Encyclopaedia Britannica [3, 12 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Initials
PACI
PALE
PEAC
PERS
PETR
PHYS
POLA
POWE
PRIS
PROP
PSYC
RADI
RAIL
REDW
RIFL
RUBB
RUSS
RUSS
SANM
SCIE
SERB
SEX
SHIP
SHIP
SIEG
SINN
SOMM
SOUT
SPEC
STRA
SUBM
SUPP
SWIT
TACT
TANK
TELE
THAY
TRAC
TRAI
TRIP
TURK
TURK
UNIT
UNIT
UNIT
UNIT
VERD
WAGE
WATE
WEST
WEST
WILS
WOME
WOME
WORL
YPRE
YUGO
ZOOL

Citation preview

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA TWELFTH EDITION ey

VOLUME III PACIFIC OCEAN ISLANDSZULOAGA

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA NEW

FIRST SECOND

VOLUMES

edition, published in three P! i ten

THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH

és 35 ‘3 j a

2 y ts

EIGHTH

5

NINTH

D

TENTH

»

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

,„ .

BRITANNICA

volumes, i

os

eighteen twenty twenty twenty twenty-one

j i 5 i »

i

EWENTY-IWO

p,

z

twenty-five

—,,

_ Eniath edition and cleven supplementary volumes)

published in twenty-nine volumes, (cleventh cdition and three new volumes),

1768—1771. 1777—1784. 1783—1797, I18or— IRO. I8r5— 1517. 1823—1814. s8j0— 1842,

1853—1860. 1875—1$Sq, 1902—1903.

I91O—I911, 1922—.

THE BRITANNICA

ENCYCLOPADIA THE

NEW VOLUMES

THE

VOLUMES

THE TWENTY-NINE EDITION,

IN COMBINATION WITH OF THE ELEVENTH

CONSTITUTING,

TWELFTH

EDITION

OF THAT WORK, AND ALSO SUPPLYING DISTINCTIVE, AND INDEPENDENT LIBRARY OF REFERENCE DEALING WITH EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF THE PERIOD I910 TO 1921 INCLUSIVE

A NEW,

Tur

Turrp

or Tus

VOLUME PACIFIC OCEAN ALSO SEPARATE

!NDEX AND

New VOLUMES

XXXII

ISLANDS to ZULOAGA

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS COVERING XXX, XXXI AND XXXII

THE NEW VOLUMES

LONDON

THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

BRITANNICA New

THE

XXXIIL

I

COMPANY,

YORK

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, 1922

INC.

LTD.

INITIALS

USED

WITH

IN VOLUME

THE

XXXII.

TO

IDENTIFY

CONTRIBUTORS,’

HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED,

ArRTIIUR ANTHONY MACDONNELL, M.A. PED., Hox. LL.D., TRB.A.

Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford.

Fellow of Balliol Col-

lege, Oxtord. Author of The Turaniens und Pan-Turantanism, Murestan Routes; Ycdic Mythology, A HMistory of Sanskrit Literature; aL Vedic Grammar; ete.

Pan-Turanianism,

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, A.B., LL.D., IaTT.D, Professor of Government, Harvard Universitv. Author of Selmon Portland Chase, Slavery and Abolition; National Ideus TTistoricuily Traced: Monroe Doc-

trine; etc.

Editor of the American

Nation; Cyclopucdia of American Govern-

Roosevelt, Theodore;

United States: History.

ment; etc.

Mrs. Axner Rraxco Winte, O.B.E. Director, Women’s Wages Section, British Ministry of Munitions, 1917-8. ber of National Whitley Council for the Civil Service, 1919-20.

Mem-

Women’s Employment: L niled Kingdom.

ALDO CASTELLANT, C.M.G.. M.D., M.R.C.P. Lecturer, London

School of Tropical Medicine.

Medicine, Ceylon Medical School. of Tropical Medicine; ete. A. C. Ca.

Formerly Professor of Tropical

Author (with Dr. A. J. Chalmers) of Munxal

Typhus Fever,

A. CECIL CARTER (d. rg2t).

Formerly Superintendent of Siamese Government Students at the Siamese Lega- {|Siam, tion, London.

Sometime Principal of King’s College, Bangkok.

CAPTAIN ALFRED C, Dewar, R.N. (xet.), B.Litr. (Oxon.). Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution. Late of the Historical Section, c Submarine Campaigns; Naval Stat, Admiralty. Zeebrugge.

ARTHUR CoxyERS Ivax, M.A., M.B., B.Cu. (Oxon.). Pathologist X

to the

Bro apton 7

Hospital

for

Consumption.

Hon.

Captain,

R.AALC. Special Bacteriologist In the British Expeditionary Force during the World War. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ARTHUR CrcTL WILLIAMS, C.B.E., R.G.A. Late Chief Instructor

in Range-finding

at the Ordnance

College, Woolwich.

During the World War Director of Inspection of Optical Supplies for the British

Vaccine Therapy.

Rangefinders

and

Position

Finders (i part).

Army. ALGERNON EDWARD ASPINALL, C.M.G., B.A. Secretary to the West India Committee. The Pocket Guide to the West Iudics; ete.

Author of The British West Indices;

West Indies, British.

Imperial War

E

Acnrs Etter Conway, M.B.E., B.A. (Dublin), Hon.

Curator,

Women’s

W ork Section,

Museum.

Author

of

Noth

Child's Book of Art, A Ride Through the Bulkans. A. E. McK,

ALBERT E. McKin ey, Pu.D.

A

Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania. Secretary, Pennsylvania War History Commission. President, Pennsylvania Federation of Historical Societies.

A. E. T,

A.

F,

oe pe

ALFRED Epwarp Tavtor, M.A., D.LitT., FBLA. Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. Author of Tite | Philosophy. Problem of Conduct; Elements of Metaphysics; Varia Socraticu; ete. ALFRED FOWLFR, F.R.S. f Corresponding Member, Academy of Science, Paris.

Professor of Astrophysics, £ Spectroscopy.

Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington.

'A complete list, showing all contributors to the New Volumes (arranged according to the alphabetical order of their surnames) with the articles signed by them, appears at the end of this volume. Vv

+

V1

INITIALS AND HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

A. F. B.

ALDRED FARRER Barker, M.Sc. Professor of Textile Industries in the University of Leeds. Author or Joint- 4 Wool. author of Wool Carding and Combing; Textile Design; Cloth Analysis; ete.

A. F.G. B.

AUBREY JITzGERALD BELL.

À. F. P.

ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., Litt.D., F.B.A.

Author of Portugal of the Portuguesc; Studics in Portuguese Literature; ete. Professor of English History in the University of London.

Fellow of All Souls |World Wars

College, Oxford. Chairman of the Institute of Historical Research. A Short History of the Great War; The Evolution of Parliament; ete. A. F. Pr.

A. Gi.

A.I.S.

Portugal.

ALFRED FRANCIS PrrpRau, PH.D. Professor of Modern History in the University of Vienna. Vienna Academy of Science; etc.

Author of

Member of the | Plener, E.

BRIGADIER-GENERAL Sir ALEXANDER Gigs, G.B.E., C.B., D.S.M. (U.S.A), Commander of the Order of the Crown of Belgium, M.Inst.C.E., M.LM.E., A.ILN.A., ¥.R.S. (Edin.). Late Civil Engineer-in-Chicf, Admiralty. Late Director-General of Civil Engineering, British Ministry of Transport. Consulting Civil Engineer, Ministry of Transport.

REAR-ADMIRAL ARCHIBALD HENDERSON SCALES.

Transport,

{ United States Naval

Superintendent, United States Naval Academy.

|

A.-K.

GENERAL Moritz AUFFENBERG-KOMAROW, Sec the biographical article: AUFFENBERG-Komarow, Moritz.

AKK.

Dr. ALLEN K. KRAUSE. Staff of Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. can Review of Tuberculosis,

A. K. Y.

SIR ARTHUR KEYSALL Yarr, K.B.E. Officer of the Order of the Crown of Belgium. National Secretary of the Y.M.C.A.

Political His-

tory.

l

Academy.

: Pflanzer-Baltin, K.

f Managing Editor of the Amrcri- / Tuberculosis: United States.

Order of Wen Hu (China). Director of Food Economy (Hon.), Sept.

Y.M.C.A.:

;

š: United Kingdom.

1917—-Feb, 1918. Author of Romance of the Red Triauyle; ete. A. L. Bo.

ArtHurR Lyon Bow Ley, Sc.D.

A L.C.

COLONEL ARTHUR LATHAM CONCER, U.S. ARMY. Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), C.M.G. Legion of Ifonour. Co-editor of The Military Historian and Economist.

A. O.R.

ALEXANDER OLIVER RANKINE, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.Ixst.P. Fellow of University College, London. Professor of Physics in the Imperial

Professor of Statistics in the University of London. Statistics; Wages in the United Kingdom; ete.

Author of Elements of a (in part); Wages (iit part). Formerly

| Western European Front Campaigns (in part); Woevre, Battles in: Pari II. Sound,

College of Science and Technology.

A. P.S.

ANSON PHELPs STOKES, D.D., LL.D.

ATW.

Sir ARNOLD TaLBoT WILsoNn, K.C.LE., C.S.L, C.M.G. D.S.O.

B. A.

COMMANDER BERNARD Acworth, D.S.0., RN.

B. B.-B.

Mayor-GENerat Basi, Frrcuson Burnett-Hitcucocs, C.B., D.S.0. Director- { United Kingdom: Post War

B. J.*

BERGES JOHNSON, A.B. (Amherst). Associate Professor of English and Director of the Bureau of Publication, Vassar ( Vassar College.

Secretary of Yale University.

er

Author of Memorials of Eminent Yale Men; etc.

Yale University. ,

Late Civil Commissioner in Mesopotamia, and Political Resident in the Per- ( Persian Gulf. sian Gulf.

B. K. L. C. Br.*

C.

C.*

{Submarine Mines (in part).

General of Mobilization and Recruiting, British War Office.

yo Army

College. Editor of the Bulletin of the Authors’ League of America. Basit Krrietr Lona.

Editor of the Cape Times, Formerly Forcign Editor of The Times (London).

Sir CHARLES BRICHT, F.R.S.E., M.Uxst.C.E., M.LELE., F.S.S., F.1itst.s. Author of Submarine Telegruphs; Imperial Telegraphic Communication; raphy, Aeronautics and War, etc,

f Smuts, J.C

|

a

ee

| $ . Teleg- sti arine Cable Telegra | pas

Carr CHRISTOPHELSMEIER, B.A., M.A., PRD. r Head of the Department of History and Political Science in the University of jSouth Dakota South Dakota. Author of The First Revolutionary Step (June 17, 1789); rll Fourth of August, 1789; etc.

C. Do.

Cuirrorp Dopett, M.A., F.R.S. l Protistologist to the Medical Research Council. Late Fellow of Trinity College, Protozoëlo Cambridge.

Formerly Assistant Professor of Protistology and Cytology, m

perial College of Science, London.

;

ey.

i

INITIALS C. E.C.

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

MAJOR-GENERAL ŠIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B. Director of Military Operations, War Office, 1914-6. Author of Small Wars; Military Operations and Maritime Prepondirance; The Dardanelles; ete.

vii

Staff, Military; Turkish Campaigns: Mesopotamia; Ypres-Yser, Battles of: Part III.

*

C.F. A.

Major CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON, T.D. Late East Surrey Regiment.

Saint Anne (Russia).

Distinguished Service Medal (U.S.A.), Order of

Formerly Scholar of Queen’s College. Oxford.

ficer for Trench Warfare

Research,

1913-7.

Staff Of-

British Instructor in Intelligence,

American Expeditionary Force, 1918. Editorial Staff of the 11th edition of the Eneyelopadia Brituuuca. Author of Grants Campaigns; The Wilderness and Cold Harbor; etc.

C. F. CL

COLONEL SIR CHARLES FREDERICK Crost, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., F.R.S. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom. Author of Text Book of Topographical Surveying.

C.G.R.

CHARLES GARONNE RENOLD, M.E. (Cornell).

;

Managing Director of Hans Renold, Limited.

Rifles and Light MachineGuns (in part); Serbian Campaigns; Siegecraft and Siege Warfare; Signal Service Army (i part); Trench Ordnance

(in pert);

Western European Front Campaigns (in part); Woévre, Battles in (in part).

Surveying (i part). Scientific Management.

Author of Workshop Committees;

etc.

CLARENCE Iexry Harre, B.Litr. (Oxon.), PH.D. (Harvard). Associate Professor of History in Yale University. Author of The Buccaneers in the West Indies in the XVII. Century; Trade and Navigation between Spain

Rio de Janeiro,

and the Indies in the Time ef the HMapsburgs, etc.

C.J. M. C. K.*

COURTENAY J. MILL.

Stock Exchange.

Financial Editor of The Times (London).

ER

CARL KARSTEN.

Üpperte tard:

Silesia

Member of the Stafi of the Deutsche Aligemetne Zeitung.

?

C. Ly.

C. Lery, C.E. Ex-Minister of Public Works, Holland. States General.

C.L C.

CHARLES LYON CHANDLER, A.B.

C. Ma.

Member of the Second Chamber of the

Curator of South American History and Literature in the Harvard College Library. Manager of the Foreign Commercial Department of the Corn Exchange National Bank of Philadelphia. Author of Inier-American Acquaintances. CUTHBERT MAUGHAN. Contributor on Finance, Shipping and Insurance to The stnnual Register, ete. Representative of Admiralty Section of the British Alinistry of Information in North America, 1918.

Zuider Zee.

Paraguay;

Uruguay.

Shipping: British.

C.M.E. M.

GENERAL CHARLES MARIE EmaxteL Maxo, K.C.B., etc.

C. M. L.

CuartEs Mosryn Lioyp, M.A. (Oxon.). Barrister-at-Law. Lecturer at the London School of Economics and Political Science. Author of Trade Unionism; Essays on the Reorganization of Local Govormnent; etc.

Poor Law.

C. Po.

COURTENAY Epwarp MAXWELL Pottock, R.B.S., F.R.S.L.

Sculpture (in part).

C. R. D.

Cuartrs RoBERT DARwine, F.Inst.P., F.1.C.

C. R.F.

Carr ResseEL. Fisna, M.A., Pr). Professor of American ‘History in the University of Wisconsin. Author of Civil Service and the Patronage; Development of American Diplomacy; ete.

C. Sey.

CHARLES SEYMOUR, M.A., Pu.D., Litr.D.

See the biographical article: Manorn, C. M. E.

Verdun, Battles of (in part).

,

Pyrometry..

Lecturer in Applied Physics, City and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury. Author of Heut for Exgincers; Pyrometry; etc.

Professor of History in Yale University.

U.S. Technical Delegate at the Paris

Peace Conference. Author of The Diplomatic Backgrownd of the War, Woodrow Wilson and the World War; etc.

Wisconsin.

Wilson, Woodrow; Washington Conference. Somme, Battles of the (in pert);

CAPTAIN C. T. ATKINSON, Historical Section, Committee of Imperial Defense.

Ypres-Yser, Battles of (in part).

Davin Duxcan Wattace, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of History and Economies i in Wofford College, Spartanburg, S. Carolina. Author of Life of Henry Lawrens; The Government of England, Civil Government of South Carolina and the United Stules.

Dovcras Hypr, LL.D., D.Lirt.

South Caroli

ae oe ee, ee a EET hi pee ga edit We ee =ae maeaea aaa es ey i

Professor of Modern Irish in Univ ersity College, Dublin. President of the Irish Texts Society. Author of Literary History of Ircland, etc.

Pearse, Patrick.

INITIALS AND

ent

vlil

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

D.R. D.

Davis Ricu Dewey, Pu.D., LL.D.

D.S. M.*

DAvID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A. Laudian Professor of Arabic in the University of Oxford.

E. C. Ba.

EUGENE CAMPBELL BARKER, PH.D. Professor of American History, and Chairman of the Department of History,

Professor of Economics and Statistics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Formerly Secretary of the American Statistical Association. Managing Editor | United States: Statistics. of the American Economic Review. Author of Financiul History of the United States. Editor of Francis Walker's Discussions in Economics and Statistics.

University of Texas.

Joint-author of A School History of Texas.

Editor, Southwestern H istoricul Quarterly, E.

C,

C.

-

Editor of Yaquit’s Dictionary of Learned Men, cete. Author of Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; ete.

;

Managing

ELLERY CHANNING CHILCOTT, M.S. Chief of Dry Lands Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry of the U.S. De-

partment of Agriculture.

E.

D.

M.

E. D.S.

E. F. S.*

United States: Agriculture.

Eric DeNvers Macnamara, M.A., M.D., FRCP. Lecturer in Ps ychological Medicine in the Charing Cross Hospital Medical School. Physician to the West End Hospital for Nervous Diseases.

Psychotherapy.

MAJOR-GENERAL ERNEST Duxror Swixtox, C.B., D.S.O. Late Royal Engineers. Author of The Green Curve; The Great Tah Dope; The

Defence af Duffer’s Drift. Oflicial ’ Eyewitness ” with the British Army in France, 1914-5. Originator of the Tank. Raiser and first commander of the Tank Corps. | Epcar Fans SMITH, PH.D., CuEM.D., Sc.D., LILD., M.D., LLD.

Pennsylvania, University of,

Late Provost of the Univ ersity of Pennsy Ivania, and Emeritus Professor of Chemistry. E.

G.

S.

Emma GURNEY SALTER, AL.A., Litt.D.

Author of Franciscan Legends in Italian Art, Nature in Italian Art; ete.

Rio de Oro.

E. J.

Przemysl, Sieges of; Major Ernst Jory. | ) Strypa-Czernowitz, Late General Staff, Austro-Hungarian Army. Now of the Kriegsarchiv, V lenna.4 | Battle of; Part-author of the Austrian Othcial War Chronology Tables; ete.

E. L.C.

Epcar LercH Corus, M.A, M.D. (Oxon.), M.R.C.P. (Lond).

| Vistula-San, Battle of the.

Mansel

Talbot

Medicine.

Professor of Preventive

Medicine,

Welsh

National

School

Late Director (Welfare and Health), Ministry of Munitions.

Medical Inspector of Factories.

E. N.da C.A.

of

H.M.

EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADR, D.Sc., PH.D., F.INsT.P. Fellow of University College, London.

Professor of Physics in the Artillery Col-

lege, Woolwich.

||

Welfare Work in Industry. Rangefinders and PositionFinders (in purt).

(

SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

|

E. S.C.

E. S. CATON. Editor of Tobacco.

f

E. S. M.

EDMOND STEPHEN MEANY, M.S.. M.L.

E. T.

Euinu Tiromson, A-M., Pu.D., D.Sc.

E. Ru.

E. R E.

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Cambridge. Author of Radioactivity, Radioactive Substances and their Radiations; etc. See the bio- Radioactivity. graphical article: RUTHERFORD, SIR ERNEST. L Eric Rucker EpDIsoN, R.A. f Profiteering: United Controller of the Profiteering Act Department of the Board of Trade (London). \ Kingdom.

\ Tobacco (in part).

Professor of History in the U niv crsity of Washington. Author of History of the ¢Washington (State). State of Washington; Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound; cte.

Consulting Engineer of the General Electric Company.

Originator of Resistance

Welding, Electric.

Electric Welding (Thomson Process).

E.T. D. E. T. d'E,

Epwarp THomas Devine, Pu.D., LL.D. Associate Editor of The Survey, New York. Author of Misery and its Causes; The Normal Life; Disabled Soldiers and Sailors, ete.

f United States: Social ang

| | t Ship and Shipbuilding. World War. Vice-president of the Institution of Naval Architects. | ETHAN VIALL. cditor of American Machinist. Member A.S.M-E.. ALE.E.. A.S.T.M., S.A.E. | Author of Breaches and Broaching, Electric Welding; Gas-Torch and Thermit {

Welfare Work (in part).

Sir Eustace HENRY WILLIAM TENNYSON D'Eyncourt, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc.

Commander of the Legion of Honour. Distinguished Service Medal (ESA): Director of Naval Construction and Chief Technical Adviser to the British Admiralty. Chief Adviser on Tanks to the Ministry of Munitions during the

E. Vi.

Welding;

United States Rifles and Machine Guns.

United States Artillery Am-

munition; Manufacture of Artillery Ammunition, etc. E. v. W.

7 EDUARD VON WERTHEIMER. Emeritus Professor of History in the University of Pressburg.

Thermit and Thermit Welding; Welding: Gas Torch. |

|

Szell, K.; Szilagyi, D.; Tisza.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK Barton Maveice, K.C.M.G., CB.

Commander of the Legion of Honour.

St. Stanislas of Russia.

Croix de Guerre.

ix

f

First Class Orders of }Western European

Director of Military Operations,

Imperial

Front

General | Campaigns (ie part).

Statf, 1915-6. Author of Forty Days in 1974; Lhe Last Four Months; etc.

F.C. E.

FRANZ CARL ENDRES.

Turkish Campaigns:

Major, late General Staff, Turkish Army. Author of a Life of Moltke; Die Ruine des Orients; ete. Member of Committee, German League of Nations Union.

Cuucasus.

|

F. C. S. S.

FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc.

F.F.

FRANK Fox, O.B.E. Author of Australia; Problems of the Pacific; “GII.Q.”

Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. President of the Society \ Psychical Research. for Psychical Research, torg. Author of Formal Logic} Humanism, Studies in Humanism, Riddles of the Sphinx; ctc.

l

andae Served in the World |itary

LH

War as British Artillery otiicer and as Stalf otiicer.

F. H. Br.

F. H. H.

F. M.B.

FRANK HERBERT Brown, C.LE.

On the Stall of The Times for Tndian Affairs. London Correspondent of The Times of Lidia. Formerly Assistant Editor of the Bumbay Gazette and I-ditor of the [udian Duily Telegraph, Lucknow. FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. American Editor of the Encydopeædia Brilanniea (12th Edition). MAJOR FREDERICK MARSHMAN BAILEY, C.LE. Indian Political Department. Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society, TQ16.

EMR

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL F. M. RICKARD. , Royal Artillery. Chief Instructor, Artillery College, Woolwich Instructional Staff, Artillery College).

F.R. C.

Frank RicHarpson Cana, F.R.GS. Editorial Statf, r1th edition of the Fxeyelopedia Britannica.

(assisted by

Tilak, B. G.

i

Public Assistance:

l

United

States.

Turkestan, West.

|Propellants. | Portuguese East Africa;

The Times.

Rhodesia; Senussi; Sierra Leone; Somaliland; South Africa Cin part): Sudan (in pert); Suez Canal; Tan-

Editorial Stafi of

Author of South -tfrica from the Great Trek to the Union; Problems

of Exploration; africa; The Sukera in 1915; The Great War in Europe; cte.

|ganyika Territory; Togoland; Transvaal; Tripoli; Uganda: Zanzibar.

F. T.

GENERAL [RÉDÉRIC THEVENET. General of Division, French Army. Formerly Governor of Belfort. € ommander { Vosges, Battles in the. Belfort region in the World War, Author ol Le Place de Belfort.

F. W.

Major-General. SIR FABIAN WARE, K.B.E., C.B., C.ALG. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Commander of the Order of the Crown (Belgium),

ete.

Vice-chairman

of the Imperial

War

Graves

Commission.

War Graves.

Formerly Editor of the Morning Post, F. W. Mo.

Str Freperick Mott, K.B.E., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Director of the Pathological Laboratory of the L.C.C. Asylums. Consulting Physician, Charing Cross Hospital. Late Member of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases.

G.A.S.

SIR GEORGE AUGUSTUS SUTTON, BART. Chairman of the Amalgamated Press, Limited. the British Treasury, 1917-9.

G.

C.

S.

Jon. Director of Publicity to

|

War Loan paigns.

Publicity

Cam-

GILBERT CAMPBELL Scoccty, M.A., PH.D. Sometime Scholar of Harv ard University. Formerly Assistant Professor of Greek at the University of Missouri. Associate Editor of The Classical Journal.

Member of the American Editorial Sta of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

G. Dr.

Shell Shock; Venereal Diseases.

GEOFFREY Dracr, M.A. President of the Central Poor Law Conference. 1906.

Vice-president, Royal

Statistical Society, 1916-8. Attached to the War Once, Military Intelligence Section, 1916. Author of The State and the Poor: Re organisation of Oficial Statistics

Tennessee.

|

|

Poland;

Public Assistance (in part).

and a Central Statistical Office; Pre-war Statistics of Poland and Lithuania; ete.

G. D.H. C.

GrorcE Doucitas Howarp Cote, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Hon. Secretary, Labour Re- j Socialism;

scarch Department. Author of The World of Labour; Self-Ga ernment in In- ) Wage System in Industry. dustry; Guild Socialism Restated; Social Theory; ete.

G. E. B,

GEORGE Ear_tr Ruck et, M.A., Hon. LL.D. Formerly Scholar of Rew College and Fellow of All Souls College,

A Oxfor

Editor of The Times, 1884-1012. Author of Life of Disraeli (vols. 3, 4, 5, and 6). See biographical article: BUCKLE, GEORGE CARLE.

G. E. F.

GzrorceE Emory Fettows, A.M., Px.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Utah. President of the University of Maine, 1902-11. Author of Recent Europeun History; Qul-

line Study of the Sixteenth Century; etc.

Rhondda, Viscount.

Utah.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

G.G.G.

Grorce G. Groat, Pa.D.

G.K. S.M.

Author of Athtude of American Courts in Labor Cases, Introduction to the Study of Organized Labor in America. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GrorceE KENNETH Scort-Moxcrierr, K.C.B., K.C.M.Ġ.,

Head of the Department of Commerce and Economics, University of.Vermont.

LE., Hon. M.Inst.C.E., Late R.E. Director of Fortifications and W orks, War Office, r911-8.

Vermont.

l | |4

Training Camps, Military

(un part); Water Supply, Military.

Author of The Water

Supply of Barracks and Cantonments, The Princtples of Structural Design; ete.

G.P. D. G. S.

H. A. W.*

Mayor-GENERAL Guy Payaw Dawnay, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.0., M.V.O

H. B.*

HERBERT BRANDE.

H. Be.

GENERAL HENRI BERTHAUT.

Railway Stations.

Sub-Chief of the General Staff of the French Army, 1903-12. Author of La Carte de France; Topologie; De la Marne àla Merdu Nord; L Erreur de rgrq, cte.

B.

H.E. A.C.

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford,

Editor of the roth, rth

and 12th editions of the Exucyclepedia

Financial Editor of The

H. F. O.

Britannica.

Tintes, 1913-20. See the biographical article: CHISHOLM, HUGH. Henry CLEMENS Pearson, F.R.GS. Editor and Publisher of the India Rubber World, New York. Author of Crude Rubber Compounding Ingredients, Rubber Machinery; Puenmatic Tires; Rubber Country of the Amazon; WhatI Saw in the Tropics; etc.

CAPTAIN HENRY DALRYMPLE BRIDGES, D.S.0., R.N. Henry Evan Avousteé Cotton, C.LE., L.C.C. Formerly Scholar of Jesus ÈCollege, Oxford, and Advocate of the High Court at Calcutta.

Author of Calcuitu Old and New.

Late Editor of India.

Henry FAIRFIELD OsBoRN, LL.D., D.Sc. Honorary Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City; and Vertebrate Palaeontologist, United States

H. I. P.

H. J.G.

Geological Survey. HERBERT INGRAM PRIESTLEY, M.A., Pr.D. Associate Professor of Mexican "History and Librarian of the Bancroft Library, University of California. Author of José de Gélvcs, Visttor-General of New Spain;

etc. Sir Henry Gauvatn, M.A., M.D., M.Cir. (Cantab.). Medical Superintendent, Lord Mayor Treloar Cripples’ Hospital and College, Alton and Hayling Island, Hants. Hon. Consulting Surgeon to the Welsh National

H. M. M.

Western European Front

Campaigns (in part).

| |

Hucu CuyisHoim, M.A,

H. C. P.

D.

T

Formerly Editorial Writer, The Chicago Tribune.

H. Ch.

H.

Turkish Campaigns: Sinai.

Formerly Brigadier-General. General Staff, Egyptian I speditionary Force, and

Director of Staif Duties, G.H.Q., France. GEORGE SAUNDERS, O.B.E., B.A. (Oxon.), Hon. LL.D. (Glasgow). Correspondent of the Morning Post in Berlin, 1888-97; and of The Times in { Tirpitz, Alfred von. Berlin, 1897-1908, and in Paris, 1905-14. Coronet H. A. WHITE. United States: Military Law. Judge Advocate, United States Army Department.

Memorial Association. Consultant in Surgical Tuberculosis to the Essex and Hampshire County Councils. Harotp Mepway Martin, A.C.G.I. Whitworth Scholar, Member of the Nozzles Research Committee, appointed by the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. Member of the Lubricants and Lubrication Enquiry Committee, appointed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Rescarch (London)

H. O'L.

Mayor HERBERT O’LEary. U.S. Army. Chief of Small Army Division, Ordnance Officer, Washington.

H. P.-G.

Harry Prere-Gorpon, D.S.C., M.A.

Served in the W orld War, Editor of A Brief Account ofthe Advance of the Egyp-

World War:

|Rubber.

| (

| | iz

Submarine Mines (in part). Tagore,R

Palaeontology.

Anami

Salvaador;

H. Sa.

Captain Henry Percy Dovcras, C.M.G., RN., FRAS., AMICE. Assistant Hydrographer of the British Navy, 1919-21. Hrrosi Sarto, M.A. Secretary of Embassy and Consul in the Japanese Diplomatic and Consular Service. Member of the Japanese Delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris, 1919, and to other Inter-Allied and International Conferences in Europe and

?

LY |

Tuberculosis (in part).

Turbines, Steam (in part). Pistol; Rifles and Light

Machine-Guns (in part): Sights: (Rifle and Pistol).

Palestine; Syria; Transjordania; Turkish Cam-

tian Expeditionary Force.

H. P. D.

Introductory.

paigns: Palestine.

Surveying:

Nautical.

Sakhalin.

America, 1919-21.

H. S.L. W.

Harotp St. Joun Loyp WintersoTHam, C.M.G., D.S.0. Ordnance Survey, Great Britain. Victoria Medallist of the R.G.S. , 1920.

S

H. Wi.

HUMBERT WOLFE, C.B.E.

Trade Boards.

AAA urveying (in part).

INITIALS H. W.C. D.

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

xi

Henry WirLraĮm Carress Davis, M.A., C.B.E.

Professor of History at Manchester University.

Fellow and formerly Tutor of

Balliol College, Oxford. Sometime Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Member | Peace Conference. of Advisory Staff of British delegation to the Peace Conference. H. W. Kaye, M.D. (Oxon.). ` Director of Medical Services, Ministry of Pensions. Late Personal Assistant to Chief Commissioner of Medical Services, Ministry of National Service. HENRY Wittram Marpon, F.R.G:S.

ee Kingdom: Medical Examination of the Nation. |

Commander of the Mejidieh. Formerly Lecturer in Geography and Education in the Tewfikich and Dar el Ulum Colleges, Cairo. Author of 4 Geography of Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan; etc.

Ukraine.

HERBERT WRIGLEY WILSON, M.A. Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Oxford.

Author of Zronclads in Action.

Contributor to The Cambridge Modern History. Mai.

I. M. T.

Assistant Editor of The Daily

Rothermere, Lord.

Ips MINERVA TARBELL, M.A., Lrrt.D., LL.D.

Former Associate Editor of The Chautauguan, McClure's Magasine, American } Women’s War-Work: Magazine. Author of Life of Abraham Lincoln; The History of the Standard Oil U niied States, Company; The Tarif in our Times; New Ideals in Business; ete.

LO.A.

IRENE Oscoop AnpREws, A.B. | Assistant Secretary, American Association for Labor Legislation. Author of Women: United States: Working Women in Tanneries; Irregular Employment and the Living Wage for Women’s Employment: United States: Women, Economic Effects of the War upon Women and Children in Great Britain;

Women Police: U mied States.

etc.

J-A.F.

J. A. G.*

Joun Amprose Fremtne, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MINST.E.E. Professor of Electrical Engincering in the University of London. Fellow of University College, London. Sometime Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Author of The Principles of Electric Wave Telegra phy and Telephony; The Propagatton of Electric Currents in Telephone amd Telegraph Conductors; The Thermionic Valve, The Wonders of Wireless Telegraphy; ete. Professor of Pharmacology, University of Oxford.

J. A. Ro.

Telephony,

James Axprew Gunn, M.A., M.D, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.). Department of Pharmacology, Edinburgh University,

J. A. K.

Wireless Telegraphy and

Formerly Assistant in the Pharmacology.

J. A. Kay. Editor of the Railway Gazette.

i naaa Railways: British.

JAMES ALEXANDER ROBERTSON, Pu.B., L.FI.D. Chief of the Near Eastern Division Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,

Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Managing Editor of The Hispanvic Philippines. American Historical Review. Co-editor of Blair and Robertson’s The Philippine | I 1a 1493-1898 (55 Vols.). Compiler of Bibliograply of the Philippine Islands; etc. .

J.A. T.

JONN Artaur Tuomson, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Author of The System of Animate Nature; The Wonder of Life, The Biology of the Seasons;

Zoölogy

etc.

J. B. Bi.

J. C. P.*

Josera Buckin BIsHop.

Secretary to the Panama Canal Commission, 1905-14. Gateway.

Author of The Panama { Panama Canal.

Joun Cracett Proctor, LL.M. Member of the Bar of the District of Columbia. Author of the Hines Family. Historian of the Society of Natives of the District of Columbia.

Washington (D.C.).

J. C. Van D. Joun C. Van Dyke, L.H.D. Professor of the History of Art, Rutgers College.

J. D. P.

J. E.C.

Meaning of Pictures; History of Painting; etc.

Author of Art for Art’s Sake;

Painting: United States.

Jonn Danvers Power, M.V.O.

Vice-chairman, British Red Cross Society. Editor of the Report by the British (reaCross Work: Red Cross Society and the Order of St. John on their joint war work, 1914-0. JANET EvizaBETH CourTNeEY, O.B.E., J.P. (Mrs. W. L. Courtney).

i

`

Author of Free Thinkers of the Nineteenth Century. Joint-author of Pillars of ee ee Empire. Joint-editor of Index to the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia BritanKingdom. i

British. a

nica.

J. E. Ha.

James E. Hate, S.B., M.S.A.E.

Technical Development and Sales Engineer, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Akron, Ohio.

J.H.

Joun Hitton.

i

ee

Tire.

Strikes and Lockouts; I „l United Unemployment: Kingdom Statistics,

xii J. H. Ho.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

Jacos H. Hotianper, Pu.D. Professor of Political Economy in Johns Hopkins University. Author of David | Porto Rico; Ricardo; The Abolition of Poverty, War Borrowing; etc.

Treasurer of Porto Rico, | Santo Domingo.

J. H. Je.

1900-1. Financial Adviser of the Dominican Republic, 1908-10. James Hopwoop Jeans, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. . Secretary of the Royal Society. Author of Tke Dynamical Theory of Gases, Prob- < Relativity. lems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics; etc.

J. J.C.

BRIGADIER-GENERAL JOHN JonNSTON CoLtyER, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.0. Late Chief of the General Staff, Union of South Africa.

{

be

South Africa: Defence.

J. Mo.*

Rr. Rev. Mor. J. Moyes, D.D. Canon of Westminster Cathedral. Formerly Editor of the Dublin Review. < Pius X. Domestic Prelate to His Holiness Pope Benedict XV.

J.M.C.*

James Morton Ca.Lanan, A.M., PH.D. Professor of History and Political Science and Dean of West Virginia University.

J.M.R.

Author of Neutrality of the American Lakes; Cuba and International Relations; History of West Virginia; etc.

Joux Morcan Rees, M.A., F.R.Econ.S. ‘ Lecturer in Economics and Political Science in the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

Author of Wages and Casts in South Africa; South Wales Iron,

West Virgini

Syndicalism (in part).

Steel and Tinplate Industries as affected by the War; etc.

J.O.P.B.

Joun Orway Percy Brann.

Author of China; Japan and Korea; Houseboat Davs in China. Joint-author of China under the Empress Dowager. Served in Chinese Maritime Customs,

J. P.*

1883-96.

Shanghai Correspondent for The Times, 1897-1910.

Shanghai; Tibet; Tientsin,

JoseruH Proupman, M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Applied Mathematics, and Hon. Director of the Tidal Institute, in the University of Liverpool, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Tides.

Profit-Sharing and Co-

J. R. Co.

Joun Rocers Cownons, A.B. A.-M. LL.D. Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin, Author of Documentary History of American Industrial Society; History of Labor in the United States; Principles of Labor Legislation; ete.

Partnership: United States; Strikes and Lockouts: United States, Trade Unions: United Slates; Unemployment: United States, United States; Labor Movement;

J.-R R.

J.S. F. J. S. Ha.

Wages: United States. Ricut Hon. Sir James RENNELL Ronn, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O. Grand Cross of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus. Commander of the Osmanieh. Grand Cross of Polar Star. Late Ambassador to the Court of Italy. Member of Lord Milner’s Mission to Egypt, 1920. Special Envoy to King Menelek I1., 1897. Author of Customs and Lore of Modern Greece; Poems in Many Lands; etc. Joux Smita Frer, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Director, and formerly Petrographer, of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Author or Part-author of many Geological reports and memoirs. MAJOR JULIAN SOMERVILLE HATCHER. Ordnance Department, U.S. Army. Member of the American Institution of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. Life Member of the National Association of America. Experimental Engineer at the Government Small Arms Plant, Springheld Armory. Formerly Chief of the Machine-Gun and Small Arms Sec-

Sudan (in part).

Petrology.

Sights (i part).

tion, Ordnance Department.

J. S. Nc.

JoserH SINCLAIR Nicuoison, M.A.

K. H.*

Kart HILDEBRAND, PH.D. Member of the Swedish Debt Board. Chief Editor of the daily paper Stockholms {|Sweden. Dagblad, 1904-13. Member of the Swedish Parliament, 1907-18.

L. A. M.

LIONEL ALFRED MARTIN. Director of Henry Tate & Sons, Limited, Sugar Refiners, London and Liverpool. Sica Vice-president of the London Chamber of Commerce. Member of the Port of | V84FLondon Authority.

L. A. W.*

Laura A. Wuite, Pa.D.

Professor of History in the University of Wyoming,

L. Br.

Liian BRANDT, M.A.

Author of Social Aspecis of Tuberculosis; Causes of Poverty; Deserted Families, etc.

L. H. H.

Unemployment: Kingdom.

United

Wyoming.

United States: Social and Welfare Work (in part).

Lewis Henry Haney, B.A., M.A., Px.D.

Bureau of Markets, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Formerly Director, New York University, Bureau of Business Research. Member of the Economic Advisory Board of the Federal Trade Commission, 1916-9.

Prices: United States, Profiteering: United States. aMm oo

INITIALS L.

H.

H.*

L. J.

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

xill

Coronet Lucius H. Horr, B.A., M.A., Pu.D. (Yale).

Professor of English and Ilistory at the United States Military Academy, West Point. Author of Introduction to the Study of Government. Joint-author (with ( West Point. Major A. W. Chilton) of Zistory of Europe, 1789-1815; History of Europe, 1862-191 4. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR Lovis Jackson, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G. Commander of the Legion of Honour, Knight of St. Stanislas.

gineers.

Late Royal En-

Poison Gas Warfare.

Formerly Director-General of Trench Warfare Supply, and Controller

of Chemical Warfare Research, British War Office.

L. M. F.

LEONARD M. FANNING. Director of Publicity and Statistics, American Petroleum Institute.

(

Formerly

Editor of the Oi Trade Journal,

L. Si.

LEow Srmton, B.A. (Oxon.).

L.

Lorapo Tart, N.A., L.H.D.

eee

Author of Studtes in Jewish Nationalism. T.,

National Academy of Arts and Letters.

Lecturer, University of Chicago.

Sculptor, Lecturer, and Professorial

Non-resident Professor of Art, University of

Illinois. Author of History of American Sculpturc; Modern Tendencies in Sculp-

Sculpture: United States.

lure.

L. Wi.

LEONARD WILLIAMS, M.D.

L. Wo.

Major Leonarp Woop.

Chief-of-Staff, United States Army, 1910-4.

Woop, LEONARD.

See

the biographical

Training Camps:

article:

United

States.

Marcu Beza, L. Es L. Lecturer at King’s College, London.

Author of O Viaia; Din Anglia; Papers on

Rumania:

the Rumanian People and Literature; etc.

MILLICENT GarRETT

Fawcett (Mrs. Henry

Fawcett), J.P., LL.D. (Hon. St.

Andrews and Birmingham).

Woman Suffrage.

See the biographical article: Fawcett, M. G.

M.L C.

LIEUTFNANT-FIELD-MARSHAL MAXIMILIAN HOEN. Director of the Austrian Kriegsarchiv, Vienna. Part-author of the Austrian Official History of the First Silesian War. Author of Der Krieg 1809; etc.

Rovno, Battle of.

MARGARET ISABEL Corre (Mrs. G. D. H. Core).

Profit-Sharing and Co-Part-

Correspondence

Scerctary

of

the

Labour

Research

Department,

London,

nership

1917-20,

N. J.

Literature.

Nıicoras Jorca, Dr. Juris. Professor at the University of Bucharest. Correspondent

(z parf),

Trade Unions (in part).

of

the

Institut

de

Member of the Académie Roumaine.

France

and

of

the

Académie

Rumania:

Serbe.

History.

Author of Die Geschichte des Osmunescher Reiches; The Byzantine Empire; etc. MAJOR-GENERAL Sır NEILL Marcom, K.C.B., D.S.O.

General Commanding British Army of Occupation in Germany. structor in Military History at the Staff College, Camberley.

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL N. N. GOLOVINE. Russian Cross of St. George. British Military C.B.

Commander of the Legion of Honour.

eral Staff College.

O. B. K.

Formerly In-

French Croix de Guerre.

Sukhomlinov. Formerly Professor in the Russian Gen- |

O. B. KexrT, B.S., M.S., PH.D.

Professor of Poultry Department of New York State College of Agriculture at

Cornell University. Managing Editor Poultry Science. Secretary Treasurer of American Association of Instructors and Investigators of Poultry Husbandry.

O. J. R.H.

OSBERT Joun RapcuiFFre Howartu, O.B.E., M.A.

i

Poultry: United States,

ee

Ocean,

Islands of;

Assistant Secretary of the British Association. Sometime of the Geographical | Straits Settlements and DeSection, Naval Intelligence Department. Editor of the Oxford Survey of the pendencies; British Empire. United Kingdom: Statistics.

P. A. F.

Percy A. Francis, M.B.E., N.D.A., N.D.D. Technical Head of the Small Livestock Branch, Ministry of Agriculture and

Fisheries, London. Late Senior Agricultural Inspector to the Board of Agriculture for Scotland. Superintending Instructor in Poultry-Keeping and Dairying to the Irish Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. County Instructor in Poultry-Kceping to the Antrim County Council.

P. A. Me.

PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS, M.A.

Investigator for the Smithsonian

P. A. S.

Poultry (in part).

Institution, Washington, D.C.

History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan Ancient Peruvian Art; etc. Percy ALFRED ScHotes, B.Mus., A.R.C.M.

Author of

and of the Ilzas, A Survey of

Music Critic of The Observer, London. Editor of The Music Student. Author of The Listener's Guide io Music; etc.

Peru.

Scriabin, A. N.

INITIALS

X1V P,

G; M.

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

PETER CuaLMERS MiırcHeLL, C.B.E. (Military Division), F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D.

Secretary, Zoological Society of London. Attached to Directorate of Military Propaganda. Intelligence, War Office. 1916-8. Liaison Officer with British War Mission, 1918. | Editorial Staff of The Times.

P. de T.

P. pE THOMASSON. French Delegate to the Saar Commission.

P. M. H.

PETER MARTIN HELDT.

Saar Valley.

Engineering Editor of Automotive Industries,

Author of The Gasoline Automo- . Tractors.

bile.

P. M. 5.

BRIGADIER-GENERAL SIR PERCY MOLESWORTH SYKES, KELE., C.B., C.M.G. Formerly British Consul-General, Persia. Late Inspector-General, South Persia Rifles. Author of History of Persia, Manners and Customs; Glory of the Shia World; etc. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., r902.

Sır PAUL ViInoGRADOFF, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Dr. Hist., Dr. Juris. Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford. Author of Villammage in England, The Growth of the Mamor, Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence, etec, See the

biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, Sir PAUL.

R. A. V.

R. B. D. A.

Sir REGINALD Brople Duke ACLAND, M.A., K.C.

Judge Advocate of the Fleet. Member of the British Government Committee on the Treatment by the Enemy of Prisoners of War, and of the Committce on m the Breaches of the Laws of War. RICHARD Dixon OLbDiam, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

R EG.

CoLoNEL R. E. GOLIGHTLY.

Major R. E. PRIESTLY, M.C., B.A. 1914-8. Breaking the Hindenburg Line; The History of the 46th, North Midland, Division; etc.

(Sei

Signal Service, Army (m part).

|

R. H. P.

Rosert Hopson Parsons, A.M.I.C.E. Member of the Engineering Institute of Canada.

R. M. Wi.

R. McNair Witson, M.B., Cu.B. Fellow of the Royal Socicty of Medicine.

Turbines, Steam.

Editor, Oxford Medical Publications. Late Research Worker in Cardiology, Medical Research Committee. Consultant

to the Ministry of Pensions in Trench Fever.

Rozert N. RupmosE Brown, D.Sc.

Tetanus; Trench Fever; Yellow Fever.

|

Member of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, 1992-4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions, t909, 1912 and 1o14. Lecturer in Geography, University

of Shetlield.

of War,

Volunteers.

Author of the Official History of the Signal Service during the European War,

R. S. R.

Trotsky, Lev;

Tschaikovsky, N. V.; Wrangel.

{San Francisco.

Assistant in History in the University of California.

R. E. P.

R. Po.*

Russia;

A T ee aaa

RoLLaND Å. VANDERGRIFT, M.A.

Author of numcrous papers on various aspects of Geology and kindred subjects.

R. N. R. B.

i

Persia.

Author of Spitsbergen, etc.

Siberia; Spitsbergen.

Joint-author of The Voyage of the Scotia.

Roscoe Pounp, Px.D., LL.D.

Carter Professor of Jurisprudence and Dean of the Faculty of Law in Harvard University. Sometime Commissioner of Appeals of the Supreme Court of Nebraska.

Women,

Legal

Status

of:

United States.

ROBERT SANGSTER Ratt, c.B.E., M.A., LL.D. Historiographer Roy al for Scotland. Professor of Scottish History and Literature in the University of Glasgow. Author of The Scottish Parliament, History

Scotland.

of Scotland; etc.

R. Th. R. van O.

RALPH THICKNESSE. Legal Status of: {Women, Barrister-at-Law. Author of Digest of Low, Husband and Wife, ete. L Uwited Kingdon. CaprraIne-ComMMANDANT R. VAN OVERSTRAETEN. Aide-de-Camp to HM. The King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Staff Col. Ypres and Yser, Battles of: lege. Order of Leopold. D.S.O. Legion of Honour. Part IV.

|

|

R. W. S.-W.

S. B. McC.

S. de M. S. H.

ROBERT a greb

Seton-Watson,

D.Litt,

(Oxon.), Hon. Pr.D.

(Prague and Za- |

Lecturer in East European History at King’s College, University of London. ne Author of Racial Problems in Hungary, The Southern Slav Question; The Rise | *46° m of Nationality in the Balkans; etc. Editor of The New Europe. SAMUEL Brack McCormick, A.B., M.A., D.D., LL.D Chancellor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh, Pa.

SALVADOR DE MADARIAGA.

Author of Shelley and Calderon, and other Essays on Spanish and English Poetry; Romances de Ceigo; Manojo de Poesias Inglesas; ete. SYDNEY HERBERT. Lecturer in International Politics, University College, Aberstwyth. Author of Modern Europe, 1789-1914; Nationality and its Problems; Fall of Feudalism in France.

{

anne Literature.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

XV

S.L. M.

SUSAN LANGSTAFF MITCHELL. Author of The Living Chalice; Aids to the Immortality of Certain Persons in Ire- | Rose G. W.

S. McC. L.

SAMUEL McCune Linpsay, Pu.D., LL.D.

land; ete.

Professor of Social Legislation in Columbia University. Academy of Political Science. Editor of American

President of New York | Social Progress Series. ¢ Prohibition.

Author of Ruilway Labor in the United States; Financial Administration ef Great | Britain; ete. [

T.C.

THEODORE CoLLIFR, PH.D.

T. G. Ch.

SIR THEODORE GERVASE CHAMBERS, K.B.E., Assoc. RS. M., FSL, FGS. Vice-chairman and late Controller of the National (War) Savings Committee, < Savings Movement. Great Britain. THOMAS SEWALL ApaMs. PH.D.

T.

S.

f

l Rhode Island.

Professor of European History in Brown University, Providence, R.I.

A.

V.L. C.

Professor Political Economy in Yale University. Treasury Department., Varnum LANSING CoLLINS, A.M.

Advisor on Taxation, U.S {United States: Finance; United States:

Secretary of Princeton University and Clerk of the University Faculty.

V. L. E. C.

of The Continental Congress at Princeton; Guide to Princeton; etc. GENrRaL Victor Louts ÊVILIEN CORDONKIER.

V. L. K.

VERNON LyMaN

W. A. B.C.

| Princeton University.

See the biographical article: CORDONNIER, V. L. E. KELLOGG, M.S, LLD.

Woevre, Battles in (i part). [ Sometime Pro- Red Cross Work: Umted

Permanent Secretary, National Research Council, Washington. fessor in Leland Stanford Jr. University. Director in Brussels of Commission for Relief in Belgium. Assistant to U.S. Food Administrator. Member of the American Relief Administration. Rev. Wirra

Aucustus Brrvoart Cooriper, M.A. (Oxon.j, lox. Pa.D. (Berne).

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Author of Swiss Trav cl and Swiss Guidebooks; Josias Simler ct les Origines de P Alpinisme jusqu'on 1600, The Alps in

Nature and History, Alpine Studies; etc.

W.A. N.

Author

7.axation.

Editor of the Climbers’ Guide.

Wittram A. NETLsox, LL.D.

States;

L

Y.M.C.A.: United States.

|

Switzerland.

Smith College.

President, Smith "College, Northampton, Mass.

W.A.P.

WALTER ALISON PIuLLIrs, M.A. (Oxford and Dublin).

W. Bn.

Witrtam Batrson, M.A., F.R.S. | Author of Materials for the Study of Variation, Mendel’s Principles of Heredity, à Sex. Problems of Genetics; etc. See the biographical article: BATESON, WILLIAM.

Putumayo; Lecky Professor of Modern History in the University of Dublin. Member of Round, John Horace; the Royal Irish Academy. Author of Modern Europe; The Confederation of Self-Determination.

Europe; etc.

W. B. St.

WALTER BARLOW STEVENS, B.A., M.A., LL.D. President, State Historical Society of Missouri.

Author of IIistory of St. Louis;

Centennial History of Missouri; Missouri's Travail for Statehood; etc.

W.C. M.

Director of

St. Louis.

Exploitation, St. Louis World’s Fair of 1904.

WILLIAM ClinTON MULLEeNDORE, A.B., J.D. Attorney-at-Law. Late Assistant Counsel and Liquidator, United States Food Administration. Representative, Amcrican Relief Administration, Berlin, Germany, 1920.

W. E. El.

WALTER B.Sc, M.B., CH.B., M.P. : ELroT ELLIOT, : E

W. E. P.

W. E. PRESTON.

W. F.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL WOLFGANG FOERSTER. Late General Staff, German Army Chief Ober-Archivrat of the Reichsarchiv. Formerly member of the Historical Section of the Great General Staff. oo

Rationing: United States.

\Pensions Minis í

Secretary, Medical Committee, House of Commons,

try.

Silver.

the World War, General Staff Officer with troops. Chief of the General Sta of the XI. Corps, 1918. Author of Prizs Friedrich Karl von Preussen; Graf

Western European Front Campaigns (ui part).

Schlieffen und der W eltkrieg. WILLIAM GEORGE CONSTABLE, M.A. Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Wallace Collection.

Barrister-at-Law.

P Lecturer at the | Painting (:» part).

SIR WILLIAM HENRY BEVERIDGE, K.C.B., M.A., B.C.L.

Director of London School of Economics and Political Science. Formerly Per- Rationing manent Secretary of the Ministry of Food. Author of Unemployment: A Problem | of Industry; etc.

Sir WILLIAM Henry Witicox, K.C.LE., C.B., C.M.G., M.D., F.R.C.P. Consulting Physician to the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force, 1916-9. cian to St. Mary’s Hospital, London.

(in part).

; Persia: Medical Conditions, Physi- ¿ Persian Gulf: Medical Conditions.

INITIALS AND

xvi

W. J.C.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

WILLIAM JAMES CTNRINCHAM, ALM. í Connected with several American railroads in operating and executive capaci- | Railways: United States, ties, 1990-16. Professor of Transporiation at Harvard. Assistant Director of Operation, U.S. Railroad Administration, 1915-9. Straits (Dardanelles and W. J. CHILDS.

Late of the Intelligence Department of the British Admiralty (Geographical Section). WILLIAM KENNETH Boyn, A.M., PAD.

Bos ports);

Turkey (Nationalist).

Professor of History, Trinity College, Durham, N.C. Joint-editor of The South § Virginia. Adlantié Quarterly, Author of A History of North Carolina, 1783-18060; etc.

WILLIAM KIRKPATRICK MAGEE. Second Librarian, National Library of Ireland. Author of Anglo-Irish Essays; ete

Pseudonym, “John Eglinton.” | Synge, J. M.

WALTER LaxGpon Brown, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F R.C.P. ( Physician, with charge of Out-Patients, to St. Bartholomew's Hospital (London). ; Sympathetic Nervous Physician to the Metropolitan Hospital, etc. Author of Physiological PrinSystem. cipics in Treatment, The Sympathetic Nervous System in Disease; etc.

(Prince Edward Island;

W.L. G.*

Wrurtam L, Gererrri.

W.L. M.

British Empire. (Yukon Territory. Wrturop Lirritr Marvin, A.B., Lirt.D, Vice-president and Gencral Manager, American Steamship Owners’ Association. Author of The American Merchané Alarines Jis History ard Romance. Former Shipping: United States,

{

Permancnt Secretary, Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, London. ) Quebec; Author of The Dominton of Canada; article on ‘‘ Canada,” Oxford Survey of the `Saskatchewan;

Secretary of U.S. Merchant Marine Commission. Wittram Manpock Bavuss, MA., D.Sc LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of General Physiology in University College, London. Principles of General Physiology; Nature of Enzyme Action; ete.

Author of

Physiology; Shock.

| ForDuring the |Somme, Battles of the

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL WILHELM MULLER-LOFBNITZ, Late General Staff, German Army. Ober-Archivrat in the Reichsarchiv.

merly in the Military History Section of the Great General Staff,

World War served on the General Staff of NI. Corps and Vi. and “A” Armies,

W. M. Le.

and as a Regimental Commander. Author of Der Wendepunkt des Weltkriegs and other monographs. Wrurram Mature Lewis, MLA. aoe Formerly Director of the Savings Division U.S. Treasury Department. Author

(in port).

Savings Movement: United States.

of The Voices of Our Leuders, etc.

ComMMANDER WittrAM Matcotm Martyn Rogixsox, R.N,

Torpedo.

W. No.

Str Witttam NOBLE. Engineer-in-Chief, General Post Office, London. Cross of Belgium.

Telegraph: Pk elephone.

W. R. Ma.

Wiitiam R. Mannine, Pr.D.

W. M. M,R.

Knight of the Order of the

Economist, Latin-American Division, U.S. Department of State. Author of Nootka Sound Controversy (Justin Winsor Prize Essay of American Historical < Virgis Islands. Association, 1904}; Sarly Diplomate Relations Between the United States and

Mexico (Albert Shaw Lectures, Johns Hopkins University, 1913); etc.

W.

S, L.-B.

Water Syoxex Lazarus-Bartow, M.D., F.R.C.P. Professor of Experimental Pathology in the University of London. Director of J po gi otherapy. the Cancer Research Laboratories at the Middlesex Hospital. Author of General ie

Ne

-

i

»}

F

*

Tees

4

+

or Experimental Pathology; Pathological Anatomy and Histology; cte.

W, S. Ro.

|

Witctram SPENCE ROBERTSON, Pu.D. Professor

of History

in the University

of Illinois.

Author

of Froncisto

de Mi-

randa and the Revolutionizing of Spanish America; Rise of the Sponish-Americon

W. v. B.

Republics; ete. WILHELM VON BLUME, DR. JURIS.

V

n

ezuela.

Professor of Law in the University of Tübingen. Author of Familienrecht des |Thuringia; Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuchs, Erbrecht des Biirgerlichen Gesetsbuchs, Cooperated in Wirttemberg. the drafting of the Constitution of Wiirttemberg, 1919.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

ENCYCLOPAIDIA VOLUME

BRITANNICA XXXII

THE THIRD OF THE NEW VOLUMES

PACIFIC OCEAN, ISLANDS OF.—For the oceanic islands of the Pacific see generally 20.436*, and also the separate articles on the principal groups and islands there referred to. Supplementary information is given below, and also under Guas, HAWAI, etc.

The so-called Four-Power Treaty was signed Dec, 13 1921, with prospects of early ratification, by France, Great Britain, Japan and the United States, the contracting partics agreeing

“as between themselves to respect their rights in relation to their insular possessions and insular dominions in the region of

the Pacific Ocean.”

A map, showing the mandate claims and

sovercignties proposed, and zones of restricted fortification, will

be found in the article WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, America Islands——Christmas

I. was

leased

by a company from

the British Government and planted with coco-nuts in 1904-5, but the working lapsed during the World War, and in Oct. 1919 Lord Jellicoe on H.M.S, “ New Zealand " found three men who had been

confined there for 18 months, ignorant of the cessation of war. The Pacific ‘all red’ cable station on Fanning I. was wrecked by a

German landing party from the " Nürnberg” Sept. 7 1914, but communication was restored by the operator. Fanning and Washington Is. belong to a coco-nut company and had in 1920 populations of a few whites and about 120 and 100 native Jabourers respectively. These islands are administered under the Gilbert and Ellice Is. Colony, of which Ocean I, is the administrative centre. Auckland Islands.—A depot of provisions and clothes has been established here by New Zealand for shipwrecked sailors.

Caroline

and Pelew

Islunds—Japan

is mandatory

for these

formerly German islands,! having occupied them in Sept.-Oct. 1914.

suggested that the Melanesian immigrants who carried this cult to Easter 1. were followed by Polynesians, who fought but did not exterminate them, and there remain indications of a division of the island between the two stocks. While it is impossible to assign any date for

the Melanesian immigration, it has been suggested that the Polynesian took place about the beginning of the 15th century A.D., but the further evidence coliected on Easter I. in 1910-20 has not determined to which group of immigrants the megalithic remains are to be attributed, or cleared up the origin of the ideographic script found on tablets in the island.

Fijii—The pop, of the Fiji Is. was estimated on Dec. 31 1918 at

163,416, including 87,761 Fijians, 2,100 natives of Retumah,

2,799

natives of various Polynesian islands, 61,745 Indians, 4,748 Europeans, 2,803 hali-castes and 913 Chinese. The revenue in 1918 was £371,189, and the expenditure £342,140. Exports in 1919 amounted in value to £1,871,062, of which £582,574 went to New Zealand and £534,067 to the United States of America. About half the exports

(by value) consisted of sugar, most of which went to New Zealand. There has been shortage of labour, the importation of Indian con-

tract labour having been stopped in 1916; but arrangements are made to admit free Indian labour.

Prices have ruled low jn compari-

son with expenditure and planters have expressed dissatisfaction with the fixation of the price for one year only, by the controlling exporting company. Copra, bananas, molasses and rubber are the other chief exports, Imports were valued in 1919 at £1,060,314, of which £513,547 came from Australia, but the goods thus indicated were in great part reéxports and largely of British orizin.

