, unlike the Turk, are Moslems of the Shiah sect: with their

Sunni kinsmen of Anatolia they have, however, a defnite sympathy.

Area and Population—The arta ofathe “ Governments gs F Baku and Elisavetopol together was about 32,000 sq. m.; their pop., by the Russian census of 1916, somewhat less than 2,600,000. This total comprised, in round figures, 1,740,000 Moslems, 540,000 Armenians, 230,000 Russians and other Europeans, and diverse elements as the remainder. The territory claimed by the republic is not, however, altogether that of the ‘ Governments ” of Baku and Elisavetopol; but it is only of these that definite figures of area and population can be given. For districts containing in all some 15,000 Sq. m., partly within and partly without the boundaries of the two “ Governments,” and carrying a pop. of nearly a million, are in dispute between Azerbaijan and the adjoining republics of ‘Erivan and Georgia. Settlement of these isputes may give Azerbitijain a greater or lesser area and population than had the two “ Governments.” Industries and Communications-—The

chief industry of the

country is the production, refining, and exportation of oil and petroleum. Within ṣo years the immense oil deposit discovered on the Apsheron peninsula had ercated the city of Baku, now AZCARRAGA Y PALMERO, MARCELO (1832-191 5), Spanish the capital of Azerbaijan, with a pop. of 250,o00. Indeed the soldier and politician, was born in Manila in 1832. He early production of oil in vast quantities in this region has had fatreaching indirect political results. Ft has given the state an saw service in Spain during the mutinous outbreaks in Isabella’s importance out of proportion to its population, by placing wide reign (1854-6) and was next sent to Cuba and on-a special adjoining regions in a position of dependence regarding the mission Lo Mexico, later belonging to the expeditionary. army against that country. He was promoted colonel in 1866 and vital commodity of oil for light and fuel, Stil more, it has profoundly affected the direction given tq lines of railway, and entered the Ministry of War. He was employed by the Spanish republican Government of 1868 as chief of staff at Cartagena - the development of rail and other forms of communication. By this process, and from the position of Baku as a port on and Jater of the army of the North. After the accession. of the Caspian Sca—a sca nearly twice as great in arca as all the Alphonso XII. he became field marshal and Under-Secretary Great Lakes of America together—the city became a centre with for War. He sat as deputy for Morella in the first restoration Parliament. In 1885 he was clécted senator for Navarre and lines of communication, by rail and sea, radiating from it in was Minister for War under Canovas (1891-2) and again all directions. From Baku the Caspian Sea is crossed by ferry in 1893, becoming head of the Cabinet in 1897 after Canovas’s steamers to Krasnovodsk; and thence a railway runs for nearly assassination. In Sept. 1904 he retired from the army at the 2,000 m, through central Asia, skirting the Afghan frontier, and age of 70 with the rank of general, and in-Dec. of that year reaching the Pamirs. The city is in direct rail communication was again for a few‘ wecks ptime minister. Throughout his with Moscow; by railway, sea, river or canal every part of Luropolitical career he was associated with the Conservatives but pean Russia, in fact, is within reach, By sea N. Persia ports are only one day’s steaming. Through Trans-Caucasia Baku took little part in party struggles. He died May 30 1915. _AZERBAIJAN.—The republic of Azerbaijan had no political is in direct railway communication with Erivan, Tabriz in N.W. Persia, Erzerum in ‘Turkey, and Batum on the Black existence until the year 1917, when the Trans-Caucasian provSca. Batum, indeed, is complementary to Baku as the terminus inces of the Russian Empire, exposed to the enemies of Russia, found in the collapse of the empire the need and opportunity of not only of the Baku-Black Sea railway, and of the pipe-line for conveying oil, but as the one port by which the great inland striking out for themselves. Nor has -Azerbidijin any national traditions or history; scarcely, till lately, had her people a centre of communication and oil production, embedded deep in western Asia, can have trade intercourse with the oceans and racial consciousness, the name, even, did not apply to the outer countrics of the world. The interdependence of Baku present state. Under Russian administration Trans-Caucasia comprised six “ Governments.” Of these Baku, with a coastline and Batum was well enough with all Trans-Caucasia under one Government; with the two citics in separate states friction on the Caspian Sea, and Elisavetopol, adjoining Baku on the west, united to form the republic of Azerbiijin. The territory became inevitable: Had there been no oil at Baku events in the Near and Middle included in the two ‘‘ Governments” was, originally, the portion East during the years 1913~21 would have shown a striking of the Persian province of Azcrbiijiin (see 3.80) ceded to Russia dissimilarity from the events which actually befell. Such is the as long ago as 1813 under fhe predatory Treaty of Gulistan. Once a Russian possession, the ceded area lost all connexion with important position Azerbiaijin fills, by reason of Baku, on the confines of south-eastern Europe and western Asia. its previous name. But when in 1917 the two “ Governments” External Influences—In the Pan-Islamic dreams cherished combined to declare a joint independence the Persian name was adopted for the infant state from motives of policy—it was hoped by the Young Turk leaders of Turkey, the republic, with Persian

AZERBAIJAN

356

Azerbiijin, forms the essential connecting link between Islam of the West and Islam of central Asia and India. Pan-Islamic policy therefore closely affects Azerbdijin. But a further and more serious disturbing influence has been provided by Bolshevik Russia.

For economic reasons, and in pursuit of her ambitions

and policy in south-western and central Asia, the geographical position held by Azerbaijan made control of the republic a pressing necessity. The short and varied history of this small Caucasian state is, in consequence, concerned chiefly with. the interaction

of Turkish and Russian policy, and the inevitable question of Armenia and the Armenian ‘people. History —tThe history of Azerbiijin as an independent state may be said to have begun on Sept. 20 1917. During the spring and summer of that year upheaval in Russia had passed from symptoms to facts of omen for the world.

In March the Govern-

ment resigned, a Provisional Government was proclaimed, and the Tsar abdicated; and in April the Provisional Government issued its. proclamation declaring for the self-determination of peoples and the establishment of a lasting peace. In June the

to negotiate peace between Georgia and Turkey. This matter completed, Georgia and Germany concluded a treaty between themselves, by which German troops were admitted to the country,.and Georgia received promises of protection, the maintenance of her independence and financial assistance. As has been said, a Russian Bolshevik Government had been

established at Baku after the founding of the Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia.

The area it controlled was small, but the

Government had the advantages of position, supplies of fuel and food, and the comparative wealth afforded by the large and prosperous population. The Russian element behind the Government was also supported by local Armenians, a section of the inhabitants numbering some 60,000. These Armenians were under the influence of the Dashnakists, the Armenian revolutionary society of extremists, whose methods were violence, and who leaned towards Bolshevik Russia. And now, carly in March, when the affairs of Trans-Caucasia were at their

lowest, and the existence of the Federal state hung in the balance, the Russians and Armenians of Baku ejected the Tatar Moslems Black Sea fleet mutinied, and the Russian armies in Asia Minor, of the city, and massacred some thousands. During the sucsaturated with Bolshevik theories and shouting “* No annexations ceeding three months, massacre of Moslems by Armenians and no indemnities!”’ abandoned their positions before the “spread to various parts of what had been Russian Armenia. enemy and retired behind the Russo-Turkish frontier of 1914. With Georgia in private alliance with Germany, and Armenians On Sept, 15, Russia became a republic. massacring Azerbiijin Moslems whenever opportunity offered, Need for common. action by the Caucasian peoples was evident, the Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia had become to all as the Turkish front was held now by troops whose military merely an empty name. value was fast disappearing. ‘There was, further, at Jeast on The Federal Republic was dissolved on May 26 1918. On the part of Georgians and Armenians, a genuine desire to tse that date Azerbaijin and Georgia each proclaimed its separate the opportunity {f securing some form of independence which existence as an independent republic and formed a National should safeguard

their national rights, The creation of the Russian Republic was followed, two days later, by a Council of the Trans-Caucasian peoples, assembled at ‘Tiflis, proclaiming

Government; at the same time the National Council of Armenia

Trans-Caucasia a Federal Republic. This step involved remov-~ ing a Russian Bolshevik Commissar who had already been

took control of Armenian affairs. As the independent Bolshevik Government of Baku still existed Elsavetopol became the capital of Azerbaijan for the time being. Turkish troops were now: admitted to the Tatar Republic; and others, followed by Germans from Georgia, reoccupied Tabriz, the capital of

sent to Tiflis to replace the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief, the Grand Duke Nicholas. The Commissar was ejected, but he transferred himself to Baku and there with Armenian aid established a Bolshevik Government. But the affairs of the Federal Republic did not prosper. Between Georgian and

were antipathies of race and faith not to be suddenly diminished or held in check. Each people, too, had its own particular interests to consult. Jealousies and rivalries were acute; Erivan and Azerbäïjän had deep suspicions that Georgia was scheming to use the Federal Republic for converting all Trans-Caucasia into a Georgian state. A fundamental opposition of outlook also existed on the part of each. All three desired to come under British protection; but that being impossible Azerbaijan stood out for Turkey, Armenia for Russia, and Georgia for Germany as the powers best suited and able to assure Trans-Caucasian independence. To the leaders of each of the federated peoples, in

Persian Azerbiijiin, at the end of May.

The Pan-Islamic policy

of Turkey appeared to be prospering at this time, and its leaders looked castward to making their next step into central Asia. With this.as a possibility a small British column under Gen. Dunsterville advanced from Mesopotamia through western Persia to the Caspian, and passing thence by sea reached and occupied Baku on Aug. 16 1918. Its purpose was to countenance and support the Russo-Armenian force holding the town and

to assist the republic of Erivan, and thus prevent Turkish or German

operations in central Asia.

But the assistance and

coéperation expected of the local troops did not come up to anticipation; a large Turkish force compelled the British to reémbark on Sept. 13; and Baku fell the following day. But Turkish and German operations in these regions were drawing to an end. The Armistice between the Allies and Turkey, signed

on Oct. 30, and between the Allics and Germany r2 days later

fact, the essentials of a rapidly changing situation ever appeared different. l

ensured the evacuation

The Treaty of Brest Litovsk, between Germany and Russia, signed on March 3 1918, was followed by a Turkish invasion of Armenian territory in order to occupy the districts awarded Turkey under the treaty. Batum was another district allotted to Turkey, subject to self-determination by the inhabitants; but Georgia believed that with German aid the province might be preserved for herself. In effect the Federal Republic was now at war with Turkey, though with no intention or possibility

Persia reoccupied Baku on Nov. 16, a British garrison was placed in Batum on Dec. 27; and before long a whole British division had reached Caucasia to ensure the evacuation of Turks and Germans. The railways were repaired, and through traffic between the inland republic and Batum resumed under

of concerted action amongst its peoples, and the Turkish occupa-

ment of Azerbaijan was established there, and endeavoured to organize an administration. This was a work of infinite difficulty, for though the Moussavet party in power meant well, every kind of administrative experience and knowledge was lacking. The British military authorities assisted, but soon found it

tion proceeded in spite of resistance on Armenian territory. Batum, too, was entered by Turkish forces on April x5. In _ these circumstances the republic resolved, on April 23, to make

a formal declaration of independence, and to open peace negotiations with the Turks. But a German penetration of TransCaucasia from the Ukraine was now in sight. Odessa and Sevastopol were both in German hands at the beginning of May, and Georgian policy looked more and more definitely to Germany, to the exclusion of the wider interests of the Federal Republic. A few days later German and Turkish delegates reached Batum

of Trans-Caucasian

ritory by Turkish and German troops.

and Persian

ter-

A British force from

a British Board of Railway Control, thus preventing the acute friction of the past. On the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Baku the Govern-

necessary to take over multifarious civil functions, from pro-

viding and rationing foodstuffs, suppressing profitcers, working the oil and shipping industries, and managing the State bank, to the administration of Posts and Telegraphs, Police and Justice.

For the first time since Russian Government

in Trans-Caucasia order appeared in the republic.

ceased

But the

AZERBAIJAN eas

change depended on foreign ability and experience, and when the British troops were withdrawn in Aug. 1919 Azerbaijan relapsed into administrative confusion. An inter-state control of railways only was provided with some success, us a matter vital to all Trans-Caucasia. The Peace Conference of the Allies which began its sittings

though the republic sent a delegation to represent its claims to large territorial extensions. The course taken by events in Trans-Caucasia before the Treaty of Sèvres was finally drafted doubtless placed Azerbaijan outside the area to which it was thought treaty provisions could be applied. Except regarding

frontiers in dispute between Azerbiijain and Armenia the Treaty of Sévres, therefore, avoided matters affecting the Tatar Republic. For these frontiers it provided that they should be settled by direct agreement between .the states concerned; and, failing such agreement, they were to be determined by the principal Allied Powers.

The Conference gave, however, no little attention to the

problems of Trans-Caucasia. Early in r9rg it offered Italy control of the whole area, she having many interests there; but the offer was declined after consideration. As an emergency measure the Supreme Council appointed an Allicd high commis-

sioner to prevent territorial disputes developing into hostilities between the republics; and by his influence ncutral zones for the time being were established, and the situation was temporarily eased. But months passed and the Conference became more and more chary of intervening in Trans-Caucasian affairs, especially in view of Gen. Denikin’s operation in Cis-Caucasia, and his aim of reuniting south-eastern Russia. Stated shortly the shadow of Russia—Russia both of the present and of the future—lay over the land and created an incalculable situation. De facto recognition was, however, accorded all three republics. It should be noted, further, that in the draft of the Treaty of Sèvres the importance of Batum to Azerbiijiin and Armenia was recognized by making the town and surrounding territory a free state under the League of Nations, and giving the inland republics definite rights in the port and of access by rail.

But

this plan fell through, and Batum was returned to Georgia, under an agreement confirming Azerbiijin and Armenia in the privileges they were to have received from the free state of Batum. The Turkish Nationalist movement which became all-powerful in Anatolia in consequence of the Treaty of Sévres had a serious influence upon the republic of Azerbiijin. Nationalist Turkey: and Soviet Russia each found itself opposed to the Allied Powers. They therefore followed a common policy up to a point; and Turkish Nationalism and Russian Bolshevism went hand in hand, supplying each other’s needs as far as might be, whether of means, material or opportunity. Turkey sought to recover

the provinces in Trans-Caucasia from which she had been ejected by the Allies in 1918; she also required munitions from Russia, and direct access to Azerbaijan and central Asia in execution of

357

the Allies to pursue, and her revolutionary mission to accomplish where she could. The oil of Baku, further, was a necessity for her economic life. These different aims of both countries converged on Trans-Caucasia, and implied the bringing of Turkish and Russian territory toa coterminous frontier—at least to a common frontier of effective control. Once this was attained all other things would be secured, including direct railway communication between Russia and Anatolia. Denikin had been driven out of Russia and now only the independent republics of Azerbiijan, Erivan and Georgia stood in the way.

Russia therefore prepared to set up a Sovict Government in Azerbiijan, and under cover of this change reéstablish Russian control first there, and afterwards in all Trans-Caucasia. On April 28 1920 the XI. Soviet Army from Cis-Caucasia, some 50,000 strong, entered Baku without fighting. Simultaneously a rising of local Bolsheviks declared the Republican Government | deposed, and established in its place a Sovict Government in alliance with Moscow. The Russian army, it was said, had only come to place the proletariat of Azerbaijin upon its feet. Effective opposition to the revolution was found impossible.

The Azerbaijiin army was disbanded; a revolutionary committee set up which sent the members of the late Government and many leading anti-Bolshevik citizens to execution; and Bolshevik economic theories were rigorously applied. Having seized the railways and consolidated’ their position in the country the

Bolsheviks attacked Georgia and Erivan across the frontiers of

Azerbaijan, but were repulsed without much difficulty. Russia’s campaign In Poland was in progress at the time, and not going well, and further aggressions in Trans-Caucasia were therefore suspended. During this pause a Tatar rising took place at Elisavetopol, in which. several: thousand Bolsheviks were massacred.

The rising was promptly suppressed by Bolshevik

troops; and they, aided by local Armenians, retaliated by massacring, it is said, some 15,000 Tatars of both sexes and all ages. From this affair arose the hatred which the Tatars of Azcrbdijiin have since displayed against the Bolsheviks.

Further Bolshevik and Turkish operations against Georgia and

Erivan do not properly belong to Azerbaijin history, but they cannot be altogether ignored. Suffice to say that when Russia, in

the autumn, was relieved of her Polish embarrassments, and the campaign of Gen. Wrangel from the Crimea had plainly failed, she and her Turkish Allies turned their attention once again

to Trans-Caucasia, By the end of Nov. both Georgia and Erivan were crushed, and Sovict Republics, dependent on Moscow, established in place of the National Governments. Turkey regained the districts of Ardahan and Kars; in addition

she was given the strip of Armenian territory through which

passed the railway from Azerbiiijin to the Turkish. frontier; but Russia with an eye to her own future, insisted that Batum should form part of Georgia, and her will in the end prevailed. Russia, in fact, had recovered all but an insignificant portion Erivan ceased to cxist as independent states, except in name.

her Pan-Islamic ambitions. . Russia had her own quarrel with |’

(W. J. C.*)

BACCELLI-—BACTERIOLOGY

358

ACCELLI, GUIDO (1830-1916), Italian physician and politician, was born | fan. Ir 1916.

at Rome After

1830, and died

at Rome

graduating in medicine

at

the

university of Rome, he was appointed assistant professor of medical jurisprudence in 1856, and some years later

became professor of clinical medicine. „great

reputation as

He soon acquired a

a practising physician, being especially

noted for the accuracy of his diagnosis, and he devoted himself particularly to the pathology of the heart and to malaria; his studies on the latter subject proved of great value for the reclamation of the Roman

Campagna and other fever-

stricken zones. In 1875 he was elected deputy for the 3rd Div. of Rome, which he continued to represent until his death. He

was

Minister

of Education

in the Cabinets

of Cairoli

(1879-81), Depretis (1881-7), Crispi (1893-6), and Gen. Pelloux (1898-9), and of Agriculture under Zanardelli (1901-3); from 1889 to 1893 he was vice-president of the Chamber.

A keen

classical scholar, he took an active interest in archaeological matters, although in some of his projects, such as the famous Passeggiata Archeologica in Rome, he showed more enthusiasm than judgment. His labours for the isolation of the Pantheon and the creation of the Museum of Ancient Art and of the Modern Art Gallery in Rome deserved and met with more general approval. BACON, HENRY (1866), American architect, was born at Watseka, IL., Nov. 28 1866. In 1884 he entered the university of Illinois to study architecture, but in the following year began work in the office of Chamberlin & Whidden, in Boston, where he remained three years. From 1888 to 1897 he was with McKim, Mead & White, in New York, excepting the years 1889-91 which he spent in Europe as Rotch Travelling Scholar, From 1897 to 1903 he was a member of the firm of Brite & Bacon, in New York, and thereafter practised alone. Among his important works were the Court of the Four Seasons at the Panama-Pacific Exposition; the Union Square Savings Bank,

between male and female gametes is essential for the preservation of the special characters of an organism, and that in absence

of sex fusion a species will tend to break up into a number of different strains. So far no fusion, either sexual or otherwise, has been observed amongst the bacteria. The characters of bacteria are extraordinarily liable to change according to the conditions of cultivation. Variations in morphology, cultural characters, physiological behaviour, virulence and pathogenicity

have constituted one of the most striking features of modern bacteriology. Innumerable instances of such variations have come to light; space will permit of the citation of only a few typical cases. Bacillus coli in the peritoneal cavity in the case of ascites may take

the form of a diplococcus; in milk or in urine it may develop into a dense network of branching filaments resembling B. anthracis. Again B, carofovorus, an organism causing disease in many vegetables, when present in the plant tissue appears as a very small rod;

cultivated on artificial media the rods are much larger; in broth it

grows in the form of long branching filaments, and in broth containing sublethal doses of antiseptics, e.g. phenol and alcohol, it de-

velops as a minute coccus, It has recently been shown in separate communications that cer-

tain organisms, B, lepisepticum and B. dysenteriae, when cultivated on artificial media, segregate each into two distinct types, one forming round colonies, the other diffuse and spreading ones; these types show. variations also in agglutinability and in virulence, though otherwise their specific characters are identical. Once separated, the spreading forms in both cases remain true to type, and the question

arises whether both strains coexist in the materials taken from the infected animals or whether the spreading forms appear as mutants shortly after removal from the natural habitat. This question can

only be answered by investigations of cultures derived from single

cells: the finding of segregation of mutants in cultures of this type would be of the greatest interest, but at present such investigations have not been conducted. é

The sugar-fermentation reactions upon which much reliance is based in the diagnosis of species are unfortunately very susceptible

New York City; the Public Library, Paterson, N.J.; the Waterbury

to change

General Hospital, Waterbury, Conn.;and the Whittemore Memorial Bridge, Naugatuck, Conn. Of numerous monuments, some de-

possess. Strains of Bacillus carotovorus isolated from diseased plants

signed in collaboration with various sculptors, the following should

be mentioned: the Lafayette Monument, Brooklyn, N.Y.; the Lincoln Monument, Lincoln, Neb.; tbe Longfellow Monument, Cambridge, Mass.; the Republic Monument and the Centennial Monument,

Chicago,

IIL;

the

President

Harrison

Monument,

Indianapolis, Ind.; the Civil War Memorial and World War Memorial, Yale University; and the Parnell Monument, Dublin, Ireland. In 1920 the Lincoln Memorial, at Washington, D.C., designed by him, was completed, costing more than $2,500,000,

_

I, GENERAL AND AGRICULTURAL

Variations in Bacteria—It is probable that nuclear fusion

BACON, ROBERT (1860-1919), American banker, was born in Boston, Mass., July 5 1860. He graduated from Harvard in 1880 (in the class with Theodore Roosevelt), and

the following year entered the banking house of Lee, Higginson & Co., in Boston., In 1883 he became a member of the firm of E. Rollins Morse & Bro., and in 1894 joined the. house of J. P. Morgan & Co., in New York. After’ conspicuous success in the financial world he resigned in 1903. He was Assistant Secretary of State, 1905-9, and then for a short time was Sccretary of State, succeeding Elihu Root on the latter’s election to the Senate. He was ambassador to France from z909 to 1912. He attended the first Plattsburg Camp and was commissioned major in the U.S. Reserves in 1917, being assigned to the staff of Gen. Pershing with the A.L.F. in France. He returned to America with the rank of colonel, in 1918, and died in New York City, May 29 1919. BACTERIOLOGY (sce 3.156).—Since bacteriology is so comparatively young a science, dating, as it does, from the introduction by Koch in 1880 of methods of technique which have made it an exact science, it is not surprising that the decade from 1911 to 1921 saw very considerable additions to our knowledge of the life and functions of the microdrganisms with which it is concerned. These additions to knowledge will be reviewed

here under two headings: general and agricultural, and medical.

“ trained

under different cultural conditions;

organisms can be

”’ to acquire fermenting powers which they do not normally

grown in different localities were found to possess many various sugar fermenting powers, but when cultured simultaneously through several transfers under the same conditions and again tested, all

gave identical reactions.

All pathogenic organisms rapidly lose the property of virulence when cultivated apart from their hosts, and once lost it is very diffi‘cult to restore this character. Virulence is altered rapidly by a change of environment; the attenuation of the anthrax bacillus by cultiva-

tion at 40° F. instead of at blood temperature is a well-known phenomenon. Similar rapid reduction in virulence is attained by cultivation of organisms in presence of antiseptics. , One and the same species of an organism may give rise to different

symptoms of disease in different individuals. The pathogenicity of Bacillus anthracis is considerably altered by exposure to the ultraviolet rays; the symptoms produced on inoculation of the altered strain into an animal are quite unlike the normal symptoms of anthrax. The change which the organism undergoes in the treat-

ment with the ultra-violet rays persists after daily subculture for

upwards of two months.

Transmutation in Bacteria—Many experiments have’ been described wherein bacteria became so changed in character as to suggest that they had undergone transmutation. One must not forget, however, that usually in dealing with cultures of bactcria one has a mixcd population, the progeny of several individuals.. Even though the culture may be made from a single colony on a plate it is more than probable that such a colony has arisen from a number of organisms herded together. The method of culture of such a population will tend to favour one strain and depress others, so that this strain may eventually be separated and appear as a mutant. One piece of work, however, which requires confirmation before it can be accepted, should be cited in this connexion. It has been stated in a preliminary communication that Azotobacter may give rise to practically every form of organism to be found in the soil. The large round form of Azotobacter is said to pass in old cultures

into a plasmodial stage from which it may emerge in the various

BACTERIOLOGY | forms of bacilli, cocci, sarcinae, clostridia, etc. ;in fact, all the forms common in the soil are held to be only stages in the life cycle of a single species. If this should be confirmed by future investigations, the whole basis of the science of bacteriology will be profoundly

modified. r Industrial Applications of Microbiology. —In the fermentation industries much use has been made of the variations that can be induced in microérganisms by cultural methods. For example,

in the alcoholic fermentation by yeast glyccrine figures as a by-

product to the extent of some two or three per cent of the sugar fermented; by the addition of sodium sulphite to the fermenting complex the process is profoundly altered and the percentage of glycerine is increased to some 33 per cent. Again, dextrose is converted by Cilromyces into citric acid, oxalic acid and carbon dioxide; the percentage of citric acid is normally not great, but by high concentration of sugar and low concentration of nitro-

genous food it can be raised to 50%. The production of acetone and that of alcohol from maize by biological methods are processes

which have been successfully worked during the World War, and encourage one to look forward to considerable developments of microbiology as applied in the factory. ` ` Bacteria of the Soil: Partial Sterilization.—Researches at the Rothamsted Experimental Station have proved that soils which bave been treated with certain volatile antiseptics or heated to temperatures between 56° and 100° C. show a marked increase in fertility. This results from a parallel increase in the bacterial activity, whereby the rate of the conversion of the organic nitrogenous matter of the soil into nitrogen compounds which are readily available as food for the plant is considerably enhanced. The number of bacteria normally present in soils varies from about 4 to 60 ‘million organisms pcr gram.

Under

the above treatment with antiseptics or heat the majority of these arc destroyed and the number of active bacteria is reduced to a few hundreds only. By no means all are destroyed, however, since many of the organisms of the soil are of the sporc-forming kind and are thus able to withstand the treatment. After the removal of the volatile antiseptics, or after cooling of the soil, the germination of the spores is unhindered and the bacterial population of the soil is quickly reéstablished. The treatment

renders the soil more suitable as a medium for bacterial growth, so that the number of organisms quickly excceds by some six or sevenfold the original bacterial content of ‘the soil, or rather that

of a control sample of untreated soil kept under the same physical conditions as the treated sample. This remarkable discovery

359

interesting fact has come to light that encystment of the protozoa takes place with rhythmic periodicity; certain species investigated pass from the trophic to the resting condition simultancously every forty-cight hours, a phenomenon which has its parallel in the development ọf the malarial parasite in the human blood. By counting daily the numbers of protozoa, active and resting, and relating these to the numbers of bacteria in the soil, it has been shown that the

bacterial numbers vary inversely with the numbers of the trophic

amoebae.

The effect of partial sterilization upon the fertility of the soil is

such that it has become a common practice and a paying proposition for the nurserymen in the cucumber- and tomato-forcing industries to sterilize their soils either annually or every second year.

The

beneficial effect is.of rather short duration and in the course of a few ycars the soil reverts to its former degree of productivity, and

in some cases shows, after the initial enhancement, an actual re-

duction of fertility. These facts are not casily explained on the current hypothesis as set out above. Much attention was being focussed upon the subject in 1921, and very interesting results were being obtained by the workers at the Rothamsted station, results which bid fair to revolutionize accepted views, so that the future might well produce a theory more in accordance with the facts. Nitrogen.—It has been recognized for some time that the nitrogenfixing organisms of the soil are physiologically dependent for their energy upon carbohydrates, and that the amount of atmospheric nitrogen they are able to fix bears a close relationship to the amount of carbohydrate material used up. It was demonstrated in 1915 that the amount of fixation of nitrogen was also influenced by the presence of simple soluble nitrogenous compounds in the soil solution: urea, glycocoll, formamide, etc., had a marked effect in depressing the amount of nitrogen assimilated. These results have been fully confirmed, and it is now known that so long as an available supply of soluble nitrogenous matter is present the organisms will make use of this source in preference to that of free nitrogen, for which a greater expenditure of energy on their part is required. It is only in recent years that the energy relations of soil bacteria have reccived due consideration; in 1916 it was pointed out that Bacillus mycoides, a typical member of the group of ammonifiers;' roduces ammonia, not asan essential by-product of its metabolism,’ ut rather in virtue of its power of obtaining energy from the protein molecule. If other sources of energy are available, e.g. carbohydrates,

these will be drawn upon in preference to the protein molecule with

corresponding diminution of ammonia production; in fact, in presence of much carbohydrate the proteins will be entirely neglected and the organism will utilize the ammonia present in the soil as its source of nitrogen, thus competing with the growing crop. Probably most of the bacteria and moulds of the soil are capable under suitable conditions of assimilating ammonia. The proccss has not been observed in soils poor in organic matter, but in peaty soils it has been demonstrated to the extent of some 30 % of the added ammonia.’ Obviously then, in the use of farmyard manure, the proper ratio

of carbohydrate to protein material is a matter of considerable im-

portance, If the amount of carbohydrate is in large excess, most of the bacterial species will tend to reduce the quantity of nitrates and ammonia already existing in the soil; at the same time uncer these circumstances, provided the temperature conditions are satisfactory, discovery; reference to the literature showed that the phenom-` the nitrogen-fixing organisms will work energetically. The effect enon had been observed many years earlicr by German scientists, will be a temporary depression. of fertility, but eventually the

was made in r909. As a matter of fact it was not an entirely new

but they had curiously failed to grasp the important significance in its relation to the fertility of the soil. Naturally under such drastic treatment the bacterial flora of the soil does not remain unaltered; many species, in fact practically all those which do not form spores, are entirely annihilated. The very important group of ammonia-producing organisms contains, however, very many of the sporing kind, and the increased fertility of the soil is mainly due to the increased production of ammonia. The nitrifying bacteria on the other hand are ‘destroyed, and on the belief, current at that time, that the nitrogen of ammonia had first to be

nitrogen fixed will become beneficial to the growing plant. If the material is particularly rich in protein the organisms will produce considerable quantities of ammonia and the effect will be

at once beneficial. * If the air supply is insufficient the organisms will tend to produce denitrification, taking some of their oxygen from the nitrates and liberating nitrogen as gas. It has been shown that dressings of farmyard manure may in exceptional cases do more harm than good. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation~—At the commencement of the decade the application to the soil of cultures of Pseudomonas radicicala was advocated as a means of improving the crops of legumi-

nous plants, As far as the soils of the Old World are concerned hopes

converted into the form of nitrate before it could be utilized by the plant, it was difficult to explain the increase in fertility. It has been shown, however, that this belicf had no real foundation but that, in the absence of nitrates, plants can obtain their necessary nitrogen in the form of ammonia and many other of the simpler nitrogenous compounds.

of such improvement have been shattered by experience; its soils are already heavily infected with the nodule-producing organism and to inoculate them with any more is merely a case of ‘' bringing coals to Newcastle.” Inthe New World virgin land exists which has never carried leguminous crops; here moculation with pure cultures of the organism has met with marked success. Although from an economic point of view the study of symbiotic nitrogen fixation has lost much

The enrichment of the soil as a medium for bacteria seems to

fascination. The adaptability of the organism has been further investigated and it hus transpired in cross-inoculation experiments that several strains of the organism exist. Based upon trials made by various investigators the nodule organisms are separable into at least nine groups with reference to their power of infection of the various leguminous plants. Thus in one group fall the organisms

be the result of the removal of an inhibitory factor which militates against bacterial development. This factor în all probability, although the hypothesis is not universally accepted, is the protozoal fauna of the soil. On this view, which is supported by the strongest circumstantial evidence, though at. the moment direct proof is lacking, the protozoa living mainly upon bacteria keep down the numbers of the latter within the fruits stated above, and the removal or depression of the protozoa by partial sterilization results in a corresponding enhancement of. bacterial activity.

Methods have recently been developed at Rothamsted by which

the numbers of the different protozoa can be ascertained and the

of.its interest, in its academic aspects it still retains undiminished

from all the true clovers, species of Trifolium; in a second those from broad bean, peas, vetches, sweet pea, etc.; in a third those of species of Phaseolus; while those from soja bean, lupine and locust form each a separate group, no cross inoculations with these having been effected. It is also of great interest to find that on inoculation

into animals a reaction occurs, agglutinins being produced which are

BACTERIOLOGY

360

once more, elaborated into the organic constitution of the plant. it specific for the groups as determined by cross-inoculation. By has long been assumed that the supply of sulphates in all soils was cultural characteristics also the organisms from different legumes sufficient for the optimum growth of crops. This assumption show marked differentiation. Three distinct groups can be made with reference to the rate of growth on artificial media, stickiness © was based upon the low sulphur content of plant ash; recent investigations have shown, however, that as much as 90% of the sulof the culture and opacity of the colonics. Al these facts form perhaps a legitimate basis for the belief that distinct species exist among phur of the plant may be lost in the process of ignition. The amount of sulphur removed by the crop from the soil is now a factor to be the nodule-producing bacteria. In numerous other characteristics, however, these organisms are so much alike, and as a whole they considered, and it has been shown experimentally that. sulphur. may become the limiting factor for crop production. differ so widely from any other species of bacteria, that it seems more

consistent to regard the adapted forms as varieties of the single species Pseudomonas radicicola. . i Symbiotic nitrogen fixation has been found to occur in plants

other than those of the Leguminosae; glands in of the Rubiaceae and Myrsinaceae, which were contain protein crystals, have been shown in colonies of bacteria living symbiotically with

the leaves of species formerly believed to reality to consist of the plant cells, re-

ceiving their necessary supply of carbohydrates and salts from the surrounding green tissue of the leaves, and in return giving up their

nitrogenous by-products to the plant. These organisms have been

shown to fix atmospheric nitrogen when grown in artificial culture solutions devoid of any form of cémbined nitrogen. Their -rela-

tionship, if any exist, to Pseudomonas radicicola has not yet been ‘determined. These bacterial glands have been found in a number of plants, including Pavetia,. Psychotria, Kraussia and Ardisia, and seem to be as closely wrapped up with the well-being of the plants as are the root nodules of the Leguminosae; the organisms are present

in the slime between the young leaves before the opening of the leaf buds, and have been found in the seed between the scutellum

Further, the sulphur and phosphorus relations in the soil are considered to be interrelated to the extent that the insoluble rock phosphate is rendered soluble by the action of sulphuric acid pro duced in the oxidation by bacteria of the hydrogen sulphide from decomposing proteins, Pot experiments have shown that the application of sulphur as a fertilizer together with rock phosphate tends to increase the availability of the phosphate: the evidence at resent, however, is insufficient to show ahecha any material profit is to be gained by this method of fertilization. : Sewage Disposal.—The purification of sewage by the aerobic

bacteria which are normally contained in it is so slow, requiring

many. days for completion, that sewage disposal by this means alone has long been regarded as impracticable. A method of hastening the process was, however, discovered in 1913, and since 1916 the“ Ac-

tivated Sludge Process ” has actually been in successful operation.

hen sewage is well aerated the colloidal suspended matter grad-

ually disappears, being acted upon by aerobic bacteria, and gives

place to a granular brown mass which rapidly settles, leaving a clear solution of the inorganic salts, such as chlorides and nitrates, with and the embryo. Their introduction to the seed takes place at the -only quite small amounts of soluble organic matter. ft was distime of fertilization, the pollen tube conveying them from the stigma covered that this brown sediment added to a fresh supply of sewage to the ovule. The infection of the leaves occurs immediately after and aerated by a blast of very fine air bubbles considerably hastens

the opening of the buds, the ordinary water pores of the leaf usually

functioning as the ports of entry.

In the cases of Pavetia and

Psychotria, however, where the glands appear on the lamina of the

leaf, a special stoma has been described as an extraordinary adapta-

tion of the plant for the reception of the bacteria. This pore is of

exceptional size as compared with the ordinary stomata of the leaf,

and is said to be filled in by growth of the surrounding tissue after its function has been fulfilled. The benefit derived by the host plants from the presence of their guests has been clearly demonstrated by seedlings raised from bacteria-free seed—obtained by careful hot-water treatment of the seed—in sterile and inoculated sand cultures fertilized with potash and phosphorus but no nitrogen compounds, The plants grown in the inoculated cultures flourished and possessed typically green

leaves, while those in the sterile sand showed ail the signs of nitrogen starvation and soon died off. Cellulose Fermentation.—The classical investigations of Omelianski

showed that the cellulose of plant remains was decomposed under anaerobic conditions giving rise to marsh gas and hydrogen. This knowledge, however, does not help towards an explanation of the rapid destruction of plant residues in ordinary cultivated soils where conditions are mainly aerobic. It is well recognized that the looser the soil the more rapid is the destruction of carbohydrate material. It is generally supposed that fungi play an important part in these processes and many species of moulds and actinomyces have been shown to possess the power of attacking cellulose. The American

workers have invented cellulose media upon which bacteria can be

cultivated, and have succeeded in isolating several species, Bacillus rossica, B. Amylolyticus, Bacterium flavigena and some fifteen others which are capable of using pure cellulose as their only source of

carbon. All these organisms are morphologicalty and physiologically

the oxidation process. On repetition, cach increase in the amount of

the sediment in relation to the volume of sewage is accompanied by an increase in the rate of oxidation, so that, when the relative

amount of sediment approaches 30% of the total volume, oxidation is complete in the space of a few hours. This brown sediment forms the so-called ‘‘ activated sludge,”’ and consists very largely of a mass of living organisms, bacteria and protozoa.

In practice two tanks are employed: (1) the aeration tank in which the sewage and activated sludge are blown with air forced through porous material so that it reaches the sewage in a finely

divided state, and (2) the settling tank in which the sludge is de-

posited and from which an effluent requiring no filtration is run away. Any excess of sludge over and above that required to maintain the necessary quantity of 25% to 30% in the aeration tank is spread out to dry by evaporation and forms a valuable soil fertilizer. The percentage of nitrogen in the activated sludge is considerably higher than that of the sludge from the sedimentation and septic tanks of the older and more usually employed method of sewage treatment. The results obtained from the activated sludge process in operation at Manchester show a yield of nitrogen per annum approximately equal to the total faecal nitrogen of the sewage treated, whereas in the older method much of this and all the urine nitrogen passes away in the effluent in the form of nitrates. It has been stated that fixation of atmospheric nitrogen actually occurs in the process; from what is now known of the energy rela-

tions of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, however, any considerable amount of nitrogen fixation in a medium where the quantity of soluble nitrogenous compounds is large in relation to the quantity of carbohydrate material seems very doubtful. It is more probable that the conservation of nitrogen results from the fixation of ammonia

distinct from Omelianski’s hydrogen and methane organisms and

which in the older process of sewage disposal becomes converted into soluble nitrates.

of cellulose, however, is an organism discovered at Rothamsted in 1919. It is a peculiar organism exhibiting two distinct morphological

is about seven per cent. If hy any means this can be increased to about 10% and if economical methods of drying the sludge can be

related to the spirochaetes than to the true bacteria and has re-

around Worcester, England, where by the activated sludge process something like a million gallons of sewage are treated daily, the fruit

grow well on ordinary gelatine media.

The most powerful oxidizer

characters at different stages in its life history, along sinuous threadlike form and a large round “ sporoid ” form; it seems rather to be

ceived the name Spirechaeta cytophaga. It is an obligate aerobe and rapidly attacks cellulose, though it has no power of fermenting other carbohydrates; in fact, the presence of sugars, especially of

the reducing sugars, strongly inhibits its action upon cellulose. Like

As at present produced the amount of nitrogen in the dry sludge.

found there isa great commercial future for the process.

As it is,

growers take away the sludge in a. semi-dry condition and pay about 30s. a ton for it as it lies on the works. z : l Bacteriosis in Plants—The study of bacteria in relation to plant

controlled, Sulphur and Phosphorus Cycles—Considerable attention has recently been paid to the conversion of the sulphur and phosphorus

discascs may be said to have been in its infancy in I910. At that time—mainly ue the researches of American bacteriologists— it had been shown that bacteria could enter healthy plants through wounds and stomata and produce epidemics of disease so serious in nature that the crops over wide areas were partially, and in some instances entirely, destroyed. The subsequent decade saw considerable activity in the field of plant pathology, and thespore enicity of certain bacteria for plants has been fully established. In fact the number of species of bacteria now known to produce disease in plants is rapidly approaching that of the human pathogenes. In comparing the disease-producing organisms in animals and plants one finds bacilli freely represented in both groups, but whereas the coccoid types, Streptococcus, Micrococcus and Staphylococcus, are frequently responsible for discase in animals, they

by series of bacterial reactions, forming complete cycles, these elements pass from their combination in the protein molecule into the forms of sulphates and phosphates, and so become taken up and,

plants; on the other hand the genus Pseudomonas of Migula is strongly represented amongst the plant pathogenes while having no place, so far as is known, amongst, the organisms pathogenic for

the nitrifying bacteria it cannot. be cultivated upon ordinary

nu-

trient media containing proteins, 0-25 % of peptone being sufficient to prevent growth. The products of decomposition of cellulose con-

sist of a mucilaginous substance, small quantities of fatty acids anda yellow pigment allied to carotin.

The discovery of this organism

helped materially towards the production of an artificial substitute

for farmyard manure, a great achievement in these days when motor traction has so reduced the available supply of this universal fertilizer. Moreover, the substitute has a considerable advantage over

the natural product since the carbon-nitrogen ratio can be perfectly

present in the proteins of plant and animal residues in the soil;

have so far never been found to be associated with a disease in

BACTERIOLOGY man and animals. No explanation for these interesting morphological differences has hitherto been advanced, and if any significance is to be attached to them it has yet to be discovered. _ Exactly what it is that constitutes virulence in an organism and makes the distinction between parasitic and saprophytic forms is entirely unknown, One naturally asks whether an organism. may possess virulence for both plants and animals: so far as experience goes this seems not to be the case; one may perhaps as the result of eating bacterially diseased fruits expericnce a temporary disturbance of the alimentary system, but nothing of a more serious nature need be feared. On the face of it such a phenomenon as a general occurrence would seem to be unlikely from the

fact that the reaction of the medium in the two cases is very differ-

ent;an organism which is favoured by the alkalinity of the animal serum can hardly be expected to grow strongly in the sap of a plant where the reaction is often strongly acid, and vice versa. On the

injection of plant

parasites into laboratory animals nothing more

than a slight local derbin an abscess—results or occasionally the animal may show a disinclination to move and take food, a malaise for a brief period from ‘which it quickly recovers. In the serum of such inoculated animals antibodies, specific agglutinins,

are produced but this probably has nothing whatever to do with

virulence since it follows also upon the injection of the common. saprophytes.

The effects of bacteria upon the attacked plant are by no means so

helpful towards a diagnosis of the disease as are the effects of bac-

teria upon the human being. The specifie symptoms of disease in. - man by which the general practitioner is cnabled to diagnose his case with more or less certainty, although he may have only a

rudimentary knowledge of bacteriological technique, have no coun-

terpart in the diseases of plants. The plant pathologist must first isolate and identify the causal organism, often a task of considerable difficulty, before he can arrive at a true diagnosis, the symptoms of

disease produced by a number of different organisms being almost exactly similar. According to these group symptoms the bacterial diseases of plants may be divided into four main types, namely: Soft Rots, Wilts, Intumescences and Local Lesions,

Soft Rots ~The plants most attacked by rot-producing organisms

are the root vegetables and potatoes. A certain amount of discase may occur while the plants are still in the ground, but the greatest losses take place during storage of the roots through winter.

The

rot results through the solution of the cementing substance, the middle lamella, which holds the cells of the plant tissue together

just as mortar holes together the bricks in a building. This cementing

substance consists of pectin material and its solution is effected through the agency of an enzyme, a pectinase, produced by the `: bacteria. The removal of this substance causes the tissue to lose all coherence and the cells to become reduced to a wet pulpy mass. Diseases of this type are the “ White Rot” of turnips, the “ Soft

Rot ” of carrots and other vegetables, the “ Heart Rot ” of celery, and the “ Blackleg” of potatoes.

Wilts—-A number of very destructive diseases js included under

this head. The symptoms are almost identical in all cases and are the result of the blocking up of the conducting system of the plant by bacterial growth in the vesscls, so that those parts of the plant, . whose natural supply of watery sap is thereby cut off, die from wilting, and become the prey of all kinds of bacteria from the soil and air, and finally either dry up or become reduced to a wet rotting mass.

Other symptoms are striping of the leaves, a general dwarfing of the

attacked plants, and a one-sided growth of the plants resulting from a one-sided localization of the infection. The striping of the leaves is due to pigments, either in the bacteria themselves or in the wood of the invaded vessels, making the course of these vessels apparent from the outside as streaks usually of a yellow, red, or brown colour.

Many of these wilts are caused by organisms which are extraor. dinarily similar in many of their characters. They. belong to the genus Pseudomonas, are strongly yellow in colour and are indistinguishable under the microscope. They might be considered to be only varying strains of one and the same species except that they . show constant differences in degree of pigmentation and in certain "of thcir physiological characters; moreover they seem to be quite specific for the diseases in the plants or orders of plants in which they have been found, and all attempts to produce disease in one kind of host by inoculation with the specific organism of discase in another kind have so far been quite unsuccessful. ; Included in this group of diseases are the very troublesome ‘ Black Rot ” of cabbage and other members of the family Brassica; : Wakker’s disease of hyacinths, which has been responsible for the

entire disappearance of some of the most beautiful varieties of

hyacinths

from the beds of the Netherlands with serious financial!

loss to. the Dutch growers; and a disease of sugar-cane known as

Cobb’s disease which produces heavy losses in seedling canes and

also much difficulty and Joss in extraction of the sugar by reason of the gummy slime which the bacteria produce, causing trouble in the crushing machinery and in the evaporating pans. Other serious - wilt diseases are the wilt of cucumbers, the wilt of tomatoes, pota-

_ toes and other solanaceous plants, including tobacco whose cultiva-

tion in parts of Malay and other districts has had to be entirely abandoned as the result of this disease. l

361

Intumescence Diseases.—Here the disease takes the form of large

warty or pseudo-cancerous growths on the stems and leaves of the

attacked plant caused by hypertrophy of the cortical tissues and mesophyll under the irritating stimulus of the presence of the invading organism.

Crown

Gall, a destructive disease of roses, grape-

vines, hops and a large number of other hosts, belongs here. In this case the trouble is largely confined to the crown

of the root

where it extends from year to year, eventually growing to such a size that death of the tree results through destruction of the con-

ducting tissue of the root. Another'discase of this type is the Olive Knot, a well-known pest wherever olives are in cultivation,

Local Lestons.—Local lesions or cankers result through destruction

of the external tissues of plants in localized areas upon the stems, leaves and fruits.

Stripe disease of tomatoes is well known to

growers in Great Britain; the Citrus canker 1s ascrious disease in

S. Africa and S, Florida, and in the tropics generally Leaf Spot

diseases of beans and of cotton have been shown to be caused by bacterial parasites. Control Measures.—At present there is no means of control for bacterial

diseases in plants which can be of general application.

Obviously the prophylactic and curative methods of injection so successfully used against disease in animals cannot

plants.

be of use for

The use ol sprays which are often most effective against

fungal diseases of plants ts of no avail against the bacterial oncs.

Sterilization of the soil might be of service against such parasites as are infective of the plant through the soil, but it is clear that, in order to kill the parasitic form, one would at the same time necessarily interfere with the normal soil flora upon the functions of which

the fertility of the soil depends.

2i

In certain instances where the disease is carried by some biting

insect, attacks upon this carrier have resulted in more or less successful control. A case in point is that of the wilt of cucumbers, where the organism is introduced on the mandibles of a beetle. In this case it is found that the beetle has a special predilection for the wikl squash, and by growing these in drills between the rows of cucumbers almost all the beetles can be collected upon them, where

they can be periodically. annihilated by spraying with kerosene. Another means of control is found in the manurial treatment of the soil whereby a more hardy and resistant plant is produced.

In this way by the increase of potash it has been possible to effect a considerable reduction of the Stripe disease in tomatoes. The rotation of crops, so that several years elapse before a crop which has been diseased is again grown on the infected soil, is for the majority of bacterial diseases the only means of control known at the present time. In this way the parasite, not finding its particular host for some time, may die out or may become so altered physiologically

as no longer to possess the power of attack upon the plant. REFERENCES.—Gurney-Dixon, Transmutations of Bacteria; J. A. Arkwright, “ Variation in Bacteria in Relation to Agglutination both by Salts and by Specific Serum.” Jour. Path. and Bact. Qa21);

P. H. De Kruif, “ Dissociation of Microbic Species,” Jour. Amer. Med. Assn. (1921); E. J. Russell, Sot! Conditions and Plant Growth; Journal of Agricultural Science; Journal of Agricultural Research; Soil Science; G. J. Fowler, “ The Conservation of Nitrogen with Special Reference to Activated Sludge,” Journal of the Indian Institute of Science (1920); E. F. Smith, Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases; E. F. Smith, Bacterial Diseases of Plants; Phyto-

pathology; Annals of Applied Biology; Bulletins of Experimenial Stations, U. S, A. (S. G. P.) IIL MEDICAL BACTERIOLOGY

It has been more:and more recognized by the epidemiologist that one of the chief structural units in the bridge which connects one outbreak of a disease with another is the carrier. By the term “ carrier ’’ is meant an individual who, though healthy and thus unsuspected of infectivity, still harbours in his body pathogenic bacteria which, passed in the various excretions, constitute, when given favouring circumstances, a danger to those about him. These favouring circumstances may be withheld for long periods, but the individual, on the other hand, may continue to conserve and. distribute the microérganisms for still longer periods—even many years. Disease Carriervs—A certain number of bacteria pathogenic to man find carriers among animals, for instance the virus of Malta

fever, which multiplies and is distributed in the milk of infected

goats, but mainly man is himself responsible.

The carrier may be a person who has survived an attack of the

disease in question and failed to rid himself of the causative organisms, which, lodging themselves in the respiratory, genito-urinary or intestinal tract, continue an existence much as do the saprophytic organisms normally found in those regions. He may, on the other hand, be an individual who entertains the bacterium withort ever having displayed any symptoms of the disease. A chain of such carriers, recording no history of illness, but passing on the virus in secret, as it were, would be the explanation of sporadic cases, say,

of cerebrospinal meningitis, occurring in non-cpidemic times, at

BACTERIOLOGY

362

widely distant and apparently unrelated places. In the same way,

the seeds of a disease may be conserved over long periods from one

epidemic to another.

That the carrying of pathogenic bacteria by either man or animals, together with the opportunity of their transmission to others, does not altogether explain the spread of disease is certain.

A loss of

virulence on the part of the virus or an acquisition of immunity by the population, or both of these occurrences, must be assumed to explain the gradual spontaneous termination of an outbreak, and,

similarly, the converse of those phenomena must be regarded as playing a large part in the recrudescence of an epidemic.

;

The laws governing the loss or gain of virulence by bacteria are very imperfectly understood; even in the laboratory pathogenicity is largely beyond control; elsewhere it is entircly so. The

to be a poison formed by the union of the antibodies, produced in the animal by the first inoculation, with the. antigen (the protein)

inoculated on the second occasion and has been called anaphylatoxin. A surprising feature is that, no matter what protein be employed, the symptoms are in all cases similar. It is for this reason that other investigators have thought anaphylaxis to be not a toxic but a colloidal phenomenon, in which after the second inoculation an extremely minute precipitation, a gel phase, occurs in the body,

occasioning in the lungs mechanical interference with oxygen ab-

sorption. l In man anaphylaxis is not so pronounced as in some animals, for instance rabbits and guinea-pigs, yet the danger is sufficiently gtave.to demand special care during serum treatment. It has been found in animal experiments that if the second in-

two other factors concerned in the spread of disease are less elusive.

oculation

such a drastic step, segregated, kept under observation, and finally recommended to adopt a course of life not likely to favour infection of others. To hasten or forestall the immunity assumed to occur in

had serum administered to them, or, more usually, it is encountered

Even though the carrier state is one which has so far shown itself recalcitrant to treatment, carriers can be, if circumstances warrant

of protcin is survived,

the anaphylactic

appears, In serum therapy, therefore, feared, a very small “ desensitizing " proceeding to the injection of the full state is met with in persons who have,

condition

dis-

if any anaphylaxis is to be inoculation is given before amount, The anaphylactic on some previous occasion,

as a natural condition, as for instance in those individuals who show

a community during the course of an epidemic is the object of prophylactic inoculation, a procedure of which the success has been further demonstrated during the World War. Prophylactic Inoculation.—The compound _anti-cnteric vaccine,

World War threw into great prominence is that of the anacrobes.

iyphosus A and B, was universally employed in the [British armies

pressure under which growth is possible.

which includes all three typhoidal germs, B. typhesus, B. para-

and was attended by excellent results, as witnessed by the following statistics.

Typhoid cases in the British Expeditionary Forces in France up

to May 1915 numbered 827. It was found that the incidence was 1 times and the mortality 42 times greater among the uninoculate than among the inoculated; up to August 1916 508 uninoculated had a case mortality of 23:4 %, while 906 inoculated had one of 5-2 %,. Similar good results attended the use of anti-typhoid vaccine in the armies of other belligerents. It clearly reduced the total number of cases and lowered the mortality rate. Only in Germany was doubt cast by any appreciable number of scientific workers on the efficacy of prophylactic inoculation. A small body of opinion there considers that only by the use of a living virus, as in smallpox vaccination, can a reasonable immunity be conferred. It has been suggested by their critics that the Kolle vaccine, which is used in Germany, is of inferiot immunising power, and certain pre-war statistics, comparing the use of this vaccine with one prepared by Vincent’s method, bear this criticism out.

Other prophylactic vaccines, the use of which has been attended

more or less definitely by success, are those directed against cholera,

plague, pneumonia, cerebrospinal meningitis and influenza.

Tenta-

tively uscd, because of its great toxicity, 1s anti-dysentery vaccine. Vaccine Therapy.—Other therapeutic employment of bacterial vaccines has been extensively adopted and has, according to some

workers, justified itself in such widely different diseases as furunculosis, rheumatoid arthritis and whoopmg-cough. Much work without, unfortunately,

corresponding

success

continues

to be done with

vaccine therapy in tuberculosis. It was hoped at one time tnat the administration of vaccines might be controlled by observations of the opsonic index, made during treatment, but the method has been discarded as not capable of furnishing a reliable guide to dosage, as was expected of it. Serum Therapy.—Treatment by inoculation with serum specific for the disease in question has made notable advances. Besides those long in use in diphtheria, tetanus and streptococcus infections, sera capable of neutralizing the toxins produced by B. welchii, B. ocdematiens and V. septigue, all these gas-gangrene bacilli, are

now prepared. The efficiency of anti-meningococcus serum has been greatly increased by the recently acquired knowledge of the physiology of the meningococcus and by improvements in the manufacture of anti-toxin. Thus it was possible, by the use of more effective sera together with more rapid diagnosis generally, to lower the death-rate for cerebrospinal meningitis in the home forces from 65% in 1914 to 353% in 1918, and even to Jess than 10% where the infection was due to that strain of the meningococcus known as Type L; it is against this type that the most potent anti-toxin is

preparable. Other sera the use of which has been attended by favour-

able results are those directed against dysentery and pneumonia. Anaphylaxis.—In connexion with the administration of animal sera, the phenomenon of anaphylaxis has to be recognized. In

animals this condition results after repeated inoculation with a rotein foreign to the animal injected. A guinea-pig, for instance, if inoculated with even a very small quantity of, say, horse serum and

then after at least five days reinoculated with the same type of protein, can in some cases suffer so severely that death ensues within

a few minutes, and this although the total amount of protein administered on both occasions is very much less than that which could with perfect safety have been given on the first occasion.

The first

inoculation is regarded as rendering the animal “‘ sensitive" to the particular protein employed and may, for an animal like a guineapig, be as little as o-o0005 of a milligramme. The second inoculation of o-1 to 0-5 of a milligramme occasions the anaphylactic shock which

consists

for the main

cessation of respiration.

part of convulsions,

paralysis

and

The causative agent has been considered

susceptibility Lo some particular foodstuff, such as white of egg. Anaerobes and Gas Gangrene-—A group of bacteria which the A wide divergence exists among

microdérganisms as to the oxygen

The anaerobes require

that oxygen be absent, or present in but minimal quantities, in their environment. The group is found widespread in nature; its chief breeding-ground being the intestinal tract of man and animals,

distribution proceeds for the most part along with the manuring of

the fields.

j

The importance of the group from a human point of view lies in

the high toxicity possessed by several of its members., Its more special importance during the war lay in the fact that wounds inflicted by explosive force are usually extensive and earth-soiled,

this in such highly cultivated lands ‘as those of Flanders giving an opportunity for infection by anacrobes and for the subsequent

development of the very fatal gas gangrene that was, particularly in the first months of the war, such a frequent wound complication. Knowledge of the anaerobes has been, until the last few years of intenser

I'rench,

English

and

American

work,in

a chaotic

con-

dition, only B. betulinus, which occasions food-poisoning, and the bacillus of tetanus having been at all accurately studied and described. Of the remaining anaerobes little was known with certainty; accounts were contradictory owing to non-recognition of the fact that the cultures with which work was carried out were not pure. In this way, besides there being great confusion in nomenclature, the group acquired an undeserved reputation for remarkable variability; it was recorded how one species melted into another

with the mere alteration of the media on which it was grown and the

result was ascribed to an inconstancy of species. In reality, it was a second strain, long dormant in the impure culture, which was now,

owing to a more congenial environment, able to assert itself.

The usual bacteriological methods for the establishment of pure

cultures which hold good in the case of aecrobes are unrcliable when

applied to the anaerobes, which appear to possess a special property of not readily growing, unless associated in some numbers. For this reason, the anacrobic cultures which “ take ” are far more likely to be impure, and the concealed impurity may pass undetected through a whole serics of sub-cultures. Š A more refined technique and a more meticulous criticism of results proved necessary and were applied during later investigations, In the group of spore-bearing anaerobic organisms concerned with ‘wound infections and apart from B. tetanus already weli studied, in spite of the fact that it also existed mainly in impure culture in the laboratories, three outstanding pathogenic species have been set upi-~

,

(t)B. welchii, the most frequently found of the gas-pangrene

bacilli, previously described under a variety of names and in various conditions of impurity as B. aerogenes capsulatus, B, phlegmonis emphysematosae, B. perfringens, B. enteritidis sporogenes; (2) Vibrion septique (Pasteur), the B. oedematis maligni of Koch, and (3) B. oedematiens, a highly toxic organism discovered by Weinberg and Seguin in 1915.

For all three, potent antitoxic sera have been prepared and the treatment of cases has been greatly improved by their use. Certain slightly pathogenic anaerobes such as B. histolyticus are also_concerned in the polymicrobic invasion of wounds, as well as a series of definitely non-pathogenic anaerobes, like B. sporogencs. Some of these may symbiotically assist infection; others appear only in the réles of contaminating organisms, taking no part in the morbid processes. . Epidemic Influensa—To our knowledge of the actiolegy of

influenza the last world-wide epidemic of 1918, with its enormous

incidence and with its appalling mortality returns, such as that of six millions for India alone, has brought but an increase of uncertainty. Discovered by Pfeiffer in 1892, the B. influenzae was, up till 1918, widely accepted as the cause of that disease. But the failure, during the last pandemic, of a large number of bactcriologists

BACTERIOLOGY to isolate the bacillus from a considerable proportion of the cases investigated, together with the fact that the disease could not be experimentally passed on to either man or animals by inoculation

with Pfeiffer’s bacilfus, caused a revolt from the orthodox belief. It is considered by many that the primary aetiological factor still remains undiscovered and that the B. influenzae, like the Strepto-

coccus and the Pneumococcus (the three pathogenic microdrganisms most usually found associated with the disease), is but a secondary

invader of the tissues, and even though of such malignancy as to be frequently the occasion of the fatal termination, still not the original causa causans. Owing to their negative findings, a large number of bacteriologists have concluded that this must be placed in the ever-growing ranks of the filtrable invisible viruses, organisms so minute that even with the aid of the ultra-microscope they are not or barely to be seen; of so of passing through the pores accepted instance of such a position of causative agent to

diminutive a size that they are capable of even the finer porcelain filters. An deposition of an organism from the that of a. mere secondary invader may

be found in the case of B. sutpestifer in the disease hog cholera, true virus here has been demonstrated to be a filter-passer,

The

From many parts of the world came reports of the proof of such: theories of a filtrable virus in influenza, but in no case have they stood the test of criticism. With regard to the tiny globoid bodies shown

363

driven to do so the high temperature of a very feverish case or the loweted one of a corpse, they will be handicapped in their search for a new host. Against the complicity of other insects, such as the fica and the bed-bug, there are the observations that typhus is contracted only after close contact, which for flea-borne diseases is not

necessarily the case; while, did the bed-bug play a part in infection typhus would be a house disease and not one transmitted for the main patt through the agency of lice-ridden clothes. In r910 Ricketts and Wilder described very small bodies seen in the gut of lice taken from typhus patients. In 1916 Rocha Lima repeated the obsetvation. He regarded them as protozoal in nature and classified them as chlamrydozoa. The chlamydozoa are organisms more minute than bacteria, consisting at one stage of but a speck of chromatin with no cytoplasm or membrane of any kind.

period of their life-cycle they are filtrable.

At some

The viruses of rabies,

poliomyelitis, scarlet fever and vaccinia have among others been regarded as belonging to the chlamydozoa. The form seen in typhus lice was called by Rocha Lima Rickettsia prowazeki, to commemorate two workers who had succumbed to typhus infection during their investigations; Ricketts being also, in 1909, the first to describe bodies of this nature in the tick which transmits the discase known

as Rocky Mountain fever.

The actiological relationship of these

bodies to typhus is being generally recognized.

The criticism that

in the filtered fluids, no evidence of their true influenzal nature from an infective point of view was forthcoming. They have been con-

similar bodies have been found where ne typhus existed has been countered by the discovery that a different species, the Rickettsia quintana, is associated with the disease trench fever, and the as-

through a faulty technique.

be apathogenic for man. Belief in the causative nature of such bacilli as that of Plots and the Proteus X 79 of Weil and Felix now finds little support. Indeed, when lice are fed with the latter organism, they die within the period it takes a louse to become. infective after it has had access to a typhus patient. The defenders of a filtrable virus as the infecting agent are met by the fact that some forms of Rickettsia have been described of so small a size that their passage through a filter fine enough toretain bacteria would be possible. Trench Fever—IiIn 1916 Tépfer recorded the occurrence of Rickettsia bodies in the blood of and in lice taken from individuals suffering from what has in different countries been called trench or Volhynian fever. The justification for the association of this Rickeltsia quintana or Volhynia with the febrile disease rests on much the same kind of evidence as that furnished in the case of typhus; but here experimental work on man has been possible, and

sidered to be inanimate particles of disintegrating protein or even ordinary contaminating bacteria gaining access to the culture tubes

Those investigators who resent the attack on the orthodox belief

in the B. influenzae as an aetiological factor point out that not all

workers failed to find that organism in their cases; that those employing more satisfactory media for the growth of the bacillus were able to isolate it in as many as 90%. They further point out that an illness recognizable as influenza has not so far been transferable to ordinary experimental animals. That man is not infected by inoéulations with living B. influenzae is, they hold, discounted by the observation that it has not been possible voluntarily to transmit the disease from one person to another, even by such drastic methods

as. the swabbing of the mucous membranes with the inflammatory

secretions taken from the eyes, nese and throat of pronounced cases. This paradoxical indication of a low infectivity .of influenza is qualified by the fact that the experiments have been carried cut during and subsequent to the pandemic, when persons chosen for the experiment as normal, because of their not having succumbed to an attack of the disease, may be regarded on those very grounds as

possessing a considerable degree of natural immunity, and therefore as not being acceptable as normal at all. More recently, experimental infection of both monkeys and man with influenza bacilli and the production of acute respiratory disease have been demonstrated, but the identity of the illness evoked with that of epidemic influenza is far from established. Ihe whole question of the aetiology of influenza is still sub judice.

A New Paratyphoid.—Early in the war, in a number of the armies

engaged in the Near Fast, an illness was noticed which, although it corresponded clinically in many ways with enteric, did not yield a virus agreeing with any of the three well-known organisms of that group of discases—B.

iyphosus, B. paratyphosus

A or B—though

culturally it was identical with the last-named. The bacillus that was isolated by Hirschfeld from cases occurring in the Serbian army was called by him B. paraiyphosus C, and included in the anti-

enteric vaccine used in the Serbian forces. Neukirch, recording recognition of it earlier on the Turkish front, gave it the name of B. Erzindjan. As the organism agrees culturally with and is

serologically related to B. paratyphosus B, it has been suggested by

others that it should, for simplicity’s sake, be regarded as one of

the many paratyphoid B types,

Some workers have insisted on

the identity of this so-called paratyphoid C with the bacillus found in

igs suffering from swine fever and called variously B. suipestifer,

B. of hog cholera, and B. Voldagsen, but, though the relationship is very closc, identity does not seem to have been proved. This newly recognized type of paratyphoid B, apparently in the main of Eastern habitat, has no doubt often in the past masqueraded as an atypical or inagglutinable paratyphoid bacillus.

sumption that, as there are a variety of Ricketisia, some may well

Arkwright, fectivity

Bacot and

Duncan

have definitely proved the in-

of the Rickeltsta-containing

human beings.

lice and their excreta for

Yellow Fever and Infectious Jaundice—A great deal of enlightening work was carried out on yellow fever during 1919-21 by the Japanese research worker Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute. Previous to his investigations most of our knowledge of the aetiological factors in this most dreaded of tropical diseases rested on the courageous work with its attendant loss of human life performed by the American Yellow Fever Commission in 1900. It was then established that yellow fever was an insect-borne disease, the vector being the mosquito Stegomyza calopus. Many other data, concerning the incubation period of the disease and the life-cycle of the virus, which was shown

to be filtrable, were also established.

causal agent was neither isolated nor seen.

But the

It remained for Noguchi

to detect in yellow-fever cases a spirochaete, an organism of similar

nature to the specific agent of syphilis, a protozoön, and to prove,

short of reproduction of the disease in man, its aetiological relation-

ship to yellow fever. This organism he named Leptospira icteroides, He found it to he very closely related to, though not identical with, the leptospira discovered independently by Inada and Ido in Japan and by Uhlenhut and Fromme in Germany in cases of infective jaundiee or Weil’s disease. This.latter organism has for hosts both rats and mice, and has been named L. tcterohaemorrhagiae; an anti-serum is made with the leptospira of infectious jaundice and possesses considerable curative value. Noguchi’s reports on anti-yellow fever inoculation are only just beginning to appear but already show favourable results.

Wassermann

Test.—Among laboratory diagnostice methods of a

serological character,

the Wassermann

test for the detection

of

Typhus Fever.—Another discasc that sprang into special promi-

nence during the war, and the aetiology of which has received con-

syphilitic infection still maintains its position of prominence, The reaction, which is a complicated one, declares itself as positive or

siderable elucidation, is typhus, Nicolle and his collaborators first gave experimental proof of the transmission of typhus to monkeys hy the body louse. In the case of man such laboratory demonstration has, however, because of the severity of the disease, been mainly

negative by the power the patient’s serum has or has not of going

animal tissues. This was at first regarded as an immunity reaction, involving the usual antigen, anti-body and complement, with the

accidental and therefore incomplete. But while there are other theories of supplementary means of infection, such as that it is airborne or transmitted by droplet infection, evidence that the louse is the only carrier or communicator of typhus has accumulated to a

great extent. The sole measure for the successful combating of an epidemic has been a de-lousing campaign. The effect of good ventilation

in preventing

infection

spreading

from patients in a

ward, at first regarded as a proof of its air-borne nature, can now

be explained by the fact that lowered temperatures are inimical to the activities of lice. In cool, well-ventilated rooms these vermin will refrain from leaving the bodies of their hosts, and should they be

into combination

with guinea-pig complement and an extract of

Spirochaete pallida (the virus of syphilis) acting as antigen. But it is now known that that organism does not play a part at all in the test, which is considered to be an interaction between lipoid

bodies (in the tissue extract), anti-lipoid bodies (present in syphilitic

sera owing to the abnormal production of lipoids during the course

of the disease) and complement (guinea-pig serum). Many modifica-

tions of the original Wassermann reaction are in use, mainly characterized by increased complexity of technique, but the new diagnostic method of Sachs and Georgi is comparatively simple, consisting merely of interaction between the patient’s serum and a lipoid solution; it is apparently of satisfactory reliability.

364

BADEN

Agglutination Test.—A serological test which. has undergone

some development in recent years is that of agglutination. It has become more necessary to distinguish between specific and group agglutination. When an ageglutinating serum has been prepared by inoculating an animal with one species of bacteria, it is found that the scrum is capable, not only of agglutinating that species to a

high degree (specific agglutination), but also frequently of aggluti-

nating other closely related species (group or co-agglutination), and this sometimes to practically the same extent as it does the homolo-

`

revolution of 1918, a constitutional monarchy; the sovereign bore the title of Grand Duke. The Diet (Landtag), which was composed of two Chambers, had indeed the right of legislation and of voting taxation, but the ministers were appointed by the Grand Duke at his own discretion. The government had always been conducted in a liberal spirit; Baden had in Germany the reputation of being the model of a diminutive

Liberal country (ein Liberales Musterlindle), though the popugous species. Further, it has been observed that an organism isolated from an individual infected with some other quite alien, bacterial lation was preponderatingly Catholic. There wag certainly a species will have acquired, more or less temporarily, the property powerful Clerical minority in the second Chamber of the Diet. of agglutinating with serum specific to that alien infecting species. This is called paragglutination. Perhaps the most striking case of When at a general election there was a danger that a Clericalparagglutination js that of a certain strain of B. pretens, named by Conservative majority would be elected, the two Liberal its discoverers X rg, and isolated by them from cases of typhus. Here parties (the National Liberals and the Progressists) concluded an organism,

well known

as an agent of bacterial decomposition

and of some virulence for the human body, though productive of no symptoms comparable with those of typhus and believed not to participate in that disease at all, has acquired the property of agglutinating with the serum of individuals who have contracted typhus. This it does to so marked a degree that the paragglutination has actually been used as a means of diagnosing the illness, far re-

moved from one another though B. proteus and the causal agent of

typhus are in the scale of living organisms. And in this case, the paragglutinating character has been seen to be more than a temporary acquisition. i

Absorption Test.—To distinguish between specific and non-specific

or group agglutination, a modification of the agghitination test is employod—the absorption test. It ts found that, after complete absorption of a serum with its own specific species, all agglutinins

have been removed. When a co-ayglutinating species is employed only the group agglutinins will be absorbed, the specific agglutinins remaining intact. By this means it has been possible to discriminate

between closely related strains and to divide species into a variety of types. This has been notably the case with the pneumococcus, the meningococcus, the dysentery and paratyphoid B groups, Fhe recognition of the existence of different types of pneumococci and meningococci has proved of great importance for diagnostic, prophylactic and therapeutic reasons. In the case of prophylactic inoculation against pneumonia, as carried out so extensively by Lister on South African miners, it was seen to be very cssential that the types predominant should be outstandingly represented in the vaccine used. In the serum therapy of both pneumonia and cerebrospinal meningitis cases it is necessary for the best results that the type of pneumococcus and meningococcus concerned should be known and a corresponding anti-serum administered. When dealing with B. tetanus, on the other hand, the importance of distinguishing between the various agglutinatory and absorptive types does not maintain; an identical toxic element appears to be common to them all, so

that one anti-toxin serves for whatever type may be responsible for the infection. Schick Lest—Valuable aid’in combating diphtheria epidemics is afforded by the Schick test. This supplies a critcrion of the

immunity an individual possesses against infection by the diphtheria bacillus and is carried out by the injection of a small quantity of

diphtheria toxin into the skin of the person tested. If the individual possesses immunity the toxin is neutralized and no reaction in the tissues takes place;..if there is no immunity the toxin, by irritation of the skin, scts up a small inflammatory condition which is easily recognizable. The practical application. of this measure lies in the possibility thus afforded of discovering, in, say, a school or other large body of people who are running the risk of diphtheria infection, which individuals possess no natural immunity and thus need safeguarding. ‘The treatment, which may then be limited to those requiring it, consists of passive immunization with diphtheria antitoxin, if protection is needed for but a short time; or, if active immunization, by injecting a mixture of toxinand anti-toxin, in which case the immunity acquired may be expected to last for one to two

years,

Those individuals who, without treatment, disclose by the

Schick test a natural immunity are regarded as possessing it prob-

ably for life.

REFERENCES.~—References to most of the work here detailed can

be found only in the journals specially devoted to those subjects, the more important of these being:—Briiish Medical Journat; Lancet; Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology; Journal of Hygiene; Tropical Diseases Bulletin; Special Reports of the Medical Research Council; Journal of Experimental Medicine; Journal of Infectious Diseases; Journal of Medical Research; International Journal of Public Health; Annales de Institut Pasteur; Bulletin de P Institut Pasteur, Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten; Centralblatt fiir Bacicriologie.

Lehmann and Neumann’s Bakteriologtsche Diagnostik

(1920) contains many literature references, mainly European. (H. L. H. S.)

BADEN, FREE STATE OF (sce 3.184).—The population of the Free State of Baden, Germany, was, according to the census of T010, 2,208,503.

Political and Constitutional Iistory.—Baden

was, till the

an alliance for election purposes with the Social Democrats, thus constituting the so-called “ grand bloc.” The result was

that the Social Democrats held a considerably different position in Baden from that which they occupied in the empire.t But in Baden, too, the line was drawn at allowing Socialists to become members of the Government. The Social Democratic party nevertheless endeavoured to place as few difficulties as possible in the path of the Government, and it did not, as elsewhere, vote against the budget. When the World War broke out in 1914, the leader of the Baden Social Democrats, Ludwig Frank, at once enlisted as a volunteer and fell in one

of the earliest battles. The Liberal sympathies of the Baden dynasty were maintained during the war. The heir to the throne, Prince Max of Baden, tried to exercise his influence in favour of a peace by

understanding and of Liberal the empire. When in Oct. to agree to the reform of the mentary form of government

reforms in the internal policy of 1918 William IF. at last decided constitution by which the parliawas introduced for the empire, Prince Max was appointed impcrial chancellor, It was too late.

He could not arrest the progress of the revolution. When the monarchy fell in the empire, it could not be maintained in Baden, although there was in this instance no reason for complaint on the score of misgovernment. On Nov. 10 the revolutionary Provisional Government was formed, containing representatives of the Social Democratic, the two Liberal partics and the Catholic Centre. On Nov. 22 the Grand Duke therefore definitely abdicated, with the assent of the heir to the throne, Prince Max. . The Provisional Government of Baden issued as early as Nov. 20 an ordinance by which elections were instituted for a National and Constituent Assembly.2 This representative body met on Jan. 15 1919 and at once began to discuss the draft of the constitution which had been submitted to it by the Government. On May 21 1919 the new constitution was passed by the National Assembly. Baden was thus the first. German state which put an end to the lawless revolutionary situation. The consequence, it is true, has been that the Baden constitution has in several points been nullified by the constitution of the Reich, which was enacted at a later date; for the independence of the German Territories, as the states united in the Reich are designated, was considerably curtailed by the constitution of the Reich of the year rọrọ. Nor is there any room in the constitutions of the Territories for provisions regarding the “ Fundamental Rights of the People,”

since the constitution of the Reich has settled these Fundamental Rights. Baden in 1921 was a republic with a democratic constitution.

The powers of State were actually vested in the Diet (Landtag),

which consists of a single Chamber. The Diet does not only possess the right of legislation, but it chooses the ministry and selects from among the ministers the minister-president. He has the title of “ President of the State,”’ but he is not the head of the state, but merely the person who presides over the ministry. The Diet can at any time dismiss the whole ministry or individual members

' Reich is translated ‘‘ Empire”? when it refers to the Hohenzollern régime; the German word Reich is retained when it refers to the German Federated Commonwealth established after the revolution, * Each of the German states called its Constituent Assembly a “ National ” Assembly (Nattonalversammlung).

BADENI~-BAKER of it. The franchise for the election to the Dict is possessed by all men and women who have completed their twenticth year. There must be a general election every four years. The dissolution of the

Diet can be brought about before the end of the legislative period

by a vote of the people. Laws can also be passed by a vote of the eople, and that in two ways: a law which has been voted by the

iet can be submitted to the vote of the people by the Referendum,

if the ministry so decides or if the people itself sò demands; secendly, an appeal may be proposed by Popular Initiative. Laws involving an amendment of the constitution must always be submitted

365

Badoglio’s rapid rise was explained by the qualities which he showed in a special degree: determination, energy, and thor-

oughness. These qualities, joined to a natural military instinct developed by much study and backed by a powerful ambition,

marked him out early and brought him very quickly to the front. He was blamed in various quarters for his disposition of the XXVII. Corps before the Austro-German attack in Oct. 1917, but the Caporetto Commission of Inquiry rejected

‘to a Popular Referendum. The constitution of Baden has thus a most of the criticisms made upon him. great resemblance to that of the Swiss. Confederation; but there BAEYER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM ADOLF. VON is the essential difference. that in Baden the Government is de(1835-1917), German chemist (see 3.192), died at Munich pendent upon Parliament. (W. v. B, Sept. 5 1917. Up to within a year of his death he continued BADENI, KASIMIR, Count (1846-19090), Austrian statesman, was born Oct. 14 1846 at Surachovo in Galicia, his l in full active work as one of the best-known teachers in the family being of Italian origin. He studied law and served world of organic chemistry. BAGWELL, RICHARD (1840-1918), Irish historian, was born some years in-the Ministry of the Interior and from 1879 at Dec. 9 1840, the eldest son of John Bagwell, M.P. for Cracow as lieutenant of the governor of Galicia. He resigned Clonmel from 1857 to 1874. Educated at Harrow and Christ the Government service in 1886, but two yéars later was apChurch, Oxford, he was afterwards called to the English bar, pointed governor (Sfatthalter) of Galicia, where he ruled the but never practised. As a large landowner in Tipperary he Ruthenians with a strong hand. In Sept. 18953 he was appointed Austrian prime minister, and his attitude was at devoted constant and conscientious attention to local affairs, serving on all boards and committces until 1898 when, on the first satisfactory to the German-Austrians. In 1897, however, passing of the Local Government Act, his wide experience led in order to gain the support of the Czechs for the new Austo his appointment for five years as a special local government gleich with Hungary, he made certain important concessions commissioner. In 1g05 he became a commissioner for national in respect of the official use of the Czech language in Bohemia. education, As a historian his reputation rests mainly on his This was done by ordinance, without parliamentary sanction, two works, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols. 1885-90) and and met with violent opposition from the German deputies, Ireland under the Stuarts (3 vols. 1909-16), which are monusome of whom were imprisoned. The storm of indignation ments of careful research and wide learning. In recognition of aroused among the German-Austrians by this policy, which

Jed to imposing demonstrations in the streets of Vienna, led to Badeni’s downfall on Nov. 28 1897. He died July g 1909. © {C. BR)

BADOGLIO, PIETRO (1871-

), Italian gencral, was born

at Grazzano (Alessandria) Sept. 28 1871. He received his commission in the artillery, and thence passed to the general staff. During the Htalo-Turkish War he served in Tripoli on the staff, receiving special promotion to major after the battle of Zanzur in June 1912. In the spring of 1915 he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and on Italy’s entry into the World War he held the post of sub-chief-of-staff of the II. Army under Gen. Frugoni. In quick succession he acted as chief-of-staff of the 4th Division, and commanded the 74th Infantry Regiment on Monte Sabotino. In July 1916 he received

another step, and as colonel commanded the “ Sabotino Sector.” He planned and carried out the successful attack on Monte Sabotino which preceded the fall of Gorizia (Aug. 1916). For this success he was once more promoted. After serving as chief-of-staff of the VI. Corps and commanding the Cunco

Brigade, he became chief-of-staff of the so-called “ Gorizia Zone ” under Capello, with whom he remained when the command of the “ Gorizia Zone” was extended to the whole II, Army. On the eve of that army’s offensive in May r9r7, Capello, dissatisfied with the artillery preparation in the sector of the II. Corps, obtained the appointment of Badoglio as interim commander of the corps (May 12). After the capture of Monte Kuk and Monte Vodice this appointment was confirmed, and he received another step of promotion. He commanded the II. Corps at the beginning of the August offensive but when the XXVII Corps on the extreme left of the attack failed to make the progress expected he was sent to take over the corps. This time, however, the endeavour to make up for lost time was unavailing. At the battle of Caporetto, Badoglio commanded the same corps, the left wing of which was broken

by Otto von Below’s attack from the Tolmino bridgehead. On the reorganization of the Italian Supreme Command (Nov. 1917) he was appointed as one of the two sub-chiefs-of-staff then nominated, the other being Gen. Giardino. From Feb. r918, on Giardino’s transference to Versailles, Badoglio acted as sole sub-chief-of-staff under Diaz, He conducted the Armistice preliminaries at Villa Giusti, and signed the Armistice on behalf of Italy. In Nov. r1919 he was appointed to the rank of army general and from Diaz’s resignation to Feb. 1921 he was chief of the general staff in succession to Diaz.

his historical work he was given the hon. degree of Litt.D.

by Dublin University in 1913 and that of D.Litt. by Oxford

University in 1917,

Mr. Bagwell was an uncompromising

Unionist, and was well known as a speaker and writer for the cause. Me died at Marlfeld, Clonmel, Dec. 4 1918. _ BAIRNSFATHER, BRUCE (1887), English humorist, was born at Murrée, India, July 9 1887, and was educated at the United Services

College,

Westward

civil” engineer, and also had some militia battalion of the

Ho.

He

became

a

military experience in a

Royal Warwickshire

Regt.

In 1914

he rejoined this regiment and went to France, serving there until 31916, when he obtained a War Office appointment. Bairnsiather’s reputation as an artist was made by his blackand-white sketches of life in the trenches, which first appeared in The Bystander, His soldier characters became popular favourites, and a play, The Better ’Ole (1917), founded on the

adventures of “Old Bill” and his friends, enjoyed a great

success. Many of RBairnsfather’s drawings were published in volumes entitled Fragments from France. We also produced Bullets and Bullets (1916) and From Mud to Mufti (1919). In 1919 he started Fragments, a weekly comic paper. BAKER, GEORGE PIERCE (1866~ +), American educationist, was born at Providence, R.1., April 4 1866. He gradu-

ated from Harvard in 1887 and taught English there as instructor, assistant professor and, from 1905, as professor. His courses dealing with the theory of the drama were highly successful, and his famous laboratory, known as the “47 Workshop,” afforded practical training for his students, many of whom

became’ well-known playwrights.

In rọrọ he was entrusted

with the preparation of a pageant to commemorate the tercentenary of the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in the State

of Massachusetts. This pageant, “ The Pilgrim Spirit,” was presented accordingly at Plymouth in Aug, 1921. His works include Specimens of Argumentation (1893); Principles

of Argumentation (1895); The Forms of Public Address (1904); The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist (1907); Some Unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick (1907); The Correspondence of Charles Dickens and Marta Beadnell and Dramatic Technique (1919) and Modern American Plays (collected and edited with

introduction, 1920),

BAKER, HERBERT (1862_—i+),English architect, was born jn 1862, and educated at Tonbridge school. He was articled to Arthur Baker, and later entered the office of Sir Ernest George, where he remained as assistant for some years.

studied at the R.A. schools.

He

and in 1889 was awarded the

BAKER—BALFOUR

366

Ashpital prize of the R.ILB.A. In 1892 he Icft England for South Africa, and there, with Cecil Rhodes as his friend and patron, began the work of reviving the old traditions of the architecture

and craftsmanship

of the colony.

For

Rhodes

he built Groote Schuur, afterwards the permanent home of the prime ministers of South Africa, and also a house which the same patron built on Table Mountain for his friend Rudyard

Kipling. Cecil Rhodes sent him on a tour of travel and study

in Egypt and southern Europe, and, as a recognition of this generosity and the value of such an opportunity to a young architect, Baker founded the South African Scholarship at the British School in Rome. After the death of Rhodes he carried

ont the great Memorial on the slopes of Table Mountain, important features of which were the sculpture work of J. M. Swan, R.A.—the bronze lions and a head of Rhodes himself~ and the mounted equestrian figure—‘ Physical Energy ’-—

by G. F. Watts, R.A. The end of the South African War saw Baker in full practice in the Transvaal and South Africa. In. addition to the Government buildings at Pretoria—the administrative capital of South Africa—he carried out the cathedrals at Cape Town, Pretoria; and Salisbury, and many colleges and schools. Amongst the houses he built ih South Africa are the Government House in Pretoria, and that for Sir Lionel Phillips, afterwards the governor-gencral’s Johannesburg home, IIe also designed the buildings for the S, A. Institute of Medical Research at Johannesburg, and laid out many model mining villages on the Rand. His works in England include Sir Philip Sassoon’s house at Lympne and the restoration of Chilham Castle, Kent, He was appointed one of the three principal architects for the war

cemeterics in England and Flanders, and carried out many war memorials in England, amongst them those at Canterbury, Winchester and at Harrow school, Baker was appointed in 1913 joint architect for the new Imperial City of. Delhi, in collaboration with Sir Edwin Lutyens. For this great scheme he designed

the buildings

for the secretariats,

the Legislative

Assembly, the Councils of State and of Princes, and the Vice-

roy’s Dome for General Assembly, BAKER, NEWTON DIEHL (3871}), American politician, was born at Martinsburg, W. Va., Dec. 3 1871. He was educated at Johns Ilopkins (A.B. 1892) and Washington and Lee (LL.B. 1894).

In 1896 he became

private secretary

to

Postmaster-General Wilson, but the following year opened a law office in his native town. Later he moved to Cleveland, O., where in 1902 he was made city solicitor and in 1912 mayor. The latter office he had held for two terms when in 1916 he was appointed U.S. Secretary of War by President Wilson. He had declined the Secretaryship of the Interior in 1912. After the outbrcak of the World War he endorsed the Administration’s peace policy, supported the League to Enforce Peace, and urged that the national guard be tried fully belore compulsory service be decided upon.

After

America centered the war he recommended moderation towards conscientious objectors and forbade men in uniform to interfere with anti-conscription meetings. The charge of pacifism was often brought against him, and his career generally as Secretary was widely condemned throughout the United States as lacking in energy, foresight and ability, and especially for

his failure to prepare adcquately in the months immediately preceding the American declaration of war.

BAKST, LEON NICQLAIEVICH (1866— ), Russian painter and theatrical designer, was born at St. Petersburg May 10 (April 27 O.S.) 1866. He was educated at St. Petersburg, where he afterwards studied art, and later went to Paris, subsequently returning and working in Moscow. In 1906 he settled in Paris, and soon became popular as a designer. In

1909 the Imperial Russian Ballet first visited Paris, and Bakst at once leapt into fame through his designs for the setting of the ballets Schéhérasade and Cléopatre, followed in 1912 by L’A présMidi Cun Faune, Hélène de Sparie, and St. Sébastien, and in 1913 by La Pisanella. He published in 1913 an article in La Nouvelle Revue, entitled ‘ Les Problèmes de l'Art Nouveau.”

See L’Art décoratif de Léon Bakst, with appreciation by Arsène Alexandre, translated by H. Melvill (1913). .

BALAKIREV, MILI ALEXEIVICH (1836-z1910}, Russian musical composer (see 3.234), died at St. Petersburg in May Ig10. BALDISSERA, ANTONIO (1838-10917), Italian gencral, was born at Padua 1838, and died at Florence, on Jan. 9 rory7. His birthplace in 1858 being still under Austrian rule, young

Baldissera entered the Austrian army, in which he served

with distinction in an infantry regiment; he was captain in the 9th Jagers at Custozza (1866). But when Venetia became Ital-

jan, he opted for Italian nationality, retaining his rank in the Hahan army. In 1879 he was promoted colonel of the yth Bersaglieri and major-general in 1887, when he went to Eritrea under Gen. Asinari di San Marzano, remaining in the colony as governor after the latter’s rcturn. Both as a soldier and an administrator he showed high qualities. He occupied Asmara,

Keren and other territories, defeated the armies of Ras Alula,

and had planned still further extensions of Italian dominion, profiting by the anarchy of Abyssinia. He organized the admirable native troops (Ascari), developed agriculture and built roads. But owing to a disagreement with the home Government over his Abyssinian policy he asked for and obtained his recall after two years of successful activity. In 1892 he was promoted lieutcnant-general.. When war with Abyssinia broke out in 1895 the then governor of the colony, Gen. Baratieri,

did not enjoy the confidence of the Government, which decided to send out Baldissera once more. Although the appointment was kept secret, Baratieri got wind of it, and this probably decided him to attack the enemy with an inferior force. and insufficient supplies, hoping to win glory for himself before his successor’s arrival. The result was the disaster of Adowa, (March 1 1896); when Baldissera arrived he found a defeated and demoralized army, and the victorious enemy advancing in force. With lightning speed he reorganized Baratieri’s army and the reénforcements just beleaguered garrisons of Cassale and Adigrat, Menelek’s army and reoccupied a large part

the remains of landed, freed the drove back King of ihe lost terri-

tory. But peace was concluded before He had completely

retrieved the defeat of Adowa, and he was forced to limit his activities to the internal reorganization of Eritrea. But even

this task he could not carry out as thoroughly as he wished owing to the opposition of the home

Government, which was

tired of African affairs. In 1897 Baldissera returned to Italy and resumed his duties in the home army, successively commanding the VIT. and VIII. Army Corps. In 1906 he was made a senator. In 1908 he had to retire from the army under the age limit. BALFOUR, ARTHUR JAMES (1848~ __),British statesman (seé 3.250), was confronted, as Conservative leader, after the general election of Jan. 1910, with a situation of some embarrassment, He had to endeavour to save the effective authority of a second Chamber and to avert Irish Home Rule,

with his supporters not yet completely united on the issue of Tariff Reform, and in face of a Liberal Ministry dominated once more by a body of 80 Irish Nationalists, who held the balance of

power in the House of Commons, and who notified their intention not to vote for Mr. Lloyd George’s disputed budget unless their forward policy was adopted. He advocated House of Lords reform as an altcrnative to the Ministerial Veto Resclu-

tions, which he denounced as irrational; and when Mr. Asquith announced that, if he could not secure statutory effect for his policy in that Parliament, he would not dissolve except under conditions which would ensure that the will of the people should be carried into Jaw in the next Parliament, he exclaimed that the Prime Minister had “bought ihe Irish vote for his Budget,

but the price paid is the dignity of his office.” In the lull in the party fight which followed the death of King Edward, Mr. Balfour welcomed the suggestion of a conference between the partics to endeavour to arrange a compromise, and was one of the eight leaders who

met on 21 occasions between

June and Nov. without coming to an agreement.

When the

BALFOUR

367

When the World War broke out he cordially accepted the

conference failed and ministers announced another. dissolution, Mr. Balfour did his best to rouse the country to the dangers which, in his opinion, threatened it. In a speech at the Albert

policy of the Unionist leaders in sinking all political differences

were forcing constitutional changes on the country by cocrcion

ammunition

in support of the national Government. Speaking at the GuildHall he expressed his readiness to submit Tariff Reform to a hall on Lord Mayor’s Day 1914, he said that the Allies were referendum, and maintained that the Government for their fighting for civilization and the cause of small states, and, whether part should be ready to submit Home Rule also to a refer- the war was short or long, they would triumph. In this spirit endum. The offer was not accepted. When the second gencral he joined the first Coalition Government in May rors, acceptelection of 1910 confirmed the verdict of the first, the dissatis- ing the first lordship of the Admiralty under Mr. Asquith; and _faction with Mr. Balfour’s leadership, which had been long from this time onward he took a statesman’s share in the conentertained by a considerable section of the Unionists, began duct of the war, and in the making of peace. The Admiralty to spread. It was pointed out that he had now led the party had been distracted by a quarrel between Mr. Churchill, the First Lord, and Lord. Fisher, the distinguished admiral, who to three electoral defeats in succession; and this record was contrasted with Lord Salisbury’s victories in 1886, 1895 and was First Sea Lord. Both had now resigned, and Mr. Balfour 1900,. The course of the session of 1911 intensified this dissatis- appointed an eminent scientific sailor, Adm], Sir Henry Jackfaction. Mr. Balfour did indeed fight the Parliament bill, in son, as First Sca Lord, and speedily restored the harmony of its passage through the ITouse of Commons, with courage, per- the Board. He also reversed Mr, Churchill’s policy of differsistency, acuteness and passion. While he admitted the necd entiating against prisoners from submarines as compared with for some change in the Constitution, and promoted Lord Lans- other German prisoncrs, though he insisted that there was no downe’s measure for reconstructing the House of Lords and change of opinion as to the unlawful, mean, cowardly, and brutal making it a Chamber partly hereditary, partly nominated, and character of their acts. In introducing the Navy Estimates in partly elective, he denounced the Ministerial bill as practically 1916 he said that, except in armoured cruisers, the fleet was constituting single-chamber government. Ministers, he said, far stronger than when war broke out; that ships, guns and

as they had imposed them on the country by fraud. Jn committee he strove hard, but in vain, to get fundamental laws exempted from the operation of the bill, But he shrank, as in 1832 the Duke of Wellington had shrunk, from encouraging the House of Lords to persist in opposition, when ministers announced that they had obtained the King’s consent to the crea-

tion of sufficient peers to make its passage certain. He did indeed move a vote of censure imputing to ministers a gross abuse. of the Constitution in the advice they had given to the Crown; but he declared that he would stand or fall with Lord Lansdowne in the recommendation which the latter made to the Unionist peers to abstain from further resistance as being no longer free agents. This attitude was passionately resented by a large number of “‘ Dichards,” who organized themselves under

the leadership of Lord Halsbury, and with the approval of Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, then in retirement owing to illness. Mr. Balfour’s counsel prevailed, and the bill was allowed to

pass; but his position and authority as leader had been seriously shaken. Though both he and leading “ Dichards,” in speeches in the autumn, treated the dispute as ancient history, he decided that the time had come for him, after 20 years of leadership, to resign; and he announced his decision to a mccting of the Conservative Association in the City of London on

Nov. 8. He said that he desired to abandon his heavy re-

sponsibility before he could be suspected of suffering from a sort of petrifaction in old courses and inability to deal with

new problems: and that he felt he had not the vigour, at his time of life, again to conduct a ministry. He treated the unrest in the party as nothing exceptional, and spoke of Unionism as on the upward grade. The announcement, in spite of the signs of discontent, came as a great shock to the party and the country; and the Prime Minister, Mr, Asquith, himself expressed the general feeling when he said at the Guildhall banquet next day that the resignation involved an irreparable

loss to the daily life of Parliament.

Mr. Balfour was then only 63, and his powers as a parlia-

mentarian were really at their height, Although after his resignation of the Unionist leadership he devoted more time to his manifold other interests in life—philosophy, science, litcrature, music—he still took at intervals a prominent part in debate, and made occasional speeches in.the country, giving throughout a

loyal support to his successor in the House of Commons, Mr. Bonar Law. The renewed controversy on Home Rule afforded him a great opportunity, and the powerful series of speeches which he delivered, at Westminster and elsewhere, in the course of the next three years, did much to awaken Great Britain to the imminent danger of civil war in Ireland, and. to force ministers into the policy of excluding Ulster, in some form or other, from the operation of their bill.

had increased and would increase; and that the

personnel had more than doubled. Dis principal critic was Mr. Churchill, who averred that the existing Board had not so much energy, speed, push and drive as his own, and who, to the astonishment of the House, recommended the recall of Lord Fisher—a suggestion upon which Mr. Balfour commented severely. Perhaps the best work which he did at the Admiralty was the issue, at intervals, of some cogent papers, mainly for the benefit of the Americans, vindicating the great work of the British navy in the war, and exposing the fallacies involved in the captivating phrase, “‘ the freedom of the seas.” The chief naval battle of the conflict, the battle of Jutland, was fought during his term of oflice; and he incurred widespread criticism by the manner in which the news was officially communicated to the public, the great losses in men and ships being dwelt on to such an extent as to suggest that, instead of being a victory, the action was a defeat. In a speech a few days later he claimed that, as a result of the fight, the Germans were relatively far inferior to what they had been. In late Oct. there was a daring German raid by Io destroyers into the English Channel;

an empty British transport and one British destroyer were sunk and another destroyer seriously damaged. Mr. Balfour confidently predicted at the Guildhall on Lord. Mayor’s Day that any further Channel

raiders would suffer disaster. . His

confidence was probably based in part on a new arrangement of the high naval appointments, which he announced before the cnd of November. Sir John Jellicoe was brought into the Admiralty as First Sea Lord, and Sir David Beatty was appointed to succeed

him as commander-in-chief,

These changes were

promptly followed by a change of First Lords when Mr, Lloyd George formed his Ministry in Dec. 31916. Lord Grey of Fallodon declined to continue at the Foreign Office under the new Prime Minister; and as it was essential-to have a man of experience and weight there, the post was pressed upon Mr. Balfour, who had in times past occasionally acted as Foreign Secretary in Lord Salisbury’s absence, and had been intimately associated, during his Premiership, with Lord Lansdowne’s work in the department. Mr. Balfour took up his new duties as Forcign Secretary onlya few weeks before Germany instituted the unrestricted submarine warfare which brought the United States into the war; and in April r917 he headed a British mission which visited America in order to arrange for regular coöperation between the two countries. His attractive personality greatly impressed his hosts, and he received the compliment of being invited to address the House of Representatives on May 5; his speech showed a complete sympathy, that was highly appreciated, with the spirit in which the United States had entered the war. He subsequently proceeded to Canada, and there addressed the two Houses of Parliament. The concentration of power in the

368

BALFOUR

OF BURLEIGH—BALKAN

PENINSULA

l

hands of the War Cabinet, and the great personal ascendancy

extensive plain formed by the Danube and the Maritsa; Central

which Mr. Lloyd George, as Prime Minister, rapidly acquired, both tended rather to reduce the importance of the Foreign Secre-

European in most of the peninsula; Alpine on the higher summits

noted, however, that it was Mr. Balfour, as Foreign Secretary, who in Nov. 1917 gave a promise on behalf of his Government to provide a ‘national home” for the Jews in Palestine after the war. The exceptional amount of work to be dealt with

climate as, e.g. the lower Drin valley in Albania. The distribution of soil affects the character of the vegetation as much as climate: north of the Balkans and of the Kopaonik plateau

tary during Mr. Balfour’s tenure of the post. It should be

(see figs. 1 and 2). They are sometimes intermingled: valleys which reach far into the mountain masses enjoy a Mediterranean

extensive tracts are covered by lake or marine deposits, loess and humus, where steppe meadows, forests and general cultivation

at this period impelled him to ask for extra help in the office; ' prevail. On the central highlands are coniferous forests and Alpine and Lord Rebert Cecil was taken from the Ministry of Blockade pastures, while the isolated basins show the characteristics of in the summer of 1918 and made an assistant Secretary of northern soils and vegetation. The slopes facing the Acgean Sea, those facing the Adriatic, give rise to deciduous bush and State. Mr. Balfour went to the Paris Conference in 1919 as the like pseudo-mdguis, The extreme limit of Mediterranean vegetation second British plenipotentiary, but as eventually the terms of sometimes reaches as far as the upper Morava and the depressions peace were settled by a council of three, Mr. Wilson, M. Clemen- S. of the Balkans in the eastern part of the peninsula, but does not ceau, and Mr. Lloyd George (or of four, when

the Italian

prime minister attended), his share in the work was somewhat

subordinate, though he appended his signature to the Treaty of Versailles, and to the treaty of guarantee to France against German aggression. When the Conference was over, he was glad.

to be rclicved of the burden of a laborious office, and therefore relinquished the Secretary of State’s seals to Lord Curzon, but remained himself in Mr. Lloyd George’s Cabinet in the honourable but comparatively sinecure office of Lord President of the Council. He was appointed chief representative of the British Government at the first Assembly of the League of Nations in 1920; and also at the Disarmament Conference at Washington, D.C., in Nov. rg2t. Mr. Balfour’s eminence, and his patriotic readiness to resume in war-time, in spite of advancing years, official labours in a

secondary position, were suitably recognized on the King’s birthday in 1916 by the grant of the Order of Merit. In 1919 he received a distinction which he must have peculiarly valued,

when he was elected chancellor of his old university, Cambridge, in succession to his brother-in-law, Lord Rayleigh. (G. E, R.) BALFOUR OF BURLEIGH, ALEXANDER HUGH BRUCE, TOTH (or 6TH) BaRon (1849-1921), British politician, was born at Kennet, Alloa, Jan. 13 1849, the son of Robert Bruce of Kennet, Ife was educated at Loretto, Eton and Oriel College, Ox-

ford, and in 1869 was restored by Act of Parliament to the barony of Balfour of Burleigh, to which he was entitled by his descent from the sth baron, who was attainted after the Jacobite rebellion of 1715. He first came into public notice ‘as a member of the factory commission of 1874, and afterwards acted as chairman of many other commissions, including that on educational endowments (1882-9). From 1889 to 1892 he

was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Trade in the Con-

servative Government, and from 1895 to 1903 (when he resigned as a Free Trader opposed to tariff reform) Secretary for Scot-

land. In 1903 he became chairman of the commission on food supply in time of war, and in 1909 of that on trade relations with Canada and the West Indies, receiving in rorr the G.C.M.G. as a reward for his services. From 1916 to 3917 he was chairman of the committee on commercial and industrial policy after the war, Lord Balfour, who received hon. degrees from all the Scottish universities, was from 1896 to 1899 lord rector.

of Edinburgh University and from 1900 chancellor of St. An-

drews University. In 1904 he was appointed Lord Warden of the Stannaries. He published in rorr The Rise and Development of Presbyterianism in Scotland. We died in London July 6 1921.

BALKAN CAMPAIGNS (1914-8): see SALONIKA CAMPAIGN and SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS. BALKAN PENINSULA (see 3.258).—Geographically speaking, the Balkan Peninsula is a meeting-point of European and Asiatic relief (see fig. 1}: the Dinaric ranges belong to the Alps, the Carpathians and the Balkans seem to be connected in an

arc, and the main tectonic systems of the peninsula have a geological structure similar to the ranges of Asia Minor from

which they have been separated since the Pliocene or diluvial period.

In the same way, areas of strongly contrasted climate

are to be found in close proximity, e.g. Mediterranean on the Adriatic and Aegean coast; Steppe, like that in Asia, on the

extend farther than a few miles from the Adriatic or a few hundred metres above sea-level in the western part. To N, and E. of this limit, large areas, especially in Bosnia and Serbia, are still covered with forests of ocak and birch trees, remnants of extensive primitive forest growth in the valleys as well as on the hills; while to S. and W. low scrub prevails'on the bare rocks. Tobacco, rice and cereals are grown

in the fertile plains of Thrace and

Macedonia,

olive and

orange trees flourish in the most sheltered places along the coast. The extension of mountain barriers, climatic influences and zones

at vegetation do not alone make the Balkan Peninsula a world by

itself. Peripheral influences travel from Italy over the Adriatic, by the straits and the island-dotted Aegean to the indented Hellenic

coast,

then

through

the great

longitudinal

traverse ihe peninsula from N.W. to features combine

S.E.

depressions

which

The ‘morphological

to constitute the basis of natural

regions—the

Aegean, the Balkans, the Morava-Vardar and the Pindo-Dinaric regions—whose main characteristics depend more on morphology than on ethnography or history. Natural Regions —The Aegean region is remarkable for the indentation of its coast. On the Hellenic part (Peloponnesus and

Euboea) each morphological feature—islands, gulfs and headlands— points S.E. towards Asia Minor and turns its back to Europe.

Karstic characteristics are well developed in the Hmestone areas of the Jonian coast. The climate is typically Mediterranean: summers are rainless, the atmosphere is clear and temperature is high. The rivers are not perennial. Among the mdquis growth, cultivation is restricted to small fields like oases. On the slopes and in the bottoms of the sheltered depressions, oranges, grapes, lemons and pomegranates survive the dry summer: the olive is prominent in the

landscape. Animal as well as vegetable life is very restricted. The isolation of the units and the poorness of the soil would have almost prevented development if the population had not turned seaward,

attracted by extraordinary opportunities for fishing, navigation and trade.

The Acgean is the only region in the peninsula inhabited

almost exclusively by Greeks, mostly seamen or traders, living in towns of the Mediterranean type, with high stone houses and narrow streets, or in large villages on terraces.

‘The Thraco-Macedonian

region combines the characteristics of

the Hellenic and continental regions,

‘The coast is also indented,

but the large valleys of perennial streams

(Vardar, Struma) give

access to the gulfs, The land surface, chiefly consisting of crystalline, metamorphic rocks, denuded, displaced and dislocated, shows sharp

contrasts of plateaus and basins, and here and there residual ridges.

The tectonic basins, when not filled by the sea, as at Salonika and Orfano, are occupied by alluvial and tertiary lake deposits as in

Thessaly and Thrace, or by lakes (Doiran, Langadha, Beshik) or, in the valleys, by marshes. The climate is half continental and half Mediterranean with rainy summers and cold winters. The Vardaras blowing in the rear of the deep winter cyclones brings snow to the hills and freezes the coast, while violent south-west winds brin

excessive heat in summer, The proximity to the coast of high hil masses has a great influence on the vegetation: the true mdguis growth extends to an altitude of 200 metres on the coastal slopes, but olive and vine cultivation reaches as high as 400 metres. Oaks and

chestnuts, at first scattered, increase with the elevation until they

form forests, then coniferous trees appear and finally the cloudwrapt Alpine summer pastures provide an area of “ transhumance n to Kutzo-Vlakh and Slav shepherds, who spend the winters on the coastal plains. The area available for agriculture lies in the hasins— Thessaly for wheat, Seres for cotton, the plain of Salonika for rice, Kavalla for tobacco. The towns (Salonika, Kavalla), inhabited by Spanish Jews, Turks and Greeks, are built like amphitheatres on the slopes and the villages are inhabited by Slavs and Arumans, The latter are often of the Turkish, Chiftik type with square rooms grouped around the landowner’s house, or are composed of houses made of sun-dried bricks,

es

Strongly contrasting with the Aegean, the Balkan region is a continental mass. The straight Black Sea coast docs not favour peripheral influences travelling inward, and the high Rila and Rhodope systems form a barrier against western penetration.

The west-

east folded Balkans divide the region into two parts, the lower Danubian plateau on the N., and the Maritsa basin on the S., but

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The lower Danubian

plateau is the only part of this region in which relief, climate and roduction are almost uniform; the unbroken monotonous surface ts dissected regularly by deep-cut asymmetric valleys facing fault scarps, running from S. by W, to N. by E. Like southern Russia and Rumania, it is covered with neogene sediments and loess of wonderful fertility, but trees and grass. are very scarce out of the valleys, the water table being toó deep down, During excessively

dry summers the small streams cease to flow, and in cold winters

even the Danube is frozen. Summer droughts make the crops of wheat uncertain. The characteristics of extreme continental climate and vegetation increase castward in Dobrudja and favoured the settlement of the steppe Slavs and Ugro-Finnish Bulgars, while the uniformity of relief and the proximity of Constantinople made control of the country by the Turks easy. The central and western Balkans stand out in contrast: high hill masses of palaeozoic schists, granite and mesozoic rocks, ofterm chalk, are bounded on the south by abrupt fault scarps of a few hundred metres overlooking the plains, and, on the north, gradually fall in folded ranges. The eastern Balkans, consisting of sandstone, schists, flysch, are lower. Unlike the mountains of the central parts of the pene the folded Balkans contain few faulted basins (Orhaniye).

¿xcept for the Yantra and Isker running south-north through the massifs and the Kamtshiya and Provadiya running west-east through epigenctic ravines, they have an undiversified drainage and are like

the basins cultivated with raised on the grassy and anites of the Rhodopes ies the tectonic basin of

oats, barley and potatoes, while cattle are forested hills. Between the schists and and the mesozoic rocks of the Balkans the Maritsa, showing strata of sandstone

and paleogene limestone below alluvial deposits, The climate varies:

it is Mediterranean as far north as Philippopolis, favouring the cultivation of maize, tobacco, the pepper plant, the vine and mulberry trees along the Maritsa; in the east around Jamboli and Stara

Zagora a steppe climate prevails, favouring wheat. The small tectonic basins of the sub-Balkan depression are liable to lesser extremes of climate and are well known for their rose gardens as at Kazanlik and fruit orchards as at Zlatitsa. The whole region facing Constantinople felt Byzantine or Asiatic influences strongly and was the first domain of the Bogomils during the Middle Ages.

West of Sofia, the upper Isker basin is a natural Viskar unit. In the centre, the Viskar and Lulyin mountains are an area of eruptive

rocks and mesozoic strata folded east-west and surrounded by low limestone ridges, gentle on the north (Srbnitsa) and ragged on the south (Vlashka), Isolated tectonic basins and karstie depressions, such as Kyustendil and Grahovo, are the only cultivable areas. The

country, poor and deforested, is a barricr to communication—the

Shop tribe lives there under primitive conditions with Bulgars

settled at the approaches. Sofia overlooks the Isker, Struma and Nishava, leading respectively to the Danube, to the Aegean and to

the Morava-Vardar. To the south, the Rhodope system, a high mass showing glacial valleys: and cirques, and almost perennial snows, is covered with forests or meadows partly inhabited by Pomaks, Yuruks and by transhumant [Cutzo-Vlachs (see fig. 3).

Unlike the Balkan the Morava-Vardar region is not open to

eastern influences. Its main communications are longitudinal, along a depression feading from Centraf Europe to the Accean Sea,

Various formations are displayed in the relief—the pretertiary Rho-

dope mass, the tertiary Dinaric and Carpathic ranges, the eruptive

rocks of the [bar and Bregalnitsa with their rich iron and copper

fields, most of them by their great height impeding the west-east

BALKAN PENINSULA

370

communications, The massifs enclose tectonic basins still or formerly occupied by lakes, and connected with the Morava and Vardar valleys or with the Ovtshe Polye and the Strumitsa. North of Nish, the Shumadya is the southern part of the neogene Pannonic lake. It slopes gradually by seven terraces from 960 metres to 120 metres towards the Danube and the Sava. On a lacustrine soil, the monotony of the crops is broken only by forested hills—former

islands in the Pannonic lake and remnants of an ancient extensive

forest. Similar morphological featurcs are found E. of the Carpathic Rtany (1,566 metres) in the Timok basin, previously occupied by a Pliocene lake. The climate is of modified Central European type, with abundant rain; and a long mild autumn, and a soil of loess and humus make Shumadya the best maize district in the peninsula.

_eretaceous limestones sloping from 2,000 metres to 800 metres in the

plateau of the west. These steps have been transformed into barren

karst, with subterrancan rivers, high temperatures and abundant rains, as far as a new line of ranges along the coast. Important

mineral deposits, especially iron and copper, are found in the palaeozoic and tertiary rocks, i The karstic morphology is less important where the schists, sandstones and serpentine predominate in the Pindus regions. Instead of being indented and island-dotted, as in Dalmatia, the

Albanian coast is straight and deltaic. The Mediterrancan type of

climate extends farther than in the Dinaric regions. Winters last long and snewfalls are abundant on the flanines, autumn is early in the zagora, and the barometric gradient in the “ bora,” a wind blow-

ing from the mountains towards the Adriatic cyclones, is extremely steep. The rainfall reaches 4,640 mm. at Tserkvitse in the Gulf of Cattaro.

The vegetation ts varied: the slopes of the plowines wp to

1,700 metres are occupicd by forests, farther up by Alpine villages

and fields of summer crops, then by pastures. Intensive agriculture is possible only on the “ terra rossa ” of the depressions in the karst. Mediterranean cultivation prevails on the coast. The alluvial

Pindus valleys are cultivable areas and. the Albanian slopes are covered with pasture and olives up to Elbassan on the cast. The population is scattered except on the edge of ihe polye, where jt concentrates in order to avoid building on the limited “terra rossa ” area. The Alpine type of house prevails on the planimas from Carniola to the districts occupied by the Vasoyevitschi tribe in the upper Lim valley, the Chifilik in southern Albania, the Mediterranean on the Primarye arid some parts of Zagora. The towns in Albania are of mixed Turkish and Mediterranean type (Durazzo, Valona). On the other hand, Spalato, Zara and Ragusa, old harbours along small bays and narrow headlands, are an element of maritime

life which helped Slav and Latin influences to combine in the early

cities, producing a high civilization. On the planinas a pastoral life favoured a sturdy independence. The same characteristics are noticeable in the Pindus region which, isolated from the sea by

pet 3

marshes and lagoons, is still the most extensive domain of tribal life.

Thus, unity of life, as well as morphologic features, is a determinant

factor of the natural region. Area and Pojnilation.—The

English Mules wò WD

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Kilometres 30 00

200

Political Division (1921)

Pigs arc raised in the decreasing forest arca, White villages, crowded

by a purely rural population reputed for good sense, humour, democratic spirit and oe national traditions, are scattered among gtcen plum orchards, In close touch with Central European civilization, Shumiadya early cast off the yoke of distant Constantinople and became the Piedmont of the Serbian renascence. South of Nish the countryis more isolated: Rashka is composed of

tectonic basins

(Nish, Kosovo,

and

Skoplye)

encompassed

by

abrupt slopes of campact masses of schists and limestone. The igher summits show ancient glacial features. Towards the south, the relief is more and more complex. In Macedonia, crystalline schists and granites of the Rhodope system prevail on the east, sand-

stones, serpentines and limestones of the Pindus on the west, Among.

the latter are higher summits (Perister, Kajmakealan, 2,525 metres) and tectonic basins (Presba, 900 metres).

The climate is continental

except in the south-cast where several Aegean gulfs penetrate the interior along the Struma and Vardar, but winters last longer and

are colder than in Shumadya.

The lake-floored basins are occupied .

by orchards or wheat and flax, but forests and summer pastures of

the hills are a region of “transhumance,” especially in the west, equidistant from the Adriatic and the Aegean. Fields of poppies and rice and vineyards occupy large spaces in south-eastern Macedonia.

terraces.

political divisions do not exactly

correspond with natural units described above:

aG

The inhabitants live mostly in the basins but also on the In Rashka and Macedonia towns are more of the Turkish

type—with their aggregations of wooden shops on narrow, dirty streets grouped round a central covered bazaar. In Shumadya, more open to European influence, the town streets converge towards a central piazza or market, and the villages extend along valleys and roads, contrasting with those of the Chifiulik type of the Vardar country. There isolation of small natural units helped the particularism and submission to Turks which are still noticeable amongst the people, though disappearing through the influence of returned emigrants, _ The Pindo-Dinaric region differs from that of the Morava-Vardar

in its lack of penetration and union and by a well-defined morphol-

ogy. From the Lyublyana basin to the Gulf of Arta, it is delimited on the E. by depressions, among which are the upper valleys of the Vrbas, Neretva and Drin. The beds are folded and dislocated .W.-S.E., so that from W. to F. the littoral area (primorye) is succeeded by a barren karstic plateau (sagera) and then by high mountain ranges (planina) parallel to the coast, which is a coast of submergence of which the higher parts form islands. The strike of the folds restricts transverse relations, except S. of Scutari where, in the Pindus ranges, it becomes west-east. Crests of the underlving carboniferous rocks often appear through the folded and dislocated

surface, but the ragged dolomitic peaks are higher. Depressions and gentle slopes prevail in the Bosnian schists of the cast, steps of

i ie Coat)

Pop. (1910| Pop. per census) | sq. km,

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Turkey...

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Mod:‘esr raneaftn8 a!oal H Kiinian saffucace Novibazar and Nish into Shumadya. Economic conditions wh based e dludrtectongan i " laanee O88Matin Liat ? also played their part in those movements: entire families left fastern terape 8 ed o 3 Pp Pa fa h overcrowded cultivated areas for rich but less inhabited areas. > A ena Scarcity of food pushed 10,000 Montenegrins castward into EAN SEA Scrbia in 1890. Many mets, trying to escape bad conditions of tenure, obtained land in the newly liberated territories. Those fluences over the main ranges into the interior of the peninsula. metanastasic movements brought about the redistribution of But the Mediterrancan type is conspicuous In Dalmatia and in ethnic and religious groups, and extended the Orthodox Church Constantinople, and the Latin is less noticeable ou the planinas. into the domain of the Roman Catholic, north of the Sava and Occidental architecture may be noticed in a Serbian church of- Danube. In the same way, the Dinaric dialect pushed back the the r3th and 15th century at Detchain. From that time, in Croatian, and the Kosovo dialect was spoken farther and farther consequence of these commercial and intellectual relations, a northward. Everywhere the immigrants adapted themselves to the life of the inhabitants among whom they had to live, but few words of Latin origin were introduced into the Serbo-Croatian language. After the 18th century it was a principle of Austrian also brought new customs and a new mentality. Races.—Owing to the continual movement of the population, policy to carry Central European influcnces far southwards; the Austrians brought their habits of city life, their methods of the ethnological boundarics do not coincide with those of the trade, their engineering, and their house furniture, but did not great. natural regions ‘The Grecks came from Asia Minor in make thcir mark on intellectual development, North of the Shar early historic times and sctiled in the coastal area, including the Planina and of the Balkans, except on the coast and in the islands between Varna and Corfu. They assimilated the Romans Serbian plains, the patriarchal type of civilization prevails. in Byzantine times, the Slavs in and after the Middle Ages, the It is also noticeable in Albania. Its main characteristics are the Aramuni from the r2th to the 15th century, and the Albanians organization

of the tribes in Montenegro,

northern

Albania

and Rashka, and that of the Zadruga from the Adriatic to the river Iskar. In the latter three or four families live together, obeying the oldest member of the group, and cultivating ground which is owned in common. The Zadruga is chargeable for the taxes, controls the expenditure, is responsible by law for, and makes profit on the work of, each member, Some groups consist of as many a3 7o members. The ground, except forests or pastures (sfajer), becomes more and more divided up. The nucleus of the tribes is made up of old families related together and enlarged by the admission of foreign groups, or by conquest of new territories. ‘The Montenegrin tribes hardly made alivelihood on the barren karst and had to keep small in number; while the Rascian tribes, in an area full of resourees, became more and more important. On account of geographical isolation and the prevention of exogamy amongst the old tribes, tribal life

developed into particularism, but the wars against the Turks united those tribes which, when not fighting, were occupied only in pastoral pursuits or the leading of convoys. The distribution of civilization has been greatly influenced by Metanastasic movements. The invasion of the Turks in the 14th

after the 14th century.

But even now their range does not extend

far from the sca, its northern boundarics being the southern border of Albania, the river Bistritsa and Lake Beshik. Farther cast, mixed up with Turks and Bulgars, and with many Greeks in such commercial centres as Constantinople, Adrianople and

Salonika, they occupy Thrace equally with the Turks.

In the

peninsula and adjacent islands they probably number 4,500,000. Declining since the 17th century, the Turkish population has disappeared from the northern towns and from the Rhodope and Balkan mountains, where names given by Yuruk shepherds are, however, still retained. The Turkish element is nowhere found in compact masses except in the cast Balkanic regions, where the dry climate is similar to that of Asia Minor. Elsewhere, it exists only in isolated districts—in eastern Bulgaria,

in Thrace, on the left bank of the Vardar and in the Bujak

Kajlar basin. The total Turkish population of the peninsula scarcely excceds 1,800,000. The Albanians or Skktipetar, representatives of the primitive Illyrian tribes, were not Slavized like the Dalmats or Liburns. They live in the mountainous Pindus and Prokletye, encompassed by Yugoslavia and Greece, while, among them, the Slavs

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FIG, 4.

often occupy the valleys and littoral plains. They have lost ground in the north-east since 1878 and the withdrawal of the Sultan’s authority. _ The Aramuni, numbering approximately 160,000, are found in 154 detached settlements of the southern peninsula. They are nomad shepherds migrating between the mountains and the littoral plains. Remnants of the primitive Latinized population, they have continued to decrease since the 18th century, when it is estimated they numbered 500,000. Some of them have settled in the mountains after having made money as shopkeepers in large towns. The Yugoslavs, numbering about 15,000,000 south of the Danube and Sava, are the most numerous people in the peninsula. They are divided into Serbo-Croat-Slovencs

Bulgars (4,700,000), all agriculturists.

(10,000,000) and

The majority of the

Serbs, Croats and Slovenes came from trans-Carpathian countries in the 7th century. The distinction between them does not arise from any linguistic, racial or even religious difference.

The national spirit of the Serbs gained force after the battle of Kosovo in 1389. At the end of the rsth century, the Orthodox

religion,

diffused

through

the

Serbians

after

mcetanastasic

movements, became national, and it helps to maintain unity. The Serbo-Croat-Slovene Kingdom, generally called Yugoslavia, does not include all the Serbians, Croats and Slovencs of the Balkan Peninsula—more than 400,000 were annexed to Italy

by the Treaty of Rapallo. The Macedonian Slavs extend southward to Hellenic territory, almost to the river Bistritsa. The Bulgars, who descend from a fusion of the Slavonic clement with a later Ugro-Finnish immigration, inhabit the kingdom of Bulgaria, parts of Dobrudja and Thrace. On account of the proximity of Constantinople aud of the general geographical conditions, they were more submissive to the Turks than any oth-

er part of the population, so that the word “Bulgar” often meant

a social state different from that of the Turkish conquerors. Its political meaning dates from the creation of the Exarchat in 1870 and the wars of liberation.

The remainder of the population is composed of Armenians, who live in trade centres like Constantinople; of Jews, immigrants from Spain who form half of the mhabitants at Salonika; and of gipsies, wandering, or in scattered settlements near large towns.

BALKAN WARS

373

Religions —The Turkish conquest was followed by numerous

case, The dispersion of a large part of her army and notably of her

conversions to Islam, so that the Mahommedan population (3,000,000) exceeds the Turkish element. More than half of the Albanians and 32% of the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina have adopted the creed of the conquering race. The great bulk of the Christian population belongs to the Orthodox Church,

was decided to treat Macedonia as a self-contained_theatre of war

of which the oecumenical patriarch at Constantinople is the nominal head. The Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek Churches are

in reality autoccphalous.

Most of the Serbians, Croats and

Slovenes of Slovenia, Croatia and Dalmatia, some of the Gegh tribes in Albania, and 22% of the population in Bosnia and Herzegovina belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Some Bulgars belong to the Uniate Church, which keeps Orthodox rite and discipline under Roman authority. The Gregorian and Uniate Armenian Churches each have a patriarch. Languages —The Slavonic and Greck Nationalists succeeded in preserving their language. Early in the 17th century, the Serbo-Croats in Ragusa had a common literature, written in Herzegovinian dialect. In the 19th century, under the influence of Vuk Karadjitsh, that dialect prevailed as the literary language. In Bulgaria, the actual language is that of Sredna Gora, for centuries written only in a few monasteries. The conventional literary language of the Greeks is a compromise.

Albanian, a

remnant of the ancient Thraco-Illyrian speech, belongs to the Indo-European family, but lacks literary distinction. AUTHORITIES.—For a general description of the whole region see Jovan Cvijié, La Péninsule Balkanique (1918); Odysseus, Turkey in Europe (1900); Gaston Gravier, Les Frontières historiques de la Serbie (1918); H. C. Thomson, The Outgoing Turk (1897); Tjoanne, Etats du Danube et des Balkans (1895); R. Millet, Souvenirs des Balkans (1891); E. de Lavelaye, La Péninsule des Balkans (1896);

F. Toula, “ Materialien zu einer Geologie der Balkan Halbinsel,”

Jahr. K. K. Reichsanst., vol. xxxiii., pp. 61-114 (Vienna, 1883); A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes (1892); J. Cvijic, “ Die Tektonic der Balkan lalbinsel,” Comptes rendus, Congrès géologique inlernational (Vienna 1904); " Grundlinien der Geographie und Geologie von Macedonien u. Alt-Serbien,” Brg. Heft, Pet Mitt, (Gotha, 1908); Mackenzie and Irby, Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey (1866); A. Boné, La Turquie d'Europe (1840). W. Miller, The Balkans (1896), sketches the history of Bulgaria, Montenegro, Rumania and Serbia.

See also Austrian, British, French and Serbian

reserves in Asia Minor, where rail communications were few, and roads ill-developed, made any reénforcement of the European theatres a matter of time and difficulty; in the case of Macedonia, such reénforcement was practically impossible save by sea. After a new survey of the situation in Ig09-10 by Marsha! von der Goltz it garrisoned at all times by a large army with Shtip (Stip) as its area of war concentration, and to constitute in Thrace a covering army

which would be reénforced by the troops from Asia as they suc-

cessively arrived, up to the strength adequate for offensive operations against Bulgaria. To assist the defense in the first, or waiting, period Adrianople was organized as a modern fortress, and Kirk Kilhsse, an upland town on the edge of the Istranja Dagh, re-cquipped with barrier-forts. The line of communication with Asia was secured against the Greek fleet by the Dardanelles fortifications, which enabled Rodosto to be used as an advanced base.

The peace-time distribution of the Turkish forces in Europe

(other than garrison troops) was as follows: In Thrace were the I. Ordu (Constantinople), with the J. Corps (Constantinople), II. Corps (Rodosto), IIE. Corps (Kirk Kilisse), and IV. Corps (Adrianople), These constituted 12 active divisions, plus, on mobilization, II first reserve divisions and 6 second reserve divisions. In Macedonia were the IE. Ordu (Salonika), with the V. Corps (Salonika), VI. Corps Monastir), VII. Corps (Uskub), and the independent 22nd Div. (Kozani), 23rd Div. (Yannina), and 24th Div. (Scutari). These constituted 12 active divisions, plus, on mobilization, 10 first reserve divisions and 3 second reserve divisions. Administratively, the reserve formations of Smyrna, and both the active (VIIE. Corps) and reserve formations of Damascus, belonged to this IL. Ordu. Under favourable circumstances, and especially if Greece were neutral, these forces, totalling 3 active and 15 first’ reserve divisions, would be available. In the alternative, they would be

available, with some delay in point of time, to reénforce the army in Thrace. The IMI, and lV. Ordus, with headquarters at Erzinjan and * Bagdad respectively, could be grouped as an army of the Caucasus

in case of a Russian war, but were practically unavailable for Europe. So also were the forces in Ilejaz and Yemen, and Tripoli, Neglecting second reserve formations, therefore, the paper disposi-

tions gave Thrace 23 and Macedonia 22 divisions, to either of which might be added a further 18. But, as usual in Turkish military

history, this imposing paper total of 63 divisions represented far more than the real and available strength. Internal difficulties, low

transport capabilities, and the necossity of garrisoning almost all parts of Albania and Macedonia to prevent local risings, added to the customary slackness in administration and training and the

customary dishonesty in supply and equipment matters, resulted in staff maps, and the ethnographical maps of Cviji¢é and Marinelli in | the putting into the field of two armies which were numerically inthe Geographical Review, New York (1919). (J. C.; Y. C.} ferior, unequally trained, and poorly equipped—possessing indeed BALKAN WARS (1912~3).—This article gives an account of few assets beyond the solid fighting-worth of the individual Mahomthe wars of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro as allies medan Turk? With all this, however, the prestige of a great Power facing a group against Turkey in 1912 and 1913, and the short war which of small states, whose mutual hatred and rivalries had only just

followed between the former allies, with Turkcy and Rumania

intervening, in the summer of 1913. I. The Balkan League—The

formation of a military alliance

between Bulgaria and Serbia, Greece and Montenegro in 1912 was the final step in an evolution which began in 1909, and in its last stages was hastened by the Italo-Turkish War of 1911. The immediate cause of war was the state of Macedonia under Turkish rule. On June 19 1912 a military agreement was made between the general staffs of Scrbia and Bulgaria, in accordance with the previous politi-

cal treaty of alliance signed on Feb. 29 1912. Greece followed suit with a political treaty in May and a military agreement on Sept. 22. Montenegro did the same in the course of the summer, and, while

been

composed,

stood

high,

especially

in Germany

where

the

positive effects of the Turkish army reforms initiated by von der Goltz and others were overrated. In the Turkish army itself, confidence was unbounded: only a few had their misgivings. The actual strengths of the two Turkish armies, owing to inexact and defective returns, cannot be stated. But it appears to be true that the Thracian army had no more than half of its nominal strength of 226,000 men, while the Macedonian army short of the VIII. Corps and the Damascus and Smyrna reserves and scattered as it was, can hardly be eredited with morc than 200,000 of its nominal 340,000, of whom no more than 50,000 combatants were in fact ever assembled on onc battlefield.

On the side of the allies, administration being regular and sentiTurkey was still negotiating her peace with Italy at Ouchy, the four ment uniform within each army, the paper strength and order of allies mobilized their armies (Scpt. 30 and Oct. 1 N.S.). Turkey, battle represent realities, and can be summed up thus :— since the Young Turk Revolution internally dislocated, was in no Bulgarian Army:—Nine divisions (1 Sofia, 2 Philippopolis, 3 condition to meet their onslaught. Although the prestige of the Steven, 4 Shumla, 5 Ruschuk, 6 Vratsa, 7 Dupnitsa, 8 Stara Zagora, individual Turkish, soldier as a fighting man stood high, and the 9 Plevna) each of two brigades pilus a reserve brigade formed on beginnings of many reforms in the education of staff and regimental mobilization. (The regiments being each of 4 battalions, the infanofficers had been made in the last few years, the military capacity of the army as a whole proved to be far below the reputation which it try strength of a division was 24 battalions, 7.e. that of a normal European army corps, and 2} times that of a Turkish division.)# enjoyed amongst the military experts of Europe. Turkey’s oppoA 10th Div. and an tith Div. were formed on mobilization out of nents, on the contrary, had in recent years not only rearmed themsurplus reservists and of such Macedonian volunteers as enlisted in selves and secured their financial and political position, but also the regular forces (these had two. brigades cach instead of three). made those minute and careful preparations of detail which when There was also a cavalry division. Ration strength of the field the time comes translate themselves into smooth concentration, and armies, about 280,000. regular, consistent operations. Serbian Army:—Five divisions of the I, Ban and five of the IT. Strategically no less than politically, Turkey was on the defensive. Ban, each designated by the regional name (Danube, Morava, Her European possessions formed two separate theatres of war, rina, Shumaja, Timok and the Ban numeral, e.g. Timok I., Timok Macedonia and Thrace, which were linked only by the coastal railIl., ete.). The infantry strength of a I. Ban division (four 4-batway Dede Aghach-Seres-Salonika, and this line, open in its middle talion section to Bulgarian raids from the mountains on the N. and to BEE ee SI aa regiments) onae was two-thirds that of a Bulgarian ee division and Greek raids from the sea,! was of no high technical efficiency in any 2 Even solidarity within the unit had been seriously shaken by the incorporation, under new conscription laws, of Christians allied in ? The possession of one modern ship, the " Averof, ” gave to the race and religion to the enemy peoples. Greeks material superiority over the Turks at sea, and the maritime 3 The 6th Div. had only two brigades. traditions and aptitudes of their race a certain moral advantage.

BALKAN WARS

374

not quite twice that of a Turkish. The infantry strength of II. Ban

3 Bulgarian divisions advancing on the front Kratovo—Kochana. In

‘divisions varied, but was usually three 4-battalion regiments. A number of supplementary regiments were formed from excess reservists, IIL. Ban units, for subsidiary operations, There was a

gather for battle was the object aimed at. It provided also that if the military situation in Thrace required it, troops not indispensable

cavalry division, At the completion of mobilization the ration strength of the field forces alone, exclusive of III. Ban units, was 287,000, almost exactly 10% of the population. In the whole war some 450,000 men are supposed to have been mobilized. Greek Army':—Four active divisions of 9-11 battalions each

(equal in number of units, and superior in effective numbers, to a

Turkish division). Reserve units forming four weak divisions, each equal to two-thirds of a normal division. One cavalry brigade.

Ration, strength of the field army, about 110,000.

in Macedonia might be fanlard thither, and vice versa. The balance of the Serbian forces (about 3 divisions) were at the

free disposal of their Government, and in fact were intended for the

conquest of the Sanjak of Novibazar.

The 6 (or 7) Bulgarian divisions remaining were to form the army

destined for Thrace. The rôle of Greece, when she acceded to the league, was by offensive operations from Thessaly to bind as many hostile troops as possible, incidentally occupying the country which it was intended

Montenegrin Army:—A militia organized in four divisions of varying strength. Approximate total of field troops 47,000. ith regard to the proportioning of effort between the two theatres of war, contemporary military opinion, impressed by a sort of primacy which Bulgaria assumed in the league, by the more regular character of her army and her civil administration, and by the nearness Of Constantinople to her eastern frontier, argued a priori

that Thrace was not only the “ principal” theatre, but the single important theatre in which practically all military effort should have been concentrated by both sides—a judgment which ignored the relation of strategy to war policy, and one for which in the sequel

Bulgaria was destined to pay heavily. For the objective of the war was Macedonia, as von der Goltz had forescen in 1909 when he increased both the present and the potential strength of the Turkish forces allotted to that theatre.

both cases the envelopment of all the forces that the Turks could

And when conquered, Macedonia

would be conquered once and for all, for the possibility of a Turkish

to acquire. transports.

The Greek navy was to close the Acgean to Turkish A minor Greek force in the Epirus theatre, and the

Montenegrins

in northern Albania, were

similarly to absorb the

attention of the Turkish garrisons (3 independent divisions) and to conquer territory.

On the very eve of operations, however, a drastic change was made (Sept. 28) at the instance of Bulgaria. [nstead of 3 divisions, 1 only was to operate in Macedonia, and this was dirccted to move incependently from Dupnitsa in the direction of Seres and Salonika. The striking wing of the allied army—that which, directed upon Shtip, would have come in upon the rear of the Turkish positions on` the Ovche Polyc—was thereby deprived of a force of about 80,000 men. And Bulgaria, by evading at the last moment an obligation that was not merely part of a military scheme but was included in the basic political treaty of Feb. 29 1912, set up at once an atmos-

phere of friction which was not likely to help her in her claims to the

counter-offensive to recover the lost province was excluded by the | doubtful districts of Macedonia. Serbia, submitting rather than Greek navy as effectually as the possibility of reénforcing Tripoli had agrecing, redistributed her forces, and the strategic deployment

been excluded by the Italian navy in i911.

A further important

consideration for the allies was the obscurity of the ethnographic

lines in central

Macedonia.

Here the population was

neither

and order of battle actually carried out was as follows:— Commander-in-chief, King Peter Chief of the general staff, Gen. Putnik

definitely Bulgarian nor definitcly Serbian, and unless the two . allies concerned were both represented in the conquering army the

Il, Army

frontier-line. On the other hand, each of the allies had special objects which might, and in some cases did, conflict with the common object. Bulgaria cherished ambitions in Thrace which extended even to Constantinople, and she had to consider the fact that sooner or later the Turkish forces in Thrace would be reënforced not only by

I, Army

absent member would certainly suffer when it came to drawing the

their own allotted reserves but also by those, above alluded to, which the Greek navy prevented from going to Macedonia, Further,

Bulgaria coveted not only a coast-line on the Aegean but the great port of Salonika itself, Serbia, on her side, had to consider not only central Macedonia but northern Macedonia and the Sanjak of Novibazar, These

provinces would infallibly revolt against the Turkish authority as soon as the ‘Turkish forces withdrew to concentrate for battle in the S. and unless bona fide troops of the Serbian Government came to occupy the country, a state of disorder would arise that would equally certainly invite Austrian intervention? Further, Serbia was determined to carve for herself a way to the Adriatic through northern Albania, Greece for her part had a minor objective in Epirus—a region of which the northern limit was vague—-and as a major objective Salonika and the Aegean littoral beyond, not to

mention more remote objects in Asia Minor. Montenegro's

aims were limited

:

with the Serbian Government might arise. All these things were, in their varying degrees, elements of policy upon which the Allied strategy must base itself if its war aims were to be obtained, and accordingly the military treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia provided for a Serbo-Bulgarian army of 7 Serbian

and 3 Bulgarian divisions to invade Macedonia, moving concentrically against the front Uskub-Kumanovo-Kratovo~Kochana,

forming the outer contour of the plain known as Ovche Polye which

was assumed on both sides to be the natural concentration area of the Turks, i H the road system was judged by the staffs sufficient to permit of

the augmentation of the left wing, this was to be made up of 2

Serbian and 3 Bulgarian divisions—a force equivalent to 10 Turkish divisions, while the other 5 Serbian divisions (equal to about 8

Turkish) descended from Vranya upon Kumanovo. If not, the central mass of 5 Serbian divisions was to be flanked on the N. by

2 divisions moving by the Kara Dagh on Uskub and on the S. by the ‘a

*The

navy consisted

of the “Georgios

Averof,”

Crown Prince

Alexander | (126,000 ration strength

Gen. Yankovich

Timok I° and troops.

Morava

Army

I, Drin

L,

Danube 1., Danube Il., Timok II, Cav. Div., Army troops.

Shumaja -I., Morava IT.,

(67,000 ration Drina I., Morava Bristrength) gade, Army troops. Gen. Zhivkovich Shumaja II., Army Ibar Force (18,000 combatants} troops. Yavor Brigade Col. Angelkovich (1 mixed brigade), (9,000 combatants) The 1. Army was cantoned in the Morava valley, about Vranya, with outposts on the frontier. The II. Army on its left (now reduced to one division) was concentrated along with the 7th Bulgarian Div. about Kyustendil, and the HI. Army on its right, behind the frontier, on the various mountain routes E, and N. of Prishtina. The Ibar Force lay on the river of that name, just inside Serbian territory, opposite Novibazar, The Yavor Brigade was temporarily held back facing the Serbo—Bosnian frontier. The intention was that the Ill. Army should advance first and make good possession of Prishtina, and then turn S., leaving one division to held the captured territory, and with the remainder advance rapidly S. through the

to local expansion southward

into Albania and castward into the Sanjak of Novibazar and northern Macedonia; in both of these directions some conflict of interest

meee

III. Army

Gen. Stepanovich (28,000 ration strength)

a powerful

armoured cruiser, 3 old coastal battleships practically modernized, and 16 modern destroyers and other torpedo craft, including a sub-

marine; as against the Turkish

Kachanik defile on Uskub, the unattached brigade meantime opening up communication over the Kara Dagh with the Central (L.)

Army. This would have initially the difficult task of debouching from the narrow front of the Morava valley, while the sole remaining

unit of the I]. Army was to advance by Egri Palanka towards Kratovo. The Ibar Force, and cventually the Yavor Brigade also, were to clear the Sanjak of Novibazar of Turkish garrisons and Albanian bands. ‘The Montencgrins Were to codperate to some extent in this task, but their main effort was to be directed against Scutari. Mobilization began in all the countries affected on Sept. 30~Oct. I.

Montenegro was the first to declare war, on Oct. 8. Ignoring the declaration of the Great Powers that “ under no circumstances would they agree to any change in the siaius quo in S.E. Europe,” the other three members of the league presented a joint ultimatum on Oct. 13. Turkey rejected this on the rgth, and on the 17th war was declared. By that date the movements of strategic concentration were nearly complete, and several frontier skirmishes had already taken place. IT.

The Campaigns in Macedonia and the West.—On Oct. 20, while

the Serbian T. and I]. Armies closed up on their advanced elements

(the I, clearing some high ground beyond the frontier to facilitate the next day’s work), the III., which had the greatest distance to cover, marched in several columns on Prishtina. Irregular fighting on difficult ground brought the army close to Prishtina by the 22nd, and the Turks evacuated the town on the evening of that day.

strength of 3 small battleships On Oct, 21, the I. Army advanced in three columns: Morava I, Timok 11. on the right, with flank guards in the Kara Dagh, fol20 effective destroyers and torpedo boats, me et OT _* The relations of Serbia and Montenegro were not such that the * The 7th Bulgarian Div. was nominally under the orders of this Serbian Government could casily hand over to Montenegro the army, but in fact obeyed orders only from the Bulgarian headentire responsibility for the conquest of the north. 1 quarters, {ex-German), one modernized coastal battleship, 2 light cruisers and

BALKAN WARS lowed the Moravitsa valley; Danube I. and Danube IT., on the left that of the Pecinja; while Drina

I. moved

along the watershed

between these rivers. The cavalry division was kept back till the infantry should have gained ground in the plain. The II. Army moved on the same day, but very slowly, along the Kyustendil— Egri-Palanka road, with instructions to advance thence both on Stratsin (Stracin) and on Kratovo, gaining touch with the I. Army W. of the former place. Bulgarian coöperation was limited to a movement by one brigade over the mountains towards the upper

was

Zekki Pasha, in charge of the three

great battle of the campaign. Butit was not a bataille sans lendemain as the Serbo-Bulgarian convention had intended it to be. Neither the IIL Army, which coming in from Prishtina was still two days’

Bregalnitsa. The rest of the 7th Div. frankly began its march over

Star-Nagorichino, disposed in depth and entrenched, with orders to

stand fast on the 22nd and wait developments on its flanks.

Resist-

ance so far had been slight, but on the 22nd Turkish forces of some strength were reported at Kumanovo,

The Ovche Polye was, after all, not to play the part of König-

grätz. At first, it seems, the Goltz plan of a defensive concentration by radial attacks

on divided

cncmies,

adhered to by the Turks. But when at the last moment it became clear that the Bulgarian cffort was concentrated on Thrace, ‘Ali Riza Pasha, commander-in-chief in the Macedonian theatre, was ordered to take the offensive.

in the like case), partly because strict orders had been given to stand

fast during the 23rd. Only Drina I. came into action towards evening, and the situation was critical when fighting died away and army headquarters at last became aware of the facts. During the night the remaining divisions were urged forward to the battlefield, Next day they came progressively into action. The stubborn resistance of Danube I. had shaken the attacking power of two-thirds of Zekki’s force, and the intervention of Danuhe II. and the Serbian cavalry division on the 24th completed the work, after hard fighting beyond the Pcinja. And when a few advanced troops of the IT. Army from Egri Palanka reached the outskirts of the battlefield, the V. and VI. Turkish Corps, fearing to be enveloped, retreated southward into the Ovche Polye. In the centre, Drina I. drove forward far into the weakest part of the enemy’s system. On the Serbian right, the Turkish positions between Cerno Polye and Lipkovo in the foothills of the Kara Dagh fell to the altack of Morava I. and Timok II. in the afternoon. With a loss of some 4,500 killed and wounded

Jumaya Pass into the Struma valley, heading for Seres. That evening, without having obtained touch cither with the I}. or the JET. Armies, the L Army halted on the Jine Tabanovche—

there, to be followed

375

divisions, Drina F. in the centre, Timok II. behind the right and Danube I1. behind the left, remained practically inactive, partly in ignorance of what was taking place (the Army Command itsclf was

corps grouped in the Vardar region, was at once directed b AR Riza to move forward against the Serbians as they debouched from the mountains. _ Of ‘Ali Riza’s 25 divisions, 3 were scattered between Prishtina and the Austrian frontier, 34 at Scutari, y% at Dibra, and tat Prizren; 2 opposing the Greek main army in Thessaly and 2 the Greek secotidary army in Epirus; 3 in the Struma valley and 1 guarding the railway between Veles and Salonika, making, in all, 16 which were totally unavailable for battle in the decisive theatre.) Of, the remaining 9, 1 was at Prishtina, 2 in the valleys of the Bregalnitsa and the Zletovska facing Kochana and Kratovo, and 6, forming the main group under Zekki, advanced across the Ovche Polyc on the 21st and 22nd, the V. Corps then halting N. of Novoselyani, the VI. N. of Slatina and the VII. N. and N.E. of Kumanovo.

Viewed as a whole, ‘Ali Riza’s forces, scattered as they inevitably were through the need of holding territory, were reasonably weil distributed, in that, though the ‘Turks were in the ensemble inferior in the ratio of 1 to 24, theic handicap on the decisive battlefield reduced itself to the ratio of 1 toabout 13, Had still further cconomies been practised (in the Struma valley for instance) this handicap might have disappeared. But uncertainty as to Bulgarian move-

ments and dispositions was not yet cleared up.

In any case, the

seizure of the initiative at a moment when the Serbian I. Army was

still cramped and out of touch with its neighbours went far to neutralize the numerical disadvantage, *

Asa matter of fact, Zckki intended to use the day of the 23rd for

closing up his columns and narrowing his front; and, Prince Alexander’s intentions being the same, the day would have been uneventful but for the initiatives of subordinates on both sides.

>.. €|BATTLE OF KUMANOVO, 19t2 2.30. P.M. 23410-412 DANUBE. SITUATION E arae E ee RES, | Serbian troops

Y

===. m (7)

(nearly half of these in Danube I.)}, the Serbians had won the first

marches distant, nor the II., which consisted effectively of one

division only, could help to make it so. And in consequence no real

pursuit was made, the I. Army halting and entrenching on the

ground it had gained.

Actually, a pursuit would have closed the

campaign, for the Turkish retreat had converted itself into a rout. Even Uskub was evacuated, and the force barring the Kachanik defile against the IIL. Serbian Army withdrawn.

For some days the Serbian G,H.Q, contmued to keep a tight rein on its armies, grouping them principally for a battle against the “Turkish main army” presumed to be about Veles-Shtip. The

cavalry division advanced to St. Nicholas, a point equidistant from

these two towns, while ‘limok I. (II. Army) pasee Kratovo and moved on Cerni Vzh, which was not captured till the 26th. The L

Army followed carefully to the latitude of Gradishte, while the HI., parts of which—for the sake of earlier contact with the ],—had used

routes E. of Kachanik that had now become eccentric, moved up

slowly on its right.

Drina H. was left at Prishtina tọ secure the

country and codperate with the Ihar Force, while Uskub was held by Morava I. So difficult was the country and so imperfect the liaisons that it was not til] the 29th that the deployment of the 1., 11. and I. Armies across the Ovche Polye was complete. By that time the Turks had long evacuated the right bank of the Vardar. The remains of the VII. Corps from Uskub had gone to Tetovo and part of the V. Corps had retreated down the Vardar,

but the bulk of the V. and VI. Corps had retired through Veles towards Monastir and were preparing to offer a new resistance in the Babuna Pass.

But the Serbian G.H.Q. had now gleaned many details of the

Turkish

rout, and, assuming

Zekki’s army

to be reduced

to a

remnant which could be crushed between a single Serbian army and

the Greeks, it made entirely new dispositions on the 29th. To aid the Bulgarians in the siege of Adrianople, it sent the Ll. Army, and

actually added to it Danube IT. in replacement of the Bulgarian 7th Div. which continued its way down the Struma.

To penetrate Albania and gain the desired foothold on the coast, the IT]. Army (reduced to Drina I. and Shumaja I. and army troops) was sent eastward on Oct. 31.

The I. Army, now consisting of Morava I, Drina I., Danube I., Timok H., Morava II. and the Morava Brigade, was to pursue the Turkish army and complete its ruin, in coöperation with the Greeks.

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Meantime, the conquest of the Sanjak of Novibazar and of northern Kosovo had been practically completed. From Oct. 10, Montenegrin forces under Gen. Vukovich had been operating from the inner part of their country towards Plevlye, Byclopolye, Berane, and Gusinye. On the 19th, the [bar Force under Zhivkovich (Shumaja Il.) had advanced in several columns which, with more or less irregular fighting and one or two critical moments, had converged on the town of Novibazar and captured the Turkish works on the surrounding heights by the evening of the 22nd. On the 23rd, Novibazar was occupied, and the work of hunting down the dispersed enemy and their Arnaut auxiliaries began. On the 28th a force from Novibazar, in concert with a detachment of the HJ. Army from Prishtina, cap-

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tured Mitrovitsa.

The Serbian Danube I. Div., on the evening of the 22nd, had been tempted to go forward, out of alignment, by the evident tactical

advantages of a position farther south. On the morning of the 23rd

it was formed in an are facing S, and S.W., with its left flank on the Pcinja, near Voynik, its centre looking towards Slatina and its right on hill 650, and in that position it was attacked by the heads of 4 Turkish divisions. A fierce battle raged all day on this front, while

the other 2 Turkish divisions (VII. Corps) engaged Morava I., N. of

Kumanovo

with

indecisive

results,

and

the remaining

Serbian

! These outlying divisions are catalogued here as such. But their

strengths were in reality very unequal.

)

In the extreme N. the few Turkish troops avail-

able were forced, under pressure from the Montenegrins and the

Serbian Yavor Brigade, to concentrate at Plevlye; there they were

attacked on the 29th and driven over the Austrian border. 30th Ipek (Pech) fell to the Montenegrin southern columns.

On the

Thence-

forward the troops in these regions were only employed on police duties; but their withdrawal to other theatres of war was, in view of

a possible intervention by Austria-Hungary, considered undesirable.

The Greek campaign opened on Oct. 18. The 4 active divisions of the Greck army and 3 of the new divisions (sth, 6th, 7th) formed the main army in Thessaly under the Crown Prince Constantine, whose

chief-of-staff was Gen. Danglis. The 8th and oth Divs., composed almost entirely of reservists and volunteers, constituted the Epirus Army under Sapundjakis.

BALKAN WARS

376

The Turkish force opposing each of these amounted to about 2 divisions. So small an allotment on the Thessaly front can only be explained on the assumption that the Turks supposed the Greeks to

and then a further pause was thought necessary to reassemble the

be at the same level of efficiency asin 1897. If so, they were deceived.

units, scattered by mountain fighting, as well as to allow the two flank columns to come up. On the same day, however, hearing of the crisis on the Greek front, and arguing that it was both necessary to relieve pressure on the 5th Greck Div. and also possible to advance

the salient W. of Tyrnavos and occupied Damasuh, and moved N. to clear the way for the Ist and 4th Divs., which from Tyrnavos moved

the Serbian G.H.Q. ordered a tentative offensive towards Alinco. This, carried out on the 6th by a part of Drina 1., soon developed into

From Trikkala the Greek 5th Div. moved on Diskata and the upper valley of the Vistritsa. Two divisions (end and 3rd) advanced into

without undue risk against the Turks remaining in front of Monastir,

directly on Elassona by the Mcluna Pass. ‘The 6th and 7th Divs., still imperfectly organized, followed on in second line.

an unintended battle, in which Morava I. and the cavalry division4

On the roth Elassona was captured with little difficulty, the main Turkish position lying farther N. in the defile of Sarandoporon which traverses the mountains lying between the Xeria and the Vistritsa basins. On the 20th and 21st, the Greek divisions, which had con-

marked by initiative and combination of effort in the subordinate commanders, was to hustle the Turkish V. Corps back to the environs

verged on Elassona for the battle that had been expected there, were

redeployed, and on the 23rd the attack was delivered by all five.

The sth from Diskata and the 4th from the Xeria, uniting in the Vistritsa valley, marched on Serfije, throwing out a flank guard to

Grevena, while the Ist, znd and 3rd Divs. attacked the defile frontally and threatened its rear by way of Vlaholivadia. The much smaller Turkish force was routed with a loss of 20 guns and many prisoners, and (what was more important) the Greek army gained self-confidence as well as local victory, at a cost of some 1,300 casualties. Part of the beaten force retreated from Koziani on Monastir, the remainder on Verria, and the Crown Prince occupied Koziani on the 25th. i

In

ee of the urgency of occupying Salonika before the Bul-

garians arrived, the Crown Prince decided to leave only flank guards (sth Div. N. of Koziani and light troops N. of Grevena) facing the Monastir direction, while the remainder, reénforced by the 6th Div., ushed on to Verria, and the 7th Div. worked along the coast towards a tee amet |. Ye VUYT F,

of (1) and (2) by simple calculation with a table of logarithms. Then by a reverse process, using the values of Kyand Kyso obtained,

arrive at values of K, and K, and the indices g, s, w, m, /, which will reproduce the firing results in all circumstances. Investigations to

expected with another gun, shell, and charge (of the same propellant made up of grains of the same form), inserting the appropriate values ‘of Gy, Si, Wi. Mi and Ly in (1) and (2). The following tables have been drawn up asa guide to values of

touched on above.

purposes, with the following propellants m~

effects of the neglected factors are proportionally similar. The “ density of loading,” 1 and the position of the point of complete combustion of the charge will also have an influence, and an adjustment of constants and indices may be necessary for widely different densities of loading, and according as to whether the charge is completely consumed well back in the gun, or whether there is a proportion of the charge still unburnt when the shell leaves the muzzle. The values of the indices in Tables I. and II. are adjusted for the average conditions of modern practice,’ and if the above warning is kept in mind and the formulae used im an intelligent manner they will, as already stated, be found extremely uscful working tools. If only a few of the data vary it is not necessary to work with the

we can calculate the muzzle velocity and maximum

pressure to be

the indices which will be found suitable for guns, at any rate for trial Long cords of Cordite M.D. (M.D.). Long tubes of Cordite M.D.T. (M.D.T.). Short tubes or m.p. grains of nitrocellulose (N.C.T.).

Tape I. Indices for Muzzle Velocity.

determine such fixed valucs once for all, will soon lead to disappointment. Jt must be remembered that we have only embodied in the formulae differences in weight, calibre, chamber capacity, shot travel, weight of shell, weight of charge, and dimensions of the propellant. We have not taken into account any of the other causes of variation ,

When we analyze firing results by means of (1) and (2) all these neglected factors are as it were embodied in the values of K, and Kp arrived at, and these values of K, and K, and also the values of the indices are only suitable for application in other cases in which the

complete formulae (1) and (2). Thus if we are dealing with the same gun and shell and the same propellant of the same form and size, and

only wish to investigate the effect on the muzzle velocity of differences in weight of the charge, we need not introduce the standard

. Taare H,

gun and work out the constant K, but may write V _ {M’\m

Indices for Maximum Pressure,

g. | M.D.T.—1-00 N.C.T. —1-10

M.D.

M.D.T.

+18

N.C.T, M.D.

}41:6

v= (M

where the muzzle velocity V’ is known for a charge of weight M’, and we want to find the velocity V” for a charge M”.

s-

£ A 6-in. gun, chamber capacity 1600 in., shot travel 250 in., fires a

100-lb, shell with a charge of 25 lb. of M.D., diam. of cord o-2 in.,

gives a muzzle velocity of 2650 f/s with maximum What

muzzle velocity and maximum

pressure of 16

pressure

may

For the 6-in. a we have-—~

= 1600

S=250

Gi=74

Wi =0:463

L=0-2

L, =0:033.

M =25

M,=0-156

V =2650

P=16

From, (1) and Table L— V=K, C,-0% $2

W,—04

M06

[L,— 015

Taking logarithms and rearranging, log. Ky=log. V+0-25 log. Gi+o-6 log. 1/Mi1—0-2 log. S; -0+4 log. 1/W,—0-15 log. 1/Ly

whence

log. K,=3+524. Similarly from (2) and Table IT.— P =K; Git

Wies M'e L, 2%

whence log. K,=2 -645.-

j

Here V’=2500 for M’==12, and we have to find V” for M” =ọ

¥, = (3)

from

y

we have

M’

\0?

yen (5) aceasta ras

vr

Therefore

$1416

W =100

(8) wy!

As an example—a gun gives m.v, 2500 f/s with full charge 12 1b. M.D.T., what will the m.v. be with a 3/4 charge of 9 lb.?

be

expected from a 5-in. gun, chamber capacity 600 in., shot travel 140 in. with a 55-lb. proj. shell and a charge of 10 lb. M.D., diam. of cord 0-12 inches?

i

y

y

Trl

„An example to illustrate the uses of these tables will now be iven; = :

ton/in?.

Again if we

are dealing with differences in weight of both charge and shell we may empoy l

07

VS

aed = 2050 f/s.

When the variations in the data are comparatively small the

monomial formulae may be replaced by a simple percentage approximation which will give sufficient accuracy while reducing the calculations to little more than easy mental arithmetic. The following tables derived from the indices already employed with the

monomial formulae give the information necessary for such per-

centage calculations.

1 The density of loading is defined as the “ ratio of the weight of

the charge to the weight of a volume of water just sufficient to fill

the chamber.” This is given by 27-7 M/G. The greater the density of loading, the less the “ initial air space ”’ (the volume of the chamber not actually occupied by the grains of the charge).

2 These indices are suitable for ordnance. For rifles they require considerable modification, see Hardcastle ‘* Monomial Formulas for Pressure and Velocity for Ordnance and Small Arms,” Royal Artillery Journal, vol. xlii.

BALLISTICS

386 ‘Taare IMI. Percentage

Chamber Capacity.|

alteration

in muzzle velocity due to an 410% it—

ae of] j]Weight Shot Shell. Travel.

. of Weight Charge.

alteration

of

Least | Asean oe

in these conditions, will have an important influence on the behaviour of the individual rounds, and on the dispersion of a group of rounds fired from the same gun at the same elevation, ‘These initial conditions are determined by what happens as the

shell travels up the bore and at the moment it leaves it, and it is therefore appropriate to touch on them here. . Thus, if the shell leaves with a large initial “ yaw ” (inclination 25% | +2% | —4% |M.D.T.47%|M.D.1.-3% of the longer axis to the direction of motion of the centre ofN.C.T. 46% N.C.T. -3% gravity), the range will in general be less than that which would M.D. +6% M.D. —1:5% be obtained if the initial yaw were small. Again, from the point of view of dispersion, even although all the shell were equally TABLE IV. Percentage alteration in maximum pressure due to an alteration of steady, the greater the round-to-round variation in the muzzle +20% in— velocity, the greater would be the dispersion in range. From the point of view of accuracy, as measured by the small Chamber . Weightof| © Weight of Least Dimension dispersion of a group of rounds fired at the same elevation, the Capacity. Shell, Charge. of Grain. round-to-round variation in the initial conditions should be as small as possible. As far as regularity in muzzle velocity is conM.D.T.—10% +6% M.D.T. +18% M, D.T. —14% cerned, the charge is a main factor, but the driving and and the N.C.T. -11% N.C.T. +16% N.C.T. ~ 143o state of the bore also have an effect. M.D. —1rs5% | M.D. +16% | M.D. * —8:5%. Example. A gun gives m.v. 1680 f/s for max. press. 15-5 ton/in® with a charge of 20 Ib..N.C.T, What decrease in charge will give a velocity of 1660 f/s, ancl what will be the corresponding pressure? A change from 1680 to 1660 f/s is a decrease of 1:19%. From. Table II]. a decrease of 10%, in weight of charge will decrease m.v.’ 6%. Therefore a decrease of I-19% will correspond to a decrease in weight of charge ofeen

=1-98 % or 0-396 Ib.

Considering the charge, the constituents of this should be, in

the first place, as homogencous as possible, both as regards composition and dimensions. Further, for the same shape of grain

the longer the travel of the shell before the charge is completely consumed, the more sensitive is the muzzle velocity to variations

in size, etc., so that the further back the charge can be burnt the ‘better, or the smaller the size that can be used the better. This

is of course limited by the muzzle velocity required; the smaller From Table IV. 10% decrease in charge decreases P by 16%. | the size the less muzzle velocity can be obtained for the same Therefore 1-98 % decrease in charge decreases P by 3-16 % 0-49 maximum pressure. . ton/in2 Hence the maximum pressure for V = 1660 f/s will be about When we come to consider the degree of steadiness with which 15 ton/in? For the experimental determination of any of the indices, say the the shell leaves the muzzle and the variations in this, while there velocity index mf, we require a series of firing results im which the is no question as to its importance, the conditions which govern corresponding quantity M has alone been varied, und the muzzle it and their relative importance are by no méans well established. velocities recorded. The shell has to be given rotation, by means of the rifling The logarithms of the corresponding values of V and M are then plotted as ordinates and abscissae and a straight line fitted to the grooves, in order to maintain an cnd-on position in its subpoints as closely as possible. The slope.of this line, as measured by sequent flight, and, in the first place, it is clear that it must be the tangent of the angle which it makes with the axis of M, gives the satisfactorily centred when rammed home, and that the design value of the index. of the rifling grooves and driving band must be mechanically Asanexample fig. 3 shows the plotting by this method of a number of firing results for a certain gun with different weights of charge, suitable for imparting the rotation in an cficient manner. Further all the other particulars being kept the same. The firing results plotted were:

M lb. |) 6-42

ae Top | 8O

uo

| 10°25

IT-0

1222 1071 1164 BIG 865 959 991 The points obtained are shown by small circles. It is then evident that a straight line as shown on the diagram can be drawn which will pass very nearly through all the points, The best straight line could be determined mathematically by the “ method of lcast squares,” but in practice all that is necessary isto take a piece of thin black thread and move it about on the diagram estimating the best position by eye. Drawing the best straight line determined in this simple manner we can read off the index m, In

V ffs

the present case we thus arrive at the result that #=0:7, so that

V vV

wy” M”

we have as possible influences on the conditions of emergence, the effect of the blast of the gases as they are released at the muzzle, and the effect on the shell of the vibrations of the barrel. As to the former the violence of the blast effect will depend on the muzzle pressure, and the gencral practice is to keep this as low as possible so as to decrease the chances of trouble from this cause. As to barrel vibrations, although some experimental work has been done in the case of rifles, there is very little really known as to the behaviour of ordnance in this respect, and their influence

on the state of departure of the shell. It is a matter which un-.

doubtedly calls for research, but the experimental and theoretical investigation bristles with formidable difficulties. Bibliography.—A list of some recent works and papers on the | subject is appended, It is not intended to be complete but covers a good deal of ground, and may be useful in suggesting a course of reading which might be undertaken by anyone intending to study the subject seriously. G. Bianchi, Noztent Fondimentali di Balistica, Interna (1914, 2nd. ed., revised by G. Madaschi); P. Charbonnier, Balistique Intérieure (1908); Desmaziéres, * Note sur létat actuel dela balistique intérieure,”’ Revue d'Artillerie, vol. 85, Apriland MayJune 1920; Gossot and R. Liouville, Les Effets des Explosifs (1919);

A. G. Hadcock,

“ Internal

Ballistics,” Proceedings of the Royal

Saciety, A, vol. 94, London, 1918; G. Sugot, “ Les Formules de Charbonnier,” Memorial de VArtillerie Navale (1913); W. IL

Tschappat, Text Book of Ordnance and Gunnery 987), RH)

IE. EXTERIOR Baruistics. . Previously to the World War, and under the practice In vogue in 1910, guns proper were used | only in direct fire at elevations below 20 degrees. Tire from guns, howitzers or mortars, above 15° elevation was known as high | angle fire, and fire from howitzers at angles of elevation below 15° Connexion between Interior and Exterior Ballisties— When the was known as curved fire. Howitzers were fired at elevations up shell leaves the muzzle of the gun and starts to describe its to 45°: mortars were used at angles of elevation up to 65°; but trajectory it cnters the domain of Exterior Ballistics, but the howitzers and mortars had low muzzle velocities, relatively short. condition in which it leaves the muzzle, particularly as regards ranges, and the maximum ordinates of their trajectories were initial velocity and steadiness and the round-to-round variations comparatively small.

BALLISTICS From 1915, however, the nature of the fighting on the western front called for the development of extreme ranges in all artillery, and the casiest and quickest method of increasing the range of a given gun was to modify or redesign its mount so as to permit the

piece to be fired at the angle of elevation that would produce the maximum, or at any rate the necessary, range.. The method was adopted by all the armies for all calibres of land guns. Furthermore, anti-aircraft guns were designed to permit of all angles of elevation up to go degrees. Thus for the first time it became necessary to have a knowledge of all the elements along the trajectory and not merely of the range, time of flight, ctc., of the horizontal trajectory. Soon aftcr the war started, improvements in projectiles, which had been developing slowly since 1900, began to make themselves felt in still further increasing ranges. Causes which led to New Methods.—-Siacci’s method involves an assumption (see 3.274, Equation §9), which introduces an error,

if an attempt is made to complete the whole trajectory in.a single arc, when the angle of departure is more than 20 degrees. The method of “successive arcs,” based on Siacci (sce 3.275), has been used extensively and has the required accuracy, providing the arcs taken are short, but ‘the method is laborious and has

other disadvantages arising from the discontinuity of the successive arcs. To overcome these difficulties and at the same time

simplify calculations on trajectories, England and France and later the United States adopted the method of numerical in-

tegration of the differential cquations of motion of the projectile as the standard method of solution. In all these countries the best mathematical talent was brought to bear on the solution of

this problem, which in peace-time had received the attention only of a limited number of officers and others connected with the military and naval services and of a few civilians. The outline of the method of numerical integration given

below is that first proposed by F. R, Moulton in the United States, and developed to a high degree by the mathematicians and others associated with him in the study of ballistic problems during the World War. Other methods worked out in England and France, while possessing the same advantages over the older

methods, are perhaps not so simple in their application. Preliminary Assumptions.—Yor purposes of small arc computations, the retardation of the projectile with normal air density at the

gun is represented by

(1)

a

Raw (Hy

where R is the retardation of the projectile,

v, the velocity in metres of the projectile in the direction of its motion. `. dei i vG(v), a function of v, experimentally determined; the retardation duc to air resistance of a projectile of ballistic coefficient =1, moving horizontally at the height of the muzzle of the gun in

air at a temperature of 15° C. and a pressure of 760 mm., 78 % saturated with water.

387

between the retardation and the velocity at each instant. ;

iek

ide,

& oe

an

5

aye

smoothed out by Chicf Engineer Garnier is tabulated with — as an argument, velocitics and retardations being expressed in his tabulated form in metres.

On

the

table

next_page

(p. 388),

of the G Function

Table

IJ. gives

tables, giving 10 log G with the argument metres per second.

Law of Air Resistance--The

by the

gt

100 ; v expressed in

ee ‘The B Function.—The retardation function is sometimes written a B(x), and then BC) is the ratio between the retardation and the square of the velocity.

In those regions and under those conditions

where the ‘ square law ” of resistance holds true, B(v) is a constant.

Figure 1 shows Mayevski’s and Zabudski’s values for B(v) or oe) as compared with Garnier’s smoothed-out Gavre Commission me

`

values.

ay

`

`

r

.

i

v

The tremendous change in the law in the neighbourhood of

the velocity of sound is to ke noted. More recent but uncompleted

FER “EEE Seth EE P ENE PEEP “EEA ‘fle rst IL tet E NS OT HE eee re EEEE EEE PES EE Eee nll ESSE E FE EE SEE EEG eee EEE Pott A Hot F E ` BENTEN HER e HHHH Peed

A]

és CEE

HA

Bae

+

PERSE

ee

Eee

eat

Seer

HeH A

eej pd

10

N

experiments indicate that the disturbance in the vicinity of the

results obtained

from any

mathematical, analysis of the motion of a projectile depend for their accuracy upon the care with which the law of air resistance

has been experimentally determined.

(For a description of the

method and calculations by which Bashforth’s ballistic tables, including the law of air resistance, were determined, sce 3.271, 272.)

abridged

;

the ratio between the density of the air at that altitude and its

C, the ballistic coefficient. `

an

(G is the retardation divided

velocity, for C=1 and at surface air density), bascd on the French

Hy), a function of the altitude y (above the muzzle of the gun);

density at a zero altitude,

G(v) as

In later experiments the same essential methods were

followed with the use of more accurate instruments and with projectiles more nearly of the modern form. Such are the Krupp experiments (see 3.273), and: the Gavre Commission experiments made in 1888. Chief Engineer Garnier has smoothed out the irregularities in the results of the Gavre Commission firings and has thus obtained a law of air resistance which, while not differing essentially in any region from the results of experiments, is of a continuous character. This cannot be said of Zabudski’s law based upon various powers of the velocity. The G Function.—The retardation of the standard projectile due to standard air resistance is put in the form » Gz) for. convenience in numerical integration. The function G(v)-here represents the ratio

velocity of sound may be changed in amount and displaced in position by changes in the form of the projectile. . Density Function.—The air density function H(y) is mtended to represent the normal change in density of the air with height. The

value of the density function here assumed is, (2)

where y is in metres,

H(y) 107,= 0000457

> 3

The coefficient of. y is subject to seasonal

variations, (See Cours de Ballistigue—G. Sugot, 1918.) The density function merely expresses the law of change of density with altitude. It is quite possible to calcalate trajectories in air that do not follow this or any other continuous law, providing we know the density at each height. It is necessary, however, in the calculalion of ballistic tables to follow some definite law in order to make the tables consistent throughout. Seasonal variations and other variations from the assumed law are taken care of. in differential corrections as will be explained below. The Ballistic Coefficient—The ballistic coefficient is represented by the formula,

(3)

w

C=7#

where

wis the weight of the projectile in pounds, d, the diameter of the projectile in inches.

i, a factor called the coefficient of form which accounts for differ-

BALLISTICS TABLE I. a T

log. G, Oo

IO

20 30

40

pasta

? 700 400

77244

7:8655 79462

80025

l

410

420 430

440

log. G,

' 84354

1 Too

v 760

log. G.

: 8008-7151

84415

gro

8-4474 84534

820 830

84594

840

log. G.

1200

8-7238

1210

8:7328 &874I6

1220 1230

87506

1240

90661 90727

90791 90852

0-0912

zo 1600 I16IO

1620 1630

1640

Tog. G. 02282 Ọ@2306

ỌQ2329 92351

92373

3? lea 2000 2100

2200 2300

y Hoo

lbg G. ọğ'2974

6000

03003

G100

Q3I199 93295

6200 6300)

2400

93381

6400

ọ4676

Q-46096 94716

94736

log. G.