Down to 1916 the education of the natives was wholly under mis-

sionary control, save for the Government high school at Nasinu, Suva, and the native high school at Lakeba. But in that year an Education Act rendered all schools complying with certain condi-

The administration of Yap, which has a pop. of about 8,000 anda

tions eligible for Government aid. Suva has a high-power wireless

or any other nation in all that relates to cable and wireless service on the island. The pop. of the group was in 1919 about 40,000, Cook Islands.—These islands, which belong to New Zealand, hada

expenditure 430,734. In the year 1917-8 copra of the value of £63,463 was exported from the colony, and $2,835 tons of phosphates, valued at £83,000, from Ocean I.; but this latter export was expected to reach 200,000 tons in 1920-1, Ocean I. is the headquarters of the Government, and a wireless station was opened there in,1916. The administration includes the America Is. and the Tokelau (Union)

cable and wireless station, was at first in dispute between Japan and the United States; but in Dec. 1921 these countries reached an agreement (a formal convention to be drawn up later for signature) whereby the United Strates secured the same opportunities as Japan

pop. of 8,764 in 1916, including 197 whites and half-castes.

Eight

Government schools were maintained in 1919. Revenue (year 1918-9) £13,847; expenditure £12,344, but this latter figure excludes certain salaries, ete., and about £7,500 has been contributed annually by New Zealand toward the expenditure. In 1919 exports were

valued at £142,925 and imports at £127,729.

Copra (to United

States} and other fruit (to New Zealand) were chief exports.

Easter Island.—Pop. (915) about 250, all native except an English manager. The island was visited by Mr. and Mrs. Scoresby Rout-

ledge in 1914-5 for the investigation of the ancient remains. These and other recent investigators have shown that the islanders, formerly considered to be of Polynesian race, possess an admixture of Melanesian (negroid) characteristics, and their culture reveals the same influence, notably in the bird-cult with its carved figures, partly

station, and there are four inter-insular stations. Gilbert and Ellice Islands These became a British colony in 1915~6, having been previously a protectorate, Estimated pop.

Gilbert I., 30,000; Ellice 1., 3,000.

Revenue (year 1918—)) £24,4503

Is. between 8° 30’ and r1°S. lat. and 176° and 172° W. long. The Tokelau Is., total arca 7 sq. m., had a pop. of 912 natives and 2 Europeans in 1911. The Gilbert islanders have lost their warlike reputation, and are all, at least nominally, Christian. Lord Howe Island, belonging to New South Wales, was placed under a board of control with office at Sydney, as the result of the report of a Royal Commission on the trade of the island in Kentia palm-seeds in 1912. A local advisory council assists the board. The Lord [owe Group, also known as Ongtong Java, hasa Polyne-

sian pop. estimated at 1,200 (5,000 in 1905), and produces copra.

Loyalty Islands (dependency of New Caledonia), pop. (est., 1919),

human and partly of bird form, and in the practice of distending

11,000.

is found in the Solomon Is., far distant in the western Pacific. It is a oe eee ee 1Stitistics of the separate ex-German possessions in the Pacific are not available. Exports for them all, excepting Samoa but

Mawson Antarctic expedition (see 21.968) a meteorological wireless station was established there.

the ear-lobes.

A close association with the bird-cult of Easter I.

including New Guinea, were valued in 1913 at £595,000; imports at £450,000.

Macquarie Island is annexed to Tasmania.

In connexion with the and

Manthiki Archipelago.—Of the scattered islands mentioned under

this heading, Caroline, Vostok, and Flint are leased from the British Government by a coco-nut company; the rest are dependencies of New Zealand. Suvarov has a fine harbour, though with a shallow

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article,

PADEREWSKI—PAGE, T. N.

2

entrance, and a part of Anchorage Islet on the reef is held by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The island is leased to a coconut Company, but producing little owing to destruction by hurricane, and the pearl fishery has deteriorated. At Manihiki I. (pop. in 1916, 775) the pearl beds were closed when almost worked out, and at Penrhyn I. (pop. in 1916, 312) production fell off. Marianas.—The former German islands (excepting Guam [see Guam}, which belongs to the U.S.A.) were occupied by the Japanese in 1914, and were given to them under mandate in 1918.

Marquesas Islands.—The Polynesian pop. has continued to dimin-

ish, and was estimated in 1920 to be less than 3,500.

administration

The French

(established at Hivaoa) was stated to neglect the

commercial development of the islands, though in 1913 a German trading company was established there. Marshall Islands —These islands, formerly German, were ac-

quired by Japan under mandate in 1918. were administered

From 1858 to 1906 they

by the Jaluit Trading Co., of Hamburg,

agreement with and subsidized by the German

Government.

under

The

Government itself subsequently administered them down to IgI4. A recent estimate indicates a decreasing pop. numbering 9,200. Nauru.—This island, in 0° 33’ S. lat., 166° 55 L. long., was ad-

ministered along with the Marshall Is. by the Germans, but the

phosphate deposits for which it is important were worked by a British company under agreement with the Jaluit company. The island surrendered to a vessel of the Australian navy in Sept. 1914 and came under British mandate in 1918. Pop. (1916), 1,284 natives, 449 Caroline islanders, 278 Chinese, 90 whites. The white settlement isat Yangor, where the phosphate company had its stores and drying plant.

The deposits on the high ground

(78 to 88% phos-

phates) are transported by fight railways worked by steam, gravity, or electricity, and are shipped by surf-boats fram two wharves. Under the Nauru I. agreement, 1919, between the British, Austrahan and New Zealand Governments, it was cnacted that the Australian Government should appoint an administrator for a term of five years, that cach of the three Governments should appoint a

member of a board of commissioners, that the phosphate company should he bought out by the three Governments and the deposits and

their workings

should)

be vested

in the board, and

that the

expenses of the administration, so far as not otherwise met, should be paid out of the sale of the phosphates. The island also yields copra. A wireless station was established by the Germans in 1913. New Culedonia.—Pop. (ecnsus of I9t1), 50,608, including 28,075 natives, 10,319 whites, and 3,214 Asiatic immigrants. Nouméa contained 8,961 inhabitants, including 5,207 free whites, 1,245 convicts, 1,999 natives and other coloured people, and 396 troops. Among

other centres of population, Thio on the E. coast is the chief nickelmining centre, and Paagoumene on the W. coast the chief chromemining centre. Exports from New Caledonia and dependencies were Valued in 1913 at £633,536 (copra, £67,932); imports at £708,316. The guano workings of Walpole 1., 150 m. E. Ly 5. of Nouméa, have been recently developed by a company.

New natives fcopra, French

HMebrides, — The pop. has been recently estimated at 65,000 and 800 Europeans. Exports in 1919 were valued at £364,000

£134,300; cocoa, £79,000); imports at £166,847. The Anglocondominium is not generally rewarded as successful. Accord-

ing toa report of 1918, the confusion between the operations of this

tribunal, the French

and British courts, and the joint naval com-

mission for native litigation, gave rise to complaints.

French settlers are said to hold the best land as a rule, though in the Banks and Torr Is. British interests are the stronger; trade has

heen fostered mainly by French interests. The volcano Is. was in eruption on and after Dec. 6 1913, and caused Nivé.—Pop. (1919), 3,664, including 20 whites and 160 Exports (about six-sevenths copra) were valued in 1919 and imports at £21,783. The New Zealand Government

of Ambrym damage. half-castes. at £35,977, contributes

about {3,000 a year to the administration, A hurricane in 1915 severcly damaged the coco-nut plantations, but 15,000 nuts were

planted in the course of peace celebrations. Norfolk Island.—Pop. (Dec. 1918), 815. The executive council now consists of six elected members and six members appointed by the administrator. Jt was reported in 1919 that the Melanesian Mission established here in 1867 was contemplating the removal of its headquarters. Exports were valued in 1919 at £5,238 (lemons, passion-fruit pulp, fish and whale products); imports at £13,398. Paumotu or Tuamotu Archipelazo (the latter is the proper form, and is used throughout this part of the Pacific). Pop. (1911), 4,581. Makatea (pap, 866) has become the most important island, owing to the working of phosphates, and is administered separately. It ts an elevated coral island, unlike the other coral islands, which are atolls, From

these, copra and pearl-shell are the chief exports.

The de-

pendent Gambier Is. yield the same commodities, but poorly, and their inhabitants are decreasing in numbers and physique.

them was given to that Dominion in 1919. The native pop. in 1918 was 30,636 after the epidemic of influenza in that year, which caused

over 8,000 deaths. There were also 1,660 white men and half-castes,

and 1,166 labourers imported under indenture. The shortage of labour is particularly acute. The Deutsche Handels- und PlantagenGesclischaft (German trading and plantation company), which held 8,820 ac. under the German Government, went inte liquidation in 1916, and its holdings and other German plantations were taken over y the Government of New Zealand. Exports in 1919 were valued at £532,500, over four-fifths of the total value being in copra, which went chiefly to the United States. In 1918 exports were valued at £306,640; imports (mainly from the United States and New Zealand) at £319,521. Revenue for one year 1919-20 was estimated at {80,215,

and expenditure was expected to balance this. Apia has a wireless station. The pop. of the American Samoan islands was estimated in 1920 at 7,550. Copra is practically the only export. ‘There is a high-powered wireless station at Tutuila.

Society Islands. —The pop. of the whole of the French establishments in Oceania in 1971 (including the Society, Tubuai, Tuamotu

and Marquesas groups) was 31,477, including 2,656 French, 484 British, 237 Americans and 975 Chinese: there appears to have been a large influx of the last since that date. A later estimate ascribes 11,000 inhabitants to Tahiti alone, but 4,000 lives were lost in this

and adjacent islands in the influenza epidemic of 1918. Papeete, the capital (pop. in 1911, 4,099), Was bombarded by German cruisers on Sept. 22 1914. Exports were valued in Jg17 at 11,997,461 francs (chiefly copra, pearl-shell, and vanilla), and imports at 7,806,294

francs.

Papeete has a wireless station.

Solomon Islands—TVhe native pop. has been recently estimated at 150,000, the whites at 800, and there are a few Chinese. For the year 1918-9 revenue amounted to £29,476; expenditure to £30,205; exports were valued at £170,125; imports at £188,408. The natives arc for the most part wild and backward, and the labour question is serious. For the (formerly) German Solomon Is. see NEW GUINEA. Tonga.~—Pop. (1919), 22,689 natives, 350 Europeans. The influenza epidemic of 1918 is said to have caused 1,000 deaths. The

native government, under the king, consists of 32 nobles und the same number of elected members. The land is vested in the sovercign,

but all his subjects hold some of it, and there is no pauperism or public debt. British officials assist the administration. The revenue in 1918 amounted to £§8,340, and expenditure to £35,865. The value of exports in 1918 was £169.758, nearly the whole consisting of copra. Imports in 3918 were valued at £177,152. The copra is chiefly exported to America; imports are received mainly from Austraha

and New Zealand. Tubuai Islands —Pop. (igit}: Ravaivai, 432; Tubuai, 543: Rurutu, 911; Rimitara, 415; Rapa, 183. Rapa, possessing a fine

natural harbotir in Ahurei Bay, has been spoken of as a possible

trans-oceanic port of call, for which purpose it was The island is volcanic, and the bay represents the natives are noted sailors and are in demand for the Wallis and Horne Jslands.—These, formerly a torate, have been declared

a colony.

When

used in 1867-9. old crater, The crews of vessels. French protec-

this annexation

was

proclaimed in 1913, opposition to the proclamation was fomented by Roman Catholic missiunaries in Fotuna (Horne Is.), and even in Uvea (Wallis), where the native chiefs had asked for the annexation,

a retention of native law was stipulated, and native law could be

only gradually replaced by French law. © (0. J. R. H.) PADEREWSKI, IGNACE JAN (1860), Polish pianist and diplomat (see 20.443), after the outbreak of the World War in 1914 gave numerous benefit concerts in America for Polish suffer-

ers and delivered addresses in their behalf.

He was appointed

plenipotentiary in America for the National Polish Committee,

which early had won official recognition by the Auics. Among

the Poles in America—some

dissension as to With rare skill authority of the most influential

millions—there

was

great

the means of gaining independence for Foland. he induced the stubborn factions to accept the National Polish Committee, of which he was the

member

in Paris.

In the words of Mr. Robert

Lansing, who, as a peace delegate, came into constant contact with him there, he was ‘tan able and tactful leader of his countrymen and a sagacious diplomat.” He was among the statesmen, who, in

Paris, Dec, 1918, formulated the terms of the Peace Treaty. Meanwhile discord had arisen between the Polish Government and the National Committee. At the close of the year Paderewski returned to Poland and was received in triumph. In Jan. 1919 an agreement

was reached with Gen. Pilsudski, whereby Paderewski headed a

new coalition cabinet as premier and minister for foreign affairs, In this capacity he signed, June 28 1919, the Treaty of Versailles. He resigned as premier in Dec. 1919. It was generally felt that he had been more successful as a diplomat than as an administrator. In an

Phoenix Islands.—YVhe majority have been leased to the Samoan Shipping and Trading Co., for coco-nut planting. Rotumah (to Fiji), —Pop. (1918), 2,263. Samoa.—The former German islands of western Samoa were

interview given to newspaper reporters after his return to America

against permanent administration by New Zealand, a mandate for

diplomatist (sce 20.450), was appointed ambassador to Italy by

occupied by a New Zealand expeditionary force on Aug. 30 1914. Although it was stated that there was some feeling in the islands

in Feb. 1921, he asserted that he would never again appear in plana recitals.

His fast professional appearance asa pianist had been at

the Metropolitan Opera House in New York, May 9 1917. PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853), American author and

PAGE, W. H.—PAINTING President Wilson in April r9r3. In rorg he announced his discovery of the house, 66 Piazza di Spragna, in which Byron had lived at Rome in 1817. In ro15 he induced the Italian Government to raise the ban on the reéxportation of cotton goads routed by American shippers via Italy to other countrics.

He

earned the gratitude of the Italians by his relief work during the Avezzano carthquake in 1917.

After America entered the

3

lawyer (b. 1848), the Rt. Rev. Luke Paget (b. 1853), who was Bishop of Stepney, from 1909 to 1919, and was then translated to the see of Chester, and Stephen Paget, the surgeon and an-

thor (b. 1855), all became well-known men. Francis Paget was educated at Shrewsbury and Christ Church, Oxford, where he

had a distinguished career, taking first classes in classics, winning the Hertford scholarship (1871) and the chancellor’s Latin verse prize (1871); he was elected senior student of Christ Church

World War he defended Italy against the charge of backwardness in conducting her campaign by pointing out the obstacles confronting her Soldiers in the Alps. He resigned as ambassador in April 1918 and returned to America.

(1873) and tutor (1876), taking holy orders in 1875. In 1883 he was appointed regius professor of pastoral theology, and in 1892 dean of Christ Church. Ife contributed the essay on the sacra-

His writings after 1910 included Robert E. Lee, Man and Soldier (1912); The Land of the Spirit (1913); Tommaso Jefferson, A postolo della Liberta (1918, preparcd for an Italian series); Italy's Rela-

was a member of the Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical Discipline 1904-6. He died in London Aug. 2 1911.

tion to the War (1920) and Italy and the World War (1921).

ments to Lux Mundi.

He became Bishop of Oxford in rogor, and

PAGET, LOUISA MARGARET

LEILA WEMYSS, Lapy (1881-

}, was born in London Oct. 9 1881, the daughter of Sir PAGE, WALTER HINES (1855-1918), American editor and diplomatist, was born at Cary, N.C., Aug. 15 1855. Alter grad- _Arthur Henry Fitzroy Paget (b. 1851), â descendant of the rst Marquess of Anglesey. She married in 1907 a connexion of her uating from Randolph-Macon College, Va., in 1876, he was appointed one of the first 20 fellows of the newly established Johns own, Sir Ralph Spencer Paget, who had a distinguished career in Hopkins University. He taught for a time in Louisville, Ky., the diplomatic service, and was from 1916 to 1918 minister to and then accepted the editorship of the St. Joseph, Mo., Daily Denmark and from 1918 to 1920 first ambassador to Brazil. In ror Lady Paget organized a Red Cross hospital for service in Gazette. After two years (1881) he resigned to travel through the South, having arranged to contribute letters on southern sociolog- Serbia, and was stationed at Uskub, having to remain there when the town was occupied by the Bulgarians, Oct. r9r5. She was ical conditions to the New York World, the Springfield Repuballowed to use her stores for the relief of refugees, and relieved a lican and the Boston Post. These letters were helpful in educating great deal of suffering. In Fcb. 1916 she was transferred to Sofia, the North and the South to a fuller understanding of their mutual dependence. In 1882 he joined the editorial staff of the New York and in April returned to England. In 1915 she was invested with World and wrote a series of articles on Mormonism, the result of the order of St. Sava by the Serbian Government and in 1917 received the G.B.E. personal investigation in Utah. Later in the same year he went to Raleigh, N.C., where he founded the Stote Chronicle, but returned to New York in 1883 and for four years was on the staff of the Evening Post. From 1887 to 1895 he was, first, manager and,

after 1890, editor of The Forum, a monthly magazine; and from 1895 to rgoo was literary adviser to Houghton, Mifflin & Co.,

and for most of the same period editor of the Aflantic Monthly (1896-99). When the house of Doubleday, Page & Co. was organized in 1899, his duties were divided between editorial and

publishing work, for he was not only a partner in the publishing house but also editor of its magazine, the World's Work. In

March 1913 President Wilson appointed him to succeed Whitelaw Reid as ambassador to England.

Mr. Page was hardly known in England when he was appointed, but during his tenure of office he gradually established himself as onc of the great line of American ambassadors. None had ever worked more assiduously than he did for Anglo-American solidarity, and his speeches—though he was no orator—were always marked by absolute sincerity and by well-informed appeals to history. His position was a delicate one after the outbreak of the World War, when German and Austrian interests in

England were placed in his hands.

He was thoroughly loyal tọ

his country in his conduct, although sympathetic with the Allies.

Among the problems with which he had to deal were the British claim of the right to stop and search American ships, including examination of mail pouches; the commercial blockade (1915)

and the “ blacklist,” containing the names of American firms with whom ali financial and commercial dealings on the part of the British were forbidden (1916).

He had the satisfaction of

seeing the United States through its period of neutrality without friction, and then representing it as a partner in the war. In Aug. 1918, finding his strength exhausted, he resigned as ambassador and returned to America in September. He was critically ill on arrival, and after a short rally died at Pinehurst,

PAINTING (sce 20.450).—The end of the roth century saw in painting the triumph of “impressionism” in its widest sense and the reproduction of visual appearance as a whole accepted as

the main business of a painter.! But with the heterodoxy of the roth century become the orthodoxy of the 2oth, another movement has arisen ìn revolt against impressionism, giving to paintIng between rgoo and 1921 its distinctive character: and just as the victory of impressionism was a French victory, so this new movement is mainly French in origin, though its manifestations

elsewhere have taken colour from national characteristics. The change in the centre of gravity of art has, however, been greater in appearance than reality. The older academic traditions still survive; and advances by official bodies and the public have been met by concessions to orthodoxy among some followers of rothcentury heretics, Across these main movements has cut the influence of the

World War. At first it threatened to Limit artistic output severely, but the check was only temporary. A huge demand arose in the belligerent countries from individuals and public bodies for illustrative, propagandist or commemorative work, which bore fruit in posters and cartoons; in the formation of official collections such as the Canadian War Memorials and a section of the Imperial War Museum; and in decorative paintings for memorial purposes, such as have been commissioned in France by the State and municipalities. The chief interest of this work

is that of a document, showing what men did, felt and thought during the war, and of giving a summary of the condition of art at the time in various countrics. The aim of the British and Canadian official collection was definitely to preserve a pictorial record of the war in all its aspects, and, consequently, much of the work is only the skilful application of a technique to a set task, and not the expression of a new vision. The same applics to most of the memorial decorations produced in France; only some

etchings and lithographs produced independently of official action show any really personal emotion. Similarly, though in all

S.C., Dec. 21 1918. No man ever served his country, or the cause of Anglo-American friendship, more strenuously. While in Great Britain he was honoured with degrees by the universi-

countries the posters were the work of prominent artists, little

ties of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Sheffield, Cambridge, and Oxford. He was the author of The Rebuilding of Old Commonwealths

1 Unfortunately for clarity of exposition, the term “ impressionist,” originally applied to the group of artists round Claude Monet,

(1902) and The Southerncr, a Novel: Being the Autobiography of painters in a high key using a palette limited to white and the spectral colours, has been given a wider meaning, especially in England. Nicholas Worth (1909). Ta avoid mistake, the term is here used throughaut ta describe PAGET, FRANCIS (1851r-rg1r), English divine, was born that group and their followers, and does not cover painters such March 20 1851, the second son of the surgeon Sir James Paget as Monet in his early period, or Whistler, whom the wider significa-

(see 20.451).

His brothers, Sir John R. Paget, 2nd Bart., the

tion might include.

4

PAINTING

really notable work from an aesthetic point of view appeared, Designed as they were to excite hatred, cupidity, pity and selfsacrifice, their appeal could only in part be aesthetic, and, like

the paintings, they showed little more than the application of

familiar and matured methods to a special end. Yet by putting the production of the poster into the hands of artists, and by helping to revive and stimulate wood engraving and lithography, the war has had real influence on the graphic arts. Otherwise, its immediate effects have been small. It has quickened a movement towards expression of a national spirit in art, by throwing countries back upon their own resources, and by increasing a desire to assert national superiority. It may also have given a new impulse to the modern search for structure and design, by reducing life sa much into terms of machinery and organization;

and because of the depth and variety of the emotions it aroused, may have stimulated the tendency to use form and colour for the expression of personal feeling rather than for the reproduction of nature. Probably, too, by making a definite breach with rothcentury ideas, the war has cleared the way for the development of new aesthetic standards. But the most important modern movements in art were in being before the war, Impressionism.—Of movements which attained full development in the roth century, impressionism in its purest form was still represented in France in later years by Claude Monet, in

Belgium by Emil Claus, and in England by Lucien Pissaro.

Of

its many developments and adaptations, neo-impressionism— based on the analysis of colour in nature into its constituent ele-

ments, which are then placed by means of juxtaposed spots of paint upon the canvas, to be recombined by the eye—survived in to2r only in modified form. Paul Signac, one of its original exponents, had substituted for spots brick-like rectangles in his oil paintings, and increased use of line in his water-colours; while its conversion into pointillism (simply a method of applying in spots colour already mixed on the palette) was represented by Henri

Martin and Henri le Sidaner. Paul Albert Besnard showed impressionism adapted to deal with such complicated problems as a mixture of twilight and artificial light; but with Wilson Steer the expression of subtle tone relations with a limited palette including black had superseded an impressionist technique. In

England, indeed, the spectral palette and high key has been only a passing phase with most painters, and it is the impressionism of Whistler and the earlier Manet, with its study of tone and decorative arrangement of silhouette, which has obtained most adherents. This was seen in its purest form in France in the work

of Jacques Emile Blanche; but it provided a common basis for the members of the Glasgow school, such as Sir James Guthrie, E. A. Walton, Sir John Lavery and D. Y. Cameron; and brought into relation with them Sir William Orpen, whose use of colour and study of light otherwise connect him with the impressionists. Similarly J. S. Sargent’s portraits carried on one side of the Manet tradition, though elsewhere he showed impressionist influence. Of the group of painters who, under the influence of Millet and Bastien-Lepage, carried the realism of Courbet and

Manet into the field and workshop, the chief survivors in 1921 were Lucien Simon and Charles Cottet in France, Max Licbermann in Germany, Joaquin Sorolla in Spain and Ettore Tito in Italy. In England the once prominent Newlyn group had fallen by 192r into obscurity; in Sweden Anders Zorn, best known by his portraits and etchings, was dead; and the Hague School of Holland had no important living representatives.

Transition Painters —Between these representatives of the roth-century outlook and those of the modern movement stand many painters combining in varying degrees characteristics of both groups, such as Sir C, J. Holmes (Director of the National Gallery from 1916), whose landscapes are marked by simphfcation and emphasis on structure. Transition to the modern point of view is also represented by the decorative painters, who have necessarily never fully accepted impressionism and realism. As early as 1892 the Rose Croix group had urged that painting

should be idealist and monumental in character, with myth and allegory as its subject. These ideas survive, despite impression-

jst influences, in the balanced and harmonious compositions of

René Menard, whose descent is from Puvis de Chavannes, in the mural decorations of Henri Martin, and in the work of AmanJean, whose flowing arabesque relates him to the 18th-century decorators. Akin to these painters, but closer to the modern movement and more purely decorative in intent, is the broadly

handled work of Jules Flandrin (b.1871). Another group of decorative painters take realism as a starting-point.

Among these is

Frank Brangwyn (b.1867), one of the few English painters with considerable European influence and reputation. His later work —such as the eight mural paintings, symbolizing the dynamic forms of nature, for the 1915 Panama Pacific Exposition—shows

how his dexterous and schematized art combines romantic and allegorical treatment of material drawn from the daily life of commerce and industry with a sensuous materialism. A comparable figure is Ignacio Zuloaga (b.1870), the leader of a group of Basque and Castilian painters, including Ramon and Valentine de Zubiaurre, Gustavo de Macztu and Federico Beltran-Masses,

representing the regionalist and consciously national character of modern Spanish art. Here a romantic conception of subjects drawn from contemporary Spanish life is given decorative form by

emphasis on silhouette, simplification of form and broad masses of colour, often combined with a low horizon and a panoramic background; though sometimes the realism degencrates into carica-

ture and the decorative treatment into the production of card-

board figures against a stage drop-scenc. Augustus John (b.1879) in England is not romantic, but combines with the realism which finds most complete expression in his portraits a strongly decorative aim in the use of contour to enclose definite areas of colour, and distortions of the human figure in the interests of design. Similarly, the Munich decorative school, still represented in 1921 by its most important product, Franz Stuck (b.1863), inherits from Bocklin the realistic treatment of mythological and allegorical materials, Its once important and widespread influence has waned; but it forms part of the bridge between the

archaeological and historical painting which formerly dominated Germany, and more modern movements.

Allied thereto

is the Swiss, Ferdinand Hodler (1553-1918), by the emphasized contours and calculated distortions of his later work.

But in

his symbolic mystical outlook he resembles another important forerunner of the modern movement, Hans von Marées (1837~1887), neglected in his lifetime but now the object of much adulation, who turned from Courbet and Manet to Rubens

and Delacroix in developing a monumental decorative art based on three-dimensional form. Another important divergence from the main trend of later 1oth-century art is represented in France by H. G. E. Degas (1834-1917) and Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919). Their close association with the impressionists was reflected in the choice of subjects from contemporary daily life and at times In their use of colour; but here the connexion ends. Degas is a descendant of the great classic draughtsmen. A convinced realist, bitterly opposed to the romantic and symbolic, he never sought the ideal beauty of Ingres, but turned to usc the more absurd and bizarre attitudes of everyday life. But his realism is synthetic, and represents the building-up, from many sketches and from a retentive memory, the essential character of a form or movement; and his vision is classic in its impersonal, almost ironic,

quality.

So with his design, which, despite its apparent disre-

gard of the rules of classical composition, yet shows a complete balance of strains and stresses round a pictorial centre, revealing the influence of Chinese and Japanese art. Round Degas centres a group of realistic draughtsmen, such as Henri de ToulouseLautrec (1864-1901), whose fevered and excited vision has inspired much modern work, Louis Legrand and J. F. Raffaelli. Jean-Louts Forain (b.1852), chiefly known for his political and

social cartoons, has the critical and ironic spirit of Degas, but less power of design and feeling for colour. The later work of T. A. Steinlen (b.1859), likewise well known by his journalistic work, is significant of modern tendencies in the increased emphasis given to the third dimension and the use of simplified forms.

In England the realism and irony of Walter Sickert (b.1860) connect him with Degas, though his search for atmospheric

PAINTING unity by study of tonal relations, and an incursion into the use of the spectral palette under the influence of Spencer Gore, bring him nearer the impressionists.

He has played an important part

in English art by transmitting French influence, coloured by his own personality, to a number of younger men. Henry Tonks (b.1862), professor at the Slade School, London, has also played an important part in moulding the younger generation. His realism and draughtsmanship relate him to Degas, his choice of

subject at times to Renoir. Renoir, unlike Cézanne, to whom he is most immediately comparable, has inspired no particular group who call him master. He was first and lasta painter, not the exponent or founder of an aesthetic creed. Rejecting Monet’s principle of unconditional submission to nature, and holding that the work of a painter was not to reproduce a natural

5

weapons in the painter’s hands by applying to art scientific dis-

coveries regarding light and colour; and won recognition of the artist’s freedom to express his personal vision of things. It was on this basis that the chief initiators of the movement built. These fall into two groups, the one including Cézanne, Seurat and Henri Rousseau, whose emphasis tends to be on structure and organized design; the other including Gauguin, Van Gogh and Gustave Moreau, in whom symbolist and expressionist elements are more marked. Paul Cézanne (1849-1906) gives the key to understanding of his aims and methods by his own words, that he wished to remake Poussin according to nature, and to make of impressionism some-

thing solid and durable like the art of the museums.

His sympa-

thies were all with the later Venetians, Rubens, Poussin, and the

effect but to compose and construct, he grafted impressionism on

baroque masters such as the Caracci and El Greco, whose crafts-

to the tradition based on the Venctians and Rubens and revivified

manship, bravura and well-organized design he admired. These sympathies found expression throughout his life, but are most evident in his earlier work. dn this he used little colour; but

by Delacroix; forming an art in which solid form, simplified to its most expressive elements, and rhythmic flow of contour unite

to give his work the plastic quality of a bas-relief. His colour, always daring and exuberant, in his later work becomes less naturalistic, and is dominated by the famous Renoir carnation, which gives his canvases a radiance in accord with his vision. Etching ond Engraving.—In etching and engraving, broadly,

under the influence of the impressionists, especially Pissarro, he extended his palette considerably (though still retaining black and the earth colours) and turned to a more intimate study of nature. But for him nature was only a starting-point.

Contemplation of her, he held, reinforced by reflection and study of underlying causes, creates in the artist’s mind a vision of the

the roth-century tradition originating in Rembrandt and Goya still holds the field, represented by Georges Gébo in France, Otto Fischer in Germany, Sir Frank Short, Muirhead Bone and D. Y.

structure underlying the external, visible world, which to him becomes a series of organic relations between solid forms, which

Cameron in England. Confined as a rule to landscape or architectural work, their work is chiefly notable for technical mastery.

it is his business to realize on canvas. Cézanne’s method was to establish the relations between the planes enclosing an object or group of objects by recording all the subtle differences in their

Representatives of the modern school, on the other hand, rarely realize the full possibilities of the medium. In Odilon Redon (1840-1916), however, a modern aim is united with the older craftsmanship in his search for a plastic equivalent of his emotion

and dreams. He was onc of the pioneers of that revival of lithography in which bodies such as the Senefelder Club, whose members include Joseph Pennell and Brangwyn, played a part. A more important revival is that of engraving upon wood, with which Auguste Lepére (1849-1918) was closely associated,

His

later woodcuts show a return from a technique imitating etching or engraving on mctal to the older method of treatment in broad masses, the lights being obtained by cutting away the wood. In Paris and London societies of wood engravers have been formed whose members practise this traditional use of white upon black, which is also much favoured by such modern artists as Derain, Dufy, Friez, and Franz Marc in their book illustrations. Contemporary Movements —The modern movement, some of whose characteristics appear in the transition painters already discussed, has been given various labels, such as post-impressionism and expressionism, but its manifestations are so various that no one term can satisfactorily describe it. But these manifesta-

colour due to differences in their relation to the light. But it ts the form, not the light around it, which interests Cézanne. He worked slowly and painfully; but such was his desire for keeping every element of his work in correct relation that one alteration would often lead to complete repainting. The legend of Cézanne’s technical incompetence is partly due to his constant self-depreciation and to the amount of work he left unfinished in despair or disgust. Though his ultimate rank as a painter is still in the balance, his influence underlies much of modern art. Georges Seurat (1859-1801), like Cézanne, found inthe 16th-

and 17th-century masters the inspiration to recreate on canvas a world of three dimensions rather than copy that before his eyes. At the same time modern scientific research into colour led him to develop his well-known neo-impressionist technique, which

has

rather obscured his power of expressing structure and of welding

form into balanced and monumental design. But he has exercised

Poussin, David and Ingres, as opposed to the romantics and

much influence, especially on the cubists, whose studio walls often carried reproductions of ‘‘ Le Chahut,” one of his last pictures. Henri Rousseau (1844-1010), “ le douanier,” a very different figure was once an octroi official in Paris (whence his nickname). He is the true type of the primitive who tries to paint things as he knows them to be rather than as they appear. He used, for example, to measure his sitters with a footrule, and transfer these measurements to canvas. His work, which includes portraits, views of the suburbs of Paris, exotic landscapes based on recollections of military service in Mexico, and figure compositions, is marked by emphasis on solidity, precision of handling, adjustment of the relative size of objects according to their importance as elements in design, and at times by a symbolic element.

realists; and to be breaking away from subordination to external and visible things, which are to serve only as a means towards expressing the artist’s emotions. From this latter aspect of the

strange figure bred in the strictest academic tradition, whose romantic spirit borrowed fire from Delacroix and Chasseriau,

tions have a common

origin and character, in being a reaction

against impressionism, with its aim of representing superticial appearance as a whole at a given time, without

reference

to

shape or appearance as they are known to exist under the conditions; and in proposing to substitute form arranged into a coherent design, so making a new and independent reality and not a

reproduction of nature. In this the modern movement claims to be a return to the tradition in painting represented by Raphael,

movement arises the term ‘ expressionism ”’; and divergence as to the kind and quality of emotion to be expressed is one cause of the differences between various modern groups. This general character of the movement helps to account for other distinctive features. Colour becomes Jess naturalistic, and is either used to emphasize the solidity of objects, is purely decorative, or assumes a mystical and symbolic character; and anxicty to avoid a transcript of nature has stimulated return to the subject picture, which calls for constructive effort. But the modern movement owes much to the impressionists. It was they who helped to discredit the formulas and aims of academic art; put powerful

In contrast to Rousseau is Gustave Moreau

(1826-1898), a

and who fed his imagination upon the myths of Greece and the East. He emerged from many years’ retirement to become at the end of his life professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, where his influence helped to breed a group of young painters with symbolist tendencies. Asa teacher Moreau always encouraged selfexpression based on close study of the old masters. In his own work Moreau stood for the use of the plastic arts to express the emotions, and built up a decorative art, combining sombre

rich colour and rhythmic linear arabesque. Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) was more definitely a. chef d’école than any of the group now under consideration. After an impres-

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6

sionist phase, he became in Brittany the centre of the famous Pont Aven group, and there developed the theory of synthesis which was to govern all his later work.

In 1891 he went to Tahiti and,

except for a brief return to France, spent the rest of his life there. Admiration of the primitive was at the base of Gauguin’s art. Rejecting impressionism as a mere reproduction of nature not inspired by thought, he held that study of nature awakes emotions in the artist which he has to express by bringing inte organized relation symbols, consisting of forms and colours, supplied by nature. Primitive art alone, he considered, proceeds from the spirit, and uses rather than mimics nature; and he justified going to Tahiti on the ground that there only was his imagination

sufficiently stirred by nature.

Though the colour and forms in

his pictures might not actually exist in nature, he claimed them

to be the pictorial equivalent of the grandeur, profundity and mystery of Tahiti. His latest work most completely embodies

this conception of art in its design based on boldly simplified contours enclosing areas of rich purples, greens, reds and oranges. To the end Gauguin's colour showed impressionist influence.

Otherwise his art is primarily decorative, with colours keyed to express the painter’s mood, and shows a less passionate search for solidity than Cézanne’s. His symbolism, though not primarily literary, towards the end moved somewhat in that direction, Akin to Gauguin in his outlook and use of colour is Vincent

van Gogh (1853-1890). Born in Holland, his early work shows the influence of the Hague School; association with the impressionists in Paris led to his settling down at Arles to the use of heavy masses of vivid colour arranged indefinite patterns, emphasized by black outlines and writhing arabesques of paint. A passionate lover of nature and & mystic and idealist by temperament, Van Gogh believed that the artist’s creative power was given to him to make men happy. Vehement personal passion 15 the note of his work. His colour ultimately became quite nonnaturalistic, and was solely directed towards expressing his emotions; and his surface texture was designed to increase the arresting, disquicting quality of his work. The third dimension did not play a dominant part in Van Gogh's work. His design, in which decorative simplification became increasingly marked, shows very strongly the influence of Japanese art. Symbolism and Fouvism.—The characteristic elements of the preceding group of painters—rejection of naturalistic representation, emphasis on solidity and structure, organized design, and the symbolic use of form and colour—are united in varying degrees in the work of their successors. The influence of Cézanne, which has modified or supplanted that of others, took some time to develop, and the first well-marked group to appear was that

round Gauguin at Pont Aven.

Among these was Paul Sérusier

(b.1864), who was one of the first to formulate a doctrine based

-on the ideas of Gauguin, Cézanne and Odilon Redon. He drew round him a group of symbolistes which included Maurice Denis (b.1870), Pierre Bonnard, K-Xavier Roussel and Edouard Vuillard. This doctrine declares that a work of art must aim at

the expression of an idea. Since it uses form for this purpose, it must be symbolic; and since the form has to be organized, it must be synthetic and decorative. At the basis of this is a belief in correspondence between external forms and subjective states—

not, however, by association but direct. Sérusier and Denis have given these ideas a mystical and religious application. largely under the influence of the quattrocento Italians. ln Bonnard (b.1867) and Vuillard (b.1867), however, the purely decorative element is uppermost, in a graceful and refined but over-precious treatment of material drawn from everyday life, infiuenced by Japanese art, and marked by elusive and delicate harmonies of green, blue, rose and yellow combined with grey. Closely akin to this symbolste group is another whose best-known members

were pupils of Gustave Moreau.

The religious symbolic pictures

of Georges Desvalliéres (b.1861) are characterized by the use of arabesque and rich exotic colour; the more realistic art of Charles

Guérin

(b.1874) by its decorative aim and search for

tonal rather than linear unity. The influence of Moreau, modified only by the pupil’s own temperament, is well seen in the fantastic,

savagely

distorted

nudes,

and

landscapes of Georges Rouault.

Far belter known is h's fellow-

pupil Henri Matisse (b.1869), who represents the expressionist side of symbolism in its most extreme form. Academic and neoimpressionist phases never obscured his very personal use of line and colour whose decorative quality relates him to the Chinese and Japanese. His arbitrary distortions of the human figure, partly based on the study of negro art, marked a stage towards the abstract, non-representative art of the cubists. These distortions, his apparently anarchic design and his colour earned for Matisse the title of “ Chef des Fauves,” though he has

not formed the centre of a well-marked group, despite his wide influence. It is difficult to acquit him of sometimes painting pour épater les bourgeois; but his latest work, while retaining delicacy and sensitiveness, shows increased discipline and restraint.

Both in his drawing and painting Matisse is notable for his use of a pure unaccented contour, which nevertheless generates

solid form.

Somewhat the same power is seen In the Italian

painter and sculptor Amédée Modigliani (1884-1920), though he

is far more mannered than Matisse and lacks bis feeling for colour. Kees yan Dongen (b.1877, in Holland) mingles the influence of Matisse with that of Toulouse-Lautrec, and mainly shows the application of a fauviste recipe to the painting of fashionable Parisian society. Different from the symbolistes and fauves, but equally a reaction against impressionism, are the painters who return to the outlook and methods of the quattrocento Italians. Among these are Jean Frélaut (b.1879), notable for his sincere, thoroughly realized interpretations of the country and people round Morbihan in Brittany; and Félix Vallotton’(b.1865, at Lausanne), whose angular, precise contours and definite colour pattern relate him to the primitives, and have won him the nickname of the Cabanel of the Salon d’Automne. This Pre-Raphaelite

tendency is represented in England by Joseph Southall, head of the Birmingham School of Art, whose work is akin to that of Benozzo Gozzoli; and by Henry Lamb, Stanley Spencer and Gilbert Spencer, who in 1921 were the most prominent of a group of younger men in London of undoubted sincerity but inclined at times to use a rather elementary formula. Their work is also interesting as illustrating a tendency in British art towards decorative design suitable for mural painting. Similar, though more academic in outlook, is Eric Kennington, whose war paintings attracted much attention, their sentimental interest obscuring their mannered draughtsmanship and pretty colour. Cubism.—To all the manifestations of the modern movement so far considered cubism is a marked contrast. Tt was a reaction not only against impressionism but against fauvism, and stands

for the introduction of order and discipline into painting. Somuch was this the case that some opponents of the movement professed to see therein a return offensive of the academics. It owes its name and in part its origin to Matisse, from whose association with Picasso and others the movement took shape in 1908. ‘This group coalesced with another working on similar lines, and represented by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, to win cubism ìts first public victory in the Salon d’Automne of 1913. To the influence of Cézanne and Seurat, which was mainly behind the movement, was joined that of Negro and Polynesian art, in which

the cubists found a simplification of the human form emphasizing

its bulk and solidity, and a complete disregard of normal appearance in the effort to express a conception. The central point of cubism is its entire rejection of the reproduction of natural appearance, which, cubists hold, mercly serves to awaken in the artist emotions which he expresses by a series of abstract forms, ordered and arrayed by his will. Thus cubism aims at creating a kind of visual music. In its most austere form it avoids curved

lines and colour as pretty and sentimental; and even holds that a picture is not a decoration since that term implies dependence upon external objects. From the first, great emphasis was laid on the expression of volume and its arrangement in space. This aroused difficulties, which have separated the cubists into distinct

groups.

The representation of a third dimension introduced an

element of resemblance to nature. Some painters accepted this, so that their pictures are little more than arrangements of realistically painted cubes and cylinders: others rebelled against such

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7

a restricted art, and made of cubism merely an exercise and disci- | to lead him into the mannerism which marks the dramatic land-

pline in the expression of three-dimensional form. The purists, however, hold that art is not concerned with Euclidean space but with a special pictorial space, which we feel by our whole personality expanding or contracting before a picture; and that it is not the painter’s business to create an illusion of a third dimension but to make live on a two-dimensional surface a reality of three dimensions. Further difficulties have been caused by development of a theory of simultaneity which justifies presentation on the same canvas of several aspects of the same object; this often only comes to a mechanical arrangement of a number of separate impressions, whose disentanglement may be a source of interest, so that cubism is descriptive rather than pictorial.

scapes of Maurice Vlaminck (b.1876), with their heavy skies and contrast of sombre greens with vivid reds and pinks. Futurism.— Modern art in other countries is mainly an extension or adaptation of French ideas and methed. Spain, it is true, has produced Picasso; but cubism is entirely Parisian in origin, and so much of the modern spirit as appears in Catalan painters such as Sunyer and Casals is derived from France. Futurism, however, is indigenous to Italy. The term has been loosely used, especially in England, to denote the modern movement as a Whole; but it has a definite and limited application to the doctrines of a group of Italian poets, sculptors and painters, first presented to the world in 1909 in a manifesto signed by F. T.

Pablo Picasso (b.1881, at Malaga) has been the dominating force in the movement, but by no means typifies it. With him cubism has been only a phase. To a realistic period, mainly influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec, succeeded a group of reddish

Marinetti, the poet and high priest of the movement. These doctrines apply to art a gencral philosophy of life, with its origin in

nudes, solidly constructed from simplified planes, which ushered in the cubist period. The earlier work in this showed some conformity to natural appearance, and was mainly in grisaille. Later the forms became more abstract, the design more arbitrary and the colour brilliant, sand and similar substances being embedded

done (whence the name futurism) and on the worship of movement and conflict as the dominant characteristics of modern life. Cubism, as based on tradition and dealing only with the static aspects of hfe, it rejects; impressionism it claims to have surpassed,

in the paint to give relief and variety of surface. Picasso’s latest phase shows the influence of Ingres, especially in his drawings. Some of these show a delicate, unbroken contour, others the use of shading; but all conform closely to natural appearance, with only enough distortion to give flow and rhythm. The chicf

not the appearance of objects at some particular point in their

characteristic of Picasso is his versatility. There is no method he has tried which he has not mastered. But whether he has yet achieved more than a series of excrcises in different manners is open to question. The work of other cubists is remarkable for its sameness and impersonal quality. Georges Braque’s rigid adherence to abstract forms, straight lines and sombre browns and

greys make him the purist of the movement; Gleizes and Metzinger, by their more graceful use of line and colour and by their writings, are its popularizcrs; while Fernand Leger and Auguste Herbin are mainly makers of attractive patterns in bright colour. The use of colour is, however, pushed furthest by the Orphists, such as R. Delaunay, whose rejection of all rules is really a pro-

test against the formal side of cubism, which he has translated into terms of curves and circles decked with vivid colour. Between the extremes of cubism and fauvism stands a consider-

able group of artists who derive something from both, but repre-

sent the direct and increasing influence of Cézanne. Of these Albert Marquet (b.1375) is primarily a painter of Paris and of the Seine, whose use of well-defined planes, with their tonal relations very accurately expressed, is apt to degenerate into an ingenious

system of notation. Jean Puy (b.1876), in his landscapes of widestretching countrysides, brings many scattered clements into harmonious relation by his fecling for subtle variations in colour and tone. With Othon Friez (b.1879) the organizing constructive instinct Js uppermost, but he shows considerable power of retaining fresh and unspoiled his original conception. More consciously decorative than Cézanne, his mural paintings sometimes show the influence of Ganguin. Jean Marchand (b.1883) and Dunoyer de Segonzac (b.1884) represent a younger generation to whom cubism has been a gymnastic to develop understanding of form, . but who now rely on colour and tone to give solidity and a sense of space. -Marchand, taking for his material the most ordinary objects of daily life and the countryside, and using a simple, sober palette, gives his work distinction by his dignified design; Segonzac, with similar constructive power, works in a thick impasto with free use of the palette-knife in colour which has become

increasingly sombre.

His, war paintings express a very personal

emotion awakened by experience, and are the colour of the mud

which dominated the battlefield. André Derain (b 1880) is onc of the most influential of younger painters who, after a period influenced by Van Gogh and the neo-impressionists, produced a series of truculent nudes and landscapes, which showed cubist and fauve influence in their simplified and distorted forms,

His

recent work is more sober and severe, and reflects a study of Ingres. At times Derain’s technical accomplishment threatens

Modern scientific theories which express all matter in terms of

energy, and are based on denunciation of all that the past has

but takes as a starting-point. The futurist’s aim is to represent, Course, but the sensation of movement and growth itself. One method, which connects futurism with cubism, is to combine on One canvas not only what the artist sees, but what he knows and remembers about an object. Another, peculiar to futurism, is the

use of “force lines.” Every object, it is argued, is at a given moment the temporary outcome of continuously acting forces, whose character is indicated by the lines and planes enclosing it. Thus an object becomes simply the beginning or prolongation of rhythms conveyed to the artist by contemplation thereof; and these he represents in his picture by lines arranged to clash,

harmonize, or interplay in order to express states of mind such as chaotic excitement, happiness or interest. Colour the futurists use arbitrarily to assist in conveying these sensations. Luigi Russolo is the most Jogical and orthodox of the futurists. The work of others, such as Carlo Carra, is little more than a catalogue of information about a number of different objects; though Umberto Boccioni, who has applied futurist theories also to sculpture, Sometimes redeems his work by an interesting design. The gaily coloured, tapestry-like patterns of Gino Severini are among the most attractive futurist paintings; but his recent work has been modified by cubist and academic influences. His career typifies the fate of futurism, which has found no new recruits, and has had but transient influence. Modern English Painting. —The English vorticists share some of the futurist doctrines; but the main forces shaping the modern

movement in England are French. This movement first took shape in the studio of Walter Sickert, and resulted in the formation of

the Camden Town group under the presidency of Spencer Frederick Gore (1878-1914), which developed into the more eclectic London group, whose first president was Harold Gilman (18761919). At the same time Roger Fry {b.1866), by his writings and by assisting to organize post-impressionist exhibitions in 1910 and 1912 at the Grafton Galleries, did much to make known the character of the modern movement in France, and to assimilate more closely thereto the English movement. Gore and Gilman represent the movement in its earlier stages. Gore’s earlier impressiomism was modified under the influence of Cézanne and Van Gogh by increased attention to structure and design, which for a time obscured his charming sense of colour. This reappeared

in his latest and most important work, done mainly at Richmond. Gilman emerged from a period influenced by Whistler and painters of the Vuillard type to one which gave increased emphasis to the third dimension and showed the influence of Van Gogh in the use of brilliant, clear colour and the handling of paint. Charles Ginner, whose work is closely akin to Gilman’s, describes their art as aiming at “the plastic interpretation of life through intimate research into nature.”

The emotions aroused by nature

in the artist he must express by deliberate and objective transpoaSSS a eS eh

sition of nature on to canvas, so that he reveals the qualities in her

8

PAINTING

which have moved him. The variety of line and colour in nature, joined to the artist’s personality, will produce a decorative com-

—the soul of nature and humanity.

position.

quite apart from thcir ordinary meaning and associations; and a picture consists of an arrangement of form and colour whose

This neo-realism (as Ginner calls it) is based on the

attitude of Cézanne and Van Gogh towards nature; but gives

According to Kandinsky,

colour and form have the power of producing spiritual vibrations

an English turn to that attitude by emphasizing the part played

spiritual values are in harmony, and unite to express the artist’s

by nature as compared with that of the artist, The French point of view is more evident in the work of the London group. Some of its members are still slaves to a French formula; others have based on French teaching a more individual art, notably W. B. Adeney, F. J. Porter, Roger Fry and Duncan Grant, whose sense of colour gives his art characteristic quality. C.R. W. Nevinson,

spiritual conceptions. Thus painting ceases to have representation as its purpose, and becomes analogous to music in its rhythmic arrangements of forms and colours. These may be borrowed

having explored in turn impressionism, futurism and cubism,

cubists; but he criticizes the latter for reducing the construction of a picture to rules and formulas, and for paying over-much

subsequently abandoned the geometric convention which marked his war paintings, to reveal the academic art masked by his

from nature, but must have no external associations and may be freely adapted and distorted to suit the artist’s aim. Thus Kandinsky has points of contact both with the symbolistes and attention merely to representing three-dimensional form. Kandinsky’s own work has become increasingly abstract in character and consists of some carly flat decorations, combining Russian and Munich influences; a group of more or less direct impressions

previous experiments. Vorticism.—Distinct in character is the vorticist movement, with which Nevinson was once associated. This had its origin in 1913 among certain members of the Camden Town group, and had as its leading figures the painters Percy Wyndham Lewis,

of nature, inspired by Matisse; ‘‘ improvisations ” which represent spontancous expressions of inner character; and “ composi-

Cuthbert Hamilton, Frederick Etchells, Edward Wadsworth and

tions ” which express a slowly formed and mature spiritual feel-

William Roberts, the poet Ezra Pound, and the sculptor Henri

Gaudier-Brzeska

(i891-to1s).

Like

futurism,

it holds

that

modern art must be based on the character of modern industrial civilization, whose ieatures are complexity and dominance of the machine; and since England is preéminently the type of the modern industrial country, this art will be an English

art.

But it rejects futurism as merely

the cinematographic

representation of a series of impressions; ancl joins the modern

movement as a whole in basing itself on tradition, and claiming that the artist’s work is not tocopy nature, but to create new realities. Every phase of emotion has its appropriate means

of expression in some particular form of some particular material, whose appeal is direct and not by association or allegory. These forms take shape and proceed out of the artist’s “ vortex ”

(hence the name of the movement), which is a general conception of relations in the universe through which ideas pass and take concrete shape, just as the general equation of a circle in analytical geometry becomes one particular circle when definite quantities are substituted for the algebraic symbol. In 1920 the vor-

ticist movement issued in a secession from the London group to form the X group.

But though mainly composed of vorticists,

its first exhibition showed some modification if not in doctrine, yet in practice. The earlier vorticist work was geometric and abstract, and owed much to cubism. Hamilton still represented this phase in rg21; but others had turned in the direction of expressing the structure and essential character of natural forms in

ithe way exemplified by the work of Wyndham Lewis.

Much of

the interest of the earlier vorticist painting lies in disentangling in

sequence the elements from which it is constructed; and to this extent it is descriptive and literary. Otherwise, though sometimcs

showing new and interesting combinations of shapes and colours, it presents only a barren world of geometrical forms. Modern German Painting —In Germany the modern movement has been mainly inspired by that side of modern French art

represented by Matisse and Derain.

Cubism has not gained a

real footing there; though the Russian Jew, Marc Chagall, shows

cubist influence in the sharply defined planes and angular design of his fantastic, vividly coloured, decorations; and Lyonel Feini-

ger has adopted the cubist method of extension and development of planes. Arbitrary distortion and writhing arabesque are more congenial means of expression in an art always tending towards the romantic and symbolic; native influences, such as Hans von Marées and the Munich decorative school, joined to the study

of El Greco and Matthias Grünewald, have paved the way for an expressionist art in the fullest sense of the term—one

which

gives vent to every kind of emotion with unrestrained and brutal vehemence.

A mystical temper and a mass of confused aspira-

tions induced by the war have stimulated this development; but the movement was in being before the war, chiefly under the leadership of Wassily Kandinsky (b.1866, at Moscow), a prominent

ing. His most important disciple is Franz Marc (1880-1916), whose animal compositions boldly designed in arbitrary colour are his most typical work. Less abstract but more brutal is a group which has come into special prominence «luring and after the war. Most prominent of these is Oskar Kokoschka (b.1886, in Austria), whose carly work showed the free distortion, sharp contrasts of light and shade, bold contours, and thick impasto worked into arabesques, by which he conveys his excited and very personal vision. In his later work emphasis by these means is even more emphatic and merciless. The heads of his figures are balanced on tiny bodies, bizarre monsters are introduced, and the paint is literally thrown on the canvas, with great channels made therein to mark the dominant lines of the design. Painters of similar tendencies are Emil Nolde, Karl Hofer, and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. The last, under the influence of negro

sculpture, has become a coarser Matisse.

The intluence of an

earlicr generation of Frenchmen is seen in Max Pechstein, whose work owes much to Gauguin, and in Albert Werszgerber and Carl Caspar, both of whom base their design and use of colour on Cézanne. Edward Munch (b.1862, in Norway) stands somewhat apart in his combination of realism, fantasy and power of monumental design derived from Manet, Toulouse-Lautrec and

Seurat, which excited violent controversy in Berlin when first exhibited, and led to the split in the Kunstverein there which marks the rise of the modern movement. Modern Russian Painting —In Russia the influence of French art has been no less marked than elsewhere, but has taken peculiar and characteristic shape. Towards the end of the roth cen-

tury Western and in particular French influence was represented by the realistic historical painters such as Ilya and Repin and a group of plein-air landscape painters. In reaction against their naturalism a decorative school developed, corresponding some-

what to the English Pre-Raphaelites, basing its work on old Russian art, and represented by Vassily Surikov (1848-1916) and Victor Vasnctzov. Of this reaction the modern movement is really a devclopment. One form it has taken is represented by Mikhail Vrubel (dl.r910), whose mystical symbolism recalls that of Gustave Moreau in its search to express things of the spirit in -

pictorial form; while Petroffi-Wodkin is nearer to the French fauves in his simplified and distorted nudes and arbitrary use of colour. More important is a Petrograd group, consisting of historical painters whose aim is to reconstruct in decorative form a past epoch, not from living models dressed in costume of the period, but from the close study of every form of contemporary record. Thus, the movement is primarily intellectual and literary and has produced an art which, for all its refinement and delicacy,

is inclined to be precious and a mere réchanffé of already-used material. Within the movement one group looks to the West. Alexander Benois has concentrated on the age of Louis XIV.; Konstantine Somov, the most charming and individual of all,

member of a Munich group of painters, poets and musicians,

upon the period of 1830; and Eugéne Lanceray upon the court

whose aim was the expression through art of the “innerer Klang”

of Elizabeth and Peter the Great.

Stelletsky and Count Koma

PALAEONTOLOGY rovsky, on the other hand, have gone to old Russia for their motives. Stelletsky is the purist of the group, his reconstructions of Russian mediaeval life being based upon minute archaeological study of ikons, service books and similar sources. Nicolas Roerich has departed from strictly documentary methods in seeking to reconstruct primeval and prehistoric Russia in his fantastic flat decorations based on Russian legends, and thereby joins hands with the group represented by Vasnetzov. Rather apart is Boris Anrep (working in 1921 in England), who studied Byzantine art and the ikon, not in an archaeological spirit, but as exemplifying a means for the expression of human emotion. His work is principally in mosaic, submission to whose limitations, he holds, makes for the simplicity and directness which are often lost amid the technical possibilities of oil paint. The close connexion of modern Russian art with the theatre is another important characteristic, which has grown directly out of the decorative reaction against realism. Leon Bakst represents one side of this. Originally associated with the Petrograd historical group, he came into touch with Serge Diaghilev and became one of the chicf designers of settings for the Russian Ballet. His use of line and colour relates him to the East; but,

the the and the ing,

9

so-called Impressionist School, and their example in raising colour-pitch was of great benefit. Crane, a pupil of Wyant, such men as Tryon, Murphy and Ben Foster, ably carried on tradition they received from their American masters. DewMetcalf and Childe Hassam developed individual ways of

looking at their subjects.

Carlsen, Dougherty and Waugh found

the sea an ever-changing theme for their brushes, and they produced canvases not behind those of the landscape men. With the passing of the Society of American Artists, the men who made this organization a force were merged with the members of the older National Academy and became conservatives

in their turn. Thayer, Brush, Blashfeld, Tarbell, Mowbray, Melchers and Simmons were still in 1920 painting pictures . which showed their sound technical training and their artistic point of view.

Some of the later men who developed original

ways of doing things were Robert Henri, Jonas Lie, William Glackens, Rockwell Kent, John Sloane, George B. Luks, C. C. Cooper, A. B. Davies, Jerome Myers, George Bellows, Gardner Symons, Everett Shinn, W. E. Schoñeld and Randall Davey. Abundant manifestations of vorticism and cubism came to be seen in American painting. Fhe followers of Cézanne, Matisse,

like Benois and Somov, his outlook and method are those of the

Gauguin, Van Gogh and Picasso were many, but chiefly the

West. Distinct in character is the art of Nathali Gontcharova and M. Larionov. Using the methods of the Petrograd group, they took their material from Russian peasant art, as represented in the decoration of articles in daily use and in the “ Jubok,” the

younger men whose work was still in the experimental stage. There was a steady advance in mural painting. Sargent added

to the decorations for the Boston Public Library, and the example set there and elsewhere was followed in many of the larger

Russian equivalent of the “images d’Epinal,”’ which gives their

cities, in state capitols, municipal courts, churches and theatres,

earlier work notable simplicity and directness. The West was not

Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Baltimore, St. Paul and Minneapolis have important buildings decorated by such mura] painters as La Farge, Blashfield, Alexander, and others. There has been remarkable growth at the art museums, especially at the Metropolitan Muscum of New York, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh (whose international exhi-

to be denied, however, and Gentcharova's setting for the ror4

production of the ‘ Coq d'Or” and Larionov’s “ Les Contes Russes ” of 1915 mark the invasion of the theatre by cubist ideas. The colour scheme was still that of Russian peasant art; but the design was based on abstract forms, and aimed at a rhythm in harmony with the music and the dances. To this development the name of rayonnisme has been given.

bitions draw many exhibits from overseas), and the Chicago Art

No less remarkable has been the formation of imporMuch of the criticism levelled at the modern movement, like ; tant collections in cities whose size would often afford no reason for expecting their presence. Worcester, Providence, Cleveland that once directed against impressionism, is merely a violent statement of personal preference. Weightier arguments point and Minneapolis have excellent muscums. Washington now out that the emphasis given in the modern movement to the third possesses three collections of paintings—the Corcoran Gallery,

dimension merely exalts one clement in natural appearance, and urge that ultimately design must be based on the play of contour and shapes on the picture plane. Also, it is said, modern methods of simplification and distortion tend to become formulas which prevent sincere and spontaneous expression no less than older conventions. But contention chiefly centres round the question of representation. Ilt is argued that a purely abstract art, which takes no account of the ideas and emotions conveyed by the objects represented, is a limited and empty affair. Rhythm in the plastic arts, no less than in literature, must emphasize some meaning; and form takes on a significance by association, if not

Institute.

the National Gallery and the Freer Collection. “Moreover, private collections of importance have increased in number and quality, and native artists are often given there the they deserve. Some of the universities offer courses tory of Art and in the elements of design. In time produce a body of intelligent criticism which should

stimulate artistic cifort in America.

high place in the Histhis should still further

(J. C. Vax D.)

PALAEONTOLOGY (sce 20.579).—During the period rg10-2r the science of extinct forms of lie made remarkable progress,

especially in North America, where explorations and studics were

with specific objects, yet with general ideas of mass, space and

less interrupted by the World War. The contact of palacontology with other sciences—even those apparently remote like as-

movement, See also: Maurice Denis, Theories r8oo0-roro (1912); W. H. Wright, Modern Painting (1916); R. Fry, Vision and Design (1920);

tronomy, physics and chemistry, less remote like comparative anatomy, or very intimate like geology—was one of the out-

A. Salmon,

L'Art

Vivant (1920); G. Coquiot, Les Indépendants

(1920); P. Westheim, Die Welt als Vorstellung (1918); Fritz Bürger, Cézanne und Hodier (1913); Ambroise Vollard, Paul Cézanne (1914); Charles Morice, Paul Gauguin (1919); Vincent van Gogh, Lettres

@ Emile Bernard (19t2); Kandinsky, Phe Art of Spiritual Harmony; A. Gleizes, Du Cubisme (1920). (W, G.C.)

UNITED SraTES.—Between rg1o'and r921 many of the painters mentioned in the earlier article (20.518) had passed away, and some of their younger contemporaries had also laid down their brushes: Ryder, Bunce, Blakelock, Duveneck, Alexander, Smedley, Millet, Cox, Beckwith, Alden Weir. Abbey, who died in rort, left no followers, but La Farge and Chase wielded great influence over a host of pupils. With the development of American art-schools and the increasing number of capable instructors, the trend towards European art-centres had by 1921 grown less. There was already promise of a school with distinctly American characteristics. This was to be seen most clearly among the paint-

ers of landscape. Twachtman and Robinson, among the older men who were trained abroad, brought back some of the light of

standing features of the synthetic work accomplished. OF transcendent interest, however, was the contact between mammahan

palacontology and anthropology, especially through the researches of William K. Gregory of the American Muscum of Natural History, and also of G. Elliot Smith of London University to whom

is due the article on ANTHROPOLOGY

in these

New Volumes. Principal Synthetic Works of 1910-21.—Chief among the synthetic works in pure palacontology are those of the Austrian palacontologist Othenio Abel, Grundzüge der Palacobtologie der Wirbeltiere

(1912), Die Stämme der Wirbeltiere (1919), and Lehrbuch ider Paizozoalogie (1920), which give masterly reviews of the whole fossil

history of the vertebrates, especially in analogous and convergent adaptation. In invertebrate palaeontology the reader is referred to Amadeus Grabau’s Principles of Stratigraphy (1913) and Textbook of Geology (1920-1), in which are summed up the principles derived from the teachings of Waagen and Neumayr in Germany, of Hyatt and Beecher in America, in pure palacontology and in application to geology. A broad synthetic treatment of climate and time in relation to the evolution of life is that of the late Joseph Barrell (1917)

in his Rhythms and the Measurements of Geologic Time.

The

best

TO

PALAEONTOLOGY

synthetic treatment of chmate, time and geologic change in relation to the geologic origin and the migration of the different vertebrate eroups is William Diller Matthew's Climate and Evolulion (1915). The subdivisions of geologic time and the successions of faunas and climates are broadly reviewed in the Textbook of Geology by Louis V. Pirsson and Charles Schuchert (1915; revised edition, vol. I, 1921). The latest summary of the geology, past physiography and palaeontology of the world is found in the French edition of the great work of Eduard Suess, Das Anélits der Erde, translated and annotated

by Emmanuel de Margerie as La Face de la Terre (1902, 1918). The comparative evolution of the mammalia of the eastern hemisphere and of North America is broadly treated in Henry Fairheld Osborn's ¢l ge of Mammals (1910); while the mammals of North and South America are compared in W. B. Scott's History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere (1913). A broad treatment of - the whole subject of invertebrate and vertebrate evolution js given in Richard S. Lull's Organic Evolution (1917) and a synthetic review of the earth's history, from its solar beginnings to the Age of Man,

in Osborn's Origin and Evolution of Life.

by palaeontologists. In the same discussion W. J. Sollas comments on the expansion of Ume estimates proposed by physicists: “The age of the earth was thus increased from a mere score of millions to a thousand millions and more, and the geologist who

had before been bankrupt in time now found himself suddenly transformed into a capitalist with more millions in the bank than he knew how to dispose of.” In this connexion we may recall the fact that as carly as 1850 Charles Darwin pointed out that the high degree of evolution and specialization secn in the invertebrate fossils at the base of the Palacozoic, namely, the Cambrian, proved that Precambrian evolution occupied a period as long as, or even longer than, that of Cambrian to Recent time (see Table Ion p. rr). Poulton, the leading disciple of Darwin in England (1596), declared that 400,000,000 years Was none too long for the whole life evolution period; this would allow 200,000,000 years for Precambrian time

Life Epochs of Geologic Time.—The time scale in the accompanying table is taken from the work of Pirsson and Schuchert

and another 200,000,000 years from Cambrian to Recent time.

of 1915, modified by the substitution of geologic time units for years. There is a growing indisposition to reckon past time in terms of years, and a growing tendency to substitute a relative term like dime units, because of the enormously wide discrepancy between the older estimates of geologists, based on sedimentation and the thickness of the various assemblages of rocks, which,

Charles D. Walcott (1899. 1914) has discovered the remains of hfe in the Precambrian (Proterozoic) rocks of North America

taken together, make up the whole geologic time scale, and the

estimates of physicists, based on the slow liberation of radium from radioactive minerals. The radium estimates of the age of the earth range as high as 1,400,000,000 years for the oldest

Walcolt’s Revelation of Precambrian

and Cambrian

Life—

and has been able to give us a fragmentary picture of the fauna and flora of that very ancient period. In Montana at a depth of nearly 10,000 it. below the carhest Palaeozoic rocks (Cambrian)

he found evidence of ancient reef deposits of calcarcous algae, which ranged upward through 2,000 it. of strata. Above these recfs are 3.000 [t. of shales containing worm trails and the fragmentary remains of large crustacean-like organisins. From rocks of approximately the same age in Ontario, Canada, he has described sponge-like forms (Afikekania) which are of such gencral-

known rocks, according to Barrell, who has adopted the calculations of Rutherford and others based on the “ rate of disintegra- ized structure that it is difficult to decide whether they should be tion” of radioactive minerals. The contrast between the two regarded as sponges or as archaic corals. These few plant and methods is exemplined in the following table: | animal remains are all that are known from remotely metamorWalcott (1893) Years Age of Man and of Mammals—Cenozoic , Age of Reptiles—Mesozoic . ; ‘ : p : Ave of Amphibians, Fishes, Invertebrates—Palacozoie ae

.

Precambrian Time— Evolution of Invertebrates and of Unicellatar Life M inimum Totai Maximum Total

The most original part of Barrell’s contribution was the measurement of time from the base of the Palaeozoic to Recent time by new palacophysiographic methods, taking into account particularly the rhythms or cycles of dry and moist climates and of elevations and depressions, theortes which were originally interpreted by T. C. Chamberlin and popularly treated by Illsworth Huntington, the physiographer of Yale University. A few decades ago the physicists and mathematicians, ¢specially Kelvin and Tait, insisted that the earth could not be more than 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 years old; now the physicists are extending the age of the life period to 1,400,000,000 years, as

estimated by Barrell (1917). The most recent determination bv physicists, as reviewed by Lord Rayleigh (1921), takes into consideration the transmutation of chemical elements, for example, in the bréggerite of the Precambrian rocks at Moss, Norway: ‘f Taking the lead as all produced by uranium at the rate above given, we get an age of 925 million years.

Some

minerals from other archaean rocks in Norway give a rather longer age. . . The helium method is applicable in some cases to materials found in the younger formations, and proves that the ages even of these are to be reckoned in millions of years.

3.000,0900 9,000,000 18,000,000 30,000,000

Thus

the helium in an Eocene iron ore indicated 30,000,000 years at least. .. The upshot is that radioactive methods of research indicate a moderate multiple of 1,000 million years as the duration of the earth’s crust as suitable for the habitation of living

beings, and that no other considerations from the side of pure physics or astronomy afford any definite presumption against this estimate.” Applying this estimate to the evolution of a familiar mammal like the horse, it might be said that the fourtoed horse (Eohippus) existed 30,000,000 years ago, a somewhat

larger estimate of the life period of the horse than that demanded

90,000,000

Barrell (1g17} Years 55,000,000 = 65,000,000 T.40,000,000-180,000,000

(Geikie, 1899)

» $00,000,000 (Geikie, 1899) |

360,000, 000-5 40,000,000 000,000, 000—500, 000,000 T 200,000,000 1, 400,000,000

phosed rocks of Precambrian time, but the existence of annehds and possible arthropods marks a break into the hitherto unknown Precambrian.

Walcott’s most surprising discovery in Precam-

brian time is a monad or bacterium attributed to Micrococcus sp. indet. from the Algonkian of Montana, but probably related rather to the existing Nvtrosemonas, one of the prototrophic or primitive-feeding bacteria, which derives its nitrogen from ammonium salts. In roro Walcott discovered in the Cambrian (Burgess) shales of Alberta, Canada, a marvellously rich fauna whose preservation

is so perfect that the setae of the worms, the jointed appendages of the trilobites, the impressions of soft-bodied medusae and

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é i k f í ;

~ 27,589,480 . 40,866,228 . 11,170,179 . 35,852,954 «9,005,058 . 17,686,452 27,834,524 the Jaffa district 36,000. | of Palestine passes

through its three chief ports of Gaza, Jatta and Haifa. Of these Haifa, before the war, had begun to supplant Beirut to 2 certain degree as the port of Damascus, the Hauran and Gilead and, in virtue of its connexton by rail with Medina, handled goods in

transit for that area as well: consequently its trade was Syrian rather than Palestinian and recovered sharply after the end ef the ItaloTurkish War in 1912. Gaza was concerned almost entirely with an export trade of barley, chiefly used for making beer in England, while Jaffa, with all its drawbacks, served as the chief port for exports and imports of purely Palestinian origin and destination, The standard-gauge railway leading to Egypt is also a great trade route, more particularly for passengers and those classes of goods

which suffer from the delays still inevitable in bad weather at Jaffa. The total trade of Palestine for the first complete year during

which the whole country was under British administration and at peace, Aprit 1919-March 1920, was:— Imports

April-June 1919. Julv-S5ept. ae Oct.- Der.

oe

Jan.-March 1920 Žž.

, i

Exports

{E1,095,935 561,569

{E130,463 120,719

1,296,334

236,968

£E 4.242.067

£E693,702

O84926

196,552

PALGRAVE—PANAMA Of this the respective shares of Jaffa and Haifa as compared with the last complete year before the war—both calculated in £E—were:—

Imports

Jaffa

TOY. Pose 1919-20. 1920-21

se y ee

(first 7

months)

Haifa

161g

.

te.

919-20

he

.

1920-21

.

we

Exports

LE

IE

1,279,785 1,408,238

726,775 169,308

1,186,079

27,360

(first 7

months)

He was educated at Clongowes Wood school, and Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1852, He was called to the Irish bar jn 1853, and became a Q.C. in 1865.

338,033 (1912)

950,155

116,795

270,057

From this it is apparent that while Palestine had to buy largely and at enhanced prices of those goods of which she was unable to procure adequate supplies during the war, she had not vet recovered her capacity for production after the dislocation of trade and ruin of agriculture caused by the war, with the consequence that the balance of trade was against her. It has been pointed out, however, that her

exports are bulkier than her imports, and that had tonnage been available the exports would have been greater.

The deficiency of available tonnage is well shown in the following shipping hgures for ports of Palestine:— Number of |Number of

Flag British Russian French

Italian

Ships

`. . .

2.

Officers’ widows Officers’ children

2.

5.

;

elle :



eS :

;

38,850 f

.

9,700 9,100

Officers’ other dependents 6,500 Nurses . Dt og ; sobr & ; 1,458 Nurses’ dependents i 22 Including wives’ allowances, and children’s allowances the total number of beneficiaries was nearly 3,500,000. Medical treatment was being carried on in 84 hospitals and cons valescent centres and 150 clintcs. The Ministry controlled 14,000 beds in its own institutions and 10,000 in civil institutions (cf. the whole voluntary hospital system of the country, which has not more

than 40-50,000 beds). There were under treatment at any given time 158,000 cases. The cost of this, including allowances to men under treatment, in excess of pension, amounted to £16,000,do00 per annum. The doctors directly employed were 464, the hospital staff numbered 7,600; in addition, for assessment purposes, there were 450 medical boards, each of three members, examining over a con siderable period from 21,000 to 25,000 men every week.

Special Features —In addition to the mere mass of the task, many, most battling. problems demanded solution. The Ministry, in addition to pensions work and medical treatment, had for example to undertake the supply and repair of artificial limbs and surgical appliances (a special division of the Ministry was organized to deal with this). There were in Dec. 1920 23,932 officers and men pensioned on

account of amputations of the leg, and some 64,000 cases of wounds

of the upper extremity involving amputation of arm or part of the hand. There were 8,000 cases of cpilepsy, 114,000 cases of “heart disease” and 69,000 cases of nervous disease (under which are included both “shell shock” and ‘‘neurasthenia’’).

There was no medical staff in existence to cope with such numbers. In the case of the “nervous diseases” a special training school for sycho-therapy and other forms of treatment was established in ondon, where a four months’ course was given. The problem of “heart disease’’ demanded specialist attention; a system of special cardiological boards and clinics for examination and diagnosis was started in London, and extended throughout the country.

For the concurrent treatment and training of the broken men six large centres had been opened by Jan, 1921, and it was intended to open two more, giving accommodation in all to between 3,000 and 4,000. The effects of concurrent treatment and training upon the health and prospects of the patients were extremely beneficial. Difficulties were experienced in their absorption in industry, and efforts-were made to overcome this by the institution of a national Roll of Honour by which firms pledged themselves to employ a certain proportion of disabled men, while special treatment for the permanently unfit was being considered. (W. E. EL.)

PERCIN, ALEXANDRE (1846 }, French general, was born at Nancy (Meurthe) on July 4 1846. He entered the Ecole Polytechnique on Nov. 1 1865, and two years later was appointed

a sub-lieutenant of artillery.

He was promoted lieutenant in

1869 and captain in 1870. He took part in the Franco-German

PERCIVAL—PERISCOPE

54

War and the commune fighting and was twice wounded—in Dec. 1870, at the battle of Patay, and again in April 1871 before

Peris.

He was made a major (chef d’escadron) in Jan.

1883, lieutenant-colonel in 1890, colonel in 1895, general of brigade in rg00, and general of division in 1903. In the period between rg00 and his retirement, Gen. Percin was a very active reformer and innovator in the tactics of the artillery

arm. The typical field-artillery tactics of 1914, based on time shrapnel covering fire, and on the intimate liaison of infantry and artillery, were largely due to his work, and after his retirement he continued a very active student and critic of artillery operations. His marked personality, and his political opinions as a radical, however, made him many enemies, At the outbreak of

the World War he was recalled to service, but only as commander of the Lille region, and he was involved in the controversies connected with the evacuation of Lille. Later he was employed for

a short period as inspector-general of artillery units. In Jan. r915 he was placed in the reserves. He was given the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour in June 1917. Amongst his more important works are La Maneuvre de Lorlunges, L'Artillerie aux Afaneuvres de Picardie (English translation, War Office, 1912) and a psychological study of battle under the title Le Combat (1914).

PERCIVAL, JOHN (1834-1918), English divine, was born in Westmorland Sept. 27 1834, the son of William Percival, of a yeoman family. He was educated at Appleby and Queen’s College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1858. In 1860 he was ordained, and went to Rugby as aneassistant master. In 1863 he went to Chfton College as first headmaster, remaining

there for 15 years.

He was elected president of Trinity College,

Oxford, in 1878, and while in this position took much interest

in the foundation of Somerville College for women. In 1887 he became headmaster of Rugby, and in 1895 was appointed to the bishopric of IJereford. His broad churchmanship placed him in opposition to the dominant tendency in the Church of England, and he was also a strong and militant Liberal in politics, being an ardent advocate of the disestablishment of the Church in Wales. He died at Oxford Dee. 3 1918. PEREZ GALDÓS, BENITO (1843—1920), Spanish novelist (sce 21.139), died Jan. 4 1920. The final series of his Episodios Nacionales contained España sin rey (1908); Espaiia Trágica (1909); Amadeo I. (1910); La Primera Republica and De Cartago á Sagunto (1911); and Cunovas (1912). He also published various plays and novels, including El Caballero encantado (1909), and Santa Juana de Castilla (1918). See L. Olmet and A. Carraffa, Los Grandes Españoles, vol. i.,

Galdos (1912).

PERIODICALS: see NEWSPAPERS. PERISCOPE.—An optical instrument used in land warfare and in submarine navigation, enabling an observer to sce in all directions while remaining under cover or submerged. Essentially it consists in an optical system of lenses and mirrors, or mirrors alone, the upper part of which projects from cover, or from the deck of a submarine, while the observer looks into the lower end, receiving an image of the surrounding country or

improved, the periscope as such came into use for the infantry garrisoning trenches. Manufactured in large quantities it soon became an essential part of infantry as well as of artillery and machine-gun equipment. In the present article, periscopes for land service and those forming part of the equipment of submarines will be described in turn. (1) Land-service Periscopes vary much both in

design and size, some being only a few inches long while others are as much as 8o ft.in length. The simplest form of periscope, and that most generally used by troops, consisted of a tube, rectangular in section, provided with two mirrors, the upper of

which, inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis of the tube, reflected the image of the foreground verti-

cally downwards to a second mirror, also inclined to the axis at 45° into which the observer looked. But in order to obtain an adequate field of view, the mirrors, and therefore the box, had to be made somewhat large, and in the close-quarters conditions

of trench warfare even the few inches by which they projected over the parapet or cther cover made them sufficiently obvious to draw fire.

these, in order to take in enough of the foreground,

had to be provided with a magnifying as well as a

reflecting system. In the British service half of the stereoscopic scissors-telescope used in rangefinders was frequently employed asa periscope. Its lower end was fitted sek a ball-and-socket joint

to enable it to be laid in any direction, and be-

neath this is a screw which can be screwed by means of a small lever into a piece of wood embedded in the side of a trench. In an ingenious periscope designed by Messrs. R. & J. Beck of London (fig. 1) the upper prism is supported above the telescopic system on a flat strip of metal which can be slid through side supports on the body of the periscope. When in use, the prism is supported some inches ahove the body and is the only part that can be seen by the enemy. If it is shot away, it can be replaced in a few seconds. When the periscope is not in use, the prism is lowered and protects the upper lens in the y. Small German periscopes were usually I metre or 4a metre in Jength and had two eyepieces giving magnifications 10 and 15 diameters. The optical system 1s shown in fig. 2. They could be

oe held in the hand or attached to a direction stand. A neat rainguard made of sheet metal, to the same curve as the body of the periscope and al-

most 8 inches long, is attached to the upper prism box by two spring straps. When in use, it is held at right angles to the periscope above the upper window by a bayonet catch; when not in use, it is

(see RANGEFINDERS) and panorama-telescopic sights (see SIGHTS),

in which the optical system was arranged with the tube of the telescope vertical and the object-glass and eyepiece systems at right angles to the axis of the tube. And in the World War,

while optical instruments of this kind were elaborated and

FIG.)

lowered and sprung round the body of the periscope just below the upper prism box. Many periscopes of considerable length

Sead

N

and special design have been uscd, to enable observations being made in comparative safety from behind large objects, e.p. houses, trees, etc., or from folds in the ground. Of these the most remarkable is the German Giant Periscope, two specimens of which exhibited in the collection of trophies in the Imperial War Museum,

D

sea by reflection down a tube.

The use of reflecting mirrors for the purpose of observing from cover is no novelty, and during the trench warfare of the Crimean War 1854-5 a device was patented which scarcely differs from the simple mirror periscope of the World War. From the beginning of the 20th century, however, the practical introduction of submarine navigation brought about the development of new claborate periscopes of great length and provided with an optical system of lenses, which were built into the structure of the submarine. At the same time, on land, the new necessities imposed on field artillery by the growing use of covered positions led to the development of scissors-telescopes

Less

conspicuous periscopes were therefore designed, and

Crystal Palace, have excited considerable

eee wewer eee eH =A PRE ee eee aCee m Eee

ff +

ewes

ra

»+a»e

-.>2a

The figures in Tables 1 and 2 show that in 1920, ascompared with 1913, the total value of imported eggs and poultry had increased from £10,545,142 to £12,396,968, whilst the total quantity had

decreased in the case of eggs from 21,579,950 great hundreds to 7,070,266 great hundreds: and in the case of dead poultry from 278,465 cwl. to 94,464 cwt Thus, reckoning that the eggs averaged t4 lb. per 120, the imports in 1920 were less by 90,685 tons than in 1913, whilst the imports of dead poultry were less by 9,200 tons. It appears, therefore, that the total annual value of theeggs and poultry consumed in the United Kingdom had in 1920 reached the following approximate huge sum :— British production . «wee ‘o £37,000,000 Irish ‘s oe te oe. A a a A 22,352,578 Imported . wt Ce. ‘ i 12,396,968 Total. . 5 « £71,749,546

From the foregoing it would seem that the opportunities for

increasing the production of eggs and poultry in the United Kingdom were in 1921 greater than ever. Russia, the largest supplier in prewar days, had practically ceased her exports, whilst Italy and the countries formerly included in Austria-Hungary would probably take some years to recover their former exporting capabilities. Much must depend, however, upon the capacity of the British people to adopt efficient methods of cheaper production. There is little doubt

that the majority of British consumers would prefer to eat fresh British eggs aud poultry rather than those of foreign origin, preserved

or otherwise, provided the price of the home article is not too high.

It is largely a matter of cost of production and methods of marketing,

One of the most interesting developments in poultry-keeping of recent years has been the growth of stock poultry farms whose main object is the production of pure-bred poultry of heavy laying capacity. This development was no doubt primarily due to

T ip g wi le e à -

wt, 119,944 31,175 26,674 54,242 46,430

LLLi eee Cwt.

8 3,083 Ni 100,859 43,617 147,567

Cwt. 66 27,112 1,396 9,872 56,018

£1,527,992 competitions were conducted over four winter months, commencing in October. Thus the productive capacity of the birds was tested at the time of the year when eggs are most difficult to obtain, and competing breeders were compelled to hatch their birds carly if they wished them to obtain a good place in the trials. The introduction of these competitions marks an important epoch

in the history of the poultry industry, as attenuon was thereby focussed upon the great variation in fecundity of various strains and breeds, whilst the commercial importance of high egg yield was forcibly demonstrated. For the first few years trap-nests were not used, records of the egg yield of each pen of four birds being taken. In 1902, however, trap-nests were introduced and the individual records were taken. In 1912-13 the competitions were extended to twelve-month periods, and a grant in aid of this work was given to the Utility Poultry Society in conjunction with the Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop, by the Board of Agriculture

and Fisheries. It was no doubt realized by the Board that the educational value of these competitions was very great. Not only was

information

obtained

regarding

the relative

productivity

of

different birds, *‘ strains,’”’ and breeds, but also regarding size and colour of egg, comparative seasonal production, period of brooding, cost of food per bird and net cost of egg production, value of different systems of housing, feeding, and general management. In fact it is open to question if the full educational value of laying competitions or trials had in 1921 been fully exploited. The National Utility Society continued to organize trials annually, and after 1916-17 these were carried out for the Society by the

Great Eastern Railway Co. at Bentley, Ipswich. This Company in conjunction with the Utility Duck Club also arranged in 1921 a laying trial for ducks. The trap-nesting arrangement for these birds is very ingenious as the ducks are enticed into the nests by regularly

placing the food in small pens in front of the nests, but inside the

POULTRY

136

traps. Only one duck can obtain admission to each pen or nest, and

as the birds are plainly marked with distinctive rings very little

handling is necessary. : Several other public laying trials were being conducted in 1921 in various parts of the United Kingdom: at Burnley, Lancashire, by the Northern Poultry Society; at Newport, Salop, by the Harper

Adams Agricultural College; at Wye, Kent, by the South Eastern Agricultural College; at Birmingham by the Midland Fur and

at too high a cost in other directions and that high resistance to disease, low chicken mortality, and reasonably sized eggs are also matters of considerable importance.

The type of bird bred by the breeder of pedigree layers has

drifted further and further away from the standard set up by the specialist exhibition clubs. So much is this so, that in the case of several breeds, particularly White Leghorns and White Wyan-

TABLE 3

The gross production and general averages, ete., of the National Utility Poultry Society's twelve-month competitions duringsection. eight

ears.

The Championship Section was instituted in 1918-19, and each pen consisted of to pullets instead of 5 as in the ordinary

> > No ot Parat Poi "|

Pullets | Wyan-

|} Leg-

Entered | dottes | horns

a 1912-13

1913-14

600

33

300

48

*IQl4g-15

300

30

1915-16

poo

29

1917-18

575

1916-17

1918-19

354 720

1919-20 | 1,440

18

15

Total laid

Ist

and

704

235

151-9

9:7

187-2

7 Il

ee 9I, I5

100 120

per Pullet

38

50,562

90-2

87-4

12+5

168-5

29

98,898

65:5

315

164-0

32

41

84,477

75°4

24:6 13°6

142-2

155°7

o

39

78-6

21-2

163°3

30 48

52,438

112,162

231,777

58-8 844

41-2

over

under

ae

14

per bird

age

s.

3ird | per Bird

231

40

15

_|Aver. |] Aver-

age per

5

7

87

8

148-1

a.

U1

ol

10}

6

Not Reported

Championship Section | 39 33°33

79 58-3

18,209 22,320

Faad 73:3

Feather Federation; at Trowbridge by the Wiltshire County Council, and in Ireland at Cork by the Irish Department of Agriculture. In the case of the trials at Newport, Wye and Trowbridge, financial

assistance to the work is given by the Ministry of Agriculture.

As a brief indication of the results obtained at a few of the laying

competitions the accompanying tables are instructive.

(Tables 3

and 4 have been compiled by Mr. H. E. Ivatts, late Hon. Sec. of the National Laying Trials.)

Up to the 1916-17 competition awards were granted upon the basis of the market value of the eggs laid with a varying discount penalty up to 20% upon eggs weighing less than 2 ounces. Subsequent to 1916-17 the competitive value of a hen's production was

determined in accordance with the following rule :— “For the purpose of the test the ergs laid by each hen will be assessed and recorded according to their weight as first or second grade eggs. First grade eggs shall be those weighing two ounces or niore. Second grade eggs during the first ten weeks shall be those

weighing less than 2 ounces but not less than 1§ ounces, and for the subsequent period of the test not less than 1} ounces. Second grade eggs shall be accepted as of equal value to first grade eggs, but not more than 100 eggs shall be credited to the score of any hen in Sec-

tions 1 to 5, and in the case of Section 6 (Championship) 200 eggs."

The 1915-16 trials held by the Utility Society have a special interest, as 42 of the competitors’ pens were retained for a second year in order to ascertain the yield of these birds for their second

year. Table 4 shows the results obtained. The stimulus given by laying trials to the breeding of highly fecund strains of poultry has been cnormous. Not only has the spirit of competition set up by the trials urged breeders to devote much time and thought and energy to their breeding operations, hut the fact that a win in a public competition is of great value as an ad-

vertisement Jed to the keenest efforts being made hy compctitors to obtain a high position in the prize jist. lt is perhaps not too much to say that success in the trials has been in several cases the foundation of many present-day successful stock poultry farms. Ordinary poultry-keepers wishing to buy birds either as a beginning or to Improve existing stock apply to a Jarge extent to successful com-

petitors in the laying trials, and a considerable foreign demand at highly remunerative prices is not infrequently the direct result of success in the trials. This is certainly a mark of progress in the eggproducing industry asa whole, in the same way that the increasing demand

| Average

56,184

30

Per Cent Best | Worst Pullets laying | Pensi Pens | Food cost

Total

— a

“Ten months only. 1918-19 1919-20

Per Cent Grades of Eggs

Eggs

for pedigree milking stock by the dairy farmer is an indica-

tion of progress in the dairying industry. A word of caution, however, may not be misplaced. There may be a danger in focussing attention too strongly on the development—possibly the abnormal development—of one function, of producing weaknesses in the bird in other directions. There isa certain risk of sterility, high mortality in rearing chickens and general lack of constitution in the adult stock, The really skilled breeder will know how to avoid these dangers, but nature is inclined to be severe on attempts to develop abnormal capacity in

any one direction. Our knowledge of the laws of heredity is still very

incomplete in spite of the considcrable amount of empiric knowledge possessed by some of our present-day breeders. No doubt Mendel’s discoveries and the investigations made by Bateson, Punnett, Pearl

and others may give material assistance to the elucidation of the many problems involved in the inheritance of fecundity, but in the meantime stock breeders and commercial egg farmers would do weil to remember that high individual egg yield may possibly. be obtained

12-9

| 182-0

26-7

188-8

|

| TAT p

|

TABLE 4 Two-Year Egg-Laying Competition at Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop, 1915-17. Each pen held 6 birds. Wa,

{2 Years’ Total

Sidik

Eggs |Avg. Eggs] Avg.) Eggs |Avg.

Ist

Year

2nd Year

Vatue

Section 1. White Leghorns I 1,353 | 225 | 829 | 138 | 2,182 | 363 | {18 2 1,265 | 210 | 720 | 120 | 1,98§ | 330 16 3 t,125 ( 187 | 745 | 124 | 2,870] 3H 15 4 | 1,196 |] 199 | 656 | 114 | 1,882 | 313 15 5 1,092 | 182 | 811 ] 135 | 1,903 | 317 t5 6 1,261 | 210 | 619 | 103 | 1,580] 313 1⁄5 Z 1,225 |]204 | 655 | 109 | 1,880] 313 15 8 1,II8 | 1386 | 665 { 110 | 1,783 | 296 l4 9 1,003 | 167 | 688 | 114 | 1,691 | 281 14 10 948 | 158 | 679 | I13 | 1,627] 27I 12 I1 1,001 | 181 | 503 | 84 | 1,594 | 265 12 12 1,087 | 181 | 452 | 75 | 1,539} 256 Ir

10 It I7 I2 i2 7 3 6 O0 19 17 I8

7} 7 2} Jo} 73 2 74 FF ¥f Oo 7} 13

6

I13

83

13 j 1,449 | 241 | 837 | 139 | 2,286}

i4

1,086 | 181 | 658 | 109 1 1,744 |

Section 2,

380|

290

19

14

2

2

15 | 1,068 | 178 | 933 | 155 | 2001|

16 | 1,177 | 196 | 755 | 125 | 1,932] 17 g68 | 161 | $23 | 137 | 1,791]

321 298

333

[£17

9

18

295

I4

19

1,071 | 178 | 707 | 117 7 1.77

19 | 1,042 | 173 | 20 997 | 166 | 2I 938 | 156 | 22 905 | I50 |

23

24

4}

White Wyandottes 17 15

706} 117 | 1748| 722 | 120 | 1,719]

290; 286

14 14

706 | T17 | 1,044] 719 | 119 | 1,624]

273 269

344 133

949 | 158 | 549 | 91|

n498]

249|

12

0 3

Fh 6j 5

10 4

23 7i

3 8

o0 ọi

10)

5%

1,513 | 252 | 809 | 134 | 2,322]

386

19

19



25 | 1,169 | 194 | 846 | 141 | 2,015}

335]

17

8

8

29 į 1,093 | 182 | 733 | 122 | 1.826]

304}

15

26 27 28

1,109 } 184 1 841 | T40 | 1,950| 1,210 | 201 | 798 f 133 | 2008| 1,168 | 194 | 604 | 100 | 1.772)

324 334 294

17 17 13

3 2 HI

IO

1j «54 10

4

Section 3. Buff Plymouth Rocks Rhode Island Reds, White Orpingtons, Buff Orpingtons Barred Piymouth Rocks

30

3I 32

899 | 149 | 896 | 149 | 1,795]

33 | 1,084 | 180]

465}

34 | 1,029 | 171 | 559]

77)

L549]

93 | 1.588]

I

O

6

gy 7

OF

4

| 62 | 1,145] I9] 9 | 66] 1,120] 188 8 75 926| 153 7 Light and Red Sussex | 125 | 1,667] 277 | £13

9 18 5

ò į 103

19 12 āI

83

40 4! 42

o88 | 164 | 631 | 105 |] 1,619] - 892 {| 148 | 623 | 103 į L515]

264|

13

9

H

I3

751 | 125 | 574 | 95] #325) 977 | 162 | 285 | 47 | 1,262] 773 | 129 | 372 732 | 122 | 388 471 | 78} 455) Section g. gt5 [ 182 | 752

257}

13 13

12

35 36

37 38 39

298 | {15

777 | 129 | SII | 135 | 1,588 j 264 1,000 | 166 | 534 | 89 | 1,534] 255

220] 10 209 [ Io

269 251

13 13

19 #4

34 6%

53 53

POULTRY

137

dottes, the birds which win in laying competitions are of a type

the open-fronted house is very little used, a span-roofed type with

distinctly different from exhibition specimens and are indeed given a distinguishing designation such as Utility White Leghorns in contrast to Exhibition White Leghorns. Apparently the heavy layer develops a type of her own and if, as appears probable, the future demand for stock poultry should be increasingly for birds whose useful qualities, whether for egg or flesh production, have

windows low down near the floor being preferred. The amount of run provided for the birds also varies. One well-known poultry farmer maintains 400 layers to the ac. but divides the acre into

been highly developed, ttis obviously desirable that British breed-

ers of exhibition and utilily poultry should take counsel together and if possible frame their breed standards to meet present-day requirements. Otherwise, confusion is likely to increase With resulting loss of trade both at home and abroad. The Irish Department of Agriculture have held annual elevenmonth

laying trials in Ireland since 1913, and, as the results are

ublished in a form which facilitates comparison, Table 5 is of interest :-—

two portions, and whilst the birds occupy onc portion forage

crops, such as thousand-headed kale, which the birds later on consume, are grown on the other portion. On another farm the lay-

ing houses are so placed on the farm and the wire fencing so arranged, that the birds can be given access to arable fields, fruit gardens or pasture, as the crops and the season permit.

In methods of feeding, too, there is also wide variation. The dry mash method is practised on certain farms whilst on others the wet mash method is preferred or a combination of the two. On some well-known egg farms large quantities of cooked vegetable food are regularly fed to the layers, whilst on other farms

TABLE 5 —Comparison of Results. Eleven

Months oats AUR- ZI

No. of Pullets

a 2 ial

oe Rid

Average

Cost ol

Average

Return per

per

per

Eggs per

Cost of

Value

Food

Price of

Bird

So

s.

d

d.

s

d.

d

Dozen

Bird over

Bird

Food

1913

318

38,199

20I

II

2:3

5

68

1305

5

63

1gl4

282

39,216

1390

1915

264

130:6

36

5

83

13°77

7

73

1916 1917

297 210 210 306 354

39,764 49,830 36,600 36,106 55,124 65.840

13 23 32 47 53

©5 y2 4 34

8 11-8 13, 10-7 IG 6 20 0

19°58 26°89 39°66 42°59

1918 1919 1920

160:5 1746

1710 150-0 ?

17

53

6

9

7 O05

9

3

16°75,

1-62

3o

I} 13 30 33

55

07 BS IOI J4 ST

very little green food is given beyond what the birds gather for

Most of the so-called ‘commercial egg farms,” which have become more in evidence of recent years, are stocked with Utility White Leghorns, White Wyandottes, or Rhode Island Reds. The main business of these farms is to produce eggs for consumption

themselves on their runs. From all this it will be gathered that methods are far from being standardized in the poultry industry, and this is indeed

though most of them do also a certain amount of trade in supply-

not a matter for surprise When the recent development of poultry-

>

ing eggs for hatching, day-old chicks, and stock birds. One of the

keeping as a business is considered.

largest British commercial egg farmers, however, who maintains

man’s oldest industry and has been for many years investigated

Unlike agriculture, which is

a flock of 5,000 layers and rears some 5,000 to 6,000 chickens

both from the scientific and practical aspect by some of the best

every year, states that nine-tenths of his produce is sold for direct consumption and that he regards the hatching egg and stock

brains, there has been little scientific or even practical investiga-

cockerel trade as comparatively unprofitable and troublesome. All hatching and rearing on this particular farm are done with broody hens, noincubators or foster-mothers being uscd, and this has been the practice for many years. It has proved commercially successful in this particular case, though other egg farmers use mammoth incubators and pipe brooder houses or anthracite stove hovers with apparently successful results. There is little doubt

that the capacity for rearing large numbers of chickens with a low percentage of mortality is the crucial test of the commercial egg - farmers’ skill and management, and much has yet to be learnt - regarding the rearing of chickens in large flocks. Considerable differences of opinion exist as to the comparative merits of pipe brooder houses, anthracite stove hovers, brooder houses with small portable oil hovers, outdoor portable brooders, and natural methods. When the pipe brooder system as practised in America

was first tried in England many failures were recorded. Since then, however, improvements have been introduced and there is some evidence that the improved form of pipe brooder house may yet become popular in Britain.

At least one large breeder

has erected a brooder house of this type with a capacity of from 3,000 to 5,000 chickens and excellent results have so far been ob-

tained. The anthracite stove brooder is now in use in considerable numbers, but opinions vary widely as to its efficiency in rearing 2 high percentage of vigorous well-grown chickens. Methods of housing and feeding henskept principally for tableegg production vary considerably

The usual practice is to keep

the birds in comparatively large flocks of from 150 to 400 and to house them in open-fronted scratching-shed houses, the original type of which was probably introduced from America. These houses are not uniform in type, some being rq ft. deep with special back ventilation whilst others are built only 9 ft. deep and depend for ventilation entirely on the open front. In Lancashire

tion into poultry-keeping methods in the United Kingdom. For the novice therefore, who may well feel doubtful as to the best system to adopt, the soundest procedure is probably to obtain information as to the methods practised on several successsful poultry farms and then to adopt a method which appears to combine the good points of several. The keeping of poultry in England by urban dwellers, with gardens or even small backyards, and by allotment holders, re-

ceived a great stimulus during the war, owing to the falling-off in supplies of imported eggs and the necessity for converting all the edible household and garden waste material into human food. It was soon realized that a limited number of laying hens could be maintained under intensive conditions in small backyards and gardens, at comparatively low cost. The necessary labour could be provided within the family, and first-class eggs produced at

the point of consumption at much lower outlay than that involved in purchasing inferior shop eggs. Furthermore, eggs so produced were actually on the consumers’ premises. Difficulties and expenses of transport did not affect the supplies, provided a limited amount of additional feeding-stuffs could be obtained to supplement the houschold and garden waste material. This development in urban poultry-kceeping would no doubt have proceeded much more rapidly than it actually did had the supply of chickens, pullets, and hens been greater. Unfortunately, however, poultry-breeders were unable to obtain supplies of feeding-stuffs. freely and hence were obliged to restrict their breeding operations. Consequently the demand for laying stock by town dwellers could not in many cases be satisfied, or was met by supplies of old hens which gave disappointing results.

In any case urban poultry-

keeping has taken a firm hold, so much so that local sanitary authoritics and town property owners are showing concern as

to possible interference with the amenities of properties in urban areas, and local by-laws and clauses in leases which were more

POULTRY

138 or less strictly will so thickly

ignored in many cases during the war are now being enforced. It is to be hoped that town poultry-keepers regard the requirements of hygiene and sanitation in populated arcas that no serious cause for complaint with

war, but duck farms were bound to reappear as feeding-stuffs became cheaper and more plentiful.

In 1921 the tendency ap-

peared to be to keep the lighter breeds of ducks, such as the Indian Runner, the Khaki Campbcll, and the Buff Orpington,

subsequent restrictive action on the part of local authorities may arise, ag undoubtedly ‘‘ backyard” poultry-keeping can give

for egg production rather than for table purposes, and much attention has been drawn to this aspect of duck-keeping owing

powerful assistance in reducing the necessity for large importations of foreign eggs.

to the laying competition for ducks conducted by the Great Eastern Railway Co. with the Utility Duck Club.

For backyard, allotment and garden poultry-keeping the inten-

For many years the poultry industry received little recognition or assistance from the state authorities in the United Kingdom. Considerable changes in this respect, however, have been in evidence during recent years. State aid has been mainly directed

sive system of housing is usually adopted, though in some cases

where sufficient space is available open or covered runs for the birds may be provided in addition to the house. Under the strictly inten-

sive system the birds are permanently confined to the house which should afford four or five sq. ft. of floor space to each bird. It is essential that the floor of the house be kept dry and some 4 in. to 8 in. of bedding

should

be provided amongst

which

grain should

be scattered from time to time so as to induce the birds to take

necessary exercise by scratching amongst the litter for the grain.

‘The intensive house is usually of a lean-to open-fronted type so de-

signed as to admit as much sunlight as possible on to the floor in the winter months and yet to keep out rain, snow and wind. It may be built of woud,—¢-in. tongued and grooved match-boarding is often used,—asbestos sheeting, or even mainly of felt. As a backyard or garden poultry house is often of a more or less permanent nature

it is usually more economical in the long run to use sound materials which are likely to need little repairing.

A house of this type, which

should be high enough to permit of easy cleaning, may be built for six or eight hens in quite a small backyard, and provided it is kept quite clean and no male birds are kept no offence is likely to be caused to neighbours even in a crowded city district. In ċircumstances such as these, however, it is inadvisable to attempt hatching and rearing, and the egg supply is likely to be more satisfactorily maintained if fresh pullets are purchased at the end of each summer and the hens disposed of which have been kept intensively for about a year, and have temporarily ceased laying and commenced to moult. If space permit a covered run may be provided adjoining the

house, but the floor material, especially if of soil or sand, must be kept scrupulously sweet and clean. The top surface should be raked

off and renewed from time to time and occasionally a little disinfectant powder may be sprinkled in the run. Extra accommodation of this sort is, however, not really necessary for laying stock kept

to educational activities, and there arc now few counties which do not possess an instructor in poultry-keeping, whose duties consist in giving instruction in this subject by means of peripatetic lectures, classes, and visits to poultry-keepcrs. Most of the agricultural colleges, dairy institutes and farm institutes also provide regular instruction in poultry-keeping to their pupils, and

in some College, Hutton; Poultry

instances—such as at the Harper Adams Agricultural Shropshire; the Lancashire County Council School at the Glasgow and West of Scotland Agricultural College School at Kilmarnock, etc.—courses of training are pro-

vided for students desiring to specialize in poultry-keeping.

Poultry-breeding centres have been established by the Board of Agriculture in coöperation with local authorities in almost every district in the United Kingdom, for the purpose of distribu-

ting good pure-bred utility poultry—usually by the sale of eras for hatching or day-old chicks to smallholders, cottagers and allotment holders.

tion and success.

tions established in England and Wales and the numbers of eggs and chicks distributed since 1919: TABLE 6.—Distribution Stations. =

2,22) (U2

under proper intensive conditions for one ycar only, and most backyard poultry-keepers with limited space at their disposal will

w5

aS Ma} =

nd an intensive house constructed on sound lines most suitable

for their purpose.

The Sussex poultry-fattening industry, which had become of considerable importance in the three south-eastern counties prior to the war, has become almost extinct owing to the high price, and the difficulty in obtaining supplies, of the Sussex ground oats which were invariably used for cramming the birds. Apart from the fact that it was considered uneconomical in war-time

scarcity to use concentrated feeding-stuffs for the production of the highly finished, crammed Surrey fowl, supplics of store chick-

This scheme has met with much apprecia-

Table 6 shows the numbcr of distributing sta-

.

1919 1920 1O21

150 122 138

a

a

uelse

+

nm

|#5|48

aw

| oe! woes SS |=a\a's| wn veejay

ty

39 84

c



54

E

Total A

Eggs



3 8 9

E

-i

a) 2-a

cs

y

[m

4 4 4

163 173 2591

2,950 I41, 611 N

2,974 20,934

! Includes 24 stations which undertake distribution of ducks’ eggs.

It is significant of the interest now taken by the State in the development of the poultry industry that the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has created a separate Small Livestock Branch, on the staff of which technically qualified officers were

ens were difficult to obtain, feeding-stuffs were very short and were rationed, and, owing to the shortage of fresh meat, chickens found a ready market in almost any condition. Thus the old Sussex fattening industry gradually died out, though of course chickens continued to be reared as far as conditions would permit and were marketed as a rule without cramming or special fattening. There have been some indications of a revival of the cram-

appointed,

ming practice, but Irish supplies of store chickens having been diverted for direct sale in London and elsewhere, and poultry-

the Scientific Poultry Breeders’ Association, the Midland Fur and

raisers having accustomed themselves to selling their birds for direct consumption without additional fattening, it may be that

any general revival of cramming will be long deferred. Much will depend upon the public demand and this will no doubt revive to an increasing extent if supplies of the former

high-quality

One of the chief duties of the branch is to supervise

the poultry educational work of local authorities in respect of which grants in aid are made by the Ministry. It is the duty of the technical head of the branch to advise the Ministry on mat- . ters relating to the industry.

Valuable work is done in Britain to assist the poultry industry by poultry societics and clubs, such as the National Utility Poultry Socicty, the Poultry Club, the Northern Utility Society,

Feather Federation, and many others. These clubs organize lectures, demonstrations, laying competitions and shows, and do a great amount of voluntary work in an advisory capacity. In 1920 a central organization known as the National Poultry

Parlament was set up mainly through the efforts of Mr. Edward Brown, F.L.S., who was unanimously appointed the first presi-

crammed chickens become greater. The practice of trough feeding chickens in fattening coops for a week or so in order to give them a little extra finish is still continued to a certain extent dur-

dent. This poultry parliament, which meets once or twice a year to discuss questions relating to the industry, is representative of societies, clubs, educational authorities and institutions and trad-

ing the late summer, and this practice has much to commend it.

ing organizations. The parliament has appointed a smaller executive body known as the National Poultry Council, and one of

Less skill is required than in cramming; it is more economical of

feeding-stuffs, and though the chickens cannot be as highly finished as by the crammer, good-quality table birds can be produced which are readily saleable at satisfactory prices.

Like the Sussex cramming industry, the old-established Aylesbury duck-fattening industry, as well as duck-fattening farms

outside Buckinghamshire, became practically extinct during the

the first important steps taken by the council was to set up a national examination board to conduct an examination and to award to successful candidates a national diploma, which is intended to bein the main a standard qualification for persons

desiring to obtain appointments as instructors in poultrykeeping. (P.A.F.)

POULTRY

139 th 22

UNITED STATES

S

t=

Profound changes took place in the American industry between

5,232

1900 and 1920. In 1g0o0 “ breeding-birds ’’ and meat were the principal objects of poultry raising and furnished most of the

profit. Eggs at that time were a by-product.

= bO ii 6G

830,507

zZ J

Conditions had so

$3

in the number of hens képt.

| $509,19 1919

Consequently there was a greater

demand for meat and eggs, especially eggs. Cold storage facilitics and improved shipping methods had raised the average

51,458 158,753 7 814,285 513,758 631,263

©

_

S

n

Q v

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fo}

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=

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35

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1909

756 895"a "a a 070 "a ān 998

nse

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ae TO

o> yi

"a

8,426,030Èg Io 34C 98311865,058 55,083 14,014,493 54,701,253 wo

28,

2

E2

460,605,709 ae r

yhc

2c

=

wi

Chickens Raised?

552427 O47455 184329 416 a ee a

sus showed more farmers reporting poultry than any other single

e

"e

n

a

n

a

-m

h

keg

od ad fa

"m

$73,923,935

crop, even apart from the large quantity of poultry raised in towns and villages not covered by the census reports.

While feed was higher it was

Ee

oo

2:9

among the few of those connected with farming from which the 1920 return exceeded a thousand million dollars. The 1920 cen-

conditions obtained in the west.

se >

m

eaaa cc aaħÃĂăi

taining concentrated vitamines, clean, imparting their flavour and preserving qualities to cakes and pastries, remained in strong demand even at high prices. During 1920 the total value of products placed the industry

Opposite

AG òg

g

w r g = ma — e

of meat more than of eggs because substitution of other meats was possible. Eggs, quickly and easily cooked, digestible, con-

decrease in farm population and the number of farms.

Og

Bs 32108 7 11085,188,095 97,156,410 30,635,751 63,140,146 ets 249 a

consumption of eggs and poultry flock decreased because of the increase in price. The increase in price affected the consumption

Table 7 shows that, relatively, poultry-keeping rapidly declined in the cast during the decade rqog-19. The west, especially the Pacific Coast states, continued to increase. The decline in the cast was duc largely to the high price of feed and the diffculty of obtaining it, particularly during 1917 and 1918, and the

čm č a

=

wm

flow of eggs after the introduction of storage became profitable, although formerly it often had resulted in loss. The per capita

=.

$1,047,989

e e SS n a e

quality of the product marketed and by more nearly equalizing the supply and price, had increased the demand. The spring

T

eS hT

eg2 2:36

changed by 1920 that eggs were the principal money producer

1999 . Chickens Eggs3 I9IQ and

So r=} Bo

=

§9,034,629 59,959,642 22,517,029 12,955,691 41,412,242 25:197,565 44,077,140 2g 123,210,787 129,

and meat and breeding birds were the by-products. Many factors contributed to this change. There had been a greater increase in the population especially in the cities, than

En At

v

=

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J

%

a

ik

nd Nw)

ne

Y

Z LeS

congestion. During the decade there was an increase in the number of farms and farmers in the west particularly on the Pacific Coast. The poultry farms in New England that were making a specialty of producing meat were to a large extent put out of business owing to the Increased cost of feed and labour without a proportionate increase in the price of meat during 1917 and 1918. The same was true to a lesser extent of the specialized egg farms and farm flocks in New England and the North Atlantic states. These farms had not returned to normal when the 1920

~ | WO

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easily obtainable and relatively cheaper because of the freight

7=

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CO AMM MDTein ON

SIN PS IN

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w

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5

chickens produced. ing hand but eggs on no

census was taken, but at the close of 1921 a rapid development Was under way. The general depression in the industry from 1916 to 19190 primarily affected those who were obtaining comparatively poor egg production due to faulty methods of management or to poorly selected or poorly bred stock. The poultrymen who obtained high egg yields made greater profits than for the years rgto-191g§. This condition drew the attention of poultry-kecpers to the necessity of getting a good egg yicld and led to systematic breeding and selecting for egg production. Many farms, particularly those in the northwest, have bred their birds to the point

e

m

n

eo we oe

ee

pe

ee

a

ducks ducks, by produced of number the to proportion on in gs

280,340,959 Apr. 19104 15 wm

wD

t)

Hand Chickens on

a

t~

a

a

a

a

m

n

40 ogi91852 4

vw

§,803.507 36 34 39 27,452, 84,516, 105,348

om

Jan. 31920

e

er

wn oy

eg

where they are getting an average egg production of over 200

eggs per ken from large flocks of birds.

the value of the produce, poultry became a business or industry rather than a side-line for farmers’ wives or a hobby for fanciers.

Perhaps the most rapid change that took place in the industry during the period rg10-20 was that in 1910 but few baby chicks were sold, but in r921 millions were sold to the advantage of the

breeder, the hatchery man and the farmer raising the chicks. If the rate of increase of the chick hatcheries for 1918-21 should be maintained until 1930 comparatively few hens then would be used for hatching, and comparatively few hatching eggs would be sold except to the hatcheries. .

Š

D

From 1900 to 1915 an

increasing number of commercial poultry farms were established. primarily to produce eggs. These took the place of the broiler farms, which had been mainly failures. Through these farms and

reporting chickens farms chickens hand but the for estimates lude date no census on ra estimates clude farms for report Vv on

ra

a

ge! a

H..aG C LA —

Divi:

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=

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ofS

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woe. ou Mo

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Sgmade foey deductions for been have eg

£+o

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00. 0g Sota

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Sag 5m = 9 ed

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eZEOV EON

So

Cur

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ERS

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=

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=

Raised, Chickens TADLE Produced and States, United Geographic by Eggs the in Farms 7.—Chickens 1909 1920 1910; 1919 on

z

o other chickens deductions than for figures obtain alone, fowls To made been have

dy

Z

5

3 A

oS =

Asdcsises wer ua SDOe oS:

pee goss

Lqezs RS od = eee SGemogeouy

eget

mae

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baa

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sk

wera! § goog

me > X m S420 FFs Aa

States United O

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SS Ros

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238E h tg

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Q kinds of the all while only, chickens products chicken and include for figures poultry. shown products The 31919 eggs 1909 v

POWER, SIR W. T.—PRICES

140

In 1900 there were few colleges or experiment stations in America teaching poultry raising or experimenting with it. By 1920 all the states were teaching and most of them were doing experimental work. Colleges and experiment stations have been of great assistance to farmers and poultrymen’in showing them

better methods. Egg-laying contests have shown the value of breeding for high production and of strains rather than breeds so far as egg production is concerned. The first egg-laying contest in America was at Storrs, Conn., under the supervision of the Connecticut Agricultural College in 1911-2.

There were more

than rocontestsjn the United States and roin Canada in 1921-2.

The highest average production in any contest was obtained by the Western Washington Experiment Station at Puyallup, Wash., for the year 1920-21. ‘The 365 birds in the contest averaged 214 eggs per hen. The pen of five single-comb White Leghorns which led the contest and made the American record layed 1,354 eggs

or an average of 276-8 eggs per hen. During t910~20 ornamental breeds and bantams so decreased that in 1921 few commercial breeds were maintained on a large

scale. The chief breeds were White Leghorns, Barred Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and White Wyandottes, There were also fairly large numbers of Anconas, Buff and White Orpingtons, Brown Leghorns, White Plymouth Rocks, Buff Wyandottes, Black Minorcas, Black Langshans and Light Brahmas.

Table 8 shows that imports and exports of eggs and egg products greatly increased from 1910 to 1920, the imports more TABLE 8.—U.S. Exports and Imports; Eggs (Shell) and Egg Products, Fiscal Years 1910~20 Exports 3 1,264,043

5,083,825

19.459.187

[Imports

166,859

S

1,236,889

9,250,021

rapidly than the exports, so that the United States scemed likely to become on balance an importing nation. The exports for 1920 consisted largely of shell eggs and went to Cuba, Canada, Mexico, Panama, England and Scotland. A considerable proportion of the eggs that went to Canada replaced Canadian eggs

shipped to England. As Canada has a grading law, its eggs were exported to better advantage.

The imports were mostly egg

products from the Orient, particularly from China. In 1920 the imports consisted of 1,348,383 dozen of shell eggs, of which over 70% came from the Orient. The egg products amounted to 24,091,098 pounds, of which over 90% came from the Orient.

Beginning about 1918 the large packing and egg handling houses began establishing egg-breaking and packing facilities in China and South America, so that in 1921 the imports seemed likely to continue to increase for some years unless tariff changes affected conditions. (O. B. K.)

POWER, SIR WILLIAM TYRONE (1819-1011), British soldier and administrator (sce 22.224), died July 24 rorr.

POYNTER, SIR EDWARD JOHN, Bart. (1836-1919), English painter (sce 22.239), died in London July 26 rọrọ. In 1919 he retired from the presidency of the Royal Academy, and was

created K.C. V.O. PREECE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1834-1013), British electrical engineer, was born in Wales Feb. 15 1834 and educated at King’s College, London. He became a civil engineer but in 1853 joined the Electric and International Telegraph Co., whence in 1869 he reverted to the civil service. In 1877 he was appointed electrician to the Post Office, in 1899 enginecr-in-chief and, after his retirement, consulting engineer. He was a pioneer of wireless telegraphy and his early experiments are described in 26.530. He died at Penrhos, Carnarvon, Nov. 6 1913.

PRESSENSE,

FRANCIS DE (1853-1914), French politician

and man of letters, was born in Paris Sept. 30 1853, the son of Edmond de Pressensé (sce 22.299). He was educated at the Lycée Bonaparte, and at school had a brilliant career, carning

many distinctions. He served on General Chanzy’s staff during

the war of 1870 and was taken prisoner at Le Mans, but after

the war entered the public service. After a short period at the Ministry of Public Instruction, he entered the diplomatic service, and was appointed first secretary at Washington. In 1882 he

returned to France and took up journalism. He was a contributor to many journals, including the Revue des Deux Mondes and the République Francaise, and in 1888 became foreign editor

of the Temps. On the rise of the Dreyfus question (1895) de Pressenst identified himsclf with the cause of the prisoner. He wrote in support of General Picquart, and in consequence of his advocacy of Emile Zola’s cause was struck off the roll of the Legion of Honour. This led to his resignation from the Temps,

and he came forward as a socialist politician, being in 1902 elected socialist deputy for the Rhone. He was prominent in the debates on the question of the separation of Church and State, and a bill brought in by him formed the basis of the one finally carried by M. Briand. He died in Paris Jan. 19 r914. De Pressensé published many articles of the greatest interest in the Temps, the Revue des Deux Mondes, Aurore and Humanite. He also produced Le Cardinal Manning (1896), an interesting study, and

a work on Home Rule, L'Irlande et l Angleterre depuis lacie d'union

jusqu'à nos jours, 1800—1888 (1889).

PRETORIA (see 22.309).—Pop. (1911), whites 35,942, coloured 18,732, total 54,674; in 1918, whites 41,690. About a mile from the centre of the town on a commanding position on the slopes of Meintjes Kop are the Union Government Buildings, the finest public offices in South Africa, They were built 1910-3, from the designs of Herbert Baker, at a cost of £1,800,ooo, and consist of three main portions; a large central semi-

circular colonnaded building flanked east and west by rectan-

gular blocks. At the junction of each wing with the central section is a domed tower 180 ft. high, and at the end of each

wing is a projecting pillared pavilion. A feature of the building is the long low roof, with projecting eaves. The space enclosed by the building is laid out in terraces culminating in an open amphitheatre, in the centre of which is a stone rostrum.

The

buildings are of South African freestone, on a foundation of

Transvaal granite The laying out and planting of the terraced gardens Was not completed until 1920. The principal approach lies 12 ft. below the main terrace, is 8o ft. wide and is planted

with trees. Another road leads to the suburb of Bryntirion, where are Government House and the residences of ministers.

The foundation stone of Government Buildings was laid in Nov. 1910 by the Duke of Connaught, and the first public ceremony in

the amphitheatre of the building was held in 1915 to celebrate General Botha’s conquest of South-West Africa. In 1913 a statue of President Kruger was unveiled in the town. In April 1918 Pretoria became the headquarters of the newly created university of South Africa. One of its constituent colleges, the Transvaal University

College {incorporated 1910), is situated in Pretoria. The State Library and Museum (built 1913) are in Market Street. The former Transvaal Government Buildings, facing Church Square, which is the business centre of the city, are used by the Provincial

Council.

The Law Courts (completed 1914) are on the northside of

the square; the Post Office (completed and Church St.

1912) faces Church Square

The municipality, which owns the sanitary, water, electric and

tramway services, spent between 1902 and 1919 a sum of £1,675,000 on improvements,

including the proviston of a water sewerage sys-

tem, clectric tramways, parks, an open air swimming-bath and a golf course, reputed one of the best in South Africa. The rateable value

of Pretoria in 1918 was £7,438,000, its revenue £366,000, and its indebtedness £1,716,000.

PRICES.—In the following article, which should be read in connexion with those under Cost oF Livine and Waces, the

changes in prices of commodities during the years 1910-20 are considered with special reference to the United Kingdom. An account of the American system for controlling prices in the United States is appended. (L.) Wholesale Prices in General —The movement of wholesale prices in general is measured by the method of index numbers. The prices of commodities for which definite market quotations for definite grades exist are selected as typical in their changes of prices in general, a year or longer period is chosen as base, the

price of cach commodity is equated to 100 at the base period and the price in other years expressed proportionately, such numbers being called price ratios. (Thus if the price of wheat in the base period was 6os. and in another year 453., the price ratio in the latter year would be written as 75.) Then cither factors are chosen expressing the relative importance of the commoditics as deter-

.

PRICES mined by the total sum spent on them in a period or some other criterion, and each price ratio is multiplied by the corresponding factor, the sum of the products is divided by the sum of the

iqi

Tapte I1.—Statist monthly index numbers,

July 1914 taken as 100. End of

factors and the resulting quotient is the index number of wholesale prices for that year; er the more important commodities are

March

represented by two or more price quotations and the resulting price ratios are simply averaged to obtain the index number. There are many variants of method and there has been much controversy on every detail of the process; in fact, however, the precision of the result depends not to any great extent on the particular method followed, but principally on (i.) the number of independent prices included and (ii.) on the dispersion of the

proportion the index number is more accurate than when some are moving rapidly upwards and others are stationary or falling. In normal times when changes are moderate it has been shown both from theoretical considerations and by comparing the numbers obtained by various methods that the precision of the method is high, but during the war period the movements were rapid and unequal, the conditions of accuracy were lost and no very precise measurement could be obtained. The object of the method of index numbers is to average away the variations due to the special conditions of supply and demand of particular commodities,

and to obtain a resultant

which

measures

the

effect on prices of general causes, such as the supply of currency. It is found in practice that the necessity for restricting price

quotations to those of commodities for which the same grade and quality is in the market in large quantities through a long period of years restricts the choice greatly, and limits it to raw materials or articles in an elementary state of manufacture.