8000

9-5043

II000

95568

14000

9-6034

96304

9000 10000 12000 13000

9:5225 9-5399 ỌQ573I 9:5888

50

80453

450

846054

850

87597

1250

90972

1650

92395

6500

94756

15000 = -9-6172

8-0800

460

8-4716

860

8-7688

1260

9:1028

1660

9:2417

2600

9-3531

6600

94776

16000

80

81336

480

84836

88o

8-7873

1280

91137

1680

972459

2800

93659

68o0o

Ọ-4815

18000

81089

47o

8-4776

87o

8-B25E

1320

9:1337

1720

92539

3200

ọ3865

7200

99-4803

22000,

130 140

82217 8-2349

530 540

&5147 &52II

930 940

8:8346 88442

1330 1340

91384 9:1430

1730 1740

1750

92558. 92576

92595

3300 3400

3500

9-3910 93951

93991

7300 7400

7500

-94912 94931

94950

25000

1760

9:2613

3600

9°4029

7600

94969

26000

150

82471

550

85275

950

88538

1350

9-1474

160

8-2586

560

8-5340

960

8-8633

1360

91517

8-8823

1380

170 180

190

&2693

82794

82891

570

580

590

85405

970

8 +5472

980

8-5539

990

200

&2982

600

8-5607

1000

210 220

&:3070 &3154

610. 620

85676 85745

230 240

8-3234 8-3312

630 640

8-5816 8-5887

88728

1370

&89I9

1390

9-1559

91599

9-1639

1770

1780

1790

92631

92648

92665

3100

3700

3800

3900

ọ38r9

1800

9-2682

Joro 1020

89107 &920ọ0

Y4fọ J420

ọIy15 Ọ1752

«=I8IO 1820

ọQ-2699 «92715

4100-4. 196 4200 ỌQ4226

1030 1040

89203 8-9385

1430 1440

9:1788 ọ9-1822

1830 1840

92731 9:2747

4300 4400

9'4254 ỌQ4282

94360 94385 9-4410

83388 B3461

650 66o

270 280 290

8-3531 8360r 8-3668

670 68o 69ọ

&6ro5 &GIığo 8-6255

1070 1o80 1090

II0O

8-9910

1500

92014

1900

9-2838

5000

9-4434

310

83800

7īo

8-6409

IIIo

8:9994

I5I0

9-2044 «=IQIO

ọ2853

5100

94458

320

330 340

83735

&3864

700

720

86332

86488

350

83928 83989

8-4051

730 740

86568 86648

750

86729

350

84113

760

&68Ir

I120

II30 I1I140

91857 1890

89054 89741 89826

1470 1480 1490

9-1922 91953 9-1984

90075

1520

92072,

92100 02128

1850 1860o

92779

4500 4600

1870 1880 1890

92794 ọ2809 ọ-2824

4700 4800 4900

1920

1930 31940

92763

02867

1150

90308,

1550

Ọ2I5§5

1950

ọ2909

5500

04548

1160

00382

1560

ọ2182

1960

92022

5600

94570

370

84174

770

86895

1170

90454

1570

9-2207

84294

790

87065

1190

90594

1590

92257

3090

84354

80o

&7I5I

1200-90661

1600

92282,

2000-92974

400

84234

780

86960

xro

90524

1580

9-2232

ences in air resistance hetween projectiles now used and those with which the air resistance law was determined.

Its value, 1

for the projectiles of the form used in determining the airresistance law, is as low as 0-47 for modern sharp-pointed, boat-

1980

02935

9-2948

92961

5700

5800

5900

04874

9498

Q-5006

95025

95043

9:6429

9-6549

19000 20000

Ọ6662 9-6769

21000

96873

23000 24000

9-7068 9-7159

27000

28000

29000

0-6973

9-7246 9-7331

97412

0-7490

97566

30000

9-7039

31000 32000

9:7710 9:7779

9448I

I530 1540

390

380

5200

5300 5400

8000

Q4835 94854

94309 94335

90153 90232

1970

Ọ2881 92895

7900

ọ4165

250 260

300

1450

7800

94133

9-1678

ī46a

7700

94100

1400

89476 89566

7I100

9-4065

8-9014

85959-1050 &-6ozr Ňo6o

4000

6900 7000

17000

920

92519

Q93715 93769

94796

85084

1710

2900 3000

6700

520

Ọ1289

92479 92499

93598

5io

I13I0

1690 1700

2700

&I9I7

&8I55

91189 9:1240

92438

110

ġ9l0o

1290 1300

1670

490 500

&5oz2I

87967 &806I

ğ1083

$-1552 81745 &2074

890 900

1270

go 100 120

8-4899 &4959

8778

93459

94655

ot Too

6o

7o

2500

log.G

9:4504 Ọ4526

«94592 94613

94634

6000-94655

x’, the horizontal component of the velocity at that point, x’, the horizontal component of the acceleration, y, the ordinate corresponding to x, positive up, y’, the vertical component of the velocity at that point,

tailed projectiles. Its value can be accurately determined for any projectile by working backward from the results of firing.

y”, the vertical component of the acceleration, 0, the angle that the tangent to the trajectory makes with the

vary for the same projectile if fired at different ranges.

Since v is the velocity of the projectile in the direction of its motion,

Such determinations show that the value may and usually docs

The Differential Equations of Motion of the Projectile-—Neglecting

the convergence of the action Jines of gravity due to the spheroidal

form of the carth and also the slight diminution in the intensity of the force of gravity due to the height which modern projectiles reach, we

may

write the differential equations of motion of the

projectile considered as a material point, as follows:— (4) a =—Rcos@=x” (5)

1orizontal,

;

(6)

Cos @=

(7)

Sin @= A

5 y

and if we assume

(8) E =} as the ratio between retardation and velocity, we

ld

may y write a (4) and (5) as follows: T py

2y =—Rsind—g=y"

(0

ya —E yg.

In this form the equations are used in the construction of trajectories by the method of numerical integration. By reference to (1) we sce that,

(11)

E= CO HO) .

In this equation, G is a function of the velocity alone, as given in

FIG. 2..

= x

where, (see fig. 2), x is the abscissa of any point of the trajectory,

positive to the right,

Table I. H is a function of the altitude alone as given by equation (2). Cisa function of the weight and form of the projectile as piven in equation (3). As in the older ballistic methods, C implicitly includes unknown variations from standard conditions in such

quantities as density of the air, moisture in the air, temperature of the air, yaw of the projectile, ie. angle between the longer axis of the. projectile and the tangent to the trajectory.

BALLISTICS However, for the purpose of the construction of ballistic tables,

as distinguished

from range

tables, atmospheric

making the velocities at the end of the first interval, x’ =621-3

conditions are

y'=356-3, and the altitude,

assumed normal and trajectories are constructed with known values of C. In the construction of range tables by the use of ballistic tables

or by direct calculation, changes in air density at the gun are accounted for by a factorA representing the density placed in the denominator of the expression for C, equation (3), and changes in form of head, yaw, etc., by the factor 7, in that expression. As used here the term ‘‘ yaw" means the divergence of the axis of the projectile from the tangent to the trajectory, both on account of initial

instability and of curvature of the trajectory away from the direction

of the axis at a later period. Example of Numerical Integration.—To illustrate the manner in

which equations (9) and (10) may be integrated numerically, we

shall assume an example as follows:

Example 1—A 155 mm. gun fires a projectile having a ballistic coefficient of 3-6, with an initial velocity of 2,400 ft. per second, at an angle of elevation of 30 degrees. To determine the elements of the trajectory, assuming normal atmospheric conditions:— The values of G and H are given in metres-per-second velocity and

365:8 4356-3 Sog 2X4

showing that by a second approximation we have reached a result sufficiently accurate.

Second Interval.—Beginning with the components of the velocity

and the altitude of the projectile at the end of the first interval we

may now proceed in like manner to determine the components of the retardation during the second }-second interval, However, we may shorten the work as we now know not only the values of the retardation components at the beginning of the second interval but

also the amounts

by which they have changed in the preceding isecond. If the same rate of change continues during the second interval we will have for the end of that interval,

E x’ =47-78 —(49-78 —47-80) = 45°82 = —x” Ey’ —g=37-21 — (38-55 37°21) = 35:87= —y”.

metres height respectively, so that all velocities and distances must

be reduced to metres, . Initial Conditions.—At the gun we have -» =2,g00 ft. per second = 731-5 metres per second 0 =ġ=30

x’ =731+5 CoS 30° =633:5

a! = 731-5 sin 30° = 365:3 y =0. Since = is 5351, the value of log. G(v) from the G table is 94515.

Since y is 0, H(y) =1.

tions during the interval as before are:

x’ =609-6, and y’ =347+2. The altitude at the end of the second interval is 3

y=90-3 +50ST? = 178.3. 47-2

|

Using the last values and again computing retardation components we have

E x"=45-94 E y'+g =35°98.

values obtained in the first approximation, showing that.a second approximation is unnecessary in this case. Continuation of the Process.—Using exactly the same methods, it Is

‘6

Ex'= oasis) X633'5 =49-78=

6-

Velocities and altitude computed from these do not differ from the

E = 974515710) $

The corresponding velocities obtained by using the average retarda-

l

Placing logarithms in brackets, we then have

and

;

If we now take these valucs and recompute E x’, E y’+-¢ we find the values 47-80 and 37:21 respectively. In the average components of retardation during the interva! no essential change will be found,

—x"

possible to determine numerically, step by step, the values of y, x’,

y, a” andy”. We might also determine x at each step, but it is not needed in making the step-by-step calculations and is usually more

Eys (9:4515 =a X365°3 «8.74

conveniently determined by a summation of x’ after all the other

values have been determined.

and

E y'+¢=28-74+9-81 =38'55= =y". At the start, then, the horizontal velocity of the projectile is

decreasing at the rate of 49°78 metres per second and the vertical component of the velocity is decreasing at the rate of 38-55 metres per second.

First Interval—First A pproximation.—lf we take a small interval of time, we do not make any great crror in assuming that the retardations during the interval can be based upon the velocity and altitude at the beginning of the interval. Taking a }-second interval, the

change in components of velocity is 12-4 and 9-6 metres respectively,

making the velocities at the end of the first interval, xX=633 5 —12-4 =621-I

y =3658— 90 =356:2.

These velocities are lower than those that actually exist at the end of the interval, since the retardations are based on the components of the velocity at the beginning of the interval, and are consequently higher than the true average values during the interval. Using the velocity figures just obtained, we find the following values corre-

sponding to the end of the first interval,

vw _ (621-1)? -+(356-2) ‘100

100

= 305:8 356:2 =90-2 2X4

Length of Interval.—IiIn the above example it was assumed that the change in x, y, x or y could be found by using the mean of the

values of x’, y’, x” or y” at the beginning and end of the interval.

To do this without making too large an error we must use a small interval or take account of second differences. The choice of length of interval will depend upon the ballistic coefficient, muzzle velocity and curvature of the trajectory at the point considered. If these, in combination, or separately, are such as to cause rapid changes in the

components of the velocity or acceleration, a relatively short interval

should be taken, as t-second in the cxamples above. Otherwise, the interval may be increased to -second or longer, and when second

differences are used, as will be cxplained below, to two or more seconds.

High velocities or low ballistic coefficients usually require smaller

intervals than low velocities or high ballistic coefficients.

It will in

general be desirable to take a shorter interval at the very beginning of the trajectory than at a Jater period. In changing to longer intervals it is most convenient, in the computations, to take twice

the interval just used. As the velocities increase in the descending

branch of the trajectory it may be desirable in some cases to use =5126

metres

Gv) =(9-4464—I0) H(y) = (9-9959 —10)

(from equation (2).)

E g’ = (9'446410)(99959 z6 —10)X62TT _ 47°78 -4464 — —10) (9°9959 109050 ~ — 10) X356°2 6 _ 97,49 E y’ = {94464

shorter intervals again.

If so, half the length of interval just used

should be assumed.

Second Differences.—The length of interval may be increased and the amount of computation materially reduced if second differences

are taken into account in computing all of the functions of 4 as y. x’, y’, x and y” The following table shows the results of further computations on the example discussed above and gives first and second differences of y’ for intervals of one second.

3°6

E y'+-¢=27-39 +981 =37°20. Second A pproximation.—The values of the components of retardation at the beginning of the interval are based on the velocity at the beginning of the interval and are, therefore, higher than the average values during the interval. The values just obtained for the components of the retardation at the end of the interval are based on a velocity lower than the truc one at the end of the interval and are, therefore,

lower than the average retardation during the interval.

Means between these two scts of retardation components are nearer the average values during the interval than either set. The retardations for the 1-second interval based on the mean values are,

49:78 +47:78 L iza = yt 8 T 137 20 =o5= 35°55

2X4

—y"

In determining the value of Ay from the average vertical velocity for the interval between t=2 and £=3, we obtain, if we neglect second differences, = t=3 . Ay =3 -5 he (26919-44 X282) X1 =284. The following figure showing y’ plotted on an exaggerated scale, asa fupction of ¢, illustrates the error obtained if only first differences are used. The area of the figure between f=2 and /=3 is the value of Ay determined by using first differences only, these two as well as ne consecutive points on the y line being connected by a right ine. -

390

BALLISTICS

It is evident that the area of the figure between any two ordinates

TABLE II.—Continued

is greater than if the known y’ points were connected by a smooth

t

x

8

2842:57

10 rE

339400 365923

continuous curve.

Q

y

12

13

14 I5

2 ~ Fria, 3.

3.

4921:54 5405:70

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

5880-96 6115°59 634837 6579°38 6808-69 7036-34 726240

7486:90

7931:33

34

36 38

Ayi=3 = (269-9-+28-2X 3—3+5 X1/12) X1 = 283-7

49

42 44 46 48 50 52

or more generally, since the same process is used in successively evaluating the other functions x’, y’, cte., we may write, n (1 2)

J

Í (Ddi =

n-i

(zta

i

2) h

5644:37

27

It has been shown mathematically that when the points fo, f, te, | 32

etc., are equally spaced the quantity in brackets in the value of Ay above should be reduced by 1/12 of the second difference, making it,

516484

29 30

-28

4

3919-26

417494

£

waa

ts 3

j

to be applied in evaluating

.

longer intervals except at the beginning when no second differences

number of trials are made or a second difference is estimated by

approximate methods.

The integral having been obtained by the methods described, up to any interval, Simpson's rule or other similar method may be used to check the values obtained.

409594

3996-71

4184-51

1:95 1-85 1°77 I70 E65 1:60 1:56

4262"52 4330-16 4387°50 4434-64 4471-67. 4498-67 415572

223-73

1:53

4522:89

X49

4507-83.

10674-27 I1022-0L 11462.25 IIS44gI 1221780 12581-57

20066 197-04 193-15 188-95 184°36 17934

I'51

1-48

448574

1:44 1:49

441264 4301:69

210-38

I-52

20407

L65

17385

167-87

452024

1-57

175 1-87 2-01 219 2+40 2-62

2:87

3°33

15805

344

162-12

11554

11-03

10°83

93:87

10-66

83°38

72-82 62:47 52:22 42:07 32:00 22-01 12-10

10-52

`

2°25

10-40 10°30 10:20 IOI 1003 9'95 9-88

9°82

-7:55

9°75

17:26

Q6%

26-91

9:62

=4603 64-87

949 9:35

—119+52

807-33

1198

11-58 11-27

10461

3747:00

319-31

12°52

149-88

«=— 83-42

1273:82

14-31 13°26

138-1 126-69

9:20

101-65

349045 —136-96 3199:50 —153-92 2875:18 —170-30 2518-77 —185-99 2131-80 200/83 I7VIGIT —214-69

3-1

161443

17:58

15°75

188-73 17498

415335

3968:23

Ey+eg

-03

8-83

8-61 &34 8:03 7°64 7-19 6-06

`

— 227-41

6:05

—238-85

5:38

~248-90

466

6814 =25337

4-28

the values for an additional short interval. For the terminal velocity we have,

fe dt.

In this case a shorter interval is used and a sufficient

3886-64

2:21

y è 220-36

203°73

second, half-seconds from I to 5 seconds, full seconds from 5 to 30 seconds and two seconds from 30 to 58 seconds. As this was so nearly the end of the trajectory, judging from the value of y, a single second interval was next taken to 59 seconds. The exact values of the other elements corresponding to y=o, or the end of the range; are obtained by interpolation. For this purpose it may be desirable to work out

The use of second differences in this manner permits the use of

are available.

2:59

220'72,

207-29

1376572

3489'19

3633°16 376554

2:06

9858-11

59

3333°25

369

237-62

23559 233°69 . 231-88 © 23015 228-47 226-85 225-27

2983'00 316477

3:22 2:87 2-38

216-33 213+40

1026950

4°32

257501

2786-90

59.269 13808-10 157-12 3:47 0 ~—254°49 4°18 It is to be noted that }-second intervals are used from o to 1

The quantities may be arranged in tabulated form as follows:—

Aa

244'53

23975

y

8-04

242-05

8586-89 9016-63

h, the uniform length of the interval

fioe

257°73

= 253*74

219-24

293485 13276-66 13605-98

The application of the formula will give the successive increments

6-41 5'20

SI5131

58

a, first differences of 2 b, second differences of z.

268-22 262-46

222-21

54 where fo(tn) =2ny fo(fn—1) =n-1 ete. # represents the order of the interval, or of the tabulated values -56 of z, a and b.

1004

7709:87

944042

Ex’

28442

27542

4426-91 250-30 4675:66 = 24726

16

19

1

3122-32

18

i7

o

x’

|

For the angle of fall,

vevex'+y’.

“dx dt) dx” a” The results for the end of the range and maximum ordinate are: Range =13808-1 m=15100-7 yd.

Terminal Velocity 299:1 m/s =327.1 yd/s=981-3 f/s w=tan™ 1-61972 =58° 18’ 55” Max. Ord. =4523-15 m. =4946:6 yd. solution of the following example are given in Table II. below:— Example II.—A 75 mm. gun is fired .at an angle of departure of | Range to Max. Ord. = 7538-2 m.=8243'9 yd. 45°, using a projectile of 15 lb, weight with a form factor, i=0-6. Ballistic Tables —Using the method of numerical integration The muzzle velocity is 2,175 ft. per second. Determine the codrdi- | described, we may construct a series of trajectories with the values nates of the trajectory and the horizontal and vertical components of ‘of the muzzle velocity, ballistic coefficient and angle of clevation so the velocity and acceleration, chosen and spaced as to cover the field of guns and ammunition in actual use. By proper arrangement of the principal elements of the Taste II, | trajectories thus determined, it is possible to form tables in con| venient form for use, from which by interpolation we may obtain. }=45° C =2'867 M.V. =2175 f/s =662.94 m/s the important elements of the trajectories corresponding to any given 4 x x Ex’ y ys xEy’-+¢ gun. Such tables have been constructed in France and America.. o o 468-77 43:81 o 468-77 53:61 The American tables, constructed under the supervision of A. A.

Complete Solution of a Trajectory —The results of the complete

4

2 I

«

I3

a 23

115-85

22909

339°85 44823

65833

45808

447'9I

4I1:70

3297

39594 38152

32

142300

35622

43

176826

4

5 6

7

I241'Q9I

1598:29

368-32

345'I1

33493

1933:36

325-60

2250-54

309:23

2552:75

3972

37-88 3614

860-18 1054'50

3

41-70

43821 42896

295'6I

30°13 27:58 25:27

2%18

21:25

1949

17:86 14-94.

12°36

W554

45566

51-28

22738

44312

4909

3377915 443°47

64776

841-63 102587

1201-16

1368-12

For

39790

4166

34204

33:27

The arguments in this table are the ballistic coefficient, the velocity at the summit and the ordinate from the summit, The table gives the corresponding values of x, x’, y’ and £ from summit forward and backward. ;

28-95

gives X, T, Y and the velocity at the summit.

25°37

puting trajectories for use in the construction of these tables, the following assumptions were made:— 1, The earth is motionless.

377-87 35930

3855. 3578

328-98 = 3T-or

31099

182446

28388

2096-18

260-06.

2345:51

The first table is a direct tabu-

lation of the results of numerical integration of trajectories.

470 4515

1527:32

167928

Bennett, consist of two main tables.

431-10 41958

296-09

23902

27:08 22:36

19°79

this purpose it has been found most convenient and economical of labour to assume a ballistic coefficient and velocity at the summit and construct the trajectory forward and backward from that point.

The second table is arranged with C, $ and V as arguments and

Assumptions Made in Construction of Ballistic Tables.—In. com2. There is no wind,

BALLISTICS the H function given by equation (2) and is standard at the muzzle. 4, The action of gravity is uniform in intensity, is directed toward

method of numerical integration, but we must first obtain an explicit relation between AE and ¢’, 7’ and y.

the earth’s centre and is independent of the geographical position of the gun,

391

This set of equations like (9) and (10) may be integrated by the

3, The atmospheric density varies with the altitude, according to

Efect of ihe Variations on E.—Since by eguation (11) E =S= we

Its value g=9-80 metres per second. '

5. The G function is a function of the velocity alone and has the

may write approximately,

values given in Table I.

6. The ballistic cocfficient C is constant and known.

3

Differential Variations.—Range tables for artillery must give the data required to lay the gun to strike a target at any desired range,

E

“GTI

; Again

_ AG =

variation may be in the initial conditions as in muzzle velocity,

and

AH =

the ballistic coefficient may be due to variations in the density of the air at the'gun, variations in the weight of the projectile or variations in the coefficient of form. Again, the variations may be in subsequent

we may write the equation,

not only for certain conditions fixed as standard for that gun, but

also for conditions varying considerably from the standard.

ballistic coefficient, or angle of departure.

Ballistic

tables having been constructed we

may

obtain by

mere interpolation the important variations such, as that in range

caused by variations in the initial conditions. Such variations may then be tabulated in convenient form in the range table.

For variations due to abnormal subsequent conditions, it is neces-

sary to make special calculations,

whether these are to be incor-

porated in the ballistic tables, or merely in the range tables. It would be quite possible to calculate a sufficient number of trajectories under assumed abnormal

subsequent conditions to enable one to

tabulate in ballistic and'range tables the vartations due to changes

in these conditions, but this procedure would require a tremendous amount of work. Furthermore, a variation in, say the range, due to variations in conditions is the difference between the range under the normal conditions and the range under the abnormal conditions. If we deter-

mine the variations by determining each range separately and taking the difference we are introducing the errors in two large quantities

into a small quantity, The percentage error in the latter will, therefore, be large.

In view of these considerations,it has been found desirable to

consider variations in the clements of the trajectory due to variations from the normal conditions -as functions of the variations from tbe normal conditions and to solve the differential equations of the variations, using the same principles of numerical integration as are uscd in the solution of the differential equations of the trajectory. Equations of the Variations.—Taking x and y as the codrdinates at

the time ¢ of the original trajectory of which the differential equations are (9) and (10), let us assume that the codrdinates of the modified trajectory corresponding to the same

time

are x+£&

and

y+n, =

and y representing the variations, due to some cause other than wind, in the conditions under which the original trajectory was

constructed,

Variations due to wind affect the relative velocity between the projectile and the air and, therefore, thé value of E, independently of the variations in x’ and y and will þe considered in a later section.

Under this assumption the coérdinates of the modified trajectory

should satisfy the cquations:

(13) (14)

x” tE = — (EHAE) (x°4t) y+ = (EHAE) (+r) -e

If we combine these with equations (9) and (10), and neglect all terms consisting of products of the small quantities & 7 and their derivatives, and AE, we obtain upon solution for £” and y”

(15) 16

E= EES

AE

qf! = —~ En!’ — AE.

On substitution of the value of E obtained from equation (9), transposition and division byxE!x’,=x" y l

(17)

3,200 3,400

"05209 *0,188

12,000 14,000

0,593 -06637

3,600

'O5171

16,000

+0586

"05145

20,000

"06488

3,800

*05157

4,200 4,400

05136 05128

22,000 24,000

4,600

4,800 5,000

"D121

“O51 14 *0;108

26,000

28,000 30,000

06354 "06332

5,200 -

*O,T04

32,000

106311

5,400

“05102

4,000

5,600

*06996

5,800

"06975

6,200 6,400

06937 "0921

6,800

05897

6,000

6,600 7,000

*06955

-06908 06886

18,000

*06764

"06534

*06446 Dodl A. 06380

BALLISTICS

392

Integration of the Differential Equations of the Variations.—By

using equation (21) with (22) and (26) we make

a step-by-step

numerical integration for any assumed variation.

The system re-

and AR represents the total range effect due to them, we may put approximately

`

(28).

AR=wARi+maRr+.

wine eee PUR ARG

quires a separate integration corresponding to each assumed variation of conditions in each trajectory. It is always assumed that the

original trajectory has been constructed and that we know its elements. The integration may proceed forward or backward from any point, as at the muzzle or the end of the trajectory, where we

know or may estimate the values of disturbing variations and the effects produced hy them. Bliss’s Method.—As may be inferred, the method for computing differential corrections, just described, involves a large amount of work. A method discovered by Professor G. A. Bliss and improved by Dr. T. H. Gronwall, in which use is made of a system of lincar differential equations adjoint to the linear differential equations of the variations, as given by equations (13) and (14), reduces the work

required to the extent that after the original trajectory

has been

computed, one numerical integration of the system will suffice for

the computation of the corrections for all the variations. The method is, therefore, invaluable when a large number of differential variations are to be worked out. . Tabulated Differential Corrections in Ballistic Tables—Certain

differential corrections are conveniently

tabulated, in separate

‘FAG. 4.

In this equation some of the winds may be rear and others head, $ the terms should be taken with their proper signs, Weighting Factors and Ballistic Wind.—\i we place

(a) Range and deflection corrections for the rotation of the earth as functions of the geographical latitude of the gun, azimuth of the plane of fire, and the three standard parameters of the trajectory, muzzle velocity, angle of departure and ballistic coefficient.

(b) Corrections in range for variations in assumed air density

throughout layers at convenient altitude intervals. (e) Corrections in range for 4 component of wind in the plane of fire, throughout layers at convenient altitude intervals.

(d)

Corrections in deflection for a component of wind at right angles to the plane of fire throughout layers at convenient

altitude intervals. In addition, corrections for variations in initial components of muzzle velocity, and variations. in ballistic coefficient, may be obtained by interpotation in the main columns of the tables. A variation in air density at the gun may be corrected for in this way

AR: “aR, ,_ SR: ct f=_ any

(29)

columns of ballistic or range tables as follows:—

the ratios fı, fn cte., are called weighting factors since they show the

fractional part of the total wind effect that is produced in each zone. Using these factors we may write

i

(30).

R=

utf

t.s..

fn Un) ARo

The factor in brackets is the ballistic wind. It is the wind which, if blowing uniformly throughout the trajectory, would produce the

te range effect that is produced by the variable winds actually owing. En the preceding discussion we have considered only rear or head,

that is range, winds,

Cross Wind.—In the discussion of the trajectories so far given, no account has been taken of forces which tend to move the projectile from the plane of fire. Aside from drift, the principal cause of deflection from the plane of fire is the existence of a cross wind component, While the deflection due to drift is constant for any one trajectory

by determining its effect on the ballistic coefficient and making the for a given gun and projectile and is determined once for all by corresponding interpolation in the table, This assumes that any | experiment, that dut to cross wind varies with the velocity of the change in air density at the gun is accompanied by a corresponding wind as well as with the clevation and azimuth of the gun. If we change aloft according to the law given by the H function. Of the let z represent the distance in metres the projectile is blown from the first list of variations referred to, more will be said below. plane of fire at any instant by a cross wind w, distances and winds to Effect of Wind.—Any wind acting on the projectile in flight may the right being taken as positive, we will have 2’, the velocity from the be resolved into two components: one along and the other per- plane of fire, and z”, the acceleration produced by the component of pendicular to the plane of fire. It is convenient to do this in con- air resistance normal to the plane of fire. The velocity of the pros ene the effects of winds, and we thus have range winds and cross jectifle with respect to the air will be 2’~w. Now it will be sufficiently exact to consider the motion perwinds. Uniform Range Wind.—Corrections due to rear or head winds may pendicular to the planc of fire in the same manner in which we be handled by equations (21) and (22) ahd (26). In using these considered the horizontal motion in the plane of fire in equation (9), equations we must mercly remember to increase or decrease the remembering that the velocity with respect to the alr is 71w. We velocity with respect to the ground by the wind velocity when it is , may then write, desired to get fromthe Tables, I. or IL, the corresponding functions. (31) 2" x E(w). Aside from this, a correction due to wind may Be handied im the Combining this equation with the relation #”=—E x’ from (9) same manner as a correction due to variations in any of the initial we obtain after reduction and division by x”, conditions, air density, etc.

`

Variable Wind.—The direction and velocity of the wind will seldom be uniform throughout the trajectory. The velocity of the

(32)

wind and also its direction near the surface of the earth is frequently

influenced by local causes, such a3 the presence of hills, trees, houses, etc., to such an extent as to give no indication of the true average values during the flight of the projectile. Under normal conditions the wind may change both in direction and velocity as we go up-

ward, Cases in which there is complete reversal of the wind well } within the maximum ordinate of the trajectory are not unusual. The

change in direction may also be accompanied by a change in velocity. In the preparation of range tables it is necessary to correct in some

way for the effect of this Sort of wind. The method usually followed

is to divide the air above the earth’s surface into zones of height, say 250 metres, By observation, the direction and velocity of the wind in each zone are determined,

For any assumed trajectory let ARo be the range correction of a

uniform range wind of I metre per second, acting throughout.

Now,

dividing the trajectory into zones of height (as shown in fig. 4) let AR, be the total range effect produced by a wind of 1 metre per second blowing in the first zone and no wind in the other zones. The

AR, correction

can

be computed

by numerical integration of

equations (21) and (22) to the limits of the zone, using the I metre wind. With the corrections found for that point, the integration Is continued in still air until the projectile again enters the first zone.

With these Jast corrections and the wind again acting, the integration is continued and the final correction AR, determined. In the same manner the correction AR; for a wind of 1 metre per second, acting in the second zone, and no wind in the other Zones, ts determined, We then have _ ARo=ARi FAR: +... 0. FAR, (27)

If u, uz Us ctc., represent the wind velocities in the various zones,

g"

|

x’ — x"

g

x

welt

Se Ee

Upon integration from. 0 to # this becomes, ( 0 wee | 33)

LO

x”

or

oe

4

(34)

us

z.

z ae

(:

Integrating again we obtain, |

(35)

‘x? )

r a E

sew(1-3)

which makes thé total deflection at the end of the trajectory, w =wT— 5 —X. (36). Z=wTIn this expression w T is the total motion of the air with respect to the ground in the time of flight T. The deflection of the projectile

w Far js less than the motion of the air by the amount xi which is the deflection at the total range X that would be caused by a change of azimuth by the angle whose tangent is = Cross wind weighting factors and the ballistic cross wind are determined in the manner described for range winds. Effect of Curvature of the Earth.—While in the example of the numerical integration of a trajectory given above, and also in the of the earth is of ballistic tables, the effect àof curvature construction .

not taker into account, it would be quite possible, still retaining

393

BALLISTICS the system of rectangular codrdinates with the x axis horizontal and the y axis vertical at the gun, to take account of the effect of curva-

ground following the normal law, and the sum of the products for all

the zones is taken, we have the ballistic air density. Effects of Temperature Variations.—The temperature of the. air ture, both as it affects the direction lines of gravity and the height of site. Corrections due to curvature become tmportant only at long affects both its density and its elasticity. In so far as it affects ranges and then the most important is that due to height of site or density, corrections in ballistic results, due tochanges in temperature, the curvature of the earth away from the x axis. The correction - are accounted for by the density correction, and when once the density is known no iurther reference nced be made to temperature. angle at the gun due to.curvature is one-half the angle at the centre The effect of temperature on the elasticity of the air is in addition to of the earth subtended by the range. Correction for Rotation of the Earth.—H a projectile is fired due and almost independent of its effect on density. Elasticity of the east or west at the equator, it has, at the muzzle of the gun, not only air may be measured by the velocity of sound therein. This is theinitial velocity with respect to the earth but also the velocity of known to increase as the square root of the absolute temperature the earth at that point. If the motion of the earth were one of and is only slightly affected by density. In fig. 1 of the B curve above, note was made of the disturbance translation alone, this fact would have no effect on the trajectory: in the neighbourhood of the velocity of sound. If the velocity of but since the earth rotates around its axis and the rising projectile sound is moved to the right or left on the V-axis by a change of gets further and further away from this axis, an effect is produced upon the trajectory. This may be made more plainly evident if we temperature, the B curve will be similarly displaced and hence the assume the projectile to be fired vertically at the equator. With a E function used in equations (9) and (10) will be changed. With the quadratic resistance jaw, the B curve would be a right line parallel motionless earth or one moving in right lines the projectile would

fall back to the point from which it was fired. With a rotating carth

the projectile has, at the muzzle, the vertical velocity given it by the

gun, as well as the horizontal velocity of the earth’s surface; as it rises it retains the latter velocity at all heights which it reaches, If we now consider points on that radius of the earth which passes through but above the muzzle of the gun we readily see that they have horizontal velocities due to the rotation of the earth in excess of those of the projectile at corresponding heights. It is evident, therefore, that the projectile will Jag behind this radius and will fall to the carth west of the gun. A similar range correction will exist if the gun is fired east or west at the equator at any angle of clevation, The value of the correction is proportional to the angular velocity of the earth and the diameter of the equatorial section and depends

besides upon the elements of the particular trajectory. If the gun is fired along a parallel of latitude we have a somewhat

similar condition, differing principally in that the velocity of the earth’s surface is now ‘less in the proportion cos /, where ? is the latitude.

Now if the gun at the equator were fired along a meridian,

the correction just referred correction but would become at any point of the earth it corrections due to the causes

of the form

to would no longer exist as a range a deflection correction. For a gun fired may be shown mathematically that the above may be represented by functions

For range, For deflection,

Acos/l sina D cos / cos @

where / is the latitude, a is the azimuth of the plane of fire measured from the south through the west, and A and D are functions whose

yalues depend upon the trajectories.

The above corrections for both range and deflection arise from the lag of the projectile behind the surface of the earth due to its greater distance from the centre of the earth. Another consideration which gives rise to an additional deflection is the change in the velocity of the earth’s surface with latitude. A projectile fired from the pole will be displaced by an angular amount depending upon the time of fight and hence by a lateral amount approximately. proportional to

to the V-axis, and no change would be caused in B, G or E by a

change of temperature.

;

.

‘Trajectories used for ballistic table data are worked out for normal

temperature : 157C.=s9°F, =288°A., and are so tabulated. Standard: Temperature—It would be more logical if trajectories were worked out under some law of temperature gradient, similar

to that assumed for the density gradient, equation (2). Taking account of the “‘ gas law” derived from Boyle's and Charles’ Jaws, the density law given by equation (2) and the theorem of static

equilibrium which requires the difference in pressure at altitude y and sea level to be due only to the weight of the intervening layer,

A Ae Bennett has arrived at the following formula for temperature aloft:— °C.= 50-35 X10 ‘Moy Temperature {SF, =122—63 X 10 y

This represents fairly mean midsummer temperature in the United

States. For mean midwinter temperatures subtract 12°5° C, =22'5" F. throughout. Corrections may be worked out to enable one to pass

from the tabular data, based on constant temperature, to data based on the temperature gradient given by these equations. Rotation of Projectiles —Thus far we have considered the motion as merely that of a material point, or at any rate we have taken no account explicitly of the change in the air resistance which may result from the oblique presentation of an clongated projectile. If projectiles were spherical, as formerly, there could be but one presentation or one section exposed to air pressure, though the projectile might rotate in any direction. : i Modern projectiles are given a motion of rotation by the rifling to prevent them from tumbling end over end and thus meeting with vastly increased and irregular air resistance. A projectile so designed

as to place the “centre ’ of pressure in rear of the centre of mass,

would doubtless travel head-on without having rotation. Attempts have been made to design such projectiles with some success as far

the ability to travel head-on is concerned; but it has always been the product of the time of flight and the range. For a latitude / the | as necessary to increase the total head-on resistance, by the addition of deflection due to this cause is equal to that at the pole multiplied by a tail or similar device, to such an extent as to make them infcrior to sin / and may be represented by _ projectiles stabilized by rotation. Projectiles of this type are now sin /, as bombs to be dropped from aircraft but are not fired from A rough valie of Bis OXT, where & is the angular velocity of the used uns. earth. The total displacements due to rotation of the earth are, Yaw of the Projectile—It has been determined by experiments therefore, given by the following equations:— that clongated projectiles do not always make round holes through (37) ‘Range displacement, AX = —A cos! sin a cardboard screens called “ jump cards” placed at short distances

(38)

Lateral displacement, AZ =B sin /+-D cos / cos a,

where A, B, and D are computed by integration from the data of each trajectory. It is in this way that range and deflection corrections for the rotation of the carth are worked for incorporation in ballistic tables, If air resistance is neglected the values of A, B, and D may be worked out without integration and are:—

4

A— QXT (cot w=} tan ¢

Go B- 2XT ) 42) D-3} 9XT tan ġ. Since A changes sign at cot w—cot ¢ (in vacuum) or at ¢-~60°, it follows that for this angle of departure in vacuum there is no range correction for rotation at'any latitude or azimuth. owever, the resistance of the air markedly affects both range and deflection corrections due to the earth's rotation, and the approximate equations (40) to (42) applicable to trajectories in vacuum are

not adequate for these corrections with long trajectories. Variations from Standard Airy Density—In case the observed air density does not follow closely enough the assumed law of equation

(2) we may divide the air into zones of height, as for variable wind,

in front of the gun, By placing a sufficient number of these cards, it

is found that the holes change in regular cycles, from greater to less and again to greater elongation. For a given round, certain positions

of the jump cards, if thickly spaced, give holes of the greatest

elongation, corresponding to ihe maximum yaws of the projectile, and certain other positions give holes of the least elongation corresponding to the minimum yaws. If jump cards are placed from near the gun up to 500 or 600 yd. from it, it will be found that the maximum yaws will diminish in value, the first one that appears in front of the gun being the greatest. By yaw is understood the angie

between the direction of motion of the centre of gravity and the axis of the projectile.

i

i

In the Aerodynamics of a Spinning Skell py R. H. Fowler, E. G.

Gallop, C. N. H. Lock and H. W. Richmond, F.R.S. (Phi. Trans., series A, vol. 221), the authors present a very complete analysis of

British jump-card experiments conducted by them. While the existence of initial instability of projectiles had long been known, knowledge of its laws and its effects on drift range and accuracy were vague, prior to these British experiments made in 1918.

Causes of Yaw.—A projectile fitting perfectly in the gun and havand determine air density weighting factors and a ballistic air density. The range correction for a variation in air density ing the centre of gravity of every cross section on the axis of figure, of, say, 10% from the normal is first worked out, it being assumed | will move in the direction of that axis after leaving the muzzle, that the law of air density given by equation (2) holds throughunless some force should start an angular motion of the longer axis. For the short distance with which we are here concerned the effect of out the trajectory. The partial corrections due to the same percentage variation in cach zone are then worked out. The ratios ` gravity in curving the trajectory away from the axis is neglected. A projectile not fitting perfectly, or having its axis of figure not coinof these partial corrections to the total correction are the weighting cident with its dynamic axis, will yaw.slightly in the gun. On leaving factors. When the weighting factors are multiplicd by the observed densities in corresponding zones, corrected to their value at the the muzzle it may reccive an additional yaw from the powder

BALLISTICS

394

pressure against the base when the frònt bearing is unsupported, from the jump of the gun and from the powder blast.

Furthermore, at this point the air resistance begins to act in

retarding the projectile. “The action line of the resultant air pressure

on a yawing projectile intersects the axis at a point in front of the centre of gravity. The resultant air resistance, therefore, exerts a moment around an axis through the centre of gravity, in such a

Orientation of the Yaw.—The plane of yaw contains the path or

the centre of gravity and the axis of the projectile. The orientation

of the yaw is the angle between this plane and the vertical plane

containing the path of the centre of gravity. Jt is determined by measuring the angle between the traces of these two planes on the jump card. The precessional motion consists of rotation of the plane

HER e

direction as to increase the yaw. Wethén have a motion similar to that of a spinning top or gyroscope when an angular motion is given to the axis of spin, except that we have in addition a rapid motion of the centre of gravity. In other words, the projectile has a motion of translation accompanied by precession and nutation, The motion of the point projected on a plane through the centre of gravity and normal to the

trajectory, describes a rosette, as shown in fig. $.

Se eia

Pa EERE EEGEEr E eels 2

3

4

6

8

7

9

B

ig

Fic. 6,

of yaw around the path of the centre of gravity, while the motion in.

nutation consists of oscillations around an axis through the centre of gravity normal to the plane of yaw. |

For a. small yaw not accompanied by nutations the rate of change

of orientation 1s, a

AN

2I The motion in nutation causes abrupt changes in this rate in the neighbourhood of the minimum yaws.

Damping of the Yaw.--Reduction in the yaw of the projectile, as it proceeds down: the range, 1s principally due to the following factors: (a) The component of the air resistance normal to the direction

of motion of the yawing projectile causes motion of the centre of gravity in the direction of the yaw. The effect is a virtual reduction in the yaw accompanied by a helical motion of the centre of gravity; (b) the resultant angular motion of the axis of the projectile due to precession

and

nutation

sets up an

air-resistance

couple

which

opposes that motion, and which is quite distinct from the air-resist-

Condition of Stability.—lf the spin is insufficient the air moment

may cause the projectile to tumble. The condition of stability may be expressed by the following equation:— A? N? s= ; 4B u where ô, is the stability factor.

Its value must be greater than 1:0 if the projectile is not to tumble, and not lower than 1-5 or 2-0 for modern projectiles, if excessive yaws are to be avoided, A, the moment of inertia of the projectile about the axis of spin, B, moment of inertia about an axis at right angles through the centre of gravity, N, me velocity of rotation about the longer axis in radians per second, U, sin ô, the moment of the air resistance around an axis through the centre of gravity at right angles to the longer axis when the yaw is 4,

` The value of 6 depends upon the air resistance, but is nearly in-

dependent of a for small yaws.

ô, the angle of yaw. , By an analysis of the results obtained in British and American jump-card experiments, R. H. Kent has determined that the value of the first maximum yaw outside the gun may be computed in terms of the stability factor and the yaw inside the gun by the following equation:

E 2I A

14

—

$

where a is the first maximum yaw e. the yaw in the gun.

Figure 6 shows the values of a; in terms of s for a value of ing and €=0%2, It appears from this relation that the maximum yaw in front of the gun is principally due to the yaw in the gun, and that it is very little affected by the pressure of the powder gas, during the time the

projeti: is emerging from the muzzle, by the jump of the gun, or y the blast in front of the muzzle.

finally to reduce the yaw; (c) as the velacily of the prajectile de-

creases, the air resistance also decreases.

The consequent reduction

in the air-resistance moment on a yawing projectile causes a reduction in the maximum yaws.

Effect of Yaw on Range and Accuracy,—The resistance of a yawing

projectile is very much greater than that ofa projectile moving in the

direction of its axis.

Experiments made by G. F. Hull and L, J.

Briggs in an air stream indicate that at a velocity of 200-300 metres

per second the head-on resistance of a projectile of modern form yawing 15° is two to two and one-half times that of the same projectile moving in the direction of its axis. A considerable yaw in front of the gun will, therefore, cause a rapid reduction in the velocity and a reduction in range. It is. readily seen that a variation in initial yaw between rounds

will cause bad range dispersion. The same is true of dispersion in deflection. It may be stated that irregularity in initial yaw, whatevel may be its cause, forms one of the principal factors in dispersion of fire. Drift.—As the projectile proceeds along the trajectory, its axis tends to remain parallel to its original direction at the gun. Since the effect of gravity causes the trajectory to curve toward the earth, there is a gradual increase in the angle between the axis of the

projectile and the trajectory.

This yaw, due to gravity, is quite

distinct from the initial yaw described above and does not begin to

have an important effect on the flight of the projectile until after the greater part of the initial yaw has been damped out.

e J~

ance moment which causes the main part of the initial maximum yaw. ‘The effect of the couple is first to damp out the nutations and

A yaw having been developed by gravity,

moment

x sin s, tending to rotate the spinning

the air-resistance

:

projectile in the

plane of yaw, causes motion in a plane at right angles. The effect

with right hand rotation of the projectile, is to cause the point of thẹ

projectile to move at first to the right of the plane of fire and at a later period downward‘ the projectile being bodily displaced by the component of air resistance acting normal to the direction of motion, on the side presented by the yaw. The initial instability and the drift are phenomena of ike nature. While the initial instability is caused bya suddenly applied yaw, or a high rate of change of yaw, and is accompanied by a rapid motion in precession and nutation, the drift is caused by the gradual yaw due to the action of gravity

on the projectile, and is accompanied by a very much slower motion

in precession without nutation.

(W. H. T.)

BALLOON---BANCROFT, SIR 8S. BALLOON: sec AERONAUTICS.. BALTIMORE (see 3.288).—The pop. of Baltimore, the 8th city of the United States in number of inhabitants, increased in the decade rgq10-20 from 558,485 to 733,326, of which number 108,390 in 1920 were negroes as compared with 84,749 in 1910.

The 31-4 % increase in the total population represented in part a normal growth or one caused by the establishment of new industries, and in part an annexation (Act of Legislature of 1918) of 63.13 sq. m. containing several thickly settled manufacturing districts.

This accession of territory increased the taxable basis

of the city from $915,433,444 in 1918 to $1,086,349,852 in r920. Manufactures—In 1914, Baltimore ranked 11th in the value ofits manufactured products and 8th in the average number of industrial wage-carners among the 130 leading American cities. The capital

invested in its manufactures was $177,301,000; the value of its output was $215.171,530, and its wage-earners In manufacturing plants

numbered 73,769. There were 21 industries which exceeded million dollars in value of product; the clothing industry led products valued at $44,482,136, while copper, tin and sheet ($18,842,186), printing and publishing ($10,283,775), cars

one with iron and slaughtering and meat

gencral shop construction ($10,038,911), packing ($9,503,883), and canning and preserving

($7,789,125)

Supply Loan $15,000,000; the Port Development Loan $10,000,000; the Municipal Hospital Lean $750,000.

Finance,—Fifty-scven Baltimore banks and trust companies. exclusive of private banking firms showed Jan. 1 1920 ageregate

resources of $522,783,000 and deposits of $414,453,000, In 1919 Baltimore was the 11th city in the country in bank clearings with a

total of $4,343,446,572, a gain of 29-4 % over the preceding year and of 91-6 % over 1917, iducation.-~Notable progress was made by Johns I[opkins University in the decade 1910-20. The public library system of the city (the Enoch Pratt Free Library) which in 1910 had one central

building, 12 branches and two stations. reported in 1920 the erection of six additional branches, and that plans had been accepted for the erection of four more branch buildings, Religion, Charity, Iospitals~—In 1916 there were 494 religious organizations in Baltimore owning 455 places of worship, and church

property valued at $16,167,350.

The total church membership was

296.599, approximately one-half the population, In numbers the Roman Catholic Church Ied with 137.730 members (100.397 in 1906), and following it in the order named came the Methodist Episcopal Church 30,217 (24,605 in 1906), the Baptist Church (Nationa! Convention, Coloured) 24,648 (16,081 in 1906), and the Protestant Episcopal Church 17,209 (16,812 in 1906). In 1975 all the charitable agencies formed an administrative association, the

Unofficial figures (Board of Trade,

Baltimore Alliance of Charitable and Social Agencies, which coördinated the work of the individual organizations.

new Industries and 134 expansions of old industries increased the number of persons employed by 39.850 and added $72,612,200, or 40%, to the manufacturing capital of the city. This great increase may be attributed to differential freight rate on goods from the west,

J. Barry Mahool, Democrat. From 1911 to 1918 the mayor, James H. Preston, and the City Council were Democratic. A

deep-water

but the City Council continued to be Democratic,

followed in the order named.

Baltimore City) showed that from June § 1919 to May 31 1920 100

manufacturing

sites,

steamship connexions,

and foreign, and abundance of labour.

coastwise

Baltimore is a popular city

with labour because in normal times its markets are notably cheap,

and the continuance in Maryland of the ground-rent system makes possible the purchase of homes by labouring men on casy terms.

In

1919 permits were granted for the construction of 3,700 two- and three-storey dwellings. Six hundred building and loan associations make it possible for labouring men to purchase easily houses of this type without hardship. h i

History—The

mayor of Baltimore from rooy to rọrr was

Republican mayor, William F. Broening, was clected in 1918, In the World

War the Baltimore militia organizations, the 4th and sth Maryland Regts., were combined with the rst Maryland to form

the 115th Inf., U.S.A.; the Md. F.A. (3 batteries) became the and batt, of the rroth F.A.,U.S.A. Several smaller units followed these into the zoth Division and were trained at Camp McClellan, Ala. The infantry units of this division saw service

Commerce. —As an export port, Baltimore advanced notably in | at the front in France. Sixteen thousand five hundred men were the amount of its business. In 1908 its exports amounted ta $$2,113,- - raised by selective draft. Many of these received their training 406; its imports $23,722,045. In 1918 the total value of domestic at Camp Meade, Md., and saw service at the front with the 7oth

exports was $300,144,0I11;

In 1920 $381,532,145. Its imports! in 1918 were $35,982,665, and in 1920 were $69.885,165. In 1918 it exported 51,085,209 Ib. of bacon and ham; 156,141,175 th. of copper; 10,408,382 bus. of oats; 17,158,200 bus. of wheat and 76,879,176 Ib. of leaf tobacco. In 1919, ils wheat exports had increased to 25,501,321 bus, and its leaf tobacco to 149,529,865 pounds. Its principal imports in Ig1g were copper (22,540,577 lb.), corkwood and waste (7,338,391 lb.) and mineral oi! (200,298,000 gal.). In 1920, 1,809 vessels engaged in foreign trade (tonnage 5,218,089) cleared the port

of Baltimore. : Municipal Improvements —The physical characteristics of Baltimore were much altered during the decade 1910-20. By a paving loan of 1906, and by a special paving tax of 1912, funds were provided for the conversion of a ‘cobblestone city” into one with 210 m. of modern smooth-paved streets at a cost of $9,500,000.

Three

concrete tubes were constructed in the bed of Jones Falls, which had become an unsightly open sewer, and into these the stream and an

additional flow of stormwater sewage were directed and carried through the city for a mile-and-a-half. On top of these tubes a highway was constructed, known as the Fallsway, which relieved the congestion of north and south traffic between the water front and

the up-town railroad yards. At a cost of $23.500,000 the main work of installing a new sewerage system, begun in 1905, was completed

in 1916, A dam at Lock Raven (2,000,000,000 gal. capacity) and a

filtration plant at Montebello for impounding and purifying the

Gunpowder river water supply were constructed. A general ‘City Plan,” although only partly carried out by 1920, provided for the best treatment of all city utilities, streets, harbour, parks, railways, from an artistic as well as from a utilitarian standpoint. A civic

centre was provided and Mt. Vernon and Washington Places, the setting of the Washington Monument, were completely changed in their landscape and decorative features.

A boulevard, almost com-

pletely surrounding the city, connects the several parks. Annexation and Loans.—One of the most important of all changes was the passage in 1918 of an Act of the Maryland Assembly by

which to the 32.19 sq. m. of Baltimore territory were added 51.83

sq.m. of land and 11.30 sq.m. of water, making the total area 95.32

sq.m. and adding about 100,000 persons to the population. At the Nov. clection of 1920, the people voted overwhelmingly in favour of four improvement loans, aggregating $51,750,000, the several items of which were the Public Improvement Loan (schools, sewers, streets and bridges, harbour improvements, etc.) $26,000,000; the Water

' Import figures are for the U.S. Customs District of Maryland, of a 95 /o-

the Port of Baltimore

business represents approximately

Division, as the 313th Infantry Regiment. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—United States Census Reports: Ifanufacture,

7914; Religious Bodies, 1916; U.S. Census Bulletin, Populations Maryland, 1920; Statements on file in Office of Collector of the Port of Baltimore: General Message to the City Council of Baltimore, James H. Preston, Mayor, 1918; Statistics of Baltimore Board of Trade, 1920. (L. C. W.)

BANBURY, SIR FREDERICK GEORGE, 1sT BART. (1850 ), British politician, was born in London Dec. 2 1850. He was educated at Winchester, and afterwards adopted a City career. He entered the Stock Exchange, and subsequently figured in various capacities as a director of companies. He successfully contested

Peckham

as a Conservative

in 1892,

and established his reputation in the House of Commons as a constant critic on business matters and also as an expert in parliamentary procedure. In 1002 he was created a baronet. He lost his seat in the general election of 1906, but was elected a few months later as one of the members for the City of London (reélected 1918). In 1916 he was created a privy councillor, and in 1917 became chairman of the Great Northern railway. BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE (1832-1918), American historian (see 3.309), died at Walnut Creek, Cal., March 2 1918.

He

published in 1909~10 The Book of Wealth and in 1912 Retrospection, Personal and Political, the latter giving an account

of his labours. . . BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE (1841}, English actor and manager (see 3.309), made his last regular appearance on the stage as Count Orloff in a revival of Diplomacy at the Garrick theatre in 1893,

The company were summoned to play before

Queen Victoria at Balmoral Castle

in Oct.

of that

year.

He subsequently only appeared occasionally at special per-

formances, the latest and most notable of which was at His Majesty’s theatre, London, in Dec. 1918 when he played Triplet in Masks and Faces.

His wife, Lapy Bancrorr (1839-1921), died at’ Folkestone, May

22

1921.

She

der her maiden name

had

first appeared

on the stage un-

of Marie Effie Wilton at Manchester

as Fleance in Macbeth and as Prince Arthur in King John as

396

BANDELIER—BANKING BANKING (see 3.334).— I. Unitep Kincpom.—British banking

early as 1847. She made her début in London in 1856 with Charles Dillon at the Lyceum theatre‘as Henri in Belphegor.

during 1910-21 underwent vast changes, not the least of which

Her brilliant career as an actress, from the time when in 1865 she went into management at the Prince of Wales’s theatre, and

was seen in the direction of amalgamation. But even apart from that, the banks had grown in size, in importance, and in the

married Mr. (afterwards Sir Squire) Bancroft in 1868, came to

extent of the territory covered by their branches.

a close in 1885, when she and her husband retired from the stage; but Lady Bancroft reappeared with him in the Diplomacy revival of 1893, and twice subsequently made a single appearance at a special matinee, the last occasion being the benefit per-

period, the great joint stock banks, which had generally been considered ultra-conservative in their methods, threw off to a large extent their mantle of aloofness; they even carried compcti-

formance for Miss Nellie Farren in March 1898. BANDELIER, ADOLPH FRANCIS ALPHONSE (1840-1014), American archaeologist (see 3.311), died at Madrid March 19

1914. His last published works were The Islands of Titicaca and Koati (x910) and The Ruins of Tiahuanaco

(1912),

|

BANERJEA, SIR SURENDRANATH (1848-

in Bolivia

_), Indian ora-

tor, political reformer and journalist, was born Nov. ro 1848, a member of the Rarhi sub-caste of Kulin Brahmans, and the second son of a medical practitioner in Calcutta. Passing for the Indian civil service at the open compctition of 1870, he was posted to Sylhet as assistant magistrate but, at the expiry of two years, was compulsorily retired on a small compassionate pension, on account of a technical, irregularity—a decision since admitted generally to have been unduly harsh. He then opened a small school in Calcutta which soon expanded into the well-known Ripon College. His work as a political reformer began in 1876 when he founded the Calcutta Indian Association, and three years later he became editor of

the Bengalee newspaper. centre of many

In subsequent years he became the

stormy episodes.

Ile was one of those who

established the Indian National Congress in 1883, and presided over the Poona session of 1895 and again at the meeting at Ahmedabad in 1902. From 1876 to 1899 he served on the Calcutta corporation, when he resigned with 27 other leading commissioners as a protest against the changes introduced by the Calcutta Municipal Act. In 1893 he was elected to represent the corporation on the Bengal Legislative Council, and was twice returned to the central Legislature as member for Bengal. He gave evidence in 1897 before the Royal Commission on Indian Expenditure and frequently visited England in connexion with deputations and political missions. Vehemently opposing the adminis-

trative partition of Bengal effected by Lord Curzon in 1905, he supported the boycott of foreign goods and the movement in favour of “ national ” education which arose from the upheaval. He always exhibited, however, a preference for constitutional agitation, and was among the first to welcome the MontaguChelmsford reforms. Severing his association with the Congress, which had passed under “ extremist ” control, he formed an “ Indian Liberal ” organization, and came to London in 1919 to present the case for his party before the Joint Parliamentary

Committee, subsequently accepting office as Minister for Local Government and Sanitation in Bengal. A knighthood was conferred upon him in Jan. 1921. Possessed of a remarkable knowledge of the English language and literature, he had earned

by his eloquence the title of the Gladstone of India. . E (H. E. A. C.)

BANFFY, DEZSO [Desipertvs], Baron (1843-1911), Hungarian statesman (sce 3.315). In 1906 Banfiy, who had joined the coalition in opposition to the Government, broke with it on the military questions at issue with the King-Emperor, which he wished to eliminate, and in 1908 he became leader of the progressive elements and, as president of the Franchise League, began an agitation for universal, secret and equal suffrage (see

13.920, 921). In 1910 he became president of the Reform Club. He died May 24 1911.

BANG, HERMANN JOACHIM (1858-1912), Danish author (sce 3.315), dicd Jan. 29 r912. In i910 a volume of essays appeared, Masker og Mennesker, followed in 1911 by a volume of short stories, Enr deilig Dag. His collected works were published in six volumes in Copenhagen and Christiania (1972). See F, Poppenberg, Nordiske Portrdts—Hermann Bang (1912).

During this

tion into foreign countries which a few years earlier had been thought to be closed to them for the establishment of branch banks. Whether their action is wise remains yct to be seen; for in some cases it was found necessary after a few. years’ experience of forcign banking to form separate companies for carrying out the operations of the forcign branch banks. _ Amalgamations—Amalgamation of banks or of finance houses was, of course, no new phenomenon; it dates back to the days of the old goldsmiths, when it was not unusual for a man to

break adrift from one firm of goldsmiths for the purpose of joining forces with another more enterprising competitor, and slowly, but surely, the desire to strengthen their position by absorption or alliance spread to the private banks and later to the joint stock banks. However, it was not until the period between 1891 and 1896 that we find anything in the nature of a rush to create

bigger banks through the process of absorption or amalgamation. During those five years a very large number of banks in the United Kingdom ceased to be separate entities, and the policy

of amalgamation was steadily pursued up to the outbreak of the World War. There was then a slight pause in what we might call the race for supremacy among the larger joint stock banks; but the great and perplexing financial problems which arose during the war kindled afresh the desire for larger and yet larger banking concerns. Gradually, the lesser banks were drawn into the pool; then important institutions which had previously been regarded as free from the temptation to amalgamate, succeeded in per-

suading their shareholders that the time had come to incorporate their resources with those of the premier banks, and between 1917 and 1919, scarcely a month passed without the newspapers recording the merging of one large bank into another. The earlier absorption of local banks by larger and more widely spread joint stock banks had created little more than passing interest among the public, but the policy of combination between the large joint stock banks themselves, many of them already possessed of enormous funds and branches spread over a wide area, caused a certain amount of concern in various directions,

doubts being expressed as to its being to the public advantage,

and in powerful business quarters the action of the banks was keenly criticized. To investigate the matter a Treasury Committee was appoint-

ed on March 11 1918, and as the result of the deliberations of that committee the Government

were recommended to pass

legislation requiring that the prior approval of Government be obtained before any amalgamations were announced or carried into effect. Further, it was recommended that the approval both of the Treasury and of the Board of Trade should be obtained and that legislation should be passed requiring the two departments to set up a special statutory committee to advise them. These recommendations were carried into effect, and the new statutory committee set up; but cither the objections of this body were easily met, or they found nothing to criticize in further unions, for by 1918-9 almost the entire banking strength of the country had become centred in five great combined institutions, the London Joint City & Midland Bank, Ltd., Bar-

clay’s Bank, Ltd., the London County Westminster & Parr’s Bank, Ltd., the National Provincial & Union Bank of England,

Ltd., and Lloyd’s Bank, Ltd.

The date of the establishment of the London County Westminster

& Parr's Bank, Ltd., is usually given as 1836, though as a matter of fact the London & Westminster Bank, which was the first joint stock bank established in London, was formed in March 1834. The London & County Bank was established two years later—in 1836. The actual date of the formation of Parr’s Bank is not quite certain? there are records of its doing business as a private firm about 100 years ago, but as a joint stock bank it dates back no farther than 1865. Before the final amalgamation, each of the banks had obtained

BANKING a position of ro importance by absorbing smaller banks, and when the London & Westminster Bank amalgamated with the London & County Banking Company, Ltd., in Ig09 it was thought that the matter would rest there. Nine years later, however—in Feb. 1918, to be precise—a further addition to the strength of the combined institutions was made by the amalgamation with Parr’s Bank, and the title of the bank was finally fixed as the London County Westminster & Parr's Bank, Ltd. As the bank now stands it represents six original clearing banks, viz., the London County

& Westminster

Bank; Jones, Lloyd & Co.; London & County Bank; AWiance Bank (subsequently changed to Parr’s Bank); Faller, Banbury & Co., and the Consolidated Bank. In Ireland the London County &

397

National Provincial Union Bank of England, Ltd.

The Sheffield

Banking Co. was absorbed in Dec. 1917 and the Bradford District

Bank on Jan. 1 1919. A year later an affiliation was made with Cox&

Co., the well-known firm of

private bankers who had themselves

amalgamated with Robarts,

Lubbock & Co. as recently as 1914.

Finally, the National Provincial & Union Bank of England, Ltd., absorbed the Northamptonshire Union Bank, Ltd., in 1920. With

its auxiliary bank, Lloyd’s & National Provincial Foreign Bank, Ltd., this institution now represents what were formerly 63 banks.

The resources of the “ big five” were, of course, very sub-

stantial before the amalgamations, and as the following. table

Westminster Bank has affiliated with the Ulster Bank, Ltd., and it also has foreign auxiliaries in France, Belgium and Spain. The total

will show, there had been no diminution up to 1921:—

Midland Bank, and although it absorbed a number of small banks from 1851 onwards, its first great step forward may be said to date

London County Westr, & Parr’s Bk. London City & Midland Bank à

number of banks and. affiliations represented in 1921 was sixty. The rise of the London Joint City & Midland Bank, Ltd., is no less remarkable. It was first established in 1836 as the Birmingham and “rom 1891, when it absorbed the Central Bank of London, Ltd., and

adopted the new title of the London & Midland Bank, Ltd. Then,

in 1898, it absorbed the old City Bank and again altered its name to the London City & Midland Bank, Ltd. Other amalgamations soon

followed, and the principal absorptions were those of banks of such

rovincial fame as the Sheffield ‘ales Bank, and the Bradford

Banking Co., the North & South Banking Co. Further additions

were made by the purchase of the share capital of banks wider afield, and the bank now owns the Belfast Banking Co. and the Clydesdale Bank.

The great amalgamation came, however, in 1918,

when the London Joint Stock Bank, Ltd., which came into existence in July, 1836, was absorbed, and the title of the whole concern was changed to its present one of the London Joint City& Midland Bank, Ltd. As it now stands it represents what were formerly 65 banks, Lioyd’s Bank, Ltd., is remarkable for the series of amalgamations

that have markcd its rise to fame. The real origin of the bank can

be traced back to 1765, although it was not incorporated as a joint

stock bank until 1865. According to repute, it has taken over by amalgamation or absorption more banking concerns than any other similar institution. Including its affiliated institutions and foreign auxiliaries it represents a total banking strength of what were formerly 119 separate banks, Among some of the more important

joint stock banks which this bank has absorbed during its career

TOTAL CAPITAL, RESOURCES & DEPOSITS, 1913 AND 1920

Dee. 31 1913 | Dec.31 1920

London Joint Stock Bank . Lloyd's Bank, Ltd. . .

ever, when the Capital & Counties Bank, Ltd., was absorbed. The Capital & Counties Bank, as it happens, was itself established in 1834 and some six years later commenced to absorb other banks. In fact from 1877 to 1907 it acquired the business of no fewer than 26

other banks.

Its carcer as a separate institution came to an end in

the early part of 1918, when it was amalgamated with Lloyd's Bank,

Ltd. Since then Lloyd’s Bank has absorbed the West Yorkshire Bank and Messrs. Fox, Fowler & Co. of Somerset. It is also closely associated with the London & River Plate Bank and the National Bank of Scotland. Barclay’s Bank, Ltd., has an almost unique history. Until the

393,561,000

98,720,000

369,167,000

X

S

66,940,000 | 351,631,000 118,864,000 | 296,522,000

arclay’s Bank, Ltd. (June 1914)

National Provincial Bank . . Union of London & Smith’s Bank

Just how the paid-up capital of the banks compares with that shown before the principal amalgamations took place will be seen from the following table:— Dec. 3I IQII London City & Midland Bk.

{3,989,238

London Joint Stock Bank

London

2,970,000

Dec. 3% 1920

{6,959 1238

$10,859,800!

5,704,780

8,503,718

County & Westr.

Bank ooe a Parr’s Bank, Ltd. > ee

> | £3,500,000

National

of

Provl.- Bank

2,204,780

ing. BS a oe Fae p38 ne of London & Smith's

Lioyd’s Bank

£3,000,000

3,554,786 6,554,786 |

+t

*

.

«

« | £4,208,672

.

.

Capital & Counties Bank . Barclay’s Bank.

1,750,000

9,309,416

5,958,672

14,137,796

5,000,000

11,760,811

£3,200,000

London & Provincial Bank London & S. Western Bank

800,000 T,000.000

The great upward movement in the amount of deposits held by the

banks may be said to date from 1910; consequently, it will be of

interest to place on record the deposits of the large banks in that year, and those at the end of I921. Deposits or EncutisHh BANKS AFFECTED BY THE AMALGAMATIONS

year 1896 it was simply a private banking house carrying the name of Barclay & Co. Then it suddenly sprang into fame as being the

originator of the amalgamations as we know them to-day. In 1896

[£322,888,000

101,882,000

41,678,000

Capital & Counties Bank, Ltd.

are: the Shropshire Banking Co., the Coventry & Warwickshire

Banking Co., the Birmingham Joint Stock Bank, the West City & County Banking Co., Bristol & West of England Bank, and the Wilts & Dorset Banking Co, The great amalgamation came, how-

|£143,000,000

Dec. 3% 1910 land Bk..

.

;

Dee. 31 1920

the banking world was really taken by surprise by the announcement that Barclay & Co. had absorbed, at one sitting, 15 other private banks and had become incorporated at the same time. From that moment Barclay’s progressed rapidly; the bank soon absorbed other institutions, such as the York Union Banking Co., Bolitho Williams & Co., Stamford, Spalding & Boston Bank, Ltd., and Neville, Reid & Co. The absorption of the United Counties Bank, Ltd., followed in 1916, A further large addition to its sphere of influence came in 1918 when the London & Provincial & South Western Bank was acquired, itself an amalgamation of two large joint stock banks. By this step over 250 branches in London and suburbs were added

London Joint Stock Bk.

£221,635,807 58,456,304 £280,092,111 | £371,841,968

Lloyd's Bank . , Capital & Counties

£174,697,945

Cox & Co. (France), Ltd.

Barclay’s Bank

to its strength, and an interest acquired in the French subsidiary— In 1919-20 Barclay’s Bank extended

its sphere still farther by affiliations with the Union Bank of Man-

chester, the British Linen Bank and the Anglo-Egyptian Bank, thus

giving it a total banking strength of 102 banks.

The last of the “ big five”? is the National Provincial & Union

Bank of England, Ltd. The National Provincial was itself formed in 1833, while the Union Bank of London, though not really established until 1839, can claim through one of its constituent institutions to date back to 1688. The principal absorptions for which the combined institutions have been responsible are: the County of Stafford Bank; Isle of Wight Joint Stock Bank; London & Yorkshire Bank; Briscoe's

Bank; Smith, Payne & Smith’s; Union Bank of London. The Union Bank of London, it is interesting to note, itself amalgamated with Smith, Payne & Smith's,

London,

Smith

Ellison & Co., Lincoln,

Smith, Smith Bros. & Co., Hull, and Samuel Smith & Co., Derby,

and the title was changed to the Union of London & Smith's Bank, Ltd., in 1902. The latter institution was amalgamated with the National Provincial Bank in 1917, the title adopted being the

Ban

London County Westr. Bk. . Parr’s Bank

ae

Nottingham & Notts. Bank

ar

London & S. Western an

:

233,548,467 | 345,028,984

09,227,819

5,723,389

5

i

.

. d_ 36,307,726

National Prov!. Bank Union ef London Bank Bradford District Bank

222,384,905 | 305,380,214.

£129,067,901 -

F

tae a Daal. Bank

58,850,522

& . |: £147,433,697

039

OOA,

£112,780,401 64,833,218

9,317,982

204,170,666 | 327,788,370 186,931,601 | 278,335,365

Concerning the reasons for amalgamation, little need be said. The war undoubtedly drove the leading London bankers to look for increased financial resources, in order to cope with the increased magnitude of the operations they were being called upon to finance. Fashion, the desire to out-bid other institutions, the element of self-preservation, banking evolution, the conven-

BANKING

398

ience and gain to trade to be secured by an extension of bank

That there is no foundation for the accusation, sometimes heard,

arcas—all such factors, however, pulled their weight in what that the country had suffered from the closing of branch banks, is apparent from the fact that in 1890, when the fever for amalgamation during 1918-9 offered to be a struggle for supremacy between the -had not taken so large a hold on the bankers, there were 104 banks

leading institutions. Probably the most naive reason advanced in justification for amalgamation was that of the chairman of one

in existence in England and Wales with 2,203 branches; by the end of

1920, with only 20 banks functioning, the number of branches had

of the great banks, who said that ‘ combination must come.”

grown to 7,257.

This was a new variant of the old petitio principii, “ it is coming because it must come and it must come because it has come.” The remark, no doubt, truly reflected a sense of the inevitability of a further stage of evolution. Even so, to the most casual ob-

strengthen their position and spheres of influence more by working arrangements with other large institutions than by actual union, the number of branches show similar expansion. Scotland in 1890 had ro banks with 975 branches; in 1920 with only eight banks she

server it would seem as if the voracious appetite of the supermen in banking had at last been satiated, for so great had been the absorptions that any further extension of the activities of the big five’? would of necessity be confined to the acquisition of the relatively unimportant private or merchant banks. In a word, amalgamation had spent itself by 1920, since any further fusion of the larger institutions would probably be regarded with suspicion by the general public. As showing how the old private institutions have gone out of existence it may be said that out of 38 private banks which were daing business in 1891, there remained only four in 1921. The latest absorption up to the middle of 1921 was the acquisition in Feb. of that year of the business of Messrs. ox, Fowler & Co., Somerset, by Lloyd's Bank. It was interesting as marking the passing of the last. country bank which had the right to issue notes. Thus closed a remarkable chapter in English banking, for under the provisions of the Bank Charter Act of 1844, the right of issue lapsed on the

amalgamation with Liloyd’s Bank. Further, it marked the accomplishment of one- of the principal aims of the Bank Act of 1844—

that of reducing the private note issues of the country, for they now ceased altogether. In 1844 this note-issuing privileye was enjoyed by 207 private banks and 72 joint stock banks, and although the Bank of England was entitled to increase’ the fiduciary portion of its note circulation by two-thirds of the lapsed issues, the Bank had

apparently not availed itself of the full privilege, for out of the maximum issue of £8,631,000 vested m the defunct barks, the Bank of England had only increased its fiduciary circulation by £7,551,000 of the lapsed issues,

In Scotland and Ireland, where the banks have preferred to

had open 1,283 branches.

nine banks with 456 branches; in 1920, with the same number of banks the number of branches had exactly doubled, the total being

912.

The capital and reserves of the Scottish banks in 1890 was

£14,755,000; cash in hand, at call, ctc., £21,427,000, against deposits

of £91,610,000. By the end of 1920 the capital and reserves had grown to 447,911,000, cash in hand and money at call to £72,974,000,

and deposits to £279,228,000. The capital and reserves of the Irish banks in 1890 was £10,374,000, cash in hand and money at call £9,086,000, and deposits £38,521,000. In 1920 the totals were: capital and reserves, £12,899,000; cash in hand, etc., £46,698,000; deposits, £200,441,000. `° -> Just how great has been the extension of banking in the United Kingdom may be gauged from the following table, which shows the

aggregate liabilities and assets of the banks in the United Kingdom

for the pre-war period, 1913~4, and for the post-war period, 1920-1

and the respective increases involved. The figures for. the Bank of England are included ;— LIABILITIES 1913-4.

Gapiga &

:

Reserves

;

its e a, Deposits . Acceptances

the Bank of England and the private banks, the number of banks had fallen from 111 in 1900 to 41 in 1921, That the resources of the banks have not suffered by this process of absorption will presently be shown, for the question of resources is

an all-important one. In many respects large banks are certainly preferable, because with large resources they are in a position to make advances on a much more generous scale than the smaller concerns,

Moreover, it was clearly desirable that the banks should be prepared to adapt themsclves to the entirely new order of things in the financial world brought about by the war.

Actually, the public would not appear to have suffered from the fusion of the banks, for if we make a comparison of the figures of the

i

131,629,000

Increase.

o 179,979,000 | £

ia

1350,000

; 6,705,000 8,858,000 2,153,000 , f 1,104,330,000 | 2,681,920,000 | 1,577,590,000 67,547,000 109,896,000 42,349,000

Notes, Bills, etc.

54,592,000

194,836,000

140,244,000

LT 364,803,000 1 £3,175,489,000 | £1 810,686,000

ASSETS

As a matter of fact the number of

English joint stock banks was reduced from 106 in 1891 to 20 in 1921, and throughout the whole of the United Kingdom, including

1920-1.

s

Undivided Prof- |" >”

Private banking, then, has found its resting place in the archives of the things that have been, and the lesser lights of English joint

stock banks are not far behind,

Curiously enough, the number of banks

operating in Ireland has not changed since 1890; there were then

1920-1.

Cash in = money at

call, ete. Investments Discounts and © advances Premisesand cov-

Increase.

£ 328,559,000 | £ 708,622,000 | £ 380,063,000

222,690,000 |

771,191,000]

—§48,501,000

735,104,000 | 1,561,337,000

. 826,233,000

cr for Acceptances

.

7

78,450,000

134,339,000

55,889,000

£1, 364,803,000 | £3,175,489,000 | £1,810,686,000

Increase in Deposits —Apart from the capital and reserves,

English joint stock banks (the Scottish and Irish banks, except in a minor degree, were not much concerned with amalgamation), we find that there have been very large increases in capital and reserves: the

which show.what, in the circumstances, must be considered for

ing table will reveal the true position :—

is the enormous Increase in deposits, £1,577,590,000, or 142°8% over the 1913-4 figures. The increase in deposits was common to most, if not all, of the banks during the war period, and after. Various reasons have been assigned for it. Some bankers gravely

ratio of total cash to demand liabilities has risen, and deposits show a striking increase. The ratio of paid-up capital and reserves to deposits has, however, fallen considerably, though the 1920 figures showed that the upward movement had recommenced. The follow-

a

EnciisH Joint Stock BANKS Paid-up Capital and Reserves, 67,826,000 69,213,000

78,847,000

82,010,000

80,946,000 82,068,000

81,904,000 81,731,000 81,089,000

84,475,000

92,901,000 I Keo

Ratio of

Deposits. jE 368,663,000 455,501,000 586,726,000

627,529,000

720,687,000 809,352,000 895,561,000

992,555,000

1,154,877 ,000

1,365,297 ,000 1,583,412,000

1,874,184,000 1,961 527,000

Paid-up

- Ratio of Cash in

Capital hand, at call & Reserves & notice to to Deposits. Liabilities, .

8 19-9

1920-1 the satisfactory increase of £48,350,000, or 36-7% over

the 1913-4 total, the first item which strikes one’s attention here

asserted that many of the balances which went to swell their deposits represented ‘money awaiting employment in trade, but however true that may have been during the trade slump of 1919-20, the true causes during the war were to be found in the inflation arising out of the Government’s war finance; while immediately after the war, bankers were certainly too free with their advances. Each advance had theeffect of adding to the deposits of the same or of some other bank in the country, since when a person raises a loan with a bank the amount is nearly always credited to his current

account. Obviously, then, an increase in bank loans and advances is concomitant with an increase in bank deposits, and as the Bankers’ Magazine pointed out in regard to the war period “ bankers were able to extend their loans in this manner because a large proportion

of the inflated deposits of the war period stili remained with them as additional cash, notwithstanding the large sums which they invested in Treasury Bills or were prevailed upon to lock up in the various War Loans.” Undoubtedly, the increase in deposits was largely due to the immense creation of Government credits, which eventually

BANKING

399

found their way into the pockets of producers, traders and wage-

banks and banking houses.’ The new institution was called the British Trade Corporation, Its constitution and functions were

whenever trade started to revive, the deposits of all the banks would.

(1) To have a capital of £10,000,000. The first issue to be from £2,500,000, upon which, in the first instance, only a small amount

earners, and so on, to the banks. However, by the summer of 1921 the rate of increase in both deposits and current accounts showed signs of slackening, and there appeared to be little doubt that, fall rapidly. l The increase in acceptances calls. for little comment; it was falling steadily in 1921, and showed a decline of over £49,000,000 between 1920 and 1921.

Credit Facilities —Discounts and advances. gave the lie direct to the critics who averred that the assistance of the bankers to

trade was not. what it should be. Discounts and advances together showed the very satisfactory increase of £826,233,000, or nearly tr2-4%, and it proved that even if the bankers were scrutinizing more carefully the applications for discounts and advances in 1921, they were giving very active assistance to the

finance of trade and industry, so far as was compatible with the

precautions they were bound to consider it wise to takc in the interests of their depositors. sc ` Asa matter of fact, difficulties during the transitional period from war to peace were fully appreciated as long ago as 1916, when the Board of Trade appointed a committee to investigate the question of financial facilities for trade. Another committee was also appointed for similar reasons towards the end of 1917. The terms of reference to the latter body mainly consisted of (a) an inquiry into the financial needs of trade immediately after

laid down by the committee to be:— -

a

should be paid up, but which should all be called up within a reason-

able time. A further issue to be made afterwards, if possible at a

premium. : (2) It should not accept deposits at ‘call or short notice. (3) It should only open current accounts for parties who are

propery, to make use of the overseas facilities which it would

afford. i (4) It should have a foreign exchange department where special facilities might be afforded for dealing with bills in foreign currency.

(5) It should open a credit department for the issue of credits to parties at home and abroad. + (6) It should enter into banking agency arrangements with

existing colonial or British-foreign banks wherever they could be concluded upon reasonable terms, and where such arrangements were made, it should undertake not to set up for a specified period its own branches or agencies. It should have power to set up branches or agencies where no British-foreign bank of importance exists. - (7) It should inaugurate an information bureau. | 7

(8) It should endeavour not to interfere in any business for which

banks and banking houses now provide facilities, and it should try to promote working transactions on joint, account with other banks, and should invite other banks to submit to it new transactions which, owing to length of time, magnitude or other reasons,

are not prepared to undertake alone. wet the war and the respect in which these nceds would differ from titey (9) Where desirable, it should coéperate with the merchant and the needs under normal conditions, (b) the provision of financial | manufacturer, and possibly accept risks upon joint account. `.

facilities to’-mect those needs. Briefly, the committee foresaw

that there would be an increased demand for credit facilities during the reconstruction period, and that the character of the

demand would differ from that of normal times in that it would

consist of a greater demand for loans secured upon capital goods, compared with loans secured upon consumable goods. Further, the considered opinion of the committee on financial facilities in

(10) It should become a centre for syndicate operations, availing

itself of the special knowledge which it will possess through its information bureau. p

The British Trade Corporation was designed to. fill a gap im the financial machinery of the country and to supply needs which had been long felt by trade and industry. Apart from

the assistance which it might be able to render in connexion with 1917 was, that to achieve the reconstruction of trade and industry overseas contracts, the development of existing markets and the . securing of new ones, its sphere of usefulness was a large one, on sound financial and economic lines, it would be necessary to reéstablish a sound financial basis by means of an effective gold and properly directed, it should prove of great value to the standard; to check any undue expansion of credit, and to take development of British tradc, finance and industry. Foreign Banking —As a matter of interest in the trend of steps to reduce to more normal proportions the inflation of credit British banking it may be noted that all the large joint stock due to the war. Inthe banking world a movement towards this banks had entered by rọ21r into more or less extended foreign end had been gradually shaping itself, though progress up to 1921 had necessarily been slow owing to the bursting of the bubble of relations. Al had proper branches devoted entirely to the hnancing and developing of overscas trade, and foreign exchange

trade inflation, labour troubles, and world-wide depression in trade during 1920. That there would be some difficulty in providing the extended credit facilities which, it was foreseen, would be necessary, was recognizcd, and to meet this difficulty the committce of 1978

recommended, among other things, an increase in the capital of the banks, and the acceptance of deposits for longer periods at fixed rates of interest. They said:— ur

o enable the banks to do more in the direction of granting long

trade credits, we are also of opinion that it is desirable that bankers should make more widely known their willingness to accept deposits for long periods, at fixed rates of interest. We believe that, if they

were encouraged to do so, a number of depositors would be willing to deposit their money at fixed rates of interest, for periods of from

one to five years, without the right of withdrawal. The removal of the liability to withdrawal would thus enable the banks to grant loans for longer periods.”

To a limited extent, effect was given to these recommendations, and in 1921 the banks were all striving to meet the abnormal conditions with which they were faced. The London branches of the colonial banks, of course, always

favoured the taking of fixed deposits at a comparatively high

rate of interest; but it is doubtful if the movement is destined to extend greatly among the London joint stock banks who are called upon to maintain greater liquid balances to meet withdrawals than are thcir colonial confrères.

One good thing towards the solution of the difficulty in providing adequate banking facilities for trade was that which arose

out of the recommendations of the Board of Trade committee of tor6, As the result of the deliberations of that committee il was

resolved to form a new bank to fill the gap which was said to exist between the home banks and the colonial and. British-foreign

operations formed a much more important part of the work of all London banks than had been the case before the war. y The ramifications of some of them were by 1921. very wide; Barclay’s Bank, for instance, maintained a large foreign department in London and was also affiliated with the Anglo-Egyptian Bank.

Lloyd's Bank, in company with the National Provincial Bank, had

also its subsidiary in France under the title of Lloyd’s & National

Provincial Foreign Bank, Ltd. The London County Westminster &

Parr’s Bank had a subsidiary bank called the London County Westminster & Parr's Foreign Bank, Ltd., and both Lloyd's and the London County Westminster & Part’s Bank were closely concerned in forming (1917) the British Italian Corporation in England and the Compagnia Italo-Britannica in Italy. ‘The London Joint City & Midland Bank had formed no branches abroad, the view being that it was better to refrain from competing with foreign banks in their own centres; further, that besides being able to maintain amicable

relations with foreign banks, a greater security was afforded to domestic depositors where the bank's activities were restricted to the

home country.

Some of the other banks who appeared to support

this view had joined together and _participated largely in the establishment of a bank known as the British Overseas Bank, which was making steady progress in the particular branch of banking for which it catered.

ag

Altogether, then, whatever may have been the failings of the British bankers up to 1910 in the provision of means for financing overseas trade, and in attending to the forcign exchange operations of their clients, there was in 1921 no Jack of facilities for clients

whose business called for operations in forcign and colonial currencies. War Services.—A word remains to be said about the mise in the investment figures, which was a noteworthy feature of the aggregate balance sheets of the banks. The increase during the decade was £548,501,000, a little over 246%, and undoubtedly a large proportion of the investments in 1921 represented the bankers’ subscriptions to’ the various war loans in which they had participated heavily: The banks’ contribution to the Victory

BANKING

400°

and Funding Joans alone, it was estimated, amounted to some £111,000,000. In June 1921, however, a small decline had recently been noticeable, and it seemed probable that, as time went on, the bankers would gradually divest themselves of a large portion of Government stocks. . i Great services were rendered by the banks to the Government during the war. In most of the large loans that were floated the

the increasés since 1913 being 279% for the Scottish, 206% for the Irish, and 349% for the Bank of England notes:—~ (o00's omitted.)

Irish. £

instalments were spread over a more or less lengthy period. In determining the amounts which the banks could conveniently handle account was taken of their reserve funds, which largely consisted of their deposits with the Bank of England. In describing the actual process of assisting the Government in this loan finance, the late Sir Edward Holden compared the payments with the revolutions of a wheel. The banks were described as placing in the whecl the payments they made for their customers -

who had subscribed for the loans; the wheel carried these payments to the credit of the Government with the Bank of England, and the subscribers received their securities. The Government then placed in the wheel cheques in payment of commodities and services rendered for conveyance to their creditors, and the creditors in turn used the wheel to carry the cheques to the credit of their accounts in the banks, thus reéstablishing the

banks’ reserves and preparing them for another instalment. Another method by which the Government was helped by the banks was by the steady absorption of Treasury bills and othér securities sold over the counter at the Bank of England. The

8,074

10,918 15,000 19,112

22,336

30,896

29,054 24,718

Bank of

England:

Treasury Notes. £

29,608

36,139 35:309

39,676 45,944

79,307 91,390

132,851

38,478

103,125 150,144

212,782

323,241 356,152 367,626

The total issue of the Bank of England against securities is known as the Fiduciary Issue, and on June 301914, the amount of this issue was £18,450,000, while the Bank of England notes

issued against gold coin and bullion, under the provisions of the

Bank Charter Act of 1844, amounted to £38,476,000. As showing how the bank’s note issue increased during the war and the period following it, it may be observed that the notes in circula-

tion on June 1 192r amounted to £144,993,235, as security for which the Government debt amounted to {11,015,000, other securities to £7,434,900, giving an excess circulation over the authorized issue against securities of £126,543,235, all duly

banks also rendered invaluable service to the Government in

covered by the deposit of gold coin and bullion in the Issue

making available their credit facilities with the Bank of England.

Department.

“ To increase their clients’ ability and their own ability to invest in Government issues they would borrow from the Bank of England. These loans would increase their deposits with the Bank of England, which, as reserves, would increase their ability to grant to their own clients loans equivalent to, say, five times

such deposits ” (English Public Finance), to the Government on “ Ways and of important assistance. The manner and Means advances operated may be

Then in the advances Means” they were in which these Ways best described in the

words of the Committee on Currency and Forcign Exchanges after the war: _ “ Suppose for example, in a given week the Government require

£10 million over and above receipts from taxes and loans from the public. They apply for. an advance from the Bank of England,

which by a book entry places the amount required to the credit of

public deposits. The amount is then paid out to Government creditors, and passes, when the cheques are cleared, to the credit of their bankers in the books of the Bank of England—in other words, is transferred from ‘ Public’ to ‘Other’ deposits, the effect of the

whole transaction thus being to increase by £10 million the pur-

chasing power in the hands of the public in the form of deposits in the joint stock banks and the bankers’ cash at the Bank of England

by the same amount,

The bankers’ liabilities to depositors having

thus increased by £10 million and their cash reserves by an equal

amount, their proportion of cash to liabilities (which was normally

betore the war something under 20%) .is improved, with the result

The Committee on Currency and Foreign Exchanges after the war sat in xr918 and zozg, under Lord Cunliffe’s chairmanship, to consider among other things the working of the Bank Act, 1844, and the constitution and functions of the Bank of England, with a view to recommending any alterations which might appear to be necessary or desirable. Briefly, the conclusion

they came to was that the principles of the Act of 1844, which _ upon the whole had been fully justified by experience, should be maintained, namely, that there should be a fixed fiduciary issue beyond which, subject to emergency arrangements, notes should

only be issued in exchange for gold. They said in their report:-— “Tt-is noteworthy that from 1866 till the outbreak of the war (1914) no suspension of the Act was ever necessary.” The Com-

mittee considered that the stringent principles of the Act had often had the effect of preventing dangerous developments, and the fact that they had had to be temporarily suspended on certain rare and exceptional occasions (and those limited to the

earlier years of the Act’s operation when expericnce of the working of the system was still immature), did not, in their opinion, invalidate this conclusion. The Committee therefore recommended that the separation of the issue and banking departments of the bank should be maintained, and that the weekly return

should continue to be published in its old form. The possibility

of so modifying the Act of 1844 as to make provision for the jssue of emergency currency in times of acute difficulty was, however, carcfully considered. They said that it might, no - increase their investments by the difference between the cash doubt, be sufficient to leave matters as they were prior to 1914, received and the proportion they require to hold against the increase: and to risk the possibility of the law having to be broken, subject of their deposit Habilities. Since the outbreak of war it is the second to indemnity from Parliament, but. evidently the Committee procedure which has in the main been followed, the surplus cash having been used to subscribe for Treasury Bills and other Govern- | were alive to the objections that had been expressed in many ment securities. The money so subscribed has again been spent by quarters to this procedure. Their report states: We are, therethe Government and returned in the manner described to the bankers’ cash balances, the process being repeated again and again, fore, of opinion that the provisions of Section 3 of the Currency and Bank Notes Act, 1914, under which the Bank of England may, until each £10,000,000 originally advanced by the Bank of England that they are in a position to make advances to their customers to an amount equal to four or five times the sum added to their cash

reserves, or, in the absence of demand for such accommodation, to

has created new deposits representing new purchasing power to several times that amount.” '

It may be noted, in connexion with the part played by the great joint stock banks in the raising of war loans, that for the first time they were made collecting agents, being so named in

the propectuses with the Bank of England. Note Issues—The note circulation of the English joint stock banks remained in 1921 practically unchanged at £174,000. Scottish notes, it was found, were on the increase, while Irish notes showed a considerable decline. The expansion of the

paper currency of the United Kingdom may be shown as follows,

with the consent of the Treasury, temporarily issue notes in

excess of the legal limit, should be continued in force. It should be provided by statute that Parliament should be informed forth-

with of any action taken by the Treasury under this provision by means of a Treasury Minute which should be laid before both Houses. The statute should also provide that any profits derived from the excess should be surrendered by the Bank to the Exchequer.” The Committee add:—“ It will, of course, be necessary that the Bank Rate should be raised to, and maintained at, a figure sufficiently high to secure the earliest possible

retirement of the excess issue.”

BANKING The following table records the changes in the Bank of England

rate from 1911 to 1920:— No. of

Highest.

changes.

4 4 À

4,

3 3 43

394 315 5 415 5

44 5 5

35

1 nei

8 None

Š

Lowest.

Average.

2

409 500

593

5 5

530 500 530

5 5

6 61 A table may also be given showing (in thousands of pounds) the amounts presented through the London Bankers’ Clearing Llouse during the ten years ending in 1921 :— . Country Total Cheque Clearings. Clearing. 14,613,877 15,961,773 16,436,404 14,665,048 13,497,725 15,275,046 19,121,196 21,197,512

1,221,420 1,307,062

1,389,481

1,370,464

1,567,571

1,872,451 2,244,190

2,730,273

28,415,382 3,386,768

39,018,903

4,072,220

*Seven settlements only.

Metro-

politan Clearing. 796,386 841,264 855,648 860,262 929,064 1,074,027

1,177,478 1,429,011

Stock jOn Consols On Exchange Settling

Days

Account

678,652 7255293

781,892

515,566

589,654

680,381

881,824 929,944

1,813,929 | 1,296,734

2,093,750 | 1,944,205

}Eightcen scttlements only.

The ‘Definition of a “ Bank.”’—One good result of the British banking amalgamations which the critics of the policy nearly

always overlooked is the climination of the weaker vessels. Even a cursory glance at the figures will convince the reader that amalgamations have given added stability to the British banks, and this cannot but be beneficial to the general public and to the commercial community. The amalgamated institutions, moreover, have been unconnected with any failures; indeed, many

times they have been the means of averting bankruptcies and

panics. They came through the backwash of the American financial panic of 1907~8 with a firmly established reputation for that conservatism which means strength, and just as they emerged from the black times of the Baring crisis years ago, so have they passed through the critical periods of the war years, 1914-8, with added lustre. In the monctary stringency that befell Europe on the outbreak of war, and brought many of the European bourses on the verge of disaster, it was borne upon the public what a useful function is performed by the great banks of the United Kingdom in averting banking crises and creating confidence in British financial methods. ae

It is true that between 1910 and 1921 there were one or two

failures which brought disaster to many of the poorer folk, But these failures were not by “ banks” in any proper sense of the word. One was the Charing Cross Bank, which failed in Oct. 1910. It was nothing more or less than a money-lending concern. When it closed its doors it brought ruin to a large number of poor people who, tempted by high rates of interest, had deposited their savings with the institution. Practically nothing was saved from the wreck brought about by the folly of a man, named A, W. Carpenter, who was the sole proprietor of the concern. Then there was the Birkbeck Bank, which went into liquidation on June 8 1911, mainly through its connexion with building society fiance. In this instance, the consequences were not so disastrous, since, largely as the outcome of the assistance of the joint stock banks in the liquidation, the depositors were ultimately paid nearly in full. More recently, on Dec. 20 1920, history repeated itself, and the public was startled by the failure of Farrow’s Bank, an institution carried on under the chairmanship of Mr. Thomas Farrow, who was sentenced to four years’ penal servitude in connexion with the publication of false balance sheets of the so-called bank. The failure of this bank caused little surprise in banking circles, but, as usual, a large

401

number of depositors of the small tradesman and artfsan class were ruined by the failure. As with other institutions of this type, it was the same old story—the public lured by high rates of interest offered on current accounts and small deposits. When the bank failed it had succeeded in obtaining from the public approximately £1,458,000 in current accounts and £2,679,ooo short deposits, and up to July 1921 all that it had been possible to pay to the depositors was 2s.in the £, and there seemed no probability of anyone receiving more than 5s. in the {in final settlement. In each case the failures gave prominence to the necessity for limiting the use of the title “ bank ” to institutions that really are banks. It also emphasized the necessity for the great joint stock banks to encourage the small depositor, with the result that most of them now advertise their willingnéss to open small deposit accounts at rates of interest consistent with prudent banking.

Immediately following the failure of the Charing Cross Bank the question was raised—‘‘ What is a bank?” and there was a demand for a definite ruling on the subject. It is curious, but true, that no Act up to 1921 had ever said what was the meaning of the word “ bank,” and what is still more curious, there was no decision of a Court of Law on this point. All the Bills of Exchange Act of 1882 says is—‘‘ A banker includes a body of persons whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business

of banking ’’—~a definition which has never had the slightest use in preventing scandals that have arisen in connexion with such concerns as the Charing Cross or Farrow’s Bank. After the outcry in the press over the Charing Cross Bank failure in rg10 had died down, the subject was dropped, owing, it was said, to the difficulty of framing any satisfactory definition. The question was, however, raised again in 1911 on the amendment of the Money Lenders’ Act, but with a similar result, and nothing useful was accomplished in the nature of preventive legislation.| Then, in 1915, largely as the outcome of the banks’ participation in the Government’s War Loans, the question was again raised,

and a small committee was got together by the late Lord Cunliffe to discuss the matter in anticipation of legislation, A report was made to the Bankers’ Clearing House Committee, and the

matter was continually discussed, off and on. The first definition proposed by the Clearing House Committee was this:— >" A Bank, as the term is understood in this country, may be

broadly described as a firm or institution whose main business 1s to receive from the public monies on current account repayable on demand by cheque.” oe

The objection to this definition, it was considered, lay in the words “main business,’ a general term which itself calls for explanation. It was urged that the main business of a bank is not in the receipt of money from the public, but in the relending of that money. Consequently, an alternative definition was pro

posed in the following terms:

o

uuaa.

,

. “ The expression ‘ bank ’ means any persons who hold themselves out as carrying on the business of receiving from the public current account money which is to be repayable on demand by cheque, or who use the word ‘ bank' or any slerivative of that word as part of the title or description under which they carry on business.”

What, however, was considered to be even a better definition was that given by the president of the Institute of Bankers,

London, Dr. Walter Leaf, in his address to the Institute of Bankers in Nov. 1920, namely :— “ The expression ‘ bank ' means any persone who receive from the public on current account money which 1s to be repayable on demand by cheque, or who use the word * bank’ or any derivative of that word as part of the title under which they carry on business.”

A good deal was said on the matter at the meeting in question, and most bankers present were in agreement with the president when he said that what actually was needed was a register of bankers which could be established without a hard and fast definition. Further, a tribunal should be set up with power to admit applicants or reject them from incorporation i the register on a wide view of all the circumstances of their business. This tribunal, it was argued, should be representative, not only

of Government Departments, but of industry and commerce,

as well as of existing banks.

If such a register were set up n0

402

BANKING

one would be allowed to usc the name of a bank or any derivative from it unless his name was included in the register. On all such registered banks such obligations as the publication of accounts, and so forth, would be imposed as might be thought desirable. In the meantime the Government itsclf had in 1918-21 æ bill under consideration which was intended to include the principal

points put forward. But during 1921 it seemed to have found

its resting-place in the archives of the Board of Trade. Certainly the suggested register of bankers carries us a step farther than previous efforts have done, Sir John Paget, the eminent banking counsel, had constantly urged the necessity for reform in this matter, and in a letter to the Journal of the Institute of Bankers he pointed out in 1920 that the register plan offered finality where finality was sorely needed, elasticity where experience called for change. As he said, the register need not

RESOURCES OF THE INDIAN PRESIDENCY WERE ABSORBED BY THE IMPERIAL (Lakhs of rupees.)

Deposits. “|

Bank of Bengal Bank of Bombay Bank of Madras

200

Total

serves,

210 125 45

388 187 124

3439 2650 2228

1244 980 455

380

699

5 8317

2679

CAPITAL, ETC., OF THE IMPERIAL BANK OF INDIA, MAY 20 1921 (o00's omitted.) ASSETS. s. f. 9,89,60 | Government securities

ANENA Capital paid up . Reserve KO,

- | Other securities i 5.28,65 | Loans . ©. 3,69,14 | Cash credits R -

Other deposits

.

66,17,16 | Foreign bills

.

16,87 | Dead stock

Public deposits

.

Loans against securities, per contra

Sundries

,

.

12,89,10 | Inland bills

.

has already been 1921 reached the into unions with _ 1910, pourparlers

mentioned. Apparently, they had not yet in point of carrying the process of amalgamation the colonial banks, though, as it happens, in were taking place between representatives of

Lloyd’s Bank and the National Bank of India for the purchase of the shares of the latter. Jlowever, before the negotiations

had reached a head the British Treasury intervened and vetoed the transaction.

Nevertheless, there was an important develop-

ment in India, namely the amalgamation of the three Presidency

Banks, the Bank of Bengal, the Bank of Bombay, and the Bank of Madras, which, under an Act passed by the Indian Legislative Council in 1920, became united on Jan. 27 1927, and were henceforth to do business as the Imperial Bank of India. As is well known, the old Presidency Banks under the former régime were restricted in their operations; they were looked upon as semiofficial institutions and as “ bankers’ banks.” Under the Presidency Banks Act of 1876 they were prohibited from doing foreign exchange business, from borrowing or taking deposits payable outside India. They were not permitted to make loans for longer periods than six months, or to advance upon mortgage, or. on immovable property, or upon promi$sory notes bearing less than two independent names, or upon goods, unless the goods or the title to them were deposited with the banks as

security.

Under the constitution of the new Imperial Bank of

India, these disabilitics are to a large extent removed; the bank is empowered to do most of the business which the Presidency Banks were formerly prohibited from doing. Besides acting as the bank for the Government, the Imperial Bank is permitted to have an office in London, and to rediscount bills for the Exchange Banks and other banks.

It docs not, however, compete

with the Exchange Banks in ordinary exchange business.

The

appointment of the bank as the Indian Government’s sole bank

in India will make foreconomy, for it will enable the Government to abolish the expensive Reserve Treasuriesin India, and the business hitherto conducted in that connexion by the Government will be done by the Imperial Bank. To render this possible, the Imperial Bank undertook to establish and to maintain within five years no fewer than 100 new branches, not less than one-

fourth of which would be opened at such places as the Government might consider desirable. It will be convenient at this point if we give particulars of the capital, ete., of the banks before the amalgamation and the position as it stood in June 1921.

we, ;

Rs. 90,56,82

1,38,40 14,76,68 20,95,71

«

15,03,16

i

38

a

6

2,09,04

12,11,25 |Sundries a Balances with other banks

Cash

Total liabilities

»

eco

Bullion

Government in rorg inintroducing a“ banks supervision” bill (for controlling amalgamation), which was so badly drafted that it had to be withdrawn, seemed to have discouraged official action. Overseas British Banking —The recent tendency of the English Joint stock banks to take an interest in overseas banking

Public. | Private.

(Figures are in lakhs of rupecs—one lakh = 100,000 rupees)

LIABILITIES. necessarily be either an Index Expurgatorius or a Book of the | i Righteous: it would be a true guide and friend. It would not be Subscribed capital .

derogatory to bankers, for registration is both recognized and adopted in all professions. The Stock Exchange has its official list of members; the Law List is the register of counsel and solicitors, and when we come to medicine and surgery we find in the Medical Register and the General Medical Council the complete exemplar of a register and tribunal which, as Sir John Paget has argued very reasonably, might well be the pattern to be followed by the bankers. Unfortunately the blunder made by the

BANKS BEFORE THEY BANK OF INDIA

Rs. 89,32,17!

.

.

+

go

a

Total assets

The above includes:

Deposits in Londen

Advances in London Cash and balances at

37:39

Me

a

19,26

2495:27

Rs. 89,32,17 .

£ 34,500 130,300

other banks in London 130,607

The establishment of this bank is, of course, a great step forward in the banking development of India; it centralizes the operations of three large banks, but gives them Jarger working resources and a much larger scope. A further advantage is found in the fact that although the Government is fully represented the main working of the central concern is in the hands of private individuals, The

president and vice-presidents are the representatives of the shareholders, and: practically the only Government officials on the

central board are:.the controller of the currency, not more

than

four nominecs of the Government, and one or two managing pover-

nors appointed by ihe Indian Government in consultation with the central board. The first two governors were Sir N. Warren and Sir R. Aitken, who were formerly secretaries and treasurers of the Banks of Bengal and Bombay respectively, whilst the first London manager was Sir Bernard Hunter, who held formerly the position of secretary and treasurer of the Bank of Madras. Subsidiary to the central board, forming the main governing body, there were to be

local boards, the latter being the existing boards of the amalgamated

institutions in the three presidency towns. The central board was to function much in the same way as the Bank of England does i4 England. It deals with matters of general policy, “such as the movement of funds from one part of India to another, the fixation of the Indian Bank rate, which will in future be uniform for the

whole of India, and the publication of the weekly statement.”? The locat boards, under the general control of the central board,

were to havea very free hand in administering the affairs of the bank,

and, altogether, the whole administration was designed to carry on the work of the previous Presidency Banks with the minimum of disturbance and the maximum of efficiency. Precisely what business the Imperial Bank was in 1921 authorized

to transact was set out in the following schedule of the Imperial Bank

of India Act: The bahk is authorized to carry on and transact

kinds of business hereinafter specified, namely :—

the several

(a) The advancing and lending money, and opening cash-credits

upon the security of: (I.) stocks, funds and securities (other than immovable property) in which a trustee is authorized to invest trust

money by any Act of Parliament or by any Act of the GovernorGeneral in Council and any securities of a local Government

or the

Government of Ceylon.

(II.) Such securities issued by State-aided railways as have been notified by the Governor-General in Council under section 36 of the Presidency Banks Act, 1876, or may be notified by him under this

Act in that behalf. i (IIL) Debentures or other securities for money issued under the

authority of any Act of a legislature established in British India by,

or on behalf of, a district board. ae 1 Economic Journal, vol. xxxi,

ei

403

BANKING (IV.) Goods which,’ or” the- documents of title to which, are deposited with, or assigned to, the bank as security for such advances, Joans or credits,

|a

sas ide Sn

chs, sh

‘

aes

(V.) Accepted bills of exchange and promissory notes endorsed

‘by the payecs and joint and several promissory notcs of two or more

persons or firms unconnected

partnership.

i

with each other in gencral

(VL) Fully paid shares and debentures of companies with limited liability, or immovable property or documents of title relating

thereto as collateral security only where the original security is one of those specified in sub-clauses (I.) to (IV.), and if so authorized by any general or special directions of the central board, where the original security is of the kind specified in sub-clause (V.) provided that such advances and loans may be made, if the central board

thinks fit, to the Secretary of State for India in Council, without any

specific security, (b) The selling and realization cf the proceeds of sale of any such promissory notes, debentures, stock-reccipts, bonds, annuities, stock, shares, securities or goods which, or the documents of title

to which, have been deposited with, or assigned to, the bank

as

security for such advances, loans or credits, or which are held by the bank or over which the bank is entitled to any lien or charge in

respect of any such loan or advance or credit or any debt or claim of the bank, and which have not been redeemed in due time in accord-

ance with the terms and conditions (if any) of such deposit or assign-

ment. (c) The advancing and lending money to Courts of Wards upon the security of estates in their charge or under their superintendence and the realization of such advances or loans and any interest due thereon, provided that no such advance or loan shall be made without the previous sanction of the local Government concerned,

and that the period for which any such advance or loan is made shall not exceed six months, (d) The drawing, accepting, discounting, buying and selling of bills of exchange and other negotiable securities payable in India, or in Ceylon; and, subject to the general or special directions of the Governor-General ia Council, the discounting, buying and selling of bills of exchange, payable outside India, for and from or to such esol as the Governor-General in Council may approve in that chalf. (e) The investing of the funds of the bank upon any of the securities specified in sub-clauses (I.) to (11L) of clause (a) and converting the same into money when required, and altering, converting and transposing such investments for or into others of the investments above specified. - (f) The making, issuing and circulating of bank-post bills and Jetters of credit made payable in India, or in Ceylon, to order or otherwise than to the bearer on demand. (g) ‘The buying and selling of gold and silver whether coined or uncoined, Bid os (hk) The receiving of deposits and keeping cash accounts on such terms as may be agreed on. >50 7 (i) The acceptance of the charge of plate, jewels, title-deeds or other valuable goods on such terms as may be agreed on. (j) The seling and realizing of all property, whether movable or immovable, which may in any way come into the possession of the bank in satisfaction or part satisfaction of ary of its claims. © (k) The transacting of pecuniary agency business on commission, (4) The acting as administrator, exccutor or trustee for the purpose of winding up estates and the acting as agent on commission in the transaction of the following kinds of business, namely :— (1) The buying, selling, transferring and taking charge of any securities or any shares in any public company.

(II.) The receiving of the proceeds, whether principal, interest or ‘dividends, of any securities or shares. (LL) The remittance of such proceeds at the risk of the principal public or private bills of exchange, payable either in India or celsewhere. (m) The drawing of bills of exchange and the granting of letters of credit payable out of India, for the use of principals for the purpose of the remittances mentioned in clause (2) and also for private constituents for bona fide personal needs. (n) The buying, for the purpose of meeting such bills or letters of

of any immovable property, or the documents of title relating thereto.

(2) The bank shall not {except upon a security of the kind specified in sub-clauses (1) to (LV.) of clause (a) of Part I.) discount bills for any individual or partnership-firm for an amount excceding in the whole at any one time such sum as may be prescribed, or lend or advance in any way to any individual or partnership-firm an

amount exceeding in the whole at any one time such sum as may be so preseribed.a a b) The bank shall not discount or buy, or advance and lend, or open cash-credits on the security of any negotiable instrument of any individual or partnership-frm,

payable in the town or at the place

where it is presented for discount, which does not carry on it the several responsibilities of at least two persons or firms unconnected with cach other in general partnership. (4) The bank shall not discount or buy, or advance and lend or

open cash-credits on the security of any negotiable security having at the date of the proposed transaction a longer period to run than > six months or, if drawn aiter sight, drawn for a longer period than six months. :

Provided that nothing in this Part shall be deemed to prevent the

bank

from allowing any person who keeps an account

hank

to overdraw such account,

as may be prescribed.

;

without

with the

security, to such extent

The setting up of the Imperial Bank of India was an important step forward for India, and the results could not but be far-reaching. As the Government of India said in placing the scheme before the Secretary of State, the mere appearance jn. districts of a bank which would conduct the Government's Treasury and Public Debt busi-

ness, and as to whose stability there would be no doubt, must in course of time have an appreciable cffect upon the native attitude towards banking in general. Whether it would be successful in attracting large deposits fram the hoards of wealth that are said to exist in India remained to be seen, but, at any rate, the other native

banks would now have behind them a powerful central institution to

which they could look for guidance, upon which they could rely for assistance, and which no doubt would form a necessary adjunct for the development of the various classes of banking in India, agricultural, industrial and joint stock banks. The internal trade of the country, too, could but benefit by the extenston of branches which it was the declared policy of the Imperial Bank to set up

We may now turn from a consideration of this most important development in Indian banking to a similar stride forward in South Africa, in the establishment of the South African Reserve Bank, which received its charter under the South African Currency and Bank Act of 1920. Like the Impcrial Bank of India, it was to be a private institution, half the capital being subseribed by the banks doing business in the South African Union in proportion to their paid-up capital and reserve funds, and the other half provided by public subscription. If the applications from the public fell short of the 50% required, the balance would be made up from public funds. The bank was to be established first at Pretoria. The affairs of the bank were to be managed by a Reserve Board consisting of cleven members, three being men experienced

in banking and finance, and three (actively engaged in business at the time of appointment) representative of commerce, agriculture and industry. Three others were to be appointed by the Government.

A governor

and

dcButy-governor

be persons of banking experience) were Governor-General and to hold office for selected for the seat of the first governor who, prior to his appointment, was the

(who

must

to be appointed five years. The was Mr. W. H. chief accountant

by the person Clegg, at the

Bank of England. Like the Federal Reserve system of America, the object of the new South African banking system is to consolidate the financial

system of the country by centralizing the existing bank reserves.

(p) The borrowing of money in England for the purpose of bank

Further, the keeping of balances of other banks at the Reserve Bank will have the effect of making the central institution the sole custodian of the banking reserve of the country, a feature which is evidently modelled from the English system. The reserve regulations make the expansion of the note issue dependent on trade demands, and when the system is properly functioning it is expected there will

(g) Generally, the doing of all such matters and things as may be

Africa.

credit, of bills of exchange payable out of India, at any usance not

exceeding six months. (e) The borrowing of moncy in India for the purpose of the bank's business, and the giving of security for money so borrowed by pledging asscts or otherwise. business upon the security of assets of the bank, but not otherwise. _

Part I, upon the mortgage or in any other manner upon the security

incidental or subsidiary to the transacting of the various kinds of business hereinbefore specified. The business which the bank was not authorized to carry out or transact was set out in Part II., which stated:—

The bank shall not transact any kind of banking business other than that specified in Part L, and in particular:— (1) It shall not make any loan or advance (a) for a longer period than six months, or (b) upon the security of stock or shares of the

bank, or (c} save in the case of the estates specified in*clause (c) of

be a much greater elasticity of the currency than formerly in South

For a period of 25 years from its inception the bank will have the sole right of issuing notes within the South African Union. The other

banks are not ignored; they are given time regarding their own note issues; they will be issue of their notes for 12 months, and if the a position to issue its own notes, they will

to make arrangements allowed to continue the Reserve Bank is then in be called upon to retire their notes gradually, and when all had lapsed (within two years, SS ee

1Cf. Economic Journal, June 1921.

404

BANKING

it was hoped), the Reserve Bank would be the only bank of issue

in the Union. However, the other banks’ issues, even in the transi-

tory periods, will require to be backed by a minimum gold reserve

of 40%, and for any excess circulation over that of Dec. 31 1919,

they will pay an additional tax of 3% per annum.

iv

The South African Reserve Bank itself will be obliged to maintain a minimum gold reserve of go % against its note issue, but the remaining 60% may be covered by commercial bills, and by a fixed charge on all the assets of the bank, Further, it must keep a minimum gold reserve of 40% against its deposits and bills payable. on The bank will act as the Government's bankers and financial agents, and will fix discount rates. It is empowered to set up

branches in any part of the South African Union, and, subject to the

consent of the Treasury, may also open branches outside the Union.

The business in which the bank may participate does not differ

materially from that done by other banks within the South African Union, with this exception, that it will not be allowed to receive time deposits, nor to draw or to accept bills payable otherwise than

on demand. The usance of bills of exchange or promissory notes in which it will deal is limited to 90 days, except bills or notes arising out of agricultural finance, for which the usance is limited to six months.

However, all bills must bear at least two good signatures.

Dealings in these six-months’ bills are limited to 20% of the bank's total advances, so there is not much risk of such finance embarrassing the bank.

The principles of the other business allowed to be undertaken b

the bank closely resemble those peculiar to the Bank of England, and most of the regulations governing it are designed with a view to giving the country the greatest possible financial assistance in times of crisis or of stress. es As this was the first central bank established in the British Dominions, its progress will be watched with keen interest both at home and abroad, and as Sir Henry Strakosch has said, ‘ In the ‘light of the experience gained by the central banks of Europe, the South African Act should be capable, under wise management, of adequately fulfilling the functions for which it was set up.”

Another new development of importance in colonial banking since 1910 has been seen in the establishment in Australia in 1912 of the Commonwealth Bank. For the purpose of starting

this bank a special Act of the Federal Parliament was it is called the Commonwealth Bank Act of 1911-4. commenced business early in 1913, and by 1921 survived the criticism to which, as a State bank, it was

necessary; The bank had safely subjected,

It has become one of the recognized financial institutions of the Commonwealth, and it has not only been a steadying influence

to the Australian financial and banking position, but has given added stability to the banks in the Commonwealth, and has certainly strengthened the Commonwealth’s position. It was, of course, the first State bank in the British Empire, and it is

owned entirely by the Australian Commonwealth Government. The bank has no share capital and all its obligations are guaranteed by the Government. . There is no board of directors, and the bank is considered to be free from political interference. Of necessity, however, the bank must be closely in touch with the Government.

It is responsible for practically all the Govern-

ment’s business; it conducts the Government’s savings banks at all its branches, and is largely responsible for 2,800 agencies at the Australian post-offidts. It also undertakes the flotation of the Australian loans in London, and manages the Government stocks much in the same way as the Bank of England attends to Government issues. It is also responsible for ihe gold which is produced in Australia, and for the federal note circulation. The net profits of the bank are utilized in the building up of

reserves; one-half of the profit is placed to the credit of a fund called the Bank Reserve Fund, and the other half to the credit

of a reserve called the Redemption Fund. Each of these reserves stood in t921 at £1,378,052. The Bank Reserve Fund is available for the liabilities of the bank, while the Redemption Fund may be utilized for repayment of any money advanced to the Australian Treasury or in the redemption of stock issued by the bank, but there is a proviso to the effect that if the fund exceed

the amount of debentures or stock in existence, the excess may be used for the purpose of the redemption of any Commonwealth or State debts taken over by the Commonwealth. During the eight years in which the bank had been in existence up

to 1921 it had accumulated profits of £2,756,104; it started with the head office in Australia and one branch in London; it had in 1924 six offices in Australia, two in London, and over 30 branches and

sub-branches

in all the

provinces

of Australia,

Tasmania

and

New Britain. Its deposits exceeded £41,000,000, added to which the

savings-bank deposits amounted to £17,982,000.

Its total liabilities

to the public on June 30 1920, were £60,658,600, against which assets were held in the following approximate proportions: cash, 10%; Australian notes, 3%; investments, 31 %; bills discounted and advances, 24 %,.

Although the bank may be said to have justified its existence, the

fact that the Australian Government, besides being the of the Commonwealth

proprictor

Bank, is largely interested in trade matters

in Australia, is considered to militate against the best principles of

central banking, and it seems likely that the Australians will watch the South African Reserve Bank and will possibly endeavour to

develop their own system on rather different lines. The South African Bank, it is held, indicates a very hopeful road towards reform, and the system is certajn to receive serious consideration from Australia and most other parts of the Empire. Critics have laid stress upon the advantages which the South African Reserve Bank will secure for the internal finance of the Union, and that really is what is wanted in Australia.

The establishment of the South

African Reserve Rank opens the door to imperial coöperation in banking and currency matters in a form and on a scale which had been difficult, if not impossible, up to 1921. From the imperial point of view the establishment of such a bank is an event of as much importance as from the international standpoint was the

establishment of the United States Federal Reserve system, and it is to be hoped that further developments of the same nature will follow and so enable the British Empire to escape from the charge that coéperation between London and South Africa, London and Sydney, or between London and Montreal, presents greater difficulties than coöperation between London and New York. Concerning the other banks in the Empire in which Great Britain is interested, we must be brief. To take the Canadian system first: it has certainly all the clements of elasticity, and the years that had

elapsed between 1906 and 1921 proved its soundness. There were 18 chartered banks in 1921 with over 4,000 branches throughout the Dominion and Newfoundland.

The banking and credit system,

like that of the United Kingdom, is thus under the supervision of

large banks with tried heads, and just as the “ big five” in England

are able to keep in close touch through their wonderful branch system with commerce in every part of the United Kingdom, so in Canada the chartered banks very efficiently collate the information needed concerning credit, commerce and industry. As has been well said by a Canadian writer, the “ eredit facilities of the Canadian Dominion, like the Bank Note issues, follow where the need exists and the situation is always under control. It is the case of a few

men working together against many individuals working alone.”

The total assets of the chartered banks in 1921 exceeded $3,097,500,000; their gold reserve stood at approximately $80,900,000; deposits at $2,319,600,000; notes in circulation $280,700,000; deposits to secure the notes $106,200,000; investment securities $37,100,000; capital $122,300,000, and rest $128,700,000. An interesting recent development in Canadian banking has been the establishment of branches or the forming of alliances in and with outside countries. With a view to giving the Canadian exporters every assistance, connexions have been sought jn every place in the

British Empire that promises a profitable field for Canadian prod-

ucts.

The experience of Canadian bankers is, that instead of foreign

branches cutting into the banks’ capital and drawing funds away

from local use, such branches have been instrumental in drawing in more deposits than have been given out in commercial loans. For instance, in 1920 it was found that loans, other than call loans, mace outside Canada amounted to some $183,600,000, while deposits from the general public outside Canada amounted to $318,200,000. The South African banks scem to be finding out the same thing, for they have been extending their branches and banks in many outside colonics, dependencies and foreign countries. The colonial banks with Eastern connexions, too, are developing the branch system in the colonies and forcign countries on a large scale. The Hongkong Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Chartered Bank of India, the Mercantile Bank of India and the National Bank of India, had in 1921 all been extending their sphere of influence in British Indian and Far Eastern markets, and nearly all of them were increasing their resources to meet the increased requirements.

For instance, the Indian and Eastern banks estab-

lished in London in 1920 (all British institutions) were possessed of capital and reserves amounting to {21,180,600. Their deposits totaled £204,894,000, and cash to 52,754,000, while their total assets amounted to over £200,000,000. Excluding the Imperial Bank of India, five of these Indian and Eastern banks had London

offices in 1921, and the five had a total branch strength of over 130. As showing how they compare with the other colonial banks in

London, we conclude with the following details :— Of African banks there are seven with 873 colonial branches: total capital and reserves £17,046,000; deposits of £189,892,000, and total assets, £249,256,000.

There are 16 Australian banks with 2,393 branches: total capital and reserves £51,248,000; deposits {281,477,000, and total assets of £384,,476,000. Of Canadian banks there are eight with 2,653 branches, £36,524.000 capital and reserves; £386,047,000 deposits, and total assets £487,330,000, all of which Icads one to the reflection that however -

BANKING lacking the British Empire is in central banks, it certainly docs not

lack branch banks for the use of its nationals; what is needed is the

coordination of the several systems.

(W. F.S

II. UNITED STATES, Subsequently to the panic of 1907 and the recovery which followed, the banking system of the United States entered upon a period of prosperity and success which continued practically unbroken to the opening of the World War. The. sudden outbreak of that war, 1914, caused a temporary shock not only to banking but to general business. This uncertainty, however, lasted but a few months, and was succeeded by a restoration of confidence which continucd with expanding business and activity in all branches of banking down to the autumn of the year 1920. In the autumn of 1920 the development of post-war reaction in business and a violent shrinkage of prices brought severe pressure to bear upon all the elements of the banking system of the United States, but this was not sufficient to cause any dangerous shock. The period in question was one of unusual importancein American banking, not only because of the organization of the Federal Reserve system in which all national banks were compelled by law to assume membership, but also because of the fact that the

strongest state banks and trust companies voluntarily entered the system during the first three years after its formation, with correspondingly broad effects upon financial organization, ` while the effects of the war and the expansion of American industry which accompanied the struggle greatly enlarged the activity of American banking and added to its profits. Pre-War Period.—The years 1908-13 were characterized by a steady and consistent growth of business. In the following

table, which shows the advance in the number of organized banks as well as their chief assets and Habilitics, the increase of operations may be noted during the five years in question,

and may be compared with the advance during the war period:~

405

necessity for the creation of national currency associations, since

no disturbance in business conditions seemed to be imminent, the national banks made no effort to form them. GROWTH OF NATIONAL BANKS BY FIVE-YEAR PERIODS {In thousands of dollars)

Sept.

No. of

Total

banks.}

deposits.

Loans and|

Reserve | Excess

2,686,760}

983,333? | 299,208

|discounts.!|

5 1900] 3,871 | 3,699,804]

Aug. 25 1905] 5,757 | 5:508,643]

held.

reserve.

3,998,509 | 1,294,298? | 322,170

Sept. I 1910) 7,173 | 7,140,836} 5,467,161 | 1,573,522? | 313,415 Sept. 2 1915] 7,613 | 9,229,516] 6,756,680} 1,969,398" | 868,756 Sept. 8 1920] 8,093 | 16,751,956 | 13,706,066 1,232,0394 | 38,092

tes

0.0 banks.

: Capital.

es

|

and undivided profits

Sept.

5 1900) 3,871 | 630,299|

Sept. Sept.

I 1910) 7,173 |}1,002,735] 874,038] 2 1915] 7,613 | 1,068,864 | 1,022,596]

Aug. 25 1905] 5,757 | 799,870] Sept.

|m. » | Total reCirculation sources.)

389,469}

283,949 | 5,048,138

620,294}

468,980 | 7,472,351 674,822

9,826,185

718,496 | 12,267,090 8 1920} 8,093 | 1,248,271 | 1,456,067 | 693,270 21,885,480

! Includes rediscounts. 2 Includes cash in vault and due from reserve agents.

*Cash in vault, $842,609,000; due from Federal Reserve banks,

$315,409,000; due from approved reserve agents, $811,380,000. 4Lawful reserve with Federal Reserve bank. In addition, national banks held $471,546,000 cash in vault and $1,917,438,000 due from other banks including items with Federal Reserve banks in process of collection.

During the years in question the National Monetary Commission, appointed in accordance with the provisions of the Aldrich-Vrecland law, was prosecuting its investigations into existing conditions, but these investigations were academic up to r9r2, while even in the latter year the bill for banking reorganization proposed by the National Monetary Commission

PRINCIPAL .ITEMS OF RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES OF NATIONAL, STATE, SAVINGS, PRIVATE BANKS, LOAN AND TRUST COMPANIES FROM 1900 TO 1920, Compiled from reports obtained by the Comptroller of the Currency. (In millions of dollars) Resources. Loans and Discounts,

5,625

6,387 7:145

7,688

7:930

Due from Banks.

Cash on Hand.

1,272

1,448

1,561

1,570 1,842

8.971

9,827

10,697

10,380 11,303 12,495 12,982

13,892 14,568 15,288 15,722 17,811 20,594

22,514 25,301 31,256

In order to show the relative position occupied by the national banks, the following tabular comparison, relating to national institutions only, is presented. It will be understood that while the state banks and trust companics included in their number the bulk of the investment institutions of the. nation, the commercial banking assets were predominantly held by the national banks. The period 1g08-13 was not, however, notable for any far-reaching changes in method or organization; provisions which had been enacted in the Aldrich-Vreeland law of May 30 1908 for the formation of national currency associations {see FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING SysTEM) remaining prac-

tically a dead letter.

There being no immediate or urgent

Liabilities. Undivided IndividuProfits, Due Surplus al DeposLess ExFund.

it

Unitedi

Nation-

States

jal Bank

Depos-| Circuits. | lation.

648 687 781 903 i 993 053 1,180 1,305 1,401 1,326

1,547

1,512

1,585

1,676 1,714 1,732

1,849 1,945 2,034 2,182

2,410

(the “ Aldrich Bill’) had small chance of success so that at no time prior to 1913 was there a serious prospect of fundamental change in legislation. The adoption of the Federal Reserve Act in the latter year greatly altered the conditions under which the national banking system, and indeed the whole banking system of the United States, was operating, but it did not produce any direct or immediate effect upon the methods or position of the banks themselves until a much later date.

Indeed,

the Federal Reserve Act itself did not come into practical operation until nearly a year subsequently to its passage, the

reserve banks being organized in Nov. 1914. During the prewar years, however, the problems of the national banking system

which had already been recognized had been growing more and

406

BANKING

more obvious.

Prominent among these was the insufficiency

of the note currency, which continued to be issued solely upon the security of national bonds. In the accompanying table the note issues of the national banks during the years in question may be traced:-—

Issued

Retired

Increase

1902

21,868,00

1903 | 68,177,467 | 28,474,958 1904 | 69,532,176 31,930,783

‘1905

90,753,284

22,732,060

61,248,086

34,071,148 24,090,330 14,612,704

{ 1912 | 38,747,149 | 27,586,734 1913 | 37,210,597

1914 | 1915} 1916 | 1917 | 1918

387,763,860 27,485,675 10,593,700 22,749,150 26,227,740

| | | |

26,441,867

1920

29,000,000

18,781,552

20,000,000

: ; . > k

10,768,730

$315,322,858 48,433,103 14,462,220

8,431,700

985,512

4,796,215 9,000,000

Amount

Total Less! , Total

a. ae.

.

ky% ea©“7 aa ©

341,906

163,288 125,659,460

87,500 21,000 59,800

ay*©G©: >as@©

$735,612,324

te oS

3,062,695

$732

,549,62

1 Notes redcemed but not assorted by denominations.

The figures show a practically stationary condition of the circulation. They cannot, however, throw light upon the increasing volume of demand for currency, which during those

years was growing at a rapid rate.

Only through an enlarged

lusc of cheques and other credit substitutes or through additions

to the basic monetary circulation itself was it possible for the United States to add to its circulating medium. Another factor which had assumed

very great importancè

during the pre-

liminary period referred to, was the growth of trust companies, ‘involving as it did sharp competition: with national banks. Subsequently to the ycar 1890 there had been a rapid develop‘ment of trust companies in many parts of the United States

as well as extension and improvement of legislation affecting them. In some states the trust companies, either through local restriction of as the result of custom, still confined themselves

to fiduciary busincss, but under the laws of most commonwealths they had taken on banking functions, and in some they had developed the latter with so much success as to make their preliminary or. nominal purposes largely secondary. Due to the fact that trust company laws were usually much less restrictive than those which controlled the operation either of national banks or of state banks, both of the latter classes of institutions were fecling the competition of the trust companies with considcrable severity. The table on the next page shows the relative positions of different classes of banks in 1920

and the increase in the number of trust companies and savings banks during recent years. = Savings banks’ development during this period is shown in the

following figures:—

A

4,936,591,849

4,997 ,706,013

4,186,976,600

901,610,694 Ë

8,935:055 2,431,958 9,011 464

4,422,489,384 995,532,890

8,948,808 2,486,073

4,751,113,0004 .1,351,464,000 2

1,982,229

T,349,625,000 8

4,422 096,393

1,049,483,555 ?

9,445,327

5,186,845,0008

from are combined with the latter, which accounts for the relatively

small amount of deposits reported for stock savings banks since 1915. 3 Dividends unpaid not included.

The number of trust companies and information with reference to the principal items of assets and liabilities on or about June 30 of each year since 1914 are shown in the following table:— (In millions of dollars.)

29,862,000 39,542,700

»è s* +» >*» >a+

4,727 403,950

2 In the assembling of data in relation to savings banks the classification of banks as made by the State banking departments is closely followed, in consequence of which a number of so-called State savings banks, formerly treated by the Comptroller’s office as savings banks, are now regarded as commercial banks, and the returns there-

243,445,080

Five hundred dotlars One thousand dollars

Fractional parts

$

305,429,590

Fifty dollars One hundred dollars

4,212,583,598

4,451,818,522

2,368,089

T1,160,415

.|

‘4,070,486,246

2,556,121

Denomination

One dollar

3,090,078,945 3,660,553,945 31713,405,710

8,592,271

NATIONAL BANK NOTES OUTSTANDING OcT.°31 1920.

Two dollars. Five dollars. Ten dollars Twenty dollars

3,482,137,198 -

11,285,755

20,246,418, | 367,517,442 342,807,533 59,026,803 37,211,370

1919 |} 29,660,850 | 24,864,635

8,027,192

2,935,204,845

3,261,236,119

9,794,047

68,021,224

80,025,078

3,060,175,611

10,010,304 10,766,936 TT,109,499

39,702,509 37,601,393

1909 | 82,504,444 | 48,433,296 1910 | 57,101,345 |. 33,011,051 IQII | 49,896,951 35,284,247

71395443

9,142,908

20,752,076

1906 | 84,085,200 | 25,055,739 | 59,029,521 1907 | _ 56,303,658 | 27,980,139 28,323,519 1908 | 141,273,164

2,597,094,580 2,759,177,290

8,588,811 8,705,848 8,831,863

Decrease

15,951,527 | 107,148,673

42,620,682.

6,358,723 6,666,672 7,696,229

1900 | $I01,645,393 | $16,537,068 | $85,108,325 . IQOI | 123,100,200

Deposits $2,449,547,885

7,035,228

YEARLY INCREASE OR DE CREASE IN NATIONAL BANK CIRCULATION FROM 1900 TO 1920 oa

Depositors 6,107,083

5

=

Invest-

2,905.7 3,048.6 3:7043 4,311.7

Surplus Profits &

Resources DepositsAggregate

oN A nUnap

4,403.8 4,091.0 4,601.5

*TIncludes overdrafts.

While commercial banks, both national and state, had from time to time considered the question of seeking permission to exercise fiduciary functions, the problem had never assumed any considerable importance until the Federal. Reserve Act was brought up for consideration, Their policy had been directed towards enforcing a limitation or restriction of the-

banking functions of trust companies, both in the states where local legislation had not made much direct concession to trust company activity, and in those where a beginning had already been made in extending to them banking powers, rather

than to competing with them,

One demand which had been

made with entire justice by the national banks had been that in so far as they exercised actual banking functions and became

liable for demand deposits, the trust companies should be required to keep a proportion of reserve equal to that required of the banks with which they were competing. Something had been done in the direction of applying such a requirement, but state laws were still in an unsatisfactory condition,

The Opening of the World War-—The year 1914 had opened prosperously for the banks of the country, business being practically normal and employment at least up to the average, while agricultural conditions were satisfactory. The sudden advent of war in Europe at the end of July, however, necessarily

subjected the banks to a very severe shock. Due to the seasonal character of American exportations of agricultural products

BANKING

407

RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES OF 22,109 STATE, SAVINGS, AND PRIVATE BANKES AND LOAN & TRUST COMPANIES, JUNE 30, 1920 (In thousands of dollars.) ` te

18,195

RESOURCES Loans and discounts (including overdrafts)

Investments (bonds, securities, etc.)

Banking House, furniture and fixtures

Te a owned, ue from Banks. . e

>a o ʻa a

.

.

$,963.410

e ale

-e

2

4.

All other Resources . Total Resources . :

fen

.

apital Stock paidin -

Surplus Fund

AD

.

«6

à

oe

a.

oa

ese

a

=. .

Postal Savings Deposits

«a

4 ae ee +. e s 4. .

Notes and Bills.rediscounted Bils payable s . «© Other Liabilities, . 1.

.

. 6 1.

|

>

=»

e +

+

-{

è

>,

«.«

p

oe.

« h

.

Total Liabilities

1,408 L

Savings Banks.

and Trust Companies,

;

799, Private; Banks.

Total 22,109 anks, 17,263,796

|. 2,716,282

323,596

978,483

4,601,508

128,915

262,042

41,599

32,277

163,233

4,046.

grago 183,527

41,942

238,008 14,009,781

33016 5,619,017

1,902,075

32,191

5,555 0,78

26,609 878,692

7,720 29,46

35,215

148,455

6,480

ee 4,836

1,19f

393:935

7

s

ee.

2,591,480

1,087 Stock}

2,226,916

332,848

sf 5 T

LIABILITIES.

Undivided Profits Due to Banks | Dividends unpaid) Individual Deposits

6

Savings Banks.

42,961 1,549,571

Cheques and other cash items {including exchanges for clearing-housc) .. à

Cash on hand

620 Mutual

State Banks.

oe 193,615

55,068 1,506,413

7,201,060 503.197

92,825 2,712,

oa 1,463

405,831 8,320,018

aca 533,952

626,027

2,344 -212,626

734,958 20,667,855 4

920,211

ie

69,183

A75,745

13,334

527,919

334,546

39,422

509,929

13,046

87,975 116 126 5,186,845

13,247 841 38 1,349,625

$02,194 424,542 4, 6,085,675

3,458 2,139 10] 169,573

429,473 864,282 13,485 23,664,753 —

144 -395 8,869 §,619,07

52 . 24,029 8,250 1,506,413

146,546 214,144 353,475 8,320.018

1,639 5,870 3,438 212,626

- 284,746 "794,046 . 698,501

222,599 436,644 9,126 © 10,873,035 10,705

136,365 549,608 324,469 14,009,781

and of many of the importations of manufactures, it had become customary in past years for English banks to hold claims upon

I

E726

3,67

i

|

1,478,473 1,423,962

28

16,133

29,667,385

the total gold exports during 1914 amounting to approximately

$223,000,000.

Meanwhile

the Federal, Reserve

Board had

American institutions which gradually accumulated each year up to the opening of the autumn scason, when the movement

been organized in accordance with the terms of the Federal

of crops to foreign countries provided funds which were used for the cancellation of these balances. At the opening of the war it was supposed that in trade with England such balances

by the great losses of gold which were being incurred by the In the belief that much of this withdrawal of gold was due to a

against American banks amounted to something like $500,000,000,

lack of combined action on the part of the American banks,

One phase of Great Britain’s economic policy upon the outbreak of war was to call in the halances due to her in forcign countries and generally to cut off trade relations that might subject her credit structure to fresh demands. At the same time the presence of German war-vessels in the Ailantic made it uncertain. how Jong a time must elapse before the movement of goods to and from Europe would be resumed upon a normal basis. The export trade of the United States was thus serfously checked at thé same time that extcnsions of credit by British banks were practically suspended. One immediate effect of this situation was to cause a large exportation of gold from the United States, while the shipment of goods was first reduced, and at last temporarily suspended. These two factors caused serious disturbances in the eastern part of the country and produced a general lack of confidence, while at the same time they tended to depress the prices of American staples. Cotton was affected with particular scriousness, its price declining during the autumn to a point as low as five cents per pound as against a figure, then regarded as normal or satisfactory, of 12 or 13 cents in the early part of the year. In consequence of this stagnation of export trade, there was a somewhat corresponding shock to domestic business, a resulting difficulty in making collections, and eventually a withdrawal of funds from banks not only for export ef specie, but also for the purpose of domestic hoarding. Congress, which was then in session, hastened to amend the Aldrich-Vreeland Act of 1908, the measure thus adopted taking effect on Aug. 4 1934. Under the terms of this amendatory measure the issue of emergency currency was permitted under more liberal conditions than before.

it would have been much better if the Federal Reserve Act, which was passed during the preceding Dec., had been brought

into operation, but as a matter of fact reserve banks did not get under way until Nov. 19014. The action of Congress in passing the emergency currency law was, therefore, necessary in order to provide an immediate means of furnishing funds for the payment of depositors. The currency thus provided for under the new law was accordingly issued and eventually rose to a peak point of about $430,000,c00.

This served to

take the place of gold which was then moving out of the country,

Reserve Act on Aug. ro 1914, and was immediately confronted banks in order to satisfy the demands of British creditors.

the board supervised the formation of what became known as the “international exchange fund,” or “ gold pool,” which was in effect an agreement among American banks to provide

a total of $100,000,000 of gold for export (or gold exchange), permitting any bank that might be drawn upon. to supply itself from the common stock by depositing therein satisfactory funds in other forms. This measure was effective in restoring confidence while at the same time the first fear and uncertainty that had resulted from war conditions began rapidly to disappear;

German

vessels were

soon

driven

from the North

Atlantic and the movement of products from the United States to Europe was resumed upon a limited scale. The urgency of

demands for cash declined and the banks (which had begun the issue of clearing-house certificates on Aug. 3) were able to retire their obligations on Dec. 1, although the Stock Exchange (which had been closed on July 31) was not reopencd until later. Thus the banks of the country passed through the dangerous carly stages of the war partly by exercising their own latent power and partly in consequence of the aid which had

been extended to them through Congressional enactment and through codperative effort, under the leadership of the Federal

Reserve Board.. e The Banks and the Federal Reserve Sysiem.—The projected text of the Federal Reserve Act had been made public in June 1913, and had served as a basis for discussion from that date

up to the passage of the Act on Dec. 23 of the same year.

It

may fairly be said that practically all of the banks of the couniry were opposed to it—the national banks primarily because

it made membership in the system compulsory; the other banks because they feared that great changes and innovations in business would result from the new system.

After the adoption

of the Federal Reserve Act the question whether or not to enter

the system became acute with national banks since the law

had provided that a failure of any national bank to enter the system would mean

the necessity of surrendering its charter

and transferring itself to a state banking system, through reincorporation. Accordingly during the early part of the year 1914 there was constant discussion of the wisdom or the un-

wisdom of declining to accept membership.

The result was a

4

BANKING

408

practically unanimous determination to take stock in the new Federal Reserve banks. The principal points at which the new Act immediately touched the national banks were in connexion with the contribution of capital and the transfer of their reserves. In the course of the discussion of the Federal Reserve Act there

had been an effort, on the part of the national banks (especially after membership in the system had been made compulsory) to reduce the required amount of contribution to the capital stock of the Federal Reserve banks to as low a level as possible. It was eventually fixed at 3% of the capital and surplus of each national bank, so that when the banks eventually entered the system (as all except some eight or ten finally did) they were obliged to pay in only gbout $50,000,000. In the same way they had endeavoured to avoid the necessity of transferring any part of their reserves to the Federal Reserve banks, except as they might elect, but had not entirely succeeded, although

a three-year period was finally provided during which the transfers might be made in instalments, and only part of the reserves was even eventually to be transferred. At the outset the banks paid over to the Federal Reserve banks only about $18,000,000

in order to concentrate the banking power of the. country, to enlarge the lending power of the reserve banks and to relieve the members of the necessity of carrying coin in vault. At the same time effort was made to discourage the payment of coin

or legal-tender money to depositors, so that the banks soon

passed to wha. was really a paper basis. The continued im-

portations of gold strengthened the reserve bank holdings, so that there was at all times far more gold in the country than before the war.

The net increase in gold holdings was fully

$1,000,000,000, but gold coin had practically disappeared from common use. Congress had also provided, in the Act already referred to, for membership of state banks in the Federal system under conditions which permitted them to withdraw whenever so disposed by giving six months’ notice. Partly because of this assurance of ability to retire and partly because of a feeling that the advent of war would naturally subject all banks to severe stress, while at the same time it was regarded as a matter of patriotism to render such aid to the Government as they

could, a large number of institutions- entered the system.

These accretions to membership continued rapidly during the of capital and $227,000,000 of reserve deposits. These pay- years 1917-8 and resulted eventually in the admission of ments were made during the month of Nov. 1914 and, as just about 1,200 state institutions, The movement into the system shown, were only about $245,000,000 in all, so that the burden — had a rather important effect upon the banks and trust companies that joined. They were compelled as a condition of of establishing the reserve system was not a particularly heavy one. Indeed, with the reduction in reserve requirements which membership to maintain reserves cqual to those of the member had been made in the Federal Reserve Act (central reserve city banks already in the system, so that a process of standardizing reserves was effectively carried forward. During the years banks being cut from 25% of reserve deposits to 18%, reserve city banks from 25% to 15% and country banks from 15% to 1915-8 there had been extensive changes in state banking legis12%), the banks were in much better condition to take care of the ‘lation. These changes had provided moré nearly uniform reneeds of their customers than they were before the organiza- serve requirements, besides authorizing. the local state banks tion of the reserve system, even without any recourse to re- to become members of the reserve institutions if they felt so discounting. In view of the fact that European demands for disposed. In consequence even those banks which did not beAmerican goods were considerably reduced during the first come members were in some measure adjusted to the banking months of the war, so that industry was temporarily checked situation by being subjected to more uniform requirements. A somewhat similar process was also going on in the matter of and domestic prices were lowered, bank resources were more than adequate to the needs of customers. Later as the require-. ments of European countries became heavier and export shipments from the United States were increased, the banks entered upon. a period of unusual prosperity, and the difficulty in earning dividends which they had experienced during 1915 disap-

peared. Credit in fact became comparatively safe, not only on account of the rapidly rising prices which greatly reduced the danger of business failure, but also because of the fact

that many of the large purchases of goods in the United States made for European account were practically .guaranteed by foreign Governments which at that time were in a relatively strong financial condition, The number of banks accordingly increased steadily and the capital and surplus even more markedly, as may be seen from the tables already given. What has been said in this section is intended to apply directly to the case of the national banks but holds equally true of .state

institutions

(both banks and trust companies).

All went

through a somewhat parallel course of development, while the high wages and steady. employment which were due to very large European purchases of goods provided a strong basis for the growth of savings. Savings deposits accordingly advanced decidedly in amount. For the same reason which enabled national banks to refrain from re-discounting, state banks and trust companies were relieved of any urgent necessity to enter the Federal Reserve system. The system accordingly extended but little credit to its members up to the end of 1916, while it

enlarged its membership very little outside of the national

banks themselves.

The War Period—An entirely different situation came into

existence immediately upon the entry of the United States into the World War in April 1917. There had already been some growth of re-discounting during the earlier months of that year, and Congress after the opening of the war, June 1917, amended the Federal Reserve Act. By the terms of this new law all reserves of national banks were to be carried in Federal Reserve banks and nothing held in vault was to be counted as

reserves, it being felt that such action was practically essential

types of bank paper, the new legislation both of Congress and of the states being intended to standardize these types. Thus the United States emerged from the war with a much more

harmonious and uniform system of banking legislation than it had ever before possessed. ` . Change in Holdings—The effect of the war was, however, of a very far-reaching character in its relation to the portfolios or paper holdings of the banks of the country, The method of financing the war which was chiefly resorted to by the Treasury involved heavy taxation, but it was some time before the new taxes could yield any returns and the Federal Government never obtained from that source more than about one-third of

jts total outlay. The other two-thirds were obtained from the banks and the public by borrowing. The public was encouraged to save and to use its savings in the purchase of Liberty Bonds, but a very large proportion of the bonds sold to the public had to be carried in part at least by means of loans obtained at

banks upon paper collateralled by Government obligations. This was true of all classes of banks, both national and state, as well as of the trust companies, while the latter and the sav-

ings banks were also urged to purchase and hold as many Liberty Bonds as they could. In these ways the investments of the banks and their commercial portfolios came to consist very Jargely of paper collateralled by Government obligations. This was true not only of the paper which represented subscriptions to bonds, but also of paper which took the place of ordinary commercial borrowings. Due to the fact that many business men preferred to borrow on their own notes collatcralled

by Government. bonds in order to get the lower rates of interest

made by the banks on such notes, paper of this kind rapidly displaced ordinary evidences of indebtedness.

This state of

things continued until some time after the close of the war, a

modification occurring in the autumn of 1919 and continuing to grow more pronounced thereafter. New Functions of National Banks,—Prior to the adoption of the Federal Reserve Act national banks had not been allowed to perform so-called fiduciary functions, including those of acting

=-BANKING

409

as guardian or trustee, registrar, fiscal agent, administrator and

which the U.S. Treasury furnished the means.

others. These functions had been exclusively performed by trust companies, most states following the example of the National Bank Act and drawing a sharp line of distinction between their own state banks and their trust companies. The Federal Reserve Act authorized the assumption of fiduciary powers by national banks upon permission of the Federal Reserve Board. Such permission when granted by the Board was promptly questioned in the courts, but was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States. This decision led to an extension of the scope of the fiduciary functions so that national banks were shortly placed upon a basis of competitive equality with trust companies. The situation led various states to modify their laws in such a way as to permit state banks to take on fiduciary functions likewise. Thus the distinction which had previously existed between national banks, commercial state

to make the whole foreign banking question far less urgent or immediate than it would otherwise have been. Not until the war had closed, and indeed, not for some considerable time after, did the subject receive discussion. Such discussion, however, became general about the middle of roro, and at that time it seemed to the Federal Reserve Board that a plan of action modelled upon the British investment trust might serve as a basis for the general long-term financing of American exports. This export financing was regarded as essentially a problem which involved the shipment of goods upon longterm credit, it being recognized that much time must elapse before forcign countries could send to the United States enongh

banks, and trust companies was gradually wiped end of 1920 about 1,200 national banks had been mission to exercise trust functions. The time has sufficiently long to permit an accurate judgment

out. By the granted pernot yet been of the effect.

of these changes upon the general banking situation, the full

exercise of fiduciary functions being usually a process of comparatively slow development. Organizing for Foreign Trade-—One of the principal defects of the old national banking system was that it did not function well in connexion with forcign trade. Neither national nor state banks had been in the habit of using bankers’ acceptances, which had become the standard basis of foreign business in Great Britain. This defect was remedied in the Federal Reserve Act, which authorized the making of acceptances by national banks

up to an amount cqual to 100% of the capital and surplus of the accepting bank (50%, in the original Act confined to foreign trade, but later amended to 100% of which not to exceed 50%

might be domestic acceptances). Several of the states in which banking had assumed the greatest development made a similar change in their legislation at about the same time, so that at the opening of the World War, with its great Impetus to American foreign trade, the banking system, both national and state, was in position to finance business on the acceptance plan. It was seen, howcver, in the formulation of the Federal Reserve Act that in order to develop foreign banking successfully the use of the branch system would be necessary. Branch banking had never been permitted in the United States under the National Bank Act, and although it sporadically existed under various state laws such systems were only local and not particularly successful. It may broadly be said, therefore, that

there had been no development of the branch bank principle prior to 1913. Although at one time it was proposed to insert in the Federal Reserve Act permission to establish domestic

branches of national banks, and although the Act gave to Federal Reserve hanks power

to establish branches within

their own districts and at their own discretion, it withheld from national banks power to create domestic branches. It, however, did vest them under certain conditions with the power to establish branches abroad. ‘This power was used by only one or two of the larger national banks, and early in rors the demand for action which would allow national banks to subscribe to the

stock of foreign trade banks to be jointly owned by them became very strong. Accordingly Congress in 1915 modified the Federal Reserve Act to the extent of permitting the organization of foreign trade banks, The plan, however, did not meet with much favour and few such banks were organized. Those which were brought into existence did a fairly successful business, but not cnough were established to give the plan a commanding place in Amcrican financial life. ‘The subject, however, of financing foreign trade was unavoidably thrown into the background by the advent of the war and the conditions growing out of it. Foreign countries financed their purchases of Amcrican goods upon what was practically a cash basis prior to the time that the United States itself entered the war, and after that date practically the whole export trade of the United States was financed upon the basis of Government credits for

The result was

goods to keep their American trade in current balance.

Accord-

ingly the so-called Edge Act was passed Oct. roro. It and the regulations subsequently issued by the Federal Reserve Board provided for the establishment of foreign trade financing corporations of two classes, the one vested with very large powers of acceptance and really differing in no essential way from the foreign trade banks already referred to, except that the stock of the Edge Act corporations might be held by individuals or commercial establishments and not exclusively by banks. The other type of corporation was to be organized for the purpose of providing credit in the export trade, the securities and evidences of indebtedness which it received being employed as a basis upon which debentures or bonds would be issued and offered to the public, thereby restoring to the corporation issuing them the funds which it required, for still further dealings

and advances of the same kind. At first but little interest was shown in the idea of such corporations. Prior to the close of 1920 only one had been actually organized although several were under consideration, and early in 1921 the formation of two additional enterprises of the same sort was announced, The most Important of the early undertakings under the Edge enactment was a corporation projected by the committee repre-

senting the American Bankers’ Association, whose capital was to be $100,000,c00 and whose stock was offered to the public early in the year 1921. The Edge Act may be summarized in the statement that it was in effect a plan to provide for the financing of foreign trade apart from domestic banking operations, and with a very much greater latitude in respect to the granting of credit than could properly be allowed to domestic institutions.

Growth of a Discount Market-—-The use of the acceptance

function to which reference has already been made progressed

comparatively slowly during the early years of the Federal Reserve system, being retarded by the various disturbing conditions attendant upon the war. The expansion of the acceptance proceeded most rapidly and reliably in connexion with foreign trade, where this type of paper speedily assumed a position of some importance. Its growth was, however, greatly restricted as a result of the lack of branch banks maintained by

American institutions in foreign countries. At the close of 1920

it was estimated by the Federal Reserve Board that the total amount of acceptances made by member banks of the system

and then outstanding was probably a little under $650,000,000.

The bulk of these acceptances had been made by a comparatively. small number of acceptance-issuing institutions located for the

most part at points whose interest carried them in considerable

measure into the export trade. Some interior banks had attempted to develop the domestic acceptance, but with no great success, while the commercial, or trade, acceptance, or “ domestic bill * as known in other countries, had shown but slight signs of assuming importance. This was partly due to the existence of the well-known system of offering cash discounts which, if it did not originate in the United States had attained by far its greatest development there. Under the cash discount system, while invoice prices were strictly maintained, a second or re-

duced invoice price was offered to those who were able to make an immediate or “ cash’? payment within a specified numbet

of days from the date of the invoice, while to those who pre-

ferred to enjoy the full period of credit the full face value of the

410

BANTOCK, GRANVILLE

merchandise was charged. It was clear that in these circumstances, with two rates of charge, the drawing of a merchandise bill at a fixed figure would have been difficult. Hence the very slow development of what was called the trade acceptance, and trade acceptances thus created tended to become in many cases long-term accommodation paper and fell somewhat into

disrepute. In the case of the bankers’ acceptance, although some bad practices prevailed during the war when the practice of rencwing acceptances gained a foothold even with the best and strongest banks through the use of syndicate agreements which provided for the issuing and discounting of blocks of

acceptances by groups of banks acting in common, the paper on

the whole maintained jts position of solvency and reliability. The chief trouble encountered in its development was early found in the fact that no genuine market existed for it and that the Federal Reserve banks had found it practically necessary to supply such a market by taking or re-discounting frecly the acceptances of banks in their own district. [lad they not done so, it appeared, the acceptances would have found no buyers on many occasions and the practice of making them and financing trade by that means would have been discontinued. This tended to transfer to the portfolios or holdings of the Federal Reserve. banks an unduly large proportion of the acceptances at any time in the market, while the bad habit of some banks in discounting their own acceptances deprived the paper of much

the close of 1920 up to the highest point it had reached for many years,

Call Joan rates, although fluctuating to some extent subse-

quent to the war, did not suffer the extreme variations which had been characteristic in other periods of stress. (P. W.) Savings Banks.—According to the report of the comptroller of the currency for the fiscal year ending June 30 1920, there were in the United States 620 mutual savings banks with aggregate assets amounting to $5,619,017,000; there were 9,445,327 depositors with combined deposits of $5,186,845,000, an average of $549.14 for each

depositor.

On the same date the number of stock savings banks

was 1,087, with aggregate asscts of $1,506,413,000; there were 1,982,299 depositors with combined deposits of $1,349,625,000, an average of $680.86 for cach depositor. These figures exclude stock savings banks of those states in which they were included with state bank returns: namely, Georgia, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, and North Dakota, In the following table, for the years 1910 to 1919 inclusive, the figures are for mutual and stock savings hanks combined :— wet

No. of

1910

IQII

1912

No. of

Banks.

Depositors,

1,759

9,142,908

1,884

Denosi E

Average

eposta,

D peT

_| Repositor,

|$4,070,486,246 | $445.20

9,794647 | 4,212,583,598 | 430.09

1,922

10,010,304 | 4,451,818,522 | 444.72

IQt4

2,110

1915 1916 1917

2,159 1,864 1,807

11,109,499 | 4,936,591,849 | 444.03

1913

1918

1,978

1,819

10,766,936 | 4,727,403,951 | 439.07

11,285,755 | 4,997,706,013 | 442.83 11,148,392 | 5,088,587,294 | 446.58 11,367,013 | 5,418,022,275 | 452.13

11,379,553 | 5,471,589,948 | 466.94

TOTO 1,719 11,434,.88t | 5,.902,577,000| 516.19 of its economic virtue as a basis for dealing in commercial credit The establishment of postal savings hanks was authorized by Act under better market conditions. It, had still in 1921 to be seen. of Congress, approved June 25 1910. On Jan, 3 1911 depositories for how far and to what extent it would be possible to overcome experiment were opened in cach of the 48 states and territories. At these bad elements in American banking practice and io resume the close of the month deposits amounted to $60,252 and by the end the development of the acceptance upon the lines followed in of the year $11,000,000. The original plan was gradually to designate as depositories all post-offices doing a money-order business, but it the more advanced commercial countries of Europe.

History of Interest Rates.—After the panic of 1907 and throughout

the whole pre-war period. rates of interest on bank loans tended on the whole to move in the United States steadily to lower levels. A variety of reasons had heen assigned for this drift, among them the

rapid accumulation of capital and the inlensity of the competition in the investment market. As had been the case with the American market throughout its whole history, the movement of interest and discount rates was by no means uniform, call Joans on many occasions shooting up above the general level, while even commercial aper and bank rates tended to fluctuate sharply at different seasons.

he tendency, however, was on the whole downward, and after the

financial disorders attendant upon the opening of the World War had subsided and the new reserve banks had become thoroughly organized interest and discount rates fell to an extremely low level. This was partly the outcome of the release of credit by the Federal Reserve Act, and partly the result of scarcity of business. due to the

opening of the war and the transition it implied from a peace to a war basis. Low rates continued to prevail practically throughout the

years 1914-6, indeed, until the entry of the United States into the war in 1917. The natural tendency of interest rates would have

been to advance immediately after the participation of the United States in the war had become known, Recognizing this tendency, with the United States Treasury determined upon a low rate of discount for paper at Federal Reserve institutions, such rate corresponding closely to the coupon rate upon Liberty Bonds. This rate, however, was put into effect upon the condition that a correspondingly low rate should be made by member banks to their customers. Thus the whole interest rate system ‘of the country was ‘' stabilized or however, the Federal Reserve banks had in conjunction

“ price-fixed.” In ordinary conditions this stabilization at a low figure would have given riseto an abnormal demand for funds, but this danger was in part averted through the control of industrial operations by the “ rationing ” of coal and materials for industries, which kept producers from drawing too heavily upon bank credit for support. In some cities, notably New York, a majority of the banks rationed in a similar way the stockbroking and speculative

soon became apparent that. many small offices would not be utilized. In 1913 the number of depositories had reached 13,000, when a policy

of retrenchment was adopted. At the close of the fiscal year June 30

1920 there were 6,314 depositories. De posits made amounted 10 $11,942,496, withdrawals $12,802,207; to depositors $157,276,322, number of depositors per ¢ lepositor $309.29. On June 30 I919 there

positorics with deposits totalling $167,323,260;

during that year balance credited 508,508; average were 6,439 de-

the

number

of

depositors 565,509 with an average deposit of $295.88. The majority of depositors are of foreign extraction and their deposits constituted in 1920 75% of the total. The original law allowed a depositor to have to his credit a maximum sum of $500; on May 18

1916 this was increased to $1,000; and on July 2 1918 to $2,500. Any person ten years old or over may make deposits. The minimum

deposit is $1; but a postal savings card may be purchased for ten

cents, containing. nine spaces for affixing postal savings stamps, costing ten cents each, and a card when filled is accepted as a deposit of $1, The rate of interest is 2% annually, but deposits may be exchanged for postal savings bonds, issued in denominations of $20, $50, and $500, bearing interest at 23%. As savings banks pay regu» larly 3% or 4%, and in some cases 5 “or the postmaster-general, in his report for 1920, recommended an increase in interest on postal savings. According to the preliminary figures (Aug. 1921) on school savings, compiled by the American Bankers Association, covering the school year 1920-1, 236 citics reported school savings banks, There were 2,630 reporting schools; enrolment, 1,479,567; pupils participating, 666,478; average weekly deposits, $205,704; total collections for the year, $3,475,868; average saving per depositor,

$5.22; withdrawals during the year, $1,393,230; average net deposit,

$3.13. BANTOCK, GRANVILLE (1868-

}, English musical com-

poser, born in London Aug. 7 1868, was intended for the Indian civil service and later for the career of a chemical engincer, but abandoned both for music, he entered the Royal Academy of Music in 4889. There he gaincd many prizes and was the first

community, agreeing to furnish them with a limited amount of funds

holder of the Macfarren scholarship,

there should be no effort to use more than this specified amount in stock speculation and that a correspondingly low rate of interest should be charged to customers. Capital was also rationed by the use of analogous methods, Subject to these conditions the rate of intcrest continred on an abnormally low level until after the war

New Quarterly Musical Review, a pioneer publication on modern lines, and during the following two years he toured America and Australia as conductor of a Gaiety company, after which, in 1897 he became musical director at the Tower, New Brighton. Three years subsequently he was clected director of the school of music at the Midland Institute, Birmingham, and in 1908 he succeeded Elgar as professor of music at Birmingham University. A prolific composer in nearly all forms,

at a specihed and relatively low rate of interest on condition that

when, as seen in another connexion (see FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING SYSTEM), the rate of discount at the Federal Reserve banks was sharply advanced. Commercial rates, which had already been on the

point of rising in some directions, advanced. immediately. The action. of the Federal Reserve banks was the signal for a still further and subsequent advance in rates, and from the opening of 1919 on throughout the year 1920 there was a fairly steady advance in dis-

count charges which brought the current charge for bank loans at

In 1893 he founded the

among his best known works are The Great God Pan (1903);

Omar Khayyam (1906); Pierrot of the Minute (1908); the truly choral symphony Atalanta in Calydon (1912); Fifine at the

BARCLAY—BARRACKS Fair (1912); and the fine Hebridean Symphony (1916). for the publication of which the Carnegie Trust made themselves responsible.

His great choral symphonies, for instance, Ata-

lanta, a colossal

work

for unaccompanied

choirs, occupying

about 45 minutcs in performance, and its companion, Vanity of Vanities (1914), are remarkable examples of his work. Bantock was largely instrumental in establishing the Birmingham competition festivals in r912 and in increasing their efficiency. BARCLAY, FLORENCE LOUISA (1862-1921), English novelist, was born at Limpsficld, Surrey, Dec, 2 1862, the daughter of the Rev. S. Charlesworth, rector of the parish, and niece of Maria Louisa Charlesworth, author of Ministering Children, On March ro 188r she married the Rev. Charles Barclay, vicar of Little Amwell, Herts. Her first novel, The Wheels of Time, appeared in 1908, but she is best known by its successor, The Rosary (1909), which reached a circulation of

close on a million copies and was translated into many languages. The combination of religious feeling and strong love interest which characterized most of her novels appealed to a very wide public,

and she enjoyed for some years an

4il

I911, and the pediments of the New York Public Library in 1914. His bronze statue of Lincoln, heroic in size, was unveiled in Cincinnati in 1917, and was highly praised by many admirers of Lincoln (e.g. by Miss Tarbell, his biographer, and by Theo-

dore Roosevelt), but was called a caricature by many art critics, Mr. Robert Lincoln, the hero’s son, objected to the proposed sctting-up of replicas in London and Paris, and the council of the National Academy of Design issucd a formal protest. A replica was unveiled at Manchester, England, in

1910, BARNES, GEORGE NICOLL (1859~

—+), British Labour politician, was born at Lochie, Scotland, Jan. 2 1859. For many years he worked as an engineer, and in 1892 was appointed assistant secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, becoming its general secretary in 1896. In 1903 he went

with the Mosely educational commission to the United States. In 1895 he had unsuccessfully contested Rochdale, but in 1906 was elected as Labour member for the Blackfriars (now Gorbals) division of Glasgow, where he defeated Mr, Bonar Law. Thisscat he retained in the general elections of 1910 and

immense popularity, the total circulation of her books ex- 1918. On Mr. Lloyd George’s accession to power in 1916, cecding 2,500,000. Later novels included The Mistress of Mr. Barnes joined his ministry as Minister of Pensions, and Shenstone. (1910), specially filmed in America; The Following of the same year was sworn of the Privy Council, but in Aug. 1917 the Star (rot1); The Broken ILalo (1913); In Hoe Vinee (1915); resigned his office in order to enter the War Cabinet as repreReturned Empty (1920). She died at Limpsfield March ro rozt. sentative of Labour, succeeding Mr. Arthur Henderson. In 1918 when the Labour party left the Coalition Mr. Barnes BARING, MAURICE (1874), English diplomat and man of letters, fourth son of the first Lord Revelstoke (see 3.401), continued in the Coalition Government as minister without was born in London April 27 1874. Educated at Eton and portfolio. He attended the Peace Conference at Paris as a Trinity College, Cambridge, he entered the diplomatic serv- Labour representative, and afterwards attended the Internaice in 1898, but resigned in 1904. Taking to literature and tional Labour Conference at Washington. He resigned in Jan. journalism, he acted also at various times as a war cor- 1920 from the Cabinet. . respondent for The Times and for the Morning Posti; but he BARNETT, JOHN FRANCIS (1837-1916), English musical cultivated belles lettres for the most part, and his poems and composer (sce 3.414), died in London Nov. 24 1916. essays soon gained high critical approval. During the World BARNETT, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS (1844-1913), English divine War he worked on the staff of the R.F.C. in France and also and social reformer (see 3.414), died at Hove June 17 1913. at home. In addition to various volumes of imaginative literaSee Life by Mrs. Barnett. (1919). ture—poems, parodies and critical essays—he. published sevBARR, AMELIA EDITH (1831~1919), author, was born at cral works on Russia, especially The Russian People (1911); Ulverston, Lanes., England, March 29 1831. She was eduWhat I Saw in Russia (1913); The Mainsprings of Russia cated at the Glasgow, Scotland, high school. She married {r914), etc. In 1920 he also published R.F.C.H.Q, 1014-18, an Robert Barr in 1850 and four years later they emigrated account of his experiences in France, to Texas, Here, in 1867, she lost her husband and three sons BARKER, SIR JOHN, rst Bart. (1840-1914), British mer- through yellow fever, In 1869 she removed with her three chant, was born at Loose, near Maidstone April 5 1840. He daughters to New York where she wrote for the Christian was the son of Joseph Barker, a. brewer, and founded the Union and other periodicals. She continued to write unceasfirm of John Barker & Co., Ltd., linen-drapers of Kensing- ingly until 86 years of age, publishing altogether some 75 ton, having previously been associated with the fortunes of novels, She died in New York City, March ro roro. Whitcley’s, Westbourne Grove, He entered the House of ComHer works include the following: Romance and Reality (1872); mons for Maidstone in 1900 but was unseated on petition. Jan Vedder's Wife (1885); A Bow of Orange Ribbon (1886); A Border From 1906-10 he represented Penrhyn and Falmouth. In Shepherdess (1887); Remember the Alamo (1891); Prisoners of Con10908 he was ercated a baronet. He took great interest in agri- science (1897); Master of His Fate (1901); The Reconstructed Mar(1910); Playing wuh Fire (1914); Measure of a Man (1915); culture and did a good deal for horse-breeding. He died at riage The Winning of Lucia (1915); Profit and Loss (1916); Joan (1916); Bishop’s Stortford Dec. 16 1914, oa and An Orkney Maid (1917). BARNABY, SIR NATHANIEL (1829-1915), British naval BARR, ROBERT (1850-10912), British novelist, was born at architect, was born at Chatham in 1820, his father being a Glasgow Sept. 16 1850 and taken to Canada when four years member of a family of shipwrights who for several generations old, He was educated at the Normal school, Toronto, and behad served in the toyal dockyards. He was entered as an came headmaster of the public school of Windsor, Ont., until apprentice to his father’s trade at the age of 14, and in 1848 1876, when he joined ihe editorial staff of the Detroit Free won an Admiralty scholarship to the Portsmouth school of Press. He had an adventurous career as a journalist for five naval enginccring, where he obtained distinction. He was years, and in 1881 came to England. In 1892 he started appointed a draughtsman in the royal dockyard at Woolwich the Idler together with Mr. Jerome K. Jerome. He published (1852), passing later to the constructive department at the a number of novels and short stories, the best known being Admiralty and becoming its head in 1870. Two years later The Mutable Many (1897); Countess Tekla (1899) and The he was appointed Chief Naval Architect, a title changed in Sword Maker (1910), He died at Woldingham, Surrey, Oct. 21 1875 to Director of Naval Construction. His work in that TQI2. capacity is described in 24.894-5. On his retirement in 1885 BARRACKS AND HUTMENTS, GREAT BRITAIN (see 3.427). he was created K.C.B. Ile died at Lewisham June rg rors. The carlier article brought the account of this branch of milHe wrote the articles NAVY and SHIPBUILDING for the E.B., 9th itary administration up to about 1904. It showed the princied., and published Naval Development in the roth Century (1902) and other works on naval construction, as well as Christmas 1892 in ples on which British barrack design was based (viz: on the Connaught: a Study of the Irish Question (1893), and a collection of “ Barrack Synopsis’ and Standard Plans) and the provision hymns, Songs by the Way. . which had been authorized in such matters as the numbers in BARNARD, GEORGE GREY (1863-7 ), American sculptor one room, provision of dining-rooms and baths and other sanitary (see 3.410), finished the Pennsylvania State Capitol group in services, in the British army at home and in India. It mentioned

BARRACKS

412

that in 1904 an architectural branch had been formed at the War Office, under civil control, for new barracks and hospitals

at home stations; while services of a minor nature at home, and all services abroad, were carried out as heretofore, under the Royal Engineers. It remains here to show, as a sequel, how the “steady and systematic progress ” already indicated, prior to 1904, was continued in the following decade, until, in the period of the great World War, the civil branch ceased to exist. During that decade many new works were carried out, some of them by the new civilian architects, and others by military engineers, Broadly speaking, those carried out under the former administration were of a substantial and permanent type, while the latter constructed those of a less solid and less ornate character, applicable to the exigencies of locality. It is necessary, however, first to mention one important development of administration which had reference to this among other subjects affecting the soldier’s well-being. In 1906 a Medical Advisory Board was instituted, consisting not only of eminent military medical officers, but also of distinguished medical men in civil life, the very best expert opinion in England on sanitary questions of all sorts.. With them was associated

an engincer officer of high rank. To this Board was referred all designs for barracks and hospitals at home and in forcign stations other than India, and their authority on all questions affecting housing was necessary before schemes could be sanc-

tioned. They sclected or approved all sites for dwellings—whether for barracks, married men’s quarters, or hospitals—and they were referred to in all altcrations to the Synopsis or Standard Plans. During the war their functions were carried out by an Army Sanitary Committee, which, under the chairmanship of an officer of high rank, made frequent tours in the theatre of war and in all hutted camps, etc., in Great Britain, Permanent Barracks-—The principal permanent British barracks (using their term to distinguish the type from those of

“light construction’) which were built during the decade

1904-14, were those for one battalion of infantry and one regi-

ment of cavalry, near Edinburgh, at Redford. The plan of the barrack building forms three sides of a quadrangle,

and the buildings are three stories high. The ground floors are occupied with recreation and games’ rooms on a generous scale, a sergeants’ mess, regimental offices and shops, and other accessories,

while the upper floors are used for the men’s dormitories, and are divided up so that cach man has a cubicle to himself. The diningrooms and cook-houses, etc., occupy the space in the interior of the quadrangle. The whole scheme was on a scale of gencrosity far beyond anything hitherto constructed. The fact that it was designed with freedom from the restrictions hitherto imposed by standardization was a potential advantage, for itis only by independent thought that progress can be attained in any appreciable degree in this or any other branch of scientific experiment, But the advantages gained by such treatment of design have to be weighed against the disadvantages, viz:—the extra expense for housing even one unit,

amounting

to about 80% over the last approved type, and the time

taken to

build, which was also proportionally greater.

It is also

doubtful whether the arrangement of having the dormitories avail-

able for night use only—as was the intention—is as satisfactory from

frequent changes of policy and to changes of standard imposed by progress in science. Thus the Royal barracks in Dublin, which in the reign of Queen Anne were considered the finest in Europe, were in the reign of Queen Victoria still standing, solid and substantial, but the despair of every sanitary expert. The game applies to many barracks (and, it may be added, to many civil bospitals) in many parts of the British Empire. It was argued, therefore, that constructional science had now reached a

point where it was possible to build in a manner much less expensive, much more rapidly erected, and much more easily altered than the solid walls and heavy roofs of our fathers, and that such buildings, not much more. expensive than tempos rary huts, could be made to suit military needs; and that the cast of maintenance would be no greater than that entailed in the case of more substantial works. Any one acquainted with the routine of military administration is familiar with the constant “‘reappropriations ” that have to be made to suit some change in the requirements of accommodation. A row of married men’s quarters has to be turned into a temporary, or even permanent, hospital, or a forage barn has to be made into a school, a gun-shed into a recreation room. With solid old masonry this became a serious and expensive matter, The whole subject required reconsideration. Just then an opportunity occurred of making the experiment on a fairly wide scale, In the earthquake at Kingston, Jamaica, civil and military houses alike were shattered in a few seconds. The barracks, for about 800 men, with church, hospital and all administrative offices and staff quarters, had been of the old solid type. They were gone, and had to be replaced at once. Urgent representations to England pointed out that remedial measures must be instant, that there was neither material nor labour available locally, and that new plans should be proof against earthquakes and hurricanes. It was decided at once to build the new barracks with a skeleton steel framework, vertical steel stanchions, braced below by steel horizontal joists, and above by a composite steel and wooden truss. The stanchions were rooted, as it were, by a broad flat plate, in a concrete block in the ground, and they were calculated to carry the whole weight of floors, walls, roof and any other contingent matters such as windows, doors, shelves, etc. The walls, which carried no weight, but were merely screens from weather, were composed of a double panclling of metal lathing plastered over and fastened to the steel stanchions. Being double, the space between the two sects of panels acted as a non-conductor of temperature. The whole of the work was quickly designed and the material quickly prepared. A firm of English contractors erected the skeleton of cach building on their own premises, marked every part on a key plan, and the whole was dispatched from Bristol under charge of an experienced foreman of works, while a company of R.E. under a sclected officer had meantime been dispatched, soon after the disaster,

to erect the first building and arrange preliminaries for the others.

the point of view of military administration as the system, which it had superseded, of having men living together in groups of 10 or 12 with the intimacies and comradeship thus entailed. At the Redford barracks the officers’ quarters are in a separate block, together with the men's the whole forminga handsome

building, and the marricd men's quarters are also separate.