In some cases the price used is based on the average value of all grades of the commodities (e.g. of wheat, of tea, of coal), imported or exported, but this introduces a.possibility of error

since the average may change owing to a change in the relative quantities of high and low grades independently of any change in price. The three index numbers of wholesale prices in use in the United Kingdom are the Board of Trade’s, the Economist's, and the Sfatist’s (formerly Sauerbeck’s); the first uses average values to some extent and applies factors to the price ratios to allow for the relative importance of commodities, the second and third use market quotations of definite qualities of goods and

take a simple average of the price ratios. Table I. exhibits the gencral movement in the twelve years

before the World War, and shows how little the variation of

method affects the result in this period.

The year 1903 is taken

as the starting point, since it is after the great fall of prices ending in 1896 and the subsequent rise and the inflation of 1900-1,

and may be regarded as a normal year. TABLE J.—Movement of wholesale prices in the United Kingdom 1903-13. (In cach case the index number of 1913 is equated to 100.) Year

raed of Index No.

1903 1904

B3 84 84

1905

1908

1909

Economist Index No.

82 83

85

June July Aug. Sept. Oct.

129 | 159 | 129 | 158 | 106 | 130 | 163 | 108 | 131 | 163 | 109 | 133 | 173 | 137 | 183 | 143 | 187 |

Average for ycar— Statist Economist 4 Board of Trade

212 2I2

214

233 234

2490 244

235

261

«3010 298

— —

327



creases showed a remarkable regularity averaging 2% monthly,

index in the successive Octobers would reach in 1914 106, in 1915

135, in 1916 17%, im 1917 217 and in 1918 258, numbers which {except the last) are in close agreement with those shown in the table. This was, however, a definite seasonal movement superimposed on this regularity; in the first three or four months of each year prices moved up with special rapidity, while in the summer the increase was slackened and in some cases was replaced by a fall. The check in the increase in the summer of 1917, following a specially rapid rise, is attributable to the control of prices which by that date was general, From Aug. 1917 prices continued to rise in spite of control till Sept. 1918, but the rise in these 13 months aggregated to only 13% (239 against

213).

After the Armistice prices fell slowly for five months, dur-

ing the season in which in previous years the increase had becn specially rapid, but expectations of a permanent fall were not realized; in the year beginning April rọrọ the index rose from 224 to 323 or 44%. From the beginning of the war tiff July rọrọ the Statist and Economist index numbers are in close agreement, except that the Economist shows a more rapid rise for twelve months from Oct. rg16 and less ‘increase in the late autumn of 1917, but there is disagreement as to the dates and amount of the increase after

July rorg. At that date the three index numbers agree in. estimating the whole increase in five years at 148, 149 or 150%. The following table shows the divergence in subsequent months:— Tase III.

Monthly index numbers, July 1919 taken as 100. Board of Trade 100 106 110 TI5 120 123

94

Economist

Statist

100 103 104

109

LIZ 114

132 140

100

144

1914

135 137

Sauerbeck’s index numbers for rgo3 on the same basis for Separate groups of commoditics were:—Vegetable food go; animal food 85: sugar, tea, coffee

164

225

equivalent cumulatively to 27% per annum; on this scale the

100

yoo

164 167

242 250 258 260 272

maximum (Statist 323, end of April; Economist 326, end of March; Board of Trade 357, average of July). Tili Oct. rọr7 the in-

99

1912

127

233 | 233 | 237 | 239 | 239 |

to rise, and with certain interruptions continued to mount up till the spring of 1920, when the index numbers reached their

94

IQI 1

T3r I28

218 | 214 | 213 | 214 | 219 | 222

Immediately after the declaration of war in 1914 prices began

127 131

86 92

1921

130 | 164 { 212 | 23r | 235

E33 133

94

1920]

126 | I58 | 205 | 228 | 224

100 | 128 {| 163 | 209 | 230 | 224

May

87

89

90

Ig10

1913

Sauerbeck's Index No.

1915 1916 |1917 1918] 3939) 117 | 150 | 193 | 225 | 233 122 | 154 | 199 | 227 | 227

April

various price ratios in the year to which the index number

refers, so that when prices are moving on the whole in the same

1914]

jan. Feb.

Average Jan. to

86; minerals 74; textiles 793

sundry materials 83. Wholesale prices had therefore

been

129

125 The earlier agreement is more remarkable than the later discrepancies, for the conditions of accuracy named above were’

rising from 1902-13 (with a short inflation and depression in not present during the war when prices were moving rapidly 1906-8), but tended downwards in the first half of rorq. ; and quotations for the usual qualities of goods were often

PRICES

142

TABLE T'V.—Index numbers of wholesale prices. United

King- | Canada

U.S.A.

France

Brad-

Statist-

Italy | Japan

Sweden

Nether-| Den- | ,. lands | mark | Norway | tralia

dom

l

Statist | Official 1913 OIA. 19I5 1916

we, e

IQI7

>

1919

.

1918. 1920

S

À

.

.

es

Jan. . Feb. . Mara April ,

ay. June. Juy.

‘a, . .

Aug. Sept

Oct, . Nov.. Dec,

a oe. ce o a à’

.

s `

2 .

;

re

100 10] 126 159}

206

| err

100 100 109 134 175

aaa

|

ique

streets | Générale 100 97 108 130 172

|

Ee

100 103 I41 190

263

Svensk

.

Bacchi | Bank of | Handels- | Official moan -| apa tidning dendel

E

100 95 133

100 954 97

306

148}

200

|

100 116 145

117

100 106 149

185

a

100 134 149

233

244

ters

206

298

284

Okono-

miks | Official Revue — 100 =

—— 100 T4I



146



132

226}

205

204

341

243

216

204

358

366

239

196

339

398

292

z=

170

289 400 308 313

248 253} 258 201

227 226 225} 226

489 525 557 591

504 556

301 314

319 342

293 289

= TE

334 344°

207



351 354

203 206

371

209 217

306 30I 299}

263 258 256

216 211 205

298 293

244 24I

234 224}

171 148

504 463

244

274

138

437

282 263

196 184

553 495 498

504 528

The prices are of course measured in the currency of each country.

unobtainable. It is important to emphasize this uncertainty, for it is the fact that exact measurements of general price changes cannot be made in times of disturbance, and indeed it is difficult even to define the quantity we wish to measure; tendencies car. be observed clearly, but only rough measurements can be made and fine comparisons lead to error. The maximum level was reached in March 1920 by the Economist index number, in April by the Statist, in July by the Board of Trade. By Dec. 1920 the Board of Trade index was back at the level of the beginning of 1920, that of the Statist at the level of July tọrọ, and that of the Economtst at the level of May ro19. The difference is mainly due to the varying proportions given to cereals and textiles, which had fallen rapidly, and to meat and minerals which had fallen little in the three numbers, Table IV. (from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics of the Supreme Economic Council, vol. ii., No. s) shows the index numbers for several countries.

(II.) Wholesale Prices ef Selected Commodities.—When we come to commodities separately, the measurements can be made more

exactly subject to the two following qualifications.

During the

war period the ordinary sources of supply were so disturbed that pre-war kinds and qualities were no longer in the market (in the Economist index number only rọ out of the 44 quotations included were not subject to some modification of kind); and

a statement of prices is generally taken as meaning the price at which a purchaser can obtain the goods he desires and at which a merchant is willing to sell, but in the time of control and rationing these Conditions did not obtain, and the price was fixed by other conditions than those which influence a free market. Table V, is based on the prices tabulated in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, July 1920, pp. 640-5, by the editor

of the Statist. The index numbers have been recast, the average price in 1913 being taken as 100 for each commodity; the totals have been obtained by grouping together the separate entries on the same plan as in the original, but the change in base year affects the results, which thus differ from those given in Table II. in the same way as if the weights had been changed. It is at onee evident that the various prices have not followed the same course; the extremes in 1019 are tin, whose price rose only 28% in 6 years, and Russian flax, where the rise is 323%. This great divergence of itself shows that the general index number cannot have great precision; but in the absence of means of improving it, we cannot do better than take this number (shown in the line “‘ Grand Total ” in Table V.) as measuring the general inflation of wholesale prices.

409

306

_ 361

615

248

366

297

383

384

233

632

235

365

290

394

418

236

660

363

231

662 658 634

30I

362

226 221

385

288

346 331

206

= =

180

272

239

290 296



322 301

613

354 354

340

619 679

659

398

283 260

299

403 374

2

4I

427

422 404

341

7

225

234 230

215 208 1g

In every case there is a fall in the last months of 1920.

of supply and demand for the separate commodities, the control

of supply, the control of prices, the change of quality. In 1915 TABLE V.—Statist index numbers. 1913]

Averages for each year.

1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 | 1920

Vegetable food Wheat English Gazette | 100 | 170 | 184 | 239 | 229 | 229 | 253 American Flour, Town

. | 100 | 164 | 185 | 229 | 215 | 205 | 253 made

white or G.R.. | 100 | 160 | 172 | 192 | 153 | 153 | 216

Barley, English Gazette f . | 100 | 137 | 189 | 238 | 217 | 278 | 330

Oats, English Gazette Maize,

.

«|

100 | 162 | 180 | 270 | 258 | 274 | 301

American

mixed

.

. | 100 | 175 | 223 | 304 | 332 | 334 | 383

Potatoes, good English. , . | 100 | 120 | 197 | 2239 | 183 | 254 | 3II

Rice, Rangoon

100 | 162 | 206 | 309 | 320 | 313 | 50

Total | 100 | 156 | 192 | 252 | 238 | 255 | 319

Animal food Beef: Carcase, Lon-

don Central meat market.

Prime.

Middling . Mutton: Carcase, London Centra! meat market.

Prime .

100 | 134 | 150 | 194 | 191 | 200 | 231

I00 | 139 | 157 | 206 | 211 | 220 | 257

- | 100 | 121 | 15r | 185 | 176 | 184 | 233

Middling

Pork:

roo | 126 | 154 | 195 | 196 | 203 | 258

Carcase,

London Central

meat market . | roo | 129 | 160 | 200 | 234 | 233 | 306

Bacon, Waterford . | roo | 121 | 143 | 192 | 237 | 248 | 311

Butter, Friesland . | 100 | 118 | 161 | 181 | 208 | 212 | 253 Total

193

264

332 2677

611 689

301

687

100 | 97 | 96 |117 100 | 84] 94 | 109

183 210

100 | 167 | 160 | 338

225°

Tropical food

Sugar West-Indian*

Beet* ,

. | 100 100 100

East India* Rio* . . Tea Congou, common*|

239

Indian, good mediumft . . | 100 ] 127 | 130 | 185

Average Import* | 100 | 122 | 125 | 162$ Total*

Th» prices as recorded are the resultants of at least five nearly distin st forces, viz. the general inflation of prices, the conditions

330

Total Food

| 100 | 143 | 182 |241

100 | I

186 | 228

TI4

165 432

22

PRICES TABLE V.——Continued. 1013|

Minerals iron Scottish Pig* Cleveland Pig*

1915|

1916|

1917

100 100

Common Bars

Copper

Chili Bars . . Po Tough Cakețt

.

Tin, Straits . Lead, English Pig oal.

Wallsend in London . ; Newcastle Steam}

rapidly from the autumn of 1919. An attempt was made to con-

Average Export

Textiles Cotton

trol the consumption of oats in 1917-8, otherwise cereals were not rationed. The wholesale price of potatoes was fixed from time to time, the Government undertaking to make good growers’ losses, but the price was changed so frequently that the control had little effect. Early in the war the price of imported meat increased more rapidly than that of home-killed, till in 1917 there was little

;

Middling Ameri-

Gin o an Fair Dhollerah Flax

Sa .

difference between their retail prices.

Petrograd * gal Russian, Average Import*

were fixed in Aug. 1917 and consumption was rationed early in

1918; after the Armistice control was gradually relaxed; but prices of beef and mutton changed very little during the two

Mamla, Fair rop-

ing*.

Petrograd, clean* Jute, good medium

years after the first fixing of them.

Port Merino, Philip* Merino, Adet: ride* English, Lincoln

.

"

.

.

since the supply was insignificant, and its inclusion unduly depresses the average; for the records of milk and its products

Total

we must depend on retail prices. ‘Taken together the prices of animal food increased at a lower rate than the general average of prices except in 1916-7. The price of sugar was of course dominated by the cutting off of the continental supply, and its increase was greater than that of any commodity always obtainable included in the table. The Government took over the whole supply at the beginning of the

Mfiscellaneous Hides River Plate, dry* River Plate, salted*

Average

Import

wice*

.

,;

Leather Dressing hides* Average import price* . .

war and issued it at a ñxed price; the control continued tiH 192r.

There was no shortage of supply of coffee nor of tea (except in

Tallow, town. Oil Palm Olive Linseed*

W

te

“I 3 N

Linseed* Petroleum, refined

Soda, crystals Nitrate of Soda

Indigo, Bengal Timber é Hewn, average import * :

Ga ont oe On tyd ST “Is est WwW whe hfe Wh

Sawn, average import* : Total

Total Materials Grand Toal Silvert

*The entries in these cases of similar commodities are averaged before inclusion in the mdex numbers. 7 These commodities are net included in the Statist index numbers. +Comparative values. Approximate prices.

The prices of Irish bacon

quoted are hardly typical; in 1917 a great quantity of American bacon of inferior quality was bought by the Government, who had difficulty in selling it at a price which covered the cost. The demand for high-class bacon could not be met, and its price after 1917 Tose more rapidly than that of butcher’s meat. The line in the table relating to imported butter is perhaps misleading

Wool

half-hogs

On the whole the price

of meat increased less than that of commodities in general. Prices

Hemp

Silk, Tsatlee

143

the demand was increased were controlled. The quality was changed definitely in the case of flour and indirectly when the prices are averages of several grades as in the cases of meat, flax, leather and timber. Food.—The price of wheat rose immediately after the beginning cf the war, and with it the prices of flour, oats, maize and rice. The prices were checked by the establishment of a government system of purchase at the end of 1g16 and by the control of the prices of home-grown cereals in 1917; with this system flour of mixed materials was substituted for wheat-flour and the product sold at a price kept constant and relatively low, by the help of a subsidy beginning in the autumn of 1917. In the case of wheat and flour the subsidy and control continued till the beginning of 1921 but the prices rose; the prices of other cereals increased very

a Nominal prices.

and 1916 the principal increases may be traced to the diminution or difficulty of supply (cereals, sugar, flax) or to acuteness of demand (wool) or to both (timber). In 1917-8 the prices of nearly all commodities whose supply was threatened or for which

the autumn of 1917), and their prices rose relatively little.

When all food prices are grouped together as in the table, it is seen that they rose till 1917 more rapidly than the average for materials, but that the increase from 1913 to 1918, and to 1919 was the same in the two groups. Materials ——The prices of different kinds of coal increased at different rates prior to the general control of coal mines which took effect early in 1917; with the stoppage of export of coal the supply was adequate even for the increased use in the manufacture of pig-iron, and the restriction in consumption from 1917 was only necessary to economize labour in the mines. For domestic and manufacturing use the price rosc but slowly till ro19

and generally less than for goods in general. Iron and steel began to come under control as carly as June rors with the Initiation of the Ministry of Munitions, and their use was severely restricted for all civil purposes, so that there was no free market for more than three ycars. The prices were actually fixed in Nov. 1917, a government subsidy being given to steel and to pig-iron makers to meet any extra costs. The subsidies were withdrawn early in 1919 and the price of pig-iron rose from {4 15s. to £8 a ton, the pre-war level having been £2 115. Reconstruction and repairs, for many years in arrcar, caused a great demand for iron and steel, and in July 1920 pig-iron was 320%

and steel rails were 283% dearer than in 1914; prices fell slowly in the autumn of 1920 (Birkett: ‘(Iron & Steel Trades during the War,” Statistical Journal, May 1920). Copper, tin and lead

showed no special inflation and were relatively cheap in 1919.

PRICES

144 Cotton followed an exceptional course.

With the cutting off

Gazetle, and described in detail in the issue of March r920. The

of Germany from the market the price fell considerably in the first months of the war and was below the pre-war level till nearly the end of 915. Presumably in consequence of the restriction of shipping, a rapid rise begun in the autumn of 1916, and at the date of the Armistice cotton was at three times its pre-war price; then there was a perceptible fall for some months, but this was followed by a great increase, the reason of which has not been explained, which brought American cotton early in 1920 to more than four times its cost in July 1914; the reaction from this inflation gave the first indication in 1920 that the gencral index

general movement in retail prices was similar to that of wholesale, that is, a nearly regular increase (23% cumulatively per annum) took place for three years after the outbreak of war, then for more

number was about to move downwards.

Both yarn and piece

than a year the rise was checked by control and rationing; there was a temporary fall in the spring of 1919, followed by arise

which became rapid in the summer and autumn of 1920 and a

fall after Nov. 1920. TABLE VIT.—Average

of Retail Food

June 1916 the Government took steps to assume ownership of all

the wool it required and to control the rest; the distribution to manufacturers and prices was arranged by an intricate system

involving the Government, wool-brokers and manufacturers (Zimmern: Economic Journal, March 1918), The price was very high in 1917-8 and rose rapidly in 1919 when the civilian demand for replenishing their wardrobes and houscholds was acute, and the prices of yarn and manufactured goods outpaced even raw

materials. There was no definite fall till 1920. As regards flax, the cutting off of the Russian supply and the Government demand for linen in airships caused linen to þe practically unobtainable by civilians, and the shortage naturally continued long after the war. Jute and silk were less affected. The variations in the movements shown under the heading “Miscellaneous” can in general be explained by known conditions of supply and demand. The supply of petroleum proved to

be sufficient for war needs. The Statist index number is vitiated by the excluston of rubber. Owing to the development of plantations before the war the supply was even excessive; the

price was rarely more than 20% higher than in July 1914 and after the Armistice was lower. (III.) Retail Prices of Food in the United Kingdom.—Accurate

and useful statements of retail prices are in gencral only obtainable with respect to food, in part because most attention has been directed to recurrent and necessary domestic expenditure, in part because it is less casy to define the unit of purchase in the case of clothes and manufactured goods. The cost of other necessary items of expenditure is considered in the article Cost OF LIVING, and this section deals with food alone. The following tables show the average prices paid by the working classes in the United Kingdom, the result of the monthly

collection of information by the Ministry of Labour (formerly by the Board of Trade) published in each issue of the Labour TABLE VI.—Average

percentage of the average in July 1914.)

1914 read pleut

. 4 Ib. » lb

January

>,

April

;

May June

= g Boe

July

:

February March

August September October November

3a

z f

e

I)1f 19151916 1917

:

amr

a

(Æ | 118] |122 |124



{124149

. | 100

` š è

December Average for year Wholesale food (Statist)

index”

er

a

1919|1920]1921

|147|189 |148 |92

— | 126] — | 132]

é

ff

145] 187

— —

230 | 235

220 | 233 213 | 235

|194

155} 198 159 | 202

207 | 246 255

[1324] 161 | 204

209 | 258

— | 134] 160] 202 110|135 t165 |206 1¥2] 140] 168 | 197 Il3] 1411178 | 206 TIO} 144/184) 205 . | — j i31 | 160 | 198

262 267 270 291 34 | 282 256

74211731225

45

1308

*Second quarter of 1914 taken as 100.

Table VII. shows the average of the movements as combined

from the data in Table VI. (together with the prices of fish and eggs) by the Ministry of Labour, each item being given the importance estimated from a pre-war standard budget of expenditure, For the relation of this computation to the cost of living see Cost oF Living. Except for making facile generalizations the detailed table is more important than the summary. The price of bread rose intermittently, but on the whole rapidly

till Sept. 1917, when its price was exactly double that of July 1914. The rate of extraction of flour from grain was controlled from the autumn of 1916, and government regulation flour containing an admixture of wheat, maize, rice and other cercals in varying proportions alone was used in the three years 1917-8-9, and during this pene the price is not that of a commodity of constant quality. In ept. 1917 the Government fixed the price at gd. for the 4-lb. loaf, became the sole purchasers of the necessary cereals, regulated the price to millers and bakers and met the deticit by a subsidy. The price was raised to g}d. in Sept. 1919 to meet bakers’ increased expenses, and at subsequent dates again raised with the increasing price of wheat till it reached 1s. 4d.; when wheat fell in the latter part of 1920 the subsidy was gradually reduced to zero and the price of bread maintained; in rg21 the price fell, and was Is. 13d. from April to July. Flour followed nearly the same course as bread.

The retail prices of meat were determined by the wholesale prices already discussed. Imported meat remained for three and a half

Retail Prices in the United Kingdom of the Principal Foods as recorded* at the beginning of each month in the

Labour Gazette.

é

in the

(The average on the Ist or 2nd of each month is expressed as a

goods rose more rapidly than raw cotton, especially in 1919-20.

The price of wool also fell after the outbreak of war, but the great demand for the Allied armies soon turned the scale and English wool especially became rapidly dearer in rg15. From

Price-Changes

United Kingdom as computed in the Labour Gazette.

July S, d. St 10}

1915 Dec. | June s d. |s d 6} 8 IO I 3

s

L

1910 Dec. | June d so d.

8 3;|I

1917

1918

s

Dec. d.

6? 4}

Dec. | June s d. sd 10 II} I Fh] tio

une |s, d. 9 I4

I

9. 4

ad II$

aed. | aeeege II I Ig

ae ©

a aoe weft 3s

I 3 IL EE)

1919

1920 Dec. | June d sodo

1921

Dee Tune s. d.|s. d 9 9 I4 I 4

s

ILI

9} | I of 4 IIi

Dec. | June osod js d I 4 | 1 14 2 ólja of

eet a 15st

cade 13

ır 1

6 1 22 | tr

6 of

I 1

I4Ì}|I

3} a

I

5} co aac

5}

ee

British Ib. p ported lb. ai

8 6

83 74

112 9

I| gi

r

10? 8

II 8}

ris 1I}

p

I$

3i

ae

47

a

ols

rł$j|r It I Bee

5%

52

113 ah

I| I 7

I 1

2

ae | OF Noe

7%} aie

44

43

9, |1 Of | 1

8} O

UTON

British

Ib.

Imported lh, Bacon Ib.

one

»

qt.

gt

5} rit

37

8}

6; 10

3?

I

ran

43

5} 2? BES

ee

Gi

13

2a ee,

5}

TR eee,

a «ae

I8 26

PO |2 6

8h

|I

ITI iii

1a4 2.

ae

RG 1 8 2 6b|211}

t a

See

6}

104

7⁄4

|110 oa

9łį]|2



9 | 1 See

7} 2

I0

7t

cese

Imported Ib. Butter . Ib, |]§

8? 22

Potatoes

4i

Margarine Sugar

th. I}.

7Ib.

71 2|

9} 3 34/1

TI 33

4

it 33

rae 4

1} 7

8} St

z

84 5:

10}

11} 5%

Wy

1143|15 2 44|25}

Tig | to 6 7

6}

10 ‘y

7h . Ft

11} 7

83

I

1 8

I I

2 2

tok | tr 3k

I

ae ro | 1

tn}

9. 74

83

Tea. Ib | 1 6) 1 $3} | rim 2 33 | 2 33 2 3$})2 8 3 |28 28 2 6} 2 gf | 210} 2 BF 12 6; *The prices from Dec. 1914 to Dec. 1918 are calculated from the percentage changes recorded. Notes.—The prices of meat are the means between two entries in each case and not the average prices of the carcases. They should only be used for comparative purposes, and not taken to be the average price of all meat bought.

in general the records are the average for the commodities as bought in shops and stores used by the working class.

145

PRICES years at 2d. or 3d. a Ib. lower than British meat, but since the price

of the latter was nearly doubled, the percentage increase of the former was much greater. The Ministry of Food fixed wholesale

Taste VITI.

the kind of meat that was available from time to time.

During the

riod of control and till the summer of 1920 prices fluctuated little, put after control was removed imported meat became cheaper than

7

we

Year

Quarters

1914 1915

Home meat was at its maxi-

of 1920 and did not fall at all considerably till after May 1921. Prior to 1914 the corresponding numbers, for London only, are 1910 and F911 98, 1912 and 1913 103. (See article Cost oF LIVING for further analysis, and for comparative figures for other countries.) The price of bacon rose rather more slowly in the opening years of the war, but rapidly in the summer of 1917 till it was 140% above the pre-war price. In Nov. 1917 importers’ and dealers’ prices were fixed, and in July 1918 the regulations extended to retail prices; during this period large supplies of gencrally inferior bacon were received from America, and rationing was only necessary for a few months, The price after being stationary for two years rose during 1920 till it reached three times the level of July [914. After 1915 the price of milk was markedly seasonal, while before the war it was generally retailed at the same price nearly all the year round, Ne change took place till the autumn of 1915, when the

19I6

.

1917

.

1918

1919

neither case was there a fall in the spring; in the autumn of 1917 it

not reached in all localities. The great rise in the price of milk must be attributed to the high cost of cattle food, which was very scarce in the period of restricted imports; elaborate arrangements were made to increase the supply by curtailing the consumption of cream and the manufacture of butter and cheese. Milk was not rationed except by informal local arrangements. Not much attention should be paid to the prices of butter and cheese after 1916, since during a

long period they were not frecly

having taken control distributed their cost.

obtainable, and the Government

them at prices which would meet

Butter was rationed with margarine.

The price of margarine rose little till 1917, while its consumption increased greatly owing to the want of butter. A shortage of supply was felt suddenly at Christmas 1917, and the Ministry of Food took control and presently assumed ownership of the supply of its constituents and the factories in which jt was made. The quality was greatly improved, as compared with that in 1914, and its importance as food became very great in view of the difficulty of obtaining sufficient fatty substances from other sources. The price

was fixed in Nov. 1917 at Is. (is. 4d. for oleomargarine) and changed little till the end of 1920. In May 1919 the price was left free.

The whole supply and distribution of sugar was taken over by the

Government at the beginning of the war and control was continued

till 1921. Sugar was distributed through the ordinary channels in such amounts as were available and traders began early to ration their customers. Official rationing (generally at 8 oz. per person) developed in 1917 and its success encouraged the Government to develop the general scheme of rationing meat, fats and. some other

foods in 1918; rationing of sugar gradually became obsolescent in 1919. The price rose considerably at irregular intervals as shown in the table till ia Jan. 1920 it was seven times as dear as before the war. Potatoes became dear after 1916 and afterwards fluctuated strongly upwards in sympathy with other agricultural produce and the price of manures, and in relation to the supply of each season. The high prices, however, were not universally fele owing to the development

of the cultivation of private allotments especially early in 1918.

The supply of fea was ample except for a short period in the autumn of 1917. At that date the Government took control of the

(Labour Gazette)

100

100

4th

118

116

Ist 2nd

134 r44

123 139

1920,

1921

142

136

144

143

Ist 2nd 3rd

159 173 169

Ist

218

192

2nd

232

201

3rd 4th

221 222

203 206

4th ,

Retail

(Statist)

4th

price rose 1d. aqt., and in the following autumn another 3d., and in

reached nearly twice the pre-war price, and in subsequent years fell in the spring and rose in the winter to successively higher points, the maximum (103d.) being reached in Jan. 1920. Maximum prices were in force from the autumn of 1917 till Jan. 1920, but they were

Wholesale

ist & 2nd*

3rd

British, and with a rise in the latter in 1920 the pre-war proportion

between the two was nearly restored.

mum (at about two and a half times its pre-war level) in the autumn

(Statist and

Labour Gazette index numbers.)

prices and the retailer's margin in September 1917 and subsequently

the distinction in price between British and imported meat was removed. Rationing was gradually introduced, and was nearly universalfrom April 1918 to May 1919. Purchasers were restricted also to

Wholesale and retail prices of food.

148 158 164

195

183

Ist

230

207

2nd 3rd

227 234

208 221

4th

247

231

Ist-

236

221

Zut ard 4th

233 244 264

207 218 234

Ist 2nd 3rd 4th

292 328 326

234 253 208

290

284

ISt

246

250

“July 1914 for retail prices,

In Table VIII. the retail prices for the first quarter of cach year are the averages for the ist of Feb., March, April and so throughout the year. Wholesale and retail prices include those of controlled goods, and in the case of wheat, flour and bread are affect-

ed by the bread subsidy. The table shows that retail prices rose in sympathy with wholesale prices during the first three years of the war, but the rise on the whole was less, and the accelerated

rise in the spring of each year was only marked in wholesale prices. As prices became more and more rigidly controlled in 1917, and some commodities were rationed in 1918, wholesale prices tel) or remained nearly stationary, while retail prices rose very slowly. (A. L. Bo.) PricE-CoONTROL IN Untrep States. — During the World War

price-fixing agencies in the United States were numerous, and the arrangements made were often informal. Many prices were controlled indirectly; but when this control was to any degree

international the result was a “fixed price.” Prices were more or less formally ñxed by various departments or branches of the U.S. Government for at least xro important products, cach of which required a separate price-fixing operation. This was exclusive of repetitions or renewals at later periods, which often involved as much work and study as the original, decisions. The following is a partial list of products for which prices were fixed by some government agency or sanction. They

are arranged in gencral in the order in which the prices were

per

fixed, although no pretence to accuracy in this regard is claimed.

Ib. The rise in price was less on the whole than that of any other commodity shown in the table.

Food products are not covered in detail, and no attempt has been made to mention them in order:—

price than those already

Hides Coal, bituminous Coal, semibituminous

supplies and provided a uniform blend to be retailed at 2s, 8d.

Other less important foods often showed a greater increase in named, especially since there was a run on

them during the time slick riction and shipping facilities were given rather to the more necessary imports. Eggs in particular became scarce and dear owing to the failure of the European supply and the scarcity of poultry food.

No general comparison of wholesale and retail prices is possible, for want of adequate records of the wholesale prices of manu-

factured goods and of retail prices of articles other than food. In the case of food, however, the figures are sufficiently typical and accurate to allow of a general comparison, but not to permit accurate detailed measurements. The two index numbers

shown depend on nearly the same range of foods, but the bread subsidy lowers the retail prices by about 10 points in 1918-20.

Pig iron Steel plates Steel, structural

Castor oil Aluminium Coal, anthracite Coke Copper Molasses (imported) Manila fibre

Copper, ingot, electrolytic Copper wire Iron ore

Ship timbers Pine, yellow Steel billets Sugar

(eastern cities) Platinum Hemlock Pine, white

Denims {Mass.) Drillings (Mass.} Ginghams, (Amoskeag) Print cloths

Sardines

Spruce, eastern

Sheetings, bleached

Pipe, cast-iron

Manganese ore

Hemp

Wheat

Bar iron

Retail Jumber

Paper, newsprint

Nitric acid

Cotton linters

Cotton goods

Cotton yarns

Sheetings, brown

PRICES

146 Steel rails

Sashes and doors

Tin plate Wire, barbed, galvanized

eres extract ement, Portland Sulphur

annealed Ammonia Douglas fir Arsenic

Wool Acetate of lime Quicksilver Iridium

Nickel

Wire, plain,

Ammonium sulphate Alcohol, wood

Acetic acid Nitrate of soda Silver Zinc, grade “A” Zinc, sheets and plates Binder twine Castor beans

Tickings (Amoskeag)

Linters (munition)

Flour, wheat

Rubber

Sand and gravel

Hogs Leather, harness Prunes, Cahifornia

Raisins, California Carbon tetrachloride Formaldehyde Chlorine gas, liquid Toluol Phenol Picric acid Sulphuric acid

Rice Building tile Crushed stone

Lead Charcoal Leather, sole Glycerine (dynamite)

Cottonseed meal Cottonseed oi! Wool! grease

Burlap Tin, pig Tree nails, locust Cotton compress rates Birch logs Brick, common Wallboard Food products

Without attempting a complete list, it may be stated that food products whose prices were regulated included flour, bread, sugar, live stock, meat, poultry, dairy products (including retail milk prices), oleomargarine, cottonseed and its products, canned foods,

dried foods, rice and rice flour, feeds and coffee. The prices that were first formally fixed by the Government fall chiefly in the basic raw-materials group. A more shortsighted policy might have begun by regulating prices of articles which figure most conspicuously in public consumption, In some cases prices were fixed for Government purchases alone, for example, nickel, quicksilver, sulphuric acid, cement,

New England spruce and other lumber. In others the prices were fixed for the Government and made available to the public in a contingent way; for example, in the case of hemlock lumber jt was provided that any quantity of the commodity which, in the judgment of the lumber director of the War Industrics Board, could be released for the commercial market might be sold to the public, subject to the maximum price fixed for the Government. In still other cases—for example, copper and raw sugar—purchases by the Allied Governments were included in the scope of price-fixing for the U.S, Government; and in a few instances, as purchases for the use of the railways of the United States, the prices were specifically fixed, although they did not

apply to the public, Prices were sometimes fixed for single branches of the Government, as in the case of oil products for

the navy and army. Prices to purchases with fuel oil,

cow-hide splits for the quartermaster’s corps of the were even fixed by the U.S. Government to apply by the Allied Governments only, as was the case gasoline and kerosene,

later came the President's announcement of a $2.20 basic price on wheat ‘‘ to be paid in Government purchases." The price of capper was fixed in September, Relatively few prices were fixed after Nev. 1918, although those fixed prior to that time extended well over into roro. Prices, as fixed, were allowed to expire in spite

of the fact that in several important cases the representatives

of the industry concerned asked that the existing price be continued. On Dec, rr 1918 the War Industries Board issued a

statement to the effect that, since it would cease to function after

Jan. t 191g, No new price agreements would be entered inte by the Price-Fixing Committee and that all prices theretofore fixed would be allowed to expire by limitation,

Several commodities,

the cost of which had not been immediately ascertainable, had been taken in large quantities by the Government at prices subject to later determination. For example, during the latter part of Jan. and the early part of Feb. 1919, the Price-Fixing Committee of the War Industries Board fixed prices on common

brick and on wall board.

Inasmuch as the Food and Fuel

Administrations depended for their powers

upon

the Act. of

Aug. 10 1917, which applied “ during the war,” they functioned longer, but became practically inoperative early in roro. Of the various agencies through which prices were fixed the following are without doubt the most important: Congress, which by direct legislation fixed a minimum price for wheat and for silver; the President, acting under authority granted by Congress,

who fixed prices lor coal and wheat; the War Industries Board, created by the President July 28 1917, under authority from Congress, which Board through its Price-Fixing Committee fixed numerous prices from Sept. 1917 to Nov. 1918 (as late as fan. and Feb. r9rg Several cases of price-fixing for commodities bought at tentative prices were awaiting cost determination);

Food Administration, established

in Aug.

1917,

the U.S.

which

fixed

prices of hogs, meat, flour, sugar, binder twine, cte.; local food administrators and sub-agencies, such as the Sugar Equalization

Board and the U.S, Food Administration Grain Corporation, which fixed many prices; the U.S. Fuct Administration, established in Sept. 1917, which fixed prices of coal, coke. etc.; the War Trade Board, which fixed prices of rubber, quebracho extract and manila Abre; the Federal Trade Commission, which fixed the prices of newsprint paper; the Emergency Fleet Corpora-

tion of the U.S. Shipping Board,

which fixed the price of ship

timbers and locust tree nails; the U.S. Shipping Board which fixed ocean freight rates; the International Nitrate Executive Committee, which fixed the price of nitrate of soda; the Food

early took a firm stand for the

Purchase Board, which fixed prices of canned foods, ete., for the army and navy; various army and navy departments, which fixed prices of gasoline and fuel oil, zinc oxide, automatic sprinklers,

principle that prices charged by producers should be the same to

sashes and doors, castor oil, ete.; the Appraisal Boards of the

The

President,

however,

the public and to the Government, and, with the exception of prices on Certain purchases made by Government departments,

rapid progress was made during 1918 in carrying out this policy.

Thus the prices fixed for pine, fr lumber and cement, which at first applied only to direct Government purchases, were extended

to the public. It proved to be highly important as a practical matter that prices under similar conditions of purchase should be the same to all. The existence in the commercial market of prices that were higher than those paid for Government purchases made it difficult for the Government to sceure prompt deliveries. Moreover, such a situation often defeated the purpose of pricefixing, because large purchases might be made by private concerns producing more or less directly for the Government.

The period of price-fixing began about the middle of 1917, and came to a nearly complete standstill with the signing of the Armistice, Among the carliest commodities to be affected by the price-fixing activities of the Government were lumber, coal,

wheat, sugar and canned foods.

Lumber prices for the Govern-

ment alone were fixed by arrangement with the Council of National Defense on June 1§ 1917, and approved by the Secretary of War; coal prices for the navy were fixed on June 19 1917.

The Food and Fuel Control Act on Aug. 10 1917 set a minimum Price on the wheat crop of 1918. Bituminous coal prices at the

mine were fixed by executive order on Aug. 21 1917. Nine days

army and navy, which fixed prices in cases of dissent from prices named in commandeering orders; and the U.S. Railroad Adminis-

tration, which took steps to fix reasonable prices of locomotives and cars. As time went on a tendency toward greater uniformity and centralization of procedure developed within the pricefixing mechanism. This tendency was seeninanincreasing amount of work thrown upon the War Industrics Board and the Federal

Trade Commission, the former naming a price based largely upon the cost findings of the latter.

Tn initiating price-fixing no systematic plan was followed and

prices were at first fixed sporadically. Various Governmental powers were resorted to and were applied by numerous agencies, using diverse means for carrying aut the decisions or agreements which they reached. In some cases prices were fixed under special authority, conferred directly by Act of Congress, and limited by the provision of such Act to specified commodities. Thus by section 14 of the Act of

Congress of Aug. 10 2917, already referred to, the President was empowered to fix ‘‘a reasonable guaranteed price for wheat.”

Accordingly on Aug. 30 the President, acting upon the recommendation of a committee appointed by himsclf, promulgated a price of

$2.20 per bus, for No. 1 northern spring wheat at Chicago, The same

law, commonly known as the Lever Act, authorized and empowered the President to license importers. producers or distributors of ”’ any necessaries, in order to carry into effect any of the purposes of this Act"; and, if he found unreasonable any storage charges, commissions or profits, to revoke licences and make findings as to reasonable profits, ete. Section 10 of the Act authorized him to requisition

necessary foods, feeds, fuels and other supplies. Section 11 gave him

PRICES power to purchase and sell at reasonable cash prices wheat, flour, meal, beans and potatoes. The power under this Act ran to the President, and the Fuel Administrator and Food Administrator

acted under ‘‘executive orders.” On the other hand, the \War Industries Board acted under less specific authority procceding from

the genera! war powers of the President. Thus the prices fixed for steel, copper, lumber and other commodities by the Price-Fixing Committee of the War Industries Board were in theory approved by the President before being publicly announced. In some cases, however, such as retail lumber prices in certain eastern cities, the prices

were announced without formal approva! by the President,

:

The means of enforcing prices when * fixed,” whether determined

by the price-fixing agencies or reached by agreement with the producers, were various, ranging ‘rom appeals to the patriotism of the trade to commandeering orders. In most cases there was in the background the possibility of the Government's taking

over the industry;

and in not a few the army or navy did commandcer plants or stocks of merchandise. In such cases a price was named which was subject

to adjudication, first by the Board of Appraisers and then, upon

appeal, by the courts.

On Dec. 24 1917 all wood chemicals (acetic

acid, alcohol, etc.) were commandeered

for a period of six months

and later the commandeering order was extended to cover the second half of 1918. Apart from purchases on army or navy account,

however, price-fixing was effected chiefly by “ licences ” and control of “ priorities." The Food Administration and the Fuel Administration, under the Act of Aug. 10 1917, put in force extensive systems of licensing, under which unlicensed producers and distributors were not allowed to engage in business, and licences were revoked, if the regulations were disobeyed. The War Trade Board also licensed

importers of certain articles on condition that the prices which it

147

ing programme for the purpose of stabilizing prices. Stabilization is a term which implies mixed motives, a considerable part of its purpose commonly being to maintain or keep up prices, at least in a part of the field. This was the case with the Sugar Equalization Board and the tin poo}, and the Government's Grain Corporation, The degree of precision with which prices were fixed varied widely from commodity to commodity, ranging from a loosely determined maximum

price to a careful determination of the daie

purchase.

Asa rule, only maximum prices were fixed, although in a

price to

be charged for a particular commodity in the case of a particular

majority of cases the price named as a maximum was the one which actually prevailed. This was not infrequently taken for granted by the price-fixing agency.

In some

important

cases,

however,

the

actual market price fell below the maximum named by the Government. This was true of zinc plates and sheets and certain kinds of lumber. Also, in the case of rubber, a price was named by the War Trade Board asa maximum, which was considerably higher than the market price. As has been already noted, a minimum price was fixed for wheat, the reason being that it was desired to guarantee the market in this case and thus encourage production. The price of hogs was fixed on the basis of a positive minimum after the failure of the attempt to maintain the price on the basis of a fixed ratio to corn. Wheat also furnishes a case in which both a maximum and a minimum price were specifically fixed. Obviously a result similar to that obtained by naming a price may be gained by limiting profits or gross margins. Thus, an effort was made to restrict the profits of the meatpackers to 2} % on sales, and in the case of the five largest packers a maximum

margin on meat of 9% on investment was named.

The

flour millers were limited to a profit of 25 cents per barre). Dealers in

fixed should be observed. The administration of priorities proved to

cotton-seed and peanuts, both ginners and others, were limited, beginning July 1 1918, toa margin of $3.00 per ton over cost (not re-

important questions. Toward the end of 1917 a priorities division was established within the War Industries Board and a priorities commissioner placed at its head. Representatives of the Fuel Ad-

Administration in an attempt to regulate the price of coal to consumers, and in Sept. 1917 this agency announced its plan for fixing

bea major clement in the price-fixing programme, and involved many

ministration, the Railroad Administration and the U.S. Shipping Board were placed upon a Priorities Committee. The War Trade

Board, the Food Administration, and the army and navy were also

represented. The Price-Fixing Committee of the War Industries Board and the Priorities Committee worked in harmony. This was of the utmost importance, as it made possible a substantial degree of unity of policy among the different Government purchasing departments; and, through the power of the Priorities Committee over fuel and transportation, pressure could be brought

to bear upon a recalcitrant business concern for the purpose of compelling it to adhere to fixed prices. The Priorities Committee undertook whenever necessary to administer priorities in

the production of all raw materials and finished products, save

food, feeds and fuels. The distribution of fuel was, of course, under the supervision of the Fuel Administrator, and transportation service under the U.S. Railroad Administration, but the Fuel and Railroad Administrators were guided largely by the “ preference list ” issued by the Priorities Committee and by the recommendations of the division chiefs of ihe War Industries Board, and on the whole came to work in close relation to the

committee's general policy. The Priorities Committee, then, exercised a general function of adjusting production to the needs of the nation at war by allocating the limited supplies of fuel and basic raw

placement value).

This method was also largely used by the Fuel

the maximum gross margins of retail dealers in coal and coke. Each dealer was authorized to add to the average margin for 1915 between his delivered cost price of coal or coke and the price charged consumers, 30% to cover increased expenses provided the

gross margin thus arrived at did not exceed

his average

for July

1917, Fixed rates of commission or margins of profit were inposed also on dealers in newsprint paper, retail lumber and other commodities. In addition to the above methods, there was the attempt to fix retail prices directly by pubhshing fair prices, as was done for groceries by the local “price interpreting beards” set up by the Food Administration. Price-fixing by restricting margins passed into the realm of hopes and aspirations in such cases as the carlier regulation of the Jake-lorwarders by the Fuel Administration, and

the cotton-zinners by the Food Administration, for in these cases the producers were merely urged to charge “reasonable” prices. Much

the same:may

be said

of the somewhat

tentative

moves

made by the Oil Division of the Fuel Administration toward fixing the price of petroleum and its products. in July 1918 the Oil Director made some proposals with regard to fixing the differ-

ential between the prices of crude and those of refined products; and in Aug. he announced a plan to stabilize the price of crude oil, stating

his belief

that

this would

in the price of refined products.

prevent

radical

changes

It docs not appear, however, that

club to reinforce particular cases. to pass on prices requirements of to be issued the

the plan had any appreciable effect. From the foregoing it would appear that there were three chief types of price-fixing:—(1) maximum prices, in the case of basic staples which had wide public interest, often recognized

the order in which the price was named. If, as was frequently the case, the producers of the commodity were not satished with the

as “pegged” prices when any scarcity or rapidly advancing cost existed; (2) definite prices, (a) to encourage production by guarantecing returns, (b) Government purchases (direct or indirect) in the nature of single transactions; (3) margins, (a)

Various methods of applying price control were tried. Prices may

the distribution of products, the marketing of which was not integrated with manufacture. The minimum price, strictly

materials, and its powers were sometimes uscd as a the authority of the Price-Fixing Committee in The Army and Navy Appraisal Boards were called in the case of commandcer orders issued for the those departments. When a commandeer order was

practice developed of having the chief in charge of that division of the War Industries Board which dealt with that commodity approve

rice, the matter was brought before the Appraisal Board. It is important to observe that those members of the Price-Fixing Committee who represented the army and navy were also members of the appraisal boards of these two departments.

be fixed both directly

dreb,

As a rule, each commodity the

price of which it was desired to fix was taken up directly and a specific price made for its purchase; but in some cases reliance was placed upon indirect control of the price of one commodity through direct control of the price of another. A most interesting and important

phase of indirect price-fixing activities lay in the attempts to restrain

prices by controlling consumption, as in the cases of tin, platinum, coal, sugar, wheat and meat. These efforts culminated in rationing in the case of sugar and the requirement of purchase of substitutes

in the case of wheat or flour.

Steps were taken, also, to prevent

waste and to improve methods of production, for example, cleancr

threshing of wheat.

Most of such “ conservation '' measures are to

be approved without reserve. Closely connected with the conservation phase as seen in control of demand, rationing, ete., were stabili-

zation and pooling. But pooling, while partly used to facilitate rationing (as in the case of sugar), may also be used to keep prices up,

either locally or throughout the entire market.

In at least three

Cases, wheat, sugar and tin, the Government entered upon a pool-

absolute amount per unit, (b) percentage on sales, cost, or investment; this method being used when it was desired to cover

speaking, was the exception, but is logically associated with the definite price, which is both maximum and minimum. Another distinction of some importance in fixing prices depended upon the place at which the price named was to apply. Some prices were made onan f.o.b. factory basis, while others were on a delivered basis. The practice prevailing in the industry was partly followed. The tendency, however, was to fix prices onan f.o.b. factory or mill basis, a natural tendency when the price is based on cost. Ina major-

ity of cases, prices came to be made f.o.b. the producer’s plant. In many cases. however, prices were quoted f.o.b. some market basing point. This was notably true of copper, which was always quoted f.o.b. New York, although the metal was secured from mines in Michigan, Montana and Arizona, and refined at various

seaboard points. competing

In the case of commodities produced in several

areas there was

often a tendency

tg quote prices on a

delivered basis. Prices delivered were fixed for New England spruce,

PRICES

148

Pennsylvania hemlock, cement, hollow building tile, iron and steel scrap, and oi! products for the navy. The situation in the case of hollow building tile furnishes some explanation of this tendency.

The chief producing area for this commodity was centred in Ohio, while there were other producing territories in the south, in New

Jersey and elsewhere. In order to stabilize market conditions and to divide the market, the representatives of the industry desired to fix prices on a delivered basis. In this way, by fixing a delivered price sufficiently low, the low-cost producers in Ohio were prevented from coming too far east with their product; while, if the price had been fixed f.o.b. the plant, there would have been no limit to the area covered by the low-cost producer, except cost of freight and desire

for profit. Had the war continued much longer, there can be little doubt that adjustments in railway rates would have become an important part of the price-fixing programme.

Special railway

service was given in a number of instances as a direct part of pricefixing, as, for example, the arrangements made to furnish transportation to the Douglas fir lumber mills for the purpose of relieving

them of accumulations of low-grade lumber. In the case of pricefixing for manganese ore produced in the United States, an integral

part of the scheme was the application of special railway rates. When a controlling part of the supply of any given product

is produced by concerns which are not completely integrated, especially as to the earlier stages of the industry, it is practically

necessary, in price-fixing, to control the price of the chief semi-finished

products;

but when

a controlling proportion of a product

comes from producers who are more or less completely integrated, this necessity does not exist, although some protection may

be required for independent producers in the earlier stages.

Also

when the object is to protect the consumer of products which are

distributed by separate wholesale and retail agencies, it is necessary

to control the wholesale and retail prices as well as the price f.0.b.

factory or mill.

Prices were fixed for various periods of time, but in general it may be said that on account of changing conditions the periods were short. Perhaps the period most frequently chosen was three months.

A much shorter period would have created

too much risk and uncertainty in marketing, to say nothing of the strain upon the price-fixing machinery; while a longer

of meat and coal were fixed for indefinite periods, and the same was true of manganese ore. Various bases for determining the reasonable maximum price to be fixed were used, but it may be said that, on the whole, the prevailing tendency was to fix prices on the basis of cost, a reasonable allowance being added for profits. In this connexion the Federal Trade Commission did

important work in ascertaining from the books of the producers the actual cost of production and the investment. In the ordinary case of price-fixing, the gist of the method used by

the Price-Fixing Committee was as follows :—First, some estimate was made of the probable quantity of the product wanted, which, of course, involved a knowledge af the stacks on hand. Second, the quantity which each producer could turn out was ascertained. Third, each producer's cost of production was computed for the most Fourth, the average investment involved

recent period available.

in the production of the commodity was determined and reduced to

the basis of investment per unit of product. The first three of these items bear directly upon the determination of the representative or marginal producers for price-fixing purposes. The fundamental

question in fixing prices that are based on cost, is the determination

of what may be called the ‘‘ marginal cost.”’ This cost may be ex lained as follows: it is frequently the case that when the several individual costs for a group of producers are accurately ascertained and are ranged in their order from low to high, there will be a varia-

tion among them of 100%, the high cost being double that of the’ low cost. Ordinarily the bulk of the production comes from those producers whose costs are below the average, though this is not al-

ways the case.

It docs not follow, however, that the average cost

gives the basis for a fair price. If 25%, or even 10%, of the production comes from high-cost producers and the entire output ig

needed, the average cost cannot be the basis of price. It is true that Im many cases prices were fixed on the basis of average cost, both by the War Industries Board and by other price-fixing agencies; but as time went on methods were perfected, and the practice of taking a “ representative cost "developed. This representative cost

was very similar to what the economist calls the marginal cost, meaning the cost at which the highest-cost producer is able to produce

without loss at a given price. Of the conditions which facilitate the determination of a reason-

period was not, as a rule, desired by the representatives of the industries, especially during a period of increasing costs, Various exceptions might be cited, such as the case of wheat, in which

able marginal cost for price-fixing, a knowledge of the requirements of the market, or in war-time a knowledge of the needs of the Govern

the price was fixed for the crop of a given season.

States was handicapped by uncertainty as to the quantity which it

The prices

ment and its agencies, is most important.

Price-fixing in the United

Yearly and Quarterly U.S. Fixed Prices, 1913-8.

COAL, bituminous per ton

COPPER, lel ectroytic per

ib.

LUMBER, Southern

yellow pine PIGIRON, timbers Bessemer JÉ in. x 8 in. per ton x16 ft.

FLOUR, SUGAR, fine granu- standard lated in bags patent bar. 196] or barrels lb.

per M.

1913. I9l4.

: f

$1.18

First Second . Third Fourth . I9I5. à Quarters First Second . Third . Fourth . 916.

$14.46

R17.13

$0.0428

1.16

$0.15 13

12.87

14.89

-O471

1.16 1.17 1.16

14 34 2

1.16

13.21 13.42 13.14 11.71

15.04 14.90 14.90 14.71

1.13

12.90

15.78

+0389 0395 0583 -052 .0556

11.64 12.21 12.46 15.31

-0538 -0585 0546 -0552

Seo SIO

14.56 14.61 15.91 18.03 23.88

15.92

21.61

-O610 .0729

Quarters

1.12

Quarters First. Second Third Fourth

. . , ,

1917.

First

Second . Third . Fourth .



1918.

23

Quarters First , Second . Third Fourth.

: í

£

6.66

7-34 oS 5:74 7.26

.0712

43.60

-0771

11.39

17.42 22.14

36.48

23.89

53-53 37-25

.0686 .0788 0797

9.29 13.57 12.39 10.34

5-53

21.95 22.05 29-93

47.18

-0696

08 T4

25.51

36.66

0779

10.14

25.14

37.25 36.21 36.60

.0735

1015

25.92

i .

4.57 4.55 5-34 5.86

6.32 6.05 7°37 9.26

15.21

15.21 16.71 21.75

Quarters .

0688

$4.58 3:09

25.42 28.57

6.60

9:79

BEEF, fresh Native carcass icago

WOOL, JLEATHER Ohio fine | shoe upper unwashed | 2nd grade per lb. | per sq. ft.

$0.238 .250 1229 .248

271 251

.300 .298 -291 301 -308 -352

-328 335 351

PRINCE EDWARD cost, there were necessarily many exceptions.

Sometimes no costs were available. Sometimes cost was only partly availabie as a basis, as in the case of “ joint products "' and of products for which com-

plete cost data did not exist. Sometimes, again, no efort was made

to use cost, as in the case of substitutes whose prices were fixed on

the basis of the commodity in the place of which they might be used. In a few instances the price was fixed without regard to cost, mercly on the basis of preéxisting prices, such prices being taken for what was presumablya normal period. Perhaps the chief difficulty in most cases was to ascertain a fair return on investment. This phase of the matter was never satisfactorily dealt with by any U.S. pricefixing agency during the war. The Federal Trade Commission in connexion

with its cost findings frequently reported to the Price-

Fixing Committee of the War Industrics Board a figure representing the investment, but time did not

permit

the careful

investigation

that would have been necessary to ascertain the actual money in-

vested, nor was the attitude of the price-fixing agency, as a rule, one

which favoured the strict construction of ‘‘ investment.'’ In general, it may be said that in a majority of the price-fixing operations of the

War Inclustries Board, some consideration was given to the estimated

investment, and that in such cases the figure used was one which Jay

somewhcre between the book value claimed by the companies concerned and the actual net investment made. On the other hand, a majority of the price-fixing operations of such agencies as the Food Administration appear to have been made on the basis of a margin (interest and profits) per unit of product, determined upon with reference to past experience. And of course, exceptions to any usual practice were at times necessary.

In genera] there were three chief purposes in fixing prices: (1) to secure production of necded commodities; (2) to prevent social unrest by checking profiteering, codrdinating food prices and wages, and stabilizing industrial conditions; (3) to assure Government economy of purchase. The greatest success was

attained with regard to the first purpose. The accomplishment of the second, which was more vague, is difficult to measure, but appears considerable. The most that can be said concerning the third is that things might have been worse had there been no price-fixing. The table on page 148 shows the yearly and quarterly average

prices of important articles whose prices were regulated. On the whole, it may be said that price-fixing in the United States suffered from the lack of a programme. No adequate

study was made of interrelations between commodities or of the various complicated factors affecting demand and supply. No general principles were formulated, Too frequently, each step was taken up as a Separate proposition. Much trouble would have been saved by a better understanding among the different price-fixing agencies and by the adoption of certain broad fundamental principles, such as the basis for determining marginal cost and the basis for determining investment. There should have been a general board of strategy to supervise the entire price-fixing programme and to codrdinate it with the

Government’s fiscal arrangements and with the various steps taken to control the production and consumption through priorities and rationing. Some progress was made in this direction, but it remains true that the price-fixing operations were not sufficiently correlated with taxation and borrowing

(inflation) on the one hand, and with rationing and priorities on the other. (L. H. H.) PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND (sce 22.344).—The pop. of this Canadian province in 1911 was 93,728, having sunk from 109,078 in 1891. It is the most densely populated province in Canada, with 42-92 persons to the square mile. In 1911 the origin of the people was: Scots 36,772; English 22,176; Irish 19,900; French

13,117; all other nationalities 1,763, Charlottetown, the capital (pop. 11,198 in 1911), standing on one of the best harbours in America, is celebrated as the birthplace of the Canadian Confederation, the first conferences having been held there in 1864. The Legislative Assembly is composed of 15 councillors elected on a property qualification, and 15 members elected on a popular franchise. The Executive Government consists of nine members. The superintendent of education acts as secretary to the board and administers the system through school inspectors. In 1920 there were 468 schools, 597 teachers, and a total enrol-

ment of 17,861 pupils; the expenditure was $268,547 in 1919.

149

ISLAND-—PRINCETON

was desired to have produced, which uncertainty was in some cases due both to ignorance of the available stocks and to uncertainty as to future requirements. While prices were generally fixed on the basis of

Prince Edward Island has been aptly described as the garden province of the Dominion, more resembling an English shire than a Canadian province. The population ts almost entirely agricultural, and practically the whole island has been cleared and brought under cultivation. The soil of the island is best suited for oats and potatoes, which are the staple crops. Wheat is grown for local purposes only. Maize, for fodder, and barley are grown. Cattle and hogs flourish. The total value of field crops in 1920 was $18,530,400. Poultry-raising and dairying are extensively and profitably carried on. Beef and bacon, as well as fruit, poultry, butter, cheese, eggs and potatoes, are exported in large quantities to neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland and the New England states. Codperative dairying was begun in 1891 and the growth of the industry has been rapid. A new source of revenue began in 1910 with the breeding of black foxes and the industry of fur-farming was developed. About $10,000,000 had aircady been invested in this industry in 1918, in which year the sale of fox pelts realized over

$750,000.

In 1919

300 fur ranches sold skins and live animals to the value of $1,500,000, and in 1920 there were approximately 11,000 pairs of black foxes on the ranches of the island. The once celebrated Malpeque oyster has almost become extinct through disease. The lobster industry is also on the decline. The value of the fisheries in 1919 was $1,536,844, the catch including cod, herring, mackerel, oysters and lobsters. industry numbered about 6,000.

The men employed in the

No mining is carried on. Manufacturing is connected chiefly with the preparation of foods such as butter and cheese. Pork-packing and lobster-canning are large and growing industries. The value of manufactured products was $3,136,470 in 1911. The strait of Northumberland separates Prince Edward Island from the mainland, the distance across varying from 9 to 31 miles.

At the narrowest point a railway-car ferry established in 1918 by the Dominion Government connects the Canadian National railway system of the mainland with that on Prince Edward Island, and affords continuous connexion summer and winter across the strait. This ts the principal highway of transportation to and from the island province, but the ferry service is occasionally interrupted bv ice and the substitution of a tunnel has been advocated. OV. L. G.)

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY (see 22.347).—In Sept. roro President Wilson accepted the Democratic nomination for

governor of New Jersey and resigned the presidency of the university. In Jan. 1912 Prof. John Grier Hibben, of the faculty, was elected president. His administration was marked by further development of student self-government, the conduct-

ing of discipline and general student activities and the regulation of athletics being in 1921 shared by undergraduate representatives and university officers. Especial attention was paid to the scientific safeguarding of student health and physical fitness by careful periodical examinations and required supervised athletics. The potentialeffectiveness of the alumni organization was increased by the formation of a Nationa] Alumni Association, whose working administrative centre was the Graduate Council of about roo, representing the graduate classes, the alumni associations, and different regional districts of the country. The national character of the university was expressly recognized by the addition of regional trustees to the governing board, and also by the establishment of a large number of regional competitive scholarships. On the scholastic side, the entrance requirements and the underraduate curriculum were completely revised. To put the university into closer touch with American secondary education, especially the

high schools,

Greek was

no

longer

required

(although

strongl

advised) for the A.B. degree. The Litt.B. degree was discontinued: The elective principle was broadened so as to bridge the gaps be-

tween preparatory school and college, and underclass and upperclass years, giving the student in his underclass years a broad general training in subjects deemed fundamental to real education, and in his upperclass years requiring him to follow continuous work in one of three divisions of studies, the literary-philosophical, the historicaleconomic, or the mathematical-scientific.

The regulations governing

admission to the graduate school, and in particular to candidacy

for the competitive fellowships, the awards of which depend entirely on scholarship and ability, attracted to the school an increasing number of select advanced students in liberal studies. The erection of the residential graduate college in 1913 rendered permanent what had previously been an experimental and, in America, an unique feature of the Paincéton graduate school, namely, the provision of adequate living quarters for graduate students, who there shared a

common

scholarly

life amid attractive conditions.

The graduate

college accommodated in 1921 about 100 students. During the World War over 5,000 undergraduates and graduates

were in Service; about 3,000 receiving commissians, and 284 receiving 293 decorations and citations. The honour rol! of those who gave

PRISONERS

150

up their fives numbered 149. The entrance atrium of Nassau hall was converted into a memorial to these men, anda scholarship has been founded in memory of each.

During the war nearly half of the

faculty was on {eave of absence, cither in military and naval service,

or in the scientific war service of the American, British or French Gaveraments. The student body wag cut more than half; buildings

were occupied by a Government

school of aviation and a naval

paymasters’ school, while the laboratories were turned over to Government use. With the institution of the student army training corps. and the naval training unit, virtually the entire university and its

equipment were devoted ta national purposes, the number of civitjan students being about 75, rejected from service for physical

disabilities. After the return of peace, effort was concentrated on increasing the inadequare endowment of the university, and the

sum of over $8,000,000 was raised. A bequest from the late Henry C. Frick, not yet received in 1921, was expected to amount to about $5,000,000. In the year 1g20-1 the faculty numbered 213,-the under-

graduate body 1,814, the graduate students 149, as against, in 1909-10, 169 faculty members, 1,266 undergraduates and 134 graduate

students. Besides the graduate college, which includes the Cleveland tower, a national memorial to President Grover Cleveland, a trustee of Princeton, the buildings erected beween were Holder hall (a dormitory), Madison hall

1912 and 1921 (the university

dining halls, where all underclass men are required to take their meals), Cuyler

hall (a dormitory), the Palmer Memorial

foothall

stadium, and the University boat house (headquarters of the rowing activities of the university),

In May 1920 Dickinson hall and Mar-

quand chapel were destroyed by fire.

(V.L. C.)

PRISONERS OF WAR (sce 28.314*)—The procedure laid down by international agreement for the treatment of Prisoners of War under the Hague regulations was tested during the World War under unprecedented difficulties, These arose not only from the passions and prejudices inevitably engendered In the course of such a vast conflict between the entire manhood of the nations concerned, but also from the facts that unexpectedly large numbers of combatants were taken prisoners, and that the captors had to deal with men of diferent nationalities,

of varying characteristics and with widely different views as to the accommodation and food requisite for a prisoner of war,

Probably few people realized during the war how vast was the number of combatant prisoncrs taken by one side or the other, or how small was the proportion of the British prisoners to the whole number. Though the final figures cannot be given

otherwise than approximately, it is certain that they amounted to several millions. To name only the principal belligerents {excluding Russia), Great Britain claims to have taken just under half a million, France just over that number, Italy nearly one million, Germany two and a half millions and Austria nearly one and a half millions. With regard to Russia the numbers have never been even approximately ascertained, but some idea of them may be gathered from the fact that Austria alone

admitted to having lost to the Russians not less than one anda half millions. To the list must be added the prisoners captured by.the Americans (48.000 in number), and by the Turks,

Bulgarians and the othcr lesser belligerents.

Of this vast host

only about 200,000 (probably not much more than 2%) were

British, and about 183,000 of these were In the -hands of Germany. When ìt is further remembered that sometimes in the course of a single operation tens of thousands of men, many of them wounded, were added to the number captured earlier, it will be

understood how great was the strain placed on the captors’ resources in the matter of transport, care and feeding. Moreover, prisoners were taken in almost every part of the globe in

every kind of climate, and in conditions in which the means of supply and transport varied from being comparatively complete

to being almost non-existent. Even if all the belligerent Governments had been actuated by the most carnest desire to apply strictly the provisions of the Hague Convention it was Inevita-

ble that there should be much suffering and, owing to the difficulty of effective supervision, cases of cruelty and ill-treatment at the hands of individuals.

It must be recognized that, speaking generally, the administrative problems in relation to the treatment of prisoners were not so serious in Great Britain as in most of the belligerent States, but it is satisfactory to be able to record that they were humanely and for the most part satisfactorily solved as they

OF WAR arose. It is on the other hand unfortunately true that, quite apart from the misery inseparable from prolonged confinement, numbers of British prisoners underwent gratuitous and grievous suffering, especially in territory merely occupied by the enemy and at some of the working camps in Germany, in Bulgaria and in Turkey. While something is said below with regard to the treatment of prisoners by the Bulgarians and Turks, it is impossible here to attempt to deal with the whole area of hostilities and with the multitude of questions relating to prisoners which arose between the belligerents. This article, therefore, will deal chiefly with the lot of prisoners in Great Britain and Germany, and the application of the Hague regulations in those countries. Though discussions arose as to the position of such persons as reservists and officers of merchant ships, prisoners of war may be divided inte two main classes: (1) Civilian, (2) Combatant. (1). Civilian.—It is quite certain that the framers of the

Hague Convention had not in view the treatment of persons other than combatants, but such large numbers of civilians were

interned during the war that the arrangements made for them must shortly be considered. The internment of civilians in both Great Britain and in Germany was, as a system, possibly due to two accidental hut different causes. In Great Britain it arose first from the widespread belief, justified probably only in a relatively small number of cases, that the German civilian population in England were cither spies in the service of the German Government or an advance guard of a German army of occupation. After this feeling had died down, and release from internment had become general, the system had again to be resorted to after the sinking of the “ Lusitania,” largely in deference to wide-spread indignation at that outrage and for the protection of the Germans themselves. Even then, however, intemment was not general. Every enemy alien had a right to have his case dealt with by an advisory committee, of which Mr. Justice Sankey was chairman and Lord Justice Younger was a member, and by this committee many exemptions were granted. In Germany, on the other hand, the internment of civilians— ultimately much more indiscriminate than in the United Kingdom—tresulted from popular indignation in Germany at the entry of Great Britain into the war.

Thus it was that in both countrics—in England by end of Oct.

tgt4 and in Germany by Nov. 1914—— nearly every male cnemy national of military age was interned, and the system, as applied to civilians, became established in both countrics, although its working in Great Britain was later modified in the manner re-

ferred to above. Accommodation.—The accommodation in both countries was bad in the beginning. In Great Britain some prisoners were at: first placed on board ships, but this was found to be unsatisfactory for many reasons.

Considerable numbers of aliens were

sent to the Newbury race-course, where they lived in loose boxes without any beds and without any adequate sanitary or cooking arrangements; a8 numbers increased tents were added and various improvements made, but the place was never satisfactory, and it was closed soon after the weather broke in the autumn. It. is only mentioned because it seems more than probable that, characteristically enough, Ruhleben (itself a race-course) was selected by the Germans for the internment of

British civilians as a reply to Newbury. The problem of finding adequate accommodation was difficult in England where there were eventually some 29,000 Germans interned out of a considerably larger number not interfered with.

In Germany the

difficulty must have been even greater, as in addition to two and a half million combatants there were nearly 112,000 civilian internees of differcnt nationalities to be provided for; of these only between 5,000 and 6,000 were Bnitish.t 1 There were in addition to German civilians interned in England 2 comparatively small number of internees of other nationalities and nearly 20,000 more in other parts af the Empire. The whole of the Prisoners in German hands were of course confined in Germany or the occupied districts.

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

PRISONERS OF WAR Alter the early unsatisfactory camps in England were closed, civilians were confined in large institutions of different kinds, but eventually far the largest number was placed in the Isle of Man, where there was created at Knockaloe a huge camp containing at last some 23,000 prisoners. There were also two “ privilege camps”? at Douglas and Wakefield, where those possessed of means could, upon payment, secure a certain amount

of privacy and comfort, and employ as their servants other prisoners desirous of earning a little money. There was also Islington Workhouse, perhaps the best place of all, where enemy civilians with British-born wives, or some other claim to con-

15!

accidents, and persons were kept under observation till it was decided what should be done with them, From here patients

were drafted either to the lazaret above mentioned, or to Dr,

Weiler’s Sanatorium outside but near the camp, established at

the suggestion of the American ambassador for the better treatment of the prisoners, in return for a substantial payment made

either by the British Government, or by the patients themselves, Besides these there was the Schonungs Barracke, a place for convalescents and the ailing. Though the building was provided by the German Government, the place owed its existence

In Germany the Jot of those who were first arrested was worse than in England. They were cast into the ordinary prisons

and all its amenities to the self-denying labours of Mr. Lambert, himself a British prisoner. It proved a real home of rest for those who were not ill enough to require hospital treatment. One great defect in the arrangements made for the sick pris-

and treated like convicted criminals.

oners here was that the German Government, as in the camps

sideration, were interned.

After no long time, how-

ever, most of them were transferred to Ruhleben, which, with

where

the exception of Schloss Cele, where a certain number of elderly

suitable for them. The ration was the same as for men in good health. A proper diet was provided in Dr. Weder’s Sanatorium in return for the substantial payment made by or on behalf of

civilians, whose status was somewhat uncertain, were placed, became the place of confinement for all British civilians.

Ruhleben was a race-course near Berlin, with stables, grandstand and all the usual appurtenances of a race-course,

The

prisoners were housed in the loose boxes and attics without at first any beds, though eventually ships’ berths were fitted, six toabox. Asthe numbers grew, huts were added. The washing and sanitary arrangements, at first rudimentary only, were never satisfactory. No arrangements were made by the Germans for the housing of the prisoners according to their vocational or

social aflinities—a real boon in the case of civilians.

They were

allowed, however, ultimately to some extent to sort themselves.

Management.—At first in both countries the camps were conducted on military lines, but eventually the interned persons were left to manage the internal affairs of the camps very much by themselves. A camp captain was elected by them, and captains of huts or other divisions. The camp captain was the official medium of communication with the authorities. Work and Recreation.—It was recognized in both countries that civilians might not be forced to do any work beyond what was necessary for the orderliness of the camp. This was a doubtful privilege, and the priséners’ want of occupation led to difficulties in maintaining discipline. In the latter stages of the war, at all events in England, a small proportion of prisoners volunteered to work in order to escape the ennui of camp Hie, and for some 1,500 out of the whole number, useful work was found, mainly in agriculture. No British civilians did any work outside the camps in Germany. But much was done by the prisoners themselves. Workshops were organized and equipped with the assistance of the Y.M.C.A. (British and American), and other similar organizations, The difficulty in England was to find a market for the produce of the workshops, owing to the objections raised to the prisoners competing with British workmen. This was overcome by sending the articles manufactured to neutral countries. Besides this form of manual occupation, classes were formed and lectures delivered, and students were enabled to continue their studies so far as their circumstances permitted, and a small number were employed in administrative work. Medical Care —Provision was made in England for the civilian prisoners by small hospitals in each place of internment, for the treatment of minor and urgent cases, while some who had been residents in Great Britain before the war were treated in outside institutions. At Ruhleben a lazaret to which any prisoners could go was established at the Emigrants’ Railway Station, close to the camp. The place had previously been used by a low class, and was filthy. The sanitation was bad, and the accommodation of the roughest description, while the attention given to the patients was, to say the least, perfunctory; a doctor came once a

day, and there were no nurses or orderlies. After the first disorganization was remedied, there was what was called the Revier Barracke, with a waiting and consultation room, in which the doctor examined those requiring advice. The place had accommodation for emergency cases and those suffering from

combatant

prisoners were

confined,

provided

no diet

the patients, and in the Schonungs Barracke by Mr. Lambert with the assistance of friends in England.

Lastly, one further fact should be mentioned. In a few exceptional cases persons were allowed to proceed to places far removed from Berlin to complete ‘‘ cures’ which had been interrupted by the outbreak of war. The position with regard to the care of sick civilian prisoners may be summed up as follows: The German Government provided some, but inadequate, accommodation for the very poor, and did not put any great obstacles in the way of prisoners who could themselves afford, or for whom the British Govern-

ment or others were willing, to pay for better treatment.

(2). Combatant Prisoners.—In considering the application of

the Hague Convention to the combatant prisoners, it is impossi-

ble to deal with all the subjects mentioned init.

It is proposed

to dea] at length only with the principal matters, viz. accommodation, food, the application of the military law of the captors,

and after touching on a few less important subjects, to consider how the great general principle enunciated in Article 4, that

prisoners must be ‘ humanely treated,” was acted on, Accommodation.—German officers in Great Britain

were interned in large country houses and public institutions adapted

for the purpose, to which, as necessity arose, additions were made,

usually in the form of wooden huts.

The necessary furniture

and everything reasonably required for messing, as well as fucl and light, was provided free of charge. In Germany, however,

the housing was in many cases bad and unsuitable.

British

officers were confined in the casements of fortresses, as at Ingol-

stadt; in the men’s barracks, as at Crefeld; in disused factories as at Halle, or in huts which had been previously occupied by the rank and file of other nations, as at Iloleminden. The best accommadation was in some of the hotels, as at Augustabad, where, until the place became crowded, conditions were comfortable. The British prisoners had to provide, at their own expense, cutlery and everything required for the table, as well as fuel and

light, which last caused considerable hardship in winter, for some of the camps were established in summer resorts slightly constructed and at a high altitude.

The actual position of the German places of confinement was undoubtedly chosen in some cases with ulterior objects in view.

Thus, the quarters provided right in the middle of the Badische

Anilin und Soda Fabrik at Ludwigshafen, and in the centre of Karlsruhe, were undoubtedly chosen in the hopes of warding off air attacks on those places or for the purpose of involving nationals of the raiders in the results. The men’s camps fall into two classes—the large main camps and the working camps. In both countries the arrangements in the main camps were

similar. The camps consisted of groups of huts, either attached to some barracks or similar place, or quite independent, with the necessary cook-houses, baths, latrines and administrative block, all surrounded by a barbed wire fence. There were frequent

and justifiable complaints of overcrowding in the German

PRISONERS OF WAR

152 camps.

At Wittenberg, for instance, there was, when the camp

was full, a population of from 15,000 to 17,000 On an area of about ro acres. There was usually a building set apart for

religious services and recreation in the form of concerts and theatrical performances. The sleeping accommodation consisted of bunks arranged in two or sometimes three tiers. The camps were divided by barbed wire into compounds containing about 1,200 prisoners—camps within a camp. Working Camps.—The housing of the prisoners sent out to work

is more

difficult to deal with comprehensively, for it

depended so much on the Jocality and nature of the work, quite

apart from the goodwill or otherwise of the employer. According to the German regulations, there ought to have been five cubic metres of internal capacity for each prisoner of war, This regulation was by no means alwaysobserved, The accommoda-

tion provided in Germany varied from a single very-well-lit and ventilated bedroom in a farm to crowded filthy quarters in verminous draughty buildings in mines, quarries and brickyards. in the larger working camps, buildings were sometimes erected for the express purpose of housing the prisoners, and, though not infrequently overcrowded, were generally suited for this purpose. These buildings were sometimes of brick, more usu-

ally of wood, set up somewhat above the ground level. In E. Prussia, however, and in a few other places, a construction common in the neighbourhood was used.

The huts were sunk into

the ground and were in fact something like large lined dugouts roofed over. They were not satisfactory for considerable numbers, but had the advantage that they were in that bleak district warmer in winter than if they had been erected wholly above ground. In other cases, the prisoners lived ìn the quarters which at many mines and large industrial works the employers provided for their own bachelor workmen. Such quarters were usually Satisfactory.

The situation ef these quarters,

of course, depended on the conditions existing locally, and the nature of the work. In mines they were usually in the mine compound, in some places they were situated at a distance from the actual place of working, and thus was added to the day’s

labour a walk of occasionally as much as 5 km. each way—a serious addition if the work was severe. But in the majonty of cases there were no workmen's quarters, and it was impracti-

cable to build barracks for only a few prisoners. Accommodation was then provided in village recreation halls, inns, theatres and

similar places) They were not well adapted for the purpose, but where a little goodwill was shewn on both sides, were often made reasonably comfortable.

In a few cases, at Kick and elsewhere in that neighbourhood,

the prisoners lived on board ship where the accommodation, according to the neutral reports, seems to have been satisfactory. In the places dealt with above, good provision was usually made for bathing, personal washing and laundry; in many mines and industrial works the men were able to get a hot shower-bath daily. In some places, on the other hand, the quarters provided were disgusting. To take two instances out

of many which might be given, At Fangsliuse, attached to Déberitz, where the men were engaged in refuse sorting, the bar-

racks consisted of a wooden building divided into two rooms, which were very dirty, In a verminous condition, and overrun

with rats and mice. There were no arrangements for bathing or washing; the only opportunity the men had for washing being

afforded by a canal near by. At another place, a coalyard, the men were housed in an archway under one of the main lines running into Berlin, and bathing arrangements were nil. In Great Britain, prisoners of war sent to work were either housed by the military authorities or, in some cases, when engaged in agriculture, by the employer, who was bound to supply housing accommodation, straw for filling palliasses, cooking

utensils, crockery, facilities for washing and artificial light. As in Germany,it was not always found possible in England to house prisoners near their work. Any time required to reach and return from their work in excess of one hour was deducted from the hours of Jabour. One rest day a week was allowed in

both countries.

Work.—The construction placed during the World War by the belligerents upon Article 6, which enables the captors to employ the labour of prisoners of war and to authorize them to work for the public service or private persons, probably caused more ill-feeling than any other cause, for the result was to reduce hundreds of thousands of men temporanily to virtual, if not nominal, slavery. In the war of 1870-1 the Germans took some 400,000 French as prisoners. They were permitted, but in no way forced, to work in factories and elsewhere. During

the World War, with many exceptions, it is true, practically all able-bodied prisoners, except officers and non-commissioned officers, were ultimately forced to work. Early in 191g the British prisoners in German hands were invited to volunteer for work outside the main camps, They refused almost toa man. Then by degrees pressure was applied, and soon men who refused were punished for their refusal, and,

eventually, as mentioned below, a formal pronouncement on the subject was made by the German Military Courts. Meanwhile, a question arose as to the employment of noncommissioned officers, As early as February 1915, the German Government suggested certain privileges for superior noncommissioned officers, and eventually an agreement was come to, that non-commissioned officers should not be compelled to work, except as superintendents, unless they volunteered to do so. A camp was formed for non-commissioned officers at Grossenweder Moor, in the notorious X, Army Corps district, and steps were taken to obtain volunteers for work by withdrawing all privileges and forcing the men to march on parade for nine hours’ a day. The men did not voluntecr and eventually the conditions were improved.

The question of the nature of the work which could be properly demanded of prisoners of war was early found to be a diffcult one. In a war of nations such as the World War every able-bodied man replaced by a prisoner is a potential soldier, and, in these circumstances, any work in the enemy country might be said to be ‘indirectly connected with the operations of war,” especially in cases in which the prisoner was engaged in any step in the manufacture or transport of any one of the multitude of articles necessary for an army in the field. The position first taken up by the German authorities was that so long as prisoners did not actually handle the finished product—arms, ammunition and such like~—there was no infraction of the rules of international law. This, however, did not really cover the whole ground, and the matter was eventually formally considered by the German Miltary Courts, and

the following principles were laid down:— (1) The work on which a prisoner of war may be employed can

only be judged on the merits of each particular case.

(2) St is illegal to employ prisoners of war in the manufacture of

munitions intended for use against their native country or Its allies. (3) They may be employed in agricultural or forestry work, as ell as on military property, e.g. the improvement of parade and drill-grounds and of ritle ranges. (4) They may be employed on preparation work, e.g. the transport of coke or of ores for the manufacture of shells, because there is no direct connexion between such work and military operations.

(5) They can only claim exemption from such work as stands in direct relation to military operations in the area of hostilities,

These principles were accepted by the British War Office and the commanders-in-chief of the British armies, and seem on the whole to have been fairly acted on by the German authorities except behind the lines on the eastern and western fronts, though in some cases individual commandants attempted to force men to take part in the actual manufacture of such things

as Shells, parts of fuzes and the like. There seem to have been a large number of them employed in labouring work, handling the actual material for guns, shells, etc., in places where munitions were made, and some cases in which they had to take an active part in the manufacture of

the finished article certainly did occur.

At Krupp’s Germania

wharf at Kiel, prisoners were employed in riveting ships, includ-

ing the outsides of submarines, while at Mannheim a number of

British were made to work in the manufacture of sulphuric acid in the middle of a large munition factory.

PRISONERS The authorities naturally reserved to themselves the right to say what work the prisoncrs could be forced to do, but, at all events in the early years of the war, they promised to give to

the prisoners certificates that they had been forced todo the work to which they objected in order to protect them against

proceedings in their own country. The promise seems to have been very seldom kept. Setting aside work directly or indirectly connected with the operations of war there seems to have been no kind of work

which prisoners were not called on to perform.

They were

employed in every kind of manual labour, including work in mines, from skilled engineering to scavenging. This last scems to transgress the principles laid down in the German War Book, that “ these tasks’ (to which prisoners can be put) ‘ should

not be prejudicial to health nor in any way dishon@urable.” In Berlin prisoners were sent to work in a slaughterhouse; at

three places they were obliged to do scavenging in the public streets, while at two places at Kiel, and at four places near Berlin they had to collect and sort the rubbish of the town. The visitor of the protecting Power says in his report of one of

the places at Kiel where only British prisoners were employed, “the work the prisoners are called on to perform is of a particularly revolting character.” In Great Britain, the principles above stated having been accepted, prisoners were employed in accordance with them, but none were employed in mines, scavenging and refuse-sorting ber were employed in France connected with the opcrations

nor were such degrading tasks as imposed on them. A large numin various capacities not directly of war, and, after the Armistice,

in general salvage work. The organization of the working camps was much the same

in both countries. Each working camp was connected with a main camp, which was the centre for all administrative purposes and upon its books the prisoners were borne. In Germany

the working

camps

were

divided

into three

OF WAR

153

Food.—Article 7 imposes on the captor State the duty of maintaining its prisoners, and provides for their being treated as regards rations, quarters and clothing on the samc footing as

its own troops. This article is difficult to understand; it is not clear whether prisoners are to have the same rations as soldiers in the field or at home; or whether they are to be placed in barracks with the same space and conveniences as the captor's soldiers. How this last matter was actually dealt with has been already explained. Whatever may be the true construction of the article, none of the belligerents observed the letter of it with

regard to food.

Difficulties arose, not merely from the steadily

decreasing supplies, owing to the submarine war on one side and the blockade of Germany on the other, but also from the difference in the kind of food appreciated by the subjects of the two countrics. At a time when the Germans interned in England were receiving the full peace-time rations of the British soldier, they were complaining of the insufficiency and unpalatable nature of the food. On the other hand, the British prisoners— even when supplies were sufficient in Germany—complained of

the brown or black bread, and of the soup, which is liked by the continental working man. In England, after a short time, no rations were issued to

officers.

Canteens were established, and subject to regulations

for the prevention of undue luxury, the German officers could provide such food as they wished, which was prepared for them by cooks of their own nationality. In Germany it was different. Rations were issued, though not always partaken of. The British officers, at all events after the war had continued for some time, lived almost entirely on supplies obtained from home. ‘The rations in Germany were issued according to a scale based upon a scientific analysis of the composition of the food given, which showed a daily average in grammes of albumen, fat and carbo-hydrates, and the number of

calories. These, as determined by the Kriegs mìnisterium for the last week in Sept. 1916 at Parchim Camp, averaged daily

classes:—(a) those which the representative of the protecting Power might visit freely and sce the men at their work and in

756, 245, 368-4 and 2,0194 respectively.

their quarters; (4) those in which he might sce them in their quarters but not at work; and (¢) those in which he was admitted

that in July 1918, nearly two years later, it was agreed between the representatives of Great Britain and Germany, who met at The Hague, that the combatant prisoners of war should receive as far as possible the same allowance of rationed articles of food

neither to the work nor to the quarters but was allowed to sce

one or more prisoners outside. It has been suggested that this classification was due to the influence of some of the great industrial magnates who objected to their works being visited by outsiders, but, however this may be, the third class was a very

small one, and the prohibition with regard to the second and third classes does not appear to have been very strictly enforced. Pay.—The provisions of the Hague Convention with regard to pay are too vague to be of any real value. In the II, Army Corps district the German regulations, which

It perhaps throws some light on the sufficiency of this ration

as the civil population, and that in no case should the daily calorific value fall below 2,000 calories for non-workers, 2,500 for ordinary workers, and 2,800 for heavy workers. It may be doubted, however, whether at any time in German

camps the prisoners received even these moderate amounts of food; and as the supplies became more difficult to obtain, they probably received considerably less, even in the working camps.

Even if they did, such things as fish roe, soya flour, soya oil,

may be taken as typical, seemed to contemplate a payment by

buckwheat and “ blutwurst ” do not appeal to a British soldier,

the employer of the cusiomary tary administrative department lodging, guarding, etc., and the quarter, which he received in

however admirable they may be from a scientific point of view as articles of food, especially when they are all boiled together and given in the form of soup.

local wages, of which the militook three-quarters for board, prisoner was credited with one token money. In practice, a

prisoner working on the land generally himself received 30 pf. a day, in mines from 73 to 90 pf., and in industrial works from ṣo

pf. to even several marks a day. In some cases a premium was paid to prisoners who did more than the minimum. Prisoners of war in British hands, when employed by the Government, received the same rate of pay as that given to British soldiers as working pay. When employed by private persons or corporations the employcr in England was obliged to pay the full current rate of wages to the Government by whom the prisoner was paid. Piece-work or task-work was adopted where possible and extra pay given where the task was exceeded. The rates were so adjusted that a man of moderate industry could earn the equivalent of time-work earnings, and a very

industrious man could earn more.

Time-work

was paid at

rates which ranged according to circumstances from 1s. 4d. to

8d. a day.

These sums were credited to the prisoner, but power

was reserved to the commandant to decide the amount actually issued to the prisoner.

=

E

In England the scales were not drawn up in exactly the same way. If we take the principal articles of food, up to the middle of 1916 the German prisoners received a daily ration of 1} Ib. of bread, 8 oz. of fresh or frozcn meat or 4 oz. of preserved, 2 02. of cheese and 1 oz. of margarine. By Dec. 1917, the ration had

been much reduced.

The bread ration was 13 oz., for 4 oz. of

which broken biscuit was substituted when obtainable. Mcat was given on three days a week only, but a ration of ro oz. of herring was added on two days. The 2 oz. of cheese and 1 oz. of margarine were given fill Oct. 1918, when both were reduced. Tn the case of non-workers, the bread in Oct. 1918 was reduced

by a quarter of a pound, the cheese omitted, and the margarine

further reduced.

In England, as in Germany, the prisoners had

to share in the privations of the civilian population. In both countries the rations were supplemented by parcels of food which were sent to the prisoners. At first they were sent

from England by individuals and associations, but before long great abuses arose. Some British prisoners received large numbers of parcels, not infrequently far beyond any possible require-

154

PRISONERS

ments. Others received nothing, and there can be no doubt that in not a few cases gross fraud was practised on sympathetic persons. Early in 1915 the Prisoners of War Help Committee was established in London. It tried to coördinate the work of the different associations and individuals, but failed as it had no powers, and was dissolved in Sept. 1916, when

the Central

OF WAR dier’s military equipment, and that the captors were entitled to take them. The clothing in any case supplied by the Germans was quite insufficient, and arrangements were made by which an adequate supply was despatched according to a regular staile. Some of it went astray and some was stolen, although a good proportion reached the addressees. In England clothing was

Prisoners of War Committee of the British Red Cross and Order

issued when necessary to enemy prisoners, other than officers,

of St. John was officially established and without its authoriza-

on a regular scale, which provided for them having a sufficient change of clothing, while in both countries officers made their own arrangements for the supply of the necessary clothing. Application of the Military Law of the Captors.—Article 8

tion no individual or body could send a parcel to a prisoner.

Amongst its functions were (1) to authorize commilices, associations and approved shops to pack and despatch parcels to prisoners of war, (2) to control and codrdinate the work of alk

enacts that prisoners of war are subject to the laws, regulations

such committees, associations and shops, and (3) to act as a care

and orders in force in the army of the captor State, a provision

committee for all prisoners who for any reason were without a care committee, for all civilian prisoners, and, after Oct. 1917,

which gave rise to a good deal of trouble, owing, in England, to the difheuky of carrying it out strictly—while in some cases, as in Bulgaria, punishments were allowed—such as flogging—for ordinary breaches of discipline—which were quite alien to British

for all officer prisoners. Under the presidency of Sir Starr Jameson, Bart., and, after his death, of the Ear] of Sandwich, the committee of which Sir P. D. Agnew was vice-chairman and managing-director, not

ideas of what is permissible.

only organized the whole of the despatch of parcels of food and other things to the prisoners of war by 181 care committees, 81

The German military law is in general far more severe than the British, and there is this further great difference, that in Germany officers as well as men may be summarily sent to cells

local associations and 67 shops, but packed and despatched par-

or awarded other severe punishments for trivial offences, while

cels to individual officers and men, numbering, at the date of

in the United Kingdom, strictly, any offender above the rank oi

the Armistice, no less than 47,500. Three parcels of 11 Ib. weight were sent cach fortnight Lo every prisoner and contained, together with 13 lb. of bread sent once a fortnight from Copen-

private should have been tried by court-martial, a provision amended during the war by the substitution of military courts.

hagen or Berne, sufficient, without other food, ta maintain a man doing reasonably hard work. Officers did net come under the scheme till the autumn of 1917.

In another respect the German code is more severe in that all sentences of arrest involved solitary confinement, while one of

close arrest, which was limited to four weeks, meant that the prisoner was confined in a dark cell, with a plank bed and bread

At first the scheme was very unpopular, because it interfered with the power of individuals to send what they hked to their

and water diet, though these aggravations of the punishment

friends, and in April 1917, a Joint Committee of both Houses of

day, the prisoner receiving the ordinary camp dict on these days. One punishment officially termed “field punishment,” but

Parliament was appointed to enquire into it.

The report was

published in June of that year, and while paying a high tribute of praise to the work accomplished made certain suggestions which did much to allay the discontent, as they provided for the introduction of the personal touch into the parcels. In its main features the scheme continued ti the end of the war.

Besides the despatch of parcels to individuals the Committce sent food, either in bulk or jn the form of emergency parcels, to the larger camps in Germany, for newly captured prisoners.

Though it is obvious that the despatch of parcels of food on the great scale indicated above relieved the German Govern-

ment of a very great responsibility, yet it must be recognized that credit is due to the German nation for the fact that all but a smal] percentage reached the addresses to which they were sent,

notwithstanding that they contained articles unobtainable Germany, except by the very rich.

in

Though it is true that the parcels arrived, it is also true that in some camps the German commandants as a punishment delayed or prohibited for some days or even weeks their issue to the addressees, and that there were complaints as to the way in which the censaring of the contents of the parcels, necessary

of course to prevent the introduction of prohibited articles, was carricd out. Latterly, however, in all good camps the parcels were opened in the presence of the addressee, and the tinned food was stored and not opened till it was required. Owing to the increasing shortage of food in Germany, and to

the fact that the rations in England for a long time were maintained at a reasonable level, the number of parcels sent to German prisoners was far smaller than that sent to British prisoners. At first a considerable amount of food was sent into the German

prisoners’ camps in England from their relations and friends residing in Great Britain, but when the shortage became acute it became necessary to prohibit this practice.

The Hague Convention also requires the captor to treat his prisoners as regards clothing on the same footing as his own soldiers. The German Government claimed that it strictly observed this article and forbade the sending of clothing by the

British Government.

The article was not observed at all in

some German camps, and great trouble was caused by the claim, in at all events some army carps, that boots were part of a sal.

were omitted on the fourth, eighth and subsequently every third more generally known in England as the “ post punishment,”

caused a great outcry in that country and much resentment among British prisoners in Germany. It is provided in the German Manual of Military Law that the punishment is to be inflicted in a manner not detrimental to the health of (he prisoner, who is to be kept in an upright position with the back turned to a wall or a tree in such a manner that the prisoner can neither sit nor lie down. These last words were construed to mean tying the prisoner to a post; sometimes his feet were placed on a brick which was removed after he was securely ticd, and sometimes his hands were secured above his head. Apart, at all events, from these ageravations, this punishment was in strict

accordance with the military law of the captors; indeed ìt corresponds to the field punishment No. 1 authorized by the British military law and described in the rules for field punishment for ofiences Committed on active service made under Sec. 44 of the Army Act. These rules authorize the keeping of the offender in fetters or handcuffs or both, and when so kept he may be attached by straps or ropes for a period or periods not exceeding 1wo hours in any one day to a fixed object during not more than three out

of four consecutive days nor more than twenty-one days in all. In Germany all prisoners are liable to be treated as “in the ficld,” i.e. on active service. In one respect, viz. ihe punishments for attempted escape, the German military law was less severe than the British, the greater

severity of the latter having apparently arisen from a misunderstanding of the expression “ peines disciplinaires ” in the second paragraph of the 8th Article of the llague Convention. This seems to have been understood on the Continent as a punishment which could be awarded summarily: that is, arrest, open, medium or close, for a period not exceeding six weeks. In Great Britain the punishment was limited to 12 months’ imprisonment, in Germany it was far less for the simple offence, though it was

frequently added to by the addition of charges for damaging Government property, and the like. The matter came under discussion between the British and German Delegates at The Hague in 1917 and 1918, and an agreement was arrived at by which the punishment for a simple attempt to escape was to be limited to fourteen days, or if accompanied with offences relating

PRISONERS to the appropriation, possession of or injury to property to two months’ military confinement. In addition to the summary punishments, there were, of course,

OF WAR

155

A building or tent might be erected in the camp with the consent of the general officer in command

of the district or

army corps, but nothing might be sold in it nor could any one

in both countrics the punishment of death and imprisonment,

be employed there other than a prisoner.

which could only be inflicted by court-martial. In some cases the German code lays down minimum punishments of great

association might visit the camp once a week for a definite time.

severity, and in many of those cases, in which the infliction of very severe punishments properly raised 2 great outcry in Eng-

land, the German court-martial had no option but to pass them. The British military law on the other hand has only one offence —murder—for which there is a fixed punishment; for others it is “such Jess punishment as is in the Act mentioned.” In one respect the prisoners of both countries never were satisfied. Neither understood or appreciated the procedure of the other. The British never understood the long delays, sometimes it is to be feared deliberate, which occurred in bringing them to trial for alleged offences, and during which they were kept under arrest, nor, owing to their ignorance of the German military code, could they understand the very severe sentences

necessarily

passed

by courts-martial

(which

seem

A member of the

He might hold services, provide materials for games, entertainments and employment, arrange instructional courses, provide books (subject to censorship) and writing materials other than writing paper and envelopes. Nothing might be given to or received by a prisoner without the commandant’s consent. Recreation. —No express provision is contained in the Hague Convention

relating to the occupation

of prisoners in their

Icisure time, but much of the good work done by the societies had to do with the recreation and education of prisoners. In both countries, and in nearly all camps, provision was eventually

made for sufficient space for recreation and exercise, but this was not the case at first.

At Halle, for instance, a German camp

for officers, established in a disused factory, the only place for exercise was the space enclosed by the three buildings, in which some 500 officers lived, It measured about 100 yards by 50,

usually to have been conducted with fairness), nor the right of the prosecutor to appeal against a sentence which he considered

and in winter was a morass of water and mud; in summer deep in dust. In some of the men’s camps the space was very con-

to be inadequate.

fined, and organized games of any kind were impossible.

On the other hand, the Germans never appreciated the British procedure, nor could they understand the absence of any right of formal appeal from a sentence, for which ample provi-

Jater things improved, and in most provision, sometimes at the prisoners’ expense, was made for suficient room for tennis, football and other games.

sion is made in Germany, even against the award of a disciplinary punishment, a right which, oddly enough, by Sec. 52 of the Regulations relating to it, the accused shared with the prose-

cutor “ only when the sentence has been carried out.” Parole.—Articles 10, 11 and 12 deal with the subject of parole. In the World War no combatant prisoners, with one exception, were allowed to leave Germany or Great Britain on parole, or to reside outside the camps. The only cases in which questions arose were with regard to the temporary parole given when officers left their camps for a walk, and the parole given by those who were interned in neutral countries.

According to the

custom of the British Army no officer ought to give his parole,

it being his duty to escape and rejoin his unit if he can, nor can anyone below the rank of officer give a parole.

In both coun-

tries, however, officers were eventually allowed to go out for a walk in parties accompanied by an officer, each giving in writing a temporary written parole that he would not attempt to escape, nor during the walk make arrangements to escape, nor do any-

thing to the prejudice of the captor State. The parole was given on leaving the camp and returned on reéntry, The case of those interned in neutral countrics was different. The British officers of the Royal Naval Division interned in Holland after the fall of Antwerp were permitted to choose their

own residence in Groningen on parole, the men being interned close by. This privilege was withdrawn for a time, and the officers were interned in a fortress, but it was restored later. As time went on, the Netherlands

Government

permitted

officers to return to England and Germany on parole, on proof of the serious illness of a near rclative, a concession which was afterwards extended so that regular periods of leave were en-

joyed by both officers and men, the former giving a formal parole and the latter a promise to return on the expiration of

their leave, while the British Government gave its assurance that the men would not be employed on any work to do with war, and would return at the end of their leave.

Similarly, the

Danish and Norwegian Governments granted leave to British and German combatants interned in their countries. No parole seems to have been taken from those officers who

were interned in Switzerland or Holland under the agreements made in 1917 and 1918 with the German Government.

Relief Societies.~-Article 15 deals with societies for the relief of prisoners.

An immense amount of valuable work, impossible

here to particularize, was done by such societies,

The Ameri-

can branch of the Y M.C.A. especially did much for the prisoners in England and Germany, being permitted to work on the following conditions, substantially the same in both countries.

In England, facilities were provided by the War Office.

But

To

take two typical instances, it may be said that at Donnington Hall for German officers, there was a considerable space in front of the house, and at Dorchester, for men, there was a large ficld where any games could be played.

As time went on, walks outside the camp were permitted for officers on their giving a temporary parole, and in Germany, in some of the larger working camps, the men were allowed out for walks on Sunday.

With regard to educational facilities, in England both officers

and men made their own arrangements, as they did in Germany, with the full concurrence of the authorities. At Miinster, for instance, the general officer commanding excused all students

from work, and much was done by some of the prisoners in the organization of classes and lectures. he neutral organizations, such as the American and Danish Y.M.C.A.’s, also did a great

deal in this direction, as did certain of the German civilians in the neighbourhood of the great camp at Gottingen. Professor Stange and some of his colleagues interested themselves in the prisoners and organized the educational work in the camp, and he himself had an office there where he was accessible to prisoners, and assisted them with his advice on educational matters. He used even to obtain the requisites for games through the

Red Cross in Switzerland. British

prisoners

were

Unfortunately for them, all the

ultimately

removed

from

Göttingen,

which had become something of a model camp. Some of the larger employers were also very considerate in this respect, providing recreation halls and fields for playing games, and even musical instruments. At Mulheim the Dutch visitor found the employers had paid the expenses of the prisoners’ Christmas festivities. Leiters.—Article 16 was observed by both countries, except that at one time in some of the camps in Germany customs duties were charged on the contents of parcels, but this seems to have been due to some misapprehension, and was soon abandoned. Prisoners were as a rule allowed to write two letters a month and a postcard every week, and, in addition, a postcard

in the prescribed form acknowledging the receipt of a parcel. But later in the war a“ first capture postcard ” was introduced, by which on a printed form a prisoner was allowed to notify to his relatives his capture, his state of health and his address. Pay.—Article 17 provides for officers receiving the same rate of pay as officers of the corresponding rank in the army of the captors This provision was not observed by the German Government, who paid subalterns 60 marks a month and other ranks rather more. Accordingly, the British Government

PRISONERS OF WAR

156

declined to carry out the terms of the article and paid the Ger-

or after recovery, and for handing over the sick and wounded

man subalterns 4s. a day and other ranks 4s. 6d., naval officers being -paid according to their relative rank. Out of this an officer was required to pay for his food, laundry and clothing,

to a neutral State to be interned by it till the conclusion of

a deduction being made if he was in hospital (where, of course, he was provided with everything necessary), By an arrangement made later the German Government was allowed to make

a small addition to these daily rates of pay.

Medical officers

employed in the care of sick and wounded prisoners of their own nationality received the full pay of medical officers of corres-

ponding rank in the army of the captors. Religious Exercises. —Article 18 is designed to secure to prisoners complete liberty in the exercise of their religion, and during the World War no real complaint was made on cither side,

In the United Kingdom German pastors who had been resident in the country were allowed to hold services in the camps, but difficulties arose and the permission was withdrawn, Thereupon some pastors elected to be interned, with a view to min-

istering to the prisoners. Later, however, the permits were issued in 2 modified form, and English and American clergy and

laymen and members of the Danish and Swiss Student Christian

hostilities. What was in fact done must be considered under three heads: the attention given (1) in the regular hospitals, (2) in the main camps and (3) in the working camps. Hospitals-—In Germany at first there seem to have been inadequate arrangements made for the reception of seriously wounded prisoners, but later well-arranged and well-equipped hospitals were available, the principal being in Berlin, at Cologne and Paderborn, though of course there were a large number elsewhere, As time went on and the pressure on Germany became more and more acute, the supply of medical requisites became deficient, bandages were made of paper, drugs and

anaesthetics were less plentiful, but, though naturally British prisoners would fare worse than the wounded Germans, there is no evidence that the former were intentionally deprived of anything necessary for them if there was an adequate supply. The conduct of the German doctors to the prisoners in the regular hospitals is one of the bright pages in the sad history of the World War, and is worthy of their great profession. Most

now and then in order to enable the prisoners to go to confession

of the returned British prisoners reported that the doctors were kind and humane, while many of them spoke of them in warmest possible terms and told how the doctor had said that when a prisoner was wounded or ill he no longer looked on him as an enemy, or how, though he hated the English, he did his very best. There were exceptions, who formed a very small minority. The large majority of German doctors worked hard, often with infinite kindness, in the interests of those in their charge, and unreservedly placed such knowledge and skill as they possessed

and to hear a sermon in their mother tongue.

at the disposal of the prisoners.

Movement were allowed to visit the camps, the necessary funds

being provided

by the American

Branch

of the Y.M.C.A.

The Roman Catholic prisoners were usually attended by the priest’ of the district in which the camp was situated and every facility was given to them. Where no German-speaking priest

was at hand the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster charged the German priests of his archdiocese to visit the camps every

In Germany, at first, the Rev. F. Williams, who had been in

The nursing in Germany was carried out by orderlies, by

charge of the English Church in Berlin, was allowed to visit the

trained nurses or by sisterhoods. It seems to have varied very much, In same cases jt was good and kind, in some indifferent, and in some rough and bad. But there appears to be no reason

different camps and hospitals,

But this permission was with-

drawn and the prisoners were left to conduct their own services, to which, except at Grossenweder Moor, no objection was raised. A few British chaplains were captured, and dict good

work until they were repatriated. also by the American branch deacon

Nies, an

American

Main Cumps.—The same satisfactory account of the medical arrangements in the main German camps cannot be given, even after the first disorganization was overcome. There was in each camp a lazaret providing accommodation for a number propor-

clergyman

at Munich,

until

the

very warmly by the British prisoners.

Catholics were

more

easily met

owing to the presence among the French prisoners of many

priests who did excellent work, and the Bishop of Paderborn (afterwards Archbishop of Cologne) did much for the prisoners. Moreover, Father Crotty was sent from Rome and was permitted to minister at Limburg and Giessen, partly perhaps because he was an Irishman, and it was hoped his influence might be useful to the Germans.

In the German working camps there was no regular provision for rcligious services, though Mr. Williams seems to have visited

some of the larger places, and in one district a German pastor is

said to have travelled around the small camps and ministered to the prisoners.

ministerium

circumstances permitted.

of the ¥.M.C.A., and by Arch-

United States came into the war. The German clergy also did what they could for the prisoners in many camps and hospitals, Some of them were spoken of The needs of the Roman

to think that in any case it was intentionally less good than

Great assistance was given

There was a standing order of the Kriegs-

that, at all events in the country districts, the

prisoners should be allowed to attend the local churches. This, though of value to Roman Catholics, was not much use to the Protestants, owing to the difficulties of language. At Zossen the Germans built a mosque for Mahommedan prisoners, and generally arrangements seem to have been made to avoid hurting religious and caste prejudices. Medical Treatment.—Up to this point an attempt has been made to show how the provisions of the Hague Convention were applied in Great Britain and Germany. But this Convention does not deal with everything which affects the well-being of prisoners of war. The Geneva Convention of 1906 requires

tionate to the number for which the camp was designed, but the arrangements were often very Incomplete. There seem to have been a large number of Russian doctors employed in the German camps, while in a few, for short periods, English medical officers were employed—though in all cases a

German seems to have been responsible.

The nursing was in

the main done by prisoner orderlics, many of whom of course were quite untrained, though they seem to have done their best.

It is impossible to generalize as to the conduct of the German medical staff in hundreds of camps over a period of four years, but the general impression produced by the evidence is that the staffs were humane and did all they could.

‘There is reliable evidence that the nature of the food provided in the German camp hospitals, as distinguished from the regular hospitals, where, until supplies became very short, it seems to have been satisfactory, was quite unsuited for invalids, A sick prisoner was a non-worker, and therefore received the ordinary camp ration, fess 10 per cent.

This was even the case in the

typhus camps, where the requisite milk and light food for the fever-stricken patiehts had to be provided by the British and Allied medical officers themselves. There seems to have been insufficient care, at al) events in the early stages of the war, to prevent the spread of tuberculosis

by the segregation from the healthy of those suffering from that disease.

Later, however, steps were taken to effect this, and

more than one place was established exclusively for tuberculous

patients, while the arrangement made for their internment in Switzerland did still more to deal with this evil.

at

It must not of course be said that this mingling of the sick and healthy was deliberate. It was probably due to want of

liberty to agree for the restoration of wounded left on the field, the repatriation of wounded after rendering them fit for removal

by the German Government of mixing all the Allies together,

the belligerents to respect and take care of the wounded and Sick without

distinction

of nationality,

and

leaves them

thought, an excuse which cannot be made for the policy adopted

PRISONERS OF WAR although this was bound in the circumstances to lead to an excessive amount of illness.. This policy was quite deliberate. Mr, Gerard, the American ambassador to Germany, in 1915 raised the question with the German authorities with regard to officers, and reported: “‘ I was told that this was a political move ordered for the purpose of showing to the French, British, Belgian and Russian officers that they were not natural Allies.” The commandant of the Gardelegen camp tried to enforce the observance of this regulation during the height of the typhus epidemic at that camp, but his direct order was deliberately dis-

obeyed by the British doctors, with excellent results, Though this policy did not produce any ill effects upon the health of the prisoners in the officers’ camps in Germany, its results, assisted by the insanitary condition of many of them, were disastrous in the main men’s camps. Typhus is endemic in Russia, and the Russian prisoners, herded together with those of other nationalities, spread the disease till in some camps appalling epidemics were produced. At Ohdruf, Langensalza, Zerbst, Wittenberg and Gardelegen the fever raged with great

virulence.

At Wittenberg the camp was overcrowded and in-

sanitary, the washing arrangements were nothing more

than

troughs in the open, which, with the supply pipes, were during the hard winter of 1914 frequently frozen. In these circumstances, a serious epidemic broke out in Dec. 1914. As soon as this was recognized, the whole German staff, military and medical, Ieft, and never came inside again till Aug. 19015, by which time all the patients were convalescent.

combating the epidemic medical officer, received ish medical officers had after their capture, and

For his services in

Dr. Aschenbach, the German principal the Iron Cross. Many Allicd and Britbeen improperly detained in Germany were dispatched to take the place of the

German doctors, who (it is charitable to believe, in obedience to

superior orders) had deserted their charges. In Feb. rors, six: British medical officers were sent to the camp which they found in a state of misery and disorganization. Of the six, three died of the fever, as did several French and Russian doctors. Notwithstanding the fact that there seem to have been ample sup-

plies of medical necessaries available, the difficulty of obtaining sufficient drugs and dressings was extreme. There was not even any soap till one of the British doctors obtained a supply at his own

expense from England, nor, till April 1915, were

beds or bedding for patients requiring hospital treatment improvised in one of the barracks.

There were between 700 and

$00 British prisoners among at least 15,000 in all, who, incredible

as it may seem, were confined in an area not exceeding 10} acres. Of the British about 300 were attacked by the disease and 60 died. At Gardelegen the same story was repeated. As soon as it was apparent in February 1915 that something was wrong, cap-

tured medical officers were dispatched to Gardelegen, where

the conditions were favourable for the propagation of disease. Though there were empty huts in the camp, the commandant refused to allow them to be used, and the prisoners’ rooms were very overcrowded, the nationalities, as usual, being all mixed

up together.

To each company of 1,200 men was allotted for

washing one outdoor trough, which was often frozen, and there

was a small hut containing at the most thirty showers for 11,000 men.

The place was bitterly cold, the heating arrangements

entirely inadequate, consequently the huts were kept closed, and the atmosphere therein became foul.

Four days after the

arrival of the Allied medical officers every German had left the camp, and the commandant, standing outside the barbed wire, informed the medical officers that no person or thing was to pass out, and that they were responsible for the discipline and general internal arrangement of the camp, and for the care of the sick. Dr, Wenzil, the German principal medical officer, left the camp with the rest, but soon afterwards died of typhus. His two successors never came inside the camp. But the third, Dr. Kranski, a civilian, came in March and devoted himself seriously to the welfare of the camp, and, though he took no part in the care of the sick, did much to improve the sanitation, and in that way to aid the medical men in their work. It is un-

necessary to go through the whole story of the struggles to obtain

I5/

the barest requisites in the way of food, drugs, dressings or furniture. The plague was stayed after four months, during which over 2,000

cases

were

treated

out

of

11,000

mortality being about 15% of those attacked.

prisoners,

the

Of the 16 Allied

medical officers, 12 took_the disease and 3 died, while of ro

French priests, who devoted themselves to the care and nursing of the sick, eight were attacked and five succumbed. The epidemics at Wittenberg and Gardelegen in these circumstances of gratuitous suffering and official callousness made a world-impression never likely to be entirely effaced, but it is

only just to add that the German authorities, having learnt their lesson at the cost to others of so much suffering and death, did their best, too late indeed, to remedy the defects, and Gar-

delegen and Wittenberg eventually became, if not model, at all events fairly satisfactory camps. German Working Camps.—In mines and large industrial places, there was gencrally a small sick-bay containing from two

or three beds up to perhaps a dozen, in charge of a German Sanitäter. There was no resident doctor, but a civilian practitioner called in well-managed camps daily, in others at intervals varying from twice a week he was summoncd as soon fit. In the smaller camps local practitioner, which

to four weeks. In case of accident as the Feldwebel in charge thought reliance was placed simply on the ordinarily was sufficient provision, though in some places, such as the large land reclamation camps

in Hanover, the nearest doctor might live at any distance up to 20 kilometres. A prisoner seriously ill or injured was cither taken to the hospital at the main camp to which his commando was attached, or sent to the local hospital, military or civil. The real defect in the medical arrangements in these places

was that too much power was Icft in the hands of the person in charge to decide whether a man reporting sick should see the doctor or not. The regulations in the IL. Army Corps district provided that there must be a clinical thermometer in each commando, and the guard was to be instructed in the use of it.

No prisoner was to be sent to work who had a temperature above 38° (100.4° Fahrenheit). This seems to have been construed as meaning that the prisoner was to be sent to work unless hg could show that temperature. Armed with his thermometer the Feldwebel in charge often declined to allow the prisoner to see the doctor. The test was in some cases sufficient, in many it was no test at all, and the results were sometimes fatal.

British Medical Arrangements.—In the United Kingdom the arrangements for the treatment of sick and wounded prisoners did not differ in essentials from those made in Germany. At first there were no special hospitals for them, but in Sept. 1015

a large hospital was opened at Dartford. This accommodation, however, soon became insufficient, and at the time of the Armistice there were seven hospitals entirely set apart for prisoners. In addition to these large hospitals there was a hospital with beds to the number of about 2° of the prisoners, for the treat-

ment of minor and urgent cases; while in the working camps the services of the local practitioner were given as required. In exceptional cases prisoners requiring special treatment sent to an ordinary military or civil hospital.

were

Repatriation —Closely allicd with the matter of medical treatment is the question of repatriation and internment in a neutral country. As carly as Jan. 1915, an agreement for repatriation of incapacitated officers was made, There was at first no agreement as to the degree of incapacity sufficient to entitle an officer to repatriation, but in August of that year an agreement was arrived at, which was slightly amended in October. It included 13 injuries or complaints entitling a person to be repatriated, which may be summed up as being such that the person was permanently, or for a calculable period, unfit for military service in the army, or in the case of an officer or noncommissioned officer, from service in training or office work.

But besides this direct repatriation of totally incapacitated persons, many prisoners were sent to Switzerland or Holland. In the spring of 1916 an agreement was made with the Ger-

man and Swiss Governments by which prisoners whose disabilities fell within an agreed schedule, but were not sufficient to

PRISONERS OF WAR

158

justify direct repatriation should be transferred to Swiss custody. They were selected by mixed travelling boards composed of

Swiss medical men and medical officers of the captor State, those selected being afterwards examined by a Control Board,

whose decision was final. After the Conference at The Hague in 1917, these travelling boards were abolished, and the first selec-

tion made by the camp medical officer, an arrangement subsequently modified at the meeting of 1918.

The guiding principles for internment in Switzerland were stated in r9r7 as follows:— The following shall be interned:—(1) Sick and wounded whose

treatment of prisoners in Germany, partly owing to the fact that

only stories of horrors were published in England and the Allied countries, partly owing to the prominence given to this subject

as a method of Allied war-propaganda, in the dramatic form of cinematograph films, and notably in the pictures relating to the work of Mr. Gerard, the American ambassador.

Some of the storics thus circulated were untrue.

As an

instance, it may be recorded that every story as to the tattooing

of prisoners by the Germans, to which great prominence was given, pictures of the alleged victims being produced in the cheap

recovery may be anticipated within a year, and whose cure will be

illustrated papers, was, as far as possible, carefully investigated and was in no case shown to have any foundation. But the

oners of war whose bealth in the opinion of the medical authorities appears to be seriously menaced cither physically or mentally by the prolongation of captivity, and who would probably be saved from

once in the hands of the Germans was subject to every kind of indignity and cruelty.

If the person’s disabilities increased so as to bring him within the category entitled to direct repatriation, he was to be sent home.

judicial conclusion unaffected by the passions of war. The materials fordoingsoareample. In the summer of 1915 a committee, presided over by Lord Justice Younger, was appointed by the British Government to enquire into the treatment by the enemy of British prisoners of war. As far as possible, each escaped or repatriated prisoner was examined by a person

more speedily and surely brought about by the facilities obtainable in Switzerland than by a prolongation of imprisonment, (2) Pris-

this danger by internment in Switzerland.”

i

In 1917 the Netherlands Government offered to receive in all 16,000 persons, British and German, divided into three categories:

(1) invalid combatants (7,500); (2) officers and non-commissioned officers who had been in captivity for 18 months (6,500); and (3) invalid civilians (2,000).

This offer formed the basis

stories had their effect, for an idea got abroad that a prisoner

Tt is possible now to weigh all the evidence, and express a

experienced

in taking evidence, and arrangements

were also

of the agreement made between the British and German Governments at The Hague in June 1917. By that agreement the

made by the committee for examining the prisoners interned in neutral countries. In all, over 3,500 persons who had been

schedule of disabilities for the invalids was the same as in the case of Switzerland, except that the British Government insisted

prisoners in Germany, including 445 officers and 90 medical officers, were examined by this committee during the war, and

with the assent of Switzerland that tuberculous patients should

go to that country.

Much resentment was felt in consequence

of the exclusion of privates who had been 18 months in captivity from the benefit of this agreement. But the British delegates were powerless. Every attempt to induce the German dele-

most of their statements were printed and all indexed. After the Armistice the committee was asked to arrange that every returned prisoner should have an opportunity of making any complaint he wished. A questionnaire was carcfully prepared and handed to every returned prisoner on his arrival at one of

gates to agree to their inclusion was vain. The provisons of the agreement arrived at in ror7 were largely extended at a further meeting in 1918, by which all warrant and non-commissioned officers, as well as men who had been prisoners of war for more than 18 months, should, with

‘the dispersal camps to which all prisoners were scent

exceptions, be repatriated, head for head and rank for rank.

and, if so, what it was. The result was remarkable.

General Treatment.—So far an attempt has been made to show

how the principal articles of the Hague and Geneva Conventions

relating to prisoners of war were applied in Great Britain and Germany during the World War. It remains to be considered how far the over-riding principle laid down in Article 4 of the Hague Convention was observed. That article requires first, that prisoners must be treated with humanity; and second, that

all their personal belongings, except arms, horses and military papers, shall remain their property. With regard to the second requirement charges were made against both armies that this obligation was not observed, and it cannot be doubted that on both sides the wounded were sometimes on their first capture relieved of valuables. But this was not due to any official action; it was due to the unauthorized and wrongful acts of individuals. In respect of one matter only

was there anything which could be treated as an authorized disregard of this article. British prisoners often had their boots taken from them by the Germans, either at first capture or later even in the camps in the interior of Germany. This was justified by the Germans on the ground that a man’s boots were as

being allowed to return home.

before

Each company of returning

men was addressed by the person in charge of the investigation, and he impressed on the men the importance of stating frankly

whether there was any complaint that they desired to make, less than 170,000 forms issued only some

Out of not

59,000 were

even

returned, and of these only about 22,000 contained information of any value whatever. While this information was being collected, the then AttorneyGeneral, Sir F. E. Smith (afterwards Lord Birkenhead), appointed a further committee

to enquire into the

breaches of the

Jaws of war, the sub-committee dealing-with prisoners being under the presidency of Mr. committee carefully considered

Justice Peterson. This subthe whole of this mass of evi-

dence, and, in addition, the reports, nearly 2,000 in number, of the American and Dutch representatives who visited the

camps. The German military law was also carefully studied. Information was thus obtained with regard to 57 camps for officers and 78 main camps for men, besides the working camps,

the number of which, shown by lists (admittedly not quite complete) from time to time furnished by the German authorities to the Netherlands minister, was 7,157. There were certainly not less than 7,500 places in all where one or more British

prisoners were at one time or another confined, in addition to

much a part of his military equipment as his arms, and that

the camps on the eastern and western fronts, which are left for scparate consideration.

therefore they were entitled to take them away. This claim seems only specious; the practice it sought to support or excuse

The result of the investigation was that complaints, some uncorroborated, some trivial and some very serious, were re-

certainly had the most cruel results in many cases, as men were forced to go about without any covering on their feet, or, if the

ceived as regards 929 places, in only 349 of which—rather less

boots were replaced, as they sometimes were, by wooden clogs,

call for further examination. It is clear, therefore, that no general charge of inhuman treat-

the men suffered much, especially during the winter or in mines from that unaccustomed footwear. However, in other respects this part of the article appears to have been fairly observed, though a somewhat liberal construction was placed on the expression “ military papers ” by both sides,

We turn now to the other part of the article, which enjoins that the prisoners must be treated with humanity. There existed during the war much misconception with regard to the

than 5% of the whole—did a first study of the evidence seem to ment is well-founded; it is, however, true that, apart altogether from the camps on the eastern and western fronts, there were actually, if not proportionately, a large number of cases in which

the German treatment of British prisoners was certainly bad,

and, in some cases, very bad.

To form a just estimate of the gravity of the situation so

disclosed, consideration must be given to the differences of the

PRISONERS OF WAR military law and disciplinary practice of the two countries, and

to the to the before actual

personal characteristics of the two peoples. With regard former, it is not necessary to repeat what has been said about the severity of the German military law, and in practice the officers and non-commissioned officers in the

German army are accustomed, apparently without lawful au-

thority, to ill-treat their men physically in a way which would not be toleratedin England. Moreover, the German is naturally more amenable to strict discipline than the average Briton. Much of the ill-treatment complained of in the camps resulted from one or other of the causes above indicated; for the rest a

disregard of the German military law or the regulations made for carrying that law into force was the main contributing cause. In this connexion the attitude of the civilian population cannot be ignored. The anger aroused by the entry of Great Britain into the war induced on the part of German men and

even German women crueltics which any decent person must look upon with disgust. It was inevitable that the passage of

159

young officers to attempt to escape, and, in some measure perhaps, owing to the inability of German officers to understand

the exuberance—even in captivity—-of British subalterns.