Light-Construction Barracks.-About 1906-7 proposals were. made to the Army Council of a somewhat novel principle in: constructional work, Hitherto it had been always accepted as an axiom in military buildings that the more substantial and permanent the construction, the better, on the ground that although the first cost might be greater than that of a temporary Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the plans and section of the main barracks building, such as a wooden hut, the cost of repairs for the latter worked out at so much higher a figure and the life of the building buildings, The roof has a steep slope, partly to throw off tropical rain quickly, partly to allow locally obtained wooden shingles to be was so much shorter, that it was true economy in the end to used as a fairly cool covering. The floor is raised 4 ft. above the build as solidly as possible. The cost of repairs in a solid well-

ground, with a clear space beneath, the whole area below being cove ered with a seal of concrete to prevent exhalations from the soil. In this design the saving in walls and foundations is obvious, while the advantage in respect of stability, arising from the strength and in 1907, however, that this was a fallacious argument to apply continuity of the stecl and its attachment to the foundation blocks, to buildings which were required for a service subject both to is also evident. As a matter of fact, there was another earthquake

built barrack might be between o-75 and 1:25% of the capital value, but that of huts might run to 3 or 4%. It was pointed out

BARRACKS shortly after the work was finished (not so serious, however, as the original one), and the buildings were quite unaffected.

The barracks were rapidly erected. Although all the materials, except the roof-covering and the ballast for the concrete, were sent from England, the troops were in occupation of their new quarters in Nov. 1907, ten months after the earthquake, and

413

etc. It was found that the building was warm and airy, and that the cost of maintenance was at least not greater than would have

been the case with permanent construction.

While the saving in cost

Jay mainly in walls and foundations, endeavour was made at the

same time, by using some of the modern types of light roof-covering,

to effect saving in the roof timbers. With all these economies in design there was a substantial reduction in cost, especially in the

case of those military buildings where the walls and roof fornied a large part of the whole. Thus stables, which had formerly cost about

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the universal opinion was expressed that the new barracks which cost £77,000 were a great.improvement in comfort and convenience on the old ones which had cost, in days when building was relatively cheap, £95,000,

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So far, then, the principle of light construction had been justi-

fied, but it did not follow that a type which was suitable to a hot climate like that of the West Indies would be equally applicable to Great Britain. At that time, however (1908), a small

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barrack was urgently required at Bordon, near Aldershot, for a field company of R.E., 150 men, with some accessory buildings such as sergeants’ mess, .recreation rooms, stables, etc., the estimated cost of which in “permanent” construction was $16,000; in “‘ light construction ” the estimate was {9,o00, and

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this sum was sanctioned, and the work was carried out within the time estimate. £60 per horse, were built on the new principle for about £32-£35,

without any reduction of efficiency. Figs. 7 and 8 show the exterior and interior of such a stable and indicate the general style of building. A large riding-school built at Netheravon, Salisbury Plain, which was constructed on the “ light-construction ” principle, cost less than 2d. per cub. ft. as against 6d. to 7d. for a riding-school on the | ‘permanent’ principle. This is no doubt the most conspicuous example of saving in relative cost, as the building consists of little else than walls and roof.

Barracks on this principle, some of them double-storeyed, were built with satisfactory results at places as far distant from one

another as Jersey, Worcester and Glasgow.

|

Another administrative change about this period also affected

the design of important accessory buildings. Up to about 1909 it was laid down that the regimental institute (coffee bar, recreation room, etc.) should be separate from the “ wet’ canteen, used for malt liquor only. and also from the dining-rooms. In 1909, however..

it was

decided that, in any new construction, the wet canteen should

be abolished, being replaced by’a liquor bar in the institute, that there should be no restriction to the moderate use of malt liquor in connection with food, but that there should be no place for the sale of

The plan of this building, shown in figs. 5 and 6, shows the same

liquor only, The effect of this amalgamation of the institute and canteen was extended, where circumstances made it possible, to the amalgamation of the dining-rooms and supper bar, the men thus having all their meals served in the same room but with separate kitchens, one dealing with the regulation rations, and the other with the varied forms of refreshment purchased by the soldier voluntarily. This new departure was first embodied in the R.E. barracks at

same roof. The walls were built, between steel stanchions, of brick 5 in. thick, rendered with ordinary plaster inside, and rough cast

in the new barracks at St. Peters, Jersey, where the combined dining and recreation rooms were made overlooking a cricket ground, witha large veranda forming a pleasant position for spectators of the game. It was possible, by the economies afforded by the light con-

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principles, formerly described, of 10-12 men in one room, with ablution room, etc., in close proximity, with a room for one N.C.O. between two barrack rooms, and with a company store under the

outside, the steel stanchions carrying the weight of roof, windows,

Bordon, and there found to be so satisfactory that it was followed

struction principle, to give these improvements without excessive

414

BARRACKS

cost, more especially as. there was substantial saving in having the three buildings, canteen, institute and dining-rooms, combined

in

one. As the light-construction principle became more established in favour for buildings, including hospitals, in country districts especially, designs were contemplated for larger schemes (e. g. for the

cavalry brigade barracks at Chiseldon, Wilts., and for an artillery

brigade barracks near Fermoy), at the time of the outbreak of the war in 1914, and were in part carried out. In 1912-4 this principle of design was mainly adopted in connexion with aviation buildings,

regimental institute of three rooms, viz. supper room, games room, and corporals’ room; the bar and beer cellar to be between the supper room and corporals’ room so that central serving could be arranged. There was also provided a kitchen and scullery in an annex. There was to be no “wet” canteen (though as a matter of fact some commanding officers made a canteen out of the corporals’ room—an arrangement which was

required by the new R.F.C. The variety of new buildings, aeroplane sheds, workshops, instructional buildings, etc., that were involved was great, and the urgency for their provision very pressing. A system of construction, therefore, which would lend itself to quick completion, not involve heavy expenditure, and be capable of expansion, was obviously suited to a service of which the full requirements were still conjectural. Allusion may be made to one particular development, for it applied to other branches of the service as well as to aviation. This was the construction of officers’ messes and quarters.

Each cottage contained rooms

for four

single officers or two field officers, with an annex behind, containing servants’ rooms, store-rooms, bath-rcom, etc. If the establishment of officers increased, more cottages could be built; if the numbers were reduced, one or more buildings could be shut up or reappropriated. This form of accommodation was very popular. Married Soldiers! Quarters -Accommodation for the married soldier had in earlier years been brought up to a reasonable standard of comfort and decency. The standard plans of marricd quarters,

however, were neither economical in first cost nor P pleasant in appear` PI

ance. Frequently built in long and monotonous rows, they resembled the mean streets of an industrial town, and occupying, as they often did, some lovely spot in rural England, they were an eyesore and reproach. Hence, during the decade 1904-14, much attention was

paid to (@) reduction in cost, and (b) improvement

treatment.

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permanent barracks. everywhere, these had been combined in one continuous building, and, when enlargement or alteration of the mess became necessary, the problem was difficult. With the new arrangement for the R.F.C., the mess-house was designed separately, generally built on a site fairly central for groups of officers’ cottages crected near it.

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not in accordance with the original intention): (f) that there should be officers’ and sergeants’ messes planned to accommodate 30 officers and so sergeants respectively, and consisting of one block with mess-room and ante-room joined by a short passage with a kitchen block; (g) that four drying-rooms should be

provided in which wet clothing could be hung, fitted with stoves and bars; (4) that the latrines should be on the dry-earth system, and that the ablution rooms and urinals should either lead into soak pits (in the chalk country in France this was invariably done) or into sewage’filters; (7) that the lighting should be done

by electric lamps and the wires carried on poles, not buried.

in external

As regards (@) the average cost of the standard design

was £400 per quarter of four rooms, and it was found that by rearrangement in constructive details, reducing height of rooms, rearrangement of chimneys, etc., the price could be reduced to about

£220-£250 without sacrifice of comfort or authorized accommodation. Greater attention to (b) was possible also, in combination with economy ;and the grouping of rows of quarters round gardens, playgrounds, elc., gave an impression of home life in country districts. Some groups of such cottages at Farnborough, Hants., were visited in 1917 by the Local Government Board Committee on the National Housing Problem, and elicited their full approbation,

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ITutting during the War—When accommodation for the new armics first came to be considcred by ihe British War Office in the first 10 days of the World War, it was definitely decided to adopt some cheap design of hut which could be readily erected, and also easily adapted to any form of temporary material and to any reasonably level site. But there were many other considerations, ¢.g. what nature of accessory accommodation should be given, in view especially of recent rules regarding dining and recreation rooms, what sort of sanitary provision should be made, what method of lighting should be adopted, ete. As a result of consultation between the various War Office departments concerned the following points were settled: (a) That huts to hold 25 men (including one sergeant) should be constructed, giving 48 sq, {t. floor area per man {about 400 cub.

ft. of interior space); (b) that. there should be two principal spans of huts, viz. 20 ft. and 28 ft., and that as far as possible all the various buildings should be planned to fit one or other of these, $0 as to simplify the construction; thus, men’s barracks, officers’ quarters, regimental oflices, quartermaster’s stores, officers’ mess and ante-room and kitchen, sergeants’ mess and kitchen, were all planned to fit into the 20-ft. span, while men’s diningrooms, cook-house and regimental institute were on the 28-ft. span; (c) that there should be a battalion cook-house, fitted with the best known pattern of cooking-range and boilers for roco men, and that there should be on either side of it diningrooms for 500 men each, allowing 5 to 6 sq. ft. for cach man ona total floor space of 2,800 sq. ft. Between the cook-house and the dining-rooms there should be scullerics; (¢) that there should be

in each battalion a bath-house with a central heating boiler and

hot and cold water laid on to the showers, which should be in the proportion of g to every 100 men; (¢) that there should be a

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shown in figs. 9 to 12. That these points were spcedily settled is proved by the fact that all the type plans in detail for a complete battalion camp were approved 10 days after war was declared, and three days after it was

decided to raise 100,000 men for the new army. Considering the urgency of the matter, it would not have been a

matter for surprise if extensive changes had to be made after the

camps,

so built, came

into use.

There were not, however,

many

changes, though several details were amended. Thus, it was decided to omit some of the accessories, such as the dining-rooms, on the ground that the men could dine in their sleeping-huts if necessary, and dining-rooms were only a recently authorized provision. The drying-rooms were frequently used for purposes other than that for

which they were built, and in many camps they were not used at all, as the men found they lost their clothing when mixed up with others. In matters of detail, it was found better to have the huts made up

in sections, bolted together in sifu, rather than to build up wit gangs of carpenters on the spot. This building by sections enabled the work to be done chiefly in central workshops and very rapidly put together on the site. Incidentally, sectional huts fetched a better price after the war than others, for obvious reasons.. . : As regards materials, the huts were at first founded on brick piers.

This was a mistake, and it would have been better from the outset to

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have had a short stout pile of creosoted wood. The brick piers involved bricklayers and bricks and mortar, and the provision of thesc

large permanent hospitals built for military needs, at Ports-

meant delay in some cases. The framework of walls, roofs and floors was mainly red fir of market scanthngs, but the multiplication of mouth and Dublin, but there were many small “ reception stations ” for examination, observation, accidents, etc., and one these scantlings caused a famine in the market and much.complaint. Yet it is hard to see how this could have been avoided, except by | fairly big hospital for women, built of light construction, and using a material more costly, or else by taking more time in confound to be most satisfactory in every way.

struction.

A light steel framework was used in some cases, with

When the war broke out in 1914 the whole question of suitable hospital design came necessarily into great prominence, and the

expanded metal plastered on one side, and sheet iron painted in the interior of the room, but this was costly compared to timber. For

lining match-boarding and 3-ply timber were used. Asbestos sheets

‘following were the main points which were then settled:— (a) The wards should contain 25 beds, ¢.¢. 24 ordinary cases and one special case in a separate small room; (4) the nurse’s

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adjunct in a hospital, were combined in a hut 160 ft. by 28 ft., shown in fig. 14. At one end is the out-patient department with consultingroom, walting-room and dispensary, divided by a corridor from the offices of the principal medical officer, his clerks and registrars, beyond which are the offices of the matron, nursing sisters’ duty room, and clinical laboratory. At the rear of these are the orderly medical officers’ room and the medical board room. In the field there was in some cases a reception block where all

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wounded cases were brought, given temporary treatment, food, ctc.,

were used at first but were found very brittle unless the backing of

and examined by the medical officers prior to being sent to one or other of the special wards for surgical attention, etc. In a typical operation hut, §1 ft. by 36 ft., a wide double door, to

timbers was fairly (say 18 in.) close, and “S X boarding ”’ and

similar fibrous matter was also employed, but not found suitable, The floors were in most cases of planking, grooved and tongued.

admit a stretcher, leads into a hall, from which open on one side a Réntgen-ray room, an anaesthetic room, and the operation room,

In France excellent sectional huts were made up by French workmen, and the carpentry was somewhat on different lines to that employed in England, lighter scantlings in roofs and subsidiary ties and struts being used. Many of the sectional huts there had the sides at a slight angle to the vertical, the sloping side forming like a

while on the other side are the sterilizing-rooms, preparation room, store and photographic rooms. ‘The patient, after X-ray examination, is taken into the anaesthetic

room

and thence, when unconscious,

into the operation room, about 20 ft. square, with windows opening

“ mansard ” roof, part of the truss supporting the roof-covering.

to the north.

Hospitals—It was pointed out in the carlier article that military hospitals, where built permanently, are designed on

detail, but the same general principles were followed. Hospital kitchens were based on the knowledge that, while some

The hospital arrangements in the field varied in some nature of

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have to be fed in their beds, and that the diets would have to be varied to suit individuals. The cooking and distribution arrangements had therefore to be on a more elaborate plan than is provided for in ordinary barracks.

Other hospital buildings, such as dining-room, supply stores (for bedding and utensils), pack store, officers’ quarters, nursing sisters’ accommodation, and barrack huts for orderlies, followed the usual lines for ordinary barrack huts and quarters with certain modifications. There were, however, two other adjuncts of importance in

field hospitals, viz. mortuary block, and disinfecting block, which deserve a brief description.

The former is a hut 30 ft. by 14 ft. 8 in., with a post-mortem chamber 14 ft. by 11 ft. 9 in. at one end, fitted with table, stove, cupboard, sink and shelves, and with wide double doors. Next to it is the body chamber, about 8 ft. square, and beyond that a “ viewing chamber,” entered by a separate. lobby where friends of the deceased

can enter and sce the corpse prior to burial. The disinfecting-hut has a receiving-room 11 ft. 9 in. by 14 ft., into

which the foul clothing, bedding, etc., is brought, and placed in an air-tight disinfector, one end of which opens into the receiving+room, and the other into an adjacent chamber, the issuing-room, whence, after treatment in the disinfector, the material is removed. There is a small incinerator in another chamber and, for those materials

which require liquid disinfectants, there are other rooms provided.

Portable Huts of Special Design,—There were many types. of portable light huts made of wooden framework and canvas. They were not found satisfactory for prolonged use, although many werc. found very useful for rapid work and in emergencies, The principles were the same in most cases, viz. framing of

wooden scantlings about 2 in. by 1] in., covered with canvas prepared with some sort of waterproof solution, and, when unfolded, fixed in position by light bolts or by hooks. The disadvantages were that they did not afford better protection against cold and

type was used for certain buildings in the National Guard Camps, in which, however, the troops were housed

camps were

under

canvas.

These

all situated in the southern states, and required less

rotection against cold. Actual construction of cantonments began

ate in June and of camps about a month later. The last canton-

ment site was

oe

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tion centres be ready for the reception of the first contingents within

go days.

The cantonments naturally presented the most difficult

construction problem, but by Sept, 4 they were prepared

to house

430,000 men and their capacity was increased to 655,000 by the close of 1917 and subsequently expanded to 770,000. The National Guard

camps provided quarters for 450,000 officers and men. ular army

posts provision was

made

At the reg-

for accommodating

140,000

additional men. The programme of construction included also 4 centres of embarkation, 22 specialcamps, 30 supply depéts and numerous other establishments. At the Armistice, Nov. 11 19t8, the total capacity of all the military establishments in the United States was more than 3,700,000 troops. In laying out the cantonments on the chosen sites experts in towns

planning gave advice.

In general a U-shaped plan was adopted in

which the wings could be extended indefinitely.

In practice this

gencral plan had to be adapted in each case to the local terrain,

Standardized basic units of construction were devised, but these of necessity depended upon the size of the infantry companies to be accommodated. It was known that the original company of 150 men would be enlarged, but it was not known to what extent. For the 16 cantonments plans were issued calling for 2-storey wooden buildings, 43 {t. wide, of varying length, to house a company of 200

men or less, cach building to have mess-halls and barracks.

In the

case of sites in the northern part of the United States, the barracks were lined with wall-board, with interior air space as a protection against the cold; inthe South, barracks were merely double-boarded

on the outside. Enclosed stables were built in the North; open sheds for animals in the South.

As originaily designed these barracks pro-

vided less than 400 cub. ft. of air space

per man, following the regula-

heat than tents, and that the edges of the framing caused the

tions then in force for tent quarters. In Sept. 1917, after construetion was almost finished, orders were issued calling for at least 500

Portable huts of corrugated steel bent to a circular form were, however, most useful. ‘The model invented by Lt.-Col. Nissen, R.E., was largely used in the field. These huts were in two patterns, differing from one another only in the fact that in the larger one there

At the same time it was announced that infantry companies were to be increased to 250 men. Ht was further ordered that not more

parts of the canvas in contact with them to wear rapidly.

was a-central ridge opening admitting air and light along the summit above the normal roof level. The huts were formed of light steel ribs

of H-scction bent in a semi-circular form, and resting on plates for foundations. Over these, corrugated steel in three parts, clipped together at the edges, and fastened to the ribs, is laid. Under the corrugated steel, and fitting into the flanges of the ribs, are light oards to form a lining. The floors, of wood, are made in sections and fit in between the parts of the steel framing that reach the ground,

At the ends of the huts are doors and windows, with match-

boarding to fill the unoccupied spaces. Thus the corrugated steel covering forms. roof and walls, while light and ventilation, ete., is

cub. ft. of air space per man both in wooden barracks and in tents, than 35 men should be housed in one room and that each room should

have four outside walls with windows and should have an independent

entrance. This required a complete rearrangement of barrack interiors and much additional construction so that one company could be quartered in two adjacent buildings. For subsequent construcs tion of barracks new plans were drawn, calling for buildings of a

maximum size of 30 by 60 ft., 2-storeys high, with accommodations for 66 men. quired,

For a single company

besides separate

buildings

four such barracks were re~ for mess-halls

and lavatories.

In the beginning one-storey quarters for officers had been designed and these were retained throughout the period of mobilization. As: to the grouping of buildings, a standard block about 450 by 800 ft.

waschosen. Each block contained barracks for eight companies of 250

men. Beyond one end of the block were the officers’ quarters; at the opposite end were placed the stables. In constructing rows of buildings the general plan was to leave at least 500 ft. between the

obtained from cach end. The great advantage of these huts was that the materials could be packed up together so as to take up little space; and the one disadvantage was that, at a time when steel was much required for other services, it was difficult to get supplies of

rows as protection against the spread of fire. Jn each row not more

It is probable that sectional huts, either of the pattern alluded to

least 300 ft. Strict regulations were observed in the setting of

above, or of some modification of the Nissen patent, will be con-

tional Electric Code. Water connexions were so placed that 16 streams could be thrown upon a large building. At each mobiliza-

these huts in large numbers.

sidered as articles of recognized equipment in future and kept in store. G. K. 5. M.)

UNITED STATES

In times of peace the provision and upkeep of quarters for U.S.

than two blocks were grouped;

further groups were separated by at

stoves and heaters, and all electrical work conformed to the Na-

tion centre there was a trained military fire company and full { equipment. In addition to quarters for troops a cantonment had a | remount station for 10,000 animals, railway sidings, clothing repair

shops, steam laundries, bakeries, refrigerating plants, electric power plants, storehouses, halls for instruction, and a base hospital. Camp

troops had been the function of the Construction and Repair Division of the quartermaster-gencral’s office. The permanent military posts were small and in the aggregate provided housing for only about . 107,340 officers and men. Upon Amcrica's entrance into the World War the subsequent drafting of large numbers of men demanded an unprecedented rapidity of construction. Existing facilities. were wholly inadequate, As authorized bya letter of the adjutant-general,

the Y.M.C.A,, Knights of Columbus and Red Cross. A special Hospital Division was organized under the office of the surgeon-general to provide adequate military hospitals at camps and cantonments, In the autumn of 1917 these 32 centres each had fully

office of the quartermaster-general, reporting directly to the Secretary of War, and charged with the formidable task of housing-the

prised Go byildings built at feast 60 ft. apart, all connected by

sion was abolished and its duties given to the new organization, which in Feb. 1918 was placed under the Operations Division of the office of the chict-of-staff. It was thus detached from the office of the quartermaster-general as an independent service. On March 13 1918 its name was changed to the Construction Division. On May 17 1917, one month after the declaration of war, the

had a capacity of from 60 to 80 beds and provided usually 1,000

May Ig 1917, @ Separate Cantonment Division was created in the

new army. On Oct. 10 1917, the old Construction and Repair Divi-

commanding generals of the different military departments were ordered to select 16 sites for the erection of cantonments (National

Army Cantonments) to receive the troops to be chosen by the selective draft and also 16 sites for camps of the mobilized National Guard (National Guard Camps). Already in April tentative plans had been drawn for barracks and mess-halls, these to be wooden struc-

tures One storey 1n height, 20 {t. wide and of varying length, and this

welfare buildings were also maintained

by such

organizations

as

equipped hospital facilities with a combined capacity of 44,000 beds. The larger base hospitals had a capacity of 1,000 beds, and comenclosed corridors.

They had separate steam-heating plants and

laundries, and were equipped with modern plumbing.

Each ward

(never less than 800) cub. ft. of air per patient. The buildings were

of the 2-storey type. In addition cach regiment possessed a medica} dispensary and a small hospital containing 20 beds. n To provide water, connexion was made, when practicable, with the mains of existing systems. In other cases it was derived from

wells or streams and, if advisable, thoroughly purified.

In the can-

tonments the generous quantity of about 40 gal. a day per man was provided, and in addition about 15 gal. each for animals. In the

camps the quantity made accessible was smaller as there was less danger of disastrous fires in quarters under canvas.

For each com-

pany there was a lavatory with 12 vitreous bowls with wooden seats and a urinal trough 18 {t. long, besides 10 shower-baths and a wash

BARRES—BARTHOLOMEW trough 22 ft. long; a storage tank ofRee gal. capacity attached to a heater supphed abundant hot water. Where possible the sewage was discharged directly into running streams; where desirable, septic

tanks were installed for its treatment.

Stcam-heating was provided

for all hospitals, and in four instances for the whole cantonment because of rigorous climatic conditions. In 12 cantonments and in

the 16 camps stoves for heating were placed in the various apartments. Central power plants furnished electric lighting in all cases. No special type of road was required, but specifications were prepe for brick, cement concrete, bituminous macadam, and wateround macadam.

The width was usually 18 ft., but in some cases

24. Such walks as were built were usually of wood. Tables I. and IL, from official reports of the War Department, give the name and location of each cantonment and camp, the number of buildings erected and the amounts allotted for construction

{from July 1 1917 to June 30 1918 inclusive) :-—

TABLE I.—National Army Cantonments. Camp Custer . Devens Dix ,

Dodge .

Funston’

Gordon: Grant

,

Jackson| Lee

u

Lewis

.!

' Meade . Pike. ee

aves

Travis .

Upton .

Location

8,178,402

10,715,447

high, built at a cost of £70,000, and a working-men’s club and

9,900,238

institute, the gift of a former mayor; a new Carnegie library was in course of erection in 1921. l

1,460 1,488

11,848,948

Vickerstown on Walney I. is a rapidly growing township of model workmen’s houses and is becoming morc and more a residential suburb of Barrow. It has the James Dunn park on the E. and the Biggar Bank, a public recreation ground facing the Irish Sea, on the W. side of the island.

1,449

1,486

7,941,379 12,554,994

23,367

2163,723,047

Battle Creek, Mich. 1,282 Ayer, Mass. S -1,334 Wrightstown, N.J. 1,414 Des Moines, Ia. . 1,409

Fort Riley, Kan, . Columbia, S.C.

Petersburg, Va. , Am, Lake, Wash, Admiral, Md...

Little Boers Ark.

1,401 | £435 1,515 1,554

1,532

1,667

1,378 1,563

a toaa N Ft. Houston, Tex. Yaphank, N.Y.

- Totals

In 1908 and 1911 he published two volumes of Recollections. BARROW-IN-FURNESS, England (see 3.443).—The pop. (63,770 in 1911), which more than doubled during the World War, was estimated at 78,000 in 1920. The shipbuilding yards developed greatly and war vessels of all types, including dreadnoughts and submarines, were constructed during the | war. The Cavendish dock adjoining the Ramsden dock on the E.,.146 ac, in extent, has been leased by the Furness Railway

Co. to the firm of Vickers Ltd. for the construction of airship sheds and for the manceuvring of airships and dirigibles. The airship factory is situated on Walney I., which is connected with the mainland by a bridge with an opening span of 120 ft. for the. passage of vessels. Among the public buildings constructed since 1911 are the town hall with a clock tower r7o ft.

ings

Atlanta, Ga. Rockford, UL

Cost

$ 9,748,694 11,160,839

11,687,666

8,944,980

10,723,383 14,004,003 8,319,841 9,603,602

10,633,476 | 8,057,065

BARRY, ALFRED

Camp

Location

Cost

Beauregard., Bowie.. Cody . , Doniphan ,

Alexandria, La. . Fort Worth, Tex. Deming, N.M. Fort Sill, Okla,

$3,835,218

Fremont, Greene $ Hancock _ Kearny , Logan, , MacArthur. McClellan . Sevier . : Shelby . Sheridan Wadsworth . Wheeler

Palo Alto, Cal. . Charlotte, N.C. . Augusta, Ga, k Linda Vista, Cal. Houston, Tex. . Waco, Tex, å

2,503,554 4,033,081

Anniston, Ala. Greenville, S.C. Hattiesburg, Miss.

Montgomery, Ala.

Spartanburg, S.C. .

Totals

3,159,282 3,753,088 2,796,228 3:218,142

3,660,948 3,026,199

3:049,519 4,270,516

2,949,894

BARRYMORE,

born Aug.

ETHEL

(1870-

), American

15 1879 in Philadelphia, of Notre

Dame

He appeared

at her

1803.

BARTELS,

HANS

VON

(1856-1913), German painter (see

tographer, was born in Edinburgh March

$54,609,682

She made

début in 1896 in the company of her uncle, John Drew. In 1897 she first appeared in England in Secret Service, and with Sir Henry Irving’s company in The Bells and Peter the Great (1898). She was first starred by Charles Frohman in Captain Jenks in 1900, and subsequently became one of the leading actresses in the United States. Her brother, Joun BARRYMORE (1882— ), who first appeared on the stage in Afagda in 1903, had also, by 1921, established his position as one of the foremost American actors as had also another brother, LioneL, whose first appearance was in

3,303,162

2,900,027 3,761,510

actress, was

and was educated

in that city.

3.447), died at Munich Oct. 5 1913.

BARRINGTON, RUTLAND [Grorcr Rutianp Fieet] (1853), English actor, was born at Penge, Kent, Jan. 15 1853, XXX.—8

Convent

4,389,314

BARRES, MAURICE (1862), French novelist and politician (see 3.434), published La Colline inspirée (1913); but after 1914 was occupied almost exclusively with subjects arising out of the World War. La grande Pitié des Églises Françaises (1914); L'Ame française et la Guerre (1915); La Lorraine dévastée (1919); Le Roman de l’Energie nationale (1919) were amongst his later works. He also published literary addresses and lectures. BARRIE, SIR JAMES MATTHEW, Bart. (1860__),British novelist and dramatist (see 3.435), devoted himself after 1910 almost exclusively to drama. He produced, amongst other plays, Rosalind (1912); The Will and The Adored One (1913); Der Tag (1914); Rosy Rapture (1915); A Kiss for Cinderella (1916); Dear Brutus (1917); and Mary Rose (1920). He was created a baronet in 1913. BARRILI, ANTONIO GIULIO (1836-1908), Italian novelist (sce 3.436), died Aug. 13 1908. His last work, a volume of poems, Canzoni al vento, was published posthumously in rory. and was educated at Merchant Taylors’ school.

(1826-1910), English bishop (see 3.444),

died at Windsor April 1 rọro. the

Macon, Ga. .

417

first at the Olympic theatre, London, in 1874. Three years later he joined D’Oyley Carte’s company at the Opera Comique and appeared in Gilbert and Sullivan’s opera The Sorcerer. From that time onwards he was identified with the fortunes of. the long series of these operas, which ran continuously from 1877 to 1889 and were revived at frequent intervals,

BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN GEORGE (1860-1920), Scottish carson of John

Bartholomew,

22 1860, the elder

also a cartographer

(see 3.450).

J. G. Bartholomew was educated at the Edinburgh high school and university, and succeeded his father as head of the business of the Edinburgh Geographical Institute. In this capacity he maintained and improved the unsurpassed reputation for scientific cartography and exquisite reproduction which the firm had already acquired; in particular, he extended and popularized the use of “layer” colours exhibiting relicf of the land, applying this mcthod not only in the reduction of ordnance survey maps but in many other instances, including gencral atlases, of which the finest example is that published by The Times since the close of the World War. Bartholomew was associated with Sir John Murray and others in connexion with ihe mapping of results of the “ Challenger” expedition, the bathymetrical survey of the Scottish lochs, and other scientific studies. He planned a physical atlas on a large scale and with the coöperation of Dr. A. J. Herbertson published the Atlas of Meteorology in 1899, which at once became a standard work, The volume. on zoégeography, in collaboration with W. Eagle Clarke and P. H. Grimshaw, followed in ro11. His written works include a bibliography of authoritative maps of all countries (1891) and a gazetteer of the British Isles; and he interested himself greatly in geographical education, helping to found the lIectureship in geography in the university of

~ BARTHOU—BATESON

418

Edinburgh, as well as the Royal Scottish Geographical Society He was one, of the founders and for many years hon sec of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society He died at Cintra April 13

1920, but

the management

of the Edinburgh Geo-

graphical Institute remained in his family. BARTHOU, LOUIS (1862), French statesman, advocate, author, journalist, and lecturer, was born at Oleron Aug. 25 1862. He was elected to Parliament in 1889, and five years later he became Minister of Public Works. He was successively Minister of the Interior (Aug. 1896 to June 1898), Minister of Public Works (March-Oct. 1906 and in the subsequent Clemenceau Cabinet until July rg0o9), Mumster of Justice from July 1909 until March 1ọr3, prime muster from May 22 to Dec 2 1913, Minister of State in the Painlevé Ministry during the World War, subsequently succeeding Ribot as Min-

ister for Foreign Affairs; Minister of War Jan. 16 1921. His most notable political achievement was the manner in which he pushed through the Three Years’ Service Bijil, which was a response to German military preparations before the war of 1914 ‘ie was elected a member of the French Academy in'1g18

woman whose name has been taken by a post of the G.A.R. papers.

.

(1849-1920), Australian statesman

and judge, was born at Sydney, N.S.W , Jan. 18 1849. He was educated at the Sydney grammar school and the university of Sydney, where he won many distinctions, and was called to the N.S.W bar in 1871, becoming Q.C in 1889. At the age of 30 he entered the N.S.W. Legislature as representative

for Sydney

University,

and

remained

a

member

of

either the Assembly or the Legislative Council for many years. ‘During 1883-7 he was Speaker of the Assembly and in 1889 and again in 1891 he was for a time Attorney General. In 1897, after the death of Sir Henry Parkes, he became senior representative for N.S.W. to tbe Federal Convention. He was a keen supporter of Federation and in 1900 led the delegation sent to London with the Austrahan Commonweatth bill. In Toor he became the first Prime Minister of federated Australia,

holding also the portfolio of External Affairs. His two years of office were much troubled by party strife. He had been a lifelong supporter of Preference, but his majority over Sir George Reid and the Free Traders was small and the Labour party held the balance.

In 1903 he was glad to resign office and accept

the appointment of Scnior Puisne Judge of the High Court of

Australia.

In 1901 he was sworn of the Privy Council and in

1oo2 he was created G.C.M.G.

writer (see 3.458), died Oct. 3 1911 at Williamstown,

Jass.

BASEBALL: sce SPORTS AND GAMES. BASHFORTH, FRANCIS (1819-1912), English mathematician, was born at Thurnscoe, Yorks., Jan. 8 1819. Second wrangler in 1843, he was elected a fellow of St. John’s College, Cam-

bridge; and having taken orders, he was rector of Minting, Lincs., from 1857 to 1908. His interest in ballistics led him to make a scenes of experiments between 1864 and 1880, upon which

our The (see the

present knowledge of air-resistance is founded (sce 3.271). Bashforth chronograph for recording the velocity of shot 6 303) was his invention, and he received a pension from Government and a grant of £2,000 for his work. For some

class of artillery officers at Woolwich.

He died at Woodhall

Spa, Lines , Feb. 12 1912.

BASSERMANN, ERNST (1854-1917), German politician and

See Mrs. Corra Bacon-Foster, Clara Barton, Humanitarian (1918), which outlines her carcer with extracts from records, letters

BARTON, SIR EDMUND

ae

time he was professor of applied mathematics to the advanced

BARTON, CLARA (1821-19012), American philanthropist (sce 3.452), died at Glen Echo, Md., April 12 1912. She is the only

and contemporary

year In rọrọ he was a member of the Supreme Economic Council of the Peace Conference in Paris and in the same year was appointed by President Wilson as a member of the Industrial Conference in Washington. He wrote The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty (1920). BASCOM, JOHN (1827-1911), American educationist and philo-

He died suddenly at Medlow

Bath, near Sydney, Jan. 6 1920. Known affectionately as the “Father of Australia,” Edmund Barton inspired through his Jong carcer as a politician a deep personal devotion. His magnificent talents were used more for the advancement of his ideals and the help of his friends. than in the service of his personal ambitions. Like a genial Dr. Johnson in conversation, he made easy captives of British statesmen on his visits to London. One of his sons was the first Rhodes scholar from N.S.W. to Oxford. .

leader of the National Liberal party, was born June 26 1854 at Wolsag in the Black Forest. He began bis career in 1880 as a lawyer at Mannheim. From 1885 to 1892 he was a deputy in the Baden Dict, and from 1893, with brief interruptions, a member of the Reichstag. In 1905 the National Liberal party elected him as president of the party. In the Reichstag he enjoyed a high reputation as a speaker, and he exercised an eminent influence on the course of politics. He died July 17 1917 at Mannheim.

BASTIAN,

ADOLF

(1826-1905),

German

ethnologist

(sce

3.500), died in 1905.

BATAILLE, FELIX HENRY

(1872-

}, French poct and

playwnght, was born at Nimes April 4 1872, and was ceducated at the lycée Ienri IV. at Paris and the lycée Janson

de Sailly

He brought out his first play, La Belle au bois

dormant, in 1894 and his first volume of poetry, La Chambre

blanche, m 1895. His dramatic work includes La Lépreuse (1896); Tow Sang and L’Enchantement (1900); Le Masque and Resurrection (1902); Maman Colibri (1904), La Marche Nuptiale (1905), Paliche (1906); Les Flambeaux (1912); Le Phaléne (1913). Among his later poems may be mentioned La Divine Tragédie (1916) and La Quadrature de l’Amour (1920). Noire Image, in

which Réjane made one of her last appearances, Les Sæurs @’ Amour (1919), L'Homme a& la Rose (1920) and La Tendresse (1921), are among his recent successful plays. BATEMAN, KATE [Mrs. Crowe] (1842~1917), American actress (see 3.508), died in London April 8 1917. She had since 1892 conducted a school of acting, appearing only rarely on the stage; but she played Lady Kew in Colonel Newcome at Ilis Majesty’s theatre, London, in 1906, the nurse in Medea at the Savoy theatre in 1907 and Kirjipa in False Gods at His Majesty’s in 1900.

BATESON,

WILLIAM

(1861-

), British biologist, was

born at Whitby Aug. 8 1861, the son of the Rev. W. A. Bateson, some time master of St. John’s College, Cambridge. He was educated at Rugby and St. John’s College, Cambridge, and became famous for his biological investigations, which included important researches on Mendelism and the determination of scx. In 1894 he published Materials for the Study of Variation, In 1907 he gave the Silliman lecture at Yale Uni-

BARUCH, BERNARD MANNES (1870), American financier, was born in Camden, S.C., Aug. 19 1870. He graduated from. the College of the City of New York in 1889. For many years he was a member of the New York Stock Exchange but sold his seat in 1917. Ile first came into national prominence when appointed by President Wilson as a member of versity, from 1908 to 1909 was professor of biology at Camthe advisory committce of the Council of National Defense bridge, and in 1910 was appointed director of the John Innes in 1916, and after Amcrica’s entrance into the World War Horticultural Institution at Merton Park, Surrey. From 1912 he held many important positions. He was chairman of to 1914 he was Fullerian professor of physiology at the Royal the Committee on Raw Materials, Minerals and Metals, and Institution, and in 1914 was president of the British Associawas in charge of purchases by the War Industries Board He tion. He received the Darwin medal of the Royal Society, of was also appointed a member of the commission in charge of which he was a fellow, in 1904. His other works include all purchases made for the Allies. He became chairman of the Mendels Principles of Heredity (1902) and Problems of Genetics War industries Board in 1918 but resigned at the close of the (1913), besides many short studies on biological subjects.

BAUER, GUSTAV—BAVARIA BAUER, GUSTAV (1870-

}, German Socialist, and first

chancellor of the republican German Reich, was born Jan. 6 1870 at Darkehnen in East Prussia. At an early stage of his career he took up the secretarial work of the German Trades Unions movement and in 1908 became president of the general committce of the Trades Unions of Germany. Elected a member of the old Reichstag in 1912, he was appointed on Oct. 5 1918 Secretary

_of State for the Department of Labour in the Government of Prince Max of Baden, the last Government under the old ‘régime. In Feb. roro he was appointed Minister of Labour in the republican Government of the German Reich and on June 21 of the same year president of the Ministry which was installed to accept the Peace Treaty of Versailles. Fhe new constitution of the Reich having been enacted, the president of the Ministry resumed, in accordance with its provisions, the old title of chancellor (Reichskanzler) and Bauer was the first to hold this

office under the republican régime. He remained chancellor until the Kapp coup of March 1920, when he fled with the

president of the Reich, Ebert, and the rest of the Ministry to Dresden and afterwards to Stuttgart. On their return the Ministry was reconstructed and Bauer made way for the second republican chancellor, Hermann Müller, himself becoming for a bricf period the Minister of the Treasury (Reichsschatzminister).

BAUER, OTTO (1881), Austrian politician, was born Sept. 5 1881, the son of a Viennese manufacturer. He entered

the faculty of jurisprudence

at

the university

of

Vienna, devoting himself especially to the study of economics, principally under Böhm-Bawerk. As a student he took an active part in the work of the Social Democratic party, and was carly a zealous contributor to the Arbeiter-Zeitung. He served in the campaign of 1914, and was a prisoner of war in Russia from 1915 to 1917. After his return to Vienna he was elected a member of the committee of the Social Democratic party, and became the leader of the increasingly influential Left group. After the revolution he succeeded, in Nov, 1918, his master Viktor Adler as State Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In this capacity he energetically supported the idea of the union of German Austria with Germany.

During the peace negotiations at St. Germain

in July 1919 he retired from his office, but remained until Oct. a member of the Socialization Commission. He subsequently became one of the most conspicuous leaders of the Social Democratic party in the Constituent National Assembly and ‘in the National Parliament (Nationalrat), his speeches dealing mainly with financial questions, such as the tax on capital, and forcign affairs. His works are:

(1908);

Die

Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie

Teuerung

(1911);

Balkankrieg

und

Deutsche

Welt-

politik (1912); Die russische Revolution und das europäische Proletariat (1917); Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (1920).

BAVARIA, a territory and free state of Germany (see 3.543). —The pop. of Bavaria, with which Coburg had voluntarily united in 1920, was, according to the census of 1919, 7,140,333; without Coburg 7,066,024, in 1910 6,887,291. Political History, 1910-2r.-—The two last years. of the life

of the Prince-Regent

Luitpold were

characterized by an in-

tensification of internal political conflicts which arose from the increasing estrangement between the Podewils Government

and the majority of the Diet (Landtag) consisting of the Catholic Centre party. In the summer of 1910 Minister of Finance von Pfaff had succeeded without much difficulty in passing an.important measure of taxation reform by the vote of the non-Socialist parties and bad thus been able to introduce a general income tax in order to consolidate the financial position of the country. But the resistance with which, in the following year, the Minister of Communications, von Frauendorfer, and the whole Cabinet met the demand of the Centre for the suppression of the South German Railway Men’s Union, on the ground of its alleged Socialist tendencies, soon led to an open conflict between the majority and the Government. On Nov. 8 1911 the majority of the Finance Committee of the Diet refused to discuss with Frauendorfer the vote for the estimates of his department. The Government, in the hope of solving the conflict and relaxing the strain of the internal situation, induced the aged Regent to order the dissolution of the Diet. This was done on Nov. 14. For the elections which took place on Feb. § 1912, the Liberal parties, the

419

Social Democrats and the Bavarian Farmers’ League (Bayerischer. Bauernbund) concluded an alliance the effect of which was that only one candidate was set up by the allied parties in cach constituency against the candidate of the Centre. The Podewils Cabinet resigned on the day of the elections in order to give the Crown a frec hand according to the results. These results did not fulfil expectations. The Centre returned an absolute majority in the Diet, although their allies, the Conservatives, came back Sib much less than balf their former strength. The Liberals, the Social Democrats and the Farmers’ League gained seats, but not enough to overthrow the Clerical-

Conservative majority. 3 The Prince-Regent entrusted the university professor, Dr. Baron

von Hertling (afterwards Chancellor of the German Empire 1917-8), who also sat in the Reichstag in Berlin as a member of the Catholic Centre party, with the formation of a ministry, Baron von Hertling acted in the sense of his commission; he selected two of the leading: members of the Centre and filled the remaining posts with politically colourless officials. The hope that the elections would have relieved the strained condition of internal politics was not at first fulfilled. On the contrary the controversy about the treatment of the South German Railway Men's Union was further embittered by the issue

of an ordinanee which demanded from the workers on the railways

the signature of a paper certifying their loyalty; and the issue of a secret ordinance on toleration of the exercise of priestly functions by members of the Jesuit Order, which was still forbidden by a Law of the empire, roused the opposition to the Hertling Ministry to increased violence. By a decision of the Federal Council of Nov. 28 1912 disavowing this secret edict of the Bavarian Government, the

controversy about the Jesuits was eliminated, but new subjects of conflict soon arose,

On Dec. 12 1912 Prince-Regent Luitpold died in his ninetysecond year. His son Louis assumed the regency, and took the oath to the constitution on Dec. 21. The movement for ending the regency (which had fasted since 1886 and was due to the insanity of King Otto) and conferring the royal dignity upon the Regent, coincided in point of time with the bill introduced by the Government for increasing the Civil List from 4°2 to 54 million marks (£270,000). After protracted debates, by which the internal conflicts of the country were intensified, the Diet on Oct. 30 1913 passed, by a majority of £22 against 27 Social

Democratic votes, an amendment

to the constitution ending the

regency and enabling the Prince-Regent, Louis, to assume royal

authority. After the Upper Chamber had given its assent, Prince Louis issued a proclamation on' Nov. 5 announcing his assumption of the crown. The demand for the increase in the Civil List was granted by the Diet on Nov. 21 against a minority of 50 Liberals and Social Democrats,

The War Period-—The truce to party politics (Burgfrieden), which had completely silenced political conflicts at the outbreak of the war, continued as an after-effect, to mitigate them. In xorg the edict regarding the declaration of loyalty to be

signed by the railway-men was withdrawn; in 1916 the Minister of the Interior, von Soden, who was widely attacked on the ground of his agrarian food policy, was replaced by the former Minister.of the Interior, von Brettreich, while Gen. von Hellin-

grath replaced Gen. von Kress as Minister of War. In the later years of the war, when discontent due to the oppressive war burdens was accompanied by increasingly powerful efforts to carry domestic reform, resolutions of the Social Democrats in favour of proportional representation, a parliamentary ‘régime, and the abolition of the Upper Chamber were repeatedly. rejected by the majority of the Chamber of Deputies; but the Government promised at least to introduce a bill for the overdue reform of the Upper House (Kammer der Reichsrdte). On Nov. 10 1917 Count (as he had now become) Hertling resigned

the presidency of the Ministry in order to assume the office of chancellor of the empire. He was succeeded by Herr von Dandl, hitherto chief of the Civil Cabinct of the King. The imminence of the revolution, a consequence of the discontent excited by the increasing burdens imposed by the war, made itself felt as far back as Jan. 1918 in Bavaria as in the empire. The band of Independent Socialists led by the Social Democratic newspaper editor, Kurt Eisner, did not succeed, it is true, in launching a general strike of munition workers,

but there were demonstrations in Nürnberg and Fürth and also in Munich, leading in some

cases to street conflicts.

Eisner

himself and a number of his partisans were arrested and kept in custody with a view to their trial. He was set at liberty only by the political amnesty which the Government of Prince Max

BAVARIA

420 of Baden issued for the whole empire.

In the summer

and

autumn of the year 1918 there were instances of insubordination in one or two Bavarian garrison towns among troops who were being sent off to relieve regiments at the front. Such breaches of discipline indicated opposition to the war in the army and among the population. Eisner was set up by the Independent Socialists in Oct. 1918 as their candidate at a byelection for the Reichstag in the constituency of Munich. At a series of election meetings he advocated the idea of a violent

rising of the masses with the object of rapidly ending the war and overthrowing the ruling authorities.

After the War.—On

and

Nov. y the Social Democratic atte

the Independent

Socialists

on the Theresienwiese,

organized

a

mass-mceting

a large park in Munich, in favour of

peace; It was attended by about 150,000 workmen and passed off without incident. After the close of the meeting, however, Eisner with his adherents marched through the city, called out the soldiers from the barracks, occupied the guard-house of the royal residence, and formed on the same evening a provisional Workmen’s and Soldiers’ Council which held its first sitting in the building of the Dict. It sat all night, and a proclamation issued in the early hours of the morning announced the deposition of the dynasty and the conversion of Bavaria into a republic. As the soldiers, with the exception of the officers, were almost unanimously in sympathy with the action of Eisner, and as the working classes and the rural peasantry led by the two Farmers’ Leaguers, Joseph and Karl Gandorfcr, made common cause with him, no serious resistance was offered. The King had Ieft Munich on the evening of Nov. 7 and taken refuge in the castle of Anif in Salzburg. On Nov. 8 the Workmen’s and Soldiers’ Council in Munich elected a new revolutionary Government with Eisner at its head as Minister-President. Other members of the new Ministry, in addition to Majority and Independent Socialists, were Prof. Jaffé as Minister of Finance and ihe former Minister von Frauendorfer as Minister of Communications.

The new Government issued on Nov. 15

an elaborate programme, and Eisner himself endeavoured by the appointment of the pacifist Prof. Dr. Foerster as diplomatic envoy to Berne and by wireless messages to the Allies to promote the conclusion of peace on tolerable conditions. He encountered vigorous opposition in the Bavarian press, including Socialist journals, on account of these proceedings

and above all on account of his hostility to the Government of the Commissaries of the People wbich had just been formed in Berlin. There was a powerful movement in favour of instituting general elections for the Constituent Bavarian National Assembly, but Eisner only yielded to it on Dec. 5. The elections were fixed for Jan. 12 1919. On Jan. 6 1919 the revolutionary Government issucd an ordinance setting up a provisional constitution, which conferred upon the Ministry supreme executive powers and a veto upon decisions of the Diet. In the event of the veto’s being employed, the vote of the people was to give the final decision. The revolutionary Government was, morcover, to exercise legislative powers until the enactment of a definitive constitution. The elections of Jan. 12 resulted in a powerful displacement of political power towards the Left. The Bavarian People’s Party (Volkspartei), which had constituted itself on an independent basis as the successor of the Catholic Centre party in Bavaria, won 66 seats, the German People’s Party (former National Liberals) and the

German Nationalists (old Conservatives) nine seats, the Farmcrs’ League 1§ seats, the Democrats 25 seats, and the Social Democrats 62 seats. The National Assembly was convoked for Feb. 21. Meanwhile the masses had become more and more extremist in the Bavarian capital. There were repeated demonstrations which led to collisions and riots. Although Eisner made great efforts to prevent bloodshed, he could not make up his mind to dissociate himself unequivocally from the extremist elements which were coquetting with Bolshevist ideas. On Feb. 21, when on his way to the Diet in order to inform it of the resignation of the revolutionary Government and to invite it tọ elect a new

ministry, he was shot dead by Count Arco, a former officer. Before the Assembly could adopt any attitude towards this assassination, it was broken up by the infuriated adherents of Eisner. Men armed with pistols stormed the House and the Social Democratic Minister of the Interior, Auer, who had been wrongly accused of participation in the conspiracy against Eisner, was severely wounded by a shot in the chest, while one

deputy and one official were mortally wounded.

There followed

a period of lawlessness when everyone did as he pleased, since there was no organ of any kind for exercising the sovereign powers of State. The Congress of Councils (Soviets), which met after the assassination of Eisner, arrogated to itself supreme power, and it was only. after protracted negotiations between this Congress and the Social Democratic party, which had identified itself with the opposition in the provinces to the usurpation of the Munich Congress, that it was possible to form a new Government. The Social Democratic deputy, Hoffmann, who had been Minister of Education under Eisner, undertook the presidency of the Ministry; the Government was composed of Independent (extreme) and Majority (moderate) Socialists. The National Assembly met for one brief sitting and transferred the power of legislation to the Ministry until law and order could be reéstablished. Meanwhile things did not settle down; on the contrary, the situation in the capital

became more and more confused. As the Government did not consider that it possessed in Munich the power to carry through its will, it left the city two days before the proclamation of the Councils (Soviet) Republic and betook itself to Northern Bavaria, where it hoped to find support among those sections of the population whose opinions were Democratic. In Munich a dictatorship of a number of extremists, under the influence of Bolshevists such as Levin and Leviné-Nissen, held sway for

four wecks under the name of Councils Republic. The fugitive Socialist Government took up its residence at Bamberg, where

the National Assembly also met.

With the military support

of the Reich, action with Prussian, Wiirttemberg and Bavarian

troops was capture of insurrection The final

initiated against Munich and culminated in: the the capital and the suppression of the extremist after severe fighting on May 1, 2, and 3. phase of the struggle was characterized by some acts of barbarity, such as the murder of a number of hostages, including a Countess Westarp, in a cellar by the Soviet extremists. Unfortunately in the suppression of the “ Red Terror ” grave excesses were likewise perpetrated by the other side. There were numerous summary cxeculions and arbitrary arrests, so that in some instances persons who were entirely innocent lost their lives or were put in prison. Northern Bavaria had taken no part whatever in the movement. The Dict remained for the time being at Bamberg. The Government, after the Independent Socialists had left it, was converted into a coalition by the inclusion of two members of the Democratic and two of the Bavarian (Catholic) People’s party, with Hoffmann.as Minister-President. It submitted to the Diet the draft of a constitution which gave effect to the ideas of parliamentary democracy and which also provided for the exercise of the referendum under certain conditions. A number of other measures for completing the edifice of the democratic State were submitted, and the whole sesston of the Diet at Bamberg was occupied with the consideration of these. The constitution (see below), the Teachers and Schools law and a number of

other important laws were passed. The new constitution bears the date of Aug. 14 1919.

It was only in the late autumn when order-had been restored throughout the whole country that the Government and the Diet returned to Munich. In order to prevent the recurrence of a situation like that which had existed under the Councils (Soviet) Republic, the Government had caused so-called Etnwohnerwehren ‘(volunteer defense forces of the inhabitants) to be formed; in these armed bodies the citizens who took their

stand upon the constitution united on a democratic basis for the protection of public order and for the defense of the constitu-

tion against popular emeutes.

They elected their own Icaders

BAVARIA

421

and endeavoured to act as private organizations without — The House of Wittelsbach was expelled. The Independent Socialany connexion with regular military bodies The idea of the ist, Kurt Eisner, one of the most remarkable personalities of Einwohnerwehven rapidly took a firm hold, especially among the revolution, put himself at the head of the revolutionary the non-Socialist’ (dérgerlich) section of the population, so that Government. It was contemplated that a newly elected Diet these bands of voluntecrs developed into a powerful and well(Landtag) should provide the new republic of Bavaria with a armed volunteer organization. Fhe Kapp Putsch which had basis of legality by means of a constitution. The electoral resulted in a change of Government in the Reich, also pro- regulations issued with this object on Dec. 9 1918 conferred duced certain effects in Bavaria. Although the movement did the franchise upon all Bavarians, without distinction of sex, not secure any open adherents there, it brought about a domestic who had reached their twenticth year. In order, however, to crisis in the course of which the Socialist ministers left the safeguard the results of the revolution Eisners Government Cabinet. A Provincial Government president, von Kahr, was promulgated before the elections for the Diet a provisional elected president of the Ministry, and the members of the fundamental law of the State for the “ Socialist Republic of Cabinet were taken from the adherents of the Bavarian (Cath- Bavaria,” and this fundamental law provided for the establisholic) People’s party, the Democrais and the Liberal Farmers’ ment of parliamentary Government. The Diet was ta have League (Bauerndund). The elections for the Diet, which took met on Feb. 21 1919. On that day Eisner was assassinated; the place simultancously with those for the Reichstag on June 6 disorders which followed prevented the Diet from taking 1920, exhibited a natural reaction after the hardships which the in hand at once the preparation of the definitive constitution. country had had to suffer from the excesses of the extremist What the Diet adopted in the first instance was once more a groups during the 18 months following upon the revolution; there was a great increase in the strength of the non-Socialist (bürgerlich) parties. Only 27 Social Democrats, 22 membcrs. of the Independent Socialist party and two Communists were elected, while on the other hand 108 members of the nonSocialist partics were returned. Among the latter the Democrats had, however, lost many seats to the German Nationalists (the old Conservatives) and to the German People’s party (the old National Liberals) Herr von Kahr was again entrusted with the formation of a Cabinet; he sclected one

Farmers’

Leaguer,

one

German

Nationalist

(Conservative)

and one Democrat, and filled the other ministerial posts with members of the Bavarian People’s party and with officials who were in sympathy with that party. He received powerful support from a party organization in the country which was the rival of the Farmers’ League, the Catholic Peasants’ Union (Bauernverein), at the head of which was the gifted and popular Dr. Heim, who has been called “the uncrowned King of Bavaria.”

On the whole the country remained free from domestic

disturbances, On the other hand the necessity of disarming and disbanding the Einwoknerwehren in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles led to protracted and difficult negotiations with the Government of the Reich and to an exceedingly critical situation

for the Kahr Ministry in Bavaria itself, as that Ministry had made the maintenance of the Linwoknerwehren principal planks in its platform.

one of the

In consequence of the ultimatum of the Allied Powers the situation with regard to the disarmament of the Einwohner-

wehren became acute as between the Reich and Bavaria in May xo2t. Direct diplomatic representations were made to the Bavarian Government; for France, in spite of a provision in the new constitution of the Reich (Art. 78), had accredited a

minister to Bavaria, while Great Britain had ultimately sent a diplomatic consul. Herr von Kahr was finally constrained to announce that in agreement with the leaders of the Einwohnerwehy the Bavarian Government were prepared to make the sacrifice of disarmament. The Government had previously been’ vigorously pressed in this sense by the Opposition and in particular by the Independent Socialists. Their leader, Gareis, an able young man in his thirty-second ycar, was assassinated, doubtless by the hand of a reactionary, on his way home from a meeting on the evening of June 9 1921, an event which once more threatened to arouse the insurrectionary fury of the industrial masses.

Altogether the position of Bavaria within the Reich remained in many respects a source of perplexity in 1921. Much would: depend upon the degree of success with which the Central Government (of the Reich) in Berlin might be able to grapple with problems of home, and more especially of foreign policy in carrying out the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

(O. S.)

The New Constitution: —During the night between Nov. 7 and Nov. 8 1918, before the imperial régime had been over-

thrown in Berlin (Nov. 9), the revolution broke out at Munich.

provisional

‘‘ Fundamental

Law

of the

State,”

which

cor-

responded in essentials with the first provisional law and came into force on April 2 1919. ‘Thereafter the fresh revolution of the Communists, which had been threatening since the assassination of Eisner, broke out. Under the leadership of Russian Bolsheviks, the “Councils Republic” of Bavaria was set up. By May x the domination of the Communists was again at an end. The Diet could reassemble, though, at first, not in Munich. On May 28 r910, the draft “Tree State of Bavaria” Hoffmann Ministry. After tulion was voted and came The constitution

of the text of a constitution for the was submitted to the Diet by the detailed consideration the Constiinto force on Aug. 14 I919.

starts from the assumption that Bavaria con-

tinues to be a state within the German

Reich, although it has had

to cede a great part of its former rights to the Reich. This conception was still more strongly emphasized in Eisner’s provisional “ Fundamental Law of the State ” than in the constitution which was finally

adopted; for Fisner’s fundamental law was headed by the declaration, “‘ Bavaria is a member of the United States of Germany (the German Reich).” Eisner indeed vigorously defended the conception of federalism in opposition to the view that Germany had by the revolution become a single, united state (Ainhettsstaat), On the publication of the first draft of the constitution of the Reich, which was essentially unitarist, Eisner brought about a conference of representatives of the German states, at which the South German states succeeded in securing the institution of a permanent “ Committee of the States.”’ This committce or delegation codperated in the legislation which followed, particularly im the preparation of the new constitution of the Reich. The Reichsrat, the federative organ of the Reich, originated in this committee. It is true that Bavaria, notwithstanding its resistance, had not only to give up its “ Reserved Rights,™ but also to acquiesce in considerable limita-

tions of its independence. It had to cede to the Reich the control of foreign policy, of the army and of communications, in particular the railways; it may not maintain in foreign countries either legations

or consulates of its own.

It has also been subjected to considerable

restrictions in its economic policy by the Reich, as economic legisla-

tion falls within, the competence of the latter, while the finance legislation of the Reich has appropriated almost all the sources of taxation. All the greater were the efforts made in the Bavarian constitution to give effect in sts provisions to the residue of sovereignty which has been left to the territories (the Free States) in the

Reich. It goes so far in this regard that some of its provisions scarcely be brought into harmony with the constitution of Reich. The form of the State is nrescribed for the territories by constitution of the Reich. Bavaria accordingly is, like the Reich, a “Free State” public). The powers of the State (sovereignty) proceed from

can the the (rethe

people. It is in the Parliament, the Diet (Landtag), that the powers of the State are actually vested. Bavaria is thus, like the Reich, a “ representative democracy,” but it is a democracy without “ the

separation of the powers”; for it does not possess an organ for the exccutive with rights equal to those of the Diet—a president. The ministry is appointed by the Dict and is answerable to it; a minister

must at once resign When the Diet expresses its want of confidence in him. The rights of the Diet are, however, limited by the fact that it is left open to the people itself to exercise the powers of the State

directly.

This may take place if, by a ‘demand of the people”

{the initiative), the popular decision (Volksentschetdung) regarding a Jaw or regarding the dissolution of the Diet is brought into action. In order to bring about a decision of this character, a formal pro1 Reservatrechie, which were secured for it under the constitution

of the Hohenzollern Empire.

BAZIN— BEATTY

422

posal, which must have been supported by at least one-tenth of the citizens possessing the franchise, is requisite. If it be a case of an alteration of the constitution or of the dissolution of the Diet, the support of one-fifth of the electorate is required. This right of direct coöperation by the people is intended to be a substitute for the “balance of powers” which is lacking in the constitution. To this extent the Bavarian constitution, as mdeed the constitutions of the other German territories and that of the Reich, contains an element

ciation or tradition, which in his case took its tone chiefly from the army and the hunting-field; his father was a wellknown figure in the Leicestershire world of the ’eighties and ’nincties. That David alone of the family went into the navy was largely a matter of accident, and his own choice at the age

of 13, when he was sent to the Royal Naval Academy at Gosport, can certainly have had little to do with it. Yet within 35 years of that date he had run through the whole gamut of naval There is no Upper House. All men and women who have completed their pacnticth year have possibilitics, including those attained only rarcly by naval the franchise. They elect the deputies by secret ballot on the basis men of any age—Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Fleet, of proportional representation, arranged so that there is a deputy for Admiral-of-the-Flect, and First Sea Lord—to say nothing of every 40,000 inhabitants. The details of electoral procedure are fixed by a separate electoral Jaw. Only citizens of Bavaria who have an earldom, the thanks of Parliament, the O.M., and the Lord completed their twenty-fifth year are eligible. Rectorship of Edinburgh University. His sea service combined The ministry is appointed by the Diet in the following manner. — the maximum of variety with a minimum of mere routine. As First the minister-presidént is elected. He submits a list of the midshipman he served in the Mediterranean flagship “ Alexcandidates whom he proposes for the other ministerial posts, and the andra” and with the training squadron in the “ Ruby.” He ministers are appointed with the assent of the Diet. It is not requisite that ministers should be members of the Diet. The real was sub-licutenant in the “ Nile ” and the yacht “ Victoria and organ of the executive Is the ministry as a whole, but it is at the same Albert.” His six years of service as licutenant were passed in time, as follows from what has been said, dependent upon the Dict, the “ Ruby,” “ Camperdown ” and “ Trafalgar ”; in the PortsThe ministry adopts its decisions by majority. The ministerpresident presides over the whole ministry and has a casting vote- mouth destroyer flotilla, and in the Nile gunboats. His service when the voting is equally divided. The ministry distributes the there and in the battles of Atbara and Omdurman won alfairs of the state among the different ministerial departments and him his commandership, and in that rank he served in the which signifies “ direct democracy.” The Diet consists of a single Chamber.

makes the appointments to the most important administrative posts. It issues general ordinances for the conduct of administration and

decides upon the legislative measures which are to he submitted

in the name of the Government to the Diet. If a minister in the exercise of his office has designedly or by gross negligence infringed

the constitution or one of the laws, he may be impeached by resolu-

tion of the Diet before the Court of Jurisdiction in State Affairs

(Staatsgerichtshof).

The penalty for ministers who are found guilty

is dismissal from office,

The majority of the Court of Jurisdiction in

State Affairs consists of members of the Dict; the minority is composed of official judges. , . Legislation is conducted in the following manner: The Diet votes upon the bills which are initiated among its own members or

are laid before it by the popular initiative (Volksbegehren). An appeal to the popular decision (Volksentscheidung), or referendum, on a legislative measure arises (1) when the Diet rejects a popular demand (Volksbegehren) for the enactment of a law; or (2) when the Diet passes a law without a popular demand for it having been presented, and when thereupon an appeal is made to the popular decision (Volksentscheidung) either in consequence of a resolution of the ministry or in consequence of a popular demand (Volksbegehren) for the referendum. There is, however, an important class of laws

“ Barfleur.”

The Boxer rising gave him another opportunity

of active service; he was wounded while in command of a shore party, when his dash and Jeadership won him further promotion, anc he became captain at the record age of twenty-nine. From 1900 to 1910 he was in command successively of the cruisers “‘ Juno,” “ Arrogant”? and “ Suffolk,’ and the battleship “ Queen.” In the naval manceuvres of 1912 he flew in the

“ Aboukir”

his flag as rear-admiral, a rank which he had

attained 24 years from the day the boy of 13 had entered Gosport Academy. Even up to this point his career establishes a record in the history of the navy. It was, in a sense, so far as the navy was concerned, an obscure career, unhelped by “ influence,” un-

known to the public, undistinguished by the kind of fame attaincd by the passing of cxaminations.. It was remarkable only by its brilliant rapidity. What he had done he had done

by himself, and he had come under no personal influence, with the possible exception of that of Lord Kitchener as Sirdar, that which are exempt from the referendum, in particular laws relating to the budget or relating to taxes or excise duties, and Jaws dealing had particularly inspired or moulded him. He was never at the with the salaries.of officials. There is likewise no referendum in. the | top of any of the lists of his rank, but generally ncar the bottom,

case of a law which the Diet has declared to he urgent.

|

(1912) and Gingolph abandonné (1914), as well as a volume of

from which he would leap, by sheer merit of service, to a.similar humble position at the bottom of the next list, thus passing on the ladder hosts of officers who were laboriously climbing by the routine of seniority and the death or promotion of those above them. Jo make legal his promotion to flag rank in 1910 a. special Order in Council had to be passed, as he had not served the statutory time in command of a ship at sca. His two Admiralty appointments afforded him brief but valuable experience, While still a captain he had acted for about a year as naval adviser to the War Council; and under Mr. Churchill he became naval secretary to the First Lord. In this capacity he assisted

travel sketches, Nord-Sud Amérique, etc. (1913) in the pre-war period. After 1914 he published two volumes of war sketches,

at the conference held at Malta in 1912 when the decision was made to reconstitute the Mcditerrancan fleet by replacing the

‘The estimates are annually in order to preclude reckless constilution prescribes that, shall be a second reading of

fixed by the Diet by legislation. But, finance on. the part of the Diet, the on the demand of the ministry, there those financial resolutions which have the effect of increasing the amount of the items or of introducing fresh items of expenditure. At the second time of voting such resolu-

tions a majority of two-thirds of the members present is requisite.

Once the measure is voted, it is dispatched by the president of the

Dict and the whole ministry, and is promulgated.

(W. v. B.)

BAZIN, RENE (1853), French novelist and man of letters (see 3.561), produced two further novels, Davidée Birot

Pages religieuses (1915) and Aujourd'hui et demain (1916), as well as two novels, Le Closerie de Champdolent (1917) and Les nouveaux Oberlé (1919). | BEACH, REX (1877~ J}, American writer, was born at

older battleships bya smaller but more modern force of battle cruisers. In 1913 he was appointed to the command of the First Battle Cruiser Squadron, the fastest and most powerful

Atwood, Mich., Sept..1 1877. He was cducated at Rollins Coliege, Fla. (1891-6), the Chicago College of Law (1896-7), and Kent College of Law, Chicago (1899-1900).

(March 1).

lis tales of adventure include Pardners (1905); The Spoilers (1906, also dramatized); The Barrier (1907); The Silver Horde (1909); Going Some (1910, also dramatized); The Ne’er-do-Well (1911); The Net (1912); The Iron. Trail (1913); The Auction Block (1914); Heart of the Sunset (1915); Rainbow's lind (1916); The Crimson Gardenia, and Other Tales of Adventure (1916); Laughing Bill Hyde

and Other Stories (1917); Too Fat to Fight (1919); Oh, Shoot! (1921). BEATTY, DAVID BEATTY, ist EARL (1871), British

admiral, was born in Ircland in 1871, the son of Capt. D. L. Beatty, 4th Hussars, of Borodale. He was not, as so many naval officers are,. predestined to his profession by family asso-

scouting force ever launched, and hoisted his flag in the “ Lion ”

From this bricf outline of his service career it will be observed that Beatty escaped two things. By seizing every opportunity for fighting service he avoided that long period of drudgery in big ships which had for some time been recognized as having a deadening effect on the fighting spirit and initiative of naval officers. Similarly he was equally successful in avoiding long periods of shore service at the Admiralty which, valuable as they may be as a training in administrative work, do not tend to develop the entirely different set of qualitics demanded of an officer in high command afloat in time of war. Of administrative work in the large sense Beatty had practically no experience at all when he hoisted his flag in the “ Lion ” and pro-

423

BEAUCHAMP—BEAVERBROOK ceeded to train the newly formed squadron. In some ways it indecisive castigation of the enemy. was an advantage.

He came to this vital task with an original

The facts of this action, which had not been officially made public up to the spring of

and untrammelled view of its essential objects, with an instinct for warfare developed in actual fighting, and with a mind undulled by subservience to that long grind of routine which is the inevitable avenue to flag rank except for the fortunate few

the Batile Cruisers, containing a very full account of the battle, with track charts and the actual, text and times of the signals made.:

who, like him, can gain early promotion for fighting services. ‘Throughout his carecr, when Beatty was given the choice of decoration or other distinction as a reward for such service, he always chose promotion. He had an instinctive certainty that

of Jutland is discussed in the article on that action (see JUTLAND, BATTLE OF). Some months later (Dec. 1916) he succeeded Sir John Jellicoe as Commander-in-Chief of the

war with Germany would come in his time; and in so far as it

lay in his power to shape his career, he shaped it so that. he should be in a position to take a leading hand when the hour struck. As it was, with all the brilliant rapidity of his advancement, the war came just a little too soon to give him at the out-

set, and at the most vital moment, the position of commanderin-chief, which no doubt would have come to him almost as a matter of course if he had had a little longer in which to prove his undoubted qualifications for that post. When he did succeed to it the pioneer work of fiect organization had been done by Sir John Jellicoe; and the policy governing the use of the

Grand Fleet as a strategic weapon had been, for good or ill, definitely established, When the World War broke out, Beatty, although long marked by an intelligent few as certain to achieve distinction,

was practically unknown to the navy at large. The routine Iome fleet service in which officers get to know each other intimately had claimed little of his time; and when he took command of the battle cruisers even Lord Fisher had never met him.

But a very few weeks of war service revealed his

quality as a leader. In the action of the Heligoland Bight (Aug. 28 1914), a reconnaissance of light craft in which the -battle cruisers were acting in support of Commodores Keyes and Tyrwhitt, Sir David Beatty exhibited his remarkable instinct for being at the right place at the right moment. Partly owing to faulty Admiralty dispositions the British light craft, after the first object of the action had been achieved, were in danger of being cut off when Adml. Beatty, acting not so much on information as on his intuitive sense of the position, turned back through a subrmarine-infested area and arrived just in time to save them and sink every German ship in the immediate neighbourhood. ‘Then and throughout the war his battle cruisers were the spearhead of the British naval forces, In a score of operations of which, as they did not result in contact with the enemy, history takes no note, and in the two which developed into fleet actions, Beatty, in his famous flagship the “Lion,” was the leading spirit and pivot of the fighting forces. A true disciple of Nelson, he was a rebel against the official conception of British strategy that, provided the enemy were properly contained, his destruction was a kind of luxury

that might be indulged in only on condition that the containing force was not unduly risked.

Beatty, on the other hand, was

inspired with the spirit of attack, Tle had unique qualities as a leader which made men willing to follow him anywhere, and to

achieve the impossible; but apart from his dash and courage he showed consummate skill and caution in dealing with the new hidden elements which have placed so great a power in the

hands of the defensive in modern naval warfare. At the batile of the Dogger Bank (Jan. 24 1915) he chased the encmy for three hours, inflicting such severe punishment that the “ Blücher ” was suak and the “ Seydlitz ” and “ Derfflinger.” and “ Moltke ” were in full flight, the two former in a þat-

tered condition, when ihe ‘“ Lion,” which as head of the pursuing line had received heavy punishment, was put out of action, and the command devolved on Rear-Adml. Sir Archibald Moore. This officer, whose flag was flying in the “ New Zealand,” gave no orders during the vital 40 minutes following the “ Lion’s” disablement. Adml. Beatty’s signals to “keep nearer to the enemy ” were cither missed or misunderstood by the ships immediately following him, with the result that touch with the German battle cruisers was lost, and what was on the

point of becoming a complete victory was left merely as an

1921, were first given at that date in Mr. Filson Young's Wik

Beatty’s brilliant handling of the battle cruisers in the battle

Grand Fleet, in which capacity he received the surrender of the

German flect on Noy. 21 1918. He was raised to the peerage. in 1919 as Earl Beatty, Visct. Borodale

of Borodale, Baron

Beatty of the North Sea, receiving the thanks of Parliament and f{roo,coo. At the same time he was awarded the G.C.B., the O.M. and other honours and decorations. In 1919 he became First Sea Lord, and immediatcly set in motion measures for a reorganization of the naval staff on Jincs which would give the younger school of naval thought and experience

a chance to make itself felt.

Ieattended at Washington, D.C.,

in. r921 the Conference on the Limitation of Armament.

The following estimate of Lord Beatty was given, in the book referred to, by Mr. Filson Young, who had served on his staff in the “ Lion.” ‘One who has served him and observed him closcly in the stress of war may at least bear this testimony to his conduct in the chapter

of his life which is already over: that in everything that he did or attempted he showed forth in himself and evoked in others the fighting spirit that made England invincible in the past. The com~ mon view of him as a dashing leader trusting largely to luck, which

so much endears a man to the ordinary English mind, is singularly untrue. | It was not the mere instinct of the hunting-field, strong as it was in him, that brought him to the head of the Navy. His caution and his sense of responsibility were Just as remarkable as his enterprise; but they were never allowed to obscure or dominate the fighting spirit. Perhaps the greatest tribute one can pay to him and to the Navy is to say that in the qualities in which he proved supreme he was not exceptional, but typical; and it was because he was a product of the modern Navy and contained in himself ali its most characteristic qualities, that the Navy would have trusted

and followed him anywhere.”

Lord Beatty married in toot Ethel, daughter of Marshall Field, sen., of Chicago; of his two sons the elder, Viscount

Borodale, was in 1921 a cadet in the Royal Navy. (E. Y.) BEAUCHAMP, WILLIAM LYGON, yrum EARL (1872~ J; English politician, was born in London Feb. 20 1872, the eldest son of the 6th earl. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and afterwards cntered public life as a Liberal.

In 1892 he succeeded his father in the title. He was

mayor of Worcester from 1895 to 1896, and in 1897 became a member of the London School Board. In 1899 he was appointed

governor of N.S.W., but in roor returned to England. In 1907 he became lord steward of the royal household, and in T910 entered Mr. Asquith’s Cabinet as first commissioner of works and lord president of the council, retaining the latter

post on the reconstruction of the Government in 1914.

He

received the Order of the Garter in 1914, and retired in rors. Lord Beauchamp was from 1906 to 1907 captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, and in 1913 was made lord warden of the Cinque Ports.

He marricd in 1902 Lady Lettice

Grosvenor, daughter of Earl Grosvenor and sister of the znd Duke of Westminster. BEAVERBROOK, WILLIAM MAXWELL AITKEN, ist BAron (18797 ), British politician, was born at Newcastle, New Brunswick, on May 25 1879, the son of the Rev. William Aitken, Presbyterian minister of Newcastle. Ife was educated at Newcastle, and afterwards went into business, where

he had a very successful career as a financier.. Having made 1 The Financia! Secretary to the Admiralty answered im the afirmative a question asked in the House of Commons on May 4 1921 by Visct. Curzon as to whether the account given in this book might be taken as correct. Its publication then relieved Admi. Beatty of any responsibility for the somewhat misleading

version originally issued by the Admiralty of his own dispatch after the battle.

BEBEL—BEERBOHM

424

a large fortune at a comparatively carly age, he came to England in 1910, and stood successfully for the House of Commons as Unionist candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne. He was from the first an intimate friend and adviser of Mr. Bonar Law when the latter became the Unionist leader. In rgrr he was knighted. In 191g he went to France with the Canadian expeditionary force as “ Eye-Witness,” and in 1916 became the representative of the Canadian Government at the front, also doing valuable propaganda work. He was created a baronet in June 1916, and the same year was raised to the peerage. In

but he frequently exercised great influence on important politi» cal and personal questions, gaining a great reputation through.

1917 he was appointed officer in charge of the Canadian war records, and in 1918 entered the Government as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in succession to Lord Cawley and director of the Ministry of Information in succession to Sir Edward Carson, but resigned in Oct. of the same year. Lord Beaverbrook became once of the chief proprictors of the London Daily Express, and in 1916-7 published Canada in Flanders. BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST (1840-1913), German social-

“ The Nautilus ” and a portrait of Mrs. Beckwith. Yale, Johns Hopkins, and West Point possess examples of his works, and

ist ($ee 3.601).

During Bebel’s last years his views regarding

the revision of the Social Democratic programme underwent a considerable change; he ultimately favoured revision in the

sense of codperation with non-Socialist political parties in democratic reforms. In the Reichstag he continued to oppose with great energy the world-policy and the naval expansion with which William IJ. and his successive chancellors were identified. At the same time he guarded himself against the reproach of favouring a policy of non-resistance to forcign aggression, and on one occasion declared that he would be the first to shoulder

his rifle if Germany were invaded, His attitude towards imperial and autocratic Russia was throughout uncompromising. He denounced the complaisance of Prince Bilow’s Government towards the Russian Government in respeet of the treatment of Russian political refugees, and it would hardly be too much to say that he would have welcomed a rupture with Russia on almost any ground, His influence in this regard powerfully contributed to foster those sentiments in the Social Democratic party which led it, a year after his death, to acclaim the declaration of war against Russia on Aug. I 1914. In internal affairs he particularly distinguished himself by his denunciation of the maltreatment of soldicrs by officers and still more frequently by non-commissioned officers, His efforts in this matter had received great encouragement when Albert of Saxony (1828-1902) issued an edict dealing with the mal-

treatment of soldiers in the Saxon contingent, thus cutting the ground from under the feet of the Imperial Government, which had persistently attempted tö deny or to explain away the cases adduced by Bebel. Bebel had amassed a fortune—some £30,000, it is said-—from the proceeds of his writings, and this was increased by a legacy of some £20,000 left him, curiously enough, by an officer who had profited by his advice in a disciplinary case in which the officer had once been involved. He owned a villa on the Lake of Zürich where in later life he spent a great part of the year. One of his last public appearances was at an International Peace Conference at Bern in 1913.

He died at a sanatorium at Passuggin, Switzerland, on Aug. 13 1913. BECK, FRIEDRICH, Count (1830-1920), Austrian general, was born at Freiburg im Breisgau, and entered the army in 1848.

He distinguished himself as chief-of-staff of an infantry

division at Magenta, and in 1863 was made personal aide-decamp to the Emperor. He held this position, with that of adju-

tant-general and chief of the imperial military chancery until 1882, winning the Emperor’s confidence and exercising the greatest influence on all military questions. In 1866 he acted as the Emperor’s confidential agent at the headquarters of FieldMarshal Benedek, before and after the battle of Königgrätz, and his advice was of great importance, though it was not always followed. In 1878 he was entrusted with a similar mission to the commandcer-in-chicf of the troops operating in Bosnia. In 1882 he was made chief of the general staff of the Imperial and Royal army, an exalted position which he occupied till 1906. Not only was his advice listened. to in military affairs,

out the monarchy as one of its most influential men. His clear judgment and practical common-sense enabled him to sce and

judge men and things from a purely objective standpoint.

He was retired at the age of 77, with every possible sign of honour; and was appointed commander of the Imperial Guard. He took no part in ithe World War, and died in Feb. 1920.

(A, K.)

BECKWITH, J(AMES) CARROLL (1852-1917), American portrait painter (see 3.610*), He exhibited at St. Louis in 1904 the New York Public Library has a collection of his crayon and pencil drawings.

He died in New York, Oct. 24 1917.

BEECHAM, SIR THOMAS, 2nxp Barr. (1879_), English musical conductor, was born April 29 1879, son of Sir Joseph Beecham, ist bart. (1848-1916), who had made a large fortune at St. Helens, Lancs., as proprietor of “ Beecham’s Pills.’ Young Beecham was educated at Rossall and for a time at Wadham College, Oxford. His father was keenly interested in music and had given financial support to a number of musical enterprises in the North of England; where the son acquired considerable experience as a conductor. In 1905 he gave his first concert in London with the Queen’s Hall orchestra. A little later he founded first the New Symphony orchestra and next the Beecham orchestra, both first-rate concerns. In 1909 he appeared in London as opera conductor, and in Feb. of the following year the Beecham Opera Co., consisting entirely of English-speaking singers, was inaugurated. The scason was started at Covent

Garden in the following year when among

other operas produced for the first time in London were Strauss’s Elektra (Feb. 1910), Delius’s Romeo and Juliet in the Village and Debussy’s L'Enfant Prodigue. In the same year there was a further season at His Majesty’s theatre during which Strauss’s

Feuersnot was given, its London première. Further London scasons followed in later years, all with decided artistic success. These led up to the great climax when in 1913 the Beecham scason of opera and ballet at Covent Garden. included the production of Strauss’s

Rosenkavalier

and

The Legend of Joseph.

Later in the same year there was a magnificent season at Drury

Lane of Russian opera and ballet, made famous not only by the splendour of the productions of Russian opera in the vernacuJar, which in all probability would never otherwise have been heard in London, but by the remarkable singing and still more remarkable acting of Shaliapin, who then made his first appcearance in England. During the second and third years of the World War there were Beecham seasons of opera at the Shaftesbury and Aldwych theatres, when pronounced succcss was achieved by performances of Valkyrie and Tristan and Isolde sung in English. Beecham’s own version of Bach’s cantata

Phoebus and Pan was given at the latter theatre. In 1917 the Beecham Opera Co. were once more at Drury Lane, and in 1920 Beecham

organized a somewhat

ill-starred cosmopolitan

“ prand ” season at Covent Garden, during which Puccini’s socalled triptych, J! Tabarro, Suor Angelica and Gianni Schicchi, was given for the first time in Great Britain. I’rom 1915 to 1918 Beecham was conductor of the Royal Philharmonic Society, whose very existence during the World War he practically

guaranteed. In 1916 he was knighted, and shortly afterwards he succeeded to his father’s baronetcy. ‘The lavish expenditure

of his private fortune upon opera in English ultimately led to financial embarrassments which in 1920-1 necessitated the suspension of his musical activities. BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES (2859-10919), English divine and author (see 3.640), who was appointed dean of Norwich in ror, died at Norwich Feb. 25 1919. BEERBOHM, MAX (1872— J), English writer and caricaturist, was born in London Aug. 24 1872, the son of Julius Beerbohm and Eliza Draper, and half-brother of the actor, Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree. He was educated at Charterhouse and Merton College, Oxford, and afterwards became well known as 4 Contributor to the Yellow Book and dramatic

* These fiqures indicate the. volume and page numberof the previous article.

`

BEERE—BEHAVIOURISM erivic on the Saturday Review. He married in 1910 Miss Florence Kahn, of Memphis, Tennessee, and afterwards took up his residence at Rapallo, Italy. His published writings include Tke Works of Max Beerbohm, containing ihe famous essay on

George IV., and also A Defence of Cosmetics (1896); The Happy Hypocrite (1897), More (1899); Zuleika Dobson (1ọr1); A Christmas Garland (1912); Seven Men (1919), and And Even Now (1920). He also contributed to and edited the Life of Sir Herbert Becerbohm Tree, published in 1920. He is well known by his caricatures, of which exhibitions have been held in London at the Carfax Gallery (1906) and the Leicester Gallerics (1911, 1913, 1921). In 1917, a Modcrn Loan Exhibition at the Grosvenor Galleries included a group of rs caricatures entitled “ Rossetti and His Friends.” Many of his caricatures have deen published in Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen (1896); The Second Childhood of John Bull (1901); The Poets’ Corner (1904); A Book of Caricatures (1907); Fifty Caricatures (1913). His delicate and incisive satire has found its best material in the peculiarities

of individuals

in every

section of society.

Movements he almost invariably typifies by some well-known personality. Pledged to no party, his friends have occasioned some of his most characteristic work, notably the series dealing with the New English Art Club and with Mr. Balfour. Like Forain and Stcinlcin in his detachment, he lacks their univer-

sality; and complete appreciation of his art implics an intimate knowledge of current affairs. As a draughtsman he is not fault-

less, and sometimes resorts to the vericst conventions; but his frecdom of line, feeling for delicate colour and sense of design are remarkable, especially in his later work.

(W.G. C.)

BEERE, MRS. BERNARD [Fanny Mary] (1856-1015), Eng-

lish actress, was born at Norwich Oct. 5 1856. She was the daughter of Wilby Whitchcad and was trained for the stage by Herman Vezin, appearing first in the Opéra Comique, London,

in 1877.

Later

she played

Emilia

in Othello

and

various old English comedy parts at the. St. James’s theatre. In 1883 she was engaged by the Bancrofts to play leading parts

in Fédora and other dramas at ihe Haymarket. played

Lady

Teazle

in Charles

Wyndham’s

In r8or she production

of

School for Scandal, and two years later Mrs. Arbuthnot with Herbert Tree in Oscar Wilde’s A Woman of No Importance. She was three times married, but for stage purposes retained

the name of her second husband. In 1900 she married Mr, A, C. S. Olivier. She died in London March 25 rors. BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER (1831-1015), English positivist

425

agreed that the most convenient procedure is not to use it at all. It needs, however, but little acquaintance with their writings to realize that, so far is this from being a matter of common agreement among them, there is much discussion of the sense in which the adjective “‘ conscious ”’ as applied to bchaviour is to be understood. Here again opinions differ. But let us put the question in a rather different form. Let us ask: In what sense is the word “ consciousness” to be rejected by every behaviourist? As to the answer to this question there is a far larger measure of agrecment. In 1904 William James asked the question: Does consciousness exist? His reply was that it does not exist as an hypostatized entity with the unique privilege of activity, but that it does exist as a function. In its negative aspect his answer excludes “the hypothesis of trans-cmpirical reality,” 7.c. that from which proceeds what is sometimes spoken of as “an alien influx into nature.” The transcendental Ego of the philosophies, he urges, shows how “ the spiritual principle attenuates itself to a thoroughly . ghostly condition.” And he says roundly: “I believe that ‘ consciousness,’ when once it has evaporated to this estate of pure diaphaneity, is on the point of disappear ing altogether.

Those who still cling to it are clinging to a mere

echo, the faint rumor left behind by the disappearing ‘soul’ upon the air of philosophy,” There is no activity of consciousness in this sense. “ The healthy thing for philosophy is to leave off grubbing underground (in the realm of the transempirical) for what effects effectuation or what makes action act.” Activity in an empirical sense there is in plenty. It is change in progress referred to some “storm-centre ” of change. It is change intrinsic to some system and not merely imposed upon it from without. But there is for scientific treatment no activity of a trans-cmpirical entity which may be regarded as the source of such change.

When therefore a behaviourist says

that “we need a psychology of human conduct to supplant the psychology of consciousness’ (G. A. Tawney 1911), that which he seeks to supplant is a psychology which invokes what James spoke of as trans-empirical agency. It is probably not going too far to say that this marks a distinctive fcature of behaviourist interpretation. It should here be added that though this may with some confidence be said to be a distinctive feature of behaviourist interpretation it does not follow that if this be accepted one may infer that a writer who accepts it is to be ranked as a behaviourist. It is, for example, fully endorsed by Howard C.

(see 3.644), died at St. Leonards-on-Sea July 7 1915. _ Warren in his Human Psychology (1920). But he says: “ The BEGAS, REINHOLD (1831-1911), German sculptor (see 3.652), behaviourist contends that the data of consciousness should

died Aug. 3 ror1.

BEHAVIOURISM.—In

the earlier article on Instinct (see

14.648) and also, though perhaps less obviously, in that on INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS (see 14.680), the stress was laid on behaviour. In later years attention has been turned more and more to what has become known in this connexion as ‘ be-

haviourism.” What then is behaviourism? It has features in common with pragmatism and with neo-realism. It is however {as. is the case with these other ’isms) somewhat

difficult to

define. If we seck to elicit from the writings of this or that behaviourist a clear statement of the doctrine he champions or accepts, we find not a little divergence of opinion. And perhaps each would remind us that J. J. Thomson has spoken of science as a policy rather than a creed. What then is their common policy? One may reply without much fear of misinterpreting their aim: A resolute application of radical empiricism in the scientific interpretation of all behaviour and conduct. In this interpretation a good deal turns on the relation of

behaviour to consciousness, in some sense of this word, “ Critics

of behaviourism,” says Weiss (1918), “ do not recognize clearly enough that the term ‘ consciousness ’ varies in its meaning with nearly every person who uses it. There is no generally accepted definition or description; and the fact that psychologists and philosophers have been unable to reach an agreement is one of the conditions which

has precipitated

behaviourism.”

As to

behaviourists themselves he tells us that, thus far, they have

be ruled out of science altogether because they are not causal factors. This narrowing of the scope of science has not justified itself up to the present. Self-observation has proved more useful than the study of behaviour in investigating the phenom-

ena of human mental life.” It is questionable, however, whether all who

label themselves

bechaviourists

do contend

that the

data of consciousness should be ruled out altogether. R. M. Yerkes would not agree that this is so in animal psychology. And E. B. Holt, though he sails under the behaviourist flag in

his Freudian Wish, assuredly docs not rule out consciousness, Let us broaden our outlook.

If we extend the use of the

word “behaviour” so as to include physical events, their modern treatment tends more and more towards behaviourism. “Our sole task,” says A. N. Whitchead, “is to exhibit in one system the characters and inter-relations of all that is observed, Our attitude towards nature is purcly behaviouristic so far as concerns the formulation of physical concepts.” His attitude towards organic events and their mental concomitants may be

different. But his rejection of any “ bifurcation of nature ” and his polemic against a doctrine of “psychic additions ” (Concept of Nature, ch. ii.) is in line with the neo-realistic attitude of those behaviourists who deal with organic life. His percipient event is the homologue of the organism under the treatment of radical behaviourism. Neither the one nor the other stands in need of any “ psychic addition” ab extra for the adequate interpretation of the facts. Each is set in a field

426

BEHAVIOURISM

which for the physicist is a field of acceleration, and for the biologist and psychologist is a field of the environment to which the organism responds more suo. The business of science in cach case is to formulate an answer to the question: Given such a ficld, having what may be called varying density, what happens therein? One does not enquire: What makes that which happens ṣo happen? At least one does not ask any such question in a trans-cmpirical sense. To do so is to “grub under-

ground for what makes action act.” But on such terms where does psychology come in? One has here to realize that there are two schools of behaviourists. According to one school. the study of conduct is to supplant that of consciousness through so-called methods of introspection. According to the other school such study is to give new value and direction to psychol‘ogy and thus involves not the abandoning but a redefining of the concept of consciousness. Here alliance is sought with

treatment, the emphasis falls on that of which one is conscious. Thus E. B, Holt would urge that there is nothing in the subsistent or existent world (for our developed knowledge or our more primitive acquaintance) of which we may not be conscious. For him therefore consciousness is a section through the world of. experience, of which section the organism that we spcak of as percciving or conceiving is, in any given particular case, the centre. And Woodbridge (1905) says: “Objects are connected in consciousness in such a way that they become known.

It is important to note that, while this is so, the knowledge is wholly determined in its content by the relations of the objects in consciousness to -one another, not by the relation of consciousness to the objects.” To be “ in consciousness ” is thus on this view to be in a field of awareness which may, like space-time, be coextensive with the universe.

But this is not the only view—so much turns on

those whom they regard as in spirit, if not in name, one with them in aim. Behaviourists of this latter school, while still rejecling consciousness as a trans-empirical agent, and thus avoiding all taint of animistic interpretation, all interaction

definition. Others, without invoking an independent psychic entity, and without denying that there 1s a widely extensive ficld of awareness, within which all objects for consciousness are set, would differentiate consciousness as an imperium in

of mind and body as disparate entities, all so-called parallelism and the like, none the less accept consciousness as an empirical function. What does this mean? It is connected with what is spoken of as the relational view of consciousness, and thus has

imperio and restrict it to the organism as the percipient centre

points of contact with the relational view of space-time. Indeed

F. J. E. Woodbridge (1905) says that we should use the expression “‘in consciousness ” in a manner like unto that in which we use. the expression “in space” or “in time”; and just as

we do not ask if space and time, as such, affect things causally, so too we should not raise the question of the causal efficiency of consciousness.

The wedge of entry of the psychic regard, implied by the use of the word “ consciousness,” is through the concept of aware-

ness. Lotze spoke of one physical body “taking note of” others. Thus the carth takes note of the sun in a gravitative field; iron filings take note of a magnet m an electro-magnetic field. But awareness commonly implies some mental as well as physical taking note of—something, however rudimentary, of the nature of being acquainted with. Now if we speak of a relational field of awareness as one in which this conscious “taking note of” obtains, the organism which is stimulated and responds js always central within that field. If then we call this central term the psycho-organism, it is the locus of consciousness in the sense of being aware. It is the experiencing term in relation to terms in the environment which are expericnced, That is one way of regarding consciousness in the

widest sense of the word. Consciousness is the class of all instances of experiencing on the part of psycho-organisms. Whitehead’s percipicnt event, taking note of physically, is also a perceiving event, taking note of psychically.

But of course

the psycho-organism, as perceiving centre, is that very complexly integrated system of such psychical events which we commonly call a mind. There is, however, another way of regarding consciousness. Instead of restricting the application of the word Lo processes of minding within the percipient centre, the concept is extended

so as to comprise all that is in the field of awareness as minded, That which one is aware of, no mattcr how distant its locus of origin may be from the percipient centre, is “ in mind,” and-

therefore “in consciousness,” as a relational field. One is, no doubt, conscious 7” seeing, or Imaging, or remembering; but one is also conscious of what is scen, imaged, or remembered. And what one is conscious of has every right to be regarded as in consciousness. This distinction between the “in’’ and the “of” (as here used) goes back at least as far as Berkeley, who spoke of perceiving as in mind “by way -of attribute” and of that which is perceived as in mind “by way of idea.” We sometimes speak of the former as “in consciousness”. and of the latter as “‘ for consciousness ”;-or of the former as “ subjective” and of the latter as “ objective.” But the behaviourist is, as he might say, “ out for” objective treatment. Part of his

motive is to show the futility of subjecticism, Hence, for his

within that field. B. H. Bode (1917) goes further and advocates a yet more restricted concept of consciousness according to which some reference to the future is an essential criterion. “ Consciousness is behaviour that is controlled by the future.” There is much to be said for the contention that Auman consciousness is the mental correlate of behaviour that is controlled by anticipations of the future. James urged that with every definite image “‘ goes the sense of its relations, the dying

echo of whence it came to us, the dawning sense of whither it is to lead.” But this is not quite what Bode says. He spcaks of consciousness as “just a future adaption that has been set to work so as to bring about its own realization.” This implies that the locus of consciousness, thus regarded, is the percipicnt centre. “ As Dewey has pointed out, the psychical is correlated with intra-organic adjustments within the organism, that is adjustments of the organism considered not with reference to the environment, but with reference to one another.” This seems to give to psychology, as commonly understood, a more definite place than is readily to be found in the treatment of Watson.

And

Yerkes

(1917)

criticizing the behaviourism

of

Watson “as simply and solely the physiology of organic activity,” claims that there is a science of “psychics” on a par with that of ‘ physics,” including in the latter objective physiology and biology. Enough has been said in this connexion to show that it is no easy task to bring to a focus the essentials of behaviourist creed or policy.

Apart from philosophical implications, and apart from its relation, if any, to consciousness, a cardinal feature of this policy is to start out from behaviour as that which lies open to

objective observation instead of from introspection, which is supposed to yield some trans-empirical psychic force or energy. Behaviour is the biological ‘ end ” of all processes in the organ-

ism; it is that which we seek to interpret under the canons of strictly scientific procedure;

it is therefore that from which

such interpretation should set forth. ‘This, it is urged, has been realized by all the best workers on the problems of animal life; it has been realized in a measure by those who lay stress,

in human life, on the importance of conduct. Here the realization needs to be widened and strengthened. Watson would add that it must be formulated in physiological and biological terms. In human life there is no doubt much emphasis on language and on thought,

What is language, however, but a

subtle mode of beh “ laryngeal behaviour ” if we include all the contributory bodily procésses which centre round oral speech, and, as integrated therewith, the written word? How large a proportion of human behaviour finds its expression In language and its attendant modes of symbolization! But in our adult life much of this has been rendered implicit and no longer gets overt or explicit expression.

present,

as unvoiced

“ laryngeal

None

bchaviour,”’

the less it is

though

“ the

moment the overt slips into the implicit, instrumentation [the

BEILBY, SIR GEORGE THOMAS

427

use of delicate apparatus] becomes necessary to bring the process out for observation ” (Watson). Even then it is diffi-

terms of his special form of behaviourism and his relational

cult to interpret the data owing to much abbreviation and short-circuiting. Now, many who would not care to be labelled behaviourists might provisionally agree that language, expressed or suppressed, is the outcome of thought. But this is not good enough for the physiological behaviourist pur sang. Language behaviour

judicious dose of bchaviourist interpretation may serve as a corrective of some of the tenets of what now goes by the nam of the New Psychology.

and thought must be identified.

Thus Watson contended that

“thought is the action of language mechanisms.” It is not, as some assume, “ something, no one knows quite what, that can go on in the absence of all muscular activity. It is a constituent part of every adjustment process... . It is not different in essence from tennis-playing, swimming, or any other

overt activity except that it is hidden from ‘ordinary observation and is more complex and at the same time more abbreviated.” Jf then thought is the action of the laryngcal mechanisms just.as swimming is the action of other bodily mechanisms,

treatment of consciousness.

One may hazard the opinion that a

Of late years in England it is instinct in man, rather than

in animals, that has occupied the attention of psychologists and sociologists. For this purpose the definition of instinctive behaviour as that which is unlearnt—the form of which is not acquired in the course of individual experience, coming by nature and not through nurture—hbas been found not. only’ difficult of application in human life but scarcely serviceable for marking a contrast which calls for emphasis. Instead therefore of using the word “instinctive ” to mark those forms of behaviour which are unlearnt and not individually acquired, some

use it to distinguish

those modes

of behaviour

which

take form unreflectively from those which are the outcome of rational thought under fully deliberate choice. Thus the in-

it clearly follows that thought, for this behaviourist ‘ psychology,” in which the word “ consciousness ”’ is taboo, is a mode of bodily behaviour. In what sense can this be accepted on behav-

stincts of the herd, with which W. Trotter has dealt in an able

come of the behaviour of effectors; their behaviour is the out-

appropriate definition, be interpreted on behaviourist principles.

come of that of a nervous system with its inherited and acquired neuronic pattern; this behaviour in turn is duc to that of many receptors under adequate stimulation. All human conduct,

There is, however, another way of dealing with instinct, either in the unlearnt or in the not-refiective sense, which will þe rejected by most, if not all, behaviourists—nay more which is rejected by many of the leading American psychologists and philosophers who would not wish to be regarded as exponents. of behaviourism. This is the increasingly prevalent doctrine in

and illuminating manner, are, in part at least, modes of bchaviour which have been learnt under the social conditions of gregarious iourist principles? Not without diffidence it may be suggested life, which are in large measure due to tradition, and which are that to get the answer to this question it is essential to recog- only endorsed under the long-familiar process which has of late nize that the organism responds as an integrated whole, and ` been called rationalization., Here the bolstering up by some assigned reason is subsequent to the “instinctive” performthat all that follows on stimulation in some hfe-situation must be regarded as behaviour. Laryngeal behaviour is the out- ance of the act. In all this there is nothing which cannot, under

including speech, overt or implicit, is the final expression of the behaviour of the organism, man, as a whole; and this organ-

ism is what it is, and finally does what it docs as the result of all that has happened to it during development under the environing conditions of life up to date. Watson scems to lay chief stress on what has been spoken of above as the final expression —the business end of the whole business. And perhaps he would regard what has been said as involving an unwarrantable extension of the concept of behaviour, But there is much, even in his treatment, which lends colour to such an interpre-

tation of that which he would regard as the cardinal policy of behaviourism. The physiological story above outlined is a familiar one. Watson tells it admirably and adds effective and illuminating touches. He is honest in confessing that much still remains

conjectural.

One is left in wonder, however, why when the

ship of psychology is lightened by throwing consciousness overboard, thought also should not be silently dropped over the stern. Then the vessel thus rendered thoroughly seaworthy might be rechristened and given some more appropriate name under which to pursue her voyage. Psychology seems a misnomer. The name is, however, retained. So let that pass. Revert to. the emphasis on the final expression in act and deed. Here is a bit of sound policy. It is this final expression which is of prime importance in animal behaviour and in human conduct. Herein

lies the pragmatic value of behaviourist treatment. Men have, for example, to be sclected for vocational work, for service in the social community, as promising for this job or for that, on occasion as likely to be efficient in the army. They must be chosen for what they can de, and do rapidly, surely and well. It is claimed, and there is evidence to substantiate the claim,. that the behaviourist with his stress on the effective output in‘ conduct, is able to make a wiser choice than the “ orthodox ”

England according to which instincts are forces of character, modes of psychic energy, prime movers of human conduct, types of true mental activity, exemplars of genuine impulse, as the rational psychologist and not the physiologist understands this word. It finds able expression in W. McDougall’s Social Psychology, in A. F. Shand’s Foundations of Character, and in J. Drever’s Instinct in Man. It is traceable in W. Trot-

ter’s Instincts of the Herd, in L. T. Wobhouse’s Mind in Evolttion, and in W. H. R. Rivers Instinct and the Unconscious. For those who advocate a new psychology, this scems to be a pivotal concept in the increasing literature of psycho-analysis. Its spiritual father in England is James Ward, whose article PsycHoLocy in the E.B., gth Ed., marked a tuming-point in thought. It has been fostered through the influence of Henri Bergson. It involves the concept ef a “kind of causality so connected with the nature of conative consciousness that iL can

belong to nothing else * (G. F. Stout, to whose HManyat an important chapteron Instinct has been added, 1913).

Jf there is any validity in the characterization of behaviourism outlined above, fhis is the psychology which its supporters seck to supplant, since it involves, as they aver, a bifurcation of nature through the introduction of trans-empirical concepts. And assuredly those who hold this creed will, on their part, utterly reject behaviourism.

See J. B. Watson, “ Psychology as the Behaviourist views it,’’ Psych. Reo. xx, 1913 (to this article may probably be assigned the introduction of the word); Behaviour (1914); Psychology from the

Standpoint of a Behaviourist (1920); ©.. B. Holt, The Concept of Consciousness (1914), The Freudian Wish (1915). See also Jour, of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods from 1904 to date. ‘The dates in the text after the names of Bode, Weiss, Yerkes and others refer to articles in this journal under the years of publication. W. James's “ Docs Consciousness Exist?” appeared in the first volume and is reprinted with other pertinent papers in Essays. in

psychologist who Is said to be obsessed with the older intellectualistic metheds which involve t6o much reliance on the Radical Empiricism (1912). (C. LL. M.) methods of introspection only--whose “ pure psychology ” is BEILBY, SIR GEORGE THOMAS (r8so~ ), British physiof slender value in its application to the current problems of busy life. In another field of practical application it is urged cist, was born at Edinburgh Nov. 17 1850, his father being a that the methods of behaviourism will be fruitful. Both Watson physician. He was educated at Edinburgh University and (1916) and Holt seck to apply them in the procedure of psycho- trained as a civil engincer. When quite young he developed, analysis; and the latter author interprets the Freudian Wish in in collaboration with the late William Young, a new method

BELASCO-—-BELGIAN CONGO

428

of retorting oil shale, in which by carrying out the operation in two stages, each at the most suitable temperature, most of the fixed nitrogen in the spent shale, which had pre-

sance in England, in which he was associated with Mervyn Macartney as joint author. His Electra House, Finsbury, and Whiteley’s vast store, Bayswater, are admirable examples viously been lost, was obtained as sulphate of ammonia. Between of business premises based upon plans thoughtfully and prac1881 and 1894 this method entirely displaced the older methods tically conceived, and possessing a fine and dignified architecof retorting, and the industry was enabled. to hold its own tural treatment. Belcher was not responsible for many churches, in competition with imported petroleum products. In 1891. but his Holy Trinity church, Kingsway (1909), is an interesting Beilby invented and developed anew synthetic process for the - essay in the classic manner, and the Catholic Apostolic church in manufacture of the cyanides of potassium and sodium, by the Maida Vale being on very similar lines, may. compare with any use of which gold and silver are recovered from their ores,

of the Gothic town churches designed by Pearson.

The cyanides are produced by passing ammonia gas through a> molten mixture of the carbonates of the alkalis with charcoal, at a temperature of 850° C. An important British industry was . founded on this process, the first factory being opened at Leith in 1891. Beilby was clected F.R.S, in 1906, He was president of the Society of Chemical Industry in 1899, of the chemical

tic work—especially that at Stowell Park for the Earl of Eldon —had much grace and charm, and evidenced his sympathy, previously noted, with Norman Shaw’s methods. Apart from his profession Belcher displayed considerable gifts as singer, composer and conductor. His talents received recognition in

section of the British Association in roog, of the Institute of

in his own country and elsewhere.

Chemistry

cmician in 1909, and in 1907

in 1909-12, and of the Institute

of Metals in

1916-8. In 1912 he was a member of the Royal Commission on Fuel and Engines for the Navy. During the World War he

was a member of the Admiralty Board of Inventions and Re-

His domes-

many directions and he was the holder of various distinctions

He was elected Royal Acad-

received the gold medal of the

Royal Institute of British Architects, of which he had been president’ in the preceding year. Russia, Belgium, Germany, Spain and the United States elected him a member of their

He was knightedin 1916. He published many scientific several architectural societics. He dicd in London Nov. 8 1913. and technical papers, and also The Aggregation and Flow of (C. H. To.) Solids (1921). BELGIAN CONGO (see Conco FREE STATE, 6.917)—ReadBELASCO, DAVID (1859-7 =), American playwright and justments of the Congo-Uganda frontier, and the incorporation manager, was born at San Francisco, Cal., July 25 1850. in rọrọ of the greater part of Urundi and Ruanda, increased the search.

After graduating from Lincoln College, Cal., in 1875, he was.

area of the colony by some 19,000 sq. m., and its inhabitants by,

stage-manager

approximately, 2,500,000 to 3,000,000. The total arca of Belgian Congo in 1920 was estimated at 928,000 sq.m. A census was taken for the first time in 1917. It was not complete but indicated that the pop. was little more than 7,000,000. In 1921, including Ruanda and Urundi the estimate was Io,000,000, In 1918 white inhabitants numbered 6,487, of whom 3,307 were Belgians. British numbered (in 1917) 820, of whom 588 lived in the Katanga province. Flisabethville (founded 1910), the capital of Katanga, had a white pop. in 1920 of about 1,600. It had many fne buildings and most of the amenities of a European town. Trade, Agriculture and Communications.—The most “'striking

at several

theatres

and then

went

to New

York where he owned and managed the prosperous Belasco theatre. He wrote or adapted some 200 plays, largely melo-

dramatic, and owing to his mastery of stage-craft he was eminently successful as a producer and stage director. He presented E. Hf. Sothern in Lord Chumley (1887); Mrs. Leslie Carter in The Heart of Maryland (1895); Blanche Bates in Naughty Anthony (1899); Henrietta Crosman in Sweet Kitty Bellairs (1903); and David Warfield in The Music Master (1904). Of his numerous other productions may be mentioned:

Ma

Blossom (1884); The Charity Ball (1887, with H. C. De Mille); Men and Women (1890); The Girl I Left Behind Me (1893, with Franklin Fyles); Afadame Butterfly (1900); Madame Du Barry (1901); The Darling of the Gods (1902, with John Luther Long); The Girl of the Golden West (1905); The Return of Peter Grimm ne I); The Governors Lady

(1912);

The Temperamental

Journey

(1913);

The Secret (1914); A Celebrated Case (1915); The Boomerang (1915)

and Polly with a Past (1917).

BELCHER,

JOHN

(1841-10913), English architect, was the

‘son of John Belcher, an architect of some position. He probably derived much of his artistic faculty from his family connexion with William Woollett, the 18th century engraver. Following his father’s profession, his education included a

couple of years in Germany.

He further made a lengthy stay in

Paris, studying and sketching modern French architecture, the result of which asserted itself in his first important commission

—the Royal Insurance offices in Lombard Street—~a French Renaissance building (since pulled down) in which he intro-duced much sculptured work from the hand of Thomas Thornycroft. Joining his father in the latter’s practice John Belcher, Jun., received many commissions, principally, for the next 10 or 15 years, for business premises in the city and elsewhere.| Amongst the carliest of these is the well-known block at the corner of Poultry and Queen Victoria Street, a building showing how strongly he was influenced at that period by the Gothic

development in the resources of the country from 1909 was the exploitation of the copper mines of Katanga. They were worked by the Union Miniére, in which British capital was largely interested.

Since Dec. 1909 the mines had had a direct outlet by railway to the

E, coast at Beira, The output of copper rose from 997 tons in I9QII to 27,462 tons in 1917; it was 22,000 tons in To and wed tons in 1920. Thecopper-bearing belt is about 250 m. long and from 25 to 50 and more m. wide. ‘The chief mine is at Kambove and has been worked since 1913. The ore is smelted at Lubumbashi, where in 1918 were seven furnaces with a. producing capacity of 40,000 tons a year. Up to the outbreak of the World War all the Katanga copper was bought by Germans; thercafter it was sent to Britain. Tin is also mined in Katanga, but up to 1921 little had been done to

exploit its iron and gold deposits and diamondifcrous areas. Since 1913, however, an extensive diamond ficld in the Kasai basin along the Angola border has been worked.

The stones, averaging ten toa

carat, are found in the river gravel or in alluvial deposits.

The

output was about 90,000 carats in I917 and over 200,000 carats in 1920,

The gold mines at Kilo and Moto, worked

had an‘output in 1918 of some placer deposits. Next in importance to copper the palm-oil industry, which up fined to the Mayumba district.

since 1905,

90,000 ozs. The gold is found in , mining was the development of to r911 had been practically conIm that year the British firm of

Lever Bros. obtained large concessions in the interior to develop the

cultivation of the oil-palm and to erect factories on the spot for crushing the oil, The company set to work with energy and the result was seen in largely increased exports. In 1910 the export of

movement of which Street and Burges were the prominent palm kernels was 6,141 tons, of palm oil 2,160 tons; in 1916 the exponents. After his father’s retirement in 1875, Belcher asso- figures were 22,391 tons and 3,852 tons respectively. Cocoa, rice ciated himself at various ‘times with a succession of partners— and cotton were also increasingly cultivated and the fall in the value J. W. James, Beresford Pite and J. J. Joass. His most important of rubber led to a much larger collection of copal, the amount 2,539 tons in IgIT, heing 8,719 in 1916. work was that resulting from his partnership with the last, and exported, The value of exports, about £6,500,000 in 1910, was over £11,000,it evidences a monumental strength and dignity of design to ooo in 1916. During that period rubber fell from being 77% to 15 % which his earlier achievements had been leading. His intense in value of the exports of produce of the colony, though the quantity and always vividly expressed admiration for Norman Shaw exported—-3,000-4,000 tons-—-was about the same. From 1914 copper and palm kernels and oil were the chief exports. A was a great factor in his artistic evolution, but even a more onward considerable part of the trade, export and import, was in transit, powerful one was due to the preparation and study involved in chiefly with French Congo, which had no direct communication his production of the.important volumes on The Later Renais-. with the sea except through Belgian Congo. The value of imports

BELGIUM. fell from £3,300,000 in 1910 to £2,380,000 tn 1914. It varied much

429

during the World War, being £2,100,000 in 1915, not quite £5,000,000 in 1916, £3,200,000 in 1917 and £3,500,000 in 1918. Before the war 60 to ro of the imports came from Belgium, which also took the

securing an administrative personnel of the best type. Many of the old agents of the Congo State had to be retained. One of these officials in the Tanganyika region was in April 1912 sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment for summarily executing

figures and was worth £2,000,000 in 1919

the natives as a whole were satisfied was shown by their atti-

bulk of the exports. During the war external trade was almost wholly with Great Britain, after 1918 Belgium recovered part of the trade, though that with Britain continued much above pre-war

Considerable energy was shown in railway construction and by the end of 1918 there were combined railway and steamer routes from the mouth of the Congo to Dar es Salaam and Cape Town.

A railway 168 m. in length from Kabalo, on the Lualaba, along the

Lukuga valley to Albertville on Lake Tanganyika was begun in 1911 and completed in 1915. The railway which connects at Sakania with the Rhodesian railways and runs through Katanga reached Elisabethville in Oct. 1910, Kambove, the mining centre, in 1913

and Rukama, at the head of The length of the Katanga South African gauge. From building of a line westward was in progress in 1921.

navigation on line is 450 m, Chilongo, on to the Angola

the Lualaba in May 1918. and it is of the standard the Katanga railway, the frontier—about 400 m.—

This line is to link up with the Benguclla

ilway and put Katanga in direct communication with Lobito

Bay, thus reducing the distance to Europe, compared

with the

Beira route, by over 3,000 miles, _ Progress was made in improving river and lake navigation. Kinshasa, on Stanley Pool, possessing better accommodation sup-

lanted its neighbour Leopoldsville as chief river port in 1915.

fa Igir-3 @ pipe-line was laid from Matadi, on the Congo estuary, to Stanley Pool to supply che river steamers with petroleum for fuel and reservoirs capable of holding 8,c00 tons of oil were built.

In 1921 a seaplane service was started along the Congo river from Stanley Pool to Stanley Falls. Revenue——Taxcs on imports and exports, not exceeding the equivalent of 10% ad valorem, direct taxation of Europeans, and a

poll tax on native adult males, a tax on ivory and the Government share in the exploitation of mines were the chicf sources of revenue; the administrative services and interest on debt the largest items of expenditure. The abandonment of the trading monopolies of the old Congo Free State, and the taking over of its loans put a severe strain on the resources of the colony

Revenue increased

£1,400,000 in 1909 to £2,320,000 in 1978.

from about

In cach of those years

expenditure was greater than receipts by sums varying from £400,000

to £1,500,000 and new loans had to be contracted. The public debt

in 1919 was 349,000,000 francs. With the development of commerce, and especially of the Katanga mines—in which the colony had a two-thirds interest—the prospects of balancing the budget became good. A loan of 500,000,000 francs was raised in 1921 for

public works.

History~—From

the. date of its annexation

by Belgium

(Nov. 15 1908) the country was placed under the control of a colonial) minister responsible to the Belgian Parliament, which has modelled the administration much on the lines of a British Crown Colony. The abuscs and misgovernments which were fostered by the Leopoldian régime were remedied as quickly as was possible. Most of the trade monopolies held by Leopold II. and his associates were abandoned and foreign traders encouraged. Care was taken that the natives enjoyed security of land tenure—though ownership remained with the State—and the right to dispose of their own labour freely.

Moreover in 1910 the natives were granted a measure of local autonomy;

their chiefs

were—for

the first time—offcially

recognized and were entrusted with large powers. These powers

had a tendency, however, to make the chiefs, at least those of minor importance, simply agents of the State. Another step in decentralization was taken in 1912 by the subdivision of the former unwieldy territorial division and by the grant of wider initiative to the commissioners of the divisions. But it was found that the Government was still too highly centralized and, in 1914, the various divisions were grouped into four provinces over each of which a vice-governorgeneral presided, aided by a consultative council on which non-official Europeans had seats. This left the governor-general,

and the council of government free to deal with matters affecting the colony as a whole, including the preparation of the budget. The governor-general had, however, practically no authority in the province of Katanga, which, in 1910, except

that it had no separate budget, became a separate colony. Its vice-governor-general exercised all the executive functions of the governor-general and corresponded directly with Brussels. In general the new

native policy was successful, though

trouble arose from the difficulty, due to crippled finances, of

11 native prisoners, including 4 women and a child. But that

tude during the World War.

A column of about 600 men coop-

erated with French forces in the operations ın Cameroon and other units aided ìn the defence of northern Rhodesia An army of over 10,000 men was raised for service in the East Afn-

can campaign At the outset of the war Belgium had endeavoured—unsuccessfully—to preserve neutrahty in her Congo colony, and the first act of hostility was committed by the Germans (see East ÅFRICAN CAMPAIGNS) In the result the north-western part of German East Africa was conquered by the Belgian native troops (as described in the article on the campaign) » and from Sept. 1916 to March 1921 a considerable arca of that country was under Belgian administration. Of this area nearly all the province of Urundi and the greater part of Ruanda were permanently assigned to Belgium by an Anglo-Belgian agreement of Sept. 1919. This was a notable addition not so much to the area as to the resources and population of the Belgian Congo. Ruanda and Urundi are healthy, fertile, highlying regions, thickly populated and great cattle-raising areas. The agreement made Kivu entirely a Belgian lake. By a previous Anglo-Belgian protocol (May 1010) the Congo-Uganda frontier had been modified so as to give Belgium the western shores of Albert Nyanza and In Feb 1915 another agrce-

ment fixed the frontier between Albert Nyanza and the CongoNile watershed.

Baron Wahis, the first governor-general under Belgian administration, was succeeded in May 1912 by M. Fuchs. In 1916 M. Henry became governor-general. On his retirement the Belgian Cabinet departed from precedent by choosing, Jan. 1921, as the new governor-general a man without previous colonial expericnce—M. Maurice Lippens, governor of East Flanders. M Louis Franck, the Belgian Colonial Minister, paid a visit to the Congo in 1920. His visit coincided with a period of unrest both among the white civil servants and among the natives, due to the high cost of living. For some time the majority of the white officials were on strike, while certain native tribes rose in revolt. See A Manual of Belgian Congo, a British Admiralty publication (1920), M Halewyck, La Charte Colomtale (3 vols. 1910-9), A. J. Wauters, Historre Politique du Congo Belge (1912), E. M Jack, On ihe Congo Frontier (1914); H. Waltz, Das Konzessionwesen im Belgischen Kongo (1917); I. Fallon, L’Agriculture au Congo Belge

(1918).

(F.R. C.) -

BELGIUM (see 3.668).—On Dec. 17 1909, King Leopold IT. of Belgium died at the castle of Laeken. He left behind him a Belgium richer and fuller of vitality than that to whose throne he had succeeded.

His kingdom’s immense economic develop-

ment, which he had consistently aided and encouraged, had shown him the necessity for such a country, small but overpopulated, of ample foreign markets and colonies. Leopold I. had sought to foster the colonizing spirit in Belgium, but without success. Leopold II.’s eyes were opened by the great African discoveries of 1878 to the possibility of realizing an ambitious / scheme for acquiring in his country’s interests a vast territory in the centre of the Dark Continent. Amid general scepticism, and aided by a mere handful of men, mostly officers, he had built up the independent state of the Congo.

From 1895 onward the

Belgian Government had associated itself in his work by opening credits to him, although Parliament remained hostile to the King’s bold and enterprising policy. Belgian finance, however, took an interest in affairs on the Congo; and little by little there developed a section of public opinion favourable to the taking over by Belgium of the immense Africanterritory. After a violent agitation against the methods of colonial government in the Congo State, conducted in Germany, England, and America, and supported by certain Belgian politicians, the Congo was ceded to Belgium in 1908.

BELGIUM

430

King Leopold realized that if his country was to remain

The proposal raised a storm of adverse opinion throughout

economically powerful her army must be strengthened, and to the country. A monster demonstration organized by the Socialeffect this was his constant preoccupation; but the Catholic ist and Liberal parties took place at Brussels. The Liberal party, party—in power since 1884—always frustrated his efforts, and rallying to the principle of universal suffrage at 25 years of age up to the time of his death Belgium still preserved her system and the single vote, formed a bloc with the Labour party in of recruiting by drawing lots, conscripts who had been drawn order to oppose the Right, and they issued joint lists of candihaving the right to get themselves replaced by substitutes at the dates in most of the towns. The Cutholic party, nevertheless, cost of a fine of 1,600 francs. This system of substitution was proved successful in the elections of 1912, preserving a majority abolished by the Chamber in 1909, and the King on his death-bed in the Chamber,

signed the law enforcing personal service. These elections, maintaining in power a party that had govLeopold If. had expressed a desire to be buried with the ut- | erned uninterruptedly for 28 years, had grave consequences. The Catholic party was strongest in the rural districts and in the

most simplicity, in the,early morning, and without official ceremonies. The Government did not think fit to conform to these wishes, however, and arranged an imposing funeral. He was succeeded by his nephew and nearest male heir, Prince Albert, whose consort, Elizabeth, had been born a duchess of Bavaria. I. PRE-War SITUATION, 1910~4-—By Belgian constitutional

law the heir-presumptive to the throne docs not become king until he has taken the oath, Leopold II.’s death consequently entailed a temporary regency which, in accordance with Belgian law, was exercised by a Conseil de Régence composed of members of the Government:—T. Schollaert, L. de Lautsheere, J. Davignon, J. Liebaert, Baron Descamps, A. Hubert, A. Delbcke, G. Hellepette, J. Hellebrut, J. Renkin. On Dec. 23, in presence of the Chambers and of delegations from the constituent bodies of the country, King Albert I. of Belgium took the oath of allegiance to the Belgian Constitution, The new King had already shown his intention to carry ọn his uncle’s work, having, while still hcir-presumptive, made a journey to the Congo for purposes of

investigation. But alongside that keen interest in colonial, economic, and military problems in which he resembled Leopold IL, he also from the first showed anxiety for his kingdom’s

intellectual development and social organization, Belgium bad indeed advanced considerably during the reign of Leopold II, She had not only achieved a high degree of prosperity, but had also undergone an intellectual renascence, giving birth during the second half of the century to 2 school of writers, painters, and men of science worthy of comparison with those of the neighbouring countries. Furthermore, the development of trade, with its increase in the numbers of industrial workers—in

1910

they

numbered

1,270,484—1raised-

social

problems with increasing urgency. Belgian trade had found immense markets, thanks in part to the cheapness of its products due to low wages. The growing strength of the trade unions enabled the workers to claim an improvement in their material conditions, and Belgium began to find herself confronted by the difficulty of entering on the path of social reform without compromising her economic stability. Political struggles of peculiar intensity were rendering the situation still more delicate.

In

Belgium social and economic claims are always mixed up with purely political questions. Social and professional organizations are at the same time political groups, and their action makes itsclf as much felt in political affairs as in the economic sphere. In 1907 the trade-union movement was divided as follows:— Socialist3 unions . © o.. > « + 342,035 members

Suen

Nea Number 1DE

x

SA

a

ae

ee

eS Oe ee of womeninunions . . +

æ

+

+

:

a

A

i

.

oa

.

.

.

.

40,521

ae IO5I7J

A“

_ The socialist unions first tested their strength in the campaign opened by the Socialist party in ror2 for universal suffrage “pure and simple.’ This campaign coincided with the violent struggle on the education question which began just then between the parties of the Left—Liberals and Socialists—and the Catholic party. The Catholics, who commanded a majority in the Chamber, introduced a bill to put the voluntary schools and the State schools on an absolutely equal footing. Education in Belgium, especially primary cducation, is largely in the hands of

the religious denominations.

Their schools, recognized and sub-

sidized by the Slate, were in many communes the only teaching institutions. It was to these denominational schools that the

Government proposed to accord the same treatment as that given by the State to its own official schools,

small Flemish towns, The Walloon districts, more industrial in character, returned a large majority of Liberals and Socialists. On the morrow of the Catholic victory violence of party feeling, much exasperated by the new Education Act, led to an outburst of rage and indignation in the more politically advanced parts of the country. In certain Walloon cireles there arose the idea of the administrative separation of Flanders from Wallonia. Flanders should remain Catholic; the Walloon country should be free to have the advanced (Left) Government it desired.

This movement,

combining with that concerned with the

language question, threatened serious results. “ Flamingantisme,” which originated in democratic aspirations, seeking to bring together in Flanders the common people, Flemish of speech, and the French-speaking bourgeoisie, had little by little—obsessed by its dominant idea and by a sort of regionalistic mysticism— turned. towards reaction, The language question had been dealt with by various laws—that of 1878 regarding the use of the languages by public authorities; that of 1898 about the publication of laws; that of 1910 on free secondary education; and by the

laws of 1913, on the use of the languages in the army, and of 1914,

on primary education, which were designed to complete the legal equality of the Flemish language with the French. Yet in the

hearts of a minority, a desire was shaping itself to expel the French language from Flanders. In 1913 @ bill was introduced in the Chamber proposing the division of the army into Walloon and Flemish units, but was defeated by. an immense majority. This did not deter three deputies—a Catholic, a Liberal, and a Socialist—from proposing

to the Chamber in 1914 the Flamandization of the university

of Ghent, in which French was the official language.

The Government did not perccive that by pursuing a course of purely party politics they were stimulating the growth of this separatist movement, and despite the protests of the Left they once more brought before the Chamber their Education bill,

which they had temporarily abandoned.

To counter this, and

to force upon the Chamber the adoption of the universal suffrage “pure and simple ” which they demanded, in April 1913 the Socialist party organized a general strike, which spread over the whole country, involving many hundred thousands of workers. The Government would not yield, however, and their Education Act became law. If in this the Catholic party had gained an undeniable victory, it had been at the price of adopting compulsory education, which for many years past had been advocated by the Liberals. It was now enforced by the laws of May 19 and June 1§ 1914. . Educational System.—School attendance is obligatory from 6 to 14 years of age. The juge de paix has to admonish recalcitrant parents; and if they persist in neglect of their duty, they are first officially warned before the final steps are taken of the infliction of a fine and the posting of their names in their commune. By the law of May 19 1914 each commune must possess an official school, One or more

voluntary schools, if such exist in the district, may be K adopted "a

but if this is done a communal school must still be provided, supposing it is demanded by a sufficient number of the inhabitants to

ensure it an effective minimum

attendance of 20 children. _ In all

schools, whether official or adopted, the teachers must be Belgian

and diplomés. The State inspects both communal and adopted schools, and they receive grants from the central authorities of province and commune. Education is free, and the necessary books and appliances are provided free for poor families, The syllabus of

primary schools includes religion (but Fathers can claim their chil-

dren’s exemption from religious instruction), moral teaching, reading, writing, arithmetic, weights and measures, the language used by

the majority of the local population, geography, history of Belgium,

BELGIUM drawing, hygiene, singing and gymnastics. In the girls’ schools needlework, domestic economy, and housewifery are added. In agricultural districts agriculture and horticulture are also taught. Further, the State subsidizes such initiative on the part of communes

as the formation of classes (such as exist in Ghent, Brussels, and Liége) for backward and non-normal children, on the provision of 4th-degree instruction This 4th degree, first adopted by the commune of St. Gilles, consists of technical instruction for children

of 12 to 14. Its object is to give elementary training sufficient to enable the child to specialize as artisan or craftsman, and so to enter industrial life already qualified.

Belgium’s efforts to develop the technical training of her popula-

tion increased steadily during the last few years

before the war,

much being done in this way by the provinces and communes. Hainault (Hainaut) organized an admirable centre of technical instruction at Charleroi under the name of the Université de Travail. Future workers, male and female, are admitted to its courses at the age of 13 and they receive salaries, which enable them to pass through the necessary years of training. In 1912 1,700 pupils attended this school. All! trades are taught there, each with the best

possible equipment of tools and machinery.

Reading-rooms are

open to the pupils, and even also to workmen not attending the school who think they can in the slightest degree improve tools or

machines. Concurrently with the technical courses, general courses are given, notably in foreign languages, so that pupils may be ina position to follow the technical periodicals of great neighbouring

countrics, The province of Hainault finds the large funds necessary

for supporting this immense Institution by means of a special tax on industrial profits, The great manufacturers of the province not only accepted this tax without complaint, but every year make many voluntary donations to the Université de Travail. To encourage the use of this school by the working-classes the employers of Hainault decided to accept no workers under the age of 18} while assuring well-paid posts to every pupil passing out of the Université de Travail. his close collaboration of public authorities, manufacturers,

and workers

course of a few years.

produced

most

remarkable

results in the

Besides the Université de Travail there are

provincial schools of arts and crafts, agricultural mechanics, hosiery-

weaving, and industrial chemistry.

‘The communes and many trade

wia provide housewifery schools for young girls and schools for

adults,

i

` As regards agriculture, the State endeavoured to promote specialization in the subject by courses of lectures given all over the country. Such efforts made by public authorities, more especially by the provincial and communal administrative bodies, whose powers arc very extensive, are rendcred necessary by the social conditions of the country.

Population.—A population which in 1900 numbered 6,693,548 had

in 1910 become 7,423,782—an increase of 10-91%, or over 1% per annum. Density increased from 227 to 252 inhabitants per sq.

kilometre. East Flanders contained +374 inhabitants per sq. km., the province of Antwerp, 342, Hainault, 331, the province of Liége,

306, West Flanders, 270, Limburg, 114, the province of Namur, 99, wuxemburg, 52. Thickly populated areas and urban centres devel-

oped with lightning rapidity: in Antwerp the pepulation increased 187% in 50 years, in Charleroi 147%, in Liége 105%. The whole population

country

depended

for.support on the internal resources of the

emigration being almost negligible:

in rg10 only 38,854

ersons left the country (55 % of them born in Belgium), principally or France (52%), Germany (13%) and Holland (12%), On the other hand, 44,950 immigrants settled in Belgium, coming chicfly from France (41%), Germany (21%) and Holland (16%). To maintain such a dense population agriculture had to be

brought to a pitch of intensiveness unknown elsewhere; and industry, with such vast numbers of hands to draw on, was able to develop

with marvellous rapidity.

Industries —The various industries of Belgium employ a large

part of the population. In 1910 this industrial population comprised:

Employers, or persons employing members of | Persons

their own familics as employees or workers Members of familics as above... a) 8s

Fmployees Workers

.

. «© 6 «6 ge ee

260,521 91,693

+6 «2. 4 egg

87,463 1,270,484

Per cent. “15+23 536

5-12 74°29

Total . . . « «© © | . 41,710,161 persons These were divided among the different branches of industry as

follows :—~ .

Mok Textile

Per cent. industry

Pai

+

Metallurgical industry. Clothing Be ge

Building Mining

.

+

a

. A

ee e a

.

gw AR ge.

.

we ca, a,

«

.

ne

Bt

Aes

i

OR

ge

ig oe

s

.

>

*

«

°

.

:

*

9-08

..

p

.

.

.

.

8:30

Timber and furniture-making

a

15°36

332 SEO,

9°58

In 1914 glass-making employed 12,000 workmen, maintained 19

furnaces and produced annually 400,000,000 francs worth of glass, or one-fifth of the world’s entire output, 95% being exported. The unchallenged superiority of the Belgian glass-workers, with their

431

centuries of specialization behind them, ensured a privileged position in the markets of the world. Even so, technical development was still advancing, and in 1914 the new Fourcault process had just been successfully introduced. By means of it glass is drawn without being touched by hand from the moment it comes out of the furnace until it is ready forsale as finished merchandise. There were, besides, seven factories producing annually 2,500,000 sq, metres of plate glass, representing a value of 28,590,000 francs, nine-tenths being exporied; and the factory of Jumet

The

produced annually

Belgian cut-glass trade was

equally

12,000,000

important.

bottles.

The

Val

St. Lambert, with 5,300 hands, produced daily 250,000 pieces, an

output (yo% exported) realizing annually 13,000,000 francs. In 1913 the metallurgical trade included: 21 high furnaces with 20,080 hands producing 96,000 tons of cast iron; 6 stecl-works with 7,700 hands producing 1,134,000 tons of rough steel and 671,000 tons of finished products; 15 iron-works with 3,402 hands producing 27,100 tons of finished iron and 19,300 tons of finished steel. The

steel industry, including coke-fired furnaces, employed in 1913 a total of 39,500 hands, and was represented by 41 factories with 2,498 coke-fired furnaces, employing 4,229 hands and producing 3,523,000 tons; 19 works with high furnaces, 5,289 hands, producing 2,484,690 tons; 28 Siemens-Martin furnaces producing 274,450 tons of rough steel; 84 converters producing 2,192,180 tons of rough steel

and 1,409,940 tons of finished stecl; 38 transforming plants producing 304,350 tons cf finished iron and 448,400 tons of finished steci. The zinc industry possessed 14 foundries with Goo furnaces and 10 rolling mills, and produced annually 200,000 tons of rough zine and 51,000 tons of sheet zinc. It employed 9,300 hands. The output, nine-tenths of which was exported, was worth 11§,000,000 francs. The collieries, the presence of which brought also the iron, zinc and steel industries to the provinces of Liége and Hainault—the coalelding provinces—occupied a particularly important place in 3elgium; 125 collieries, possessing 305 pits and employing 145,337 men, were producing annually 22,841,590 tons. In quantity this

output nearly sufficed for the needs of the country, which consumed 26,000,000 tons per annum.

siderable.

But in quality the deficit was con-

‘The output of steam and domestic coal was excessive,

permitting an export of 6,000,000 tons, 5,000,000 of which went to

France; while the lack of gas and coking coal necessitated the importation of 9,000,000 tons fram Germany. Although since 1910 the import of coal had exceeded the export, the discovery of two new coal! fields permitted the hope that in the future Belgium would produce a quantity far in excess of what she needed for internal consumption. In rgor deposits of coal were

found in the Campine at depths of 430 and 630 metres. “The first concessions were granted in 1906, the first sinkinys—exceptionally

difficult because of the water-earing strata encountered—hbegun in 1g09.

No

pits had

started work before the war.

Experimental

borings, commenced in the south of Hainault in 1908, established the

existence of fresh deposits at depths of goo and 800 metres. eo had, up te 1923, been granted by the State in these elds, There were 62 factories for making coal dust into briquettes other forms of patent fuel. In 1913 these employed 2,o00 hands

No coal and and

produced 2,608,640 tons.

Next to the mines must be mentioned the important industry of the stone quarries, In 1913 1,556 quarrics, 481 of them subterranean,

employed 34,893 workmen, and produced 70,500,000 francs worth of; paving-stones,

broken stone, hewn

stone, marble, chalk, lime,

phosphates, plastic clay, dolomite and slate.

Depending on the

quarries were 70 cement factories in a state of rapid development, the cement export having risen from a value of 12,000,000 franes in

1908 to that of 22,000,000 francs in 1912.

A third group of important industrics consisted of the textile

manufactures of Flanders (flax, cotton, hemp, jute), and of the Verviers district (wool). In roro they accounted for 270,000 workers, employees, and masters; while the related clothing industry employed another 200,000 persons, The total value of the products represented 800,000,000 francs, 350,000,000 of which came from export.

The following table will indicate the relative importance of the

different textile industries, and their development during the last

years before the war:—

1910 Linen

Bog”

>

e

llempand Jute

.

aa’

Sies v a ae. Artificial sille. Lace “s wi

A sa. a

RS sé.

Wool Cotton

f .

: e

; i

; oe

i

a

RE ng a

; R

o ye

Say o a ; OE

.

, a

Ae tae od 4

S 3,610

32,285 20,435

655 o 47.571|

42,279

6,509

32,846 48,157

1,391 3:573 81,213

Imports of raw materials, spun raw materials and woven goods amounted in 1911 to $38,700,000 francs, in I912 to 985,300,000 francs, in 1913 to 998,400,000 francs. The exports of raw materials, spun goods, and woven goods amounted in I9g1t to 871,460,000 francs, in 1912 to 1,033,400,000 francs, in 1913 to 998,700,000 Irancs.

432

BELGIUM

Commerce.—Belgian commerce was as flourishing as Belgian indus-

try. Facilitated by a network of ways and communications comrising 2,000 km. of water-ways (67 m. per sq. km.), 4,665 km. of road-gauge railways (158 m. per sq. km.), o km. of narrowgauge railways, 9,851 km. of main roads, and 32,000 km. of local

roads, import and export trade and transport were intensely active,

Belgium's free-trade policy largely contributed to her commercial prosperity. In 1913 the import dutics affected only 16-8 % of imported goods. They were, moreover, extremely light, in 1900 representing 2-3% of the value of imports, in 1910 1:6 %, in 1913 only 14%. It is true that a movement was already beginning towards the imposition of duties to check the dumping practised by certain foreign industries, or to induce othcr nations to admit Belgian goods freely; but this was merely a defensive policy, rendered necessary by that of foreign states, A A Commercially Belgium held the sixth place in the world. The total figures of her import and export trades, not including goods in transit, rose as high as 8,765,673,061 francs, In 1913 this total was composed as follows :—

Imports

Exports In Transit

.

.

;

.

+

a

«|

à

Tons,

Francs.

32,656,282

5,049,859,234

20,885,182

3,715,813,827 2,450,9024,818

Between 1900 and 1913 Belgian trade had doubled, marking the greatest rate of progress it had ever achieved.

The following table analyzes the clements of the import and export trades:— Imports thousands

Exports thousands

Per

ing. She was importing } of her consumption of corn. Other foods stuffs were produced in almost sufficient quantity, thanks to sciens

tific specialization. In oy stock-breeding produced 300,000 tons of meat, 40 kgm. per head of population per annum. Of sugar, potatocs, fruit, vegetables and horses there was even a considerable surplus available for exportation. The subdivision of land had been carried to an extreme point, 1,950,000 hectares being divided among 829,000 cultivators; 458,000 holdings were of less than onehalf hectare; the average for the rest being about five hectares per farm. Thanks to intensive breeding (Belgium in 1914 possessed 317,000 horses, 1,879,000 horned stock, and 1,954,000 pigs) agriculture commanded larger supplies of manure than in any other country (275 kgm. per hectare). It followed.that the yield per hectare of wheat, rye, barley, oats and potatoes also exceeded that of any other country. The area of cereal cultivation was not very extensive: 750,000 hectares out of a total of 1,430,000 hectares of ploughed land. Permanent pasture represented only 26% of cultivable land (65 %in England); while on the other hand plants used for industrial purposes, root-crops and forage-crops which yield a much higher return in moncy, were largely cultivated. Thus industrial crops occupied 95,000 hectares; forage, 292,000 hectares; orchards, 65,000 hectares; market gardens, 27,000 hectares:

horticulture, practised especially in the environs of Brussels and

Ghent,

export.

occupied

100,000

and

provided

a considerable

Finance.—Depite the country’s growing prosperity the revenue

from taxes was not increasing in amount. Revenue and expenditure

for the period 1910-4 (in thousands of francs) were as follows:— Expenditure, 829,456 895,773 806,75

Revenue.

Per 1910 1912 IQI

of francs. | f°") of francs, |S&2*

Live animals . an ee 65,273] 13 4,444] 12 Beverages and foodstuffs » | 1,034,822] 20-5 | 327,663] 8-8 Raw materials and goods having passed through only onet 2,667,035 | 52-8:| 1,826,078 | 49-1 simple process of preparation Manufactured articles . . | 869,478 | 17-2 | 1,436,430] 38-7 Gold and Silver : ; 13,251 8&2 81,230] 2-2 The pbuik of the imports consisted of foodstuff products and raw materials, Exports were chiefly manufactured articles and materials

hectares,

As regards breeding, the export al Flemish horses brought

in 50,000,000 francs.

815,404 777501 807,31

Taxes produced an average of about 300,000,000 (40 francs per head

of population) of the revenue. In 1913 the national debt amounted to 4,277,000,000 francs. The analysis is as follows (in thousands of francs) :— Funded

Debt.| Floating Debt.

31703 ,403

35739133

which had been subjected to a single process.

136,204 352,485

Total.

3,839,608

4,092,119

In 1913 the trade was chiefly with the following countries :—

Imports in | Exports in thousands

France Germany

>

. :

.

Holland BS United States Argentina.

ish . .

Great Britain

Russia... Congo

hs

of francs. 1,000,207

>

«761,765

oh — Hey elite |ai . . , . el,

356,998 420,496 316,797

3%

fo

:

`

a,

ter

‘

ce

cw

,

thousands

of francs. 762,187 940,378

518,475

511,710

267,237 8,6

88,379 26,978

320,930 103,381 91,154

It is interesting to note that 87-4% of goods in transit travelled by land and 57-4 % by sea—figures which demonstrate the immense importance to the port of Antwerp of the forcign hinterland. Marine trade was served by the ports of Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend,

Zecbrugge

and

Nieuport.

The total tonnage of Belgian ports

amounted in 1910 to 15,101,171 tons, in 1911 to 16,353,933 tons, and

in 1913 to 16,907,417 tons, Antwerp taking first place. The details are as follows:—

Number of vessels

T900 5,250

Igo 6,796

Tonnage

1gI2

7:9043

_ 1913

75134

1318 | 13,756,880 | 14,139,61

In 1913, out of 61,500,000 tons of total imports and exports, 23,650,000 tons passed through Antwerp. The public authorities had devoted ceaseless attention to the development of the port of Antwerp, and at the outbreak of the war it was one of the finest ports in the world, possessing 5,500 metres of riverside wharves, 19,000 metres of wharf-locks, 392 cranes of 2 tons, 8 cranes of 15 to 120 tons, 12 pneumatic floating grain-elevators, one automatic

coal-weigher, one barge for ore. The Entrepét Royal could accommodate 100,000 tons of goods; the granary store had a capacity of 350,000 tons.

Numerous

private stores and warchouses, a

close network of railway lines, and six great dry-docks completed the equipment of the port. griculture.—Belgian agriculture was no less important than

Belgian trade and industry.

In 1914 the value of its products

amounted to two milliards of francs. Agriculture was carried on at a high degree of intensity. Of the 2,945,000 hectares which con-

stitute the national territory, 1,950,000 were in cultivation and pasture, among a population of nearly 7,800,000, The cultivable area per head of population was only 25 ares (in France 100 ares, in Great Britain 45 ares). Belgium, therefore, could not be self-support-

The Army.—Fully occupied with her economic development, and confiding absolutely in the neutrality which was supposed to be her safeguard, Belgium was giving no real thought in these years to defence. The Liberal party alone stood for the principle of universal military service. The Catholic party had always from electoral motives been firmly opposed to any reénforcement of the army or increase in military expenditure. The King, however, well informed on the international situation, never ceased to press for improvement in the country’s military condition. In 1912 M. de Broqueville, then head of the Government, succceded, despite his party's reluctance, in passing an Act establishing the principle of universal militar service.

In 1913 a complete reorganization of the army was voted.

Waving obtained the necessary credits for the fortification of Antwerp, Baron de Broqueville got several bills passed and promulgated numerous orders bestowing extended powers on the general military staff; creating a Supreme Council of National Defence (Conseil Supérieur de la Défense Nationale); establishing schools of artillery, cavalry and military engincering; reorganizing the Ecole de

Guerre and the Ecole Militaire; creating inspections générales of

infantry, cavalry and commissariat; and considerably improving the equipment. These reforms were to be completed as a whole in five years, Already, however, the effective forces were augmented in number; the inclusion of all social classes in the army made it truly

representative of the nation; a completely organized mobilization was prepared; confidence was at last felt in both officers and troops.

Such was the situation when suddenly the army found itself called on to the stage of war, to confront alone the formidable hosts of Germany.

I. Tue Worrp War, 1914.—On Aug. 2 ro14, the German Minister at Brussels handed the Minister for Foreign Affairs an ultimatum requiring him to permit the German troops to pass through Belgian territory, and to use the citadels of Liége and Namur for the purposes of their operations against France. A delay of r2 hours was granted for the acceptance of Germany’s proposals; on the expiration of that time Belgium would be treated as an enemy. That same night the King presided at the council of ministers; the reply was formal. Belgium was resolved to defend her neutrality, sword in hand. On July 29 the Belgian army had been placed on a retnforced peace footing. On July 3x mobilization had been ordered; 15 classes of militia had been

called up, the eight first forming the offensive force, the others

BELGIUM being reserved for the defence of the fortresses. Loyal to her international obligations, Belgium had disposed her forces so as to defend all her frontiers. The first division kept watch in England’s direction; the third confronted Germany; at Namur the fourth defended the entrance of the Meuse Valley; while the fifth, concentrated in Hainault, guarded the French frontier. Germany’s ultimatum showed on which side danger lay.

Yet the Belgian Government, wishing to sustain to the last moment the part assigned to it by the treaty of 1839, still refused the support of France,

It was only when Germany’s intention

to cross her territory became evident that Belgium informed the nations who had guaranteed her neutrality that she assumed the defence of her fortresses, and that she declared herself ready to codperate with the Powers in maintaining the integrity of her territory. The third division of the army, under General Leman, was charged with the defence of Liége; the fourth division held Namur; the bulk of the army was massed in the centre of the country, covering Brussels and the lines of communication with France, so as to be prepared for all eventualities, l

433

At the Ministère de l'intérieur a Central Commission was formed, consisting of one delegate for each province, with representatives of the central administration and of the army, its duty being to see to the sharing-out of the food supplies among all parts of the country. In each province the députation permanente (standing committee) of the provincial. council was . made responsible for the victualling of the province, and had to form committees in the communes

to distribute provisions.

Each week a return of all the food in the province had to be made by the députation permanente. To ensure the proper working of this great system of food control and distribution, newly created in every detail, penalties were decreed for anyone trying to withhold goods from requisi-

tion; such hoards were to be confiscated and handed over to the

Bureaux de Bienfaisance, While these regulations were framed to safeguard the nation’s economic life, its administrative life was being safeguarded in the event of enemy occupation by the measure passed by the Chamber on Aug. 4 providing for the delegation of powers, which was supplemented later by various royal decrees. Notices The Government had convoked the Chambers for Aug. 4 were posted in every commune of the country, warning the public that civilians were definitely forbidden to take part in operations on grounds of urgency, and the King had announced his intention of making the speech from the throne. On the morning of Aug. 4 -of war, and that all arms must at once be given over into the hands of the authorities. the King, accompanied by the Queen, proceeded to the ParliaThe Invasion-~During the night of Aug. 3-4 the German ment House, in the midst of great popular enthusiasm. His speech affirmed the country’s definite decision to offer the army crossed the Belgian frontiers. It immediately put into enemy an unyiclding resistance. The Chamber greeted these practice a system of terrorism in its dealings with the inhabitants, words with wild enthusiasm. After the departure of the King, hoping in this way to terrorize the Government, demoralize the army, and break the national resistance. who proceeded immediately to G.H.Q., Baron de Broqueville, The forward march of the German army was marked by an as head of the Government, read the note just sent by Germany to the Minister for Foreign Affairs, expressing her intention “ to uninterrupted succession of atrocities. Once it was perceived exccute, if necessary by force of arms, the measures of security that the Belgian army meant to offer a resistance on which Germany had not counted, pillage, burnings, and massacres rendered indispensable in view of French menaces.” Parliament unanimously accepted war with all its consequences. M. Van der began. On the pretext that the inhabitants were armed, that francs Velde, leader of the Socialist party, announced that his group would support the Government unreservedly. All parties rallied tireurs attacked the German troops, the invading military comround the King. The Government, moreover, ceased to be a mand methodically organized the devastation of the country. Maps were issued to the officers indicating what towns and party-government, MM. Goblet d’Alvicila and Hymans, leaders villages were to be burned down. The siege of Li¢ge, with the of the Liberal Left, and M. E. Van der Velde being appointed preliminary repulses suffered by the German regiment which Ministers of State. The Chamber at once set to work on the measures of law first attacked the outer forts, gave the signal for a campaign of reprisals directed against the civil population. The villages of necessitated by the situation. Suddenly M. de Broqueville rose to read a tclegram announcing the violation of Belgian territory Berneau, Mouland, Blegny-frambleur, Barchon, Melen, Souby the German army. The deputies from Liége and its neigh- magne, Romsée, Harcourt, Hermée, Heure le Romain, Vivegnies, bourhood informed their colleagues of the news that their dis- Julemont, Olne St. Hadelin, Battice, Grivegnée, Sprimont, tricts had been brutally invaded and occupied; and at once de- Erneux, Francorchamps, and the towns of Visé and Herve, wereparted for their constituencies, to afford help and protection to burned to the ground, although they had been occupied for the suffering inhabitants. As hour by hour the invasion of several days by the German army. Scenes of indescribable .or Belgium proceeded, the Chamber continued to pass laws delegat- savagery were enacted: 623 persons were shot, massacred, ing its powers, in the event of the invasion of each locality, driven with blows of the rifle-butt into the flaming houses to be burnt alive. At Melen 72 men chosen haphazard were shot to the local authorities; augmenting the contingent of the army; granting the Government a preliminary credit of 200,000,000 frs.; en masse, and finished off by blows with the butt-end under the penalizing crimes and offences calculated to endanger the safety eyes of their wives and children, who were then ordered to bury them at once. At Soumagne 55 men were shot by the firingof the State; cancelling the ineligibility of soldicrs for memberparty detailed for executions, while the soldiers perpetrated ship of Parliament, in order to permit the immediate enlistment shocking massacres of men, women and children in the village. of several members. At Visé, after the massacre of more than 20 persons, 631 men . The spirit of the country was the same as that of the Chamber. were led away captive. Not a.single village escaped the fury of Volunteers were besieging the recruiting-offices. In two or three days 40,000 had been equipped, and iens of thousands, still in the troops; everywhere there was a reign of fire and sword. The their civilian clothes, had been dispatched to the camps for burnings were scientifically organized. All units were provided with incendiary pastilles, and petrol was sprayed on the houses volunteers that were being formed in all directions. to be destroyed. At Herve, where more than 300 houses were A series of regulations were issued by the Government intended burned, German inscriptions written by the troops revealed to prevent food-hoarding and the raising of prices, and to assure that the abominable deed had been performed by the “ Inthe food supplies of the nation. Bread was rationed at 400 grammes per head per day;in Sept. this ration was reduced to cendiary Army of Diisseldorf.” The entry of the German troops into Liége was marked by 250 grammes, Maximum prices were fixed for bread and the various kinds of flour. The right of requisition was given to tragic incidents. Although the town was completely in the governors of provinces for bread and flour; to burgomasters for invader’s hands, on Aug. 7 Getman companies suddenly opened potatoes, salt, sugar and rice; in the event of the invasion of a fire in the most frequented quarters, where they also set fire to 38 houses, shooting down the inhabitants as they tried to province the governor’s powers of requisition passed to the commissaires arrondissement, in the case of their retreat to the escape. Fifty-two persons perished in the flames. or fell by the German bullets. burgomasters of the communes.

434

BELGIUM

Between Aug. 4 and 20, in the province of Liége alone, 1,061

and 110 houses had been burnt down. In the villages surround-

persons were massacred, shot, hanged, or burnt by the German troops; more than 2,000 houses and 4 churches were burnt deliberately and by order, not counting those destroyed by bombardment. In the province of Limburg during the same

ing Namur, also, the same brutal work had gone on; between Aug. 23 and 26, 53 men were butchered and over 200 houses burnt. While thus in the province of Namur 1,949 inhabitants were

period 65 persons {cli victims to similar cruclties.

murdered, and more than 3,000 houses systematically burnt

Liége having been occupied, the German army advanced up the Mcuse Valley, and at the same time invaded the province of Luxemburg. The first French contingents now joined the

(not counting those destroyed by ordinary acts of war), the province of Luxemburg in its turn was suffering martyrdom. From Aug. 11 onward, wherever the enemy appeared in Luxem-

Belgian Arlon. enemy's reprisals

burg, atrocities followed, those at Rossignol, Arlon, Zuitigny, Ethe, and Latour being sadly notorious, All these massacres were reprisals for engagements with the French forces. After the battles of Aug. 22 wounded soldiers found in the cantons

troops in the neighbourhood of Dinant, Namur, and Everywhere advance-guard fighting was delaying the progress and every skirmish was followed by cruel on the civil population. .

The siege of Namur began on Aug. 20, and was the signal

of Virton and Etalle were killed, and the civil population hunted

for more butchery. On the eve of the attack on Namur scenes of incredible savagery were enacted in the towns of Andenne, Scillcs, and Landen. Without having received the faintest provocation, for three whole days the German troops in occupa-

down and decimated. At Blcid 84 French wounded were tortured and then shot. At Latour Prince Oscar of Prussia presided in person over the execution of 71 inhabitants. At Ethe 218 persons

tion of these places never ceased massacring and burning.

More

than 250 persons perished. These scenes of horror, accompanied by the burning of over 150 houses, culminated on A ug. 21 In the

were killed. The inhabitants of Houdemont, warned of the fate which awaited them, escaped massacre by flight; rz of them were

found by the Germans and put to death. At Touches the burgo-

master was hanged; at Zuitigny 84 men were executed; at Rossignol, after the village had been sct on fire, all the men were ties. They were shot ev masse, and finished off with the bayonet collected together and driven as far as Arlon, where 165 of the or the butt-end, or by kicks. ‘The whole canton of Andenne poor wretches were shot in cold blood. During the month of suffered similar horrors; nine persons were murdered by the Aug. over 800 inhabitants of this province perished, and over German soldiers after subjection to horrible tortures. 1,500 houses were deliberately destroyed. Other localities suffered as cruelly. At Spontin 130 of the 160 While the German army was dominating the Meuse Valley houses that composed the village were burnt and 43 persons by the seizure of Namur, it was at the same time working towere massacred. At Somme-Leuze, Franc-Waret, Leuze-Longwards the heart of the country to assure a route for the invasion champs, fre and murder reigned. Scarcely had the tragedy of of France. The Belgian army, after its victorious stand at Harlen Andenne been finished when the small town of Zamines was the on Aug. 12, isolated, unsupported, menaced by rr enemy army scene of a yet more terrible drama. After skirmishes with corps, was now forced to fall back on Antwerp. execution of numbers of men, by order of the military authori-

the Germans, who had

On Aug. 19 the German army entered Louvain. Just as Visé

fought pushing a screen of civilians in front of them, made the civil population responsible for their losses. All the men were

Belgian and French

adyance-posts,

had been burnt to terrorize the Liégeois, and Andenne and Dinant to bring about Namur’s submission, so Louvain had to be burnt in order to hold a terrible example up to Brussels. When the German army was in effective occupation of Louvain, menaced with no further trouble, orders were suddenly given to burn the centre of the town. The inhabitants were subjected

first shut wp in the church, and then massed in a field, and on the word being ‘given by the military commanders they were shot down by machine-guns. Some were finished off afterwards, chiefly by stretcher-bearers of the Red Cross; 383 men perished,

about roo were wounded, only 200 escaped. The town was burnt to the ground. The whole canton was subjected to horrible atrocitics; in the neighbouring villages 114 men were killed by

German troops and 567 houses burnt. Just at the time of the fall of Namur, the German military

at Dinant organized an appalling demonstration of terrorism. The town had been occupied on Aug. 22 after some hard fighting with French troops, At nightfall on Aug. 23 German soldicrs rushed shouting about the streets, and everywhere fires broke

to cruel mental torture.

The men were collected and decimated,

79 being shot in the presence of their wives and children, while 334 Others were sent captive to Germany, where they were paraded through the streets of Cologne under the insults and threats of the populace who pelted them with mud and stones. Louvain’s cathedral of St. Picrre was devoured by the flames, her ancient university and marvellous library were annihilated, and 1,120 houses were ruined. The suburbs suffercd likewise. In that canton 1,717 houses were burnt down, 861 houses pillaged,

out. The church, the town hall, the entire town were soon in flames. The inhabitants, arrested en masse, were either massacred, or else driven into different enclosed places where, after a while, a methodical extermination was commenced. In the presence of their familics men were formed into groups and shot;

226 inhabitants shot, and 653 deported to Germany. Aerschot was reduced to ashes, and 178 of its inhabitants were killed. Enraged by the opposition they met within the environs of Tirlemont, and by the sorties of the Antwerp garrison, the Germans vented their fury upon the numerous villages of Brabant, 504

665 persons were killed, including 75 women and 35 children. This horrible butchery was copied in the neighbouring villages. All of them were partially or completely burnt, any men found— the inhabitants had taken to the woods—were shot; at Anthére and Surice more than 4o men were executed, In the cantons of Dinant, Walcourt, Florennes and Gedinne 946 persons were put to death; and besides the whole town of Dinant and two entire villages—Outraye and Sorrines—1,732 houses and seven

inhabitants of which perished in the course of burnings, pillagings, and exccutions. , On Aug. 20 the German army entered Brussels. The entire

churches were destroyed. On Aug. 23 the German troops entered Namur. Warned of the. massacres by frightened peasants who had come flecing before the enemy, the inhabitants abstained from any demonstration

of fecling. The entry of the victorious army was devoid of incident. Yet suddenly on Aug. 24 a violent fusillade rang out in tho streets, to continue all that day and all the next. The bishop, Mgr. Heylen, proceeded to the German headquarters

the German army commenced the siege of Antwerp.

On Oct. 6,

after the destruction of the forts, the Belgian army retreated; and on Oct, ro, having eluded capture by the enemy it took up position on the Yser.

The siege of Antwerp brought yet more fire and carnage.

Over 160 persons tn the fortified zone fell victims to the German soldiers. The town of Termonde, where the Belgian army again

After

and again successfully opposed the crossing of the Scheldt by

75 persons had fallen, 15 of them

the German troops, was at last taken, and was then burnt to the ground,

to protest against this uscless cruelty.

two days the terror ceased; women and 4 children.

Belgian army was massed under the protection of the forts of Antwerp. Sorties were made on Aug. 25 and 26 and Sept. 4; on Sept. 9 a general sortie of all the Belgian forces took place, with the object of diverting pressure from the French army, which was fighting on the Marne. Forced to protect itself from the Belgian army’s perpetual attacks on its rear, on Sept, 28

He was arrested.

The town hall, the communal archives,

435

BELGIUM The province of Hainault did not escape. At Charleroi, after the great battle which took place there, 108 persons. were massacred, at Marchienne au Pont 75, at Mons 39, at Tournai 34,

at Châtelet 67. In the other villages through which the enemy forces passed, 182 persons were put to death.

It remains to mention the massacres perpetrated by the invaders in East and West Flanders. For these provinces, however, precise figures cannot be quoted, the work of compiling the lists of victims not being yet completely terminated. The Occupation.—Brussels once in her power, Germany began to organize the occupation of the country. The activities of the government of occupation—headed successively by von der

Goltz, von Bissing, and von Falkenhausen—were considerable in all spheres. Always the same main policy emerged: in matters political, economic or social, the one aim of Germany was to make Belgium and all her resources serve the needs of the war; while preparing for her annexation—at the very least for her absorption—in the event of the German victory, and rendering her in any case innocuous as an independent nation by effecting her economic ruin. The governor-general formed round him a central government, in which the Zivilverwaltung (civil administration) played the chief part. Executive powers were in the hands of the governor-general, who legislated by promulgation of orders. A German governor was placed over each province, The Belgian commissaries were deprived of their authority over the arrondissements, being replaced by Germans, subordinate to whom were the military commandants who controlled the cantons. The country was divided into the Gouvernement Général, placed directly under

the authority of the Zivilverwaltung; and the Zones

d'étapes,

including Flanders, the arrondissements of Tournai and Mons, and the southern part of the province of Luxemburg, governed by the military authorities, who had the right of promulgating orders. These Zones d'étapes were completely separated from the rest of the country. Access to them and exit from them were forbidden without permits, which were not readily granted. Everywhere bureaux de contréle were established to-keep a watch on the inhabitants, persons placed under their special surveillance being obliged to report themsclves periodically. A network of espionage was spread over the country, enabling the authorities to know what citizens were dangerous, or even simply too influential, so that they might be regarded with suspicion, and arrested on the first pretext. Not only was the Belgian administration completely deprived of executive power, but the powers of the provincial councils were gradually undermined. In rors the right of meeting in ordinary session on fixed dates was taken from them, while the députations permanentes (administrative bodics appointed by

the provincial councils from among their members) were placed under the direct authority of the presidents of the German provincial civil administration. Still further, from 1917 onward these presidents in each province were authorized to assume themselves the powers of the provincial councils as regarded the receipts and expenditure of the annual budget, and the methods of raising the necessary funds to meet the expenditure. The struggle between the provincial councils and German authority became bitter Indeed when the governor-general claimed their collaboration in assessing liabilitics for the enormous war-tax— varying between 40, 50 and 60 million francs per month—with which he had saddled the country. Nearly all the provincial councils refused coöperation, preferring to accept an arbitrary assessment decreed by the government of occupation, rather than. to yield a semblance of legality to its decisions. Henceforward the military governors, and also the German presidents of civil administrations, were cmpowered to cnsure the payment

of the tax, and to that end had the right of raising loans in the name of the province. On July 6 1918 the provincial councils were definitively suppressed. Nothing then remained of the Belgian administrative system. In vain, however, did Germany destroy the machinery of the country’s self-government; she could not break the spirit of the nation. The glorious example set by men like M. Visart de

Bocermé, burgomaster of Bruges, who at 80 years of age stood up fearlessly to the German military. power, or like M. Max, burgomaster of Brussels, who boldly led the resistance of his townsfolk, going so far as to post on the walls an official contradiction of the news published by the Germans concerning the march of military operations, from the earliest days of the occupation sufficiently indicated to the invaders what the public attitude was going to be. M. Max, when arrested and sent to Germany, there to be subjected to a system of reprisals, had for successor M. Lemonnier, whom in his turn the Germans were obliged to arrest and deport, In every class of society acts of ‘admirable devotion occurred. Hundreds of: Belgians were deported to Germany or shot. Names such as those of Gabriclle Petit, Philippe Baucq, the Englishwoman Edith Cavell, J. Corbisier, Louis Neyts, Bodson, Le Grand, Lenoir and many others stand for the heroism of an entire population;

Neither deportation nor executions could ever prevent the spying on behalf of the Allies carried on by thousands of Belgians, nor the publications of a secret press which fought energetically’ against the occupant power, On Feb. 2 1915 La Libre Belgique appeared. Each week until the Armistice it was published and

distributed throughout Belgium. At Louvain the Revue de la Presse gave the most interesting extracts from the Allied press. In Brussels L’Ame Belge made vigorous political propaganda, continuing to appear despite the arrest and imprisonment of its cditor. In 1918 Le Flambeau, by the method of analyzing foreign politics, taught the public why to expect victory. At Ghent L’ Autre Cloche stood firm against the Germans and against Activism,

as did De

Vrye Stem

at Antwerp.

Besides these

journals, directed by secret committees of priests, lawyers, university professors and journalists, other smaller papers, appearing less regularly, such as La Soupe, Le Belge, Ça et La, Patrie, and De Vieemische Leeuw, sustained Belgian patriotism. German Legislatiot.—German legislation was abundant, more

especially that of a repressive type.

The most

trivial

regulations carricd penalties of extreme severity. Maximum prices, requisitions of bread and cereals, were enforced by penaltics extending to five years’ imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 marks. Such Draconian measures were not imposed for the sake of the German army’s safety; they applied only to the country’s internal organization, martial law reigning over all that directly affected the army. Military tribunals, without any intimation to the public of their creation or of their competence, were charged throughout -the country with the application of these new laws. ‘These courts afforded no security to those amenable to their jurisdiction, their procedure was neither public nor contested; the dossier not being even shown to the defence, they constituted a purely arbitrary means of government, not a judicial authority. Along with these military courts von Bissing established by an order of Feb. 5 1915 2 judicial system of two degrees. The German governors sct over the Belgian provinces were given unlimited power of instituting.penalties. Heads of arrondissements and commandants were empowered to institute penalties amounting to three weeks’ imprisonment. Besides being thus granted

legislative powers, these functionaries were authorized to try persons who disobeyed their regulations, the governors sitting as judges of appeal from the judgments of their subordinates.

This edict, conferring as it did judiciary powers on, officials, opened the door to administrative tyranny, destroying the indispensable safeguard afforded by the separation of judicial and administrative authority. Still worse, this edict established for repressive purposes the principle that a penalty imposed on a guilty person could, should the judge so decide, be inflicted on some other person. Such a measure, permitting the penalizing of an innocent person, when the culprit himsclf was out of reach, annihilated the personal liberty of the inhabitants of the country. These penal powers were carried yet further by an order of Aug. 3 1917, authorizing the governors to sentence delinquents to total or partial confiscation of property. Besides endangering public liberty and security these edicts

illegally weakened the authority of the Belgian tribunals.

It

BELGIUM

436

sufficed for the government ot occupation to publish an order

Belgian was penalized for “ not having done” or for “ having had

concerning any offences, jurisdiction on which it wished to keep in its own hands, and obviously by that act Belgian justice was deprived of its rights, to the profit of German justice. The creation of these tribunals occasioned public protests from the bar of Brussels, as a result of which its president, the Batonnier Theodor, was deported to Germany. Even certain offences against common laws were selected by the German administra-

the intention to do.” Counting on having its task facilitated by the citizens informing against one another, German justice proclaimed that not to give information constituted a misdemeanour, if not evenacrime. That a person had “ probably been cognizant of an infraction ” sufficed to place him in the same

tion to be dealt with by itself instead of by the judicial system

with Germany, but even those who should not give information of their presence, were punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude. One sole mitigation is found: a wife who does not denounce her husband wanted by the German authorities may plead extenuating circumstances and is only liable to from 3 months’ to 2 years’ imprisonment or penal servitude. Again, every citizen was obliged, under pain of 3 to 15 years’ penal

of the country; a police des moeurs (police of public morals) formed in all the large towns being given powers which Belgian

law assigned to the public prosecutors and the Belgian courts alone. But soon the administration of justice was completely taken over by the invaders.

On April 7 1918 a permanent German

judicial system was established by order in Flanders and Wallonia, their administrative separation having just been effected by von Bissing. The Belgian courts were replaced by German ‘tribunals—Jcaiserliche Besirksgerichte—established in the differ-

‘ent arrondissements. The judges, the public prosecutors and their staff, the recorders and clerks, all were exclusively German, appointed by the governor-general in accordance with the usages of German law, The language of these courts was German, their procedure was that of the German code. Usually one judge

position as the culprit, liable to the same penalty.

Not only

all who should aid, lodge, or feed the subjects of states at war

servitude, to give information of the arrival in the country of any

person belonging to one of the Entente nations, to denounce anyone making or storing munitions, to furnish all information in his power concerning British establishments in Belgium, to denounce anyone refusing to work for Germany. Yet another new offence was that of being absent from Belgium

and not having returned there within a period of two months. This offence was punishable by å fine fixed at ten times the amount of the taxes for which the absentee was liable. And besides new offences, new penalties were also introduced into Belgium by this German legislation. General confiscation of entire property, definitely forbidden by the Belgian constitution and by Article 46 of the Hague Convention, was decreed for infliction upon anyone not immediately denouncing to the German authorities persons placed under special surveillance; and upon persons under German police supervision who, being sentenced, could not be found and arrested. This penalty might be inflicted by the merc order of a governor. It may be added that this attempt on the part of the government of occupation to force the inhabitants of the country to denounce the activities against Germany of persons attached to the Allied armies contra-

presided, but in cases where the authorized penalty exceeded five years’ imprisonment sentence was pronounced by three judges. Procedure was rapid. The public ‘prosecutor made all inquiries and. perquisitions, and warrants of arrest were issued without preliminary judicial inquiry. The court dealt summarily with all affairs in which the authorized penalty did not exceed one year’s imprisonment; in other cases procedure was by judgment. The court decided whether or not the accused should have the right of being defended, defence not being officially authorized save in -cases tried by three judges. There was no appeal; and in all cases, immediately the sentence had been pronounced, the judge called upon the military authorities to put it into execution. In the case of a death-sentence the governor-general had the vened Articles 52 and 44 of the Hague Convention, Deportation was introduced as a penalty in 1915 and was right of pardon. Judges were removable. inflicted upon those who refused to work for the German authorThis edict, therefore, replaced Belgian judges by German judges, who, being removable, could not afford security. It. ities, also upon those who did not comply precisely with their obligations towards the police control. It is a fact that deportaabolished the right of appeal, and replaced Belgian procedure by German procedure. The accused found himself being tried tion was inflicted, even without trial, on persons who for any in a forcign language, without the right of employing defence, reason appeared undesirable to the civil or military authorities, Civil Law—Belgian civil law was also profoundly modified. or even of defending himself, the courts having power to set aside any evidence they chose to disregard. The Assize Court was sup- On Feb. 3 1915 the Gavernment of occupation abolished the pressed; the jury, that indispensable safeguard of personal decree of ro Vendémiaire au IV. concerning the responsibility liberty, no longer existed. Thenceforward, the same tribunals of communcs in the case of pillage committed openly by force dealt with misdemeanours and with crimes, inflicting all pen- and accompanied by violence. At the moment of Germany’s alties, including that of death. declaration of war against Belgium certain German establishIn issuing an order of such scope, the governor-general was -ments in the large Belgian towns had been sacked by the mob, acting as a legislator. The Belgian constitution, the judicial The government of occupation deprived the Belgian courts of organization of the country, were abolished and replaced by their competence to try these cases, establishing instead for the German laws and judges. Belgium was being treated not as purpose a special arbitration court composed of three members-— the president, appointed by the German governor-general, occupied territory, but as a conquered country. Before describing the transformation of civil justice it will be onc member appointed by the president of the German civil well to glance at the principles which these. German tribunals administration of the province, one member appointed by the were established to apply. On Sept. 2 1914 Marshal von der députation permancnte of the province (Belgian administration). Goltz enunciated in his proclamation the principle underlying The presence of this single Belgian adjudicator afforded no the repressive system of an occupant power:-—~“ It is a harsh security, the president being empowered to replace him by the necessity of war that the punishment of hostile acts falls on the president of the German civil administration. Exceptional tribunals were also sct up, supplanting the regular innocent as well as on the guilty.” The same principle is found again in the edict of Feb, 5 z915, authorizing the governors to Belgian courts, to try cases of dispute concerning house rents. decide that penalties decreed by the German courts of justice Belgian refugees abroad found themselves unable to enforce should in certain cases be transferred to other persons in de- their rights in these new courts, the bar—always a special object fault of the culprits themselves, The same principle was applied of German hostility—not having access to them. by a series of edicts empowering the German authorities to take A general transformation of the judicial system was begun on hostages who should pay with their lives for damage done to April 7 1918. A complete system of German courts was estabrailway tracks, to inflict heavy fines on communes, to deport lished, comprising courts of first instance (Bezirksgerichte), and the entire population of villages in whose area railway lines had two courts of appeal (Obvergerichtc), that for Flanders sitting at been damaged, to punish whole families for faults committed Brussels, that for Wallonia at Namur, These “ imperial tribunals ” by single members of them, to treat as guilty all persons found administered justice in the name of the German Emperor;

im company with anyone committing an offence.

Again, the

their personnel was German, appointed by the governor-gencral;

BELGIUM their language was German. The courts of first instance were each presided over by a single judge, the courts of appeal by three judges. The Belgian bar was denied the right to defend persons tried before these tribunals. Such persons, if granted the assistance of counsel, had to apply to the Justizkommissar, who assigned them a counscl for defence. These courts dealt with all causes in which a German or a neutral was concerned;

437

sements of Brussels and Louvain; the other the provinces of Hainault, Liége, Luxemburg, and Namur, with the arrondissement of Nivelles. The first region will be administered from Brussels, the second region from Namur.” A series of orders followed, organizing the separation. All ministrics were duplicated, those for Wallonia being transferred

to Namur. Language separation was complete. On Aug. 9 1917 they could besides declare their competence in other cases. They . Flemish was proclaimed the official language of Flanders, the continued their functions until a few days before the Armistice.