Men in the Alain Camps.—In the main camps the treatment on the whole seems to have been reasonable, and in some cases more considerate than might have been expected. There was the usual trouble from the cnforcement of a discipline far more severe than that to which the prisoners had been accustomed in their own army; from the violence with which the German noncommissioned officers treated offending prisoners, and, up to quite late In the war, from the use of savage police dogs in the camps, which the German Forcign Office declared to be ‘a military necessity, in view of the large number of prisoners of war

in Germany,” adding that, “ having regard to the inferior number of prisoners in England no comparison can be drawn between conditions in the two countries.” Trouble, and even loss of life, was caused by the too frequent use of firearms in some camps, a$, for instance, at Wittenberg, where on one occasion

to the interior of

men were ordered to return to their huts on a given signal and

Germany should be attended with suffering. But that men grievously injured should be subjected to insults and physical ill-treatment is horrible, and that women bearing the Red

the laggards were fired on. But such incidents were not general, and occurred only in camps where the commandant was quite unfit for his post. In most cases the prisoners were treated fairly, if strictly; in a few, of which Friedrichsfelde may be taken as anexample, at all events in its later stages, everything seems to have been done to make the prisoner’s lot as little irksome and unpleasant as possible. An exception must be made

wounded

prisoners

from

the battle-front

Cross should throw water on men crying in agony for a drink,

or should show to famished men soup and then pour it on the ground rather than allow them to partake of it is conduct almost incredible in its brutality. But such things occurred, not once or twice, but frequently in the early months of the war, and even later the conduct of civilians outside the prisoners’ camps is worthy of the severest condemnation. Happily, however, passions were allayed, and after the first year of the war prisoners

passed through from the front without being subjected to the insults and ill-treatment which unhappily were common at first.

in the case of Langensalza, where the treatment was from first to last rough in the extreme, a roughness which culminated just

after the Armistice in the shooting by the guard, hurriedly called upon the scene, of a number of prisoners who were pulling down a building, a proceeding condemned by the German Court of Enquiry as a breach of Article 4 of the Hague Convention.

Again, it was inevitable that, owing to the state of unpre-

Working Camps.—Still leaving out of consideration the camps

paredness and want of experience of all the belligerents, much

in the occupied districts on the eastern and western fronts, the

discomfort and suffering should be caused to those captured

early in the war.

This is passed over as being practically

unavoidable, and in what follows, unless otherwise clearly stated, the conditions recorded are those after the organization was or ought to have been fairly complete.

Officers—The treatment of officers in a camp depended very much on the commandant, and, to some extent, on the personality of the general of the army corps district in which the

camp was situated.

As officers were under no obligation to

work, one grievance which was so fruitful a cause of trouble in the men’s camps did not exist in their case. In some camps where, as at Crefeld, the commandant was a

gentleman, no valid complaint can be made of the treatment. In others, especially in the X, Army Corps district, where the

malign influence of Gen. von Hanisch was paramount,

some

of the commandants were neither gentlemen nor capable of understanding the feelings of gentlemen, and trouble. At Clausthal and Holzminden, brothers Niemeyer were commandants, the intolerable. There were continual arrests

great bulk of the ill-treatment occurred in the working camps, and by a curious paradox, itis in them that the best treatment is to be found. The ill-treatment was duc to two main causes: first, to the fact that, except in very large working camps, the person in charge was a non-commissioned officer, and, second, to

the passive resistance and in some cases the active insubordination of the British prisoners. The non-commissioned officers, trained in the schoo] of the German army and unrestrained by the presence of a superior officer, treated the prisoners in the way in which the rank and

file of the German army have so often been treated.

Men who

refused to work, or in the opinion of the guards did not work hard cnough, were kicked, spat upon, beaten with sticks, whips, clubs, rubber tubing, mining hammers and the butts of rifles.

Those who escaped and were recaptured not infrequently received severe beatings before they were reported as recaptured

there was continual |and were formally punished for their offence, And of which the twoj done notwithstanding the regulations, which, after rules in the main reasonable enough for the use of state of affairs was guard, continue as follows (the quotation is from for trivial offences

all this was

laying down arms by the the instruc-

But, worse than this, the

tions in force in the IY. Army Corps district):-—‘ Blows with the

guards had orders to use thcir bayonets and rifles without

hand or fist or with sticks or clubs and kicks are forbidden.

and endless pinpricks on both sides.

adequate cause, On one occasion an officer, for looking out of a window, was shot at by order of the commandant at Holzminden, but fortunately not hit. At Strohen, another camp in this district, two officers were seriously wounded in a bayonet charge

ordered personally by the commandant because a knot of them

had gathered near a prohibited part of the camp. One matter gave rise to much resentment. It was right and proper for the Germans to make occasional strict searches in view of the continual attempts to escape; but their method

of

carrying them out with detectives from Berlin assisted by police dogs which prowled round the completely stripped officers was offensive in the extreme. But these were exceptional places and incidents. In general,

Except in the most exceptional and unusual cases it is inexcusable to lay hands on a prisoner.” Even where the non-commissioned officer was lawfully inflicting punishment, he would often by his perverse ingenuity add

to its severity. Men were made to stand at attention on hot asphalted roofs, or before coke ovens, where they were nearly roasted, or sometimes in exposed positions without an overcoat in the freezing atmosphere of a winter’s night. At more than one mine, the dark cells, in which, according to the German law, prisoners of war under punishment were obliged to pass their periods of close arrest, were constructed in close proximity to

the main steam pipe and became so hot that the men had to strip themselves almost to the skin.

their

For all this there is no excuse or palliation possible; happily,

charges with courtesy and consideration, though in most cases there was occasional friction owing to the propensity of the

works the employers seem to have taken a real interest in their

the officers commanding

were gentlemen,

Who

treated

however, there is another side to record.

At some large German

PRISONERS

160 prisoners,

and to have done whatever in them lay to make

their lot endurable and even comfortable! On the farms and similar places, the relations between prisoners and their employers were frequently, as in Great Britain, even cordial, and more

than one repatriated British prisoner has spoken warmly of the kindness and consideration with which he was treated, though such cases were, of course, not common.

The impression produced by the study of all the available material is that there was neither in the main nor the working camps in Germany any officially recognized ill-treatment of prisoners; that there was, nevertheless, in many cases much cruelty by individuals, and that when as occasionally, but far

too infrequently, happened, a prisoner could bring home to the authorities that some individual had exceeded his powers and acted outside the regulations, the offender was punished, some-

times by being sent away to the front, sometimes by a sentence to a term of imprisonment. On the other hand, it is also clear that in some cases the prisoners were treated, not only with humanity, but with kindness. The reason for these contrasts is to be found in two things.

First, the personal character of the man in charge, and, second, the independence of the army corps commanders, and even to some extent of the camp commandants, who not only placed their own interpretation on the regulations, but sometimes acted in deliberate defiance of them.

Men in the Occupied Districts —While the above. represents the considered opinion which results from the study of the very voluminous material available with regard to the camps in the interior in Germany,

the same

conclusion cannot

be reached

when the evidence dealing with the camps in the occupied districts is examined. The cruelties inflicted on the prisoners in these places had their origin, and from the German point of view, their justifica-

tion, as reprisals for alleged ill-treatment of Germans in British hands. It is not proposed to give here an account of the reprisals enforced on one side or the other, more than to allude to the

severe conditions under which the first captured German sub-

OF WAR quired that their men should be removed te a distance of at least 30 km. behind the firing-lines and ‘“ provided there with accommodation in accordance with the season of the year and hygienic needs.” In default of the British Government notifying their compliance with these demands by Feb. 1 (the note verbale was dated Jan. 24 and received on Feb. 7), “a number of

British prisoners will be transferred from camps in Germany to the area of operations in the western theatre of war where, in respect of employment, accommodation, food, and the question

of mails, they will be treated in a manner corresponding to the practice of the British military authorities ’"—which means, of course, the practice alleged by the Germans, te. insufficient food, defective accommodation (only tents), hard work and irregular mails.

The British Government, in a note verbale for transmission to the German Government, dated Feb. 8 ror7, gave the explicit

assurance that the prisoners received the same food as the British troops, that 75% were in huts, the remainder being like

many British troops in specially warmed tents with floor boards, that strict orders had been given against their being employed

within the range of German gunfire though it was regretted that one man had been wounded bya shell which must have been fired at exceptionally long range, this being the only casualty which had occurred. Within ten days of the date of the British reply, 500 men were. sent, not to the western

were ‘officially trenches between lery zone by way forced to march snow-drifts knee

but to the eastern

front, and they.

informed” that they would be sent to the Riga and Mitau and remain within the artilof reprisal. On Feb. 25 these 500 men were 35 km. up the frozen river Aa, often through deep. Sledges followed to pick up the men

who broke down from exhaustion, while the escort of Uhlans

drove the stragglers on with lances and whips. were robbed of their kit and property.

Those who fell

Of the 500 who started,

between 120 and 130 are said to have collapsed on the march. ‘They were brought in by transport later, but through their

lying in the snow they were frost-bitten in the hands and feet.”

marine officers were interned in Great Britain, which resulted

Arrived at their destination, the men were kept waiting out-

in the German Government retaliating by selecting from among the officers in their hands who bore well-known names (including among them the son of the former British ambassador to Berlin) and imprisoning them under exceptionally rigorous conditions. Most of the reprisals, while unpleasant enough for the victims, were not such as to amount to real cruelty. But it is not too much to say that the treatment of the prison-

side a “ cavalry tent built on the ice of (marsh by) the river. It had wire beds on three racks, the bottom one being about one foot from the ground, so that the weight of a man’s body weighed

ers of war on the eastern and western fronts must, so long as

the terrible story is remembered, bring indelible disgrace on the German nation, and on those responsible for the appalling cruelty inflicted on defenceless men. It was quite deliberate, as the following facts will show. Eastern Front.—In the spring of 1916, German prisoners of war were sent to work at Rouen and Havre, and in May the German Government informed the British Government that it had in consequence decided to send 2,000 British prisoners to

the occupied Russian territory to work under similar conditions to those existing at Havre and Rouen. They were accordingly sent, divided into four companies of soo each, to four, main camps, from which they were sent in smaller parties to work on numerous farms and in road-making and tree-felling. There is no serious complaint to make of the central camps, but at the others the conditions were very hard, the accommodation bad, and the unter-ofiziers rough. On Feb. 7 1917, the British Government

received a German

note verbale in which complaint was made that a considerable number of Germans were detained behind the British front in France, where it was alleged the “ prisoners suffered from inadequate food, defective accommodation . . . as well as being subjected to hard work and irregularitiesin the matter of mails,”

and that they were exposed to. German gunfire which “ has resulted in several of them being killed.” The Germans re$In some places the prisoners were even taken periodically to the

local cinema, not always at their own expense,

=

=

070

it down till he was lying on the snow or the ice.” The next morning they were paraded, and a notice was read out giving the reasons why they were there.

The substance of

this notice is given by one of the British prisoners who heard it, as follows:— “You are here on a reprisal because the English have German prisoners working in the firing-line in France. They have bad accommodation, bad food, bad treatment; they are under fire and

36 men have lost their lives. In return,

you are to work here in the

fring-line and will get bad treatment, bad food, bad accommodation,

and 36 of you have got to die.” The way in which it corresponds with the substance of the

note verbale of Jan, 24, already quoted, which the soldier who gave the evidence could not possibly have heard of, cannot escape notice, any more than the fact that the accommodation provided corresponds with the complaint that some of the Germans at Havre and Rouen were lodged in tents.?

The threats contained in the notice were carried out to the letter. The accommodation was bad, the treatment was bad, the food was bad, and numbers of men died, while more lost toes, fingers or hand through frost-bite.

The tent was a large cavalry tent pitched on the frozen

marsh, with a foot or more of snow and ice inside and frequently under shell-fire. There were some small stoves, but no fuel or

entirely inadequate fuel was provided. The “ revier Stube ” was a wretched peasant’s cottage (in which the guard also was quartered) in charge of a brutal Sanitäter. Men in the last stages of illness were sent by sledge to Mitau.

When the thaw-

? When the men had been in this place for a week the “ German. Gavernment informed the Netherlands minister at Berlin, in a

note verbale dated March 5, that British prisoners of war had not yet been sent quite close to the German firing-line on the Russian front.’’’

PRISONERS came the tent was moved to Pinne, on the other side of the river,

where deep mud took the place of snow and ice inside the tent. There was no water supply; such water as there was, was

obtained by melting ice from the river or by digging down into the marsh, where filthy polluted water was obtained.

Most of

the men had no wash during the whole time they were there. The treatment was bad. Were it not established beyond the possibility of doubt, the story would be unbelievable. Men were driven out to work—breaking ice on the river, felling trees, making and repairing trenches under fire—when they could hardly stand, and had to be supported by their comrades to and from their work. One man died while being carried home; another, who had fallen exhausted on his way back to camp, was shot at point-blank range by the sentry; while a third man, who did not turn out quick enough one morning, was first abused and then attacked with a bayonet by the Sanitäter; further investigation disclosed the fact that he had been dead some hours, frozen in his bunk. The only punishment was tying to the post outside the tent for two hours after the men returned from work, under conditions hardly differing from crucifixion. A sergeant-major, having been urged by the interpreter to write home how they were being treated, eventually did so: “ next day,” he proceeds, “I got the letter back

marked ‘five days strong arrest.’

After being hard at work

from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., I was ticed to the pole Írom 7 P.M., during 36 degrees of frost.” This is corroborated by several witnesses. That this treatment was deliberate and inspired by higher

authority is evident from the fact that the sergeant-major says he obtained a copy of the orders from the guard, which stated “ that no mercy was to be shown to us; we were men who had, every one of us, assisted in stopping the Kuiser’s army from going to Paris; and they were to think of their comrades who

were being brutally treated in France. Any soldier failing to carry out these orders was to be severely punished.” The guards were given three-quarters of a loaf each day, the prisoners, doing hard work, received one-sixth of a loaf.

The

guards were given good, thick soup; the prisoncrs, soup “that you could drink straight off.” To such straits were the men

reduced that it is recorded by more than one witness that the men became so ravenous that they would eat anything. ‘* There were,” says one, “‘ many unburied Russian bodies lying round the camp. Some men were so reduced that when they saw any bones they would rush at them and eat them like a dog. It was pitiful to see men reduced to such an animal stage.” No

OF WAR

I6I

that all German prisoners were to be removed. On May 30a further telegram was sent stating that they had all been withdrawn to a distance of 30 km. from the firiag-line, and requesting immediate information that the British prisoners had been so withdrawn on the eastern and western fronts. No reply was received till July 4, when the British minister at The Hague transmitted a communication from the German Government stating that ‘‘ there can be no question in any case of intentional

retention or concealment of British prisoners,” and on July 9 a further communication was received, dated Berlin June 15, saying ‘‘ that the withdrawal of British prisoners of war in the German fighting zone to a distance of 30 km. behind the firingline has been completed everywhere.” On July 2 the British and German

representatives at The

Hague had made the following important agreement:— “Reprisals against combatant and civilian prisoners of war may

only be carried out after at least four weeks’ notice of intention so to do has been given” ;and second, “ al] captures are to be notified by the

captor State to the other State with the least possible delay: every prisoner captured is to be allowed to communicate at once with his family and is to be provided with the means of doing so and the

dispatch of his communication is to be facilitated: as soon as prac-

ticable after capture every prisoner is to be enabled to inform his

family of an address at which they can communicate

with him.”

The statements with regard to the removal of the prisoners were not true. From early in 1917 up to the Armistice prisoners were kept by Germans within 30 km. of the front line and were there subjected to the most cruel treatment. After the abovementioned agreement, and up to the date of the German offensive of March 1918, their number was probably not large, but after that date thousands were so detained under very bad conditions. No notice of the fact that they were to be so detained as a reprisal was ever given to the British Government. In April ror7 a notice entitled ‘‘ Conditions of respite to

German prisoners” was handed at Lille to a British noncommissioned officer to be read out to his fellow-prisoners. It runs as follows:— “ Upon the German request to withdraw the German prisoners of

war to a distance of not less than 30 km. from the front linc, the British Government has not replicd; therefore it has been decided that all prisoners of war who are captured in future will be kept as prisoners of respite (sic). Very short food, bad lighting, bad lodgings,

no beds, and hard work beside the German guns under heavy shell-

fire. No pay, no soap for washing or shaving, no tawels or boats, ctc."

The notice proceeds to the effect that prisoners are to write

When the

home of their sufferings and that ‘‘ no alteration in the ill-treatment will occur till the English Government has consented to

remnants of this unhappy company returned to Mitau, 20,000 parcels were found stored Had they been forwarded much suffering might have been avoided and lives saved. The result of this inhuman treatment was what might have been expected. At the end of April 1917, there were 77 men left in the camp out of the soo driven there in February. Of these, no fewer than 47 were certified by the German doctor as unfit to leave their beds. No less. than 23 had died from

the German request ” and then the prisoners would be removed “to camps in Germany, where they will be properly treated, with good food, good clothing.” Stationery would be supplied and ‘all this correspondence in which you will explain your hardships will be sent as express mail to England.” Similar notices were read out at several other places. ‘The threats were carried out to the letter. The accommodation was everywhere and always as bad as it could be. In the spring of 1917 prisoners

exposure

were confined at Lille in conditions comparable only to those of

parcels were allowed before April, and no letters.

and

starvation—some

16 in the camp, the rest in

hospital at Mitau, besides those killed by the sentries or per-

the ‘‘black hole” of Calcutta, the crowding was terrible, there

manently injured by shell-fire or frost-bite.

were no washing arrangements, and the only sanitary accom-

There can be no doubt whatever that the sufferings endured by this unfortunate 500 were directly due to someone in authority in Berlin. The terms of the notice read out to the prisoners

and of the orders given to the guard are in exact accordance with - the terms of the note verbele of Jan. 24 1917.

Western Front.—The story of the treatment of the prisoners on the western front is not less terrible, indeed in some respects it is Worse in that their sufferings were more prolonged, though they were not exposed to the same climatic conditions as their comrades in Russia. There is overwhelming evidence in this case also of the deliberation with which the suffering was inflicted. In April rg17 it was agreed, after the communications of January

and February

mentioned

above, that neither bellig-

erent would employ prisoners within 30 km. of the firing-line, and on April 28 a telegram was sent by the British authorities

informing the German Government that orders had been issued

modation took the form of tubs in the rooms. The same conditions were renewed or continued in 1918; in the spring of that

year the men were told that they were being badly treated as a reprisal. Prisoners were sent to places behind the lines, where they had to work for cight or nine hours on end and even longer on entirely insufficient food. The evidence of over 2,300 men has been obtained with regard to 78 of these places, at 20 of which they were exposed to Allied shell-fire which caused many casualties, while at 38 they were engaged in work directly connected with the operations of war, being required in some cases

actually to take up ammunition to the German guns. They were forced to do this by brutal ill-treatment, and were worked till they could do nothing more and either died or were sent back to Germany mere wrecks of their former selves. Men died in the train, their bodies being taken out at stations on the way; many more died within 24 hours of their arrival at the

PRISONERS OF WAR

162 hospita) to which they (up to 30°% it is said or four weeks. Their 33 medical officers who

were sent, and often a large percentage in some cases) within the next three physical condition is vouched for by were prisoners: 10 of them immediately

behind the lines who saw what was going on, and the remainder

detained in the interior of Germany who saw and tended the prisoners on their arrival there. The under-feeding of the prisoners on this front was aggra-

vated by three things:

First, the Germans did not notify the

capture of large numbers of them in obedience to the Hague agreement of 1917; second, the prisoners were forced to give as their address some camp in the interior of Germany to which parcels were sent for them and, except in a few cases, not for-

warded; third, steps were taken to prevent the French and Belgians giving the prisoners any food. The Kommandantur at Mons on April 4 1918 issued a notice

in French of which the following is a translation:— “ Conversation with prisoners is absolutely forbidden, as is giving

officers were sent by steamer to Bagdad and thereafter drafted to various camps in Anatolia. The men were marched roo m. to Bagdad, in stilling heat, with no sort of organization for food transport or medical care of those worn out by the privations of

the long-drawn-out siege.

The Turkish commandant promised

that the day’s march should not excced eight miles.

He kept

his promise for one day, and thereafter the men were forced to march from 12 to 18 m. a day, herded like sheep by mounted

Arabs who flogged forward the stragglers, out on the open ground without any shelter.

died.

At night they lay Many fell out and

At one point 350 men were left behind in a sort of cow-

shed, so sick as to be unable to move, and were picked up by the already overcrowded boats, where there was room only for the most desperately ill to lie down. Arrived at Bagdad, all but 500, who were too ill even for the Turks to force them forward,

were sent On a soo-m. march to places where they were to work. Out of a total of 13,670 of all ranks believed to have been captured at Rut, in the course of two and a half years 1,425 es-

them letters, food, or anything else. Breaches of this regulation will be punished by imprisonment for a maximum of three ycars or

caped or were repatriated, 2,611 are known to have died, while

a maximum

only 7,414, or little more than half of those captured.

fine of 10,000 marks.”1

This was repeated on July 28 and on Sept. 9 1918 the Kommandauntur again called attention to the matter, the notice of the

latter date containing a passage of which the following is a translation:— _ “Notwithstanding this warning, frequent breaches of the regulation have been reported. Fhe Kommandantur, being responsible for strictly Maintaining order, has instructed guards to use their firearms when tt becomes necessary sọ to do.”?

2,200 Were missing, and there were Ic{t in the hands of the Turks

Up to Dec. 1917 the Ottoman Government steadily refused to permit neutrals to inspect the camps, and though this con-

cession was then made, it was so worded as in effect to be useless.

Bulgecria—lIf due allowance is made for the backward condition of the country, it must be admitted that the treatment by the Bulgarians was correct, though complaint was made that British soldiers were flogged for disciplinary offences. This is

permitted by the military law of Bulgaria but after representa-

This was no mere threat. Many civilians, women among them, were shot for attempting to help the starving prisoners, and many prisoners were shot on the spot even for attempting to pick up the remains of food which they saw in the road as

tions were made on the subject the practice was abandoned in the case of British soldiers.

they marched along. This treatment was continued right, up to the Armistice, when prisoners in the last stages of exhaustion and starvation stumbled into the British lines hardly recognizable as British soldiers. The High Command had faithfully kept their promise of “very short food, bad lighting, bad lodgings, no beds and hard work beside the German guns under heavy shell-fire.”

good than that given to their own men. The accommodation was rough but in general no worse than that of the inhabitants

PRISONERS OvtTsipe Evrore.—Something must be added with regard to the treatment of prisoners elsewhere than in Europe,

if only because serious complaints were made on both sides as to their treatment

with regard to accommodation

and food,

especially in East Africa. There can be no doubt that much suffering Was endured by prisoners of both nationalities in this part of the world; but it was mainly duc to the conditions of the campaign and to the climate, while on the British side there appears to have been much justification for the complaints which were made against individual Germans for their want of consideration for the devoted men and women missionaries whom the fortunes of war had brought into their hands. Turkey.—Little can be said with regard to the application of the Hague Convention by Turkey, because the Government of that country made practically no attempt to conform to the

regulations contained init. ‘Their treatment of prisoners varied from an almost theatrical politeness to the great, to complete indifference to suffering—almost to barbarism—in the case of men of little esteem. These oriental characteristics may be best illustrated by the

fate of the British prisoners captured on the fall of Kut el ‘Amara at the end of April 1916, when, as Enver Pasha stated, they became “the honoured guests of the Turkish Government.”

1The origina! wording was:—

The

:

“Tl est absolument interdit de parler aux prisonniers ou de leur

passer des lettres, des vivres, ou d'autres objets quelconques. Les infractions à cette prescription seront punies d'un emprisonnement pouvant s'élever à 3 ans, ou d'une amende pouvant atteindre 10,000

mark ”'

2 The original wording was:— “ Malgré cette défense, de nombreuses

\ées,

infractions ont été signa-

La Nommandantur ayant pour tâche de maintenir Vordre le

plus strict, les soldats de surveillance ont reçu l'instruction de faire usage, le cas échéant, de leurs armes à few” .

The food given the prisoners was the same as that given to the Bulgarian soldiers, and the hospital treatment was not less of the country.

Every effort appears to have been made tọ

improve conditions where they were remediable, and the authori-

ties seemed anxious to treat their British prisoners with consideration.

An unusual amount of liberty was accorded to the

prisoners, and there is no little evidence of the kindness and

friendliness of the Bulgarian civilians to the British. Austria—The few British prisoners captured by Austria were treated with consideration and in accordance with the provisions of the Hague Convention. NEGOTIATIONS DURING THE WAR.—During the World War a notable step was taken in arranging for mectings between representatives of the belligerents for the discussion of matters relating to prisoners of war. In the spring of 1917 meetings

had taken place between French and German representatives with useful results, and, largely owing to the insistence of Lord Newton, who was then

in charge of the Prisoners of War

Department of the British Foreign Office, a mecting between German and British representatives was arranged and took place at The Haguein June. Great Britain was represented by

Lord Newton, Lord Justice Younger and Gen. Beifield, and Germany by Gen. Friederich and two others, the meetings being presided over by M. van Vredenburg on behalf of M. Loudon, the Netherlands Minister of Foreign Affairs. At this mecting arrangements were made for the repatriation of disabled com-

batants, for the internment of invalid interned civilians, for the repatriation of medical personnel still retained by the belligerents, and for the mitigation of certain punishments inflicted on prisoners of war. It was agreed that reprisals should only be carried out after a month’s notice of intention to do so had been given and it was also agreed that all captures were to be notified with the least possible delay.

This meeting was followed by one which lasted from June 8 to July 14 1918, at which the British representatives were Lord Cave, Lord Newton and Gen. Belfield, the first-named being obliged to return before the agreement was signed.

It

contained ho fewer than 60 articles with six annexes thereto, and

dealt with the foilowing subjects: the repatriation of invalids;

PROFITEERING the internment in a neutral country of prisoners who had been a long time in captivity; the protection of prisoners after capture; prisoners retained in an area of operations; notification

of capture; equipment and organization of camps; food; punishments; help committees; relations with protecting powers; parcels and postal services; and the publication of the agreements in the different camps. Much was done by these two meetings to translate into a concrete form the principles laid down in the Hague Conventions, and to mitigate the lot of the prisoners,

though the full benefit of the second agreement was never

realized as it was never formally ratified. In Dec. 1917 Lord Newton and Gen. Belfield met Turkish representatives at Berne under the presidency of M. Ador, of the Swiss Political Department, and an agreement was drawn

163

savour too little of the calm administration of justice.

They are

not reciprocal, the vanquished are given no right to have judicially investigated any complaints they may have against the victors. It would be far more satisfactory to have an alleged “atrocity ”’ investigated than that, for want of public investiga-

tion, an unfounded legend of brutality should grow up, It is perhaps too much to expect that, at the conclusion of a war in which the victors have made great sacrifices and under-

gone great suffering, they should take steps to establish a court for the trial of charges against their own people, but if provision had been made in time of peace for the establishment of a court to investigate all charges of wrong treatment in time of war the victors would not depart from their agreement. The establishment of such a court may well occupy the attention of states-

up on lines similar to those of the German agreements. QUESTIONS FOR THE Furvre.—The foregoing investigation of the operation of the Hague Convention during the World War leads one inevitably to ask whether it is desirable and practicable to make any substantial amendment to that Convention.

AUTHORITIES.—The following is a complete list of official publications: —Correspondence between H.M. Government and the U.S. ambassador respecting the treatment of prisoners of war and

It is a most difficult question to answer, for, although not generally recognized, the whole problem is military rather than humanitarian. While of course all active ill-treatment should

States officials on treatment of British prisoners of war and interned civilians in Germany: Misc. 11 (1915), cd. 7861; Misc.

be prohibited, the lot of a prisoner must not be made so attractive in comparison with that of soldiers in the firing-line as to afford a temptation to them to desert or to do anything incompatible with their military duty. Further, while it is possible for the voices of humanity and charity to make themselves cfiectively heard in times of profound peace, it is uscless then to formulate regulations which public opinion, stirred to its depths by alleged misdeeds of the enemy, will not allow to be observed, and which the military authorities will disregard in time of war All that can be usefully accomplished is to put into the form of rules those principles which the good sense of all civilized nations accepts as correct, and for this purpose to use the experience gained during the World War, of which not the least important part was the value of direct conference between representatives of the belligerents during active hostilities for the purpose of dealing with the detailed application of those principles. But it does seem desirabie that regulations should be made dealing with the case of civilians found in any enemy country at the outbreak of war, for it is improbable that in any future war of nations civilians will be allowed to return home or to remain at large in view of the means of communication which modern science has made possible. The value of the inspection of prisoners-of-war camps by the accredited representatives of the protecting State has been made abundantly clear, and their right to visit the camps, which was the result of an agreement made carly in 1915 between the British and German Governments should be made permanent.

It will, however, be extremely difficult to reconcile the desires of the humanitarians and the military authorities with regard to camps within the area of hostilities, though it will prohably be found possible to come to some agreement defining the nature of the work on which prisoners of war may not be employed, and an attempt should be made to make more clear than it is at present the obligation of the captors with regard to the feeding and clothing of the prisoners in their hands. For military reasons there would be no chance of obtaining a gencral assent to the prohibition of reprisals, but provisions similar to those contained in the agreements with the German

and Ottoman Governments requiring notice before reprisals are made might be accepted. Finally, those agreements made during the war with regard to the repatriation of disabled prisoners, and the conditions on which a prisoner should be entitled to internment in a neutral

country if accommodation could be found, might be made of universal application.

There remains the most difficult question of all: whether it is possible to provide penalties for the infraction of any regulation

which may be made, and to establish a tribunal with authority to punish individuals and States. Articles 227~229 of the Peace Treaty with Germany, satisfactory from one point of view,

men and international lawyers.

interned civilians in the United Kingdom and Germany: Misc. 7 (1915), ed, 7817; do. Misc. § (1915), cd. 7815. Reports by United

3 (1916), ed. 8161; Misc. rg (1915), cd. 7959; Misc. 15 (1915), cd. 7961; Mise. 19 (1915), cd. $108; Misc. 16 (1916), cd. 8235; Misc. 26 (1916), cd. 8297; Mise. 7 (1917), cd. 8477. Report on conditions

existing at Ruhleben:

Mise. 13 (1915), cd. 7863.

Report by Dr,

A. E. Taylor on the conditions of diet and nutrition at Ruhleben: Misc. 18 (1916), cd. 8259; Misc. 21 (1916), cd. 8262. The same,

and on proposed release of civilians: Misc. 26 (1916), cd. 8296; Misc. 35 (s916}, cd. 8392. Correspondence respecting the employment of British and German prisoners of war in Poland and France respectively: Mise. 19 (1916), cd. 8260. Correspondence with U.S.

ambassador

respecting transfer to Switzerland of British and German prisoners of war: Misc. 17 (1916), cd. 8236. Reports of visits of inspection made by officials of the United States embassy to various internment camps in the United Kingdom: Misc. 30 (1916), cd, 8324. Report on the treatment of prisoners of war in England and Germany during the first eight months of the war: Misc. 12 (1915), cd. 7862. Report on the transport of British prisoners of war to Germany Aug.—Dec. 1914: Misc. 3 (1918), ed. 8984. Report on treatment of British prisoners and natives in German Fast Africa: Mise. 13 (1917), cd. 8689; do. London 1918. Correspondence with German Government respecting the burning of G. P. Genower, A.B.: Misc. 6 (1918), ed. 8987. Correspondence respecting the use of police dogs: Misc. 9 (1917), cd. 8380. Correspondence with H.M.’s minister at Berne respecting reprisals:

Misc. 29 (1916), cd. 8323. Report on Wittenburg typhus epidemic: Misc. 10 (1916), cd. 8224; do. Gardelegen, Misc. 34 (1916), ed.

8351.

Report on the treatment of officers in camps

Army Corps: Mise. 28 (1918).

under

X,

Report on the treatment of British

prisoners behind the lines in France and Belgium: Misc. 7 (1918), cd. 8788; do., Misc. 19 (1918), cd. gr06; do., Misc. 27 (1g18). Report on the employment of British prisoners in coal and’ salt mines: Misc. 23 (1918), cd. 9150, Agreement between the British and German Governments concerning combatant and civilian prisoners uf war: Misc. 12 (1917), cd. 8590; do., Misc. 20 (1918),.

cd. 9147..

Report on the treatment of British prisoners of war in

Turkey: Misc. 24 (1918), ed. 9208. Agreement between the British and Ottoman Governments respecting prisoners of war and civilans: Mise. 10 (1918), cd. 9024. Work of the Central Prisoners of

War Committee 1916-1919: Revue Internationale dela Croix Rouge

(No, 26, Feb. 1921). Report of the Joint Committee to enquire into the organization and methods of the Central Prisoners of War Committee, cd, 8615.

Up to Jan. 1922, neither the British Government Committee on

the treatment by the enemy of British prisoners of war, nor the.

Committee on the Breaches of the Laws of War, had published any. gencral report; nor had the Reports of the representatives of the Netherlands Government been published. (R. BLD. A) `

PROFITEEBING.—The word “ Profiteering ” was introduced in r9rg into an Act of Parliament, and thus may be said to have obtained official recognition as part of the English language. It. had become current colloquially quite early in the World War. The following implicit definition was given by Sir Auckland Geddes (as president of thé Board of Trade) in Parliament on the second reading of the Profiteering bill (1919):—‘‘ To profiteer is to make an unreasonably large profit, all the circumstances of the case being considered, by the sale to one’s fellow-

citizens of an article which is one or one of a kind in common use

by the public, or is material, machinery, or accessories used in the production thereof.”! Asan urgent social and economic prob-

=

Hansard, vol. 119, No, 114, Col. 545, Aug. tI 1919. |

164

PROFITEERING

lem the conception of ‘ profiteering ” was a new one as well as the name attached to it, since the possibility of unreasonably

high profits being reaped on alarge scale to the public detriment from the sale of articles in common use was a direct outcome of

the conditions of disorganized trade and world-shortage of commodities which resulted from the World War. It is clear that under normal economic conditions high profits do not necessarily involve high prices, but may even be obtained as a result of greater efficiency of organization or production. It is probably true to say that before the war, asa rule, a free market and plentiful supplies afforded, in the case of most commodities in general use, an effective safeguard against excessive profits based on excessive prices. It was no doubt partly with this consideration in view that (to meet the demand for a clearer definition of the offence) a

provision was inserted in the bill in Committee, laying down that a rate of profit not exceeding the pre-war rate should not be deemed “‘ unreasonable.” It is with profiteering in this technical sense that this article deals, and not with the wider economic problems affecting profits as such. The Profitecring Act, 1919, was thus a temporary measure

designed by the British Government to meet peculiar circumstances. It was a measure “‘ to check profitecring,”’ and accordingly was framed to avoid, so far as possible, any interference with legitimate commercial enterprise. The great difficulty presented by legislation of this kind is to design an instrument of

such accuracy, and to use it with such precision, that it shall deal effectively with the evil against which it is directed, without hitting the sensitive organism of trade and industry, the recovery

of which was in itself an essential factor in the removal of those conditions of shortage and high prices of which profiteering was to a large extent a svmptom. How far the Protiteering Acts succeeded in solving this difficulty is a matter of opinion, but this was the problem they had to deal with.

The main powers conferred upon the Board of Trade by the Profiteering Act, 1910, may be summarized as follows:—(a) to investigate prices, costs and profits at all stages;

(b) to re-

ceive and investigate complaints regarding the making of excessive profits on the sale of any article to which the Act was applied by the Board of Trade, and after giving the parties an opportu-

nity of being heard either to dismiss the complaint or to declare the reasonable price for such articles, and to order the seller to

refund to the buyer any amount paid in excess of such reasonable price. The Board also had power, where it appeared to them that the circumstances so required, to take proccedings against the seller in a Court of Summary Jurisdiction; (c) to obtain from all sources information as to the nature, extent and development of trusts, and similar combinations.? The Act was applied by the Board of Trade by a series of orders

to practically every article of orcinary everyday use, including all articles of wearing apparel, houschold utensils and requisites, articles for mending and knitting, furniture, building materials, drugs and medicinal preparations, medical and surgical appliances and dressings, mineral waters, all articles used for fuel and lighting, tools, weights, measures, weighing and measuring instruments, motor spirit, stationery, and, in agreement with the Ministry of Food, to practically all articles of food the price of which was not otherwise

apparel and household linen, etc., the repairing, altering or cleaning of clocks and watches, and the repairing or altering of boots, shoes and umbrellas.

For administrative purposes the Act empowered the Board of

Trade to establish or authorize local authorities to establish local or other committees to which the Board might delegate any or all of their powers under the Act (except the power to fix maximum prices).

The work fell naturally into two broad sections, viz.: (1) the larger transactions of wholesalers or manufacturers which raise wide

questions affecting whole trades or industries, and (2) retail trade, which is much more affected by local conditions. To deal with (1) the Board of Trade set up a Central Committee, with its headquarters in London; to deal with (2) the Board invited local authoritics throughout the country to appoint local profiteering committees. Local Committees and Appeal Tribunals——Over 1,800 local committees were established in the United Kingdam, and the vast

majority continued in existence until the expiration of the Profteering Acts in May 1921. Their constitution, powers and procedure

were defined by regulations made by the Board of Trade, who delegated to the local committees the bulk of their powers under the Act in relation to retau sales. The regulations provided among other things that labour, women, and the retail trade should be adequately

represented on local committees; that complaints should, except in special cases, be heard in public; that any member who happened to be a trade competitor of the respondent or otherwise personally interested should be disqualified from adjudicating; that a complaint

should be lodged in writing within four days of the sale, and a copy forwarded to the respondent within seven days of its receipt; that a preliminary investigation should first take place, after which if a prima facie cause of complaint had been disclosed at least three days’ notice should be given to the parties of the date fixed for hearing the complaint; and that both complainant and respondent should always be given an opportunity of being heard. The object

of the preliminary investigation was to weed out frivolous complaints. The rule was Jaid down that it should invariably be held in camera and that the names of the partics to any complaint should not be made public until such time as the complaint was heard in public. The Board of Trade also appointed 108 appeal tribunals, to which the seller had a right of appeal against the decision of a Local committer. The total number of complaints dnvestigaied by local committees during the operation of the Acts (Aug. r9I9 to May 1921) was over 4,700; of these some 73 % were dismissed. Only 173 appeals were made, of which roughly two out of every five were

dismissed. Only 202 prosecutions by local committees were reported to the Board of Trade; in these fines were imposed to the amount of some £1,786, and costs ordered against the seller to the amount of £455. Within the limits laid down by the regulations local committces had full freedom of action and were in no sense controlled by the Department.

The Department, however, both by correspondence

and through a small staff of six or seven travelling inspectors, kept in close touch with the committees’ work, and helped them wherever possible with advice and information.

Apart from the work arising

out of actual complaints, the local committees had the power to hold general investigations into prices, costs and profit at the retail

stage, but Comparatively few committees undertook such investigations. The report of the county of London appeal tribunal, which dealt with a much larger number of cases than any other appeal tribunal, has been published as a Parliamentary paper. . Central Commiitee.—This body, about 150 in number, was mney representative, including among its members manufacturers, tradcrs, consumers, trade-union representatives, economists, representa-

tives of the coöperative movement, ete. Mr. McCurdy, its first chairman, was succeeded after about 10 months by Mr. John Murray, M.P. The Board of Trade made regulations laying down the constitution, powers and procedure of the Central Committee, to which the Board delegated the power (a) to investigate prices, costs and profit at all stages; (b) to investigate, consider and determine com-

plaints regarding unreasonable charges arising out of the wholesale sale of any articles to which the Act was applied; and (¢) to obtain

controled, including milk, bread, feh tea, coffee, cacao, margarine

information regarding trusts and trade combinations.

Section 2 (2) of the Profiteering (Amendment) Act, 1920, the following processes were by order Grouch within the operation of the Acts: the repairing, altering or washing of articles of wearing

were rather those of a panel, and the work was performed by three

and meat.

Further, in accordance with extended powers given by

_? Powers were also conferred on the Board of Trade by the Prin-

cipal Act to ix maximum prices, and to authorize local authorities under suitable conditions to buy and sell any article or class of articles to which the Act was applied. These powers were only intended to be held in reserve for use in an emergency. Neither power was ever exercised, with the single exception of the temporary

fixing of the price of motor spirit during the railway strike in the autumn of 1919. Further provisions were embodied in the Act (or added by the Amendment Act of 1920) giving the Board compulsory power of obtaining information, providing proper safeguards for confidential information and for secret processes, providing against

victimization of complainants by sellers refusing to sell, excluding

from the scope of the Acts sales for export or sales by public auction or competitive tender, and laying down maximum penalties by way

of fine or imprisonment for persons offending against the Acts.

The Central Committee rarely met as a committee.

:

Its functions

standing committees: the Investigation of Prices Committee, the Complaints Committee, and the Standing Committee on Trusts.

Every member of the Central Committee was appointed on one at least of these standing committees, which in turn appointed from time to time small sub-committees.

These sub-committees, through

which the bulk of the work was done, were composed of members of the Central Committee with the addition often of outside persons appointed (in practice at the suggestion of the sub-committee or standing committee concerned) by the Board of Trade. The Investigation of Prices Committee undertook the investiga-

tions into the cost of production of various articles in all stages

of their manufacture where they considered it desirable to obtain such information for the benefit of the public or of the Board of Trade. The reports on these investigations were published from time.

to time as Parliamentary papers: they cover the following subjects: agricultural implements and machinery, aspirin, biscuits, boot and shoe repairs, brushes and brooms, clogs, costings in Government department, furniture, gas apparatus, matches, metal bedsteads,

PROFITEERING motor fuel, pottery, standard boot and shoe scheme, tweed cloth, wool and worsted yarns, wool, and the wool-top-making trade,

The Complaints Committee undertook the investigation of specific

complaints arising out of transactions or sales other than retail sales. In practice the Complaints Committee became, tike the Central Committee itself,a pancl, working almost exclusively through sub-committees or tribunals. The procedure was analogous to that of local committees, the complaint being first considered i camera by a sub-committee called the Preliminary Investigation Committee, who, if they were of opinion that the complaint did not give sufficient particulars or did not disclose prima facie grounds for hearing the complaint, had power (after giving the complainant an oppor-

165

Reports on the following subjects by sub-committees

pointed by the standing committees

on Prices and

jointly ap-

Trusts have’

also been published :—bricks, cement and mortar, dyeing and clean-

ing, light castings, stone and clayware, slates and roofing materials,

and Umber.

The Profiteering Act was to remain in force for six months only. It was, however, continued fora further three months by the Profitecring (Continuance) Act, 1919, and again for a further twelve

months (until May ro 1921) by the Profiteering (Amendment) Act, 1920.

The Amendment

Act was largely concerned with

tunity of being heard) either to dismiss the complaint forthwith or

improvements of machinery in points of detail where experience

to require the production of further or better particulars or grounds of complaint within a stated period, failing which the complaint was dismissed. If the Preliminary Investigation Committee were satisfied that a prima facie cause of complaint was disclosed, a tribunal was appointed ! to hear the case, seven days’ notice being given to the parties of the time and place fixed for the hearing. The tribunal had power either to dismiss the case, or (if they were satisfied that an

of actual working had disclosed defects.

unreasonable profit had been made) to order the seller to repay to the complainant any amount paid by him in excess of the price declared by the tribunal to be reasonable; further, the tibunal might take proceedings against the seller before a court of Summary Jurisdiction. The hearing of all complaints before the tribunal was normally in public, subject to the discretion of the tribunal in particular cases, and the parties could conduct their own cases or be represented by counsel or otherwise, As in the case of local commuttees, trade competitors or persons otherwise personally interested were disqualified from adjudicating on the tribunal. The Complaints Committee also investigated specific transactions brought to their notice, even where there was no formal complaint; e.g. cases referred to the Board of Trade by Jocal committees where a complaint against a retailer had been dismissed, but it appeared probable that proñteering had taken place at some earlier stage of distribution or manufacture. The following figures show the number of matters referred to the Complaints Committee and the manner in which they were dealt with:—Complaints lodged or specific transactions referred to the committee, 607; profiteering found to exist, 73; number of prosecutions undertaken, 24; number of convictions

obtained before ordered, £205.

the magistrates,

17; fines imposed, £815; costs

The Committee on Trusts was charged with the duty of obtaining

such information as is specified in Section 3 of the Profiteering Act, 1919,

which

required

the

Board

of Trade

to ‘‘ obtain

from

all

available sources information as to the nature, extent, and development of trusts, companies, firms, combinations, agreements and arrangements

connected

with

mining,

manufactures,

trade, com-

merce, finance, or transport, having for their purpose or effect the regulation of the prices or output of commodities or services produced or rendered inthe United Kingdom orimported into the United Kingdom, or the delimitation of markets in respect thereof, or the

regulation of transport rates and services, in so far as they tend to the creation of monopolies or to the restraint of trade.”

This section embodied a recommendation of the departmental committee appointed by the Minister of Reconstruction “ in view of the probable extension of trade organizations and combinations, to consider and report what action, if any, may be necessary to safeguard the public interest,” which reported in 1919. It is to be noted that the Act gave no power under which any coercion could be exer-

It contained, however, in

Section r an important new provision, the object of which was to

encourage the various trades and industries to take into their own hands the business of checking profiteering. Section 1 reads as follows:—

(1). Where any persons or associations of persons appearing to the Board of Trade to represent a substantial proportion of the persons engaged in the production or distribution of any article or class of articles to which the Prohtcering Act, 1919 (hereinafter referred toas ‘the principal Act’), is apphed, submit to the Board of

Trade a scheme limiting the profit to be allowed on the manufacture

or distribution of the article or class of articles at all or any stages of manufacture or distribution, the Board of Trade may, if they think it expedient, approve the scheme, and, where any such scheme is so approved, any profit sought or obtained in connexion with the sale of any article to which the scheme relates, which does not exceed such

profit as is allowed by or under the scheme, shall not be deemed un-

reasonable for the purposes of section one of the principal Act,

(2). Ifthe Board of Trade arc satisfied that any scheme so approved secures an adequate supply to the home market of any articles or classes of articles to which the principal Act is applied, the Board of Trade may by order exempt producers who comply with the scheme from any general investigation under section one, subsection (1) (a) of the principal Act in respect of those articles or classes of articles

and any articles of a similar description.

The preliminary work of investigation and negotiation in connexion with schemes submitted under this section was undertaken by the Central Committee, the final approval or disapproval resting, of course, with the Board of Trade. Owing to the unexpectedly rapid fall of markets and alteration in the general trade outlook in the latter part of the year 1920, conditions were not very favourable for profit-limiting schemes. Very few were put forward; of these some were withdrawn or not proceeded with,

and only two? (relating to men’s ready-made and made-to-measure clothing and to the retail sale of coal in the London area)

were actually approved by the Board of Trade. The foregoing is a brief review of the principles on which the Profiteering Acts were based, the machinery by which they were worked, and the nature of the work,

The Acts were denounced as

harassing the small retail trader while enabling the profiteer on a large scale to escape; but complaints against the harassing

cised on a trade combination except in so far as it brought itself

nature of the Acts came from all quarters, wholesaler, retailer,

this kind ought to be the subject of further permanent Iegislation,

and manufacturer alike. Although it is possible that investigations may in rare cases have caused hardship to particular interests, this can hardly be held to outweigh the valuable re-

within the penal clauses of the Act by charging unreasonably high prices. Parliament appears to have taken the view that powers of

and that the temporary powers of enquiry and publication given by the Profitecring Act should make it possible by preliminary investigation to get together a body of facts which would be of great value when permanent legislation on the question of trade monopolies was introduced. The numerous reports by sub-committees of the Committee on Trusts constitute in fact such a body of information. They show, on the one hand, that many of the big combinations now existing have been of public benefit; that by economies in working and efficient organization of manufacture, buying, and selling, they

have been able to keep prices at a lower Jevel than they must otherwise have attained.

On the other hand, instances of abuse of monop-

sults in helping to dispel misconceptions and suspicions by pub-

lishing facts. The figures already quoted with regard to complaints would indeed seem a sufficient answer to the charge that trade was unduly harassed.

On the other hand the deterrent

effect of the Acts must not be overlooked. From the point of view of checking profiteering, the mere existence of the penal clauses of the Acts and of the machinery for their enforcement was undoubtedly of great value.

As regards the absence of any

oly power have been brought to light, and, in general, many of the reports are in favour of the provision of some kind of statutory power, under which action could be taken if a strong and close organization controlling the whole or nearly the whole of an essential trade or industry adopted a policy contrary to the public interest.

definite standard of a reasonable rate of profit, the original Profiteering bill was criticized in Parliament on the ground that it gave no clear definition of the offence. This criticism was met to some extent by the proviso that arate of profit not ex-

the Committee on Trusts have been published as Parliamentary

and in the Amendment Act the position was further defined by making it clear that the standard of comparison to be aimed at was the percentage rate of net profit, not gross profit, thus

The following is a list of the investigations on which reports by

papers :—dyesand dyestuffs, dyeing, finishing, bleaching and printing, electric cables, electric lamps, explosives, farriery, fish, fixed retail prices, fruit, glassware, iron and stcel products, laundry prices, meat, milk, oil and fats, pipes and castings, road transport rates, salt, sewing cotton, soap, tobacco, uniform clothing, vinegar and yeast. Be ee eg ge aS a Originally by the Complaints Committee, but under the amended regulations of Aug. 7 1920 by the Chairman of Central Committce.

ceeding the pre-war rate should not be deemed

unreasonable;

2 Reports on these by joint sub-committees of the Standing Committees on Prices and Trusts, and also on the working of the standard boot and shoe scheme (which was not technically a scheme under Section 1), have been published as Parliamentary papers.

PROFITEERING

166

ensuring that the seller should not benefit unduly by the fact that his oncost or establishment charges showed a smaller increase than did cost of wages and raw materials. A word may be added with regard to anti-profiteering leg-

islation outside the United Kingdom. The majority of European countries, including Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Rumania and Sweden, passed some form oí legislation with a view to checking profiteering or specula-

tion in the necessities of life., Legislation with this object was also passed in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and a number of the smaller British possessions. A number of foreign countries or British possessions studied through their representatives the working of the Profitcering Acts, 1919 and 1920, and several (as for example Italy, South Africa, Gibraltar and Sierra Leone) availed themselves largely of English experience in framing their pee er oe E, R. E. UNITED

STATES

“ Profteering,?” as the term has been used in the United States, may be roughly defined as consciously taking and retaining profits considerably in excess of the return necessary to equilibrate demand and supply, especially when such profits are the result of prices enhanced by the activity or policy of the

recipient. Its meaning has therefore a direct relation to the current conception of a legitimate business ‘ profit ’’—a point on which public opinion during the World War became peculiarly sensitive.

Probably, conscious direct control of industrial proc-

profits of the year were partly due to the enhanced value of unsold stocks and to speculative profits derived from feed. In the Next year profits were somewhat abated by Government regulation.

The Federal Trade

Commission,

after noting that the

margin of 25 cents per bar. allowed by the Food Administration

was larger than-the normal profit, said: ‘ The Commission’s

investigations of costs and profits for recent months indicate that 25 cents a barrel is being taken by many millers as a guaranteed net profit after paying all income and excess profit taxes...” In other words (1) taxes payable on net income were being wrongfully treated as expense, and (2) a maximum

being made the minimum.

margin was

This course involved some fraud and

showed concerted action. Depreciation and salary accounts were padded and capital charges were treated as operating expenses.

Twenty-two manufacturers of farm implements made at this time about 85% of the product in the United States. Their Profits increased from about 9% on investment in the years just prior to the war to 16-6%% in 1917 and 19-90% in 1918; and the rate of proht on sales increased several fold. There was no general shortage of farm implements and no unusual demand, for exports were cut off. The Commission says: ‘ The Jarge increase in the prices and profits of manufacturers in 1917 and 1918 was due in part to price understanding or agreements... and, to a more limited extent, the profits of dealers seem

to have been

due to similar activities,” From Senate Document No.248 (65 Cong. 2nd Session) further evidence of profiteering may be gained. It appears that oil companics circulated reports that the supply of gasoline was dangerously short, for the purpose of maintaining prices of that commodity while making “‘ enormous ” profits on fuel oil. Concerns bottling or canning vegetables, which had made future

esses never reached such development in the United States as during the World War. Prices were fixed and both supply and demand controlled. Income taxes were highly developed. An unusual mass of information concerning cost, production, consumption and stocks was obtained. As a result much became known of the profits made in different industries, and much information concerning them was given out—sometimes with the purpose of exercising a check, In the United States the chief sources of information are the cost reports of the Federal Trade Commission and data compiled from the income-tax returns, If it be remembered that not all that seems excessive is profitcering, it will be of value to recapitnlate some of these data. According to income-tax returns from some 7,000 corporations their net carnings of the pre-war years 1911-3 averaged 11°% on invested capital. This corresponds well with the common judgment at that time that from 10% to 12° (depending on the risk) was a fair profit in most industries. Unfortunately, returns are not available in published material for these same corporations in 1917, but for r9g18—a year of lower profits—they averaged 15%. The year 1917 was the time of maximum profits. We know that

$15 a ton, which meant over 200° on investment in one case. It further appears that ‘‘ unnecessarily ” large profits were made by

in that year the total net income of 31,500 corporations was well

the producers of yellow pine lumber in the South. A good margin

in excess of the total for all corporations in the country in 1913. These corporations made an average net return on investment of

contracts, sometimes withheld portions of their output irom

delivery on such contracts and sold in the higher “ spot ”? markets. In frequent cases licences were revoked by the Food Administration. The practice of such concerns in maintaining re-sale prices for jobbers contributed toward maintaining the general high level of prices and increased profits in some instances, According to the same document the steel companies in 1ọr7, prior to Government price-fixing, made abnormal profits, and a number

continued to make unusually heavy profits thereafter.

The

United States Steel Corp., which made 5% before the war, received 2594 on investment in 1917; and ro smaller concerns, such as begin their operations with the employment of steel furnaces, made from 30° to 319% on their investments, Certain sulphur

companies took advantage of the war demand for sulphur to raise their prices to such an extent as to reap net profits of approximately

per 1,000 bd. ft. had been considered to be $3, but in 1917 the

average margin was over $4.80; and while the average profit on

approximately 22%, and more than one-half of their net income was reported by those earning 30% or more. (It is to be noted that these figures do not include corporations earning under 15%.

investment in 1916 was 52%, the gure was increased to 17% in 1917. The profits of tanners increased from two to five times, as

Nevertheless,

exacted very high prices. The price of hides was rapidly advanced,

it is probable

that

all corporations

averaged

approximately 18%.) These income-tax returns are not conclusive. The padding of investment account and of costs was all too common, and the statistical treatment of the returns is not satisfactory. They do indicate, however, that average profits increased considerably

between the pre-war period and 1918. More accurate and illuminating figures concerning particular industries were obtained by the Federal Trade Commission, and a few representative cases will give the best understanding of the situation. A study of the costs of 37 wheat-flour companics showed that the average

earned on investment was 12:6% in the fiscal year 1913-4. 17% in 1914-5, 38-4% in 1916-7, and 34% in 1917-8. That this increase in profits was not due solely. to increase in business is evident from the fact that the percentage earned on sales also increased, the rate being 3-4% in 1913-4 and 6-5% in 1916-7. In 1917 there was apparently no limit to the price purchasers were willing to pay, the condition being ont of panic. The large

they took advantage of the cnormous demand for leather and notwithstanding that at the same time “great supplies were withheld from the public.’ Upon learning of approaching price control, one of the large packers took steps“ quietly and promptly ” to increase the appraised value of his tanneries. Other figures indicating the general trend may be given as follows:— Percentage of net earnings to Investment Meat packers (large) Tanners . ; Shoe manufacturers

Bituminous coal (Pa.) Vegetable canners

Salmon canners Petroleum refiners.

per producers .

*Percentage of net sales.

PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP According to the annual report of the Attorney-General for 1920, since Oct. r919 sentences had been imposed on and 20 clothing dealers. This was under the law, referred to below. In addition, six sugar flour dealer had been convicted of hoarding, and

49 sugar dealers anti-profitecring dealers and one two coal dealers had been sentenced under the provision as to fixing reasonable prices, Jn all there had been over 2,000 indictments, arrests and sentences, involving chiefly the commodities just mentioned, together with meats, potatoes, and meals at restaurants. great majority could not be sustained under the law.

The

Without further evidence it may be concluded that profits in many industries increased jn the earlier part of the war more than 100% above the pre-war level, and that this increase was in not

a few cases due in part to profiteering as above defined, High prices do not necessarily indicate excessive profits, but there js reason to believe that profiteering was common in cement, petroleum, lumber (notably ship timber), wool, clothing, sulphur, naval stores, rice, sugar, sand and gravel, raisins and other products, in addition to those already mentioned. In most of these cases the Government reduced prices and profits through some

form of control. Anyone who had experience at. Washington during the war knows that many persons went there for the purpose of furthering profiteering schemes. In some cases the method was to Secure contracts at excessive prices, perhaps by bribery, certainly by misrepresentation. Many such cases later

came to light, some concerning articles of clothing for the army and involving collusion with army officers. In other cases the method was to induce the Government to abstain from fixing a reasonable price or to induce it to fix a high price. Thus, in the United States, oil companies succceded in virtually preventing any price-fixing on the ground that the exorbitant prices that prevailed were necessary to stimulate production; while lumber,

copper and cement associations by concerted and persistent activity obtained prices that were unnecessarily high.

In stil]

other cases every effort had been made to defraud the Government in respect of excess profits taxes, to enable a business to “retain ” profits larger than lawful. Equally reprehensible was the action of hosts of retail dealers, such as those selling shocs

and men’s clothing, who maintained the same percentages of profits on sales although the great Increase in prices meant greatly increased absolute margins and percentages on investments. The U.S. Government attempted to deal with profiteering in three ways: (1) taxation; (2) price-fixing; (3) direct action under the Food Control Act. The first and the last methods proved largely ineffective.

By special taxes levied on profits, many thought that the spoils

of the profitecrs could be regained by the public. In 1916 a tax of 123% was levied on the profits of munitions manufacturers; and a general ‘ war profits tax ” and an “ excess profits tax ” were imposed in 1917. Im rorS these taxes were combined, Under this measure profits of corporations organized for profits were liable cither to (1) a progressive tax on profits in excess of $% on capital; or to (2) a flat tax of 80% of net income over the average profits for the three pre-war years 1911, 1912 and r913.

Not a few legislators and economists hoped that these taxes

would make regulation of prices or profits unnecessary. Let any concern make what it can, they said, we will take it as fast as they make it. But, unfortunately, it proved so casy for most corporations to increase their investment accounts, and to pad their expenses, that the worst profitcers often showed small excess profits.

Moreover, a considerable part of the tax was shifted to

consumers th the shape of higher prices, ag was possible during the inflation period.

Government price-fixing, while it did not prevent profitcering,

did moderate the evil, notably through such substantial reduclions as were made in the prices of wool, coal, sugar, flour and

sulphuric acid.

Unfortunately,

this means

was not used as

vigorously and thoroughly as it would have been had there not

been an ill-founded reliance upon profits taxes. On Aug. ro 1917 the Food Control Act became law. Section 4

of this Act made it unlawful for any person to hoard or to make

any unjust or unreasonable charge in transactions relating to

167

necessaries” (foods, feeds, tucl, fertilizers, farm implements and machinery), but imposed no penalty, Sections 6 and 7, however, provided fer penaltics and seizure, in case of hoarding. Section 5 authorized the licensing of dealers in necessaries and the fixing of fair storage charges, commissions, profits, or practices. The fixing of prices for coal and coke was authorized ia section 25, Jt was under this Act that the Food Administration operated, and, as already indicated, ifs control over prices was

partly effective. On fune 30 roro, however, the activities of the Food Administration were suspended; and as the agitation concerning the “ high cost of living ” grew in volume, the Department of Justice assumed the task of enforcing the law, which remained in force while a State of war was only technically in existence, Between Aug, and Nov. roro, the Department made some 92 scizures of such food products as eggs, butter, sugar,

flour and pork, under section 7, and secured several indictments under section 6, one indicted party pleading guilty. The chief

agencies depended upon were the local “ fair price committees ” such as had been established under the Food Administration. Indeed, the wartime organization of local food administrators was partly revived, and an extensive publicity campaign was | initiated, But the Attorney-General found his efforts limited by the absence of a penalty clause im section 4 and the restricted

definition of ‘ necessaries,” and, at the President’s request, Congress reénacted the law in Oct. 1910, with amendments to cover these defects.