The administration of justice had now been taken completely into the hands of Germany. Altitude towards the Belgian Magistracy.—From the first days of the occupation the German attitude towards the Belgian magistracy had constantly impeded the normal administration of justice. The German authorities were continually intervening, either to stop prosecutions at common law of Belgians in their own pay, or to prevent the application of repressive measures— rendered necessary by the conduct of the German soldicry— against the demoralization of minors; or to liberate prisoners on remand or after sentence, who were for some reason favoured by the government of occupation. The functions of juges de paix and juges d'instruction were alike subject to constant interference from German officials. Such violations of the independence of bench and magistracy raised vehement protests from the royal procurator, the procurator-generals, and the chief magistrates of the country. Conflicts ensued which often ended in the arrest of magistrates, judges, or royal procurators, and their deportation to camps of civilian prisoners in Germany, Hostilities between the German Government and the Belgian magistracy became peculiarly bitter in Feb. 1918, when, conformably to Belgian law, the arrest was ordered of the Activists Bonn and Zack, promoters of the separatist movement in Flanders. The royal procurator of Brussels was at once ordered to set the prisoners free. Upon his refusal the German authorities employed forcé to liberate their protégés. At the same time the head of the German civil administration informed the Brussels Court of Appeal that its judicial activities must cease. As 4 pro-. test the Cour de Cassation at once suspended its sessions and the

entire judicial system of Belgium followed suit. Instantly the three presidents of the Brussels Court of Appeal, Levy Moulle, Ernst and Carez, were arrested and deported to Germany without trial, This final crisis of the struggle between the government of occupation and the magistracy is but one episode of Germany’s attack on Belgium’s unity, and even existence,

Separation of Flanders and Wallonia.—To disintegrate the Belgian nation was Germany’s constant aim from the first days of the war, and the exploitation of the language differences of the country formed her chief means of pursuing it. Imagining that favour shown to the Flemish language would suffice to stimulate the separatist movement, the German Government adopted an attitude distinctly hostile to the use of French, In the zones d'étape of Flanders the military authorities totally discontinued the use of French in their public notices. The Censure only passed Flemish posters and advertisements. Finally the German Government announccd its intention to transform the university of Ghent, whose language had hitherto been French, into a Flemish university. These methods proving devoid of effect, they were succeeded by others more forcible in character. In 1916 various edicts abolished the official use of French in Flanders. From Jan. 1 1917 communications to the Government from that province and all official publications had to be exclusively in Flemish. In 1916 the Ministry of Science and Arts was divided into two distinct sections, one Flemish, the other Walloon, to prepare for the complete separation of public instruction in the two different linguistic regions.

It was on March 21 1917 that the German Government put into execution von Bissing’s carefully elaborated scheme for the division of Belgium into two fragments, the edict running as follows:—‘‘ Two administrative regions are hereby formed in Belgium, one of which comprises the provinces of Antwerp, Limburg, East Flanders and West Flanders. with the arrondis-

use of French being forbidden to all bodies either administrative

or charged with any public service. In Wallonia, on the other hand, Flemish and German remained authorized in communications between administration and public. Although the Belgian nation as a whole regarded German legislative activities as unworthy of notice, and yielded no submission

to this new administrative organization of their country, designed as it was to compass her ruin, yet the invaders were supported in the matter by a handful of Belgians who had passed into their service, and who claimed to represent Flemish public opinion. It was from these persons, who called themselves the “ Activist

party,” that the Germans formed the “ Raed van Viaenderen,” charged with organizing the new Flemish state, to be independent under German tutelage. That this council might have some semblance of legality there were to be clections in Flanders in Feb. and March 1918. As it was recognized that such elections,

if honestly conducted, could only result in disaster for the German schemes, it was decided that the members of the Raed van Viaenderen should be chosen only by such electors—an infinitesimal minority—as should be convoked by name for the purpose. The elections were to be by acclamation, held within closed doors, and under guard of German armed forces, Electoral meetings took place in Antwerp, Mechlin, and Tirlemont; they turned into patriotic demonstrations, and instantly the German Government forbade the continuance of the elections. On Feb. 11 1918 there was a huge demonstration in Brussels against separation, Delegates from over 1,000 associations—political, social, industrial, intellectual, and economic—met in the Grande Place with the object of presenting a solemn protest to the Communal Council. German troops dispersed the demonstrators. In all the towns of Belgium there were protests from the public bodies and great associations. In face of such an explosion of public fecling the German Government dared not confer on the Raed van Vlaenderen the legislative powers it had intended to give that body. A commission composed of the chief German civil authorities in Belgium and of exalted members of the German juridical world met at Brussels to study the subject of the forma

tion of the Flemish and Walloon states. After months of work

this commission decided that, as Belgian public opinion was utterly hostile to the separation, there could be no question of creating two independent states; but that, on the contrary, the new. states must during a long transition period be placed under the authority of German governors, with the assistance in Flanders of the Raed van Vlaenderen as consultative council. The Raed van Vlaenderen therefore, figuring as an emanation from the Flemish people, found itself empowered to choose from among its members rr plenipotentiarics to form a permanent council which should participate, as a consultative body, in the exercise of that legislative power conferred on the governorgeneral,

This tool in the hands of Germany was perfected by

the addition of a Ministry of Defence, charged with raising in Flanders an army of volunteers, which was to fight at the side of the German army against the Belgian army. At this moment the Brussels Court of Appeal intervened,

issuing orders to the public prosecutor to arrest and prosecute the principal members of the Raed van Viaenderen, who were accordingly immediately imprisoned by the Belgian police. This bold act had as consequence the arrest of the presidents of the Court of Appeal; and the conflict which ensued between the magistracy and the government of occupation resulted in the suspension of all sessions of justice throughout the country, despite

the reprisals taken upon the chief magistrates.

This solemn

protest on the part of Belgian justice stimulated greatly the national movements of resistance, .

438

BELGIUM

The nation was further encouraged in its firmness of attitude

make this organization quite omnipotent the Government was

by the protest of the communal authorities of Ghent, whose refusal to recognize the division of Belgium was answered by the arrest of the aldermen and the deportation of the burgomaster, M. Braun. Ghent was thenceforward administcred by a college of aldermen appointed by the German governor-general, who reserved the right of controlling them and substituting him-

further inspired to entrust it with the distribution of the homegrown food supplies. Resistance to anti-Belgian propaganda

self for them in the exercise of their functions. A German military

officer was appointed burgomaster of the town. . The government of occupation hoped to use education as a potent weapon for dividing the country. The Flemish language was proclaimed the only one permitted in the State and volun-

tary schools of Flanders, Even in Brussels, where French is spoken by a large majority of the population, Flemish was to be

would

then have been reduced

by starvation.

This project,

however, produced such a fury of indignation throughout the country that the foreign legations were moved to protest and succeeded in preventing its realization. The true rôle of the Volksopbeuring had become so flagrantly apparent that in 1918 it was disavowed by the Dutch committee which had been formed to support it. . The Economic Situation.—-The occupation of Belgium by the German army profoundly disturbed the country’s economic situation. Industry suffered from the very outset, owing to the measures taken for military reasons.

Raw materials were at

the only language of instruction. A transition period was conceded, but from Sept. 5 1918 primary education was to be completely Flemicized.

once requisitioned, and to facilitate that the declaration of stocks was made obligatory, while they might not be disposed of without permission, In Dec. 1914 the declaration was made obliga-

Flemicising of Ghent University—The centre of the whole scheme for the Germanizing of Flanders was to be the university of Ghent. It was to become a tool in the hands of Germany. Flemicization was decided upon in 1915 by the German Government and overtures were made to the professional body. On that body’s refusal to submit to the invaclers’ desires reprisals began, Profs. Henri Pirenne and Paul Frederica, accused of leading the resistance, being arrested and deported to Germany. The Ghent professors did not flinch before these intimidatory measures, but stood firm. On March 15 1916 an order was issued that thenceforward all lectures in the university of Ghent were to be given in the Flemish language. Professors who did not deliver their courses of lectures were to be placed on the retired list, The new university retained only four professors from the staff of the Belgian university, one of them a German. Fo flits professional chairs it hac to draw on students, members of the

tory of stocks of benzine, petrol, alcohol, glycerine, oils, fats,

Activist ” party, Dutchmen and Germans. Shortly after, the German authorities celebrated the opening of the university,

and the King of Bavaria graced the ceremony with his presence. A characteristic touch was the omission of Belgian history from the syllabus of the university. To aftract students.all the scholarships in Belgium were allotted to the university of Ghent, and a

carbides, india rubber and pneumatic motor tires. On Jan. 25 191g this order was extended to stocks of lead, copper, aluminium, antimony, zinc, nickel, mercury, tin and alloys of metals. Besides requisitions, other measures threatened and destroyed Belgian industry. On Nov. 26 yọr4 commissaries had been appointed by the German Government to supervise industrial or

business concerns belonging wholly or in part to nationals of countrics at war with Germany. On Feb. 17 101g this supervision was changed into sequestration. All such undertakings, whether Belgian or foreign, were sequestrated if they could be uscful to Germany or if they might be harmful to her. They were temporarily taken out of the hands of their proprietors and their management assumed by the government of occupation, which either continued to work them in the interests of Germany, or proceeded to liquidate them. Over 100 industrial concerns were sequestrated in 1915, about 20 in 1916, about roin rory. They were great metallurgical works, building works, stone quarries, collieries, electrical generating stations, etc. Foreign undertakings, principally British ones, were put into liquidation. The establishment of central depots for the monopoly of coal oils, fats, water, gas and clectricity completed the capture of

shameless campaign of intimidation was organized: students in

Belgian industry by the invader.

the zone d’élape were given the alternative of either being transported as forced labour to Germany or pursuing their studies at the “ Activist’ university. The latter alternative was backed by substantial advantages, extra food rations being added to the scholarship grants of money. Despite all this, and despite the suspension of lectures in all the universities of the country, not 200 students were recruited,

licries resumed work. occupation established their entire output to consumed in their own at the moment of the

In 1917 the German authorities began to understand that Flemish opinion could not be counted on to aid in the dismem-

berment of Belgium, and consequently their treatment of the working-class population

of Flanders increased in harshness,

deportations becoming particularly frequent, But still attempts were made to foster Activist ideas, Lectures and meetings were promoted for the exposition of German views; the publication of pamphlets and tracts was facilitated; every form of autonomistic propaganda was supported by armed force. In the end it became obvious that no result would ever be achieved by these means, so a new form of propaganda was adopted. At Courtrai an association was formed with the name of Volksopbeuring (regencration of the people). Its supposed object was to raise

the moral standard of the Flemish people and relieve distress. It was supported by a committee in Holland consisting of the most exalied personages. In reality it had no other aim but to promote the idea of Flemish autonomy. Its activities were ignored, and remained without result until the day in 1918 when the German Government transferred to it the responsibility, till then belonging to the communal authorities, of distributing sugar, syrup, jam, potatoes, butter, etc. Thenceforward, the whole population of Flanders being forced to apply for those necessaries to the Volksopbeuring, propaganda could be made in

terms of food, and constraint be exercised directly on each individual through the distribution of the necessaries of life. To

In Oct. 1914 the Belgian col-

On April 24 1915 the government of the Kohlenzentrale, Collicries had to send the “ Central,” excepting only what was works. Contracts for deliverics existing publication of the edict were annulled.

The Kehlenzentrale was intended to provide coal for the railways and the German army. ‘This object rapidly expanded, and the “ Central ” became an instrument of official pillage. The obligation to declare stocks was imposed simply to facilitate requisitions. In Oct. 1914 Germany mtroduced into Belgium 2 double system of requisitions: on the one hand, requisitions made directly for the army and the military authorities; on the other hand, general requisitions. The scheme for working them had been framed by Dr. Rathenau, who was entrusted with the creation of the “ Department of raw materials of war” at the War Office in Berlin. Such raw materials were first seized, and could no longer be sold save to the “ Centrals ”?

which fixed their price. If the vendor refused the price offered he was expropriated, and handed a requisition voucher. From 1915 onward requisitions of raw materials and of machine tools were made throughout the country. Belgian industrics, deprived of raw materials, protested vehemently to the government of occupation that the requisitions should at least be paid for. They were told in reply that if the war tax of 60 millions per month was regularly paid, the price of requisitions would be paid in cash from Jan. 11915. This promise was never fulfilled, a thousand pretexts for delaying the payments being offered: difficulties in transporting and classifying the goods, and in checking the requisition vouchers; disproportion between claimed value and the real value; the necessity of not allowing German specie to leave Germany. Moreover, Germany never. regarded herself as responsible for the price of the requisitioned goods;

BELGIUM she said they would be paid for by Belgium after the war. The impossibility, however, for Belgian industry to go on without capital obliged the governor-general to seek some solution. On April 2 1915 a Caisse de préts (loan bank) was established at Brussels to make advances on the security of the requisition vouchers. For requisitions made by the army, prices were fixed by the military authorities; for other requisitions valuation was made by the indemnity office in Berlin, The Caisse de prêts might advance 75% of such valuation, if the claimant accepted the price offered. The Caisse de prêts merely gave a voucher, which the Société Générale de Belgique was required to cash; the latter in return being granted by the Reichsbank a

credit equal to the sums disbursed, but not to be drawn upon until three months after the signature of peace. The Société Générale vigorously resisted this measure: on the one hand, because the payment of the enormous number of German requisition vouchers must produce an inflation of the fiduciary circulation, with the immediate result of raising the cost of living and in- | creasing poverty; on the other hand, because the Société Généralc objected to helping Germany in her requisitions. The Société Générale never consented to cash any vouchers save those issued for requisitions of raw materials. As claimants usually . refused to accept the prices fixed by Berlin, the total of the loans granted did not exceed 75 millions of marks. Requisitions were not confined to industry alone. In all private houses objects of copper, bronze, metal alloys and wool. mattresses were seized. The following table shows the requisitions made in the area of Gencral Government during the second half of r917:-—Quantity requisitioned during second half of 1917.

Objects.

Copper and alloyed metals from private houses . Copper from industrial establishments Zinc

+

Tin

s `

Lead e

à

s

>

à

i

b

.

b

+

a.

Skinsof large cattle

‘°

3,975,800 6,600

6,225,147 768 3197

ae>4+kyù

A .

6,065-0

.

: :

Osier (wicker) for munition

baskets aa Osier fibre . Š Wool and hair , x Mattress wool . i Wool yarn s Woollen rags à Cotton rags. tac Manufactured cottons . : Cotton and cotton thread Cottons, confiscated, various

Manufactured flax and prod:

$

,

.

“

è

“ “

“private houses e produced in Belgium

a “ in different forms, produced in Belgium zine

“ Central ” at very low prices.

r ‘

The “ Central,” after having

supplied the army and the railways, resold the surplus at very high prices to the factories which were authorized to work: Two offices for the distribution of coal to the Belgian population were established at Brussels and Namur, but the quantity allotted for this purpose was quite insufficient. Indeed, the Kohlenzentrale tried to export as much coal as possible to neutral countries, for the sake of the large profits realized in that way.

In t915 the export of Belgian coal to Germany reached 115%

of the pre-war figure, in 1916 95%, in 1917 25%.

Germany, on

her side, imported approximately equivalent amounts of coal into Belgium. The export to neutral countries wag much greater, being in 1915 190% of the pre-war figure, in 1916 230%, in ror7 Ialling. to 90%. The exportation of Belgian coal seemed to Germany a lucrative operation. At the meeting of the Economic Commission on June 19 1915 Kardoff, representing German trade, declared:-—*‘ The coal production of Belgium must first. supply military requirements and aftcrwards Belgian consumption, The surplus must serve German purposes, notably as an export to neutral countries.” This was the accepted doctrine. In 1917 the distribution of Belgian coal was as follows:— ist quarter.

š

,

;

53:0%

37:5%

. and

quarter

3rd

quarter. | quarter.

43°59 % |44-50%

47°50 % | 49°75 % D25%] .. 8:75% | 5:75%

In a “ *

Germany Switzerland Scandinavia Holland

; $ .

1915 marks, 972

340,892

1,688,646

705,693.

1916 marks,

48,619

1917

marks.

176,110

5,856,376] 3,498,449 10,547,467 | 2,557,033

The total profits for the three years amounted to about 34

60,624 12,868

millions of marks, which were used as a German war loan, An oil * Central ” on the same model was established on June 3 rors. It realized a profit of 11,815,266 francs in the years 1915,

1,227,819

1916, 1917; 6-5 millions of which were for r917 alone. Finally, on July 26 1915 the “ Central ” for water, gas and clectricity was instituted, important services thus being placed under the direct control of the German administration. The German Government now controlled all the diment

27,710 173,730

Boots and shoes s$ i wooden ‘soled

ucts

“

2700 “ I5 od pieces

Tanning-matenals Leather and leather straps

Hemps and jute ; Coconuts and piassavą

“

5700

886-5

i

‘various animals “ rabbits Se

“ “*

copper from factories

Profit on sales.

20,877°7 tons

i ;

s sheep

*

Military needs absorbed 4,665,975 tons, onc-half of the total output. Thanks to the Aeklenzentrale’s monopoly, the profits realized by it were large. The figures are as follows:—~

481,414

ít

* :

and also 8,550,330 marks worth of leather and leather straps, Producers were obliged to deliver their total output to the

Export

12,309,842

it

it

7,000 24,000 35,000

tories

21,000 140,000,000 5,576,375

` s

7,000

3,500 9,500

Belgian population and authorized industries . Troops and railways . Occupied French terri-

38,870,854 3,997,970

H calves “ horses

290,000 tons of iron dé

2,069,300 kgm.

Steel . é Iron from demolitions

Copper . k Sulphate of copper : Lead (different forms) Rough zint > œ Cadmium > . > Silver ; Chemical products:=— Sulphuric acid Soda . Chloride of lime. Muriatic acid Paper

439

Up to June r918 there had been requisitioned:

4,987,000 kgm. of 4,915,000 mk.) 4,231,955

t

1

9,948

éi

800 tons

indispensable to industry.

165

escape its power. Industry was forced into absolute submission to the terms imposed by the invader. The Belgian marine export trade had, of course, been stopped by the war. Belgian factorics closcd-down one after the other and the numbers of unemployed quickly became enormous, The Comité National, whose activities will be described later, organized relief measures, got work of public utility started, and established bourses de travail (labour scholarships), which,

840,270 kgm. 831,685 200,273 = 1,748,261 *"

5,009,772

“

3,152

i4

301,032

“

36,694

224,014 5,748 150,112

Brushes . g ak Strings Transsmission cables

916,333 pieces

Jute bags .

574,173 pieces

tzi 11g kgm. 8,424

Henceforth

no undertaking could

while supporting the unemployed person, exacted meantime his

attendance at technical classes. The German authorities intervened in 1915 and opposed this great organization for assisting the unemployed. It was soon realized that the only efficacious method of helping

the Belgian masses was to revive trade, and in Aug. 1915 a

440

BELGIUM chiefly from the storing chambers for sulphuric acid) had been .

Comité Industriel was formed for that object. It entered into negotiations with the Allied Governments in order to obtain permission to import raw materials into Belgitum—such raw materials, once manufactured, to be reéxported and the proceeds realized applied to the purchase of foodstuffs necessary for the victualling of the Belgian population. The Allies were willing to agree to such an arrangement, but the German Government made the condition that payments for the exported goods should be deposited in a Belgian bank. England declared that she could not accept such a condition, which would have meant that the Allied Powers would be helping Germany, so the Comité Industriel dissolved without having achieved anything. The numbers of the unemployed became dauy more alarming. In 1916 they reached 650,000. On Oct. 16 1916 the Comité National made a fresh attempt to revive trade, proposing the

taken from the factories. Metallurgical works, textile factories, chemical works, quarries (save those requisitioned by Germany), cemeteries, gunfoundries, works of public bodies—all were completely despoiled. The collieries alone, being indispensable to Germany, were spared. But when the German army was in final retreat measures were taken to destroy the mines completely. On Oct. 26 1918 orders were given for work to cease in the coal-fields of Hainault. On ‘Nov. 1 pits and machinery were mined, pumping and ventilation were stopped, boiler furnaces extinguished. This would have meant the putting of Belgian mines out of action for years. In face of such an act of vandalism the neutral Powers protested, threatening Germany with cconomic reprisals, whereupon pumping was recommenced, and the pits and machinery were

authorization of exports, their proceeds to be handed to the

spared.

Commission for Relief in Belgium as payment for food sent in return, Germany refused consent. Part of Belgian industry still remained active but the factories sequestrated by the enemy had great difficulty in finding labour, considerable numbers of the working-classes obstinately refusing to work in the interests of Germany. On Aug. 14 and r5 1915 appeared the first edicts

In all this policy of destruction Germany had a double aim On the one hand, she was ruining Belgian trade and eliminating

instituting severe penalties for those refusing to undertake work

for the German authorities. The government of occupation was also undermining, Belgian industries by requisitions of machinery and tools. Commissions of German engineers and heads of industry were sent into Belgium to seize from Belgian factories any machinery which could be utilized in Germany. The real object was to destroy Belgium’s trade, as being a dangerous rival to that of Germany.

Pure vandalism characterized these requisitions, the experts even destroying machinery which they found it impossible to remove.

Again official orders of Jan. 10 and Oct. ro 1916 forbade more than 24 hours work per weck in the textile and boot-making trades; and those of Feb. 17 and July 21 1917 forbade work in all workshops and factories of Belgium save by authorization of the president of the civil administration.

The working-class population of Belgium was reduced to beggary. The masses of unemployed became more and more numerous. Germany desired them more numerous still. Public works started by provinces and communes to provide employment were suddenly prohibited. Germany exposed her hand. The president of the civil administration expounded the German theory in a speech delivered before the députation permanente of Luxemburg. Relief of the unemployed, he said, was inadmissible in the-case of persons deprived of work by the German regulations. Workers aged from 18 to 50 could go to Alsace-Lorraine or Germany, and work there for good wages. If able-bodied members of the working-class would consent to go to Germany, communes would be once more authorized to

provide public work for the unemployed of under 18 or over 50. Thus, by means of a skilfully planned series of edicts, Germany had attained her object—had completely ruined Belgian industry and had created an unemployed class of nearly 700,000 work- ers, whom she forbade the public bodies to provide with work. Nothing remained but to transport this potential labour into

Germany.

.

From 1917 otiwards Belgian industry was subjected to systematic destruction. By June 30 1918, 167 factories had been completely destroyed, 161 factories were mentioned by the administrative report to the governor-gencral of the section for commerce and industry as to be destroyed immediately, 93 large halls were being demolished, others had been cleared out, 52 halls were to suffer the same fate. Of the 57 high furnaces existing in Belgium, 26 had been razed to the ground, 20 were seriously damaged, 1: only remained fit for use. The Service de Récuperation Industrielle subsequently identified in Germany 24,308 Belgian machines and 89,635,640 kgm. of various kinds of plant. Machinery that could not be carried away entire, had been broken up by hammer blows and the pieces

sent to Germany; 290,000 tons of iron, 7,000 tons of lead (coming

future rivalry from that quarter; on the other hand, unemployment was being daily increased, hundreds of thousands were being thrown out of work, and she was provided with a pretext for requisitioning human labour as she had already requisitioned raw materials and machinery. A series of edicts now prepared

for that. The Deportations—In Oct. 1916 the military authorities made the first requisition of men for work in Germany At that time nearly a million persons were in receipt of public relief in Belgium. In Nov, burgomasters were ordered under heavy penalties to furnish the German authorities with lists of the unemployed receiving relief in their communes. In every case the enemy Government was met by refusal on the part of the

communal authorities. The military authorities thereupon began

a general requisition of able-bodicd men throughout the country, whether unemployed or not. Notices posted in the communes ordered all men aged from 17 to 6o to present themselves at the Kommandantur in the town of the arrondissement There the assembled men were paraded within double lines of infantry and cavalry. Non-commissioned officers. next proceeded to designate those who were to be deported to Germany or to the zoncs of the front. These unlucky ones were immediately marched to the nearest station, put ona train, and sent under guard to Germany.

Generally speaking, the inhabitants of Flanders—the zone a’étape—were sent to the Yser front or to that in the north of France. They were set to work constructing railways, repairing roads, or digging trenches in the zone of fire. Many of them were killed by the Allied bombardment. Workers requisitioned from other parts of the country were concentrated in great camps at Miinster, Altengrabow, Guben, Cassel, Meschede, Soltau and

Wittenberg. They were ordered to sign labour contracts, and their obstinate resistance was met by the most inhuman methods of intimidation and coercion. Deprived of food, beaten—even with blows of the bayonet—left tied to posts in the snow for entire nights, numbers of them yet. perished rather than work for the enemy. In the camps the “ purveyors of men” came to take delivery of the human merchandise allotted to them, and dis-

tributed it to farms, factories and mines throughout Germany. The invincibly recalcitrant were sent to Strafbataiiionen at the front, where they were treated like convicts. Such camps, that at Sedan for instance, were responsible for many victims. From time to time convoys of sick were sent back to Belgium; the lamentable state in which they arrived provoked a great protest movement through all the country. The first voice to make itself heard was that of Cardinal Mercicr, Archbishop of Malines. He addressed a protest to the governor-gencral against the inhumanity of the deportations. In particular he said: “I will not believe that the imperial authorities have said their last word. They will consider our unmerited sufferings, the reprobation of the civilized world, the judgment of history, the chastisement of God.” On Nov. 9 1916 the members of the Belgian Parliament in their turn addressed a

courageous protest to von Bissing and appealed to the neutral legations. On Dec. 16 the magistracy in its turn protested. In

BELGIUM Nov. Senator Magnette, Grand Master of Belgian Freemasonry, addressed a letter to German Freemasonry, in which he wrote: “ The brutal and total suppression of personal liberty, a repetition of the most painful wanderings of Jewish history, the captivity of an entire innocent nation, which for over two years has given an example of marvellous calm, dignity, and patriotism— does not all this cry for vengeance, are you going to disregard it ?” German Freemasonry made no reply, but M. Magnette was arrested and imprisoned.

The censorship prevented publication of these numerous protests, which would have encouraged national resistance, Cardinal Mercier determined to address the nation from the pulpit of Ste. Gudule, the cathedral of Brussels. There, on Nov. 26, he addressed the faithful, lashing with burning words the inhumanity of Germany, and exhorting Belgians to stand fast

in resistance, in patriotism and in faith in their ultimate victory. The vast throng of his hearers received these words with indescribable enthusiasm. Finally, on Feb. 14 1917, the most important members of the clergy, the Comité National, Parliament, the magistracy, the bar, the nobility, financial circles, cte., addressed the German Emperor in a letter at once dignified and firm, demanding the repatriation of the deported Belgians. The foreign legations still at Brussels—those of the United States, Spain, and Holland— also showed sympathy. Cardinal Mercier had appealed to the Pope, and on Nov. 29 1916 the Pope had approached the German Government on behalf of the victims of deportation, but without effect. The United States now protested to Berlin against such violations of the principles of the IJague Convention, and the Dutch legation did the same. At the timc of the fall of Antwerp in 1914 the inhabitants of that town, terrified by the massacres of Visé, Dinant, Andenne, Termonde, Tamcenes, Aerschot and

Louvain, had fled en masse into Holland,

The German Govern-

ment had requested the Dutch Government to assure the Belgian

refugees that if they returned to their country they would not be subjected by Germany to requisitions or any other molestation. On the representations of Holland the people of Antwerp re-

turned to Belgium. Germany had now taken thousands of men

from among ihem for deportation, and Holland could not but protest against such disloyalty to promises made to her. These interventions also remained without result, but at last the insistence of Spain, the country which was protecting Belgian interests in Germany, succeeded aftcr a preliminary repulse in

obtaining a compromise from the German Government. The Marquis of Villalobar, Spanish Minister at Brussels, proposed an arrangement by which Germany should engage not to deport more than 250,000 men, who should be chosen from the unem-

441

deported anew, were forced to accept work in the requisitioned Belgian factories. Moreover, the authorities declared that the Emperor had not promised that Belgian workmen should not be deported into France, and many of the convoys which arrived from Germany were immediately sent off to the invaded French departments. A yet more hypocritical construction was put on William IT.’s words. He had promised the repatriation of the deported Belgians, but once repatriated there was nothing against their being deported a second time as unemployed.

So the

deportation began again, only to be ended by the Armistice. Statistics of the Deportations,

Deported into Germany.

Died during deportation in Germany:

1,304.

l

Deported to the Zivil Aybeiterbataillonen at the front. Total number, 5

540

Died during deportation at the front: 1.227.

Total number

deported:

115,259.

Total of deaths resulting from

Deported from cach arrondisseBrussels Louvain Nivelles Antwerp Mechlin Turnhout Mons . Charleroi Tournai Ghent . Audenarde Termonde Bruges . Courtrai Turnes .

ment. ak?

se

bad treatment: 2,531.

To Germany.

1,539

To the zone of

the front. 378 r

i .

Ypres Liége

Neufchâteau Namur. Dinant.

Feeding the Belgian Population.—Belgium could not feed her

population unaided. She did not produce above a quarter of her wheat consumption. Thus as carly as Aug. 14 1914 the Belgian Government had rationed bread. By Nov. scarcity was being felt in Hainault; and in the following month the provinces of surveillance. Germany agreed to all these conditions except the Limburg and Luxemburg and all the towns were short of flour, while the rural districts lacked coffee, salt, yeast, coal, petrol and last. The neutral Icgations next intervened to effect the trans- soap. Prices began to rise sharply. The situation was the more mission to the governor-gencral of claims from families whose critical because, the country once occupied, the German governor deported members should, by the terms of the above conven- had abrogated all measures already taken by the Belgian Governtion, be authorized to return to Belgium. These claims were nu- ment to ensure its food supplies. The public administrative merous; in one month the Dutch Icgation received 33,000 for bodies could no longer act; private initiative had to take their place. Everywhere committees were formed. At Antwerp a transmission, The deportation policy had proved a disappointment to Ger-- Comité de secours collected 2,000,000 francs for organizing relief to many. The exiles refused to work, and, when forced into a sem- the necessitous; while a Comité de ravitaillement, formed by the blance of submission, met coercion with an inertia which rendered communal authorities and including in its sphere of action the ployed; to allow those of the already deported who possessed means of existence to return to their homes; to permit deported Belgians to correspond with their familics and send them money; and finally, to place Belgian workers in Germany under neutral

their labour valueless.

The whole world’s indignation at this

return to slavery seemed to decide Germany on a movement of clemency, In reply to the letter of Feb. 14 from distinguished Belgians the Emperor announced that he would examine the matter with benevolence. It was speedily decided that the victims of deportation should be repatriated on June 1 1917, and Germany published this decision far and wide. It proved but a piece of abominable treachery. Numerous convoys of the deported did indeed return to Belgium, but soon after they were

again summoned to the Kommandantur, and, under pain of being

82 communes of the fortified arca, secured 10,000 tons of wheat, bacon and lard, 2,009 head of cattle, and 2,000 pigs. At Liége a

Comitê d'alimentation was formed to manage the provisioning of 23 communes. At Brussels the Comité de secours du Luxembourg endeavoured to succour those left homeless by the burnings and devastations of the German army. At Bruges and Ostend committees were formed to purchase wheat. Everywhere such organizations appcarcd, but they were impotent to save the

country from the famine which menaced it, for the German Government, in order to exercise pressure on the Allies, declared

442

BELGIUM

that, as the British blockade prevented it from maintaining the

true that the Cour de Cassation, by authorizing the courts to

provisioning of Belgium, it had no further concern in the matter. A central committce was formed in Brussels, consisting of personages of the financial world, presided over by EF. Solvay, and under patronage of the ministers for Spain and the United States. It took the title of Comité centrale de secours et d'alimentation. An executive committce was appointed with M.

punish persons who contravened the C.N.’s regulations, gave it valuable help; but its task was only rendered possible by its admirable organization. At frst decentral in system, the C.N. was forced by events to centralize. It was worked by its executive committee, whose president, M. Francqué, possessed the widest powers. He in fact directed the vast organization, assisted by a general secretary. The C.N. was divided into two departments:

Francqué as chairman, the first mecting taking place on Sept. 3

1914. It at once opened canteens and food depots, obtaining through the good offices of neutral ministers a guarantee that they would not be seized. But by Sept. 1914 famine was already imminent. The Comité centrale tried to get food from England; the British Government objected. Active negotiations procured an agreement: Marshal von der Goltz promised to exempt totally from requisition food so Imported; the British Government on their side consented to the importations on conditions that the supplics should be conveyed to the Belgian fronticr under patronage of the ambassadors of Spain and the United States, and that once in Belgium they should be under the patronage of the Spanish and American

the

département

@alimentalion,

responsible

for provisioning

the country, and the département des secours, responsible for relief measures. These two departments worked in close collaboration with the Commission for Relief in Belgium, former in London in Oct. 1914, under direction of Mr. Hoover, and under patronage of the Spanish and American ambassadors at London, aris, Berlin, Brussels, and The Hague. The C.R.B. had offices in New York, London, Rotterdam and Brussels, ‘The three first effected the purchases for which they received orders from the C.N., the fourth supervised the distribution in Belgium. The département d’alimentation had a subsidiary department

was constituted to organize this scheme. The importation of food supplics now made the Comilé centrale a body of greal importance, and its activities extended all over the country. In each province a Comitê d'alimentation was set up, its president sitting on the Comzté centrale in Brussels, The Comité centrale now took the name of Comité national de secours ct d'alimentation, Permission to import food was not enough, a method must be found of paying for it. Von der Goltz would not allow money to

for the study of alimentary questions, and another for inquiry into the needs of the country. Guided by these it gave ils orders to the C.R.B., received the goods, and distributed them among the provincial committees. The vast scope of its functions necessitated the creation of a goods book-keeping department and a financial book-keeping department, also the putting under public control of the manufacturing processes applicd to some of the materials received. To show the magnitude of its task it may suffice to mention that up to Dec. 31 1918 it had delivered food to the provincial

be transmitted to the Allics; funds must be procured outside

committees to the value of over 3:5 milliards of francs, 2-5

Belgium. The Belgian Government and the British Government each opened a credit of £100,000 to the C.N, The Société Générale put its own foreign credits at the C.N.’s disposal. A consortium of bankers and of the firm of Solvay et Cie. provided a loan of rg million francs in gold, advanced by the London branch of the Banque Nationale de Belgique. In addition donations to the amount of 60,000,000 francs were collected in Belgium itself, and zealous propaganda was made abroad with the result that

milliards having been for Belgium and one milliard for France, A bonus was deducted from the sales of goods and paid over to the département des secours. The German authorities showing

ministers at Brussels.

The Commission for the Relief of Belgium

60,600,000 francs were collected in England, 30,000,000 in America, 10,000,000 in other countries. IIuge quantities of foodstuffs had to be imported; 60,000 tons were needed every month, which implied at the same time

180,000 tons purchased, stored, or in transit, representing a value of 7o to 80 million francs. The funds at the C.N.’s disposal were insufficient. True, the proceeds from the sales of the imported goods would have balanced expenses, but the German Government would not alow money thus received by the C.N, to leave the country,

An arrangement was therefore made be-

tween the C.N. and the Belgian Government, whereby the C.N. undertook to pay the salaries of the Belgian officials, while the Belgian Government in return paid over monthly an equivalent sum to the Commission for Relicf in Belgium.

This sum was

fixed at 25,000,000 francs per month, but that proved insufficient, and in Jan. 1917 it was augmented to 37,500,000 per month. Just then; however, the submarine war stopped importations for several months, and the price of foodstuffs rose cnormously in consequence. Morcover, the transference to Belgium of 150,000 French refugees who had to be supported by the C.N. further exhausted the latter’s resources. New measures became

necessary.

The Belgian

Government

concluded an

arrangement with the American Government, by which the latter gave 15,000,000 dollars per month to the C.R.B. to pay for purchascs of food made in the United States. For purchases made in Holland the C.N. obtained use of the credits possessed in that country by all Belgian banks. The functions of the C.N. did not consist in mercly securing the arrival of supplies of food in Belgium, but also in distributing them throughout the country, and in those districts of northern France whose provisioning it undertook inigrs. The essentially private character of the CN.: and the refusal of the German authorities to allow it to organize a police de surveillance to safeguard its activities, made the situation very dificult, It is

signs.of intending to assume a share in the control of these sales, the C.N, asked the C.R.B. to deduct the bonus, so that it should escape German surveillance. Thanks to these bonuses, to which were added the voluntary donations from foreign countries, the département des sccours accomplished a vast amount of relicf work.

A commission for the purchase of clothing and materials,

with workrooms for cutting and making and for the training of. apprentices, also with technical courses for students, supplied the provincial committees, Grants of money were also given; up to Dec. 3r 1918, 113 milliards of francs had been distributed to the necessitous poor. This department gave grants besides to the socicties for aiding officers’ and non-commissioned officers’ wives, families deprived of means by the war, the unemployed, and the lacemakers, to the societies for providing food for infants, succouring war orphans, the homeless, forcign refugees, artists, wounded soldiers, etc. Under its patronage were the Société coopérative @avance et de prêts (formed to-help State officials

and employees), the Sociéié des habitations ouvritres, the Ligue contre la tuberculose, the Union des villes et des communes belges pour venir en aide aux sans-abris sinistrés, the Agence de renSeignements pour prisonniers et internés, the Cantine du soldat prisonnier, the Caissetle du soldal belge. From Nov. 1917 its scope was widened further by fusion with the society for the

relief of unemployment. Delegates from the C.R.B. took an active part in the work of the C.N. They attended the meetings of the provincial committees, and thus provided the necessary liaison between them and the central executive, which could not have been done by members of the C.N. as the Germans did not permit them to

travel about freely. The collaboration of the C.R.B. was also valuable in regard to the transport within Belgium of provisions. for the provinces. The C.N. placed the flotilla it had formed, of 137 vesscls (45,000 tons) and of 29 tugs, bericath the flag of the C.R.B., thus avoiding requisitions. The C.R.B. undertook the frequently necessary negotiations with the German and British Governments. The gravest difficulty ever encountered was when in rgts the German authori-

ties prohibited the C.N. from dealing with the distribution of

the indigenous foodstufis.

These were to be distributed by the

443

BELGIUM provinces and communes and thus neutral control was eliminated while Germany was enabled to requisition Belgian produce in her own interests. Besides the crops 92,000 horses (out of 317,000), 560,000 head of horned stock (out of 1,879,000), 250,000

pigs (out of 1,494,000), 3,000 sheep, and 1,690,000 fowls were sent to Germany. To stop this England threatened curtailment of the food supplies for Belgium. ‘This serious crisis was averted by the good offices of the C.R.B. Upon America’s entry into the war Mr. Ioover resigned his function on the C.R.B., after three years of devoted work.

Holland replaced America, and the Comité Hispano-Neerlandais took up the task of the C.R.B. The Belgian Government during the War.—The gradual occupation of the country by the German army compelled the

was the revision of the treaties of 1839. Those treaties had fixed the international status of the country by declaring it neutral in perpetuity under guarantce of the Powers, They had morcover mutilated Belgium by taking from her the. half of Limburg with Maestricht, and giving it. to Holland, and the half of Luxemburg, which was created a grand duchy. ‘This mutilation gave Belgium frontiers impossible to delend—Maestricht forming a bridge-head on the Meuse, which was the country’s natural line of defence. There was, further, pressing for scttlement, the question. of the Scheldt, that essential organ of Belgium’s economic life; its estuary was in the possession of Holland, who could thus control

the economic and military fate of Antwerp. _ Nothing was done. Rather than take from Germany the

Belgian Government to retire first to Antwerp, then after the fall of that town to Ostend, finally to Havre. Ministers ac-

ancient Dutch provinces of Guelders and Cleves, which would have served as territory to exchange for the cession of Limburg to Belgium, the Treaty of Versailles prevented a political and

credited to the Belgian Government followed it there, except the

military solution of the Limburg question; while Holland on her

Spanish Minister, the Marquis of Villalobar; the American Minister, Mr. Brand Whitlock; and the Dutch chargé d@af-

faives, M. van Vollcnhoven, subscquently appointed Minister—~ these three remained in Brussels.

At the time of the Government’s removal to France over a million Belgians were flecing before the German armics to foreign countries: 200,000 took refuge in France, rocjooo in England, 700,000—including nearly the entire population of Antwerp—in Holland. Germany’s assurances that Belgians who returned to

their country should not be molested brought back the inhabitants of Antwerp, to suffer subsequently from deportations despite the promiscs of the governor, von der Goltz. Fifty thousand refugees remained in Holland. The Government at lavre found itself faced by a gigantic task. The army, deprived of bases and depots, was without munitions, food supplies, or clothing. All had to þe reorganized. Yet not for one moment were the Belgian ficld forces withdrawn from the front. To reinforce them the King appealed to Belgians residing abroad, and they formed a first contingent. Thousands of Belgians who had remained at home also responded to the call of their King, and managed to get out of Belgium despite the strictness with which the fronticrs were guarded, the high-pressure eleciric wires separating Belgium from Holland, and the severe penalties decreed against those who joined the Belgian army. On March 1 1915, having succeeded in establishing the necessary centres of instruction, the Government called up all

Belgians between the ages of 18 and 25 resident In non-occupied Belgium, in France, orin England.

On July 21 rox6 all Belgians

side refused to solve it by a treaty of common defence between Belgium and the Netherlands. The grand duchy of Luxemburg was the object of French designs, which prevented its restitution to the mother-country. The question of the Scheldt was left hung up. Belgium only obtained two of the 14 Walloon cantons incorporated in Prussia in 1815—Malmedy and Eupen. She was also given the right to connect Antwerp with the Rhine by a canal.

;

As regarded finance, Belgium was relieved of her war debts (six milliards) to the Allies, who declared Germany responsible for them. Priority was granted to Belgium for a payment of 2-5 milliards from the German indemnity, this representing the reimbursement of 2-5 milliards extorted from her by Germany under ihe designation of war tax. Belgium was left to seek unaided a solution to the grave problems which beset her. She entered on negotiations with Holland. These were going badly for Belgium; it seemed likely that the Scheldt would remain in JJolland’s possession, and that the defence of the eastern frontier would continue to be an insoluble problem, when Holland put forward a claim for recognition of her sovercignty over the pass of Weilingen—that is to say, over

Belgian territorial waters from the Dutch frontier to beyond Zeebrugge. This manoeuvre—made possible by the isolation in which the Allies had left Belgium, and by the favour shown by England to Holland’s doctrine that the Scheldt should be closed to Belgian warships—had for object, and would have entailed as consequence, Holland’s right to deny Belgium access to the port of Zeebrugge, which would have meant that she was completely cut off from the sca. The gencral movement of

aged 18 to 4o resident in allicd or neutral states were called to protest throughout Belgium against the signature of such a the service of their mother-country. Dutch-Belgian treaty compelled the Government to break off Colleges for officers were established in France—at Gaillon negotiations. . and Bayeux for infantry; at Onival for artillery; at Campagne In 1918 Belgium joined with France in a treaty of defensive for cavalry; at Ardres for engineers. Centres of infantry in- | alliance, attempts being made to secure England’s participation. struction were established at Parigné Lévéque, Auvoury, HonAsa result of negotiation France renounccd in favour of Belgium fleur, Granville, Saint Lo, Coutances, Carteret, Batneville, her economic union with the grand duchy of Luxemburg. Valogne, La Haye-du-Puits. The artillery instruction centre As regarded Africa, Belgium did not succeed in gaining recogwas at Eu, that for auxiliary troops at Buchard. “On March i6 1915 a royal decree ordered the creation of nition of her rights over the territories conquered by her in German East Africa. Only Urundi and Ruanda were allotted to building and repairing workshops, munitions factorics, foundries, farrieries, storchouses, etc. Huge establishments improvised at her; the other territories passed to England. In the occupation of the Rhine Belgium was represented by a Havre provided the army with all its artillery munitions. force of 12,000 men. a. at Hospitals capable of accommodating all the Belgian wounded The Work of Restoration.—Internal problems were very grave. were provided at the front. A school of reéducation for the Before all it was nccessary to ensure the food supplies of the mutilated was established at Vernon. Belgian schools were country. This task was cnhanced in difficulty by the fact that started in France, England, and Holland. Necessitous refugees private enterprise could not touch it, owing to the sharp fluctuawere helped, tions of the exchange. The State itself was thus forced to purThanks to unremitting efforts the army was kept upat an effective average of 150,000 strong, and the ficld army at 75,000,

chase abroad the cattle, butter and margarine needed by the

population. Maximum prices having proved inefficacious, à number of administrative orders were issucd, forbidding speculawas chormous. The Treaty of Versailles did not facilitate it.. tion in foodstuffs, authorizing the requisition of indigenous products, establishing inspection to prevent vendors from adulterat~ Shut out from the deliberations of the Supreme Council, Belgium could neither claim her rights nor defend her interests as, if. ing goods, and repressing excessive prices. The social situation was terrible. There were 800,000 unem-~ represented, she would have been able to do. For Belgium the most important question raised by the war ployed; and 2,400,000 persons—a third of the population—only.

IJ. Arrer THe War.—When the offensive of 1918 brought liberation to Belgium the work of restaration to be accomplished

444

BELGIUM

existed by the aid of public relief. The State had to assume the support of these unemployed masses. Labour exchanges were established to facilitate the distribution of recruits to reviving industry. The vast numbers of the workless might have led to famine wages; to obviate this the State decided that any workmen offered less than the minimum rate of one franc per hour in the towns and o-75 in the country, might refuse work, while yet continuing to draw out-of-work relief. Workers, moreover, were organizing themselves so as to improve labour conditions, The trade-union movement advanced with enormous strides, In rg19 the number of organized workers had risen to over 600,000, having been only about 200,000 in 1914. Wages, as a matter of fact, never {cli below one franc per hour. Industrial workers in general have obtained two francs per hour, metallurgical workers carn 2-25 to 2°50 francs per hour, miners 16 to 20 francs per day. The astonishingly rapid reconstruction of 2,000 km. of destroyed railway lines, effected by the end of 1019, the renewed activity of the collieries, which in the first quarter of 1919 produced 8-5 million tons of coal (against 11-5 million tons in 1914), and of the coke furnaces, which in May 1919 produced 58,000 tons (against 245,000 tons in May 1914), helped on the gradual revival of industry.

_ The Commission de récupération industrielle gave a first stimu-

decentralization of economic legislation, towards a professional organization quite outside political partics, towards the assumption by the worker of his share in the solution of industrial problems, . Since the war, as a general rule, wages had risen considerably, with a tendency towards uniformity and towards thcir fixation according to index numbers published by the Government. In Dec. rọrọ the index number was 359 relatively to the month of April 1914. Belgium’s resumption of commerce after the war is shown in the following table in which the imports for rọrọ and the exports for t919 and 1920, from and to the chief regions in question, are shown.

Imports 1010. thou: £

Germany, France.

-| 1,550,142 ,

England

Holland : United States

Argentina Congo

.

$

2,087,273

-| 1,805,573

-{|

623,868 900,804

394,165| 12,252

S

Lx ports.

1919

anG,

(tons.}

659,921

191,032

1920 (tons.)

1,850,476 | 2,213,875

1,687,474] 166,333 585,098 | 1,931,946

1,547,808 | 223,364 519,954 5,044 87,327 18,107

A

lus to industry by recovering Belgian machinery from Germany,

These figures show the war’s disastrous effect ou Belgian com-

and by roro huge orders from English and American firms had These orders were

merce. In 1914 exports and imports were fairly equivalent. In tors imports exceeded exports by about three milliards of

After the war the banks had indced become of capital

named above began to revive, improving from 4,749,701 tons

importance. The x3 principal- banks of Belgium increased their capital by 380,000,000 francs. In Dec, 1919 the output of the mines reached 81:3% of the

to 6,926,800 tons. But trade was involved in the gravest difficul-

restored the country to economic activity.

made possible by credits opened to Belgian industry by the francs. In 1920, it js truc, the export trade to the seven countrics banks.

ties. Markets had been captured during the war by England and

the United States. France’s protectionist tendencies and Germany’s easy rivalry in forcign markets owing to the depreciation of her exchange were also causes of the serious commercial crisis tons per day, in 1920 a second mine was opened. The metal- that Belgium was passing through in 1920-1. lurgical industry achieved 20% of its 1913 output of cast iron, |. The resurrection of the port of Antwerp was rapid. In 1910 4,820 vessels, registering 5,245,048 tons, entered the port; in and 49% of stcel and finished iron. _ Alimentary industries, the building trade, industries of art 1920 7,698 registering 10,852,341 tons (in the same year- Rotand precision, were now employing 75% of their pre-war staffs, terdam received 5,951 registering 7,609,777 tons). Antwerp’s glass-making 80%, mines and transport over 100%, chemical development is closely linked with Belgium’s prosperity. The industries, ceramics, paper-making, linen-weaving, tobacco port’s connexion with the Rhine by means of a ship canal was in manufacture 70%, clothing 87%, metallurgy 64%, the timber 192i under consideration. oe trade and furniture-making 66%. Belgium made great efforts to devclop her commercial marine. _ Such a revival, effectuating itself in the midst of the gravest The Lloyd Royal Belge, entirely promoted by Belgian capital, economic difficulties, could not but raise one problem after was formed to add to the Red Star Line’s already existing service another, Questions of wages and of hours of labour were con- between Antwerp and America regular services to Brazil, the tinually endangering rclations between employer and employed. British West Indies, the Far East, Australia, Spain, Italy and Thanks to a policy of foresight and moderation the Government the Near East. managed to avert most of the conflicts. In April 1919 two comBut though Belgian commerce and industry were showing their missions were appointed to inquire into the possibility of re- powers of rapid recuperation, the country’s financial situation ducing hours of labour in steel manufactories and in mines. The could not but be serious. Scarcely was it back in Belgium when principle of the 8-hour day was admitted. On June x 1919 the Government had to face the cost of redeeming the marks put iene was teduced to 83 hours per day, on Dec. 1 to 8 hours per in circulation by Germany; the amount represented.7-5 milliards of francs, Other heavy charges upon State finances were: the ay. | “In June another commission took up the same question for payment of arrears of-salary due to officials; the augmentation mechanical construction. Later, national councils were appointed of salaries necessitated by the cnormously increased cost of for the public services of gas and electricity, for ice factories, the living; the expenses of victualling the country and of reconstructbuilding trade, the timber trade, and furniture-making, glass- ing railways, canals and roads; the sums voted for compensation making, the textile trade of Flanders, and the port of Antwerp. to industrial concerns and private persons for war damage and The committees, presided over by officials, and composed of destruction. employers and employed in equal numbers, discussed questions of In 1919 the national debt amounted to 12,964,0%0,000 francs; wages and conditions of work. They often passed resolutions in 1920 it was over 30 milliards: To meet a situation of such constituting actual collective contracts, in some cases they pro- gravity new taxes had to be imposed, The income tax established ceeded to codify their decisions. They settled many local dis- by vote on Oct. 21 1919 took 10% on unearned incomes, and a: putes, and checked movements dangerous to national life, graded percentage on earned incomes which only reached 10% The law does not enter into either their constitution or their when such an income was over 48,000 francs. functions; they have no means of enforcing their decisions other On Oct. rz 1919 4 new law of inheritance imposed a tax varying than the appeal to public opinion; yet there had not been one with the heir’s degree of kinship to the deceased from 1 to 50% instahce up to 1921 where resolutions passed by the committees upon the sum ‘inherited; while inheritance from an intestate had not been loyally applied. Employers and employed found was suppressed in favour of the State beyond the fourth degree in these bodies a means of discussing and solving problems which of kinship. New taxes fell on beer, tobacco, alcohol, and cinemas. formerly would have been met by a strike. The establishment of On March 3 1919 war profits were taxed progressively up to 10% these committecs marks an interesting tendency towards the. and railway fares were doubled.

pre-war output. The coal-fields of Limburg were becoming active;

in 1919 the Winterslag mine began work, producing soo to 600

BELGIUM Despite these efforts it was obvious that the Belgian budget could not be restored to financial equilibrium save by Germany’s payment of the war indemnity. In order to have some guarantee

of that indemnity the Government, on Nov. ro rg18, placed under sequestration all property belonging to subjects of the enemy countries. The chief item of expense was the indemnifica-. tion of war damage, estimated at over 35 milliards. The State supported the formation of codéperative societies, advancing to

persons who had suffered war damage up to 70 to 95% of the compensation due to them, and the creation of the Crédit National Industriel, also supported by the Banque Nationale, and serving as intermediary between the State and the claimants. To provide the advances these organizations issued 5% bonds guaranteed by the State up to the valuc of the compensation for

damages. Thus the debt was brought into the hands of several groups, which should greatly facilitate its liquidation, The work of national reconstruction was being accomplished

up to 1921 amid political and social calm. After the Armistice the Government was composed of ministers belonging to the three great partics. All political strife had ceased, a truce having been

brought about by mutual concessions. Universal suffrage “ pure and simple” at 21 years of age was established at the’ demand

of the Socialist party.

As compensation the Catholic party

claimed votes for women, which the Chamber conceded for communal elections but not for parliamentary elections. The elections of Nov. 16 rọrọ, with universal suffrage at 21, deprived the Catholic party of ihe majority it had enjoyed since

445

BipLioGRaPHY.—From the historical point of view:—H. Pirenne, Histoire

de

Belgique

(5

vols.);

idem, Les

anciennes

crates des Pays-Bas (English trans.); Cammaerts, Belgium.

Démo-

From

the political point of view:——H. Van der Linden, History of Belgium; Van der Essen, A Short History of Belgium; E. Descailles, Charles Rogier; P. Hymans, Histoire parlementaire de la Belgique; idem, Frére Orbans; Van der Smissen, La Correspondance de Léopold I. avec M. Beernaert; Buffin, La Jeunesse de Léopold I.; Le Livre gris belge. From the economic and social points of view :—SeebohmRowntree, Comment diminuer la misère en Belpgigue; Levinski, Le E industriel de la Belgique; Waxweiler, Enquête Industrielle {published by the Ministère du Travail); H. Charriaut, La Belgique Moderne; Passelecq, Les déportations des ouvriers belges »

pendant la guerre.

- (H. P.; J. P)

BELCIAN LITERATURE It cannot be said that any very extraordinary new talent either in prose or in poetry revealed itsclf in Belgian French literature between 1910 and 1921. The fame of Maurice Maeterlinck and Emile Verhaeren remained world-wide, Maeterlinck’s play L'Oiseau Bleu (1911) was first performed at Moscow, then in London (translated as The Blue Bird), and later in Paris and New York. The writer’s poetic imagination and serene philosophy contributed to make his play intensely popular. A continuation under the title of The Betrothal was produced in London in 1921.

During the war Maeterlinck published, in 1916, a volume of articles he had written in various newspapers and lectures he had

delivered in England, France and Italy, under the title of Les Deébris de la Guerre.

He also wrote L'Hôle Inconnu (1917),

1884, while the Socialists gained considerably.

Le Miracle de St. Antoine (1910), Les Senliers dans la Montagne

Thanks to this political calm, Parliament was able to introduce such important reforms as the income tax, and the prohibition of the sale of alcohol in public (law of Aug. 29 1919). The only disturbing elements in Belgian public life in 1920-1 was the Activist movement. Promoted by German intrigue during the war, it still existed, making the independence of Flanders its ostensible object. At the last election its candidates only polled 62,000 votes out of 1,757,104 cast, and it was generally condemned by public opinion: The members of the Raed

(1919) and Le Bourgmestre de Stilemonde (1920), a play dealing with the horrors of the German invasion in Belgium,

van Vlaenderen and certain Activists who had assisted the enemy

were convicted of high treason and sentenced, but they had escaped to Holland, where they were well received by both the Government and the public.

Belgium took an honourable part in the proceedings of the League of Nations. Like Brazil, Greece and Spain she was invited to join the Council along with the Great Powers, and her delegate, M. Hymans, was elected president of the first general assembly at Geneva. At that assembly Belgium was rcëlected

Emile Verhaeren’s tragedy Hélène de Sparte was first published in German, translated by Stephan Zweig, then in Russian, and appeared in French in 1912, when it was performed in Paris. Verhaeren’s forcible and rather rugged style is perhaps not absolutely suited to the subject he treats. His poems, however, Les Rythmes Souverains (1910), Les Villes & Pignons (1910), Les Fleurs du Soir (1911), Les Plaines (1g11) and Les Blés Mouvents (1912), are as intense in feeling and vitality as his earlier work. Verhaeren’s accidental death (he was crushed by a train in Rouen station Nov. 26 1916) was a great loss to Belgian literature. Za Belgique Sanglante (1915), Pormi les Cendres (1916), Villes Mcurtries de Belgique (1916), Les Ailes Rouges de la Guerre (1916) have been read and admired all the world over for their ardent patriotism and their righteous indignation as well as for their felicity of expression. These war poems will live wherever the French language is spoken,

as member of the Council, to sit.on it with Brazil, Spain,

In Les Libertins d'Anvers, Légende et Histoire des Loistes;

China, and, the Great Powers. With the object of extending Belgian influence abroad, the diplomatic and consular services were completely reorganized. The Association Internationale des Académies has chosen Brussels for its centre of activity, On Aug. 19 1920 the Académie de la langue francaise was inaugurated at Brussels. Dr. Bordet, professor of Brussels University, was awarded the Nobel prize. University life had revived, The civil status granted to the universitics of Louvain and Brussels was on July 5 1920 extended to the universities of Ghent and Liége. The profits realized by the C.R.B. were presented by the president, Mr. Hoover, to the Belgian universities. Each of them was the recipient of a donation of 20 million francs, intended to develop the scientific side of their work. Mr. Hoover moreover presented a sum of 80 millions to the Fendation Unt-

Georges Eckhoud has told the story of the heretic sects in Antwerp in the 16th century. In this book Eekhoud, according to his custom, exalts his native city in her vices as well as in her virtues. Other books written by Eekhoud are Les Peintres

versitaire, the income to be allocated by a committee of university

professors to encourage the advance of science in Belgium. Finally, mention must be made of the reform of justice, the creation of single judge tribunals, reforms in the treatment of prisoners, and the institution of a school of criminology. The Government established a school of agriculture at Ghent, a school of social service, and a colonial school. A commission of inquiry was appointed to investigate the violations of international Jaw

committed by the Germans in Belgium. Archives of the war were

Animaliers Belges (1911), and L’Imposteur magnanime, Perkin, Warbeck (1914).

A tragedy in four acts by Camille Lemonnier, Edénte, set to music by Léon du Bois, was performed in Antwerp in 1912 with great success. The poem, written in blank verse, has all the charm of Lemonnier’s

vivid

imagination

and forcible style.

Lemonnier died in 1913. His last book, Au Caur frais de la Forét, was published in 1914. Albert Giraud’s La Frise Empourprée (1912) is a collection of poems, in which their author remains faithful to the Parnas- _ sian tradition. In 1919 Giraud published a volume of poems, Le Laurier, written in Brussels during the war, and in 1920 Evos et Psyche. Ivan Gilkin published in rorz poems called La Nuit, the first of three volumes, of which the others were to be called L’ Aube and La Lumière, and in 1920 a play in blank verse, Le Roz Cophetua, Gregoire Le Roy, in his collection of poems called Le Rouet ct la Besace, illustrated by himsclf, deals with the sufferings of.

founded to collect all the documents relative to the history of the poor. La Couronne des Soirs (1911), Contes d'après Minuit, ‘ Belgium from ror4 to 1918. | (1913) and Joe Trimborn (1913) are collections of short stories.

446

BELL

Jean Dominique (pseudonym of Mlle. Marie Closset), whose volume of poems, Le Puits d’Azur, was published in 1912, is undoubtedly one of the most gifted of contemporary women writers. Mle. Closset isa teacher and lives in Brussels. Another original and interesting woman writer, Neel Doif, has published Jours de Famine et Détresse (1911) and Contes Farouches (1913).

A considerable number of books and poems dealing with and inspired by the war were published by Belgian writers in England and France during the war, as well as in Belgium itself after the refugees and soldiers returned home. During the German occupation Belgians had necessarily been debarred from publishing works inspired by their patriotic feelings. Besides Ver-

hacren’s war poems, Emile Cammaerts’ Belgian Poems (1915) may be mentioned, . . Professor Pirenne’s Souvenirs de Captivité en Allemagne (1920)

are a notable contribution to Belgian war literature in prose.

An interesting book which consists of a series of essays on the war and the German occupation, L’Gil sur les Ostragoths, by Ernest Verlant, director of Fine Arts, may live as a record of the impressions of a subtle mind and a cultivated personality, A monthly review Le Flambeau, published clandestincly in Brussels during the German occupation, by Oscar Grojean, Henri Grégoire and Anatole Muhistein, a young Pole, and which continues to appear, edited by Grojean and Grégoire, is without doubt the most interesting literary and political review in Belgium. Amongst contemporary writers and poets in Belgium

may be mentioned: Fernand Séverin (La Solitude ILeureuse, 1901); Max Elskamp (Sous les Tentes de I’Fixode, 1921; Les Commentaires et PIdéographie du jeu de Loto dans les Flandres, 1914); Georges Racmaekers (Les Saisons Mvystiques, 1910); t’Serstevens (Un Apostolat); Blanche Rousseau (Le Rabaga, 1912; Lisetie et sa Pantoufle, 1913); Glesencr (Chronique d'un petit Pays, 1913).

In 1920 Crommelynck’s play Le Cocu Magnifique created a sensation in Paris where it had a long run at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre. In Brussels it obtained more or less of a “ succès de scandale.” Tt deals with a case of pathological jealousy. Crommelynck’s other plays are Le Sculpteur de Masques (1908) and Les Amantis Puérils (1921). Other Belgian plays include Kaatje

and Malgré Ceux qui tombent, by Paul Spaak; Les Elapes, Les

Liens and Les Semailics (1919) by Gustave van Zype, and Le Mariage de Mademoiselle Beulemans by Fonson and Wichceler, a picture of the life of the lower middle class in Brussels, In Flemish literature there has been marked activity. Stijn Streuvels, a nephew of Guido Gezelle, and by profession a baker

at Avelghem, a village in Flanders, has made a considerable reputation both in Belgium and in Holland. His descriptions of rural life are both poetic and realistic, and he has been com-

typical Flemish poets of the present generation. René de Clercq proceeds directly from the inspiration of Guido Gezelle (183089). His poems are essentially popular, vigorous, full of life and good spirits, although through these one feels his tenderness, his pity for the misery of the Flemish peasants, He has published a volume of Gedichten (Poems). Karel van de Woestyne has a more complex personality. His pocms are very varied in feeling, sometimes simple and direct, at other times complicated, full of metaphors, His sphere is that of the soul, and for him things are real in so far only as they partake of the spiritual life. It is necessary to add that there are contrasts in Van de Woestyne’s nature which he does not always dominate, and. which give a certain want of harmony to his works. A volume containing prose essays on Flemish painters and writers is Kunst en Leven in Vlaanderen (Art and Life in Flanders). A volume of poems is De Gulden Schaden (The Golden Shadow). In 1918 Van de Woestyne wrote a book in poetic prose, mystic and difficult, called

De

Bestendige

Aanwezigheid

(The Eternal

Presence),

and in 1920 a volume of poems De Modderen Man (of which the nearest translation is The Man of Clay), the first volume of a

trilogy. A new Belgian Flemish writer of outstanding importance who, before he became celebrated in Belgium and Holland, sold sweets in a little shop in his native

is Felix Timmermans

town of Lierre. Pallieter (1916) is epoch-making in contemporary Belgian literature. It is as forceful as Rabclais and yet tender and poetic, with a pantheistic feeling for nature: the ecstasy of a human being who incorporates himself with woods and streams, flowers and beasts, and who revels in every form of life. One may say that this book takes an important place in European literature. It had already reached 12 editions in 1921, and a French translation was then about to appear. Another book of Timmermans, Het Kindeken Jesus in Vlaanderen (1918, The Christ Child in Flanders), is a most poctical transplantation of the story of the childhood of Christ. his has already been done in Belgian French literature by Eugéne Demolder. But whereas Demolder’s book is full of literary devices Timmermans’s comes as it were from the heart of the pcople. Another Flemish prose writer is Herman Teirlinck: De nicuwe Uylenspiegel (1920, The New Eulenspiegel), a fantasy; and amongst the best-known recent poets Auguste van Cauwelaert, Frits Francken and Daan Boens may be mentioned. Cyriel Verschaeve has written a dramatic poem Judas, and Eug. Schmidt a play Het Kindernummer (a turn performed by a child at a music-hall). .

(L, Va.)

BELL, CHARLES FREDERICK MOBERLY (1847-1011), British journalist, was born in Alexandria April 2 1847, the son of a merchant. He was educated in England, but in

pared to Tolstoi, whose psychological subtleties and epic am-

1865 went back to Egypt and engaged in business. He soon began sending occasional correspondence to the London Times,

plitude Streuvels however does not possess, His style is of rare perfection, and this remark applics to the whole of the modern

and from 1875 onwards devoted himself mainly to journalism. By 1880, when he founded the Egyptian Gazette, he had become

Flemish school of writers. .Streuvels’s work, Het Glorieryke

the regular correspondent for The Times in Egypt.

Licht (The Glorious Light), was written in 1913. In 1914 he published Darpslucht and in 1920 Genoverva van Brabant, a historical novel. Cyricl Buysse may be called the Flemish Maupassant. He isa realist. His works, which deal with the life of the people both in towns and in the country and, to a lesser degree, with that of the middle classes, form a complete picture of Flemish life. Buysse is passionate, robust, fuli of revolt and of pity, very human. His De Vroolyke Thocht (The Joyous Expedition), Stemmingen (impressions), and in collaboration with Virginie Loveling, a popular woman author, Levensleer (Education through Life) appeared between rg10 and r912. In 1915 Buysse published Zomerleven (Life in the Summer), a sort of diary, and in 1921 Zooals Het Was (As It Was). Maurice Sabbe’s De Nood der Bariseeles (The Plight of the Barisecles), Jn "t Gedrang (1915, a book about the war), and .t Pastorke van Schaerdycke (1919, The Little Pastor of Schaerdycke) and E. Vermeulen’s Herwording (Renaissance), which deals with the life of the peasants in West Flanders, may also be mentioned.

published Khedives and Pashas (1884); Egyptian Finance. (1887) and From Pharaoh to Fellah (1888). In 1890 he was summoned to London to take the post of manager (nominally | assistant-manager) of The Times, at a time when it had suffered

‘René de Clercq and Karel van de Woestyne are the most

He also

heavy financial losses over the proceedings connected with the Parnell Commission (see 20.858). From that date he devoted all his masterful energies to the journal he served. When The Times Publishing Co. was formed im 1908, and the fmancial control passed from the Walter family to Lord Northcliffe, he became managing director. He died suddenly whilst at work

in The Times offices April 5 1911.

.

BELL, GERTRUDE MARGARET LOWTHIAN (1868_), English traveller and geographer, was born at Washington, Durham, July 14 1868, the eldest daughter of Sir T. Hugh Bell, Bart. She was educated at Queen’s College, London, and Lady Margarct Hall, Oxford, where she graduated first class in the final school of modern history in 1888. She travelled extensively in the Near East, making a specially adventurous journey across northern Arabia in 1913-4 over a practically unknown route, whercby she obtained a knowledge of the country which |

BELLEW—BENCKENDORFF proved of great value to the British Government when information concerning routes was required for the advance of the British army into Palestine during the World War. In 1914-5 she was in control of a special department of the British Red Cross, occupied in trying to trace soldiers reported as “ missing.” From 1916-7 she was attached to the Admiralty Intelligence Office in Cairo. In 1917 she went with the military authorities to Basra and followed the army up to Bagdad, where she subsequently acted as assistant political officer, the first woman to occupy so important an administrative post. In 1918 she received the founder’s medal of the Royal Geographical Society. Amongst

her publications are: Poems from the Divan of Hafiz

(translations, 1897); The Desert and the Sown (1907); The Thousand and One Churches (with Sir W. M. Ramsay, 1909); Palace and

Mosque at Ukhaider (1914).

She is also the author of the Review

of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia, issued as a White Book

by the India Office, Dec. 1920.

-BELLEW, HAROLD KYRLE (1855-1911), English actor, was born in Lancs. in 185s. He first appeared on the stage in Australia in 1874; afterwards coming to London and acting for two years with Irving at the Lyceum from 1878 to 1880. He had the reputation of being the handsomest man on the con‘temporary stage. In 1888 he joined Mrs. Brown-Potter in a tour round the world,-and for the last ten years of his life played romantic and modern comedy parts in the United States. He dicd at Salt Lake City, Utah, Nov. r roit. BELLOC, HILAIRE (1870_—+), British man of letters, was born near Versailles July 27 1870. His father was a Frenchman; his mother, an Englishwoman whose maiden name was Bessie Rayner Parkes, took an active share at an early date in the woman-suffrage movement (see 28.787). Educated at Edgbaston, he served as a driver in the 8th Regiment of French ar-

tillery before proceeding to Balliol College, Oxford.

At Ox-

ford he was prominent both in his schools and at the Union, and soon became known as a clever writer and speaker. He sat in the House of Commons for Salford from 1906 to 1910 as a Liberal. His very numerous writings include verse, children’s books, essays, biography and fiction, as well as military history. Amongst them may be mentioned. Danton (1899); Robespierre (1901); The Path to Rome (1902); Esto Perpetua (1906); Cautionary Tales (1907); Mr. Clutierbuck’s Election (1908); A Change in the Cabinet (1909); Marie Antoinette (1910) and A General Sketch of the European War (1915-6). His sister, MARIE AbELADE Berroc-Lownbes (b. 1868), who in 1896 married Frederick Sawrey Lowndes, a member of the staff of The Times, also became well-known as the author of numerous novels and striking short stories, including The Pulse of Life (1907); The Uttermost Farthing (1908); Studies in Wives (1909); The Chink in the Armour (1912); The Lodger (1913), etc. Dramatized versions of the last two, by H. A.

Vachell, were played in London as The ITouse of Peril (1919) and Whe is He? (rgrs). She published besides a biography of Charlotte Elizabeth, Princess Palatine (1889) and Told in Gallant Deeds, a history of the World War for children (1914). BELOW, FRITZ VON (1853-1918), German general, was born Nov. 23 1853 at Danzig. We took part in the war of 1870-1 as a young officer. In 1912 he was appointed to the command

of tbe XXI.

Army:

Corps.

In this capacity he

fought with the VI. Army on the western front at the beginning of the World War, but his corps was transferred in 1915 to the eastern front. In 1916 he was chicf in command of the I. Army, which fought with success in Nov. 1916 on the Somme. He died in a field hospital on the western front in Nov. 1918. BELOW, OTTO VON (1857), German general, was born at Danzig June 18 1857. At the beginning of the World War he was in command of the 2nd Infantry Div. at Insterburg in East Prussia. He was first of all promoted to the command of the I. Reserve Corps, and in this capacity took part in the battles against the Russian army of the Narev which resulted in the almost complete destruction of that army. He was then appointed to the chief command of the VIII. Army

447

which bore an essential part in the victory over the Russian X. Army at the battles of the Masurian Lakes (Feb. 7-15 1915). In May 1915 he was placed in chief command of the German Nicmen army and pressed forward with it in Courland (Kurland) and Lithuania as far as the southern reaches of the

Dvina. In the autumn of 1916 he received the command of the German army group in Macedonia and in the autumn of 1917 was placed in chicf command of the XIV. Army, which was fighting against Italy. In 1918 he led the XVII. Army, which particularly distinguished itself in the battles around Arras, After the war he was for a short period gencral in command of the XVII. Army. Corps at Danzig. He resigned in June 1919.. BENCKENDORFF, ALEXANDER, Cowunr (1849-1917), Russian diplomat, was born in 1849. His family came from Livonia, one of his ancestors having been burgomastcr of Riga. Ilis greatuncle, who achieved great distinction in the Russian imperial service in the reign of Nicholas I.,becoming minister of the police and being raised to the rank of a count, died childless, the title and estates passing to his nephew, Count Alexander’s father. The mother of Count Alexander was 4 princess of Croy,

He was educated in a private school in Paris and passed his baccalauréat in due course. He entered the diplomatic service in 1869 and began as an attaché in Florence, eventually in Rome. He resigned in 1876 and lived nearly 10 years on his estates, in St. Petersburg and abroad, He married in 1879 Countess Sophie Schuvaloff. In 1886 he returned to diplomacy and served as first secretary in Vienna under Prince Lobanoff-Rostovsky and Count Kapnist. In 1897 he was appointed minister in Copenhagen and remained there until 1903. The Copenhagen post gave him, as well as some other diplomats, an exceptional opportunity of watching the principal moving powers of European politics from a point of vantage, as the matrimonial alliances of the Danish royal family occasionally brought together in a friendly family circle the widow of Alexander III., Nicholas II. and the Prince of Wales who was to become King Edward VII.. In this

way Count Benckendorff reccived his initiation into the spirit of an Anglo-Russian rapprochement even before it actually resulted in an Entente. When he was promoted in 1903 ambassador to the Court of St. James as a successor to Baron de Staal, the atmosphere seemed anything but favourable to such a rapprochement. The rivalry of the two Powers in the East, cunningly exploited by the Kaiser, was growing more and more acute, When the storm had discharged itself in the Japanese war, reasonable statesmen on both sides, King Edward, Lord Lansdowne, and the Russian Forcign Minister Isvolsky, changed the course both for Great Britain and for Russia, and thus frustrated the plans of the tertius gaudens. Count Benckendorff had an important share in bringing about this change. At a very critical moment, when the Kaiser had actually mesmerized Nicholas H.

into the conclusion of a sceret and personal convention at Björkö, which purported to aim at a defensive agreement, but would have led by necessity to the disruption of the FrancoRussian Alliance and to the vassalage of Russia in a continental

league against England, Count Benckendorff was invited to Copenhagen and had an opportunity of serving as a confidential intermediary between Russia and Great Britain. The Kaiscr was exceedingly angry and gave vent to his feelings.in a letter to

“Nicky ’:— ‘ Like brigands in a wood he has sent Benckendorff—your Ambassador—to Copenhagen on a clandestine mission to your mother, with the instructions to win her over to influence you for a policy against me. The Forcign Office in London knows about his journcy, which is denicd at your embassy there.” Tsar Nicholas’s reply to this letter shows in what esteem Count Benckendorff was held by his sovercign:—‘‘ Benckendorff went by my permission as my mother invited him to come asa friend of the Danish family. What sort of conversation went on I certainly do not know. But I can resolutely assure you that nothing can influence me except the interest, safeguard, and honour of my country. Benckendorff is a loyal subject and a real gentleman. I know he would never lend himself to any false tricks, even jf they came from the ‘great mischief-maker

himself.” The Björkö intrigue cvaporated without leaving any

448

BENEDICT XV,—BENSON

tangible result, and the historic rapprochement between Great ‘Britain, France and Russia took its course.

Benckendorff in

London was excellently placed to keep up and to develop this policy. Liberal, courteous, a shrewd observer, loyal and watch-

majority, and was proclaimed from the balcony of St. Peter’s as Benedict XV. He died Jan. 22 1922, BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN (1858-1021), American classical scholar (see 3.740), died May 2 1921 at Ithaca, N.Y. His later

ful in the cause of Russia, he maintained the best possible re-

publications include Syntax of Early Latin (two vols., 1910, 1914);

lations with Lord Lansdowne and Sir Edward Grey, and became

New Latin Composition (1912) and Horace’s Odes and Epodes

a favourite at Court and in London society. He was peculiarly adapted for the wise and skilful treatment of difficult problems in the spirit of an international set. playing the great game of diplo-

macy with grace and honour. He had to face the dominant fact of the situation—the aggressive pressure of Germany at a time

when Russia was drifting into an internal crisis of the first magni

tude and was unable to concentrate the material and moral forces required in the coming conflict. Unpleasant retreats had to be effected twice, before the Kaiser “in shining armour”: the first time after Achrenthal’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, the second after the blocking of the Serbian advance towards the Adriatic. Benckendorff was one of those who knew how to abide his time, and he did not lose heart. There were greater trials in

store when the World War broke out at last. His younger son feli in one of the first battles on the East Prussian front, and he

lived to see the collapse of the corrupt military organization of Russia in the campaign of rors. Fortunately for bhim, he did not live to sec the débâcle of Russian society in 1917, He died Jan. 12 I9I7 (P, VL) "BENEDICT XV. (GIACOMO DELLA CESA), Pope (1854-1922), was born at Genoa on Nov. 21 1854. In contrast to his immediate predecessor Pius X., who was of humble origin, and whose ministerial experience was mainly pastoral, Benedict XV. was descended from one of the most ancient of the noble familics of

(1914, in the Loeb Classical Library).

BENNETT, [ENOCH] ARNOLD (1867— }, English novelist and playwright, was born in the Potteries district, Staffs., May 27 1867. Educated at Neweastle-under-Lyme, he was intended for the law, but abandoned it in 1893 for journalism.

He was assistant-cditor and then editor of the periodical Woman, but in 1900 gave up journalism and became a prolific writer of books, especially novels illustrating the life of his native district, early examples of which were Anna of the Five Towns (1992) and The Grim Smile of the Five Towns (x907). In 1908 he established his reputation as a novelist with The Old Wives’ Tale, followed by the series Clayhanger (1910); Hilda Lessways (1911) and, much later, The. Roll Call (19x19). But he also adventured into other genres of fiction, sensational, humorous and ironical, of which The Grand Babylon Hotel (1902); Sacred and Profane Love (1905, dramatized 1919); Buried Alive {1908); Fhe Card (1911); The Regent (1913); The Lton’s Share (1g16) and The Preity Lady (1918) are examples. His plays, especially The Great Adventure (dramatized in 1913 from the novel Buried Alive); What the Public Wants (1909); The Honeymoon (1911); Milestones (with Edward Knoblock, 1912) and The Title (1918) showed him a master of modern comedy; and he also produced in Judi (xoro), a modernized version of the biblical story. In 1920 he published Our Women, a series of

Italy, and his work and training had been chiefly in the official

essays on modern feminine types and feminist problems.

or diplomatic service of the Holy See. His ancestors in the Middle Ages were enrolled in the patricians of Genoa, while other branches of his family followed the popes to Avi gnon in the r4th century, and eventually their sens took service in the army of the king of

BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1841-3018), American paper proprietor (see 3.741), died May 14 1918, in whence he had long directed the policies of the New Herald. In bis will he provided for the establishment of James Gordon Bennett Memorial Nome for New York

France, under the name of d'Eglise, His brother served as rear-

admiral in the Italian navy.

Giacomo della Chiesa was educated in the seminary and at the

university of Genoa, where he took his degree as Doctor of Law in 1875. Afterwards he went to Rome and studied for the priest-

hood in the Collegio Capranica from which he passed to the

newsParis, York ‘ The Jour-

nalists ” in memory of his father, the founder of the New York Herald.

BENSON, ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER (1862), English man of letters (see 3.745), was In 1915 elected master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. Among his recent books are Ruskin: a Study in Personality (1911) and biographies of his brother Hugh: Memoirs of a Brother (1915) and of his sister Life and Letters of Maggie Benson (1917), besides various volumes of

Accademia dei nobili Ecclesiastici, the usual training school for those who devote themselyes tọ the “ carriera ” or diplomatic service of the Vatican. Here he became the friend and favourite of Cardinal Rampolla who, on being sent in 1883 as papal nuncio essays and prose sketches. to Madrid, took Mer. della Chiesa with him as his private His younger brother, Epwarp FREDERICK BENSON (1867~ secretary, He remained in Spain four years, and in 1887, when }), published after 1910 a Jarge number of novels, amongst Lco XHI. recalled Cardinal Rampolla to make him his secretary which may be mentioned Thorley Weir (1913); Dodo the Secof state, Mgr. della Chiesa returned to Rome fn the suite of his ond (1914); David Biaize (1916); Mr. Leddy (1917); The Counpatron, and was given the post of minutante in his department. tess of Lowndes Square (1920). He also wrote a one-act comedy, In this, his work was the summarizing and inditing of the official Dinner for Eight, which was successfully produced at the letters and dispatches of the Holy See, combined with the func- Ambassadors’ theatre, London, in March rors. tions of confidential secretary. As he discharged these duties for. The youngest brother, Roserr Hucn BENSon (1871-1914), 13 years, he had a full opportunity of acquiring a unique knowl- died at Salford Oct. rọ r914. In ro11 he was appointed priedge of the international relations of the Church throughout the vate chamberlain to Pope Pius X. His later books include world. In 1903, when Cardinal Merry del Val succeeded Cardinal The Dawn of All (1911), a curious forecast of England under Rampolla as secretary of state, Mgr. della Chiesa was retained in Catholic government; Come Rack! Come Rope! (1912); An his post. On Dec. 16 1907, Pius X. appointed him Archbishop Average Man (1913) and Initiation (1914). of Bologna, and on May 25 1914 raised him to the dignity of BENSON, SIR FRANCIS ROBERT (1858- ` ), English actor, cardinal, The outbreak of the World War in Aug. of that year, (see 3.745), Was knighted in r9o16. During the World War he and the death of Pius X. a few weeks later, found him in the served for over two years as an orderly in a canteen managed

= midst of the pastoral duties of his great diocese. At this time, as Cardinal-Archbishop of Bologna, he delivered a remarkable address on the attitude and duty of the Church during the war,

by Lady Benson, first near Belfort and later at St, Just and near Senlis, In 1918 he was attached as an ambulance driver to various French regiments engaged in the Somme and Aisne

and strongly emphasized the paramount importance of the Holy See observing strict neutrality, not of indifference, but of

campaign, and he received the Croix de Guerre on the battlefield near Oudenarde. BENSON, WILLIAM SHEPHERD (18ss_—si+)>,, iuen naval officer, was bern at Macon, Ga., Sept. 25 185s. He graduated from the U.S, Naval Academy in 1877, and after various

impartiality, while leaving nothing undone to restore peace and good-will and to mitigate suffering. The address caused a decp impression, and it was no doubt much in the minds of the cardinals when they assembled in conclave for the election of a new pope on the last day of Aug. rorg. On Sept. 3, after ro serutinies or votings, Cardinal della Chiesa was elected by a large

promotions became captain in t909 and rear-admiral in 1915He had been commandant of the Philadelphia

Navy Yard

two years when, in 1915, he was appointed chief of naval

449

BENTLEY—BERCHTOLD operations. He was a member of the commission appointed to confer with the Allied Powers in 1917, naval representative in drawing up terms of the Armistice, and naval adviser to the American Peace Commission. He was retired automatically in rọrọ and made admiral for life.

BENTLEY, JOHN FRANCIS (1839-1902), English architect, was born at Doncaster in 1839, and commenced his career as an engincer, later passing three years in a builder’s office, a

course of practical training the benefits of which are evident throughout his work. He subsequently entered the office of Henry Clutton whose practice was very largely in an ecclesiastical direction, and where young Bentley’s bias towards that French Gothic treatment of design, by which his earlier work was distinguished, found support and encouragement. Established on his own account in 1862, commissions flowed in for work not only of an architectural nature but also giving scope _for his talent in designing for the subsidiary arts, such as stained glass, goldsmith’s work, embroidery and the like. His earliest

building in rich apparel appeal more than to Bentley, and in no

hands could it have been placed with more hope of success. There was, however, much difficulty in arriving at a scheme for the comprehensive treatment of the whole of the vast building, which should be devotional and symbolic, and above all possess a unity of conception, Bentley himself prepared a very thought-

ful and complete proposal, partly embodied in the mosaics so far executed, but, unfortunately, only partly so, In May 1898 he visited the United States to consult as to

the proposed cathedral at Brooklyn, and for this he prepared a design, in which he, this time, reverted to Gothic, and which he left incomplete at his death. He died after seeing all but carried into effect and full realization his dream of a church building which should in a grand manner show forth all of the beauty and holiness of that religion to which he had as a young man given himself, and which was throughout his life, in all the work

of his genius, his inspiration. On the eve of being presented with the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects

important undertaking was the enlargement and decorative

he died at Clapham March 2 1902.

treatment of St. Francis’ church, Notting Hill, followed by other ecclesiastical work in London and the country, in which he shows an increasing tendency towards a more English form of expression in his design. The beautiful seminary of St.

vol. ix).

Thomas at Hammersmith, noteworthy not only for its architectural treatment but, as usual with Bentley, for a carefully conceived and thought-out plan, was followed by St. John’s school at Beaumont, one of the best examples of his power to deal with design based on English Renaissance of the 17th century.

For many years he was occupied in the completion of

Carlton Towers, the seat of Lord Beaumont, left unfinished on the death of E. W. Pugin. On the decorative work of this fine

building he spent during the 15 years he was engaged on it an

immense amount of thought and invention, and with marked

success. A very excellent example of Bentley’s skill in adapting mediacval ideals to the circumstances of our times, while yet infusing them with an individuality that lifts them above the

level of sheer copyism, is to be found in Holy Rood church, built by him 1892, in which, as regards the interior, he gave free rein to his sense of colour as a final complement of his design.

It was after 30 years of strenuous work at his art, and in his

s6th year that Bentley—his claims strongly supported by the

most eminent of his fellow architects—was appointed by Cardinal Vaughan as architect of the proposed Roman Catholic cathedral in Westminster, his unremitting and enthusiastic labour upon which occupied the remainder of his life. Already, before his selection by the authoritics, it had been decided that for the new building it would be far from desirable to adopt Gothic principles and traditions. The principal factor in coming to this conclusion was the obvious danger of an unpleasant competition, both as regards size and aesthetic treatment, with

the closely neighbouring Westminster Abbey. To equip himself thoroughly for dealing with the problem in terms of the Byzantine style settled upon, Bentley determined, as a preliminary, to study his subject at first hand in Italy and Constantinople, and in 1894 he spent s¢veral months in northern Italy and Rome with this end in view. From a scries of sketch plans pre-

pared on his return was gradually evolved that adopted for the cathedral as now built, a masterly treatment of a difficult problem, ‘The exterior dimensions of the building are 360 ft. in length by £56 ft. in width, the interior of the nave being 232 ft.

long, and 60 ft. wide. The three bays into which its length is divided are covered with saucer-shaped domes 112 ft. in height, and springing from enormous piers. The aisles, narrow, as being used for processional purposes only, give on to the seven sidechapels. The truly imposing character of the building was perhaps more to be appreciated when its walls, piers and arches were in their undecorated state, and full value was given to its

342 ft. of length, and to a vast nave higher and wider than any in England. It was always intended that the whole of the inside wall and arch surface should be clothed with marble and mosaic,

and to no one could so sumptuous a manner of vesting his

See W.

de I'H8pital,

Westminster

Cathedral

and its Architect

(1920); T. J. Willson, “' Memoir,” Journal of R.I.B.A, (IIT. Series, ;

(€. H. To.)

BERCHTOLD VON UND ZU UNGARSCHITZ, LEOPOLD, Counr (1863), Austro-Hungarian statesman. The Berchtolds are a Moravian noble family whose patent of knighthood and nobility of the empire dates from 1616. They became counts in 1673, and acquired their Hungarian rights in 1751.

Count Leopold Berchtold, born April 18 1863, was employed first in the Moravian Government, entered the service of the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office in 1893, and in 1894 was attached to the Paris embassy. In 1903 he went as councillor of Iegation to St. Petersburg, and in Dec. 1906 was appointed ambassador

there.

With

the Russian

court and the

aristocratic society of St. Petersburg he maintained the best relations, but failed entirely in his zealous efforts to accommodate the obviously increasing differences between Russian and Austro-Hungarian policy. He took a leading part in the negotiations preceding the crisis caused by the annexation of BosniaHerzegovina, which aimed at securing common action of the two powers in the Balkan question. It was at his château of Buchlau, in Moravia, that the fateful conference took place between Isvolski and Aehrenthal (Sept. 15 x008). At the time of the strained relations between the Cabincts of St.

Petersburg and Vienna, which followed the annexation,

and

under the shadow

two

of the personal

feud between

the

foreign ministers, the position of Berchtold at St. Petersburg was extremcly difficult. For months together he had to avoid all official intercourse with the Russian Foreign Office; and it was not till the spring of 1909, when the violence

of the quarrel had abated, that he could resume his efforts to improve the relations between the two states. His success was only temporary; the tension, indeed, for a time relaxed; but

gradually it increased, and during the last months of his residence in St. Petersburg became extreme. In March 1911 Count Berchtold was recalled from Russia, and on Feb. 17 1912 he was, against his own will, appointed Achrenthal’s suc-

cessor as Forcign Minister.

;

His efforts were primarily directed towards securing the position of Austria-Hungary in the Balkan Peninsula. He wished to bind Bulgaria more closely to the Triple Alliance; to strengthen the tics of the Habsburg Monarchy with Rumania and Turkey; to foil the aspirations of Serbia for an extension of territory. To the idea of solving the questions at issue with this latter power with the sword he was at this time opposed, contemplating a peaceful solution of the Balkan question by agreement with Russia and the Western Powers. In this sense he spoke at the first session of the Delegations in which he took

part as Foreign Minister. But the increasingly obvious efforts

of Russian statesmen to weaken the influence of AustriaHungary in the Balkans, the aggressive activities of the Serbs, and the ambiguous behaviour of Bulgaria forced him to change his attitude, especially as he failed to reccive from the Western

—

BERENGER—BERLIN

450

Powers the support which he had sought from them.

In

Oct. 1912, at a meeting at San Rossore, he came to certain agreements with the Italian Foreign Minister, San Giuliano, of which the objects were to secure the autonomy of Albania and to counter Serbia’s plan for an extension of her power in the Adriatic coast-lands. The renewal of the Triple Alliance fol-

ford lecturer at Edinburgh.

Of the three works which con-

stitute together the full exposition of his interpretation of ex-

perience, Les Données Immédiaies de la Consciencé was published in 1889, Matitre ef Mémoire in 1896, and L’Evolution Créatrice in 1907.

The English translations (Time and Free

Will, Matter and Memory and Creative Evolution) all belong

lowed at the beginning of December. Meanwhile the struggle between Turkey and the Christian nations of the Balkans had broken out. During the three Balkan wars, fought between Oct. 1912 and Aug. 1913, Berchtold’s attitude was a weak one. He repeatedly took steps towards active intervention, but drew back when the Entente Powers used threats and the other members of the Triple Alliance intervened with counsels of moderation in Vienna. His efforts at the close of the third Balkan War to secure a revision of the Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913), which was unfavourable to Bulgaria, were as unsuccessful as his attempt to secure an accommodation between Bulgaria and her rivals by way of direct negotiation. The prestige of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans noticeably declined. Serbia’s endeavours to extend her power to the Adriatic, and to win recruits for the idcal of Great Serbia among the kindred Slav races of Austria-Hungary,

to 1910-1. He had published also Le Rire (1900). With the exception of a pamphlet, La Significance de la Guerre (1918), nothing more appeared until L’Zenergie Spirituelle (1919), with Eng. trans. Mind-Exergy (1920). For a discussion of his work, sce PHILOSOPHY. T

became more and more evident and pressed for a decision. For these reasons, at the conferences at the Ballplatz which followed the murder of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, on June 28 1914, Berchtold maintained the

Berlin and the towns of Charlottenburg, Schöneberg, Neukölln, Wilmersdorf, Lichtenberg and the administrative circles of

view that a definitive scttlement

with Serbia was

essential,

even at. the risk of war with Russia and France. He does not seem at that time to have reckoned with the possibility of an active participation of Great Britain on the side of the opponents of the Triple Alliance. After the outbreak of the World War he directed his efforts to inducing Italy and Rumania to carry out their obligations and to securing new allies for the Central Powers. These efforts

were for the most part unsuccessful. Turkey alone joined the Central Powers. Rumania and Italy declared their neutrality; even Bulgaria dragged out the negotiations, though Berchtold offered great concessions in return for her active intervention on the side of Austria-Hungary and Germany. Italy’s demands for compensation were indeed acknowledged in principle by Berchtold, under pressure from Germany, but he embarked on the negotiations with hesitation, and down to the day of his resignation he refused to listen to any proposal for the cession of territory which had long been under Austrian rule. In the course of the war Berchtold came into conflict with German statesmen and the German Supreme Army Command. He thought that Germany did not give sufficient support to her ally in the severe struggle against the supcrior strength of Russia, and protested strongly against the readiness with which Germany had agreed to the territorial and other demands of Rumania and Italy. The reasons of his fall, which took place on Jan. 13 rors, are still obscure, but it is certain that the attitude of Stephen Tisza and his adherents, from the autumn of 1914, in refusing to codperate with him was a contributory cause. In March 1916 Berchtold was appointed Obersthofmeister (Lord High Steward) to the heir to the throne, Charles Francis Joseph, whom he subsequently served 2s Oberkidmmerer (Lord High Chamberlain), After the fall of the dynasty he took no part in politics, (A. F. Pr.)

BERENGER,

RENE (1830-1915), French lawyer and poli-

tician (see 3.760), died Aug. 29 rors. . BERESFORD, CHARLES WILLIAM

DE LA POER BERESFORD, ist Baron (1846-1919), British admiral (see 3.770), who was raised to the peerage in 1916, died in London Sept.

has undergone a very considerable development i respect of

the form of its municipal organization.

The rapid growth of

the suburbs, which were independent communitics, necessitated the adoption of certain main lines of procedure, applicable both to them and to Berlin, in order to prevent conflicting action on the part of the authorities on one side and the other. This led, in rgtz, to the creation of Greater Berlin as, in the

first instance, an association of the city with the more important outlying districts for special objects.

It embraced the city of

Teltow and Nicderbarnim. Its objects were lo institute a common control of streets, roadways and the elevated railway, also of building and street alignment plans, the uniform coordination of police regulations and the acquisition of large tracts of forest and of land for building. This special union came into force on April 1 rọr2. It soon became manifest, however, that beyond codperation for special purposes, a further coordination of the administrations of these places was requisite. It was only in the year 1920 that it was possible, after long negotiations, to form a new municipality of Berlin, embracing all the suburbs under a single united administration, A law to

this effect was carricd through the Prussian Constituent Assembly on April 27 1920 and was put into force on Oct. 1 of the same year. This law cifectcd the centralization of Berlin and all its suburbs into one uniform municipal region (Stadt-

bezirk), but nevertheless left large powers of local self-administration to the individual communes (Gemeinden). On May 15 1912 the former Secretary of State for the Treasury of the Empire, Wermuth, was elected chief burgomaster of Berlin in

place of Kirschner, who had resigned. Under his administration, which lasted till Nov. 25 1920, the city experienced notable developments, The first municipal crematorium was opened in 1912. In June 1914 the ship canal uniting Berlin with Stettin was inaugurated. In the same year the city acquired the estate ôf Lanke, thus securing extremely valuable land for setilement purposes. In Oct. 1915 the city purchased the Berlin Electrical Works for 128 million marks (pre-war value about £6,400,000). The years of the war necessitated the vigorous intervention of the municipal administration in order to keep the population supplied with food and other necessaries of life. A special commission for food supplies was appointed as early as 1914. In 1915 the supply of meat, vegetables, milk, etc., by the municipality was instituted. The management of all these supplies necessitated the appointment of a host of officials. The establishment of the War Departments of the empire and_of Prussia as well as of the city thus entailetl an accession of population which by 1917 had caused a great dearth of house accommodation, a scarcity which constantly increased up to 1921, so that special offices for enabling the public to obtain dwellings had to be established under municipal supervision. Even in 1923 it was almost impossible to find a flat. ‘The general necessities arising out of the war demanded vast expenditure on the part of the city, so that its financial position had by 1921 become extremely unfavourable,

while municipal taxation had been about trebled.

The city of Berlin suffered severely from the effects of the revolution of Nov. 9 1918, The revolution itself was practically

bloodless, so far as Berlin was concerned, although the tomy sit-

6 1919.

}, French philosopher,

tings of the Workmen’s and Soldiers’ Councils, held in the Reichstag

Educated at the Lycée Corot,

mas 1918 that serious fighting took place, when the Independent Socialist party, supported by the Sailors’ Division, tried to seize power. After several days of sanguinary combats in the neighbourhood of the castle and the royal stables, where the sailors had established themselves, the division was ultimately compelled to surrender. Early in March 1919 the Spartacist insurrection hroke out;

BERGSON, HENRI LOUIS (18sq~ was born in Paris Oct. 18 1859.

BERLIN (see 3.785).—Since 1910 the city of Berlin (pop. Greater Berlin 1919 census, 1,902,509; IQ1O Census 2,071,257)

and the Ecole Normale he was successively professor of philosophy at the Lycée d’Angers 1881-3, at the Lycée de Clermont 1883-8, at the Collège Rollin 1888-9, at the Lycée Henry

IV. 1889-97, at the Ecole Normale Supérieure 1897-1900 and at the Collège de France 1g00-21. In 1912 he was Gif-

building, occasionally led to minor collisions.

It was not till Christ-

it began in the suburb of Lichtenberg and spread over the whole

BERNHARDI—BERTHELOT

451

centre of the city. The number of those who were killed in the street

edited the monthly publication. Dokumente des Sozialismus and in 1904 the weekly Das Neue Montagsblatt. In the conflict

Kapp Putsch in March of the same year was likewise attended by

the Marxians, were gradually healed after Bernstein, like Kautsky, associated himself with the Independent Socialists in 1915, and. still more when both of them broke with the

fighting was 1,175. The Jast victims of the revolution met their death on Jan. 13 1920 when a mass of people incited by Spartacist ropaganda in connexion with the parliamentary debates on the between the orthodox Marxists and the revisionists Bernstein Tadustral Councils bill (Befriebsrdtegesetz), attempted to storm the was one of the foremost champions of the latter. His differences Reichstag building. There were 42 killed and 105 wounded. The with Kautsky, the literary protagonist of the straitest sect of some casualties, but the decisive episode was a general strike im-

posed by the Socialist parties and the working-class leaders in order to put an end to Kapp’s usurpation of power. As a result of the assimilation of the municipal to the parliamentary franchise a large Left majority Gompcsol of Social Democrats,

extreme Independents, the sclf-styled Communists, who advo-

cated government by councils on the Moscow pattern and Council of Greater Berlin. The Berlin school system was presently the “dictatorship of the proletariat.” Immediately- after the Independent Socialists and Communists was elected to the Municipal

recast in the sense of the extreme secularists, a change which the non-Socialist parties were in 1921 still vigorously combating. The workmen employed by the municipality and the tramwaymen constantly demanded higher wages, which even the extreme Left majority in the Council were unable to concede, so that strikes in the electricity and gas works and cessation of work on the tramway lines were of frequent occurrence. Gradually, however, the economic life of Berlin seemed by 1921 to be entering upon a period of greater regularity. Chief Burgomaster Wermuth was succeeded in Nov. 1920 by the former city treasurer, Boss. (C. K.*)

BERNHARDI, FRIEDRICH VON (1849), German military leader and writer, was born Nov. 22 1849 at St. Petersburg. He took part in the war of 1870-1 as a young officer in the 14th Hussars, When the German troops entered Paris in March 1871 he was the first German to ride into the city. From z8ọr to 31894 he was German military attaché at Berne and was subsequently head of the military history department of the Grand General Staff in Berlin. He was appointed general in command of the VII. Army Corps at Miins-

revolution

Bernstcin

was

appointed

Secretary of State for

the Treasury, an office which he held till Jan. r919. He had again

been a member of the Reichstag from ror2-8,

Subsequently:

he left the Independents and returned to the fold. of the governmental German Social-Democratic party. BERNSTORFF, COUNT JOHANN HEINRICH VON (1862), German diplomatist and politician, was born in London Nov. 14 1862, the son of the Prussian diplomatist Count Albrecht

von Bernstorff. He entered the diplomatic service in. 1899, was secretary of legation successively at Belgrade, Dresden, St. Petersburg and Munich, and (1902-6) councillor of .em-. bassy in London. He then went as consul-general to Cairo, whence he proceeded as German ambassador in 1909 to Wash-

ington and remained there until America’s declaration of war against Germany in April ror7., Tle made great efforts to facilitate mediation by President Wilson, but he did not reccive the support he expected from authoritative quarters in Berlin.

He himself has repudiated any active connection with

the criminal plots and intrigues which were conducted by Ger-

ter in Westphalia in 1907, but retired two years later and busied himself as a military writer. Wide-spread attention was

man agents, including the German military attaché, Boy-Ed, in

excited by the memoirs of his father, the diplomatist and historian, Theodor von Bernhardi, which he published, and still

Amcrica before the rupture of relations; he also maintains that he entirely disapproved of the German foreign secretary,

appeared in 1912, On the outbreak of war in t914 he was again

Zimmermann’s, monstrous proposals to Mexico. If so his position must have been an exceedingly difhcult and anomalous one. On the American declaration of war he returned to Ger-

more by his celebrated book Germany and the Next War which

placed at the head of an army corps and fought with success

many and was scent as ambassador to Constantinople, where he was employed until 1918. In various publications he has endeavoured to prove that Germany, if she had followed the BERNHARDT, SARAH [Rosine BERNARD) (1845), proper policy, could have avoided war with America. This French actress (see 3.801), made a specially successful tour in statement of his views excited much controversy in his own America in 1906. In sg09 she played Jeanne d’Arc in Paris. country. When the revolution broke out Bernstorfi left the In 1910 she again toured in America. In 1913 she was given the diplomatic service, but has since taken an active part in parliaCross of the Legion of Honour. ‘Though lame as the result of an mentary politics as a member of the Democratic party in the operation, she appeared in Nov. 1920 in Paris in a new play Reichstag, and has also maintained a close connexion with the Daniel, by Louis Verneuil, and repeated this in London in international press and with pacific post-war propaganda. ea (C.K 2? April 1921. BERTHELOT, HENRI MATHIAS (1861~ __), French general,: BERNSTEIN, EDUARD (18s0~ ), German Social-Democratic politician and writer, was born in Berlin Jan. 6 1850. a son of the chemist, Marcellin P, E. Berthelot (sce 3.811), was From 1866 to 1878 he was employed in banks. Since 1872 he born at Feurs (Loire), Dec. 7. 1861. At 20 years of age he entered in the rst has been an active advocate and expounder of socialism. In St. Cyr, and in 1883 was appointed a sub-licutenant 1878 he acted as private secretary to K. Héchberg, editor of Reet. of Zouaves. Three years later he was promoted lieutenant, the socialistic review Zukunft. From 1881 to 1890 he was In Nov, 1891 he was made a captain and was transferred to the on the editorial staff of the Social-Democrat, a leading organ ooth Inf. Regiment. In 1907 he became a leutenant-colonel of the German Social-Democratic party, which was published and was posted to the ssth Inf. Regiment. He was then given. at Ziirich because, owing to the anti-socialistic legislation, a staff appointment, being promoted colonel in June ror. In, Dec. 1913 he was made a general of brigade. On the outbreak of free expression for its views could not be found in Germany. He was expelled in 1888 and migrated to London, where he the World War he was appointed head of the French operations. lived in intimate intercourse with Friedrich Engels and other staff at headquarters, and in this capacity he exercised a very followers of Karl Marx. He returned to Germany in rgor and marked influence on the course of events in Aug. r9gr4, so much was elected deputy to the Reichstag for Breslau, a seat so as to expose him later to the reproach of having been “ the which he continued to hold till 1907. His numerous published irresponsible commander-in-chief ” during the disastrous battle

first on the Stochod, where he stormed the bridgehead of Tsarecze and afterwards on the western front, in particular at Armentières.

works include:

Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die

Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie

(1899);

Die Kommunistischen

und Demokratisch-Soztalistischen Strémungen in England wäh-

of the Frontiers. In Nov. of the same year he was given command of a division. In Aug. 1915 he became commander of the XXXII. Army Corps, an appointment which he retained until Sept. 1916, when he was made chief of the French military mission to Rumania. Here his thoroughness was the principal factor in revising the Rumanian army, and the fruits of his work appeared in the campaign of 1917. In June 1917 he was made a grand

rend des t7ten Jahrhunderts (1895); Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sozialismus (1900); Ferdinand Lassalle und scine Bedeutung fir die Arbeiterklasse (1904); Sozialismus und Demokratie in der grossen Englischen Revolution (1908) and an edition of Lassalle’s speeches and writings with a biographical introduction (3 vols., officer of the Legion of Honour. After a brief mission to the 1892-3), etc. In these he dealt principally with the theo- United States he was, in July 1918, given command of the V. retical and historical aspects of socialism. In 1904-5 he Army. This army he commanded in the battles on the Marne

452

BERTHELOT—BESNARD

and the Aisne, which initiated the final Allied offensives. Later, he was sent on a mission to the Balkans. In Oct. 1919 he was made governor of Metz. BERTHELOT; PHILIPPE JOSEPH LOUIS (1866), French diplomat, was born Oct. 9 1866, a son of Marcellin Berthelot,

avoiding electoral corruption as far as possible. On the outbreak of the World War Bertolini, as a faithful Giolittian, was an uncompromising neutralist, and came in for much oblogquy in consequence. Throughout the war he remained in retire-

ment, and failed to be reélected in rọrọ. Sig. Nitti appointed. the famous chemist and politician (see 3.811). After having him senator and president of the Italian delegation on the Reparapassed through the regular stages of a diplomatic career, he tions Commission. He was the author of several valuable works was sent on a mission to the Far East in 1902, and returned to on political and eonomic questions, notably a volume on local the Foreign Office to mount the hierarchical steps of pro- government in England. He died at Turin, Nov. 28 1920. BESANT, ANNIE (1847_—+), English theosophist, was born motion, many of which, by reason of his appointment as chef de cabinei, he was able to take at a single bound. He acted as in London Oct.-1 1847, the daughter of William Page Wood. Briand’s righthand man throughout his term of office as Min- She marricd in 1867 the Rev. Frank Besant (d. rgry), afterwards vicar of Sibsey, Lincs., but obtaincd a separation ister of Foreign Affairs and prime minister; became Clemenceau’s from her husband in 1873. She had become an ardent freetrusted adviser during the World War and the Peace Conferthinker, and shortly afterwards she was prosecuted and conence, and succeeded Jules Cambon, with the rank of an ambassador, as general secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. victed, together with Charles Bradlaugh (see 4.372), for BERTIE, FRANCIS LEVESON BERTIE, rst Viscount (1844- publishing “ blasphemous” Hterature. From 1874 to 1883 1919), English diplomatist, was born at Wytham Abbey, Oxon., she worked in close association with Bradlaugh both in politics Aug. 17 1844, the second son of the 6th Earl of Abingdon.

He was educated at Eton, and in 1863 entered the Foreign Office. In 1874 he married the daughter of He was attached to the special embassy and in 1881 was secretary to the Duke invest the King of. Saxony with the

the rst Earl Cowley. to Berlin in 1878, of Fife’s mission to Garter. In 1894 he

became assistant Under-Secretary for Forcign Affairs, a post which he retained till 1903. He was then appointed British ambassador to Italy, but remained in Rome for only a year,

being appointed in 1905 ambassador to France. The AngloFrench agreement had been signed in 1904, and the new ambassador’s personal popularity was most successful in strengthening the ties thus formed between England and France. On the outbreak of war in 1914 Sir Francis Bertic’s position became

one of great importance and responsibility, and he was untiring in his efforts towards establishing the most complete under-

standing between England and France.

He retired in 1918.

Bertie had been made K.C.B. in 1902, G.C.V.O. and privy coun-

cillor in 1903, G.C.M.G. in 1904, and G.C.B. in 1908. He was raised to the peerage on his retirement with the title of Viscount Bertie of Thame. He diced in London Sept. 27 roro and was succeeded by his son, Vere Frederick Bertie (b. 1878). BERTILLON, ALPHONSE (1853-10914), French anthropom-

etrist (see 3.812), died in Paris Feb. 13 1914. ‘BERTOLINI, PIETRO (1853-1920), Italian statesman, was born at Montebelluna in 1853. He began his carcer as a barrister and student of economic and administrative questions, and entered parliament in 1891 as member for his native town. Two

years later he became Under-Secretary for Finance in the Crispi Cabinet. He was afterwards Under-Secretary at the Ministry of the Interior in the Pelloux Cabinet (1898-1900), in which he was, so to speak, the representative of Baron Sonnino’s party. On the fall of Gen. Pelloux he hoped to return to office in a future Sonnino ministry; but as the latter seemed ever less likely to become a reality, Bertolini lost patience and joined Sig. Gio-

litti. His conduct in abandoning his old chief was much criticised at the time, but his new patron chose him as Minister of Public Works in the Cabinet of 1907. He proved a capable administrator, but his qualitics were taxed to the utmost by the terrible earthquake at Messina and Reggio in 1908. When Giolitti returned to power in 1911 he did not at first offer an appointment to Bertolini, but in the autumn of 1912 he entrusted him with the newly constituted Ministry of the Colonies.

He

failed, however, to show any exceptional qualifications for that position, and did little more than introduce some of the less desirable features of the Italian bureaucratic system into the new African possessions; the continued resistance of the Arabs in Libya was generally regarded as largely due to Bertolini’s administrative errors. He was rapporteur for the extended

and in free-thought propaganda, as a lecturer and a writer of pamphlets over the signature of “ Ajax.” Her increasing tendency towards socialism of the more revolutionary type occa« sioned a divergence betwecn them after 1885, which was com-

pleted in 1889 by her adhesion to the Theosophical Society. She became a devoted pupil of Mme. Blavatsky (see 4.48), founded schools at Benares, and was elected president of the Theosophical Society in 1907. In later years her activities again assumed @ political cast. She founded the Indian Home Rule League and became its president in 1916, and in 1917 she was

president of the Indian National Congress. In addition to her numerous free-thought pamphlets and a large number of later works on theosophy, she published her Autobiography in 1393, The Religious Problem in India (1902) and other books. BESELER, HANS VON (18s0-1921), Prussian general and governor of Poland during ihe German occupation, was born April 27 1850 at Greifswald. IIe was one of those generals who, after having been placed upon the retired list, were recalled in 1914 to assume important commands. He conducted the siege of Antwerp, which he occupied on Oct. 9 1914. In 1915 he was employcd on the castern front, and on Aug, I9 of that year took Novogeorgievsk. From Aug. 27 1915 to Nov. 1918 he was German governor-general of Poland at Warsaw, in which capacity he endeavoured with diminishing success to organize a form of Polish national government and representation under German. auspices, as also to form a Polish army under German control. The Armistice and the German Revolution put an end to the complicated attempts of Bescler and the Austrians to arrive at a modus vivendi with regard to Poland’s political and territorialdestiny. The revolutionary Soldiers’ Councils asserted themselves, and the governor-general with the German troops of occupation left the country.

He died near Poisdam Dec. 22 1921.

BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT (x849-

), French painter, was-

born in Paris in 1849 and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, winning the Prix de Rome in 1874. Until about 188¢ he followed the academic tradition, but then broke away completely, and devoted himself to the study of colour and light as conceived by the impressionists. The naturalism of this group never appealed to his imagination, but he applicd their technical method adapted to meet more complicated problems of light, such as a union of twilight and artificial light to ideological and

decorative works on a large scale towards which his residence in Rome had strongly inclined him. Such are his decorations at the Sorbonne, the Ecole de Pharmacie, the Salle des Sciences at

the Hôtel de Ville, the mairie of the first arrondissement, the Théâtre Français, the Petit Palais, and the chapel of Berck hospital, for which he painted twelve “ Stations of the Cross.”

A large panel, “ Peace by Arbitration,” was completed seven days before the outbreak of war in 1914. A great virtuoso, he suffrage bill, which first came into force with the general elec- has handled with equal facility water-colour, pastel, oil-painting tions of 1913; the measure had been introduced to please the and etching. Partly under the influence of Gainsborough and demagogic spirit which Giolitti wished to conciliate, but Ber- Reynolds, whom he studied during a three-years stay in Engtolini must be given eredit for the ingeniousness of the machin- land, he has applied his methods to a brilliant series of portraits, ery which he devised for enabling illiterates to vote and for especially of women, Notable among these are the “ Portrait.

BETHAM-EDWARDS—-BETHMANN

HOLLWEG

453.

de Théâtre” (Mme. Réjane), and “ Mme. Roger Jourdain.”

tion by bringing a great accession to the strength of the mod-

Recent work includes “ Cardinal Mercier” (1917) and * The King and Queen of Belgium ” (1919). His analysis and treatment of light is well seen in “La Femme qui se chauffe ” in the Luxembourg, Paris, onc of a large group of nude studies of which a recent example is “ Une Nymphe au bord de la mer ”;

erate National Liberals and the Left, especially the Social Democrats, that the Government was able to reckon upon a more amenable. majority. In the interval Bethmann Hollweg endeavoured to conciliate the Catholic Centre by a policy of compromise in matters which had threatened to Icad to a renewal of the Kulturkampf, such as the denunciation of the Reformation in the Papal Encyclical of r910 and the Catholic demand for the modification of the Jesuit law. He secured the

and in the work produced during and after a visit to India in rgrr. His landscape work is represented by “ L’ile heureuse,”’ and “ Un Ruisseau dans la Montagne” (1920).. A symbolistiin

his decorative work, Besnard’s frank delight in the external world and his “ chic” luminous technique bring him close to the 18th-century French painters. A foundation member of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1890, in 1913 he became a member of the Institute and commander of the Legion of Honour. He has succeeded Carolus Duran as director of the

final abrogation of this law under stress of war conditions in April 1917. Bethmann Hollweg was likewise the sponsor of the new constitution for Alsace-Lorraine, which in 1911 estab-

lished the government of that territory of the empire upon the basis of popular representation in a territorial assembly and

admission, though without full state rights, to the Federal Council. He was Jess successful with the vexed question of the Prussian franchise, which in 1910 he attempted to solve by proAlbert Besnard (1916). G. C.) posing a direct system of clection while retaining in a modified BETHAM-EDWARDS, MATILDA (1836-1919), a author, form the local division of the electorate according to incomewas born at Westerfield, Ipswich, March 4 1836. She studied tax assessment into three classes. His bill was ultimately reFrench and German abroad and after some school-teach- jected by the reactionary Chamber of Deputies. This question ing in London, she settled down with her sister in Suffolk Was again to occupy him amid the stress of the war. Under the to manage the farm which had belonged to her father. Not impression produced by the Russian Revolution of March 1917 content, however, with purely rural occupations, she contrib- he was constrained to inspire the “ Easter message” of the uted from time to time to Housekold Words, having the advan- Emperor as King of Prussia promising the abolition of the tage at this time of the friendship of Charles Dickens and an three-class system after the war, a proclamation which was folcarly association with Charles and Mary Lamb, friends of her lowed in the same year by the edict of July 11 announcing mother. On her sistcr’s death she moved to London and wrote that a bill would at once be introduced to enact equal direct French Academy in Rome. - See also C. Mauclair, Pau? Albert Besnard (1914);G May:

a number of novels of French life based on her frequent visits to

France and her intimate knowledge of provincial French homes. In this way she did much to promote a better understanding between the two peoples. Her chief books are: The White House

by the Sea (1857); Anglo-French Reminiscences (1898); East of Paris (1902); Home Life in France (1905); Literary Rambles in

France (1907) and the posthumously published Afid- Victorian Memories (1919), which contains a personal sketch of its author

and secret suffrage. This project of reform came too late to reconcile the revolutionary clements in the Prussian state. Bethmann Hollweg’s political career ended immediately after the July edict, and, although a bill was introduced in the fol-. lowing Nov. by his successor, Count Hertling, the opposition

of the Prussian Conservatives and other reactionary elements prevented it from passing before the revolution. He was equally

unsuccessful in dealing with an outbreak of militarism in Nov. by Sarah Grand. She died at Hastings Jan. 4 1919. 1913 at Zabern in Alsace, where the population, exasperated BETHMANN HOLLWEG, THEOBALD VON (18 56-1921), Chan- by the truculence of a young officer, was subjected to the arbitrary exercise of martial law by the colonel in command of the cellor of the German Empire from July 1909 to July 1917, was born Nov. 29 1856 at Hohenfinow, the family property near Ber- garrison. Bethmann Hollweg’s treatment of the incident satisfied neither the reactionaries nor the advanced parties, and, lin, where he also died. We was descended from the Frankfurt banking family of Bethmann, which attained great prosperity for the first time in the history ot the Reichstag, a vote of cenin the 18th century, and a branch of which was founded by sure was passed upon the Chancellor. his great-grandfather Johann Jakob Hollweg, who had marThe foreign policy of Bethmann Hollweg was characterized ried a daughter of the house. The Chancellor’s grandfather by the indecision and half-heartedness which compromised his was Moritz August von Bethmann Hollweg, a Bonn pro- action in home politics. He shared the ambition of the Emperor fessor of Jaw, who was a leading member of the Prussian Dict and of the vast majority of his countrymen to set Germany at from 1849 to 1858 and was Minister of Education under the the head of Europe and to establish her influence throughout the Prince-Regent (afterwards William I.) from, 1858 to 1862. It world by the predominance of her commerce and industry and by the ubiquitous activity of her diplomacy supported by her was to the Liberal and West-German as well as the commercial traditions of his family that Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg preponderating military strength. In his speeches during the probably owed his appointment to the chancellorship in 1909 war the declaration ‘‘ we must secure from the military and the political and also from the economic point of view the possiin à time of domestic and financial crisis. He had at the same time the qualification of a specifically Prussian career, having bility of our expansion ” is characteristic and recurs in various forms. In this sense he could truly have said ‘‘ We could have risen through the regular legal and official stages of promotion as Referendar, Assessor, Landrat, Government-President at got all we wanted without war,”t:e. by establishing Germany’s Bromberg and Chief President of the province of Branden- power in Europe, on the seas and beyond them in a way that burg. In 1905 he was appointed Prussian Minister of the would make her unassailable whatever her policy and action Interior and in 1907 Secretary of State for the Imperial Home might be. What he could not realize was that the creation and Office and Vice-president of the Prussian Ministry. At the time maintenance of vast armaments, combined with the aggressive of Bethmann Hollweg’s appointment to the chancellorship in- behaviour of those sections of German opinion which always ternal affairs, under his predecessor Prince Bülow, had reached asserted their influence in public affairs and the truculent tone a deadlock in the Reichstag owing to the revolt of a section of of the Emperor’s: frequent public utterances, compelled Gerthe Liberal-Conservative bloc against the proposal to establish many’s neighbours, including Great Britain, to concert measures death duties as part of the reform of the finances of the empire. for mecting the imminent eventuality of active German and The Catholic Centre, which had left the former parliamentary Austro-Hungarian aggression. He maintained, like many of his coaliiion before the dissolution of the Reichstag by Prince countrymen, that the Triple Entente was the arbitrary and artificial creation of the personal policy of King Edward VII., Bülow in r907, was once more in alliance with the Conservatives, and the fiscal policy which these two parties had imposed acting in accord with the feelings of commercial and political upon the Government and the country had alienated the com- jealousy with which Germany’s successes were thought to have mercial classes and led to violent political conflicts. It was not inspired the British people. He himself, however, had much to

until the gencral clections of 1g12 had transformed the situa- | endure before and during the war from the intrigues of the

454

BETHMANN HOLLWEG

military party, in particular from the hostility of the creator of Government had considered “ at what price that compact would the German navy, Admiral von Tirpitz, who was once and have been kept,” furnishes the crowning evidence of Bethmann again put forward by the more aggressive chauvinists as their Hollweg’s essentially Prussian conceptions of political morality. candidate for the chancellorship. But Bethmann Hollweg him- “In the moment of anger the true man stood revealed. . . . To self did not see that the influence of that powerful section of break a treaty pledging the national honour seemed a natural German opinion and its action in military and naval as in thing to him, if to keep it involved sacrifice and danger... foreign policy furnished ample justification for such measures Herr von Bethmann Hollweg evidently thought that a plighted of precaution as the Western Powers and Russia concerted, ‘promise need not be kept, if the engagement involves momenmeasures which, indeed, proved hardly adequate to confront tous and unpleasant consequences. Not only does it throw the most unpleasant light upon his own notions of honour, but it. the first German onset in ror4. . _ The renewed conflict with France over Morocco in ro1r, the makes the commentator ask whether it was possible to make any permanent settlement with a nation whose leading statesdispatch of the gunboat “ Panther” to Agadir, the consequent friction with Great Britain and the prolonged negotiations man obviously held the view that any treaty was only to be which Icd to the mutually unsatisfactory Franco-German kept so long as it was profitable to the signatory parties,” ? There is evidence that at the time when Germany broke the Morocco agreement, mainly fell within the province of Bethmann Holiweg’s able subordinate, Herr von Kiderlen-Waechter, peace Bethmann Hollweg was in a state of extreme nervous who at that thne was Secretary of State at the Foreign Office. tension, due probably as much to the sense of the moral quickHere, as on other occasions, the Chanccllor was probably pacific sands on which Germany’s case was based as to the collapse of in his intentions, but in the means which were adopted to secure all his calculations regarding the effect of his policy upon the Germany’s objects he showed cither lack of judgment or inabil- other Great Powers. In the case of Great Britain his disillusionment was complete and confessed. In the case of Russia he had ity to control his political and military subordinates. _ In his book Betrachinngen sum Weltkriee (Reflections on the apparently hoped that a display of firmness would bring about the same public renunciation of Russian policy which Germany World War), written in his retirement at Hohenfinow after the collapse of Germany, he gives an account of the exchange of had been able to secure by the “bluff” of rqo8~g in conviews which took place between him and Lord Haldane during nexion with the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzethe latter’s visit to Berlin in Feb. 1912. This account ought govina. The Austro-Hungarian ambassador Count Szégyeny’s to be read im conjunction with Lord Haldane’s own report of report of his interview with William IL. on July 5 is to the his visit,’ particularly with regard to the attempt of the two effect that in the event of action against Serbia the Emstatesmen to find a formula for a treaty of mutual assurance peror Francis Joseph could rely upon Germany’s support and calculated to allay apprehensions of war between Great Britain “he had not the slightest doubt that Bethmann Holweg and Germany. Bethmann Hollweg wished to obtain an engagement from Great Britain to observe a benevolent neutrality in

the event of Germany’s becoming “ entangled in a war with one or more other Powers,” or, as he finally formulated it, “ if war should be forced upon Germany.” is conception of a war “forced upon Germany” was subsequently revealed by his defence of Germany’s declarations of war upon Russia and France, accusing the one Power of having rendered war unavoidable by its precautionary measures of mobilization and the other of having opened hostilities by air raids which never took place. In the exchange of views regarding the German and British naval programmes Lord Haldane received the impression that Bethmann Hollweg was pursuing a different policy

from that of Admiral Tirpitz, but that the latter had the support of a powerful and certainly active party in the country and was able to get his way. Indeed, Rethmann Hollweg himself says in his book that “when differences arose between the Admiralty and the civilian leadership public opinion was almost without exception on the side of the Admiralty.”

There were

from time to time evidences of a similar lack of continuous agreement and codrdination between the policy of the Chancellor

and that of the Secretaries of State in other departments, while the views of the Emperor William II. himself were notoriously

liable to sudden and incalculable change. In a marginal note on one of the diplomatic documents of July 1914, the Emperor

contemptuously referred to Bethmann Hollweg as the “ civilian

Chancellor,” as if policy were the business of the generals. Yet

the Chancellor was in evident. agreement with the Emperor’s view that it was legitimate for Austria, backed by Germany,

to alter the balance of powér in the Balkans and to put an end to the traditional and national Russian policy of protecting the small Slav nations. Germany’s “cxpansion” in the Near

East was similarly to be promoted and her supremacy at Constantinople established at the expense of Russia’s interests ina sphere that was vital for the Russian Empire. The interview between the British ambassador, Sir Edward

Goschen, and ihe German Chancellor, at theìr parting immediately before the declaration of war in 1914, when the latter in the course of “ a harangue which lasted for about z0 minutes ” spoke of the international treaty guarantecing Belgium’s neu-

trality as.a “scrap of paper ” and asked whether the British 1Sce Before the War, by Visct, Haldane (1920).

would entirely agree with this view. . . - Russia’s attitude would

be hostile, but William TH. had for years been prepared for this war, and, should it ever come to war between Austria and Russia, we could be convinced that Germany with her customary loyalty to the Alliance would stand at our side.” In subsequent conversation with Bethmann Hollweg Count Szégyeny “ascertained that the Imperial Chancellor, just like the Empcror William, regards immediate action against Serbia as the most radical and best solution of our difficulties in the

Balkans.

From the international standpoint he considers the

present moment more favourable than later and agrees that we

Shall inform neither Rumania nor Italy [both allies] beforehand of our eventual action.”

Admiral von Tirpitz® testifies that upon his mind the ulti-

matum to Russia and the declaration of war produced the impression of being ill-considered and due to a want of manage-

ment,

“Bethmann Hollweg was throughout those days so

excited and irritable that it was impossible to converse with

him. I can still hear him as with uplifted arms he repeatedly

emphasized the absolute necessity of the declaration of war and put an end to all further discussion.” He told Tirpitz that war must be declared because the Germans wished to send patrols across the frontier at once.

Moltke, on the other hand,

informed Tirpitz that there was no such intention and that

“from his point of view a declaration of war was of no importance.” #

During the war period of Bethmann Hollweg’s chancellorship (Aug. 19r4-July 1917) his public speeches were designed to create the impression of Germany’s invincibility. He was accused by his political adversaries of having all the Ume entertained the secret hope of coming to a separate understanding with Great Britain and of having influenced military and naval Policy through the Emperor with this object in view. In reality he never approximated to the elementary conditions of peace

terms with the Allies, and in respect both of Belgium and France constantly referred to guarantees in the shape of an

extension of power (Machtgrundlagen) which would be a necessary condition of a settlement. ‘“ History,” he said, “ knows No instance of the stafus quo ante after such tremendous events ” 2 The Outbreak of the War of 1914-1918, C. Oman,

$Tirpitz, Erinnerungen, pp. 240-1. ‘zbident. ©

BEYERS—BIKANER (speech of Apri! s 1916). On the question of unrestricted submarine warfare he ultimately divested himself of responsibility, having declared to the Emperor in Jan. 1917: “I can give Your Majesty neither my assent to the unrestricted U-boat warfare nor my refusal. I submit to Your Majesty’s decision ” ! which was that of the General Stafi and the Admi-

ralty. He must have given his explicit assent to the monstrous note addressed on Jan. ro 1917

by his Secretary

of State

455

few weeks later Beyers took the field as a leader of the rebellion against the Government, only to be overwhelmed by the Govern-

ment troops under the command of Gen. Botha, to be driven from pillar to post as a fugitive, and to be drowned on Dec. 7 1914 while trying to escape from his pursucrs by crossing the

Vaal river. His body was recovered two days later, and with his death the rebellion was brought to an ignominious end. BHOWNAGGREE,

SIR MANCHERJEE

MERWANJEE

(18s1~

for-Foreign Affairs, Zimmermann, to Mexico inviting her to attack the United States in the hope of annexing New Mexico,

), Indian parliamentarian, the son of a Parsee merchant of Bombay, was born in Bombay Aug. 15 1851, and began

Texas and Arizona and to try to detach Japan from the Allicd cause, His alleged high principles did not prevent him from associating himself with this scheme for a treacherous assault upon a Power with whom Germany was then at peace. By the middle of July 1917 Bethmann Hollweg had lost all support in the Reichstag. The Conservatives and National Liberals were alienated by his Prussian franchise policy and his

life as a journalist, but when only 22 was appointed, on the death of his father, to succeed to the Bombay agency of the Kathiawar state of Bhavanagar. Called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1885, in the following year the Maharaja appointed him judicial councillor, a post in which he introduced far-reach-

ing reforms. Settling in England in 1891, he actively associated

The Left and the Catholic

himself with public bodies connected with India. He was the head of the Parsee organization in Europe and chairman of the

Centre in which Erzberger with his so-called Peace Resolution (adopted by the Reichstag on July 19) had acquired the

Indian Social Club, To the Imperial Institute building he contributed, in memory of his only sister, the eastern colonnade

conflicts with the higher command.

upper hand were convinced that the Allied and Associated

Powers would place no confidence in the overtures of men with

the past of Bethmann Hollweg and Zimmermann.

Finally, on

the morrow of the publication of the second Prussian Franchise Edict, on July r4 zx917, Hindenburg and Ludendorff came

to Berlin in order to hold conferences with the chicfs of political parties regarding the terms of the “ Peace Resolution.”

leading to the Indian section. His compatriot Dadabhai Nacroji

was the ` was the

in the 1892-5 parliament; but Bhownaggree, elected in latter year in the Unionist interest for N.E. Bethnal Green, the only other Indian to enter the House of Commons, and only one to be reélected (1900), During his ten years there

he impressed the House by the vigour and cloquence of his

speeches on Indian matters, and he originated and unflaggingly The Chancellor could not tolerate this military interference ` maintained in and out of the House the long battle against the with his own department, and the Emperor, confronted with an disabilities of Indians in South Africa and other overseas dominultimatum from his two indispensable military leaders, accepted ions of the Crown. His cogent and detailed statement of the case for Indians in the Transvaal after annexation was the the Chancellor’s resignation. Bethmann Hollweg retired to Hohenfinow and took no further part in politics beyond writing basis of a blue-book (Cd. 2239, 1904), and was sent to Lord his Reflections on the World War (vol. i. 1919). He died, at Milner by the Colonial Secretary, Alfred Lyttelton, with the observation that he felt much sympathy for the views expressed, Hohenfinow on Jan. 1 1921, after a brief illness. (G. S.)

BEYERS, CHRISTIAN FREDERICK

(1869-1914), S, African

general, was born in Cape Colony in 1869 and went as a young

man to the Transvaal, where he took a prominent part on the Boer side ìn the S. African War, winning high distinction ìn the

field and bearing the rank of general when peace was made in

and that it would be difficult to give a fully satisfactory answer. The practical result was that the proposals of the High Com~ missioner were in some important particulars rejected. Bhownaggrce was one of the first Indians to press forward the need for technical and vocational education in India side by side with the literary instruction which was too exclusively maintained. Ile was made a C.I.E. in 1886 and K.C.1.E. in 1897. In early life he wrote a history of the constitution of the East India Company, and made a Gujarati translation of Queen Victoria’s Life in

1902. Gen. Beyers had much influence, as soldier and statesman, among the Dutch-spcaking people of S. Africa, and was, with Gen. Botha and Gen. Smuts, though in a Jess degree than they, one of the recognized leaders of the Transvaal Dutch. When responsible government was granted to the Transvaal, Beyers the Highlands. During the World War he assisted in repelling became speaker of the Lower House, He showed in the speaker’s German falsehoods regarding British rule in India by means of chair remarkable gifts. He was acute, tolerant and rigidly ima widely circulated booklet entitled The Verdict of India. partial, thus making a deep impression upon English-speaking BIGELOW, JOHN (1817-1011), American diplomat and jourS. Africans, who would have supported his claims te be the first nalist (see 3.922), dicd in New York Dec. 19 1911. In 1909 speaker of the first S. African House of Assembly, bad they been he published three volunies of Retrospections of an Active Life, pressed by Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister. Instead, Beyers covering his carcer to 1866. Two additional volumes, ending was made commandant-gencral of the Citizen Forces of S.Africa, with 18709, were issued by his son (19r3). and in that capacity paid a visit to Great Britain, Germany, | BIKANER, SIR GANGA SINGH, MAHARAJA OF (1880dg Switzerland and Holland in 1912. A man of fine physique, of Indian soldier and statesman, was born Oct. 3 1880, and sucpassionate nature, and of profound religious convictions, Bevers, ceeded by adoption his elder brother, Dungar Singh, in 1887

as commandant-general of S. Africa, was entertained with marked

as 21st ruler of the state,

attentions during his visit to Germany by the Kaiser. When the

College, Ajmere, he was invested with full powers in 1898, and promptly showed energy and skill in their use in combating the great famine of 1S99-1g00. In the Chinese campaign of 1901 he accompanied the British contingent in command of his famous Camel Corps, the Ganga Risala, which also did good service in Somaliland in rogoz. The first of his many visits to England was made in 1902, when he attended King Edward’s

World War broke out, he set himself in almost open opposition to the policy of the Botha Government.

For some months this

opposition smouldered. Then, at a moment when the S. African expeditionary force was being mobilized-for the invasion of German S.W. Africa, and when rebellion was already smouldering among the irreconcilables of the S. African Dutch, Beyers resigned his post as commandant-general in a letter addressed to Gen. Smuts, then Minister of Defence, and published in Het Volk, an anti-Government journal. In this letter he declared that he had always disapproved the Government’s intention to invade German §.W. Africa and that this disapproval was shared by the great majority of the Dutch-speaking people of

the Union. Gen. Smuts replied in a stern letter declaring that the war was a test of the loyalty to their pledged word of the

Dutch-speaking people, and accepting Beyers’ resignation. A t Scheidemann, Der Zusammenbruch, p. 74.

After

education

at the Mayo

coronation, and was made A.D.C. to the Prince of Wales, an

appointment continued by King George when he came to the

throne. In the World War the Maharaja offered the whole resourees of the state and served first on the headquarters staf of the Meerut division in France, and later on the staff of the British commander-in-chief. In ro1s, at the head of his Camel Corps, he took part in the fighting to withstand the Turkish invasion of Egypt. In 1917 he and Sir S. P. (afterwards Lord) Sinha were the first Indians to be called to London for Empire gatherings. They were members of the Imperial War Confer-

456

BILHARZIOSIS—BIRDWOOD, SIR W. R.

ence and assisted the Secretary for India at the Imperial War

The life-history of the parasite is therefore a double one. Tt

Cabinet. The Maharaja’s public speeches attracted marked lives in the bodies of men from which it is passed to water where attention, and were collected under the title of India’s Imperial ; it enters the water-snail’s body. From this after six weeks it fs Partnership. His warm sympathy with Indian aspirations of hatched in the free-swimming form and then re-enters the bodies self-government within the Empire made the greater impression of men. The snail is safe until six weeks from its first infection on public opinion because of the notable moral and material] have elapsed. It retains its powers of dissemination over conprogressiveness and efficiency of his administration in Bikaner, siderable periods. The following conclusions were formulated: and his constitutional reforms. He was selected to represent the I. Transient collections of water are quite safe after recent çonindian states at the Peace Conference and the Imperial Cabinet tamination. . meetings in connexion therewith, and at Versailles on June 2. All permanent collections of water such as the Nile canals, 28 1919 he affixed the first Indian signature to a great inter- marshes and birkehs (pools) are potentially dangerous, depending presence of the essential intermediary host, the snail. national treaty. Keenly concerned to uphold the rights and dig- on 3.theThe removal of infected persons from a given area would nities of the ruling princes, he formulated their views with

have no effect, at least for some months, in reducing the lability 10

force and skill, and his was the dominant personal influence in infection, as the intermediate hosts discharge infective agents for securing the constitution, under royal proclamation, of the a prolonged period. 4. Infected troops cannot reinfect themselves or spread the Chamber of Princes in 1921 as a deliberative, consultative and disease directly to others. They could convey the discase to those advisory body. His appointment as chancellor, carrying the parts of the world where a local mollusc could efficiently act as presidency of the small standing committee, was indicative of carrier. 5. Infection usually takes place both by the mouth and through the intellectual ascendancy he had acquired in the deliberations ie skin. Recently contaminated moist earth or water is not inof the rulers. He had made himself well known as a sportsman, ective. and in 1920 the “record” tigress (9 ft. 7 in.) fell to his gun. 6. Infection in towns is acquired from unfiltered water, which is A major-general of the British army, his honours included the still supplied even in Cairo, in addition to filtered water, and is grand crosses of the Victorian and the two Indian Orders, the aeliveted: by a separate system of pipes. 7- The eradication can be effected without the coöperation of knighthood of the Bath, the honorary doctorate in laws of Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh and the freedom of London, |- infected individuals by destroying the molluscan intermediaries. Edinburgh, Manchester and Bristol. His permanent local salute The irrigation work in Egypt being in the hands of the ‘was raised from 17 to r9 guns. (T. H. Br.) Government, it is possible to have the pools in which the snails BILHARZIOSIS (see 3.932).—The complete elucidation of the breed drained and dealt with. Along such lines, at least, lie the cause, mode of transmission, prevention and cure of this disease | preventive measures which will in course of time be instituted. (Schisostoma haematobium) was one of the ttiumphs of Through Leiper’s work, therefore, this disease may be regarded medical progress during the decade rg10-20. In 1913-4, in as much less of a menace than it has cver been formerly. his annual report on Egypt, Lord Kitchener said: “It is high The great success which attended this work caused other time that some steps should be taken to prevent the continuity investigators to turn their attention to the discase and to begin of infection which has been going on so long in this country.” the search for a cure. Many remedies had, of course, been tried, At that time Egypt was a hot-bed of the disease, and so were but none of these could be guaranteed to climinate the parasites many areas of South Africa. Indced some 625 British soldiers and so to end the mischief. It occurred to Dr. J. B. Christopherwere infected during the Boer War of 1899-1902, and of these son to apply to this disease the method of using antimony in 1914 no fewer than 359 were still on the sick-list. tartrate which had been employed with success in the treatment Early in the World War, when British troops were dispatched of the Indian disease kala-azar. This consists in giving the to Egypt, Sir Alfred Keogh, director-gencral of the A.M.S., sent antimony by injection into a vein. Christopherson soon found a mission there to investigate bilharziosis. At the head of it that his idea was to be relicd on and that the effect far exceeded was Lt.-Col. R. T. Leipcr, helminthologist to the London his hopes. The parasites and their ova were killed off and the School of Tropical Medicine. Leiper’s object was to discover the patients became entirely free of the disease. This work has now intermediate host of the parasite which is the cause of this passed beyond the stage of experiment, and Christopherson’s disease. The parasite itself had already been discovered, as treatment is universally acknowledged to be a complete cure of early as 1852, and was called after its discoverer T. Bilharz, a bilharziosis, German. There was, moreover, some reason to suppose that a Thus this formidable discase has been conquered. Its means

portion of its life-history was passed in the body of a, fresh-

water mollusc, this being a usual cycle among trematode worms (see 27.240). Leiper adopted the simple measure of engaging a large number of native boys and paying them to collect all the molluscs they could find. The boys brought in large quantities,

of transmission are known.

Its prevention is only a matter of

time. Its cure is a matter of certainty, (R. M. Wr.) BINYON, LAURENCE (1869_—s+),_ English poet (see 3.952), produced after roro a book on Botticelli (1913); a catalogue of Japanese woodcuts in the British Museum (1917); The Art of and the research workers set themselves to cxamine them. Asia (1915); Hnglish Poetry in Relation to Painting and other Within a very short period the parasite of bilharziosis was found Aris (1918); For Dauntless France (1918) and Court Painters in the body of one variety, a water-snail which inhabits canals of the Great Mogul (1920); as well as certain collections of poems, and pools:and is thus found ‘at spots daily frequented, such as Augurtes (1913) and The Four Years (19109), the last of which the praying ground at the embankment crossing, in front of gathered together his fine war poems, which had previously the cafés, and at the bend of the canal daily used for washing.” appeared in several smaller collections. In 1920 his play SakunThe next step was to discover whether animals could be infected ‘tala was performed in London. experimentally. Leiper observed that rats and mice and other BIRDWOOD, SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER MOLESWORTH vermin were notably scarce in the regions infested by the (1832-1917), Anglo-Indian writer (see 3.979), died at Ealing snails, A professional rat-catcher was employed but he failed June 28 1917. to secure any animals. On June 13 10915 the first positive BIRDWOOD, SIR WILLIAM RIDDELL, Barr. (1865s+), result was obtained when a rat was experimentally infected. British general, was born Sept. 13 1865. We joined the rath Various experiments were now undertaken to determine the Lancers in 1885 and was in the following year transferred mode of infection of human beings. It was found that both to the Indian staff corps, joining the cavalry. He served in drinking and bathing are dangerous for the free-swimming the Hazara expedition of 1891 and the Isazai expedition of parasites. ‘Cercariae,” after they have been born from the r892, and in the 1897-8 frontier war. Ile was sent to South body of the water-snail, are so provided that they are able to Africa in 1899 and served on the staff there during the whole of : pierce the human skin and so enter the body. Happily they live the war, the close of which found him a brevet, lteutenant-calenel. only 36 hours after birth in the pools, dying thereafter unless He was afterwards closely associated for several years with they find a suitable host.

Lord Kitchener in India, acting as his military secretary.

In

BIRKENHEAD—BIRMINGHAM 1908 Birdwood, now a full colonel, held the position of chief staff-officer during the operations against the Mohmunds, for which he received the D.S.O., and he was a brigade-commander

in India from 1909 to 1912, He had been promoted majorgeneral in 1911; and in r912, after holding for some months the position of quartermaster-general at Simla, he was appointed Secretary in the Army Department. Lord Kitchener in Dec. 1914 selected him for the command of the Australasian forces which were being asscmbled in Egypt, and in the following April he commanded the army corps from the Antipodes which carricd out the memorable landing at Anzac. He was in charge of the troops clinging to this patch of the Gallipoli Peninsula until Aug., and he then directed the unsuccessful offensive that was attempted from it. [lis personality had made him much liked and respected by the Australasian troops. After the change that took place in the control of the Mediterranean field force in Oct., Birdwood (who had been awarded the K.C.M.G. and had beén promoted liecutenant-general) assumed charge of the forces operating at the Dardanelles, and he carried out the very successful withdrawal of the troops from their dangerous positions in the following December

and January.

After a short period in Egypt he took his Australasian troops to the western front, and he commanded them there for two years; he was given the K.C.B. and promoted general in 1917. On the reconstitution of the V. Army after the great German

effort of the spring of 1918 had been checked, Sir William Birdwood was selected to lead it, and his troops bore an important part in the last phases of the British advance in the autumn. Jor his services he was made a baronet and a G.C.M.G., besides receiving a grant of £10,000. He paida visit to the Antipodes a year after the war and received a great welcome; in 1920 he took up command of the northern army in India. BIRKENHEAD,

(1872~

FREDERICK

EDWIN

SMITH,

Ist Viscount

), Lord Chancellor of Great Britain, the son of a

barrister, was born at Birkenhead July 12 1872, and was educated

at the local school, whence he proceeded with a classical scholarship to Wadham College, Oxford. He gained a first class in jurisprudence in 1895 and was Vinerlan Law Scholar in 1896, was elected a Fellow of Merton and did a considerable amount of cducational work in the next few years, being a lecturer both at Merton and at Oricl, and an extension lecturer in modern history both for Oxford and for Victoria University. But his attention was mainly directed to law and

public life. He had been president of the Union at Oxford, and he entered at Gray’s Inn, being called to the bar in 1899. He went the northern circuit, and attached himself to the local bar at Liverpool, where he rapidly obtained a considerable practice. He also published a book on international law, which has gone

through several editions. Ue soon took a among the Conservatives of Liverpool as Reformer, and was returned for the Walton 1906, holding the seat till his elevation to the 1919.

When

he entered the House

prominent place a decided Tariff division in Jan. Chancellorship in

of Commons,

he found

himsclf a member of a small and discouraged minority, who had been soundly beaten at the general election, mainly on the issues of tariff reform, Chinese labour in the Transvaal, and religious education, He himself, though he had achieved considerable local reputation, was practically unknown in London. Within a week of the opening of Parliament he bounded into fame by a sparkling maiden speeth in a Tariff Reform debate—a speech conceived in a confident fighting spirit, calculated to cheer dejected partisans, and full of wit and epigram. One of his phrases went home, when he described the majority as “begotten by Chinese slavery out of Passive Resistance.’”’? Mr. Lloyd George, who followed him in debate, spoke of the speech as very brilliant; and the Conservative party hailed him at once

as a coming leader. He soon acquired a large practice at the bar in London, took silk in 1908, and became a bencher of his Inn. In Parliament, during the year of Opposition, he justified the expectations formed of him, but incurred the animosity of his opponents by the vehemence of his denunciation of ministerial schemes. He was chosen to move the rejection of the

457

Parliament bill on the third reading in May rorr. In the crisis

which followed he took an extreme view, was prominent in the disorderly proceedings when Mr, Asquith was refused a hearing in the House of Commons, and threw in his lot with the “ Diehards.” At the coronation in that year his growing reputation in Parliament was recognized by his admission to the Privy Council; and in 1912 he appeared as an acknowledged leader of the party, moving the Opposition amendment to the Address, and the rejection of the Welsh Disestablishment bill on second reading. He showed, moreover, as a Liverpool man, his strong sympathy with Ulster, threatened by the Home Rule bill; he went over to Ireland and constituted himself Sir Edward Carson’s principal lieutenant in the resistance which he was . organizing in North-East Ulster against Home Rule. When the World War broke out, he was one of the first Opposition leaders to place his services at the disposal of the

Government. He accepted the position of hcad of the Press Bureau, and in that capacity encouraged, with a vicw to accelerate enlistment,

the publication in The

1914 of a telegram

showing

Times

of Aug. 30

the serious plight of the Brit-

ish army after the retreat from Mons. But he went shortly afterwards to France on active service, with the Indian Corps, and was mentioned'in despatches. He was captain in the King’s Own Oxfordshire Hussars, and a temporary licutenant-colonel

in the army. When the first Coalition Ministry was formed in May 10915, he was appointed Solicitor-General and knighted,

and he succeeded Sir Edward Carson in November as AttorneyGeneral, a post he held till 1919. The Defence of the Realm Act and other war-time measures threw in these years a great burden of anxious work on the law officers of the Crown, including the prosecution of Sir Roger Casement for high treason at the Old Bailey. In the autumn of 1918 Sir Frederick Smith undertook a visit of propaganda to the United States, and

published a book about it on his return. When Mr. Lloyd George reconstructed his Ministry after the general election of Dec. 1918, the Attorney-General was appointed Lord Chancellor and created a peer The appointment, though quite in the normal course of promotion, was subjected to considerable criticism, owing partly to his comparative youth, but chiefly to his vehement

partisanship in earlier years.

But it was soon

admitted (and notably by his colleagues on the judicial bench) to have been amply justified. Lord Birkenhead brought to the performance of his new duties the vigour which had always been characteristic of him; his judgments in the two final Courts of Appeal were weighty and lucid; and he quickly made himself a force in the Lords’ debates. His zeal for the efficient adminis-

tration of justice caused him, in addition to his other heavy work, to sit during several weeks in the spring of 1921 as a judge of first instance, in order to clear off the enormous arrears in the Divorce Court. He was created a viscount on the King’s birthday in that year. . He married, in ro01, Margaret Eleanor, daughter of the Rev. Henry Furneaux, a well-known Oxford scholar, his family consisting of a son and two daughters. He was always a man of

much physical activity, fond of a horse, of field sports and games, and of yachting. BIRMINGHAM,

GEORGE

A., pen-name

of James

Owen

Hannay (186s~ ), Irish novelist and playwright, who was born July 16 1865 at Belfast. He was educated at Haileybury and Trinity College, Dublin, was ordained and became a canon of St, Patrick’s, Dublin, in 1912. He wrote amongst other novels: The Seething Pot (1905); Spanish Gold (1908); Lalage’s Lovers (1911); The Red Hand of Ulster (1912); The Lost Tribes (1914) and Inisheeny (1920), whilst among his plays the best known is General John Regan, which was successfully produced at the Apollo theatre, London, in Jan. 1913. BIRMINGHAM, England (sce 3.983).—During 1910-21 the city of Birmingham greatly increased in size and importance. The primary cause of its growth in area was the extension of the municipal boundaries by a local Act of Parliament, though manufacturing enterprise and industrial developments before

the World War, as well as the extraordinary influx of munition

BIRMINGHAM

458

workers in 1914-8, materially contributed to the increase in the population. For the purposes of the report of the medical officer of health published in 1920, the population was estimated to be g1o,o0o.

When the census was taken in 1911 the males

over 18 years of age numbercd 246,881 and the females 283,366.

Just prior to the Armistice the number of men of or over military age in the city had been reduced to 200,251, while the number of women residing in the city had increased during the war to 323,91. The war probably accounts largely for the falling-off in the birth-rate during the same period. In 1913 the rate was 27.3 per 1,000 and in 1918 the figure was 19-4. The intervening years show proportionate decreases. There were 19,335 babies born during 1919. ‘This is equal to a birth-rate of 20-9 and indicates an upward tendency, though the increase of population is duc more to the improvement in the death-rate than to the recovery of the birth statistics. The Greatcr Birmingham scheme,.the prospect of which in toro had greatly disturbed the authorities of the counties of Warwick, Worcester and Stafford, became an accomplished fact in rọrr. Although the arca taken into the city included a considerable amount of agricultural and undeveloped land in the county of Worcester, the residential suburbs annexed to the city in vit were mainly populated by people who derived their incomes, as well as their water, gas, electricity and other urban amenitics, from the city

The borough of Aston Manor, the urban districts of Erdington and Handsworth, almost all of the urban district of King’s Norton and Northfield, and the rural district of Yardley were added to the city at this lime, King's Norton and Northfield, as parts of Birmingham, ceased to be portions of Worcestershire from the geographical as well as from the administrative aspect, and came nominally within the new boundary of Warwickshire,

as did Handsworth, from Staffordshire.

The area of the city was increased from 13,477 ac. to 43,537 ac., or about 68 sq. m., and the rateable value of Birmingham rose sutomatically from {2,963,711 to £4,340,017, leaving out

of account the differential rate for various periods granted to certain of the added areas. The membership of the city council was at the same time increased to 30 aldermen and ġo councillors, representing 30 wards. Judged by municipal standards, Birmingham was in 1921 the largest city in England. Public Health.—In the decade immediately preceding the war the

death-rate was 14-8 per 1,000, and for the five years from 1915 the figures declined from 14-4 to 13-0 in 191g. The dcath-rate was in 1921 the lowest but onc among the large towns of Great Britain. One of the principal causes of Birmingham's comparatively clean bill of health, and the decline in infantile mortality, is the employment by the health committce of a large and highly organized staff of lady health visitors. The city is divided into four quarters, each of which is under the supervision of an assistant medical officer of health or a lady doctor, the latter specializing in maternity and chiid-welfare work. The Corporation also employs specialists in tuberculosis, who have urban dispensaries and country sanatoria in their charge. ‘The lady health visitors include 13 who have charge of tuberculosis cases, 19 who deal with the general health of certain congested arcas, and §4 who are specially concerned with infant welfare, making a total of 86 lady health visitors.

Housing.—In

Oct.

1919 the Corporation

to the local Government

submitted

a return

Board showing that 14,000 new houses

were at that time required to meet the unsatisfied demand, and that 50,000 new houses would be required to rehouse persons displaced by the clearance of insanitary arcas, and to replace other dwellings which fell definitely below a reasonable standard. Prior to that date, however, the Corporation (July 1918) formulated a policy for dealing with the housing question and a number of proposals then

suggesled were incorporated in a local Act and in the Government’s Hlousing Act of 1919. In the following winter the Corporation ac-

quired approximately 1,050 ac. of land upon which some 10,000 houses could be erected. Other large estates were subsequently purchased, and the Corporation was in 1921 in possession of about 1,930 ac. of land for housing purposes. This land would accommodate from 19,000 to 20,000 houses. In Sept. 1919 a housing director was appointed and a considerable proportion of the houses

had in_ 1921 been completed and occupicd. Difficulty was found in obtaining a satisfactory supply of labour and materials. This not only delayed completion of the houses but scriously affected the cost of erection, the average for the first four schemes being about

£900 per house, the cost of the land and other expenses brought it

up to over £1,000. By the end of Jan. 1921, contracts were placed for 2,386 workmen's dwellings. Of these 180 houses were built by direct labour, The Corporation also converted army buts at Castle Bromwich into dwellings for about Loo families. Town Planning,—Birmingham was the first large town in England to prepare a comprehensive scheme of town planning. Important pioneer work in this direction was done by Mr. J. S. Nettlefuld when he was chairman of the Birmingham housing committee, before the passing of the Town Planning Act of 1909 No definite steps to carry out this scheme were possible until the extension of the city in 1911, when 24,000 ac of undeveloped land in the suburbs were brought under the control of the city council and Mr, Neville Chamberlain became chairman of the town-planning committee, The first town-planning scheme authorized by the Local Government Board related to Harborne and Quinton, and dealt with 2,320 ac. on the W. side of the city. The future line of main roads was ‘defined, some of them being 100 ft. wide, and the owners of the adjoining land were notified that they would have to conform to a general layout affecting the construction and character of the side roads (which may be narrower and less expensive) and the number of houses and kind of buildings to be erected in the area Open spaces and corner sites were reserved. No factories were provided for in this area, but considerable space was reserved for them in the E. Birmingham town-planning scheme (1,443 ac.), where the greater part of the property is already industrial and the prevailing winds low the smoke away from the city. These two schemes were approved in 1913. The N. Yardley scheme of 3,176 ac. and the S. Birmingham scheme of 8,267 ac. were prepared before the war and approved in 1916. A supplementary scheme for S.W. Birmingham, involving an area of 9,866 ac., was launched after the war. The public works and town-planning committee also prepared tentative plans for improving the built-up arca in the centre of the city, and widening the arterial roads. They bave experimented with a sleeper tramway track between two carriage-ways, with wide grass margins and avenues, and are providing specially for fasttravelling vehicles on a ring road and arterial roads, which are to be widened to too ft. or more. The first sections of road so widened were completed in 1915 at Edgbaston and Harborne. The scheme includes the widening of 43 m, of radial main reads and the construction of 7 m. of new roads. During the trade slump of 1920-1 large numbers of unemployed were engaged in this work of road widening and the construction of new roads. Similar labour was employed in laying out a municipal golf course in the park known as Warley Woods and another course on land given by members of the Cadbury family on the Leckey hills. Another important addition to open spaces around the city is Barr Beacon given by Col,

J. H. Wilkinson during the World War. New Buildings.—The building of the new municipal offices and

art galleries on a portion of the Colmore estate, bounded by Edmund St., Congreve St., Gt. Charles St. and Margaret St., which began in 1906, was completed in 1912. The offices of the gas, health, tramways and education departments were transferred from the old council house to the new premises and the rooms thus vacated were utilized for the accommodation of the water department, public works department, town clerk’s department, salvage department, parks department and the new Municipal Bank. A legacy of £50,000 from Mr John Feency, who had been a gencrous donor to the museum and art gallery, was utilized for the erection of a handsome suite of picture galleries and a museum of casts over the new municipal offices and connected with the old art gallery by a bridge across Edmund Street) The natural history museum

was established at the same time, and a unique collection

of British birds with their nests and perfectly natural surroundings was provided as a memorial tọ the late Alderman C, G. Beale. The first of the new Feeney galleries is devoted to the work of modern English painters and contains some of the larger pictures, such as

Millais’

“ Widow's Mite,’ Lord Leighton's ‘‘ Condottieri,” Henry

Moore's “ Newhaven Packet,” “ Autumn ” by Sir L. Alma-Tadema,

“The Village Philharmonic” by Stanhope Forbes, “ Hayle from Lelant ” by Sir Alfred East. Galery 11, contains old masters and portraits of local worthies, including excellent examples by Reynolds and Gainsborough. The next three galleries are filled with works of the English pre-Raphaclites, notahly those of Sir Edward BurneJones, a native of Birmingham. This collection, both in size and importance, is unrivalled. Another interesting gallery is No. VIL, which includes. Turner's beautiful drawing ‘ Schaffhausen,” from the Ruskin collection, and other important water-colours, A large

collection of drawings by David Cox and other local artists is in galleries VII. and IX. The old gallerics are now mainly devoted

to decorative and industrial art, including the Feeney collection

of nearly 2,000 pieces and several important collections on loan. One of the new galleries is reserved for loan exhibitions of pictures. In 1914-6 a new

parcel

post-office was erected on the site of

the old Inland Revenue office_in Paradise Street. This severely plain structure, built by the Office of Works during the war, 1s connected with the post-office in Victoria Sq. by a massive stone bridge across the top of Hill Street. The Inland Revenue offices were transferred to. Empire House, Gt. Charles Surcet. The galleries

BIRMINGHAM of the Royal Society of Artists were rebuilt on modest lines, and the classic portico which was a striking architectural feature of New St. disappeared to make room for utilitarian shop fronts. Queen's

College remains an ornament to Paradise St., though it was used in 1921 mainly for commercial purposes instead of for theological training, owing to the exigencies of ecclesiastical finance. The

Repertory theatre in Station St. was erected in 1913 through the

munificence of Barry V. Jackson, founder and the enthusiasm of John Drinkwater, “ Highbury,” Moor Green, formerly the Chamberlain, and the adjoining residence,

of the Pilgrim Players, the playwright. residence of Mr. Joseph ‘“ Uffculme,”’ the home

of the late Mr. Richard Cadbury, were during the war converted

into orthopaedic hospitals for disabled soldicrs.

When they ceased

to be under the control of the Ministry of Pensions they were to

revert to the Corporation as gifts from Mr. Austen Chamberlain

459

available for these purposes was reduced by the fact that about £147,000 of the above-mentioned total was ear-marked for special abjects, some of which involved additional expenditure out of the university funds. Tho chairs, lectureships, etc., endowed since 1910 include physics, electrical engineering, metallurgy, town planning, agricultural zoblogy) a research department subsidized by the Board of agriculture), Russian, Italian and brewing Some of

these new endowments are attached to old professorships.

For in-

stance, Sir George Kenrick endowed the physics chair in memory of the late Prof. J. H. Poynting, who had occupied it ever since Mason College was opened in 1880, 20 years before the university charter

was granted.

Public subscriptions endowed

the pioneer chair of

electrical engineering, which thus became in 1913 a memoria) to the first vice-chancellor (Alderman C. G. Beale). The chairs al-

lotted to modern European languages are quite new and the ap‘ Sorrento,” Wake Green Rd., Moseley, pointment of a lady as Italian professor is also an innovation. was acquired by the citizens’ committee during the war for the The chamber of commerce was responsible for the establishment of treatment of paraplegic war pensioners. The Princess Mary Cona chair of Russian during the war. ‘The school of brewing has been valescent Centre for Disabled Soldiers is at Rednal, and one of the supported by the trade ever since the foundation of the university, city asylums at Rubery was still occupied in 1921 by the Ministry — but the chair was not permanently endowed until 1919. of Pensions for orthopaedic cases. The old Children’s Hospital in Lord Robert Cecil succeeded the late Mr. Chamberlain as chanBroad St. was used for various Government purposes during the cellor in 1918; Sir Gilbert Barling was elected vice-chancellor in war, and larger premises were provided by voluntary contributions, place of the late Alderman Beale in 1914, and Mr. C. Grant Robertand Mr. Barrow Cadbury.

with up-to-date cquipment for the treatment of sick children, in

Ladywood Road. A hospital for nervous diseases was established after the war at Edgbaston.

Libraries —Several important additions have been made to the

public Jibrarics of the city. In addition to the central reference and lending libraries, which adjoin the Midland Institute, there were in 1921 21 branch lending libraries and news-rooms, two branch reference libraries, a reading-room at Witton and a delivery station in the outlying district of Quinton, as well as a new

commercial

library and a patent library in the council house. The central refer-

ence library contains nearly 300,000 volumes, including the wellknown Shakespeare Memorial Collection of 17,000 volumes, of

which a separate catalogue was printed in 1903; the Birmingham collection, of which a 1,140-page catalogue was published in 1918, a collection of poetry relating to the World War; the Sir Benjamin Stone collection of photographs; large Byron, Milton and Cervantes collections and a collection of manuscripts and other relics of Boulton and Watt. The lending libraries contain neatly 250,000 volumes, the annual users numbering about 2,300,000. The lending libraries were in 1921 being converted to the open-access system. An important innovation is the commercial library, containing about 3,000 vol-

umes, the collection of trade catalogues and files of 220 periodicals, Which was opened at the end of the war. Municipal Bank.—Vhe

Municipal Bank, which was established

mainly through the efforts of Mr. Neville Chamberlain when he was

lord mayor, loaned £300,000 to the Government during the war, this amount being invested in small sums by 30,000 depositors, who were

all employed persons. Owing to the opposition of the joint-stock banks through their parliamentary representatives in 1915, the operations of the bank were severely Jimited during the war, but

its success in promoting thrift among the working-classes induced Parliament to extend its powers in 1919 and in that year over £300,o00 was transferred from the war-time organization to a permanent municipal institution, the first of its kind in England.

The Unisersily.—A new chapter in the history of the university of Birmingham began with the visit of King Edward VIL. and Queen Alexandra to open the new buildings at Edgbaston on July 7 1909. ‘The site, given by Lord Calthorpe, the principal landlord of the district, comprises 40 ac., near the Bourn

Brook

and about

3 m. from the Mason

College

(in

the centre of the city) where the faculties of art, medicine and the department of education are still carried on. The new buildings designed by Sir Aston Webb, mainly for the technical side

of the university, cover a large semicircle and its diameter, with a central tower 325 ft. high, crected to commemorate the foundation of the university by its first chancellor, Mr. Joseph Chamberlain. The great hall and workshops, laboratories, model mine and power station for the engineering and allied departments were lavishly equipped to mect the special needs of the district, but the financial stringency arising out of the war has prevented the erection of the other large buildings necessary to make the design symmetrical, and to complete the

accommodation for the chairs contemplated when the scheme was launched. The faculties of sciences (pure and applied) and of commerce are now housed on the Edgbaston site. In 1919 the Treasury grant was increased to £38,000; the city council now contributes £15,000 per annum; and in 1920-1 a public appeal for funds resulted in about £300,000 being raised for the purpose of reducing the debt on the university and to increase the efficiency of the existing departments, though the amount

son, Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, was appointed principal on the resignation of Sir Oliver Lodge in 1919. Other important recent events in connexion with the university were the granting by its council of 15 free entrance scholarships for Birmingham residents (1912); the erection of a women students’ club adjoining Mason College (1914); the transformation of the new buildings into a mulitary hospital, and the women’s hostel into a nurses’

home during the

war; and the subsequent linking-up‘of Birmingham with Bristol

and the northern universities for matriculation and parliamentary

purposes. The library was in 1921 being reorganized and enlarged. The volumes accessible to students number about 100,000, The teaching staff increased from 117 in 1910 to 216 in 1920, and the number of full-time students from 958 to 1,754 in the same period. It is a distinctive feature of Birmingham among modern universities

that it does not include in its membership part-time students, these

being provided for at the Midland Institute and the Municipal Technical School. On the other hand the university gives generous help to the Workers’ Educational Association, both through its governing body and through individual members of the teaching staff. The income of the university increased from £57,143 in 1910 to £114,434 in 1920 and its expenditure from £69,780 to about

£118,320. In consequence of the generous response to the appeal made in 1921 the council and senate hoped to make further additions to the salary list and the curriculum in the near future. Commerce and Manufactures—After the war the Birmingham chamber of commerce entered into possession of the Colonnade

hotel in New 5t., converted into a commodious suite of offices and conference-rooms. The enormous iron-and-glass structure erected by the Government on the Corporation playing fields at Castle Bromwich, for use in connection with the aerodrome established there during the war, provided in 1921 excellent accommodation for the Birmingham section of the British Industries Farr, Other large buildings erected during the war facilitated the development of local industries. Fort Dunlop is an entirely new suburb occupied by the makers of tires, golf bails and other rubber goods, The new factories erected by large firms now amalgamated in the Vickers-Metropobtan group have been converted from the manufacture of tanks, Handicy-Page aeroplanes, artillery Imbers, ambulances and engines-of-war into the more peaceful occupations associated with the production of railway carriages, Wagons and electrical apparatus of all kinds. Some idea of the revolution in local industries produced by the war may be gleaned from the fact that a Birmingham firm of penmakers in the carly stages of the war

contracted to produce 12 million cartridge clips and that another

firm in the jewellers’ quarter made 72 million army buttons im one year, Under the direction of a local munitions committee, before the establishment of the Ministry of Munitions, the smaller manufactories in the city were affliated to the national shell factory

at Washwood Heath, where the shells were produced in the rough and finished in the smaller workshops. The output of shells in Birmingham during the last two and a half years ‘I the war was 15 millions. Fuses and munitions for quick-firing guns were produce

in even larger quantities, the local engincers and cycle-makers being

specially qualified for the precision work required for these munitions. The manager of the Birmingham gas department acted as secretary of the munitions committee, and also organized the manufacture of toluene as an ingredient for high explosives throughout the country. At the B.S.A. works 10,000 rifles and 2,000 Lewis guns per week were manufactured. From the returns of the Ministry of Munitions it appears that, although the weight of shells produced in Birmingham

was not the heaviest on record, the number

and

variety of articles supplied for the use of the army, navy and air force in Birmingham was greater than in any other part of the country. Some of the smaller parts produced for engines-of-war by the local brass manufacturers were measured at the Government depots in thousands of millions.

BIRRELL-—-BISSOLATI

460

War-time Activities —During the first month of the World War three city battalions were raiscd by the Lord Mayor, and the

recruits under the voluntary system overflowed into several other new battalions of the Warwickshire regiment. It is estimated that

Birmingham

contributed to the fighting forces of the nation at

least 148,000 men.

Over 11,000 Birmingham men wete killed, and

in the sessions of 1912, 1913, and 1914 by Mr. Asquith, the

The amount of money for the prosecution of

Prime Minister; but He frequently wound up the debates, and was largely responsible for the treatment of details in committee.

the long list of local military distinctions includes the names of 11

winners of the V.C.

autumn of rorr in preparation for it, being cheered by the appreciation of him shown by his young Scottish fellow-countrymen in his election to the Lord Rectorship of Glasgow. ‘The main conduct of the bill was, however, taken out of his hands

the war raised in four separate weeks of special War Loan campaigns was £26,368,879, exclusive of several millions invested by the

Corporation and local companies, individuals and trade unions through the banks and post-office.

Birmingham was the first city to put into operation a compre-

hensive food-rationing scheme, and this scheme afterwards became

the basis of the plan adopted by the Government for the whole

When resistance was organized in Ulster, when volunteers were enlisted ånd drilled in the province, and a provisional government constituted, he adopted the latsser-faire attitude which had throughout been the mark of his Irish administration; and he apphed the same treatment to the Irish volunteers who were

country. , | raised in reply in the Sinn Fein and Nationalist interest. In all At the university buildings at Edgbaston, which were the headthe earlier discussions in Parliament, he made light of the quarters of the 1st Southern General Llospital, 1,358 beds were provided and at the branch hospitals further accommodation

was

provided until there was a total of 6,168 beds. In addition to the 64,000 wounded men treated at the university 20,000 patients were

received at the Poor Law infirmary in Dudley Rd., 8,000 in elementary schools at Stirchley and King’s Ileath, 5,000 at the Monyhull Colony belonging to the board of guardians and at A D. and civilian hospitals 5,000, making a total of over 100,000 military and naval patients. These huge figures did not include the record of the ist and 2nd Birmingham War Hospitals, which were established under an arrangement with the asylums committee of

the Corporation.

36,795 wounded

At the Rubery and Hollymoor Mental! Hospitals

men, mostly orthopaedic cases, requiring speciai

treatment, were nursed back to health.

The fact that Birmingham was one of the most important munition-making centres in England being wel! known to the Germans,

they naturally made efforts to bomb the city from the air.

For

some time they were unsuccessful, owing to the severe lighting

restrictions enforced by the chief constable in conjunction with the Home Office, Zeppelins, which caused serious destruction and

loss of life in the Black Country on Jan. 31 1916, passed over the city without doing any damage. In consequence of representations made to the Government by the Lord Mayor of Birmingham on behalf of the municipalitics of the Midlands, more effective means were taken to warn the inhabitants of impending air raids, and the anti-aircraft defences were also considerably improved

before the next Zeppelin raid, which took place on Oct. 19 1917. On this occasion bombs were dropped on the Austin works at Longbridge, near the city boundary, but little damage was done.

The

third and final air attack on Birmingham took place on April 12

1918, when five Zeppelins set out to bomb the industrial towns of the Midlands. L60 made direct for Birmingham, but timely

warning was received at the headquarters of the Birmingham anti-aircraft defence in Newhall St., and when the airship was passing over Coventry it was met by gunfire and searchlights. These caused the raider to drop bombs in the open country in order to lighten his ship. When passing over Hockley Heath, just out-

side the city boundary, at an altitude of about 5 m., L6o became an illuminated target for at least one of the Birmingham anti-aircraft guns. When the second and third Birmingham guns came into action the enemy turned tail, dropped two bombs, the first on the Robin Hood golf course and the other near Manor Farm, Shirley, and made a rapid retreat over Lapworth.

In addition to the thousands of Birmingham women who worked

on munitions, 15,000 migrated into the city during the war. The Birmingham women’s war agricultural committee, the women’s volunteer reserve and the various naval and military auxiliaries also found employment for hundreds of girls. Among the many voluntary organizations in which ladies played a leading part, special mention should be made of the lady mayoress's depot, from

which 273,553 garments and other articles were sent to soldiers at

the front and in hospital, and 130,162 parcels were sent to 1,531 risoners of war, the depot being the regimental care committee for the Warwickshire regiment. The war hospitals supply branch

of the depot, which was established in March 1916, supplied 827,176

surgical requisites to the war hospitals. The war refugees committee and the citizens’ committee were also mainly composed of women, the latter organization being responsible for a remarkable network of agencies for the relief of all kinds of civilian distress arising from the war, and for meeting the needs of soldiers’ families and men broken in the war. {E. S.

BIRRELL, AUGUSTINE (1850}, English author and politician (see 3.989), continucd to be Chief Secretary for Ireland till the Dublin rebellion of Easter 1916, over nine years in all—a . tenure of exceptional length of this particular office. The cattledriving agitation died down, and Irish politics, save for labour troubles, were comparatively quiet, till the two general elections of rọro had once again made retention of office by the leaders of the Liberal party dependent on the Irish vote. A third Home Rule bill was now inevitable, and Mr. Birrell spent much of the

Uister difficulty, and was frequently betrayed into inappropriate flippancy, Talking of Ulster and religious bigotry, he said that he had his own views of ecclesiastics; he had been in close touch with cardinals and archbishops, and “ commended them all to God.” But towards the end of the debates, he adopted a worthier manner, and advocated a national solution, and settle-

ment by consent. In a striking phrase in the debate on the address in rgr4, he spoke of a new Ireland, not necessarily

Home Rule or Nationalist, but “ the renaissance of a nation.” When the World War broke out the controversy about Ulster was stilled as Home Rule was in abeyance, and in the Coalition

Government of 1915 Mr. Birrell had Sir Edward Carson as a

colleague, and would have had Mr.

Redmond

also had Mr.

Redmond consented to accept Mr. Asquith’s invitation. The danger with which he had to cope now came not from Orangemen or constitutional Nationalists, but from extremists of the

Sinn Fein, Irish-American and Irish Labour parties, of whom Casement and Larkin were the apparent leaders. They pro-, nioted a strong and largely successful propaganda against enlistment in Ireland, which he entirely failed to extinguish, and

which culminated suddenly in open rebellion at Easter 1916 (see IRELAND, History). Immediately after the suppression of the rising Mr. Birrell resigned, rather plaintively explaining that he was aware that he had run grave and considerable risks in not

tackling Sinn Fein, but that he had subordinated everything in

order to maintain unbroken the front of Ireland towards the

enemies of the Empire. His retirement from office was followed

by retirement from Parliament in 1918. He resumed his literary work, and published in 1920 a life of his father-in-law, the poct Frederick Locker-Lampson. is wife died in 1915.

BISSOLATI-BERGAMASCHI,

LEONIDA

(1857-1920), Italian

statesman, was born at Cremona Feb. 20 1857. The son of Demetrio Bergamaschi, he was adopted by, and took the name of, his stepfather, Prof. Bissolati, the philosopher. At an early age he became a Socialist through his genuine sympathy

with the lot of the poor, and an active member of the Italian Socialist party from its foundation in 1892. He exercised con-

siderable influence as a journalist, editing the weeklies La Critica sociale and La Lotta di classe, and then the daily official organ of the party, L’ Avanti. In 1897 he entered Parliament as member for Pescarolo; he afterwards was elected for Budrio and then for the second division of Rome (1908), which he represented until his death, Although a firm believer in the Socialist doctrine, Bissolati became more and more dissatisfied with certain aspects

of the policy of the party, notably with its anti-patriotic attitude at the time of the Libyan War. In 1911 the split came, and Bissolati, together with Bonomi and some other leading Socialists,

seceded from the party and formed what was known as the Reformist Socialist group, which supported the Giolitti Cabinct in its African policy on its promise of democratic reforms. At the outbreak of the World War Bissolati did not hesitate, and

from the first declared himself in favour of Italian intervention on the side of the Entente against German militarism, whereas the “ official” Socialist party was frankly neutralist and proGerman. When Italy entered the war he joined the army as a sergeant of the Alpini and was wounded

and decorated

for

valour. In June 1916 the Boselli national Cabinet was constituted

and Bissolati accepted office as minister without portfolio,

BITTER—-BLINDNESS

46!

acting as a kind of intermediary between the Cabinet and the army. After the Armistice he resigned (Dec. 1918) owing.

kräfte nach C.A. Bjerknes Theorié (1900-2) he gave the first complete mathematical and experimental exposition of the dis-

to disagreements with Sig. Orlando’s Government over the Pact of London. Ile was opposed to the annexation by Italy of the Alto Adige because of its German population, and of North

coveries of his father, whose age and excessive self-criticism had prevented him from finishing his work himself; and in a later book, Die Kraftfelder (1909), he stated the same theory in a very much generalized form according to methods of his own. On the other hand, he developed in 1898 the general law for the formation of circulations and vortices ina frictionless fluid, and began to apply the gencral vortex theory to atmospheric and oceanic motions. This attack upon the meteorological problems from a hydrodynamical point of view was after 1906 supported by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, of which he became a

Dalmatia with its Slav majority; but he advocated the annexation of Fiume as a purely Italian town. His attitude on the Alto Adige and Dalmatian questions lost him the popularity he had hitherto enjoyed with the majority of the nation, and his speech at Milan on the League of Nations, in which he set forth these views, was unfavourably received. He came in for severe

criticism for having, at a moment when Italy’s representatives found their country’s aspirations chalienged at every turn by the Allies, to some extent given away the Italian case and provided opponents with arguments from the mouth of an Italian exminister. At the same time everyone recognized his sterling qualities of honesty and genuine patriotism; however much people might disagree with his views, there was no doubt that he was inspired solely by what he believed were his country’s best interests and noblest traditions, and his death at Rome on

May 6 1920 was deeply regrettcd by all, regardless of party divisions. BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867-1915), American sculptor (sce 4.13), died in New York April ro xọr5. In rọrr he finished a model designed for the Henry Hudson monument.

He was

director of sculpture at the San

Francisco

Exposition (1912-5), and at the time of his death was president of the National Sculpture Socicty.. _ . BJERKNES, VILHELM (1862— ), Norwegian physicist, son of Carl Anton Bjerknes, professor bf mathematics in the university of Christiania, was born in 1862, and was educated at the university of Christiania. He became at a very early age assistant to, and collaborator with, his father, who had discovered by mathematical analysis the remarkable apparent actions at a distance between pulsating and oscillating bodies in a fluid, and their analogy with the electric and magnetic actions at a distance. Apparently no attempt had been made'to demonstrate experimentally the theories arrived at by the older professor until his son, then a Jad of about 17 or 18 years of age, turned his mathematical knowledge and remarkable mechanical genius to the devising of a series of instruments, by which all the well-known phenomena of clectricity and magnetism were illustrated and reproduced, by spheres and discs and membranes, set into rhythmic vibration in a bath containing a viscous fluid such as syrup. These remarkable demonstrations formed the most important exhibit in the department of physics at the Exposition Internationale d’Electricité held in Paris in 1881, and aroused the greatest interest in the scientific world. = The younger Bjerknes studied electric waves (1890-1) in Bonn, Germany, in the laboratory of Hertz, where he succeeded in giving the explanation of the phenomenon called ‘ multiple resonance,” discovered by Sarasin and De la Rive. Continuing his experiments at the university of Christiania (1891-2), he

proved experimentally the influence which the conductivity and the magnetic properties of the metallic conductors exert upon the electric oscillations, and measured the depth to which the clectric oscillations penetrate in metals of different conductivity and magnetic permeability (the “skin effect’). Finally he furnished (1895) a complete theory of the phenomenon of electric resonance, involving a method of utilizing resonance experiments for the determination of the wave lengths, and especially of the damping (the logarithmic decrement) of the oscillations in the transmitter and the receiver of the electric oscillations. These methods from that time have been in continuous use, and have contributed much to the development of wireless telegraphy. His papers on electric oscillations were published in Aznalen der Physik (1891-5). In 1895, after he had been appointed to the newly created professorship of mechanics and mathematical physics at the university of Stockholm, where he had been lecturer since 1893, he returned to hydrodynamic investigations, pursuing them in two different directions. In his Vorlesungen über Hydrodynamische Fern-

Research

Associate.

Two

introductory

volumes,

Statics and

Kinematics, of a greater work, Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography, were published in 1913 under the auspices of the Institution. .

In 1907 he was called back to’the university of Christiania,

where a personal professorship of mechanics and mathematical physics was created for him. In rgr2 he was called to the university of Leipzig to create there a new professorship of geophysics and to organize, according to his. own plans, a Geophysical Institute for atmospheric investigations. There, in zo16, he started the publication Synoptische Darstellung atmosphirischer Zustinde tiber Europa; but in 1917 he returned

to Norway, where he was attached, as professor of geophysics, to the new Geophysic Institute in the city of Bergen. He was the originator there of an improved and more scientific weather service, afterwards. controlled by his son and collaborator, Jakob Bjerknes (b. 1897), which occasioned a new view of cyclones and anticyclones as waves in a surface of discontinuity separating air of polar from air of more equatorial origin, and cutting the ground along a line which can be followed on the weather maps, now generally called “ the polar front.” In 1893 Bjerknes married Honoria Bonnevie, who in earlier years assisted him much in his scientific work, BLACHE, VIDAL DE LA (1845-1918), French geographer, was born at Pézenas, Hérault, Jan. 22 1845. He was educated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris, and entered upon the study of geography by way of that of history. The relations between geographical causes and historical effects were with him the subject of a life-study, the results of which are secn in one of his best-known works, the Tableau Général de la Géographie dé France prefixed to Lavisse’s Histoire de France (1903) and later republished separately; but he always refrained

from pressing the theory of geographical ‘ control” to an extreme, He joined the French school at Athens in 1867, and was thus enabled to travel extensively in Mediterranean lands. From 1872 to 1877 he was in charge, latterly as professor, of the department of history and geography at Nancy; from 1877 to

1898 he taught. geography in the higher grades at the Ecole

Normale Supéricure, and from 1898 to 1909 he held the chair of geography in the Faculté des Lettres at Paris. He lectured

widely, and among his publications is the monumental Akas

Général: Histoire et Géographie, first published in 1894; he founded in 1891 and edited until his death the periodical Annales

de Géographie, and contributed constantly to its pages. He died at Tamaris-sur-mer (Var) on April 5 1918. BLAKE, EDWARD (1833-1912), Irish-Canadian statesman (sce 4.35), died at Toronto March 1 1912. BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847-10919), American painter (see 4.38) died near Elizabethtown, N. Y., in the Adirondacks, Aug. 9 1919. Because of insanity he was kept under restraint during the last 18 years of his life. In 1913 he was made an associate of the National Academy of Design and in rots a full member. In 1916 the Toledo Art Museum

paid $20,000 for his “ Brook by Moonlight.” BLINDNESS (see 4.59).—In England legislators have been slow to recognize the claims of the blind.

It is true that as far

back as the reign of Elizabeth and onwards through the reigns of George III., William IV. and Victoria provision was made by

way of maintenance or education, mostly through the Poor Law authorities, but this was totally inadequate. In 1889 the Report.

BLINDNESS

462

of the Royal Commission on the Blind, the Deaf and the Dumb was published, and it would appear that the Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act, 1893, was passed as a result.

The Act made compulsory the education of blind children between the ages of 5 and 16, the responsibility falling upon the local Education authority for the district in which a blind child resides. The Education of Blind and Deaf-Mute Children (Scotland) Act was passed three years prior to the English Act. Powers in respect of the continuation of the education of the

blind over the age of 16 are conferred on. Education authoritics under the Education Act, 1902, Part II., and the Education Act,

1918. The Post Office Act, 1908, provides that a warrant may fix special postal rates for embossed literature. Regulations making ophthalmia neonalorum notifiable came into force in 1914. In May 1914 Mr. (later Sir) Herbert Samuel, as president of the Local Government Board, appointed a “ Departmental Committee on the Welfare of the Blind” to consider the condition of the blind in the United Kingdom and the means available for (a) their industrial or professional training, and (b) their assistance, and to make recommendations. This committee’s

report was issued in July 1917. Asa result a special department dealing with the welfare of the blind was set up in the Ministry of Health, and an advisory committee appointed. _ In 1920 the Blind Persons Act came into operation in the

British Isles. It secures to blind persons in indigent circumstances, on attaining the age of so, “old-age” pensions of ros. per week; it places the responsibility for the general care of the blind upon county and county borough councils and makes the registration of all charitics for the blind compulsory.

In Sept.

1920, the Ministry of Health appointed a committce to investigate and report on the causes of blindness, including de-

fective vision sufficient to impair economic efficiency, and to suggest measures which might be taken for the prevention of blindness.

divided into four divisions:— (1) Laws affecting the education of the blind. (2) The action to be taken by the State in the creation of special

commissions to be concerned in their general welfare, '

(3) Various forms of rclief.

{4) All other relations of the Jaw to the blind, most of these being

of an indirect character.

It is

sight, but where, as is usually the case, this is not feasible a selection

from the occupations most suited to the blind has to be made. The following is a’list of trades and occupations practised by the blind, some being suitable for the workshop, some for the home and some for either: brush-making, basket-making, mat-making, mattressmaking and allied industries, cane and rush seating, boot-repairing and clog-making, carpentry and wooden-toy making, ships’ fender making, netting and string-bag making, hand and machine knitting, weaving, poultry-farming, dairy work, pig-rearing, gardening, fruitfarming, news-vending, shop-keeping. Every encouragement should be given to the employment of suitable persons in professional work; blindness obviously inflicts a lesser handicap upon the brain worker than upon the manual worker, hence the desirability of encouraging intellectual pursuits, of which the following are the most usual: Holy orders, law, politics, music, lecturing, teaching, coaching, journalism, business management, commercial travelling, organizing and secretarial work, shorthand and typewriting, insurance and other agencies, telephony, massage, and pianoforte-tuning.

Excluding professional careers it is generally agreed that the work-

shop provides the best means of employing the blind, as they there obtain regular employment under skilled supervision and in many cases reccive a substantial weckly bonus by way of augmentation

of wages. Among the large workshops in the United Kingdom the following may be mentioned :—Bradford Royal Institution for the

Blind; Birmingham Royal Institution for the Blind; Bristol Residential School and Workshops for the Blind; Cardiff Institute for the

Blind; Leeds Incorporated Institution for the Bind and the Deaf

and

Dumb;

Henshaw’s

Institution

for the

Blind,

Manchester;

Workshops and Home Teaching Society for the Outdoor Blind; Royal Blind Asylum and School, Edinburgh; Royal Glasgow Asylum for the Blind; Incorporated Association for Promoting the Welfare of the Blind, Tottenham Court Rd., London.

Systems of Reading.—The Braille system is used throughout the

world, and can be adapted to any language or dialect. Englishspeaking countries use the British alphabet based on the original French alphabet devised by Louis Braille. In the United States some differences were introduced, but at the time of writing it seems

In most civilized countries State provision for the blind exists in a more or less adequate degree. Statistics.—Dr. Harry Best has estimated that the blind pop. of

the world in 1920 numbered at least 2,390,000 persons, exclusive of those blinded in the World War of 1914-8, and he gives the following

ratios per million of the pop. as far as ascertainable:—Canada 449, Mexico 782, Argentina 892, Chile 800, Austria 694, Belgium 435, Denmark 527, France 706, Germany 609, Hungary 895, Ireland 982,

Italy 1,175, Netherlands 463, Norway 926, Russia (European) 2,016, Sweden 664, Switzerland 722, India 1,416, Egypt 13,251, Australia 705, New Zealand 478. l

The blind pop. of England and Wales, as given by the Ministry of

Health, July 1920, was 30,785, or 853 per million of the population, Education.—The education of.very young blind children has lately received closer attention in England by the establishment of kindergarten schools and classes—notably a model school at Birmingham, and the provision by the National Institute for the Blind of the first home in the British Empire for blind babies at Chorley Wood, Herts, This was to be followed by similar homes elsewhere. It is a fact that very few parents of blind children know how to treat them. Either they are spoiled by mistaken kindness or they are greatly neglected; in either’ case the result is thoroughly bad—hence the necessity of their removal to homes where they may live under the best conditions and may, in the hands of experts, receive a training suited to

‘their disability. The percentage of blind children under the age of five who are mentally defective is very high, ranging from 333% to 50%. They are unsuitable for schools for normal blind children,

but are eligible for special schools for the blind—at St. Leonards-on-

Sea at the age of three, and at Rhyl at the age of four. A great impetus was given to the education of the blind in England

by the founding of the College The objects of the college are the training of teachers of the afford them opportunitics for

of Teachers of the Blind.in July 1907. primarily to promote and encourage blind, to improve their status and to submitting their qualifications to the

scrutiny ofan accredited examining body. The status, qualifications,

training, remuneration

even up to the age of 50, after which it is rarely successful.

generally agreed that, where practicable, blind persons should continue in the occupations which they followed before losing their

Royal Midland Institution for the Blind, Nottingham; Liverpool

_ Inthe United States statutory provision for the blind may be _

training being the most important. Great difficulty is experienced in securing good craftsmen who are well educated and apt at imparting their knowledge to their pupils. Until better facilities are available it is suggested that the ranks may best be filled by making careful selections from among the most expert craftsmen, and then imposing the art of teaching upon their craftsmanship. The office of the college is c/o National Inst. for the Blind, 224, Gt. Portland St., W. r. Employment,—As a large percentage of blind persons had lost their sight in adult life, professional and handicraft training is necessary

and recruitment of craft teachers of the

blind receive the careful attention of the college, the question of

most probable that a system almost identical with that common to all other English-speaking countries will rapidly come into vogue.Jn addition to the Braille method of producing books for the blind the system invented by the late Dr. Moon is used to a considerable extent.

It is easier to learn ihan Braille, but has the serious dis-

advantages of occupying very much more space, and of not lending itself to the contractions which have been introduced into Braille,

and which greatly add to the speed of reading. The Moon Society is now controlled by the National Institution for the Blind.

Embossed

Literature-—Great

progress

has been

made

in the

methods of printing and illustrating books for the blind. In 1909 the National Institute for the Blind (then known as the British and Foreign Blind Association), through its secretary-general, Ifenry Stainsby, instituted exhaustive inquirics as to the best and quickest methods of printing Braille, with the result that the slow, cumbersome and unsatisfactory method of printing on wet paper gave place to the introduction of dry printing on special paper by means of fast-running electrically-driven and clectrically-heated presses of

the platen type. This new method of printing was found to be 15 times faster than the old method.

Book illustrations which are essentially diagrammatic rather than

pictorial are printed on the same presses, the plates consisting of folded sheets of zinc upon which illustrations are embossed by means of a special machine and a varicty of hand punches. The embossing through folded sheets of metal produces a perfect die and counter-die,

between which the paper is embossed in the press. a The fact that many scientific books are produced in Braille must be laid to the credit of Mr. H. M. Taylor, Fellow of Trinity College,

‘Cambridge, who invented the mathematical and chemical formulae which render their use possible. Blind students in all English-speak-

ing countries owe much to Mr. Taylor for having enabled them to read by themselves books which otherwise they could only have

mastered with the help of a reader. Many magazines for the blind, designed to suit various classes of readers, are published in the United Kingdom, the principal being Progress, The Literary Journal, The Braille Musical Magazine, Comrades, The School Magazine, Nuggets, Hampstead Magazine,

and Hora Jucunda. But the magazine which has the largest circula-

BLINDNESS tion is the Matilda Zeigler Magazine published by W. C. Holmes, New York, and distributed free of charge.

‘There are two weekly

newspapers for the blind in the United Kingdom—the Braille Mail and Weekly Summary.

Music. —The Braille music notation has recently undergone great

developments at the hands of a committee of blind experts appointed by the National Institute for the Blind, under the chairmanship of its director of music, Hf. C. Warrilow. The old method of writing several bars for the right hand followed by a corresponding number for the left hand has given place to the practice of writing only a bar for cach hand. alternately. In music of a simple character both hands are written together, chord by chord. These two modes of writing are known as the “ bar by bar” and “ vertical score ’’ methods respectively, and emphasize the harmonic. aspect as distinguished from the melodic which characterize the old method, the parts being always written upwards from the bass. So great has been the general improvement in representing the staff notation that it

is now possible to record in Braille any kind of music, no matter

_

how elaborate.

Lending Libraries.

—Embossed

;

books and music, being very

cumbersome, can only be stored in limited numbers in the homes of the blind, but are admirably distributed free of charge by such agencies as the National Library for the Blind, London, which possesses 65,000 volumes (representing 7,500 complete works) of general literature jn the Braille and Moon types, and 11,000 pieces

of music (representing 5,000 complete works). _ Apparatus—Various .methods have been devised to supply the blind with reading-matter other than through the ordinary channels of embossed books, but none of these have so far proved very prac-

tical, though hopes are entertained that continued and patient in-

vestigation will solve many of the difficulties that now prevent their wide adoption. |

Institutions and Societies for the Blind—The

accommodation

provided for schools and workshops has been greatly improved in England cither by additions 10 existing buildings or the erection of entirely new premises. Within the latter category may be mentioned the schools for the blind at Gorleston-on-Sea, Leatherhead, Bristol, Bradford,

and the workshops

at Birmingham

and

Ilull.

The extensive new buildings of the headquarters of the National Institute for the Blind were opened by the King and Queen in March 1914.

This Institute has, since then, made enormous

strides, its

rincipal work being the publication of books and music, home teaching, provision of homes and hostels for the blind, care of blind babies, the refief and afteér-care of blind civilians, and the higher

education of the blind and the financing of other societies.

It is

affiliated to St. Dunstan’s and to the Canadian National Institute for the Blind, the last-named doing corresponding work from its headquarters in Toronto.

~ Obituarye—Among notable blind men who have died since 1910

may be mentioned the following :— Sir Francis Joseph Campbelli, LI.D. (1832-1914), the writer of the earlier article in this encyclopacdia (see 4.59*). Born in Franklin county, Tennessee, Blinded at the age of four by the thorn of an

acacia tree whilst playing. Educated at various schools for the blind, also at Harvard, Leipzig and Berlin. Was first principal and cofounder with Dr. T. R. Armitage of the Royal Normal College for the Blind, Upper Norwood, London, through which great impetus was given to the higher education of the blind, particularly in fitting sightless persons to become teachers, musicians, pianoforte-tuners, and correspondence clerks, The Rev. II. J. R. Marston, M.A. (1853-1921). Rector of Lydford-on-Fosse.

Graduated at Durham

University, where he had a

brilliant carcer, obtatning high honours and the Hellenistic Greek

prize,—also a fellowship.

John Brown Herreschoff {1841-1915). The famous blind designer

of the “ Vigilant,” ‘ Defender ” and ‘ Columbia,” which so successfully defended the American Cup against the “ Valkyrics ” of Lord Dunraven and Sir Thomas Lipton’s “‘ Shamrocks,” The Rev. William Hill-Murray (1841-1911). As an agent of the National Bible Society of Scotland he was sent to China and there became interested in the cause of the blind, and himself invented a

Hate system for the blind to take the place of the intricate Chinese anguage,

Mit OGRA — Sie Arthur Pearson, Victory over Blindness (1919) and The Conquest of Blindness (1921); W. H. Illingworth, The History of the Education of the Blind (x910); Winifred Holt, A Beacon for the Blind, being the Life of Henry Fawcett (1915); larry Best, The Blind (1919); Wm. Campbell Posey, Hygiene of the Eye (1920),

- Blinded Soldiers and Sailors.—Special reference must be made to the British soldiers and sailors who were blinded in the World War, and who came directly under the care of the St. Dunstan’s organization, which it was the writer’s privilege to found and conduct. These men form an exceptional group in the blind world, but the success of the ideas adopted in their training, the high example of the men themselves, and the interest awakened

by their triumph over difficulties, must have a permanent in-

fluence in raising the status of the blind even in other countries

beyond the United Kingdom.

463 The men were exceptional, be-

cause so many of them were young and full of the vigour of health when their sight was taken from them. Drawn from all classes, differing greatly in education, experience and temperament, they were as a whole men with a keen hold on life, ready for any effort that would bring them again in touch with the everyday world of work and pleasure. Fundamental to their training was the idea that blindness was not to be regarded as setting men apart from their fcllows. It was to be held in the light of a handicap; never as an affliction calling for pity. They were to rely on themselves to the utmost degree and to make it their object to be normal. In itself such a mental outlook had a far-reaching influence; on it was based the whole system of training for these blinded soldiers who, from the first, found themsclves kept in touch with all ordinary intercsts, while the kind

of work for which their training fitted them went far beyond oldfashioned ideas of occupations for the blind. St. Dunstan’s, a large house with 15 ac. of ground, bordering on Regent’s Park, London, was gencrously placed at the disposal of the Blinded Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Care Committee by Mr. and Mrs. Otto Kahn, and was opened in March rors, It became the officially recognized training centre for the British. fighting men (including those of the overseas forces) who lost their sight In the war, with the exception of a comparatively small number of the Scottish soldiers who were trained at Newington House, Edinburgh. Queen Alexandra graciously consented to be patroness of the hostel. Other large houses in the neighbourhood were lent or rented; temporary buildings—inchuding dormitories, classrooms, workshops, two chapels and recreation halls—were erected in the grounds of St. Dunstan’s, On account of the difficulty of getting in touch with the blinded soldiers scattered in many hospitals the military authorities arranged for their treatment at St. Mark’s, Chelsea, the 2nd London General Hospital. In this way was avoided the danger of discharged men returning hopelessly to their homes with no other prospect than lives of vacuity. While still in the wards of the hospital they learned what blind men were able to accomplish, and began,

under the tuition of visitors from St. Dunstan’s, the task that lay before them of conquering blindness, a task in which few

of the whole number were to fail, Nor was it to occupy any great length of time. The course of reéducation, all that is involved in learning to be blind, occupied in some cases less than a year and seldom extended to two years. Many of the men were not only blind but had been otherwise wounded; some had lost a hand, or an arm or a leg, or were sufferers from shell-shock.

But even in spite of these additional difficulties rapid progress was usually made.

The accepted definition of blindness was: “ Unable to read

or write or to do ordinary work in any ordinary way.” The vast majority of the men who came to St. Dunstan’s had had their eyes destroyed or were what is known as “dark blind,” The remainder were able to distinguish light, and of these a small number had some slight degree of sight.

Such were the

men who with almost unexampled fortitude set themselves to get back to active life, It is well to emphasize the spirit of St. Dunstan's,

The hostel

was a centre of brightness, and the men were no less determined to be happy than the people about them were to help them ‘to forget what they could not do and to make the most of all that they could do. At one time no fewer than 800 men and women were giving the whole or some part of their time to the care, entertainment and instruction of the blinded soldiers, Through the carpets in the public

rooms of St. Dunstan’s ran linoleum

paths for the blinded men,

handrails bordered the walks through the grounds, sounding-boards gave warning of steps, With these helps the men quickly developed the senses of direction and obstacle, the confidence that would enable them to find their way in their own homes without assistance and to trust themselves in public thoroughfares, Self-reliance was a constant aim; the blinded soldier learned the value of avoiding what-

ever might emphasize his handicap.

The more normal his bearing

the more were those about him put at their ease, and from every point of view was his happiness increased. In the sense of touch, of hearing and of smell he daily discovered new powers. From the impressions thus received he began to visualize, forming mental pictures of the people he met and his surroundings. The men at st. Dunstan’s had not only to learn to work but to discover how

*These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article,

464

BLISS—BLOCKADE

fully their leisure hours might be occupied. Constant entertainments were given at the hostel; the men were taken to concerts and theatres; they attended football and cricket matches, with escorts to

describe the games; they found much pleasure in dancing, and threw themselves into the interest of out-door sports, swimming, foot

races, tugs-of-war and rowing. The St, Dunstan's crews practised

on Regent's Park lake, under the direction of a coach, and annually competed against one another in regattas on the Thames; they raced, : . also, against sighted crews with success.

The hours devoted to instruction at St. Dunstan’s were short; in teaching the newly blind it is necessary to remember the effort of intense concentration involved. Two-and-a-half hours in the morn-

ing and two hours in the afternoon were spent by the men in the classrodms and workshops. The employment of many blind instructors was an important factor in the rapid progress that was made; the blind experts gained at once the confidence of the blinded soldiers,

who realized that their difficulties were understood and that nothing beyond their powers was being demanded. Among the officers and. men were many already experienced in some branch of business of

professional work, and when it was feasible they were encouraged to repare themselves to resume their accustomed employment, The act that one of the blinded officers went back to his practice as a

barrister, and another renewed his work as a chartered accountant,

may be recorded as examples of the manner in which difficulties

‘were surmounted.

The occupations selected as being most easily

‘mastered by the sightless man who seeks profitable employment were

eight: massage, poultry-farming, shorthand-writing (by means of a machine), telephone-operating, joinery, boot-repairing, mat-making

and basketry. All of these were taught, in addition to the art of netting, which may be regarded as a remunerative form of fecreation

for the blind. Many of the blinded soldicrs learnt two trades. All of them acquired proficiency in typewriting and received instruction , , in reading and writing BrailleWhile the war was still in progress some 60 blinded soldiers were already employed, largely in military hospitals, as trained masseurs.

They had passed stiff examinations, and it is a remarkable fact that,

in spite of their own disability, they had equipped themselves to

help in the cure of other wounded men. As soon as the blinded sol-

diers had mastered an occupation they were found employment or

set up in their new industry. Apart from the pensions they reccived

they were able to earn incomes in some cases higher than they had

gained as sighted men before joining the army.

A staff of experts was employed to visit in their homes where they were able to teach new types of work in local demand. propaganda department was established and promote the interest of, professional

the men periodically correct mistakes and An employment and to obtain work for, men, and steps were

taken to ensure that their methods of working were modern and

up-to-date. In addition to the administration of the services mentioned above, a number of convalescent and holiday annexes were established throughout the country. A fund was available from which men could obtain grants in cases of sickness, accident or business difficulty. The Blinded Soldiers’ Children Fund, which was raised to provide a weekly allowance until the age of 16

years to every child born to a blinded soldier after his disablement, and therefore not pensioned by the Government, was distributed by this, department. The men’s typewriters were kept in working order, the visitors who went to see the men at

intervals being given a short course of instruction in minor repairs. Music, reading and games were encouraged among the men, and books, magazines, cards, dominoes, and music were provided when these were required. In general, St. Dunstan’s After-Care Organization aimed at reducing a blind man’s handicap to a minimum in order to enable him to compete with his sighted rivals on even terms. In the preparation of this article the author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Mr. Henry Stainsby, the secretary-general

of the Nationa! Institute for the Blind, and of Capt. lan Fraser,

director of the After-Care Organization of St. Dunstan’s.

(A. P.)

BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833-1911), American merchant and politician (see 4.72), died in New York Oct. 9 tgrr. Although prominent in the Republican party and long the treasurer of its national committce, he would never run for public office. His lack of sympathy with Theodore Roosevelt’s growing influence led him to retire from active politics.

BLISS, TASKER HOWARD

(1853-

), American soldier,

Before the close of 1920 1,300 blinded soldiers were established in different occupations in Great Britain, in Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. At that time there were still several hundred others in training or to be trained. Besides the soldiers actually blinded in the war, 23,000 were discharged from the army with seriously damaged eyesight, and from this number men arrived at St. Dunstan’s overcome by the blindness which had for long threatened them. Early in 1921 St. John’s Lodge, on the Inner Circle of Regent’s

was born at Lewisburg, Pa., Dec. 31 1853, He graduated from West Point in 1875, was commissioned second licutenant,

Park, became the permanent headquarters of St. Dunstan’s

colonel, serving through the Porto Rican campaign.

work,

and in 1880 was promoted to first lieutenant. From 1885 to 1888 he was professor of military science at the Naval War College; then for seven years aide-de-camp to Gen. Schofield and inspector of rifle practice, with the rank of captain from,

1892.

In 1897 he became military attaché at the American

legation in Madrid. In 1898 he became major, and on the outbreak of the Spanish-American War was promoted lieutenantFrom 1898

to 1902 he was in charge of Cuban customs and collector for the port of Havana. In 1902 he became a member of the Army War

The generosity of the public who supported St. Dunstan’s was a tribute to the high courage of the blinded soldiers; it made it possible to do everything that was required for their new start in life and to create an organization for their after-care. A high

College Board, and in the following year commandant of the Army War College. From 1903 to 1905 he was a member of the

percentage of success cannot be attained in the rehabilitation of any large body of blind men by training alone. Some definite assistance is required after men have been trained, supplied with

staff. From 1905 to 1909 he held various commands in the Philippines. During the lattcr half of 1909 he was president-of

their tools and equipment and settled in their own homes. A scheme of organized assistance was first tried’ on a large scale by the authoritics of St. Dunstan’s. The first concern of the blind craftsman is his supply of raw material. This must be

joint Army and Navy Board and also a member of the general the Army War College and a member of the general staff, and then was appointed assistant chief-of-staff, becoming in 1915 chief-of-staff. In 1917 he was made commanding-general, U,S. army, but later in the year retired, having reached the age limit. We was a member of the Allied Conference (1917), of the Supreme

constant, of the right quality and nature, and must be available

War Council (1918), and of the International Peace Conference

at a good market price. Lack of sight makes the ensuring of these essentials difficult, and. St. Dunstan’s organization: therefore

(1918-9).

established a stores and materials department from which any

blinded soldicr was able to obtain in small quantitics the materials necessary for histrade. Many hundreds of articles or kinds of material coming from all parts of the world were always kept in stock. All goods were supplied strictly at average cost, all expenses of buying, storing, and distributing being met from

St. Dunstan’s funds, In order to ensure a constant market, even in times of trade depression, sales depots were established, and the men were paid by return of past the average price obtained

when their goods were sold. All expenses connected with carriage

BLOCKADE (see 4.72).—The blockade enforced against Germany by the Allies in the World War was both in form and extent without precedent in naval history, and its enforcement has given anew meaning to the word, It was not a blockade in the strict sense of the word; that is, a cordon of ships off an enemy’s coast: precluding all approach to it under ban of confiscation. In its final form it constituted a vast system of cconomic pressure for the restriction of enemy supplics, and the power of the British navy to intercept, detain and search ships and cargoes afloat re-

mained up to 1917 an essential part of it.

cles which were sent up for sale were critically examined, and any

All arti-

The Declaration of London, under which the navy attempted at first to enforce the blockade, proved mere filigree, entirely inapplicable to the intricacies of naval war. It represented an

tendency to bad or careless workmanship was quickly stopped.

attempt to reduce prize law to a code, and its effect was to render.

and achieving the sales were paid by the organization.

465

BLOCKADE

the British blockade of Germany futile up to March rors. | right null and void. The practice, however, involved some nice Under its rules food, cotton and all conditional contraband could legal points, such, for instance, as whether a shipsent into a har-

not be touched so long as they were discharging at neutral ports . such as Rotterdam or Copenhagen. One saving clause had been added in an Order of Council of Aug. 20 1914, which permitted some latitude by rendering such cargoes liable to capture if there were sufficient evidence of enemy destination. Unfortunately even this safeguard was swept away by a British Order in Council of Oct. 29 1914 which restricted seizure of conditional

contraband to goods consigned to “ order” or without a named consignee, a regulation which promptly produced.a vast crop of dummy neutral consignecs and rendered the blockade ineffective for five months. No further action was taken against food-stuffs, and for five months a succession of ships streamed daily through the Downs, bound for Holland and Scandinavia with food and cotton for Germany. Four cargoes only were placed in prize, whereupon the prize court in London proceeded to sweep all the veneer of rulcs away and adjudged that a “ named consignee ”

must be a bona fide and not a dummy consignee (British and Colonial Prize Cases, the “ Rijn, ” June 6 1917). The judgment has an important gencral bearing, forit constitutes a justification from the naval point of view of the estabhshed system of adjudication bya qualified court, where general principles are applied to particular cases in the light of experience and common

sense, compared with a system based on a code

operated by busy officials under a burdened Sccretary of State. It was not until March rr rors that the blockade was tightened up by a new British Order in Council, under which all goods with

encmy destination or of enemy origin became liable to seizure, and it was not till July 7 1916 that the broken shards of the dis-

credited Declaration of London were finally swept out of the way, It was not a code but machinery that was wanted, and by March 191g the machinery was beginning to take shape. The part

played by the British navy consisted in the interception and examination of ships, which was under the purvicw of the Trade

Division (Capt. Richard Webb) of the Admiralty. A British Contraband Committee, with representatives of the Admiralty (Capt. Horace Longden and Lt.-Comm, W. E. A. Arnold Forster), Forcign Office and Board of Trade, had been set up in 1914 to decide whether a ship or cargo was to be sent in for adjudication. Its necessary adjunct, a War Trade Intelligence Department to collect and collate information of ships and cargo, was established somewhat later. The code disappeared, and cach cargo was dealt with on its merits. The British naval work directly associated with the blockade fell under two heads—the work of the blockade squadrons at sca and the service of naval control. It was the function of the blockade squadrons to patrol the avenues to the occan, intercept neutral craft and send them into port for examination.

This was

the task of the roth Cruiser Squadron, one of the hardest tasks

bour by force majeure to be subjected fo visit and search comes

under the full force of municipal jurisdiction and of port regulations which would have subjected a huge Norwegian liner to

quarantine for a case of smallpox on board.

The patrol lines of the roth Cruiser Squadron stretched at first from Norway to the Shetlands (250 m.), but as the submarine menace extended they were moved to the westward and lay sometimes between Iceland and the Hebrides, sometimes between the Shetlands and Faroes (160 m.), and the Faroes to

Iceland (160 m.)

The average weekly number of ships inter-

cepted in 1915 was about 66, of which some 15 to 20 were sent weekly into. Kirkwall with an armed guard.

It was the duty of

the officer of the armed guard merely to ensure that the ship was steering a proper course, and he did not interfere in any way with the ordinary navigation or administration of the ship. Little has been written of the work of the roth C.S., but its dangerous nature can be gathered from the number of its ships lost by mine and submarine. In r915 its losses amounted to four. The “ Viknor” (Comm. E. O. Ballantyne) was lost with all hands, off the coast of Ireland (Jan. 13), probably on a mine; the

“ Clan Macnaughton ” was supposed to have foundered (Feb. 3);

the “ Bayano’” was sunk by U27 on March ir off Galloway;

the “India ” by U22 off the coast of Norway on Aug. 20. The “ Alcantara ” (Capt. Thos, E. Wardle), which sank the raider * Greif” on Feb. 29 r9x6, belonged too to this squadron, whose name was a houschold word in the blockade. The institution of the white-list and black-list, which gave an indication of a ship’s nature, and the issue of green clearances to neutral ships

sailing from British ports, facilitated the work of interception; and by March 1915 nearly all the more important neutral lines had agreed to call at Kirkwall or the Downs in order to avoid the «clay of being intercepted far out at sca and losing time in putting back. : In rors the number of vessels intercepted by the toth C. S. was 3,098, of which 743, or 24%, were sent into Kirkwall; the remainder, including 817 fishing vesscls and 408 British and Allied ships, were allowed to pass. During the same year 19 ships succeeded in evading the patrols, of which only cight were of real consequence, a comparatively small number in view of the

Jong northern nights full of wind and frost and snow. The port of control and detention in the North was Kirkwall, which provided a large enclosed harbour where ships could be safe from the sea and the enemy. The average number of ships calling and sent in was some two or three a day in 1915, but in the latter part of 1916, when Dutch traffic began to go north for a time, it rose to five or six.

The Downs (Comm. W. Moorsom and Capt. Walter Tomlin) was far the largest control station, and had the really immense

of the war and one which has received perhaps too scanty a meed of praise. The squadron consisted at first of Edgar class cruisers, but being unable to stand the terrific seas of the North Atlantic they were withdrawn and their place taken by large armed merchant cruisers (x8 in number, in Nov. 1914) under the command of Rear-Adml. Dudicy de Chair (succeeded in 1916 by Vice-Adml. Sir Reginald Tupper). In the South the conditions were different, The configuration of the coast, the fear of minefields and destroyer patrols off Dover resulted in all traffic being shepherded willy-nilly into the Downs; and this practically dispensed with

task of dealing with three-quarters of the neutral trade of north-

the difficult task of interception. The practice of performing the scarch of ships in harbour was an innovation, and it remains one of the outstanding lessons of the war that “‘ visit and search ” (if the scatch involves an effective cxamination of the cargo) cannot be effectively performed at sea, partly on account of the complexity and difficulty of the work under modern conditions, partly on account of the danger of submarine attack. Ships were accordingly sent into harbour to be searched, and though the dispatch of neutral ships into harbour was undoubtedly a considerable extension of the universally recognized right of visit and search, it was an extension inherent in the circumstances, for without it the search would have become ineffective and the

picked men the best part of 18 hours.

ern Europe. All the Channel traffic up and down had to be shepherded through, and here some ro to 15 neutral ships had to be examined daily. ‘The manifest was taken off, sent ashore, summarized (no light task in the case of big Dutch East Indies cargo ships) and telegraphed to the Contraband Committee. The ship outside the hold was searched for contraband and German mailbags, and some of the items in the hold were examined and com-

pared with the manifest.

To examine and search a large liner

and the luggage of some 500 passengers took 10 officers and 20

German women were

searched by lady searchers and allowed to go on. Meanwhile the manifest was examined by the Contraband Committee in the light of the knowledge they had of ships, cargoes, consignors and consignees, and instructions sent to clear the ship or to send her in to discharge all or a portion.of her cargo, or to detain her till guarantees were received. The ordinary period of detention for ships eastward bound was one to three days, for ships westward

bound a day or less. A smaller control station at Falmouth re: lieved the Downs of a portion of its burden. The power of naval interception, visit and search, was in itself a powerful form of pressure, for neutral shipping companies in

466

BLOEMFONTEIN—BLOMFIELD

order to avoid delay preferred to send lists of their cargo in advance and to make reciprocal arrangements for rapid clearance.

got as far as the sea, and the blockade was practically transformed into. an embargo.

It was, however, only a single weapon in the armoury of eco-

The final cutting edge of the blockade in 1917 and 1918. was

ship and cables, all found their place there, and formed the basis of agreements with large corporations of merchants formed for

Liverpool and New York. The ships of the roth ©. S. left their stormy beats to do convoy work. The Downs and Kirkwall languished, and the control services were transferred to Halifax, Jamaica and Sierra Leone. | The fact that many forms of economic pressure contributed to the blockade must not blind us to the fact that they were to a large extent aspects of sca power. Thus, bunker control, a powerful lever of the blockade, was enforced by the British Customs and Board of Trade, but the British coaling bases abroad had been won by sea power and remained dependent on sea power,

nomic pressure. Control of bunker coal, shipping insurance, censor- | enforced not at sea but on the custom house quays at Boston,

the purpose, such as the Netherlands Oversea Trust (N.O.T.)

for Holland, the Danish Merchants Guild for Denmark, the Société Suisse de Surveillance Economique (S.S.S.) for Switzerland. Sweden took a different line and made all such agreements illegal, maintaining this attitude till April 1917. She was beyond the reach of British sea power, and the Lulea iron-ore trade, though attacked ‘with considerable effect by British submarines in 1915-6, remained the principal stay of the German munition industry.

= The fundamental problem ‘of a blockade of this type is to discriminate between enemy and neutral destination, and the two principal systems of discrimination

may

be termed

the

“Intelligence” or “evidential” system and the “ Rationing” or Statistical system. In the first, particular cargoes or items in a cargo become suspect if there is any evidence of enemy dealings. In the second, the whole mass of importation becomes suspect immediately it rises above the normal average of imports. The

blockade emphasized the weakness of the former system, which required enormous labour and specialized knowledge to keep track ‘of possible enemy dealings, and as early as Jan. 1915 the “ Ra-

tioning ” or statistical system was being advocated, and it was proposed that carcful account should be kept of the imports of all important commodities, and when the import figures to any

neutral country rose high above the average for no accountable cause, 2 plea for confiscation should arise. To keep these statis-

tics, which were largely based on the manifests, the War Trade Statistical Department in London came into being, and in 1916

Where the arm of the British navy could not stretch the blockade broke down. The fronticrs of Rumania were impervious to it and enabicd Germany to hold out during 1917. To the last the Lulea iron-ore trade remained a menace, for sea power could not reach so far. In its bulk the blockade remained an expression. of sca power, with the imminence of the Grand Fleet going and

coming ccaselessly behind it in the North Sea. BLOEMFONTEIN (sce 4.74).—Pop. (1tor8): coloured (estimated) 16,000.

(A, C. D.) whites r5,63r,

The most centrally situated town

in South Africa, Bloemfontein is the great market for the

agricultural and pastoral produce of the Free State,

The

annual sale of pure-bred stud stock, held in Sept., is the principal fixture of the kind in South Africa; in 1920 the pedigree stock sold realized £283,000. The growth of the town during 1910-20 was largely due to the progressive policy of the municipality, which provided it with an ample supply of water, clectric light, an electric trackless tramway system, modern sewerage system and other public services. In. rg18 the rateable value of the municipality was £3,895,000, its revenue

the principle of rationing was adopted by the Minister of Blockade as the fundamental tenet of his system. But here a difficulty

£182,000 and its indebtedness £803,000.

arose which was never completely solved. Legal sanction for condemnation was difficult to obtain on the basis of figures alone, for statistics supplied no direct evidence of enemy destination and

style), the National museum, the Normal and Polytechnic Colleges, Grey University College, the Government Buildings (which replace those burned down in 1908) and the Legislative Council Chambers (the seat of the Appellate Court). A monument to the women and children who died in concentration camps during the war of 18991902 was erected in 1913 near the Show ground. The principal workshops of the Union railways are situated in the town of Blocmfontein,

the system had to be largely operated by means of assurances

and agreements. But, in spite of difficulties, by the middle of 1916 the blockade was becoming really effective. It began with an excellent. (but specious) code and no machinery; it ended with

excellent machinery.and no code. There can be no question that the World War has greatly modified our conceptions of blockade. One of its most important

Among modern buildings are the new Law Courts (in the classical

Grey College, incorporated as a university college in 1910, has been since 1918 the principal constituent college of the university

of South Africa. Besides the university college the institution includes high schools for boys and girls, and the buildings stand in grounds covering 300 acres. At Glen, 14 m. N. is an agricultural college, opened in 14919, with an experimental! farm of 4,000 acres,

lessons is that discrimination between belligerent and neutral destination is possible and can be enforced: without friction, if

There is a military station at Tempe, 4 m. from the centre of the

neutral trade. Mercantile coöperation can then be invoked with official approval to.supply the machinery for such assurance. This does not mean the legal prohibition of contraband trade,

which sought, and failed, to find a basis for vereentging (union) between the two great Dutch parties in the Union, the South African

town, and here is the Defense College for Officers. only the principle be admitted that a belligerent who controls | Its central position makes Bloemfontein a favourite mectingplace for conventions and congresses, educational, agricultural and the sea is entitled to ask for evidence or assurance of genuine

but it means that such trade would gravitate into particular ships which would have to run the blockade. As the sphere |

of agreements and economic action extended, the réle of the

political,

Here was held, in the autumn of 1920, the. conference

and the Nationalist.,

BLOMFIELD, SIR REGINALD (1856and author,

was

born

Dec.

20.1856

},English architect at Aldington in Kent,

fleet diminished, though there still remained ccrtain sections of

of which parish his father was rector,

trade cither immune from attack or which could be reached only by the fleet. -Examples of such scctions of trade were the German iron-ore trade with Lulea in the Baltic Sea, and

took his degree with a frst class in literac humaniores in 1879.

the iron-ore trade with Narvik in Norway. A score or so of German ships were engaged in the latter, passing down the Norwegian coast inside Norwegian waters, but there were two areas, one off Statlandet and the other off Ekersund, where they

He was cducated at

Haileybury and at Oxford as a scholar of Exeter College. He

On leaving Oxford he was for three years in the architectural office of his uncle, Sir Arthur Blomfield, and also studied in the

Royal Academy School of Architecture. He was here largely influenced by Norman Shaw, to whose work and example, as also to those of Philip Webb, his own work owed much. After

had to Icave neutral waters, and these were periodically visited, | travelling abroad in 1883, he started a practice in London in though not permanently patrolled. Ships were also constantly 1884. He became, one of the secretaries of the Art Workers passing from Rotterdam to Germany, and it was not till Guild, and also of the Arts and Crafts Society, The Gothic and Mediaeval tradition of his uncle's office had but little effect on 1917 that determined efforts were made to stop this trade. In 1917, when the United States came into the war, the block- his work as an architect, which rather follows the classical spirit ade underwent a great change. The Aled Powers in conjunction and the inspiration derived from the later Renaissance architecwith the United States now possessed an almost complete con- ture of England. This is shown notably in his country-houses, trol of many of the principal commodities, and the combined amongst which are Moundsmere, Basingstoke; Wyphurst, pressure they exerted was so tremendous that the goods never Cranleigh; and Uretham Hall, Norfolk. He also carried out

467

BLUE SKY LAWS—BOLIVIA alterations to existing houses at Brocklesby Park, Lincs.; Apethorpe, Northants.; Chequers Court, Bucks. and elsewhere. Amongst his London work are the United University Club, Pall Mall; the Goldsmiths’ College, New Cross; the London and County Bank; the Imperial War Cross, Chelsea; and Paul’s

ate of Wadham College, Oxford, he became a fellow of Oricl, and in 1882 professor of Greek and principal of Yorkshire College, Leeds. It was owing to his efforts that the college was endowed

and chartered in 1903 as a university.

He

died at Leeds

May 132 1911. l BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851-1914), Austrian econo-

Cross, St. Paul’s Churchyard. At Oxford he built the new buildings for Lady Margaret Hall, and at Bath the Holbourne mist and statesman (see 4.f12), died in ror4. BÖHM-ERMOLLI, EDUARD, FREIHERR von (1856- č ), Museum. With Sir Aston Webb and Ernest Newton he was appointed to advise as to the architectural treatment of the Austro-Hungarian field-marshal, was born in 1856 at Ancona, Quadrant, Regent Street, London, and he designed a portion then an Austrian garrison town. He entered the army, serving in the cavalry and on the gencral staff. In the World War he of the facade. As. author, Sir R. Blomfield is known by various important commanded the 2nd Army, fighting first in Serbia, then against volumes of history and criticism. His Academy School Lectures the Russians in Galicia and Poland. In the operation of the were published in 1908 as The Mistress Art. His Formal Garden pursuit of the enemy after the battle of Gorlice he captured in England (1892), published in collaboration with F. Inigo the Galician capital, Lemberg, on June 22 1915. He also Thomas, did much to make known the claim of the architect to played a distinguished pari in the summer offensive of 1917. consider as his right not only the design of the building but of the After the conclusion of the peace of Brest-Litovsk he marched into the Ukraine, and directed from Odessa the measures for surroundings in which it was sect, His History of Renaissance Architecture in England (1897) and his successive works on turning to account the resources of that country. In numerous French Architecture (1911 and 1921) are accepted by students as battles Béhm-Ermolli showed his capacity as a general in the textbooks, and their illustrations show the author’s considerable field, and was highly appreciated by the Germans. BOISBAUDRAN, PAUL EMILE FRANCOIS LECOQ DE (1838powers as a black-and-white artist. Sir R. Blomfield was elected A.R.A. in roos, and R.A. in 1912), French chemist, was born at Cognac in 1838. He was the discoverer of gallium in 1875 and a student of spectroscopics 1914, in which latter year he was also made Officier de l’Instruction publique by the French Government. He was professor of architecture at the Royal Academy from 1906 to 1910. He was elected president of the R.I.B.A. in 1914, and received its Gold

generally, on which he wrote several treatises. Some details as to hig work appear in 5.761; 6.46; 8.208; 11.421, 777. He died in Paris May 31 1912.

Medal in 1913. As an old member of the Inns of Court volunteers, at the

June 10 1918.

commencement of the World War he received a commission as officer in charge of trench work. At its termination he was appointed a principal architect of the Imperial War Graves Commission, and he was one of the chief designers of various forms of local war memorial. In 1906 he was made hon. fellow of his college, and in 1920 Liverpool University conferred on him the hon. degree of Litt-D. He was knighted in r9rg in recognition of his work as architect and author.

BLUE SKY LAWS.—This name is popularly applicd.in the United States to those statutes enacted in many states to protect from fraud purchasers of stocks and bonds. The first Blue Sky law was passed in Kansas in rgrr, requiring investment companies among other things to file with the Secretary of State a full description of their business and forbidding them

to scll securities until authorized by the bank commissioner.

Following the Kansas modcl, within two ycars no fewer than 18

other states had enacted similar legislation, and by the close of 1919 some form of Blue Sky law was to be found in 44 states. Requirements- vary in the different states, but in every case information must be filed with a designated official or commission and licence obtained. In 1914 there developed considerable opposition to such legislation. Its constitutionality was attacked on the ground that it violated the commerce clause of the Federal Constitution; that it delegated legislative and judicial power to an executive official; that it deprived citizens

of liberty and property without due process of law. In three states, Michigan, Iowa and Ohio, these contentions were upheld by the lower courts; but in 1917 the U.S. Supreme Court decided that such laws were constitutional on the ground that “prevention of deception is within the competency of government.” BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (1840_—+), English writer (sce 4.93), published a complete edition of his poetical works in 1914 and two volumes of My Diaries (1919 and 1920). His wife, Lady Anne Blunt, became Baroness Wentworth on the death of her niece, the daughter of the 13th Baron and 2nd Earl of

Lovelace, in 1917.

She completed a History of the Arabian

Horse just before her death in Egypt Dec. 25 1917.

She was

succeeded in the title by her daughter Judith Anne Dorothea, wife of Neville Stephen Lytton (b. 1879), 4th son of the, ist Earl of Lytton. BODINGTON, SIR NATHAN (1848~z911), vice-chancellor of Leeds University, was born at Aston May 2g 1848. A gradu-

BOITO, ARRIGO (1842-1918), Italian poct (see 4.155), died

BOLDREWOOD, ROLF, the pen name of Thomas Alexander Anglo-Australian novelist, was born in and was educated at Sydney College,

Browne (1826-1915), London Aug. 6 1826 N.S.W. He had an successively a sheep

adventurous early life in Australia, being farmer, a pioneer squatter in Victoria

and police magistrate and warden of goldficlds till 1895. These

varied colonial experiences furnished him with material for his long series of bushranging novels, of which Robbery under Arms is the most widely known. This book was published in 1888 in London after it had run as a serial in the Sydney Maul. Amongst his other books are The Miner's Right (1890); A

Modern Buccanecr (1894); The Babes in the Bush (1900) and A. Tale of the Golden West (1906). He died at South Yarra, Melbourne, March rr 1915. BOLIVIA (sce 4.166).—No census had been taken up to 1921 since

the rough enumeration

inhabitants.

of 1900 indicating

1,816,271

In rọrọ a Bolivian publicist estimated the pop. at

1,744,568. An official estimate in 1920 sct the pop. at 2,500,000.

The inhabitants are scattered through eight departments and three “ national colonial territories,” the most densely populated region being the department of La Paz. The pop. of the city of La Paz in 1920 was estimated at 107,252. Government.—The fundamental law of Bolivia was in 1921 still the constitution adopted in 1880. In Igro some changes

were made in the official nomenclature of towns and cities; and in 1914 a law was promulgated which abolished vice-cantons. Although—according to the statutes—Sucré is still the capital of Bolivia and remains the seat of her Supreme Court, the seat of government is the city of La Paz, where the National Congress

assembles regularly, the members of the Cabinet have their bureaus, and where the president of the republic lives. Communications.~In accordance with the Treaty of Petropolis,

(1903), the Brazilian Government began in Aug. 1907 to construct a railway round the series of cataracts in the Madcira and Mamorérivers, from Sao Antonio on the Madcira river to Guajara Mérim,

on the Mamoré river (Brazil). The Madcira~-Mamoré railroad was formally opened to trafic on July 15 1912. Bolivia then undċr-

took to build a line between the Bolivian towns of Guajara Mérim and Riberalta on the Beni river, in order to link her rubberproducing region with Amazonian navigation. In accordance with Bolivia’s treaty of 1904 with Chile, that Government constructed a railway from Arica to La Paz, which was completed May 13 1913. Thus Bolivia was furnished with a direct route to the Pacific.

An electric railway, financed by New York capitalists, was being constructed in 1921 from La Paz to Corioco in the Yungas region,

BOLIVIA

468 and is to be extended to Puerto Pando.

The Antoragasta and

Oruro railway now reaches La Paz by its own tracks.

has been constructed from Rio Mulato to Potosi.

A branch line

In Nov. 1916

Bolivia, 750,000; the Banco Garantizador de Valores, 100,000; and the Banco Hipolecario Nacional, 100,000.

the Bolivian Government began the construction of a difficult spur from Potosi to Sucré. Another branch from Oruro to Cochabamba was inaugurated in July 1917. A most important road was being constructed in 1921 between Uyuni and Tupiza near the Argentine

by Elidoro Villazén, Under him

automobile service had been established between Atocha and La

Ismacl Montes was again inaugurated president on Aug. 6

frontier: trains were running betweea Uyunt and Atocha, while

Quiaca (Argentina).

Many miles of new telegraph lines have been

built. Between July 1912 and Oct. 1916 the Marconi Telegraph Co.

erected wircless stations at several points in Bolivia,

On Oct.

20 1916 the first wireless message from La Paz was received in Lima,

Commerce.—Official figures show that in 1908 the total imports of

Bolivia amounted to 40,807,856 bolivianos ese below under Money and Banking), while her exports came to 48,925,616. In 1915 the imports were 22,574,566 bolivtanos; the exports 95,210,350, The countries taking the largest amounts of the exports were, in order: Great. Britain, the United States, Argentina, France and Chile,

while the countries furnishing the largest amounts of the imports

were the United States, Peru, Great Britain, Chile and Argentina,

History—On

Aug, 6 1909, President Montes was succeeded

much

economic progress

took place: foreign commerce and national revenues increased,

and

railway

and

telegraph

lines

were constructed.

Gen..

1913. During his new administration Bolivia felt the effects of the World War; there was a marked decline in her im.

ports. Increased attention was paid to the mining of copper, tin and wolfram. Jos¢ N. Gutiérrez Guerra, a Liberal who had served as Secretary of Finance under Montes, was inaugurated president in Aug. 1917.

Shortly afterwards the agita-

tion for an outlet to the Pacific reached an acute stage.

In

July 1920, because of intense opposition to his policy which apparently aimed at a rapprochement with Chile, Guerra was

forced to resign, and was escorted out of Bolivia by way of Arica. Early in the following year Bautista Saavedra, a Republican, was clected president. He was inaugurated Jan. 24,864,796. The chief articles imported into Bolivia in 1918 were 29 1921. valued as follows, in bolivianos: food products and beverages, 8,957,367; manufactured articles, 16,229,072; raw and_ slightly | According to a treaty with Peru, Sept. 17 1009, a sur vey of the Bolivian-Peruvian boundary was begun by a mixed wrought materials, 7,022,630; live animals, 2,040,632, The most The imports for 1918 amounted to 34,999,886 bolivianos, while the exports came to 182,612,850. This was an increase over the preceding year in imports of 1,519,055 bolivianos and in exports of

important articles of export were tin, 129,611,139 bolivianos, rubber, 11,038,042, wolfram, 10,591,429, and silver, 7,491,421. As con-

trasted with 1915 the figures for 1918 show that the

United States

had increased her imports from Bolivia about 200%, while Great Britain had increased hers about 37 %; the figures for 1918 also show that the value of the imports of Bolivia from Great Britain had

increased slightly, while imports from the United States had grown more than 137 op

:

Army.—The Bolivian soldiery is composed of the regular army

and the reserves. Ordinarily the number of soldiers belonging to the regular army is fixed by Congress each year; in 1914 it was placed

at 4,600 men. All male citizens between 19 and 49 years of age are compelled to serve in the regular army or in the reserves. The reserves in 1914 were estimated at 187,178 men. Education.—A Bolivian sociologist declared in 1910 that less than 13% of his fellow-countrymen could read. Primary instruction is still managed by towns and cities, Considerable attention has recently been paid to the establishment of rural schools, as well as to the instruction of aborigines in the Spanish language. According

to a report of the Secretary of Public Instruction, there were in-1916

about 450 primary schools in the Republic. In 1919 some 60,000 pupils were attending primary, secondary and normal schools, Secondary education is mainly carried on in colegios nacionales or in private academies. Methodists from the United States have founded an ‘‘ American Institute ” at La Paz, and also at Cochabamba: these academics.are probably the best secondary schools in Bolivia. Bolivian teachers are mostly trained at four normal schools,

the more important of these being at La Paz and Sucré,

education

Higher

in Bolivia is peculiarly organized; for in addition to

ecclesiastical seminarics, each department has at its capital an institution which is styled a university. Certain of these institutions have few university students:

w oeny

theology.

their instruction is mainly secondary.

of La Paz furnishes instruction in law, medicine and

Pinan early in 1908 Bolivia had only composed of bonds of various sorts. In Dec. public negotiated a loan with J, P. Morgan amounting to £500,000. Subsequently three

a small internal debt of that year the Re& Co. of New York loans were floated in

France to secure funds to promote banking enterprises; and another

loan was raised in the United States for the construction of the rail-

way from Tupiza to La Quiaca. Bolivia’s proposed budget for 1919

estimated the revenue at 39,089,000 bolivianos, and the expenditure at the same amount. Proposed expenditures by departments were

as follows in bolivianos: Treasury, 14,600,000; War, 6,300,000; Interior and Public Improvements, 5,500,000; Public Instruction,

3,100,000; Justice, 1,870,000; Worship, 58,000; and other expendi-

tures, 7,661,000. On June 30 1919 the total foreign debt was £3,114,682, The internal debt was composed of bonds aggregating 19,456,165 bolivianos, and a floating debt of 10,477,471 bolivianos. Money and Banking.—By a law of Dec. 31 £908 Bolivia virtually adopted the gold standard. Her monetary unit is the boliviano, which when at par is the equivalent of $0,380, U.S. currency. Both the English £ and the Peruvian bra (pound) are legal tender and ordinarily circulate at the equivalent of 12:50 bolivianos. A considerable amount of paper money is in

circulation.

Silver coins of 50 and 20 centavos circulate, as well as

nickel and copper coins of smaller value. In 1919 the Anuario Estadistico listed the banks of Bolivia with capital in bolivianos as

commission in June 1910. By tors the commission had virtually completed the demarcation of limits, and wooden posts had been set up to mark the boundary. In the following

year the two governments agreed to replace those posts by pillars of iron. Commissioners, appointed in accordance with the Treaty of Petropolis (1903), to survey the boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil, had by 1920 practically completed the task of demarcation. According to the protocol between Bolivia and Argentina dated Sept. 15 1911, surveys of the Bolivian-Argentine boundary line, which had been suspended since Oct. 1902, were resumed in 1913, and a joint com-

mission placed iron stakes along parts of the line. A treaty signed at Asunción on April 5 1913 between Bolivia and Paraguay provided that their boundary dispute should be adjusted by direct negotiations. Commissioners of the parties

soon undertook negotiations, documents were submitted in support of the respective claims, but no definitive decision had been reached in May 1921. Bolivia asserts a claim to territory on the right bank of the river, Paraguay from the mouth of the Pilcomayo river at least as far as lat. 22° S. Early in the World War, Bolivia showed her sympathy with the cause of the Allies. Some young Bolivians proceeded to Europe and enlisted under the French flag. In Feb. 1917 Bolivia issued an invitation to the American nations asking them to unite in a declaration that submarine attacks upon neutral merchant vessels were contrary to all law. On April 13

1917 her Secretary of Foreign Relations gave the German envoy at La Paz his passports, declaring that, as a steamship navigating neutral waters with the Bolivian minister to Berlin on board had been torpedoed by a German submarine, the Government of Bolivia could no longer maintain diplomatic

relations with the Imperial Government.

Bolivia was repre-

sented at the Versailles Peace Conference, and on June 28 1919 her representative signed the Treaty of Peace with Ger-

many. The Bolivian Government ratified the treaty on Nov. 16 1919. As a signatory of that treaty Bolivia became an original member of the League of Nations. The question of an outlet to the Pacific raised by the territorial cessions of Bolivia to Chile as the result of the “ War of the Pacific,” was in 1921 a crucial international problem. The

policy of Bolivia under various presidents had been to secure the sovereignty over territory containing an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. At times she had wished to secure the return

from Chile of her former department upon the Pacific; at other times by negotiations with Chile she had aimed to acquire at least a portion of the former provinces of Tacna and Arica.

Ex-President Montes, who was dispatched to France as Minister

follows, the Banco Nacional de Bolivia, 9,000,000; the Banco de le | of Bolivia by President Gutierrez Guerra, presented to the Nacién Boliviano, 18,962,500; the Banco Mercantil, 10,000,000; the Peace Conference a plea that his country should be given an

Banco Francisco Argandofta, 4,000,000; the Credit Hipotecaria de ‘outlet through Tacna.

Evidently the new Bolivian régime was `

BOLO—BOMBTHROWERS

of a compact minority. The combination proved admirably adapted in Russia for the practical purpose of the overthrow of the previously existing order. Theoretically it was a compound of contradictory

BIBLIOGRAPHY.~—-Anuario de Leyes, Resoluciones y Disposiciones

Supremas (República de a (1911); Anuario Nacional Estadístico y Geogrdfico dé Bolivia (1917-9); Boletin de la Oficina Na-

elements. This was clearly discerned and exposed by a leading Marxist writer, Kautsky. He said in his book on the Dictatorship of the Proletariat:—

cional de Estadistica (1910-5); Comercio Especial de Bolivia, Exportación, Importación, Bancos, 10915-1016; E. Diaz de Medina, Bolivia,

Breve Resumen Histórico, Fisico y Politico (1914); Informe y Anexos del Ministerio de Instrucción Publica y Agricultura (1916-9); Memoria presentada al Congreso Ordinario . . . el Ministro de Rela-

_ ‘The Socialist party which governs Russia to-day gained power

in fighting against other Socialist parties, and exercises its authority

ciones Exteriores y Cullo (1910-9); Ministerio de Hacienda, Memoria presentada & la Legislatura (1911-9); Mensaje del Presidente

while excluding other Socialist parties from the executive.

“ The antagonism of the two Socialist movements is not based on

Constitucional de la República al Congreso (1910-9); Monthiy Bulletin of the International Bureau of. ihe American Republics (191021); Pan-American Union, Boltvta, General Descriptive Data a P. Walie, Bolivia: Its People and Its Resources, etc.

1914).

469

class, the power of revolutionary instinct and the dictatorship

in 1921 in harmony with the Peruvian Government with regard to the question. Bolivia’s aspirations had apparently again turned toward the “ revindication ” of Antofagasta.

small persona! jealousies:

it is the clashing of two fundamentally

distinct methods, that of democracy and that of dictatorship. “ For us, therefore, Socialism without democracy is unthinkable.”

Kautsky had no difficulty in showing that, in consequence

(W. S. Ro.)

of this fundamental flaw, the practical results of Soviet rule

BOLO, PAUL (d. 1918), French financial agent and traitor, was born at Réunion, of humble parentage. He became at an

were deplorable. It was obliged to work by means of an unwieldy bureaucracy :—

early age a dentist in Marscilles, and afterwards appears for

“The absolute rule of bureaucracy leads to its ossification, to

many years to have lived by his wits. In 1905 he made a biga- arbitrariness and stultification. The forcible suppression of all opposition is its guiding principle. How can a dictatorship remain mous marriage with the rich widow of a Bordeaux wine merchant. at the helm against the will of the majority of the people? He entertained lavishly in Paris and Biarritz, and was received “ in circumstances where the majority of the population mistrust

by many influential people, in spite of the fact that he underwent a term of imprisonment for fraud in connexion with one of his financial transactions. In 1914 Bolo met in Paris Abbas Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt, to whom he proposed various financial schemes, and the Khedive bestowed upon him the title of Pasha. On the outbreak of the World War Bolo appears to have entered into communication with German agents for the purpose of supporting a “ defeatist ?? movement in certain Paris newspapers, In 1913-6 he travelled in the United States, and received considerable sums, amounting to over £300,000, from representatives of Count Bernstorff, at the time German ambassador to Washington. During 1917, however, the French Government under M. Clemenccau displayed much energy in hunting down treasonable conspiracies, and in Sept. r917 Bolo was arrested. His trial by court-martial, begun on Feb. 4 1918, ended in his being found guilty of treason. Attempts were made to connect M. Caillaux with Bolo’s proceedings, and Cuaillaux’s acquaintance with the adventurer was brought

up later to his discredit at his own trial in 1920,

A sensa-

tional feature of Bolo’s trial was the appearance of Monsignor Bolo, brother of the accused and a well-known preacher in Paris, as a witness for the defense, though as he had hardly

the proletarian party, or stand aloof from it, this attitude would be

~shared by the bulk of the intellectuals.

In that case, a victorjous

party would not only be without great intellectual superiority to the rest of the people, but would even be inferior to its opponents in this regard, although its outlook in gencral social matters might be a ‘much higher one. “The method of Paraguay is therefore not practicable in Europe. There remains to be considered the method adopted by Napoleon the First on Brumaire 18 1799, and his nephew, the third Napoleon, on Dec. 2 1852, This consists in governing by the aid of the superiority of a centralized, organization to the unorganized masses of the people, and the superiority of military power, arising from the fact

|

that the armed force of the Government is opposed to a people who are defenseless or tired of the armed struggle. Can a Socialist system of production be built up on this foundation? This means the organization of production by society, and requires economic self-government throughout the whole mass of the people. State organization of production by a bureaucracy, or by the dictatorship of a single section of the people, does not mean Socialism. Socialism presupposes that broad masses of the people have been accustomed to organization, that numerous economic and

political organizations exist, and can develop in perfect freedom. The Socialist organization of Labour is not an affair of barracks,”

No wonder that Lenin and Trotsky were highly incensed by Kautsky’s criticism. They excommunicated him as a traitor to the cause, along with other Socialist Icaders. But it was significant that they had to adopt the badge of ‘' Communism ” in order to mark their precise position in the field of rival doctrines. They had ceased to be Socialists in the accepted

seen his brother for thirty years, his evidence was of small value. Bolo was sentenced to death and shot at Vincennes, April 17 1918. BOLSHEVISM, the name given since the Russian revolution to the form of Communism adopted under the Soviet system of government. Bolshevism as a doctrine and an organization is not of purcly Russian growth; it is a branch of European Communism. ‘She development of the latter is discussed in the article COMMUNISM. The earliest and most powerful expression of modern Communism is to be found in the Communist Manifesto drawn up by K. Marx and F, Engels in 1847. This Manifesto has remained a kind of gospel for extreme Communists, and its pronouncements served as a guidance in the attempt of the Russian Bolsheviks (Russian for “ Majority ” party) to

article Russia. BOMBTHROWERS.—When, contrary to all expectation, and therefore to all ideas that had governed war preparations, the World War, instead of reaching its decision in the open field,

create a Communist republic in Russia.

mortars and trench guns, many types of which were loosely

Another

element

in

sense of the term.

j

The course taken by Bolshevist rule in Russia is narrated in the

came to the deadlock of trench warfare, there arose a demand for

short-range engines which could throw bombs to a greater distance than was possible by hand, or, alternatively, could throw heavier bombs to the same distance.

Eventually this need was met by the development of trench

the circle of ideas appropriated by the Bolsheviks was provided called bombthrowers, but all of which are differentiated from by the activity of Bakunin, the indefatigable Russian anarchist, bombthrowers in the sense here meant by the fact that they used who fought for world revolution in 1849 in Dresden and in 1870 an explosive propellant. These are dealt with under TRENCH in Lyons, and who passed 12 years of his life in prison and in ORDNANCE. But in the first phases of trench warfare such ordexile. He was an admirer of Marx’s learning and analytical nance either did net exist at all or existed only in such small power, but he would never submit to the tyrannical pedantry numbers andin so imperfect a form, that for the needs of day-byof Marx’s school and stood up for an elemental awaking of day trench warfare along the front temporary substitutes were revolutionary instincts. State and law were enemies to be evolved. To these substitutes the name “ Bombthrower ” is— fought and overthrown without any regard for tradition or so far as army usage is concerned—restricted. They relied for their propulsive effort, like ancient and mediacpractical considerations. A third element was Introduced by the rise of militant syndicalism in France (sce SyNDICALISM). val engines, on the energy of springs. In some cases the spring These three currents combined to produce the three fundamental was a system of powerful rubber pieces put in tension when the ideas of Bolshevism: the conquest of society. by the proletariat weapon was cocked and suddenly released by the pulling of a

BOMBTHROWERS

479

trigger. In one case the source of power was an assemblage of coiled springs. In others, the rubber was replaced by a system of wire which, on being bent out of shape, stored up the power to

The ‘ West” spring gun, used by the British

reassert itself. In another, perhaps the last evolved during the

army in 1915 and to some extent in 1916, was a heavier and more powerful weapon. It derived its energy from a group of strong coiled springs; for extreme range, no less than 28 of these springs

war and certainly one of the most ingenious, centrifugal force was utilized, without previous storage of power. Under the heading of bombthrowers as above defined should also come the class of pneumatic guns, certain representatives

the throwing-arm which carries

of which figured in the war on both sides, but owing to the general similarity of these to normal (¢.c. explosive-propellant) trench

were brought into action, The gencral principle of action is shown in fig. 2. AÁ e weapon having been well bedded

in with sandbags for steadiness, the bomb-cup is forced back-

: ahs tS

ordnance they arc treated along with the latter.

In naval usage, on the contrary, the term is applied to explosive-propeliant derivatives of trench ordnance which were mounted on trawlers and other craft for the purpose of attacking submarines. ‘The object was to throw for a certain distance very heavy charges of explosive that, equipped with a hydrostatic fuze, would act in the same way as depth charges. These bombthrowers are dealt with under Oronance: Naval Gunnery. Ieched2 10S

FIG. 2.

wards and downwards, against the resistance of the springs, by means of a long lever inserted in an appropriate position for leverage. When the“ trigger bar” on this arm engages with a member called the trigger hook (visible in the drawing under the bomb-cup arm}, the gai is cocked. The long lever 1s removed, a bomb placed in the bomb-cup, and the gun is then fired by pressing on the hori-

zontal lever which actuates the trigger release. ‘Phis disengages the trigger hook from the trigger bar, and under the force of the springs the throwing-arm, carrying the bomb, flies up. The range obtained with this weapon using a 2 lb, bomb was about 240 yd., 24 springs

FIG, I.

| The first form of catapult to become a regulation weapon in the British army in France was the ‘‘ Leach,” used in 1915-6, This was a strong forked wooden frame (fig. 1) about 7 ft. in length from front

only being in action. Variation of range was obtained, as in the catapults, by varying the tension, but also, in this case, by adjustments of the position of the bomb in its cup. The West spring gun was

an

ingenious

design, which

probably

comes

near the limit of

efficiency obtainable in applying the force of springs to an act of throwing. But it was heavy, and not very easily managed, and re-

to rear, the width at the splayed end or fork being about 1 ft. 10 in. Near the ends of the forked arms or “ horns” were attached two sets of powerful rubbers, the rubbers of each set being firmly bound

quired as large an emplacement as a trench mortar. The Minucciani bombthrower, though it appeared late in the war—after trench engines of the 1915 type had had their day—-was

were attached to the pouch or bomb receptacle of the catapult, which, when the rubbers were out of tension (and the pouch therefore in its forward position), was about 1 ft. ọ in. from the front of the fork. When, in order to fire, the rubbers were pulled back to

a large metal casing, circular, supported on a pedestal. Inside the casing was a revolving member, formed somewhat after the fashion of a centrifugal pump. Grenades of a special design (dise percuasion)

extreme tension the pouch was less than a foot from the tail end

when the pump was operated by turning a handle, they were expelled by centrifugal force through another opening in the casing. Extraor-

together at the extremities. Theinner ends of these sets of rubbers

of the frame. This pulling back was effected by a wire attached to

the rear of the pocket, which passed round a pulley on the tail to a

gear-box on ihe underside of the frame.

a winding-handle, gear,

and

This gear-box contained

a retaining-pawl; when

the handle

was turned, the wire was drawn into the gear-box (the pawl pre-

venting

its

unwinding)

and

the

rubbers

extended.

between

the pouch and the

A

bomb

was then placed in the pouch, and on the word or signal to fire a

trigger release broke the connexion

wire, and the rubbers, reasserting themselves violently, propelled

the bomb,

With a heavy type of grenade weighing 14 lb. the Leach catapult

was capable with new rubbers of a range of 200 yd., and like other

bhombthrowers

it pee

the important

advantage, as against

trench mortars, of invisibility and silence in action. disadvantage, the rapid wear

The main

of the rubbers, could be overcome

by the frequent issue of replacements,

the rubbers

being re-

garded as “ consumable ” stores, There was, however, a limit to. the practical usefulness of this cheap and efficient weapon. Its

ranging powers were unnecessarily great for grenade work proper

and not great enough for the tasks which came to be assigned to the trench mortar, Accordingly, a lighter and more portable weapon

of the same type was designed later by Capt. G. H. Wicks of the

British Trench Warfare Department. This was casily portable and manageable by one man, and ranged, with the 13 lb. bomb, to about roo yards. It was, however, not used in the field, as the line had by that time (i916) been drawn clearly between trench-ordnance projectiles and grenades. The heavy 14 Ib.-2 Ib. grenade having ceased to exist, the necessity for a weapon to propel it ceased also. : The catapult of the French army, known as the ” Sauterelle,” was smaller and more portable, but correspondingly less powerful, than the Leach, It was a magnified crossbow, acting by the reassertion of

springs bent in cocking.

probably the most efficient and ingenious weapon of its class. It was

were fed into the “ pump ” through an opening in the casing, and dinarily high rates of fire combined with accuracy were obtained

with this machine, which could throw the bombs practically as fast

as they could be fed in, while, owing to their shape, the grenades themselves ranged well. Other types of engine developed in the war for throwing grenades

differed fundamentally from these in that an explosive propellant was employed. Setting aside certain throwers which are hardly distinguishable from light trench mortars (for which see TRENCH

ORDNANCE) and throwing-devices attached to the service rifle (see GRENADE), there remains a type in which the grenade is formed with a sleeve tail and the thrower consists essentially of a peg over which this sleeve fits, the propellant charge being loaded into the sleeve. The action is thus exactly the reverse of that of a gun or trench

mortar. An engine of this type, known as the “ Hay fore howitzer,” was experimented with in Great Britain but never adopted as a service store. The Belgian “ Van Deuren”’ type and the German Granatwerfer, on the contrary, were both used in large numbers and the latter especially played a part not only in trench warfare but in the open warfare of 1918 in which it was carried by the infantry in their advance for the purpose of reducing machine-gun nests, The Granatwerfer of the German army was issued on a large scale,

12 being allowed for cach infantry regiment, ‘There were two models, of which the later, that of 1916, is here described. i The equipment comprised the thrower and baseplate (weighing 53 lb.) and a metal platform (weighing 35 Ib.). The “ gun” (see fig. 3) consisted of a cylindrical firing-peg screwed into a body. "this body (which was provided with a carrying handle) had at its rear end trunnions whick rested in trunnion seatings fixed to a small baseplate, as in German trench mortars. Elevation was given by clamping the body at the desired angle to an arc on the left side which was rigidly attached to the baseplate. Laying for direction

was done by moving the baseplate (and with it the whole system)

BOMBTHROWERS, NAVAL—BORAH round a pivot situated at the front end of the platform, and clamping it when on the desired line, The grenade as such is dealt with under GRENADE while this ar-

ticle is concerned only with its tail. This is a hollow tube, fitting over

the firing-peg, and having at the inner end of the cavity a propellant

charge contained in either a service rifle cartridge (with the bullet

removed) or clse a capsule with a percussion cap. The interior of the firing-peg is formed in somewhat the same way as the interior of a rifie-bolt, that is, it carries.a striker, striker-rod and striker-spring

which are controlled by a trigger. On the right side is a cocking-lever by which the striker-rod is forced back against its spring till the

notch formed on it is engaged by the sear of the trigger. When the

through the provinces of the ancient Roman Empire.

471 He be-

came successively superintendent of. the architectural school of the Royal Academy of Venice, inspector of antiquities under the Ministry of Public Instruction, commissioner. for the monuments of Rome, and, in especial, director of the excavations in the Roman Forum and on the Palatine Hill, begun in 1899 (see 23.591 cf seq.). These he has described in numerous reports, and he has also published a report on the campanile of St. Mark’s at Venice, which was rebuilt under his direction and completed In roro. He was given honorary degrees by both Oxford and Cambridge, and is a member of the Superior Council of Antiquities and Fine Arts for the kingdom of Italy. In 1918

he uncarihed on the Palatine Hill a Greek marble statue of Victory dating back to the 5th century B.e. Besides his reports ön Roman antiquities he published Hibernica, notes on burial places and customs of ancient. Ireland (Eng. trans. 1906), BOOT, SIR JESSE, Bart. (1850 +), British business man, was born at Nottingham June 2 1850, He started a retail

chemist’s business in a small way in that town, but gradually extended it until branches were established, with factories in connexion, in most of the towns in the United Kingdom. He became chairman of Boot’s Pure Drug Co., Lid., and also of Boot’s Cash Chemists, Ltd., which later added Jending libraries

Pumpin

CF i

| eT

aeWd At

GRC

and departments for the sale of fancy goods to the various chemist’s shops under their control. In 1920 he sold the whole of his business to the United Drug Co. of America, under whose control a new company was formed with the title Liggett’s International, Ltd., for the purpose of taking over other drug concerns in England and Canada. In rg21 he formed Sir Jesse Boot’s Social Trust, Ltd., a registered company with nominal capital £50,000 in 10,000 {5 shares, to find out “ by investigation the best means of removing or alleviating poverty, distress, and other social evils, and promoting social service.” He became its chairman and governing director, his wife and Mr. J. W. Briggs,

secretary of the Notts. C.O.S., being the other directors.

Fic. 3.

grenade, with its propellant cartridge or capsule, is placed on the

peg and the safety pin of its fuze withdrawn, the trigger lanyard is pulled, the sear frees the striker rod, which is impelled forward by its pon and fres the cartridge cap, exactly as in a rifle. Until 1918 this weapon used only simpie H.E. bombs. In that year a second type was introduced in which a small repellant charge in the head of the bomb was fired on impact with the ground, causing it to rebound and so to burst in air instead of burying itself. The ordinary (1915 model) grenade weighed 1-85 kgm. (41b.) and had a range of about 330 yards. The bouncing bomb was heavier (2-5 kgm., 54 1b.) and ranged only to 275 yards. (C. F., A.) BOMBTHROWERS, NAVAL: see ORDNANCE.

He

received a knighthood in 1909 and a baronetcy in 1916. BOOTH, CHARLES (1840-1916), English sociologist (see 4.238), died at Gracedieu Manor, Leicester, Nov. 23 1916, A tablet to his memory, erected in the crypt of St. Pauls cathedral, London, was unveiled by Mr. Austen Chamberlain Dec. 15 1920. BOOTH, WILLIAM (1829-10912), ‘‘ General’ and founder of the Salvation Army (sce 4.239). Towards the close of his life he became blind through cataract, losing the sight of one eye in 1909, and of the other, after an operation, three months before his death. But he had continued to direct the operations of the Salvation Army, and learned to write without the aid of sight. As late as 1909 he had undertaken his sixth motor-car campaign, His last public appearance was made at the Albert Hall, London, May 9 1912, at a meeting to celebrate his 83rd birthday. He diced in London Aug. 20 1912. His intense faith, profound and tireless sympathy, and disinterested devotion, had won for “ General’? Booth a unique place in the social and religious world. In the carly nincties of the 19th century be might have passed away simply as the fanatical hot-gospeller of a new sect of street-corner psalm-singers; it would have been incredible then that he should end his life as one for whom Westmin-

BONE, MUIRHEAD (1876), British etcher and painter, was born at Glasgow in 1876. He was educated at Glasgow, afterwards studying in the school of art in that city, and in ster Abbey was seriously suggested as an appropriate resting1897 and the following years produced some excellent work in place, one of the autocrats of the religious world, the creator black and white for the Scots Pictorial. He established himself of a world-wide organization of social service. His son, WILLIAM BRAMWELL Boorn (b. 1836), was chief-ofin London in 1901, where he quickly made a reputation by his etchings. He was elected to the New English Art Club, and -staff to the Salvation Army from 1880 to 1912, and succeeded his father as “ general ” in 1912. His wife, whom he married in was prominent in founding the Society of Twelve. In 1906 his etching “‘ The Great Gantry, Charing Cross,” was bought by 1882, had been commissioner and leader of the women’s social the National Art Collections Fund and presented to the British work of the Salvation Army in the United Kingdom since 1884. Museum, During the World War his services were enlisted by In 1920 she was made J.P, for the County of London, and in the British War Office for the production of pictures of the 1921 was elected one of the visiting justices for Holloway prison. where women convicts are confined. ; westcrn front, and some of these were subsequently reproduced BORAH, WILLIAM EDGAR (1865), American politician, in volume form. BONI, GIACOMO (1859~ ), Italian archacologist, was born was born at Tairfield, Ill, June 29 1865. He studied at the at Venice April 25 1859 and educated in Venice, Pisa and Enfield, Il, Academy and entered the university of Kansas in Austria and Germany largely by making student journeys with the class of 1889, but did not finish his course. He was

472

BORDEN-BOSANQUET

admitted to the bar in 1889, practised at Lyons, Kansas, 1890-1, and thereafter at Boise, Idaho. He ful candidate for the U.S. Senate in 1902, 1907 and again in 1913 and 1919. At the the Republican party in 1912 he opposed

was an unsuccessbut was elected in time of the split in the nomination of

President Taft but refused to bolt and follow Roosevelt, although in sympathy with his policies. In 1913 he was a vigorous opponent of Secretary Bryan’s proposal to create a U.S. protectorate over Nicaragua. The same year he intro- duced an unsuccessful bill for raising the income tax exemption to $4,000. He had long favoured a Federal levy on

incomes but thought that with the then existing system of indirect taxation the additional burden should fall upon the well-to-do. He favoured woman suffrage and independence of the Philippines, but was opposed to the league to enforce peace on the ground that it tended toward internationalism. He

strongly opposed many of the measures of President Wilson’s administration, and in particular the League of Nations, against

which, as a delegate-at-large from his state, he was an effective speaker at the Republican National Convention of 1920.

BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1847-1917), Canadian statesman (see 4.245), failed to secure reelection to the Dominion Parliament in rorr and retired from politics. He had been created K..C.M.G. in 1902 on the occasion of the coronation of

Edward VII. He died at ‘Toronto Jan. 6 1917. BORDEN, SIR ROBERT LAIRD (1854-— _—s+),Canadian states-

man (see 4.245), became leader of the Conservative Opposition in the Canadian Jousc of Commons in Feb. 1901, on the resignation of Sir Charles Tupper. This position he held until 1911, when the Laurier Administration was defeated on the TaftFielding Reciprocity Compact with the United States; he was then called upon to form in Oct. rg11 a new administration and was sworn of the Privy Council Jan, xı 1912, taking office as president of the King’s Privy Council of Canada in the new Cabinet. For the purpose of more effectively carrying on Canada’s part in the World War he formed, in Oct. 1917, a Union Government, comprising members of both the Liberal and Conservative parties, in which he took office as Secretary of State

for External Affairs. The Union Government was returned to power in the general election of Dec, 17 1917. Bordcn was a member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference 1917-8 held in London, England, but owing to ill health resigned the premiership in 1919. He was created G.C,M.G. in IQI4.

BORGLUM, GUTZON (1867), American sculptor, was born in Idaho, March 25 1867. Iis father was a physician who emigrated from Denmark in 1864. He was educated at St. Mary’s College, Kan., studied art at the school of the San Francisco (Cal.) Art Association, and during 1890-3 attended the Académie Julien and the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. He then returned to America for a year, but in 1896 went to London, and during the next five years exhibited much sculpture and painting there and in Paris. In 1902 he moved his studio to New York. In 1904 he received a gold medal for sculpture at the St. Louis Exposition. THe was a -member of numerous organizations, including the Royal Society of British Artists and the Société Nationale des Beaux Arts, France. He was a disciple of Rodin and a leader of the insurgency in America. His theory of representing history by sculpture is thoroughly in accord with that of ancient Greece. The huge scale of many of his conceptions can be compared only with that of antique Oriental monuments. For example, he proposed a Confederate memorial on Stone Mt. near Atlanta, Ga, to be cut in relief along the face of that granite mountain as a frieze representing an army on the march, conspicuous from a great distance. In rọrọ he exhibited a head of Lincoln cut from a block weighing six tons. The same year he was chosen to design a monument for Warsaw, commemorating the rebirth of Poland. Among his colossal figures are the Twelve Apostles for the cathedral of St. John the Divine, in New York, and another

head of Lincoln in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington.

Other works include the Sheridan monument in Washington;

“Mares of Diomedes”

and “ Ruskin” in the Metropolitan .

Museum of Art, New York; statue of Lincoln, Newark, N.J.; statue of Henry Ward Beecher, Brooklyn; the Wyatt Memorial, Raleigh, N.C.; “ The Flyer ” at the university of Virginia; gargoyles for a Princeton dormitory; ‘‘ Wonderment of Mother-

hood ” and ‘ Conception.” BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL

(1868-1922), American sculptor (see 4.250), brother of the foregoing, completed many important statues after 1910, including “ God’s Command to Retreat ” (1911, Napoleon on horseback in a snow drift, bronze); “Jacob Leisler,” first governor of New Amsterdam (1911, heroic figure in bronze at New Rochelle, N.Y.); “ Reverie of a Pioneer” (colossal equestrian for the Court of Honour,

San Francisco Exposition); “ Backin’ "Em Up” (roro, four dismounted cavalrymen, with horses); “ The Little Lady of the Dew” (unveiled 1920 in the churchyard of St. Mark’s in the Bouweric, New York City); ‘Inspiration ” and “ Aspiration ” (1920, two statues of Indians, in stone, both at St. Mark’s in the Bouweric). He was Y.M.C.A. secretary with the French army in 1918, won the Croix de Guerre, and later was engaged in work with the A.E.F. in France. He died Jan, 31 1922.

BORIS IIE. (1894-

), King of Bulgaria, eldest son of King

Ferdinand (see 10.269) and of Marie Louise de Bourbon, eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, was born at Sofia, Jan. 30 1894. Although his parents were Roman Catholics, the prince was, on Feb. 14 1896, received into the Orthodox church, the Tsar Nicholas TT. being his god-father. He was educated entirely in Bulgaria, first by tutors and later at the cadet and officers’ schools, serving subsequently as A.D.C. to the King and to various generals. On the abdication of King Ferdinand, immediately after the Armistice which put an end to Bulgaria’s

disastrous share in the World War, Boris succceded his father, Oct. 4 1918,

BORNET, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD

(1828-10911), French

botanist, was born at Guérigny Sept. 2 1828. Details of his special work on algae and lichens will be found in 1.590, 16.578 and 26.899. He was elected a member of the Académie des Sciences in 1886 and received the gold medal of the Linnean Society in 1891. He died in Paris Dec. 17 rg11. BOROEVIC VON BOJNA, SVETOZAR (1856-1920), AustroHungarian field-marshal, was born at Umetic in Croatia. As a young officer of infantry he served through the campaign for the occupation of Bosnia in 1878, and afterwards on the general staff until he reached the rank of general. In the World War he first led the VI. Corps in the victorious battle of Komarow, and as commander of the 3rd Army beat off the Russian attacks in the Carpathians until May 1915. He then took over the command on the Isonzo. His name is for ever associated with the Ir victorious battles fought in the defence against Italian armies twice as numerous

as the Austrians and considerably

better cquipped, After the collapse of the monarchy the Yugoslav Governament refused the “black and yellow” general

permission to return to his province. Boroevic cmbodics the type of the Croat general of the past in the more polished mould of the present. By iron industry he had acquired the fullest mastery of the science of war, as a general in the field he was distinguished by his intuitive judgment of the enemy, by his tenacious energy, and by his ingenuity as a tactician.

BOSANQUET, BERNARD

(1848-

}, English philosopher,

was born at Rock, near Alnwick, June 14 1848. Educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford, he was for ten years a lecturer at University College, Oxford (1871-81). In 1881 he came to London; and until 1897 engaged in lecturing and social work. He married in 1895 Helen Dendy, herself the author of books on social problems. During 1903-8 he was professor of moral philosophy at St. Andrew’s University. He became a fellow of the British Academy. A Hegelian in philosophy and a disciple of T. H. Green, his logical tencts are described in 16.886, 888 and 917.

Amongst his published works are Knowledge and Reality (1885);

Logic, or the Morphology of Knowledge (1888); Essentials of Logie

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. (1895); Psychology of the Moral Self (1897); Principles of Indi-

viduality (1911); What Religion Is (1920) as well as translations o Hegel and Lotze.

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA (sce 4.279).—Until Oct. 1918 BosniaHerzegovina remained a territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the Habsburg Monarchy in r908 promised these lands

473

demand for far-reaching autonomy. The constitution had not contented the political parties, since it did not satisfy the desire in the country for ful] self-government. The Government had not a strong majority on the opening of the Diet, but under the favourable impression produced by the Emperor’s visit, the first budget laid before the Diet was approved even by the

opposition groups, and in this the Government saw also a constitutional institutions, which should sccure to their inhab- kind of vote of indemnity for their administration in pre-conitants full civil rights and a share in the management of their — stitutional times. The Diet started a fruitful activity, and the own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In Government was able to secure a majority, consisting of Croats, Moslems and moderate Serbs. performance of this promise a constitution was. promulgated In the spring of rorr, during the discussion of the Road Conon Feb. 10 1910. ‘This included a Territorial Statute (Lanstruction Bill, the language question for the first time led to quarrels in the Dict in connexion with the notices.on signposts; tions, a law of public meetings, and a. law dealing with the throughout the year party wrangles, discontent with the con| stitution, and the obstructive tactics of the radical Serbs district councils (Bezirksriéte). desstatut) with the setting up of a Territorial Diet, regulations

for the election and procedure of the Dict, a law of associa-

According to this statute Bosnia-Herzegovina formed a single hampcred business; and the Government no longer had a ceradministrative territory under the responsible direction and. tain majority. Early in 1x912 the Austro-Hungarian Minister of Finance, Baron Burian—the author of the Bosnian consupervision of the Ministry of Finance of the Dual Monarchy in Vienna, The administration of the country, together with the stitution—resigned office, and was succeeded by Ritter Leo von

carrying out of the Jaws, devolved upon the Territorial Government in Sarajevo, which was subordinate and responsible to the Common Ministry of Finance. The existing judicial and administrative authorities of the Territory retained their previous organization and functions. The statute guaranteed generally the civil rights of the inhabitants of the Territory, namely citizenship, personal liberty, protection by the competent

judicial authorities,

liberty of creed

and conscience,

preservation of the national individuality and language, freedom of speech, freedom of learning and education, inviolability of the domicile, secrecy of posts and telegraphs, inviolability of property, the right of petition, and finally the right of holding mectings. The Diet (Sabor) set up consisted of a single Chamber, elected

on the principle of the representation of interests. It numbered 92 members. Of these 20 consisted of representatives of all the religious confessions, the president of the Supreme Court, the president of the Chamber of Advocates, the president of the Chamber of Commerce, and the mayor of Sarajevo. In addition to these were 72 deputies, elected by three curiae or electoral groups. The first curta included the large landowners, the highest taxpayers, and people who had reached a certain standard of education without regard to the amount they paid in taxes. To the second curia belonged inhabitants of the towns not qualified to vote in the first; to the third, country dwellers disqualified in the same way. With this curial system was combined the grouping of the mandates and of the electors

according to the three dominant creeds (Catholic, Serbian Orthodox, Moslem). To the adherents of other creeds the right was conceded of voting with one or other of the religious electoral bodies within the curia to which they belonged. All males 24 years of age, and natives of and residing in the Territory, possessed the franchise, as also Austrian and Hungarian citizens engaged as officials in the administration and

on the railways in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Qualifications for elec-

tion as deputy were the same as for the franchise, save that the minimum age limit was fixed at 30, and public officials and

teachers were excluded. The law on district councils created a district council (Bezirksrat) for every district (Bezirk) to take

Bilinski. To the new minister the representatives of the various parties in the Diet presented a memorandum asking for a re-

vision of the constitution and of the rules of procedure in the Diet; for an alteration of the electoral law; for a Government responsible to the Diet and at least partly recruited from among its members; for an extension of the sphere of activity of the Territorial Government in political and economic matters; for an independent policy of railway rates, the appointment of an audit office for the financial control of the Government, and the regulation of the language to be used by officials and function-

aries. The object for which the partics were striving became more and more evident: the greatest possible autonomy for the Territory of Bosnia-~-Herzcgovina and independence of the central Government of Vienna. With the rejection of the budget of 1912 began an open conflict between the Government and the parties in the Diet which had as its result a long pause in the activity of the Dict,

After wearisome negotiations and the acceptance by the

Government of a series of the demands set forth in the memorandum,

a combination

of Croats,

Moslems

and

moderate

Serbs, in a working majority, was arrived at during the summer of 1912, under which conditions the third session of the Dict was opened on Oct, 22. The Government succeeded in obtaining the indemnity for the 1912 budget, and passed through the. Dict a great number of the laws which it had drafted. New difficulties cropped up in the discussions of the proposed law on the language question. The draft law specified Serbo-Croatian as the future official language in all affairs, both internal and external, connected with the civil administration, with public educational establishments, and State railways so far as their external traffic was concerned. The parties also demanded Serbo-Croatian as the official language of the railways in BosniaHerzegovina itself; but this the Government refused to concede; and, since no agreement could be reached, the Dict was prorogued, and the fourth session was not opened until Dec. 20 1913. For this session the Government had managed to secure a working majority consisting of Croats, Meslems and moderate

Serbs, The language Jaw and several other important measures were passed. A resolution was also carried in support of a law drafted by the Government with a view to a solution Bosnia-Herzegovina was opened. Shortly before this the of the agrarian question which should do equal justice to the interests of the landlords and the Kmets (see AGRARIAN QUESEmperor Francis Joseph had visited the country for the first time, and had met with an enthusiastic reception. The Dict TION p. 474). The business of the Diet was suddenly interrupted by the was composed of three great religious partics. The strongest was that of the Serbs (Orthodox), the next that of the Moslems` assassination of the Archduke Francis Ierdinand at Sarajevo on June 28 1914. The session was closed on July 9, and on (Mahommedan), and lastly that of the Croats (Catholics). Feb. 5 1915 the Diet was dissolved. Owing to later political Fach of these parties struggled for the hegemony, but since developments, ending with the break-up of the Austro-ITunnone commanded a majority, efforts at coalition began among garian Monarchy, there were no new clections. In spite of the three groups. The opposition between Serbs and Croats, political obstacles the Diet had done much towards the developwhich had come more sharply into evidence after the annexapart in the administration of local public affairs. The Diet-—-On June 25 1910 the first session of the Dict of

tion, had become softened, and all three parties combined in a

ment of the constitution, and during its four sessions had framed

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA numerous laws, many of which were important. Their discussion was generally conducted on a notably high plane and bore witness to a thorough and many-sided examination of the matters requiring consideration. Administration.—According to the census of roro the pop, of Bosnia-Herzegovina on Oct. 10 1910 numbered 1,898,044 persons, of whom 52:4 % were males and 47'6% females, As compared with the year 1895 the population showed an increase of 21%, ‘The civil pop. of the capital, Sarajevo, had risen from 38,000 to 51,900 persons. According to religion the population was divided as follows:—~ 825,418 Serbian Orthodox 612,137 Moslems . 434,061 Catholics

=43'5% = 32-3 % = 22:9 %,

Agriculture

.

s

Jndustty «

3

aaa‘

Trade and Commerce

i

«

«

.

.

« a‘

.

287% x

.

and in the public service and the liberal

professions in round numbers.

.

the town councils in the sphere of public health and other administrative affairs was of considerable importance. The budget of the Sarajevo town council for 1914 made a demand for 4 million kronen,

those of all the other town councils together 5 million kronen. many places electric light was introduced.

.

5

3% |

the exercise of their judicial functions, and their security of tenure,

were established

by Jaw, together with the responsibility of the

judges for damage caused by a breach of their professional duty. nspectors of the law courts were introduced, the setting up of a for women

in Zenica was decreed,

and

law

courts erected in Sarajevo which included all the courts in Sarajevo

and the prison. In 1914 an audit office was set up to supervise the | expenditure of the administration. A griculture.—The most important branch of production in BosniaHerzegovina had always been agriculture, in which 87% of the population were employed. The efforts of the Government for the

| improvement

2%

Of the whole pop. from the age of seven upwards 87-84% were illiterate. The part taken in the public service by the indigenous

In

Justice.—ln the sphere of justice the independence of judges in

house of correction

The remainder was composed of other religious creeds, According to occupation the figures were;—

hospital for tuberculous patients was erected in Sarajevo. The water supply of Sarajevo was extended, and in 11 towns a water supply was cither newly provided or extended. The coöperation of

of agriculture (agricultural departments,

} viticulture and fruit culture, ploughing

demonstrations,

schools of loans for

implements, instruction in agriculture, schools of rural economy, Sunday instruction) were continued,

;

i

element was on the increase (in 1908, 31%}; in 1910, 44'5% of all The statistics of the harvest for the most important crops in 1914 public officials). | were:— Cwt. Pupils of the secondary schools in Bosnia-Merzegovina who passedWheat . 14 6 6 ee et e 2,024,000 on to the universities or other higher educational institutions of the | Barley... e45 Yer e TOODO monarchy, on their return entered the Government service or the Oats . . . i J , 5 X . 2,171,000 liberal professions. Maize . ‘ 6,272,000 The number of public schools in Bosnia-Ilerzegovina during the | Among fruit ¢rops the leading one is that of plums, which was period 1910-8 was, at its highest, as follows: 568 elementary always of the highest importance. The crop statistics of this kind of schools, 4 higher elementary girls’ schools, 3 training colleges for male and female teachers, 9 trade schools, 1 commercial academy, 2 fruit fluctuated greatly:— T912; inaraw state . . . ©. © 330,715 cwt. technical schools, I special technical school, 4 grammar schools I914: inarawstate . . . « « 6,877,000 cwt. (Gymnasien), 2 higher Realschulen, 1 lower Realgyninasium, I miliOf the 1914 crop there were also 2,161,000 cwt. dried plums; tary lower Realschule, 3 theological colleges, 25,600 cwt. were converted into Lequar (pulp) and 1,570,000 cwt. In addition to these there were numerous denominational and private elementary

schools, Turkish

mekichs and medresses

(lower

and upper Moslem schools) and three private grammar schools. In 1911 the Diet unanimously decided upon compulsory school attendance for four years for children over seven years of age. In 1885 the Landesmuseum was founded, and provided with a modern building in 1912, Jt contains collections of scientific, artistic and historical

interest, In 1912 was established the Bosnian and Herzegovinian Institute for research connected with the Balkan Peninsula. Worth attention are the Wissenschafiliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und

Hercegovina, published by the Museum, of which the 13th and last volume appeared im 1916,

The Press underwent a rapid development.

In 1914 there appeared |

devoted to immediate consumption, The residue was used for making the liqueur known as Shivovits, mtock-breeding plays a great part in the agriculture of BosniaHerzegovina, being favoured by the extraordinarily rich production

of hay. The census of cattle in 1910 produced the following figures for live stock :— Horses, asses and mules . . . 4. 228,831 head Cattle a ay he ge ae a | 1,309,922 head Goats 2. . «6 «ee ee )—(«1,393,068 head

Sheep . . «.« « «© o 2,499,422 head Pigs wt Be Ce et ue 527,271 head Industries and Manufactures.—Industry is rapidly developing in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and is principally directed towards the exploitation of the natural resources of the country, e.g. in forestry, mining, and manufactures of chemicals and tobacco. To forestry and mining in particular great importance attaches. The total area

43 periodicals, stx of which were daily papers, three weeklies, and 32 monthhies. Of these 38 were published in the Serbo-Croatian, two in German, and the rest in both languages. There was also a great increase in clubs and societies, which in 1913 numbered 833 with 102,000 members, one-third of them being Serb. under forest in Bosnia amounts to 50% of the whole, or 9,800 sq. m., The Agrarian Question.-Shortly before the opening of the Diet in ` 75:8% of which are State forests, the rest private property or Vakuf 1910 a strong agitation had begun among the Kmets, i.e., peasants belonging to Moslem religious foundations; 60% of the woodlands holding of the great landlords under the mélayage system and, in are marked out for timber forests. The exploitation of these woods some cases, by personal services in addition (see 4.280), In 1911 the supports many great forestry establishments employing large capDiet unanimously passed a law for the conversion of these tenancies ital. In 1913 there were in the country 31 steam saw-mills, whose into freeholds by voluntary agreement between landlords and plant for transportation of wood comprised 176 m. of gravitation tenants with Government assistance. For this purpose the Governlines and 630 m. of steam railways. In the period 1913-6 1,230,000 ment was empowered to issue bonds (Kmetenablösungsobligalionen), tons of forest products were exported, a value of 83:5 million kronen. and a special office (Kmetenablésungsamt), akin to the Irish Land Among mining industrics the first place is occupied by the coal Commission, was established at Sarajevo to carry out the law. The mines, financed by the Territorial treasury, of Tuzla, Zenica, Kakanjprocess of redemption now procecded rapidly. Whereas during the Doboj, Breza, Banjaluka, Ugljevik, and Maslovare which produced 33 years (1879-1911) 32,681 Kmet tenancies had been converted into on an average 800,000 to 1,000,000 tons of coal yearly. Of these frecholds at a cost of 29 million kronen, 13,371 were converted mines Maslovare was newly opened in 1917. between June rgtt and the end of 1915. According to the calculaBosnia’s production of iron ore is rich. From 1891 onwards Vare$ tions of the Sarajevo office, redemption in this form, which proceeded had already been occupied inthe production of ore and its conversion without friction and had no unfavourable influence on the existing into pig-iron and other foundry products, but the working of the agrarian situation, would have been completed within 20 years. great ore deposits of Ljubija near Prijedor was only begun during Military Service.—In the year 1913 a new military service law the war, and the raising of the necessary capital (about 16 million came inte force in Bosnia-Herzegovina, by which the liability for kronen) undertaken. The works can cope with a daily production military service was put on the same footing as that in Austriaand transport of 300 waggonloads of ore. The deposits consist of a Hungary. The Landsturm was not introduced into Bosnia-Herzehigh-grade iron ore showing a proportion of up to 50% of iron, govina, but in its place the 2nd and 3rd Reserves were formed, În 1912 a Geological Institute was set up, the most important task Liability for military service began with the completion of the 19th undertaken by which was the construction of a new geological map of year of age, and ended in the year in which the man liable for service Bosnia and Herzegovina, The general map was planned to consist completed his 42nd year. By a law of 1915 the military service law of six sheets on a scale of 1/200,000, and in 1921 the sections Sarajevo was modified to make the liability for service for the duration of the and Tuzla had been issued, war extend from the end of the 18th to the end of the soth year of Among the chemical and other industries existing in 1910-8 were: age. The military establishment for Bosnia-Herzegovina comprised one alkal factory, one carbide and chloride of lime factory, one salt four infantry regiments and one Feldjdger battalion. distillery, one cellulose factory, one petroleum refinery, one alcohol Public Health—tn the field of public health the Diet decreed in distillery, several brewerics, a sugar manufactory and, finally, four 1914 the extension of the Territorial hospital in Sarajevo, and the tobacco factories. erection of larger hospitals in the chief town of each district (Kreis) For the protection of workmen compulsory sickness insurance and of smaller hospitals in the chief town of each sub-district was introduced in 1910, and preparations were completed for (Bezirk), and granted 12 million kronen for this purpose. The legislation as to compulsory accident insurance for workmen. An

execution of this decrce was interrupted by the war, but an open-air

industrial inspector had already been appointed before this,

BOSTON Finance and Trade,--Numcrous new credit institutions were at the

disposal of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina,

The Austro-

Hungarian Bank set up three branch establishments in the country,

and in addition 15 new credit institutions were founded, among them the Serbian and Moslem Central Bank which, together with the Croatian Central Bank, which was founded earlier, represent native capital. In 1910 a Post Office Savings Bank was set up.

475

cities and towns and had In 1620 2 pop. of 1,641,756 (according to the provisional U.S, census returns), and in 1910 1,423,439. The percentage of pop. in “the city ” as compared with that of the “ metropolitan” area thus decreased from 47-83% in 1910 to 45°5% in 1920.

Commerce.—Roston’s coastwise trade is important, the tonnage The chief statistics of foreign trade were published annually by much larger than that of its trans-Atlantic commerce, Boston the statistical department. The last publication appeared in 1913 :— being is still second only to New York in export of meat and dairy products; Imports: 460,000 tons of goods and 40,000 head of cattle and is the Jargest leather, wool, and fish market in the world. The Ginround figures). port's foreign commerce is shown in the following tables:— reine 1,090,000 tons of goods, and 207,000 head of Vessels in Foreign Trade

cattle,

The total turnover of forcign trade in 1913 amounted to 338-8 million kronen, 59.2 % of which represented imports and 40-8 % exports. The export and import of goods in the years 1910-3 amounted to

the following :— I9IO— X911 —

IQI2— 1913—

1910

Imports

Tons 303,800,

.

6

«©

«©

8

«©

352,800.

.

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.

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392,000. 460,600.

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Exports : ao

I910-— 1,078,000,

s

AGLI-— 1,058,000 ,

eoe’

1912— 1,078,000 , I9T3— 1,087,800

Number

«© «©

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Mill. Kr. «© %344°5 »

54

1920

construction of 463 m. of new railways on the normal gauge and 65 m. narrow gauge, including the new sections Banjaluka—Jajce, Samac~Doboj, Bugojno-Arzano, Bugojno-Rama, Br¢éko~TuzlaBiclina~Rata. The costs were estimated at 270 million kronen. For payment of the interest and and Hungary pledged themselves million kronen for 60 years. Of was begun in 1914 on the sections

sinking-fund on this loan Austria to pay a yearly contribution of 10 these projected lines construction Banjaluka-Jajce, Bugojno—ArZano,

and Samac-Doboj but interrupted owing to the outbreak of war. The construction of the section Nivi-Bihaé was begun in 1914 and continued during the war. The traffic on the State railways of Bosnia-Herzegovina amounted to i—

Goods Trafic IQIO so

IGES

Passenger Traffic I9IO

.

‘a

‘a

:

é

ea

re

225 million net kilometre tons 284 million net kilometre tons

we ;

.

19 million

IZ. SSS million. During the period of the war the traffic showed a decrease in goods, but an increase in passenger-travelling owing to army transport. The economic and cultural development of Bosnia-Herzegovina from the first years of the occupation till the end of the AustroHungarian Government is reflected in the development of the budget to the administration of these territories. The first complete budget was drawn up in the year 1880, and provided for expenses to the amount of 6 million gulden (12 million kronen). In the year 1914 the expenses amounted to 110 million kronen with an equal credit balance. The administrative expenses and the revenue thus increased nearly tenfold in the period 1878-1918. Tinancial activity during this time was considerable, and based exclusively on money raised in the country. For the construction of railways and

common undertakings loans were raised which produced in round

figures 200 million kronen.

With

the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in

Oct. 1918 Austro-JJungarian rule in Bosnia-Herzefovina also came to an end. On Nov. r 1918 the newly formed National Government (Narodna Vlada) in Sarajevo declared that it took

over the government of the country and broke off all connexions with the former central Government in Vienna. Subsequently

the territories of Bosnia~Merzegovina proclaimed their union with the newly founded State of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. (O. v. K.) BOSTON (see 4.290).—The pop. of the area incorporated as “the City of Boston ” was in 1920, 748,060; in 1910, 670,585, an increase of 77,475 or 11-6 %, being by far the smallest percentage of increase in the history of the city, and the smallest numcrical increase for so years. But the two figures are not precisely comparable, as the municipal area was increased from 43 to 48 sq. m.

in 1912 by the inclusion of Hyde Park which in x1ọro had a pop, of 15,507. During the five years ro15-20 the increase of pop. was less than 1%. The “ metropolitan area,” constituted by the Legislature of Massachusetts for certain purposes of common action, includes in addition to municipal Boston 38 adjacent

Cleared: Net Tonnage

1,089

2,463,651

1,161

2,021 152

850

1,828,857

1,659,802 1,293,681

This shows a falling off in 10 years of: vessels entered 20°; tonnage entered 26%; vessels cleared 25%; tonnage cleared 30%. Imports and Exports of Boston District -

Exports

Imports

OHS 138-1

A law was passed by the Diet sanctioning the

Number

~ 2,714,382 |1,136

1,355 1,488

1915

Iglo

$129,000, 184

# 70,516,789

1920

56,246,322

281,614,919

1915

There were in the period 1910-8 1,300 m. of main roads and 930 m. of railways.

Entered: Net Tonnage

152,653,791

107,475,077

Manufactures.—The following table shows the value of products and of materials and the amount paid in wages in the years 1909,

1914 and I9g18:—

Manufactures of Metropolitan Boston

Year | Value of Products

Value of

Misteriate ised

1909

$ 510,583,337

$284,354,002

Igi4 IgI8

1,2 9,496,193

584,115,582

323;455:579

First

in importance

among

737,500,555

manufactures

Wages paid

$ 93,125,349 107,139,932

210,781,79 is outer

footwear

$216,392,449 (leather boots and shocs $101,811,715, boot and shoe cut stock $70,105,251, and rubber boots and shoes $44,475,483). Next in importance are: slaughtering $98,047,504, machinery an

foundry products $91,155,376, printing and publishing $51,193,923,

men’s and women's clothing $41,670,694, confectionery $37,988,668. These are the industries in which growth has been most rapid, but not rapid enough to overcome the slowing down as compared with other industrial centres. The increase in value of product due to the World War in the years 1914-8 was rapid, but did little more than

keep pace with the increase in prices.

The total increase in the

number of persons thus employed from 1913, before the war, to 1918, the period of highest production under war pressure, was 40,235, following which, however, a large number of employees was laid off, With immigration of forcign workers, the constricted industrial opportunity has caused increasing numbers of native born to move

away from Boston. The actual increases in population have been largely in the ranks of the immigrant peoples, 35 % of the inhabitants of municipal Boston being in 1915 foreign born (24% of them Irish, 17% Russian, 16% Italian, 5 % English, 3% German, 35 % all other nationalities). Of the municipal pop. in 1915, 72% was wholly or in part of foreign parentage. Railways —During the to years 1910-20 the subway system was enlarged. The Boylston addition from Arlington to Kenmore street (1911-4) and the extension under the Common over the Charles river basin and underground in Cambridge to Harvard square (1914-8) developed a system 9 m. long, at a cost of $36,368,000. These new subways with the clevated system have given central clearance and case of transfer throughout the district. The cities and towns have permitted several of thei interurban lines to be abandoned. They have permitted many of their roads and streets to go into disrepair, but the motor transport service by private initiative has been greatly increased. The second transportation requirement—the need for equipment to keep in touch with outside markets—has not been met. oston has failed to provide adequate terminal and storage facilities: and it is constricted in its railway service, There are three railway systems that look to Boston for clearance and outlet:

the Boston & Maine, the Boston & Albany,

and the New York, New Haven & Hartford. But the lack of facilities for transfer from one.system to another makes Boston virtually three ports instead of one—competitors with cach other instead of with outside ports.

The cities to the north

(as Lowell,

Lawrence, ete, only a few miles from Boston) often find it of advantage to ship #ia@ New York. The same is true for freight originating on each of the three systems.

i

Education.—The public-school system is under state guidance and patronage (sce MASSACHUSETTS). The growing interest in higher education is reflected in the table below. It is significant that

BOTANY Boston University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

which have undertaken to provide technical and professional training to students who meet entrance requirements, have increased their student enrolment far more than any of the other institutions.

from 1899 to 1919 $1,954,738.

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785 | 194 | 1,142 | 1,553 | 500 | 1,378

1915-6] §,226 | 1,900 | 1,083 | 487 | 1,541 { 1,984] 1920-1) 5,667 | 3,475 |err1,253 | 735 |fe 2,128) | 7,718} | Iner,

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4,123 | 1,506

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683 | 1,512 652 ||ciiir 1,551

Ye

1131%

The trend of higher education has been toward increasing opportunity for the masses. This is shown not alone by the increasing number of full-time college students, but also by the rapid growth in the number taking part time ‘“ University Extension Courses.” In Harvard, for example, the number taking these courses increase 96% from 1910 to 1920; in Boston University, 187%; under the

direction of the State Department of Education the number increased from 1,360 in 1916 to 24,231 in 1920, nearly one-half of these students being registered in metropolitan Boston. The estimated number for 1921 was 30,000. Municipal Boston in 1920 had 264 permanent and 137 portable school houses, besides 21 rented quarters for schoolroom use; provided

130,669 school sittings; and employed

The city debt in 1919 was $80,908,397

(gross debt $124,410,101); this included the debt of Suffolk county, which in 1919 was $1,435,335. The chief objects for which the city

Registered Attendance at Chicf Colleges and Universities.

5 ¢

Metropolitan Water Board, of whose expenditures Boston bears

only a share, expended from 1900 to 1919 $22,463,201. The system has a capacity of 80,000,000,000 gallons. The city park system cost

3,413 teachers; also

97 assembly halls and 15 drill halls and pynimai. It had 52 park and 32 schoolyard playgrounds; employed 153 recreation teachers, 46 school physicians, 48 school nurses, and 25 attendance officers. In 1919 it registered 122,452 regular day-school pupils; 8,260 in evening schools and 9,651 in continuation schools. ‘he registration im normal, bigh and latin schools for the same year was 17,018. Of the pupils 82-6 % were in public schools, and 17-4 % in private schools.

debt was created were in 1919: highways, $21,600,000; parks, $10,750,000; drainage and sewers, $21,540,000; rapid transit, $36,340,000. Boston paid in 1919 27-4 % of ail state taxes, and about 32-65 %

and 81 % respectively of the assessments far the metropolitan sewer, parks and water service.

The city’s tax valuation in 1919 was

$1,528,153,778, of which only $198,863,678 represented personalty, (F. A. CL.)

BOTANY

(sce 4.299, with references on p. 302 to separate

articles on botanical subjects}. I. Introductory—Any attempt to record the progress of botanical science during the decade rq10~-20 is made peculiarly difficult by the fact that specialization has rendered.it impossible for any one person to keep abreast of all its manifold advances. In the following survey, the subject is accordingly treated in separate scctions. Special reference, however, may be made here to the remarkable devclopments of applicd botany which

have been a feature of progress in England. The development of forestry (sce Forestry) is now recognized as a function of the State and the Forestry Commission is actively engaged in schemes for the promotion of rescarch. The Ministry of Agriculture, which had previously established a number of agricul-

tural research stations, has not only been able to make provision by increased endowments for larger and more adequately remuncrated staffs of investigators, but has also established ‘two new stations of first importance. These stations, located together at Cambridge, are the seed testing station and the national institute of agricultural botany. The ultimate object Buildings, Libraries and Museums.—Iin 1910 the old Muscum of Fine Arts was demolished and on the site was erected the which the former will achieve is increased agricultural pro. Copley Plaza Iotel, built at a cost of $3,800,000 and opened in duction by an improvement in the quality of seed. ‘The 1911. The new building of the Muscum of Fine Arts, erected on - latter which owes its existence to the initiative of Sir Huntington Ave., was opened Nov. 15 1909, and a second section Lawrence Weaver and to the financial assistance of the Development Commission opened I'cb. 3 1915, the total cost at that time being $3,900,000. Ministry of Agriculture, the To the State House cast and west wings were added during and members of the agricultural industry, aims at increasing production by the carrying out of large scale tests of the trueIg14-9, at a cost approximating $3,000,000. John Sargent’s series of panels in the public library was practically completed in ness, cropping capacity and specific usefulness of plants of 1916, when he added a third sequence, the “ Theme of the agricultural importance. To this end the station not only tests Madonna,” In Jan. 1919 the public library contained 1,197,498 both existing and new varieties but provides for the working up volumes (922,348 in Jan. 1908). It continued to be the largest of stocks of new and promising varieties on a scale sufficient to free circulating library in the world, with a circulation of 2,300,- ensure adequate supplies for commercial use. Scientific horticulture has also received a great impetus by 732 for 1919 (1,829,111 for 1907). The New England Conservatory of Music remained the largest in the United States, the enlargement of the Royal Horticultural Society’s experiment having in rọrọ 3,700 students. The Boston Opera House was station at Wisley. Already the investigations conducted at the various experimental stations have Iced to results of great erected on Huntington Ave. in 1909. History and Finance.—Boston, as a metropolitan district, has botanical importance, Of these may be mentioned the researches retained much of the institutional structure of the old towns conducted at the John Inncs Horticultural Institute on selfwhich have grown together and become consolidated for certain sterility of fruit trees, those at the East Malling and Long Ashton purposes by legislation. Several things have happened in the ro stations for research in fruit trees, problems which have resulted years 1910-20 indicating a drift toward political unification. in an important advance in knowledge of fruit-tree stocks—a What was called the “ Boston rors” movement resulted in subject of equal botanical and horticultural importance. The close association which has been established between the better business leadership, in more ample support given to the chamber of commerce and other trade bodies; and legislation | department of practical physiology and pathology at the looking toward a unified harbour place. A new charter adopted Impcrial College of Science, South Kensington, on the one hand, and the research stations at Rothamsted and East Malling, on in 1909 gave to the city a small council (9 members) elected “at large,” In 1920, under the leadership of Mayor Peters, a the other, marks an advance in organization destined to have an first effort was made to consolidate the several independent important and beneficent influence on the progress of botanical knowledge; for as it 1s certain that progress in applied science cities and towns under a “ Greater Boston” charter, In many ways the whole metropolitan district had developed the habit must depend on the pioneer work of pure science, so is it no less of acting together, as was exemplified in the Liberty Loan certain that applied science quickly discovers problems which and Victory Loan drives, the results of which were as would otherwise long await the interest and attention of the (F. Ke*) follows: First Liberty Loan $133,790,360; Second Liberty Loan worker in pure science.

$147,250,650; Third Liberty Loan, $77,202,500; Fourth Liberty Loan, $139,008,150; Victory Loan, $83,852,700; total amount subscribed $581,113,350. Boston’s per capita expenses continued to be the largest of any American city; but in the 10-year period ending in 1918 the net debt increased only 17-11%. The average yearly expenditure for the five years ending in 1917 was $32,990,507, excluding payments

on funded and floating debts. The running expenses per capita in 1917 were $31.68 (New York, $25.64; Chicago, $22.26). The

II. General Physiology.—The most striking aspect of advance in plant physiology of recent years is the further development of the attempt to relate the fundamental activities of the cell with the colloidal nature of protoplasm. Protoplasm is considered to

be of the nature of a hydrosol with protein and lipoid material, and possibly carbohydrate, as ‘its disperse phase. It may, however, assume temporarily during life, or permanently at

death, the condition of a gel, as is shown by the cessation of the

BOTANY Brownian movement of the particles (see Bayliss, Principles

477

exosmosis which is soon, however, followed by a rapid decrease.

of General Physiology, 1918). On the basis of the colloid nature of the plasma membrane many of the phenomena of cell permeability may be explained. On the colloid theory of protoplasm, the living organism has been defined as “a specific complex of dynamic changes occurring in a specific colloid substratum

The question of the meaning of the growth process and its analysis have engaged the attention of many workers on both the animal and vegetable side. Robertson especially has applied an autocatalytic equation to express the growth period of an ordinary organ,

which is itself a product of such changes and which influcnces

tion to express the relation of crop yicld to external factors, based on the supposition that the increase of the deficient factor is effective

their course and character and is altered by them” (Child, Senescence and Rejuvenescence, 1915). Further investigation of the fundamental process of carbondioxide assimilation has confirmed the work of F. F. Blackman and his school, which showed that the rate of the process is controlled mainly by temperature, light intensity and concentration of carbondioxide. Any one of these factors may control the rate of the process and so act as a “limiting factory.” The amount of chlorophyil, since it controls to a large extent the amount of light absorbed, should also be a controlling factor, and Willstatter and Stoll (Untersuchungen über die Assimilation der Kohlensäure, 1918) have shown that this is so. With the help of the methods of extracting and estimating the leaf pigments developed earlier by Willstatter they have been able to relate chlorophyll content with rate of assimilation. Their

observations have brought out the interesting fact of the importance of some unknown factor (possibly of enzymic nature) which may be termed the protoplasmic factor, The existence of this factor is demonstrated by the observation that, relative to the amount of chlorophyll it contains, the assimilating activity of a yellowing leaf may be many times that of a green leaf. The existence of some

such factor is also demonstrated by the observations of Miss Irving

(Annals of Botany, 24, 805, 1910) and Briggs (Proc. Roy. See. b., QI, 249, 1920), who demonstrated that during the greening of etiolated Icaves chlorophyll appears some time before the process of assimilation begins, Osterhout (Jour. General Pheysiol., 1919) and Warburg (Biochem, Zeit., 100, 1919) have confirmed the High temperature coefficient of the process of carbon assimilation which was first demonstrated by Matthaei. This high temperature coefficient shows clearly that the process of carbon assimilation is not solely a photochemical process but is linked with one or more u dark” reactions. Warburg has also been able to show that light which was intermitted 16,000 times a minute—the light and dark periods being of equal length—caused as much assimilation as continuous light of the same intensity. Light received intermittently by the plant was thus twice as effective as that received during continuous illumination, Reference must also be made to a work of great value, Jörgensen and Stiles’ critical review of investigations

of carbon assimilation up to the year 1917 (Jérgensen and 5tiles, Carbon Assimilation, 1917; originally published in the New Phytologist, 1916-7). An important method of estimating assimilatory activity under natural conditions by following the growth of the

leaf area and of the dry weight of the whole plant was first used by

Gregory (Report Exper. & Res. Sta. Cheshunt, 1918), and has been employed by Briggs, Kidd and West (Annals of Applied Biology VII., 1920). The permeability of the living cell is another aspect of plant physiology which has received much attention; but although many observers have studied the rate of entry or exit of substances, it cannot be said that great progress has beon made in elucidating the mechanism of absorption, accumulation and translocation.

but as shown by Enriques it is only one of a number of possible

equations.

Mitscherlich

(numerous papers from 1909 onwards in

Landw. Jahrb., Land. Versuchs-Stat etc.) has put forward an equa-

in proportion to the departure of the yield from the maximum yield obtainable. V. H. Blackman (Annals of Bolany, 33, 1919) has laid

stress on the fact that the plant increases on the continuous com-

pound interest principle, since with increase of leaf area its capacity

for assimilation increases, and this leads to a stil] further increase in

the rate of assimilation,

pumin index,

The rate at which dry material is added,

it to be added continuously, is termed the “efficiency

J. C. Bose has continued his investigations of the growth and irritability of plants (Researches on Irritability ef Plants, 1913, and

Transactions of the Bose Institute, 1918). He has devised a special

instrument, the high magnification Crescograph, by means of which the elongation of plant organs can be magnified more than a milhon times. By this instrument not only can very minute contractions and expansions be observed but also changes which occur in as short a time as a fraction of a second. Bose has also investigated in great detail the various electrical responses to stimulation which plants exhibit.

He has shown, for example, that when a stem which

contains movable starch grains in its endodermis is placed hori-

zontal, a marked difference of potential is to be observed between some neutral point (such as a leaf) and the interior of the stem. It was further demonstrated by the use of a probe, in the form of a

fine insulated platinum point which could be forced into the tissue of the stem, that the difference of potential developed is highest when the point of the probe is in contact with the endodermis of

one side of the stem, falls to a minimum when the probe reaches the

centre of the stem, and rises again to a maximum (but with the direction reversed) when the probe reaches the endodermis at

the other side of the stem.

These observations provide additional

evidence of the part played by the statoliths of the endodermis in the geotropic response. f

In the field of irritability the most important new point of view

put forward is that of Blaauw (Afed. Landouw., Wageningen, 15, 91, 1919) on the nature of the phototropic reaction. This investigator first concentrated his attention on the effect of light as such, apart from light direction. He made a very careful series of experiments

with the sporangiophore of Pilobolus and the hypocotyl of Melianthus.

By an ingenious arrangement of mirrors the piant was

illuminated equally all round with electric light of various intensities. The rate of growth was measured every few minutes, and thus it was determined that the “‘ light growth reaction,” as Blaauw terms

it, isa very complex effect. With continuous light Phycontyces shows

a latent period of 3-4 min., and then the rate of growth begins co rise, reaching in 7-10 min, a maximum increase of 41-74%. The increase is followed by a fall and then several rises and falls follow,

employed. Stiles and Kidd (Proc. Ray. Soe. B., 90, 1919) using carrot slices and the conductivity method, have estimated carefully the rate of the tntry of the cations and anions of a number of simple

the normal rate of growth being finally reached, except with very high intensities. A similar result is obtained with Helianthus, but the main effect is a reduction of growth instead of an increase as in Phycomyces. Blaauw explains phototropic effects as quite independent of light direction, holding that they are really due to the different intensity of the illumination of the two sides—as de Candolle mainiained long ago. The fact that hoth Phycomyces and Helianthus show a positive phototropic reaction while the light growth reactions of the two are opposite in nature, is explained by the lens-like action uf the glassy sporangiophore, which causes a higher

the ions. They have confirmed (using, however, a more satisfactory method) the work of Nathansohn on the balance between the

oil, which abolishes the lens action, the response is reversed.

Measurements of clectrical conductivity have been largely use

for estimating the rate of passage of electrolytes in or out of the cell,

and methods based on the rate of deplasmolysis have also been

salts, the rate of entry being apparently related to the mobility of

light intensity on the further side. Buder confirmed this explanation

for he has shown that by placing the sporangiophores in paraffin

concentration of salts inside and outside the cell, They show that root of Sina pis alba with weak external solutions there is a very marked “ heaping up” tive phototropism, of material in the cell. For example, at equilibrium the concentra- | the side away from tion of potassium chloride in the cell may be 25 times that of the claims that plants external solution. The mechanism of accumulation is obscure, but the equilibrium appears to follow the adsorption law. That marked

and repeated changes of permeability can occur in the living cell has been shown by Osterhout (Science, 35, 1912; Bot. Gazette, 59, 1915; and other papers}, who used the method of measuring the

effect of various salts on the electrical resistance of a pile of discs of

the thallus of Laminaria. The electrical resistance is taken as a measure of the permeability to ions of the plasma membranes. Increases of 50% and decreases of 20% in the resistance could be sustained repeatedly without injury. Lepeschkin and Tréndle have demonstrated that changes in permeability can be brought about by light, and so must be normal phenomena in the life of the cell; and Blackman and Paine (Annals of Bolany, 32, 1918), using the clectrical conductivity method for determining the rate of exosmosis of electrolytes from the pulvinus of Mimosa, have been able to follow the change continuously and have demonstrated that although light increases and darkness decreases permeability, yet. the sudden change from light to darkness causes a sudden small increase of

The

shows a negative light growth reaction and negabut here again, owing to the shape of the apex, -

the light is the more highly illuminated, Blaauw have no mechanism for the perception of light direction, and that there is no such thing as a rcal phototropic re-

action, but only a light growth reaction.

(V.H. B.

Ul. Chemistry of the Sap Pigments of Plants.—Flowers derive

their tints from two very different classes of coloured compounds, termed plastid and sap pigments respectively. The former include chlorophyll, carrotin, xanthophyll and allied.

compounds, and are not soluble in water,

Chlorophyll rarely

enters into flower colourings, but compounds of the carrotin and xanthophyll group are responsible for most of the bright yellow

and orange flower colours, whilst in the presence of anthocyans they yield browns, bronzes, etc.

The sap pigments are water-soluble glucosides, and may in the main be subdivided into two groups. One group, the flavone and flavonol colours, contains compounds which, though usually

present

in the cell sap of flowers, rarcly give rise to colour effects as they are

BOTANY

478

pale yellow or colourless unless in the form of alkali salts. In certain cases a fraction of a % of a carrotin colour may cover completely

more than 20% of a flavonol colour. The researches of A. G. Perkin

and others have resulted in the isolation and examination of a large number of the members of this group, whilst the investigations of

Kostanecki have led to Colours of the second (the glucosides being anthocyanidins). They

their synthetic preparation. group of sap'pigments are called anthocyans, termed anthocyanins; the non-glucosides, give rise to the red, purple and blue colours in flowers, and owing to their brilliant effects. have long been the subject of speculation and research. It is only recently, however, that their chemical nature has been disclosed | Willstitter and Everest obtained the pigment of the cornflower in a pure state, and

proved that it exists in the flowers as a glucoside. They also showed

that by change in the condition of the cell sap one pigment may produce red, purple or blue colours; red inthe presence of an acid cell

sap, purple if the sap be neutral and blue if it contain the pigment in the form of an alkali salt. Indeed the same pigment (cyanin) has been isolated from red roses and from the blue cornflower. These observations have been extended by Willstatter and Mallison to show how when the presence of pigments of the other groups is allowed for, all variations of flower colours can be explained. Shibati,

R, vol. 92, p. 150 (1921); Everest, Jnl. Soc. Dyers & Colourists,

vol. 34, p. 47 (1920); M. Nierenstein, p. 1328 ét919).

Jnl. Chem. Soc., vol. 115, (A. E, Ev.)

IV. Mycology—The recognition of the primary importance of the physiological point of view as compared with the older morphological (or systematic) point of view was prominent as the inspiration of perhaps the most important work in plant pathology during the period 1910-20. In England the brilliant work of Blackman and his school laid the foundations for a scientific knowledge of the physiology of infection by parasitic fungi. These studies have been concerned with Botrytis (Black-man and Welsford, 1916); (Brown, 1915-17); Collctotrichunt (Dey, 1919) and Synchylrium endobioticum (Curtis, 1920). The study of specialized or adaptive parasitism has been followed with fruitful results. The validity of the conception of ‘ bridging spacies "involving as it does a certain physiological plasticity of the fungus—which was accepted by Marshall Ward and Salmon, has been alternately affirmed and denied. Pole-Evans (1911) has asserted that a rust when growing on the susceptible Fi hybrids may thereby become capable of intecting the immune parent used in the cross; Freeman and Johnson (1911) have stated that barley acts as a “ bridging species ” for biologic forms of Puccinia graminis

Shibati and Kasiwagi have recently put forward alternative suggestions to account for flower colours, but much of their experimental evidence has been shown by Everest to be untrustworthy. Other chemical work by Willstatter and by Iverest has clucidated on other cereals. On the other hand, the number of investigators is the chemical structure of anthocyan pigments, has shown that increasing who, working with isolated strains of the parasitic fungus they are products of the reduction of the flavonols, and has led to ‘under rigidly controlled conditions, have found no evidence for the their synthesis. The accompanying formulae show how closcly existence of “ bridging hosts.” ? The admirably systematized and anthocyan pigments are related to the yellow flavonol compounds. patient researches of a band of workers in America, headed by Stak_(.) represents kaempferol, a flavonol isolated by A. G. Perkin from man, scemed destined to solve this most important question of the a species of larkspur, and (1I.) represents pelargonidin, which is the constancy, or plasticity, of the “ biologic form,” The complexity of -anthocyan pigment present in the flowers of various species of the problem may be gauged hy the fact that a considerable number ' pelargonium, {at least 22) of “ biologic forms ” of P. graminis on wheat have now been discovered—a fact explaining why the same variety of wheat may be immune in one locality and susceptible in another (Stakman, Piemeisel, Levine and Leach, 1917, 1919). (1) (IT) ci

HO


a e 37898 Of the total 926,312, for the period 1908-16 inclusive, 354,820

were Portuguese, 190,767 Spaniards, 153,950 Italians, and 33,578

Germans. ‘There were also 49,477 from Russia (chiefly Poles), 41,534 Turko-Arabs, and 21,843 from the Slavic parts of Austria, o racial statistics for 1917-9 are available. In 1911 arrangements were concluded with Japan to allow the immigration of Japanese agricultural labourers nto Sao Paulo, and over 13,000 entered in the

next two years. The agreement was renewed in 1916 so as to permit the coming of 5,000 annually. Immigration was greatly retarded by the World War, and when Italy entered the conflict in 1915 not only did Italian immigration cease, but many Italian subjects in Brazil were called home for military service, with the result that the labour

market was seriously depleted. It was estimated that 50,000 sailed fram São Paulo alone. When the Armistice was cancluded in the autumn of 1918, the Brazilian Government notified all consular agents in the country that to agricultural immigrants accompanied

by families aid would be gratuitously supplied, including food, tools,

medical treatments, freedom from duties on baggage, transport by rail or water, etc. Those scttling in the Federal colonies would also be given employment to the extent of 15 days’ work a month for each adult, and temporary quarters would be provided for such as desired to build dwellings. In 1921 cufhcult post-war conditions in

Europe were rapidly turning the tide of immigration again in the direction of Brazil. a Agriculture continues the chief source of Brazil’s wealth. The leading crop is coffee, of which it produces about four-fifths of the world’s supply. Over half is grown in the state of São Paulo alone, the rest coming from the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes and Espirito Santo. The average production is somewhat over 12,000,000 bags a year (bag=60 kg. =132 Ib.), the harvest fluctuating greatly with varying climatic conditions. The following official figures are published

for the years 1915§-9:-— Value in Pounds Sterling

Bags

Exported

(memoirs of her grandmother, who lived for a time in Goethe’s circle); Licbesbriefe einer Marquise; a play, Mutter Maria, and a novel, Lebenssucher. She died on Aug. 8 1916. BRAZIL (see 4.438).—No general census of Brazil had been taken between 1g00 and 1920, but the total pop., estimated in 1908 at 20,515,000, was officially stated in 1917 to -be 27,473,570. This figure, which is probably somewhat exaggerated, would ive an average density of 8.3 per sq. mile. Estimates of municipal pop. in 1913 (probably not very accurate) were: Rio de

a . 3 . e

17,061,398 13,039,145 10,606,014

7 433,048 12,963,250

Per cent of Agric. Prod. Exported

Per cent of all

Prod. Exported

32,190,547 29,280,694 23,054,280

19,040,764

72,607,208

A constant effort is made to maintain the price, by impasing an additional tax on exports over a certain amount, byencouraging

consumption through propaganda abroad, and in São Paulo by prohibiting further extension of coffee plantations. The Coffee Convention or Valorization Scheme of 1907 (see 6.647) was resorted

to again in 1917. In 1907, when the planters of Brazil faced ruin owing to over-production, the state of Séo Paulo, supported by the Federal Government, and with funds borrowed largely from foreign bankers, bought up 8,000,000 bags and stored them for disposal in a

more favourable market.

When the World War broke out, coffee

to the amount of 3,000,000 bags still lay in European warehouses, most of which was eventually taken over by the belligerent Governments. In 1917 the state of São Paulo, to stabilize the price which was threatened by a large crop and restricted markets, purchased

about 3,000,000 bags, and constructed enormous warchouses for their storage on the docks at Santos. The destruction by frost of &

large part of the 1918 crop saved the Government from an anxious

situation,

The areas of cultivation of mandioca, corn, cotton, tobacco, sugar

and cacao have all increased in recent years; Rice, once imported, is so extensively grown that imports of it have virtually ceased. Of cacao Brazil supplies the major part of the world’s demand, most of the crop coming from the state of Bahia. The output increased from about 33,000 metric tons in 1910 to over 65,000 In 1919. Sugar, the

country’s principal export in colonial times, is produced largely in

the states of Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco. The entire crop im 1917 was reckoned at about 420,000 metric tons, of which 138,169 tons were exported. This last figure was unusual and due to the

encouragement of war prices abroad. Brazil consumes most of its own supply, the normal export rarely exceeding 60,000 tons. With the continued introduction of modern milling machinery, the production of sugar should become one of the principal sources of national wealth.

Tobacco is grown in various states, but especially

in Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul. ‘The Bahia product challenges 1n quality that of the Vuelto Abajo district of Cuba, and finds a ready market in Europe, while that of Goyaz and Minas Geraes is highly esteemed for cigarettes.

The annual production of Brazil was place

in 1917 at 45,000 mctric tons of which about 26,000 were exported.

.

491

BRAZIL Cotton is native to Brazil, and may be grown in all parts of the republic. The best cotton Jands are in the centre and along the N.E. coast to the mouth of the Amazon, where the finest varictics

produce a long silky fibre equal to the Sea Island or the Egyptian.

Annual production is reckoned at from 90,000 to 100,000 metric tons, but the export of raw cotton, mostly to England, fluctuates

widely from year to year. The best year of the period 1910-20 was 1913, when 37,500 tons were shipped abroad, worth over £2,300,000. The average in recent years has been about 5,000 tons, By a presidential decree of March 27 1920 a cotton service was cstablished to investigate the properties of the soil and climatic conditions, create experimental

stations,

and

provide

the

planters

at cost

with

machinery, implements and fertilizers. With these measures of encouragement taken by the Federal Government, the increasing enterprise of individual firms and planters to improve conditions of production, and with more careful selection and standardization of the fibres, Brazil should some day become the world’s greatest exporter of high-grade cotton. The only important wheat-producing state in 1921 was

the southernmost,

Riv Grande

do Sul, which

supplies about half of its own needs; but Santa Catharina, Parana, and the high interior of the south-central states are also suitable for the cultivation of this cereal. Stock-raising advanced notably during 1910-20, especially in Rio Grande do Sul, but also im the states of Minas Geraes, Parana, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Matto Grosso. The industry is being put on a modern basis, packing plants of the

latest design and of high efficiency are in operation or projected, and dairy products have become valuable. The first two packing houses in Brazil were established in the state of São Paulo, one with North American capital, the other with Brazilian. A packing plant has been completed at Rio Grande by the Companhia Swift do Brazil, and another in the city of Sido Paulo by the Companhia Armour do Brazil. Canning establishments have been erected at Rosario and Sant’ Ana dọ Livramento, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, and Rio de Janeiro now possesses cold-storage plants with large capacity. Official statistics of live stock in 1913 were as follows:— Cattle . . . 30,705,400 | Goats) . . . 10,048,570

Horses... Mules

.

s

a

7,289,090 | Sheep

©

.

e

10,549,930

à}

3,207,040 | Swine

œ

.

.

18,400,530

The increasing importance of the cattle industry since 1914 may be gathered from the following figures:

Exports of Chilled and Frozen Beef. Told TGIS 1916 I9Q17

a a a - ~ . . 48s

RE ae

HO we

ak

ow

Metric tons Value I £ 62 8,514 309,706

OHS a

A

.

.

*

.




11,747,000 10,562,000

3,435,000.

9,141,000 21,121,000

1,657,500

2,546,500 1,451,000. 1,015,000

837,500 1,064,000 3,131,500

728,500:

4,788,500

788,500

709,500 ` 642,000 552,500

==

100,000 367,000 m

Sweden . : 294,500 658,000 Among the leading imports of Brazil are iron and steel manufactures, machinery, railway supplies, coal, kerosene, cement, cotton goods, foodstuffs, and raw materials and articles for use in the arts and industries.

The principal ports of entry are Rio de Janeiro and Santos, but

Pará, Pernambuco, Bahía, Porto Alegre and Rio Grande havea large

and increasing foreign trade. Shtpping.—The Brazilian merchant marie increased but slowly in 1910-20, except for the German steamers seized during the war.

Brazilian shipping in 1911 consisted of 238 steamers of 130,582 tons net, and 290 sailing vessels with a net tonnage of 60,728. At the end of 1917 there were 405 steamers of 236,535 tons net, and 54 sailing ships representing 17,920 tons net. Brazil in that year took over all the German ships interned in her ports at the outbreak of war in 1914, a total of 45 vessels with a net tonnage of 148,255. Thirty were leased to France, the rest turned over to the Lloyd

Brasileiro, which considerably expanded its foreign service, especially to the United States.

4,090,386

5,836,881 5,708,210 3,821,439 1,016,129

2,386,736 693,138

§77:095 2,028,899 365,175

433,567 3371127

185,053

4,749757 444,963 01,497

`

Communications.—The railways of Brazil, aggregating 13,271 m.

of track in 1910, had increased in 1917 to 17,159 m., with 2,223 m. under construction and 4,697 m. projected. The states having the greatest railway mileage were Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul and Bahia which together contain over 70% of the mileage of the republic. One of the most extensive systems is the Central of Brazil, a Government-owned and operated ` property, connecting the federalized district with the states of Rio de

Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes.

The total length of the line

in 1917 was 1,466 miles, In that year it carried 32,639,600 passengers,

2,388,000 tons of freight, and 530,000 head of live stock. Owing to the wide separation of the principal centres of population along the coast, Brazilian railways have developed as a series of independent systems. Thus Pernambuco became the focus of one system, Bahia, Rio de Janciro, Santos, and Rio Grande do Sul of others. For some time the need was recognized of connecting the various systems by interior lines running N, and S., to afford com-

munication independently of the sea, and to stimulate internal settle-

ment and trade.

Such plans have been carried out N. and S, of

Pernambuco (from Natal to Macció), and from Rio de Janeiro N. to Victoria and S. to the Uruguayan frontier, where connexion was made in 1913 with Uruguay Central. It is therefore possible to

ae by rail from Rio direct to Montevideo, a distance of 1,967 miles. Construction, however, was not limited to the coastal region. In 1916 a line of considerable importance was completed between Itapura on the Paraná river and Porto Esperanca near Corumbá on the Bolivian frontier, the principal city of the state of Matto Grosso. The resulting direct rail connexion with the state of São Paulo reduced the time between Rio and Corumhba to six days, in place of a

trip by water of from six to cight weeks. Extensions of the Rio system northwestward into the state of Goyaz and of the system

of Ceara were planned or under construction m192t,

The Madeira-

Mamoré line, passing round the dangerous falls of the Madeira river,

was practically completed in 1912.

Driven through deep forest in a

deadly climate, it is one of the most costly railways in the world.

It is 182 m. in length and of great importance for the Acré territory

and Bolivia.

BRAZIL In 1909 there were 36,199 m. of telegraph reported in Brazil which had increased to 41,799 m. in 1917, of which 24,640 m. belonged to

the Government. In the latter_year 680 telegraph offices were reported, and 33 radio stations. The station at Para (Belem) has a range of 4,000 m., and is thus capable of direct communication with

wounded.

493 The revolt was followed by reforms in naval ad-

ministration, and by the dismissal of about 1,c00 men. The Government had difficulty in 1912 in maintaining tranquillity, election disturbances occurring in the state of Bahia in Jan. which

required the calling out of Federal troops, and in the autumn disorders threatened in the states of Parana in the south and Para in the north. The death in rọ12 of Baron Rio Branco, Brazil’s most distinguished Minister for Foreign Affairs, withdrew an influential figure from South American politics. Through his efforts post-offices in the republic in 1918 was 3,641. Brazil from Jan. 1 1914 boundary disputes with several of Brazil’s neighbours had been adopted standard time and the longitude of Greenwich. amicably adjusted and the territories of the republic considerably Finance.—The following official figures are reported for 1919:— increased. Iie was succeeded as. Foreign Minister by Dr. Lauro National debt, Foreign . ‘ ¥16,281,960 pounds sterling. Müller. In 1913 a protocol was signed with Peru arranging for a National debt, Internal 1,042,000,000 milreis paper. Currency in circulation, . _1,709,113,473 milreis paper. commission to survey the frontier in accordance with the Treaty Conversion fund . . 20,922,410 milreis gold. ` et.a a of Demarcation of Sept. 8 1909. On May 9 1913 the plenipoGuarantee fund . . . 48,391,020 milreis gold. tentiarics of Brazil and Uruguay agreed to a convention establishUnredeemed bills and notes, gold ing a new frontier line between the two republics on the river San 14,632,500 milrcis. and paper. z : i i 119,452,949 milreis gold; General taxes for 1920 . . . Migucl, and recognizing Brazil’s navigation rights on that stream. 514,258,200 milrcis paper. A perennial difficulty was that of national finance. In spite of 72,372,326 milreis gold; Estimated expenditure... annual messages of the President to Congress urging economy 599,578,557 milreis paper. and the reéstablishment of a financial equilibrium, public exArmy and Navy.—The army is organized on the basis of compulpenditures increased in alarming proportion to receipts, resory military service between the ages of 21 and 44, under the terms sulting in heavy deficits. In ror3 the financial stringency was of a law promulgated in Jan, 1908. The service required is two years with the colours, seven in the reserve, seven in the second lime, and increased by a sharp decline in the price of rubber and coffee, and eight in the national guard. By a decree of Dec. 1917 the national the result was an industrial and commercial crisis, intensified by guard is incorporated with the second line. The total strength of the outbreak of the World War in i914. A symptom of the finanthe active army in the autumn of 1918 was 54,000, but mobilization cial situation was the failure of three railways in the rubber would yield about 120,000. There is also a gendarmerie of 26,000. The Brazilian zavy in 1920 comprised two Dreadnoughts, two district, with liabilities of £5,000,000, held mostly by French incoast defence ships, three protected cruisers, two river monitors, vestors. The war reacted seriously on most of the Hispanicfour river gunboats, four small cruisers, four torpedo boats, ten American countries, due to the fact that they had looked to destroyers, a mine ship, three submarines and a submarine salvage Europe for their financing, and that the belligerent countries invessel. Five destroyers and three large submarines were under construction. The personnel comprised about 13,000 men. cluded those to which they had shipped a very large percentage Education.—The latest figures available m April 1921 gave the of their raw products. In Brazil the reduction of exports and number of primary schools mn the republic at about 13,000, with an imports (the latter in the second half of 1914 were two-thirds less enrolment of over 700,000. Of these schools about half are supported than in the corresponding period of 1913), and consequently of by the state Governments, one-fourth are municipal, and the rest private institutions. Secondary and normal instruction is cared for customs receipts, together with the closing of the European by various institutes and private establishments, of which there are money market, came at a Lime when the Government was heavily between three and four hundred attended by some 40,e00 pupils. obligated to local and foreign contractors. As a result the The republic also possesses 28 industrial schools, 11 agricultural and Government defaulted. In Oct. 1914 a funding scheme was 9 commercial schools. ‘To further iridustrial education the Federal announced by which intcrest on all foreign loans, excepting Government may aid the state Governments, or municipal and private schools which meet its requirements. Twenty-five faculties funding bonds of the 1903 loan, became payable in script for confer technical and professional degrees and those in the Fedthree years, and the redemption of nearly all securities was eral capital have been recently organized as a university. A postponed for thirteen years. school of fine arts, anational institute of music, a military college, a The crisis was complicated by a rebellion in the state of Ceara naval academy and a preparatory school of tactics are maintained by the Government at Rio de Janeiro, and there are schools of in Feb. 1914, starting among the rubber collectors who could no art and music in a number of the states. longer obtain employment, and led by an ex-priest, Padre Political History—Marshal Ilermes da Fonseca, leader of the Ciccro. It quickly reached such proportions that the Federal Conservative party and former Minister of War, was clected Government had to proclaim martial law and reinforce the President of the republic in March roro, over Snr. Ruy Barbosa.. Federal troops at Fortaleza, the state capital. The political

the United

States.

The station at Cape Santa Marta, with the

same range, connects with Cape Town in South Africa. In 1911 a new trans-Atlantic cable was completed between Monrovia (Liberia) and Pernambuco, and in 1919 an American-controlled connexion established with the United States, via Argentina and the W. coast. Brazil has now three cable lines connecting with Europe, two with North America, and two with the River Plate. The number of

The latter part of the year was marked by serious disturbances | opponents of the state president, Col. Rabcllo, apparently used

in Rio de Janciro and in the north. At Mandos, capital of the state of Amazonas, the governor was forcibly removed by the Opposition, aided by Federal troops and by the flotilla on the river, but was reinstated by order of the President of the re-

public. At Rio de Janciro on the night of Nov. 22 the crews of two new Dreadnoughts, the “ Minas Geraes” and the “ Sao Paulo,” mutinied in the harbour, kitled several officers, and, training their guns on the city, senta demand to the President for the abolition of corporal punishment, increased pay and shorter hours of labour. Four other ships joined the movement so that it included most of the Brazilian navy. As no response was received the city was bombarded next day, whereupon Congress granted the demands and passed an act of general amnesty. The mutineers meanwhile had put out to sea, but returned Nov. 27 and gave up the ships to the Government. On the night of Dec. 9, the marine corps stationed on Cobras Island in the harbour also mutinied. Their position was bombarded next day, the mutincers replying with shrapnel, After an action listing ten hours, the rebels surrendered, having lost over 200 killed and | * The paper milreis during 1920-1 varied between sd. and 16d. or

$ .10 and $.32.

The gold milreis is equivalent to 23.3d. or $ .546.

the movement to get rid of him, and on the Federal Government’s taking over the state administration the tension was somewhat cased. The rebels were disarmed and the region gradually quieted. Ominous signs of unrest at Rio de Janeiro at

the time of the presidential election in March sorq led to arrests and restrictions upon the press. As a result of the election, Dr. Wenceslao Braz, who had been vice-president under Marshal Fonseca, became head of the státe. Before the end of 19145 adjustments had been made to new conditions and the economic situation became more normal. New customers were found, especially in the United States, and

the high prices prevailing throughout the world encouraged exportation. National expenditure was much reduced, the national revenue increased by over {£6,000,000, and a small surplus appeared in the budget, a most unusual state of affairs for Brazil. In the course of that year there were Important developments in the relations of Brazil, Argentina and Chile, the three countries constituting what was already known as the A.B.C. Entente. Dr. Lauro Miller at the end of April paid official visits to the

other two republics as well as to Uruguay, to bring about closer

494

BREAL—BREST

LITOVSK

diplomatic, industrial and commercial relations. On May 23 a treaty was announced in which the countries of the A. B. C.

ers and other small vessels saw active service on hoth sides of the Atlantic. Many physicians and a few aviators went abroad to be undertook to submit to an international committee any dif- attached to the Allied armies. The Federal Government in Dec. ferences that might arise among them, and not to open hostilitics 1917 also promulgated a new military law, by which all citizens until the committee had concluded its labours. The treaty was | of the republic between the ages of 21 and 30 were subject to ratificd by the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies in Oct. 1916, The selective draft. But up to the cessation of hostilities comparativeA.B.C.inthe spring of 1914 had offered its mediation in the dis- ly few had been called out, because the Government lacked the pute between the Government of the United States and Victoriano means for adequate instruction and equipment. Huerta, provisional President of Mexico. In Aug. 1915 President As a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, Brazil was one of the Wilson invited the A. B. C. Powers, together with Uruguay, original members of the League of Nations, and became one cf Bolivia and Guatemala, to enter into a conference on Mexican the nine Powers represented on the League Council. affairs, the result of which was the unanimous recognition of (C. H, E) Venustiano Carranza as “chief of the executive of the de facto BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED (1832-1915), French Government of Mexico.” Brazil also took a prominent part in philologist (sce 4.481), resigned his chair at the Collége de the Pan-American Financial Conference held in Washington in France in 1905. He died in Paris Nov. 25 rors. May 1915, in an attempt to better existing financial conditions BREMEN, Germany (sce 4.493). Pop. 312,266 according to in North and South America, the census of 19fg9; in 1910 it was 299,526. The cconomic life The administration of President Braz, which ended in Nov. of the city state of Bremen in Germany was, in the period from 1918, Was from a financial point of vicw very successful. He 1908-14, ina state of high prosperity. The North German Lloyd succeeded in reducing public expenditures, restored specie attained its highest figures of cmigrant traffic (107,124) in the payment for internal debis, promoted the development of first half of the year 1909, The number of emigrants carried was natural resources, and improved the economic relations between beginning to diminish about the year ror2. In the course of Brazil and her neighbours. Prices were high, but industry and the years 1912 and 1913 the competition of the port of Emden, commerce prospered, and the excessive demand abroad for Bra- the construction of which had been completed by the Prussian zilian products so increased exportation that the country was left State, began to make itself felt. with the largest trade balance it had ever known. In the Bremen gradually passed from being 2 purely commercial national elections of 1918 there was no contest, the sole candidate city to a devclopment as an Industrial city, the result of which for the presidency being Snr. Rodrigues Alves, a native of Sao was to impose a heavy burden upon the finances of the city Paulo and senator from that state, who had been president of the state. Towards the middle of 1913, conflicts of interest arose republic in 1g02-6, The president-elect, however, was too ill between the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg-Amerika to be inaugurated in Nov., and died on Jan. 15 1919, without line; the North German Lloyd chose the path of more unobtruassuming office. Another election was held in April to fill the sive development of its business. The prospects of shipping, unexpired term, and Dr. Epitacio da Silva Pessdéa was chosen. and therewith the prospects of the business expansion of Bremen, Dr. Pesséa was then in Paris as chicf of the Brazilian delegation had begun to deteriorate as far back as the beginning of the year to the Peace Conference.

On his return journey in rọrọ he paid

official visits to England, Portugal and the United States. From the outbreak of the World War in ror4, popular sympathies in Brazil had been. almost wholly on the side of the Entente Powers, in spite of some annoyance caused by the

British “ black lists.’ The German policy of unrestricted sub-

marine warfare announced carly in 1917 forced the nation to assume an active share in the conflict. On Feb. 8 the Brazilian

Cabinct dispatched a strongly worded protest to Berlin, declaring that the proposed “ blockade” was contrary to international Jaw, and that Brazil would hold Germany responsible for any consequences that might ensue to Brazilian shipping. A similar note was sent to Austria. On April 4 the steamer “ Paraná ” was sunk by a German submarine off the coast of France and several of the crew drowned, On April 10, after an inquiry into the incident, the German minister at Rio de Janciro. was handed his passports. In the crisis Dr, Lauro Miiller, minister for forcign affairs, resigned his portfolio, apparently feeling that his German name and antecedents might embarrass the Government. Snr. Nilo Peganha, a former president of the republic, was appointed

in his place. Rupture with Germany did not involve an immediate departure from neutrality, but with the sinking of another steamer, the “ Tijuca,” the drift toward war became more rapid. Late in May President Braz sent a message to Congress advising that neutrality be revoked, on the score that

IOI. The effect of the war was to paralyze almost completely the trade of the city scaport. Bremen was the first of the German states to introduce a tax upon war profits (May 1915). Attempis to consolidate the maritime traffic Jed, in the year 1916, to the establish-

ment of the Bremen association for the import trade. On Aug. 24 1916 Bremen celebrated the return of the mercantile submarine * Deutschland ” from its successful veyage to New York.

Conflicts on the subject of the constitution began in April 1917.

Bremen was the first town which, after Kicl, entered upon a revolutionary movement (Nov. 6 1918). The Workmen's and Soldiers’ Council seized political power on Nov. 74, On Dec. 28 it was decided to arm the proletariat. This was followed, on Jan. ro 1919, by the formation of a Socialist republic of Bremen with a council of come

missaries of the people.

On Jan. 28 191g the Government of the

Reich sent troops to deliver Bremen from the domination of the

communists. This force entered the city on Feb. 4 alter protracted negotiations. Elections were held for the Bremen State Assembly on March g, and a coalition government of the Socialist and non-

Socialist parties was formed.

May 11 3920.

The new constitution was

It conferred upon the Senate (as in

passed on

Hamburg)

political and administrative powers. Side by side with the democratic Parliament the following representative bodies were likewise established: —A chamber of the working classes, a chamber of salaried employees, a chamber of agriculture, a chamber representing the retail trade, and a chamber representing the large. commercial and wholesale interests. The constitution of Bremen

contains a special declaration that the Church is separated from the State. (Q. KR.)

BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH [called Lujo] (t8447

),

unity of action with the United States, now a belligerent, was a

German economist (see 4.406), was one of the German delegates

tradition of Brazilian foreign policy. On May 29 the Chamber of Deputics unanimously passed a bill authorizing revocation

sent over to London in Nov. rọrọ to attend the economic con-

whenever the executive deemed the occasion appropriate.

Con-

{erence convened by the “ Fight the Famine ” Council. At the

first scssion of the conference, held at the Caxton Hall Nov. 4,

gress also authorized the scizure of the German ships interned in he urged the organization and encouragement of German inBrazilian waters, aggregating nearly 150,000 tons. After the dustry to enable Germany to fulfil her treaty obligations. His sinking of another vessel, the “ Macao,” a stale of war was more recent publications include a pamphlet on the proposed League of Nations, and two short works, Ist das System Brenformally declared Oct. 26 ror7. Many anti-German demonstrations took place during the year, especially in Rio de Janciro, iano zusammengebrochen? and Russland, der kranke Mann (both 1918). São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. BREST LITOVSK, BATTLES ROUND, 1915.—The operations Brazil, considering her immediate resources, gave valuable aid to the Allied Powers. Although the larger units of the navy had _round Brest Litovsk (see 4.500), from July 15 to Aug. 26 £915, not been entirely renovated by the time of the Armistice, destroy- formed an important part of Mackenscn’s campaign in Poland.

BREST LITOVSK in the north-eastern offensive of the Central Powers that year (see EASTERN FRONT CAMPaIcNns). On the completion of the regrouping of Mackensen’s group

495

XI. Armies, they once more took a firm footing in new and wellprepared positions on the heights N. of Grubicszow, Rozana, Gardzienice, and N, of the Chodel, thus covering the railway

of armies, which now consisted of the Austro-Hungarian IV. Army, the German XI. Army, the German Army of the Bug

line Ivangorod-Lublin-Chelm. In the days that followed they made all possible efforts, reénforced by the NIII. Rifle Div.,

and the Austro-Flungarian I, Army, the Central Powers had resumed the offensive along the whole front from the Bug to the

Bug, but all their attacks, vigorous as they were, failed.

Pilica. Mackensen, with three of the armies, was to direct the attack between the Vistula and the Bug. The main body of the I. Army was tocoéperate in this attack on the eastern flank by delivering an assault in the direction of Vladimir Volinski, while the remainder of the army was to provide cover along the Bug up to the N. wing of the IL Army. The II. Army and the Southern Army were to cover the attack on the Upper Bug and the Zlota Lipa, and were themselves to attack only if this became necessary for the protection of the neighbouring armies or if the Russians showed signs of any dislocation of their forces. Woyrsch was to fall in with the IV. Army’s offensive between the Vistula and the Pilica and, if occasion arose, to attack across the Vistula. Forcing the Dniester, the VII. Army was to push forward E, of the Strypa towards Czortkow and Buczacz, and to let its cavalry attack in force E. of the Sercth. Battles of Sokal, July 15-24, and Krasnostaw, July 16-9.— On July 15 at 11 A.M. Mackensen’s attack began. On the very

first day Puhallo’s army made its approach all along the Bug, which, in spite of the high water-level, was forced on the r6th by a division of the I, Corps N. of Sokal. By that time the Army of the Bug had obtained possession of the positions between Terebin and Grabowicc, and Arz’s Corps, on the right wing of the XI. Army, had stormed the very obstinately defended positions at Skicrbieszow. The Guard Corps and the XXII. Res. Corps won the heights to the S.W. of Krasnostaw. The IV. Army was working steadily up to the Russians’ strong main position. In spite of the dogged resistance of the Russians the Guard of the XI. Army succeeded in taking Krasnostaw in the next few days, and in pushing on to the heights N. of the Zotkiewka. The I. Army meanwhile had taken Sokal, which was stormed by its I. Corps, and had constructed a bridge-head on the E. bank of the Bug. Farther N., Szurmay’s group gained the right bank of the Bug

at Zdzary, and, on the S. wing,

portions of the JI. Corps the E. bank at Krystynopol. Mackensen’s right flank now appeared to be adequately protected, but for the present the attack on Vladimir Volinski was impracticable, on account of the Russian counter-attacks

which soon developed and the limited strength of the I. Army. West of the Vistula, Woyrsch and the army group of Kövess, which had been placed under him, had on the 16th begun an attack which led on the following day to the battle of Sicnno of which the object was to break through the Russian lines. On the 18th this attack ended in a complete victory. The Russian IV. Army evacuated its positions along Woyrsch’s whole front, and retired to new defensive positions bchind the Jizanka and S.W. of Radom. But here again the Russians were unable to stand against the powerful forward push, and were

thrown back beyond Zwolen by the right wing after heavy fighting. While Kévess on the 2oth was occupying Radom and advancing victoriously along the E. bank of the Pilica, the

front N. of Zwolen was successfully pierced over a stretch of 2km., and the Russians were driven back to the Vistula and to a kind of bridge-head position S.W. of Ivangorod. But on the

same evening of Zalasy and at Janowiec. fortress zone

Woyrsch broke through these positions also, E. at Czarnolas, and took possession of the heights All attacks launched by the Russians from the at Ivangorod proved fruitless. Farther N. the

Russian II. Army, being pursued by the German IX. Army, fell back on Grojec and Blonie and the defences of Novo Georgievsk. The successful battles of the XI. Army, the obstinate attacks by the IV

Army, and, not least, Woyrsch’s menacing position

on the left bank of the Vistula, induced the Russians, although they had obtained all the reénforcements available, ta retreat on the 19th

Pursued by the Army of the Bug, the IV. and the

to drive the Austro-Hungarian forces at Sokal back across the

All their assaults against the fronts of the XI. Army and the Army

of the Bug—whose right wing had gained ground beyond Grubieszow towards the N.—were also unsuccessful, and they

were driven back from the heights N. of the Chodel by the IV. Army along a front of about go kilometres. The general effect of these successes on the allied attack was to bring about a short pause in the fighting. The Russians had established themselves in strong positions, and brought up fresh forces, It seemed equally urgent to overhaul the allied forces, and fresh preparations were also necessary before the renewal of the attack. While the pause lasted the allies strengthened their positions against new Russian counter-attacks, Within the next few days the right wing of the Army of the Bug pushed forward up to the carriage road running from Horodlo to Wojslawice. The Russians renewed their embittered attacks onthe bridge-head at Sokal, but without any success whatever. Certain portions of the I. Army succeeded in taking the obstinately defended height of Gora Sokal. The II. Army was able to establish its 32nd Infantry Diy. io the E. of Kamionka Strumillowa on the right bank of the Bug. Meanwhile Woyrsch’s army was making due preparations for the crossing of the Vistula. Kivess’s group, the XII. Corps and the 7thand oth Cavalry Divs. remained beside the Vistula from Janowiec to the Pilica estuary, while the Landwehr Corps with the Bredow Div. moved behind the left wing of the army. Aided by the self-sacrificing efforts of the AustroHungarian and German pioneers, who suffered many losses through the heavy artillery fire, the Landwehr Corps and the Bredow Div. crossed the river on the 28th in five places between

Kobylnica and Tarnów, fighting fiercely, and established themselves at Macicjowice on the opposite bank.

Battles of Chelm (Kholm) and Lublin: Capture of Ivangorod

and Warsaw (July 29-Aug. 4).—On the 2oth the offensive was

resumed on Mackensen’s whole front. The main blow on Biskupice was to be delivered by the XI. Army, on whose right the Army of the Bug was to continue the attack on Chelm. The IV. Army was to codperate with the attacking group of the XI. Army by pushing its strong right wing through to Lublin. The assault, led by Gen. von Emmich, broke through the Russian front in the battle of Biskupice (July 29-30), and an advance was made to beyond Olesniki, where the right bank of

the Wieprz and the bridge of the railway leading to Chelm were taken. North of Krasnostaw the Guard Corps joined in the battle, but without winning any immediate success. The IV. Army was for the time being able to come only as far as the Russian wire entanglements. In consequence of the reviving offensive, and also probably of the ever-increasing pressure of the German armies on the Bobr-Narew front, the Russians once more evacuated their positions E. of the Vistula early on the goth, their only stand against the pursuit being made at Grubieszow, The XVII. Corps of the IV. Army, after overcoming the seven-fold wire entanglements, made five successive assaulis on the Russians during the night of the 3oth. In the afternoon the cavalry of the XVII. and IX. Corps rode into Lublin unopposed. The XIV. Corps advanced to the heights N. and N.E. of the town, and the IX., X. and VIII. Corps captured the heights S. of Snopkow and approached the road running through Markuszów Konskowola and Nowo Aleksandrya. On the following day these successes were everywhere extended by violent fighting. In the IV Army the German 47th Res. Div. at Kurow flung itself across the road named above, and the left army wing reached Nowo Aleksandrya.

On Aug. 1 the Russians continued their retreat step by step, losing heavily. They also left the Bug below Krylow. In the

BREST

496

LITOVSK

pursuit Puhallo’s whole left wing pushed forward over the Bug below Zdzary, and up to the hollow 3, of Ustilug. ‘The Army of the Bug established itsclf along the Bug from this point to Dubienko, while the Beskiden Corps, fighting on its left wing, pursued the Russians beyond Chelm, The XJ. Army came upon fresh opposition in the ne Kulik-Leczna, and in front of the IV. Army the Russians were able to maintain the positions to which they had retired after the abandonment of Lublin. West of the Vistula great events were in preparation at this time. Kévess’s Transylvanian troops captured, by a vigorous attack on Aug. 2, eight conerete entrenchments on the front

The troops occupying the stretch of the Bug below Ustilug could now gradually loosen their hold, for here the Russians, under pressure of what had occurred, were retiring by successive

stages on Kovel.

They were being pursucd for the moment

only by the I. Army cavalry.

On the IV. Army devolved the task of attacking the strong positions at Lubartow within the next few days. By the 6th

it was able to take the Russian trenches S. of that place, and at Brzostowka and Krasny German troops penetrated into the Russian positions. On the yth the decisive blow was given by the attacking group on the army’s right wing, composed of

of Ivangorod, of which four were taken by the soth Infantry

seven divisions of the XIV. and XVII. Corps, commanded by

Regt.

Lt.-Ficld-Marshal Roth.

The Landwehr Corps, too, penetrated into the cnemy’s

positions at Domaszew. The successes of this group assumed for the Russians an ever more threatening aspect. On the one hand the railway between Warsaw and Ivangorod would be in serious danger if the Landwehr Corps pushed their advance any farther; on the other the envcloping of Ivangorod’s N. front would admit of considerable pressure being brought to bear on its defenders.

The enemy was driven out of several

lines, lying one behind the other, during the morning, and in the afternoon and evening this group, with the XLI. Honved Infantry Div. and the XI. and II. Infantry Divs., pushed their way to beyond Firley, driving a wedge into the Russian front. The Russians fell back in complete disorder across the Wieprz. Meanwhile the X. Infantry and XLV. Light Infantry

Divs. had crossed the Wicprz to the N.E., at and N. of Baran-

In the next few days Mackensen’s group of armies by their

ówka, in order to join in the battle of the XI. Army, which was

tenacious attacks ousted the Russians from one position after the

also being assisted by heavy artillery fire in the direction of Brzostowka, West of the Rudno-Kamionka road the XVII.

other. The forces of the Russian JIL. and IV. Armies, which were being hemmed in more and more closely, tried in vain by counterattacking to obtain breathing space and relieve the pressure.

While Mackensen continued the Bug and the Vistula, and Woyrsch were on the point of there were signs in the N. also

his irresistible advance between Prince Leopold of Bavaria and taking Warsaw and Ivangorod, that the fortresses on the Bobr-

Narew front were doomed. Pultusk and Rozan had been taken by Gallwitz’s Army, and Ostrolenka was seriously threatened.

Farther N. the VIL, Army (Scholz’s) was equipping itself to attack Lomza and Ossowiec, while the X. Army (Lichhorn’s) and Below’s Army of the Nicmen were advancing on Kovno and

Riga.

The

Russians

were,

no

doubt,

considering

the

abandonment of their front on the Vistula; and they had begun

and 1X. Corps also joined in. Here the Russian XXV. Corps

had advanced from the area S. of Michów to a counter-attack on the Austro-Hungarian X. Corps, which after a hard struggle succeeded in forcing the enemy back io the Lower Wieprz and snatching from him some of his points d’appui. The immediate effect of these battles was the evacuation by the Russians of the Vistula bank N.W. ol Ivangorod also. Thereupon Kövess

and Woyrsch took up the pursuit on both sides of the SololewZclechow road. On the 8th and oth the pursuit of the hurriedly retreating enemy was vigorously carried on. The IV. Army crossed the Wieprz close to its estuary and also at Leszkowice. On the oth, too, the Bug Army and the XI. Army. penetrated the enemy’s lines at several points after extremely heavy fighting,

to send off their war material and the enormous food supplics needed to support the armics during a retreat which was to be only gradual. But in spite of all the strength they displayed

but on the roth they again encountered the greatest resistance. Woyrsch and Kévess crossed the Warsaw-Lublin road and

they were

On the ard,

back on Lukéw and Radzyn, The Archduke Josef Ferdinand’s Army now advanced also on the N. bank of the Wieprz, and,

entered Vladimir Volinski, and

on the roth, reached the region N.W. of the Lower Tysmienica

Szurmay was nearing the Luga. Aug. 4 crowned all previous successes. The German To... Army under Prince Leopold of Bavaria threw the Russians out of both the outer and inner ring of Warsaw’s forts, and, afier the Russians had evacuated the

and the area in the bend of the Tysmienica; the Emmich group, fighting on the leit wing of the Xi. Army, approached the

being constantly forced backward.