Encouraged by this action, and animated, it

is charged by his critics, largely by politica} ambition, the Attorney-General proceeded vigorously under the Act, and in hisannual report for 1920 stated that there had been 1,049 prosecutions

under section 4 and 99 convictions. Meanwhile, a growing hostility to the Act was apparent, and

the courts in several jurisdictions declared it unconstitutional. This was true In five of the ten chief bituminous coal-producing states. Action concerning anthracite coal profiteering was also blocked by a decision of the Federal District Court in Pennsylvania, The upshot of the matter was a decision of the Supreme Court in Feb. r921, which finally declared the Act unconstitutional, The case was that of U.S. v. L. Coken Grocery Co., and involved profiteering in sugar, The reasoning of the Court was that Congress alone had power to define crimes against the United States; and, therefore, because the Act was vague and

indefinite, and fixed no precise standard of guilt, and because it . did not inform the defendant of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, it was unconstitutional. Thus ended the anti-profiteering crusade of the Attorney-General. Meanwhile, from April 1920 prices began to decline, and With that de~ cline came a Joss of interest in profiteering. In a sense the U.S. Government was to blame for much war-

time profiteering. In the first place it was lax in Jetting contracts

and making purchases, either directly, or indirectly, by placing authority in the hands of interested persons. The ‘ cost-plus system ” invited profiteering as well as incfficiency.

In the

second place its combination of excess profits taxes and price regulation was unfortunate.

At the same

time that it fixed

prices on a cost basis it spread the idea that it made little difference if excess profits were carncd, as such profits would be reached by taxation, Taxation, however. proved at best to be an inadequate means of reaching profits, and early Jaxity in defining cost and investment made this means nugatory.

The system as

it worked in the United States tended toward laxity both in fixing prices and in collecting (axes on income. (L. 17. 113 PROFIT-SHARING AND COQ-PARTNERSHIP (sce 22.423).— Profit-sharing was defined by the International Conference on

Profit-Sharing held in Paris in 1889 in the following formula:

“ The International Congress is of opinion that the agrcement, frecly entered into, by which the employce receives a share, fixed in advance, of the profits, is in harmony with equity and: with the essential principles underlying all legislation.” This definition, which is accepted by nearly all writers on profit-sharing, excludes on the one hand distributions made hy a firm to its

employces, say at Christmas, the amount of which is not fixed in advance, and to which the employces have no definite right..

168

PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP

Such distributions are to industry what the Squire’s coal and blankets are to village life, but they are not profit-sharing, It also excludes forms of “ output bonus,” ete., under which the

individual employee (or the squad or gang) gets, or is supposed to get, a share of the money which he individually saves to the

firm by working faster or better; this was formerly classed with it under the general term gain-sharing, and profit-sharing js still sometimes incorrectly used to cover such forms of bonus. Under true profit-sharing the share of the employees varies

with the prosperity of the firm, and depends therefore not on their exertions solely but on the competence of managers and directors, the state of the market, and other considerations. The Labour Co-Partnership Association in 1911 expressed its

view that the co-partnership of labour with capital involved: (1) “ That the worker should receive, in addition to the standard wages of the trade, some share in the final profits of the business, or the economy of preduction. (2) That the worker should accumulate his share of the profits, or part thereof in the capital of the business employing him, thus gaining the ordi-

(who according to French law have unlimited liability), 50° as a dividend to all workers in proportion to their time wages, and 35% to the mutual

provident

socicty—the

“ kernel ’—

which is now a partner in the business. The managing partners also receive a salary, ‘This experiment, as it was the first, is also peculiar in the amount of control entrusted to the permancnt

workmen, the “ kernel,” who are very carefully chosen. Among their other privileges it falls to them to clect new managing directors among the employees, a privilege not, as far as the

writer is aware, granted under any English scheme of co-partnership. The whole business, however, employs only between one and two thousand workers; its interest is, therefore, chiefly as an experiment. (For fuller accounts of this and other French schemes, including the Fantilistéve of Guise, consult the publications mentioned at the end of this article.)

France, as it was the original home of co-partnership, has also been the country in which it has excited the most interest, and the comparative lack of trustification in French industry has made it easier for schemes established by individual firms

nary rights and responsibilities of a shareholder.” To this in 1919 the Association added a further clause: (3) “‘ That the

to he accepted.

worker shall acquire some share in the control of the business in the two following ways:—(a) By acquiring share capital, and. thus gaining the ordinary rights and responsibilities of a share-

workers, for an established trade-union movement is generally

holder.

(b) By the formation of a co-partnership committee of

workers having a voice in the internal management.” ‘The addition of the last clause is due to the belief, now rapidly gaining credence, that the smaller shareholders in the ordinary firm

have in reality little or no voice in its management, and that

‘other means are necessary to provide the employee co-partners

with their share in control. It has not, however, been adopted by all, or nearly all, of the firms which have co-partnership schemes.

- Profit-sharing and co-partnership are thus seen to differ in theory by the fact that the profit-sharer has a share only in the cash profits of his employer over a given period, and may take ‘his share away in his pocket entire, whereas the co-partner must take some of his profit in the form of investment in the business,

and receives also some share in the management.

In some cases

the co-partner docs not actually have to invest, but is offered

shares at par or at reduced rates, or even free, these shares generally carrying with them ali sharcholders’ rights. In ., practice, however, there are so many possible variations that no ‘general distinction is possible, and the terms are frequently interchanged.: It will also be observed that both forms assume the existence in industry of two parties, the “firm” and its “employees.” They are therefore not connected with the various codperative experiments which have been made from time to time by groups of workers, forming themselves into a firm and dividing amongst

themselves the profits or losses,

with the codperative colonies of Robert Owen in England, or

the ateliers or self-governing workshops of Louis Blanc in France. Co-partnership, as now understood, is distinctly a “ paternal ” movement, the dominant “ partner” in industry being moved to confer a favour on its junior; and though the ideals of Owen, Fourier and the Christian Socialists may have had some influence on the minds of the earliest co-partners, a truer descendant than the co-partnership of to-day is the working-class Codperative Movement, which aims at the supersession of capitalism.

The earlest example of co-partnership comes from France. In 1843 a master painter of Paris, Edmé-Jean Leclaire, divided among his permanent hands (43 out of about 300 employed) the sum of 12,266 francs.

The scheme met with approval and

The numerical weakness of French trade union-

ism has also made it easier to gain the adherence of French

hostile to co-partnership and profit-sharing. United Kingdom.—In the British Isles, if we except a scheme inaugurated in 1829 by Lord Wallscourt for the farmers on his

Galway estates and abandoned shortly afterwards, the movement begins in 1865 with the adoption of six schemes, of which five have since been abandoned, although one (adopted by Messrs. Jolly & Son, silk mercets, of Bath) survived until 1906. One of the five was the famous Briggs scheme, of the Whitwood and Methley Collieries, to which reference is made below. The movement then progressed very slowly for some years. Between 1865 and 1888 only 66 schemes in all were launched, of which all but fourteen had disappeared by 1920.

The International Congress on Profit-Sharing which drew up the definition quoted at the head of this article was held in 1880, In that year also the South Metropolitan Gas Co, adopted profit-sharing, and thus initiated it in the only British industry in which it has obtained any considerable hold. These

two facts combined to stimulate an interest in profit-sharing, and during the four years 1889-92, 83 schemes were adopted, of which only 12 survive. A long decline in profit-sharing, owing partly no doubt to the trade depression which began in

1892, led up to rather less vigorous revivals during 1908-10 and 1912-4. The World War then practically put an end to the development of the system, until the phenomenal profits of the early months of the peace and the willingness of many firms to share some of them with their employees, Jed to an outburst of

42 schemes in toro. The boom continued during the carly months of 1920 (ro during the first six months): but during the subsequent industrial depression there was a marked slackening of interest in this direction. Up to the end of 1919 the British Isles had given birth to 417 schemes, of which 198, or slightly less than half, have been abandoned

for one cause or another.

Of the

remainder,

36

were run by gas companies (see below). These figures alone, however, would give a misleading impression of the size of the movement: Of the 144 schemes started up to 1918, only 15 are returned as affecting more than a thousand employees, while

no fewer than 54 affect less than a hundred.

Out of the 15

again, four are run by gas companies (the South Metropolitan,

men, who were members of the firm’s mutual provident society,

the South Suburban, the Gus Light and Coke Co., and the Liverpool Gas Co.), and of the remaining 11, four of the largest affect only a portion of the workpeople in the firm’s

continued to take their share of the increasing profits.

employ.

up till 1870 this ‘‘ kernel,” as he called it, of permanent workAt no

time cid the members of the mutual provident society amount

to more than a third of those employed. In 1870 the profitsharing was extended to all the men employed, for however

short a time, and upon this basis it has continued as “ Brugniot, Cros et Cie. (ancienne maison Leclaire).” The arrangement for division of profits is as follows:—s°% is first paid on the

capital; of the remainder 15% goes to the managing partners

These

are:—Messrs.

Armstrong

(12,215 Out of 69,000 employed);

Whitworth

& Co.,

Messrs. Pease and Partners,

of Darlington (2,243 out of 11,000); Messrs. Lever Bros. (3,542 out of 8,833); and the Bradford Dyers’ Assn. (3,600 out of 9,800). The oniy really large concern whose profit-sharing affects nearly

the whole of its workpeople is the Prudential Assurance Co., 18,50c af whose 20,000 employees participate in its scheme. Details of the number participating are not available for schemes

PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP started since 1918, but as out of the 42 firms only eight have a pay-roll of over 1,000, while ten employ less than roo, it would seem that the proportions would not be materially altered if they were all included. Neither do all the smaller firms include by any means all their employces in their profit-sharing schemes. The proportion varies from case to case, falling as low, in the case of one firm of manufacturers, whose scheme dates from 188g, as so out of 1,500, or 3} percent. Itis clear that in this and similar cases the co-partnership is really a tiny experiment carried on with a few picked employecs and is of infinitesimal significance in the industrial life of the country, Nor is it only the successful experiments that are of this type; the abandoned schemes tell

the same tale, except that the number of participants is lower. Apart from the gas companics, then, co-partnership in British industry has been confined, with one or two exceptions, to small

firms, and these for the most part in minor industrics.

The food

trades, such as cocoa, confectionery, jam, chocolate, etc., and the distributive houses provide a large number of experiments;

tailoring, dress-making, boot and shoe manufacture, and printing and stationery are also considerable groups. In the great basic industries of the country, (mining, cotton, engineering and shipbuilding) and in transport, co-partnership has made practically no progress, nor does it seem to be making any. What is the reason of this? An analysis of the reasons given for the abandonment of dead schemes may provide part of the answer. Forty-nine schemes were abandoned “ for financial reasons,” d.e. because there had ceased to be any profit to be shared. In 16 cases no cause can he assigned; and in about 4o the abandonment was due to changes connected with adminis-

tration. There remain 91 schemes which were abandoned owing to the dissatisfaction of owners or men with their results. The men’s dissatisfaction can generally be traced to a simple cause— the smallness of the dividend distributed. The average rate of bonus paid to workmen under all schemes varies within narrow limits and is generally about 5% per annum on the ‘total of their wages. Translated into cash, this meant in 1918 that ro5 firms paid to their workmen an average of £3 13s. 3d. per head, or, if the firms which paid nothing at all be excluded, of {5 158. 2d.

In 1919, the average bonus paid per head was

{4 18s. 10d. It will readily be understood that so exiguous a cash benefit causes considerable disappointment to the worker who has been led to expect material advantages from being pro-

vided with an interest in the business; and this fact may also go some way towards explaining the failure of schemes which employers gave up owing to the “ apathy ” of their workmen. £3 135. 3d. per annum, especially when paid in a lump at the end of twelve months, during which the workers have been working at ordinary rates, is hardly likely to provide a very strong incentive to better work. This may account for the high mortality among profit-sharing schemes which have actually come into existence. More reasons, however, are needed to explain the smatiness of their numbers

and their comparative insignificance. This is undoubtedly due in part to the hostility of the consuming public, which tends to regard profit-sharing schemes as designed to keep within the industry money which should be used to reduce the price to itself. Thus the distributive Coéperative Movement, which is an association of consumers, has done very little in the way of profit-sharing or co-partnership, and that little is steadily growing less, and the English and Scottish Coiperative Wholesale

Societies have both abandoned their schemes of profit-sharing,

the former in 1886, and the latter in IQTS.

The gas companies, to which reference has already been made, are not open to this criticism owing to their peculiar statutory

position. All gas companies are regulated by Act of Parliament, and in most cases they are not allowed to increase their dividends

unless the price of gas is correspondingly reduced.

(In the other

169

suspicions which occasionally develop in co-partnership concerns, of “ watered ”? capital and the like. Further, there was frequently before the war a considerable surplus which the companies did not wish to use in reduction of price, which, therefore, not being available for shareholders’ dividend, could be distributed among the employees. This, by keeping up the workers’ dividend, served to render the profit-sharing scheme popular. Since the war, surpluses have largely disappeared. But the greatest bar to the success of the co-partnership movement has undoubtedly been the hostility of the organized labour movement. The trade unions are almost uniformly opposed to it as a policy, and in some cases even expel any member joining a co-parinership or profit-sharing scheme. ‘This was the case in 1920 with the Amalgamated Society of Woodworkers, whose right to expe! members joining Lord Leverhulme’s scheme at Port Sunlight was contested in the courts, though the decision finally went against them. The earlicst

firms to adopt profit-sharing did little to allay the suspicions of the unions. They were generally as unfavourable to the unions as the unions were to them. The well-known exper-

iment of Messrs. Henry Briggs & Co., which was launched in 1865, was avowedly intended to draw the men away from their union, and came to an end ten years later, after a somewhat stormy career, because the employees chose rather to uphold their union in resisting an attempt by the employers to reduce wages than to remain in the firm's employ and get what they

could.

The scheme of the South Metropolitan Gas Co., which

nearly came to grief in its first year owing to the company’s insistence that every workman should sign a yearly contract, dating from different days in each case

(which would have

rendered any concerted strike punishable at law), also required, until 1902, every workman to sign a declaration that he was not a member of the Gasworkers’ union. Recently this attitude has been modified, and the most distinguished advocates of co-partnership, such as Mr. Aneurin Williams, now insist on the recognition of trade unions: but the unions nevertheless hold that it gives the workers in a single firm a sectional interest and so tends to divide them from their fellows in the same trade, and, further, that there is always a danger that workers in a profit-sharing firm may, in return for the profit-sharing, be induced to accept less than the rates of wages which it is the unions’ business to maintain. As far as one can see, this attitude is not likely to be easily changed in the near future, and the co-partnership movement, therefore, is unlikely to spread beyond the small firms and the minor industries in which trade unionism is weak. BiBLioGRAPHY.—The Ministry of Labour’s Report on Profil-

Sharing and Labour Co-Partnership in the United Kingdom (Cmd. 544. 1920.) is indispensable. It contains nearly al] the available information, and hasan exhaustive bibliography. The best book giving the case for co-partnership

is Charles

Carpenter's Industrial Co-

partnership. A useful book is Co-partnership and Profit-Sharings, by Aneurin Williams (Williams and Norgate, 1913); a good analysis is to be found in Methods of Industrial Remuneration, by D. F. Schloss (Williams and Norgate, 1907). Later Edition. The Labour CoPartnership Association, 6, Bloomsbury Square, London, W.C.1.,

published a number of brochures dealing with particular aspects and particular experiments.

For the Labour point of view the best works are two pamphlets

by Edward R. Pease: Profit-Sharing and Co-Partnership; A Fraud

and a Failure? (Fabian Soc., 1913) and Co-Partnership and Profil-

Sharing (Labour Party. 1921). Labour, by G. D. H. Colec.

See also chapters in The World of (M. I. C.)

Uniled States—Profit-sharing, strictly defined, is a plan for increasing the ordinary remuneration of labour by amounts varying with the profits of the business. Popularly, the term is loosely used to describe a great variety of methods of wage payment. In this article it is used to describe an arrangement by which employees, other than managerial employees, receive, in

addition to wages or salaries, a share of the net profits of the

mous profits at the expense of their customers, and moreover,

business, such share being distributed at the time of the declaration of dividends to stockholders. The arrangement may be expressed either by a formal agreement or an oral promise.

since their accounts of capital and dividend must be regularly rendered to the Government, there is little or no cause for the

be distributed is fixed and known in advance, and, like dividends,

cases the dividend is limited to a fixed maximum percentage.) Thus the gas companies have never been able to make enor-

Although the profits are contingent, the percentage of profits to

170

PROFIT-SHARING AND CO-PARTNERSHIP

is paid sometimes in whole or in part in stock instead of cash.

This definition excludes many forms of wage payment commonly associated and confused with profit-sharing, such as the bonuses sometimes measured by individual or collective output, length of service, attendance at work or employee savings, and sometimes given as Christmas gratuities, and such as sundry stockpurchasing schemes, none of which fluctuate directly with the net profits.

The term ‘‘co-partnership” is not gencrally used in the United States in this connexion, since the implied constituents, profitsharing, stock-ownership and participation in management, are not often found in the same establishment. Many profit-sharing plans arrange for distribution of stock asa part of, or as an addi-

tion to, profit-sharing. There are also more than 60 known stockpurchasing schemes, besides many arrangements for “ managerial” or “limited” profit-sharing, affecting less than one-third of the total employees. Probably fewer than ten of these varied plans provide for workers’ committecs as an integral part of the arrangement,

Related to the idea of co-partnership, but quite apart from profit-sharing, are a considerable number of schemes for labour’s participation in management which have sprung up during and since the World War. These schemes vary all the way from representation on boards of directors, in a very few cases, to joint management through industrial and works councils, shop committees, grievance and welfare committees, shop chairmen

and voluntary arbitration boards. The distinguishing characteristic of these management-sbaring plans is that under them the management docs not depend upon organized labour, but deals with its own cmployees collectively. They are distinct from profit-sharing, in that the employer retains all of the profits he makes, though the workers are given collectively a voice in

determining the wages, hours and working conditions which to some extent affect the profits account. Without doubt labour’s Participation in management insuch a sense is more usual than profit-sharing and co-partnership. The pioneers of true profit-sharing in the United States, dating from 1886, are the Ballard and Ballard Co. of Louisville, Ky., engaged in flour-milling, and the N. O. Nelson Manufacturing Co. of St. Louis, Mo., manufacturers of plumbers’ and steamfitters’ supplies. The years of greatest installation of new proJects were 1901, 1906, 1909-11, 1914-6, and 1919. Fully 70% of all the known plans were started after 1919. These variations in the progress of profit-sharing in the United States correspond with those in England, where profit-sharing plans found favour during periods of ample employment and Jabour unrest. It is only natural, however, that periods of low profits should check the spread of profit-sharing and cause the abandonment of many plans, the average life of abandoned plans being two to three years. For this reason, and since no comprehensive study had been made in the five years preceding 1921, it is difficult to state with confidence the exact number of profit-sharing arrangements existing in that year, one of general business depression. On the basis of the Government report in 1916 and subsequent semi-official studies it is estimated that 86 true profit-sharing plans were in operation at the end of 1920. Of these plans more than one-half (53%) were in manufacturing establishments, 16% in mercantile concerns, 11% in banking institutions, 9% in public utilities and the remainder scattered. Approximately two-thirds of these concerns employed less than 300 people, and only one-seventh employed more than 1,000, so that the total number of employees was less than 50,000.

The number of

arrangements solely for stock purchasing is not accurately known but the inclusion of several large corporations, as the United States Steel Corp. and the International Harvester Co., raises

the number of participating employees to a million or more. In the determination of the divisible fund of profits, two general methods, subject to individual variations, are followed:

(1) Setting aside a specific percentage of profits after all ordinary expenses of the business, such as depreciation reserves and inter-

est on invested capital, are taken care of; (2) fixing a rate of dividend on employees’ earnings codrdinate with the rate of

dividend on capital. Assume a corporation capitalized at $1,000,000 with an annual payroll of $100,000 and net profits of $220,000 a year. In most plans using the first method, the preferred and common stockholders first receive dividends (not to exceed a certain per cent, say 10%, or $100,000).

The remainder

of the profits fund~($120,000) is divisible and is shared with labour according to a fixed percentage, perhaps 50% to labour and so% to capital, or 40% to labour and 60% to capital. Four of the more recent plans allow employee beneficiaries to send an

accountant on their behalf to verify the company’s computations. Under the second method, the divisible fund depends on dividends declared. Thus if a 10% dividend is declared, a fund

equal to 5% or 74% of the total payroll ($5,000 or $7,500) is distributed among workers.

The advantage to the management

of this method is that is may be found desirable to pass all divdends and use this amount for strengthening the business. When the amount of divisible profits has been determined, there remains the apportionment of the respective shares to capital and labour. In most instances the employer determines this apportionment at the outset, announcing that perhaps 50% or 40% or 334% of the divisible profits will be distributed among employees according to their carnings. Often, however, divisible profits are distributed according to the ratio of (1) total invested

capital to total payroll or (2) interest on invested capital to total payroll. Assuming, in the example given above, that $120,000 remains to be divided, the ratio in the first instance is $1,000,000 (capital) to $100,000 (payroll) or ten to one, which allots $10,909 to labour and $iog,o91 to capital. In the second case, assuming 6% as a fair return on the investment, the ratio is $60,000 (interest): to $100,000 (payroll) or six-tenths to one, in

which event labour’s share is $75,000 and capital’s share is $45,000. This latter method of division in 1921 was known to obtain in only one establishment. An almost universal rule is that length of service shall be a condition of the eligibility of participants. In one or two cases the employee benefits as soon as hired. But most schemes require from three months to three years of continuous employ-

ment as qualification for a share in profits. Concessions from the specification of ‘ continuous ” employment are sometimes made to provide for such contingencies as sickness, unavoidable lay-off and accidents. Discharge for cause or quitting employment entails an automatic forfeiture of all claims to accumulated or accruing shares in profits; in one plan discharge for cause is the only occasion for forfeiture. The obvious intent of such regulations is to reduce labour turnover by rewarding the faithful. In this respect profit-sharing indirectly acts as a lengthof-service bonus. A further rule as to cligibility in some plans is to require a written application from the employce who wishes

to participate. In one such case employces are obligated to share in possible losses, not to exceed 10% of their carnings, 10% of their pay being held back by the employer each week to provide for this contingency. Loss-sharing in addition to profit-sharing is incorporated in four schemes. Still another restriction is as to the class of work performed, as shown by the amount of salary or wages or by classification of employment. Firms using this restriction evidently fecl that the type of their workingmen is such that only a sharing limited to some of their employees would produce the desired results. Yet there is also the wish to experiment fully and the desire to extend the benefits of the plan, should limited participation be successful.

The form and time of payment of shares to employees are also important variants. Over three-fourths of the firms studied in 1916 paid their shares fully in cash, annually, semi-annually or quarterly. The others paid part in cash, part in company stock, or paid part into a common welfare fund or savings account. The stock-sharing or co-partnership plans provided many restrictions designed to encourage thrift, and to discourage speculation and absentee ownership. These restrictions take the form of prohibitions of sale of steck, sometimes only with the consent of an official of the company, or holding the stock in trust for the employee and paying him only the dividends, or of forfeiture of participating rights if such stock be sald.

171

PROHIBITION Four plans provide for workers’ co-partnership committees, though there are several strictly stock-purchasing plans which allow shareholding employees to acquire a voice in management through the exercise of the ordinary voting nghts of shareholders. The extent of the co-partnership in these forms is negligible. All these varying details (and the variations are by no means exhausted in this recapitulation) reveal in large measure the spirit and purpose of profit-sharing. As a rule the employer announces his plan without previously consulting his employeeS. There is virtually unanimous agreement among successful profitsharing employers that the coöperation, loyalty and stability of working forces—the chief avowed purposes of profit-sharing— are obtained by all the plans which have been in operation for any considerable period. There are, however, varying opinions as to how far these plans attain the more specific objects of (1) economy of time and material, (2) improvements in quality and

quantity of output, (3) inducement to thrift, (4) avoidance of

industrial disputes, (5) attainment of social justice. On the whole there is a considerable body of employers’ opinion supporting the value and practicability of profit-sharing in improv-

ing industrial relations. On the other hand union leaders universally condemn profitsharing for three general reasons: (1) Where profit-sharing exists, wages less than the market rates are paid; (2) workers prefer a

fair, fixed wage scale rather than a part of their wages undetermined and subject wholly to the employer’s decision; (3)

labour organization is undermined, as obligations to the firm are made a first lien on the workers’ loyalty. That these criticisms have some foundation in fact is proved by the high percentage

of abandoned plans and the reasons for their failure. Most of the failures were due to apathy or open hostility on the part of the workers, expressed in strikes, to diminished profits, or to changes in ownership of The success or failure cumstances not touched favourable results have

the business. of profit-sharing plans depends on cirby the profit-sharing principle. Where been obtained, they were due, not ta

profit-sharing as a mechanical device, but to the confidence which the emplovees had in the management. Bibliography.—A

comprchensive

bibliography

will be found

in

Boris Emmet’s report “ Profit-Sharing in the United States “— United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No. 208, 1917. Other references are: C, D, Wright, Profit-Sharing (1886); N. P. Gilman, Profit-Shart::2 between Employer and Employee (London and New York, 1892); idem, A Dividend to Labour (London and Boston, 1900); A. F. Burritt, Profit-Sharing: its Principles and Practice (New York and London, 1918); National Industrial Conference Board,

Research Report No. 29,‘ Practical Experience with Profit-Sharing in Industrial Establishments” (Boston, 1920); National Civic

States that social and industrial efficiency, and national unity of purpose, could not be had at any cheaper price than the cost or sacrifices involved

(whatever

they might be) in national

prohibition; and this belief had almost reached the point where it could be translated into effective governmental action even before the war necessitated a supreme effort for such efficiency.

Surprising evidence of this was seen in the passage, by a major: ity vote (193 to 189) in the House of Representatives, of the Hobson amendment for national] prohibition, Dec. 22 1914, two

years and four months before the United States entered the war. Save for the war, the country would probably not have had constitutional (which means virtually permanent) national prohibition as early as-1920. Forces were, however, at work

which would have probably brought it within another decade,

and with it the “ bone dry ” enforcement contemplated in the National Prohibition Act (popularly called the Volstead Act),

the significant title of which is “an Act to prohibit intoxicating beverages, and to regulate the manufacture, production, use, and sale of high-proof spirits for other than beverage purposes, and to ensure an ample supply of alcohol and promote its use in

scientific research and in the development of fuel, dye, and other lawful industries.” Up to the wartime legislation of r917 and 1918 and the Volstead Act of Oct. 28 1919 for the enforcement of the Eighteenth Amendment, there had been but little change since 1910 in Federal policy. Federal taxation of liquor was greatly increased for revenue purposes in 1917 and 1918. The increasing sentiment in favour of prohibition throughout the country was reflected, however, in other Federa] measures. In 1913 the Webb-Kenyon Act was passed, over President Taft’s veto. It was based on

the constitutional grounds that the Act delegated power over interstate commerce, exclusively vested in Congress, to a state,

by making illegal the shipment of liquor from a ‘ wet” state to a ‘‘dry” state contrary to the laws of the latter. Some such measure seemed necessary in order that local prohibition might be enforced in “dry ” territory.

Another indication of national

sentiment in favour of restriction is found in the same year in

the passage of the Jones-Works Excise Bill for the District of Columbia, which reduced the number of licensed saloons by

Nov. 1 1914 to not more than 300, about half as many as before. The Isthmian Cana] Commission on July 1 1013, by an admjnistrative order previously adopted, abolished 35 saloons in the Canal Zone by declining to issue any further licences for the

sale of liquor. In rors absolute pronibition for the District of Columbia was proposed in a rider to an appropriation bill, and defeated in the Senate by 4 small majority, and in the same

the earlier article (sce 26.578) under

year a bill for that purpose was favourably reported in the Senate by the Committee on the District of Columbia. In 1916 the Judiciary Committee of the Senate reported, 13 to 3, a

TEMPERANCE, reference has already been made to the various methods devised for securing total abstinence from the consumption of intoxicating liquor, and in particular to the prog-

in the House of Representatives in Dec. 1914, though it failed

Fedcration, Profit-Sharing Department, Profit-Sharing by American Employers (New York, 1920). T R. Co.)

PROHIBITION.—In

ress of the movement for legislative Prohibition in the United States up to the year rgro. This latter movement eventually culminated in the establishment of nation-wide Prohibition by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, as proposed by Congress, Dec. 3 1917, ratified by the necessary three-fourths of all the states, and officially proclaimed, Jan. 29 1919, aS part of the Constitution, becoming effective, in accordance with its terms, one year from the date of ratification by 36 states, namely Jan. 16 1920. In the separate article under Liovor Laws the measures

adopted in Great Britain for further regulating the liquor trafic during 1910 to 1921 are dealt with; and here it is only necessary to deal with the advent of complete national Prohibition in the United States, where its adoption forms one of the most interesting chapters in the social history of modern times. The movement for Prohibition was affected by new scien-

tific knowledge, new views of industrial economics, and educational forces of great variety, considerably intensified, but not substantially changed in character, by the experience of the

World War. The conviction had grown steadily in the United

resolution proposing the National Prohibition Amendment to the Constitution.

A similar resolution received a majority vote

to secure the two-thirds necessary for passage. During the years 1915 and 1916 many of the states had cnacted statewide prohibition laws, and there was a considerable extension of dry territory under local option in wet states. Early in 1917 Congress enacted the Federal Anti-Liquor Advertising Bill with the so-called Reed Bone-Dry Amendment, as an amendment to the Post-Office appropriation bill. This was a drastic prohibition of the use of the mails for advertising, or soliciting orders for, liquor in ‘‘ dry” territory, and was an extensicn of the principle of the Webb-Kenyon Act. Congress also adopted prohibition for the District of Columbia, over which it has exclusive legislative power, It provided for prohibition in Alaska to be effective Jan. 1 1918, and in the Porto Rican Citizenship and Civil Government Act it made provision for a referendum in Porto Rico on prohibition. This was held in July 1017, and resulted in a vote of 99,775 for prohibition to 62,195 against.

All this action by Congress took place before

the declaration of war in April, 1917. Following that declaration came the enactment of wartime prohibition in the Food Control

Act of Aug. 10 1917, the liquor restrictions of the draft law of

PROHIBITION

172

May 18, and the extension of their application in the Act to promote the efficiency of the navy, approved Oct. 6 1917. These

measures are discussed later in the section on wartime legislation. Quite apart, however, from war legislation, on Aug. 1 1917 the Senate

adopted

the resolution

proposing

to the states

the

National Prohibition Amendment by a vote of 65 to 20—more than two-thirds of the members present, and this resolution was adopted by the House with some amendments Dec. 17 by a vote of 282 to 128. On Dec. 18 1917 the Senate concurred in the amendments made by the House, and the resolution was there-

upon submitted to the Legislatures of the several states for ratification. Ratified by the last of the necessary 36 statcs (Jan. 16 1919), and proclaimed by the Secretary of State (Jan. 29 191g), 1t became the Eightcenth Amendment to the Constitution, to go into effect one year from the date of its ratification, namely on Jan. 16 1920.

The wording of the Amendment

is as

follows:—

1.

showed a fair proportionate representation of the people residing in “dry” territory, and also the proportion of “dry” to “wet”

territory in the United States. The subsequent votes in the State Legislatures on ratification of the Amendment corroborate this view. The accompanying table shows the order and dates of ratification by the several states, and the vote in each House of the

State Legislatures by which ratification was enacted. The total number of votes in the state Senates or upper Houses, for ratification, was 1,297 in favour and 236 against, or 84% for national prohibition to 14% against; in the lower or more popular branch of the state Legislatures, the total vote for prohibition was 3,742, or 78%, to 1,001 or 22% against. It will be noted that in South Dakota, Idaho, Washington, Kansas, Utah and Wyoming no votes were cast against ratification. The three states which had not ratified the Eighteenth Amendment to Sept. 192x were Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Jersey.

After one year from the ratification of this article the manu-

facture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof

from the United

That the ratification of the proposed amendment failed

in all three states by a very narrow margin is seen from the following facts. Rhode Island’s State Senate by a vote of 20

States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for bev-

to 18 on March 2 1918 postponed indefinitely the consideration

erage purposes is hereby prohibited.

of the ratification resolution; the resolution was presented again

2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

at the 1919 session, when the Senate voted 25 to 12 to postpone

3.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been

ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures

of the several states, as provided by the Constitution, within seven

years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress.

After Jan. 16 rọrọ three of the remaining Whatever allowance the political activities

the Amendment was ratified by all but states. may be made for the effect produced by of the Anti-Saloon League, an analysis

of the vote in Congress for the submission of the Amendment

indefinitely its consideration. In Connecticut the Senate voted 14 for ratification and 20 against, and the House 153 for and 96 against. In New Jersey the House passed the ratification resolution, Jan. 24 1921, by a vote of 52 to 4, but the vote in the Senate on April 7 1921 was 10 in favour to 8 against, and the resolution failed because the state Constitution required at least rr affirmative votes in the Senate as then organized. Following the adoption of the Amendment came the Volstead Act, which was passed over President Wilson’s veto on Oct. 28 1919. Before that, however, in addition to further war legisla-

Votes in Legislatures on Ratification of Eighteenth Amendment. (1) Mississippi (2) Virginia

(3) Kentucky.

.

(4) South Carolina.

(5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

North Dakota . Maryland . Montana ,. Texas A Delaware . .

10) South Dakota

.

11) Massachusetts 12) Arizona.

. ;

(13) Georgia . (14) Louisiana . (15) Florida. Michigan . x hio i 18) Oklahoma . (19) Maine : (20) Idaho s (21) West Virginia ( 2) Washington ( 3) Tennessee . ( 4) California .

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PROHIBITION tion affecting the liquor traffic, Congress enacted in 1918 prohibition for Hawaii and in rọrọ a bone-dry law for the District of Columbia. National prohibition was proclaimed Jan. 29 roro, and the year of grace allowed by the Eightcenth Amendment

for it to

go into effect was intended to give liquor manufacturers and dealers time in which to liquidate their business and dispose of their stocks. The so-called wartime Prohibition Act, however, which was enacted ro days after active warfare had ceased (Nov.

21 1918), became effective on July 1 rọrọ. The production of beer, except ‘‘ near-beer,” had been stopped at the beginning of the year as a food conservation measure, but even after wartime prohibition became effective, 2-75 % beer was manufactured in some states on the assumption that it was a non-intoxicating liquor, and because Congress had not yet defined the quantity

of alcohol a beverage might contain without coming within the meaning of the word “ intoxicating,” as used in the various laws, regulations and administrative orders. Rhode Island for example, enacted a state law declaring all liquors of less than 4°% alcohol to be non-intoxicating. The questions thus raised, together with the definitions of the Volstead Act declaring all liquors containing one-half of 1%

of alcohol or more to be intoxicating and hence prohibited, were taken to the Supreme Court, which finally sustained both the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act’s definition of intoxicating liquor, in two cases (Hawke v. Smith and Rhode Island v. Palmer, 253 U.S.) in which decision was rendered June

12 1920. The Court had previously sustained the War Prohibition Act and the one-half of 1% limit which it specified; but the liquor interests and the liquor-consuming public hoped that greater latitude would be given them by a narrower construction of the first section of the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited only intoxicating liquors, and therefore, it was argued, did not warrant legislation forbidding the sale and manufacture of any liquor which was, in fact, non-intoxicating, whether it contained more or less than one-half of 1% of alcohol. The

Court, however, without

stating or discussing this con-

tention, cited the war prohibition cases in support of the conclusion that while ‘ recognizing that there are limits beyond which Congress cannot go in treating beverages as within its

power of enforcement, we think those limits are not transcended by the provision of the Volstead Act.” The Volstead Act provided for drastic enforcement, and arms the Government, through the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with ample powers to punish and suppress any evasion. The regulations under this Act governing physicians’ prescriptions and the procuring of wine for sacramental purposes are also drastic. The Act supplementary to the National Prohibition Act approved Nov. 23 1921 contains still more strict enforcement provisions. It forbids physicians to prescribe for medicinal purposes other than spirituous and vinous liquor, and no physician may prescribe or any person sell or furnish on prescription any vinous liquor that contains more than 24% of alcohol by volume and not more than a quarter gallon or any quantity of such liquor

containing more than one pint of alcohol for the use of any person within a period of ten days. This may seem to be an unnecessary and unwarranted interference with medical science, but it indicates that no power was likely to be refused that the administration authorities might find necessary to make enforcement effective. Other provisions giving the enforcing authonties control over importations for non-beverage purposes make it clear that both this Act and the National Prohibition Act apply to all territory subject to the jurisdiction of the United States and specifically continue in force all laws in regard to the manufacture and taxation of and traffic in intoxicating liquor and their several penalties as in force when the National Prohibition Act was enacted. Although the effectiveness and justice of these provisions cannot be accurately judged at present, they at least assisted materially towards enforcing national prohibition.

The question of the meaning of ‘‘ concurrent power ” to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment was also settled by the Supreme

173

Court in Hawke v. Smith, in which the Supreme Court heldthat ihe provision of the Amendment in this connexion was, within the amending power, was a part of the Constitution and “ must be respected and given effect the same as other provisions of that instrument,” was “‘ operative throughout the entire territorial limits of the United States ” and “of its own force invalidates every legislative act, whether by Congress,

by a State Legislature, or by a Territorial Assembly, which authorizes or sanctions what the section forbids.” The second section of the Amendment declared that “‘ the Congress and the several states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.” The Supreme Court said that this “does not enable Congress or the several states to defeat or thwart the prohibition, but only to enforce it by appropriate legislation. The words ‘ concurrent power,’ in that section, do not mean joint power, or require that legislation thereunder by | Congress to be effective shall be approved or sanctioned by the several states or any of them; nor do they mean that the power to enforce is divided between Congress and the several states along the lines which separate or distinguish foreign and interstate commerce from intrastate affairs. The power confided to Congress by that section, while not exclusive, is territorially

coextensive with the prohibition of the first section, embraces manufacture and other intrastate transactions as well as importation, exportation and interstate trafhc, and is in no wise dependent on or affected by any action or inaction on the part

of the several states or any of them.” The prohibitionists could scarcely have hoped for a more sweeping endorsement, and the decision may be fairly considered further evidence of the widespread popular desire for effective national prohibition. State Action—Statewide prohibition had existed in roio in . only nine states—one of them in New England (Maine); three in the middle-west (North Dakota, Kansas and Oklahoma); and

five in the south (North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessec). Not till 1914 did any greater tendency to statewide prohibition show itself, with the exception of an amendment of the state Constitution of West Virginia in 1912. But during the five years 1914-9 half the states adopted statewide prohibition, and these represented every section of the country, although they did not include some of the most populous states with large urban centres. In 1914 statewide prohibition was adopted by Colorado, Oregon, Virginia, Washington; in rors by Alabama, Arizona, South Carolina; in 1916 by Arkansas, Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, South Dakota; in 1917 by the District of Columbia, Indiana, New Hampshire, New Mexico; in 1918 by Florida, Nevada, Ohio, Utah; in 1919 by Kentucky and Texas. From roto to r914, and in lesser degree until 1920, there was meanwhile a continued struggle as to local option in states where statewide prohibition was not adopted with considerable fluctuation in the proportion of dry and wet areas or counties or towns, as the case might be, within the several states, and sometimes with the further fluctuation that the same area became dry at. one election and wet at the next. Local option scems to have had its first trial in the United States in Indiana as early as 1832; when in 1881 Massachusctts adopted local option after extensive experiment with prohibition and ordinary forms of licence, that state became a model for other states in its local

option law; local option in roro prevailed in 33 states. In Pennsylvania, where the licences were granted by the courts of quarter sessions and the judges elected by the people, local option virtually obtained, because elections of judges often turned on the question of whether or not licences should be granted in a given community; and in New Jersey some communities, by reason of the provisions of special municipal charters, enjoyed the privilege of local option. It was estimated in 1910 that the extent of the dry areas of the United States was to that of the wet areas approximately as seven is to five. The total pop., however, living in dry areas was approximately 41,500,000 to 46,000,000 in the wet areas,

Outside prohibition areas and local option areas there remained little territory in 1910 under-other forms of licence or regulation,

174

PROHIBITION

the most notable exception being the dispensary system in South Carolina, which was still in operation, however, in only

six countics out of 22 that previously had state dispensaries; besides these there were 32 counties dry under local option. Experiments with local option provided valuable tests of the spread of prohibition sentiment. A writer in the National Municipal Review for Oct. 1916, dealing with local option in the United States, stated that at that time 80% of the land area of

the United States was under- prohibition, affecting 54% of the pop. of the country; in other words that more than one-half of the pop. of the United States, spread over four-fifths of its area, was without licensed supply of intoxicants.

In the 26

local option states the percentage of area made dry in that year by local legislation ranged from 18% in Rhode Island to 9$-3% in Wyoming, with a median percentage of 78-5. Only three of those states had less than half their area under no licence; seven between one-third and three-fourths, and 16 more than three-fourths. Therefore, said this writer, “ with 19 states wholly dry, 16 states more than three-fourths dry and 7 states

more than half dry, it would appear from the map that prohibition requiring the consent of 36 states is not Liquor Consumption.—Too much importance is olten to actual statistics of the consumption of liquor as an oi the success

national far off.” attached evidence

or failure of local option, and of restriction or

prohibition of manufacture and sale.

They are by no means

conclusive, and especially have slight bearing on the important question, involved in most local option and prohibition enact-

ments, concerning the nature, character and number of saloons and places where intoxicating beverages are sold and consumed. The annexed official figures from the United States Statistical Abstract for 1920 give statistics for the consumption per capita of distilled spirits, wines and malt liquors for beverage purposes, from 1550 to 1920. United States Annual Consumption per capita of Distilled Spirits, Wines, and Mult Liquors, 1850 to 1920; in gallons. Year ended June 30 1550 1800 1870

.

:

.

Distilled Spirits

All Liquors jand Wines

è

2:2 2:66 2-07

“2 "34 +32

1:58 "22 5°31

408 6:43 7°70

1881-g0* 1891-5 * T856-1900* 190I-5 * .» 1906-10*

I-34 1°37 I-12 1:39 1:43

"43 "39 +36 “47 62 67

11°37 15-20 15°53 17°34 19°81 20:69

13°20 16°96 17-01 19°20 21-86

‘58 "50 53 33

20-02 20-72 20:69 18-40

22-81 22-05 22°80 22°66 19°99

"47

17°78

19-61

I871-80*%

IQIL TOTS: 19I} I9I4 TOES:

, . . , cs

1916

.

1917



Male Liquors

.

; ‘ Š

1:39

:

` š

,

š

IQIS

.



1919

à

A

1020

.

:

1-46 1°45 I-51 144 1:26

1-37

I-62

89

say

0:93

8-79

quite irrespective of their personal habits or desires with respect to the consumption of alcohol, they could not secure the advantages of abstinence, or of moderate and perhaps harmless consumption, on the part of the weaker and more numerous members of any community, unless they themselves were willing to forgo

the liberty of personal consumption, even though they belonged to the minority whose efficiency might not in any case be seri-

ously impaired. Enlightened opinion was also shown in the increasing regard for public health, and the measures which the nation as a whole, and the public authoritics in most of its

component divisions, were taking to promote it. The physiological effect of small doses of alcoho! on physical strength and on mental processes had been studied by scientists for many years; and the activities of the leading life-insurance companies,

during the decade here under review, in the dissemination of information with respect to personal and public hygiene, had also exerted a considerable influence upon the movement. The published statements of the life-insurance companies, analysing their mortality experience, have gencrally been regarded as unbiassed, but have not been unchallenged or free from conflicting interpretation. Their conclusions, however, steadily

served to support the total abstinence arguments as to industrial efficiency and public health, and they were widely circulated by many of the companies in such a way as to exert an effective educational influence. Mr. Arthur Hunter, actuary

of the New York Life Insurance Co., in a paper read before the National Conference of Charities and Correction in Indianapolis in 1916, presented a survey of this material in which he claimed

that the American statistics, many of which were then only recently available in published form, corroborated the English data in indicating that total abstinence decidedly increased longevity.

He said, ‘the

experience

of the seven

American

life insurance companies (and one Canadian company whose records had been studied) has proved that abstaincrs have from 10°% to 30% lower mortality than non-abstainers, and there is no good reason for believing that if the other companies compiled

their statistics there would be any different result, providing the companies exercised the same care in accepting abstainers and non-abstainers.” Lastly, and of as much weight, it would seem, as all the other reasons combined, there was among all classes a growing hostility to the liquor saloon, as a mischievous agency, largely controlled and dominated

by anti-social

influences,

and by persons and

corporations actuated by a strong motive of private profit. Furthermore, the liquor saloon was gaining a power in politics, and a control of matters affecting the social life and gencral welfare of the people, which made its growth disproportionate to that of any other social institution in the country. The public perceived the increasing political influence of the saloon,

"4I

18-17

20°20

and the failure everywhere of the various experiments to develop

“49

14°80

16-18

a substitute for it, or, indeed, to organize any other successful centre of recreation, social intercourse and community life, in

"

.

*Average for the period.

Influences Behind Prohibition —The facts and figures already set forth should help to indicate what were the influences which brought together the local, state and national forces, and Ied to the adoption of national prohibition in 1920, as well as to its virtual enforcement as a war measure July 1 1019, throughout the area of the United States and the territory subject to its jurisdiction. The movement was not to be ascribed, as some publicists have seemed inclined to believe, to a state of exaltation induced by the war. Neither was it due to the absence of many male voters engaged in military service and perhaps not able to make their opinions effective in the matter. Prohibition had its roots and causes outside of and far antedating

competition with saloons supported and controlled by the profits of the liquor industry. A formidable body of public opinion united many persons who were neither total abstainers nor wholly convinced by the economic efficiency and health arguments against alcohol, Nevertheless they were sure that drastic measures were necessary, even if they involved heavy personal sacrifice on the part of many persons, to rid the communities in which they resided, as well as those in which they did business,

of the baneful results and by-products of the saloon. Thus many who never would have voted for state prohibition, and who were even disappointed with the general outcome of local option, were preparcd, when the issue was presented, to support and defend national prohibition.

Results.—Various efforts were made between Jan. 1920 and

these sentiments and experiences. The continuously rising standard of living of the masses in both urban and rural communities from 1910 to 1918 had much influence, The industrial

the autumn of 1921 to appraise the economic results and the

about its requirements, had an important and increasing effect. Americans of all classes in increasing numbers perceived that,

factors.

efiectiveness of the enforcement of national prohibition. But there had not yet been time to get accurate and convincing demands for efficiency, and the growth of scientific knowledge | statistics or to know how to make allowance for purely accidental

Adjustment to the new conditions was still going on,

and the existence of old stocks of liquor and wine introduced

PROHIBITION an inevitable complication. In the case of war prohibition there was a tolerated delay of 7 months, which the Supreme Court, in-its decision upholding the war prohibition enactment, practically stated was a reasonable period, in lieu of compensation,

to enable liquor dealers to dispose of liquors on hand.

It was

still necessary in the autumn of r921 to depend largely upon the

judgment of trained observers, who could be trusted to interpret partial but significant statistics. Of local and partial data there was no lack. The Survey for Jan. 17 1920, speaking of six months

of the enforcement of war prohibition, said: “ Thus the of national prohibition comes to pass without any of the disasters predicted—great bodies of men are not jobless; breweries are not idle, but have turned to the making of

fact dire the soft

drinks and ice cream; labor has not refused to work without

beer. . . 3 real-estate values have not slumped; in fact, the rentals charged to cigar stores, soda fountains, lunch counters, groceries and such like which are moving into the vacant saloons

with all possible speed, are higher than they were; there has not been a reign of terror by outraged men demanding the return of their personal liberty.” Another study made by The Survey and published Nov. 6 1920, of the city of Grand Rapids, Mich. (located in a state under constitutional prohibition since 1916), says that Grand Rapids in 1920 was practically

free from drunkenness if not from drink; prohibition had all but emptied the county gaol; the county farm had run down

for lack of prison labour; the police force had been greatly reduced; the withdrawal of liquor from dance and social halls had closed prolific sources of immorality and crime; and the number of arrests in two years had been cut in half.

A study under the direction of the Federal Council of Churches was made by the head of a social settlement in Buffalo, who

visited cight cities, including three of the largest—New York, Philadelphia and Chicago—and the smaller cities of Washington, Harrisburg, Columbus, Detroit and Buffalo, examining the police returns, hospital returns, reports of Jodging houses, charitable and community organizations, during the month of

April 1920. Most of his material is from official sources and shows a decrease in the number of arrests in cities far apart, which

cannot be explained by the operation of the usual causes of fluctuation. Apparently prohibition was the only factor common to all of these returns and operating upon them alike. Other reports, from. many

sources, of similar character show that

throughout 1920 arrests for drunkenness and for all crimes in the principal citics diminished. In Philadelphia the total for the dry six months of 1919 compared with the wet six months of that year showed a decrease of 40% (47,000 to 28,530), and the chief resident physician of the Philadelphia General Hospital

stated that there had been no increase in the use of drugs since prohibition.. Fifty-nine cities of the United States having a pop. of 30,000 or over and a combined pop. of over 20,000,000 (including New

York, Chicago and Philadelphia) give the following official figures for arrests for drunkenness in the four successive years 1917-20: 316,542, 260,169, 172,659 and 109,768. Indiana shows:

Jo% fewer arrests in 1920 for drunkenness than in 1917, the

Jast year when the state was wet, for 39 cities with a combined pop. of nearly one million, Boston reports 5,000 fewer arrests

in 1920 for all causes than for drunkenness alone in 1919; the state of Massachusetts reports 32,580 arrests for drunkenness in 1g20 compared with 77,925 in 1919; Connecticut had 943 arrests for drunkenness in 1920 against 3,777 in 1919; New York City a decrease from 14,182 in 1917 to 5,813 in 19203 St. Louis a decrease from 2,605 in 1919 to 691 in 1920. A similar tendency in many cities is apparent jn the returns for 1920.

Since prohibition, high wages and continuous employment came together during the year July 1 1919 to June 30 1920, it is difficult to state with certainty which: of the three was the cause, or the major cause, of the increase in savings bank accounts,

or of the decrease in industrial accidents reported during that period. Anofficial statement of the Comptroller of the Currency given out in Washington Jan. 22 1920 stated that in national banks alone 880,949 new accounts were opened in the first 4}

175

months of the fiscal year beginning July 1 toro, and that the

increase in the number of depositors in state and private banks, though not available, was known to be fat greater than the increase of depositors in national banks. ‘The Comptroller's official report (48th Annual Report) for the year ended Oct. 31 1920 states: In the number of depositors or deposit accounts in national banks all previous records were exceeded, official reports showing that on June 30 1920 there were 20,520,177

deposit accounts in all national banks. This was an increase of 2,279,877 (12490) over June 30 1919. There is now approximately one depositor in the national banks for every five of our population.” The most disinterested and intelligent observers, accustomed to judging public conditions and social facts, differed widely

in their verdicts on prohibition, its economic results and general benefits or disadvantages to the public welfare in the first year

of national prohibition. That is likely to be true for several years tocome. The more authoritative opinion, however, seemed to be that the first effects had been generally beneficial; that the

popular sentiment in support of effective prohibition was gaining in strength, and that the experiment would be continued and developed, The fears of lurking danger to social institutions or to the moral integrity of the people (which some critics believed to be inherent in prohibition}, seemed likely to be outweighed by the economic and political advantages of freedom from the saloon, and the semblance, at least, of more orderly communities, less

petty crime and less abject poverty. The majority of moderate drinkers seemed to be willing to sacrifice thcir personal liberty for these desirable results. The intemperate constitute a minority as compared with the total abstainers plus a majority of those

who had been moderate users of intoxicating beverages, and their number may be expected to diminish from year to year. The business interests which were thought to be menaced by prohibition found, at the time when national and wartime prohibition went into effect, means of readjustment without great loss and without inflicting on the nation the burden of any scheme of compensation. ‘The outlook for the future was in rgzr one of hope that new forces and new funds had now

been released, which might be directed to providing normal recreation and facilities for social and community life which the saloon did not provide, but for which its very existence had precluded other provision being made. U.S. War-emergency Afeasures.—After the entry of the United States into the World War, Federal legislation began with the Draft law of May 18 1917, Section 12 of which authorized the President

to make regulations for the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors in or near military camps and to officers and enlisted men of the army. An Act to promote the efficiency of the U.S. navy, approved Oct. 6 1917, extended these provisions to include the navy and all laces for training and mobilization connected with the naval service. This section made it unlawful to sell or supply intoxicating

liquors to any military or naval station, cantonment, camp, fort, or

officers’ or enlisted men’s club, or to sell intoxicating hquor, including beer, ale or wine, to any officer or member of the military

force while in uniform. The Food Control Act of Aug. 10 1917 prohibited the use of foods, fruits or food materials in the production of distilled spirits for beverage purposes, but authorized the President to prescribe rules for their use in the production of distilled spirits for other purposes. It provided also that distilled spirits should not be imported into the United States, and that whenever the President

should find that limitation, regulation or prohibition of the use of foods, fruits or food materials in making malt or vinous liquors

for beverage purposes, or that the reduction of the alcoholic content

of such liquors is essential for food conservation, he should be authorized to prescribe and give public notice of such limitation, pro-

hibition or reduction as might be necessary. This Act also authorized

the President to commandeer and pay for distilled spirits needed the manufacture of munitions or military supplics. The so-called War Prohibition Act, enacted Nov. 21 1918, days after the signing of the Armistice, was an amendment to Agricultural Appropriation Bill, and provided that from June

for

I0 the 30 1919 until the conclusion of the war and of demobilization, the date

to be determined and proclaimed by the President, it should be

unlawful to sell for beverage purpose any distilled spirits or to withdraw distilled spirits from bond except for export. Jt also provided that after May I 1919 no grains, cereals, fruit or other food products should be used in the manufacture or production of beer, wine or other intoxicating malt or vinous liquor for beverage purposes, and after June 30 1919 no beer, wine or other intoxicating malt or vinous

PROPAGANDA

176

liquor should be sold for beverage purposes except for export, until the conclusion of the war and of demobilization, the date to be

determined by the President. This Act also prohibited the importa-

tion, from the date of its approval until the period of its termination,

of distilled malt, vinous or other intoxicating liquors. The President

was further authorized by the Act to establish zones about coal

mines, munition factories, shipbuilding plants or wherever necessary to facilitate war work, in which strict prohibition should be made

effective under heavy penalties. This Act continued in force until national prohibition came into force by reason of the refusal of the

President to declare demobilization to have been completed before

that date, and the section of the Act authorizing the Presilent to establish special zones as above described was incorporated from

a joint resolution of Congress, having the force of law from the earlier

date of Sept. 12 1918. The Prohibition Enforcement Law or Volstead Act, enacted Oct. 28 1919, three months before national prohibition came into effect, provided. for the enforcement of both the War

Prohibition

Act and the Eighteenth Amendment. The President exercised the powers conferred on him under the Food Control Act of Aug. 10 1917, and under it the manufacture of distilled spirits in the United

States was prohibited on and after Sept. 8 1917. Through the Food Administration the President also stopped the use of food materials in the manufacture of beer on Dec. 1 1918. All these measures were strictly enforced and achieved their major purposes by securing conservation and the maintenance of discipline and sobriety in all

places where men in uniform were stationed.

They did not affect

the civilian population because of the short period of prohibition of manufacture, and because of the existing stocks in territory where

local or state legislation permitted its sale.

No state legislation was

necessary to carry out the purposcs of the special war strictions.

PROPAGANDA,

period re-

(5. McC. L.)

the term applied to a concerted scheme for

the promotion of a doctrine or practice; more generally, the effort to influence opinion; by a false analogy from such plural words

as ‘‘ memoranda,” frequently applied to the means by which a propaganda is conducted. The objective of a propaganda is to promote the interests of those who contrive it, rather than to

benefit those to whom it is addressed; in advertisement to sell an article; in publicity to state a case; in politics to forward a

policy; in war to bring victory. This differentiates it from the diffusion of useful knowledge; the evangel of a mission; publication of the cure for a disease, In such objectives there may be a secondary advantage to the contriver, but to benefit the sub-

jects of the effort is the leading motive. Similarly those engaged in a propaganda may genuinely believe that success will be an advantage to those whom they address, but the stimulus to their action is their own cause, The differentia of a propaganda is that it is seli-seeking, whether the object be worthy or unworthy, intrinsically, or in the minds of its promoters. Statements or arguments known to be self-interested tend to raise suspicion. A wide examination of propagandas supplies

an empirical argument in justification of such an attitude.

In-

deed, casuistically considered, indifference to truth is a character-

isticof propaganda, Truthis valuable only so far as it is eficctive. The whole truth would gencrally be superfluous and almost always misleading; the selections made range from a high percentage to a minus quantity. The time factor is vital. If a quick sale or a decisive victory is possible, opportunism may be more useful than exactitude. If a permanent market is to be opened

or a protracted campaign is expected, caution is required in suppression or in misstatement. Although truth may thus be irrelevant to the success of a propaganda, it does not follow

frequent duty is to reverse or to create opinion. Efforts are therefore made to present “ tendencious ” matter as impartial.

The simplest case is seen in the familiar methods of newspaper advertisement. The crudest form is a direct printed recommendation of an object, obviously paid for, More subtle, but still

plainly a paid advertisement, is @ general paragraph in the “News”

columns, with the letters Adv. at the foot.

Best of

all is commendation in the editorial columns or description disguised as news, these methods being seldom adopted in the responsible Press of the better kind, but familiar in organs subsidized to support an interest, possibly with a free hand on everything except that interest. The methods of a propaganda are limited only by the resources and the ingenuity of its promoters, They may be studied in their most intensive form in the propagandist efforts during a war; the magnitude of the object secures the necessary funds, and at the same time attracts the services of persons of more intellect and character than would usually devote themselves to such a pursuit; in the atmosphere of war, moreover, truth,

like many other fine qualities of humanity, is judged by expediency, with varying answers. The use of propaganda in war dates from remote antiquity. It is plain that Herodotus, with his alert and modern mind,

suspected the possibility of “ working ” the oracles whose pro-

nouncements had so great an influence.

But in Urania VIII.,

22, he describes a propagandist effort made in the Persian War by Themistocles, son of Neocles, which in intention and method

might have occurred in the recent World War:— “Themistocles, having selected the best sailing ships of the Athenians, went to the places where there was water fit for drinking, and engraved upon the stones inscriptions, which the lonians, upon arriving next day at Artemisium, read. The inscriptions were to this elfect: ‘ Men of Ionia, you do wrong in fighting against your fathers, and helping to enslave Greece: rather, therefore, come over to us; or, if you cannot do that, withdraw your forces from the contest, and entreat the Carians to do the same. But if neither of these things is possible, and you are bound by too strong a necessity to revolt, yet in action, when we are engaged, behave ill on purpose, remembering that you are descended from us, and that the enmity of the barbarian against us originally sprung from you.’ Themistocles, in, my opinion, wrote this with two objects in view; that cither, if the inscriptions escaped the notice of the king, he might induce the Ionians to change sides and come over to them;

or, if

they were reported to him, and made a subject of accusation before

Xerxes, they might make the lontans suspected, and cause them to be excluded from the sea-fights."”.

(Herodotus VII1., Urania 22.)

Propaganda on similar lines has been conducted in almost every war in history, but until the World War (1914-18) chiefly as a subsidiary part of the actual military or naval operations. Clausewitz, the Polish-Prussian officer (1780-1831) whose works on the conduct of war were translated into most

modern Janguages and formed the basis of most military theory, laid it down partly as a prediction and partly as a precept that war must be waged with the whole force of a nation.

Military

propaganda may therefore be defined as the attempt to add the psychological factor to the other resources of warfare. It may be considered formally under four heads:—(1) Control of Home Opinion; (2) Control of Neutral Opinion; (3) Control of Allied Opinion; (4) Control of Enemy Opinion, Counter-propaganda is the effort to counter the operations of the Enemy.

Doubtless, in

(1). Control of ILome Opinion —In modern times even the most

every effort to control opinion, there are persons either indifferent to justification, or who justify the means by the end. But the more the emotions are excited, whether by patriotism or by cupidity, by pride or by pity, the more the critical faculties are inhibited. It is a quality of propaganda, as of counter-propaganda, that high-minded persons on both sides commend their cause by identical arguments, and that high-strung persons soon

autocratic ruler or state cannot hope to conduct a protracted war, or a war that brings a great burden on a nation, or a war

that those engaged in it are consciously unethical.

come to believe what they wish to be true.