Leczna was captured by the left wing group of the XI, Army. The cavalry of the I. Army

town and withdrawn to Praga on the right bank of the Vistula,

quarter of Ivangorod on the left bank of the Vistula was taken by the XVI. Infantry Div. of Kévess’s group, while the garrison retired to the right bank and blew up the Vistula bridge. The IV., XL, and Bug Armies, continuing the pursuit, forced back the Russians, in spite of violent resistance, behind the

line Sawin-Baranowka-Kurow.

The left wing of the IV. Army

advanced to the heights N. of Konskowola. The

Batlle

at Lubartow,

Aug.

5-~8—~-When

the Russians

began their retreat from the Vistula position between Warsaw and Ivangorod it fell upon Mackensen to deliver his blow on the left fiank of the retreating army. Iis desire was to push forward with all possible speed beyond Parczew to the railway line running from Warsaw to Brest Litovsk. The I. Army and the Bug Army were to cover the attack by holding the bridgeheads constructed on the E. bank of the Bug. The Bug Army removed its right wing to Dubienka and was to advance with its left on Wlodawa and across the Wlodawka. The IV. and XI. Armies, whose attacks were to be continued, were to reach the Tysmicnica and Wieprz section as quickly as possible. As a guiding line for the inncr wings of both armies

Mackensen

selected the river bed of the Wieprz. The shifting of the XI. Army, which now became necessary, was made possible by the transference of the Beskiden Corps

from the Bug Army to the tear of the XI. Army’s right wing.

went in pursuit of the Russian IV. Army,

which was falling

Upper Tysmicnica in its pursuit of the Russian IV, Army’s left wing. On Woyrsch’s left were the German IX. and XII, Armics, the latter of which, coming from Gallwitz’s Army, had penetrated | to the Bug and the arca of Sadow, Kaluszyn, and Ccglow. Up to Ossowiec all the fortresses of the Bobr—Narew line had fallen. Novo Georgievsk alone still held out, but around it Gen. von Beseler was drawing his siege-ring ever closer.

The Brest Lilovsk Offensive-~The IV Army’s flank attack on the Russians retreating eastwards had in the last few days changed into a frontal pursuit in a north-easterly direction, carried out in conjunction with Prince Leopold of Bavaria’s

group of armies. For the XI. and Bug Armics, however, Mackensen still held to the proposed flank attack, to be delivered in a northerly direction. The S. wing of Hindenburg’s group of armies (the German VIII. and XII. Armies) and the two groups of Prince Leopold of Bavaria and Mackensen were forcing back the Russian main

force ever farther towards the Bialystok—Brest Litovsk railway line. This main force was composed of the XIL., I, II., IV., and II, Armies, and counted roughly 60 infantry and 7 cavalry divisions. Mackensen’s part in the great scheme of operations was to attack the southern portion of this section of the railway, which had the support of the powerful Brest Litovsk fortress. Within the arca which it sheltered, down the Bug as far as

Janów, tbe Russian III. Army, with about 14} infantry and 2 cavalry divisions, made its retreat, while the Russian IV. Army took the direction of Janów and approached the Bug from the

north-west.

On the 12th the HIL Army, between the Bug and

BREST

LITOVSK

497

the Tysmicnica, gave up the resistance and fell back step by step through Macoszyn, Hola and Parczew, followed by the

pointed to a fight to gain time, which would have to be cut short by the I. Army and the Bug Army in a vigorous attack. On the

XI. Army and the left wing and centre of the Bug Army. The right wing of the IV. Army remained in the bend of the Tysmienica, the centre and left wing crossed the Bystrycza and came

N. wing of the Bug Army no change took place that day as regards the Russian positions at Brest Litovsk, but the XI,

towards the Bialka section and Radzyn.

Army gained ground N. of the Krzna in the direction of Kolczyn.

Kovess and Woyrsch

The Russians attempted, by repeated counter-attacks, to delay the pressing pursuit of the allies until they should have advanced by way of Lukéw and Siedlce. had time to cross the Bug. The IV. Army succeeded in advancing As the offensive progressed the allies’ front had become as far as the Pulwa, considerably shorter. For whereas the length of front in the In face of the right wing attacks of the Bug Army the Russians middle of July, at the beginning of the offensive, had been about 720 km. long from the German VII. Army’s left wing at had established themselves on the 2oth along the Kapajowka. Ossowiec to Mackensen’s right wing, it had by the middle of Arz’s Corps, before Brest Litovsk, forced the Russians back on Aug. been curtailed to the extent of 480 km, The armics drew ' both sides of the road Ieading from Biala to the fortress, to beyond the arca N. of Dobrynka. In the zone of the XI. Army closer together, and it thus became possible to relieve the the angle of the Bug at Krzna was almost completely cleared fighting troops more frequently and also to withdraw whole by the XXII. Corps. The X. Reserve Corps pushed across the corps and throw them into the battle at another point,

On the 13th the vigorous pursuit S. and W. of Brest Litovsk

gained considerable ground. The IV. Army advanced in the gencral direction of Biala, the XI, steered straight for Brest Litovsk and fought its way to the region round Opole, and the

Bug at Ogorodniki without meeting with any great opposition.

The Archduke Josef Ferdinand’s Army and the Kévess group encountered rencwed violent resistance on the Nne WolczynWolka-Tymianko.

After

hard

fighting

the

Russians

were

Bug Army pushed forward its left wing as far N. as Hanna on

driven farther back.

the Bug. On the following day the Russians offered renewed resistance, but fell back again still farther carly on the rsth, } after the Guard Corps, reénforced by the ALA. Infantry Div. and the X. Reserve Corps, had penetrated their lines S.E. of Razwicdowka and at Gorodyszeze respectively on the 14th, and

making their way through the lake defiles, reached the region

the IV. Army

had also successfully attacked

their positions.

The German X. Corps came in to reénforce the ever-lengthening front of the Bug Army and, taking up its position on the army’s

right wing, undertook the protection of the Bug in conjunction with the I. Army at Dubienka. On the sth the XT. and IV. Armies reached to Tuczna and the area S. of Biala in their pursuit. The left wing corps of the Bug Army gained the cross-roads N.W. of Slawatyeze. Early on the 16th portions of the LV. Army crossed the Krzna hollow and established

themselves

N. of the road leading westward

irom Biala, To ihe N. of the IV. Army Prince Leopold of Bavaria’s group of armics, with Woyrsch’s Army and the Kövess group, reached the Bug N. of Konstantynow, and the EX. Army crossed over in the direction of Leniatycze. On the 17th the XI. Army had come up s0 near to the outlying positions of Brest Litovsk that the Guard and the AustroHungarian VI. Corps, who were to invest it, could now move into the blockade position 5. W. of the fortress on the line OkezynDobrynka-Lachowka. ‘Fhe X. Reserve Corps established itself E. ol Janów on the Bug, and the XXII. Reserve Corps pushed in between that corps’ right wing and Lachowka on the front facing east. At Wlodawa the Bug Army built out a bridgehead. The main body of the LV. Army was echeloned N.W. of Janéw and crowded together on the S. bank of the Bug. The left wing was opposite Nicmiréw, where the VIII. Corps was fighting

The investing troops of Brest Litovsk

also gained some ground.

`

On the 22nd the XLL. Reserve Corps of the Bug Army, after I. of Oricchowo, and on the 24th, together with the XXIV. Reserve Corps, advanced to the line Zbunin-Mielmiki after fierce fighting.

he Beskiden Corps and Arz’s Corps meanwhile

were working their way step by step up to the particularly powerful positions and forts of Brest Iatovsk. ‘The XXII. Reserve Corps and the X. Reserve Corps of the XI. Army were also fighting hard to repulse the Russian counter-attacks, On the 24th Arz’s Corps and the Beskiden Corps succeeded In penetrating the Russian lines in several places and in forcing back the Russian garrison (If. and V. Corps) behind the permanent

ring of forts.

In the meantime

the XI.

Army,

fighting furiously, advanced over the Bug to the line NepleMinkowice, and threatened the fortress from the north. Meanwhile the XIE Corps of the Kövess group had broken through the Russian front, already greatly shaken, at Riasno, and hael wrested from it the Pulwa position. A vehement fighting pursuit was carried out by the IV. Army and Leopold of Bavaria’s

Army group as far as MinkowiceBabinka. The 5. wing of the German XH. Army pushed forward with the IX. Army to the swampy

valley of the Orlanka.

Capture of Brest Litousk (Aug. 25-6)—On the 2sth the XXXIX. Honved Infantry Div. of Arz’s Corps broke through the outer ring of forts at Kobylany, S.E. of the railway Jeading from Biala, and took the fort from the rear.

The posi-

tions on both sides of the road coming in from Biala were also stormed. The XIL Infantry Div. of this corps captured a fort S. of Koroszczyn, and the XXII. Reserve. Corps took the

place itself and several forts on the N. front of the fortress, after which the Germans advanced to the railway bridgel and drove the Russians back into the citadel. Farther N. the Guard Corps and the X. Reserve Corps ' pushed the Russians back to the Lesna, which river was crossed The Bug Army, to which Arz’s Corps had been added, and by the Guard Corps on the 25th to the N. of Brest Litovsk. The IV. Army and Prince Leopold’s group beat the Russians which now stretched as far as Krzna with its left wing, took back to Kamieniec Litowsk and the Lesnaja marshes. the offensive across the Bug in a N.E. direction starting After the hard battles fought on the 25th around the forts from the Wlodawa area. In the battle of Wlodawa the German of the fortress, which culminated in the capture of the redoubt I. Infantry Diy. broke through the Russian positions on the by the XXII. Reserve Corps and Arz’s Corps, the Russians, roth and pushed forward, followed by the XXII. Infantry Div. on the 26th, abandoned the fortress and withdrew to the Ryta to Piszcza. The XXIV. Reserve Corps attacked Dubok and Czersk—for the time being without success. At Slawatycze on and the Muchawicc section, closcly pursued by the Bug Army and the XI. Army. In the Bug Army the XLI. Reserve Corps the E. bank of the Bug the Russians put up a very strong resistance. They were concerned at this point to delay the and XXII. Infantry Div. pushed forward on both sides of the road from Wlodawa to Kobryn, to beyond the road leading E. advance as long as possible. from Brest Litovsk. Gerok’s Corps gained the Ryta section, and The Russian XXIX., XXII., and II. Caucasian Corps were to take advantage of the protection of the lakes E. of the Beskiden Corps, advancing along both sides of the road from Brest Litovsk to Kobryn, reached the Szebryn region. The Wlodawa to bar the approach to Brest Litovsk. But the VI. Corps remained in the fortress and was once more put under retreating movements of their train columns, and the withdrawal

its way across the Bug.

Adjoining was Kévess, who had taken

the N. bank of the Bug between Niemirow and Mielnik, and was continuing the advance in conjunction with Woyrsch and with Prince Leopold of Bavaria’s group of armies, which had reached Zerdyczę,

of troops in the gencral direction of Kovel, Kobryn and Pruzany,

the XI. Army command,

The XI. Army advanced in the arca

498

BRETON—BRIDGE,

AUCTION

x

N. of Brest Litovsk as far as the linc Saki-Poliszcze, and by hard fighting drove out the Russian rearguard. In the IV. Army, portions of the XXXVI. and XLI. Honved Infantry Divs. had occupied a sort of bridge-head position E. of Kam-

ieniec Litowsk on the Lesna.

The main body of the army (the

VIIE. and XVII. Corps) concentrated at Monaczki and Zadworzany in readiness to withdraw bodily from the front as soon as its troops stationed E. of the Lesna should be relieved. The fall of the Brest Litovsk fortress. and the simultaneous capture of Bialystok by the German VOI. Army compelled the main force of the Russian N.W. front to retreat. l l

The Austro-Hungarian I. Army’s Offensive at Kovel (Kowel).— The arrival of the reénforcements transferred from the IV. Army (the IX., X., and XIV. Corps) to the I. Army gave the signal for a renewed offensive advance by the I. Army, Tf an advance. in the direction of Kovel were made, and the Russians were driven

E. and W., the result would be to divide the Russian N.W. from the S.W. front. ‘he impassableness of the Polesic, lying between the two fronts, was an appreciable aid to this separation. ‘The offensive was opened on the roth against the Russian XXXI, and TV. Cavalry Corps by Heydebreck’s Cavalry Corps, of which the Austro-Hungarian IV, Cavalry Div. reached the Dubiénka arca and the XI. Honved Cavalry Div. the locality

of Luboml. On the zoth, in a further advance, the German V, Cavalry Div, reached. Bobly, and the Austro-Hungarian IV. and XI. Olesk and Ruda, while infantry detachments of the IX, X, and XIV. Corps followed, moving concentrically up to Mokree and Luboml. On the following day the Russian XXXI. Corps took up 4

BRIAND,

ARISTIDE

(1862-

), French

statesman

(see

4.55). Few men in France had gained so much in political knowledge, ability and influence, during the 15 years preceding 1921,33 Aristide Briand. The year of the separation of Church and State (1905) marked his entry into the ranks of the coming men in France. His tolerant interpretation of that measure, his desire to bring about, a cessation of the bitter strife between old Radicals and the growing body of men who, while remaining Conservative, nevertheless accepted the Republic, marked him out as a man capable of interpreting the signs of the times. At

the age of ṣọ Briand had been seven times prime minister of France. He was first Minister of Public Instruction in the Sarrien Ministry of 1906, and maintained that portfolio in the succeeding Clemenceau Government until Jan. 1908, when, still under Clemenceau, he became Minister of Justice, 2 porilolio which he resigned to become prime minister on July 24 1909. After a reshuffle he continued as prime minister from Nov. 3 toro until Feb. 27 1911.

He again took office as Minister of

Justice in the Ministry formed by Raymond Poincaré on Jan, 14 1912, 21 1012

He followed Poincaré as prime minister between Jan. and Feb. 18 1913, and, retained that office under

Poincaré’s presidency until March 18 1913, He was Minister of Justice in the Viviani war Cabinet from Aug. 26 1914 until Oct. 29 1915, when he again became prime minister, remaining in office until March 20 1917. Je succeeded Georges Leygues as.

prime minister on Jan. 16 1921. (Sce France: SListory.) By his eloquence and the suavity of his manner Briand earned for himself many soothing nicknames, such as the“ charmer,”

the “ siren ” and the “ endormeur.” Ie had in his command a position to meet them ọn the linc Turyjsk-Nowosiolka-Ruda, voice of pleasing resonance and yet capable of humour, and a whereupon the whole IL, Infantry Div. was brought forward wealth of gesture and a knowledge of histrionics acquired from to Solowicze. On the 22nd, together with the Cavalry Corps, his friend the great actor Antoine. Thesc, with a handsome and it engaged in fierce fighting at Macicjowa and Turyjsk, and drove dominating personality lightened by a very ready and supple back the KXXI. Corps on Kovel, The main body of the intelligence, explain his countless successes at the tribune. Russian XXXI. Corps attempted to join the Russian IIT. Army They were reinforced by statesmanlike qualities of courage and to the N. by way of the Pripet. The Russian IV. Cavalry Corps | firmness, and a proper appreciation of the right moment at was aiming at a similar junction through Kamicn Kaszyrskiy. which to strike or to stroke recalcitrant sections of the com-

~

In their retreat the Russians had undertaken a regrouping of

munity.

the N.W. front’s S. wing in the area N. and S, of Polesie. The XUI. Army, which had been fighting on the S. wing, was disbanded. The army command with three of the corps were transferred to other fronts, and the remaining four corps incorporated with the UI. Army defending Brest Litovsk.

railwaymen and thus put an end to the most grave labour trouble that had yet threatened France, Leaving far bchind him the bitter doctrines of class warfare from which he started,

On the 24th the German V. Cavalry Div. and the Hungarian XI, Honved Cavalry Div. took up the pursuit to the N., the

M. Briand struck hard when, in toro, he.mobilized the

Briand, in speeches at Perigueux St. Chamond, appealed to the country to breathe the atmosphere of appeasement, to accept the clerical struggle as over, and to work unitedly on sane measures of social reform. Ile was, in these utterances, seeking to create

IV. Cavalry Div. to the cast. The separation of the NAW. from a centre party of moderate Repuhhean sentiment. ‘The conthe S.W. front had been accomplished. Up to the end-of Aug., stant labour troubles and the dangerous pandering to the greed of Mackensen, who after the fall of the fortress had again been labour which had marked previous Radical administrations placed under the Supreme Army Command, carried the pursuit made his task easy. It was upon this Republican centre that up to Kobryn and Pruzany; Prince Leopold of Bavaria’s and Briand based his majority. His chief work was done during the Hindenburg’s S. wing (the XII. and VIII. Armies) advanced World War. He succeeded Viviani at a time of considerable along the roads to Wolkowica and Grodno on to the linc diffculty. The first battle of the Marne had been won, but the Pruzany—Jal6wka-Nowinka Nowydwor and Sopockinie, and the second was still to come. He had ambitious desires to bring Austro-Hungarian armies attacked the S.W. {ront together about the unification of allicd war effort which Clemenceau and with the German S. Army. j events alone had the power to achieve. It was under his influOn the 25th the Austro-Hungarian IX. Corps of the I. Army ence that the first steps towards codrdination were taken. He had begun an enveloping advance against the N. wing of the had to fight against the French Parliament’s desire to play a Russian VII. Army. On the 26th their offensive was in full greater part in the conduct of the war than that to which it was swing. The XIV. Corps and the IY. Cavalry Div. advanced on entitled. He had also to support. in conference against British Zydyczyn from Kovel, the IX. and X. Corps won the area N. representatives the claims of the Salonika expedition. As and N.W. of Lokaczyn by fighting, and Szurmay’s N. wing | Minister of Foreign Affairs he was largely responsible for the crossed the Bug at Markostaw. By the end of Aug. the main entry of Rumania into the war. In 1921 France gave him her body of the Archduke Josef Ferdinand’s army, which bad been confidence as being exceptionally qualified, by suppleness of set at liberty N. of Brest Litovsk, had been brought over to character and firmness in argument, to maintain her claims for national security amid the difficulties encountered in enforcing the N. wing of the 1. Army. On the arrival of the army command, the two armics, under the Archduke’s Higher Command, the Peace Treaty. He attended the Disarmament Confcrence continued the offensive begun by Puhallo against Luck and at Washington in Nov. 1921, and stated the case for sa ei G Dubno. The advance which followed, with which the IT. and BRIDGE, AUCTION (sce 4. 531).—As the game of Bridge had Southern Armics were associated in their attack across the Zlota succeeded Whist among card-players, so in turn after 1908-10 Lipa, led tọ the Rovno campaign. (E. J.) BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE AIMÉ LOUIS (1827-1905), French did the first form of simple or “ straight” Bridge give way to painter (see 4.501), died in 1905. Auction Bridge—but the second step was the more complete, for

BRIDGE, AUCTION

499

while Whist is still played, “straight” Bridge practically died at’ still closed the bidding, except in the case of three opening passes,

Auction’s birth. Even before 1908 it had long been recognized

that the great weakness of “ simple” Bridge was the restriction

of the trump-making power to the dealer and his partner, and their inability to evade that privilege at will—-a ruling which enforced the playing of too many poor hands and the forfciture of too many good ones. Hence arose the plan of putting up every hand to auction, forcing the dealer to open the bidding, allowing every player a chance to buy the declaration (naming at each bid the suit which he desired to play), and selling it to the highest

bidder (or to his partner in the event of that partner having been

the first to name the final suit, in which case the second partner was considered mercly the “ raiser,” not the bidder). Bidding continued until three successive players had passed in leu of bidding, doubling or re-doubling; any player might abandon

when the fourth player was still given his chance to bid. An entire hand might be thrown. It was thus that the game con-

tinued to be played in 1921. Certain variants were experimented with during 1913-21, but without disestablishing the recognized game of Auction. “ Nullos” were an early variant, their object being to destroy the undue advantage of high cards. ‘The nullo-player had to Jose tricks on a

poor hand—a much harder thing than to win them on a good one. The idea had’ long been discussed but had been deemed impossible, as no player could contract to lose all the tricks while carrying an exposed dummy of whose make-up he knew nothing when bidding. Miss Irwin evolved the plan of allowing 6 safe tricks to the bidder of r nullo, § safe tricks to the bidder of

his original suit and switch to a new suit, to his partner’s suit, or even to his adversary’s. The bidding having closed, the part-

ner of the buycr became dummy, and the buyer’s left-hand

2 nullos, and so on, She became an ardent champion of this difficult and scientific variant, collecting a large following. Mr. Robertson of England also wrote an extremely deep and clever book on nullos, adding much to the sum of knowledge concern-

adversary became the leader.

ing them.

At first the original suit-values

and ranks were retaincd as at “ straight ’ Bridge, but many vital

changes were made. The rubber-bonus was raised to 250. The adversarics of the buyer (hereafter called the Declarant) were debarred from scoring points toward game (‘‘ below the line”),

taking their profits invariably in the honours-column at 50 a trick regardess of suit. The book for the declarant remained at

six; over that he had to take as many tricks as he had bid; if he took more, he could score them all; if he took fewer, he could

score nothing cxcept for possible honours—his adversaries scoring 50 for each trick stolen from the contract. The book for the adversaries varied with the size of the bid, being always the

number of tricks that the declarant dared lose; it was determined by deducting the bid from seven—in a 2-bid the adverse book was 5, in a 3-bid 4, and so on. In a doubled hand, the adversaries scored zoo for each trick over their book, in a re-doubled hand 200, But if a declarant who had been doubled succeeded in keeping his contract, his trick-points were doubled,

he received a go-point bonus in the honours-column, and an additional 50 points for every trick over contract; jf he had redoubled, cach of these 5o’s was raised to roo, and his trick points went to four times their normal value. Doubling was rc-

stricted to one double for each side. All these points remained in the game as played in 1921, but meanwhile the next move after roro was to change the suitvalucs-—compctition in the market-place having proved their too great discrepancy, and having shown also that a good spade hand

was invariably wasted.

The dealer being still forced to bid,

his solace for a poor hand was provided by spades At 2 a trick and a stop-loss of roo honour-points, while good spades were to be bid as “‘ lilies ” or “ royals ” and at 9 a trick. The suits thus

ranked: clubs 6, diamonds 7, hearts 8, royals g, and no-trumps

But it was a losing fight; the nullo game was far too

difficult for most people. Another variant appcared in America, under the name of “ Pirate Auction,” but it never received any official recognition, and died almost before jt lived. More support was given in some London and Paris clubs to “ Contract Auction” of which the essential point is that no more tricks can be scored toward game than the declarer has contracted to make, a special system of scoring, different from that of ordinary

Auction, being adopted; but in 1921 it bad still failed to penetrate beyond a limited circle.

In American play, the method of false-bidding was meanwhile

revived under the form of a false double, On this system to double any low bid is not meant as a genuine double, but operates asa code. The person who doubles a one-trick bid in any particular suit practically says, “ Partner, I have a notrumper ¢xcept that I do not stop that suit, Do you? ”, while the person who doubles one no-trump says, “ Partner, I, too, have a

no-trumper., Bid 2 in your best suit, for I have general assistance.” But here again it would be quite unfair to call this the “ American ” game, although it is very commonly practised by American players, for many of the best American authorities have been opposed to it. English players had, up to 1921, declined to adopt any such code. . The American laws have always followed the English laws in substance, with one important exception: in England, the total of a bid must

exceed the total of the previous bid, or must

equal it and contain more tricks: in Amcrica, it is merely necessary to equal it with new tricks, or to out-bid it in number of tricks regardless of total valuc. Thus in z921, in England, it was still necessary to bid 5 clubs (= 30) to out-bid 3 no-trumps (= 30) and6 diamonds {=42) to out-bid 4 spades (= 36); where-

as in America, 4 clubs and 5 diamonds would suffice. The American laws have also reduced the revoke-penalty to 50 and

ro—with the mercly nominal spade at 2, AL went well until certain Amcrican players seized the chance'to use the low spades abolished “ chicane,” as having no place in a bidding game; as codes, telling their partners the exact make-up of their hands and thcy make a touched card in dummy a played card. The without assuming proper responsibility or risk. Jt was thus that latest English laws, up to 1921, were drafted in 1914; the latest the first “false ” bids appeared. A system of high-spade bids American in 1920. Hints to Players-—A minimum first-round opening bid is: came into vogue in American play ranging from 2 to 7 inclusive, and forming a code (“6 spades,” for instance, meant

“ Partner, take your choice between hearts and no-trumps; I can play either.” The point value being but x2, the partner was enabled to make a comparatively low safe bid). Though this became known temporarily as the “ American” game about 1912-3, the sobriquet was really unfair to the majority of Amercan players. ‘These false bids received no support in England

and they were equally anathema to the majority of American players, though accepted by all the contemporary American writers on the game except one. Miss Florence Irwin immediately waged a vigorous war upon them, and the result was that the system was killed. To accomplish this end, however, the game had to be re-made. Spades at 2 vanished, and spades at 9 took the place of royals, the latter term disappearing. The dealer’s refuge in the case of a poor hand thus having been removed, the

forced opening bid was also abolished. Three successive passes

5 trumps with ace or king at the top, worth 7 points (counting every honour two and every plain card one), and an out-

side ace or guarded king. A first-round bid that is not an opener may (in the case of great trump-length) dispense with the outside trick, Later-round bids may dispense both with that

and with top-trumps; their great requisite is length. No-trumps are bid on three stopped suits (an ace and two guarded honours, two aces and one guarded honour, or even four or more guarded

honours without anace). After an adverse suit-bid, the no-trump bidder must be able to stop that suit.

‘fo raise his partner’s bid once a player should hold one “ trick ” and one “ raiser ”’; to raise it twice, onc “ trick ” and

two “ raisers "-—and soon. A“ trick ” is any one of three things,

and a “raiser”? is any one of five—those same three and two

additional. “Tricks” are: guarded trump-honours, or side-aces, or side-kings, guarded. And “ raisers ” are: guarded trump-hon-

BRIDGE, F.—BRIDGING,

500

ours, or side-aces, or guarded side-kings, or singletons, or blank

suits. A plain singleton is one raiser, a singleton ace or a blank suit two rajsers cach. The “ trick” and the first “ raiser ”

should, He in different suits. The bidder makes his bid, and then counts his losers (reckon: ing all ‘ guards ” as losers and the things which they guard as takers). His partner announces as many necessary raisers as his hand warrants. The bidder then deducts his partner’s takers from his own losers, and knows how high a bid the combined strength warrants, Count losers to bid and takers to raise or double. No one should double the only bid he can defeat. No one should double any very low bid, nor one that affords an easy means of escape to his quarry. A doubler should hold the sure book in his hand (trusting his partner for the odd) and should be

practically sure that his double affords his encmy no probable means of escape.

The declarant’s scheme of play in any declared trump is to exhaust the adverse trumps and then to make his side-tricks; he foregoes this trump-exhaustion only in the case of a cross-ruff between his two hands, or a quick ruff in dummy. The adversaries’ scheme in declared trumps is to make quick aces and kings. The declarant’s scheme in no-trumps is to hold up the control of the adverse suit or suits, and to establish his own as soon as possible, remembering that “length is strength in no-trump.” The adversaries’ scheme is to withhold as long as possible the controlling card or cards of the declarant’s suits, seeking meanwhile to establish their own best suit.

Quick tricks are the motto in declared trumps, slow tricks and continual “ hanging-back ” in no-trumps. (E. L) BRIDGE, FRANK (1879), English musical composer,

born at Brighton Feb.

26 1879, was musically educated

at

the Royal College of Music, which he entered as violin student in 1896, but gained a scholarship for composition three

years later. For many years subsequently he was equally in demand both as composer and as viola player, in which latter capacity he was quite first-rate.

Often he was called upon to

play the viola in quintets with the Joachim Quartet. Bridge was ‘at one time or other a member, as violist, of the Grimson and the Motto quartets. A vast number of songs were produced by chim, but it is as a composer of chamber music for strings that his reputation stands, In this category there are four quartets for pianoforte and strings or for strings alone and a sextet; a phantasy tric, a quartet in E minor, which was crowned by an honourable mention at Bologna in 1906. His sonnet, Blow out, you bugles, has been sung ubiquitously. Among the other works

of real importance are his orchestral compositions, Isabella (1907); Dance Rhapsody (1909); a suite, The Sea (1912); A Dance Poem (1914); a suite for stringed orchestra and A Lament for the same; a tone-poem, Summer. As a conductor Bridge also established his reputation.

In 1o010-1r

he conducted

MILITARY

counterpoint, organ accompaniment and musical gestures. Also he published Samuel Pepys, a Lover of Music (1903); A Shakespearean Birthday Book and an autobiography, A Westminster Pilgrim (1919). BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844), English poet (see 4.532), was in 1913 appointed Poct Laurcate. Among his later publications were Jbant Obscuri (1916) and an ode on the Tercentenary Commemoration of Shakespeare (1916); as well as an Essay on Keats, several addresses on poetical subjects, and occasional poems during the World War.

He also edited The Spirit of Man

(1916), an anthology in English and French. In the summer of 1920 he originated a letter, subsequently signed by many Oxford tutors, lecturers, professors and some heads of colleges, addressed

to the Icarned world of Germany and intended as an eirenicon, which was published in the autumn. Its advisability was the

occasion of much difference of opinion in academic and other circles. BRIDGING, MILITARY (sce under Pontoon, 22.69).—At the beginning of the geth century all the armics of the civilized Powers were equipped with pontoon trains of various forms. The European continental nations all had steel boat-shaped pontoons varying in size Írom the large German bipartite pontoon, which had about 8 tons effective buoyancy, to the Italian

high-prowed pontoon specially suited for the swift current of the rivers in that country and capable of carrying lorries when two pontoons were placed stern to stern, and the French and Belgian

pontoons, which were somewhat smaller than the British. ‘The British army adhered to the bipartite wooden boat-shaped pontoon, 21 ft. over all in length, 5 ft. 3 in. beam, and 2 ft. 5 in. in depth, with a maximum effective buoyancy, when immersed to within 6 in. of the gunwale, of about 43 tons. The advantages of the wooden pontoon with waterproof canvas skin, as proved

by the South African War, were lightness, quietness for night work, and the case with which bullet holes could be plugged, or holes caused by shell splinters repaired. On the other hand, the stcel pontoons undoubtedly stood the rough handling of active service better, and did not suffer like the wooden pontoons when they had to be stored in the open under a hot sun. They can also be more readily manufactured in large quantities in war-time, whilst the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient supply of thoroughly seasoned material greatly hampered the rapid expansion of the

British bridging trains.

Taking all considcrations into account

it seems probable that the next pontoons designed for the British army will be of galvanized stecl, somewhat larger and

appreciably deeper than the present pattern.

SSR

yg

cane te Clb

at

the Savoy theatre for Marie Brema, and was at Covent Garden with Beecham in ror3.

BRIDGE, composer

SIR FREDERICK and conductor,

(1844~

), English organist,

was born at Oldbury, Worcs., Dec.

5 1844. Educated at first at the Cathedral school, Rochester, where his father was a vicar-choral, he became a chor-

ister there in 1850 and 15 years later assistant organist. In 1865 he became organist to Trinity church, Windsor, in 1869 to Manchester cathedral, and in 1875 he was appointed

permanent deputy organist to Westminster Abbey. In 1882 Bridge succeeded Turle as organist and master of the choristers at Westminster Abbey, a post he retained until 1918, when he retired with the title of emeritus organist. In 1890 he was

appointed Gresham professor of music; in 1896 conductor of the Royal Choral Society; in 1902 King Edward professor of music in London University. Ile was knighted in 1897, received the M.V.O. in 1902 and was promoted C.V.O. nine years Tater. Belonging to what has come to be regarded as the “ old school,” but remaining a popular figure as the organizer of important musical functions, Bridge was a voluminous composer, especially

of church music. He has written about a dozen oratorios and cantatas, many successful glees and part-songs; primers on

Fic. tn

The British pontoons (as shown in fig, 11) were made in two sec-

tions, the bow section having its gunwale rising towards’ the bow,

and the body curved and tapered forward, so as to reduce the force of the current against the bridge. The stern section was rectangular

in form, sọ that twò pontoons could be coupled together steru to stern, or any number of sections could be coupled together to form rafts canable of hearing the weight of the heaviest gun carried in the field. Figure 12 shows the various uses to which the pontoon sections are put In forming light, medium, or heavy bridge. Normally when packed for travelling (as in fig. 11) and when used in the normal form of light bridge designed to tale a column of infantry in fours, field guns, and horse transport, the how and stern sections were coupled together as one pontoon, which could be lifted off its carriage and launched by sixteen men gripping the handles at each side. The wagons carried also the superstructure of timber roadbearers (or ‘‘ baulks ’), which fit on the saddles of the pontoons to form the bridge, “ chesses”’ or planks forming the roadway, and $i oe = 7 ribands ”Pad or 2 wheel-guides which hold the ends‘La of the “i4 chesses ,

BRIDGING, secure and form the curb of the roadway. In addition to the pontoon

wagons a bridging unit always included wagons carrying adjustable timber trestles known as “‘ Weldon trestles.” These were an important part of the equipment, being used to form the piers of the bridge in shallow water near the bank where the pontoons could not float, or to make a landing-stage when the pontoons were used as

rafts on a wide river, or without the pontoons to bridge the narrow streams or dry gaps. LIGHT

BRIDGE

MILITARY

501

of carrying infantry in file and pack animals, the equipment could be extended to bridge about double this width. Bridging trams moving in rear of the army carried cach 42 pontoons and 16 trestles with superstructure, as a reserve for the crossing of wide rivers, and these were later supplemented with a superstructure of heavy steel joists, so that the pontoon equipment could be used to form medium and heavy bridges to carry mechanical transport and the heaviest guns and tractors on the road. The pontoon trains were originally drawn by horses, but to save the great number of horses a pontoon train requires, and to give greater mobility, some were adapted for mechanical transport. These consisted of “ four-wheel-drive ” lorries, cach trailing two pontoon or trestle wagons, and were able on good roads to cover much greater distances in less time than

the horse-drawn bridging trains. The “ Field Squadrons Royal Engincers ” attached to cavalry divisions were equipped with a lighter form of collapsible boat, and each cavalry regiment was provided with an air-raft equipment. Npsa O niaare

E enm A S En Ae UA: a RES EALA LS ) pra i0 ig

about 120 ft., but in fig. 6 (plate), representing a bridge over the dry

Canal du Nord, the span is 180 = The loading must of course be calculated according to the span adopted, 150 ft. being the limiting span at which this type will carry 35-ton tanks singly. The special feature of the design of: this bridge is that of great portability, the heaviest piece weighing only 103 cwt., so that the whole bridge may be carried in G.S. wagons if required. Usually, however, the bridge was delivered on site by lorries, the 120-ft. span being carried in 35 lorry loads. ‘The bridge ts built up upon the near bank in extension of the centre line of site and all the parts bolted together to complete the two main girders with cross bracing, The construction of the abutments usually proceeds simultaneously with the erection of the girders,

The method of launching this bridge Is shown. by fig. 7 (plate),

which shows a 150-ft. span being got into position at Pont de Nieppe,

near Armentières.

The flooring, consisting of rolled steel joists as

cross girders and longitudinals, with timber decking laid crossways, is added when the bridge is in position. Another very clever design of bridge specially adapted for the

military requirement of speed in erection is the “Inglis” bridge. This bridge in its pyramid form is illustrated in fig. 8 (plate), but the rectangular form afterwards designed is better suited for mechanical transport.

:

tsi pee ed N corral

r

ARRANGEMENT OF TRANSOM, SUPERSTRUCT UAE & CARLES.

In mountainous country where pack transport has to be chiefly used, and in theatres of war where still more primitive conditions of transport exist, the field suspension bridge (fig. 17) is the most com-

mon form of bridge for any considerable span. Suspension bridges have been built in the field to carry lorries, but usually they are only required for pack or even foot traffic. The best materials to use for the cables are chain or steel wire ropes; but telegraph wires are frequently used, and hemp ropes, thongs of hide, or ropes of creeper or grass, have been employed. Aerial ropeways, too, have been of great value in mountainous

countries for the supply of ammunition, stores and water, to save transport up a long steep incline, or as a temporary means of com-

504

BRIEUX—BRITISH

COLUMBIA

munication across a deep gorge or wide river Many forms of floating |. BRINKLEY, FRANK (1841-1912), British author, was born bridges have also been constructed from local boats or barges where in 1841, Having entered the British army, he went to Japan in the pontoon equipment has not been available.

In uncivilized countries the chief problems for the bridgebuilder are to devise the best use to which to put the scanty supply of materials available, and to adapt the local resources of the country to advantage, knowing that the transport difficulties render it impossible to obtain all he would desire. But, great as is the task of bridge-building for an army in undeveloped countrics, greater still is the work of reconstruction during an advance in a highly developed theatre of war such as France. There the accumulation of means of attack and defence on a grand scale is made possible by the fulness of the communications, yct at the same time each of these many Lines of commu-

1867 in command of a battery of artillery. In 1871 he became principal instructor at the Marine College, Tokyo, under the Japanese Government, and henceforth devoted himself to things Japanese, Ile left the army, married a Japanese lady, and in 1881 founded the Japan Mail, of which he was proprietor and editor till his death. He was also correspondent for the London Times in Japan. He published Japan (1901); Japan and China (1903), as well as a Japanesc-English dictionary, and was the author of the article JAPAN in the earlier volumes of this encyclopacdia. He held a unique position among forcign residents in Japan, alike as a profound student of its history and art, and as a powerful factor in international politics. He died at Tokyo

nication is sensitive at every, river-crossing,

October 28 1912.

Almost

without

exception these bridges are destroyed by the enemy on his retirement, and an army cannot safely push on its advance without its full equipment of battle means and without clear routes for its supply transport. Hence it is no exaggeration to say that in the final campaign of 1918 in France the power of the British

army to advance depended on the speed with which the Royal Engineers could construct bridge-crossings and roads. During the period Aug.—Nov. 1918 no less than 539 heavy bridges were erected on this front alone, of which 326 were standard stecl bridges and 213 of heavy timber or salved material, not taking into account the innumerable light improvised crossings and footbridges by which the leading infantry were enabled to attack, and the pontoon and Light trestle bridges for field artillery and horse transport.

For such a task executive energy, organization and technical skill are equally, and cach in the highest degree, necessary. And to these qualitics of the military bridge-builder must be.added, for the work in the forward zone, that of personal devotion under fire. It is significant that of the Victoria Crosses awarded to officers and men of the Royal Engineers in the World War more than half were won by acts of conspicuous gallantry in the construction and demolition of bridges. (E.N. 53) BRIEUX, EUGENE (1858_), French dramatist (sce 4.563"), published four plays after roro: La Foi (1912); La Femme Seule (1913); Le Bourgeois aux champs (1914) and Les Americains chez nous (1920). He also wrote some accounts of travel, Voyages aux Indes ef & Indo-Chine (toto) and Au Japon par Java, la Chine, la Corée (1914), as well as a couple of pamphlets addressed to soldiers, one before and one during the World War, during which he devoted himself with particular ardour and activity to the care of those blinded by wounds. BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841-10913), American theologian (see 4.566), died in New York June 8 ror3. His last published works were Church Unity (1909); The Fundamental Faith (1913) and, posthumously, Theological Symbolics (1914),

BRIGHT, JAMES FRANCK (1832~1920), English historian, was born in London May 29 1832. He was the son of Richard Bnght, the physician who first diagnosed “ Bright's disease ” in 1827, and his mother was Eliza Follett, sister of Sir William Follett, who was solicitor-general and attorney-general in Peel’s administration (1834-44). He was educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold and at University College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in 1854. In 1856 he was ordained deacon and joined the staff of Marlborough College, and was the first public schoolmaster to organize a modern side. „For this purpose he wrote the necessary school-books himself, including his well-known History of England. After his wife’s

death in 1871 he left Marlborough and went to Oxford as a modern history tutor and lecturer at University, Balliol and New Colleges and in 1874 was elected to a fellowship at University and in 1878 to an honorary fellowship at Balliol. In 1881 he became master of University College, and threw himself with vigour into university and City life, becoming treasurer of the Radcliffe infirmary, and founder of the first technical school in Oxford, for which he presented a site. His latter years were spent at Ditchingham, Norfolk, where he died Oct. 23 1920, He also published Lives of Maria Theresa and Joseph IT. (1897)

BRISSON, EUGENE HENRI (1835-1912), French statesman (see 4.574), was again clected president of the Chamber in z91 oy and died at his official residence April 14 1912.

BRITISH COLUMBIA (sce 4.598).—This Canadian province is traversed from S. to N. by four principal ranges of mountains— the Rocky and Selkirk ranges on the east, and the Coast and Island ranges on the west. The Rocky Mountain range preserves its continuity, but the Sclkirks are broken up into the Purcell, the Selkirk, the Gold and the Cariboo mountains. Between these ranges and the Rockies lies a valley of remarkable length and regularity, extending from the international boundary line along the western base of the Rockies northwards for 700 miles. West of these ranges extend the remains of a vast plateau or tableland with an average clevation of 3,000 ft. above sea-level, which has been so worn away and eroded by watercourses that in many parts it presents the appearance of a succession of mountains. In others it spreads out into wide plains and rolling ground dotted with low hills, which constitute fine areas of farming and pasture lands. This interior plateau is bounded on the W. by the Coast Range and on the N. by a cross-range which gradually merges into the Arctic slope. The areca of British Columbia according to the census report of 1911 was 353,416 8q, m. of land, 2,439 sq. m. of water, a total of 355,855 sq. m., and in rg19 was estimated at 395,610 sq. m. Population.—The pop. of British Columbia increased from 36,247 (less than 10,000 of whom were whites) in 1871 to 392,480 in 191.

The estimated pop. in 1920 was about 650,000,

‘he Chinese pop.

was 19.508 in 1911. Japanese immigration took place chiefly after the restriction of Chinese immigration in 1906; in the census of IQIT Japanese numbered 8,587. It is, however, limited by agreement between the Governments of Canada and Japan to 400 per year. After 1906 Hindus, mainly Sikhs, attracted by the high wages pad to other Orientals, came in large numbers and objection to their immigration was quite as strong as that to Chinese and Japanese. The situation was a delicate one from the fact that these people were British subjects and many of them had served in the British army as soldicrs. Their further influx was prevented by diplomatic arrangement. The number of Hindus in the census of Igik was recorded as 2,292. The Indian pop, was returned as 24,744. Of these all but 1,334 were professing Christians. Although about 750,000 ac. have been set apart and occupied as Indian reservations,

not more

than

2%

of the land has been cultivated.

The only Indians of British Columbia who devote themselves to agriculture to any extent are several tribes in Yale and Okanagan districts. The Indians are entirely self-supporting: those of the northern interior sell furs to the various trading companies; those on the coast and southern interior are employed in fishing, in the salmon canneries, and in hop-picking. To some extent they are employed in the lumber woods and in various other capacities, ‘Their education is almost exclusively in the hands of several religious denominations,

Methodist,

Presbyterian,

Anglican

and Roman

Catholic, whose respective spheres of influence are recognized by the Department of Indian Affairs, The Indians of British Columbia, have always been peaceably disposed, largely in consequence of the satisfactory manner in which the Iludson's Bay Co. dealt with them for many years. Several of the tribes on Vancouver I. and mainland coasts and one or two in the interior were at one time regarded as a dangerous clement, but they are now quiet and peaceable. The Indians are divided into many tribes under local names, but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. They are made up of the following stocks: Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Déne (or Athapaskan), Kootenaian and Salishan. More than 2,000 belong te nomadic tribes whose affiliations are probably Athapaskan. There was for some years a considerable decrease of

Indian population on account of the ravages of disease, but it would * These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

BRITISH COLUMBIA appear that it is again on the increase.

By origins, the chief ele-

ments of the pop. of British Columbia in 1911 were: English 133,186; Scotch 74,493; lrish 40,642; Welsh, etc., 4,362; German 11,880;

Chinese 19,568; Indian 24,744; Japancse 8,587; Hindu 2,292; Scandinavian 15,968. Vancouver, by far the largest city in the province, had in 1919 a pop. of 115,000. Victoria, 84 m. from Vancouver, is the capital of British Columbia, and rests on the most southerly point of the eninsula into which Vancouver I. tapers to the Straits of Juan de Fuca. While it possesses some important industries and isthe head-

quarters of others, it is essentially a residential and social centre, ` to which the fact that it is the capital city adds much. The Legislative buildings, which form the most striking feature of the city upon entering the harbour, contain fine collections of natural history, mineral, agricultural and horticultural specimens. The pop.

in 1919 was 39,500, Three m. from Victoria is the fine harbour of Esquimalt,

with a naval dockyard.

On Saanich mountain,

near

the city, is the Dominion Observatory. New Westminster, known also as the “ Royal City,” 12 m. from Vancouver and connected

595

for poultry food. Oats is the staple grain crop although barley and

other grains are also grown. The rich pastures, the prolific forage crops and pure water are natural conditions which have brought both dairying and live stock into prominence. The raising of hogs is profitable in certain parts and there is a large demand for all pork

products, Draft horses are bred extensively and there are many herds of choice cattle especially in the lower mainland and on Van-

couver Island. Poultry-raising has attained Jarge proportions, the demand for all kinds of poultry being far in excess of the supply.

The yields of the principal field crops in 1920 were: wheat 874,300 ©

bus.; oats 1,663,000 bus.; barley 364,100 bus.; potatoes 2,933,700 bus.; roots 3,220,000 bus.; hay 254,000 tons.

Lumbering.—~-The stand of timber in British Columbia is esti-

mated to be 400,000,000,000 feet. The value of the manufactured timber is about $30,000,000 annually and it is estimated that the forests are growing faster than they are being cut, so that if properly conserved and developed the timber supply of British Columbia should be inexhaustible. Throughout the coast region, and to a lesser degree in the wet belt of the interior, there are great stands of

with it by an electric railway, had in 1919 a pop. of 19,000. It is Douglas fir, hemlock, red and yellow cedar, spruce, large and commercial pines. The Douglas fir, however, is not found farther N. the centre of the rich farming section of the Westminster district, than the northern end of Vancouver Island. The amount of hard and from its situation on the Fraser river is naturally associated with the salmon-canning Industry. It is also largely interested in - woods such as oak, maple and alder is inconsiderable and commercially negligible. Douglas firs, cedars and spruce 8 to Io ft. in the lumber business. Nanaimo, popularly known as ‘‘ The Black diameter are not unusual in the coast region, while there are indiDiamond City,” is the headquarters of the oldest colliery in the vidual specimens of Douglas fir 300 ft. high with a girth of 50 to 55 ft. province, In the neighbouring country fruit-growing is carried on A stand as high as 300,000 ft. to the acre exists in places on Vanextensively, and diversified farming is increasing at a rapid rate. couver I, and the coast. Douglas fir, also commercially known as It has a fine harbour and very picturesque surroundings, and is the “Oregon pine,” is the largest commercial factor. The red or giant centre of the herring industry. The por in 1919 was 7,800. Prince cedar is probably the most uscful of the trees, nearly every portion Rupert is a western terminus of the Canadian National railways. Other towns are Ladysmith, Vernon, Nelson, Armstrong, Kelowna, of the tree being available for some use, principally shingles, fence posts, telegraph poles and interior finishing. The western white Enderby, Kamloops, Fernic, Rossland, Revelstoke, Trail, Cranspruce is also very valuable and is employed for various purposes brook, Kaslo, Salmon Arm, and the two Albernis. such as box-making, furniture and pulp wood. Saw-mills are located

Government.—The Government of British Columbia consists

of a licutenant-governor appointed by the governor-general in Council, an Executive Council of 11 members chosen from the Legislative Assembly, and a Legislative Assembly of 47 members, elected every four years. Every adult British subject who has resided six months in the province is entitled to vote. The province is represented in the Dominion Parliament by 13 members of the House of Commons and 6 senators. Municipal

government has been introduced, though a large area is still unorganized, Education —The school system of British Columbia is free and

non-sectarian. In cach district where 20 children between the ages of 6 and 16 can be brought together the Government builds a schoolhouse, makes a grant for incidental expenses, and pays a teacher.

In cities having charge of their own schools liberal grants are made

by the Government.

Attendance at school is compulsory from 7

to 14 years of age. In 1919 933 schools were attended by 72,006 pupils. ‘There were 45 high-schools in 1919 with 5,806 pupils, and

the Government maintains two normal schools, one at Victoria and one at Vancouver, for the training of teachers. The university of British Columbia, founded in 1908, is supported by the

province, and has magnificent grounds at Point Grey, near Vancouver. It had about goo students in the session 1918-9. Finance.-—The revenue and expenditure of the province were respectively $10,479,259 and $15,970,877 im 1913-4; $6,291,693 and $10,422,206 in 1915-6; (estimated) $9,868,325 and $10,800,805 in 1917-8; and $12,609,960 and $13,313,303 in 1919-20. The Habilities of the province were $52,288,067 and asscts $59,642,124 in 1919. Agriculture —The area of farming land in British Columbia probably does not exceed 10,000,000 ac. and it is distributed in widely separated valleys. Hence agriculture cannot be regarded as a basic industry of the province, although it has made wonderful progress,

Owing to the natural conditions small mixed farming is predom-

inant, including fruit-growing, grain-growing, stock-raising, poultryraising and the growing of roots and vegetables, to which may be added the raising of sugar beets, tobacco and hops. Many tracts rendered fertile by irrigation have been shown to be unusually well adapted to the cultivation of both fruits and cereals, though a large acreage is suitable merely for grazing.

Fruit-growing in the interior is largely restricted to apples which

find an extensive market in the Middle West, castern Canada, and Great Britain, Apples, grapes, apricots, peaches, tomatoes and melons grow to perfection in the southern interior of the province. Small fruits such as strawberries, raspberries, cherries, loganberries, prunes, etc., produce excellently in all parts of the province, but the cultivation of these is largely confined to Vancouver I. an the N. side of the Fraser river on the lower mainland. The principal fruit-growing districts are Vancouver I., portions of Westminster district, Okanagan valleys, and land along the Arrow and Kootenay lakes. Tobacco is grown successfully in the Kelowna district and in Okanagan, which also produces onions. Hops are grown in the lower Fraser valley. Wheat was formerly grown somewhat exten-

sively in parts of the interior but most wheat lands have given place to fruit-growing and mixed farming, and wheat is now grown

at ali the important points of the settled province. There is a constant demand for British Columbia timber in the prairie provinces

and quantities are exported abroad. reporting to the Dominion

The number of lumber firms

Bureau of Industries in 1918 was 201.

The quantity of lumber cut was 1,157,636,000.ft. at a market value of $28,351,207; of this 714,018,000 ft. was of Douglas fir. The total

capital invested in the industry was stated as $42,408,448 and the

average number of employees 13,268 to whom $31,621,118 was paid in wages. The manufacture of pulp and paper has developed on the coast of British Columbia and is one of the largest and most profitable

industries. Pulp is largely

hemlock,

Douglas fir and

produced from white spruce, although

other coniferous trees can be used with

success. The total preduction of pulp in 1918 was 173,161 tons valued at $4,062,724. The principal production was newsprint and wrapping papers. The value of the newsprint was over $7,500,ooo and of the total production $9,264,705.

Sport.—British Columbia is rich in big game, fur-bearing animals

and game birds. ‘The principal districts which are resorted to by sportsmen are Cassiar, where moose, caribou and mountaia sheep are plentiful; the interior of Vancouver J. is famed for its wapiti, bear and cougar; the Bridge river and Chilcotin districts where the

bighorn, mountain goat, grizzly and black bear, mule-deer and, in parts, caribou, are plentiful; the Similkameen district near the

International Boundary; E. Kootenay, where E. of the Columbia

river there are moose, wapiti, bighorn sheep, mountain

goat, sev-

eral varieties of deer and black and grizzly bears; and the Nelson

district. Between Fort George and the Little Smoky river is a magnificent moose country. The game birds are ducks and geese, both abundant, and grouse, pheasants, quail, pigcons, plover and snipe. The game fish, as distinguished from commercial varieties, are principally trout, spring

salmon and steelhead, and are everywhere abundant in their respec-

tive habitat. Fisheries—The chief fisheries are salmon, halibut, cod, oolachan, sturgeon, herring, smelts, sardines. The varietics of salmon are Quinnat, Chinook

or Tyee

salmon, silver salmon

or cohoe, sock-

eyes or blue-black salmon, dog salmon, humpback. Next in importance, at least to the angler, are the cut-throat trout, steelhead and Dolfy Varden trout (Malina); all of these are exceedingly abundant. The spring salmon is the first to appear and varies from _10 to 75

lb. in weight.

It is largely shipped fresh to the markets.

The sock-

eye and cohoe are almost exclusively used for canning, and the dog salmon and humpback, which run in immense numbers, are among

the most important sources of supplies for the canneries. Next to the salmon the halibut is the most important commercial nsh, It is found all along the coast from Bering Strait to San Francisco, but the chief source of supply in Canadian waters is in Hecate Strait and N. of it. It finds an extensive market in the United States and

eastern Canada, Herring run in enormous numbers at certam periods; the headquarters of the herring fisheries are at Nanaimo. The cod, the Cultus cod, the Alaska black cod or “ skil,” the red rock cod and other varieties of fish which pass under the name of cod abound all along the coast, and enter largely into the fishing industry. The oolachan, smelts, anchovy, and sardines run in

enormous numbers and are caught principally for the local market.

BRITISH EAST AFRICA—BRITISH EMPIRE

506

Sturgeon, rock fish and shad are other varieties of food fish. The

mackerel is unknown on the Pacific coast. A native oyster, locally known as the “Olympian,” is found in considerable quantities at many places along the coast of British Columbia and the state of Washington and is edible. The eastern oyster has not been propagated, but young oysters are imported from eastern Canada and successfully cultivated, So far it has not been found practicable to propagate lobsters. The rivers are abundantly stocked with fish, principally salmon or trout, and there are also whitefish and grayings in the northern waters, The whaling industry was established about 1906 by the Pacific Whaling Co. with headquarters near

Nootka and has been most successful. The once important sealing

industry is now extinct. Only native Indians are permitted to take scals in Pacific waters and as the seals are again increasing in numbers the catch is correspondingly great. Dog-fish are very numerous at various points along the coast and are rich in oil. _ The salmon-canning industry is still considerable, but the Fraser river has been much depleted and steps were being taken in 1920 towards conservation. The fishing industry was greatly stimulated during the war and increased in respect of many of the smaller fishes by 100 per cent.

Columbia salmon.

Great Britain is the largest market for British

The values of the varieties caught in 1919 were:

salmon, $17,537,164; halibut, $4,617,484; herring, $1,109,870; pil-

chards, $371,871; cod, $368,838; flounders, etc., $130,940; black cod, $116,580; soles, $90,848. British Columbia contributed $25,301,607 in 1919, almost half of the entire fisheries production of -anada, There were then 74 salnion canneries and one other can-

nery in operation. There were 9 whale and fish oil factories and 20 sh-curing establishments, representing a capital in all fisheries of

16,358,505. The principal canning operations are carried on in the Fraser river, Skeena river, Rivers Inlet, Naas river, on the coast

of Vancouver J. and in a few outlying districts. Mining.—Mining in British Columbia originated with the placer

deposits of the Fraser river and its far-off tributaries in the Cariboo district, from which it is estimated that some $55,000,000 or $60,000,-

000 of gold has been extracted. The undeveloped coal-fields of British Columbia have been estimated to cover 1,351 sq. m., of which 834

are in Vancouver and Graham J. (Queen Charlotte Is.), and 517 on the mainland. Their resources are stated at 3,110 million tons on the islands and 37,115 million tons on the mainland, of which 61

million tons are anthracite, 39,674 million tons bituminous coal and 490 million tons lignite. ‘There are large deposits, as yet undeveloped, of magnetite and haematite iron. New interest attaches

to the Queen Charlotte Is. on account of the extensive deposits of oil shale extending along the W. coast of Graham Island. The mineral production in 1919 amounted to $33,296,313, made

up of gold, $3,437,145; silver, $3,592,673; lead, $1,526,855; copper, $7,939,896; zinc, $3,540,429; coal, $11,337,705; coke, $637,966; miscellaneous products, $1,283,644.

Manufactures —Lumber in all its forms is manufactured for home

consumption and export in over 200 saw-mills. The Canadian Pa-

cific railway owns and controls large smelting works at Anyox and at

Trail. The coking of coal, manufacture of pulp and paper, salmon

canning, sugar refining, and the manufacture of cement are other

industries. There were in 1918 1,786 factories with $244,697,000

capital, giving employment to 48,779 persons who received $51,051,-

000 in wages and salaries. The value of materials used was $103,-

936,000 and of goods produced $207,678,000.

Shipbuilding was greatly stimulated by the World War. Owing

to the shortage of shipping after its outbreak, a programme of build-

Ing wooden ships was undertaken under the auspices of the Provin-

cial Government. The Foundation Co. constructed a number of vessels for the French Government, and steel vessels for the Dominion Government were constructed at Victoria and Vancouver. Transport.—The main line of the Canadian Pacific railway enters

British Columbia through the Kicking Horse pass on its way to

Vancouver. Another line of the same railway, entering the province by means of the Crow's Nest pass, serves the Kootenay country and joins the main line, by several water connexions, at Revelstoke.

The Canadian National traverses the Yellowhead pass and proceeds

through the northern part of the province to Prince Rupert near the Alaskan boundary, The Canadian National railways also run

through the Yellowhead pass, turning S. to Kamloops, parallel to

the Canadian Pacific, on the opposite side of the Fraser river, to

Vancouver.

From Victoria, the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railways

run as far N. as Comox, and there is also a Canadian National line on the island.

The Pacific Great Eastern from N. Vancouver to

makes regular connexions by fine twin-screw steamers with Vancouver and Victoria. The coastwise trade, especially in the summer, is enormous. The Canadian Pacific has also a splendid fleet of steamships plying to and from Japan and China, on the outward

trip touching at the Philippine Is., and trafic arrangements with lines of steamers to and from Australia and New Zealand. There are numerous lines of steamships on the Pacific which make Victoria and Vancouver ports of call. The opening of the Panama Canal has proved of great advantage to the province. Steamers also

ply on the navigable rivers and lakes in the interior of aea, BRITISH

EAST

AFRICA.—The

Fast Africa

Protectorate,

or “British East Africa,” was in July 1920 annexed to the British Crown and renamed Kenya Colony (see Kenya). BRITISH EMPIRE (see 4.606 *).—The white population af the British Empire in 1921 was (approximately) 60,693,000 (of whom about three-fourths lived in Great Britain and Ircland) Its brown or black population was (approximately) 360,670,000 (of whom British India, the Protected Indian States, Ceylon and the other Eastern colonies and dependencies contributed approximately 323,375,000, West Africa 20,151,000, East Africa 6,315,000, South Africa 5,801,000, British Central Africa 2,600,700, and the West Indies 1,490,000). The population of Tanganyika Territory (German East Africa) is estimated, in the British sphere of influence, at 3,500,000. The native population

of German South-West Africa is small, owing mainly. to the

system of repression in force under German rule; the white

inhabitants are between six and seven thousand. Forty-two per cent of the population of the German colonies in Africa were assigned under the Peace of Versailles to Great Britain, against 33% assigned to France and 25% assigned to Belgium. The total arca of what was German New Guinea, along with the

Bismarck Archipelago and the other islands attached, to it, is about 90,000 sq. miles.

A remarkable development took place between rgro and 1921, both in theory and in practice, in matters relating to fhe constitutional framework of the British Empire. It is true that at the Imperial Conference of ro1z a proposal, not thoroughly thought out, to set on foot an Imperial Council, of a somewhat nebulous character, received little support; and that, as long as Sir Wilfrid Laurier held the helm in Canada, closer coöperation among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations was practically out of the question. But this same Conference witnessed a new departure which proved of singular good fortune for British interests. At a secret meeting of the Imperial Defence Committee Sir Edward Grey explained to the dominion prime ministers the hidden mysteries of European and world politics. Mr. Fisher was at the time the Labour Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia, and the feelings of confidence and goodwill aroused by this spontaneous act on the part of the British Government bore abundant fruit when, after a .brief

interval, he returned to power in the autumn of 1914. In other ways the proceedings of the 1911 Conference were of importance. Although the proposal of a permanent council or committee, to give continuity to the work of the Imperial Conferences, had come to nothing, mainly owing to the objections raised by Canada, still the establishment of a separate “ Dominions Department ” of the Colonial Office in London and the issue by it of annual reports were distinct steps in this direction. In any case, In going through the proceedings of the 1911 Conference, one notes a closer grip of existing facts than had been shown at previous conferences. Thus a satisfactory solution was arrived

at of the problem of naturalization within the Empire, a solution

which was afterwards embodied in imperial legislation. Each Fort George, owned and to be operated by the Provincial Government, was under construction in 1921. Many portions of the prov- | dominion must continue to retain the power of regulating its ince are tapped from the United States by branches of the Great own system of naturalization; but five years’ residence in any Northern railway. The total mileage of railways in 1917 was 3,885. portion of the Empire qualifies an applicant for the grant of The British Columbia Electric railway has radial lines extending imperial nationality, the decision of the question resting with from ‘Vancouver to points in the Westminster district, and a subur-

ban line from Victoria running through the Saanich district. The Canadian Pacific railway operates a fleet of steamships which reach coastwise all points northward from Victoria and Vancouver to Prince Rupert and several ports in Alaska (including also ports on the coasts of Vancouver I. and the Queen Charlotte Is.) and S.

to Seattle. ‘There is also direct steamship connexion with San Francisco.

The Canadian National, with a terminus at Prince Rupert,

that portion of the self-governing Empire in which such applicant has resided during the twelve months immediately preceding his application. A discussion of the subjcct of emigration brought out the great increase which had taken place in the most recent ycars in the number of British emigrants to the dominions,

_ compared with the number of such emigrants to the United States,

BRITISH EMPIRE

507

The Conference, further, revealed the weakness of the existing in military education had gone on, under the scheme initiated system of political intercommunication. It was shown that the by Lord Haldane in roog. Congenial ground was afforded for Declaration of London, which involved important questions of military reforms by the system of compulsory military training maritime law of vital interest to communities separated by thou- prevailing in Australia and New Zealand, a system which in the sands of miles of sea from Great Britain, had been approved with- former country had been introduced by the Labour party. One out any consultation with or even notice given to the dominions. may admit that the successes of the dominion troops in the war The excuse was that the dominions had not been parties to the were mainly due to the individual initiative and valour of the Hague Conference; and that the Declaration of London had rank-and-file and yet recognize the merits of the machinery been the outcome of the proceedings of that body; but the British through which these worked. Government adopted a very apologetic tone and readily cnThe independent character of the various portions of the dorsed a resolution that, in future, the dominions should be given Empire was well illustrated by the different attitudes they took the opportunity of considering the matter before the signing of up towards conscription, the Parliaments of New Zealand and of any convention which might affect their interests by the British Canada, in spite of the hostility of the province of Quebec, having delegates at the Hague Conference; and this same general rule adopted it, whilst the people of Australia at two refcrenda refused should, as far as possible, hold good in the negotiation of other its endorsement. international agreements. From the political standpoint, however, the situation was less The anomalous character of the British Empire was well satisfactory. The British Empire had gone to war in 1914 withillustrated by the adoption of a resolution which was, indeed, out the dominions having any voice in the decision. The circumthe logical sequel of the action of Lord Salisbury in 1897 in stances, indeed, with regard to the violation of Belgian neutrality connexion with the grant of a fiscal preference by Canada to British goods; but was none the less of a centrifugal character.

It was agreed that in cases in which a British commercial treaty with a forcign Power bound the dominions, negotiations should

be opened with the object of securing liberty to any of them to withdraw from the operation of such treaty, without impairing

its validity with regard to the rest of the Empire. In some cases foreign Powers were unwilling to agree to such a proceeding; so that the only alternative was the denunciation by Great Britain of a treaty which otherwise it might be in her interest to retain. Apart, however, from details, the Imperial Conference of 191r did important work in cementing the intangible links connecting the different parts of the British Commonwealth.

In the words

of General Botha, it called into life “that friendship which must lead to codperation, and better coéperation than we have had in the past.” Towards the end of rorr Sir Wilfrid Lauricr’s long period of rule in Canada came toa close, the Liberal leader suffering defeat at the general clection which took place over the question of trade reciprocity with the United States.

In Ontario, whatever

may have been the case elsewhere, the contest was fought as one connected with the maintenance of the British connexion; and the triumph of the Conservatives was hailed as a manifestation of imperial loyalty. The new Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden, had for some years consistently maintained the view that, whilst a more generous contribution by Canada to the needs of the imperial navy was necessary, such contribution must involve a

real partnership in the decision of those questions of forcign policy on which might depend the issues of peace or war. For the time being he was satisfied with the undertaking of the British Government that a Canadian representative would always be welcome at meetings of the Imperial Defence Committce,

but it was obvious that this could not be the final solution of the problem. Sir Robert’s attempt to give substantial help to the British navy by the gift of three battleships failed, it is true,

through the action of the Canadian Senate in rejecting the measurc; but the political claims which went along with the proposed gift were soon to find a partial fulfilment, the tremendous efforts

put forth by the dominions in the World War forbidding, in any case, a simple return to the practice of the past, . On the purely naval and military side of the question, indeed, the results of the war might seem to vindicate the past policy. Dominion statesmen pointed with pride to the action of the little Australian navy, which, at the outbreak of war, promptly gave its services to-the capture of the German colonics in the Pacific, whilst it was forthwith placed under the British Admiralty. The question of separate navies was for a long time a bone of contention between British naval experts and dominion public men, but it seems now impossible to contest the principle, though as late as 1918 the British Admiralty continued to advocate a single navy, under a single naval authority. In military matters the development of an impcrial general staff and improvement

were So manifest as, In this particular case, to prevent the possibility of discussion; but, in the event of trouble in the future, the casus belli for the whole Empire may not always be so clear. It was obvious, then, that there was a real weakness in the system, requiring a practical remedy.

No Imperial Conference was held in rors, owing to the exigencics of the war; and when it met in 1917, and again in 1918, it was accompanied by a new organ of government, of extreme significance. The Imperial War Cabinet was not, indeed, a Cabinct in the strict use of the word; because it had no direct executive authority, and because a majority at its sittings could not bind a dissentient minority; but, for practical purposes, it fulfilled the

functions of a Cabinet, in concentrating upon a single objective the whole moral and material strength of the scattered Empire, It was hoped that an instrument which had proved so useful for the purposes of war might give the solution to the problem of the Empire in times of peace; such being the expectation of Mr.

Lloyd George and of Sir Robert Borden. But a Cabinet of this kind requires a sacrifice of scparate interests to the collective good such as is not often found except in times of cmergency. Accordingly the meeting of Prime Ministers held im 1921, what

ever may have been Lord Milner’s intention when summoning it, bore at least in its initial stages little resemblance in its proceedings to a constitutional Cabinet, though in its final report it gave expression to the unanimous views of the Governments of the

Empire. At the opening mecting Mr. Lloyd George declared that, while in the past Downing Street controlled the Empire, to-day the Empire took charge of Downing Street. The main subject of discussion was the question of the renewal of the AngloJapanese Alliance. It was agreed by all parties that the alliance would require changes in its form, because of the changed conditions of the world, and in order that it should comply with the obligations imposed by membership in the League of Nations.

But on the gencral question of the renewal of the treaty there was a difference of opinion. The Canadian Prime Minister, adopting the point of view of American public men and intent upon the promotion of the closest friendly relations between the British Empire and the United States, was opposed to the renewal of the treaty in.any form. The Australian and New Zealand representatives, on the other hand, who had much to fear from the presence in the Pacific of an unfriendly or offended Japan,

recognized in the renewal of the treaty the surest pledge for future peace. The friendship of Japan during the war had undoubtedly been of the greatest service to the British Empire; and the rôle of a Power, such as Great Britain, with over 300 million Asiatic subjects, might well be to act as a connecting link between the United States and Japan, playing to some cxtent the part played by France after the Anglo-French agrecment of r904 in establishing more friendly relations between Great Britain and Russia. It fortunately proved unnecessary that the question should be decided forthwith; and in July the invitation of the United

BRITISH EMPIRE

508

States to the various Powers to attend a general conference later

political status of the dominions, and hastened the putting for-

in the year on the subject of disarmament and the political questions connected therewith gave the opportunity for the whole question to be discussed from every point of view. With regard to the question of naval defence the Conference resolved “ that, while recognizing the necessity of coöperation . . » to provide such naval defence as may prove to be essential

ward of claims which might otherwise have lain dormant. for many more years. During the peace negotiations dominion statesmen sat at the council table as represcntatives of their own communities, and not as mere assessors to the British representatives, their countries being recognized, for certain purposes, as separate states. At the signing of the Peace, King George, in

for security, and while holding that equality with the naval strength of any other Power is the minimum suggested for that purpose, this Conference is of opinion that the method and cxtent of such coéperation are matters for the final determination of the several Parliaments concerned, and that any recommendations thereon should be deferred until after the coming conference on disarmament.” It should further be noted that the dominion Prime Ministers attended the Cabinet Council at which the reply to the French note on Upper Silesia was considered. It had been intended to hold a special constitutional conference in 1922, but, having regard to the constitutional developments since 1917, the meeting saw no advantage in holding sucha conference. They recognized, however, the necessity of continuous consultation, which could

only be secured by an improvement in the communications between the different parts of the Empire.

Whether or not an Imperial Cabinet, on the model of the

each case, acted on the advice of the minister representing each

individual dominion separately. Lastly, the dominions became full members of the League of Nations, undertaking, individually, the many serious obligations involved by such membership. These privileges, Sir Robert Borden has explained, were not obtained without struggle; but the opposition in no case came from the British Government.

Moreover,

whilst the international position of the British

Empire was thus being modified, General Smuts, the protagonist

of the movement to reconcile complete local autonomy with the permanence of the Empire, was explaining the measures necessary to make theory to harmonize with practice. (It should be remembered that General Smuts was at the same time denouncing secession as at once a violation of the South African Constitution and a blow aimed at the British population.) No shred of authority, Gencral Smuts insisted, must remain with the British Parliament or ihe Colonial Office.

When dominion matters were in

Imperial War Cabinet, be found to be practicable, it should be noted that a more elaborate method of solving the problem

question the King must act exclusively on the advice of his

has been put forward.

must be appointed on their recommendation.

The “ Round Table” movement

took

its rise from a small body of able and hard-working men who, having helped to bring about the union of South Africa, transferred their energies to the solution of the British imperial problem. A patient and detailed investigation of the whole subject was made by groups of inquirers, mainly belonging to the universities, throughout the Empire; and the results were recorded in carefully annotated volumes, The final outcome of the views of the majority—in most groups there was a dissentient minority— was the volume, Te Problem of the Commonwealth, by Lionel Curtis, published in 1917. Though the book bound no one to the author’s individual views, it is not likely ever to be superseded as a solution of the problem, from the point of view of an imperial federationist. Whilst the necessity of an Imperial Parliament and Executive was insisted upon, the necessity was also recognized of limiting, as far as was compatible with imperial safety, the functions of such Imperial Parliament and Executive. Dominion nationalism forbade that questions other than the management of foreign affairs, Imperial defence and finance in its relation with defence, along with the control of subject races, should be the province of the central authority. Thus the subject of the tariff was held to be outside its province. Whatever its logical merits, the proposal failed to secure the support of public men and of the electors in the dominions; largely on the ground that the people of the dominions would never tolerate any form of taxation imposed by a Parliament not sitting within their own borders.

But, though imperial federation be in the existing state of public opinion an impossibility, it does not follow that a satisfactory scheme is not any nearer than it was before the war. The effects of the war seemed indeed in 1921 to be working in two directly opposite directions. On the one hand the war brought about a greater knowledge of Great Britain and its people among the many thousands of dominion soldiers who were in England when training or on leave, and had thus created bonds of mutual affection and sympathy. (The fecling embodied in the wellknown warning, ‘‘ No Englishman need apply,” is now, we are

told, in ‘Canada a thing of the past.) Again, the visits of the Prince of Wales to the dominions in rorg-21 called forth an expression of loyalty and devotion to the monarchy, as embodying imperial unity, and to the individual Prince, as embodying in its most attractive shape at once the youth and the democratic spirit of these new nations, such as promiscd well for the permanence of the British connexion.

Upon the other hand, the war, with its consequences, was,

as was inevitable, a forcing--house in the development of the

dominion

ministers,

and, accordingly,

the Governor-General Whence it follows

that the only link left between Great Britain and the dominions is the personal link of the Crown, and that, logically, the dominions should have separate diplomatic representation in every capital. A beginning had been made in 1ọ21 in the latter direction by the decision to appoint a Canadian minister at Washington, though it was doubtful how far such an appointment was really demanded by Canadian public opinion. It is obvious how difficult under the new system might become the position of a constitutional monarch

who found. himself

called upon to act in several different ways, on the advice of separate ministers, whose policies might be wholly discordant. When General Smuts first broached his views in 1917 he laid great

store on the necessity for frequent meetings of the Prime Ministers of the British Commonwealth of Nations, with the object of insuring a common and collective policy; but latterly, under the stress of local conditions in South Africa, and perhaps under the influence of a natural impatience with the situation in Europe, this side of the shicld seems to have been less before his attention. At the Imperial Conference of 1917 it was agreed that the readjustment of the constitutional relations of the component parts of the Empire should form the subject of a special imperial conference, to be summoned as soon as possible after the cessation of hostilities; and it was scttled provisionally that the conference should take place in 1922; but it seemed clear by 192 that, in the reaction following upon the efforts of the war, any immediate attempt to draw closer the bonds of union would not meet with a favourable reception. To judge from the criticisms made on Lord Jellicoe’s suggestions, the dominions were not yet prepared to contribute a fixed proportionate quota to the cost of the imperial navy. Underlying, however, this attitude of caution and distrust, there was still in reserve that spirit which made the Empire one in the supreme crisis of its history, the World War. Other difficulties, besides the constitutional problem, beset the British Empire during the decade. Of these none caused greater anxiety than the treatment accorded to British Indians in the British dominions. With regard to immigration, it had become generally recognized in 1921 that each dominion had the right to make, and to enforce, such rules as it deemed necessary

for its own individual inter ests, No sane Englishman would venture to quarrel with the policy of a white Australia, or with the consequences it may entail. Similarly, if the Union of South Africa, with its huge black population, refuses admission to British Indians, no complaint can be made. But it is a matter

BRITISH EMPIRE

509

of the utmost importance, in the interests of the Empire as a

lishment of fortifications or military and naval bases, and the

whole, that such Indiang as have already found a home there

military training of the natives for other than police purposes and actual defence. In territories under this form of mandate equal opportunities must be given for the trade and commerce of all nations belonging to the League of Nations. Lastly (class C) there were territories, such as German South. West Africa and certain of the islands in the Pacific south of the Equator (assigned to the Union of South Africa and to Australia aùd New Zealand), which, owing to the sparseness of their population, their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilization, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the mandatory Power, could be administered most convenicntly under the laws of the mandatory as integral portions of its territory; but subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. The recognition of this last class was, in great measure, due to the exigencies of the British dominions. The Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand were all countries having a protective tariff. Had their new possessions come under the

should receive fair and generous treatment. The recognition of a modified form of self-government in India under the system

known as “ dyarchy ” and the extension of representative institutions have gréatly stimulated the political consciousness of the peoples of India; and things are now noted and resented which a few years earlier would have been treated as matters of course. The presence of Indian representatives at the Imperial Conferences of 1917 and 1918 served to bring home to the minds of dominion statesmen the new status obtained by India in the British Commonwealth of Nations, and the need for a new spirit in dealing with its population. Rules against Indian immigration could be reconciled with Indian dignity when reciprocal measures by India were formally sanctioned, and the hardships of existing

laws with regard to the introduction of the wives of those already domiciled, or with regard to facilities for temporary or occasional visits, admit of easy mitigation. More difficult is the question of the franchise. In the past the argument has been that, as Indians had no voice in public affairs at home, they could not resent being treated in a similar way ina dominion. But now that they have begun their political apprenticeship in India itself the case is different; and, at the meeting of the Prime Ministers in 1921, the Indian representatives having laid great stress on the necessity of finding a remedy for this grievance, the conference, “in the interests of the solidarity of the British Commonwealth,” recognized the desirability of granting citizenship to Indians lawfully domiciled in a dominion. It is significant, however,

that the representatives of South Africa were unable to accept this resolution. Nor is it in the dominions alone that this difficulty has been encountered. The Highlands of British East Africa (Kenya Colony) have developed into a white man’s land, and Kenya is probably on its way to full responsible government. But Indians have for generations resorted to the shores of East Africa, and

Indians have held that British Kast Africa’s destiny lay in becoming a field for Indian immigration, under the British flay. The complete failure of such expectations, and the treatment accorded to British Indians in Kenya Colony by the British settlers, have doubtless been a contributory cause in promoting feelings of distrust and suspicion in India, Under the Peace of Versailles a new form of colonial possession came into being. It seemed impossible, both in the interests of the natives and for military reasons, to restore to Germany the colonies that had been taken during the war. At the same time it did hot appear seemly that a war, fought for moral ends, should

be followed by a mere division of the spoil. The ‘ mandatory ” system was, therefore, evolved; the aim of which is to enforce the lesson that the possession of colonics, inhabited by savage or semi-civilized peoples, entails moral obligations toward such peoples. Accordingly their tutelage is entrusted to advanced nations who, by reason of their resources, their experience, or geographical position, can best undertake this responsibility, and who thus become mandatories on behalf of the League of Nations. The character of the mandate is differentiated according to the

stage of development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, its economic conditions, and other similar circumstances.

There are three kinds of mandates. Under the first (class A} the mandatory power stands in the position of administrative adviser and assistant until such time as the dependent community may be able to stand alone; its existence as an independent

nation being provisionally recognized, subject to the execution by the mandatory of its trust. In the case of the second form of mandate (class B) the population, as in German East Africa (assigned mainly to Great Britain), was still at the stage in which the mandatory must be exclusively responsible for the administration of the country; under conditions, however, which would guarantee freedom of conscicnce and religion (subject to the maintenance of public order and morals); the prohibition of abuses, such as the slave trade, traffic in arms or in liquor; and would prevent the estab-

provision applying to class B, they must either have sct on foot

different tariff arrangements in their possessions or else have incurred the obligation to throw open their commerce to all members of the League. That the League of Nations intended to take very scriously its work under the mandatory system was shown by the amendments proposed by the sub-committee of the executive committee which dealt with the British draft of the mandate for Tanganyika. Amongst other alterations of a stringent character it was proposed that, on the coming into force of the mandate,

“all lands not already alienated by regular title, whether oc-

cupied or unoccupied,” should be declared “ native lands,” and that no native lands should be alienable, a provision which would apparently render impossible any kind of European colonization or development. The further proposal that any person in the territory should be able, through the medium of the mandatory Power, to bring complaints to the League with regard to the non= observance of the terms of the mandate might, conceivably, lend itself to abuse, in the event of such complaints being manufactured or encouraged for political purposes. With regard to trade relations, there was no movement during xoro-2r in the direction of an imperial Zollverein, In Canada the party that in opposition had denounced protection had found

insuperable difficulties in the way of changing the policy of their predecessors and contented themselves with. maintaining the British preference. But the effect of reciprocity with the United States, had it come into force, must have been to diminish the advantage to British trade of such preference. In these years, whilst the policy of preference for British goods gained in favour throughout the dominions, it was seldom advocated unless it could be accompanied by a general raising of the scale of the

general tariff. In Great Britain the Unionist leaders had found themselves faced with the difficulty of proposing duties upon primary articles of food; and the revised platform merely demanded a preferential treatment of goods producedin the Empire which were already subject to duties, a modest proposal which was carried into effect by the budget of rg19.

At the rọrr Conference Sir W. Laurier, tired of gencral dis-

cussions in which neither party was able to convince the other, made the practical proposal that a peripatetic Royal Commission should be set on foot, to take stock of the existing resources of the Empire, and to consider how trade might be increased between its component parts. This commission did much useful work in the years before the war; and the appointment of new trade com» missions in the different dominions and colonics had the effect of stimulating trade with Great Britain. Unfortunately, in the special circumstances which were the aftermath of the war, there werc more formidable obstacles in the way of the expansion

of British trade than ignorance or indifference on the part of possible customers. In another direction the war has had regrettable results. Nothing can help so much to promote imperial unity as a cheap postage system, both for letters and for newspapers, and cheap

510

BROADBENT—-BROADHURST

facilities for travel. But the taxation necessitated by the cost heart of the Uganda protectorate, and tapping 4 vast area of of the war, and the increase in prices generally, gave a rude set- country; whilst in West Africa the progress has been no less back in these directions. Conquests of the air may eventually help noticeable. to solve the problems of time and space—the Prime Minister at In the Far East the addition, in the beginning of 1or4, of the Conference of 1921 decided upon an extension of wireless Johor to the number of the Federated Malay States was an telegraphy and on the retention of existing material useful for event of importance, the undeveloped resources of the country the development of imperial air communications, but in 1921 being great. In no quarter of the world has the British system of the condition of things prevailing had been made less favourable government met with more success than in the Malay Peninsula. The wonderful wealth of the country has, no doubt, made things casicr—nowhcre else could a first-rate railway system have been Empire than it was at the beginning of 1914. As regards the Crown colonies, the period, until the changes | built entirely out of revenue; and the establishment of the planbrought about by the war dealt with above, was one concerned tation rubber industry upon a large scale, before its introduction with the development of the existing possessions rather than into other countries, enabled the pioneers to reap the benefits of with the acquisition of new ones. Great attention was paid to the high prices. Nor was the British Government unmindful of the solution of the problems connected with the natives, with, on the interests of the natives, special legislation being passed to pre~ whole, satisfactory results; e.g. the recognition by cotton experts vent them from yielding to their natural inclination to alienate that cotton-growing in the Empire can be more successfully their ancestral holdings to European capitalists. The spontacarricd on under a system of cultivation by small native pro- neous gift of the battleship “‘ Malaya” to the British navy by the prictors than under the system of large plantations owned by Federated Malay States in rg12 attested the popularity of the Europeans, with its attendant moral dangers, has gone some way British rule; and even more striking were the expressions of to remove the standing crux of colonial administration—how to loyalty from the Asiatic population at the outbreak of war, combine the due development of the material resources of these followed by a voluntary annual contribution towards its excountries with the necessary safeguarding of the moral interests penses which had the warm support of the unofficial members of of the native populations. Similarly, the treatment of the land the Council. An economic reaction inevitably occurred after question has shown more and more respect for native customs and the fictitious prosperity caused by the high prices that prevailed ideas. The amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria in during the war, but such depression was in no way connected 1914 enabled the development of the largest British Crown with the system of government, colony or protectorate to be carried on with greater speed and In the West Indies the years 1910-21 saw few changes of efficiency. In Northern Nigeria, as in the Federated Malay importance. Criticism of existing political conditions had come States, a system is at work which, when conditions are favour- more to the surface, and proposals were more often heard for able, gives admirable results. The native chicfs govern their the establishment of a federal system of government. In Jamaica subjects without the existence of direct communication between the attempt is being made to interest the unofficial members of the British officials and the people. The difficulty in the way of the Legislative Council more closely inthe work of the Governthe employment of this system more generally is that it requires ment. With regard to federation, the difficulties in its way, in both strong and upright native rulers and British residents of no the case of islands separated from each other by hundreds of little tact as well as ability. Whatever be the system of governmiles of sea and possessing different forms of government and ment, it is clear that the interests of a numcrous native population different ideals and prejudices, remain as great as ever; but the must not be abandoned to the will of asmall minority of educated work of the imperial department of agriculture for the West and Europeanized natives, who are wholly akin to their country- Indies has tended to promote economic development genermen in aims and ideals, any more than they should be the victims ally; and the agreement, setting on foot a system of reciprocal of the needs of the few European settlers. The establishment in trade preference, made between Canada and the West Indies Nigcria, side by side with an extended executive council, of a new in 1917 should be of benefit to the latter. 43 council, including amongst its members the leading official and Parliamentary papers, the Annual Reports from the Crown unofficial representatives both of the European and of the native Colonics and Dominions, Hansards, together with A. B. Keith, community, cnables the Governmeént to keep in touch with such Imperial Unity and the Dominions (1916), are the best authorities to habits of intercourse between the members of the scattered

the last 11 years of the British Empire. With regard to the future public opinion as can find expression. A council of this kind` for form of its constitution R. Jebb, The Britannic Question (1913),

may play a uscful part, although it has no direct executive or legislative powers. During the war the striking loyalty of the Mohammedan states in Northern Nigeria and the attitude of the natives throughout the British colonies bore witness to the soundness of the principles upon which the British native policy has been built. There are, no doubt, serious difficulties in the way. The effects in the more civilized communities of a superficial and ill-assimilated education tend to increase indiscipline and vanity amongst the young; whilst the gradual weakening of the tribal system, and of the authority belonging to the chiefs, is fraught with danger. But the experience of British East Africa has shown that, in a country where the disintegrating forces are exceptionally strong, something may be done by skilful admin-

istration to revive the tribal authority and to resuscitate the native tribunals. Everywhere it has been made clcar that no form of compulsory labour on behalf of private employers can be tolerated. The question of taxation, with the view of developing the natives’ inclination to work, has given rise to difficulties. Attention may be called to the system prevailing in Papua, under the Australian Commonwealth Government, where the proceeds of such taxation are strictly carmarked for purposes connected with the interests of the aborigines. A marked feature of the period has been the extension of railways which followed upon the financial success of the so-called Uganda railway. In East Africa there has been established a network of railways, steamers and roads, extending into the

L. Curtis, The Problem of the Commonwealth (1917), and H. Duncan Hall, Phe British Commonwealth of Nations (1920) represent different

pOints of view.

(H. E. E.)

BROADBENT, SIR WILLIAM HENRY, rsr BART. (1835-1907), English physician, was born at Lindley, Yorks., Jan. 23 1835, the son of a woollen manufacturer. Educated at Huddersfield,

he afterwards studied medicine at Owens College and the Royal School of Medicine, Manchester, and at Paris. From 1859 to 1896 he was physician to St. Mary’s hospital, London, and from 1860 to 1879 physician to the London Fever hospital. In 1893 he was created a baronct, and in 1898 became physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria, an office in which he was continued by King Edward VII. Broadbent was an authority on heart affections, and also carried out much research on tuberculosis. His chief works are The Pulse (1890), and The Heart (1897). He died in London July 10 1907, and was succceded in the baronetcy by his son, now Sir John Broadbent, Bart. (b. 1865), also a distinguished physician. BROADHURST, HENRY (1840-10911), English Labour leader and Liberal politician, was born at Littlemore, near Oxford, April 13 1840, the son of a stonemason. He was educated at the village school, and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to his father’s trade. He worked at it for nearly twenty years, going to London finally in 1865, where he was employed in the erecting of the House of Commons. In 1872 he was elected

chairman of the masons’ committee during a strike, and from

BROCK—-BROWNE that time was prominent as a trade union official. In 1875 he was

elected secrctary of the parliamentary committee of the trade union congress.

He entered Parliament in 1880 as Liberal mem-

ber for Stoke-on-Trent. In 1885 he was elected for the Bordesley division ‘of Birmingham, and in Feb. 1886 was appointed under-secretary to the Home Office, going out with the Gladstone Government later in the year. He belonged to the older school of trade unionism and was opposed to such demands as an 8-hour day fixed by law. His moderate policy was defeated at the trade union congress of 1890, and he then resigned his secretaryship. Both in 1892 and 1893 he was unsuccessful in his parliamentary candidatures. In 1892 he was appointed a member of the royal commission on Labour, and in 1894 he was elected Liberal member for Leicester, which seat he held until 1906, when he retired on account of ill health. He died at Cromer Oct. rz 1911. He published the story of his life in 1901, and a book on Leasehold Enfranchisement in conjunction with Lord Loreburn in 1885.

), English sculptor (see BROCK, SIR THOMAS (18474.623), Was in ro1z created K.C.B. - BROCKDORFF-RANTZAU, COUNT ULRICH VON (1869- č ), German diplomatist, was born May 29 r869 at Schleswig. After having held various diplomatic positions at St. Petersburg, Vienna and Budapest he was appointed German minister at Copenhagen, a post which he held from 1912 to 1918. He was very active in the Danish capital during the World War in collecting news and keeping in touch with the various international agencies which were interested in paving the way for peace or endeavouring to undermine the war spirit of the Western Powers. On Dec. 20 1918 he was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and in March 1919 went to Versailles as chief of the German delegation for the peace negotiations. He resigned on June 20 in consequence of his unwillingness to advise the German Government to accept the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

BROOKE, SIR CHARLES JOHNSON (1829-1017), 2nd Raja of Sarawak (sce 24.208), died at Cirencester May 15 1917. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Charles Vyncr Brooke (b. 1874). BROOKE, RUPERT (1887-1915), English poet, was born at

Rugby Aug. 3 1887, and educated at Rugby and King’s College, Cambridge, where he. afterwards won a fellowship. In rg1x he issued his first volume of Poems. In 1913 he undertook a journey through America and on to Samoa, sending home vivid letters, which recall those of R. L. Stevenson, to a London evening paper; they were published after his death in volume form as Letters from America (1916) with a prefatory appreciation by Henry James. These two books and a second and posthumous volume of poetry rorg and other Poems, with an essay on John Webster and the Elizabethan Drama (1916), make up his literary output; but its quality and high promise render the greater the loss to English literature by his premature death on active service. He had joined the Naval Brigade very early in the World War, took part in the ill-fated effort to relieve Antwerp, spent the winter in an English camp and went

out to Gallipoli in the spring, but on the way there fell ill of

blood-poisoning and died at sea in a French hospital ship April 23 1915. He was buried on the island of Lemnos. His Collected Poems, with a prefatory memoir by Edward Marsh, were

published in 1918.

.

BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832-1916), English divine and man of letters (see 4.645), died at Ewhurst, Sur.,

March 18 1916.

See L. P. Jacks, Life and Letters of Stopford Brooke (1917). BROOKFIELD, CHARLES HALLAM ELTON (1857-1913), English actor and playwright, was born in London May 19 1857, and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge. He studied law for a time at the Inner Temple, though he was never called to the bar, and he was for several years on the staff of the Saturday Review. In 1879 he took to the stage, appearing first in Still Waters Run Deep and becoming a member of the Bancrofts’ company at the Haymarket theatre, »

511

London, from 1880 to 1885. Later he played there with Herbert Tree in Jim the Penman, The Red Lamp and other melodramas, as well as in Oscar Wilde’s Ax Ideal Husband. But it was rather as a wit and a writer that his reputation was gained, his stories and mots becoming famous. He wrote alone, or in collaboration, a number of lively plays, of which the best known was Dear Old Charlie, and he published his Random Reminiscences (1902). He

also collaborated with his wife, Frances Mary Brookfield, in an account of his parents Mrs. Brookfield and her Circle (1905). Frances M. Brookfield was also the author of The Cambridge A postles (1906) and of some notable novels, especially My Lord of Essex (1907) and A Friar Observant (1909). In 1911 Brook~field was appointed joint-examiner (censor) of plays under the Lord Chamberlain—an appointment which had an element of humour in view of the character of some of his own plays. He died.in London Oct. 20 1913.

BROUGH, FANNY WHITESIDE (1854-1914), English actress,

who came of a well-known family of actors, was born in Paris July 8 1854. She first appeared on the stage at Manchester in 1869 in a pantomime written by her uncle, William Brough. In 1870 she appeared in London with Mrs. John Wood at the

St. James’s theatre. She played in Money with the Bancroits in 1872, in The Wifes Secret and The Ironmaster with the Kendals in 1888, andin The Man from Blankley’s with Charles Hawtrey in 1901 and again in the United States in 1903. She died in London Nov. 30 1914. BROUGHTON, RHODA (1840-1920), English novelist, was born in N. Wales Nov. 29 1840, the daughter of a clergyman,

who was squire as well as rector of Broughton, Staffs. She produced her first novel, Cometh up as a Flower, in 1867, following it at brief intervals by Not Wisely but too Well and Red

asa Roseis She. In the English county society, in which she had been brought up, such novels were then regarded as too daring experiments, to be kept as far as possible out of the hands of the young. But this succès de scandale was short-lived and, as mid-Victorianism began to fade, Miss Broughton’s reputation as a shocker of convention soon gave place to a more sober recognition of her merit as a story-teller. “I began life as Zola,” she

said of herself, “I finish it as Miss Yonge.” In the interval she had spent 20 years in Oxford, where she was a distinguished social figure, and the last 30 years at Richmond

as a semi-.

invalid, and she had published some zo novels, the latest, A Fool in her Folly, appearing after her death, with a prefatory apprecia-

tion by Marie Belloc-Lowndes.

She died at Headington near

Oxford, June 5 1920.

BROWN, FRANCIS (1840-1016), American Semitic scholar (see 4.658), died in New York Oct. 15 1916. He had been

president of Union Theological Seminary, New

York, since

1908. In torr he was tried for heresy before the Presbyterian Gencral Board on the ground that he had published statements “contrary to cherished Presbyterian and evangelical doctrines,” but was exonerated,

BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831-1013), American painter (see

4.661), died in New York City Feb. 8 r913.

BROWN, PETER HUME (1850-1918), Scottish historian, was born in Haddingtonshire Dec. 17 1850, and educated at Edinburgh University, where he afterwards became professor of ancient history. In 1908 he was appointed Historiog-

rapher Royal for Scotland, and from r913 to 1914 Ford lecturer at Oxford. Besides his various histories, he is the

author of a Life of John Knox (1895) and is mentioned as an authority in the bibliography of John Knox (see 15.882). He died at Edinburgh Nov. 30 1918; his unfinished Life of Goethe

was completed by Lord Haldane and published in 1920. BROWNE, SIR BENJAMIN CHAPMAN (1839-1917), British engineer, was born at Stout’s Hill, Glos, Aug. 26 1839 and was apprenticed to the Elswick works near Newcastleon-Tyne. He became an expert on harbour work and carried out harbour works at Tynemouth, Falmouth and in the Isle of Wight, In 1870 he took over the locomotive works of R. & W. Hawthorn at Forth Banks, in 1886 combined these with

those of Andrew Leslie & Co., and until 1916 was chairman of

BROWNING—BRUSSELS

512

the combination. He was knighted in 1887. He died at West-

The Hôtel de Louis de Gruthuuse (who was given the title of

Count of Winchester by Edward IV.) was converted into a acre, Newcastle-on-Tyne, March 1 x917. BROWNING, JOHN M. (1854. ), American inventor, was | museum of antiquities about 1890. Up to Oct, 10 19714, Bruges was the headquarters of the born at Ogden, Utah, in 1854, of Mormon parentage. His father was a gunsmith. The son, from childhood, displayed remarkable ‘British force that was first sent to Belgium after ihe outtalent for invention. In 1879 he secured his first patent for a break of the World War. The town remained some 20 m. breech-loading single-shot rifle. He made 600 of these guns in | behind the German front at Dixmude and was at first of little military importance, but with the growth of submarine warfare his Ogden shop before selling the patent to the Remington Company. He designed many types of sporting firearms such as and the abandonment of Ostend as a naval base, it became. important as a place for the assembling of parts of submarines the Remington autoloading shotguns and rifles; the Winchester brought overland from Germany. Capt. Fryatt, of the steam repeating shotguns, single-shot and repeating rifles; the Stevens packet “ Brussels,” was shot in the cavalry barracks of the rue rifles; and the Colt automatic pistols. From all these he drew Longue on July 27 1916. The town remained in the hands of large royalties, In 1890 a machine-gun of his design, but known the Germans until Oct, 19 1978. as the Colt, was adopted by the U.S. army. He always BRUNNER, HENRY (1840-1915), German historian (see avoided publicity and in no case required that his invention bear his name. In one establishment alone was his name used, the | 4.685), published in 1909 Geschichte der englischen Rechtsquellen im Grundriss, In 1913 he issued a sixth edition of Grundziige der Fabrique Nationale at Liége, Belgium, which fell into’the hands deutschen Rechtsgeschichte. He died in 1915. of the Germans at the beginning of the World War, in ro14. BRUNNER, SIR JOHN TOMLINSON, rsr Bart. (1842-19109), Browning had shortly before been made a chevalier de l’Ordre de Léopold and decorated by King Albert, on the occaston of the British chemist, was born at Everton near Liverpool Feb. 8

completion

of the millionth

Browning

automatic

pistol at

Liége. He later developed two types of machine-gun which were adopted by the United States in 1918 for use in the World War, One of these guns on test fired 39,000 rounds before breakage

developed. In lieu of royalties, which would have amounted to some $10,000,000, he accepted from the U.S. Government a lump sum of $1,500,000. BRUCE, SIR DAVID (1855~ }, British bacteriologist, was born at Melbourne May 29 1855. He was educated at Stirling high school and Edinburgh University, where he took his degree of M.B. in 1881. He entered the R.A.M.C. in 1883, and from 1884 to 18&9 served in Malta and Egypt. His stay in Malta was marked by his researches into the origin of Malta fever, and in 1887 he discovered the micro-organism of this disease, propounding the theory that it was spread by the use of goats’ milk (see 17.514). In 1889 he became assistant professor of pathology at Netley, and in 1894 went to South Africa, where he remained until roor, serving throughout the South African War. In 1902 he became a member of the Army Adyisory Board, a post which he retained until 1910, For many years Bruce conducted researches into the origin of sleeping-sickness, and. in 1894 he discovered the micro-organism not only of that

disease but also of nagana (tsetse fly disease), and the method of their dissemination. In 1903 he went to Uganda as director of the Royal Socicty’s commission for the investigation of sleepingsickness, and in 1904 proceeded to Malta to carry on further

1842, the son of a schoolmaster of Swiss nationality.

Edu-

cated in his father’s school he entered a Liverpool merchant’s office in 1857, and in 1873 established, with the distinguished chemist Ludwig Mond (see 18.693), the alkali works at Northwich which became the largest in the world. He was a member of several royal commissions, represented Northwich in Parliament during 1885-6 and again from 1887 to 1909, was created a baronet in 1895 and a privy councillor in 1906. His public benefactions, especially to Northwich and Runcorn, were numer-

ous, and he also gave largely to Liverpool University. He died at Chertsey July 1 1919. BRUNTON, SIR THOMAS LAUDER, Barr. (1844-1916), British physician, was born at Hiltonshill, Roxburgh, March 14 1844. He was educated at Edinburgh, where he graduated M.B. in 1866 and M.D. in 1868, also studying for short periods at Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna and Paris. In 1870 he was appointed assistant physician to St. Bartholomew’s hospital, with which he was connected for the rest of his life, both as physician and lecturer. One of his most noteworthy discoveries was the introduction of nitrate of amyl for the relicf of angina pectoris (7867). In 1886 he was a member of the commission which investigated the Pasteur discoveries, and In 1889 went to Hyderabad on the invitation of the Nizam to conduct experiments on the results of the administration of chloroform, He

was knighted in 1900 and created a baronet in 1908. Lauder Brunton published various valuable works, including A TextBook of Pharmacology, Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1892);

investigations into Malta fever, returning to Uganda in 1908, In every casc a great advance in the study of tropical medicine Lectures on the Action of Medicines (1897) and Therapeutics of was the result. From 1911 to 1914 he was in Nyasaland, investithe Circulation (1908). He died in London Sept. 16 1916. gating the possible connexion between human and cattle disBRUSSELS, Belgium (sce 4.692).—The pop. of the city proper cases, and in 1914 became commandant of the Royal Army | in 1920 was 156,924, showing a decrease since 1910 of 39,645, Medical College, holding the post till 1918. Bruce, who was due to the expropriation and demolition of houses for public knighted in 1908, was created K.C.B. in 1918 and retired in 1919. improvements. The total pop. of Greater Brussels (comprising He published many papers on tropical diseases. _ ten suburbs and including the recently annexed suburb of BRUCE, SIR GAINSFORD (1834-1912), English judge, was Laeken) was 831,396 on Jan. 1 1920. The most populous subborn in 1834. He graduated at Glasgow University and was urbs at the same date were Schaerbeek 108,590, Ixelles 91,956, called to the bar in 1859. He joined the northern and afterwards Molenbeek, 77,708, St. Gilles 69,716, Laeken 43,729, Forest the north-eastern circuit, and during 1869-1882 reported Admi32,926, ralty and ecclesiastical cases for the Law Reports. is strength lay The various areas composing the city having certain interests in in Admiralty law, and he made several contributions to its common, notably the maintenance of police and charitable serviccs,

literature, notably an edition of Willams and Bruce’s Admiralty Practice, and the 4th edition of Maude and Pollock on Shipping. He was recorder of Bradford during 1877-92, and successively

solicitor-general

(1879)

and attorney-general

(1886)

to the

county palatine of Durham. A Conservative in politics, he represented Holborn in Parliament from 1888 till he was raised

to the bench in 1898. He was made a privy councillor on his retirement in 1904. He died at Bromley, Kent, Feb. 24 1912. BRUGES, Belgium (see 4.678).,—Pop. 53,895 in 1914. In 1914, 685 vessels of 316,000 tons entered the pert, and just prior

to the World War the improvement of transport between the town and Zeebrugge promised to restore its former prosperity,

a Conférence des bourgmestres, on Which 15 communes

sented, was instituted

areas

was

resisted

were repre-

in 1909, but subsequently the unification of

by the

greater number

of the larger com-

munes.’ A law of April 2 1921, however, initiated by the burgo-

master, Adolphe Max, decreed the annexation to Brussels proper of the communes of Laeken, Haeren, and Neder Overheembeek, as well as part of Molenbeek, and a small part of Schaerbeck, in order to facilitate the construction of the proposed new outer port which the authoritics wished to bring entirely within area of the city proper. Asa result, the area of the city proper has more than tripled; it covers 3,286 hectares 94 ares instead of 1,071 hectares 95 ares, and includes an additional pop. of about 54,000. l During 1910-21 Brussels underwent considerable transformation. Theold harbour basins were filled in in 1910; the Isabelle quarter of the city, situated between the rue Royale and the Place Royale,

BRUSSILOV—-BRYAN as well as the Putteric quarter near the university, were demolished

in order to make room for a new central station, which project, however, seemed in 1920 unlikely to materialize, the Nord-Midi junction being abandoned. Numerous banks were established in the upper town—in the rue Royale and Place Royale. In the Schaerbeek arca, new arterial roads were made and the Parc Josa-

phat was endowed with a fine sports ground. The palace of the Count of Flanders became the Banque de Bruxelles, and, in Nov. 1918, the city acquired the palace of the Duc d’Arenburg, and gave it again its old name of Palais d’Egmont. The harbour works—planned in 1896 for making Brussels an inland seaport, including the widening of the canal and the construction of three large basins, the largest of which, the Vergote basin, -has 20,000 metres

of quayage—were

completed

in 1908.

These

being found inadequate, the construction of a vast outer port in the plain between Lacken and Vilrode was begun. As an outcome of

this undertaking, Lacken was brought within the city area.

The German occupation of the capital during the World War extended from Aug. 1914 to Nov. 1918. General Sixt von Armin’s troops entered on Aug. 20, and on Sept. 2 Field-Marshal von der Goltz was appointed governor-general of Belgium, but was succeeded by Gencral von Bissing in 191g. Numerous social rclicf movements were instituted

outside of German

intervention;

among

them

the Comité

National de Secours had its headquarters at Brussels, and with the aid of Mr. Noover’s American committce organized the

feeding of the Belgian population. On the suppression of Allied newspapers, a patriotic journal, La Libre Belgique, was secretly printed in Brussels and widely circulated during the war, the Germans being unable to discover the press from which it issued. Among the many infamous executions, that of Philippe Baucg and of Nurse Edith Cavell stand out. A revolt of German soldiers against their officers broke out on Nov. 10 10918, and. a violent conflict occurred in the Place Roger opposite the Gare du Nord. The Belgian army reoccupicd Brussels on Nov. 18 1918, and the King and Queen rcéntered the city in state on Nov. 22. BRUSSILOV, ALEXEI (1856~ ), Russian gencral, was born in 1856. His military carcer began in the Caucasus. His courage and capacities brought him to notice in the war with Turkey in 1877-8. The greater part of his military life was passed at the cavalry school for officers in St. Petersburg, of which he became director in 1900, Well acquainted with cavalry technique, of great erudition, he was very useful in this capacity. Tn ro05 General Brussiloy commanded the second guard cavalry division, in 1909 an army corps, and somewhat later he was assistant to the commander-in-chiel

of the Warsaw

military

district, At the beginning ef the World War he was nominated commander of the Russian VIII. Army, which acted with brilliant success in Galicia in 1914 and rgrs. General Brussilov’s reputation grew steadily, and in the winter of ro1s-6 he was called to the command of the armies of the south-western front. During the summer of this year he conducted the great offensive in Galicia, which resulted in the capture of over 450,000 prisoners, with enormous booty and trophies, and the relief of the Italian army by the withdrawal of considerable enemy forces thence to “meet the crisis of Lutsk. In May 1017 after the revolution he was appointed to the supreme command, but he did not hold the

appointment long. Later, he accepted the Bolshevik régime, and was often, though erroncously, reported to be in supreme command of the Bolshevik armics during the wars of 1919-20.

BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (1860+),American political leader (see 4.697), announced that he was not a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1912, but he attended the Democratic convention, and it was largely owing to his personal influence and his large popular following that the nomination went to Woodrow Wilson. In 1913 he was appointed

by President Wilson Secretary of State, and from the start devoted much attention to the negotiation of peace treaties with foreign countries. IIe declared that America should wage no war while he was Secretary. Soon after entering office he went to California and urged, unsuccessfully, that the state

513

Panama Canal tolls bill, which excluded American coastwise shipping from the payment of fees. After the outbreak of the World War he was deeply interested in attempts to restore peace, His attitude toward foreign war loans was clearly expressed In an announcement from the Department of State (Aug. 15 1914), that “There is no reason why loans should not be made to the governments of neutral nations, but in the judgment of this Government loans by American bankers to any foreign nation which is at war is inconsistent with the true spirit

of neutrality.”

When, however, in Dec. of the same year,

Senator Hitchcock introduced a bill to lay an embargo on the

shipment of arms, the Secretary informed the British ambassador that it had not been introduced “ at the suggestion of the

administration’; and later, in 1915, in a letter “ to the German Amcricans ” he declared that it would have been in violation of the laws of neutrality to change international rules during war by forbidding the exportation of arms, After the sinking of the “ Lusitania,” in rors, he signed the first strong note of protest to Germany. Upon the receipt of the German reply, and while the second nate was being prepared, Dr. Dumba, the ambassador of Austria-Hungary, called at the Department of State and asked Secretary Bryan why the United States dealt more harshly with Germany than with Great Britain. The Secretary replied that Great Britain had only interfered with the commerce of the United States while Germany had drowned its citizens. This plain statement was ignorantly or wantonly misinterpreted by some German official, and the report was widely spread that Mr. Bryan had said that the note was for “ home consumption,” and not to be taken too seriously, There was, however, absolutcly no truth in this report, even Dr. Dumba denying it in a dispatch to his Government. When the President wrote his

second “ Lusitania ” note, Secretary Bryan resigned, June 8 1915, saying in his letter of resignation: ‘ You have prepared for transmission to the German Government a note in which I

cannot join without violating what I deem to be an obligation to my country.” During his term of office he had negotiated 30 treaties with foreign nations, requiring the submission of disputes to impartial inquiry and a delay of a full year for arbitration before going to war. Such a treaty had not been concluded with Germany, but was under consideration when interrupted by the World War. As Secretary he was often criticised because of numerous paid engagements on the lecture platform, undertaken, he said, to supplement his inadequate salary; but it was never shown that he was less attentive to the demands of his office than any predecessor. IIe continued, after his resignation, to work in the interests of peace; opposed the Anglo-French war loan; attacked. the Navy League and the National Security League; and tried to resist the growing demand for preparedness in America, In 1916 he was defeated in Nebraska as candidate for delegate-atlarge to the Democratic National Convention, He went, however, as a reporter and gave full support for the renomination and latcr the reélection of President Wilson. From the announcement by Germany of the resumption of submarine warfare to the actual declaration of war, he favoured any measure that would keep America out of war no matter how largely it involved the surrender of American rights on the sea. But when war was declared he asked to be enrolled as a private, though then 57 years of age; urged loyal support of the President’s war measures; and in his own paper, Lhe Commoner, strongly condemned obstruction of the selective draft as well as abuse of liberty of speech. He supported the League of Nations but thought that the Monroe Doctrine should be specifically recognized. He desired a constitutional amendment changing the two-thirds vote required in the Senate.for making

a treaty, so that the country could get out of war as casily as it. got in. In 1920 he attended as a reporter for his paper both the Republican

and

the Democratic

National

Conventions

and

worked in vain for a dry plank in their platforms. ‘Phe same Legislature and the governor delay action on the proposed year he was tendered the presidential nomination of the ProWebb anti-alien land ownership bill, so displeasing to the hibition party but declined. He was disappointed with the Japanese Government. In 1g14 he supported the repeal of the ‘nomination of James M. Cox as Democratic candidate, but.

BRYANT—BUCHAN, JOHN

514

declared that he would not leave the party. important

“ progressive’? measures

adopted

For the most by the United

States in recent years, the popular election of senators, an income tax, the requirement of publication of ownership and circulation by newspapers, the creation of a Depariment of

Labor, national prohibition and woman

suffrage, Bryan la-

boured earnestly, and their adoption was due in part at Icast to his popular persistent appeal, BRYANT, SOPHIE (1850), British educationist, was bom in Dublin Feb. 15 1850, the daughter of the Rev. W. A, Willock. She was educated privately, but later gained a scholarship to Bedford College, London, where she graduated with honours in mathematics and moral science (1881). At the age of rọ she married Dr. William Hicks Bryant, of Plymouth, but on his death a year later resumed her work, and in 1884 took

Along with other English scholars, who had tics of close association with German Ícarning and German savants, he was extremely reluctant in the last days of July ror4 to contemplate the possibility of war with Germany; but the violation of Belgian neutrality and the outrages committed in Belgium by German ‘troops brought him speedily into line with national feeling.

He was appointed chairman of a strong committee to consider the evidence of such outrages not only in Belgium but in France;

and his report convinced the most incredulous of the reality of the charges. He welcomed warmly the entrance of the Americans into the war in the spring of 1917. Ile also presided, as an eminent constitutional lawyer, over a committee set up in that’ year to consider the reconstruction of the House of Lords, and

spent much labour in a task which all parties were disposed to shirk. During these latter years he was largely engaged on the

the degree of D.Sc. in moral science, being the first woman, to take that degree. In 1875 she became mathematical mistress at the North London Collegiate school for girls, and in 1895

volumes, in 1921, on Modern Democracies, a comparative study

on the royal commission on secondary education (1894), and was a member of various educational committees. She retired

from her post at the North London Collegiate school in 1918...

working. For this monumental work he had ‘been gathering material for several years before the war. Besides visiting Switzerland and other parts of Europe, he availed himself of his expericnces in the United States and in Canada, and jour-

She published, besides many articles on scientific and educational subjects, Educational Ends (1887); The Teaching of Morality in the Family and the School (1897) and How to Read the Bible in the Twenticth Century (1918); besides Celtic Ireland (1889),and The Genius of

neyed to Spanish Bryce marricd, in Ashton, of Hyde, He was appointed

succecded Miss Buss as ‘its headmistress.

Dr. Bryant served

the Gack (1913).

BRYCE, JAMES BRYCE, ist Viscount (1838}, British jurist, historian, politician and diplomatist (see 4.699), remained in the United States as British ambassador till rgr3, a period of six years. The appointment, criticised at the time as withdrawing from the regular diplomatic corps one of its most coveted posts, proved a great success. The United States had been in the habit of sending, as minister or ambassador to the

composition of a valuable book, published In two substantial of a certain number of popular governments in their actual

BUCCLEUCH, WILLIAM. HENRY WALTER MONTAGUDOUGLAS-SCOTT, 6111 DUKE oF (1831-1914), British politician (see 4.772), died at Montagu Ifouse, Whitehall, Nov, 5 1914.

He married in 1859 Lady Louisa Hamilton, daughter of the gst Duke of Abercorn, and one of the seven sisters depicted by Disraeli in Lothair, She was an intimate friend of the royal family, and was mistress of the robes to Queen Victoria and

Queen Alexandra,

in the country; and, after the fashion of American ministers or. ambassadors in England, he took up with cagerness and success the role of public orator on matters outside party politics, so far as his. diplomatic duties permitted,

These duties he per-

formed to the satisfaction of his own Government and the Government: to which he was accredited. The difficulty betwcen America and Newfoundland about fisheries was referred to the Hague Tribunal for final settlement. Most of the questions with which he had to deal related to the relations between the United States and Canada, and in this connexion he paid several visits to Canada to confer with the governor-gencral and his ministers. He was criticised, both in. England and in Canada, for forwarding, in 1911, in the course of his duties as ambassador, an arrangement for reciprocity between the two North American states; but the gencral election, which substituted Sir R. Borden as Prime Minister of Canada for Sir W. Laurier, put an end to the negoliations. At the close of his embassy he told the Canadians that probably three-fourths of the business of the British embassy at Washington was Canadian, and of the 11 or 12 treaties he had signed nine had been treaties relating to

the affairs of Canada. ‘ By those nine treaties,” he said,“ we have, I hope, dealt with all the questions that are likely to arise between the United States and Canada—questions relating to boundary; questions relating to the disposal and the use of boundary waters; questions relating to the fisheries in the international waters whcre the two countries adjoin one another;

She died at Dalkeith March 17 1912.

BUCHAN, ALEXANDER

Court of St. James’s, one of its leading citizens—a statesman,

aman of letters, or a lawyer—whose name and reputation were alrcady well known in Great Britain, For the first time Great Britain responded in kind. Mr. Bryce, already favourably regarded in America as the author of a classical work on the American Commonwealth, made himsclf thoroughly at home

America, Australia and New Zealand. Lord 1880, Elizabeth Marion, daughter of ‘Thomas and sister of the 1st Lord Ashton of Hyde. O.M. in 1907 and G.C.V.O. in ror8.

(18209-1907), British meteorologist,

was born at Kinneswood, Kinross, April rx 1829. Tle was educated at. the Free Church normal school and the university of Edinburgh. From 1848 to 1860 he worked as a tracher, but in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society, and in 1869 published his first series of monthly charts showing the mean distribution of atmospheric pressure over the globe, which remained

for many years a landmark in the

progress of meteorology. In 1878 he became curator of the library of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1887 a member of the metcorological council of the Royal Society. He published a Handy Book of Meteorology (1867); Introductory Textbook of Meteorology (1871); besides a report on The Weather and Health of London (with Sir Arthur Mitchell), and edited sections on Oceanic Circulation (1895) and the volume on Atmospheric Circulation (1889) in the voyage of H.M.S. | “ Challenger.” He received the Makdougall-Brishane prize (1876) and the Gunning Victoria Jubilee prize (1893) of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, besides the Symons medal of the Royal. Meteorological Society, and was elected a fellow of the. Royal Society in 1898. He died at Edinburgh May 13 1907.

BUCHAN, JOHN (1875~ }, British author,. was born at Perth Aug. 26.1875, the son of the Rev. John Buchan,* He was educated at Glasgow University and Brasenose College, Ox-

ford, where he won the Stanhope historical essay prize (1897) and the Newdigate prize for poctry (1898), and graduating first class in literae humaniores (1899). In Igor he became private secretary to Lord Milner, then ligh Commissioner for South Africa, and remained with him till 1903. In 1906 he joined the Edinburgh publishing firm of Thomas Nelson &

Sons.

Even as an undergraduate

he had. “ commenced

questions relating to the interests which we have in sealing in the Behring Sea, and many other matters.’ He could boast that

author” with Sir Quixote (1895), and he followed this with other tales and novels. [lis African experiences suggested Tke African Colony (1903), A Lodge in the Wilderness (1906), and

he left the rclations between the United States and Canada on an excellent footing, For his services he was created a viscount in 1913, and in 1914 his old university, Oxford, gave him an honorary degree.

Prester John (1910), uring the World War he served with the headquarters staff of the British army in France (1916-7), attaining the rank of coloncl, and later was Director of Information under the Prime Minister (1917-8), and his History of

BUCKLE—BUENOS AIRES the War (Nelson) was an admirable picce of work.

He wrote

too some excellent tales of adventure, notably The Thirty-Nine Steps (1918) aid Greenmanile (1916). Later works include The

South African Forces in France (1920), and a biography of Francis and Riversdale Grenfell (1920). BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE (1854), English editor and man of letters, was born at Tiverton-on-Avon, Som., June ro 1854, eldest son of Canon George Buckle of Wells. He was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, being a scholar of his college, and graduated first class both in licrae humaniores (1876) and in modern history (1877), He won the Newdigate prize poem in 1875. In 1877 he was elected to a fellowship at All Souls College, which he held until 1885. In 1880 he joined the staff of The Times; four years later, at the age of thirty, he succeeded Thomas Chenery as'its editor. This position he occupied for ncarly thirty years, retiring in Aug, 1912. When Mr. Monypenny, the biographer originally entrusted with the official Life of Disracli, diced in 1912 leaving his task unfinished, Mr. Buckle took over the work of completing it; under his authorship vol. 3 was published in 1914, vol. 4 in 1916,

and the concluding vols. 5 and 6 in 1920.

BUCKMASTER, STANLEY OWEN BUCKMASTER, 1st Baron

(1861}, English lawyer and politician, was born at Wandsworth Jan. ọ 186r. Ie was educated at Christ Church, Ozford, and in 1884 was called to the bar, becoming a K.C. in 1902. He entered politics as a Liberal, and in 1906 was clected M.P. for Cambridge. In rọrọ he lost his seat, but in grr was elected for the Keighley division of Yorks., and the same year became counsel to Oxford University. In 1913 he was made solicitor-gencral and knighted. He was from Sept. 1914 to May rors director of the Press Bureau. In the latter year he was Lord Chancellor, being raised to the peerage, but was displaced on the fall of the Asquith Government in 1916. BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823-1014), Amcrican soldier and political leader (see 4.732), died in Munfordville, Ky., Jan. 8 1914.

He was the last surviving major-general of the Con-

federacy and the then oldest living graduate of West Point.

BUCKNILL, SIR THOMAS TOWNSEND (1845-1915), English

judge, was born at Exminster April 18 1845, the son of Six John Charles Bucknill (1817-1897), a famous mental specialist. He was cducated at Westminster

Geneva. He 188s, and a to 1899 he member for

school, and afterwards

at

was called to the bar in 1868, became æ Q.C. in bencher of the Inner Temple in 1891. From 1885 was recorder of Exeter. He sat as Conservative Mid-Surrey from 1892 to 1899, in which year he

was raised to the bench and knighted. He died at Epsom Oct. 4 1915. BUDAPEST (sce 4.734).—In roro the civil pop. of Budapest was 863,735, showing an increase of 20-55% in the decade. To this must be added a garrison of 16,636 men, making a

total pop. of 880,371. Of the total pop. 756,070 were Magyars, 78,882 Germans, 20,359 Slovaks and the small remainder was composed of Poles, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croatians, Rumanians and others. According to religion there were 526,175 Roman Catholics, 9,428 Greck Catholics, 6,962 Greek Orthodox, 86,990 were Protestants of the Helvetic and 43,562 of the Augsburg Confessions, 203,687 were Jews and the remainder belonged to various other creeds. During the World War the extraordinary

increase in the population of Budapest diminished, the census Jan. 1 1921 showing a pop. of 1,184,616.

In the years immediately preceding the war there were over

6,000 students at the university, and from 4,000 to 5,000 at the Polytechnic Institute. A new faculty of political economy was

founded at the university in rọrọ, and the Geological and Meteorological Institutcs are also of recent foundation. The new Tisher rampart in Romanesque-Gothic transition style, with a bronze statue of St. Stephen, rises round the Matthias church. At the N. extremity of the fortress is the Gothic building of the National Archives, unfinished in 1921 The development of Budapest came to a standstill during the war, and the lack of housing accommodation caused great distress among the increased population. The city suffered

915

severely during the Bolshevist ascendancy, and many robberics were committed by the Rumanian troops who occupied it in disregard of the decisions of the other Allicd Powers (see Huncary). Fortunately, the English, American and Italian missions prevented the sacking of the museums and art galleries. Sce Eugen Cholnoky, “ The Geographical Position of Budapesti” Bulletin of the Hungarian Geographical Society, 1914-20, abridged.

BUDGE, SIR ERNEST ALFRED WALLIS (1857), English archacologist, was born in Cornwall July 27 1857 and educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he became Assyrian

scholar and ‘Tyrwhitt Hebrew

scholar.

keeper

Assyrian

of the Egyptian

and

In 1885 he became antiquities

in

the

British Museum, and he conducted excavations at Assuan, at Gebcl Barkal on the island of Meroe (the site of the capital of ancient Ethiopia), at Nineveh and Der in Mesopotamia (1888-9) and in the Sudan, when the ancient monuments on the banks of the Nile were threatened with inundation by the raising of the Assuan dam. His long list of publications includes The Gods of Egypt (1903); The Egyptian Sudan (1907); The Nile (1910; 12th ed. 1912); Literature of the Ancient Egyptians

(1914); By Nile and Tigris (1920), and very many

others.

Ie was knighted in 1920.

BUENOS

AIRES

(sce 4.732) continued

to be in 1921 the

largest city in Latin America, the largest city in the world south of the equator and the fourth city in the two Americas, being exceeded only by New York, Chicago and Philadelphia in the order named. In total shipping, Buenos Aires ranks as the second port in the two Americas, coming directly after New York. The pop. in 1920 was 1,676,042, an Increase of 486,379. or 38 %, since 1909, when Buenos Aires had 1,189,662 inhabitants, and an increase since 1914 of 184,062, or 12 %. It will be seen that the relative growth for the period 1914-20 was not so great as previously. This is partly accounted for by the fact that between 1914 and sox8 there was a balance against Argentina in migration of 213,000 people; however, this movement turned the other way in rọrọ, and in 1920 the balance resulted in favour of Argentina by 39,800. A large proportion of immigrants remain jn Buenos Aires, in spite of the efforts of the Argentine Government to distribute them. In 1919, only 6,675 building permits were granted, as against 19,538 in 1910. The celebration of the Argentine Centenary in Ig1o0 in Buenos Aires drew many visitors not only from all Argentina, but also from abroad. Jn 1913 new diagonal avenues were begun, the plan being to change the rectangular pattern which had been followed since the colonial period by cutting diagonal avenues through the city on the model of Washington and Paris. The two chief new ones were to radiate from the corners of the central Plaza de Mayo, formerly the chief central square of the city. In i921 only about five blocks of cach of these avenues had been completed, the World War putting a stop to the extensive. expenditures upon the project, which involved the widening of alternate streets coming from the river and the demolition of many of the older parts of the city. The parkway lying between the city proper and the Rio de la Plata was greatly improved during the 10 years 1910-20, much land was reclaimed from the river, and a new post-office and custom-house

were erected

on this parkway, adding greatly to its beauty. The centenary gifts of

various nations to Argentina now adorn important parts of Buenos Aires. Among them may be especially mentioned the handsome

clock tower crected by the British colony at a cost of £50,000, which stands opposite the new railway station opened in 1916 (the largest railway station in South America), the statue of George Washington in Palermo Park erected by the U.S. colony, and other statues from the French, Syrian and other forcign communities. The statue

erected by the Spanish colony in Palermo - beautiful.

Park is particularly

The Congress building was finished in 1912 and the park in front of it, the Plaza del Congreso, covering three city blocks, was opened for the centenary celebrations in 1910, over $500,000 having been. spent.

g

Buenos Aires transacts approximately 80% of the entire foreign

trade of the republic. I¢ continues to be preéminently the banking, as well as the industrial, centre of the country. ‘The first branch of a

U.S. national bank ever established abroad was opened in Buenos Aires Nov. 10 1914, by the National City Bank of New York. Since then two other U.S. banking institutions have opened. branches there. The number of U.S. business houses in Buenos Aires increased from 10 in 1910 to 80 in 1920, while the British and French firms and those representing other Allicd countriés also became more numerous. The war was very injurious to German

516

BUFFALO—BULGARIA

enterprises in Buenos Aires, many of them practically going out of business. Other improvements

in the decade

I910-20 were the erection

of a number of thoroughly modern hotels and of a greatly improved

immigration station; the opening of 80 new parks and plazas; the

construction of several new school buildings; the extension and enlargement of the medical faculty of the university of Buenos Aires;

and the erection of the large building which houses its faculty of commerce.

Improvements

in sanitation and sewerage

have also

been effected and a new subway was installed in 1912 by a German

firm. Several large modern office buildings have been put up since 1916, chiefly with English capital, and new department stores, almost wholly operated with English capital. (C. L. C.)

BUFFALO

(sce 4.754).—The

population

in

1920 was

506,775, an increase of 83,060 or 19.6% for the decade, as compared with 71,328 and 20.2% for the preceding decade.

The death-rate of Buffalo in 1920 was 12.08, the average from

The ro6th Field Artillery and 1o2nd Trench Mortar Battery were in the battle of the Argonne. . Nearly 4,000 Buffalo men served in the navy and about 1,000 in the U.S. marine corps. There were also ovcr 600 Buffalo men who voluntecred for the

Polish army. bered 966.

The Buffalo men who died’in the war num.

Recent important hooks on the history of the city are History of Buffalo (1911) by J. N. Larned, and An Old Frontier of France (1917) by F. I. Severance. (M. M. W.)

BULGARIA (see 4.772).

Political History 1908-12-—The

condition of Macedonia and Thrace, which since the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 had been a constant source of anxiety and difficulties for Bulgaria, became even worse under the regime of the Young Turks. The Serbs, whose hopes of reunion with

their own kin and of an outlet. on the Adriatic had been destroyed by the annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina by ‘Austria-Hungary in 1908, began to seck expansion in. Macemayor formerly in existence. The first commission government donia towards the Acgean. Rival bands of Serbs, Greeks, took office Jan. I 1916. Bulgars, Wallachs, Albanians and Turks now carried on the The citizens choose by direct non-partisan nomination and clection propaganda of their respective nationalities in Macedonia by a mayor and four councilmen, These constitute the sole legislative force of arms, and the life of the peasant became unbearable, body and are also the chief executive heads. The mayor is ex The perpetual menace of war with Turkey and, latterly, the oficie the head of the departments of fire, police and health, which

1900 to 1920, 15.18. In 1914 &@ new commission charter was adopted which did away with the bicameral city council and

comprise the Department of Public Safety. The four other departments are Finance and Accounts, Public Works, Parks and Public

Buildings, and Public Affairs. A councilman is appointed as head of each of these departments. The principal subordinate officials are nominated by the mayor and appointed by the council. The mayor has a vote in the council, but no veto power. All ordinances and appropriations for purposes outside ordinary city expenses may be referred to vote of the people on petition of 5% of the citizens who voted at the last regular election for mayor. The schools are under a board of education appointed by the mayor and council, but subject mainly to state laws. The city court, consisting of a chief judge and seven associate judges, is also under state Jaw. A technical and four other high schools were built between 1902 and 1920, The sum of $8,000,000 was appropriaied for new grammar schools in 1919. The university of Buffalo was given an endowment fund of $5,200,000, raised by popular subscription, in 1920, In r909 it acquired a site of 106 ac. in the northern part of the city, to which 44 ac. were added in t919. Canisius College (Jesuit) also, in 1920, raised by popular subscription an endowment fund of $1,000,000. D'Youvilte College for women {Roman Catholic) was opened in 1908.° Among important new

structures may be mentioned: Marine Trust Co., Erie County Savings Bank, New York ‘Telephone, Electric, Iroquois and Y.M.C.A. buildings. * The new city hospital was under process of development in 1921. The city also maintained the J. N. Adam memorial hospital for tuberculous: patients at Perrysburg, N.Y. The new [rie canal, rebuilt by the state as a barge canal at a cost of $150,000,000, was opened for traffic in to19g. It provides water

transportation to the seaboard for barges up to 2,000 tons’ capacity

and drawing not more than 12 ft. of water, adding greatly to the city’s commercial facilities. The city completed in 1915 anew pumping station and tunnel 6,500 ft. long, by which water is brought from Lake Erie. The capacity of the plant is 150,000,000 gal. each 24 hours. ` The city's greatest growth In recent years has been in manufactures. It has very civersified industries, producing 58% of all the different lines of goods recognized by the United States Census Bureau. Among the chief manufactures are: iron and steel products, meat products, soap, cars, flour, lumber, linseed oil, clothing, automobiles, ete.

The grain elevators in Buffalo harbour had in 1920 a capacity of

28,500,000 bushels. The receipts of grain by lake boat in 1920 were 108,825,000 bushels, Receipts of flour approximate 5,000,600 har. yearly. More than 20,000 carloads of live stock are handled yearly in the stock-yards at East Buffalo. Other important articles of commerce are: iron ore, in which Buffalo stands second in receipts among the lake ports; coal, flax-seed, manufactured iron and steel and lumber.

Buffalo furnished over 10,000 voluntecrs and selected service to the U.S. army in the World War. The greater

men

number of these served in the 77th and 78th divisions and had an active part in the Argonne and other battles. In addition,

the 74th Infantry, N.G.S.N.Y., became the toth Infantry in the United States service; the Third Field Artillery, N.G.S.N.Y., became the 106th Field Artillery; Troop I, N.G.S.N.Y., became the ro2znd Trench Mortar Battery, and Base Hospital No. 23 was recruited in Buffalo. The ro8ih regiment, forming a part

of the 27th division, participated in the breaking of the Hindenburg line near Le Catcau, France, Sept. 29-Oct. 1 1918.

strained relations with Greece and Serbia, entailed on Bulgaria

a military expenditure which in 1909 was proportionately higher than that of any other European state. Bulgaria was obliged, moreover, to support thousands of destitute refugees who had escaped over her frontier from Turkish territory; current con-

sular reports stated that the Bulgarian population of Macedonia had diminished to a quartcr of what it had been 15 years earlicr, There was again a fear that the Young Turks meant to exterminate the Bulgars of Thrace and Macedonia altogether, and the Macedonians living in Sofia, many of whom were men of ability and influence, were continually urging the Government to take energetic steps with regard to Macedonia. The Balkan Alliance-——In March 1911, the Malinov Cabinet fell and Gueshov, head of the Nationalist party, became president of the council. Balkan statesmen were slow to realize that it was to their common interest to put an end to the troubles in Macedonia, and that this could be done only by joint action. Jn the winter of I9IO-1, negotiations in this direction were begun at Athens between Bulgaria and Greece, the first negotiations taking the form of private conversations between J, D. Bourchier, principal Times correspondent in the Batkans, and Venizelos, Eventually, Venizelos entrusted Bourchier with the transmission to King Ferdinand of a definite proposal which was known only to King George, Venizelos and Bourchier; the greatest secrecy was observed throughout, even

after Igil, secret 1912,

the matter had been put on a diplomatic footing, In June the Grand Sebranye empowered the Government to make treaties without submitting them to the Sobranye. In May a treaty of defensive alliance between Bulgaria and Greece

was signed, but this treaty was kept entirely secret for the next two

months. Meanwhile, negotiations had also taken place between Bulgaria and Serbia, and in Oct. 1911, the Serbian premicr, Milovanovitch, and Gueshov came to a general agreement as to terms of an alliance. ‘The negotiations with Serbia proved difficult throughout. The Bulgars were in favour of autonomy for Macedonia; the Serbs, in favour of dividing the country into three zones, an uncontested Serbian zone, an uncontested Bulgarian zone and a contested zone, the fate of which should be left to the arbitration of the Tsar of Russia. After much discussion in which both sides showed an uncompromising spirit, a treaty of friendship and alliance,

with a secret annex, was signed in Sofiaon March 13 1912. By this treaty Serbia recognized “ihe right of Bulgaria to the territory E. of the Rhodope Mountains and the river Struma’; while Bulgaria recognized “a similar right of Serbia to the territory N. and W. of the Shar Mountains "; if autonomy for the rest of Macedonia was found to be impossible, the two states bound themselves to accept an agreed line running southwestwards from Golem Mountain to Ochrida Lake, should the Tsar of Russia pronounce in favour of this line. Russia was kept informed of the negotiations, the Tsar's Government, while it welcomed the rapprochement between the three Orthodox states, discouraged active measures, but

events in Turkey tended to force the hands of the allies. In June 1912, the Young ‘Turk Government fell; a serious Albanian. rising led to the concession of a measure of autonomy to the Albanians; there was a bomb outrage at Kochen, followed by a massacre of Bulgars by Turks; Bulgaria considered herself menaced by proposed Turkish military manoeuvres near Adrianople. The treat Powers, which had by the autumn become aware of the Balkan alliance, made efforts to prevent the outbreak of war, which culminated in a

proposal from Austria-[Iungary that the Powers should guarantee

BULGARIA the autonomy of Macedonia.

Unfortunately, the offer came many

years too late. On Sept. 30, tbe Balkan allies ordered the mobilization of their armics, and on Oct. 8 Montenegro, with which coun-

517

held much of the territory which had been assigned by the treaty to Bulgaria; whereas Bulgaria held Adrianople and all Thrace, a situation which had not been provided for in the treaty. Moreover, Greece occupied Salonika (where a Bulgarian detachment had been

try no formal agreement had been made, declared war on Turkey. On Oct. 13, the allicd Balkan Powers sent a virtual ultimatum to the Porte; on Oct. 17, ‘Turkey declared war on Serbia and Bulgaria, and on Oct. 18 Greece declared war on Turkey. First Balkan War 1o12-3-—TVhe war with Turkey was popular throughout the country, for the people of Bulgaria, though they are often represented as self-centred and materialistic, had felt the sorrows of their kinsfolk in Macedonia as ther own, and were prepared for any sacrifices in order to set them free. The campaign in Thrace brought out once more the admirable qualities of ihe Bulgarian soldier, his power of endurance, his courage and his

bulk of the inhabitants were of Bulgarian nationality, as it had been for their sake that she had made immense sacrifices; on the other hand, since Serbia was now cut off from the Adriatic by the creation

obedience to discipline, but the success of the campaign was in reality less complete and satisfactory than it appeared to be in press accounts. The Bulgars, it is true, forced the Turkish army back in

which it had been agreed that Bulgaria and Serbia should each, “if no other special arrangement be made,” send at least 100,000 men to the Vardar theatre of war, Serbia asserted that Bulgaria

to the strong defensive position of the Chatalja lines; but, owing to

voluntarily sent 50,000 men to Adrianople to help the Bulgars, and she claimed that, without the Serbian heavy artillery, that fortress could not have been taken. It must, however, be remembered that the Thracian campaign had proved the longest, the most difficult and the most costly of the allied operations, and that the

disorder, after severe fighting near Kirk-Kilisse and Lule-Burgas,

lack ot heavy artillery, they failed to capture Adrianople and proved

unable to force the Chatalja lines and so to advance on Constantitople. For all its supplies, the army was dependent on ox transport ; nearly every cart and draught animal in Bulgaria had been reguisitioned. The rough tracks by which supplies had to travel had been rendered almost impassable by rains, and it was fully ten days’

trek from the railhead at Yambol to Lule-Burgas; there was heavy mortality among the draught animals. The enforced pauses, whilst the army was waiting for supplies to come up, twice gave the Turks

time to withdraw and finally permitted them to reorganize their forces at Chatalja. The campaign had revealed great shortcomings in the medical and supply services, and the Bulgars suffered only a degree less cruelly than the Turks themselves from shortage of food and absence of sanitary and medical care. The assaults on Chatalja,

which

cost

the

Bulgars

some

10,000

casualties,

were

undertaken contrary to the advice of Fichev, chief of staff, and

were inspired by Ferdinand, whose ambition it was ta take Con-

stantinople reyzardiess of the cost. Fichev, who had realized that the troops were too much exhausted after the five weeks’ fighting in Thrace to follow up their success to complete victory, was com-

pelled by the King to ask for sick leave and was succeeded by Nerezov.

On Dec. 4 an armistice between Turkey, Bulgaria and Serbia was

signed, At this moment the position was everywhere favourable to the allics, The Greeks, who did not sign the armistice, had occupied most of southern Macedonia and held Salonika.

The Serbs,

after heavy fighting at Kumanovo and Prilep, had taken Monastir, and the Turkish army had retreated into Afbania. The Turkish fortresses of Scutari,

Yanina

and. Adrianople

still hell out, but

their garrisons were suffering from shortage of supplies.

The sig-

natories of the armistice met in London to arrange terms of peace.

The Bulgarian demands, which included the wlayeé of Adrianople

and the port of Rodosto on the Sea of Marmora, seemed likely to be

accepted by the Turks, but a coup d'état in Constantinople brought the Young Turk party back to power, and as the Young Turks seemed as determined to hold Adrianople as the Bulgars were to obtain it, the conference was broken up. On Teb. 3 1913, hostilities again began. Yanina surrendered early in March, the Serbs and Bulgars entered Adrianople almost simultaneously on

March 25, and Scutari fell a month later. After the surrender of Adrianople, the Turks sought the mediation of the Powers, and

after another conference in London, the delegates were, on May 30 1913, induced to sign a treaty, the terms of which had been drafted by the Powers. Turkey surrendered to the allies all her dossessions in Europe up to a line drawn from Enos on the Aegean to Midia on the Black Sea, Midia being about 63 m. from Constantinople. Albania was granted independence. The Bulgarian

casualties in the war were officially given as 93,000 while the Serbian

and Greek official figures of their respective casualties were given as

31,000 and 29,000. Rupture of Balkan Alliance -—The discussions at the conferences in London had shown that considerable friction existed between the

allics.

Apart from the antagonism of national character and the

mutual distrust and dislike, which events in Macedonia during the last few years had accentuated, the difficulties which now presented

themselves arose from the interpretation of the treaties of alliance, The military successes of the allies had been unexpectedly complete,

and had thus created a situation which had not been foreseen in the treatics of alliance. The Serbs claimed that as new conditions had arisen, the treaties should be revised as a whole, and the arbitration of the Tsar should be sought for all matters in dispute. The Bulgars

characteristically held out for the letter of the agreement as regards territorial arrangements, and they were, morcover, submit even the contested zone to the arbitration of they doubted his impartiality. By Article 2 of the to the treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia (March

unwilling to the Tsar, as secret annex 13 1912), it

had been agreed that ‘all territorial gains acquired by combined action... shall constitute thé common property (condominium)

of the two allies,” and the lines of partition, to be effected within a

period of three months after restoration of peace, were then laid

down.

Serbia, however, as a result of her victories in Macedonia,

left for political reasons) and many districts of southern Macedonia

in which Bulgars formed a majority of the population. It was impossible for Bulgaria to give up her claim to Macedonia, where the

of au Albanian state, Serbia was naturally anxious to have access

to Salonika, without having to pass through Bulgarian territory before reaching the Greek

frontier.

Controversy also arose as to the

fulfilment of the terms of the military convention of June 1912, in

had sent only 32,000 men to the Vardar theatre, whereas Serbia had

taking of Adrianople was essential to the allied cause as a whole.

The Serbs, again, attributed the prolongation of the campaign to

the infvansigeance of the Bulgarian delegates in London. It was evident that there was never mutual confidence between the allies, and that personal coniact between the respective armies had often given rise to friction rather than good-will, Bulgarian suspicion of Serbian designs was intensified by an official circular written by Pashich in the autumn of 1912, in which he spoke of Prilep and Ochrida as belonging to Old Serbia, although both these places were within the zone allotted to Bulgaria. In Jan. and March 1913, meetings took place between Prince Alexander of Serbia and Prince Nicholas of Greece, and Bulgaria had reason to suspect that some agreement was made as to combined action against herself. The occupation by Serbia and Greece of regions of Macedonia’ which had not been actually allocated by treaty to cither Power seemed to Bulgaria. to be assuming a permanent character. The murder of King George of Greece in March 1913 meant the removal of a factor which

made

for peace and mederation,

whereas

in Bulgarta, the

military party, with whom King Ferdinand was in full sympathy, had, by the early spring, gained ascendancy over the policy of the country. In April a Cabinet council was held at Adrianople when, according to Gen. Savov, it was decided to retain in Thrace only such armed forces as were absolutely necessary for defence, and

to transfer the rest of the army.as quickly as possible against ihe

Greeks and Serbs in Macedonia. There were good reasons for haste, for the military authorities, with the King at their head, were now convinced that war was inevitable, and, moreover, they were aware that the troops were becoming increasingly anxious to return

to their homes. The concentration of troops on the Macedonian frontier was gradually effected during June. The Serbs, on their part, had not failed to make corresponding preparations on the other side of the frontier. On June 1 Gueshov and Pashich, both of them

men of moderate and prudent views, met in the hope of coming

to an agreement; on the same day a treaty was signed at Salonika

between Serbia and Greece.

During the month of Junc the Tsar of

Russia put all possible pressure on Serbia and Bulgaria, both directly

and through his diplomatic representatives, Hartwig at Belgrade and Nekludov at Sofia, to prevent the outbreak of hostilities, but Ferdinand’s replies to the Tsar's proffered mediation showed an increasing arrovance. On May 30 Gueshov, finding that his policy of caution and moderation was not supported by the King, resigned: his place was taken by Danev, a politician who stood well with the military party and who had shown marked intractability_as delegate to the London conference. On June 19 a speech by Tisza in the Hungarian Parliament indicated that Austria-Hungary considered

that the Balkan states should be free to choose their own method of settling their differences. Second Balkan War.—On June 29 the Bulgarian Fourth Army, acting on orders signed by Gen. Savov, made the treacherous attack on their Serb and Greek allies which alienated from Bulgaria

the sympathy and respect of Europe, and proved the first. step towards her downfall, The manner of the attack was unjustifiable, but it must be remembered that the attack was not unexpected,

and that it probably forestalled a declaration of war on Bulgana by

Serbia and Greece. The treaty of June 1 between Serbia and Greece, the concreted entrenchments at Ovche Polye, the secret orders given by the Serbian commander-in-chicf, Gon. Putnik, ten days before the attack and King Peter's proclamation, issued to the troops on July 1, must count as evidence that the Serbs were fully alive to the situation. On July 1 Savov forbade further hostilities; he himself was recalled a few days later. It has been officially stated that the reports of the ministerial council contain no minute ordering the opening of hostilities against the Greeks and Serbs June 29 1973, and Danev denied in the press that his Government had ever contemplated such orders. A judicial inquiry into the causes of the second Balkan War was opened in Sofia, but was never concluded.

Savov asseried

that the King himself, as commander-in-chief

BULGARIA

518

gave the order to attack. The war which was so rashly and un-

justifiably started by the Bulgars ended in disaster for them, ‘They were driven back on their own frontier by the Serbs and Greeks and on July 10 the Rumanians, who had given previous warning of their intentions, crossed the Danube and advanced unopposed on

Sofia.

A few days later the Turks retook Adrianople and invaded

Bulgaria.

Danev resigned and a Stambulovist Cabinet was formed,

with Radaslavov as prime minister.

Bulgaria was thus closed in by

four enemies at once and had no choice but to submit unconditionally

to the Rumanian terms.

On July 30 an armistice was signed at

Bucharest. The failure of Bulgarian arms in the second Balkan War was due to several causes. The moral of the troops had. suffered owing to the prolongation of the campaign in Thrace anc discontent

had been rife; the troops were exhausted by their forced march in

hot weather from Thrace to Macedonia immediately before hos-

tilities, while many had no inclination to fight against their late

allies and brother Slavs. The war was the work of potiticians rather

than of soldiers. Ferdinand and his entourage had underestimated the strength of the Serbian and Greek forces, and they had imagined that if once both these armies could be driven out of territory which had been assigned to Bulgaria by Article 2 ofthe secret annex to the

Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty of 1912, the Powers would acquiesce in a

Bulgarian occupation of that part of Macedonia, and also of Salonika. The civil population of southern Macedonia suffered cruelly

during the second Balkan War; atrocities were committed both by Greeks and Bulgars.

Treaty of Bucharest—This treaty, which was signed on Aug. 10 1913 after a fortnight’s conference, deprived Bulgaria of almost all her territorial gains of the first Balkan War and also of any immediate prospect of the reunion into one state of all Bulgarian-speaking people. Rumania acquired from Bulgaria that portion of the Dobruja which had been Bulgarian since 1878, from ‘Tutrakan on the Danube to Balchik on the Black Sea, The inhabitants of this region were almost exclu-

sively Bulgarian and it comprised some of the best cereal-growing land which had been held by the Bulgars. Serbia and Greece divided. Macedonia between them, with the exception of the

mountainous region of the Perin and Despoto Dagh. Bulgaria thus retained one outlet on the Acgean, in the shallow-water port of Dede Aghach; her so-called harbour at Porto Lagos consisted only of a short length of quay and a score of buildings. Turkey regained Adrianople and most of Thrace. The Balkan Wars of 1912 and torg thus resulted in an increase of territory

for Serbia and Montenegro by four-fifths and for Bulgaria by

one-fifth, while Greece almost doubled her territory. Serbia and Montenegro increased their respective populations by three-sevenths, Rulgaria by one-twentieth and Greece by twothirds. The total casualties of the two wars were in inverse ratio io the gains of the three states concerned, viz,;—Bulgaria, 150,000; Serbia, 79,500, and Greece, so,o0o, The terms of the Treaty of Bucharest—King Charles of Rumania himself said of

it: “It is not a treaty, it is only a truce and it cannot last ”— were punitive rather than pacific in tendency, and the attempts of Russia, and possibly of Austria-Hungary also, to secure some modifications for Bulgaria were unsuccessful. Radoslavov Government, 1913~¢-—On July 5 1913 the Radosla-

voy Cabinet, at the Critical moment when they assumed office, addressed a letter to the King, which was probably inspired by

him, expressing their opinion that ‘‘ the salvation of our State canonly: be found in a policy of intimate friendship with AustriaHungary. That policy should be adopted at once and without hesitation, because every hour is fateful. We invite you to act immediately in order to save Bulgaria from further misfortunes and the dynasty from further responsibility.”

This letter was signed by

Radoslavov, N. Ghenadiev and D. Tonchev.

In the personnel of

the Cabinet the King found ready tools for the pursuance of his policy; several of the ministers, including Radoslavov and Ghenadiev, had been prosecuted for corruption, peculation and illegal

practices during their previous tenure of office, and Radoslavov himself had been condemned to a term of imprisonment and loss of

civil rights. The elections of Dec.

I913 gave the Opposition a

majority of 14 seats in the Sobranye, although the Government had resorted to the usual methods of controlling the elections. Owing to the impossibility of forming a new Cabinet, the Sobranye was dissolved. The suffrage was now extended to the territory which had been ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey by the Treaty of Bucharest.

This measure was held by some to be unconstitutional, but the

efforts of the Governinent to conciliate the new Moslem voters and the 150,000 refugees who had been settled in this region resulted in a

Government majority of ten in the new Sobranye. The Turkish deputies, many of whom were members of the Committee of Union

and Progress, thus held a casting vote in the Sobranye, and, through

them, the Sublime Porte was able to exercise a direct influence on the Bulgarian Government. It became imperative to raise a foreign loan in order to meet the obligations of the country and for certain necessary constructive work. Appeal was made to France, England and Russia successively, but assistance was refused or else

only offered on conditions which it did not suit the Bulgarian

Government to accept. These conditions, however, can hardly have been more unfavourable than those eventually accepted from the German Disconto Gesellschaft which provided the loan of 500 million franes. By the terms of the loan the syndicate secured the

control of the state coal mines, of the projected railway which was to connect central Bulgaria with Porto Lagos, and of that terminal port itself, These terms met with angry opposition throughout the country, for it was realized that Bulgaria was handing over some of her chief economic assets to Germany, The syndicate further sought to obtain the control of the export oi tobacco, but, owing to strong expression of public opinion, the Government was obliged to refuse

this demand.

The consent of the Sobranye to the conditions of the

loan was only obtained after violent protests from the Opposition, the uproar preventing the actual reading of the bill (June 1914). Political Parties and Public Life-—The old broad distinctions of Russophil and Russophobe which had marked the two main political camps in the lime of Stambulov, gave place later to an increasing number of subdivisions of parties, between whose respective programmes there was not always. much apparent difference. Public

fife in Bulgaria has hitherto left a good deal to be desired; elections

have not been free and ministers have not always been above

reproach as regards incorruptibility, patriotism and efficiency, and they have looked on themselves as personal employés of the King rather than as servants of the nation. The King, who was always

well informed as to the private affairs of his entouragé and who knew

their weak points, preferred ministers over whom he had a hold

of this description. The Sobranye often showed itself amenable to the manipulation of ministers or of the King, In practice, a change of government, meant a change in the holders of most government appointments. The King’s control of the army’ was absolute; according to the constitution he was commander-in-chief, and the power of promotion and dismissal was in his hands. Each officer was made to feel that the success of his career depended on royal favour. There can be no doubt that Ferdinand fied his undoubted talents and power in such a way as to debase rather than to clevate the moral

standard of his country.

The reai life of Bulgaria, however, is not

to be found in the bureaucracy, but among the peasants who form about 80% of the population. The peasants have no reason to like

politics or politicians and they prefer to hold aloof as much as pos»

sible from both. It must be remembered that, in spite of corruption in high places, the standard of life among the peasants compares favourably as regards industry, morality and freedom from crime

with that of any other European people...

Period of Neutrality (Aug. rorg-Oct. 13 101%5)—At the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the great majority of Bulgars wished to preserve neutrality; from force of circumstances, however, Bulgaria was already more than half way towards the

Central Powers.

The policy of the Radoslavov Cabinct, the

German loan, the establishment of friendly relations with Turkey, resentment against Russia for her non-intervention in

Aug. 1913, together with the deep sense of humiliation and disappointment created by the Treaty of Bucharest, all com-

bined to indicate the direction in which Bulgarian sympathy

was likely to be drawn. Morcover, Macedonia, the fate of which had been the dominant factor in the policy of Bulgaria during the whole of her existence and the cause of her sacrifices in the

two Balkan Wars, was now in the hands of Serbia and Greece. The

Bulgarians

naturally

asked

themselves

which

group

of

Powers would be able to help them to realize their national ideal and their material ambitions.

It seemed to them unlikely that

the Powers which were ranged on the side of Serbia would be

willing to deprive their ally of the fruits of her victory in 1913

and to restore Macedonia to Bulgaria. The victory of the Entente might mean Russia at Constantinople, the wnion of the Serb peoples in one important state and the permanent loss of Mace-

donia. To the King, who held the direction of the policy of the country absolutely in his hands, the victory of the Entente might mean the loss of his throne and the end of his dynasty. From an early date it was clear that Turkey would join the Central Powers, while the attitude of Rumania and Grecce was uncertain. Owing to her geographical position Bulgaria would evidently be unable to preserve her “ benevolent neutrality ” for an indefinite time.

Should she abandon it, it would be to

join the winning side, and there were many in Bulgaria, including the King himself, who believed that Germany was invincible.

BULGARIA Ituis not yet known at what precise moment Ferdinand secretly promised his support to the Central Powers, but the Agrarian leader, Stamboliiski, as early as Aug. 1914 accused the Government of having bound itself to the Central Powers, and there are certainly indications that the decision had been taken in the

early part of 1915. The Opposition press at the outbreak of war appeared to be decidedly pro-Entente, though non-inter-

ventionist in tendency.

Gueshov and Stamboliiski constantly

with the Turks.

519 The Opposition, becoming increasingly anxious,

in vain demanded that the Sobranye should meet. On Aug. 23 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on Aug. 25 Venizelos returned to power. ‘The moment had now. come

when the Central Powers desired the entry of Bulgaria into the war, and the Duke of Mecklenburg, who as special personal representative of the Kaiser and from his ability and personality was known to have a strong influence on the King,

was sent from Germany to make the final arrangements. On ” During the year in which Bulgaria maintained her neutrality, . Sept. 6 a military convention and treaty between Bulgaria and the Central Powers was signed at Pless. By this convention the rival groups of Powers made considerable efforts to secure Germany and Austria-Hungary each agreed to send six infanher coöperation. It may be that Ferdinand had from an early try divisions within a space of go days, and Bulgaria four indate committed himself to a line of policy, but among Bulgars fantry divisions within 35 days, against the Serbs; F.-M. von it is thought that, had the Entente encouraged the Opposition, Mackensen. was to be commander-in-chief of the combined who represented the great majority of the people; had the menforce. Turkey was, if so desired, to send troops to Dede Aghach tality of the people been better understood; had'the Entente to prevent an enemy landing. Germany agreed to advance 200 been definite in the proposals which from time to time were put million francs to Bulgaria for military expenses, and to provide before Bulgaria; had these proposals been made at propitious as much military material as she could spare, On Sept. 10 and not always'at unpropitious moments; had the Entente been

pressed for an agreement among the Balkan states themselves.

skilful and vigorous in its propaganda, it might well have been that the people would haveimposed their will on the rulers whom they hated and despised. But the Entente policy pursued no certain course: the Entente Governments were slow to recognize

the existence of the treaty was admitted by Radoslavov, who stated that Bulgaria was “coming in on the side of the vic-

tors”? On Sept, 12 the Opposition issucd a manifesto, signed by many notable Bulgars, protesting against the policy of the Government and urging all citizens Lo unite to prevent the fatal

the importance of Bulgarian coöperation; they were unwilling to pay the price which was asked for that coöperation; they did step; the manifesto was, however, suppressed and the Opposition not realize the importance of the personal clement in dealing ` then demanded an audience of the King. On Sept. 15 the Entente with the Bulgars and with the King. The best propaganda for made a final effort to induce Bulgaria to declare war on Turkey; Macedonia was promised unconditionally and the allied troops the Entente was the declaration that they were fighting for the would occupy Macedonia for the time being, if Bulgaria so cause of small nations and for the principle of nationality, since to the Bulgar this declaration meant protection for the Bulgarian ‘desired, as a guarantee that it would eventually be handed over’ to Bulgaria. On Sept. 17, at 12 p.m, the King received the state and reunion with the Bulgars of Macedonia and Thrace, Opposition leaders in audience, Malinov warned the King The most propitious moment to secure the support of Bulgaria that if Bulgaria remained neutral, she might become the would have been at the time of the Russian successes in the battlefield between the Germans invading Serbia and the Allies Carpathians in 1915, as the old feeling for Russia had never died out among the peasants. ‘The chances of winning Bulgaria for who would land at Salonika; and that, if she joined the Central Powers, she would be fighting against three Balkan peoples and the Entente lessened after the failure to pass the Dardanelles four Great Powers and that it would mean the end of her national in March. German propaganda was skilfully handled; war news existence. Stamboliiski—it was the first Lime a representative of came chiefly through German¢sources; ‘Tarnowski, the Austrothe Agrarians had entered the palace—put the views of his party Hungarian minister at Sofia, either from personality or from force before the King with characteristic vigour and brusquerie. "The of circumstances, apparently controlled the situation there. Agrarians, he said, desired to preserve neutrality; they demanded The Entente proposals were hedged about with conditions; the convocation of the Sobranye and the formation of a national at the end of May tors, they offered the Enos-Midia line and the Government. He rejected all appeal to sentiment, whether on uncontested zone in Macedonia, provided that, at the end of the behalf of Russia or of Germany, and he warned the King that the war, Bosnia and the Herzegovina had been united to Serbia. people were still suffering from the terrible effects of the débâcle Early in June, Austria-Hungary promised to Bulgaria, as the price: of her neutrality, all Serbian Macedonia as well as the of r9r3 and that they had lost all confidence in their rulers, including the King himself. He told the King that after the territory claimed by Bulgaria and now occupied by Rumania Treaty of Bucharest, it was only the leaders of the Agrarians and Greece. On June 15 Bulgaria replied to the Entente who prevented a general movement against the authors of the note, asking for more specific guarantees, During July personal pogrom, among whom the King held the chief place, and that, pressure, was brought to bear at Sofia by special missions—a should the King repeat the criminal act of plunging his-country British mission composed of Mr. O’Becirne, Sir Valentine Chirol into war, the leaders would not check the revolt against him and Mr. G., Fitzmaurice; a French mission, and, on behalf but would themsclves head it. Tsanov, the Radical leader, spoke of Germany, by Prince Hohenlohe—while active negotiations with equal emphasis and sincerity. An account of the audicnce continued with Turkish delegates, On Aug. 3 the Entente was published, but its circulation was forbidden, and Stambolianswered the Bulgarian note of June 15; the Entente offered to Bulgaria, if she declared war on Turkey, the occupation of iski was condemned to imprisonment for life on a charge of half the non-contested zone at once, the fate of the rest of this lése-majesté. On Sept. 22 the terms of the Turco-Bulgarian zone and of the contested zone to be decided at the peace; the agreement. were published; the Bulgarian fronticr was to immediate occupation of Seres and the promise of Kavalla, if follow the Tunja valley as far as the suburbs of Adrianople, including the railway station, and then to follow the left bank Bulgaria would renounce all claims to Salonika, Kastoria and of the Maritsa southwards at a distance of about 2 km., thus Vodena; and the promise of the Enos~Midia line. As these terms involved the retrocession of certain territories and places then ‘safeguarding Bulgarian railway communication between Sofia occupied by,Serbia and Greece, the allied representatives in and Dede Aghach. Mobilization was decreed on Sept. 22, the Greek army Belgrade and Athens had the ungrateful task of trying to perbeing mobilized immediately afterwards. On Oct. 4, Savinski, suade Serbia and Greece to give up what they had won by force Russian minister at Sofia, informed the Bulgarian Government of arms, as the price of Bulgaria’s codperation. Greece, inspired that he had been instructed to leave the country if within by Germany, refused absolutely to consider any cession of 24 hours Bulgaria did not break with the enemies of the Slav territory and Serbia, where the military party was at the time cause and forthwith send away the military officers of hostile dominant, was equally intransigeant. belligerent states. On Oct. 5 the Bulgarian Government replied On Aug. rọ Gen, Fichev, Minister of War, who was thought that the mobilization was a measure of internal importance only, to be averse to further military adventures, resigned, and wassucceeded by Gen, Jekov, who had lately been acting as negotiator that the landing of Allied troops at Salonika did not tend to

BULGARIA

520

reassure Bulgaria as to the friendly intentions of the Entente, and that it was impossible to send away the German officers, as, with the exception of officially accredited military atlachés, there were no such officers serving with the Bulgarian army. Tt is still maintained by the Bulgars that no German officers arrived till after the departure of the Entente ministers. On the receipt of this note the ministers representing the Entente

population was rationed for meat, bread, sugar, rice, soap and

tion of 1912—there

Bulgaria should remain in northern Dobraja, and Turkey opened

salt, and considerable discontent arose when it was found that

large quantities of produce, especially of wheat and eggs, were going to Germany.

German officials took over

the technical

control of the railways, especially the Macedonian, Dobruja and Trans-Balkan lines, which were worked with great efliciency; the railway employés remained Bulgarian. The Germans did not Powers asked for their passports and left Sofia for Dede Aghach. otherwise interfere with the civil administration of the country, On Oct, 12 Bulgaria declared war on Serbia; on Oct. 15 Great while, on the military side, they restricted their active interBritain declared war on Bulgaria, while France and Italy de- vention to the broader issues in the conduct of the campaign. In addition to the larger formations which Germany contributed clared war on her on Oct. 16 and Oct. 17 respectively. The World War ror5-6.—The King’s proclamation to his to the Bulgarian fronts in accordance with the military convenpeople showed the same duplicity as had marked all his diplo- - tion, many German technical units reinforced the Bulgarian matic dealings with the Entente. After enlarging on his efforts army and were allotted to the more important sections of the to maintain neutrality, hé said: “ Both groups of belligerent front:. these included machine-gun, artillery, air force, wireless Powers acknowledge the great wrong inflicted on us by the and railway construction units, and hospital staffs, These units partitioning of Macedonia, and both belligerent parties are agreed were highly efficient, and, on the whole, the two personnels that the greater part of Macedonia should belong to Bulgaria. worked amicably together. In Nov., Monastir was taken by Only our. treacherous neighbour, Serbia, has remained obdurate the allies. rg17.~In March news of the revolution in Russia roused to the counsels of her friends and allies. Serbia not only refused to listen to their advice, but, inspired by envy and cupidity, once more the instinctive sympathy of the Bulgars for Russia, even attacked our territory, and our brave troops have becn No stenographic reports of the debates in the Sobranye have obliged to fight in defence of their own land. ... Our Allies been published, but it is known that the Opposition pressed the Serbs were then (in 1913) the chief cause of our losing their view that Bulgaria, having gained Macedonia and the Macedonia. . . . The European War is drawing toaclose, The Dobruja, should now retire from the war. A war credit of 350 victorious armies of the Central Empires are in Serbia and are million levas was, however, voted in March. Tt was by no means rapidly advancing.” Mobilization, as eye-witnesses have stated, certain that Bulgaria’s allies would allow her to retain all her gains: neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary was willing that was not effected with the willingness which marked the mobilizawere

even

attempts

at mutiny in some

‘centres—though the presence in Sofia of the Macedonian divisions to whom Serbian acts of oppression in Macedonia were a burning personal wrong and not merely a pretext for war, served to stimulate public enthusiasm. When once the country was actually at war, the Opposition became silent, partly from force majeure and partly from patriotic motives; all Bulgars realized that the fate of their country was at stake. Malinov, to whom the King made overtures, declined to take office in the Radoslavov Cabinet, and Stamboliiski, who was perhaps the only man in the country who could have led a revolution, was already in prison. Public meetings were forbidden and a strict censorship of the press established. The Bulgarian campaign in Serbia was, in spite of gallant opposition by the Serbs, completely successful, By the end of the year.the Serbian army had retreated through Albania to the Adriatic and the Entente troops had retired within the Greek frontier, which the Bulgars did not then attempt to cross, although they themselves were confident that they could have taken Salonika. But on the one hand the attitude of Greece was still uncertain, and on the other it was to the interest of Germany that Entente troops should remain at Salonika and thus reduce the numbers available for the western front. In June 1916 the Bulgarian army occupied. Seres, Drama, and Kavalla. The Sobranye had met in Dec. rors, but, in spite of the apparently complete success of the campaign, the Radoslavov Government narrowly escaped defeat in the budget debates in July 1916. Several of the Agrarian deputies who were deemed compromised by their earlier negotiations with an agent of the Entente were imprisoned, and the Government secured the return of their own supporters in their place. On Aug. 27 1916 Rumania declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in spite of the efforts of Malinov and others to induce the Government. to remain neutral, Bulgaria declared war on Rumania on Sept. x. This war was, however, more popular than the campaign against Serbia, for the resentment caused by the action of Rumania in July 1913 was specially biticr. The Bulgarian troops were, nevertheless, unwilling to| cross the Danube, as they considered that their work was finished when once the Dobruja was again in their possession; some mutinics even took place. Though the Bulgarian forces here were commanded by Gen. Tochev, F.-M, von Mackensen actually directed the operations, and, almost immediately, friction developed between the allies, resulting in Tochev’s super-

session.

The harvest of 1916 was not a good one; the whole

negotiations for the return of that portion of the Maritsa valley which, had been ceded to Bulgaria by the Turco-Bulgarian agreement of 1915. During the summer secret negotiations were carried on in Switzerland between agents of the Entente and Bulgarian agents, but though Ferdinand may have been aware of the negotiations, the Bulgarian representatives Jacked the authority and personality necessary for bringing matters to a definite issue. In Oct. the Kaiser visited Sofia and attempted, by the bestowal of decorations, to restore cordial relations with Bulgaria, but it was a matter of common

knowledge that the

personal relations between the Kaiser and the King were any-

thing but friendly. tor8—The winter of 1917-8 brought a further shortage of supplies and increased discontent and suffering. The Bulgarian soldier had been accustomed to campaigns which, though they entailed severe fighting and hardships, had only lasted a short time: in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 fighting had lasted a fortnight; in the first Balkan War, some six months; and in the sccond Balkan War, a nominal 4o days. The Bulgarian women had as a matter of course replaced the men in all agricultural work, but the Bulgarian soldiers, most of them peasant pro-

prietors, were anxious to be at home for the harvest, and their restlessness showed itself in an increased number of desertions. Trench warfare was, moreover, peculiarly uncongenial to troops who were accustomed to open warfare. In Jan., Germany ceased to pay the annual subsidy of 50 million francs, which she had given Bulgaria since she entered the war, and after March

she sent her no further supplies of munitions and equipment. The publication of President Wilson’s Fourteen Points (Jan.) had great influence on feeling in Bulgaria. Relations had never been broken off with the United States, and attempts were made to induce the President to promise Maccdonia to Bulgaria. Articles in praise of the United States were allowed to appear in the press, and the Bulgars, on their part, professed to be ready to desist from the offensive which was then projected, and to make a separate peace. In May, Rumania signed the Treaty of Bucharest, by which the Dobruja was ceded to the Central Powers in condominium, Bulgaria regaining what Rumania had taken from her in 1913. In June the Radoslavov Cabinet, which was despised and detested throughout the country, fell and the King selected Malinov to form a new ministry, The change of

Government did not mean a definite change of policy, and Malinoy was reproached later for not insisting at once on a separate

BULGARIA

521

peace, as he fully realized that all was not going well. At home, the new Cabinet endeavoured to improve the food condi-

other ranks were to serve for 12 years. Only one military training school and one State controlled munition factory were allowed.

tions and to put an end to the corruption and inefficiency in the public service which had prevailed under Radoslavov. After the Austro-Hungarian defeat in Albania in July, when it became necessary to extend the Bulgarian front still further, the Bulgars pressed Germany to send the help which from the first had been promised to them. Of the six German

The manufacture of tanks, armoured cars, poison gas and aeroplanes, the export and import of arms, instruction in the use of arms in schools, clubs or organizations, arrangements for mobili-

divisions guaranteed by the military convention, only three had actually materialized and when at last German troops, in response to further urgent appeals, began to arrive in Bulgaria, the Bulgarian line had already been broken, Serbs were at the frontier and Allied troops were actually invading Bulgaria. On Sept. 25 Malinov asked for an armistice and delegates left at once for Salonika accompanied by the diplomatic representative of the United States. On Sept. 30 the Armi-

stice was signed, the Bulgars accepting the Allied terms unconditionally. Stamboliiski, who with other Agrarian deputies had becn in prison since 1915, was released on Sept. 25 and went immediately to the front where there was great unrest among the troops. At one moment it seemed probable that a revolution would take place and a republic be proclaimed, and there was serious fighting outside Sofia in which many lives were lost, the German troops being employed to restore order. On Oct. 4 the King was informed by his ministers that he had better abdicate; that same night he left Sofia by train, having nominated his son Boris as his successor,

His departure was received with absolute indif-

ference by the pcople; there were no demonstrations cither of regret or joy. Radoslavov fled the country immediately afterwards. On Nov. 28 Malinov resigned, as a protest against the installation of Rumanian officials in the southern Dobruja contrary to the terms of the Armistice. Todorov, who had been Gueshov’s second in command, succeeded in forming a coalition Cabinet. Treaty of Newilly—On Nov. 27 rọrọ the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Bulgaria. was signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine, Stamboliiski signing on behalf of his country. The territorial provisions (Arts. 27-35) included the cession to Rumania of the southern Dobruja; the cession to Serbia of the Bulgarian towns of Tsaribrod and Strumutsa and the renunciation (Art. 48) “in favour of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers of all rights and title over the territorics in Thrace which belonged to the Bulgarian Monarchy, and which being situated outside the new frontiers of Bulgaria .. . have not at present been assigned to any State.” The Powers under-

took “ to ensure the economic outlets of Bulgaria to the Aegean Sea.”

At the conference of San Remo in April 1920, a small portion

of Eastern Thrace was assigned to Turkey and the remainder of Thrace to Greece. Bulgaria was not represented at the conference, though some 400,000 Bulgarians were concerned in the

decisions as to ‘Thrace; the Bulgarian delegate who had been sent from Sofia in the hope that the Allies would allow him to put the Bulgarian case before them was prevented by the French authorities from crossing the Italian frontier until the session had practically concluded. The reparation (Arts. 121-146) payable to the Allies was fixed at two and a quarter milliards of francs (gold) or {90,000,000 sterling, to be paid in half-yearly instalments within 37 years; the cost of the armies of occupation and of various commissions

was also to be borne by Bulgaria. The Reparation Commission, which began work in March rg21fcould at their discretion reduce or postpone particular payments and could assume full control and management of the taxes and sources of revenue. The military clauses (Arts. 64-104) provided for the disarmament of Bulgaria. The total numbers armed with rifles, including military forces, gendarmes, frontier and forest guards and police, were limited to a maximum of 33,000 men. The troops were to be recruited on a voluntary basis and to be exclusively employed for maintenance of order and frontier guard duties. All officers were to be regulars, serving for 20 consecutive years;

zation, new fortifications—were all prohibited. Only four torpedo boats and six motor boats were permitted, all without torpedoes

and all manned by civilian crews. No artillery of calibre greater than 4:1 inches was authorized. All surplus war material had to be destroyed or surrendered within three months of the signing of peace.

Recruiting for the forces as constituted by the treaty proved

very unsatisfactory, as but few Bulgars of a good stamp could be induced to leave their homes for a long period of service. In Aug. tọrọ, elections were held which resulted in the following distribution of seats:—Agrarians, 86; Communists, 47; Social Democrats, 28; Nationalists, 19; Danevists, 8; Radicals, 8; Radoslavists, 3. The Agrarians had been weakened by the secession of Draghiev and his followers in 1915, and even with the support of Gueshov and the Nationalists, were in a minority in the Sobranye. Stamboliiski became prime minister, In Feb. 1920, the Sobranye was dissolved; new elections gave the Agrarians a majority of two, and in April, Stamboliiski became premier of a Cabinet composed of his own supporters. In the course of the year 1920 Bulgaria was admitted into the League of Nations. Finance and Trade.—The following table shows the effect of the wars on finance and irade!:— Year Revenue Expenditure

1913

1914. 1918

£5,765,344

$10,279,800

£19,244,000

£4,732,832?

£10,270,504

$19,176,560?

1921 £84,628,800 £95,759,232" The budget estimates for 1921-2-—the

Imports

£7,571,921

£9,659,612

Exports

£3,733,190

£6,177,000

financial year begins in

April—thus showed a deficit of over £11,000,000, The consolidated and non-consolidated debts, including the war indemnity, amounted to £909,434,547, and, further, there was liability for mibtary pen-

sions, Which would, for-the next few years, amount to 7 or 8 million

pounds annually. The outlook, according to the Finance Minister, was not very satisfactory. The debt per head of the population was £240 (as against £6 in 1912), and taxation had, in his opinion, reached the highest possible limit, viz. 500-540 levas per head. ‘The

townspeople had suffered much more than the peasants both during and after the war; according to the director of statistics, the annual bread budget for a family of five was 17 times higher in 1920 than in 1900; the meat budget was 28 times higher; and clothing showed a very large increase in price, During the World War, the savings banks had, owing to high prices for agricultural produce, shown a steady increase of deposits, but in 1919, with-

drawals exceeded deposits by £800,000; and in 1920, by about £300,opo. In 1920, although Bulgaria comprised 25% more land fit for cultivation than in 1911, cultivation had decreased by 20 %as con-

pared with 1911, and her production of cereals was smaller than in I9II. On the other hand, owing to the greatly increased selling price of tobacco—it had risen from 1 to 2-50 francs per kilo before the World War to 36 francs per kilo in 1919—-the area cultivated in tobacco was more than double in 1920 what it had been in 1917; also the 1920 potato crop was double what it was in 1911. The attar of rose industry, which in Europe is almost peculiar to Bulgaria, naturally suffered during the wars, and only 15,000 ac. are now under rose cultivation; it is estimated that, although the demand for rose essence is now increasing, several years must pass be-

fore the industry is fully reéstablished and equipped with modern

machinery. . on , Bulgaria's international trade had always been primarily with Austria-Hungary and Germany owing partly to the fact that the Danube has hitherto constituted her chief means of communication

and partly to the fact that these countries made a more careful study of Bulgarian markets than seemed worth the while of more

distant countries. For the first six months of 1920-1, imports, which reached £68,000,000, nearly doubled exports in value, After the treaty, Bulgaria’s unfavourable rate of exchange tended to direct her commerce yet more towards Central Europe. , Communications—Better means of communication and capital are needed to develop the natural resources of the country—forests, mines and water power. Railway construction practically ceased with the outbreak of the first Balkan War in 1912, but the TransBalkan Trnovo-Stara Zagora line was completed since that date,

1 All conversions are made at the pre-war rate of 25 levas to the £; in 1915. 32-35 levas went to the £; in April 1921, about 345-330. 3 Budget estimates. 2 Excluding war expenditure,

BULLARD—BULOW, PRINCE VON

522

and proved of great importance during the World War for the

(1913); Noel Buxton, With the Bulgarian Staff (1913); Sir R. Rankin,

transport of war material from the Central Powers to Turkey. In 1912, Bulgaria owned about 1,200 m. of normal gauge railway; in 1920 about 1.600 yh., including some 250 m. of 2 ff. gauge which had been laid for military purposes. The following are among the railways projected and partly constructed :—

Inner History of the Balkan War (1914); J. G. Schurman, Balkan Wars 1912-1913 (1914); Lt.-Col. Immanuel, La Guerre des Balkans de 1912-13 (1913); Anonymous, “ Questions militaires,” “ Bub gares contre Serbes,” Revue Bleue (1913-4); A. de Penennrun, La Guerre des Balkans, la campagne en Thrace en 1912 (1913), 40 Jours de Guerre (1914) H. Barby, Brégalnitsa (1913); Boueabeille,

connect central Bulgaria with Porto Lagos on the Aegean.

La Guerre Turco-Balkan que (1913); Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Report, of the International Commission te enquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan War (Washington,

1.

Rakovska-Mastanli,

part of the line planned in 1913 to Length,

about 60 m.; gauge, 30 in.

2. Sarambe-Lyana-Nevrokop, passing through the pine forests of the Upper Myesta. Length, about 110 m.; gauge, 30 in,

3.

Mezdra-Vratsa-Vidin, begun in 1906 and now in operation

as far as Alexandrovo, 25 m. from Vidin,

;

Some 500 m. of link lines and some short lengths of railway for

the exoloitation of forests are also projected, but work is held up for lack of funds. A law of 1921 sanctioned the construction of railways not only by focal bodies but by individuals, and special privileges were offered in the hope of atiracting private enterprise. In 1921, Bulgaria owned some 9,900 m. of telegraph line, and ‘some 2.700 m.

of telephone line. There were four fixed radio-telegraphic stations:

Sofia

(Telefunken

10 kilowatts)

Varna

(Marconi).

Shumen

and

Kyustendil, Kyustendil being not yet completed; according to the terms of the treaty, these stations may only be used for commercial purposes.

Social Conditions.—The programme of the Agrarian Government under the leadership of Stamboliiski was framed primarily in the

interests of the peasants in contradistinction to those of the beurgeoisie. Some of the measures already in operation or contemplated in 192. evoked much hostile criticism on the part of the Opposition, but though they involved some radical changes there seemed no probability of an outbreak of Bolshevism in Bulgaria. Stamboliiski had no wish to change the constitution, and King Boris had won the respect and affection of the people. The peasants were too much attached to their own homes and to their own way of life to desire great changes, provided they were spared further wars and were given a fair chance of peace and prosperity. The Bulgars have always put a high value on education, and statistics show a steady increase in the number of those able to read and write; in 1910, Bulgaria ranked first in this respect among

Balkan peoples, having 33°7% of literates, and in 1919-20, only 17% of the children of school age had failed to attend school:

but the type of education so far provided had lod to the overstocking of the clerical professions and to the neglect of technical occupations. The educational programme of the Agrarian Government aimed at giving a more practical bent to instruction generally and at affording equal opportunities to all classes of the community. The total period of compulsory education was to be extended from four to seven years;

a large number of additional primary schools bad already been

opened and many pro-gymnasia were to be established, as well as professional schools, where a training could be obtained in agricul-

ture, industries and practical science.

1914); R. W. Seton-Watson, Rise of Nationality in the Balkans

(1917); A Diplomatist. Nationalism and War in the Near East (1915); L. Gueshov. The Balkan League (1915); Nekludov, Diplomatic Reminiscences, 19r1-1917 (1920); Balkanicus, Aspirations of Bulgaria Gors}, Diplomaticheskt Dokumenti po namecata no Bulgaria v evropeiskata voina, vol. i, 1913-1915 (1920); M. Dunan, L été bulgare, ror5 (1917): Noel Buston and C. L. Leese, Balkan Problems and European Peace (1919); Leland Buxton, Black Sheep

of the Balkans (1920): G, Clenton Logio. Bulgaria. Problems: and Politics (1919); Bulgaria. ** Nations of To-day" Series (1921);

Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and

Bulgaria and Protocol (London, 1920): Léon Lamouche. La Question Macédonienne et la paix; le trazté de paix avec la Bulgarie (1919);

J. Cvijich, Remarks on the Ethnography of the Macedonian Slavs

(1906); M. Bogichevich, Causes of the War, with special reference to Serbia and Russia (1920); Publications Plumon, La Bulgarie, læ vie technique et industrielle (1921); M. Turlakov, Exposé sur la

situation financière de la Bulgarie (1921); J. D. Bourchier,

The

Final Setilement in the Balkans (1917); The Four Treaties of Bucharest

(1918); Echo de Bulgarie (Sofia, 1920-1).

BULLAED,

ROBERT

LEE

(E. F. B. G.)

(:861-

), American soldier,

was born at Youngsboro, Ala., Jan. 15 1861. He graduated from

West Point in 1885 and was appointed first lieutenant in 1892. He served in various capacities in the Spanish-American War, and in the Philippines from z1902 to 1904. He was made licutenant-colonel in 1906. In 1907 he was special investigator for the U.S. provisional Government in Cuba, and the following ycar was superintendent of. public instruction there. In 1911 he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadier-general. He commanded the Second Brigade of the rst Division of the A.E.F. in France in 1917 and was made major-gencral N.A. From the middle of Dec. 1917 to the middle of July following he commanded the xst Division and from Oct. 1918 to the follow-

ing July the Second Army.

In Nov. 1918 he was appointed.

major-general in the regular army.

BULLEN, ARTHUR

HENRY

.

(1857-10920), British man of

Great results, both material

letters, was born in London Feb. 9 1857 and educated at the City

service and, in deference to the Council of Ambassadors, the law had not been fully put in force in the spring of 1921. All classes of

Church libraries at Oxford, and his rediscovery of Campion in 1889 after nearly 300 years of neglect (see 5.138). For several years he was a partner in the publishing house of Lawrence & Bullen, and after its dissolution founded the Shakespeare Head press at Stratford-on-Avon in 1904, which he conducted until his death, but which was afterwards sold to B. H. Blackwell of Oxford. He died at Stratford-on-Avon Feb. 29 1920. BULLEN, FRANK THOMAS (1857-1915), British novelist, was born in London April 5 1857 and was educated for a few years only at a dame school and Westbourne school, Paddington. When he was nine years old his school life came to an end, and he was employed as an errand boy for a time. In

and moral, were expected from the law of May 1920 which imposed of London school and Balliol College, Oxford. He was the a period of forced labour on all members of the community. This law, as originally drafted, provided for one year’s service for all son of George Bullen, sometime keeper of the Printed Books at males on ae of their 20th year and six months for females on ` the British Museum. In earlier life he was a schoolmaster, but completion of their 16th year, the time being devoted. half to the- subsequently devoted himself to literary work, He became known orctical training and half to manual labour on works of public utility, as an authority on Elizabethan literature, and particularly for Bulgaria’s neighbours, however, suspected that a military organizahis discoveries of long-lost lyrics in the Bodleian and Christ tion of the country might be effected by means of this compulsory the cammunity now give ten days’ service annually to the State, and the results of the reconstruction work undertaken-—bridge building,

road

satisfactory.

making,

repairs to buildings,

forestry, etc—seem

Much, of course, depends on the technical supervision

provided and on the practical organization of the work. School children, numbering 600,000, and students devoted in March~April

1921 a week to manual labour—cleansing buildings and streets,

preparing gardens, planting trees, etc. Other legislative measures taken include up to May 1921 expropriation of Crown and Church lands as well as of private prop-

erties of over 300 décares (say 75 ac.), the expropriated land being allotted to landless peasants; the commandecering of private houses for public purposes or for the accommodation of necessitous families; and proceedings by court-martial under Article 4 of the Law for Prosecution of War Criminals, against persons accused of being

parties to the entry of Bulgaria into the World War and of contravention of laws during the war. The prosecutions resulted in

long terms of imprisonment and heavy fines, and were naturally regarded by those affected who belonged to the bourgeois class, as vindictive and arbitrary acts of oppression. The Sobranye assented in March 1921 to the prosecution of Radoslavov and his Cabinct for violation of the constitution, notably by raising a loan in Germany

with the object of directing the policy of Bulgaria towards the Central Powers and by declaring war on Serbia in 1916 without the consent of the Sobranye.

_ Bibliography.—l. N. Brailsford, Macedonia, tts Races and their Future (1905); Victor Bénard, La Macédoine, Pro Macedonia (1897, 1904); Sir E. Pears, Turkey and its People (1911); P. Howell, Campaign in Thrace (1913); W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire 1801-1973

1869 he went to sea, serving before the mast, and travelled to all

parts of the world in various capacities including that of chief mate. In 1883 he gave up this seafaring life and became a clerk in the Meteorological Office until 1889. His reputation was made

over the publication of The Cruise of the “ Cachelot” (1906); and he also wrote, amongst other books, Idylls of the Sea (1899); Sea Wrack (1903); ‘The Call of the Deep (1907) and A Compleat Seca Cook (1912), besides many articles and essays. He died at Madeira March 1 1915.

BÜLOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE VON {see 4.793).—Prince Biilow, after his resignation of the German chancellorship in 1909, lived principally at the villa in

Rome which he had purchased with a view to his retirement.

BÜLOW, KARL VON—BURBIDGE Part of the summer he usually spent at Flottbeck near Hamburg or on the island of Norderney. A large fortune left him by a cousin, a Hamburg merchant, enabled him to live in elegant leisure and to make his house in Rome a centre of literary and political society. He employed his leisure in writing for the centenary celebrations of the Wars of Liberation, a remarkable book on Imperial Germany, extolling its achievements and defending the main lines of his own forcign policy (Engl. translation, M. Lavenz,

1914).

In a revised edition

(Engl. trans-

lation 1916) he omitted or altered many passages which seemed compromising in the light of the World War, e.g. his exposition of his policy of lulling Great Britain into a sense of security, while the great German navy was being constructed. He was understood to be in deep disfavour with William IL., who never forgave him his attitude and action with regard to the Daily

Telegraph interview in 1908.

On the outbreak of war Bülow found opportunity to identify himself publicly with the German cause, and, from his own point of view, he doubtless felt what, after Germany’s collapse,

was made a ground of bitter reproach to him, that no one had been more actively identified than he with the main lines of the

German policy He. was once this time on a her neutrality confine herself

which led up to the war. more to be employed in the service of his country, desperate enterprise. Italy, which had declared at the outbreak of the war, did not eventually to the declaration that the casus foederis had not

523

great outburst of popular indignation, fanned by the impassioned cloquence of d’Annunzio and finding expression in demonstrations in front of the Quirinal (the royal palace) and on the Capitol, the municipal centre of Rome, After a great majority in the Italian Parliament had on May 20 expressed confidence in Salandra, general mobilization was ordered on May 22, and the formal declaration of war against Austria-IIungary followed on May 23 1915. On May 24 Bülow left Rome, During the war he lived in Berlin, and although since the peace he has again resided in Rome for part of every year, he spends many months in Germany. His name was mentioned ina ministerial crisis of 1921 as a possible chancellor, but he was entirely inacceptable to the vast majority of the German people and of the Reichstag. (G. 3.)

BULOW,

KARL

VON

(1846-1921),

German field-marshal,

was born in Berlin March 24 1846 and joined the 2nd Guards regiment of infantry in 1864. He gained distinction at Königgrätz in the war of 1866, served through the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, winning the Iron Cross (2nd class), and, after holding various staff appointments, became colonel of the 4th Guards regiment in 1894. Three years later he was promoted majorgencral and was transferred to the War Office. In 1900 he was promoted lieutenant-general and in roor was general commanding the Guards division.

In 1912 he attained the rank of general-

oberst and was entrusted with the IH. Army Inspection. He was thus marked out for high command, and on the outbreak of ithe World War he was placed in charge of the H. Army, which invaded Belgium, He occupied Liége (Aug. 7) and advanced to the Marne. He commanded the I. and VII, Armies during the

arisen for her as a member of the Triple Alliance. She had already intimated (July 5 1914) through diplomatic channels that she

considered the action of Austria-Hungary against Serbia to be ageressive and provocative. On Dec. 9 1914 Baron Sonnino

retreat and at the battles of the Aisne, thus incurring responsi-

addressed a note to ihe Austro-Hungarian Minister for For-

bility in the eyes of the public for the failure to take Paris. In Jan. 1915 he was promoted ficld-marshal and in June 1916 was, by his own wish, placed on the retired ist He died in Berlin

eign Affairs, Count Berchtold, calling attention to Art, VIL

of the treaty by which Italy participated in the Triple Alliance, with particular reference to the words in that clause according to which the Austro-Hungarian Government was bound, in the event of its disturbing the status quo in the Balkans even by a temporary occupation of Serbian ter-

Aug. 31 1021,

BUNTING, SIR PERCY WILLIAM (1836-1911), British journalist, was born at Manchester Feb. 1 1836 and was educated at Owen’s College, Manchester, and Pembroke College, Cambridge. In 1859 he was classed as 21st wrangler, and three years later was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1882 he became editor of the Contemporary Review, and henceforth devoted himself to journalism, becoming also editor of the Methodist Times from 1902 to 1907 in succession

ritory, to come to an agreement with Italy and to arrange for compensations. By this note the questions of the Tren-

tino and Trieste were formally opened. Austria-Hungary manifested great reluctance to enter upon the question of compensations, but Berlin was more alert and more anxiously concerned. Prince Bülow was, therefore, entrusted with the temporary charge of the German embassy in Rome, the actual

to Hugh Price Hughes

In 1908 he was knighted.

Throughout

his life he was an active supporter of Wesleyan Methodism, being the grandson of Jabez Bunting, a distinguished Wesleyan divine (see 4.802). [He died in London July 22 io1t. BURBIDGE, SIR RICHARD, 1st Bart. (1847-1917), English

ambassador, Herr von Tlotow, going on sick-leave (Dec. 19 1914). He at once plunged into active negotiations, and began by expressing his entire sympathy on principle with the Italian demand for compensations. Ile had, however, to

merchant,

was

born

in Wiltshire

March

2 1847.

He was

fight the intransigeance of the Hungarian prime minister, Tisza, and Tisza’s nominee, who was Berchtold’s successor, Baron Burian. Bülow was from the frst {or the complete cession of the Trentino to Italy, but Austria-Hungary was willing to cede only part of it. Sonnino, for his part, pointed out that Italian fecling

educated at Devizes and Melksham and at the age of 13 was

would not be satished even with the whole of the Trentino, but

general manager

apprenticed to a

provision merchant in Oxford St., London,

afterwards starting in business as a provision merchant at the age of 19. Fourteen years later he became general superintendent

of the Army and Navy Auxiliary Stores. of Whiteley’s,

In 1882 he wasappointed

Westbourne

Grove,

and

in

would also, in accordance with the irredentist programme, r8or entered the service of Harrods, Brompton Road, of which demand Trieste. Bülow continued to urge that all he could he was afterwards managing director. By 1016 he had increased mediate for was the Trentino but that Austria would fight to its profits from £16,000 to over £200,000, and it had become one keep Trieste. Early in April 1915 Italy put forward in the course | of the largest of the London stores. He had also done a good of the negotiations, which were secret, her demands for the deal to ensure shorter working hours for shop assistants. Mr. Trentino, Trieste, the CuzolariIs., off the Dalmatian coast, Burbidge was the “ private citizen’? who anonymously prethe recognition by Austria-Hungary of Italian sovereignty sented about £30,000 to the fund for acquiring the Crystal over Vallona, etc. The negotiations dragged on till the middle Palace for the public in ror3. During the World War he was of May, when Bülow made a grave but characteristic tactical responsible for the building and fitting up of two hospitals in mistake, He is understood to have induced the Italian ex- Belgium and was a member of many Government committees, premier Giolitti to come to Rome from Turin in the hope that including the advisory committee of the Ministry of Munitions Giolitti’s following in the Chamber would be powerful enough and the committee of inquiry into the Royal Aircraft workings, of to prevent a rupture and to bring about the acceptance of the which he was chairman. He was created a baronet In 1916. He Austro-Hungarian terms. An equally characteristic propaganda died in London May 31 1917, being succeeded as second was believed to have been instituted by Biilow, in conjunction baronet by his son R. Woodman Burbidge (b. 1872), who in with the Austro-Hungarian ambassador Macchio, among the 1921 became chairman of Harrods. partisans of Giolitti behind the back of the Italian Government. See Mrs. Stuart Menzies, Modern Men of Mark (1920). The prime minister, Salandra, suddenly resigned. There was a i

524

BURDETT—BURLESON

BURDETT, SIR HENRY (1847-1920), English economist and philanthropist, was born at Gilmorton, Leics., March 18 1847, IIe began life in a bank at Birmingham, but was elected in 1874 secretary to the Queen’s hospital in that city. In 1880 he became secretary to the share and loan department of the Stock Exchange and also a member of the committee of

management of the Scamen’s Hospital Society. Finance and hospitals, especially in connexion with nursing, were the two main interests of his life. He published Burdett’s Official Intelligence of Securities, and also Burdett's Hospitals and Charities, as well as works on the National Debt, local taxation, The Hespitals and Asylums of the World (4 vols. with plates), and many other works on economic and hospital problems. It was largely due to him that King Edward VII. established his Hospital Fund for London. He also founded and edited The Hospital newspaper. He was created K.C.B.in 1897 and K.C.V.O. in 1908. He died in London April 29 1920. i

BURIAN VON RAJECZ, STEPHEN [Istvan], BARON (1851-

), Austro-Hungarian statesman, a scion of an ancient Hungarian noble family, was born Jan. 16 1851, and early in life entered the consular service, being stationed suc-

cessively at Alexandria, Bucharest and Belgrade.

Then his

tapid diplomatic career began, From 1882-6 he was consulgeneral at Moscow, and his reports describing the then little understood

danger

of Panslavism

attracted

attention

in in-

flucntial circles in Vienna. He was sent as envoy extraordinary to Sofia, where he remained for several years, and successfully represented the interests of the Vienna Government during the

disturbed period following the election of Ferdinand of Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria, In the second half of the ’nineties he was minister at Stuttgart and at Athens, and in March 1903 he succeeded Benjamin Kallay (1839-1903) as common Finance Minister and supreme head of the administration of Bosnia and

Herzegovina. services.

In this latter capacity he rendered important

Burian strongly advocated annexation of the provinces,

which he regarded as the essential condition precedent to the introduction of constitutional arrangements. After the annexation he did in fact sct to work with the greatest zeal on the

elaboration of the provincial constitution, which was proclaimed in Feb, 1ọro, The extremely important Kmet question (Kmet, Slav for peasant) was settled under his ministry on general lines in the sense of the optional emancipation of the Kmeis. In Feb. 1912 he was relieved of his office as common Finance Minister, and in June 1913 he was appointed Hungarian minister attached to the court of Vienna. On Jan. 13 1915 he succeeded Count Berchtold at the Foreign Office. His friendly relations with Count Stephen Tisza, whose influence may well have determined Burian’s selection as Foreign Minister,

facilitated his intercourse with those Hungarian politicians

whose opinion carried weight. The monarchy was at that time in the midst of negotiations with Italy. Burian took part in them, but at first with reserve, since he would not hear of any cession of territory long forming part of Austria. It was not till March rọrs that, under pressure of the military situation and the influence of the German Government, he expressed his willingness in principle to negotiate on this basis. The negotiations, however, in spite of further concessions made by Burian in April and May, had no success, and served only to postpone, but not to prevent, the seccssion of Italy into the ranks of the Entente. Burian did great service to Austria-Hungary in tbe matter of the alliance with Bulgaria, and also in arranging the Austro-Turkish alliance. To the Rumanian demands he opposed a negative attitude, especially to those which involved a cession of Hungarian territory and a fundamental change in the political and social position of the Rumanians in Hungary. In this question, as in others, Burian represented the particular interests of Austria-Hungary, as opposed to Germany, and for this reason became involved in severe conflicts with the leading statesmen and army commanders of the German Empire. In the Polish question he aimed at the Austro-Polish solution, though he realized the difficulties in its way. For he thought

that the clastic structure of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and the proved stability, in the case of Galicia, of a Polish province provided with wide powers of national self-government, made this appear relatively the best solution. He absolutely

refused to consent to the far-rcaching demands made by Germany in return for her acquiescence in this solution. In general, he maintained the view that in military, political and economic matters Austria-Hungary must be treated as an equal partner,

and opposed a determined refusal to every German demand in which he saw danger to the independence, or a limitation of the territorial power, of Austria-Hungary. He thought, incidentally, that German policy was permeated with realism, and that Germany had a very high estimate of her own achievements, and of the rewards due to them, without feeling any obligation to measure the achievements of their ally by the same standard and give full satisfaction to her partner. On the question of peace, too, there was a sharp antithesis between the views of Burian and those of German. statesmen. With Burian, regard for the special interests of Austria-Hungary stood in the foreground. He refused to contemplate the loss of Austro-Hungarian territory in the south, On the other hand, he proposed as early as Nov. 1915 that Germany should smooth the way to peace by a public declaration of her willingness to guarantee the national independence of Belgium, and in the course of ihe year 1916 repeatedly urged that the way should be paved for negotiation with the enemy on the basis of the renouncing of conquests in the west. The decisive refusal of German statesmen to declare such a renunciation and to define precisely the demands and concessions to be made by the Quadruple Alliance in the peace proposals, as proposed by Burian, led to severe conflict between the two Cabinets. The peace note of Dec. 12 1916, which put an end to this quarrel, was the last important official act of Burian as Foreign Minister. A few days later he laid down his office, but was recalled by the Emperor Charles after the resignation of his successor, Count Czernin, on April 14 1918. Burian now worked energetically for the conclusion of an agreed peace, and on that account came into conflict, as he had done two years before, with the German higher command. It was only in Aug. 1918, after the breakdown of the German offensive, that the German Government declared itself ready in principle to prepare the way for an agreed peace. But in the course of the negotiations insuperable differences appeared as to the time and the form of the peace offer. . Bitter exasperation was aroused in the most influential German circles when Burian, holding to his design, ignored the German veto, and on Sept. 14 1918 addressed to all the belligerent nations an invitation to end the war by diplomatic

negotiations.

Burian’s invitation had no success; it merely

heightened the confidence in victory of the enemy Powers, who,

by an offensive, definitely btoke the resistance of their enfeebled opponents, compelled them to accept a humiliating armistice, and forced them to prepare the way for negotiations which were intended to lead to the conclusion of separate treaties of peace. When the Vicnna Government decided to follow this path Burian

was no longer Forcign Minister.

He had resigned in the midst

of a confusion which gave reason to fear the approaching end of the state and the dynasty. (A. F. Pr.)

BURLESON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1r863-

), American law-

yer and politician, was born at San Marcos, Tex., June 7 1863.

He graduated from the university of Texas in 1884 and

was admitted to the bar in 1885. For five ycars he was assistant city attorney in Austin, and from r189r to 1898 was attorney of the 26th judicial district of Texas. From 1899 to 1913 he was a member of Congress and was PostmasterGeneral in President Wilson’s Cabinet from 1913 to 1921. Soon after taking office in 1913 he aroused a storm of protest, especially on the part of the large daily newspapers, by declaring that he would enforce the law (requiring publications to print, among

other things, a sworn statement of paid circulation), which had been held in abeyance by his predecessor until its constitution-

ality might be confirmed. The Supreme Court enjoined him from carrying out his purpose. During the World War he issued,

BURNAND—BURNS, JOHN in rg15, an order barring unneutral envelopes and cards from the mails, and after America became a belligerent he instituted a censorship designed to suppress treasonable and seditious newspapers. The purpose was reasonable, but it was impossible to draw an ideal line and the result was a general alienation of the press. Later he introduced the “ zone system,” whereby postage on sccond-class mail was charged according to distance. In Aug. r918 ihe telephone and telegraph systems were taken over temporarily by the Government and their control vested in the postmaster-general. He was an avowed advocate of permanent Government ownership of the telegraph and telephone, and in Dec. 1918 urged legislation to that end. In Nov. 1918, five days after the Armistice was signed, he took

over the cables. He aroused the hostility of labour by his opposition to organization and strikes among postal employees. As carly as 1913 he had urged repeal of the law allowing them to organize. He was interested in extending the parcel post, and worked for the promotion of acrial mail service. BURNAND, SIR FRANCIS COWLEY (1836-1917), English humorist (see 4.848), died at Ramsgate April 21 1917. BURNET, SIR JOHN JAMES (18s0), Scottish archi-

tect, whose father was an architect in Glasgow, was born in that city In 1859, and was cducated at the Western Academy, entering the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, in 1874. He passed three years in the studio of Pascal, whose direction and guidance had a strong influence on his future design. After his return to Glasgow Burnet’s first important commission was the Royal Institute of Fine Arts, the beginning of a series of important public buildings in various places in Scotland. Amongst these are the offices for the Clyde Navigation Trust, the Glasgow Athenaeum, the Pathological Institute—an extension of the Glasgow Infirmary—and the lay-out and building for the International Exhibition at Edinburgh, in 1886. He carried out also much ecclesiastical work, notably the Barony church at Glasgow and churches at Arbroath, Brechin and Larbert. Amongst the larger business buildings designed by Burnet are the head office of the Union Bank of Scotland, and in London the important completion of the Selfridge premises, in collaboration with J. E. Graham, of Chicago. Entrusted with the addition of the new gallerics at the back of the British Muscum, a work which eventually took him upwards of nine years, Burnet, with a view of informing himself as to the conditions of museum design clsewhere, visited in 1895 various European galleries—Paris, Berlin, Vienna and others. In the following year he visited the United States, in order to obtain information for his designs for new laboratories for Glasgow University. He was knighted in 1914, and among his other honours were the LL.D, degree at Glasgow, and membership of the Institut de France, the Société Central des Architectes Français, and the American Institute of Architects. BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON (1849), American writer (sce 4.853), published in ro1r The Little Princess, a Play for Children and Grown-Up Children, in Three Acts. Her other later writings include My Robin (x912); T. Tembarom (1913); A Lady of Quality (1913); The Lost Prince (1915); The One I Know the Best of All (1915); The Little Hunchback Zia (1916); The Way to the House of Santa Claus (1916), and The White People (1917).

BURNHAM, EDWARD LEVY LAWSON, isr Baron (18331916), English newspaper proprictor, was born in London Dec. 28 1833. His father, Joseph Moses Levy (d. 1888) who married Esther Cohen, was managing proprictor of a paper manufacturing and printing company and proprietor of the Sunday Times. Edward Levy, who took the added surname of Lawson in 1875 in accordance with the will of an uncle, Lionel Lawson, was educated at University College school, London. On leaving school he entered his father’s business, and there reccived a thorough training in the printing and paper trades. In June 1855, immediately after the stamp duty on newspapers had been removed, the Daily Telegraph and Courter

{see 19.559) was started by Colonel Sleigh.

In September it was

acquired by Mr. J. M. Levy, in liquidation of the debt due to

him for paper and printing.

525 Edward Levy, who was already

dramatic critic of the Sunday Times, now became editor of the Daily Telegraph, and 30 years later its managing proprietor and sole director.

It was not until 1903 that he rclinquished this

position to his eldest son. He took a leading place in English journalism, and was largely instrumental in getting the paper

duty abolished in 1861. He was more than once president of the Institute of Journalists, and was active in his support of press charities, especially as trustee and treasurer to the Newspaper Press Fund. In 1g09 he presided over the first Imperial Press conference, held in London; in 1920 his son similarly presided at the conference held in Canada. On Lord Burnham’s 8oth birthday he was the recipient of an address signed by the leading journalists of the British Empire, the United States and many European countries, expressing their sense of his great services to journalism. He was created a baronet in 1892 and was raised to the peerage as Baron Burnham in 1903. He married Uarriette Georgiana (d. 1897), daughter of the actor Benjamin Webster’ (see 28.459).

He died in London Jan. 9 ro16.

His eldest son, HARRY LAWSON WEBSTER Lawson, tst Viscount Burnham (1862), was born in London Dec. 18 1862, and was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He represented W. St, Pancras in the House of Commons from 1885 to 1892, E. Gloucestershire from 1893-5, and Tower Hamlets from 1905-6, and again from 1910-6. He was also a member of the London County Council from 1889-92 and from 1897 to 1904, as well as mayor of Stepney 1908-9. He succeeded to his father’s barony in 1916, and was created a viscount jn rọrọ. In his position as editor and managing proprietor of the Daily Telegraph he did valuable work during the World War. In 1917 he was included in the first gazette of the new Order of Companions of Honour. He was hon. colonel of the Royal Bucks Hussars.

He married in 1884 Olive,

daughter of Gen. Sir Henry de Bathe, Bart., but had no son. The heir to the barony in rozr was, therefore, his brother, Col. William Arnold Webster Lawson (b. 1864).

BURNHAM, DANIEL HUDSON (1846-1912), American architect, was born at Henderson, N.Y., Sept. 4 1846. At the age of ten he moved to Chicago, and was educated there and at Waltham, Mass. He worked as an architect in various offices in Chicago, and in 1871 formed a partnership with John W. Root. To them was entrusted the planning of the Chicago World’s Fair (1893). On the death of Root this work fell wholly upon Burnham, who in 1891 formed with C. B. Atwood a partnership known as Ð. HL Burnham & Co. In 1894 he was elected president of the American Institute of Architects. His success with the Chicago World’s Fair buildings soon led to his being called upon to design structures in many cities. Of these may be mentioned “ The Rookery,” the Great Northern hotel, the Masonic Temple, and the Railway Exchange, in Chicago; the “ Flatiron Building,” and new Wanamaker’s store,

in New York; the Pennsylvania railway station in Pittsburgh; Filene’s store in Boston; the Union station in Washington and Selfridge’s in London. He also was asked to propose plans for improving several cities, including Cleveland (1903), San Francisco (1905, after the earthquake), Chicago (1909), and Baltimore. In 1905 he was asked by the U.S. Government to design plans for cities in the Philippines, including Manila. He was made chairman of the national committee appointed for beautifying Washington, D.C. He died in Heidelberg, Germany, June I IQI2.

BURNS, JOHN (1858—-

), English politician (see 4.855),

held the office of President of the Local Government Board for more than eight years, during which he underwent comparatively little hostile criticism save from his old friends of the Labour party. While resisting a policy of doles, he was zealous in forwarding substantial measures of social reform; but he did not

take a prominent part in the great party disputes over the budget of r909 and the Parliament bill. His activity and success in

the administration of his department were recognized—much against his own wish—by the raising of the President’s salary in 1910 from £2,000 to £5,000 a year; but his policy was thought

526

BURNS AND SCALDS—BUTCHER

to be too conservative even by some members of the Unionist party, and early in 1914 he was promoted to the Presidency of the Board of Trade. He held this office only six months, as in the following Aug. he could not bring himself to accept the necessity of war. He resigned without making any public statement of his reasons, and took no further active part in Parliament. At

the general election.of 1918 he desired to stand again for Battersea; but the local labour men required him, as a condition

of their support, to become a member of the Labour party, sign its constitution, and accept its programme and whips. He refused to comply. “I do not believe,” he wrote, “in political indentured labour. A war against militarism must not end in conscript members of Parliament.” Accordingly he withdrew his candidature, and continucd’ in private life. BURNS AND SCALDS (see 4.860).—During the World War a large number of burns were encountered in British medical practice, in the army and the navy and in munition works, The ordinary methods of treatment were adopted, but in addition the use of hot paraffin applications was tried with very marked success, This treatment indeed is stated by its supporters to

give better results than any other hitherto employed.

The burn

is first of all washed with normal saline or with an antiseptic such as flavine or proflavine (1-z,000): it is then dried with gauze or an clectric dryer. A layer of paraffin is applied at temperature

55°-6o°C.

A thin layer of wool is placed over the first layer of

paraffin and then a second layer of hot paraffin painted over the wool. A dressing of wool and bandage is then applied and this is changed every 24 hours. The layer of paraffin must be of suf-

ficient thickness, It may be sprayed on instead of painted. The temperature is thus important, for if it is too high the paraffin will run, The effect of the paraffin is largely to act as a protection, and it is claimed by some that the addition of antiseptics to the paraffin is very advantageous. Lieut.-Col. A. J. Hull of the R.A.M.C. emphasized this in a communication to the journal of the Corps and recommended that the aniline antiseptics, brilliant green or flavine, should be employed. ‘These antiseptics owe their wide use to the work of Professor C. H, Browning, who first introduced them.

The preparation of the paraffin is thus described by Colonel Hull:— “Take 3 gramme of brilliant green or 2 grammes of scarlet red

or flavine and 4o grammes of lanoline, rub up the coloured material

with the adeps lanae hydrosus until a highly coloured smooth paste

is obtained which contains no undisintegrated particles of the dye; using about $ oz. of water assists the solution of the dyes. Melt ihe parafin durum (678 grammes) and add 210 grammes of paraffin molle and 50 c.c. of olive oil. Let the temperature of the resulting

Boeotia in 1907. In r1913 he became principal of King’s College, London, and held that post till his death in London May 14 1920. He published Recent Discoveries in Crete (1907) and various papers on archaeological subjects. All his life he was a fervent Philhellene. During the World War he was in active coöperation with the efforts of M. Venizelos to protect the in-

terests of Greece and to secure Greek adherence to the Allies, and he took a leading part, by lectures and articles, in making the problems of the Near East familiar to the public. BURT, THOMAS (1837), British Labour politician, was born at Murton Row, near North Shields, Northumberland, Nov. r2 1837, He was the son of a miner, and himself started working in the pits when ten years of age, his education being scanty. In 1865 he was elected secretary of the Northumberland Miners’ Mutual Provident Association, a post which he held until 1913, and in 1874 successfully contested Morpeth in the Labour interest, being thus (along with Alexander Macdonald) the first of the Labour members in the House of Commons. He took part in many industrial conferences, and in 1890 was one of the British representatives at the Berlin Labour

congress of that year. In 1891 he was president of the trade union congress at Newcastle, and in 1892 entered the Liberal ministry as parliamentary secretary of the Board of Trade, holding this post until 1895. In 1906 he was created a privy councillor, and in 1918 resigned his seat in Parliament. Sec A. Watson, A Great Labour Leader (1908).

BUTCHER, SAMUEL HENRY (1850-1010), English classical scholar, was the eldest son of Samuel Butcher, classical tutor and lecturer at Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently Bishop of Meath. Born in Dublin April 16 1850, he went to Marlborough in 1864 and won an open scholarship for classics at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1869. In 1870 he won the Bell scholarship at Cambridge, in 1871 the Waddington scholarship, and in 1871 and 1872 the Powis medal.

In 1873 he graduated as

senior classic and won a Chancellor’s medal. Me took an assistant mastership at Eton for a year, but returned to Trinity, Cambridge, as fellow and lecturer in classics. On his marriage in 1876 to Rose, daughter of Archbishop Trench of Dublin, he had to resign his Trinity fellowship, and was then elected tutor and “ married

fellow” at University College, Oxford. In 1882 he succeeded Professor Blackie as professor of Greek in the university of Edinburgh. During his tenure of this chair he became widely known, not only as a scholar, but as a judicious administrator and educational reformer. He was a member of the royal commission which was appointed after the passing of the Scottish Universities bill in 1889 to reform the whole academical system

mixture sink to at least 65° C.; then stir in the previously prepared

in Scotland, and which reported in April 1900.

add 20 c.c, of eucalyptus oil; stir and allow to solidify.” The scarlet is said to form the least satisfactory suspension, but’

Butcher died, and two years later he resigned his professorship and went to reside In London. He had been a member of the royal commission of 1901 on University Education in Ireland,

lanoline paste, stirring until thoroughly mixed.

At about 55° C,

its therapeutic value has caused it to be continued in use. It acts as a stimulus to healing after the burns are clean, The flavine paraffin seems to answer best for recent burns. (R. M, WL)

BURROUGHS, JOHN (1837-19212), American naturalist and writer (see 4.863), continued to instruct and entertain a wide public with frequent essays on out-of-door life, some of which were assembled in the following volumes: Time and Change (1912); The Summit of the Years (1913); The Breath of Life (1915); Under the Apple Trees (1916), and Field and Study (1919). Yale conferred upon him the degree of Litt.D. (1910), and Colgate the degree of L.H.D. (1911). Ile dicd on a train near Kingsville, O., March 2ọ 1921, while returning from California to his country home in New York state.

BURROWS, RONALD MONTAGU (1867-10920), English classical scholar and archaeologist, was born at Rugby Aug. 16 1867 and educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford. From 1891 to 1898 he was assistant to Mr. Gilbert Murtay, then professor of Greek at Glasgow, and from

In 1902 Mrs.

which produced an abortive report with eight reservations in 1903; and he was also included on the royal commission of 1906,

In the latter year, on the death of Sir Richard Jebb, he was chosen as a Unionist to represent the university of Cambridge in Parliament, where his brother J. G. Butcher (b. 1853; created a baronet in 1918), a well-known barrister, had sat for many years as Unionist member fer York; he male an effective maiden speech on the Irish University bill and frequently took a valuable part in debate. His grave and thoughtful style and gift of natural eloquence were combined with a charm and sincerity

which won him universal respect and affection, no less in public than in private life. He was however, above all, a fine Greek scholar, full of the true spirit of classical learning, with a remarkable power of literary expression, shown especially in such publications as Some Aspects of the Greek Genius (1891); Aristotle’s

Theory of Poetry and Fine Art (1895); Greek Idealism in the

1898 to

Common Things of Life (1901); Harvard Lectures on Greek Sub-

1908 he was professor of Greek at University College, Cardiff. In 1908 he was transferred to the corresponding chair at the Victoria University of Manchester. He conducted excavations at Pylos and Sphacteria in 1895-6, and at Rhitsona in

jects (1904) and his prose translation (with Andrew Lang) of the Odyssey (1879). In 1907 he was president of the English Classical

Association, of which he had been one of the principal founders in 1903. He was also the first president of the Irish Classical

BUTLER, H. M.—-BYWATER Association, and an original member of the British Academy, becoming its president in r909.

In 1908 hé was appointed a

527

London Oct. 25 1853, the grandson of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, 3st Bart. He was educated at Clifton and Trinity

trustee of the British Muscum. Two years later his health began to fail, and he delivered his last speech on Oct. 21 1910, at the dinner given to celebrate the publication of the rith edition of the E.B. by the Cambridge University Press. He died in London Dec. 2 1910. BUTLER, HENRY MONTAGU (1833-1018), English educationist (see 4.882), as master of Trinity, Cambridge, displayed to the full the scholastic and administrative gifts which had distinguished his period as headmaster of Harrow. His bestknown work is a volume entitled Sermons Historical and Bto-

College, Cambridge, and afterwards entered public life, becoming a member of the London School Board in 1876. He was Liberal M.P. for Peterborough from 1883 to 1885, and for

graphical (1899), but in 1914 he published Some Leisure Hours

Finance and Politics: An Historical Study (1783-1885) (1888); Handbook to the Death Duties (with G. S. Barnes, 1890); Political Manual (4th ed. 1891); Mr. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer

of a Long Life, which contained excellent classical verse. died at Cambridge Jan. 14 1918.

He

See Edward Graham, The Harrow Life of H. M. Butler (1920).

BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862), American educator (see 4.885), was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1911. In ror2 he was chairman of the New York State Republican Convention and also a dele-

gate to the Republican National Convention. Vice-President Sherman’ was renominated but died shortly before the general election, and the Republican electoral votes were cast for Dr. Butler for vice-president. He was, however, overwhelmingly defeated on the ticket with President Taft, Wilson receiving an

electoral vote of 435 (40 states), Roosevelt 88 (6 states) and Tait 8 (2 states).

On the outbreak of the World War in org he

supported the peace policy of Mr. Wilson’s administration as

Poplar from 1886 til 1914. From 1892 to 1895 he was UnderSecretary for the Colonies. Trom 1905 to rg10 he was Postmas-

ter-General, and from 1910 to 1914 President of the Board of Trade. In ror4 he was appointed High Commissioner and Governor-General of South Africa, being raised to the peerage

as Viscount Buxton.

He retired from this office in 1920.

Lord Buxton published. Handbook to Political Questions (1880);

(1901); The Fiscal Question (1904). BYNG, JULIAN HEDWORTH GEORGE BYNG, ist Baron (1862), British general, was born Sept. 11 1862, son of

the 2nd Earl of Strafford, and joined the roth Hussars in India in 1883.

He saw his first active service.on the Red Sea

littoral a year later, when his regiment disembarked there on their way home. He passed through the Staff College, and was

a major when the South African War broke out; he was then sent on special servicc to the Cape, He raised and commanded the South African Light Horse, which formed part of the Natal army and was at the relief of Ladysmith. Subsequently he commanded a column with marked success and was rewarded with promotion to the ranks of brevet lieutenant-colonel and colonel. After the war he commanded his regiment for two years, was then for a

responding, he declared, “to the best wishes and hopes of the whole people.” He disapproved of the organization of the

year in charge of the cavalry school, and was at the head of a

American

eral, He spent two years in charge of a Territorial division and then, in 1912, he was sent to Egypt to take command of the army of occupation. In Oct. 1914 he was summoned home to take the 3rd Cavalry Div, to France, and he succeeded to the command of the Cavalry Corps in June 1915. But two months later he was despatched to the Dardanelles to take charge of the IX. Army Corps there and he became responsible for the Suvla arca, from which he withdrew his troops most skilfully in the following December. For this valuable service he received the K.C.M.G., his corps proceeding to Egypt; but he was almost immediately called back to the western front to take over the XVI. Army Corps, and in May 1916 he was transferred

Legion.

trance into the war.

In 1916, however, he urged America’s en-

The same year he was again a delegate to

the Republican National Convention, serving as chairman of the

Committee on Resolutions.

He favoured woman suffrage and

was an advocate of the short ballot.

At the Republican National

Convention in 1920 he received 69 voles for the presidential nomination on the first ballot, the number gradually falling to

two on the tenth and last ballot.

As an educator President

Butler was a bold critic of many contemporary

American education.

tendencies in

He upheld the old theory of mental dis-

cipline, and in the face of the wide-spread vocational movement

in schools and colleges remained a steadfast and cloquent defender of liberal education. Under his guidance Columbia University became a cosmopolitan institution, its total registration in 1920 approximating 30,000 (see COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY). He was chairman of the National Committee of the United States for the Restoration of the university of Louvain, destroyed by

the Germans in 1914. In 1920 he resigned the editorship of The Educational Review, becoming instead advisory editor. He was the author of Why Should We Change Our Form of Government (1912): Progress in Politics (1913, a pamphlet); The Meaning of

Education (1918, an enlargement of the work published in 1898); A World in Ferment (1917, interpretations of the war for a new world); Is America Worth Saving (1920); Scholarship and

Service (1921). BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838-1910), English soldier and author (see 4.888), died in Tipperary June 7 roro. BUTT, CLARA (1873), English contralto singer, was born at Southwick, Sussex, Feb. 1 1873. She received her musical training at the Royal College of Music, and made

her début in a students’ performance of Gluck’s Orfeo at

cavalry brigade from 1907-9, when he was promoted major-gen-

from this to the Canadian Army Corps, then formed, which he

commanded for a year. distinguished themselves capture of Vimy Ridge moted licutenant-general

The Dominion troops under his orders on several occasions, especially in their on April 9 1917. He had been profor distinguished service in 1916 and

was given the K.C.B. In June rory he succeeded to the leadership of the HI. Army,

which he retained till the close of hostilitics. Towards the end of Nov. he carried out the brilliantly successful surprise attack on the Cambrai front for which he was promoted full general, though the German counterstroke in Dec. largely regained the lost ground. Remaining on this front in the winter of 1917-8, his forces were on the left of the V. Army in the battles of March 1918 and were to some extent involved in its defeat, but they remained unbroken and eventually it was on their front that the enemy’s attack first came to a definite standstill. Five months later they bore thcir full share in breaking the Hindenburg line and in the general advance. For his services Byng was raised to the pecrage as Baron Byng of Vimy and

the Lyceum theatre, London, in 1892. She possessed a contralto voice of exceptional power and wide range, and from the Stoke-le-Thorpe, and he received a grant of £30,000. He retired first became a public favourite as a ballad and oratorio singer. from the army in rọrọ, and in June 1921 was appointed to sucIn 1900 she married the singer Kennerley Rumford (b. 1870), ceed the Duke of Devonshire as governor-general of Canada. and with him sang constantly at concerts in all parts of Great i BYWATER, INGRAM (1840-1914), English classical scholar Britain, also undertaking various long tours in the colonies. (see 4.906), died in London Dec. 17 1914. He was a great During the World War she devoted the proceeds of many of her collector of books, especially early printed Greek books, and concerts to war charitics, and was in 1917 created D.B.E. he left a bequest to provide for the study of Byzantine Greek BUXTON, SYDNEY CHARLES BUXTON, rst VISCOUNT at Oxford. (1853), British politician and administrator, was born in See W W. Jackson, Memoir of Ingram Bywater (1919).

CABLE—CAILLAUX

528

ABLE, SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH: see SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY, : CADBURY, GEORGE (1839- } British manufacturer and philanthropist, was born Sept. 19 1839 at Edgbaston, Birmingham, the son of Quaker parents, and was brought

confidence of his country, and his name, indeed, began to take on a legendary colour. The first check came with the initial success of the Austrian offensive in May 1916, though he had already incurred many enmilies by the ruthless dismissal of those who appeared unequal to the duties of command—a process which in a great measure attained the desired end,

cocoa business known later as Cadbury Brothers Ltd., it gave employment to 12 workers only, but under the management of himself and his brother Richard it developed rapidly, and in 1879

though the dismissals were probably too numerous and certainly cost the army some good officers, besides handicapping others by the fear of supersession. As Uume went on, and signs of warweariness became visible among same af the traans, Cadorna entered the strongest protest against the policy of the Government, which, he said, permitted an anti-war propaganda which lowered the moral of the army. Cadorna’s protests were largely justified. Too little was done to mect anti-war propaganda, and the soldier who went on leave often returned to the front embittcred by having found his family in want, while others who had escaped military service were not only safe but werc making money. On the other hand, it must be admitted that a part

up a member of that Society. In 1861 when he succeeded to the

‘he founded for the employeés the garden village of Bournville, which served as a model for other social ventures of the kind. In 1919 when Cadbury Brothers Ltd. amalgamated with the

firm ].S. Fry & Son of Bristol, they employed in all 4,000 people. Mr. Cadbury became chief proprietor of the Daily News in rigor, and his family also acquired an interest in the Star in 1909. The connexion of the Cadburys and other Quaker families

with these Liberal and Tree Trade organs caused them to be dubbed by opponents the “cocoa press.” His second wife, ELIZABETH CADBURY (m. 1888), associated herself with her husband’s philanthropic undertakings at Bournville and clsewhere, besides holding many responsible positions on her own account. She was president of the N.U.W.W and also of the midland division of the Y.W.C.A., and was the

author of several papers on housing and other social questions. She was made O.B.E. in Jan. 1918. CADOGAN,

GEORGE HENRY

CADOGAN,

sri EARL

(1840-

of the responsibility for declining moral lay at Cadorna’s own door. For he did not seem to have realized fully the strain of modern war upon the troops, or understood the necessity of

lightening that strain by every possible expedient. The disaster of Caporetto, a disaster due to a complex of causes, led to Cadorna being transferred from the command of the Italian armies to the newly formed Allicd military council at Versailles. But before he left his command he had organized the resistance on

1915), British politician (see 4.932), died in London March 6

the Piave~Monte Grappa front.

IQIS,

Cadorna came to Versailles under the shadow of defeat, but his personality and military insight speedily impressed his. colleagues and removed the initial handicap. It was a misfortune for Italy when, in Feb. 1918, consequent upon the appointment

CADORNA,

COUNT

LUIGI

(18sc-

), Italian

general,

chief of the Italian general staff from July 1914 to Nov. 1917, commander-in-chief of the Italian armies in the field from May 1915 to Nov. 1917, and senator, was born at Pallanza, on Lago Maggiore, Sept. 4.1850. His father was Count Raffaele Cadorna, a distinguished soldier of the wars of the Risorgimento and the Crimea; and his uncle, Count Carlo Cadorna, was one of the outstanding political figures of the same period. Luigi Cadorna entered the army in 1866, and served in the infantry, in the ar-

tillery and on the staff, becoming coloncl in 1892. His career followed the usual course and his reputation steadily increased. Licutenant-general in 1905, he was appointed to command the

Genoa army corps in 1910, and a year later he was chosen as an army commander in the event of war.

He commanded one side

in the manœuvres of ror1, his opponent being Caneva. The victory was adjudged to Caneva, and though military opinion was divided upon the verdict it is probable that the result of the manceuvres led to the preference being given to Caneva for the command of the Tripoli expedition. But on the death of Gen, Pollio, chief of the general staff, there was little or no question as to his successor, and on July ro rọr4 Cadorna recvived the appointment We found the army in a deplorable condition, both as to personnel and as to material. And within three weeks the outbreak of general war forced the problems of army reform, consistently shirked by successive Cabinets, to the front.

One

of Cadorna’s first acts on becoming chicf-of-stafl was to adopt the Deport field-gun, though the artillery had already begun to rearm with a Krupp quick-firer, and this prompt decision, which did not pass without criticism, was of the greatest value to Italy.

of the Caporetto inquiry commission, it was thought necessary to remove him from Versailles. Asa result of the inquiry he was

placed on half-pay on Aug. 29 1918, and four days later his definite retirement was gazetted. In March ro2r Cadorna published a book dealing with his tenure of the post of chief-of-stafl (Le Guerra alla Fronte Italiana), which effectively answered. much of the criticism that had been

directed against his leadership. But with ihe passage of time this criticism had already begun to lose force. It was no longer necessary to find a scapegoat. More and more it was seen that Cadorna had made the Italian army fit for war, and that he had conducted the campaign under grave handicaps. Perhaps the most serious defect in Cadorna’s Icadership was that he failed to secure the loyal coéperation of many of his subordinates. The fact that he was not always well served was to some extent due to his methods. A certain friction also characterized Cadorna’s relations with two successive Governments—on his

side soldierly impatience with political methods and exigencies, and on theirs resentment at his criticisms of policy. Moreover, his belicf in the necessity and duty of sacrifice made him slow to realize the limits of ordinary human endurance. But his

achievement was great, and he remains, in spite of the disaster that closed his career, the foremost Italian military figure of the war. (W. K. McC.) CAILLAUX, JOSEPH-MARIE-AUGUSTE (1863), French politician and financier, was born March 30 r863. After study-

Much was accomplished during the neutrality period, and though

ing law and following lectures at the Ecole des Sciences Politiques

all efforts were handicapped by lack of money and by Italy’s

he entered the civil service in 1888 as an inspector of finance, and spent most of his official career in Algiers. Standing as a Republican candidate in the elections of 1898 for the department of the Sarthe, in opposition to the Duc de la RochefoucaultBisaccia, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by 12,929

low industrial capacity, still, in the interval between Aug. 1914

and Italy’s entry into the war, Cadorna fashioned a weapon with which it was possible to strike, and strike hard. For 29 months Cadorna, handicapped always by lack of means, directed the operations against Austria-Hungary wilh

insight, vigour and determination.

Facile critics have found

fault with his plan of campaign, but the more carefully and ob-

jectively Cadorna’s plan is studicd, the more it justifies itself against alternative policies, For a year Cadorna had the full

votes to 11,737. He became Minister of Finance in the WaldeckRousscau Cabinet, and after its fall it was not until the Clemenceau Ministry of 1006 that he returned to office again, once more

with the portfolio of Finance. In rg1z he became prime minister. Unfortunately it was his ambition to bring France and Germany

CAILLETET—-CALIFORNIA together on the commen ground of finance, and he failed. He endeavoured, while he was prime minister, to meet the arrogant

demands of Germany in Morocco, in the course of protracted and secret negotiations carried out mainly through Baron von Lancken, who was then Chancellor of the German embassy in Paris. These negotiations became known, notably to Clemenceau, and they directly led to the dispatch by Germany to Agadir of the gunboat “ Panther ” in rrr. The convention which put an end to the ensuing crisis involved the surrender by France of large tracts of the French Congo to Germany. The whole negotiations formed the subject of an inquiry by a special committee of the . Senate, whose report was very unfavourable to Caillaux. Nevertheless, thanks to his undoubted qualities as a financier, he remained a great power in French politics. He fought the Three Years’ Service bill with the utmost tenacity; and although that measure became law, it was he who finally, on the financial aspect of that bill, brought about the downfall of the Barthou

529

CAIRO, Egypt (sce 4.953).—At the census of 1917 Cairo had a pop. of 790,939, being the largest city in Africa.

pop. numbered

631,163,

Protestants), Jewish

nationality

the numbers

The Moslem

Christian. 128,991. (including

29,207 and others 1,578.

5,589

Classified by

were:—Egyptian ‘subjects

721,972,

Italians 15,655, Greeks 15,254, Ottomans 12,081, French 8,252, British 7,524 (including Maltese 1,663 and .other naturalized British subjects 2,659), Russians 1,242, Austrians 1,004, Spanish 627, Rumanians 528, Swiss 280, Belgians 266. 3 The work of improving communications, providing the city with a new sanitary system and the preservation of ancient sites and

buildings was carried on with vigour up to the time of the outbreak of the World War, A new bridge across the Nile at Bulaq was completed in 1912, after four years’ labour. A carriage road to Helwan was opened for traffic in 1913. The principal works of the main drainage system were finished in 1914. The Heliopolis oasis scheme (launched iu 1906) had by uP resulted in the building of a handsome residential suburb, and here was

and a large aerodrome.

This aerodrome

erected a wireless station

became

the chief airsta-

Ministry in the autumn of 1or3. lis past history was of à _tion in North Africa, being the starting point for air travel to the character which made it impossible, if the Entente Cordiale was Cape, Palestine and Mesopotamia and to Europe. During the World War the removal of the huge and ancient rubbish mounds E. of the to continue, that he should return to the position of prime minis~

ter, but he joined the new Cabinet as Minister of Finance. Asa financial expert he had for long identified himsclf with a great

city was undertaken; their removal offered a large and healthy site for a new suburb. In 1919 the building of various new government

and necessary reform in the fiscal policy of France—the introduction of the principle of an income tax. For this principle he strove ~in public, at any rate—throughout the winter of 1913. His advocacy of an income tax and his uncertain and erratic championship of proletarian ideas, alarmed all the conservative clements in the country, and throughout the winter he was attacked with increasing violence from the platform and through the press. Those attacks reached their highest point of bitterness in a series of dis-

A law passed in 1918 enlarged the scope of the department charged with the preservation of Arab monuments to include all buildings dating from the Arab conquest to the reign of Mchemet Ali, specially citing Coptic ecclesiastic buildings and the Roman fortress of Qasr

closures in the Figaro, of a more or less personal nature.

This

newspaper started the publication of letters addressed by him to the second Mme. Caillaux while he was still married to the first. A tragic end was made to the Figaro’s campaign when the second Mme. Caillaux called upon the editor, M. Gaston Calmette, and fired five shots at him on March 16, mortally wounding him. Caillaux’s resignation, followed at once. The elections which

took place shortly afterwards resulted in a crisis of unusual bitterness,

which

was

solved

eventually

by Viviani

becoming

prime minister. The trial of Mme. Caillaux for murder began on July 20 1914 and ended by her acquittal on the very eve of war, During the first part of the World War, Caillaux, who was by no means a popular figure, filled the dutics of an army paymaster.

offices was begun.

esh Sham at Old Cairo. Important excavations were made ja that fortress. The restoration of the mosque of Ibn Tulun (A.D. 879) was the chief archaeological work vigorously prosecuted during the World War. The mosque of Bibars (A.D, 1269) was in 1918-9 rescued from being a slaughterhouse and its great court turned into a public garden. Large public gardens were constructed at Bulaq: and around the Daher mosque. The Sultania library was reorganized and in 1920 contained 92,000 volumes; 40,000 in the Oriental section,

All larger town-planning schemes had to be abandoned during the World War, and building activity was greatly restricted, while:

over 800 houses had to be demolished in 1916, having been rendered.

insecure by infiltration during the high Nile flood of that year. The housing difficulty remained acute in 1920.

The presence during 1914-8 of large numbers of white soldiers,

unaccustomed to Oriental ways, did not, however, give rise to the trouble anticipated. The political history of Cairo is indistinguishable froin that of Egypt, but mention may be made of serious rioting in March r9rq, following the deportation of Zaghtul Pasha and three of his associates. OE OE RES

CALGARY, Alberta, Canada (see 4.1004), had in 1920 8 pop.

After one or two scenes in Paris he was sent on a mission to South.

of 75,000.

America.

region of central and southern Alberta, the western general headquarters ‘of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and an important station of the Royal Canadian Mounted dormerly Royal NorthWest Mounted) Police. Large water-power stations, lumbermills, lighting-plants, banks, wholesale houscs, first-class hotels, churches, private and public schools, and a Government creamery all go to constitute a flourishing city. Four miles south of Calgary is situated the Agricultural Experimental Station under irrigation maintained by the Provincial Government—one of the largest of its kind in the world. In addition to its prominence as

Ife returned in i915, and at once attracted every

effort of the German. secret service.

Although taking no overt

part in politics he carried on a lobby campaign; he finaneed

newspapers, and did everything he possibly could behind the scenes to consolidate his position, He became acquainted with the Bolos and the Malvys of political and journalistic life, and his activities aroused the alarm of all French patriots. By the spring of 1917 he had become in the eyes of the public “ ’homme de la défaite ’—i.e. the man who was willing to effect a compromise peace with Germany at the expense of Great Britain, The long political intrigue (see France: Histery) which led to the advent of Clemenceau to power killed all his hopes, Caillaux was arrested, and, after long delay, tried on a charge of high treason by the High Court of the Senate, and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment, the term he had already served, and to the prohibition of residence in French territory for five years and deprivation of civil rights for ten years. CAILLETET, LOUIS PAUL (1832-1913), French chemist, was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine Sept. 27 1832. He was a pioneer in experimental work with the liquefaction of gases (sce 16.748 and 757). He died in Paris Jan. 4 1913. CAINE, SIR THOMAS HENRY HALL (18s3), English novelist (see 4.949), was created K.B.E. in 1918, in recognition of his war services, especially in propaganda work. In rogr4—s he edited King Albert's Book, a codperative contribution in honour of Belgium. In 1916 he wrote a play The Iron Hand; another play, The Prime Minister, was produced at the Royalty theatre, London, in 1918.

It is the centre of the ranching and grain-producing

a pure-bred stock centre, Calgary is fast growing as a manufac-

turing city, and year by year extends the range of its industries, which at present include beet sugar, soap, furniture, boilers, farm. implements, and miscellaneous machinery, The city council is composed of a mayor and 12 aldermen. .

CALIFORNIA

(sce 5.7).—In 1920 the pop. was 3,426,86r,

as against 2,377,549 in rgro, an increase of 1,049,312, or 441%, as compared with 60-1% for the preceding decade. During rgro-20 the Japanese increased from 41,356 to 71,952; the

Chinese

decreased

from

36,248

to 28,812.

The

density

of’

pop. in 1920 was 22 to the sq. m.; in 1910 15-3. The urban pop. (in places of 2,500 or more) increased from 61°8% of the whole in roro to 68% in r920, the urban pop. in the latter year being 2,331,729. Of the 185 cities in the state, only three, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Oakland, had in 1920 more than 100,000 inhabitants. The table on the next page shows the

growth during the decade 1910-20 of the 12 cities which in 1920 had a pop. of 25,000 or more.

CALIFORNIA

530 1920 Los Angeles

.

a

«

«©

«

San Francisco OS Oakland. «6. San Diego v è s > Sacramento e >s s

ee oe ele « >’ «+ o

Long Beach Pasadena,

> «

Berkeley.

.

2.

a .

.

>. oa

«6

> 2.

Increase

1910

of

576,673 | 319,198

506,676 216,261 74,683 65,908

«

| | | |

80°7

416,912 | 215 150,174 4:0 39,578 8+7 44,696} 47:5

56,036 | 40,434 { 38-6

>

55:593 45:354

17,809 | 212:2 39,291 49°7

Fresno

.

‘

`

$

á

.

45,086

24,892

Sie

Stockton

à

.

è

e

e

a

40,296

23,253

733

i

Š

28,806

23,383 |__ 23:2

in

‘es

.

a

.

39,642 | 28,940}

37-0

A griculture.—During the decade 1910-20 the number of farms in-

creased from 88,197 to 117,670, or 33-47%; all land in farms increased from 27,931,444 ac. to 29,365,667 ac.; improved land increased from "11,389,894 ac. to 11,878,339 ac. The value of all farm property rose from $1,614,694,584 in 1910 to $3,431,021,861 in 1920, The average acreage per farm decreased from 316-7 ac. in 1910 to 249-6 ac. in 1920; the average value per acre increased from $47.16 to $94.77. In 1920 over 4,000,000 ac. were under irrigation. Of domestic animals on farms in 1920, there were 402,407 horses, valued at $35,416,507; 63,419 mules, valued at $7,221,930; 1,229,086 beef cattle, valued at $61,280,293; 778,951 dairy cattle, valued at $59,401,153; 2,400,151 sheep, valued at $25,906,445; 909,272 swine, valued at $13,850,907. Poultry was valued at $15,293,570, and hives of bees at $1,469,447. The total wool production for 1919 was I5,216,957 Ib. valued at $6,695,461. , The following table shows comparative acreage, production and

value of the chief crops for 1909 and 1919 :— Acreage

Corn . Me ag Oats . fe Wheat.

“ew

wf

IQ09 | 478,217]

m

.

.

»

471,674) 157,987]

{1919]

«

63,305]

[1909]

67,688]

Hay and forage . | 1919 |2,202,853|

“Ms

Hops

Se

.

a

ee

6,203,206

3. | 1919] 987,068 121,897,283 $1909 11,795,158 [26,441,954

. + | 1919} egw 1909]

Potatoes

Value.

ww Sf 1919] 116,740} 3,448,459 bus. |$ 5,862,383 Cope. > |I909} 51,935] 1,273,901 “ 11,077,411 . . |1919] 146,889! 2,966,776 “ 2,966,776 we 6 1909] 192,158] 4,143,688 " 2,637,047 . . |1919 |I,086,428 116,866,882 “ | 36,938,477

Barley. . “eww

Beans.

Production

|I9IQ

8,217,937

9,824,005

™ f 18,901,258

" | 4,879,449

4,494,940 tons | 96,121,846

8,118 [12,610,055 Ib.

11909)

6,323,083

“ | 35,035,654 ‘| 17,184,508

6,552,951 a+>~a

doy eas st ©a

¥,064,528,123

1,586,169,792

¥,268,765,285 1,286,658,709

The principal customers were the United Kingdom and the United

States. Table IX. gives the values of Canada’s imports from, and

exports to, the United States; and Table X. Canada’s imports from, and exports to, the United Kingdom. TABLE JX.—Trade with United States. Imports

Exports

275,824,265

$1 12,208,676

331,384,657

436,887,315

396,302,138 297,142,059 370,880,549 665,312,759792,894,057 750,203,024 801,097,318

112,956,295 150,961,675 176,948,299 186,342,856

216,669,262

290,578,773

440,811,400

477,695,059 501,130,117

CANADA Imports

$109,934,753 116,906,360

138,742,644 132,070,406 90,157,204 77,404,361 107,096,735 81,324,283

73,035,118

126,362,631

railways (including the Grand Trunk) operated over 85 % of the total single-track mileage, as follows: Canadian Pacific 13,785 m.; Government railways (under jurisdiction Department of Railways) 564 m.; Canadian National (under board of directors) 9,757 m.; srand Trunk Pacific (under receiver) 2,807 m.; Grand Trunk 3,571.

Exports

$1 36,962,971 151,833,379 177,982,002 222,322,292

The total mileage of Government roads in Canada was in 1921

211,757,718

463,081,241

756,071,059 861,073,399 560,839,116 495,960,118 .

Railways.—-The Canadian railways in 1921 had become consolidated into two great systems, the Canadian Pacific and the

National railways. In 1918 there were 38,875 m. in opcration, over 20,000 of which were under Government control. The capitalization of railways in operation at the end of 1918 was $1,998,880,494, and the aggregate earnings for the year were $330,220,150, There are six canal systems under the control of the Dominion Government.

As a result of the war the railway situation had changed very materially from one of optimism in 1912-3 to one of almost painful anxiety in 1919. This arose from the inability of. the. Canadian Northern on the one hand to scll its bonds to complete its transcontinental system, and of the Grand Trunk, on the other, to meet its interest and other obligations in connexion with the Grand Trunk Pacific, and to cope with the increased working-costs arising out of war conditions. Repeated appeals were made to Parliament for further financial aid. A Royal Commission, consisting of three eminent railway experts, was appointed to inquire into the entire railway situation of Canada, and after an exhaustive investigation there was issued what was known as the Acworth-Drayton (majority) report, practically recommending that the Canadian Northern should be taken over by the nation, amalgamated with the national railway system and operated under a council of a board of directors.

A system which would apply if and when the Grand Trunk and

Grand Trunk Pacific were taken over was also recommended. The nationalization of the Canadian Pacific was not recommended. The recommendations of the majority report of this commission became the policy of the Government, and on June 30 1918 the Canadian National ceased to be an independent entity. In the legislation of 1917 authorizing acquisition provision was made for acquiring the balance of capital stock, amounting to $60,000,000, not in the hands

of the Government, its value to be determined by arbitration. was fixed at $10,800,000, and the transfer was made.

This

‘lhe system is

now opcrated by a board of directors, of which in 1921 Mr. D. B Hanna was president.

55!

March 1921 was 38,076-30. The Canadian Pacific and the National

TABLE X.—Trade with United Kingdom.

The Grand Trunk, meanwhile, desired to be

relieved of its obligations in connexion with the Grand Trunk Pacific and National Transcontinental. In the spring of 1918 the Grand Trunk Pacific notified the Government that it would not be possible

for the company to continue its operations when the balance of money in hand had been exhausted (about March 10), and authority was immediately taken by Order in Council under the provisions of

the War Measures Act to appoint a receiver for the company, Parliament having confirmed this action. In the fall session of Parliament a bill was introduced and passed authorizing the acquisition of all the capital stock of the Grand Trunk system, the Government, however, guarantecing 4% dividends as well as interest upon

20,699. The mileage of independent railways was: Algoma Central 347; Algoma Eastern 89; Quebec Central 277; Victoria, Vancouver & astern (Great Northern) 269; Kettle Valley (Canadian Pacific) 355; Père Marquette 199; Canada Southern (Michigan Central) 380; Dominion Atlantic Kanalan Pacific) 274; Great Waterways (Province of Alberta) 113; Edmonton, Dunvegan & British Columbia (Alberta Government, operated by C.P.) 406 miles. The total capitalization of steam railways on Jan. 1 1921 was $2,036,165,606, of which $568,606,803 belonged to the Canadian

Pacifie, Orsi C3506 to the Grarid Trunk, $417,924,087 to the Canadian National, $413,590,078 (capital expenditure) to the Canadian Government railways (including National ‘Iranscontincntal & Hudson Bay railway), and $216,512,540 to Grand Trunk Pacific and branch lines, Salaries and wages amounted to $233,323,074 and the number of employees to 473,728. There was a total corporate loss on operation for the year of $15,097,747. The track mulcage of electric railways amounted to 2,400 miles. Capital stocks

outstanding and funded debt of these amounted to $173,041,340, and $20,211,576 wages were paid to 16,940 employees. _ Canals:—The river St. Lawrence, with the canals established on its course above Montreal, and the lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, Huron and Superior, with connecting canals, afford a course of

water communication extending from Montreal to Port Arthur, at

the head of Lake Superior, a distance of 1,214 miles. ‘The distance to Duluth is 1,336 m. and to Chicago 1,242 m. ‘This through system

comprises 74 m. of canal with 48 locks, the remainder of.the distance

consisting of river and lake waters. ‘The minimum depth of water on

this route is 14 feet. The canal approaches and the channels of the intermediate river reaches are well defined, and are lighted with gas buoys, admitting of navigation by night as well as by day. The Lachine, Soulange, Cornwall, Welland and Sault Ste. Marie canals are lighted throughout by electricity, and are electrically operated. In view of the agreement signed by the members of the International

Waterways

.channel

is dredged,

Commission,

it may

be noted

that

the St.

Lawrence river is the greatest waterway in the world and the oldest in use in the New World. There are no floods in the St. Lawrence as in the Mississippi, the Columbia or other large rivers of the continent. The difference between maximum and minimum volume is 1-19 ft., as compared with the Ohio, 28-22 ft.; the Missouri, 29 ft.; and the Mississippi, 10-29 ft. The lakes act as settling basins and no silt is carricd down to be deposited in the river. Hence when a the dredging process does not require to be

continuous as in most other rivers. Between Montreal and Quebec the river was deepened some years ago to 30 ft. and work: is itt

progress to increase jt to 35 ft., so that the largest ocean vessels may dock at Montreal. Canals have been built at various times to overcome the rapids between Lake Ontario and Montreal, and six of

these, varying iñ length from 0-75 to 14 m., in width from 144 10 146 {t,, and in depth from 14 to 15 [t., are in existence. To make the waterways scheme feasible, this section of the river would have to be

so improved as to admit the passage of ocean vessels.

The Welland

Canal, which was being rebuilt between Port Colborne on Lake Erie and Port Waler on Lake Ontario in 1921, will be 80 ft. wide and 30

The value of the preference ft. deep, It will be able to accommodate ocean vessels and will form and common stocks (up to a maximum of $2,500,000) was to the key of the entire scheme of oceanizing the jaternational waters be determined by a board of three arbitrators, and a committee of of Canada, if that should be decided upon. Locks on the “Soo” management was to be formed—two members to be appointed by the Canal have opened Lake Superior to the world, and improvements Government, two by the Grand Trunk and a fifth by the four so from Lake Superior to Detroit have been made to render navigation appointed—to ensure as faras possible the operation of the railway in ' on the proposed scale practicable. Incidentally, the scheme involves harmony with the Canadian National system. This went into the development of water-power estimated at 2,000,000 H.P. effect. Not without some difficulty the consent of the Grand Trunk } Of the minor systems, the Murray, Trent, Rideau and Ottawa shareholders was obtained and arbitrators agreed to. Sir Thomas river canals may be considered as branches of the through east-topresent debenture stock outstanding.

White, late Minister of Finance, acted for the Government; Mr Wm. H. Taft, ex-President, and later Chief Justice of the Supreme

Court, of the United States, acted for the Grand Trunk; Mr. Justice Walter Cassels, Ottawa, was chairman of the board.

1921 their awards were published.

In September

The two Canadian arbitrators held

that “ no value ” attached to the common and preference stocks,

though it would be for the Government to decide whether it should go outside the sphere of the arbitrators in granting ex gratia com-

pensation. In a dissenting judgment, Mr Taft held that their ‘ value’ was higher than the maximum provided in the Act. It was further contemplated that all the railways built or acquired by the Government would eventually be amalgamated into one large system, operated by a National Board of Directorate. During the several sessions in which the legislation referred to was brought about very keen and protracted discussion, involving largely the principle of Government ownership, took place. The opposition was greatly emphasized by announcements of increasing deficits in the operation of the National system in 1920-1, the amount being, it ‘was stated, $68,000,000. Five steam railways paid dividends during 1919: the Canadian Pacific $29,227,277, and four others in

the aggregate $761,000.

The average number of miles operated in

west route. In traffic of a more navigation, the at Sorel to Lake

operation, however, these canals serve a distinct local nature.. Isolated from the system of through navigation of the Richclicu river, from its junction Champlain, is effected by means of the St. Ours lock

and the Chambly Canal, while to the extreme cast the St. Peter's

Canal provides communication between St. Peter's Bay, in Cape Breton,

Nova

Scotia, with the Bras d’Or lakes.

It crosses

an

isthmus half a mile in width, and gives access to the Atlantic. A ship canal was in course of construction from Port Dalhousie to Port Colborne, connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie; work was suspended on account of war conditions. Among projected works may be mentioned what is known as the Georgian Bay Canal, to connect the Ottawa river with Georgian Bay. Some years ago the Government

engineers

surveyed

the route, and reported

that a

waterway with a depth of 20 ft. could be provided at a cost of about $100,000,000. By this route the distance from Fort William to Montreal would be 934 m., as against 1,217 by the present route, and

Montreal and Chicago would be brought within 972 m. of cach other, as compared with 3,242 by the present route.

Roads,—At the end of 1920 about 250,000 m. of public highways in Canada were open and serviceable for ordinary travel during the

CANADA

552

summer season. The roads are graded and crowned, with suitable drainage, culverts and bridges. The mileage in the nine provinces is fairly evenly distributed, in accordance with area and population.

In five of them the roads have been made and maintained at the expense of the Provincial Governments; in the other four the cost has been borne by the municipalities and Provincial Governments in coöperation, During recent years there has been a very large increase in the number of antomobiles using the roads, and for this rea-

son a harder and smoother road surfacing has been necessary. All road work on main roads is done on approved high standards, with

hard finished surfaces consisting of gravel and stone macadam, ce-

ment concrete, asphaltic surfacing—in every instance asphaltic or

some bituminous surfacing or oil treatment, To assist the provinces and municipalities in this respect, the Dominion has passed legislation by which it is empowered

sold. Loans were also floated in New York for: (19145) $874,000, (1916) $75,000,000, (1919) $15,000,000, (1919) $60,000,000. From the outbreak of war to Nov. 8e 1918 Canada established huge credits on behalf of the Imperial Government. Through these advances

Great Britain and her Allies were able to finance the purchase of

food-stuffs, hay and other commodities and to carry on the operations of the Imperial Muntitions Board in Canada. ‘In addition to

the above, Canadian chartered banks advanced to the Imperial Government through the medium of the Minister of Finance the sum of $200,000,000 for the purchase of munitions and wheat. This was made possible by the large savings deposits in Canadian banks, which from Aug. 1914 to Oct. 31 1918, despite the withdrawals for subscription to war loans, increased by $417,115,476. TaBLe XIT.—Internal Loans.

to furnish aid to the extent of 40%

of the cost of high-class improvement upon main highways. The amount devoted to this purpose is $20,000,000, to be spread over a

period of five years, the aid to be given, in any case, being 40% of the amount which is the actual, necessary and reasonable cost of the

IQI5-25

5%

.

«©

4

construction or improvement of such highway. The conditions attached to the grant are that any construction or improvement shall be in accordance with the terms of an agreement to be made by the Minister of Railways and Canals of Canada with the Provincial Government, and that the agreement shall contain such pro-

IQI6-34

5%

.

s

ae

1917-37

5vi,

necessary to protect the public interest, all expenditure being by tender and contract.

r919

visions as to location, cost, description, specifications, etc., aS are

Finance,—The Canadian Bank Act contains no specific provisions

as to the amount of gold to be held either against note circulation or the general business of the bank. It requires, however, that 40% of

whatever reserve the bank finds expedient to carry shall be in Dominlan notes. A second provision instructs the Minister of Finance to arrange for the delivery of Dominion notes to any banks in exchange for specie. Thus the gold reserve against Dominion notes, to the

extent that the notes are held by the banks, is a reserve against banking operations, the Dominion Government being the custodian

of the gold for the banks, The other gold clement in bank reserves

1s specie in hand. The sum of the two represents the gold basis of the Canadian banking system. In addition to the reserves above mentioned the Canadian banks carry three other kinds of assets whick are regarded as reserves, being funds more or less immediately avail-

able for the liquidation of liabilities. In 1906 there were 34 chartered banks with branches numbering 1,565. Since that time there has been very considerable consolidation.

In 1921 the number of banks

was 18, but the number of branches had more than doubled, being now in various provinces 3,440. The banks are required by law to furnish to the Minister of Finance detailed monthly statements which are published in the official gazette. Cloaring-houses have

been established in the chief commercial centres and cover the opera-

tions of Canada as a whole. On Dec. 31 1919 the paid-up capital of the banks was $119,199,443, with a note circulation of $232,486,734 and total deposits amounting to $1,841,478,895. The total liabilities at that time amounted to $2,495,582,568 and total asscts $2,754,568,118, At the end of 1919 the total amount to the credit of depositors in the Post Office and Dominion Government savings banks was $53,057,018. The amount on deposit in the savings departments of che chartered banks was $1,125,202,403.

The Dominion revenue and expenditure in 1914-20 are shown in

Tabie XI. Up to March 32 1920 the total outlay for the war: was approximately $1,670,406,342. This amount includes all expenditures in Canada, Great Britain and France, and is also inclusive

of the upkeep of the troops overseas, TABLE XI.—Revenue and Expenditure: March 31 1914March 31 1920. Revenue

Expenditure— Consolidated Fund

$1 33,073,481

$135,523,206

I 72,147,838

232,701,294, 260,778,952 312, 46 '

9,746

130,350,726 148,599,343 178,284,313

232,

xpenditure— Capital Account

Expenditure—

$41,447,320

$ 60,750,476

38,566,950

26,880,031 ° 43, 111,90

25,031,26

69,301 877

War Accounts

166,197,755 306,488 814 343.836,802

449,519,439 346,616,

4

The net debt of Canada, which before the war stood at about

$363,000,006, on March 31 1920 was $2,248,868,623. The increase was almost entircly attributable to war expenditure. Details of the

domestic loans issued by the Canadian Government since the commencement of the war are given in Table XII. In addition

War Savings Certificates to the amount of approximately $12,500,000, as well as a considerable amount of debenture stock, were

1917797 (Victory Loan) e o o o’ 5 Zoe 1918 Sei Victory Loan) 57

0

.

.

.

(3rd Victory Loan)

.

Allotment $100,000,000 106,705,000

No, ot

Subscribers 24,862 34,526

172,926,800

41,263

546,148,750

809,000

682,256,500

1,160,000

2/0 8 * » 537 T 800,000 Soon after the outbreak of war taxes were placed on luxuries and

gradually increased. Higher customs duties and rates of excise on certain commodities, including liquors and tobacco, imposed: soon after the commencement of the war, were followed in 1915 by a war tax on transportation tickets, telegrams, money orders, cheques, letters, patent medicine, etc. In 1915 an increase of 74% ad valorem to the general tariff and 5% ad valorem to the British preferential tariff was made on all commodities with the exception of certain food-stuffs, coal, harvesting machinery, fisheries, equipment, ete, In 1918 a special customs duty was imposed on tea and coffee and the excise on tobacco was increased. In addition, various other taxes were imposed or increased, and a special war excise tax was imposed on various articles, including automobiles, jewelry, etc. Under the Business Profits War-Tax Act: the Government at one time, in the case of all businesses having a capital of $50,000 and over, took 25 % of the net profits over 7% and not exceeding 15%, 50% of the pone over 15% and not exceeding 20%, and 75% of the profita eyond 20%. In the case of businesses having a capital of $25,000 and under $50,000 the Government took 25 % of all profits in excess of 10% on the capital employed. Companies employing capital of less than $25,000 were exempted, with the exception of those dealing in munitions or war supplies. The Canadian income-tax, which came into effect in the year 1918-9, is in some respects higher than that in force in the United

states. The scale provides for the exemption of incomes in the case

of unmarried persons with an income of $1,000 and under, and in the case of married persons with an income of $2,000 and under,

There is also provision for the exemption of $200 for each child. Defence-—Under the Militia Act of 1904 the command in chief of the militia is vested in the king, by whom, or by the governorgeneral as his representative, it is exercised and administered. The Act further provides for the appointment of a Minister of Militia and Defence, charged with the administration of militia affairs, and

of a deputy minister; also for the appointment of a militia council. This includes, besides the minister and deputy minister, four military members—the chief of the general staff, the adjutant-generai, the quartermaster-general, and the master-general of the ordnance, * There is also an inspector-general, whose dut it is to inspect the forces and report to the minister on their readiness for war, but he has no seat in council. The Canadian land forces are divided into the active militia and the reserve militia. The active militia consists of a pefmanent and a non-permanent force, the latter divided into city and rural corps. Service in the active militia is voluntary and | for thrée years, but the Government has the power to apply compulsion should the necessity arise. The pemeneot force comprises all arms of the service and is composed of a number of permanently’

embodied units.

It provides personnel for thé various schools of

military Instruction and garrisons for the fortresses, where a

perma-

nent element is necessary for defence, for the maintenance of works

and for the preservation of armaments.

The non-permanent active

militia undergoes an annual period of training, which varies from 12

to 16 days according to the arms of the service and the location of the corps, i.e. whether they are city or rural. The reserve militia

has not been organized. The authorized Limited Establishment for the permanent force was approximately 4,000 in r921. The non-

permanent active militia is comprised of such corps as from time to

time are authorized by the governor-general in council.

In pre-war

days its strength was approximately 68,000. The above organizations are supplemented by numerous cadet corps and rifle associations. The Royal Military

College at Kingston

rovides both a military and a general education. It trains officers both for the permanent force and for the remainder of the active

CANADA

553

militia, and a certain number of commissions in the British regular be the business of outstanding importance. The governor-general, army are granted annually to its cadets. in the speech from the throne, stated that his advisers having Naval Service.—The department of the Naval Service of Canada consulted with the Imperial Government, it had been concluded émbraces, in addition to the naval service proper, fishery protection, that it would be the duty of Canada at this juncture to afford aid hydrographic surveys, tidal and current survey, radiotelegraph or wireless service and the Canadian Arctic Expedition. The naval in strengthening the effective naval forces of the Empire; and service proper embraces one light cruiser, two torpedo destroyers on Dec. 5 the Premicr announced an Emergency Contribution and two submarines, a gift from the Admiralty of Great Britain, It bill, leaving permanent policy for future consideration. also embraces the Royal Naval College of Canada and the dockyard The Reciprocity Question—Sic W. Lauriers Government at Esquimalt and the dockyard at Halifax. The dockyards at Esquimalt and Halifax are maintained as bases of ny and for had begun thcir oficial negotiations for Reciprocity with the the purpose of repair and overhaul of the ships of the ficct, as well - United States in Jan. rọ1r, ds the result of private discussions in as for the other services of the department. The principal functions of the department are thus: (a) to assist in the maritime defence of the previous year. The terms of the proposed agreement were announced in the Canadian Parliament by Mr. W. S. Fielding, the Empire; (6) the maritime defence of Canada from attack from

the Finance Minister in Sir W. Laurier’s Cabinct, on Jan. 26 overseas; (c) the protection of Canadian fisheries; (d) the surveying of ocean beds, coast-lines bays, rivers and lakes, and the preparation torr. It aimed at more free interchange of products by removing and distribution of charts, plans and sailing directions of the naviduties on certain articles and reducing them in others, gable waters; (e) the scientific investigation of tidesand currents, and ‘ the prediction and determination of tide levels; (f) the administration of wireless telegraphy and telephony throughout the Dominion; (g) the completion of the Canadian Arctic Expedition.

History.— The political history of Canada in 1910-13 centred round the two great questions of Reciprocity with the ‘United States and Canadian naval policy in relation to the Empire. On July 18 1011 Parliament reassembled after the Coronation adjournment, and on July 29 the Government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who had been Premier since 1896, decided

to recommend the dissolution of Parliament and to submit their proposals for commercial reciprocity with the United States to the judgment of the Canadian people at a general election, which was fixed for Sept. 21. While the chief question before the electors was the Reciprocity Agreement, the question of Canada’s naval policy received much attention, especially in the province of Quebec. The result was a complete defeat for the Government and the Reciprocity party. What had been a Liberal majority of 43 was converted into a Conservative-Liberal and anti-Reciprocity majority of 49. Mr. Fielding and Mr. Paterson, who were responsible for the negotiations with the United States, were both

‘defeated, together with Sir F. Borden and four other ministers.

On Oct. 6 Sir Wilfrid Laurier and his administration resigned office. Sir Wilfrid Laurier retained his seat, however, and decided to remain at the head of his party, now in Opposition.

Mr. (later Sir) R. L. Borden (b. 1854), leader of ithe Conservative party, being called upon to form an administration, accomplished this task on Oct. ro 1911, and the new Ministry was constituted as follows: R., L. Borden, Premier and President of the Privy Council; George Eulas Foster (b. 1847), Trade and Commerce; Robert Rogers (b. 1864), Interior; F. D. Monk (b. 1856), Public Works; Francis Cochrane (b. 1852), Railways and Canals; William T. White (b. 1866), Finance; Louis P, Pelletier (b. 1857), Postmaster-General; John D. Ifazen (b. 1860), Marine and Fisheries and Naval Service; Charles J. Doherty (b. 1855), Justice; Samuel Hughes (b. 1853), Militia and Defence; Wiliam J. Roche (b. 1859), Secretary of State; Thomas W. Crothers (b. 1850}, Labour; Wilfrid B. Nantel (b. 1857), Inland Rev-. ‘enue and Mines; John D. Reid (b. 1859), Customs;

Martin

Burrell (b. 1858), Agriculture; George H. Perley (b, 1857), Albert E. Kemp (b. 1858), and James A. Lougheed (b. 1854), members without portfolios.

On Oct. 22 1912 Mr. Monk resigned on the

-question of Mr. Borden’s naval policy and his portfolio was taken cover by Mr. Rogers, Mr. W. J. Roche becoming Minister of the -Interior in his place. The ofice of Secretary of State was filled by -Mr. Louis Coderre (b. 1865), the member for the Hochelaga ‘division of Montreal. On Oct. 23 1911 the Hon. Auguste Landry .was appointed Speaker of the Senate, and on Nov. 15 Dr. T. S. Sproule was elected Speaker of the House of Commons.

|

The twelfth Parliament of the Dominion of Canada was opened -on Nov. 15 1911 by the new governor-gencral, the Duke of -Connaught, in person. The address in reply to the speech from .the throne was voted on Nov. 29, and on Dec. 7 Parliament adjourned over the Christmas recess until Jan. ro 1912. On resuming, the main business was financial. On April x 1912 - Parliament was prorogued. _ When the new session opened on Nov. 21 10912, it was known that the announcement of Mr. Borden’s naval programme would

Among those which were to enter free in each country, if of the

growth, product or manufactures of the other, were live animals, poultry, wheat and other grain, vegetables, fruit, dairy products, honcy, cottonseed oil and certain oil seeds, grass, garden, fteld and other seed, fish except those preserved in oil, certain fish oils, timber (not sawn), brass (not polished), rolled iron or stecl sheets 14-gauge or thinner, galvanized, coated with zine or tin, crucible cast steel, galvanized iron, steel or wirc, typewriting and typesetting machines, barbed wire fencing, coke (round), wire rods, wood pulp, and cream

separators. Among the articles to be admitted into Canada from the United States and into the United States from Canada at identical rates were the following: Fresh meats 14 cents per tb.; bacon and hams, not in tins or jars, 1} cents per lb.: meats dried and pre-

served 1} cents per Ib.; canned meats and poultry 20%; lards, etc., 1} cents per Ib.; barley, malt, per roo lb. 45 cents; cereal foods 12} cents

per r00 [b.; biscuits, wafers, cakes 25%; confectionery 323%; farm wagons 224%; farming implements of various kinds 15%; portable engines with boilers and traction engines for farm purposes 20%; roofing slates 55 cents per 100 ft.; cutlery, plated or not 273%; clocks, watches, etc., 27} %; automobiles 30%. Arrangements were made for

special rates of duty on a moderate scale to cover a large number of other commodities,

The case presented for the adoption of this agreement was that reciprocal trade relations had been the policy of all parties in Canada for generations, that. many efforts had been made to secure a treaty without success, and that Sir John Macdonald’s National Tariff policy (1879) contained a standing offer of reciprocity with the United States covering a large portion of the products included in the present agreement. The United States having approached Canada with fair offers, it was claimed that they should be fairly met, and that in making the arrangement the Government were realizing the desires which the Canadian people had expressed for half a century, and also that in promoting friendly relations with the neighbouring republic the best possible service to the Empire was being done. As Canada was seeking markets everywhere for her surplus products, subsidizing steamship lines, and sending out commercial agents, it would be

absurd to refuse increased facilities at her very doors if they could be obtained by negotiation.

A denial was given to the expressed fear that the imports from Great Britain would be scriously affected. It was pointed out that the greater part of the agreement dealt with natural products which did not come from Great Britain, and that the range of manufactures affected was small. It was further denied that there was any foundation for the assumption that the tariff rates agreed upon discriminated in favour of the United States and against Great Britain. The promoters of the agreement promised

that in every case Great Britain would have the same rate or a lower one, and held that Canada’s right to deal with the British preference as she pleased remaincd untouched, The opposition to the agreement took the ground that the arrangement had been entered into hastily without its effects being fully appreciated, and that the question should be referred to the people. Attention was drawn to the success which had

attended the efforts to build up a nation and bind the country

together from east to west, and it was contended arrangements proposed would primarily afiect the transportation by promoting a tendency to make north and south, the immense efforts which had been

that, as the question of trade move made would be sacrificed, and the markets which had been secured in Great

554

CANADA

Britain abandoned. The action of the United States in approaching Canada with a desire to make such an agreement, after declining oh so many occasions to consider the question when asked

and to organize and maintain permanent, reserve and volunteer forces, and to place at the disposal of His Majesty, for gencral service in the Royal Navy, ships or men of (he Canadian naval service. Provision was also made fora naval college. During the debate on the bill Sir Wilfrid Laurier announced that if was the

to do so by Canada, was looked upon with suspicion, and it was suggested, that the balance of advantage would remain with the intention of the Government to construct, in Canada if possible, United States, the speeches of some of her most prominent four cruisers of the improved “ Bristol ” class, and six destroyers public men being freely quoted in support of this view-~notably one by Mr. Champ Clark in Congress, and another by President | of the improved “ River ” class. At conferences with the British Admiralty it was agreed that the naval stations for Canada Taft himself. It was held that the impelling cause was the desire should be two—one on the Atlantic, to include the waters of 30°N,. of the United States to have access to the abundant natural lat. and west of the meridian of 40° W.; and one on the Pacific, to resources of Canada, her own reserves of wood, coal and other include the waters north of 30° N. lat. and east of the meridian minerals, and much of her farm land, having shown signs of of 180°. Halifax dockyard was taken over from the Imperial exhaustion, It was thought the better plan was to conserve authorities on Jan. 1 1906, and the dockyard at Esquimalt on Canadian resources for Canadian use. A further objection to the proposals was that, while they would change the whole current of Nov. 9 1970. On Aug. 28 1911 it was announced that the King had approved of the naval forces of Canada receiving the style of Canadian industries, and be likely to dislocate the national “The Royal Canadian Navy,” and of the ships-of-war of that development, the new markets proposed would’ be so entirely navy being designated as “ Ilis Majesty’s Canadian Ships.” unstable and insecure that, after having had the benefit of them for a few years, they might be withdrawn, causing a reversion to On Dec. 16 the following regulations were published with regard the position of 25 years earlicr, and necessitating the rebuilding of to the flag and pennants to be flown by the Royal Canadian Navy: * All ships and vessels of the Royal Canadian Navy shall fly at: home industries and re-making their reputation in markets which the stern the white ensign as the symbol of the authority of the in the meantime had been entirely occupied by old competitors. Crown, and at the jack-staff the distinctive flag of the Dominion Great importance was attached to the restriction on Icgislation of Canada, such distinctive flag being the blue ensign with the which it was alleged this agreement would cause, as no trade Arms of the Dominion inset in the fly. The white pennant will aggrieved under it could obtain redress without the arrangement be flown at the masthead.” as a Whole being upset. It was also urged that under it conIn pursuance of Sir Wilfrid Laurier’s naval policy, H.M. cruiscessions in the tariff would have to be made, in accordance with ers “ Niobe ” and “ Rainbow” were purchased and taken over existing treaties, to countries from which no equivalent advanin the autumn of roro. On July 29 i911, however, H.M.C.S. tages could be obtained; and it was declared that if this Rec“ Niobe ” sustained damage by grounding on the coast off Cape iprocity policy was pursued the ties of Empire would eventually Sable; her repairs were undertaken at Halifax and took 15 months be cut, for it would lead to complete commercial union and in the to complete. The building of the proposed new cruisers and end the political domination of the United States, to which destroyers had, however, not been commenced at the time of the Canada would simply be an annexe.

The debates in connexion with the matter lasted for almost

the rernainder of the session; but on Feb. 22 rorr, on the motion of Mr. F. D. Monk, the Ilouse adopted unanimously the following as an amendment to the motion for going into Committce of Ways and Means: “ But, before resuming the discussion of the terms of the agreement concluded between the Government of Canada and the President of the United States, and with a

view to dispel the feeling of unrest created in Canada by comments made in both countries-as to the political consequence of the agreement, the House wishes to affirm emphatically its determination to preserve intact the bonds which unite Canada to the British Empire and the full iberty of Canada to control her fiscal policy and internal autonomy.”

A bill to give effect to this Reciprocity Agreement on the part

of the United States was introduced in the American Congress on Jan. 29, and in due course passed the Senate on July 22, it being

resignation of Sir Wilfrid Lauricr’s Government.

Mr. Borden’s Naval Policy-—The naval policy of Sir Wilfrid Laurier’s Government was that of a Canadian-built and Canadiancontrolled navy, but this was criticised by the Opposition as involving a large expenditure, a disunited Imperial navy, and the construction of obsolete types of ships. Upon Mr. Borden’s acceptance of office, the naval question became onc of renewed interest. Mr. Borden stated that in his view the question of permanent coöperation between the Dominion and the rest of the Empire ought to be fully debated and that the Canadian people

should be given an opportunity of pronouncing upon it; pains would be taken to ascertain in the meantime what were the real conditions confronting the Empire. In pursuance of this object,

Mr. Borden, with several of his colleagues, visited London in July

1912, and were cordially, welcomed by Mr. Asquith’s Government, who enabled them, at meetings of the Imperial Defence Committee and otherwise, to obtain all the information available as to the problems of British foreign policy and the naval situation

enacted that its provisions should become operative as soon as the necessary counterpart legislation had been passed by the Canadian Parliament, Discussion continued in the Canadian House of -as it presented itself to the British Admiralty. The proposals Commons, but no progress was made towards the adoption of the which the Canadian Government founded on the understanding proposals, and on July 29 rg11 the Government decided to recom- ‘thus arrived at were left, however, to be made public first in the Dominion Parliament after it met in November. mend the dissolution of Parliament and to submit the matter to Mr. Borden’s specch on Dee. 5 1912 must always be historic in the judgment of the people at a general election. The defeat of the. relationship between Canada and the mother-country. It the Government followed, the result being greatly influenced by was notable for announcing two steps forward in a common the strong opposition to Reciprocity which was shown by such Imperial policy. In the first place his “ Bill te authorize Measures well-known Liberals as Mr. Clifford Sifton (b. 1861; formerly for increasing the effective Naval Forces of the Empire ” proMinister of the Interior in the Lauricr Cabinet), Mr. Lloyd posed to contribute £7,000,000 ($35,000,000) for the construction Harris and Mr. Wm. German, and by the steps taken by a body and equipment of three first-class battleships, to be under the of prominent Liberals of Toronto, assisted by Sir Edmund control of the British Admiralty as part of the Royal Navy, subWalker, president of the Canadian Bank of Commerce. ject to arrangements for their being at the disposal of the CanaSir W. Laurier’s Naval Policy —An outcome of the Imperial dian Government if evera separate Canadian navy were estabConference of 1909 had been the determination of the Canadian lished. And in the second place, by the agreement of ihe ImGovernment to establish a naval service; and on Jan. 12 1910 4 perial Government to include a Canadian minister as one of the bill for this purpose was introduced into the House of Commons, and became law on May 4 1910. It provided for the creation of a permanent members of the Committée of Imperial Defence, the Naval Department, and transferred to it from the department of principle was recognized that, if the dominions took their share in Imperial defence, they must also have a share in determining Marine and Fisheries the wireless telegraph, fisheries’ protection, Imperial policy. ‘The proposal for an “ emergency contribution ” hydrographic and tidal survey branches. It empowered the

Government to appoint a Naval Board to advise the minister,

of three battleships to the British navy was founded on a memo-

CANADA randum (published in England on Dec. g as a parliamentary paper) drawn up by the Admiralty for the information of the Canadian Government as tọ the existing international situation from a naval point of view; and Mr. Borden read this out.

As regards the three Canadian battleships now to be added to the navy, Mr. Borden pointed out that, under the Admiralty, the Empire now had.what he had convinced himself was the most thorough and effective naval organization in the world, of which

it was the best Canadian policy to make use. The hazardous and costly experiment of building up a separate naval organization

for Canada was quite unnecessary, and in any case could only provide a poor and weak substitute. In the present emergency

the Canadian ships were best employed as part of the Imperial navy under the Admiralty of the mother-country:—

555

last-mentioned sum which has been appropriated for naval purposes, but it is understood that the far greater portion is for naval construction. It is safe, therefore, to estimate that during the past four years Argentina has expended for naval purposes not less than

from $65,000,000 to $70,000,000 (£13,000,000 to £14,000,000). The Federal and State expenditure of the United States comprises a

total outlay forarmaments of between $2 50,000,000 and $300,000,000

(£50,000,000 and £60,000,000), or at the rate of $2.75 per head. Similar expenditure by Canada would mean an annua! outlay of some $20,000,000 to $25,000,000, or between $80,000,000 and $100,000,000 during the same period. “Te is apparent, therefore, that the aid which we propose to bring

at this juncture is of a moderate and reasonable character, For 45 years as a Confederation we have enjoyed the protection of the British Navy without the cost of a dollar... . So far as official estimates are available, the expenditure of Great Britain on naval and military defence for the provinces which now constitute Canada

“ Those ships will be at the disposal of His Majesty the King for the common defence of the Empire. They will be maintained and controlled as part of the Royal Navy, and we have the assurance that, if at any time in the future it will be the will of the Canadian people to establish a Canadian unit of the British Navy, these

during the roth century was not less than $400,000,000 (£80,000, 000). Even since the inception. of our Confederation, and since Canada attained the status of a great Dominion, the amount so expended by Great Britain for the naval and military defence of

their Navy, in which case, of course, they will be maintained by

$125,000,000 to $150,000,000 (£25,000,000 to £30,000,000). From 1853 to 1903 Great Britain's expenditure on military defence in ae Canada runs closely to $100,000,000,”"

vessels can be called by the Canadian Government to form part of

Canada and not by Great Britain. In that event, there will, necessarily, be reasonable notice, and indeed, Canada would not desire or suggest the sudden withdrawal of so powerful a contingent from any important theatre in which the naval forces of the Empire might be exposed to severe and sudden attack. In the meantime I am assured

that special arrangements will be made to give Canadians an

Canada vastly exceeds the sum which we are now asking Parliament to appropriate. From 1870 to 1890 the proportionate cost of the North Atlantic Squadrons which guarded our coasts was from:

As regards the voice which it had been arranged that Canada should have on the Committee of Imperial Defence, Mr. Borden’

opportunity of serving as officers in these ships. . . . “The ships will be built under Admiralty supervision in the

said :— ‘With increasing power and influence there has necessarily come;’

United Kingdom for the reason that, at present, there are no ade-

by sure and gradual steps, a certain development in our relations with the United Kingdom and the other dominions. ... In this

quate facilities for constructing them in Canada. The plant required for the construction of dreadnought battleships is enormous, and it would be impossible at present to have shipbuilding in this country on such a scale. In any case, only half could be built in Canada, because the machinery for armour and guns would, necessarily, be constructed or manufactured in the United Kingdom. The additional cost of construction in Canada would be about $12,000,000 for three, and it would be impossible to estimate the delay, No one is more eager than myself for the development of the shipbuilding industries in Canada, but we cannot, upon any business or economic considerations, begin with the construction of dreadnoughts, and especially we could not do so when these ships are urgently required within two or three years at the outside for rendering aid upon which may depend the Empire's future existence. According to my con» ception, the effective development of the shipbuilding industries in Canada must commence with small beginnings and in a businesslike

way. I have discussed the subject with the Admiralty, and they thoroughly realize that it is not to the Empire’s advantage that all shipbuilding facilities should be concentrated in the United Kingdom.

I am assured, therefore, that the Admiralty are prepared in the early future to give orders for the construction in Canada of small cruisers, oil-tank vessels, and auxiliary craft of various kinds. The

plant required is relatively small as compared.with that which is necessary for dreadnought battleships, and such an undertaking will

have a much more secure and permanent basis from the business standpoint. For the purpose of stimulating so important and

necessary an industry we have expressed our willingness to bear a portion of the increased cost for a time at least. I see no reason why

all the vessels required in future for our Government service should

not be built in Canada, even at some additional cost.

In connexion

with the development of shipbuilding I would not be surprised to see

constitutional development we are necessarily confronted with the problem of combining codperation with autonomy. It seems most essential that there should be such coöperation in defence and in trade as will give to the whole Empire an effective organization in these matters of vital concern. On the other hand, each dominion must preserve in all important respects the autonomous Government

which it now possesses, “ The responsibility for the Empire's defence upon the high seas,’ in which is to be found the only effective guarantee of its existence, and which hitherto has been assumed by the United Kingdom, has necessarily carried with it the responsibility for and the contro! of forcign policy. ... When Great Britain ‘no longer assumes sole responsibility for defence upon the high seas she can no longer under~

take to assume responsibility for and sole contro) of foreign policy, which is closely, vitally, and constantly associated with that defence

in which the dominions

participate... . The great dominions,

sharing in the defence of the Empire upon the high seas, must neces

sarily be entitled to share also m the responsibility for and in the control of foreign policy. Not only His Majesty’s ministers, but also the leaders of the opposite political party in Great Britain, have explicitly accepted this principle. s.. l ‘I have alluded to the difficulty of finding an acceptable basis upon which the great dominions codperating with the mothercountry in defence can receive and assert an adequate voice in the control and moulding of foreign policy. We were brought closely in touch with both subjects when we met the British ministers in the Committee of Imperial Defence. That committee is peculiarly con-. stituted, but in my judgment is very effective. It consists of the Prime Minister of Great Britain and such persons as he may summon to attend jt, Practically all the members of the Cabinet from time

to time attend jts deliberations, and usually the more important members of the Cabinet are present. In addition, naval and military Canada. Therefore, although the sum which we propose to devote ` experts and the technical officers of the various departments confor necessary naval aid at this critical juncture is to be expended in cerned are in attendance. A very large portion of the work of the Great Britain, yet we believe that this step will result, under the Committee is carried on by sub-committees, which often are composed in part of persons who are not members of the general comconditions which I have described, in the very marked development mittee itself, and who are selected for their special knowledge of the of more than one industry in Canada, and that, even from a purely subjects to be considered and reported upon. The amount of worl: material standpoint, the step has much to commend it.” which thus has been performed during ihe past five or six years in the establishment of a high class of engineering works which will

produce articles now imported and not at present manufactured in

The Canadian expenditure now proposed was; in Mr. Borden’s

view, a moderate one, regarded not as the beginning of a system

of periodical contributions, but as an emergency aid at a moment of crisis:— “ If we should neglect the duty which I conceive we owe to ourselves, and if irreparable disaster should ensue, what will be our future destiny? Obviously as an independent nation or as an important part of. the great neighbouring republic. What then would be our responsibilities, and what would be the burden upon us for a protection on the high seas much less powerful and less effective than

that which we enjoy to-day?

Take the case of one nation whose

territory, rcsources, population and wealth may fairly be compared with those in Canada. The naval estimates of Argentina for the four

years from 1909 to 1912 inclusive amounted to $35,000,000 (£7,000,-

000), No information is available as to the exact proportion of the

articular is astonishing, and I have no doubt that it has contributed

argely to the safety of the whole Empire in time of peril.

“ The Committee is not technically or constitutionally responsible to the House of Commons and thus it is net supposed to concern itself with policy. Asso many important members of the Cabinet are

summoned to attend the Committee, its conclusions are usually accepted by the Cabinet and thus command. the support of the majority of the House of Commons,

While the Committee does not

control policy in any way and could not undertake to do so as it is not

responsible to Parliament, it is necessarily and constantly obliged to

consider foreign

policy and foreign relations for the obvious reason

that defence, andespecially naval defence, is inseparably connected with such considerations.

“IJ am assured by His Majesty’s Government

that, pending a

final solution of the ‘question of voice and influence, they would welcome the presence in London of a Canadian minister during the

CANADA

556

whole or a portion of each year. Such minister would be regularly summoned to all meetings of the Committce of Imperial Defence and be regarded as one of its permanent members.

No important step in

foreign policy would be undertaken without consultation with such representative of Canada. This means a very marked advance both from our standpoint and from that of the United Kingdom. It would give us the opportunity of consultation and therefore influence which hitherto we have not possessed.” l

In opposition to the Government proposals, Sir Wilfrid Laurier on Dec. 12 moved an amendment which, while not negativing the first clause of the Government resolution providing for a vote for increasing the effective naval forces of the Empire, would have

substituted for the remaining clauses a resolution declaring it necessary that Canada without further delay should enter actively upon a permanent policy of naval defence, and that any measure of aid to Imperial naval defence which did not embody a permanent policy of participation by ships owned, manned and maintained by Canada, was not an adequate expression of the aspirations of the Canadian people. Mr. Borden, said Sir Wilfrid, had asserted that before she enacted a permanent policy Canada must have a voice in all questions affecting war or peace. But

The distribution of these men was as follows:-— C.E.F.

proceeded overseas.

we

we

Enlisted: for Royal Air Force, etc...

. 418,052

ewe,

On the strength of C.E.F. in Canada and St. Lucia, including those under training as overscas reënforcements, Siberian Expeditionary Force, Canadian Garrison

Regiment, Military Folice Corps, Medical and Adminis-

.

36,533 15,405

and hardship cases Baik tase Pts E A ciel. i Ae Number discharged in Canada who had not proceeded overseas for the following among other reasons:as below medi.cal standard, absentees, aliens, to accept commissions, deaths, on transfer to British army ancl Royal Air Force Included in enlistment returns for whom discharge documents have not been received, or in some cases duplicate enlistments. This number is being adjusted as further

7,216

trative Services, etc.

.

í

s

.

.

i

‘

On harvest leave without pay he: Macias, fore, ye Granted leave of absence without pay as compassionate

records are received

2.

6

we

wen

went from Canada to rejoin the colours in their own countries,

of emergency and immediate defence. If Canada was represented in the councils of war and peace, the other dominions and dependenci¢cs must be also. That question might take years to solve.

Before Dec. 31 1914 -

‘

Ge

Calendar year 1915 “ E ROIG

7 a

eee e. OA Sere

It must be discussed by itself, and in the meantime Canada should continue in her preparations for defence. Sir Wilfrid Laurier condemned the Government’s policy of direct contribu-

Jan. ï On about The

Canada in the World War-——In the early months of 1914 Canada, for practical purposes, had no army. There was a permanent force of about 3,000 men, with no reserve; its purpose was partly to provide garrisons for a few fortresses, and partly to train the militia. The latter was a lightly trained force, rather well organized for a defensive war on its own soil. The number trained in 1913 was about 60,000. In the late summer and carly autumn of ror4 the rst Canadian Div. of 33,000 men was raised and sent across the Atlantic. It left Gaspé Bay on Oct. 3, and, after nearly three months of additional training in England,

landed in France, at St. Nazaire, on Feb. 11 r915. ‘The 2nd Div. was formed immediately and landed in France on Sept. 14, when the Canadian Army Corps was formed. The formation of the 3rd Div. was authorized just before Christmas rors, and the

division was in France carly in 1916.

The 4th Div. joined the

Canadian Corps in the middle of Aug. r916. ‘The Canadian Cavalry Brigade appeared in France in rors. After the completion of the Canadian Army Corps the policy of the Dominion was to maintain a comparatively small number of divisions, but always to keep these at full strength, in order that the troops might have the encouragement of fullranks. Until the winter of

1917-8 the Canadian Expeditionary Force was recruited by voluntary enlistment. Turing the winter the Military Service Act came into operation, and after that time 83,355 recruits were obtained. These were partly men who were drafted and partly men, in the classes called out, who reported voluntarily.

The total number of men enlisted in Canada from the beginning of the war to Nov. 15 1918 was 595,441.

‘The details are:-—

Obtained by voluntary enlistment.

.

.

.

=.

:

g

:

3

= . 465,984

Drafted or reporting voluntarily after the Military Service Act came into force

f

Granted leave or dischatged

be

Overseas Service other than C.E.F.:— Royal Air Force . a. 2. ww Imperial Motor Transport . 2. . Inland Water Transport . . . Naval Service

‘

Jewish Palestine Draft

Do

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=

-83,355

24933

I2,902 710 4,703 2,814

42 21,169

595441.

1,760

595,441 The movement overseas by years was as follows:—

tion as un-Canadian and un-British, and as unsuited to the real

95,306

In addition to the above, 14,590 British and Allied reservists

that was a large contract, and the question before them was that

needs, But his influence was no longer in the ascendant, Owing to the outbreak of the World War in 1914, all these pre-war plans were eventually upset, and the war created an entirely new situation.

OQ)

it

. e

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ete Gay g

©

6

»

.

30,999 84,334 165,553

2

a

73,630

té 191 . . i 3,536 Toa to Nov. 15 1918 . Sept..30 1918 about 160,000 men were in France and 116,000 men in England. total Canadian casualties up to and including Feb. 28 1921 +

»

'

*

were 210,090:-— Officers

Other ranks

Total

Killed in action and died of wounds

z

2,593

49,079

51,674

Wounded

6347

143,385

149,732

9,475

200,621

210,006

—

—

Died of other causes.

.

Prisoners of war Still missing .

Diedin Canada. Died in Siberia

.

Wounded in Siberia.

»

BM, .

. .

.

.

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phi ot . .

+

+

+

.

.

.

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Deaths in Canada on the strength of the Soldiers’ Reëstablishment .

297

4,663

236 —

—

3,493 I

I

18

I

—

—

4,960 3,729 1

3:569

19

I

2,005

The honours gained by the Canadian forces included 62 V. C.’s, 710 D.S.O.’s and 2,885 M.C.’s. The following summary gives only the more notable engage-

ments in. which the Canadian troops fought.

The Canadian

Army Corps in four divisions, forming part of the I. British Army under Sir Julian (later Lord) Byng, was’ commanded by Lt.Gen. Sir Arthur Currie. In 1915 the ist Division greatly distinguished itself in the second battle of Ypres on April 22, and again at Festubert and Givenchy in May and June. In 1916 the Canadians, now forming three divisions, were very heavily en-

gaged at St. Eloi in April, and at Sanctuary June. In Sept., Oct., and Nov. the four fought in the battle of the Somme, especially selves at Courcclette, Mouquct Farm, and and Désiré trenches.

Wood and Hooge in Canadian divisions distinguishing themthe Kenora, Regina

In 1917 the Canadian

troops bore the

largest part in the taking of Vimy Ridge (April 9) and of Arleux and Fresnoy (April 28 and May 3), and fought with great success in the advance on Lens and the taking of Ilill 7oin August. They were again heavily engaged in the fighting round Passchendaele in Oct. and Nov., capturing all their objectives in spite of severe losses. In 1918 the Canadian cavalry, motor machine-guns, and railway troops were active in the resistance to the German advance in March. The Canadian Corps was in the centre of the British front in the second battle of Amiens, Aug. 8-17, advancing 14,000 yd. on the first day, the deepest advance made in one day during the war. In the battle of Arras, at the beginning of Sept., the Canadians played an important part in the breaking of the Quéant—Drocourt line, a part of the Hindenburg system. The Canadian casualties in these two actions were serious, but less than the number of prisoners taken. In the battle of Cambrai, which began on Sept. 27, the Canadians on Oct. 9, after heavy

CANADA losses, took Cambrai and made large captures of men and material. In the final stage of the fighting Denain was taken by the Canadians on Oct. 20, Valenciennes on Nov. 2, and Mons at 4 A.M. on Nov. 11, the day on which the Armistice came into force at 11 A.M. The Canadian troops captured 45,000 prisoners,

8s0 artillery guns, and 4,200 machine-guns, retook 130 towns and villages, liberated 310,000 French and Belgian civilians. Canadian units also served in Palestine, Macedonia and Russia.

The Canadian cavalry fought, for the most part, separately from the Canadian Army Corps. They distinguished themselves

in March 1917 by the capture of six villages in two days, and in Dec. gave valuable help in the attack on Villers-Guislains. In the German

offensive of March and April 1918 the Canadian

Cavalry Brigade was actively engaged and suffered heavy casual-

ties at Bois Moreuil, Rifle Wood and elsewhere. The brigade fought as part of the Canadian Corps in the second battle of Amiens, and, in the great advance at the end of the fighting, captured the town of Le Cateau on Oct. 9. Canadian railway units were attached to all the British armies; these troops were responsible for the whole of the construction of light railways and 60% of the standard-gauge railways in the area occupied by the British forces. In addition to the units of the Canadian Forestry Corps in France, a number of Canadians were engaged in Great Britain in cutting and milling timber. During the war 1,617 medical officers, 2,002 nursing sisters and 12,382 other ranks of the Canadian Army Medical Corps went overseas from Canada. There were in Canada at the end of the war 913 medical officers, 527 nursing sisters, 182 V.A.D. nurses, and 4,012 otherranks. The Medical Corps hadin France 6 general

hospitals, 6 stationary hospitals, 6 casualty clearing stations, and r3 field ambulances, and in England 9 active treatment hospitals, 5 special hospitals,

5 convalescent -hospitals,

and

a special

sanatorium. In Canada there were 65 military hospitals, with 11,786 beds. Some 22,300 patients were brought back to Canada in 1917 and 1918 on 35 passages of hospital ships. On 27 of these passages the C.A.M.C. provided the staffs of the ships. The

“ Llandovery Castle ” was sunk by a submarine while returning from Canada to England. About 12,000 troops were required in Canada for home defence ——as garrisons for fortresses and guards for internment camps,

canals, etc, Canada also furnished a garrison for the important post of St. Luciain the West Indies. There were 12,902 Canadians

in the Royal Air Force, and its predecessors the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps. In addition, a number of Americans were trained in Canada by the instructional staff of the Royal Air Force. Some 4,701 men were furnished from

Canada for the Imperial Service known as the Inland Waterways and Docks. About 710 Canadians joined the Imperial Motor Transport Service, and several hundred Canadians, mostly from the universities, received commissions in the British army. Canada also furnished several hundred doctors and veterinarians and about zoo nurses to the British army. Some 200 Canadian officers were lent, as instructors, to the United States. As regards the naval service, at the outbreak of the war in 1914 the Canadian Government possessed only two naval vessels—the

“ Niobe,” a cruiser of 11,000-tons displacement, with a main armament of 16 6-in. guns, stationed at Halifax, and the “ Rain-.

bow,” a small cruiser of 3,600-tons displacement, armed with 2 6-in., 6 4-7-in. and 4 12-pounder guns, stationed at Esquimalt, on the Pacific. The “ Rainbow,” which was ready for sea, pa-

trolled, with other ships on the Pacific stations, as far south as Panama, and captured several ships carrying contraband of war.

After the entry of the United States into the war she became depétship on the Pacific coast. The ‘ Niobe ” was made ready for sea in Sept. 1914 and remained in commission one year, during which she steamed over 30,000 m. on patrol duty. She afterwards became depét-ship at Halifax. At the beginning of hostilities various small craft were taken over by the Naval Department from the Departments of Marine and of Customs, and were armed and manned by the R.C.N.V.R. for the performance of patrol duties off the Atlantie coast. Two

submarines, which were bought just before the declaration of war

soot

patrolled the approaches to Victoria and Vancouver and helped in keeping Adm]. von Spee’s squadron away from the Pacific ports. H.M. sloop “ Shearwater ” was taken into the Canadian service as mother-ship to these submarines and, in the summer of 1917, these three vessels went, by way of the Panama Canal, | to Halifax. A patrol and mine-sweeping service was carried on after the outbreak of war. The vessels used at first were Government and privately owned vessels which were taken over and equipped for the purpose. Some of these were placed at the disposal of the Government free of charge. Early in r917 the Department of Naval Service undertook to have 60 trawlers and 100 drifters built in Canada for the Imperial Government. These vessels were built at various places on the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, many of them were in service in Canadian and European waters in the year 1917 and all were in service in 1918. The area patrolled under the Department stretched from the Straits of Belle Isle to the Bay of Fundy, and from Quebec to east of the Virgin Rocks. Within this arca the Department had control of patrols, convoys, minc-sweeping, the protection of fishing fleets, etc, Only one large vessel was lost by enemy attack.

At the date of the Armistice the vessels in the Canadian naval service were as follows. In the Pacific: H.M.C.5. “ Rainbow,” depét and training ship; H.M.S. “ Algerine,” sloop; auxiliary patrol ship ‘ Malaspina ”’; several motor-launches for harbour

defence. In the Atlantic: H.M.C.S. “Niobe,” depét and training

ship; H.M.C.S. “ Shearwater,” submarine depét ship, and 2 submarines; H.M.C.S. “ Grilse,” torpedo-boat destroyer; 9 auxiliary patrol ships, 47 armed trawlers, 58 armed drifters, 11 armed minesweepers and tugs, and a large flotilla of motor-launches. The crews of these vessels consisted of men from all parts of Canada,

principally members of the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve. At the date of the Armistice the personnel of the service was: officers and men of the Royal Canadian Navy, 749; officers and men of the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve, 4,374. In addition to the men serving in Canadian vessels, over 1,700 men were recruited in Canada for the Imperial navy, 73 surgeon probationers and a number of hydrographic survey officers were sent from Canada and 580 Canadians enrolled as probationary flight licutenants in the Royal Naval Air Service, before recruiting for the Royal Air Force began in Canada. More than 500 Canadians holding commissions in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve were in the British Auxiliary Patrol and similar services. The Royal Canadian Naval Air Service was established in the summer of 1918, with stations at Halifax and North Sydney. It codperated with the U.S. Naval Aviation Corps in patrolling the coast and escorting convoys through the danger zone, The Canadian Radiotelegraph Service controlled about 200 stations ashore and afloat. Several new stations were crected or taken over by the Department of Naval Service, and there was an unbroken chain of radio communication from St. John’s, Newfoundland, to Demerara. The Department openeda training school for wireless operators, from which about 200 men were sent out for service in all parts of the world. Important refitting, repairing and supply work was done by the

Canadian dockyards. Large refits of Imperial and other ships were made at Esquimalt, including H.M.S. “ Kent” after the battle of the Falkland Is., and the Japanese battleship “ Asama,” after grounding on the coast of Lower California. Several large cruisers were refitted at Halifax and Montreal. Other work included the defensive armament of merchant ships, the refitting of transports for troops, horses and special cargo, and the loading and securing on ships’ decks of 600 large launches, tugs, etc. The Canadian Naval Service provided supplies for the ships of the Royal Canadian Navy and for a number of Imperial and Allied ships in Canadian waters, as well as many of the requirements of H.M. dockyards at Bermuda and Hong-Kong. Large supplies were shipped from Halifax dockyard for provisioning the ficets in European waters. A large coaling depét was established at Sydney for the use of patrolling vessels and of all convoys

leaving the St. Lawrence. . In shipbuilding Canada had a splendid war record. Nearly. _ 4,000 vessels of one kind or another were turncd out for the vari-,

CANADA

558

ous Allied Governments, these including steel and wooden freighters, submarines, coastal patrol boats, lighters, drifters, ete. During the war period not only was wooden shipbuilding revived but

probationers in military hospitals and in England, under the Joint War Committee’s Women’s V.A.D. Department. Returned Soldiers—Some time before the close of the war

the steel shipbuilding industry was placed firmly on its feet; for _ whereas in 1914 Canada had only two thoroughly up-to-date

provision was made by the Government by repeated Acts for the care of the returned soldicrs. The Military Hospitals Commission was appointed in June 1915. It provided 16 hospital cars and had hospital accommodation at the commencement of 1917 for 1,500 patients. It provided during 1917 10,000 beds in 49 centres. Vocational training for disabled men was organized in

steel shipbuilding plants, in 1918 she had seventeen, In 1919 25,000 men were employed in the industry, The Department of Naval Service secured many of the first of these orders.

The Imperial Munitions Board, acting as the agent for the Imperial and Allied Governments, placed contracts with Canadian yards for $70,000,000 worth of shipping. In 1918 the Dominion Government, through the Department of Marine and Fisheries, launched its shipbuilding programme, which in its entirety called for 63 steel vessels having a deadweight tonnage of 375,000, constituting its own mercantile marine, The approximate value of these orders was $75,000,000.

The first contract

was signed on March 4 1918. All these vessels were built in Canadian yards and of Canadian material.

Canada became thoroughly and quickly organized for carrying on the war in allits phases. There were a number of committees, commissions, boards, etc., formed for various purposes, the members of which worked voluntarily. ‘These were the Shell

Committee, the Imperial Munitions Board (which had a wide scope of usefulness and responsibility), War Trade Board, Board of Grain Supervisors, War Mission to Washington, the Food Board (under the direction of a food controller), Fuel Control

(under the direction of a fuel controller), and the Canadian Railway War Board.

Canadians gave liberally to all the organizations engaged in relief and help of any kind. The following is a summary of gifts for various war purposes from the Dominion and Provincial Governments, from municipalities, societies, universities, business houses and other corporations, and from private individuals:—~ Canadian Patriotic Fund (to Feb. 28 1921).

à.

Manitoba Patriotic Fund (to March 31 1918)

$48,704,663

3,957,042

Canadian Red Cross Society (to Dec. 31 o — Contributions in cash . ; ;

Gifts in supplies (estimated) : British Red Cross Socicty (to Dec. 31 1919) Belgian Relief Fund (to Dec. 19 agi)— ‘Contributions in cash , BR.

l 9,074,208 15,000,000 6,250,000 i 1,642,104

y

Gifts in supplies (èstimated)

1,512,800

work

4,574,821

Contributions from Canada to Y.M.C.A. formilitary Gifts from Dominion and Provincial Governments to Government of United Kingdom B en PA

5,469,316

Miscellaneous gifts . a à. EA 8,000,000 Total s oc. es ae an a S104 184.054 Of the various war organizations working in Covada. or among Canadian troops overseas, the most extensive in their operations were the Canadian Patriotic Fund, the Canadian Red Cross

Society, and the military branch of the Y.M.C.A.

The Canadian

St. John Ambulance Association and Brigade, which were branches of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in England, codrdinated

their war work with the Canadian Red Cross Society. The Association during the five years of the war instructed 61,612 Canadians in first aid and home nursing, for. volunteer work either in

Canada or overseas. In addition courscs in first aid were given to 200,000 troops while in training in Canada. Statistics, however complete, can give only an imperfect iImpression of the services which Canadian women rendered during the war. Women to the number of 2,400 went overseas in the C.E.F. and served in England, France, Belgium, Egypt, Greece and Russia. They were posted for duty in base hospitals, clearing stations, ambulance trains and hospital ships. There were also | 527 on duty in Canada. The casualties suffered by nurses were:— Killed in action « 2-6: 4 “@ 3 oS « « 2 Died at sca f Died of wounds.

Sc

8

Diced of disease (out of Canada) Died in Canada.

-

oS :

a

; ;

te

e :

:

4

oo

o

iy

z ;

‘ s

e

we.

$

.

s 43 E

‘

.

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For 83,422 GEBI 3O22

e

86,949

OS 540,773.

Against 23,874 55,056 443I 55:259

37338

The Yukon territory in June 1921 carried a referendum in favour of sale of intoxicants under Government control, It had previously been “ dry.” V iceroys.—As governor-general of Canada Earl Grey had been succeeded in 1911 by the Duke of Connaught, who in turn was

CANADA

560

succeeded by the Duke of Devonshire in 1916; and when the Duke of Devonshire’s term expired on July 18 1921, he was

Essays and Addresses (1915), Sir George Foster’s Canadian Addresses (1914), Sir Andrew Macphail’s Essays in Politics (1910), Maj.-Gen. C. W. Robinson’s Canada and Canadian Defence (1910), and Edward Porritt’s Revolt in Canada against CANADIAN LITERATURE the New Feudalism (1911). In 1913 a new edition also appeared of Col. George T. Denison’s History of Cavalry, written as early English-Canadian:—The literary record of Canada in roro-21r as 1876, and awarded in the following ycar the prize offered by falis more or less definitely into three sections—pre-war, war the Tsar of Russia for the best essay on the subject. and post-war. During the war years the heart of the Canadian people became so completely absorbed in the great conflict, in In imaginative literature, the only books of verse that need which they had so much at stake, that, after the first year or so be noted here are Bliss Carman’s Echoes from Vagabondia (1912), William Wilfrid Campbell’s Sagas of Vaster Britain (1914), at any rate, there remained little room for any intellectual William Henry Drummond’s Poetical Works (1912), Marjorie activity not connected directly or indirectly with the war and . its successful prosecution. The new literature of 1910-14 had Pickthall’s Drift of Pinions (1913), Frederick George Scott's reflected the characteristic of the Dominion in those years— Poems (1912), and Arthur J. Stringer’s Open Water (1914). In 1913 Dr. Campbell brought out his excellent anthology, the a spirit of optimism, of national self-consciousness, of conservOxford Book of Canadian Verse. In fiction, the most noteworthy atism in the broader sense, and intellectually of wider and more names are those of Miss L. M. Montgomery, Charles G. D. stimulating horizons. And the return to peace conditions, during 1918-21, was mainly notable in literature for more or less Roberts, Norman Duncan, C. W. Gordon (“ Ralph Connor”), thoughtful reviews of Canada’s part in the war, consideration Theodore Roberts, Alan Sullivan and Arthur Stringer. With regard to the literature of the war, or of Canada’s part of her problems of reconstruction, and the picking up anew of-

succeeded by Gen. Lord Byng of Vimy.

(W. L. G.*)

the somewhat neglected threads of her intellectual life. Unquestionably the most important achievement of the pre-

war period was the publication of Canada and its Provinces, a comprehensive survey of the history of the country In 23 volumes, edited by Dr. A. G. Doughty and Dr. Adam Shortt, and counting among its contributors most of the recognized authorities in Canadian history, biography and economics. Another notable essay in Canadian history was the series known as the Chronicles of Canada, in 32 volumes, edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton, a series designed to present in attractive and at the same time authoritative form the outstanding events of Canadian history. The authors of the individual volumes included such well-known writers as Charles W. Colby, of McGill University, Col. William Wood, Stephen Leacock, Dr. Doughty, Oscar D. Skelton, of Queen’s University, and Sir Joseph Pope. The publication in torr of an Index and Dictionary of Canadian History completed the series of biographies known as The Makers of Canada. The celebration of the tercentenary of the founding of Quebec brought in its train, with a flood of purely ephemeral literature, several books of permanent value, such as The King’s Book of Quchee (1911), edited by Dr. Doughty and Col. Wood, James

Douglas’ New England and New France (1913), Wood’s In the Heart of Old Canada (1913), and Prof. Wrong’s The Fall of Canada (1914). In 1920 the Hudson’s Bay Company celebrated its zsoth birthday with elaborate pageants in, Winnipeg and elsewhere throughout the West.. The occasion was also marked by the publication of a very completely illustrated history of the Company. In 1921 McGill University celebrated the rooth anniversary of its charter.

This

period also witnessed a succession

of biographies

and autobiographies of famous Canadians, including Beckles Willson’s Lord Strathcona (1914) and W. T. R. Preston’s pungent life of the same many-sided character, Sir Richard Cartwright’s Reminiscences (1912), Sir George W. Ross’ Getting into Parliament and After (1913), L. J. Burpee’s Sir Sandford Fleming (1915), John Boyd’s Sir George Etienne Cartier (1914), Sir Charles Tupper’s Recollections of Sixty Years in Canada (1914),

and Goldwin Smith’s posthumous Reminiscences (1910), Life and Opinions (1913) and Correspondence (1913), all three edited by his literary executor, Arnold Haultain. Other noteworthy books of this period are W. H. Atherton’s Montreal 1535-1914 (1914), John Ross Robertson’s Landmarks of Toronto (1914), E. H. Olivers TheCanadian North-West {1914), and Doughty and McArthur’s Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 17ọ1-1818 (x914); and in books of description and travel, A. P. Coleman’s The Canadian Rockies {r911), Ernest Thompson Seton’s Arctic Prairics (1911), Dr. Campbell’s Canadian Lake Region (1910), and Charles Sheldon’s Wilderness of the Upper Yukon (1911). Among a host of political and economic essays may be mentioned John S. Ewart’s Lhe Kingdom Papers (1914), Sir William Peterson’s Canadian

in it, many volumes of personal experiences had already been

published by 1921.

A really notable book is Winged Warfare

(1918) by Col. William A. Bishop, V.C. Others that may be named here are Col. George G. Naismith’s On the Fringe of the Great Fight (1917), F. C. Curry’s From the St. Lawrence to the Yser (1917), F. McKelvey Bell’s First Canadians in France (1917), and Captured by Lieut. J. Harvey Douglas (1918). In 1917 appeared the first of six volumes of Canada tn the Great

World War (completed in to21), an authoritative account of Canada’s part in the conflict, by a number of competent writers.

An official history of the war, from a Canadian viewpoint, under the title of Canada in Flanders, the first two volumes of which were prepared by Lord Beaverbrook and the third by Maj. Charles G. D. Roberts, appeared in 1916-8. Other war books of interest are Col. J. G. Adami’s Official War Story of the C.A. M.C. (1919), Dr. Herbert A. Bruce’s Politics and the C.A.M.C.

(1919), J. F. B. Livesay’s Canada’s Hundred Days (1910), Hon. Henri 5. Béland’s Three Years in a German Prison (1919), Alan Sullivan’s Aviation in Canada (1919), Capt. Harwood Steele’s Canadians in France (1920), John W. Dafoe’s Over the

Canadian Battlefields (1919), and Sir Robert Borden's The War and the Future (1917). Through the foresight of Lord Beaverbrook and Dr. Doughty, Canada acquired an exceptionally complete collection of war records, paintings, and trophies. Among the more significant of the post-war books are Sir Robert Falconer’s Idealism in National Character (1920), J. L. Morison’s British Supremacy and Canadian Self-Government (1919), Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King’s Industry and Humanity (1918), R, M, MacIver's Labour in the Changing World (1919),

W. C. Good’s Production and Taxation in Canada (1919), A. H. Reginald Buller’s Essays on Wheat (1919), Prof. Wrong’s The — United States and Canada (1921), W. G. Smith’s Study in Canadian Immigration (1920), and two books discussing the relations between English-speaking and French-speaking Can-

ada—O. W. H. Moore’s The Clash (1918) and P. F. Morley’s Bridging the Chasm (1919). In history and biography there were such important. works as J. S. McLennan’s Louisbourg (1918), Chester Martin’s Lord

Selkirk’s Work in Canada (1916), G. C. Davidson’s North. West Company (1919), William Smith’s IYistory of the Post Office 1639-1870 (1920), W. R. Riddell’s Old Province Tales (1920), Prof, Skelton’s The Canadian Dominion (1919), Sir John Willison’s Reminiscences (1919), W. T..Grenfcll’s A Labrador Doctor (1919), E. M. Saunder’s Life of Sir Charles

Tupper (1916),

Skelton’s Sir Alexander Galt (1920), and Sir Wilfrid Laurier (1921), Sir Joseph Pope’s Correspondence of Sir John MacDonald

(1921) and Walter Vaughan’s Sir William Van Horne (1920). The Historical Section of the Canadian General Staff issued the

first three volumes of an official History of the Military and

Naval Forces of Canada from 1763 (1920-21). Of agencies which

each in its own way, were making in these

later years for the development of intellectual life and scholar-

CANALEJAS Y MENDEZ ship in Canada, none was more important than the Dominion Archives, the Royal Society of Canada, the Champlain Society, and two important Canadian periodicals, the University Magagine and the Canadian Historical Review. The Archives perform a triple service, in collecting and safeguarding the manu-

script treasures of Canada, in affording facilities for research to students, and in publishing selected documents from its collections. The Champlain Society, with headquarters in Toronto, devotes itself to the publication of important works bearing upon Canadian history, and the reprinting of old works in the same field. J. B. Tyrcli’s editions of Hearne’s Journey (1911) and David Thompson’s Journals (1916), Dr. Doughty’s edition of Knox’s Historical Journal (1914-16), Grant and Bigger’s edition of Lescarbot’s New France (1911) and Col. Wood’s Select

British Documents of the Canadian War of 1812 (1920), are

admirable examples of Canadian scholarship. The cstablishment of the University Magazine under the control of three of the principal Canadian universities, and the transformation of

the annual Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada into a quarterly Canadian Historical Review widened the opportunities for the intellectual discussion of Canadian questions by Canadian writers in a Canadian periodical, In imaginative literature during this later period, there are

found several arresting books, such as Clive Phillipps-Wolley’s Songs from a Young Mans Land (1917), John McCrae’s In Flanders Fields (1918), Lloyd Roberts’ Poems (1919), Norah Holland’s Spun Yarn and Spindrift (1918), Marjoric Pickthall’s The Lamp of Poor Souls (1916), Bliss Carman’s April Airs (1916), Duncan Campbell Scott’s Lundy’s Lane and Other Poems (1916) and Beauty of Life (1921), Arthur S. Bourinot’s Poems

(ro2x), and Bernard F. Trotter’s Canadian

Twilight (1917).

In fiction, the principal names were Sir Gilbert Parker, C. G. D. Roberts, Arthur Stringer, Theodore Roberts, W. A. Fraser, L. M. Montgomery, C. W. Gordon, Basil King and Norman Duncan. Among Canadian humorists Stephen Leacock (b, 1869 in England; on the staff of Upper Canada College, 1891-9; and later head of the department of political economy at McGill

University) during 1911-21 had gradually established a widespread popularity, and his volumes of humorous essays and sketches gave him an international reputation as a writer, somewhat eclipsing his professional position as an economist. In this connexion also may be mentioned the Goblin, a really excellent comic monthly published by undergraduates of Toronto University. Two delightful books for children are Isabel Ecclestone

MacKay’s

The Shining Ship (1918) and Cyrus MacMillan’s

Canadian Wonder Tales (1918). R. P. Baker has written a History of English Canadian Literature to R a

L. J. B.

French-Canadian— During 1910-21 there was @ very natural desire among French-Canadian writers to do all that could be done toward keeping their compatriots true to type in race, religion, speech, thought, aspiration, letters and whatever else

561

Three types of French-Canadian history were represented by (x) the Histoire du Canada, a big school-book written by the Christian Brothers from their own point of view, and without any reference to archives; (2) the five volumes of the Cours d’ Histoire, ardently written by the Abbé Groulx in admirable French, and based on original sources, but carefully dividing the sheep of his own party from the goats of all others; and (3)

the Cours d'Histoire du Canada by Thomas Chapais, whose scholarly taste, deep reverence for original rescarch, and wide experience of public life preéminently fitted him for his distinguished rôle as professor of the Université Laval. Montreal was highly favoured in possessing that indefatigable archivist, E. Z. Massicotte. But Quebec was the headquarters of the new Provincial Archives, established in 1920 under the direction

of Picrre Georges Roy, whose name had become famous for all that concerns the discovery, study, classification, and enlight-

ened cataloguing of original documents, as well as for archival work at large.

Folklore was more and more studied by C. Marius Barbeau (Dominion Anthropologist), E. Z. Massicotte, C. Tremblay,

Dr. Cloutier, Gustave Lanctét, and others.

The Journal of

American Folklore devotes one number a year to the work of French-Canadians, Pure literature made a very real advance in the decade. The great French-Canadian drama was still to seek; but in poetry Jean Nolin’s Les Cailloux showed good achievement and still grealer promise, while power was the predominant note of

Charles Gill’s Le Cap Éternité,

Two women who emerged as

pocts had already done well and seemed likely to do bct-

ter: Marie Le Frane’s Les Voix au Caur et VAme is both psy~

chology and art; while Blanche Lamontagne’s Visions Gaspesiennes, Par Nos Champs et Nos Rives, and La Vieille Maison showed a continual advance from merely tuneful and rather

diffuse description to something like creation. Jules Fournier and Olivar Assclin, both most competent critics, had edited the Anthologie des Poètes Canadiens (1920). Fiction was well represented by Damase Potvin’s L’Appel de la Terre. ‘The late Louis Hémon, a Frenchman who lived and worked with the French-Canadian habitants, had, in his Maria Chapdelaine (1916),

written a novel which was a true work of art and racy of the soil, In other literature Laure Conan produced the best of intro-

spective sketches in L’Obscure Souffrance, which is a kind of journal helped subject houcttes

imaginaire. Her terse and finely chosen style greatly her penetrating vision tọ reach the very heart of her

in everything she wrote, as, for instance, in her SilCanadiennes. Edouard Montpetit was both reminiscent and “ previsionist ” in his Au Service de la Tradition Frangaise. And Adjutor Rivard, whose Chez nos Gens gives moving glimpses of habitant life, has placed all students of French under a deep

debt of gratitude in his magnificent Études sur les Parlers de France au Canada, (W. Wo.)

CANALEJAS Y MENDEZ, JOSE (1854-1912), Spanish poli-

might encourage a distinctive form of life to persist unchanged by contact with the English-speaking world. Among the extreme Nationalists this unfortunately led to a self-conscious particularism, tending rather to weaken both idcas and expression by confining them within a narrow pale than to win an

tician, was born in Ferrol July 31 1854. Coming of a middle-class family with university connexions, he graduated (1871) at the university of Madrid and took his doctor’s degree (1872), be-

assured position in the intellectual world at large.

way problems, but continued his literary work, publishing a his-

The best

written, however, of all the French-Canadian papers was Le Devoir, edited by Henri Bourassa, the Nationalist chief, who had kept it easily first in literary excellence, with the able assistance of Omer Héroux, Georges Pelletier, Ernest Bilodeau, Madame E. P. Benoit (‘ Monique ”), “and Madame H. St. Jacques (“ Fadette”), Another Ultra, the Abbé Lionel Groulx, edited L Action Française, a monthly numbering among its contributors that excellent stylist, Père Beaudé, whose nom de plume is Henri d’Arles, A wider outlook was taken by

Le Canada Francais, successor to La Nouvelle-France, once led by the scholarly pen of the Rev. Camille Roy. The widest and most diverse views were to be found in La Revue Moderne, edited by Madame

Huguenin.

La Revue

Trimestrielle

also

took broad views, and had done good service to literature.

coming lecturer on Literature (1873). For a time he entered his father’s engineering works as general secretary and studied rail-

tory of Latin literature in two volumes. He was early attracted to politics, sympathizing first with the Republican and then with the Liberal party. He was elected deputy for Soria in 1881 and his parliamentary ability asserted itself from the first. He became under-secretary for the prime minister’s department under Posada Herrera in 1883, then Minister of Justice (1888) and of Finance (1894-5). He was president of the Chamber in the Moret administration, and became prime minister and chief of the Liberal party in rgro. It was while in office that he was murdered in Madrid Nov. x2 1912. Canalejas was a remarkably consistent statesman. He believed in the possibility of a mon» archy open to a thoroughgoing democratic policy both in econòmic and in strictly civil and political matters. A sincere Catholic, he was nevertheless a strong anti-clerical, and a champion of

CANCER—CANTEEN

562

the rights of the State against the encroachriients of the Church.

recognized types of tumour.

capable of uniting it under one definite programme. CANCER (see 5.175).—No striking change was witnessed in the years from 19ro to 1921 in the general attitude of medical

though the cysticercus is frequently found in the liver, sarcomata are never found. This fact must be emphasized as showing how dangerous conclusions on the subject may be. On the other hand there can be no doubt that Fibiger’s experiments do throw a new

By his death the Spanish Liberal party lost the only statesman

men to the problem of cancer.

Some new considerations have

been submitied, however, and some new aspects of the subject disclosed. Industrial cancers occurring in tar workers and work-

ers in paraffin shale have been the subject of observation by the Home Office in England, while the association between certain of the aniline products and malignant disease of the bladder has been pointed out in connexion with the health of German dye workers. Sir George Lenthal Cheatle has published, too, some observations on the manner of invasion of breast cancers which tend to show a passage up the milk ducts.

l

Gencrally speaking, the view is still held that while cancer tends to make its appearance on areas which have-been subjected to irritation of one kind or another, there remains an unknown factor which determines its actual onset. Only a small percentage of cases which are subject to chronic irritation ever become malignant. This fact alone rules out the explanation of new growth in terms of local or even general irritation—a consideration which applies even to cancers in radiological practice. In these circumstances a special interest attaches to the recent experiments initiated by Prof. Fibiger of Copenhagen. In 1913 this worker obtained for experimental purposes a number of rats. On examination he found that several of these had carcinomata of the stomach and further purchases from the same dealer produced more cancers. After most painstaking investigations libiger found that all these rats came from a certain sugar refinery which was infested

with cockroaches. He obtained some of the cockroaches and had them examined. It was then found that they were carriers of an unknown nematode worm. This worm was consequently named spiroptera neoplastica. The female is 4 to 5 cm. long by about o-2

mm. in diameter: the male less than half this size. The eggs are oval and clear and measure about 0-06 mm, and contain curled-up embryos.

They can be seen in the body of the female or in the upper layers of the gastric epithelium, but occur only in that part of the stomach which is lined by squamous epithelium. By feeding rats on the cockroaches or by giving them ova of the nematode to tat Fibiger was able to produce warty growths in their stomachs and occasionally cancers.

He published a further paper in

At least 90% of sarcomata in the liver

of rats are said to contain cysticercus, and in these animals sarcomata far outnumber carcinomata. In mice, on the other hand, °

light on a very baffling problem.

.

Sce Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, vol. Ixxxiii., no, t6;

British Medical Journal, May 15 1920 and June 5 1920. (R. M, W)

CANEVA, CARLO

(1845- — ), Italian general, was born

at Tarcento (Friuli) in 1845.

His birthplace being under Aus-

trian rule until 1866, Caneva was educated at the Military

Academy at Wicner Neustadt, but he entered the Italian army

on May 1 1866. In 1892 he attained the rank of colonel on the general staff, and he was promoted io major-general two years later. He served in the African campaign of 1897, and in r902 was promoted lieutenant-general. After commanding a division and an army corps, he became sub-chief of the general staff and in 1910 he was chosen to command an army in the event of war. The event came a year later, with the outbreak of war between Italy and Turkey; Caneva commanded. one side in the muchdiscussed manucevres of r917, his opponent being Cadorna, and the former was declared victor, though military opinion was

divided.

In any event, it was probably owing to the result of the

manœuvres ihat the selection to command the Tripoli Expeditionary Force fell upon Caneva rather than Cadorna. Caneva was given a thankless task.

He was sent to occupy the coast

towns, in the belief that the Arabs and Berbers would welcome the Italian occupation, and that the Turkish garrison unsupported by the tribesmen could be brought to surrender with little or no difficulty. Ile was speedily undeccived, and the initial overconfidence was succeeded by a period of excessive caution, For a time Caneva could do nothing, as he had no transport, and later on he was hampered by orders from home which forbade

risks or heavy casualty lists. But even allowing for his handicaps Caneva was generally considered to have carried the waiting

policy too far and clung to it too Jong. Although the late spring and summer of 1912 saw a change, and several important successes

1920 in which it was pointed out that the embryos of the worm

were gained, Caneva was recalled to Italy on Sept. 2, and

had survived for periods of 30 to 298 days, The stomach of each was examined in serial section. None of the rats which died within

of inquiry into the Caporctto disasterin 1917. (W. K. McC.) CANTEEN, a gencric term for the building and organization which provides for the soldier’s recreation and extra-regulation comforts, The use of this term has naturally been extended to

having been hatched in the cockroach pass to the muscles of that insect and there encyst themselves. When the rat eats the cockroach the embryos are set free. Iibiger took rats and fed them on various forms of this worm and then examined 116 of them which

44 days of the cating of the worm showed any signs of cancer, but of 102 rats which survived from 44 days up to 298 days no fewer than 54 showed quite typical carcinoma of the squamous-cell type in the gastric cul-de-sac. In the remaining 48 only benign proliferations

and inflammations were found. These are almost invariably produced by the spiroptera, l Of the rats which dicd with gastric cancer in from one and a half

to three months after injection of the infected material 20 had very small tumours, but 5 had multiple carcinomata; of 26 which lived for from three to ten months 18 had tumours of fairly large size and 8 hac minute nodules while 15 had multiple cancers, Finally 8 rats which lived for prolonged periods had large tumours. ‘The tumours,

too, sect up metastases which as a rule tended to be localized in the animals’ lungs. Cancer of the stomach had up till 1920 been produced in &9 rats. There had also been produced in some rats cancer of the tongue. In this latter case 217 rats were experimented on, care being taken to obtain mixed breeds. A relatively small number of rats developed inflammation of the tongue and a still smaller number got

cancer, The inflammation began a few days after the injection of the spiroptera and in the great majority of cases was spontaneously cured in from two and a half to six months. It attacked all parts of the tongue; there was thickening of the epithelium of the organ. The cancer produced was found to be exactly similar to the cancer of, the tongue found in human beings. The cancer persisted after the inflammation and all signs of the spiroptera had vanished. The importance of this work lies tn the fact that there would now appear to be a method of starting cancer de nove and so of studying

it from its origin.

Another parasite, cysticercus, has for many

years been associated with the appearance of sareomata in mice. Only one rat, of 2,500 examined at Copenhagen, was found to show

a cysticercus sarcoma, and this curiously enough was one of Fibiger’s animals. It was also infected with spiroptera and had, in addition to a sarcoma, a carcinoma of the stomach, Thus two different

worms were able in the same animal to cause two different and well-

shortly afterwards. retired.

He presided over the commission

cover similar buildings and organizations which provide the same. services for factory workers ‘and others who live and work

together in considerable numbers; but here it is sufficient to deal with canteen organization and its results in the British and American armies during the World War. i The effort which was made in most of the armics in the field

to mitigate campaign hardships by canteen organization reached

its highest point in the American and the British armies. The American organization was chicfly in the hands of the American

Y.M.C.A. (which was also entrusted with the educational work

in the American army).

The British organization was, as re-

gards the home camps, chiefly in the hands of the army and navy canteens, the Y.M.C.A., the Church Army ‘and the Salvation Army; as regards the armies abroad in the hands of the Expeditionary Force canteens and the private agencies mentioned,

whose personnel in the field were given the right to wear uniform and to use military transport and billets.

-

ie

As regards the British army, the Expeditionary Force cantece in 1918 was a vast organization operating in every theatre of war, It provided for officers and men cheap shops, good rest and recreation centres, and for officers excellent hotels. From the Expeditionary Force canteens the soldier could buy cigars, cigarettes, chocolate,

sweets and all kinds of canned goods, duty free, and at prices far lower than those of the London shops. Whisky, wine and beer could be bought duty free, under some restrictions. The Expeditionary Force canteens organization was formed first in 1915. Its operations commenced in France, but were subsequently extended to all theatres of war.

The undertaking was

from its

commencement conducted by Sir Alexander W. Prince and Colonel

F, Benson,

In due course the organization took on various other

CAPELLO-—-CAPE PROVINCE functions, but its canteen business alone made it by far the biggest shopping concern in the world. The “ supplies and shipping ” department of the Expeditionary Force canteens had for canteens alone an average annual turnover of approximately £20,000,000.

CAPELLO,

LUIGI

(1859-7.

563 ), Italian general, was born

April r4 1859. He entered the infantry, and his career till he became a general officer was passed in this branch of the service. During the Italo-Turkish War he served in Cyrenaica, and as a sheets. The tonnage handled was enormous, and during the month of | major-general he took part in the operations round Derna,

From three to four thousand different articles appeared on the stock

Nov. 1918 it reached nearly 12,000 tons, representing 320,000 cases, in France alone. The record weck was that ending March 16 1918,

just prior to the great German offensive, when 3,643 tons of canteen

commanding a column in the final action of the war in Oct. 1912.

In 1913 he was promoted to lieutenant-general.

He commanded

the 25th Sardinian Div. during the early attacks upon the Carso supplies were landed, and a turnover amounting to £400,000 was reached. The tonnage off-loaded for the year 1918 was 121,000 tons, in the summer of r915, and the VI. Corps opposite the southern and comprised over three million packages. The growth of the total part of the Sabotino-Podgora. bridgehead in Sept. ror5. In Aug. sales at canteens and depdts in France is shown by the following | 1916, Capello, whose command had been increased to the figures (by half-years ending at the dates mentioned) :— pane 1915. « « & 120,000 June1o17 . « £6,000,000 strength of six divisions, conducted the attack which stormed

ec. 1915. June 1916.+

cc. 1916.

> a

.

> a

«

700,000 2,000,000

4,000,000

Dec. 1917 June I1I9I8

Dec. 1918

+ «„

.

« «

.

8,000,000 9,500,000

9,500,000

Profits were kept to a strict minimum, and by a happy decision prices for the same goods were the same on every front. i Another feature of the Expeditionary Force canteen work was that it served the man in the fighting line first and the man in the rear

zone second, When in 1917-8, owing to the shipping position, Expeditionary Force canteen supplics had to be restricted, and the complaint came that what supplies did come over were largely absorbed at base and on lines of communication, and the men in the front line got very little, the quartermaster-general ordered that (1) certain luxuries which were in very short supply should go only: to the front area canteens and not at all to the base; (2) other goods

should goin the proportion of four to front areas and one to Lhe base.

Beer was a special problem, as its bulk made demands on tonnage which could no longer be admitted. G.H.Q, did not like the prospect of stopping the soldiers’ beer, and accordingly the Q.M.G.’s department took over, in part or in whole, brewerics in the army areas

and arranged to brew beer locally, importing only the malt and the hops from England. American canteens were, of course, “ dry.” The work of the British Expeditionary Force canteens in France was the most important as regards figures, but probably on the remote fronts it was of greater value in showing the troops that they were still in touch with home. In Egypt and Palestine the organization pushed forward its comforts far into the desert on camel-back, and on these fronts about £5,000,000 a year passed over its counters. On the Mesopotamia front there were 37 canteens, the most remote being at Khaniqin (in Persia); and one flourishing branch was at

Ourna, the legendary site of the Garden of Eden, where soldiers

could buy most of the fruits of the earth in canned form. A canteen boat was kept plying on the Tigris. The Salonika front and the British front in Italy were also well supplied with canteens, ‘The work of the British Expeditionary Force canteens was sometimes carried on under conditions of some danger, as forward canteens were never withdrawn on account of hostile sheil-fire unless it became very intense. During the German advance in the spring of 1918 the Expeditionary Force canteens lost very heavily in goods. As the enemy came forward and the canteens had to be evacuated the stocks of spirits were destroyed, other goods given away to the troops as they passed, and the residue destroyed by fire.

The British Y.M.C.A. during the war spent a gross of £21,900,000

on canteen work for British sum £17,300,000 represented

troops and war workers.

Of this

refreshments sold. The Y.M.C.A. provided “dry ” canteens, amusements and stationery, and in rear arcas was in charge of lecture and other educational work. Its free gifts to the troops were valued at nearly £1,000,000, and all profits made at canteens were put back into war work. After the Armistice, when

public

subscriptions

to

the’ Y.M.C.A. fell off,

the British War Office, recognizing the importance of its work, ad-

vanced to it £700,000 to enable it to conLinue operations during the period of demobilization. Subsequently £590,000 of this was made a free gift. Y.M.C.A. work was carried on in every theatre of war. The Church Army provided nearly 2,000 canteen centres for the British army, of which about one-half were in France and others in.

the bridgehead and led to the capture of Gorizia. A difference of opinion between Cadorna and Capello led to the Jatter’s trans| ference to the Trentino front, where he commanded successively the XXII. and V. Corps in the Asiago uplands. In March 1917 he returned to the Julian front as commander of the “ Gorizia Zone ” (VIII., VI. and II. Corps), in which capacity he conducted the first phase of the Italian offensive in the following May. In June Capello was given command of the II, Army, which extended from the Plezzo valley to the Vippacco, and in Aug. he directed the attack on the Bainsizza plateau. There was a difference of opinion between Cadorna and Capello regarding the development of the action after the initial success, and this difference became more serious when Cadorna decided to stand on the defensive in view of the forthcoming enemy attack. Capello wished to go on attacking, and it is difficult to avoid the conviction that his belicf in his own method of meeting the coming threat prevented him from coéperating whole-heartedly in the plan of his chief, Capello fell ill shortly before the enemy attack was launched and only returned to his post on the very eve of the battle. Ile was quite unfit for the strain of command, and had to resign after two days. When sufficiently recovered in health he was given the task of creating the new V. Army .out of units broken and dishanded by the retreat. .To this task he gave all

his energy, and in it he achieved remarkable results, but in the spring of 1918, on the constitution of the Caporetto Inquiry Commission, he was put on half-pay, and in July he was retired. After his retirement Capello wrote two books, a reply to the criticisms of the Inquiry Commission, entitled Per la Verità, and Note di Guerra, a work which deals with the Italian campaign as a whole but especially with those operations in which he played

an active part. He also took some part in politics, presiding at various important Nationalist and Fascist meetings. CAPE PROVINCE. (sce under Carr COLONY, §.225), the largest of the provinces of the Union of South Africa. At the rọrr census the inhabitants numbered

2,564,965, of whom 582,377

were whites and 1,982,588 coloured, an increase since 1904 of 8-33 % in the coloured pop. but of only 0-45 % in the white. Among whites, females exceeded males by 43,623; among the coloured people by 63,782. In 1918 a census of whites only was taken. They then numbered 618,825, an increase of 641 o aver 1911, affording an example of the abnormal fluctuation to which the white pop. of S. Africa is subject. Of the 1911 pop. 96°47 % of

the white and 44-20% of the coloured inhabitants returned themselves as Christians. The coloured inhabitants were divided into: Bantu 1,519,939, Asiatic 7,690, and “mixed”’ and other coloured 454,959. This last category included a few thousand Hottentots and Bushmen, but the majority were the mixed white and black

Mesopotamia, Egypt, Malta, Salonika, Gallipoli, India and at naval | “Cape Boy” class commonly called “ coloured”’ in distinction from (F.F. “natives.”’ In 1911 of the ER coloured pop. 24,000 were engaged When the American army arrived in France, the U.S. Red_ Cross in professions. or commerce and 93,000 in industries. Many dishad already established and was operating a canteen system for the tricts of the province are arid or semi-arid, and over most of its French army. This system was extended, the existing organization area there are not more than seven persons per sq. mile. The pop. naturally forming a base, since the American Expeditionary Force is mainly found in the fertile S. and S.E. coast regions, and of was superposed on the forces alrcady in the French zone, and at the Bantu in 1911 no fewer than 871,062 lived in the Transkeian first used.the same lines of communication. Military canteens were territories, where there were 54 persons to the sq. mile. These also established by the troops themselves. But by far the greater Bantu are still heathen and nearly all are agriculturists, There were part of the canteen work in touch with troops was carried out by the in 1911 only five towns with over 12,000 inhabitants, namely Cape American Y.M.C.A., which, by an army order of Sept. 6 1917, took Town (161.759), Kimberley (44,433), Port Elizabeth (37,063), East over responsibility for canteen work generally. The order forbade the London (24,606) and Grahamstown (13,830). establishment of a military canteen where a “‘ Y”’ was available, and Administration,—The affairs of the province are in the hands finally over 1,200 canteens or recreation halls were in operation. Affiliated to the Y.M.C.A. and working in connexion with its of a provincial council, elected for three years and not subject canteen system were library, educational, athletic and entertainto dissolution save by effluxion of time, The qualifications for ment organizations in profusion. The Y.M.C.A. also codéperated and members of the council are the same as for the in the work of the French “ Foyer du Soldat.” On a smaller scale, electors of Assembly bases.

similar work was done by the ‘‘ Knights of Columbus,”

members elected by the province to the House

CAPES—CAPE TOWN (save that a provincial councillor must live in the province in establishment of the Union. He served for two successive periods which his constituency is situated), Under this provision in the -and was reappointed for a third time in 1920, There was no Cape province natives and other non-white races possess the introduction of party politics in the provincial council (as i provincial franchise. At the 1917 registration there were 150,000 happened in the Transvaal province). The period rg1o-20 witnessed considerable industrial and white and 30,000 coloured electors, The number of constituencies are also the same as for Parliament.! The provincial council agricultural development and asignificant growth of Ethiopianhas powers of legislation on subjects specifically assigned to it ism and trade unionism among the native and coloured people. by the Act of Union and on subjects delegated to it by the Union These were not features peculiar to the Cape province, though, Parliament. These powers include direct taxation within the as the Cape contained a larger proportion of educated natives province in order to raise revenue for provincial purposes and and there was no colour bar to the exercise of the franchise, the the control of municipalities and other local bodies, and of province was the chief centre of native agitation for social and in“elementary education ’’—which embraces all education other dustrial rights. An indication of the activity of the Anglican than university. Its enactments are called ordinances, and no Church was the creation of two new dioceses, George (1911), and ordinance is valid so far as it may be repugnant to an act of the Kimberley and Kuruman (1912), An event which caused a deep impression on the public mind was Union Parliament. In short, though a legislative body, the provincial council exercises no authority which Parliament cannot the epidemic of influenza in the autumn of 1918. It was estimated that quarter of the inhabitants suffered and for three or four revoke. There is no separate Judiciary, or police force, or civil weeks a business in the cities was dislocated, so numerous were the service, nor any separate departments of general government. victims, (E. R, C.) Moreover, harbours and railways are under the control of the CAPES, BERNARD EDWARD JOSEPH (1854-1918), British Union Parliament. novelist, was born in London Aug. 30 1854 and educated at The provincial council is presided over by a chairman, elected Beaumont College. He was a‘nephew of John Moore Capes, a from its members; and the council also chooses an executive comprominent figure in the Oxford Movement, and was brought up a mittee of four, who need not be members of the council. The Roman Catholic. Originally intended for the army, he was prechief executive officer is styled administrator and is chosen by vented from taking a commission by a mistake as to the age the Union ministry; the administrator is appointed for five years at which he should have presented himself for examination. and is irremovable. A provincial auditor is also appointed by the He was then put into a tea-broker’s office and for some years Union ministry and is removable only for reasons which must struggled with uncongenial work, finally abandoning it to study be submitted to the Union Parliament. The Union ministry art at the Slade School, London. In 1888 he joined the publishing likewise appoints an attorney-general as legal adviser, firm of Eglington & Co. and succeeded Clement Scott as editor Revenue.—Under provisions of the Financial Relations Acts of of The Theatre. In 1892 the firm came to an end, and he made an 1913 and 1917 the Union Government pays to the provinces an annual subsidy amounting to one-half of the estimated normal provincial expenditure for the year. This financial dependence of the provinces on the Union Government emphasizes their subor-

dinate position and is a guarantee against any tendency in the provinces to go beyond the scope of Jocal affairs. The subsidies paid to the Cape provincial council varied from £862,000 in 1913-4 to £999,000 in 1917-8; the revenue raised by the province was £405,000 and £426,000 respectively in the years named, but had been as low as £316,000 in 1914-5. Transfer duties

and licences (trade, liquor, motor, etc.) were the chief sources of

revenue.

The chief item of expenditure is on education; thus in

1913-4, out of a total expenditure by the provincial council of

£1,142,000, the sum of £853,000 was spent on education. In 1917-8 the figures were:—total expenditure £1,477,000; on education £1,150,000. In 1920-1 the cost of education had risen to £2,163,000,

the number of children on the school rolls being 284,000, an increase

of about 50,000 since 1913. In primary schools education is free.

History.—Politically the Cape province has had no separate history since the establishment of the Union in 1910. Parties in South Africa are not divided on provincial lines; it may,

however, be recorded that the majority of the Cape members of Parliament have favoured the maintenance of the British con-

nexion and the fusion of Dutch and British interests. In the rebellion of xr914 De Wet in his effort to reach German S.W.

Africa entered the province and was captured at a place 110 m. W. of Mafcking. In domestic concerns the province showed a progressive attitude, notably in its care for education. Bilingual requirements gave rise to no great difficulty, the provincial council having passed an ordinance in r92r providing that the medium of instruction up to standard IV. should be the “ home language ” of the child. Provincial spirit remained keen, but the

white inhabitants of the eastern district, who are largely (if not mainly) of British descent, look to the Transvaal and Free State for trade, while with the people of the western part of the province (who, Cape Town apart, are predominantly of Dutch origin) they have practically no commercial intercourse. Sir N. F. de Waal, who had been colonial secretary in the last ministry of Cape Colony, was the first administrator, and he guided the province through the period of change caused by the 1The particulars here given of provincial administration are the same in all four provinces (the Cape, Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal) save that the minimum number of members of a provin-

cial council is 25, whereas Natal and the Free State return fewer members to Parliament.

unsuccessful experiment in rabbit farming. But in 1896 he won a prize offered by the Chicago Record for a novel of mystery and henceforth devoted his energies to fiction. His novels, 36 in number, were mostly tales of adventure, some of them historical. They include The Luke of Wine (1808); From Door to Door (1900); A Jay of Italy (1905); A Rogue’s Tragedy (1906); The Story of Fifine (1914) and Moll Davis (1916). He published also a volume of verse. He died at Winchester Nov. 2 1918, CAPE TOWN (see 5.252), capital of the Cape province, and seat of the legislature of the Union of South Africa. In 1913 Cape Town municipality was greatly enlarged by the absorption of the suburban municipalities of Green Point and Sea Point, Woodstock, Maitland, Mowbray, Rondebosch, Claremont, Kalk Bay and Muizenberg, with Camps Bay and other adjacent areas, Cape Town thus extends across the Cape Peninsula from Table Bay to False Bay—a distance of 17 m.—and covers an area of over 59 sq. miles. Wynberg (between Rondebosch and Muizenberg), though retaining a separate municipality, is a suburb of Cape Town, The pop., including suburbs, 170,083 in 1904

(44,203 whites), was 161,579 in 1911 (85,442 whites and 76,137 coloured). In 19x8 the white pop. was 99,693; the coloured

(estimate) 82,000. Business, professional and official life is concentrated in Cape Town and at the docks. The chief feature of the decade 1910-20 was, however, the development of the suburbs, an enterprise in

which the municipality took the lead. Cape Town in the season (Oct.-March) is the principal pleasure resort of South Africa. On the sea front at Table Bay a promenade picr (1,500 ft. Jong)

and esplanade (1,000 yd.) were completed in 1914. The pier replaces the old central jetty and is in a line with Adderley Street and Government Avenue, the principal thoroughfares. To the Houses of

Parliament, in Government Avenue, a new wing was added ore) At the foot of the Avenue is the site of the National Art Gallery.

The Max Michaelis collection of Flemish and Dutch masters— including examples of Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Jan Steen and Vandyck—presented to the Union Government

Old Town House,” in Greenmarket Square.

in 1912, is in “the

The building, a fine

example of colonial Dutch 18th-century architecture, was transferred to the Government in 1916, Rondebosch, § m. from the centre of the city, is the chief residential suburb. It contains Groote Schuur, formerly the property of Cecil Rhodes; since roro the official residence of the Prime Minister of the Union. In 1918 on the incorporation of the South African College (founded at Cape Town 1829) as the university of Ca

Town, a site for new buildings—to replace those in the centre of the

CAPITALISM

565

city-—-was granted in the grounds of Groote Schuur; £500,000 towards

works with his capital or sets others to work with it, must in-

Sir Julius Wernher and Mr. Alfred Beit

variably direct the work done so as to suit the wishes of a buyer which may or may not be expressed before the making of the article is begun. Caputalism, in the sense of a private ownership of tools and equipment, thus dates from the earliest organization

buildings and endowment being provided mainly from bequests by

In_1912 a Rhodes memo-

rial was unveiled at Groote Schuur by Ear! Grey (a former director of the Chartered Company}. In front of the memorial, a granite

temple in the Doric style approached by a flight of steps, is the equestrian statue of ' Physical Energy ” by G. F Watts. In the temple is a bust of Rhodes. Not far from Rondebosch, at Kirstenbosch, are the National Botanical Gardens, established 1913, In Oct. 1918 Cape Town suffered from a great epidemic of influenza,

000 deaths occurring in three weeks.

In the autumn of 1919

influenza, but in a milder form, again ravaged the city.

Cape Town has since 1913 ranked second m importance to Durban among South African seaports, but it is first for passenger traffic. ‘The shortage of shipping did not greatly affect Cape Town

until 1918. In that year the total tonnage of cargo landed, shipped

and transhipped at Table Bay was 1,070,000, the average for the three previous years being over 1,440,000 tons. In 1918 the net tonnage of shipping entering Cape Town was 2,347,000—~British,

1,662,224; foreign, 684,776.

in 1919 British shipping had increased

to 2,253,000 net tons, while foreign shipping fell to 424,000 net tons.

In 1918 the ratable valuation of Cape Town was £21,258,000, municipal revenue £778,000 and indebtedness £4,893,000. In 1919 the ratable valuation was £23,343,000. Direct communication with the railways of the S.W. Protectorate (ex-German S.W. Africa) was opened in 1913 and in 1918

the railway going north had reached Lualaba (Upper Congo) at Bukama, a distance of 2,598 m. from Cape Town without break of gauge. An acrodrome on the trans-Africa air route was laid out at Young Field, Wynberg, in 1919, and the first airmen to cross the length of Africa, Lieut.-Col. Sir H. A. Van Ryneveld and Flight-

Lieut. Sir C.J.Q. Brand, arrived at Wynberg on March 20 1920

A wireless station at Slang Kop, 18 m. S. of Table Bay, was opened

in 1911. It hasa normal range of 450 m. by day and 1,500 by night.

CAPITALISM.—The meaning of “ capital,’ in economics, is analyzed in the carlier article under that heading (5.278). But

the working of “capitalism” or the “ capitalistic

system,”

of human economic activity.

As soon as a savage had given

time and labour to fashioning a weapon with which he could more easily kill or catch animals that he hunted for food or clothing, he had become: a capitalist, he had made something which would help him to provide for his own needs and those of his dependents more easily, or by which he could more easily acquire commodities which he could exchange against those owned by other members of his tribe. But capitalism in the modern sense, and as defined above, is usually said to date from the last quarter of the 18th century, when what is called the

“Industrial Revolution ” began, and by the inventions of machin-

ery and the use of steam industry was reorganized on a new basis. Capitalist and Worker-—Owing to these developments it was no longer possible for the workman using his own tools and working in his own home to compete with workmen who were assembled in a great factory and worked with machinery which it would not have been possible for their collective resources to buy. Thus arose the distinction between the worker and the

capitalist, which had in effect already made considerable progress before the introduction of machinery, but was so rapidly developed after it that modern capitalism is usually so dated. By this system the worker, by which is generally meant the manual worker, is said to have been divorced from the owner-

ship of his tools. The scale of industrial organization became so great that it was only possible for men of great means, or for a collection of people of considerable means, to provide the neces-

as such, had by 1921 become so highly controversial a question

sary land, factories and equipment for its working, and also to

as to require here more detailed examination.

buy the large quantities of raw material required, to pay the wages of the multitude of workers and managers, and to finance the other expenses during the process of production and up till

The term “ capitalism ” is generally applied to the system under which the instruments of production are the property of private owners, who usually employ managers and manual workers to carry out production by their means. By production we must include, if this definition is to be correct, the whole of the process by which raw materials are brought to the place of manufacture and worked up into manufactured goods, and the manufactured goods are then distributed to the places where they are wanted and sokl to the final consumer through the hands of retailers. The instruments of production thus include not only the land, factories, tools and machinery, and other

equipment used in actual manufacture, but the railways, ships and other means of transport, and the warehouses and shops through which the goods finally pass to the consumer. Private Ownership—Private ownership of the instruments of production has not been universal in man’s economic history, but it has been generally adopted by progressive communities. When “* Adam delved and Eve span,” they were “ capitalists ” in the sense of owning a spade and spinning-whcel and using them for purposes of production, but they used these tools themselves and for the purposes of supplying their own needs. And at a very primitive stage of society, this simply individualistic

system by which the capitalist used his own tools and worked for his own needs may be presumed to have been common. When, however, by the development of a wider society the division of labour and the exchange of goods between one member and another of the community began to be practised, the new feature arose by which the producer made and grew goods not only for his own use, but to be exchanged for goods grown or produced by others; and consequently he had to produce something which somebody else wanted if he wished to provide for his own heeds to his own satisfaction. Thus we find in the Middle Ages artificers and crafismen owning their own tools, that is to say, their own capital equipment, and working to produce articles such as armour, farming implements and clothes which they exchanged in return for the food produced by the farmers who would only take the goods produced by the artificers if they were of a kind which pleased their fancy. It is important to note at the outset that the capitalist, whether he

the time of payment by the final purchaser. Originally it was usual for the owners of these factories, whether individuals or small bodics working in partnership, to act as managers of the whole concern. The capitalist was at once owner of the factory and machinery, provided the money needed for the financing of the industrial process, and managed and organized the whole enterprise. He was responsible for buying raw materials, paying wages and selling ihe product to the greatest possible advantage to the other capitalists, merchants and middlemen, who passed it on until it reached the final consumer; he, singly or in partnership, took all the risk of loss involved if the product failed to suit the caprices of the buying public, and took ali the profit, if any, that was earned from the enterprise. This profit thus included interest on his money invested, the payment of his salary as organizer and manager, and any extra

bonus which his skill might enable him to earn as compensation for the risks run. Joint Stock System.—As industry developed on astill greater scale it was not possible for this comparatively simple organization to be maintained. When it became a question of building railways, requiring hundreds of millions to finance them, no individual or partnership could supply the necessary funds, and so the joint stock system, which had already been developed on a small scale in mediaeval times, was extended so successfully to industry that the greater part of our industrial activity is now carried on by means of joint stock companies, the extension of which was enormously facilitated by the introduction of the principle of limited liability. Thus the position of the capitalist has become still further defined and differentiated. It is certainly probable that the managers of most of our great industrial concerns hold a certain number of shares in the business which they conduct, and to that extent may be described as capitalists, but the two functions are now quite distinct. The capitalist pure and simple lends money to industry or invests it in industry, using industry in the widest sense of the word to include transport and commerce. The actual management is carried on by officials appointed specially for this purpose under the supervision

566

CAPITALISM

of a committce of the shareholders who are called directors, who

holders.

are paid comparatively small fees for the usually rather nominal

of the profits after the claims of debenture-holders and preference shareholders have been satisfied. If the company is successful

supervision which they exercise over the more highly paid work of the managers and staff, and for guiding the financial policy of the company with regard to dividend distributions and so on.

The ordinary shareholders as a rule take what is left

they thus carn higher rates on thetr investments than go to the

hoklers of other forms of securities. If the company fails they The capitalist is cither a creditor or a sharcholder in the com- receive little or no profit, and the claims of the mortgage and pany which is formed by public subscription to carry on the in- preference shareholders have to be satisfied in full before the dustry in question; all that he does is to lend to industry the ordinary shareholders get any of their capital back in case of money which is essential in order that the industry may acquire liquidation. Almost infinite variations, however, are performed all the tools, machinery, buildings, raw materials and other on the theme of capital arrangements, with income debentures, cquipment necessary for carrying on the work, and to pay the cumulative ordinary shares with a fixed rate of dividend, dewages of the wage-earners and managers during the initial ferred shares, founders’ shares and so on. And some companies period before the company’s operations have produced some- issue no securities except ordinary shares or stock. thing that can be sold to supply money for wages, the purchase By this ingenious system the amount of risk involved by of further raw materials, and the upkeep of the plant. ‘The bus- industrial investments can be varied to suit the taste of the iness of management is carried on by highly paid experts, and individual investor, but generally with the result that the less the capitalisi’s sole claim to a share in the earnings of the com- risk he takes the less return he is entitled to on his investment. _ pany is based on the fact that he has provided the money which The holder of a debt which is a first charge on a long-standing was essential for its beginning and for its further growth. He and well-managed industrial or transport concern comes as near earns his reward first by placing this moncy at the disposal of as he can to eliminating risk altogether from an industrial inindustry instead of spending it on his own immediate enjoyment; vestment. It consequently follows that this hind of security is and secondly by risking the loss of part or the whole of his money originally issued and is dealt in on the markets of the world on if the industry should fail. terms which give their subscribers or purchasers a comparatively Capital Financing—aA highly ingenious machinery has been low rate of interest. The preference shareholder, who is not as developed for the provision of money for industry and commerce well secured as the debenture-holder, but. ranks before the ordiby the process of investment in the securities of public companies, nary holder, also stands midway between them in the matter of and for the turning of these securities back into money by their tisk and the matter of return, Before the World War, for exsale in markets known as stock exchanges. Joint stock companies ample, if a well-known English brewery company were appealing are formed cither 10 carry out some new enterprise, or work some to the public for subscriptions it would probably have been able new process, or to take over an existing business which has to issue its debenture stock in return for a promise of 4% to hitherto been carried on by private partners. An appeal is there- 4} Yo, itS preference shares on the basis of 5% 10 6%, while its fore made to the public to subscribe to the securities into which ordinary shares, if they were to expect a ready response from the what is called the company’s capital is divided. As so often public, would have had to show a probable return of 7% or 8%, happens in these matters of business, great confusion arises When the prospectus has been issued and the public subowing to the use of the same word in different senses: the capital scription has been carried out, the securitics offered are then of industry has hitherto been referred to in the course of this

quoted on the Stock Exchange at prices which will vary with

article as the tools, buildings, and other equipment by which industry works; but the capital of a company generally means

the opinion held concerning the present and prospective prosper-

the money that it receives from those who subscribe to the se-

ruling for the use of money, which varies like the price of everything else in accordance with supply and demand.. At a time when there is a great demand for capital for the development of new and old enterprises all over the world the rates that have to be offered in order to tempt subscribers will be forced up by competition, and consequently the price of existing securitics

curities Lhat it offers. If we take the case of a company formed to work a coal mine, and suppose that the original promoters consider that £2,000,000 will be necessary for them to make a proper start on the enterprise, then these two millions will be the original capital of the company, subscribed to it by investors who reccive, in return for their money, securitics which’ give them claims upon. it for interest, dividends and repayment cither at a fixcd date or in the event of the company’s liquidation. These claims take the form of securities issued by the company. They would probably be divided into several categories; there will be a debenture stock, perhaps carrying mortgage rights and entitling the holders to a fixed rate of interest, and most prob-

ably to repayment in fullor ata premium at some future date.

In case of default in payment of their interest or repayment of the sums promised at the due date, the debenture-holders would be entitled to take over the property and put it in the hands of a receiver. They are thus not sharcholders in the company but its creditors, and, strictly, securities issued in this form of a mortgage or debenture are not part of a company’s capital but its

debt.

Ordinary business parlance, however, usually includes

mortgages and debentures as part of capital. The share capital is usually divided into preference and ordinary, the preference

shareholder being entitled to a fixed rate of interest which has to be paid to him before the ordinary shareholders receive anything. This preference right among English companies is usually what is called cumulative, that is to say, if the preference dividend

is not paid in any year all arrears have to be paid before the ordinary sharcholders receive any return on their investment. In America, however, where the term “ preferred ” rather than “preference” is more usual, this cumulative right is not so common as it is in England; in some cases also preference shareholders are entitled to a further participation in profits after

a certain rate of dividend has been paid to the ordinary share-

ity of the company, and also in accordance with the general rate

will tend to fall owing to sales by their holders, who are tempted by the more alluring rates offered by new ventures. If, on the other hand, enterprise is slack and new creations of capital are comparatively rare, then the pressure of accumulating savings for investment in existing securities will force their prices up and so lower the rate of retarn which an investor may expect.

By this means capitalism has devised a highly efficient machinery through the mechanism of the Stock Exchange by which anyong who has lent money to industry, as conducted by an ordinary joint stock company, is able in normal times to realize his holdings

and turn them into cash by sale on the stock markets.

If the

company in which he has invested has been successful and is

fulfilling, or more than fulfilling, the anticipations held out in its prospectus, he will be able to sell his holdings at a comfortable profit, especially if he is an ordinary sharcholder. The prices of securities with a fixed rate of interest or dividend naturally fluctuate less than those of the ordinary shares, but even in their case the success or failure of the company has a very considerable influence upon the price for which they would be sold. Many popular securities have a world-wide market and can be dealt in in all the financially civilized countries; and this development of securities readily marketable at publicly quoted prices has been a great assistance to the growth of international banking. Freedom of Enter prise.—By the development of this machinery it is possible for the association of small contributions by a large number of people with comparatively small means to carry out enterprises on a colossal scale, and to pour the stream of invest-

ment into all the countries of the earth, fertilizing ils backward

CAPITALISM places and bringing forth a vigorous crop of goods and services and making the world into one great market united by the bonds of industry and finance. In many large industrial companies nowadays, shares of £r each or less are now issued, and in this way capitalism has been democratized to an extent which a

hundred years ago would have been thought quite incredible. Enormous enterprises, the most obvious example of which are

the Egyptian pyramids, have been carried out in the past by means of slave labour employed by tyrants; and the Roman

roads and aqueducts are another example of what could be done by the application of state management to a highly disciplined people. But the most notable achievement of modern capitalism is that it has vastly increased the productive power of mankind by making use of the resources of thousands of individuals voluntarily subscribing their moncy in the hope of profit which can only be earned if the consuming public will voluntarily buy the

goods and services produced. Thus capitalism is essentially based on freedom—the freedom of the subscriber in risking his money,

and the freedom of the consumer in giving or withholding his custom and the profit that it makes possible, It opens its pocket freely—sometimes too freely—to anyone who can persuade it that an enterprise is likely to be profitable. Under it the way is open from the bottom of the ladder to the top for those who have the diligence, detcrmination, capacity, and luck to climb; and they can climb only by producing something that will fetch

a good price in the market of their fellow-creatures’ needs and desires. The freedom of capitalism is thus limited by the consumers’ veto. It can only succeed by pleasing the ultimate buyer and codperating with the consumer by satisfying his needs. Prejudice against Capitalism.—Nevertheless, capitalism is perhaps now more virulently criticized than any other human institution, largely owing to the belicf that it involves robbery of the wage-carning classes by those who place the means of production at their disposal and pay them wages for working upon them. The prejudice against capitalism could not be as wide as it is unless there were some foundation for it; and in the first half century in which modern capitalism was active the exploitation of the wage-earners through low wages, long hours, disgraceful working conditions and ruthless dismissal at any time when it seemed more profitable to the employers to reduce output, was carried on to an extent which is now seen to have been criminal. ‘This seems to be the reason for the astonishing. hold which the works of Karl Marx have exercised upon those of the wage-earners who are attracted by his revolutionary doctrines. It is admitted by Marx’s most fervent admirers that most of his theories were wrong, that many of his assertions were incorrect, and that most of his forecasts have been proved to be baseless. But the fact remains that he was able to describe a state of things in English industry on the authority of official documents which was entirely disgraceful; and the wage-carners, who probably seldom study his works but usually rely upon a summary of their contents, find that with regard to the exploitation of the worker he has a solid basis of facts which are known to them by the tradition they have received from their forbears who worked under the miserable conditions that he describes. It need not be said that since the middle of the roth century there has been a very great change in this respect, thanks to Factory Acts, the growing strength of the trade unions and a more humane and sensible spirit among the employers; and it is interesting to consider why it should be that the employers of the first half of the toth century, most of whom were probably quite human and kindly people who thought that they were doing their best according to their lights, should have treated those who worked for them in a manner which now seems to us so inhuman, In the first place, we must remember that a very large number of them in those days were men who had risen from the ranks and had themselves had to suffer the hardships which they imposed on others, and, since they had come through them successfully, did not see any reason why anything better should be done for those who worked under them. But a further

excuse has to be found for the men of noble lineage and high intellectual attainment, who also suffered barbarities to be perpe-

567

trated in the mines and factories which they owned; and this excuse is provided by the pessimistic utterances of economists such as Adam Smith, Malthus and Ricardo, who stated or implied that the pay of the wage-earners could not rise above the level required to maintain them as efficient workers; and that any attempt to improve their condition would simply lead te an increase in their number by procreation which would inevitably defeat the efforts of those who tried to improve their lot. With doctrines such as this in the air, and expounded by high authority, there is some reason to excuse wickedness or mistakes which have cost the industrial world dear by the legacy of bitterness and suspicion which they have left behind. Capitalism and Wages.—It is also true that too many modern capitalists are still apt to resent any attempt on the part of the wage-earners to improve their lot by demanding better wages and shorter hours of work, and do not seem able to perceive how entirely short-sighted such resentment is. When the wagecarners are confronted, every time they ask for an improvement, by demonstrations on the part of capitalisis that its granting

would immediately ruin the industry in which they are concerned, and when nevertheless they insist upon the improvement and

then find that the industry is by no means ruined but goes ahead to fresh prosperity, it is natural and inevitable that the wageearners should be filled with a deep distrust of any statement made by their employers concerning what is and what is not

possible to be granted by industry, And it is not only owing to this distrust and bitterness that this policy on the part of employers has been short-sighted. They might have recognized that for all the great staple commodities the wage-carning classes are already, and will be to an increasing degree, the most important consumers; and therefore that those who are engaged in making any product of general use will find it to their own inter-

est that the general level of wages should be high so that there should be a good and steady demand for the product which they have to sell. It may be true from the point of view of the next balance sheet that it will pay any individual employer to pay as low wages as possible to his workmen, but he ought to recognize that what he needs is that all the workers in ajl other industries should be paid as well as possible and that he, by paying his own workers low, is doing what he can to depress the general level and so defeat his own objects in securing a market, This is quite apart from the wider question how far low wages involve cheap production, Up to a point, and as long as the wage-earners can be induced to give a fair day’s work in return for their wage,

experience has shown—especially in Amcrica—that high wages are an important item in cheapening production. Lately, and especially since the war, experience has shown that increases of wages have been followed by absenteeism on the part of the workers, and slack work while they are at work. Up to this point it should be the ambition of enlightened employcrs to pay the highest wages that the industry can stand. Capitalism increascs its own efficiency and those of its wage-carners up to the

point at which it enables them to improve their health and cfûciency by paying higher wages; but when, as sometimes happens, the wage-carner simply has no use for any increase in his money receipts, then higher wages merely mean that he works fewer days in the week. The only remedy for this deadlock seems to be the education of the worker in the. habit of accumulating for himself out of any surplus that he earns. If the wage-earners could thus be induced by accumulation to become capitalists themselves, it is possible that an improvement, the extent of which it is quite impossible to measure, might be secured in the relations between labour and capital,

Charges Examined.—lf then we admit, as we must, that the early days of modern capitalism were marked by serious injustice inflicted on the m&nual workers, and that even to-day employers are much too ready to resist demands on the part of labour for improvements in its conditions, it must at the same time be remembered that these faults in the working of capitalism do not

necessarily imply any essential injustice in the system or any blots upon it which cannot be improved out of existence. lf

the early employers, taking advantage of the unorganized state

568

CAPITALISM

of their workers, paid them too low for too long working days under working conditions which were a disgrace, it is also true that these conditions are in most industries, especially the best organized and most prosperous industries, a thing of the past. Moreover, the charge against capitalism, brought against it by

the most extreme of its critics, is not merely that it has been in the past. or is now unjust to those who work for it in the matter of hours and wages, but that the whole system is essentially based upon robbery, that the whole product of industry is really: due to the exertions of labour, and that any interest or profit taken by the capitalist is necessarily a form of robbery. It is not

a question of degree—that the capitalist has taken more than he is entitled to—but that the capitalist is not entitled to take anything at all, and that anything he takes is essentially a theft. Lebour’s Capacity.—For this contention it is very difficult to find any real ground either in fact or in theory. Labour, in the sense of manual labour, by itself can effect nothing. Put down the most skilful hand-worker on a bare piece of ground and he

cannot produce anything out of it until he has made himself tools and so become a capitalist; and, in the meantime, he would somehow have to feed himself on any roots that he could dig up, or any wild animals that he might be able to kill. Even if we include under labour the brain-workers and organizers, it remains true that any body of skilled workers, organized as well as possible under the most skilful management, would be equally ineffective without the assistance of the factory, tools, and other

equipment which have to be supplied out of capital, that is to say out of the accumulation of past savings, before they can produce effectively. Labour by itself can effect nothing industrially or commercially; labour plus management is equally powerless. Capital by itself is, of course, in exactly the same position. Anyone who through the possession of capital owns a large supply of raw materials, and the necessary land, factory and equipment, can make nothing out of them without efficient management and efficient manual labour. These truisms are usually acknowledged by the extremist advocates of labour’s claim to what is called the whole of its product. They admit that labour must

have machinery and tools to work with; but Mr. Philip Snowden, for instance, the English Labour M.P., has contended that “ the existence of a rich class who do no Jabour is the conclusive proof of the claim that labour does not receive all that labour creates, but that a surplus over and above the wages of labour is appropriated in some way and some form by those who do no work.” But this argument begs the whole question by assuming that

“labour creates” all that labour produces with the help of machinery. It seems to be based on a confusion of mind which imagines that because the machinery and equipment by them-

selves can produce nothing, therefore, those who work them and make them efficient are entitled to everything that is pro-

duced by their own efforts assisted by the machinery. In fact the existence of the machinery, which has been provided by the possibly idle capitalist, enables the manual workers to produce goods of an immeasurably greater volume and value than they

could turn out without it. If labour is entitled to the whole of its product, as it surely is, it is also true that labour gets the whole of its product and a very great deal more, because, owing to the assistance given it by the machinery and equipment provided by capital, it is able to produce a very much greater volume of goods, and the bargain between it and capital results in its being better off than it could have been without capitalism’s assistance. To take an obvious example, let us suppose a man in a primitive stage of socicty to have hit on the idea of making a spade, and so greatly increasing his own production of food. If he then

makes a second spade and lends it to a friend, enabling the latter to multiply his production and charging him a portion of the increased food for the use of the spade, then we see a rough analogy of the bargain which under capitalism is struck between capital and labour.

In this case the friend who borrows the spade

works for the capitalist who lent it, but he also works for himself.

By the use of the spade his production is multiplied manifald, and to argue that he is entitled to take the whole amount of what he produces with the assistance of the spade, and that the

man who invented and lent him the spade robs him by taking part of the increased production which it brings into being, is surely an example of astonishingly distorted logic. At the same time it has to be remembered that those who claim the whole product of industry for the manual workers can say that all the factories, means of transport, tools and machinery have actually been erected or produced by manual labour. But this manual labour, and the skill which organized it, were paid to produce these instruments by owners of wealth who were prepared to risk it on these objects. All these forms of the equipment of industry only came into being and increased the numbers and welfare of the whole community because some of those who controlled wealth when they were first invented used it to secure their manufacture and production instead of upon their own immediate enjoyment. At any time the future development of any country or community depends upon the extent to which its members are prepared to postpone immediate enjoyment to the provision of equipment for its further progress. If some of our ancestors had not made investments in industry in the past, and so equipped the world with all the machinery of industry and commerce, probably not half of us would now have been alive. Interest and profit are thus the reward paid for successful investment in the means of life in the results of which we all share, ‘Meaits of Production.—Critics of the capitalistic system are, at first sight, on firmer ground when they argue that it Is wrong that anybody should possess, by the owncrship of private wealth, this responsibility for the future devclopment of the country or community; that injustice arises because private ownership makes it difficult and sometimes impossible for those who want to work to secure access to the means of production, and that a more equitable basis would be arrived at if all the means of production were owned by the state, or by some other public body, or, as is now contended by the syndicalists and guild

socialists, by the industries which employ them organized into an all-embracing trade union or guild. ‘There can be no question that the existence of private property in the means of production does involve hardships and difficulties for those members of the community who do not happen to be born into the possession of property, or of the kind of qualities which enable them to acquire it rapidly, To such people, the ordinary unskilled workers, it must naturally seem unjust that if the kind and quantity of work that they offer to any private employer is not needed, some of them find great difficulty in

earning a livelihood for themselves and their dependents, And the question that we have to consider is whether the hardships involved to a comparatively small number of the less fortunate members of the community are balanced by the advantages to the community as 4 whole involved by the working of the capitalistic system. Under that system anybody who by ingenuity and energy can earn more than his fellows is enabled and encouraged to do so and to devote his accumulations to the furtherance of industry by putting them out at interest, or engaging them in enterprises from which he hopes for profit. There is consequently a continued stimulus for activity and exertion, and it must always be remembered that this activity and exertion can only be successful if it produces something with which the community, as a

whole, or a sufficient number of its members who are in a position to buy goods and services, are satisfied.

Thus, by this stimulus, the wants of the community have been

continually considered and cared for by its most enterprising

members, who are urged to do so by the hope of gaining profit. If this stimulus were taken away it is at least possible that progress would be very greatly retarded and that the interests of the community, as a whole, especially those of its poorest members, would be seriously affected. It has to be admitted that the wants of the community are not always wholly sensible and are very often marked by highly questionable taste. These drawbacks are surely to be best amended by the education of the community to a more sensible and tasteful use of the power that it has by its decision, through the manner in which it spends its money, concerning the goods and services which are turned out

by industry. If the decision as to what is to be produced is to be

CAPITALISM in the hands of a bureaucratic committee, as under state social-

ism, or of a guild or trade union committee, as it would apparent-

569

the manual workers of England were preparing a great attempt to improve their position, and there is every reason to assume that

ly be under guild socialism or syndicalism, then it is perhaps possible, though highly doubtful, that the objects on which the productive enterprise of the community would be exercised might be more sensible and tasteful; but the general members of the community, having no power of choice, would not be exercis-

this attempt would have been successful, In any case, the war came and the general position of labour was certainly improved during its course. Since the war, the struggle between wages and prices to keep up with one another has been somewhat difficult, but it may at least be contended that this has been due not to

ing sense or good taste, but would merely be taking, whether they

an essential fault in capitalism, but because the wage-earncrs

liked them or no, goods and services provided by the decision of an outside body.

thought fit to restrict output in a mistaken belief that they would thereby resist any attempt to force them back to the pre-war standard, which they were rightly determined to avoid. We have also to remember that under the sway of capitalism this very considerable improvement in the wage-earners’ lot has been carried out in spite of an enormous increase in population. If it be admitted that the general standard of life before the

Advances under Capitalism—A more serious doubt ariscs whether under any alternative system that has yet been suggested

the actual needs and necessities of the community would be suc-

cessfully met. We have to admit that under capitalism there has

existed and still exists a great deai of destitution and poverty which are serious blots on the success of the system. On the World War was not all that it should be, it must also be admitted other hand, anybody who takes even a superficial and cursory that the gift of life and all that life involves had been showered view of the productive progress of the last century and a half upon millions of people in all the economically civilized countries under modern capitalism must admit that an enormous advance “of the world, who could not have come into being if it had not has been secured. There is no need here to enumerate ali the been for the great increase of wealth under capitalism. miraculous inventions by which man’s power over nature has Weakness of the Alternatives~—One of the strongest arguments been increased, and his productive capacity has been enormously in favour of the present capitalistic system is the weakness shown multiphed. The extent of these powers was only fully realized by any system with which its critics would propose to replace it. when the World War came, and, in spite of the view expressed State socialism has long been before the public as an alternative by some economists that a modern continental war could not to the private ownership of capital. If it could be worked its last more than a few months because the economic strain would economic advantages would be considerable, because it would be too great, it was nevertheless possible to carry the war on for mean that the state would own all the means of production and more than four years, to develop the production of lethal weap- so would be the sole purchaser and the sole organizer and the ons during its course on a scale which has never heretofore been sole distributor. The state would, therefore, decide what the dreamt of, to feed and clothe the armics in the ficld much better needs of the community were, and how much work had to be done than armies in the field had been fed and clothed before, and, to provide them, and would set the members of the community at the same time, at least in England, to increase the standard to work to provide these things. All the waste involved by comof comfort of the greater part of the population. These achieve- petition and advertisement would be saved, and all the mistakes ments were in fact only carried out by making drafts to some in production would be avoided, which now arise because those | extent upon the capital resources of the countries engaged, as, who organize production have to try to foresee and forestall for example, when England sold back to the Uniled States her the needs of the public. The state would say what work each one investments in American railway bonds In exchange for food of us was to do and what goods cach one of us was to consume. and munitions of war, which she was importing from America, If it were really possible that under this system we should work But, when full allowance has been made on this score, the fact as well as we work now, there can be no doubt that the business remains that the World War demonstrated a growth of pro- of supplying the community’s necds, as interpreted by the state, ductive capacity which had not been suspected until the supreme would be free from many of the joltings and jarrings which now test aroused the energies of all the chief nations of the world. often put the industrial machinery to some extent out of gear. But, apart from this astonishing effort at a time of crisis, we But, in the first place, there is the enormously important question may take the prosaic facts of the last half of the roth century as whether such a system could work at all—whether in fact the quoted by acknowledged champions of socialism. Mr. Sidney ordinary human being, as he is to-day, would be prepared to Webb, in his Industrial, Democracy, speaks of “ the past fifty work at the bidding of the state, on conditions laid down by years’ rise in the condition of the English wage-carning class.” the state, with anything like the enthusiasm and readiness Mr. Snowden, in his Socialism and Syndicalism, says that accord- with which people work nowadays with the prospect of securing ing to official figures between 1850 and rgoo the wages of the profit and advantage to themselves, Even if it be true that the working classesin England had risen by 78 %, and at the same time great majority of commonplace people, who do not at present there had been a fall in the prices of wholesale commodities of work with much enthusiasm or energy because they know that 11%.

This is surely a wonderful achievement which has to be

granted as practical evidence of the efficiency of the capitalistic system, and of the extent to which its benefits were being shared with those who did its manual labour. Mr. Snowden objected that the prices of wholesale commodities

are not the best possible test of the buying power of the wageearners, and that certain articles which they use had in fact risen.

This may be so, but nevertheless the very great advance

in actual money wages, accompanied by a quite appreciable reduction in the prices of many articles of general consumption,

is a stubborn fact. This, indeed, Mr. Snowden to some extent admits, but he goes on to argue that this progress had stopped at the beginning of the zoth century, and that the tendency had then become permanent by which the share of the wage-carners in the product of industry was actually going backwards. This

their own chance of achieving striking success is remote, would work for the state as well (or as indifferently) as they work now for private employers, there is very considerable doubt whether the more stirring spirits who think they can see their way to fortune in present circumstances if they work for it with determination, would put anything like the same vigour into work that they did for the state; it is upon the energy and readiness to take risks of this comparatively small body of stirring spirits in the community that economic progress really depends. If we stifle the incentives which now spur them to take risks and try experiments in the hope of fresh opportunities of profit, there is grave danger not only that the economic progress of the community might be checked, but that its whole economic organization might fall into decay and slothfulness, and that any

was certainly true in the first few years of the century, since the

attempt to improve or expand might be met with the same cold and unreceptive stare that now usually greets any new suggestion

rise in wages, which still continued, did not quite keep pace with the rise in general prices. But Mr. Snowden’s contention that this tendency was permanent was merely an assumption which might easily have been proved false even if the war had not hap-

that comes up before officials of government ‘departments. It might be possible in time to produce a set of officials who would be as ready and eager to promote the economic efficiency of the community as are the present captains of industry stirred by the

pened. As we all remember, the World War came at a time when

incentive of profit. But past experience does not show that there

CAPITALISM

570

is much hope of this happening, at any rate for many years, and in the meantime any community which subjected itself to state socialism might find itself very much worse off. It is true that during the World War great feats were achieved by government departments in organizing the supply of food and of war munitions, but they were achieved because the spirit of the nation was stirred to meet the most momentous crisis in its history; and because government departments were able to rely upon the assistance and experience of a large number of men who came to work in them, who had been trained in the school of

practical business based on the incentive of private profit. And even so, these official achievements during the war were only ' carried out at a cost which the country could not possibly have stood except for a comparatively short time; they also involved continual friction between government departments and the wage-earners whom

they employed,

and their general results

were so unsatisfactory that it is now a commonplace, even among labour leaders who are most anxious to nationalize industry, that whatever happens “ bureaucratic control”? must not be allowedto take charge. “ Government departments are in the worst of bad odours just now, and nothing which seemed to involve an extension of bureaucracy would have a chance at the polls ”— so writes Mr. Gerald Gould, one of the latest exponents of socialist ambitions, in The Coming Revolution in Great Britain, published in 1920. How it is possible te organize nationalized industry without burcaucratic control has not yet been shown. Nationalization.—The nearest attempt at solving this problem is made by the syndicalists and guild socialists, who do so by

giving the nation remarkably little to say in the conduct of industry. Syndicalism in fact seems, as far as one can make out from the shadowy sketchcs that are obtainable of the desires of its champions, to ignore the state altogether. It proposes that the workers in any industry should seize the industry’s capital equipment for themselves and work it for themselves. It is difficult to see how such a scheme could possibly be worked in practice. With each industry its own master there does not seem to be any means of arriving at any common denominator for the exchange of their products, that is to say, of arriving at 4 price, and the question of the provision of further capital seems to have been Ieft out altogether. Guild socialism seems to be an attempt to reconcile syndicalism and state socialism and to arrive at a working compromise by a compound of the two. Unfortunately, its schemes as at present expounded seem rather more likely to suffer from a mixture of the drawbacks of both systems. he guild socialists consider that the capital equipment of industry should be owned by the state, but that the whole organization of industry, the decision as to what is to be produced, and the control of the product, are to be in the hands of those who work in it with brain or with hand. Here again we have the difficulty as to how we are to arrive at a means of exchange between one guild and another. If the shirt-making guild thinks that its members ought to get a pair of boots in exchange for two shirts, while the boot-making industry thinks that a pair of boots ought to be exchanged for three shirts, who is to decide between them and what power is to enforce decision? In the exceedingly vague sketches of the guild systems that have been produced by their champions, some attempts have been made to answer these questions. It is suggested that there would have to be a guild parliament representing all the guilds, a state parliament representing the consumers, and apparently yet another parliament which is to settle matters when these two parliaments cannot agree. Obviously there are materials here for economic chaos. It is true that if everybody worked with a perfectly angelic spirit such a system might possibly be able to carry on the work of production, but if everybody had an angelic spirit any system, even capitalism, would also be highly successful. But the guild socialists have to admit that, if any particular guild which was strong enough chose to hold a pistol at the head of the rest of the community by refusing to work except on its own terms, serious difficulty would arise. In fact, some of its more candid advocates have stated frankly that the wage-earners might conceivably be @ good deal worse off under guild socialism; but they seem to

think that a diminution in their actual contro! of goods and comforts would be more than compensated by the greater freedom they would enjoy, and by the feeling that they were no longer working to profit a private capitalist. Economic Tyranny,—How much truth is therein this claim for the greater freedom to be enjoyed by the wage-earners under guild socialism? One of the principles on which its champions most strongly insist is that production and the control of the product are to be in the hands of the guildsmen themselves, and that, consequently, they will be able to insist on producing goods which they think should be produced, rather than goods which consumers would prefer to consume. One of their champions, Mr. G. D. H. Cole, even goes so far as to mention the right to “ choose whether they will make well or ill ” as one of the things which must be secured for the workers under guild socialism. Certainly the right to work well or ill is a very large extension of freedom of a kind, but is it likcly to react in favour of freedom in the fullest sense of the word? As industry is now organized under the principle of the division of labour, every one of us produces or helps to produce one article or fraction of one article, but we consume hundreds of articles. Economic freedom, that is to say, freedom to provide ourselves with such goods as we should like to consume, thus seems to be much more real under capitalism,

which gives us the right to spend our wages and salaries as we please, than it would be under state socialism or guild socialism. State socialism would tell us what work to do and what goods to consume; and guild socialism, though apparently leaving to us, when once members of a guild, the right to decide along with our fellows concerning the goods that we will produce, and also as to whether we will work well or iil, would nevertheless leave us dependent upon the decisions of the other guilds as to what kind of goods they chose to produce, and upon the inclination to work well or to meet our demands with shoddy and ill-made

commodities. Since this is the kind of freedom which is held out to the wage-earners under these rival systems, there certainly scems to be good reason why they should think many times before taking a leap in the dark by adopting them. Capitalism and Progress-—Such are the doubts and difficulties that face us when we contemplate the practical working of any alternative so far suggested to capitalism. For it, on the other hand, we can at least claim that, with all its faults, it has achieved a marvellous improvement in the command of man over natural forces; and has produced an enormously greater amount of wealth, which has been distributed, though m a manner which leaves a good deal to be desired, over a greatly increased population. Along with this purely material improvement there has proceeded a great expansion in education, sanitation and social reform. Capitalism can certainly lay no direct claim to the whole of this expansion, a great deal of which has been brought about, in spite of the opposition of the propertied classes, by a few enthusiasts, educational and scientific; but capitalism can fairly claim that these enthusiasts could not-have done their work if there had not been available the surplus supply of wealth which “was called into being by the efforts of private enterprise working with the incentive of profit. A noted labour leader has recently said that capitalism has made England a “C.3” nation. But this description is more rhetorical than accurate. England’s achievements by land and sea, during the World War, and likewise those of her Allies and enemies, who had also developed their resources under a capitalistic system, were such as to astonish those who had anticipated that the drift of the populations into great towns, and their occupation under sedentary conditions, would make it difficult to find armies who could fight with the spirit in which armies fought in former days. In fact, armies were produced in proportion to the population on a scale previously undreamt of, and fought an almost continuous battle for four years, showing unprecedented courage under conditions that no armies had hitherto becn asked to facce. The spirit and physical power of the countries which have grown into material greatness under the capitalistic system certainly show no sign of demoralization. At the same time it is true, as has already been admitted, that the blot of destitution is one which has-to he

CAPORETTO, erased from the record of capitalism before it can claim to have produced a system which is really worthy of what is called civilization. If capitalism is to continue it will clearly have to remedy this evil and others which have already been mentioned. The

BATTLE OF

571

can be no doubt that the existence of these huge fortunes, accumulating and being passed on, are a source of great bitterness among the classes which do not possess them. Much might

be donc to alleviate this bitterness if all the owners of this wealth, and not only a certain number of them, were careful to make a are fully aware that these things have to be remedied. In fact more public-spirited use of it. It is true that they owe it to the the change of attitude on this point among employers in recent work and exertions of others who have passed on this wealth to years almost amounts toa revolution, though there are still too them, but this is only partially so. A large part of it they really many obstructive exceptions. Associations formed for the face- owe to the existence of an ordered society providing a market and to-face discussion of these points by employers and employed are outlet for the efforts of those who accumulate the wealth and a already common, and, on the side of the employers, it is certainly machinery for investing it and rceinvesting it, and so increasing true that (perhaps under the spur of self-interest) they are carn- it from generation to generation, From this point of view a estly trying to repair the weaknesses in the system which they large part of their great wealth they owe to the community in have to work. Their difficulty is to know what it is that labour which they live, and the assumption that it is their own to do really wants; what concessions can be made which will induce what they like with is a dangerous one which will cost them dear if put into practice too logically. It is possible, however, that labour to work the capitalistic system with hearty codperation. Improved conditions, higher wages, and greater influence on _this evil may be cured, at Icast to a great extent, by the developproblems of management, the best of them are more than ready “ment of death duties and inheritance taxes, which seems likely to grant if only they can secure in return for them active work to be an increasingly important part of the fiscal arrangements during the time when the manual labourers are engaged on their of civilized nations in time tocome. Here again, however, there job, and the renunciation of the policy of the restriction of out- is danger that if this remedy is exercised too freely the process put. It would appear from the utterances of those: who consider of accumulation which is required to provide the community. themselves entitled to speak for labour, such as Mr. Sidney with capital for fresh enterprise may be dangerously checked, Webb and Mr. Cole in England, that labour has made up its For the evil of huge fortunes is balanced by the fact that it is mind that it is not going to work in future to put profits into largely from them that accumulations of new capital on a great the pockets of private employers; in other words, it is determined scale are effected; and it is highly dangerous to diminish them to end the capitalistic system. Whether the rank and file of by the use of the fiscal weapon, before the duty of saving and. accumulating has been effectually brought home to those classes manual workers have really adopted this extreme view may very well be doubted, but they are extremely likely to adopt it of the community which are now accustomed to spend all that

- leading spirits among those who are interested in its maintenance

unless they can be granted greater security. This is certainly a demand on the part of the manual worker which will have to

be met by capitalism if it is to survive.

‘The anxicties of the

ordinary manual worker, who does not know how soon he may

be told that he is no longer wanted at his job, should always be present in the minds of the employers, and if the schemes now being mooted by which every industry should make itself responsible for its own unemployed can be brought into practical

they earn or reccive,

Need of Extended Capitalism by Savings—The efforts made in England and Amcrica and elsewhere, during the war, to try to induce everybody to save for victory have had effects which astonished those who were most closely acquainted with the thriftlessness of ordinary human nature (see SAVINGS MOVEMENT). Long before then the codperative movement had already devel-

effect, there can be no doubt that one of the worst evils of

oped a new and very interesting form of capitalism among the wage-earning classes. Codperation is sometimes described by its

capitalism will have been abolished,

own champions as an effort directed to the overthrow of private

Another reform on which the manual workers seem likely

capitalism, but it is in fact merely a variation of it. Codperation

to insist is a clearer statement of the costs and profits of industry. At present the accounts published by joint stock companies usually only succeed in making darkness visible. Labour has so often been misled as to the capacity of industry to stand concessions to it, that employers will be well advised to produce a more scientific system of accounting, by which they can be able to prove to demonstration what the truc costs of industry really are, how much is required for depreciation and upkeep,

assembles the shillings and pounds of the wage-earners and puts them into productive and distributive industry, especially the

how much goes to labour and management and how much is taken by capital. 7 .

As to the sordid ugliness with which capitalism is usually

charged, everyone who has visited’an English north-country industrial town must admit that the system in its craving for cheap production has ignored many things which make life

tolerable for those who work for it, and has therein shown only another example of short-sightedness for which it now has to pay. Even on this point, however

one feels a certain doubt. whether

any alternative scheme of state socialism or guild socialism

would provide the community with the necessary leisure and surplus wealth that could be devoted to the beautification of the country which adopted it, as is too usually assumed, If everybody is to have a nice house and live in pleasant surroundings, production has to be organized so as to be not only comfortable for those who are engaged in it, but efficient in the matter of out~ put. And, on this subject, as has already been shown, there is good reason to doubt the efficiency of alternative schemes.

Inherited W ealth.—Another of the weaknesses of the capitalistic system is the power that it gives to owners of wealth to continue

to accumulate it and pass it on to their heirs and assigns, with the result that a class is created which is able to live in great

luxury on the past efforts of their ancestors, relatives, or friends, without making any cffort to justify their own existence. There

latter, with marked success. The division of the profits is effected on different lines, those of the retail shops being divided among the purchasers in accordance with the amount of their purchases. So far its successes have been won on a somewhat narrow field,

but there is no reason why they should not go ahead at a greatly accelerated pace as the higher earnings of the workers give them a larger margin available for saving. If this tendency could be continued,—ifgood work, rapid production, and high wages could

be accompanied by individually small accumulations of capital by the great mass of the wage-earners, and if they could thus be

induced to become not only wage-carners but themselves also capitalists, and if, at the same time, the large capitalists could be induced to see that the use they make of their incomes and of their leisure is a matter which concerns the community as well as

themselves,—then it might be possible to arrive at a state of affairs in which every worker was a capitalist and every capitalist a worker, and capitalism, shorn of many of its worst evils, might work miracles of industrial production. Authorities —Gustav Cassel, The Nature and Necessity of Interest

(1906); Prof. Shick| Nicholson, The Revival of. Marxism (1920); Philip Snowden, Socialism and Syndicalism (1913); J. Ramsay

Macdonald, The Socialist Movement (1911); G. D. H. Cole, SelfGovernment in Industry (1917); Reckitt and Bechhofer, The Meaning of National Guilds (1918, 2nd ed. 1920); Harold Cox, Economic Liberty (1920); H. Withers, Zhe Case for Capitalism (1920); Gerald

Gould, The Coming Revolution in Great Britain (1920); Hugh Dalton,to The Inequality of Incomes (1920); J. G. Brooks, Labor's Challenge (H. W.) the Social Order (1920).

CAPORETTO,

BATTLE OF.—The Italian offensive! of Aug

Sept. 1917 had reduced Boroevié’s armies to the limit of resist1See generally under ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS,

572

CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF

ance, so much so that, as Ludendorff records, “ the responsible military and political authorities of the Dual Monarchy were

convinced that they would not be able to stand a continuation of the battle and a twelfth attack on the Isonzo. ... In the middle of Sept. it became necessary to decide for the attack on Italy in order to prevent the collapse of Austria-Hungary.” Though the Italian advance on the Bainsizza plateau had come so near to a definite break through, it had left the Italian II. Army badly placed for defence. South of Tolmino the Aug. fighting had bitten out a wide salient on the Bainsizza plateau. North of Tolmino the Italians were still in the positions they had occupied early in the campaign, among the mountains on the left bank of the Isonzo, with comparatively little room between the trenches and the river. Neither sector of the line was satisfactory for defence, and on the Bainsizza there had been little time to make adequate preparations, because of the rocky nature of the ground. But the real weakness of the situation was due to the enemy’s possession of the Tolmino bridgehead.

The bridgehead itsclf was strong, as it did not form a salient, the Austrian line running nearly due N. and S. from the great ridge of Rudeci Rob (6,250 ft.) by Mrzli and Vodil Vrh to the high hills of the Lom plateau, N. of the Bainsizza.

The bridge-

head was well protected by these flanking bastions, and for this reason it made an excclent point of departure for an attack. The ridges in front of it rose steeply, and were strongly held by the Italians, whose position, however, suffered from two grave drawbacks. In the first place it'was impossible to support the defence by direct flanking fire against attacking troops; in the

second place, there was little depth in the lines traced on the Zagradan-Jeza ridge, which fell rapidly to the head of the Judrio valley and the glens which carry the minor streams between the Judrio and the Natisone. There was a clear difference of opinion on the Italian side as to the best way of meeting the forthcoming attack. Cadorna was convinced that he had to stand on the defensive, the more so as he was uncertain in which sector of the Julian front the chief blow would fall, but his instructions naturally included and recommended vigorous local counter-attacks. Capello, who commanded the II. Army, did not like the idea of the defensive. His army was in the main aligned for attack. Preparations

been prevalent in the valleys of the Natisone and the Judrio; and he had enough guns, in spite of the withdrawal of the Allied artillery, though he would doubtless have been glad of a larger reserve. Between Monte Rombon and Monte San Gabriele, Capello had some 2,200 guns and nearly 800 trench mortars. North of Tolmino the line on the left bank of the Isonzo was held by Cavaciocchi’s IV. Corps, whose left wing held the

Plezzo basin and was in contact with the Carnia Force on

Monte Rombon. Next came Badoglio’s XXVII. Corps, whose left wing, the roth Div.,, raised to the strength of an army corps, held the lines opposite Tolmino. The other three divisions which completed the XX VII. Corps were across the river S. of the Lom plateau. Behind the 46th and roth Divs., on the mountains W, of the Isonzo, lay the VII. Corps, newly reconstituted with units from other corps, and commanded by Gen. Buongiovanni. On the right of the XXVII., holding the line as far as the Sella di Dol between Monte Santo and Monte San Gabriele, were Caviglia’s XXIV. Corps and Albricci’s II, Corps, each of three divisions, with the XIV. Corps in immediate reserve, The Gorizia sector, from Monte Santo to the Vippacco, was occupied by the VI. Corps (Gatti) and the VIII. (Grazioli). South of the Vippacco the Duke of Aosta’s III. Army had three corps (seven divisions) in line—XJI., XIII., and XXIII. The weak point of the Italian line was the Tolmino sector, the weakest part of this sector was at the junction of the XXVII. Corps (roth Div.) with the IV. (46th Div.), and the weakest position of all was that held by the right of the 46th Div., who

were clinging to the slopes of Mrzli Vrh, completely dominated by the enemy, and badly off for communications with their neighbours. The Tolmino sector was chosen for the main enemy attack, and here, owing to a complex of circumstances, the Austro-German forces won a success that led to @ great Italian disaster. In anticipation of the main drive in this direction, the Ii. Army reserves (XXVIII. Corps and various other units) were lying N. of Cormons, while three divisions under the direct control of Cadorna waited between Cormons and Cividale, at the foot of the valleys that run down S.W. from the threatened point. A further general reserve consisting of the XXV. (four

had been made for a continuation of the offensive which had

divisions) and XXX, Corps (two divisions) lay about Palmanova, ready to be sent N. or E., according as the fighting developed. The Italian preparations were much handicapped by the

been broken off in Sept., and it was not possible, given the difficulty of communications and the risk of imminent attack, to take up those positions best adapted for defence. He felt,

of the II. Army was seriously unwell, and though he had the assistance of Gen. Montuori, who was brought to Army Head-

in addition, that opposite the Tolmino bridgehead he had lifule

quarters from the II. Corps, the II. Army undoubtedly suffered

illnéss of Capello. From the beginning of Oct. the commander

room for defence, and he was anxious to anticipate the encmy’s much from Capello’s physical unfitness, Montuori had only move by an attack N.E. from his positions on the Bainsizza taken command of the H. Corps a few weeks before; he had plateau. In this idea he had the support of more than one of come from the Asiago uplands and knew little or nothing of his corps commanders, but Cadorna thought, and it is difficult ‘the II. Army front. On Oct. 20 Capello left for Padua, in the to meet his reasoning, that he could not throw in the forces hope of securing a short rest, leaving Montuori in command. necessary for such an attack when he was uncertain as to the

His rest lasted less than two days; for when the immincnce

direction of the forthcoming blow. His first news from the enemy side spoke of an attack against his new lines on the

of the enemy attack was confirmed by two deserting enemy officers, of Rumanian nationality, he returned to resume his command, reaching Cormons late on the night of Oct. 22. The main attack came in the direction anticipated, between Monte Rombon and S. of Tolmino, and was conducted by a

Bainsizza.

Later came the report of a more general attack,

“from Plezzo to the sea.” The enemy believed that Cadorna

had been deceived by demonstrations made in the Trentino, and their belief was fortified by news that he was sending guns westward. But these were the French and British heavy. guns (nearly 200 in number), which had been withdrawn when he stated that he could not renew his offensive, and a number of batteries now restored to the Trentino front, which had been stripped for the earlier fighting.

Cadorna was still preoccupied about the moral of his troops, and he made careful inquiries on this point, which received very satisfactory replies. He was especially anxious as the units which had suffered heavily during the last offensive were but newly filled with fresh drafts, and he had found reason before to fear the influence of some of the men fresh from the depots. But the answers of his’ corps commanders were thoroughly reassuring. He had enough men, though a number of his units were below strength, while others were battle-worn and others

again had suffered much. from an intestinal disease that had

mixed German and Austrian army under Gen. Otto von Below.

The army, which was known as the XIV. Army, consisted of nine Austrian divisions and seven German, divided into four “ groups.” The northern group of four divisions (three Austrian

and one German Jäger) was commanded by Krauss, who had been called back from the Bukovina. Next came a group of three

divisions

(one Austrian

and

two

German) under the

German von Stein, and a group of two German divisions under the German von Berrer. South of these two central groups was a mixed group under the Austrian von Scotti (commander

of the Austrian XV. Corps). This group consisted of one German and two Austrian divisions. Behind these, E. of Tolmino, lay four divisions in reserve, at Below’s immediate disposaL Boroević had 2o divisions in his two “ Isonzo” Armies between Auzza and the sea. Below and Henriquez (IL, Isonzo Army) had some 2,500 guns and 500 trench mortars,

CAPORRETTO, BATTLE OF The bombardment began at two o’clock on the morning of

Oct. 24, in wild autumn weather. There was a drizzle of snow

on the high ridges, rain below, and mist everywhere. The bombardment opened with a shower of gas shells, mainly directed against the artillery positions. It was only later that a very heavy fire was opened on the trench lines and upon all the zone to the rear of them. Towards dawn the fire died down, and it was thought on some parts of the defending front that the bad weather had counselled a delay in the attack. The wind had risen, the rain was blown in sheets, and the snow was whirling thickly on the mountains. But the attackers were to make skilful use of the weather conditions.

Only on Monte-

Rombon, on Krauss’s extreme right, an attack in conjunction with the left wing of Krobatin’s X. Army had to be given u owing to the snow. .

573

in the mist (they were being heavily shelled), and the VII. Corps, of which the 3rd Div. was waiting on the Kolovrat ridge, appears

to have been equally unconscious of the course of the battle.

Meanwhile the Alpenkorps, Berrer’s two divisions, and Scotti’s right wing were breaking up Badoglio’s left, while the latter’s right, across the river, and Caviglia’s XXIV. Corps were being strongly attacked by Scotti’s left and the right wing of Henriquez’s II. Isonzo Army. The attack from Tolmino was carried out with skill, speed and resolution, and by a capital error which has never been satisfactorily explained the Italian guns remained silent until too late. Definite orders had been given both by Cadorna and by Capello that immediately upon the opening of the enemy’s bombardment the Italian artillery should reply with a fire of “ counter-preparation ” upon the enemy’s trenches and zones of concentration, and that they

Krauss’s main attack was a straight drive through the Italian

should lay down a violent barrage as soon as there were signs of movement. This order was not carried out as intended, The

first rush, so that he could reach without delay the great ridge

backing the 19th Div., were apparently ordered to hold their

lines in the Plezzo basin, his first objective the Saga defile. But he calculated that this position, too, must be carried in the of the Stol (6,467 ft.), which stood athwart a further direct advance. For this attack he detailed the 22nd Schiitzen Div., followéd immediately by a Kaiserjiger and a Kaiser-

schiitzen batt., which were to go straight for the Stol, and by six battalions of the 3rd (Edelweiss) Div., which were to make for the Val Fella by way of the Val d’Ucosa. Krauss’s left-hand division, the ssth (Bosnian), attacked the Vrsich-Vrata ridge, with the object of breaking through to the Isonzo and Caporetto. Krauss’s main drive, after hard fighting, broke through the

three lines held by the soth Italian Div. in the Plezzo basin,

but the attacking troops were checked at the Saga defile, where

the Isonzo turns at right angles round the end of the Polounik

ridge, When evening fell the position was still in the hands of the Italians, but the battle had gone badly for the defenders further south, and a retreat to the Stol became necessary. Krauss’s Bosnians had met with no success against the left wing of the Italian 43rd Div., being driven back by counterattacks after capturing the front lines, but Stein’s group had car-

ried all before it. Stein opened his attack with his right wing, the Austrian soth Div., at 7:30 A.M., attacking the Italian 46th between Monte Nero and Vodil Vrh, Alittle later the Bavarian Alpenkorps, advancing from Tolmino, attacked the ridges below the Passo di Zagradan, while Berrer and Scotti attacked farther south. When both Stein’s initial attacks were under way, the rath Silesian Div., under the command of Gen. von Lequis,

guns of the IV, and XXVII.

Corps, and particularly those

fire till the word of command came from Corps headquarters. The word did not come to the battcrics until too late, some never received it at all. The heavy mist, and the fact that the weight of the enemy bombardment had worked great destruction among the telephone wires, combined to prevent any effective reply on the part of the Italian guns. When the guns began,

their fire was fitful, uncertain, blind, and they were too late. The enemy’s attack had already developed when-the Italian

guns opencd on his trenches, Taken by surprise, puzzled by the comparative silence of their own guns and blinded by the mist, the troops of the r9th Div. opposed only a weak resistance

to the Austro-German attack. They were heavily outnumbered, but they held strong positions which should have enabled them to delay the encmy advance until the reserves could come into play. Some of the troops fought with all their old stubbornness, but others gave themselves up or abandoned the trenches when the enemy columns came out of the mist. Henriquez’s attack on the Bainsizza plateau, although it met with some initial success, was readily repulsed, and Badoglio’s troops captured several hundred prisoners in a strong counterattack. Badoglio had hoped to hold the. enemy attack from Tolmino, and turn the scale by a counter-attack on the Lom plateau with his three divisions on the left bank of the river. He seems to have had the idea of doing on a smaller scale what

Capello had wished to do in large, and it certainly appears as

Lequis attacked in two columns,

though he had kept his left unduly weak in the hope of being

for Caporetto, where, it was hoped, he would join with Krauss’s

lettcr Cadorna’s order that the greater part of the forces belonging to the XXVII. Corps should be brought back to the right

was sent in between them.

one on each side of the river, with instructions to drive straight

Bosnians. Both columns were completely successful. The righthand column, aided by the strong attacks of the Austrian soth Div., pierced the extreme right of the Italian 46th on the E. bank of the river and pushed N.W. with all speed. On the opposite bank the attack was equally successful. The Alpenkorps

were making good headway on the slopes above the road, where the Taro brigade, surpriscd in the mist, made a feeble resistance, and Lequis’s left-hand column quickly reached the Italian second line, where the valley narrows below the hamlet of Foni.

able to deal a heavy counter-blow.

Hf he had obeyed in the

bank of the Isonzo (the r9th Div. and its reserves counted five

battalions more than the three divisions across the river), it can hardly be said that the spirit*of the order was carried out, In any case, Badoglio was not afforded the chance of attempting any such manœuvre as he may have had in mind. It was Jong before he received any news of how the day was going on the front of the roth Div., and from the beginning of the action he was unable to communicate with his divisions on the left bank of

the river. Telephones had broken down; the mist prevented

This line, running up to Monte Plezia, had been held, until the eve of the battle, by a Bersaglieri brigade which formed the extreme right wing of the IV. Corps, but at the last moment this sector was transferred to the command of the XXVII. Corps, the Bersaglieri were given to Cavaciocchi as an additional

signalling, and despatch riders do not seem to have been employed. It was not until the afternoon that Badoglio heard that his front lines were gone and his main positions threatened. . He knew nothing of the break through in the valley and had no

reserve, and Badoglio reccived the Napoli brigade for the purpose

news from the IV. Corps.

of holding this important point. Only onc battalion, however, was placed on Monte Plezia; the rest of this regiment (the 76th) lay at Passo di Zagradan, high upon the ridge to the west, and the other regiment of the brigade (the 75th), together with the brigade command, was nearly three m. away, on the western

slopes below Zagradan. The single battalion, of which only a platoon was down by the river, seems to bave been taken completely by surprise. It was run over by the German attack, and the Silesians proceeded on their way up the valley practically

unnoticed. The rest of the regiment had seen and heard nothing

In a message sent to Army Head-

quarters at 4 P.M., he reported the enemy success south of

Jeza, but said that he had no news from the commands of the toth Div. and the troops farther N., and that he was unable

to communicate with anyone. By 4 P.M. Lequis’s Silesians were approaching Caporetto, The left-hand column was unmolested by the troops of Buongiovanni’s VII. Corps, which were lying too far back and were very slow in coming on the scene. The right-hand column, which had cut in behind the Italian 43rd Diy., was making the

task of the Austrian soth comparatively easy, and brushing.

CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF

574

aside the spasmodic opposition of such small detachments as

The right wing of the roth was still holding on Globocak and had

came in its way.

been reénforced by the yst Bersaglieri Brigade; Alpine troops still held a line down to the river, though they had been driven off their original positions on Krad Vrh, and troops of the 64th

The Austro-German advance was facilitated

by the fact that Cavaciocchi had filled his front lines too full, and sent all his reserves across the river, in immediate support of the 43rd and 46th Divisions.

When Lequis was approaching

Caporetto Cavaciocchi had nothing in hand but a squadron of cavalry and once battalion of infantry which had not yet reached its destination E. of the river. For some hours previously Cavaciocchi had been calling on the VII. Corps, but Buongiovanni was very slow, not without excuse. His Corps was a scratch formation; his original left-hand division had been broken up two days before to strengthen the IV. and XXVII. Corps, and the 62nd, which had been assigned to him in its stead, was only moving up to take its place N. of the ard, already aligned, but too far back, on the ridge running N.W. from the Passo di Zagradan.

A further difficulty was that no

definite plan of action had been agreed on between Cavaciocchi, Buongiovanni and Badoglio, whose close codpceration was clearly necessary, Or, if a plan had been made, it was one which had been completely upset by the rapid successes of the enemy. In fact, as has been shown already, Badoglio had little idea of how the fight was going on his front; Buongiovanni was in the dark regarding the general situation except for the calls which

came from Cavaciocchi; and Cavaciocchi, who saw his own danger, had played. his cards too soon, and had nothing left. Krauss records the satisfaction he felt when he observed that the additional troops given to the IV. Corps on the eve of the

battle were sent forward instead of being held in reserve, By the evening the situation was very favourable to the attacking forces.

Stein was pouring troops through the breach

made by the Silesians, and was making good headway with the soth Austrian division on their right, while the Alpenkorps, Berrer and Scotti had broken through the lines opposite Tolmino,

and in several places had gained the high ridge dominating the head of the Judrio valley. Krauss was still held up at Saga and on Polounik, and the Bosnians had gained no more

ground.

But the break-through between Tolmino and Caporetto had made these positions untenable. At Cividale, where Capello had his headquarters, and at the

Comando Supremo in Udine, the first news that came from the

IV. Corps and the absence of news from the XXVIII. made a

grave impression. Capello sent up the army reserves by the valley roads, and dispatched Montuori to direct the “ left wing ” (the IV. and VII, Corps). This was a step which might with advantage have been taken earlier; indeed, the II. Army might well have been further divided and, if necessary, made into an army group. It was too large, and covered too wide a front, for a single army command. By evening the magnitude of the initial enemy success was clear, though it was not yct clear to what extent the whole Italian left wing was crumblfng, There seemed good reason to

hope that the advance might be blocked in the narrow valleys west of the Isonzo. But by nightfall both the IV. Corps and the toth Div. were practically broken in pieces.

Saga had to be

abandoned owing to the break farther S., and the soth Div., or what was left of it, retired into the Val d’Uccca and on to the ridge of the Stol, which was reached later by the remnants of the 43rd, who had held their own bravely, but were in great part cut off when they attempted to come back across . the Isonzo, A gallant detachment (Alpini and dctails of the Etna brigade), finding retreat impossible, held out for days on

Monte Nero till the battle.had gone far to the W., and all their food and ammunition were gone. The 46th Div. was practically destroyed, many having surrendered when they found the enemy at their backs, and others having joined the masscs of supply service troops which were now filling the roads,

The

62nd Div. (VII. Corps) was beginning to be attacked at Luico, while its left was extending to occupy Monte

Matajur and

join hands with the 53rd, which had been dispatched by Capello

were being brought back from the left bank to strengthen this line. It was obvious that the positions on the Bainsizza could

not be maintained.

Capello had already transferred Badoglio’s

division beyond the river to the command of the XXIV. Corps (Caviglia), and the order had been given to Caviglia and Albricci to withdraw their troops to their main lines of defence and to

the former to prepare for a retreat across the Isonzo. | _ At this moment the most dangerous point appeared to be the extreme left wing, where the soth Div. had lost touch with the Carnia force, and only the Potenza brigade, of three regiments, but much weakened by disease, was available as a reserve. And the Potenza brigade was wanted farthersouth. Two Alpine groups were already on the way to this critical point, having been dispatched the day before, but it was clear that Krauss would try to push through by this route, the shortest way to the Tagliamento. ‘Lhe occupation of Caporetto threatened to open another route nearly as short, but the possession of Monte Maggiore and the Stol, together with Monte Matajur, gave good. hope that the advance of the enemy might be quickly brought to a halt when it had outrun the protecting fire of ils own guns.. Cadorna ordered the Carnia force to occupy Monte Maggiore. and block the Val d’Uceca “ at all costs,” and sent up a division to support the troops on‘the Stol. He gave orders for resistance

to be made on. three successive lines, but all of these radiated from Monte Maggiore, which was the key position. He gave orders for resistance on these lines, but at the same time he directed that plans and orders should be drawn up for a general retreat to the Tagliamento. This was a precaution only; at the moment, though the situation looked grave, there seemed little reason to doubt the capacity of the II. Army, and the reserves already under way, to stem the cnemy’s offensive. i Next morning Cadorna warned the Duke of Aosta of the danger of the situation, and directed him to send his less mobile

heavy artillery W. of the Piave and prepare for a retreat beyond the Tagliamento. Tassoni, whọ commanded the Carnia force, was also directed to prepare for a withdrawal of his troops. The news on the morning of Oct. 25 was increasingly grave. Krauss was pressing upon the Stol; and finding a weak resistance; the Potenza brigade was falling back from Creda; Monte

Matajur had fallen, practically undefended.. Other positions were scriously threatened, and there was no confidence that they would be held, For it-was now known in Cividale and Udine that the behaviour of some of the troops had been very unsatisfactory, that men of some units had been quick to surrender, while others had retreated before they were heavily attacked.

And this unexpected lack of spirit was communicating itself to some of the reserves.

These had a difficult task in getting to’

the scene of action, for as they marched up the narrow mountain roads they were met by ever-increasing masses of fugitives, the bulk of these belonging to the non-combatant

services, The

confusion and congestion on the roads may be estimated from the fact that in the area of the IV, Corps alone the number of non-combatant troops exceeded 30,000. Somchow the word went round, among combatanis and non-combatants alike, ‘thet the. war was over and that there was nothing to do but“ go home.” Perhaps thecry was raised by.enemy troops disguised in Italian uniforms, for some of these were found; more probably it was started by some who had drunk in the Socialist catchwords, pronounced by. the deputy, Signor Treves: “ This winter no

one must be in the trenches”; who had believed the promise that if they Jaid down their arms the enemy would do like-, wise. It was an extraordinary case of collective deception,

which hastened the break-up of Capello’s whole left wing. A gallant resistance was stiJl being made at various points, notably at Luico and Globocak, but the enemy had broken

to block the Natisone valley. The 3rd Div. was still in iis old through. at several positions of vital importance, and, as has position, but it was now being attacked in front and its right was been said, the reserves were becoming entangled in the crowds. uncovered by the defeat and practical destruction of the roth. | of fugitives, and some of them were becoming infected. On the-

CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF

5795

afternoon of Oct. 25 Capello, who could fight no more against an illness to which he ought perhaps to have given in sooner, and had been told by the chief medical officer of the army that he

not spare troops or material to make an unlimited effort on the Italian front, and the unexpectedly weak resistance of the

must resign his command, proposed to Cadorna an immediate

tions of those who were bound not to take too many risks.’ Krauss himself admits that if the Italians had held the Stol in strength his own move would have been frustrated.

retreat to the Tagliamento, His argument was that it was useless to send in more reserves to the chaos among the hills west of the Isonzo; that the only way to remedy the situation was to withdraw the bulk of the armies “ from close contact with the enemy under the protection of vigorous rearguard actions,” and so make possible the organization of a solid defence and eventual counter-attack. Cadorna agreed as to the probable necessity of retreat, but he was doubtful as to whether it should be immediate. He felt that unless he could delay the enemy advance down the Natisone and Judrio valleys by more than a mere rearguard action he ran the risk of having his centre and right, and all the mass of troops in the Udine plain, cut off from. his bases. Montuori, who now succeeded Capello in command of the IT. Army, was of opinion that he could hold on a line from Monte Maggiore to Monte Carnizza and thence across the valleys to Monte Korada. Cadorna decided to attempt the further stand, and, as the IT. Army was obviously too large for movement, the left wing was given to Gen. Etna, late of the XXX. Corps, and the right to Gen. Ferrero, late of the XVI., while Gen. Sagramoso, who commanded the XIV. Corps, in reserve on the Isonzo, was charged with the duty of organizing a.reserve line of defence on the river Torre. ‘Tassoni, Di Robilant (IV. Army) and the Duke of Aosta were. all warned to hold themselves in readiness for retreat, Di Robilant being told to send his big guns at once W. of the Piave to between Pederobba. and Montebelluna. The VIII, Corps was detached from the II. Army and given to the Duke of Aosta, who was already forming a reserve line on the westcrn rim of the Carso, preparatory to the withdrawal of his main body.. Gen. Di Giorgio was sent

northward, with two divisions from the gencral rescrve, to occupy both banks of the Tagliamento in the region of Pinzano. Cadorna hoped to hold, for a time at least, but at midnight on Oct. 26 he was wakened to hear the news that Monte Maggiore had fallen. He at once drew up the orders for a general retreat beyond the Tagliamento, and his plans were already matured for the longer retreat, across the Piave, which he foresaw would probably be .nccessary. Next day the weak resistance of the H. Army rearguards and the increasing number of disbanded soldicrs confirmed his impressions. He saw, too, that there. was, literally, no room to bring the II. Army back in good order. He was determined to keep the southern roads clear for the II. Army, and this meant that the retiring units of the

II. Army would be so hampered. by disbanded soldiers and fugitive civilians that most of them could scarcely hope to get back as units. In the circumstances he had to count out the greater part of the II. Army and fall back on a line that could be held by a smaller number of troops. It was only to gain time that he attempted a stand on the Tagliamento. Provisional orders and plans for a retirement to the Piave were issued on Oct. 29. The mournful retreat began on Oct. 27, and the prospects were rendered still more serious by the fact that the Tagliamento came down in sudden and violent flood. ‘Fhe

fords could not be used; several existing bridges were carried away, and attempts to throw new bridges were unsuccessful. The danger of losing more men and guns on the retreat became

still greater.

Fortunately for Italy, and for the cause of the Entente, the Germans and Austrians were, in part at least, outrunning their

transport. Krauss complains that only he and Krafft von Delmensingen, Below’s chicf-of-staff, had been inspired by adequate ambitions for the attack. The objective had becn Cividale, or, at best, the Tagliamento. Krafft thought they should have had the Adige in view. Krauss expressed the opinion that the real objective should have been Lyons. Without taking Krauss’s aspirations too seriously, it may well be believed that if the German and Austrian Commands had worked out a bigger plan they would have done even more than they did do. But the transport difficulties were very great; Germany could

Italian II. Army could hardly have entered into the calcula-

Krauss, Stcin, Berrer and Scotti were very quick in their pursuit, and Berrer paid for his haste with: his life. He was shot by an Italian carabiniere at the gates of Udine on Oct. 28, the day on which his advance guard cntered the town, less than 20 hours after Cadorna and his staff left for Treviso. His place was taken by Hofacher. The Italian covering troops were delaying the enemy advance, and giving time for the ILI. Army, fighting a strong rearguard action, to come back across the Tagliamento. Henriquez had difficult mountainous country to cross before he

reached the plain, and both he and Wurm were held up on the Isonzo, where the bridges had been destroyed by the retreating Italians. The critical days for the Italians were Oct. 30 and 31, when the pressure from the N. and E. threatened the flank and rear of the III. Army, whose task had been rendered more difficult’ by the fact that the permanent bridges at Casarsa had been blown up prematurely, owing to a false alarm. Many guns had to be left on the castern bank, including 46 heavy batteries, which had been brought all the way from the Bainsizza. The Tagliamento was falling, however, and a number of troops succecded in fording the river. It had been impossible to keep the Casarsa bridges for the IIL. Army, as several units of the H. and a large number of disbanded men had been forced down by the pressure from the north. But on the afternoon of Oct. 3r the Duke of Aosta was able to inform Cadorna that all of

his rearguard, with the exception of four brigades, who were holding a defensive bridgehead covering Madrisio, had passed

the Tagliamento.

The bulk of this rearguard crossed the same

evening, and only a small bridgehcad was held at Latisana. A considerable number of II. Army troops, having failed to cross the river at Casarsa, were coming down towards Latisana pursued by Scotti’s vanguard and threatened on the flank by Henriquez. Some of these succeeded in crossing at the Latisana bridges, but the enemy attacked in considerable force the following day, and a large number of Italians were cut off and taken prisoners. By the evening of Nov. 1, the left bank was

entirely in the possession of the Austro-German armies. Krauss tclls a remarkable story according to which both Below, with Scotti’s group, and later, Goiginger, with the right wing of Henriquez’s army, wished on reaching the Tagliamento to swing S., and cut off the Duke of Aosta’s army, which, Krauss maintains, was still some distance to the east. According to Krauss, Boroevié refused to allow Scotti to encroach

upon his line of march, and forbade Gen. Ludwig von Goiginger to come S. of the line marked out for the J]. Isonzo Army. But before Scotti was in a position to carry out the manmuvre which Below is reported to have proposed, the bulk of the Duke’s army y was already y across ihe Tagliamento, and his last four E

brigades were more than capable of dealing with anything Scotti could then bring against them. Before Goiginger was on the spot the whole of the HI. Army had passed the river and there were on the eastern bank only the broken troops who had come down from the N, in a last attempt to find a way across.

Krauss’s remark, that “ Boroevié had saved the Italian III. Army,” has no foundation. Boroevié knew more about the

I, Army than the “ German staff officers or Goiginger, who were Krauss’s authorities.”

Krauss also asserts that the man-

ceuvre would have led to the capture of the King of Italy and of Cadorna and bis staff, a statement for which, though furnished by “a neutral crowned head,” there are no grounds whatever, Cadorna did not expect to slay long on the Tagliamento, but he did hope to hold up the enemy long enough to give adequate time for the retreat of the Carnia force and the IV. Army, and to organize a strong defensive line on the Piave.

His weak

point was the stretch of the river W. of Tarcento, for which Krauss and Stein were making with all speed. Two divisions under Di Giorgio had been dispatched to hold this line, but

576

CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF

their march, at right angles to the line of the retreat and athwart the long streams of retiring troops and civilians, had been very difficult. Stein’s troops, however, failed to cross the Tagliamento, their attempts being repulsed with heavy loss. It was left to Krauss’s Bosnians, after vain attempts to ford the river, to cross by the half-broken railway bridge at Cornino, on the evening of Nov. 2. The Bosnians had crossed by nine o’clock, surprising and driving back the small detachment watching the bridge. The following morning Di Giorgio was strongly attacked

at Pinzano and Krauss established a sufficient bridgehead.

On Nov. 4 Di Giorgio’s left was pushed back still farther, endangering the line of retreat for the Carnia force divisions, and once more threatening the whole Italian line with envelopment from the north. For Stein was sending troops across to reénforce Krauss, and incidentally, according to Krauss, to claim the credit which was due to the Bosnians alone.

On the morning of Nov. 4 Cadorna ordered the retreat to the line of the Piave, and that night the troops holding the line of the Tagliamento resumed their march westward. Cadorna’s main preoccupation was now for the LV. Army, which had been slow in getting under way, and {íor the Carnia force. Di Robilant wished to hold on in Cadore, It was natural, perhaps, that he should not have realized fully and at once the urgent necessities of the situation, but his hesitation to act promptly in accordance with Cadorna’s instructions exposed him to the danger of having the retreat of his right wing cut off. For the safety of his route to the new positions assigned to his army depended now on the ability of the left wing of the worn-out II. Army to hold back the pressure of Stcin’s troops. Krauss’s group had been sent N.W. through the mountains to the Upper Piave, to establish contact with Krobatin’s X. Army and try once more to envelop the Italian left wing. This move cut off the greater part of Tassoni’s Carnia force, caught between Krauss and Krobatin. Di Giorgio’s force and the rest of the covering troops of the iI. Army slowed down the enemy advance, holding for some time on the Livenza and the Monticano, The HI. Army, to which the VI. Corps had now been attached, was coming back steadily, though Boroevic’s advance guards were giving little peace to its covering troops. Cadorna had intended to put the battered units of the IL. Army in reserve at once, to be reorganized and refitted; but the delay in the retreat of the IV. Army

made it necessary to keep the II. and XXIV. Corps as part of the river defence force, the II. Corps in line from the Vidor bridge to Norvesa, the XXIV. in reserve, both under the command of Di Robilant, to whom was to be entrusted the sector

from the Montello to ihe Brenta. The converging retreat of the IV. Army was being carried out with much skill, and Di Robilant’s

troops succeeded in bringing away

with them

a

great amount of material, but several detachments were cut off, including remnants of the Carnia force, which had been attached to the IV. Army for the latter part of the retreat. By Nov. 8 the bulk of the IV. Army had succeeded in coming into line between the I. and the II., though part of the I, Corps was still on the road between Ponte delle Alpi and Feltre. On Nov. 9 and io the last covering troops of the HL. and IIL. Armies crossed the Piave, from Pcderobba to the sea.

The line chosen to defend the fortuncs of Italy implied a

withdrawal of the right wing of the I. Army. This contingency had been studied, and preparations for a new line had begun, during the Austrian offensive in 1916, and Cadorna had ordered the work to be continued during the interval. Pecori-Giraldi retired from Asiago and Galho, and based his right on the fortified lincs of the Meletta group. This formed a salient, for

the line marked out for the IV. Army E. of the Brenta ran considerably farther south, Di Robilant had taken over the AVI. Corps from Pecori-Giraldi, and it had been gradually withdrawn from its old positions to hold a line that ran from near San Marino in the Brenta gorge nearly due E. towards the Piave, keeping always in touch with the IX. Corps as the latter came down from Cadore.. ‘The IV. Army now held the line from the Brenta to the Piave, and the short stretch of the river as far as the Montello, The rest of the river line was held by the

Duke of Aosta, with the VIII. Corps on the Montello, the II., which had been in line between Pederobha and the Montello, occupied in preparing defensive positions, going back to be rested and re-fitted with the rest of the H. Army. Reserves were coming in fast from the depots, including the young class of 1899. French and British divisions were already in Italy, and others were on the way. Many units of the II. Army were being rapidly rcorganized and were soon to come into linc again. But for the moment the Italians had only the I., Til. and IV. Armics to hold the new line; and the III. and IV.

Armies had been sorely tried by the retreat. There had been a serious breakdown in the moral of a part of the II. Army, which had been largely responsible for the extent of the enemy’s initial success, and the tremendous strain of the retreat had naturally been responsible for further breakdowns. The behavjour of the majority of the troops had been beyond all praise, but all were now worn-out, physically fatigued by the long trial of the retreat and suffering from the great moral depression caused by unexpected defeat and retirement from the lines they had held so Jong. Diaz, who took over the command from Cadorna on the morning of Nov. 9, had to face a situation that seemed almost desperate. The Italian armics had lost some 320,000 men in killed, wounded and missing, the number of prisoners being estimated at 265,000. The bulk of the IT. Army had to be counted out altogether, and the total number of troops to be reorganized and re-fitted was over 300,000, More than 3,000 guns had been lost, and over 1,7oo trench mortars. There was shortage in equipment of every kind. It seemed

scarcely possible that these greatly weakened forces could resist the renewed attacks of the victorious armics which had followed so closely upon their heels. Fortunatcly, the plans for defence had been well and truly Jaid by Cadorna in the limited time that was available, and, still more fortunately, his foresight had caused elaborate preparations to be made on Monte Grappa. Roads had been built and gun positions prepared, and reservoirs made for water; trenches had been dug and strong redoubts constructed at various important points, though the defensive system was not completely finished when the enemy attacked at Caporetto. These works had been ordered with the double object of strengthening the defences of the Val Brenta against an attack from the N., and of providing against the possibility of a retreat to the Piave, which Cadorna had been compelled to consider once before, in May 1916. It was due to this forethought that resistance on the line now chosen was possible.

Diaz had little breathing-space, though some days were requited before the enemy could prepare for an attack in force upon the new line. For Conrad saw a chance, and, though he was short of troops, he struck at once, while calling for reénforcements to be sent to him for the eastcrn armies, He attacked Pecori’s troops on Novy, 10, as they were preparing to come

back to the line already indicated. When they had taken up their positions in the Meletta~Badenecche salient, Conrad’s attacks were renewed, and for ro days the fight continued, but brought no success to the Austrians, who lost heavily.

Conrad

had brought to this sector of the front all the troops who had been in the Fassa Alps, but he still felt himsclf too weak for the

end he had in view—a break-through to the plain, and he urged continually the dispatch of further reénforcements. Mcanwhile Boroević had tested the river defences at various points. On Nov. 12 a crossing was effected at Zenson, some 17 m. from

the mouth of the river, and a small bridgchcad was established

in the loop formed by the curving stream, Various other attacks at San Dona, Intestadura, and the Grave di Papadopoli were unsuccessful, and the troops at Zenson could make no headway. Down. by the mouth of the river Hungarian troops succeeded in establishing themselves between the Old Piave and the main stream, but they were unable to gain any more ground. As the days went on, other attempts to cross the river were defeated

by the HY. Army, and on Nov. 16 an attack in force failed completely.

The Austrians

crossed at various points N. of

Ponte di Piave, but were repulsed with heavy casualties, losing some 1,500 killed and nearly as many prisoners. After this

CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF failure Boroevié abandoned his attacks. The river was a serious obstacle; the Italian defence was sound; it was clear that prolonged and careful preparation was necessary.

Conrad and Boroevié were making no headway, but a more

577

relieved Ruggeri Laderchi’s TX. Corps in the Monte Tomba region. It was expected that both these points would be the object of early attack, but as it turned out they were both left unmolested. Conrad and Krauss continued their attempts to

dangerous attack was being conducted by Krauss, between the

Brenta and the Piave. Krauss, who now had Krobatin’s troops

break through on the mountain front, but Krauss confined his

efforts to the positions west of Monte Grappa and the worrying

under his orders, and subsequently drew reénforcements from

Stein’s group, wished to organize a double drive through the

Solarolo salient. Boroevié remained quiet on the Piave front, and the rest of Below’s army was now practically a reservoir for

Brenta and Piave gorges, and reach the plain by the tactics he

Krauss, who drew divisions both from Scotti and from Hofacher,

had successfully employed in the Plezzo basin, Attempts to break through by the valley roads were quickly frustrated, Krauss blames his divisional commanders, who, he says, were opposed to these tactics, and could not make up their minds to a resolute attempt. An effort was finally made in the Quero gorge on Nov. 17 and failed badly. Nor were the numerous gallant attempts to capture the all-important ridge of Monte Tomba~Monfenera, which ran down from the Grappa massif to the Piave, more successful in breaking through the thin Italian lines. The. struggle at this point lasted for five days, from Nov. 18 to 22, and the Italian IX. Corps, under Ruggeri Laderchi, fought a great fight. The critical day was Nov. 22. In the morning Krauss’s troops, the Bosnians and the German Jager, who had both been heavily punished already, made a great effort to break through. The attacking columns reached the crest of Monte Tomba, but their bolt was shot; and Monfenera still held firm and raked their left flank. The Italian position, however, was critical in the extreme, for the line had become very thin, and there were no reserves to speak of. At dusk a message came from Di Robilant that he was sending up a brigade of the VI. Corps, which had been drawn from the reserve of the III. Army. A later message promised another brigade. Ruggeri Laderchi took his courage in both hands, and, without waiting, counter-attacked with his own battle-worn troops. He drove the enemy off the ridge, except at one point where a gallant handful of men still clung to a knob of hill that had been made into a machine-gun redoubt. Next day the reserves arrived, and the line was firmly cstablished. Only one more attack was made in this sector and both Jager and

Bosnian divisions had to be withdrawn and re-made. When he failed in his first attempt to go through in the valleys, Krauss resigned himself to a frontal attack upon the mountain lines between the Brenta and the Piave. He claims justly that the conditions were very difficult, but he made a

big effort. The attack with his centre and right began on Nov. 21, while he was still hammering against Monte Tomba with his left, and he gained ground to begin with, driving back the Italian outpost lines in the Grappa sector. For a week the attack lasted, but little progress was made. The 22nd Schiitzen and Edelweiss Divs. who had broken through at Plezzo, and the o4th, from Krobatin’s army, gained a little ground on the right, the Alpine troops of the 22nd capturing the summit of Monte Pertica, but the German Alpenkorps and the Austrian soth, which had passed to Krauss from Stein’s group, to replace the battered Bosnian and Jager divisions, made no headway against the salient of Solarolo and Spinoncia, or against the TombaMonfenera line.

They succeeded in taking various positions,

among them Spinoncia, but they could not hold them against the Italian counter-attacks, and further attempts to extend the success gained on the right were equally unsuccessful, On Nov. 26 the Edelweiss made a great attempt to capture Col della Berretta, but were repulsed, and a pause followed. The breathing-space was needed by Di Robilant’s troops, for the XVIII. and EX. Corps had been very highly tried, especially the latter. On Nov. 22 the situation in the Grappa sector had been improved by the arrival in line of the XXVII. Corps, already re-made, under the command of Di Giorgio; and the Corps distinguished itsclf greatly in the fighting which followed. But a new attack was preparing, when the situation was eased by the arrival in line of the British and French divisions which had hitherto been waiting in reserve. On Dec. 2

three British divisions under Lord Cavan took over the Montello sector, and a similar French force under Gen. Duchesne

as well as from Stein. Krauss was finding the question of communications very difficult, especially for his artillery ammunition, and could not open his new attack till Dec. ro. On Dec. 3 Conrad, reénforced by fresh troops but still complaining that he was starved for means of attack, opened a heavy bombardment on the curve of the Italian front from Monte Sisemol to E. of Monte

Badenecche, Next day, by a skilfully conducted attack following a liberal use of gasshells, he pinched up the Meletta-Badenecche salient, occupying both Tondarecar and Badenecche and taking Monte Fior and Castelgomberto in the rear. Next day Conrad’s eastern columns pushed down quickly towards Foza, but were

held by a rearguard of Bersaglieri and Alpini who fought ofi the attack until a new line was established farther S., covering Valstagna and the mouth of the Frenzela valley. But more than 11,000 prisoners were taken as a result of the gas bombard-

ment and the breaking of the line at the base of the salient. It should be said that on this occasion as at Caporetto the Italian fas mask proved very unsatisfactory. The army was shortly afterwards equipped with the British mask,

The loss of the Meletta—Badenecche positions left another salient exposed to Austrian attack. The hills S. of the Valle dei Bonchi were now open to artillery fire and infantry attack on three sides, and, after a fortnight’s preparation, on Dec. 23 Conrad launched a new attack on the Italian lines between Monte Sisemol and the Frenzela valley. The salient was quickly wiped out, several thousand prisoners were taken, and both Col del Rosso and Monte Melago were captured. Next day the Italians counter-attacked, and re-took Col del Rosso and Monte Melago. They established themselves firmly in their reserve lines, and repulsed another attack, the last, on Christmas Day. Between Conrad’s two efforts Krauss had made a determined attempt to drive the Italians off the Grappa line. His command was now increased to the strength of 10 divisions, six AustroHungarian and four German, and he did not spare his troops. He opened his attack on Dec. 11 by a push on each wing of his

front, from the Brenta valley and Monte Pertica against Col della Berretta, and against both sides of the Solarolo salient. The attack from the N.E. was carried out by German troops, while W. of Solarolo and Col dell’ Orso were picked Austro-Hungarian divisions. After the first day, when the Brandenburgers of the sth Div. took Monte Spinoncia, the N.E. outwork of the salient,

the Germans could make no more headway, in spite of repeated attacks, in which they were supported by the oath Austrian Div. on the other side of the salient. Besides the 5th, the zooth and the Jager also took part in the attack, which was renewed again and again during 10 days, but nofurther progress was made, Krauss, who reports that he was not allowed to have the German troops on the spot more than 48 hours before they were to attack, claims that this “ excessive sparing ” of the troops worked out badly, for they suffered from insufficient acquaintance with the terrain. However that may be, the German divisions, in spite of a great expenditure of shells, could gain no ground. Sometimes a position was gained for a few minutes, only to be lost again. The fighting was very stubborn. Krauss had better success with his right wing. At the end of four days’ hard fighting the Austrian 4th Div. had taken Col della Berrctta and Col Caprile, though their occupation was not firmly established, and the Italians were continually counterattacking. Four days more, and Krauss’s men had captured Monte Asolone, which looks down the Valle di Santa Felicità to

the longed-for haven of the plain. This was the term of the Austrian advance. On Dec, 20 the Italians counter-attacked, and won back a good deal of the lost ground, the last move in the

578

CAPPS, EDWARD

long struggle. Krauss accepted failure for the moment, hoping

the event. There was, in fact, a tendency to underestimate the for an early spring offensive farther west. Five days later the amount of time necessary for the transference of troops from one snow came, the heavy winter fall that was at least a month late. .position to another. On the other hand, Cavaciocchi did not The Austrians and. Germans were much favoured by the late make the best use of the reserves which he had. Cadorna’s coming of winter, which greatly prolonged the strain on the efforts had not succeeded in making all of his subordinates grasp hard-tried armies of Italy. But it gave also to the defending the principles of defence in depth, or of “ elastic ” defence. It was only later that the theories upon which he had for long introops the chance to re-make at once a shaken reputation. The recovery of the Italian army on Monte Grappa and the sisted were understood and applicd. And it may be admitted Piave, after the initial failures and the heart-breaking experiences that the tendency to push the infantry too far forward was a of the long retreat, was a remarkable feat of courage and will. necessary consequence of the policy which had left the guns It will be clear from the narrative here given that the Caporctto aligned as for an offensive. The failure to hold in strength the disaster was not due solely to the cause which was at first gen- roads on both sides of the Isonzo has never been satisfactorily erally accepted as the explanation of a defeat so sudden and so explained. All that can be said is that an attack along these overwhelming. Cadorna’s communiqué of Oct. 28, which con- roads was apparently unexpected; that it came; and that it bad demned in the strongest terms the behaviour of “ detachments much to do with the disaster that followed, It is clear that there of the II. Army ” and gave this as the cause of the enemy success, was insufficient collaboration between the commanders of the was too simple an explanation, and was, moreover, unwise. three corps occupying the front attacked. This was doubtless Inevitably, the impression was left that the failure in moral had due to the extreme pressure of the days which preceded the been more widespread than was actually the case. For in the offensive, and to the many modifications which had to be made whole course of the war no such candid announcement had ever during these days. But it remains a grave omission. been made by any commander on either side; it was assumed, The failure of the Italian artillery to carry out the general especially abroad, that if Cadorna confessed this much there was order of counter-preparation expressly given by Cadorna, and far more that he did not tell. Cadorna wished to arouse both repeated in no less categorical terms by Capcllo, had an undoubted army and country to a sense of the situation, and to indicate effect upon the course of the battle. The attacking troops, clearly the results of the peace propaganda against which he had both gunners and infantry, found their task unexpectedly protested. In Italy the result was good on the whole, for the lightened by the absence of a heavy return fire upon their bate country was stung to a great effort. But Cadorna’s open con- teries, trenches, and zones of concentration, The Italian infantry, demnation of his soldiers was strongly resented in many quarters. waiting under a crushing bombardment, were puzzled and dis‘There is no question about the weak resistance of certain units heartened by the silence of their own guns. This holding of the in line, nor can it be denied that other troops, among the re- Italian fire, like the failure to appreciate the necessity for deserves, became temporarily infected with a spirit that led to what fence in depth, is explained by the fact that as regards the pracmany observers likened to a strike. Extreme ‘war-weariness and tice of defensive tactics the Italians were some two years in socialist propaganda had their offspring in these failures. But arrears. Cadorna and a few others had realized the progress the failures were sporadic only. The stories current at the time made in attack methods and the necessity of mecting them with and long after, of a preconcerted agreement for surrender to the new methods of defence, The realization had not spread downenemy, have no foundation whatever. ‘The defending troops ward, ‘The Italian armies on the Julian front had been so busily were subjected to a very severe trial and some of them failed. occupied in attack that they had not worked out the application Their failure led to disaster. How far might disaster have been of new defensive methods. They had had no recent practice in lessened or averted if the preparations for the Austro-German mecting an attack on the grand scale. It was this lack of practice, attack, and the actual conduct of the defence, had been different? no doubt, and a false confidence bascd on obsolete experience, The narrative has drawn attention to certain errors and mis-

understandings which contributed to the enemy success. First among these, in order of time, was the difference of opinion between Cadorna and Capello as to the right course to pursue in face of the coming attack. It is difficult to avoid the impression that Capello was only half-hearted in adopting, and in directing his corps commanders to adopt, the line of action indicated by his chief. Whether Cadorna or Capello was right in idea is a question which will remain a subject of contention, though Cadorna’s arguments seem almost unanswerable. The point

is that Capello would seem to have interpreted’ Cadorna’s instructions as to counter-offensive action in too liberal a fashion, influenced, perhaps unconsciously, by his own wish to attempt a

big counter-stroke. The fact remains that the bulk of the IT. Army was still aligned for an offensive, and though a complete modification was Impossible, certain changes might have been made. The situation of the IV. Corps was especially unfavourable for defence, the front-line positions of the 46th Div. being practically untenable. The Sleme~Mrzli position ought to have

been abandoned for the Pleca-Selisce line, which was as strong

naturally as the other was weak. Despite the weakness of the Sleme—Mrzli line, both dominated and enfiladed, despite the practical certainty that it could not be maintained against a resolute offensive in force, the enemy attack found a large number of Italian guns, including many of medium calibre, stationed well in advance of the Pleca-Sclisce line. Although various commanders had reported the Sleme-Mrali line indefensible, steps which should have followed logically had not been taken. It is obvious also—after the event—that if the reserves for the IV. Corps had been close at hand, on the Stol and higher up the Natisone valley, the inrush of the encmy might have been stemmed. Such dispositions were clearly desirable, even before

which led to the belief that even if the opening phases of the battle were unfavourable to the defence, there would be ample

time to restore the situation. This spirit was widely evident in

the disposition of troops and guns.

When retreat became inevitable, the prospects might well

have seemed desperate to those who had to organize it. For the army, long used to the war of positions that had been the rule for 28 months, was in no condition to move. The retreat, with alk its confusion, its mistakes and its tragedies, remains an astonishing achievement, The resistance which followed it, when the retiring armies turned and stood at bay on the mountains and on

the Piave, was the greatest of Italian victories. (W. K, McC.) CAPPS, EDWARD (1866~ ), American classical scholar,

was born at Jacksonville, II., Dec. 21 1866. He was educated at

Illinois College (A.B. 1887) and Yale (Ph.D. 1891). In 1890 he was appointed tutor at Yale. In 1892 he joined the faculty of the newly-founded university of Chicago as professor of Greek language and literature, remaining such until 1907. In 1903 he was special lecturer at Harvard, and during the next two years studied at Athens and Halle, During 1906-7 he was managing editor of Classical Philology, in 1907 was elected president of the Classical Association of the Middle West and South, and the same year was called to Princeton as professor of classics. In 1914 he was elected president of the American Philological

Association, and in 1917 was Turnbull lecturer on poetry at

Johns Hopkins. In 1918 he was appointed head of the American Red Cross commission to Greece with the rank of colonel. In 1920 he was appointed minister to Greece, resigning in March tọ21 and returning to Princeton. A leading authority on the Greek theatre, he contributed much to philolagical journals. His works include The Stage in the Greek Theatre (1891); From Homer to Theocritus (1901); The Introduction of Comedy into the

CARINTHIA—CARNOCK City Dionysia: a Chronological Study in Greek Literary History (1903) and Four Plays of Menander (1910). He was editor-in-chict of the University of Chicago Decennial Publications, 29 volumes.

CARINTHIA (see 5.336), a territory of the Austrian Republic, is bounded N. by Styria and Salzburg, E. by Yugoslavia and Styria, 5. by Italy and Yugoslavia and W. by Tirol. Area and Population.—The total area of Carinthia before the World War was 4,005 sq. m., and the pop. (in 1910) 396,200

per sq. mile),

(99

The terms of peace deprived Carinthia of Kanal-Thal

together with Tarvis and the lead-mmes of Raib}, which were given to Italy; the district of Seeland, S. of the Karawanken, abandoned by Austria; the valley of the Mies with the lead-mines of Mies and Schwarzenbach and the district surrounding the mouth of the Lavant, which was given to the Southern Slavs, The district of Tarvis had (1910) some 7,700 inhabitants, of whom 5,700 were

Germans.

The districts given to the Southern Slav state then had

17,500 inhabitants, of whom 3,200 were Germans.

It was arranged that the basin of Klagenfurt should decide its future allegiance by plebiscite. This. plebiscite was taken in two distinct zones, the outer (Zone J. or A) of which reached nearly to Klagenfurt, the capital of the district, and comprised an area of 667 sq. m., with (1910) 72,138 inhabitants, of whom 31-5 % were German;

the inner (Zone II. or B) included a smaller portion of the district of Klagenfurt, and comprised an arca of 132 sq. m., with (1910)

58,600 inhabitants, of whom 89-7% were German. The voting in Zone I, resulted, on Oct. 10 1920, in a choice of allegiance to Austria by 59-1 % of the total votes; Zone II., therefore, went Austrian also:

In the Carinthia of to-day (apart from the two above-mentioned

Zones) 94:8 % were German in 1910.

Most of the Slovene population

is in Gail-Thal. As Zone I, was occupied by the Southern Slavs at the time of the Austrian census of 1920, the total number of the inhabitants of the Carinthia of to-day is unascertained. The portion under Austrian rule in 1920 (inclusive, thercfore, of Zone H.) had 297,257 inhabitants (99 per sq. mile). In 1910 the pop. was 299,091; in Zone I. 72,138.

Altogether, therefore, the present-day Carinthia

had, on Dec. 31 1910, 371,229 inhabitants (101 per sq. mile), The population of the district which exercised the plebiscite was in 1910 93°3% Roman Catholic and 6-5% Evangelical.

The proportion of

males to females was as 1,000 to 992; in 1920, however, the propor-

tion was as 1,000 to 1,067.

For administrative purposes Carinthia has been divided into seven districts and an autonomous city—the capital, Klagenfurt

(pop. 26,111 in 1920). Other important places are Villach (pop. 21,896); St. Veit, untif 1518 the capital of Carinthia (pop. 5,927) +’ vee

(pop. 5,808); Spittal (pop. 4,406) and

2,861). In the Electoral Zone I. are Vélkermarkt 2,631) and Oberferlach (pop. in 1910 3,194).

Bleiberg

(pop.

(pop. in 1910

Agriculture —Of the Carinthia of to-day (with the exception of the

Electoral Zone I.) 8:49 %, of the soil was unproductive in 1900, Of the productive areas 15-6 % consisted of arable, o-4.% gardens, 17%

meadowland, 25°1 % grazing land (mostly high-lying), 47°7 % woodlands (mostly coniferous). Stock-raising is well developed, but suffered severely during the World War.

in i918 there were 164,309

head of cattle (of which 66,501 were milch cows) and 97,766 swine. The Carinthian breeds of cattle G.avanttaler and Mölltaler} and of horses are greatly prized. Bee culture, in conjunction with the

cultivation of buckwheat, is actively pursued.

Minerals—TYhe mineral wealth is still noteworthy, notwithstand-

ing the loss of important mining districts. The gold-mines of Tauern are not worked. Copper and antimony ores are being mined, but are not smelted locally. On the other hand, the output of lead (12,000 tons in 1915, or over 92% of the whole present output of Austria) and zinc (400 tons, or 54% of the whole output) ores is important in the Gail-Thaler Alps, especially in Bleiberg and Kreuth. Since the Raibl mines fell to Italy and those of Mies and Schwarzenbach to Yugoslavia, Bleiberg has regained its importance as the chief lead-mining centre in Austria. Consequently its prod-

ucts of lead and lead colours (white and red lead) are considerable.

‘The iron-mining industry, which was once widespread, is now

active only at Hüttenberg, at the foot of the Saualpe. The ore raised (in 1915 98,000 tons, or 5 % of the whole output of Austria) is

carried away from Carinthia to be smelted elsewhere. Lignite (Braunkohle) is found in many parts of Carinthia, especially in

Lavant-Thal; the output of this, however, was in 1915 only 84,000 tons, or 3% of the whole Austrian output.

Manufactures —Carinthia is richly endowed with water-power; but, In spite of that, its industries are inconsiderable. The most important arc the manufacture of scythes (Ilimmelberg), the ironworks of Ferlach and Fecistritz, the small-arms factory at Ferlach, ali kinds of lead-ware, some paper and some woollen factories (Viktring) and machinery (Briickl). Klagenfurt and Wolfsberg are busy centres of the weaving industries and also of the

manufacture of and trade in articles in products of wood—notably cellulose, lignine and pasteboard. Communications.—Since the opening of the Tauern and Kara-

wanken lines, Villach has become an important railway centre, being

at the intersection of the Salzburg-Trieste-Vienna-Venice and Marburg-Franzensfeste (llungary-Tirol) railways.

See Norbert

(1913),

* Das

Krebs,

579 Länderkunde

Klagenfurter

Becken,”

der österreichischen Geographische

Alpen

Zeitschrift

(1909): Martin Wutte, Germans and Slovenes in Carinthia (1918), Das Kärntner Abstimmungsgebiet (1920); Franz Heritsch, ‘ Die österreichischen und deutschen Alpen,” Handbuch der regionalen Geologie (vol. ii, part 5, 1915); Victor Conrad, Klimatographie von

Kärnten (1913). Mn e CARLISLE, GEORGE JAMES HOWARD, orn Earn or (1843ror) (see 5.341), died in London April16 1911, He was succeeded

by his son, Charles James Stanley Howard (b. 1867), well known as a Unionist politician under the name of Visct. Morpeth. The roth earl died Jan. 20 1912, and was succeeded by his son,

George Josslyn L’Estrange Howard (b. 1895). CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837-1919), American “ captain of industry ” and philanthropist (see 5.364), died at Lenox, Mass., Aug, rr rọrọ. His ideals are shown by his benefactions and are best described by describing them. In rọ10 he gave $10,000,000

for establishing an Endowment for International Peace, “to hasten the abolition of international war, the foulest blot upon our civilization,” This Endowment was planned to encourage studies in economics, history and international law understandings of peoples be averted by increasing edge of one another. After America entered the (rgr7) the Endowment gathered much international

so that mistheir knowlWorld War tnformation

and furnished it for use at the Peace Conference.

In 1910, the

Pan-American Union. building erected in Washington by Carne~ fie at a cost of $850,000 was dedicated. In 1911 he established his last and largest endowment, the Carnegie Corp. of New York, and before his death placed in its charge $125,000,000 to be used for promoting civilization in whatever way seems best to the trustecs, The variety of its activities is illustrated by the

following:

American Red Cross ($1,500,000); Knights of Col-

umbus War Work Fund ($250,000); Y.M.C.A. War Work Fund

($250,000); V.W.C.A,

War Work

Fund

($100,000); Library

Buildings in Army Cantonments ($3 20,000); Study of Methods of

Americanization ($204,000); National Research Council ($5,420, coo); Church Pension Fund (nearly $325,000), and Simphfied Spelling Board

($110,000).

In 1913 the Hague Peace Palace,

given by Carnegie and costing $1,500,000, was dedicated. Some of the best known gifts in addition to the above mentioned are: The Carnegic Institute of Pittsburgh, nearly $29,000,000; the

Carnegie Institution of Washington, $22,300,000; the Carnegie Tero Fund Commission, $10,500,000; the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, $20,250,000; the Carnegie

U.K. Trust, $10,000,000; the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,000,000; the Dunfermline. Trust, $3,750,000; the Simplified Spelling Board, $250,000; the Church Peace Union, $2,025,000, By the close of 1918 he had erected 2,811 library buildings

(1,946 U.S.A.; 660 Great Britain and’ Ireland; 156 Canada,

Ag elsewhere) at a cost of more than

$60,000,000.

He had

provided 7,689 church organs throughout the world, costing more than $6,000,000. ‘To the Carnegie U.K. Trust, founded in to13, he transferred the. charge of all his existing and’ future benefactions other than university benefactions in the United

Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they have inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.

In his will he provided that after certain enumerated bequests the residue of his estate (his family having already been provided ~

for) should pass to the Carnegie Corporation.

Appraisal of the

estate, smaller than bad been estimated, was made in 1921 and showed a net value of $22,880,000. Since according to the law

of New York only half of an estate can be assigned as public

bequests in case husband, wife, parent, or child survive, the residue passing to the Carnegie Corp. was less than $14,000,000, Before his death Carnegie had made public gifts, including those mentioned above, amounting to $350,000,000. If he did not die

poor, as he claimed every man should, he at least had given away all but a relatively small portion of his wealth. His Autobiography appeared in 1920.

CARNOCK, ARTHUR NICOLSON, rsr Baron

(1849-

),

British diplomatist, was born in London Sept. 19 1849, the son

580

CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE

of Admiral Sir Frederick William Erskine Hamilton Nicolson, roth Bart. (1815-09). He was educated at Rugby and Brasenose

although the concealment of the concentration, which had to be carried out by means of a railway system of low efficiency, needed the utmost care and precaution. General Brussilov, at all events, spoke of the “whole position” being in jeopardy, in an order issued after the Austro-German offensive opened on Jan, 23. West of the Czeremcha road 4 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions of the IIT. Austrian Army were to pin to their ground 5 Russian infantry and x cavalry divisions, On the E. flank Gen. von Boroević had rr infantry and 25 cavalry divisions! against 9 Russian infantry and 4 cavalry divisions; Gen, von Linsingen ó infantry and 2 cavalry divisions? against one Russian infantry and 2 Cossack divisions, and Gen. von Pflanzer-Baltin 6 infantry

College, Oxford, and in 1870 entered the Foreign Office, where he

was for some time assistant private secretary to Lord Granville. In 1874 he was attached to the British Embassy in Berlin, and after occupying a succession of minor diplomatic posts became in 1885 chargé d’affaires at Teheran, From 1888 to 1893 he was consul-general at Budapest, in 1894 secretary of embassy at Constantinople, from 1894 to 1895 agent in Bulgaria, and from 1895 to 1904 minister in Morocco. In 1899 he succeeded his father as 11th baronet. In r905 Sir Arthur Nicolson was sent as ambassador to Russia, where he remained until roro, and in the

latter year returned to the Foreign Office, being until 1916,

and one cavalry divisions against 2 to 3 Russian infantry divi-

when he retired, permanent Under-secretary for Foreign Affairs. He received the K.C.1.E. in 1888, the K.C.B. in rọor, the G.C.V.O. in roog, and the G.C,M.G. in 1906. He was raised to the peerage on his retirement, and took the title of Baron Carnock. He published in 1873 a History of the German Constitution.

sions Reichswehr and 2 Cossack divisions. The Russian effective strengths were certainly the greater, but the Central Powers hoped despite all difficulties to keep the attack going. They were undeceived; and the battle in the Carpathians actually dragged

CAROLUS-DURAN

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Avucuste

Emire

on for some three and a half months. After the Austro-Germans had opened their operations with brilliant initial successes, the winter became, as it were, an ally

Durano]

(1837-1917), French painter (see 5.381"), died in Paris Feb, 18 1917. CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE, 1915.—In Jan. tors the

of their adversaries, and so confined the scope of operations that

the Russians succeeded in taking timely counter-measures.

E. flank of the continuous battle-front in the Carpathians Jay around Baligrod. Farther to the E. as far as the Rumanian frontier, the Austro-Hungarian High Command had so far succeeded in preventing any Russian penetration into Hungary by means of measures improvised to meet the Immediate perils such as the use of Landsturm and volunteers, All these means, however, no longer sufficed.

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The security of Hungary and the relicf of Przemysl were to be effected by an attack on a broad front across the Carpathians,

line. After the melting away of their offensive energy no reserves were left for the continuance of the advance; after every action

which, if successful, would develop into a flank attack on a large scale against the whole Russian battle-line. In this operation there were to take part: the army group of Gen. Freiherr von Pflanzer-Baltin, from the Rumanian frontier to E. of Wyszków; the German Southern Army, under Gen. von Linsingen (Austrian and German troops); thence to E. of the Uzsok pass; the reénforced right wing of the ITJ. Army, under Gen. von Boroevié, thence to the Czeremcha road. Success depended largely on the vchemence of the blow and on the Russians being surprised. This surprise was in fact secured,

the strength of the troops, tried as they were by adverse circumstances, grew weaker; by Jan. 27 the IIT. Army was no longer in a position to continue the offensive, and between Feb. sand 8 the Southern Army was in the same case. According to the unanimous conviction of both leaders and men the attack had literally “ stuck fast in the snow,” and thenceforward the battle became a defensive one. The Russians on the 26th had replied 1 Ten infantry divisions, 2 infantry brigades, 2 cavalry divisions and one Landsturm Hussar brigade.

2 Five infantry divisions, 2 infantry brigades, 2 cavalry divisions,

* These figures indicate. the volume and page number of the previous article.

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by a counter-offensive W, of the Mezölaborez railway, and from the 28th onwards this spread eastwards. The Southern Army managed to hold its hard-won gains; the IIE. Army E. of Wola-Michowa still contrived to defend Hun-

gary in Galicia behind the Upper San and on the hills N. and W. of Cisna; but the pressure of hostile masses (some 100,000 strong)

astride the Mezdlaborcz railway and in the Dukla valley forced it back towards the Hungarian plains to the line Wola-Michowa, Stropko, upper course of the Ondava, The arrival on the 8th of the XVII, Corps from the IV. Army and the VIII. from the Serbian theatre brought some relief. The

XVIIE. Corps came into line W. of the VII.; of the VIII., the one division (the 21st Landwehr) was sent to the X. Corps, the other (the oth) to the XIX. and XVIII. Corps which were most in need of assistance. After the arrival of these fresh forces, Gen. von Boroević commenced on Feb, ro an attempt to recover the lost ground at Mezélaborcz, This did not prosper, as the Russians here and in the Dukla valley, strongly reénforced, poured everfresh masses into the attack. The position of the HI. Army grew daily more serious.

Meanwhile Gen. von Pflanzer-Baltin’s

army group

suc-

ceeded, in a series of continuous actions from Jan. 31 to Feb. 20, in bearing its standards victoriously through the Bukovina and S.E. Galicia as far as Stanislau. Its Eastern group (three divisions) had liberated the Bukovina and then moved by way of Kolomea to the N.W. in order to join the Westcrn group

(three divisions) which had advanced along the Marmarossziget~

Kolomea railway and north-westwards to Nadworna, The Russians, despite their violent counter-attacks, had by the 17th

been defeated at Kolomea and their group, fighting stubbornly at Nadworna, was compelled by the increasing pressure on its flank to fall back towards Stanislau on the roth. This town was occupied on the zoth by the main body of PAlanzer-Baltin’s command, which had been reénforced on the 17th by two cavalry divisions; meanwhile the left wing on the Lomnica wheeled in towards Dolina in order from the rear to open up for the Southern Army the issue from the mountains, Already, however, the concentration N. and W. of Stanislau of powerful Russian forces— the leading troops of Lechitski’s IX. Army—made it evident that the Russians were here preparing a counter-offensive. The

well-developed railway system in Galicia facilitated the rapid reénforcement of the Russian castern wing. With this the Austrian higher command was unable to compete successfully, for on the mountain railway by Marmarossziget only three divisions (sth from the I. Army, XI. Corps from the II. Army) could be brought up by the early days of March.

It was this circumstance, and the limited time during which the fortress of Przemysl could hold out, which had meanwhile determined the Austrian higher command, in spite of the experiences of winter in the Carpathians, to assemble behind the right wing of the IIE. Army the forces made available by the weakening of the Russian forces in Poland and the fortifying of positions there, although here none but a frontal attack was possible, and although to the Austrian higher command the offensive of the Pflanzer-Baltin army group seemed to promise the most decisive result.

Since, however,

a direct support of this group was

impossible within the necessary time limit, the plan was to divert by a new attack over the Carpathians, such strong Russian forces as to enable the eastern wing to continue the offensive.

The Southern Army was reénforced by the German 4th Infantry Division. In order to build up the Il. Army behind the right wing of the IIL, from Feb. 6 onward three divisions (27th Inf. Div. and IV. Corps—gist and 32d Inf. Div.) were withdrawn from Poland and the 41st and half the 38th Honved Divisions from West Galicia. On Feb. 15 Gen. von Béhm-Ermolli took over the command of these forces, together with the eastern half of the Ii. Army (Szurmay’s group, consisting of the V., XVIII. and XIX. Corps) which numbered 60,700 rifles. The left wing of the II. Army as now constituted was fighting with its last reserves of strength, The troops were exhausted almost to the point of collapse by continuous fighting and the severitics of the weather. ‘The Russian divisions, on the other hand, were in a better position in that they could usually allow two regiments to rest while two others attacked. It was only owing to the most strenuous exertions that the Austro-Hungarian troops succeeded, without relicfs, in holding the crests and preventing the successive waves of the Russian assault from sweeping away the thin line of defence. Again and again reserves drawn from the front itself came te the support of the points most in danger, a process which exhausted the strength of the

CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE

582

troops, who never had any rest, and led to a lamentable intermixture of the various units. The commander of the II. Army, whose first care was the consolidation of his linc by means of reserves, proposed to assembie his reénforcements secretly: around Cisna, thence, in con"SITUATION

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junction with the III. Army’s right wing to strike in the direction of Wola-Michowa, and immediately afterwards to deliver with his concentrated forces a crushing blow northwards from both

sides of Baligred, The attack on Wola-Michowa was intended to recapture Lupkéw station, the junction of a narrow-gauge railway

running behind the front of the If. Army.! ‘The recovery of this line would considerably facilitate the supplying of that army, the bulk of which was dependent on a single practicable road, of which the condition had alarmingly deteriorated owing to the unusually carly thaw. Mcanwhile it was no longer possible to ignore the urgent need of support for the W. wing of the army,

On Feb. 16 the 16,000 men of the XIX. Corps on this flank were faced. by 28,000 Russians, and a division had to be brought into line,on ihe zoth, and another on the 23rd.? Not only was the opportunity of surprising the enemy lost, but they

were allowed still further time to take counter-measures by the postponement of the Austrian attack on account of the condition of the roads.

‘The critical position of Przemysl and the continuing concentration of the EX. Russian Army facing the Austrian E. flank induced the Austrian high command to press for an immediate offensive.

‘Ihe Russians had also detached troops from the IX,

Army (II. Cav. Corps and r1th Div.) to strengthen Lechitski’s army, and the transference thither of other forces from

astride the Baligrod road, that decisive initial success which later

experience in war has shown to be so important in attempts to break through the enemy’s line.

Immediately after the opening of the offensive, the tempera-

f AR D on? A Ruasion

which was ordered at the same time could hardly be very effee-

tive, and the main burden of the fighting fell to the IL. Army. Misfortune pursucd it, however, from the first. The peril of Przemysl necessitated working to a time limit and in other ways exercised a powerful influence on decisions taken. The increasing difficulty in the matter of supplies led to the opening of the attack on Feb. 27, before the concentration was complete, and to the choice of the direction of Baligrod for the line of attack as being “the shortest road to Przemysl”; while the action planned against Lupkéw was in the end abandoned owing to the loss of time involved. ‘The Russians, entrenched in their strong snow fortresses, were able continually to bring up reénforcements strong enough to deny to the group under Gen. von TerszstyAnsky, advancing

y

p

NE

sions to six and a half. The remainder were in many cases dead tired. Under these conditions the offensive of the III, Army

ture sank once more to 13° F. below zero. The troops lost heavily from this cause and also [rom the methods of combat adopted; these latter were conditioned mainly by the necessity of bringing speedy help io the garrison of Przemysl, and the universal idea that this must be achieved at all costs led too often to massed infantry attacks against barbed wire without sufficient artillery preparation, A weck had elapsed and no ground had been gained beyond the initial advance of ro m. in depth astride the Baligrod road. On March § the Migh Command thercfore ordered a general attack along the whole Carpathian front. ‘The S. wing of the TV. Army4 was toadvance on the 6th by Gorlice in the direction This had already been recognized by the Aus-

Jaslo-Zmigrod,

trian higher command as the weakest spot in the Russian line, but even now it had not sufficient forces available to enable it to make full use of this knowledge. The attack was delayed till the

Sth, and succeeded in pinning the Russlan forces to their ground; parts of von Woyrsch’s army dctachment and the TX. German

Army attacked N. of the Vistula with the same object between March 6 and 9.

During the next few days the ITT. and Southern Armies carried out no important operations. The HI. Army attacked with all its forces along the whole of its front, between March 5 and ro. In spite of this the Russians, by the roth, had succeeded in bringing Into action forces equal to those of their assailants;

they were able—with the advantage of strong mountain positions—to oppose to the 112,000 rifles of the IT. Army about the same number. On the decisive W. wing they had from 21,000 to 28,000 fresh rifles in reserve as against 13,000 fresh Aus-

trian rifles." This was de ecisive, for the IE Army was by now

the

Nida front (XVII. Corps, grd and 35th Divs.) was also probable.

RUSSIAN

In view of the disposition of the railways the only possible

of which was the relief of Przemysl; but its considerable numerical superiority over its enemies seemed to the Central Powers to afford a prospect of success. South of the Vistula there stood 30) Russian divisions (exclusive of those investing Przemysl) as against 49 Austrian and German divisions; though many of the Austrian divisions had, it is true, been reduced to. litile more than the strength of infantry regiments. Every attempt was made to assemble superior forces in the decisive sector, from

the Dukla pass to E. of Cisna. In the first few days of March, 17 divisions could be opposcd to 7 or 8 Russian divisions, if the reénforcements sent to the II, Army were utilized on the

W. wing. In addition, one division from the TV. and one from the I. Army* were used here, bringing up the total of fresh divi1! From E. to W., V., XVIII. and XIX. Corps and later IV. Corps.

2 ist Honved Div. on Feb. 20; 27th Div. on the 23rd. 83th Landwehr and 4th Divs. re spectively.

COUNTER

OFFENSIVE

IN

ARMY

method of assisting Pflanzer-Baltin’s army group was for the IL. Army to attract to its own sector, by means of an early attack, as many hostile troops as possible. This:course would considerably increase the difheultics of the JI, Army, the special task

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completely exhausted. Its losses between March y and rs amounted to §r,ooo men (over a third of its total strength on March 1). Two-thirds of these casualties—855 officers and 4Lt.-Field-Marshal von Arz’s group. ® 14th Div € Total strength on March 148,850.

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CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE ax:4

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37,205 other ranks !—had been suffered by Terzstyánsky’s group,

into a region where in winter, as had recently been proved, full

only some 70,000 strong.

advantage could not be taken of superiority of numbers, a superiority casier in the circumstances to destroy than to maintain.

The offensive of the II. Army culminated on March ro. The Russian counter-offensive,? commencing on the rith with a flank attack by Wola-Michowa, checked the attack astride the Baligrod road, and on the rath it had to be abandoned as hopeless, The offensive wedge of the If. Army had acted as a magnet to some 5; Russian divisions. Among these were the 35th and ard

Divs. so that the object of relicving the pressure on PflanzcrBaltin’s front had been achieved.

General Lechitski had commenced his offensive against this group with four corps on Ich. 28, and the Austrian right wing,

outnumbered, had fallen back, fighting stubbornly, to N. of Obertyn. ‘Thanks to the timely arrival on March 4 of the XI. Corps from the TV. Army, Pflanzcr-Baltin’s troops succeeded in holding their new front, although the Russians had by the roth

advanced in N. Bukovina as far as the Pruth. On March 18 their offensive against the Austrian I. wing came to a standstill, The relief of Przemysl had thus proved impossible. However, ìn order io assist the garrison in its attempt to cut its way out, by holding fast asmany Russian troops as possible, a striking force was assembled, despite all obstacles, on the E. wing of ihe I.

Army.

There could be however no guestion of coéperating with

the garrison, as the sortie attempted on the roth broke down

while still within the fortress area, all stocks of food being cxhausted; a capitulation was signed on the 22nd after all war material had been as far as possible destroyed.

‘The failure of the attempts to relicve Przemysl much discouraged the Austrian troops, particularly those of the IL. Army. Their endurance and self-sacrifice, however, were not entirely in vain. The attention of the Grand Duke Nicholas had been so riveted on the danger threatening him to the S. of Przemysl that he lost sight of the duty of coöperating with the Western Allies

of Russia, and decided to attempt a break-through into Hungary with the forces now assembled to the 8. of Przemysl. This was quite in accordance with the wishes of the Austrian and German high commands, which up to that time had sought to defend Germany by continuous attacks in the Carpathians. The strong

Russian forces now directed against Hungary were being enticed _' Killed and wounded. Sick

,

Prisoners Missing Total

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225,000 Russians against 17,400 rifles of the XIX. Corps.

The‘last

great attempt of the Russians

to break through

began on March 20 with an onslaught of uncxampled violence against the whole front of the III, Army, which, despite all it

could do, was gradually forced farther back in the direction of Jlungary. Units of the IV. Army® arriving on the 28th to reénforce the left wing brought the attackers to a stand; but against the centre and right of the army the Russians continued their attacks with ever-fresh forces, and it was obvious that their object was to break through towards Varanno and Homonna, the most northerly points of the Hungarian plain. This caused the utmost anxiety to the II, Army command. As carly as the 23rd a gap existed between the left Dank of that army and the retreating right of the IM., and although, itself heavily pressed,

the JI. Army had no option but to put in some march battalions4 to fill it. Again on the 26th, at a time when its own front was weakening rapidly, the army dispatched a combined brigade® from its W. wing, and one infantry® and one cavalry brigade? from its E. wing to the IM. Army. (The infantry were sent back later.) Any further successes against the right of the IIL Army must have seriously menaced the position of the II. Army stationed N. of the frontier ridge. On the 27th, accordingly, the army command proposed a voluntary withdrawal; but the high command, which throughout these days of dire peril still held firmly to its offensive projects, refused its assent, as the blocking of the Laborez valley by the German Beskiden Corps® (4th German Div. of the Southern Army, 25th Res. Div. of the IX. Army, 35th Res. Div, of Woyrsch’s group) had been begun.

Meantime, however, the Russians at the end of March had driven the II. Army to retreat. The system of constantly patching the front with troops withdrawn from other sectors was no longer possible, in view of the fact that the cnemy’s attacks were now simultancous all along the army line. The lack of good roads prevented these reserves arriving in time or in sufficient num-

bers to gain isolated successes. The Russians, being superior in numbers, were able to seize the opportunity afforded by the withdrawal of reserves from the centre of the IT. Army at Cisna

to drive in its front in that sector. Here they seriously menaced 3 Parts of the 26th Landwehr and 8th Div.

4 Coal. Biffl’s combined brigade. 6 [.t.-Field-Marshal Martiny’s combined brigade. 6 728th Honved Brigade. 71st Landsturm Hussar Brigade. 8 Beskiden, i.e. the range of the Carpathians separating East Galicia from Hungary.

CARPENTER—CARRANZA

584

the single practicable road, by which alone a deliberate withdrawal could be carried out by the Austrians. The situation being now critical, the II. Army command on April r gave the order for a retreat. The sorely tried II Army had to fall back

in one bound between April 2 and 4 to the line Patakofalu-

Nagypolany—N. of Virava, to the S. of the Carpathian ridge; only

Szurmay’s group, detached to the Southern Army, was to hold the Uzsok pass on the crest itself. The effect of this surrender of the main ridge was not only to shorten the Ausirian front, but also to utilize the mountains,

hitherto an impediment to their operations, as an obstacle against the Russians and improve the internal situation of the IT. Army (practicable roads and billeting facilities right up close behind the front). The Russians did not molest the withdrawal, indeed when it began they were endeavouring with the

forces set free by the fall of Przemysl to break through in the Laboreza valley, The attack fell on the battered X. Corps, which was slowly pressed back; the gate of Hungary scemed on the point of being forced. Fortunately for the Central Powers, the German Beskiden Corps arrived just at the right moment to

_ close it again in concert with the X. Corps, in the “ Easter battle” (March 2 to 5). While the II. Army was falling back over the frontier ridge on the 3rd, the pressure in the Laborcza valley

was checked; on the 4th the Russians lost ground, and by the sth the situation had been restored. The Grand Duke now extended his attack on both flanks, but in vain. The II. Army repulsed all the mass attacks of the enemy, and by April 9 the great batile on its front, which had continued without interruption since March 20, came to an end. On the II. Army front the Russians suffered considerably from cold and hardship in the inhospitable mountain country and were

compelled to halt to reorganize their lines of communication, so

that they could only follow up the II. Army slowly, and had to leave much of their artillery behind. The UL. Army was therefore allowed time to dig itsclf in and bring up cnough troops to hold its chosen line of resistance. Better weather (sunny days, and

night temperatures of only 23°F.) did much to improve the condition of the troops. As the roads became better, the main weight of the Russian attack was transferred to the left wing (astride the Tclepécz road near that place). This, the last serious offensive against the II. Army front, was finally repulsed on the 13th after a fresh division’ from the IV, Army had been putintoline.

Despite the

most desperate efforts, the Russians failed during the following days to secure any further success. Their last gain of ground was the capture of the hotly contested height of Kozialata on the 17th; a series of unsuccessful- Austrian counter-strokes prolonged the fighting till the 2oth, when the consolidation of the opposing fronts and the mutual exhaustion of the combatants ended it.

Only on the E. wing of the army, which had codperated with Szurmay’s hard-pressed troops of the Southern Army at the beginning of April in the defence of the Uzsok pass, was there still considerable activity, The Russians repeatedly assailed the pass and the Upper Ung valley from N.W., N. and N.E., between

April 21 and 26, but were held off by the united efforts of Szurmay’s group and the E, wing of the If. Army. The railway, which had only been repaired after great difficulty, remained available for use during the spring offensive.

Elsewhere the Southern Army front remained on the whole unchanged, After some weeks of sapping the hotly contested Zwinin ridge was stormed on the oth, and the Ostry on the 25th by the Stryj detachment (detached E. wing of Brussilov’s army, 4th Div.). Pflanzer-Baltin’s group, reénforced in March by three cavalry divisions, also held its old positions in Galicia; it had once more driven the Russians from the northern Bukovina although the IX. Army in its front had been increased to 8 infantry and 9} cavalry divisions, and 7 reserve brigades. The character

stemmed

of the battle

in the

Carpathians,

the Russian advance southwards,

which

is shown by the

figures given in tabular form in the following statement, which was,issued by the Austrian high command on April 20, The sist Honved Div.

Front-

Army. e is

age.

ROTI

Gallwitz’ Army. |92 Germanl X.Army| 72

Woyrsch’s Army | 58

Austrian 1 Army.j 44 EVs Te i . Southern Army Pflanzer-Baltin's Group i Total. .

Rifle Strength (incl, cavalry),

85miles

: 5

f-

loge a 3

79,000 against 180,000 Russians ? ;

7

5,000

“ “

“

124,000

FER 196,000

57,000 | **

50,000

84,000 | “

“

“ a . “

{720 miles}

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ʻ

a .

90,000

s

:

108,000 } “300,000 110,000 ?* : 106,000 90;000 115,000 85,000 | “ 120,000

~ =e a ,:

100,000 155,000 s 1,001,000 against 1,540,000 Russians

The positive objective twice attempted by the Central Powers,

the relief of Przemysl, was not achieved.

Their negative aims

were, however, successfully accomplished; the Russians were prevented from attacking Germany, and their attempted invasion of Hungary was also frustrated. Finally the gradual melting away of the best clements of the old Imperial Russian Army was one prominent cause of the great successes of the Central Powers

during the spring offensive. (K. M.) CARPENTER, WILLIAM BOYD (1841-1918), English divine,

was born at Liverpool March 26 1841, the son of the Rev, Henry Carpenter, incumbent of St. Michael’s, Liverpool. He was educated at the Royal Institution school, Liverpool, and at St. Catherine’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1864, being ordained the same year, He earned a great reputation as an eloquent preacher, and in 1882 became a canon residentiary of Windsor, two years later being made bishop of Ripon. He resigned his see in 1911, and was made canon and later sub-dean of Westminster. He died in London Oct. 26 1918. CARR, JOSEPH WILLIAM COMYNS (1849-1016), English art critic and dramatist, was born in London March 1 1849, his father being a member of an old Cumberland ycoman family. Educated at the university’of London, he was called to the bar in 1869, but soon became a writer of art criticisra for the Pall Mall Gazette and, after 1878, editor of L’Art. He also founded and edited the English Illustrated Magazine, and was associated with Charles Hallé in the founding of the New Gallery, an offshoot from the Grosvenor Gallery, in 1888. In his later years he engaged in theatrical enterprises, and he was the adapter, alone or in collaboration, of a good many plays, notably Hardy’s Far from the Madding Crowd (1882) and the version of King Arthur produced by Sir Henry Irving at the Lyceum theatre in 1895. He published Some Eminent Victorians (1908) and Ceasting Bohemia (1914), both containing reminiscences of his own

early life and the people he had known.

He died in London

Dec. 12 1916,

see J. Comyns Carr: Stray Memories, by his wife (1920).

CARRANZA,

VENUSTIANO

(1859-1920), Mexican revolu-

tionary and president, was born Dec. 29 1850, at Cuatro Cienegas, Coahuila. He was educated in the Ateneo Fuentes at Saltillo and in the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria at Mexico City. Defective eyesight prevented a legal career for which he had studied. Entering politics, he became presidente municipal of Cuatro

Cienegas in 1887, In 18093 he and his brother Emilio led a revolt against the repeated candidacy of Garcia Galin for the state governorship, and they succeeded in inducing President Diaz to name General Muzquiz as governor. Carranza was first elected senator suplente (alternate) for Coahuila for 1900-2. On the death of the proprietary Ortiz de Montellanos, he took his seat. April 5 1901. He was elected proprietary senator for 1904-8, and again for 1908-12, but served only until Dec. 15 1910. In the position of senator he was amenable to the control of Diaz. In 1909 he became candidate for the state governorship in op-

position to the wishes of the central Government. In the following year he joined the Madero revolution, serving as a member of the Junta Revolucionaria at San Antonio, Texas, Madero made 2 Infantry divisions reckoned as being 14,000 rifles, cavalry divi-

sions as 2,000 sabres.

,

3 Including Austrian reënforcements arrived since April 15.

CARREL—CARSON him chief of the military division of Coahuila, Nuevo Léon, and Tamaulipas and later Minister of War in his provisional Cabinet. In this position he organized Madero’s army. After the triumph of the revolution he returned to Coahuila and assumed the governorship, to which he was regularly elected in May 1911. After the coup of General Huerta, Feb. 18 1913, and the murder of Madero, to whom he was attached, Carranza

issued the Plan de Guadalupe in March, disavowing Huerta as president. He then became First. Chief of the Constitutionalist army and personally visited all northern Mexico to organize the opposition, establishing his government at Hermosillo, Sonora, whence he moved southward until he entered Mexico City Aug. 20 1914, after Huerta had fled. He was opposed by Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata after the split of the Constitutional-

ists, and withdrew to Vera Cruz, which he occupied when the American occupation terminated, On Oct. 9 r915, he was recognized as head of the de faclo Government by the United States and seven Pan-American powers, On Sept. 30 1916 he decreed the abolition of the vice-presidency and the limitation of the presidential term to four years instead of six. He was elected

to the presidency March rr 1917, under the constitution promulgated under his sanction on Feb. 5. Under this radical body of fundamental law he issued a serics of decrees for the nationalization of petroleum lands, which kept his Government continually in strained relations with England, France and the United States.

As the time approached in 1920 for the election of his

successor, he attempted to force the election of Ignacio Bonillas, a civilian candidate. This led to an attempt to control the state government of Sonora, a stronghold of Alvaro Obregon, who was the strongest and most popular aspirant for the presidency,

but who was inimical to Carranza’s politics. The state revolted in March 1920, being immediately followed by the country at large. Carranza attempted to move his Government to Vera Cruz on May 7. His flight was interrupted and he himself was killed as he was fleeing the country, on the night of May 18, at

Tlaxcalantongo, Puebla.

CARREL, ALEXIS (1873-

),Franco-American surgeon, was

born at Sainte-Foy-les-Lyon, France, June 28 r873.

He grad-

uated at the university of Lyons (L.B., 1890; Sc.B., 1891; M.D., 1g00), and for two years was prosecteur d la faculté de médecine at that university. In 1909 he became a member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. There he won

world-wide fame by his experiments in transplanting human organs. In 1912 he read before the American Medical Association a paper on Preservation of Tissues and its Application to

Surgery. The possibility of keeping alive tissues removed from the organism led to his seeking practical means of preserving them for surgical use. He was awarded a Nobel prize in r912 for his contributions to surgical knowledge. On the outbreak of the World War he returned to France and devised the CarrelDakin treatment of wounds. Using H. D. Dakin’s preparation, a neutral solution of hypochlorite of sodium, Carrecl’s apparatus keeps the wound continually moist. Countless amputations were avoided, healing was rapid, and scars supple. In 1919 he resumed his work at the Rockefeller Institute.

585

was mainly occupied with his professional work.

Having risen

to a leading place at the bar in Ireland, he achieved an even more striking success at the English bar; and in 1900 he was appointed

Solicitor-General, a post which he held until the change of govern-

ment in 1905-6. In the early years of the new century he gradually came to be regarded as the spokesman in the House of

Commons of the Irish Unionists, and in that capacity welcomed Mr. Birrell’s University bill of 1908. It was not until rg11, when another Home Rule bill was imminent, that Sir Edward Carson emerged as a political figure of first-class importance. He bitterly resisted the Parliament bile, which was to curtail the power of the Lords and enable a measure of Home Rule to be passed over their heads and without a direct appeal to the people. He was one of the “ Die-hards ” who urged

the peers to take the responsibility of throwing out the bill in spite of the ministerial threat to swamp their House with sufficient

new creations to make its passage secure.

Ife told the House of

Commons that the passing of Home Rule by force would be resisted by force and that the resisters would be constitutionally right. Feeling against the bill was most bitter in Ulster, which, Protestant and loyal, would be placed by it at the mercy of the Roman Catholic and largely disloyal majority of the other three provinces. He went to Ulster in the autumn, and at an enormous Unionist demonstration at Graigavon, near Belfast, endorsed the

threats of rebellion against Home Rule which previous speakers made. Belfast, he said, was the key of the situation; Ulster would never submit to a Parliament in Dublin. They must be prepared, if necessary, to take over the administration of those districts which they were entitled to control. Practical measures were immediately undertaken in this direction, though Liberals and Nationalists scoffed. His position was that, he and his Ulster friends were loyal to the constitution as it existed; they were

only rebels, he said, in the sense that they desired to remain under the King and the imperial Parliament. In anticipation of the introduction of the Home Rule bill in the spring of 1912, he presided over a gigantic gathering in Belfast in Easter week, which Mr, Bonar Law, the newly appointed Unionist leader,

came to address; and he made those present repeat after him, “ We will never, in any circumstances, submit to Home Rule.” He himself, in a speech instinct with passion, moved the rejection of the bill on its introduction, and took a leading part in opposition during its subsequent stages. But his activity was mainly outside. He made frequent speeches in the next couple of years

in different parts of England and Scotland, particularly at a great demonstration at Blenheim in July ror2, at which Mr. Bonar Law pledged the support of the Unionist party to Ulster. But his principal work was in the organization of resistance in Ulster itself, including the formation of a local volunteer force, which speedily assumed large proportions, In Sept. 1912 he was the chief figure at a series of demonstrations in all parts of the province, culminating in an enormous assemblage at Belfast on

Sept. 28. There he took the lead in signing a solemn covenant

by which the men of Ulster bound themselves to stand by one another in defending their position of equal citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all necessary means to defeat the CARSON, EDWARD HENRY CARSON, Baron (18s4~__—s+#);, conspiracy to set up Home Rule, and further pledged themselves British statesman and lawyer, son of Edward Henry Carson, to refuse to recognize a Home Rule parliament. He followed C.E., Dublin, was born Feb. 9 1854 and educated at Portarling- this up by moving unsuccessfully in Parliament on New Year’s ton school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. He was day 1913, to exclude Ulster from the operation of the bill. In called to the Irish bar, and made his reputation as Crown Prose- the autumn of 1913 the Ulster Unionist Council organized itself, cutor in Dublin in the dificult years when Mr. Balfour was under his supervision, into a provisional Government, of which Chief Secretary for Ireland. His pluck, readiness, wit, and skill he was the leading member, and a guarantee fund of £1,000,000 in cross-examination soon brought him to the front both in legal was initiated to which he himself contributed {10,000. He and in political circles. He became a Q.C. at the Irish bar in reviewed the volunteers, who were rapidly becoming a formid1889; but his ambitions could not be satisfied with legal eminence able military force approaching in number 100,000 men. But in Dublin. He was called to the English bar, and took silk there when ministers, who had refused to prosecute him or interfere in 1894. Meanwhile he had been returned to Parliament in 1892 with his activities, began to realize the determination of the six in the Unionist interest as member for his own university of north-eastern Protestant counties, he did not repulse their overDublin and was for a few months Solicitor-General for Ircland. tures for a settlement by consent, but said that it must not He entered Parliament just when Gladstone was about to make establish a basis for separation. His advice during the following a second effort to pass a Home Rule bill, and he helped the Union- winter to his Ulster friends was “ peace but preparation.” ist leaders to defeat the measure, But during the next 20 years he He entirely declined to accept Mr. Asquith’s offer, in the spring

586

CARTWRIGHT—-CASEMENT

of rota, of a county option of exclusion for six years. That was

in May 1921 for the first Ulster Parliament, and so started with

“sentence of death with a stay of execution.” If that was the Prime Minister’s last word, his place was in Belfast; and he and several of his fellow Unionist members from north-east Freland made a dramatic exit from the House on March rọ to go to

an overwhelming majority. But he declined to sit in the new parliament himself; and he also resisted the suggestions that he, as the most outstanding fighter in the Unionist party, should be

Ulster. When he returned for the debates on the Curragh incident he told the House that there was only one policy possible, “‘ Leave Ulster out until you have won her consent to come in.” He became a member of the abortive Buckingham Palace Conference convened by the King in the hope of compromise;

and when that broke down in the end of July it looked as if he and his Ulster friends would have to make good in action their policy of force. ; The World War supervencd, and switched off his activity into another direction. Though he resented, as a breach of the political truce between parties, Mr. Asquith’s determination to pass the Home Rule bill into law while suspending its operation

and promising some form of special treatment for Ulster, he went to Belfast in order to stimulate Ulstermen and especially Ulster volunteers to join the British army, and had a considerable success. lle was eager for a thorough prosecution of the war, and accordingly joined Mr. Asquith’s Coalition Ministry of June torts as Attorney-General, resigning however in Oct. because he thought that the policy of the Cabinet, after the defection of Greece, involved the desertion of Serbia, a small country in whose fate he took a profound interest. He was strongly in favour of the

Compulsory Service bill in 1916, and regretted that Mr. Redmond should insist on excepting Ireland from iis provisions, He looked favourably upon Mr. Lloyd George’s efforts that summer

to arrange an agreed settlement of the Irish question, and when tbat statesman formed a new government in Dee. for the more

efficient conduct of the war, joined his Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty. The great anxicty of the Board of Admiralty at this period was how to counter the German submarine attack which was steadily increasing in intensity, He placed his reliance mainly on an Anti-Submarine Department which had been established in Whitehall, consisting of the most experienced men scrving at sea, and on the Board of Inventions, under Lord Fisher, with whom were associated some of the greatest men of science in the country. His shipbuilding programme was largely one for making good losses in the mercantile marine. The losses however continued to increase, and led to a reorganization of the

Admiralty, with a view to strengthening the navy war staff as well as to put the supply on a sounder basis by revising the office of Admiralty Controller. Outside his departmental duties Sir E. Carson warmly promoted the Irish Convention which the

Government assembied this year.

In July he quitted the Ad-

miralty to become a member of the War Cabinet without port-

folio,.a position which he resigned at the beginning of 1978. But,

in or out of the office, his activity was directed wholeheartedly to the vigorous prosecution of hostilities. After the war was over, Ulster and Ireland regained the first place in his thoughts. At the general election of r918 he left Dublin University, in order to represent one of the divisions of

Ulster’s capital, Belfast. On the anniversary in July roz9 of the battle of the Boyne, he restated, speaking near Belfast, Ulster’s position and claims, demanded the repeal of the Home Rule Act, threatened to call out the volunteers if any attempt were made to change Ulster’s status, declared Dominion Home Rule to be mercly a blind for an Irish Republic, and criticized Sir Horace Plunkett as one who was distrusted by both sides. When, however, Mr. Lloyd George proposed in the winter his bill for the reform of the government of Ireland, establishing parliaments and executives both in Dublin and in Belfast, and a Federal Council for all Ireland, he moderated his attitude. Though he

would have preferred that Ulster should remain in thé United Kingdom, yet, as this bill gave her a parliament of her own, he would not oppose it. When the bill left the Commons in Nov. 1920, he said that, though Ulster did not ask for a parliament,

she would do her best to make the arrangement a success, He exerted himself to that end in Ireland, with the result that the Unionists succeeded even beyond their hopes in the elections

put forward to succeed Mr. Bonar Law as leader in the British House of Commons. He had done his best to save Protestant Ulster from domination by the Roman Catholic majority of the south and west. He was 67 and had felt the strain of the last 10 years; so he quitted active politics, and accepted a lordship of Appeal and a life peerage-as Baron Carson of Duncairn, He was twice married—in 1879 to Sarah A. F, Kirwan, who died in 1913, leaving two sons and a daughter; and in 1974 to

Ruby Frewen, by whom he had one son.

(G. E. B.)

. CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1835-1012), Canadian statesman (see 5.435), died at Kingston, Ont., Sept. 23 1912. CARUSO, ENRICO (1873-1921), operatic tenor, was born in Naples, Feb. 25 1873. He was carly apprenticed to a mechani-

cal engineer. He began to sing in the choirs at Naples when he was 11, and later studied for three years under Guglielmo Vergine, He made his début in 1894 in L’ Amico Francesco at the Teatro Nuovo, Naples. He first won marked success as Marcello in

La Boheme, at Milan, in 1898; and at La Scala theatre in that city, he sang for the next four years. From 1899 to 1903 he was at St. Petersburg in the winter, and in the summer at Buenos Aires. But meanwhile he appeared also in many cities, including

Moscow, Warsaw, Rome, Paris and London (Covent Garden 1902), everywhere being warmly greeted. In America he first appeared in 1903 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, where for 18 years he was the leading tenor. He made an extensive concert tour through the United States in 1917. He had a very extensive Italian and. French repertory, but never essayed Wagnerian rôles. He won special success in Aida, Carmen, Huguenots, L’ Elisir d Amore, Pagliacci, Rigoletto and Samson, He dicd Aug, 2 rọ2r at Naples.

CARY, ANNIE LOUISE

(1842-1921), American singer (see

5.438), died April 3 1921 at Norwalk, Conn.

CASEMENT, ROGER DAVID (1864-10916), British consular official and Irish traitor, was born near Dublin Sept. 1 1864. His family were Protestants who migrated to Ulster from the Isle of Man early in the 18th century, and he was brought up in the Protestant faith. Early in his career he was in the service of the Niger Coast Protectorate, afterwards entering the British consular service, and being appointed to Lorenzo Marques (1895), Loanda (1898) and to the Congo Free State (1898). After seven years on the Congo he was transferred to South America, going to Santos (1906), to Para (1907) and to Rio de Janeiro as consul-

general

(1908),

In 1gro, charges of cruelty having been

brought against the agents of the Anglo-Peruvian Amazon Co., operating in the region of the Putumayo, a tributary of the Upper Amazon, Casement was commissioned by the British Govern-

ment to inquire into these charges on the spot. The result of his investigations was published as a Blue Book in 1912, and public opinion was deeply shocked by ihe evidence it contained of the appalling atrocities committed on the natives employed in collecting rubber (see Purumayo). For this service he was knighted. Jlis mind, however, seems to have become.affected as the result of his experiences in the tropics, and on his return to Ireland from South America he developed a fanatical hatred of

England, throwing himself with ardour into the movement for Trish independence.

Asearly as Jan. 1913 Irish Freedom, a Sinn Fein monthly.review, had foretold the coming war with Germany and proclaimed this as “Ireland’s opportunity,” and to the July number of this review Casement, under the pseudonym of San Van Vocht, contributed an article on ‘‘ Germany, Ireland, and the next

War,” in which he elaboratéd this theme. From the first he took an active part in the Volunteer movement in the south, and when, in (he spring of 1914, the bulk of the Vohanteers ranged themselves under Mr. Redmond’s leadership (National Volunteers) he attached himself to the Sinn Fein section, which refused all compromise (Irish Voluntcers). Le had int the previous year made efforts, in concert with Mrs. J. R. Green and Capt. White,

CASHIN—CASTELNAU

587

1 became a clerk in the banking firm of Elspacher, but in 1870 to organize in the north counter-demonstrations of Protestants against the Ulster movement which culminated in the swearing: “game to London and entered the foreign banking house of of the Covenant; but these efforts were a complete failure. ; “Bischoffscheim and Goldsmid, There, before he was 20, he After the outbreak of the World War Casement went to the 1 attracted notice by his skilful disentanglement of the accounts of the Khedivial loans. In 1884 he set up for himself and became United States, whence he wrote in Oct, urging Irishmen to stop in Ireland, “as they have no quarrel with Germany.” In largely interested in South-American finance. He reorganized the finances of Uruguay, and issued three Mexican loans, as well Nov, he went to Berlin and a communiqué from the German as acquiring the Royal Swedish railway and financing enterForeign Office, published in the official North-German Gazette, prises such as Vickers’ absorption of the Maxim-Nordenfelt Co. stated that he had been given assurances there with regard to and the building of the Central London railway. He also raised a Ireland in the event of a successful German invasion of Great Chinese loan after the war with Japan. His principal achieveBritain. A pamphlet by him, entitled The Crime against Ireland ment was, however, the financing of the Nile irrigation work, and and how the War may right it, appealing for a German-AmericanTrish alliance, was disseminated in the United States as part

of the German propaganda. In Feb. 1915 he wrote an “ open letter” to Sir Edward Grey accusing the British Government of conspiring against his life. During that year he visited the prison camps in Germany and tricd, with very poor success, to undermine the loyalty of Irish soldiers. who were prisoners of war, making them alluring promises if they would join an Irish brigade to fight for Ireland against Great. Britain. He succeeded in keeping in touch with the extreme elements in Ireland and in arranging with them the rebellion planned for Easter week 1916,

of which he himself proposed to take the lead. On April 12 he sailed for Ireland in a German submarine, which was accompanied by a vessel, laden with arms and ammunition, and purporting to be the Norwegian s.s. “ Auk.” They reached the coast of Kerry on the zist;.but the Government was forewarned. The * Auk ” was captured by a British patrol boat and sunk by her own crew while being taken to Queenstown. Casement, who

with two companions had landed in a collapsible boat at Banna, was arrested on the 24th in a ruined fort which afterwards became

a place of pilgrimage for Sinn Fein Irishmen. He had meanwhile succeeded in sending a message to Dublin, announcing the capture of the “ Auk ” and advising the postponcment of the enterprise. This action, which really broke the back of the rebellion, was bitterly denounced by some of his fellow conspirators, who even ascribed their misfortunes to his insane belief in his own superhuman powers. Immediately after his arrest Casement was taken to London, and on May 15 was charged at Bow Street police court with high treason, and committed for trial. The trial began on June 26 before the Lord Chief Justice and two other judges. On June 29 he was convicted and sentenced to death, and on the following day was degraded from his knighthood, The Court of Criminal Appeal dismissed his appeal against conviction on July 18, and he was executed in Pentonville prison.on Aug. 3, having been received into the Roman Catholic Church just before his death.

in connexion with that, the founding of the National Bank of

Egypt. In these schemes he worked hand in hand with Lord Cromer. For these services he received a Privy Councillorship in 1902 and was created K.C.V.O. He had previously been created K.C.M.G, (1800) and he subsequently received. the G.C.M.G. (1905), the G.C.V.O. (1906) and the G.C.B. (1909). He was also the recipient of decorations from the Governments of France, Sweden, Turkey and Japan. During the World War, though he had long been a naturalized British subject, an attempt was made to have his name removed from the list at the Privy Council. It did not succeed, He had retired from active financial operations in 1910. Ilis benefactions were extensive, and ‘included {500,000 for educational purposes, £225,060 for a hospital for nervous diseases, {50,000 to King Edward’s Hospital Fund in memory of his only child, Mrs. Wilfrid Ashley, who died in 1911, besides large gifts during the war to the British Red Cross. He also built and endowed an Anglo-German Institute in rgrz in memory of King Edward VII, with whom he had been upon terms of close friendship. He was a considerable breeder and owner of race-horses; and he acquired a collection of Early English pictures, including a celebrated Racburn. He married in 1378 Annette, daughter of R. T. Maxwell. She died in 1881. Sir Ernest died in London Sept. 21 1921. CASSEL, GUSTAV (1866— ), Swedish economist, was born

in 1866. After taking his degree in mathematics at the university, he became a lecturer, and was appointed professor of national economy at the Iligh School of Stockholm m 1904. He studied and travelled widely abroad. In addition to a number of books in Swedish, he published the following works in other languages: Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag (1900); The Nature and Necessity of Interest (1903); Theoretische Sozialékonomie (1919). His Memorandum on the World's Monclary Problems, published by the League of Nations for the International Financial Conference in Brussels in 1920, attracted widespread attention. He was a member of many committces dealing with matters of State in Sweden and devoting much labour to the creation of a See L. G. Redmond Howard, Sir Roger Casement: a Character better system of budget exposition and control (1905-21). He Sketch without Prejudice (1916). Also a sketch by McQuilland in Sunday Herald (April 30 1916), and the White Paper issued by the was one of the Swedish representatives at the International British Government, Documents relating to the Sinn Fein Movement Chamber of Commerce mecting in London in 1921. He became (Cmd. r108). a member of Svenska Velenskapsakademien and correspondent J, Newfound- for Sweden to the Royal Economic Socicty. CASHIN, SIR MICHAEL PATRICK (1864~ CASTELNAU, EDOUARD DE CURIERES DE (1851—), land politician, was born at Cape Broyle, Newfoundland, Sept. 29 1864. He was educated at St. Bonaventure’s College, St. French general, third son of the Marquis Michel de Curières de John’s, and afterwards adopted a business career, becoming a Castelnau, was born at Rouergue on Christmas Eve 1851. Je was educated first at the Jesuit college there, and Jater in Paris, fishery merchant at Cape Broyle in 1885. In 1893 he entered and entered St. Cyr in 1869. When war broke out with Prussia politics as Liberal member for Ferryland, becoming a prominent the young cadct. was posted to an infantry regiment, and he rose member of the party.. In 1905, however, he broke away from the to the rank of temporary captain, being given a permanent comLiberals, joining first the Independent Liberal party, and later mission as lieutenant when peace was made. He was promoted (1908) the People’s party led by Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) captain in 1876 and commandant in 1889. By 1893 his genius Morris. He was chosen to represent Newfoundland on the for organization had become apparent, and he was called to Commission on West Indian Trade held at Jamaica in 1901, and Paris by Gen. de Miribel. IJe remained at the Ministry of War after the outbreak of the World War occupied various important for some six or seven ycars, during which time he perfected the political posts. In 1917 he became Minister of Finance, and as such was largely instrumental in raising the Victory loan, and in French system of mobilization. That system remained in 1914 fundamentally the same as it had been conceived by him in 1900. 1918 he was successively acting Prime Minister during the abOn leaving Paris de Castelnau was promoted colonel, He was sence of Lord Morris, acting Minister of Militia and acting later given command of a brigade, and, in rgzo, of a division. Minister of Shipping. He was in the same ycar created K.B.E. When Gen. Michel left the post of generalissimo and Joffre was CASSEL, SIR ERNEST JOSEPH (1852-1921), Anglo-German appointed in his stead, Castelnau was designated as his chief-offinancier, was born at Cologne March 3 1852. His father, Jacob Cassel, was a small banker in that city, and the son at the age of staff in case of war. But his religious and political views—he

CAVALRY—CECIL

588

was nicknamed le capucin botté—caused him to be regarded with guides obtained through Phillipe Baucq. On Aug. 6 Edith Cavell suspicion, and in consequence he was designated for the command; | was arrested at the Berkendael institute and sent to the prison in case of war, of the IT. Army in Lorraine, which command, on the | of St. Gilles. She made three depositions to the German police, outbreak of hostilities in 1914, he assumed. With Gen. Dubail Aug. 8, 18, and 22, admitting that she had been instrumental in (I. Army) he was responsible for the operations of Aug. and Sept. conveying about 60 English and 15 French derelict soldiers and 1914 in Lorraine. The first offensive towards the Saar was about roo French and Belgians of military age to the frontier unsuccessful, but his repulse of Prince Rupprecht’s VI. Army and had sheltered the greater number in her house. Thirty-five on the heights of the Grand Couronné, in Aug. and Sept. r914, persons were arrested. The court-martial was held, Oct. 7 and 8, not only saved Nancy but paved the way for the Marne-victory. before Dr. Stoeber and five judges, and a Belgian lawyer, M. He was made grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In the beSadi Kirschen, defended Edith Cavell. On Oct. 9 Edith Cavell, ginning of the “Race to the Sea” (Sept.—Oct.) the IJ, Army Louise Thuliez, Phillipe Baucq, Louis Séverin and Countess staff and its leader took command of the forces that were pushed Jeanne de Belleville were secretly sentenced to death; and of the into the region between the Oise and the Somme, and fought a remaining 30, 22 were sentenced to imprisonment and 8 acquitted. ` series of encounter battles which ended in the stabilization of the On the roth the sentence was announced in secret to the prisonfront. In 1915 he took command of the group of four armies ers. Gen. von Sauberzweig, the military governor of Brussels, which constituted the French Centre, and he was in charge of ordered that “in the interests of the State ” the execution of the the French offensive in Champagne in the latter months of the death penalty against Baucq and Edith Cavell should be carried same year. On Dec. ro 1915 he was appointed “ major-general out immediately. At 7 A.M. on Oct. rr they were shot at the Tir of all the armies,” with the intention that he should be ad latus, National, Brussels, in spite of the energetic attempts to secure and eventual successor of Joffre. But in practice, and partly as delay made by the American minister, the secretary of the Amthe result of political intrigue against him, Castelnau’s rôle was erican legation and the Spanish minister, who first became aware reduced to that of occasionally representing the commander-in-. of the sentence during the night of the roth. The other three chief. It was in this capacity that he went to Salonika in the were reprieved. These were the first death sentences imposed by winter of 1915-6 to inspect the condition of affairs there, and it the Germans in Belgium for recruiting as opposed to espionage. was in this capacity also that he performed his greatest service to’ On May 15 1919 the body was removed to Norwich cathedral, France when, summoned at a moment’s notice to Verdun, he after a memorial service in Westminster Abbey. A memorial found the defence overpowered and disorganized by the suddenstatue, by Sir G. Frampton, is erected opposite the National ness of the German attack. The splendid part he played in Portrait Gallery, London. steadying and inspiring the historic French resistance cannot See The Case of Miss Cavell from the Unpublished Documents of easily be exaggerated. After a few days’ work he was able to hand the Trial, interpreted by Ambroise Got; Sadi Kirschen, Devant les over the defence, systematized, reénforced and confident, to Conseils de Guerre Allemands (1919); Correspondence with the United States Ambassador respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels, Pétain. In Jan. rory after the appointment of Nivelle, many years his junior, to the chicf command, he was sent on a mission

Cd. 8013, Stationery Office (1915).

to Russia. Returning in March of the same year he was given CAVIGLIA, ENRICO (1862~ _+), Italian general, was born at command of the eastern group of armies, and in this appointment Finalmarina (Genoa) May 4 1862, He entered the artillery, and he remained till the end of the war. In Sept. 1917 he was awarded his early years in the army were spent between this branch of the médaille militaire. Political animosities alone prevented his the service and the gencral staff, but on attaining his majority being promoted to the dignity of Marshal of France, along with he passed to the infantry arm. He served in Eritrea and in the D’Espércy, Lyautey and Fayolle, in 1921, | Italo-Turkish War and, as a captain of the general staff, was CAVALRY: see MOUNTED TROOPS. į attached to the Japanese army during the Russo-Japanese War. _ CAVE, GEORGE CAVE, isr Viscount (18s6~ ), British In Feb. 1914 he was nominated vice-director of the Military politician and lawyer, was born in London Feb. 23 1856. He was Geographical Institute in Florence. On Italy’s entry into the educated at Merchant Taylors’ school and St. John’s College, World War he served as a colonel on the general staff, and in Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1880. He practised at the Aug. 1915 he was promoted to major-general and given comChancery bart, and in 1904 became a K.C. In 1906 he was elected mand of the Bari Brigade. In June 1916 he took over the 2th Unionist M.P. for Kingston, and on the formation of the CoaliDiv. and two months later was promoted lieutenant-general tion Government

in 1915

was

made

Solicitor-General

and

knighted. He became Home Secretary in ror6 on the accession of Mr. Lloyd George to power, and in this capacity was very

prominent in the debates in the House of Commons on the police strike of Aug. 1918, In Nov. 1918 he resigned office, and was created a viscount, becoming in Jan. rọrọ a lord of appeal, _ CAVELL, EDITH (1865-1915), British nurse, was born Dec. 4 1865 at Swardeston, Norfolk, the daughter of the Rev. Frederick Cavell, vicar of that parish. She was educated at various schools in England and in Brussels, and entered the London hospital as a probationer in 1895. After five years at the hospital she was successively night superintendent at the St. Pancras infirmary, assistant superintendent at Shoreditch infirmary and matron at the Ashton New Road district home, Manchester. In 1907 she was appointed the first matron of the Berkendael medical institute, Brussels, a surgical and medical home founded by Dr. de Page as a pioneer training school for Belgian secular nurses. The institute became a Red Cross hospital on the outbreak of the World War, in which Belgian, German, French and English soldiers were nursed. From Nov. 1914 to July 1915 wounded and derelict English and French soldiers and Belgians and French of military age were hidden from the Germans and provided with false papers by Prince Reginald de Croy at his chateau of Bellignie near Mons; thence conducted by various guides to the houses of Edith Cavell, Louis Séverin and others in Brussels, and furnished by them with money to reach the Dutch frontier and with

“for war merit.”

XXIV.

In July 1917 he was given command of the

Corps, which under his direction broke through the

Austrian lines on the Bainsizza plateau. After Caporetto he took command of the VIII. Corps and subsequently of the X., and in June 1978, after the Austrian offensive on the Piave, he was chosen to command the VIII. Army. Under his leadership the VIII. Army played an important part in the final victory of Vittorio Veneto. From Jan. to June 1919 Caviglia was Minister of War, and as such became a senator,and in Nov. of the same year he was promoted army general. In Jan. 1920 he took over the command of the troops in Venezia Giulia, with headquarters at Trieste. He had a very difficult task to perform, since the discipline of the troops had been severely shaken by the example of D’Annunzio’s Fiume raid, and there was danger of trouble on the fronticr with the Yugoslays. Caviglia restored discipline, and showed both firmness and tact in dealing with these delicate problems, When it became evident that only force would drive D’Annunzio from Fiume he did not hesitate to carry out his task. CECIL, LORD HUGH RICHARD HEATHCOTE (1860-__.), English politician (see 24.76), youngest son of the 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, was born Oct. 14 1860, and was educated at Eton

and University College, Oxford. He obtained a first class in history in 1891 and was elected a fellow of Hertford College. He gained his first insight into politics as one of his father’s private secretaries, and was returned to Parliament as a Conservative for Greenwich in 1895. Ecclesiastical questions were

CECIL—CELLULOSE those in which he took the keenest interest, and he became an active member of the Church party in the House, resisting the attempts that were made by Nonconformists and Secularists to take the discipline of the Church out of the hands of the archbishops and bishops, and to remove the bishops from their seats in the House of Lords. In these debates he showed remarkable oratorical power and loftiness of tone, and established a reputation which was confirmed and heightened during the progress through Parliament of Mr. Balfour’s Education bill of 1902. In an, earnest: speech on the second reading he maintained that for the final settlement of the religious difficulty there must be codpcration between the Church of England and nonconformity, which was the Church’s natural ally; and that the only possible basis of agreement was that every child should be brought up in the belief of its parents. The ideal to be aimed at in education was the improvement of the national character. In the latter stages of the bill’s progress he warmly resented an amendment approved by the House and taken over by the Ministry giving the managers, instcad of the incumbent of the parish, the control of religious education in non-provided schools. This was not the only point on which he showed considerable independence of the Government

of which his cousin Mr. Balfour was the head,

He and Mr. Winston Churchill gathered round them a small group of young and able Conservative members, whose independent proceedings attracted some attention in Parliament,

and who formed a sort of pale reflection of Lord Randolph Churchill’s Fourth party. He dissented from the beginning from Mr. Joseph Chambcrlain’s policy of tariff reform, pleading in Parliament against any lowering of our idea of empire into that of a “ gigantic profit-sharing business.” He took a prominent position among the “ Frec Food Unionists,” and consequently was attacked by the tariff reformers and lost his seat at Greenwich in 1906. He did not return to Parliament until 1910

when his high character and his academic outlook recommended him, in spite of his hostility to tariff reform, as a fitting member

for Oxford, his own university. He threw himself immediately with passion into the struggle against the Ministerial Veto

Resolutions, comparing. the Asquith Government to “ thimbleriggers.” In the next year he was active in the resistance to the Parliament bill, treating Mr. Asquith as a “traitor” for his advice to the Crown to create peers, and taking a prominent part in the disturbance which prevented the Prime Minister

from being heard on July 24 rorr. But he never quite regained

the authority which he had possessed in-the House in the early

589

E. Marylebone, and he was one of the principal critics of Mr. Birrell’s abortive Education bill of that year, contending throughout that facilities should be afforded for the training of children in the religion of their parents. In this he carried on the work of his younger brother, Lord Hugh Cecil, new out of Parliament.

But, though a vigilant champion of Church interests,

as for instance in opposition to the Deceased Wife’s Sister’s bill, he also took up, in conjunction with Mr. Harold Cox on the Liberal side, an attitude of individualist opposition to Socialist

measures, such as Miners’ Eight Hours, Old Age Pensions, and Increment Taxation bills. He also dissociated himself from the tariff reform policy of his party. He had won aleading place among the private members of the House, when Parliament was dissolved in roro. He. then retired from Marylebone, owing to the strong opposition of the tariff reformers, and failed to secure election as a Unionist free trader at Blackburn. In the second General Eleetion of 1g10 he stood for N. Cambridgeshire but

was beaten by Mr. Neil Primrose.

However, he returned to

Parliament at a by-election in 1912 as member for the Hitchin division of Herts., the tariff reform issue being now in abeyance.

He immediately resumed his prominent position in the House, and was active in his opposition to schemes of socialism and disestablishment. He was a leading advocate of woman suffrage; and, though not palliating militancy, was a strong critic of forcible feeding. Ultimately, after women had been granted the suffrage under the Reform Act of 1918, he had the satisfaction of

carrying a resolution permitting them to sit in Parliament. By the time of the outbreak of the World War his claims to recognition among the Unionist leaders were so considerable that he was appointed Under-Secretary for Forcign Affairs in the first Coalition Ministry. His functions mainly concerned the vitally important question of blockade; and when there was a considerable outcry against the comparative ineffectiveness of our blockade, a new Ministry of Blockade was constituted, in Feb. 1916, with Lord Robert as minister. In that capacity he announced in June 1916, to the general satisfaction, that the Allies had decided to abandon altogether the Declaration of London. His work was so much appreciated that he was retained both as Minister of Blockade and as Foreign Under-Secretary in Mr, Lloyd George’s Ministry of Dec. 1916. In July 1918 the labours of the Foreign

Office became so considerable that he was relieved of.the Ministry of Blockade, and became Assistant Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, retaining that important post through the negotiations which resulted eventually in the Armistice; but he resigned on the eve of the General Election, on the ground that he could not

years of the century. He strongly opposed the Welsh Church bill; and he denounced the Home Rule bill, in a picturesque | support the decision of the Coalition Ministry to treat. Welsh phrase, as reducing Ireland from the status of a wife to that of

disestablishment as a fait accompli.

a mistress—she was to be kept by John Bull, not united to him.

nevertheless went over to Paris in 1919 to help to fashion the

During the World War Lord Hugh joined the Flying Corps, becoming a lieutenant R.F,C. in 1915, and in that capacity he

League of Nations, of which from the first he was an enthusiastic advocate. He was subsequently indefatigable in. pressing its claims upon Parliament and people, urging that the sooner

severely censured, in debate in 1918, the treatment of Gen,

Though out of office, he

Trenchard by the Government. He also served in 1917 a8 a member of the commission to enquire into the Mesopotamian

enemy nations, including Germany, could be included in it with safety, the better. In 1920 he attended the first assembly of the expedition. In Parliament he pleaded for lenient treatment of League at Geneva as the representative of South Africa at the conscientious objectors to the Military Service bills; and en- request of Gen. Smuts, himself a convinced believer in this new deavoured unsuccessfully to relieve them of disability under the international organ. He also took a large share in Parliamentary new Reform Act. After the war he took a less active part in debate, appearing, for instance, as a strong supporter of the politics, but generally found himself in agreement with his Church Enabling bill, and criticizing the policy of the War Graves brother Lord Robert, whom he followed into Opposition in 1921, Commission and the regulation headstone which it recommended. (G. E. B.) In spite of his protestation, when he left the Government, that CECIL, LORD (Encar ALGERNON) ROBERT (:864), except on the one point of the Welsh bill, he was a convinced English lawyer and statesman (sce 24.76), third son of the 3rd supporter, he steadily drifted into opposition, being especially Marquess of Salisbury, was born: Sept. 14 1864. Educated at alienated by their gigantic budgets, and by the policy of re-

Eton and University College, Oxford, he obtained a second class

in law in 1886. He was a prominent speaker at the Oxford Union, and obtained political experience as one of his father’s private

secretaries from 1886 to 1888; but he determined to approach an active political career by way of the bar, and was called by the Inner Temple in 1887. He made such progress in his profession that he could take silk in 1899; and he established his position as a sound lawyer and capable advocate. It was not till

prisals in Ireland. At one time both extreme Tory and visionary Radical thought they saw in him the leader of the future; but when he ultimately took his seat on the Opposition front bench in 1921, he did not appear to carry anyone across the House with

him, except his brother, Lord Hugh. Lord Robert Cecil married, in 1889, Lady Eleanor Lambton,

daughter of the 2nd Earl of Durham. (G. E. B.) CELLULOSE (see 5.606).—The decade following the year 1910, 1906 that he entered Parliament as Conservative member for including the experiences of the World War, fully confirmed

CELLULOSE

590

the scientific estimate of the importance of cellulose as an imdustrial product. The production of cellulose nitrate, the basis of modern military explosives, attained in 1918 to 5,000 tons per week in America alone.

Another ester derivative of cellulose,

the acetate, took a prominent and perhaps unique position in regard to war matcrial, as the basis of the dope-dressing applied to the textile coverings of the wings of acroplanes. The intensive

production of these synthetic derivatives necessarily involved extensions of research with resulting additions to our knowledge

of cellulose as a chemical individual, and in evidence of the magnitude of these industries and the wide scope of their tech-

nology we may refer to E. C. Worden’s claborate treatise on the “ Nitro Cellulose Industries.” In evidence of the rapid growth of the subject in its wider aspects we may refer to the same author’s treatise (projected in rg21), to be issued in ten volumes over a period of years. Progress of investigation and knowledge of cellulose as a chemical individual was in rg2r more definitely marked as following three independent lines, obviously converging towards a constitutional formula or expression; (1) ‘The study of cellulose as it is; a colloidal substance, perhaps the prototype of colloids,

and of its immediately related derivatives, having closely similar physical properties. (2) The study of its resolutions by reaction to compounds of Cy.-C, dimensions, also carbo-hydrates, which are presumed to be actual components, and, being compounds of known constitution, to be the foundation of an integra) for-

mula of constitution of the parent substance, With this primary or fundamental method is associated the study of the whole range of reactions and interactions of cellulose as diagnostic of its component groups. (3) The study of resolutions (a) to highly complex mixtures of products, by destructive distillation, or by natural processes of which the ultimate residual products are humus-lignite coal; (2) to ullimate products of C3-C dimensions

by symbiotic bacterial process of decomposition. Of the above, No. 2 is the line or method of systematic chem-

istry, and its exponents detach themselves in the main from all considerations of the natural history and physiology of the celluloses: their organized structure and colloidal characteristics are treated as of subordinate moment, and the technology of the

cellulose industrics is for the most part ignored. Nevertheless, the contributions of this school of workers are of first importance. The following are to be noted:— Resolution to Dextrose by ester formation, solution in water, and

progressive hydrolysis of esters: (a) Reaction with H,SO,—Ost & Wilkening (1910-3) confirm Flechsig (1882) in the general conclusion that cellulose is. quantitatively converted to dextrose; (b) reaction with HCL. Aq- Willstätter and Zechmeister (1913), rediscovering the solvent action of the acid at. maximum concentration (W. A. Miller, Organic Chemistry, p. 130, ed. 1869), apply the reaction to an analogous process of resolution and further confirm

the generally accepted relationship. Resolution to Brose (cellubiose) and Monose (dextrose) following cou-

|

whose wliima thule is expressed by a recent contributor—* the time would now seem to be opportune when the question of direct synthesis should be undertaken.” This project issues from. a comprehensive critical discussion of the research work of the last decade (H. Hibbert, “ The Constitution of Cellulose,” Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem. 13 (1921), 256 ef seqg.), of which the following is characteristic—‘ Ccilulose is thus nothing more than a polymerised dextrose glucoside of dextrose.” As indicated above, the perspective of this school of workers is that of systematic chemistry, self-contained, and perhaps ar bitrarily delimited from the objective relationships of cellulose as a dominant factor of the organic world and a main subject of natural history of which the complementary chapters are those of human industries. Investigations from this point of view have also established points of critical importance:— I. The primary importance of specific volumes of cellulose and

derivatives, for the adequate interpretation of reaction in this field. 2. The reactive continuity of cellulose: it reacts as a system, whereas systematic chemistry interprets its reactions in terms of a “molecular ” individual. 3. Cellulose is profoundly modified, structurally and constitutionally by mechanical shock and strain: as it is in degree proportionate to the active influence by all forms of energy (light, electrical current, heat).

4. Cellulose

C-C

is resolved by bacteria to ultimate products of

dimensions:

under such celluloses is tions. It is direct, and

and recent research has brought these reactions

control that the massive treatment of the ‘ normal ” an industrial operation of the order of starch fermentanoteworthy that these transformations are in the main do not involve the transitional phases of the familiar

operations of the brewer and distiller. 5. Lastly, as a negative point and a general criticism of the conclusions of the school of systematic chemists, the cellulose-dextrose relationship postulating a conversion of 100 of cellulose to 111

dextrose is not established.

Research in this field is limited to cotton

cellulose. Hf extended to esparto cellulose (a type sharply and charactoristically differentiated), to the wood celluloses, or even to cotton celulose modified by mercerization and other treatments

yielding products which maintain the structural characteristics, it would be recognized in the results that the ‘ constitution of cellulose ” is a problem of the dimensions of a continent rather than of a village: or possibly, that the “ synthesis of cellulose” is an ideal, illusory, however useful. (The reader is referred to C. F,

Cross, Cunter Lectures “ Cellulose" J. R. Soc. Arts 1920; and to papers by same author in J. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1918-20.)

Cellulose Products in War Service (1914-8).—The following note on the devclopment of the technology of -the cellulose nitrates. to meet the exacting requirements of the fighting services is contributed by Sir R. Robertson, who, as-director of research at Woolwich, was responsible for the chemical technical control of the manufacture.

In England cellulose nitrates were uscd during the war in the Land Service for the manufacture of cordite R.D.B., and for Admiralty cordite; towards the end of the war a small proportion

version into (a) acetic ester and (b) methyl and ethyl ethers or ethoxides (¢) mixed (acetic) ester—ether derivatives. By the former, Ost has demonstrated the production of the biose as octacctate with

was used for making nitro-cellulose powder.

the monosé¢ as pentacctate, the joint yield calculated to the monose

the nitration of about 7oo tons of purified cellulose.

representing 90% of the cellulose. By resolution of the mcthoxide derivatives Denham and Woodhouse obtain 1,2,5,—trimethyl

glucose and establish a critical constitutional point in regard to

By far the largest

use was for cordite R.D.B., as this propellant was ultimately manufactured at the rate of about 2,000 tons a week, involving

For Admi-

ralty cordite over 100 tons a week of sliver cotton was prepared,

this material being specially selected and purified. The cotton for current discussion of the several alternative formulae based on the the nitro-ccllulose powders was a high grade of ‘“ linters.”” general acceptance of the quantitative ccllulose—dextrose relationThe preparation of cellulose for the Land Service assumed the ship. The “acetolysis’’ of the ethoxides has been specially inproportion of a great industry. The raw materials were drawn vestigated by Hess and Wittelsbach. Resolution by Heat to Lacvo-glucosan.—A direction of research of from wastes from the spinning-mills not only of England, but critical importance is opened up by A. Pictet and co-workers, and ` also of Egypt, India, and of other countries. It was soon found subjecting cellulose (starch and glucose) to distillation in vacuo ‘that the variations in treatment of the crude wastes produced (12.14 mm. at 210°) with production of lacvo-glucosan ' a product which gave variable results after it had been nitrated, especially when it reached the stage of its incorporation with CII—CHOH -CH: nitro-glycerine and gelatinization by means of ether-alcohol. M~o in large yield (40 %). All the materials for producing cellulose for nitration were therefore coérdinated under the Department of Explosives Supply, CHOH, CHOH, CH which instituted a system of chemical control of the product, with the objects of obtaining uniformity of production, reducing Helvetica Chem. Acta, 1918-20; also P, Karrer, ibid. 1920. the quantity of impuritics, and obtaining a suitable low viscosity. These notes are sufficient as evidence of the rapid advance of A uniform process of “ kicring ” (boiling under pressure with a knowledge due to the active work and discussions of the chemists lyc of caustic soda) was introduced, and under strict supervision a

CENSORSHIP product was obtained of remarkable purity, considering its origin, and suitable for the manufacture of cordite R.D.B. The result is an example of the successful application of

chemical technical control to secure a product of standard

uniform quality, and by reason of the quality of low viscosity _ of the nitrated product a very considerable economy in the ether-alcohol, for gelatinizing the nitro-cellulose. The methods for determining the viscosity of the cellulose, and a method for determining ligneous impurities in the cellulose (Trans. Chem. Soc. 1920, 127, 473 and 479, and Jour. Soc. Chem, Industry, 1920, 39, 81 'T) were worked out at the Research Department, Woolwich. The application of this work on cellulose by the Depart-

ment of Explosives Supply is described in Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry, vol. 30, 333 T. The United States supplied large quantities of nitro-ccllulose propellant for the Allies and for its own army, and used as raw

matcrial a considerable proportion of the shorter fibre “ waste ” from the dclinted cotton seed. During the last three months of the war the total production of cellulose nitrate material in the United States was at the rate of 5,000 tons a week. This propellant consisted of gelatinized nitro-cellulose with the addi-

tion of a stabilizer, but it contained no nitro-glycerine. In the enemy countries the shortage of cotton supplies was met by the extensive cmployment of wood cellulose, papermakers’ cellulose pulp, purificd by alkaline hydrolytic treatments, which modify the cellulose to a nearer approximation to the standard cotton cellulose,

Cellulose Acetate—The

cellulose acetates are the chemical

analogues of the nitrates, and a specially prepared acetone soluble acetate was extensively used in dressing the textile coverings of aeroplane wings, the treatment having an ensemble of effects, producing shrinkage of the fabric in situ, thus a taut finish, a smooth surface and the water-resistant quality obviously indispensable. In England the manufacture of the product was developed by The British Cellulose Co. on the basis of the Dreyfus patents who,

591

tions of extreme specific viscosity.

The products (Tragasol) find

extensive application as a dressing or “‘ fini