Their character and

their enthusiasm lend weight to many partial statements, or even make false coin ring true,

The suspicions aroused by an admitted propaganda lessen its effectiveness, from which it follows that much of the work

has to be furtive. Part of the task, and that the more easy, is to whip up existing inclinations, but the more arduous and the more

that sways with doubtful success, unless public opinion is favourable. A large part of propaganda must therefore be for home consumption, It will proclaim the certainty of victory, describe actual and prospective military and naval triumphs, obliterate or explain reverses. It will vaunt economic strength, financial resources, power of organization; it will explain difficulties in the supply of food and raw materials, give the reasons for vexatious regulations and interferences with the ordinary routine of trade. When the war appears to be going unfavourably, it will urge the need of endurance. But it will not neglect the moral appeal. It will insist that the war is one of defence, or at

least for an unselfish purpose; that victory will be for the good

177

PROPAGANDA of the world, will be a permanent triumph of right over wrong.

great publicists and the brilliant staffs they assembled, British

At the same time, according to the mentality of the nation, it will insist on historical military glory, on the pursuit of the national aspirations such as recovery of ancient rights, redress of old wrongs, material benefits to be derived from victory, appalling consequences of defeat. The outrageous conduct of

propaganda enlarged its sphere, increased its potential and began to approach coherence. The steps of most vital consequence, however, must be attributed to Lord Northcliffe and his staff.

They were early impressed with the conception that propaganda

the enemy, his unnecessary cruelty, his breach of international

must be closely linked with policy. With the willing coöperation of the Ministry of Information, they frst secured a general

law are all important. (2). Control of Neutral Opinion.-The propaganda addressed to Neutrals covers much of the same ground, with the Jeast possible stress on the interested motives, much stress on the

‘by propaganda conferences in London, extended a similar unity to British, French, Italian and American propaganda. Still later, as the war appeared to be nearing its end, they formed a

defensive and inevitable sides of the war, the certainty of victory and its benefit to all humanity. Very careful attention is devoted to explaining as necessitics all the steps that have interfered with the rights of Neutrals or have been positively harmful to them. Much care is given to exposition of the thesis

that victory would also be to the benefit of the Neutrals. (3). Control of Allicd Opinion —This is of great difficulty and

of increasing importance with the prolongation of a war.

It is

unity of method and purpose in purely British work, and, next,

gencral committee containing representatives of all the great

Departments of State and worked out a Peace Propaganda

Policy, to which the assent of the British Cabinet was obtained and which was at once made the basis of all British propaganda. Arrangements had been made for another conference of Allies in which the British Peace Propaganda Policy was to be coordinated with the policy of our Allies, when the signing of the Armistice made further effort of this kind unnecessary. Later

necessary 1o anticipate points of friction, gloss over points of

in this article the steps which led to this ultimate codrdination

diverging interest, pay very careful deference to the Allied contribution to the common cause and to the absolute identity of interest. In the World War many mistakes were made in

will be described more fully, or will become more apparent as

this aspect of propaganda, but by none more conspicuously than

by the Germans,

whose

treatment

of their Allies was

the scattered agencies which Jed to it have been explained.

But it is pertinent here to observe that the final stage, reached by slow experience, should have been the initial stage. In any national propaganda, the national policy, if such indeed exist,

marked by compulsion rather than by persuasion.

should be within the cognizance of those who have to create

(4). Contrel of Enemy Opinion.—The efforts in this direction fall under three main heads:—Insistence that victory is certain and that prolongation of the war is only increasing the inevitable

and direct the machinery for endeavouring to control opinion.

disaster to the Enemy.

Attempts to stir up disaffection amongst

the Enemy’s Allies; attempts te stir up internal trouble in the Enemy’s country. The four sub-divisions enumerated above cover the main pur-

poses of both propagtinda and counter-propaganda, but they are only formal, and it is of vital importance to remember that under modern conditions a propaganda cannot be limited to the group for which it was intended. The most rigid censorship and scrutiny at

the frontiers did not retain within Allied Countries or in Germany what was prepared for home consumption, with the result that the propaganda of one camp was often used almost without alteration as counter-propaganda in another, Neutral countries were the battle-ground in which contending propagandas met, and where

statements of alleged facts and arguments came in contact. THE BRITISH EFFORT IN THE WoRED War.—In the usuya) British fashion propaganda in the World War came into exist-

ence by the extension of the normal duties of several different bodies, with the result that there was much overlapping,

From the outbreak of the war in 1914 to the end of 1915, the official organization of British propaganda was highly tentative, The task of creating and directing public opinion during war had never before been a function of British Governments and did not consort well with the national traditions. In the first months

of the war, during Mr. Asquith’s Ministry, a War Propaganda Bureau was set up in the National Assurance Offices at Wellington House; a Neutral Press Committee, with special reference

to Cabling was established under the Home Otiice, and a News Department, to deal with the Press, was formed by the Foreign Office. Gradually these three departments came more under the authority of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs; but they operated to a large extent as independent agencies without central control. The Admiralty and the War Office had to exercise strict control over the publication of news relating to actual or proposed operations and other matters relating to the navy and army.

as well as many gaps and considerable diversity of aim and

The censorship which they had to exercise strictly for military reasons, gradually acquired a wider purpose and passed into a

method.

dissemination

From time to time new bodies were created, partlv

of news

essentially

propagandist.

The

direct

A logical and

effect of this bias given to news was upon home opinion, but naturally passed from home countries to neutrals, and from neutrals to enemies. It had therefore the legitimate objects not only of concealing what it was useful to conceal, but of making suggestions which might deceive. From indirect or accidental propaganda, it passed over to deliberate propaganda. Similarly the official representatives of the Foreign Office in Allied and

consecutive account of the British propaganda is impossible. No complete organization ever existed, and as much of the mest

explaining the intentions of the British Government, and of

absorbing, partly replacing and partly combining the agencies in operation. Even when the Armistice came, no complete organization had been achieved, and the very great success

actually obtained may be ascribed to the flexibility of the methods, the devotion of those who conducted them, and a very remarkable unity of purpose which overbore such personal

rivalries as are inevitable in human

affairs.

successful work was necessarily conducted secretly, and much

was done by private enterprise, for instance by the spontancous patriotism of universities, publishers, newspapers and private persons, an exhaustive description is impossible. The official side of it was conducted at first chiefly by the Foreign Office,

the War Office and the Admiralty, as extensions or side issucs of

neutral

countries quickly found

that their routine

duties

of

assisting public and private British interests, necessarily acquired a propagandist bias. As there were obvious incon-

veniences In this course, the propagandist activitics in forcign countries gradually became detached from the official diplomatic activities, and acquired direct relationship with special departments at home. A similar series of events took place in the case

thcir normal duties. Many special missions were inaugurated by these bodies, or directly by the Cabinet.

of the representatives of the British army and navy in foreign

In the beginning of 1918 a special body, the Ministry of Information, under a Cabinet Minister, Lord Beaverbrook, was

As their efforts became more propagandist, it was convenient to scparate them. Thus in various ways a propagandist service crystallized out of normal services. During this period, and, indeed until the end of the war, the voluntary work of the great newspapers and publishing houses made an important contribution to British propaganda. It is perhaps necessary to insist on the voluntary side of this work. It has never been the tradition of the British Government to

created to combine and extend British propaganda with special reference to the control of Home and Neutral opinion, and another special body, the Department of Enemy Propaganda (Afterwards the British War Mission), under Lord Northcliffe, for the same purpose, with special reference to control of opinion

in enemy countries.

XXXIL.—4

Under the energetic direction of these two

countries,

especially

those

attached

to the Secret

Services.

PROPAGANDA

178

subsidize or to control the British Press, and although some efforts were made in that direction, they were signal failures. The great newspapers and the great publishing houses jealously maintained their independence and their right of criticism; they were willing to accept censorship so far as it was supposed to prevent the leaking of information that might be of service to the enemy. But they fought bitterly, and successfully, any attempts of the Censorship to overstep the bounds of military needs. (See CENSORSHIP.) The independence of their attitude and the

strength of their patriotism combined to make their voluntary propagandist effort of the utmost

importance.

Ministry of Information.—It will be convenient to deal first

with the grouping of propagandist agencies under the Department, Jater the Ministry, of Information, as this body was the first to combine a number of scattered bodies under one direction, although, as will be shown later, the War Office, under the Direc-

torate of Military Information, created earlier an extensive propagandist headquarters. The Department of Information was formed by a resolution of the War Cabinet on Feb. 20 1917. According to that resolution its object was to take over and unify the various foreign propaganda activitics, and to act as a general publicity bureau under the War Cabinet. Col. John Buchan was brought back from France and appointed Director of Information. Propaganda thus acquired its own specific organization separate from other Government Offices and directly under the Prime Minister. There was necessarily much overlapping with the War Office, but on the whole the Department of Information worked toward the control of civilian opinion, the War Office to that of military opinion; the former concentrated attention on political and general subjects, the latter on military subjects. The Department of Information, during the time of its existence, covered the work of British propaganda in Allied, neutralandenemy countries. It was arranged in four sections:— (az) An administrative section, divided into branches, corresponding to the different countries, each branch being under the charge of an official who was a specialist in that geographical area. (b) A producing section which dealt with literature and art and was virtually a large publishing establishment. (c) A producing section concerned with cables and wireless and the distribution of cinema films and press articles. (d) A political intelligence section, which provided reports upon

political and civil matters in foreign countries.

Forcign propaganda was conducted (a) among foreigners on a visit to Britain or resident there as correspondents, and (b) in the foreign countries themselves. (a) The first task involved hospitality to foreign visitors, the securing of facilities for Allied and neutral correspondents, and the arranging of visits

to the British front, the British flcet and other centres of interest for writers and public men from Allied and neutral countries. Three chateaux on the western front were used for guests by the Department of Information—one for American visitors, one for the Allicd and neutral press, and one for visitors

in general.

A large number of distinguished foreigners were

invited to Britain, since it was held, with reason, that the best

propaganda in any country was that done by the citizens of the country themselves. (6) Propaganda in foreign countries was conducted by the issue of a very large number of publications in different languages, including pictorial journals, pamphlets and books. The War Pictorial was issued monthly in eight editions with acirculation of over 700,000. Six oriental papers were published fortnightly in different languages, and the Department published fortnightly journals in Spanish, Greek, and Portuguese. Exhibitions of photographs and war films were arranged throughout the world. Over a million words of propaganda material a month were cabled by Reuter, and

printed in the newspapers of adjacent neutral States, and by aeroplane and balloon distribution on the different fronts. The organization of the Department of Information obviously left much to be desired. In the first place it was not a ministry and had no ministerial head. This led to two disadvantages: the War Cabinet had little time to spare for the supervision and direction of its policy, and in dealing with other ministries it lacked the prestige necessary to safeguard its interests and

enforce its requirements. Again, it had no single domicile, being housed in four different parts of London, and this led not only to a great deal of delay in its work, but prevented it being organized according to the normal plan of a Government office. The Ministry of Information was constituted on March 4 1918, with Lord Beaverbrook as minister.

It took over the whole

organization of the old Department of Information, with the exception of the Political Intelligence branch, which was transferred to the Foreign Office, and the section dealing with enemy propaganda (excluding Turkey and the Middle East), which was transferred to Lord Northcliffe. The new Ministry was organized on the normal lines of a Government

department,

and was able to draw for its increased staff upon a large number of distinguished volunteer workers. The new Ministry had four main departments:— (1), The Intelligence Department received and digested all information necessary to the efficient work of propaganda in the different

countries, translating policy into terms of propaganda,

cable and wireless messages which were

The special

issued daily were prepared

under the direct supervision of this Department.

(2). The Propaganda Department was in charge of the actual administration of propaganda in foreign countries. Under its director there was a section for each important country, or group

of countries. Each section was in charge of a “ National ” at the headquarters of the Ministry, and in cach foreign arca there was a corresponding organization which carried on the work in that area.

Over each of the main sections there was a special officer called the controller, whose business it was to supervise the work of the ‘‘ Na-

tionals,” more especially with a view to the expenditure of public money. (3). The material for propaganda—apart from the cables and wircless, which were directly under the Intelligence Department— consisted of press articles prepared or arranged for at the Ministry's headquarters; literature in the shape of journals and pamphlets; and war photographs, films, pictures. ‘The preparation of pictures,

photographs and films, as well as their distribution, was directly controlled by the minister, and was no longer in the hands of War

Office Committees, as had been the case with the old Depart-

ment of Information.

, ; (4). The Ministry gave special attention to what might be called “ personal” propaganda, securing facilities for foreign correspondents tọ visit British centres of interest and to meet representative British public men, and, generally speaking, the widening of sym-

pathy for Britain’s cause by the personal and social contact of Britons with the citizens of other lands. In this direction the work was largeand ramified. A Facilities branch arranged for visits and enter-

tainments; an Overseas Press Centre acted as a clearing house between all branches of the Ministry and the correspondents of the Overseas Press in this country; a special organization dealt with the entertainment of American troops in Britain, Besides the work of personal propaganda donc in Britain itself, much was done by representatives of the Ministry abroad, who acted as popular and democratic ambassadors, keeping in touch, not with official, but with un-

official powers.

The nature of its duties made it impossible for the Ministry

in the different Allied and neutral countries, which assisted to

of Information to be a rigid organization like an ordinary Government office. Propaganda is not a static thing and can never be standardized, and the constitution of a propaganda department had to be adapted to so fluctuating a subject matter. Constant revision was necessary, both in material and method. Moreover, the larger part of the work of the Ministry had to be done quictly and unofficially, and without advertisement, since popular opinion in every country is so delicate an instrument that attempts to play upon it in the name of a foreign government, even an Allied Government, would without doubt have been resented. The anomalous character of its duties was reflected in the curious variety of its staff. It is probable that never before in any Government department had there beon

distribute the material prepared by the Department, and also acted as intelligence centres. A special section dealt with propaganda in enemy countries by means of articles and cables

journalist and the expert in publicity for the actual business of

there were also daily cable and wireless messages sent from the Department. An average of 400 articles per week was sent out to the foreign press. Bureaux of Information were established

so many distinguished men of a type so remote from that of the

normal official. All varieties of talent were needed—the skilled

PROPAGANDA propaganda, the experienced business man for the control and expenditure of machinery, and the student of public affairs for Intelligence and Policy. Directorate of Military Intelligence —Until the end of 1915, the Intelligence Section of G.H.Q. (France), and the Director of Special Intelligence at the War Office, made somewhat casual efforts in the direction of propaganda at home, abroad and amongst the enemy forces, and did more in the direction of acquiring information about the propagandist activities of the enemy. The supreme military authorities, however, either attached little value to propaganda, or were more absorbed by their directly combatant functions, and gave no encouragement to the development of propaganda. In the beginning of to16 Gen. Sir George Macdonough

179

as a small album.- Letters written home by German prisoners of war, describing the comfortable conditions under which they lived, were reproduced in facsimile. An erroncous account of the battle of the Marne, written in Spanish for circulation as

German propaganda in S, America, was followed by a correct account with exact maps, written by a British gencral who had been actually engaged in the battle. Every effort of German propaganda was followed and promptly countered in the same language as that in which it had been written, Perhaps the quickest exchange and counter-exchange took place through a cable and wircless service. All the messages issued by the enemy by cables or wireless telegraphy were intercepted and

transmitted at once to the War Office. They were followed by

returned from France to

a special staff, and the replics to them often reached their des-

become Director of Intelligence on the Imperial General Staff.

tinations afew hours after the originals, more often than not in

Thenceforward until the end of the war, a branch of his directorate was devoted to propaganda with continually increasing

time for the same editions of foreign newspapers. Increasing attention was paid to the unification of the prop aganda issued by the Allies, and to the pooling of information useful for propaganda. Regular conferences took place at British and French military headquarters in France for the

intensity.

Under his stimulation and with the encouragement

and the active assistance of Brig.-Gen. Cockerill, his second-incommand, a small group of men, half of them regular officers and

half distinguished civilians with temporary commissions, a very large and successful organization was built up. It worked in close coöperation with Gencral Headquarters at the various fronts and with the propagandist agencies in England. Its command of material drawn from all the branches, open and secret, of the Directorate of Military Intelligence, and its close connexion with the fighting services, gave it very large opportunitics, of which it took full advantage; on the other hand, the fact that it was a branch of the War Office, run on strict military lines, prevented the full extent of its activities being known, and the credit of muchthatit accomplished was assigned to organizations more accustomed to work before the footlights. Reports, captured documents, photographs and any other “matter with a possible propagandist use, were collected from all the fronts. Samples of all propaganda prepared by the enemy were obtained from neutral countries, through the postal censorship, by direct capture, from the navy and from all other available sources. Details of the actual fighting operations, stories from the fronts, and all matter tending to

show the conditions of fighting on both sides were assembled. Letters written by prisoners of war were

read in the special

censorship and copies of any judged to be of utility were preserved íor reproduction in facsimile. Illustrated booklets describing the happy conditions of enemy prisoners in British camps were prepared, The foreign press, especially that from enemy countries, was regularly read, and extracts taken, From these and similar materials propaganda was prepared for distribution, partly by the regular staff of the section, partly by distinguished civilians who gave their services, and largely by wounded or otherwise disabled officers of literary capacity seconded for the purpose. The propagandist material prepared in this way was first carefully censored from the military point of view, in case inadvertently it might contain information which it was desired to keep secret. It was next submitted, especially where it contained matter with any political signifi-

cance, to the Foreign Office.

It was then ready for use.

A

staff of linguists was maintained to examine and translate material from foreign sources which covered almost every known language. The prepared propaganda, if useful for other than

English readers, was translated into forcign languages ranging from Urdu to Spanish, from Russian to Arabic. A few examples may serve to illustrate the range covered by the War Office propaganda. A German Army Order cap-

purpose of coérdinating propaganda. With the same object constant touch was maintained between the military propagandist staffs in London

and Paris.

A weekly journal, Le

Courrier de l Air, was prepared and issued at the War Office for circulation in the part of Belgium under German occupation. It contained information as to the progress of the war, general news, political intelligence, and much ordinary magazine reading. Articles suited for British newspapers were offered to editors, and were freely used. These for the mast part consisted of descriptions of scenes in the war on various fronts, written by

officers who had been engaged in them. Similar matter, and articles covering a wider field, were distnibuted to English newspapers in every part of the world. A special staff watched the newspapers to observe the kind of articles that were most frecly taken by each, so as to suit the supply to the demand. In the same way articles on almost every subject connected with the war were translated into foreign languages and distributed to newspapers in foreign countries. Large quantities of matter were sent to the Department of Information for distribution by their agencies, especially in neutral and Allied countries. There were several military distributing agencies in the Near East, and farther away, of which the largest was an “Arab Bureau” in Egypt. Some of these had local presses at which copy sent from London was set up, but avery large bulk of matter, especially illustrated matter, was prepared and printed in London, and sent out in bulk.

According to its ob-

jective, it was distributed through vernacular newspapers, or by special agents, who smuggled it into enemy countries.

As regards distnbution to enemies, a certain amount of this important side of the propagandist ctfort was done through the Department of Information, but the War Office itself directed the greater part of the work, especially where it was desired to

reach enemy soldiers directly, or the enemy civilian population through them. From the examination of prisoners of war and by the direct admission of the German authorities it became

clear that this service was highly effective.

Early in 1917 the

decision was made to extend considerably the work of preparing and distributing propaganda for the enemy troops on the western front. A special sub-section was created under the

charge of an officer who had just completed an analysis of over 2,000 books and pamphlets of enemy origin. At that time there was no objection to the use of aeroplanes for the distribution of literature over the enemy’s lines. The sub-section prepared and had translated into German a large quantity of suitable

tured in E. Africa showed contempt or ignorance of Mahommedan religious customs. It was reproduced in facsimile, with a literature, much of it written by the officer in charge of the section (the writer of this article), other matter selected from the translation into every known tongue spoken by Mahommedans, A pamphlet written by Dr. Liebknecht, the German socialist work of the Department of Information or from other sections of the War Office. Some of these early efforts were too successleader, suppressed in Germany, was reproduced in German. Photographs of German prisoners showing their miserable condi- ful; in particular the Germans objected to a cartoon with the Jegend “ A German Family that has had no losses in the War,” tion on capture, their reception in the British lines with food, chocolate and cigarettes, and their happiness in their ultimate | depicting the Kaiser and his sons in uniform, on the ground quarters in British prisoner of war camps, were reproduced ! that its distribution was an offence against military discipline

PROPAGANDA

180

Captured flying officers accused of distributing propaganda were tried in Germany by court martial and reccived severe sentences. Although

in fact the sentences

were

not carried out, after

negotiations had taken place through a neutral Power between. the British and German

Governments, the Germans let it be

known that any future cases would be treated with the utmost severity. The French continued the use of aeroplanes in spite of this threat. But the British Air Ministry opposed the use of acroplanes, partly on the ground of the ‘“ bad psychological effect of working under such threats, on young pilots and aviators,” and partly on the more valid ground that the supply of trained men and of machines was no more than sufficient for the direct purposes of this branch of the forces. Afteran attempt, obviously impractical, to distinguish between propaganda that could not be regarded as “inflammatory ” and that therefore could be distributed by acroplanes, and propaganda that could not escape this charge, British G.H.Q. accepted the position

and decided against the use of aeroplanes for the distribution of literature.

The stock of literature prepared for the western front,

except such small parts of it as could be used by other army devices, was transferred to the Ministry of Information and to the French army. The War Office Enemy Propaganda Section then turned to the devising of other possible methods for the distribution of literature by mechanical means. Information was collected from all possible sources, the methods of the enemy being care-

fully watched. With the assistance of the Acrial Inventions Board and the Munitions Inventions Department, many devices were tricd, and as soon as any had reached a promising stage,

the officer in charge took it out to France, to discuss its possibilities, and, with the assistance of the intelligence officers of the army, to test it under field conditions.

A section of G.H.Q. Intelligence had obtained great success in dropping homing pigeons and other means of carrying messages on known areas where they could be found by British agents behind the enemy lines. In this work fabric balloons with timing devices for dropping loads at the required localities were employed, but the apparatus on the one hand was unnecessarily exact, and, on the other, much too costly for the distribution of literature. The Germans were found to be using very large

balloons of scarlet Japanese paper which carried bundles of newspapers and other matter long distances, sometimes releasing them by slow-burning tinder fuzes. It was clear, however, that this method was haphazard, as balloons and loads destined for the neighbourhood of Verdun not infrequently dropped in Kent. Experiments were undertaken to study the lifting capac-

ity of light balloons, the load and. degree of filling that would enable them to rise to an approximately known height, and the arrangement of time fuzes so that they would liberate weights

at known distances varying with the strength of the wind. At the same time experiments were made as to the shape, economical mode of manufacture and dimensions of paper balloons, and on

the treatment of the paper to lower the rate of diffusion of coalgas or hydrogen. A large number of devices such as rockets, grenades and shells were enquired into, but were not adopted because of various objections raised against their use by the military authorities, A device consisting of a fire-balloon, the fabric of which consisted of propaganda sheets joined by strips of touch paper, seemed promising, but did not reach success.

Extensive experiments were carried out with the object of adapting an apparatus invented to distribute light bombs to the distribution of literature. It consisted of a box-kite with an automatic conveyer which

carried

five-pound

loads of prop-

aganda up the cable, liberated them at the required height, and automatically returned for another load, the sheets when liberated being carried to their destination by the wind. The method was extremely good; it was cheap, easy to work, and had a range of upwards of ten miles according to the strength of the wind. But objection to its use at the front was taken by the

Air Force on the ground that the cable of the kite would be a

danger to aeroplanes.

In connexion with the last-mentioned apparatus, extensive observations were carried out on the wind-driftage of sheets of paper of different shapes and weights, and of the methods of releasing them at height. Experiments were made from aeroplanes and from captive balloons, and the range and conditions of falling were ascertained. It was found, for example, that in a wind of approximately ten miles an hour, a bundle of rso sheets liberated at a height of 2,500 ft., came to the ground two miles away, scattered over an area 500 yd. square. In higher winds and from greater heights much more distant ranges could be attained. The War Office Propaganda Section accordingly suggested that aeroplanes might be safely used, flying at heights proportioned to the strength of the wind, and the distance of the enemy lines, by flights well within the British lines. But this proposal also was “ turned down.” f By the end of 1ọ17 it became clear that the use of paper balloons was the only method which would encounter no opposition, and attention was therefore concentrated on producing them on a large scale and on applying the experience gained in other directions to them.

By far the largest bulk of propaganda

distributed by the Allies on the western front was released from balloons, and it may therefore be of historical interest to describe their final form. The propaganda balloons were made of paper cut in longitudinal panels, with a neck of oiled silk about 18 in. long. Their circumference was approximately 20 ft. and their height when inflated $ feet. They were liberated inflated nearly to their full capacity—from 90 to 95 cub. ft. of hydrogen. The weight of the balloon was under one pound, the load of propaganda four pounds. The leaflets were attached to a fuze of treated cotton, similar to the tinder of flint pipe-lighters, and burning at the rate of an inch in five minutes. The string of propaganda was tied to the neck of the balloon, and just before liberation a slit was cut in the neck to permit the escape of gas,

and the end of the fuze was lighted. The weight and lift were adjusted so that the balloon could rise several thousand feet into the air before the loss of gas due to expansion would have caused a state of equilibrium. At this point the first bundle of leaflets was set free, and the process was continued until, at the end of the run, the last bundle was released.

The total time

length of the fuze and the attachment of the bundles to it were calculated according to the area which it was desired to reach and the strength of the wind. Experimental improvement of the “ dope,” by which the rate of diffusion of the gas was lowered, and the manufacture of balloons of double the standard capacity, had made runs of upwards of 150 m. practical, before the Armistice suspended operations. But the bulk of the propaganda was actually scattered over an area of from 10 to 50 m. behind the enemy lines, rest camps and villages occupied by the troops being made the chicf targets. Each distribution unit at the front consisted of two motor lorries which carried the balloons,

hydrogen cylinders, and personnel to convenient positions, generally from 3 to 4 m. behind the front line. Early in March 1918, the method of balloon distribution was in full working order, and the War Office Propaganda Section resumed the active preparation of material. The reproduction of selected letters written by prisoners of war was resumed, and Le Courrier del’ Air was enlarged and improved by the introduction of direct propaganda. A series of leaflets, known as the A.P. (Aerial Propaganda) was begun. The first of these, sent to France in March, was a complete German edition of the British Prime Minister’s speech on British War Aims. This had been incompletely reported in the German newspapers, and in the new edition attention was directed to the portions which had been taken out by the German censorship; copy for other leaflets was selected from German

and Austrian

newspapers,

was contributed by G.H.Q. (France), by the War Aims Com-. mittee, by the Ministry of Information, and by the new Directorate of Propaganda in Enemy Countries which had been established under Lord Northcliffe. But the whole series was selected, revised, edited, and produced by the War Office, and a very

large proportion of the actual leaflets were prepared by the officer-in-charge. The first of the senes was sent to France on

PROPAGANDA

181

March 16, the last, number gs, on Sept. 4; of the whole series

partment and deputy-chairman of the committee.

Over 12 million leaflets were sent to France.

cliffe’s choice was fully justified by the remarkable powers of tact and conciliation shown by Stuart, who rapidly disarmed all

Later, in 1918, when, under the energetic direction of Lord

Lord North-

Northcliffe, the machinery for propaganda in enemy countries was greatly increased, there was a further extension of distribution by balloons. The military successes of the Allies were being concealed from their troops by the Germans, and it was thought that quick and accurate information would further

Steed at the time was foreign editor of The Times, and for many

demoralize

In conference with the War Office,

years had been the representative of that journal in Rome and

Lord Northcliffe’s department arranged that the leaflets should

Vienna. He had an exceptional knowledge of the political personalities of modern Europe, the open policies and the secret aspirations of all the nationalities great or small. He was an idealist, believing that truth and justice could bring ordered peace to chaotic Europe;.a realist, conscious of the stubborn obstinacy that would yield only to force and of the ignorance

the Germans.

be divided into two categories, ‘stock leaflets,’ the contents

of which would not deteriorate by a little delay, and “ priority leaflets”? containing matter of urgent importance, The latter were printed three times a week and sent in editions of 100,000 direct to Messrs. Gamage, who were manufacturing the

balloons and the “ releases.”

They were at once prepared for

distribution, handed over to the Military Transport Department and sent via Boulogne direct to the distributing stations. In favourable weather they were thus actually in the hands of the Germans 60 hours after being written, But even with the best arrangements, distribution by baliosa is subject to many delays from weather and other. conditions. Lord Northcliffe continued to urge on the Cabinet the need of

suspicion on the part of existing organizations, found out how to get the best work out of all of them and how to combine their

efforts towards a single resolute purpose. Lord Northcliffe selected Mr. H. Wickham Steed as his chief political adviser.

that misled the accepted leaders of men.

Steed provided the

knowledge and lofty enthusiasm which shaped the policy of Crewe

House,

Stuart

the conciliatory

tact which

made

con-

certed action possible, Lord Northcliffe the swift judgment between contending views, the experienced instinct for what Was practical, and the driving force to make the practica! actual.

The present writer assisted at many intimate deliberations at

distribution by aeroplane, and was at last successful in breaking down the resistance. The writer of this article, then liaison

Crewe House; he desires to add his own observations to the varying estimates that have been made of Lord Northcliffe. The Director of Propaganda in Enemy Countries was patient

officer between Lord Northcliffe’s department, the Directorate

in listening to the facts and arguments put before him, decisive

ef Military Intelligence and the Air Force, in the second half of 1918 carried through the final stages of the negotiations. The last obstacle was the icar of the Air Ministry that bundles of

in coming to a judgment on them, swift and powerful when action began. Steed’s knowledge, Stuart’s organizing tact, and Lord Northcliffe’s driving force and far-reaching influence,

leaflets suddenly scattered in the air might foul the steering

made Crewe House different in quality and energy from any

guys of the acroplanes; he devised the leaflets so that they would fall before dispersing. On the morning packets of propaganda made up on

Pre€xisling agency.

a simple mode of packing as a solid bundle for 2o ft. of the Armistice, the first this system were delivered

to the Air Force in France.

Belgians on

the western

Allies were at Crewe Acroplanes and by the

front.

But

it

was clear that either lack of aeroplanes or of personnel limited their use even by those who had no objection to it. The Italians used special devices such as rockets and shells, the French were experimenting with shells’ and trench-mortars and were trying to manufacture balloons on the British model, and both the French and Belgians sent large quantities of newspapers

and of other matter to be distributed by the British balloons. The Americans had hardly reached the actual stage of distribution before the end of the war, but they had developed

a

small rubber balloon with a very ingenious timing device for releasing

the load.

It is a reasonable

assumption,

however,

that all these methods would be replaced by acroplanes in any later war. Lord Northcliffe’s Dircctorate—In Feb, 1918 the Prime Minister appointed Lord Northcliffe to be Director of Propaganda in Enemy

Countries.

Lord Northcliffe brought to the

task a limitless faith in the possibility of controlling public Opinion, a unique expcricnce in the methods of publicity, and direct access to the Prime Minister and the War Cabinet. He selected a council of advisors and an executive staff of remarkable authority and talent, and Crewe House, in Mayfair, London, the headquarters of the new Department, quickly became the centre of far-reaching activity. A mere catalogue of the operations undertaken, and of the men who carried them out would Occupy many pages.!

should depend

upon

organization was

policy.

It may

that

be argued,

although not convincingly, that a definite constructive Allied policy could not have existed in the earlier stages of the war,

The methods of distributing propaganda by the ascertained in a conference held in August 1018 House under the chairmanship of Lord Northcliffe. were used by the British forces in the Near East, Italians, French and

The inspiring principle of the new propaganda

But two names must be mentioned, as

Without them Crewe House would have been little more than a Powerful addition to the existing propagandist agencies. Sir Campbell Stuart, a young Canadian who had been of great assistance to Lord Northcliffe on his mission to the United

when fortunes were changing and the nature of the ultimate

decision was uncertain.

In any case, if a concerted policy did

exist, it was unknown to those who were conducting propaganda. The wiser propagandists in most countries therefore endeavoured

to Limit themselves to a restricted ficld from which declared “war aims” and ultimate terms of peace were excluded. Rasher agents plunged, with results that were often ludicrous and sometimes disastrous. Dr. Lamprecht, the German historian, for example, confessed that the consequences of the German propaganda were often gruesome. Probably, he wrote, more harm came to the German cause from the efforts of the German professors than from all the efforts of the enemy.. “ None the less it was done with the best intentions. The self-

confidence was superb, but the knowledge was lacking. People thought that they could explain the German case without preparation. What was wanted was organization.” A single example will illustrate the results of lack of organization amongst the Allies. The French military authorities complained to the War Office that German propaganda appeared to be entering France in large quantities through England. They sent examples, and asked that precautions should be taken. On enquiry it was found that the incriminated documents were the product

of one of the British civilian propagandist agencies. Doubtless it was a matter of opinion whether the French or English judgment of the efficacy of the leaflets was the more correct, but the rea] fault was the absence of harmonious effort. In 1918, the fifth year of the war, it became of vital importance that the

Allied peace aims should be explained with a clear and unanimous voice to the war-weary enemy. It was to this purpose that Lord Northcliffe addressed himself. He used his influence first to extract from the British Government the broad lines of a definite policy, in order that the propaganda of his Depart-

ment might not be in conflict with the casual and sporadic utterances of ministers, next to secure unity of purpose

among

States of America, was selected as deputy-director of the de-

the British and Allied propagandist agencies.

1 Secrets of Crewe House, by Sir Campbell Stuart (London, 1920), gives an account of Lord Northeliffe’s undertaking.

Government, hampered by the secret Treaty of London, hesi-

The first campaign was against Austria-Hungary.

The British

PROPAGANDA

182

tated between the policy of working for a separate peace with the Habsburg dynasty, leaving its territory almost untouched, and the alternative of trying to support and encourage all the anti-German and pro-Ally elements in the Austria-Hungarian

Empire. The objective selected by Crewe House was to support the national desires of the Czechs, Southern Slavs, Rumanes, Poles and Italians for independence, so as to form a strong nonGerman chain of Central European and Danubian States, and

thus to encourage the disinclination of these peoples to fight for their German masters. The chief obstacle to the policy of the British propaganda was the pledge given to Italy in 1915, to give her certain Austrian territories inhabited by Southern Slavs. In 1917, the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes had assembled in Corfu, and under the

it was distributed by special means chiefly. through neutral countries. In July, when the work in Italy had been established on permanent lines, and Mr. Steed had returned to London, it was decided to concentrate all the production of propaganda at Crewe House, with the object of bringing it more into line

with a concerted policy. Accordingly, the writer of this article was transferred from the War Office to Crewe House, but kept in touch with the War Office as liaison officer, the army remaining the agent for distribution. The General Committee met daily at Crewe House, receiving the reports of the different branches, collecting information from all possible sources, and stimulating the propagandist work against Austria-Hungary, Bulgara and Germany. It became more and more obvious during the summer of 1918 that the spirit

leadership of Dr. Trumbitch, president of the Southern Slav Committee, and M. Pashitch, prime minister of Serbia, had

of the enemy was breaking on every front, that they were alert to cvery suggestion as to the approach of peace, and that the

‘proclaimed the unity of the three Southern Slav peoples. Early in ro1S, after recovery from the disaster of Caporctto had

supreme necessity was a clear statement of the intentions of the Allies. Lord Northcliffe, with varying success, continued to press the Government for such a definition of policy as would

begun, the united Southern Slavs, on the initiation of Mr. Wickham Steed and Dr. Seton Watson, came into conference with leading Italians and agreed to settle amicably the territorial controversies in dispute. Lord Northcliffe took up the position at that point, and almost the first step of his campaign was to send Mr, Steed and Dr. Seton Watson to the Congress of Oppressed IIabsburg Nationalities which took place at Rome with the consent of the Italian Government. Meantime he

urged on the War Cabinct the need of coming to a decision be-

serve as a truc basis for propaganda. The fundamental principle on which he wished to act was that when a line of policy had been sanctioned as a basis for propaganda, the Allied Governments should be asked for their assent to it, so that their propa-

ganda departments might act in concert.

Failing to obtain a

clear lead from the British Governmcnt, who at that time appeared to have no definite policy with regard to any issuc of the war, Lord Northcliffe convened an inter-Allicd propaganda

the French, Italians and Americans to the choice. He got only a

conference at Crewe House. It was attended by Lord Beaverbrook, Minister of Information, representatives of the British

dubious and halting opinion from the British Forcign Secretary, who urged that the same propaganda could be adapted at least

Foreign Office, War Office, Admiralty and Air Ministry, and by delegates from France, Italy and the United States, the U.S.A.

to the tained to the other

delegation, however, being instructed

tween the alternative policies and of obtaining the agreement of

earlier stages of either policy.

This indecision, main-

through the war and through the peace negotiations, led disastrous adventure of D’Annunzio, for the Italians, like

peoples, flushed with the unexpected

victory, forgot the wise concessions

willing when the issue was doubtful.

to which

joy of complete they had been

But Lord Northcliffe’s

mission achieved a temporary and successful unity of purpose.

A joint Commission consisting of representatives of Italy, Great Britain and France, was established at the Italian general headquarters, with the special object of conducting propaganda

directed to the oppressed nationalities in the Austrian armies, Representatives of committecs of each of the oppressed nationalilies were attached to the commission. A polyglot printing press was acquired, and large quantities of propaganda of all kinds were distributed by aeroplane, rockets, grenades and contact patrols. The latter consisted of deserters of Czechoslovak, Southern: Slav, Polish and Rumanian nationalities, who voluntecred

for this service against

their former

oppressors.

The effect was soon apparent. Deserters belonging to the subject races came over to the Italian armies in large numbers, so that the attack planned by the Austrians had to be postponed. Unfortunately, the complete success of the effort, apparently assured early in May, was prevented by the reactionary tendencies within the Italan Government, supported by the uncertain attitude of the Governments of France, Great Britain and the United States. But even in the face of this difficulty,

the success was so great that, after the battle of the Piave, members of the Inter-Allied Propaganda Commission were received and thanked by the Italian commander-in-chief. While this great campaign was taking place on the Italian front, the propaganda addressed to Germany was being in-

tensified. On assuming office, Lord Northcliffe. found the War Office propaganda department, described above, in full operation.

Except that he at once began to press the Govern-

ment to renew the original permission for the use of aeroplanes,

he suggested no change in the War Office work.

His committee

at Crewe Housc, however, first with the assistance of Mr. H. G. Wells and after a few weeks with that of Mr. H. Hamilton Fyfe, set to work to frame a general propaganda policy directed against

Germany, and to produce leaflets and other matter.

Some of

this material was given to the War Office Department; much of

to attend

servers. The conference, after a plenary session, committees to discuss details of policy, methods and methods of distribution. At a final plenary reports of the committees were adopted, and it was

only as obdivided into of publicity session the agreed that

they should be submitted by the heads of the four missions to their respective Governments for approval. ‘The conference then constituted a permanent Inter-Allied Body for the conduct

of propaganda in enemy countries.

Steps were at once taken to

secure the permanency of contact between the propagandist agencies which had been established at the conference, and these became increasingly effective until, when the Armistice came, there was almost complete unity of action amongst the Allies. As the possibility of peace drew nearer, it became still more

urgent that propaganda should be kept free from any trace of confusion. To secure this, a Central Body, called the Policy Committee of the British War Mission, was formed at Crewe

House;

it consisted

of representatives of Lord

Northcliffe’s

department and of the War Cabinet, the Admiralty, War Office, Foreign Office, Treasury, Ministry of Information, Air Ministry,

Colonial Office, India Office, War Aims Committee and Official Press Bureau. It decided to undertake the following activities:— Study of peace terms, study of utterances by important enemy representatives, their real significance and the nature of the response to be made to them. It had to take action almost at once, since the German

Peace Note, with its reference to the

publication of President Wilson’s

“fourteen points,” required

immediate attention from British propagandists.

Lord North-

cliffe’s committee had been studying the fourteen points with a very close attention. It was plain that they could not be understood as a full recitation of the conditions of peace, and that it was therefore a matter of honesty and of prudence to define the interpretation put on them by Great Britain before accepting the surrender of Germany. This view was accepted by the Policy Committee, and, after detailed discussion, a statement drafted by the Crewe House Committee was adopted in principle. It was approved, by a representative of the Government designated for the purpose, for unofficial use as propaganda policy. Each department henceforward made it the text of its productions. As this document is of historical interest, it is here pnnted in full. . ok

PROPAGANDA Confidential. |

.

PROPAGANDA PEACE POLICY

The following conditions are indisputable:— In no sense shall restoration or reparation in the case of Belgium

be taken into consideration when adjusting any other claims arising from the war. : 5 1. The complete restoration, territorial, economic and political, of

183

culating the gencral statement through one of the more important monthly periodicals. It was therefore decided to ask | Lord Northcliffe to give the peace policy the wide and immediate

publicity possible by the use of his name and by the sources

of distribution at his command. He agreed at once, and so consummated the efiorts of British propaganda. On Nov. 4

elgium.

1918 an article under his name appeared in The Times and The Daily Mail, The Paris Daily Mail, and the leading papers

3. The restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine, not as a terri-

in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, S. Africa, Newfoundland, India, the British Dependencies, the United States of America,

r The freeing of French territory, reconstruction of the invaded Provinces, compensation for a)l civilian Josses and injuries.. i

torial acquisition or part of a war indemnity, but as reparation for

the wrong done in 1871, when the inhabitants of the two Provinces,

S. America, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Holland, Norway,

porated in Germany against their will. 4. Readjustment of the frontiers of Italy as nearly as possible along the lines of nationality,

Sweden, Denmark, Japan and elsewhere, and very soon after-

Whose ancestors voluntarily chose French allegiance, were incor-

5. The assurance to all the peoples of Austria-Hungary of their place amongst the free nations of the world and of their right to enter into union with their kindred beyond the present boundaries of Austria-Hungary. 6. The evacuation of all territory formerly included in the bound-

aries of the Russian Empire, the annulment of all treaties, contracts or agreements made with subjects, agents or representatives of

enemy Powers since the revolution and affecting territory or interests formerly Russian, and coöperation of the Associated Powers in securing conditions under which the various nationalities of the former Empire of Russia shal] determine their own form of Government.

7. The formation of an independent Polish State with access

to the sea, which State shall include the territories inhabited by predominantly Polish populations, and the indemnification of Poland

by the Powers responsible for the havoc wrought. 8. The abrogation of the Treaty of Bucharest, the evacuation

and restoration of Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro, the Associated

wards in Germany. The arrangements for this wide publicity were made personally by Lord Northcliffe, and the cost of cabling was borne by him. The final form of the article was due to him, but its substance represented the unanimous views: of his advisory committee, the members of which he had selected, and over whose deliberations he had presided. ALLIED PROPAGANDA.—The principles and methods of propaganda, have been so fully illustrated in the foregoing account of the British effort, that little would be gained by a detailed description of the operations of England’s Allies. France went through a history much like that of Great Britain. In the earlier stages of the war, propaganda was conducted by a number of agencies, for the most part in extension of their normal functions. As the war proceeded, concentration and intensification

were achieved, ending in the work being placed under the control of a single minister with a large staff. The control of home

Powers to aid the Balkan States in settling finally the Balkan ques-

opinion was less difficult than in England, as it was already in the tradition of the Government to regulate the dissemination

all non-Turkish propa

of information and of official views. As, however, a considerable part of the French population was in territory occupied by

tion on an equitable basis, . 9. The removal, so far as is practicable, of Turkish dominion over

10. The people of Schleswig shall be free to determine their own

allegiance. 1I. As reparation for the illegal submarine warfare waged by Germany and Austria-Hungary, these Powers shall be held liable

to replace the merchant tonnage belonging to the Associated and Neutral nations illegally damaged or destroyed. 12. The appointment of a tribunal before which there shall be rought for impartial justice individuals of any of the belligerents accused of offences against the laws of war or of humanity. 13. The former Colonial possessions of Germany, lost by her in.

. Consequence of her illegal aggression against Belgium, shall in no case be returned to Germany. The

I,

following conditions of Peace are negotiable:—

The adjustment of claims for damage necessarily arising from

the operations of war, and not included amongst the indisputable conditions. : _ 2. The establishment, constitution and conditions of memberShip of a League of Free Nations for the purpose of preventing future wars and improving international relations. 3. The League of Free Nations shall be inspired by the resolve

of the Associated Powers to create a world in which, when the con-

ditions of the Peace have been carried out, there shall be opportunity and security for the legitimate development of all peoples.

The action taken thereon by the Enemy Propaganda Committee at Crewe House was as follows: At their suggestion Lord

Northcliffe made it the basis of an address to the United States officers in London on Oct. 22 1918. The Production Department of the Committee got to work on a series of pamphlets and leaflets dealing with the different points of the memorandum. The memorandum was sent to the French, Italian, and American members of the inter-Allied Body -for Propaganda

in enemy countries, with the request that they should take

Similar action on it to that taken by the British Policy Committee and bring it up for discussion at the next meeting of the inter-Allied body. Lastly they decided to prepare and give wide publicity to an article covering the whole ground of the memorandum, so that the policy could be presented in the same terms to the British people, to their Allies and to the enemy. The steps taken by Crewe House, and the corresponding action taken by other departments concerned, were reported and approved at a meeting of the Policy Committee at Crewe House on Oct. 28 1918, the last meeting actually held. Events were moving swiftly, and Crewe House found that

there was no time to carry out the original intention of cir-

the Germans, there had to be an extensive distribution of propa-

ganda through the army and by secret agents. An intensive campaign was conducted in Alsace and Lorraine, the services of distinguished Alsatians of French descent being employed

with great success.

Neutral opinion was influenced by special

missions and by resident agents. Much care was given to French propaganda amongst the Allies. Distinguished civilians. of British and American nationality were frequently invited to France, and given every opportunity of seeing the spirit in

which France was making her prodigious effort and the enormous difficulties she had to face.

French agents kept in close touch

with British opinion of every class, and in every part of the

Empire, not neglecting Ireland and Quebec.

In one respect this

branch of French propaganda was more far-seeing than most of the British work; it was not content with the actual problems

of the war, but anticipated and prepared for many of the diffcultics and possible causes of friction that might arise in the making even of a victorious peace.

France carly foresaw

that, as German colonies were unlikely to be restored to Germany, it would be necessary for France and Britain to be in general agreement with regard to extra-European territorics. The French effort to reach the enemy directly was on a smaller scale, but was similar to the work done by the British War Office. By exchange of views and materials a high degree of concord was reached.

Belgium was in the unfortunate position of being able to operate directly only in a Very small part of her own territory.

By direct effort, and with the willing codperation of France. and Britain, she was able to keep in close contact with her own

people. The unmerited calamities which fell on Belgium secured . her in advance the sympathy of neutral and Allied nations, so that special propaganda was unnecessary.

italy was rather a

theatre for propaganda than a direct propagandist. She spoke: with so many different voices that, except for a certain amount ` of direct propaganda addressed to the enemy, she was unable to explain her attitude very clearly either to neutrals or to Allies. On the other hand, she issued a series of magnificent photogtaphic descriptions of her arduous campaigns, which explained well the immense difficultics of military operations on the Italian front, and the brilliant technical methods by which

PROPAGANDA

184

they were overcome. The Americans devoted the same energy to propaganda as to preparation for actual warfare, Representatives werc at once sent to Europe to examine and report on the methods of propaganda employed by the Allies. By Sept. 1918, an American Propaganda Department had been established with branches in London, Paris and near Verdun. Much literature was produced, and its distribution by aeroplane and

by balloon had been arranged when'the Armistice came. GerMANny.—It would be difficult to say how far the exaltation of the German spirit in tor4 was due to official inspiration, or how far the long campaign of German intellectuals and industrials, before 1914, for the aggrandizement of Germany, had inspired official opinion. In any event, the outbreak of the war

let loose a flood of literature unanimous in sentiment and apparently spontaneous. Professors and pastors, politicians of every section, pan-Germans and socialists were united in proclaiming

the necessity of the war and the certainty of victory. But even in these carly days there were striking differences of opinion. One school urged that the war was defensive, forced on Germany

organized scale. The German Press was organized for war, with the object not only of influencing heme opinion but neutral opinion, directly through the circulation of German papers in Switzerland, Holland, and Scandinavia, and by their effect on foreign editors.

Dr. Theodor Wolff, the well-known

editor of the Berliner Tagebluit, said that “ German censorship passed news concerning facts, but forbade discussion of war events or internal politics and of many other subjects.” The Government suppressed criticism or the giving of information with regard to the internal conditions of the country. Every two or three days the newspapers received printed orders indicating what they were forbidden to publish, the attitude they were to assume on particular topics, ancl the articles from other papers they were free to reproduce. Editors were usually allowed to produce their papers without a preliminary examination of the proofs, but transgression of- the regulations was followed by prosecution or suspension. One form of punishment was to place a paper on “ preventive

censorship,”

under

which all

by the “ encircling policy ° of her enemies, German militarism was a necessary consequence of a position surrounded by powerful enemies, of the Russian danger, and of English jealousy of

proofs had to be submitted, and any matter could be struck out, without, however, removing responsibility for what remained. The Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung was a purely official organ, and several other papers, notably the Kölnische Zeitung and

her commercial success.

the Berliner Lokal-Anseiger, were semi-official,

As it was difficult to reconcile this theory

with the actual German plan of campaign and with the fate of

With regard to the Press generally, there were several agencies

Belgium, much stress was laid on the theme that an offensive

of direction and inspiration. The Press Department of the Forcign Office issued a regular news-sheet containing the statements and views the propagation of which was desired; it also acted directly on newspaper correspondents. The Admiralty

was only the best means of defence. When victory came, annexations were to be limited to what might be necessary for future security. Another school proclaimed the historic mission of Germany, her high culture and civilization, the advantage to the world of her victory. The great empires of the past had expanded and developed for selfish ends; Germany wished to free the seas for all the nations, and to open up the world so

that all the peoples great or small could develop on their own lines. England, France and Russia had been the great oppressors of smaller nations and races; Germany would liberate them. The unification of Germany had been the first stage in a beneficent process which would lead, first, to a great federation of Middle Europe, and then to a federation of the whole world. A third school expounded

and Treitschke

a somewhat

doctrine.

careful form of the Bernhardi

The great and expanding German

people required land within the German Empire in which the surplus population might find room and yet remain German. Outlet must be found for German talent, organizing capacity,

had a very active publicity department,

for some

time under

the direction of Mathias Erzberger and Paul Rohrbach.

The

Ministry of the Interior had a separate organization and also circulated “tendencious”’ sheets. The War Press Burean,

controlled by the Higher Command, was the most important propagandist organ. It issued commands to the censorship, laying down the prohibitions and the special attitudes which were circulated through the local authorities, and it had a special

foreign section. Moreover, daily Press séances were held by three officials, representing respectively the Foreign Office, the War Office and the Admiralty, at which instructions and directions too delicate to be committed to paper were issued. German propaganda in neutral countries was officially con- -

secured only by force. Yet a fourth school, relatively small in numbers but of great influence in the navy, army and among

trolled by a branch of the Foreign Office, the Zentralstelle fir Auslandsdienst. It issued material for propaganda and propaganda for distribution through the official representatives in forcign countries: Every Germany embassy or legation had at least one organ undcr its immediate control, sometimes pub- lished in German specially for German readers, more often in the language of the country in which it was issued. The material consisted of copies of a special newspaper, the Nachrichten der Auslandspresse, prepared by the War Press Bureau, a daily

the big industrials, appealed directly to cupidity.

The riches,

paper containing telegrams and notes on current events, and

natural resources and possibilities of all parts of the world in which German influence could be extended or which Germany could take from her enemies were described claborately. The growth of the British Empire was displayed in almost affectionate caricature as an accomplishment of successful piracy; England, however, must now disgorge to the younger and stronger pirate. It was an odd but possibly significant circumstance that, in all

often selected news cuttings issued by the general staff. Another official agency, believed to be directed by the Admiralty, issued an attractive and well-illustrated periodical, the Kriegs Kronik, as well as the Kriegs Nachrichten, the latter consisting of prepared articles on war subjects and a ‘‘ Berlin ” letter, for the edification of the foreign Press. In addition there were several highly important private organizations for foreign propaganda. The Deutscher Ucberseedienst Transocean was a syndicate established before the war by

capital, manufactures, and the necessary supplies of raw material must be forthcoming. These objects Germany would have preferred to attain peacefully.

But she was a late arrival on the

world-scene, and her rapid development had aroused such envy, particularly from England, that her legitimate rights could be

these diverging views, little attention was paid to the events immediately

preceding the various declarations of war.

So far we are dealing with the unofficial home propaganda -of Germany. It consisted to a much larger extent than in Great Britain of books and pamphlets, some of which doubtless were subsidized, but most of which apparently were spontaneous. These served also for the German peoples in foreign lands, and were exported in very large quantities, often in their original form, often in translation so as to serve as propaganda for neutrals. It was a characteristic of German self-confidence that they appeared to think that explanations good enough for Germans were good enough for neutrals and even for enemies. But in addition to such private or at least apparently unofficial efforts, there was an official propaganda on a large and highly

big German industrials to supplement and correct the. service of the official Wolff Bureau. It issued the daily German wireless, had a special foreign news-service consisting chiefly of selected cuttings from German and foreign newspapers, and a very fine

illustrated monthly periodical in five languages—Der Grosse Krieg in Bildern. It had an intelligence division which reported on the standing and personality of newspaper editors in every country, and suggested means of influencing them.

ausschuss der deutschen Industrie, formed

The Kriegs-

originally to repre-

sent industrialists in thcir controversies with the Government, became an extensive propagandist chiefly on trade matters. A

bureau

at

Frankfort-on-Main, ‘partly

official, dealt

chiefly

PROPELLANTS with Latin countries.

The Deutsch-Siidamerikanisches Institut,

and the Hamburgischer Ibero-Amerikanischer

Verein

were oc-

cupied chiefly with Latin and Latin-American countries, and had agents and usually press organs in every country where Spanish or Portuguese is spoken. The Far East was served

through the Ostasiatische-Lloyd, which supplied a distributing centre in Shanghai. Until the United States of America came into the war, there was a very active German campaign to influence American opinion in favour of Germany. A great part of it was conducted from the German embassy in Washington, and through

185

there was opportunity, she endeavoured to excite the discontented subjects of her enemies. She sought to get in touch with Irishmen, Indians, Arabs, Egyptians, Boers, Algerians and Gcorgians, and with various black races. A special organization or committee in Berlin attended to each of these pcoples, and to many

others.

Where

possible, representatives

were lured to

Berlin, and, if thought useful, were provided with funds. Missions, sometimes accompanied by Germans, were sent wherever they could be sent with safety. On the negative side the effort had some success, and existing discontent was sedulously fomented. But on the positive side there was little gain, for the

Much work

Germans were seldom able to persuade the actual or tentative

was done by special missions such as that of Dr. Dernburg, a former Colonial Secretary, and every German bank or trading corporation was a centre of organized effort. A very large

rebels that their future position would be any better under the domination of Germany. (P. C. M.) PROPELLANTS (see 10.83).—A propellant explosive should burn comparatively slowly, and thus allow the use of a suitable charge for the required muzzle velocity without causing a high

the German consuls throughout the United States.

number of serious books by well-known German authors were translated into English for American readers. These followed certain main lincs. They drew contrasts between the peaceful

progress of Germany since her unification, as compared with the violence of other Powers.

They represented Germany as

being engaged purely in self-defence. They offered veiled threats or bribes to the United States with reference to Japan. They insisted on the moral basis of German culture and civilization. Closely similar lincs were followed by many leading Americans of German descent. Perhaps the most effective of these AmericanGermans was Hugo Münsterberg, professor of psychology at Harvard, who advocated the cause of his natal country with eloquence and apparent moderation. His main point was that the war was really a struggle between Russian barbarism and the western culture of Germany, France taking sides because of Alsace-Lorraine, England because of her commercial rivalry and desire for German colonics. If Germany were beaten, it would be a triumph of Asiatic Russia and of Japan over the culture of Europe and America. It was suggested that the task of America was to give Europe an honourable peace, which she

could do only by the strictest neutrality, with a leaning to Germany. Some true Americans also engaged in propaganda in favour of Germany. Some of these, doubtless, were mere hirelings; the better were chiefly persons of standing in the literary, scientific and musical world, who had been much in Germany. Some of the exchange professors were leaders in this work, and very naturally advocated with zeal and knowledge the best side of the German character and the great part Germany had played in the arts and sciences. Still more vocal were the Irish-Americans, who devoted themselves with a malignant hitterness to propaganda against England. As regards direct German propaganda against the enemy, comparatively little was done, as compared with other combatants, in the distribution of propagandist literature from Germany amongst the actual troops opposed to her. The Gazette des Ardennes was the most successful effort.

It was a regular

newspaper, written in French and often with an illustrated supplement. It was sent into France by balloons, and occasionally by aeroplane, and sometimes gained entrance through a neutral country. It was eagerly sought, as it was baited with genuine information as to French prisoners, Otherwise it consisted of well-arranged propagandist matter of the usual type. The Continental Times, written in English, was founded before the war as a genuine newspaper for Americans travelling in Germany and Austria. During the war, probably with the aid of a German subsidy, it developed into a propagandist organ, chiefly anti-English, and almost ludicrous in its exaggerated malevolence. It was freely circulated among English prisoners in German camps, where, fortunately, it was the occasion of a good deal of amusement. The Russkiya Isavestia, written in Russian, was distributed to Russian prisoners of war, and to a smaller extent in Russia. It was a competent piece of work, addressed to the task of persuading the Russian peasant that his two chief enemies were England and his own Government, and that the victory of Germany would mean liberation. Germany’s greatest propagandist effort against her. enemies was carried out by indirect means. Wherever she thought that

chamber pressure, and enable the maximum pressure to be kept low while better sustained; it should burn regularly—which depends upon the area of surface exposed to burning—and the rate should be easily capable of regulation; it should be smoke-

less, without bright flash; it should not give excessive heat during combustion, but be casy of ignition and not leave any solid residue; it should have both chemical and ballistic stability while in storage. The method of manufacture and the proportionate mixture of cordite, the British smokeless propellant (see 7.138), have been very largely controlled by the postulated requirements, particularly as regards keeping qualities. With cordite manufactured by the methods in vogue before the World War the nitrocellulose used was highly nitrated,

necessitating the use of acetone as a solvent. This involved a scrious disadvantage in that the supply of the solvent materially governed the output of cordite. The enormous amounts of propellant required and the demand for rapid supply during the war made this disadvantage scriously felt, and thoughts

were turned in the direction of discovering some expedients in which a state of lower nitration would render possible the use

of some other solvent, which could be more easily obtained, as well as the devising of new methods by which the time expended in manufacture might be materially reduced. At the same time it was postulated that disturbance of the ballistic and heat value of cordite M.D. was not to be incurred. Experiments resulted in the introduction of a class of cordite known as R.D.B.

(Research Department,

mixture B.), with which

ether-alcohol is used as the solvent. It consists in a percentage composition of nitroglycerine (42°), nitro-cotton (52°%,), mineral jelly

(6%). A larger percentage of nitroglycerine was included in this mixture in order to compensate for the lower nature of nitrocellulose, and a higher proportion of mineral jelly to reduce the higher temperature produced by the extra proportion of nitroglycerine. The appearance of this class of cordite, as compared with cordite M.D., is not so clear, generally warped, with a rougher surface. With this mixture, not only was there the advantage in employing a solvent, of which supply was assured, but also the time required for drying in manufacture was considerably reduced. Originally, the tubular form was introduced for cordite in order to maintain an equal area of burning surface, and so permit a more equally sustained pressure during combustion.

Inthe form of strips,

cordite gives very similar action as in the form of tubes; this form in manufacture and otherwise has other advantages which favoured its use for cartridges. But since, when made up into charges, strip cordite is apt to become packed tight, and so practically form a solid

bundle, the result on explosion may not be as desired. The provision of cellulose for conversion into nitrocellulose depended during the war very largely on the obtainable supplies. In Germany different expedients were tried, amongst them an unsuccessful attempt to use an artificial silk made by dissolving woodcellulose in suitable solvents. But practically all the nitrocellulose made in that country, during the war, was made from a certain kind of paper, probably from some form of wood-ccellulose° (see CELLULOSE). The American service propellant N.C.T. (nitrocellulose tubular) is a soluble nitro-cotton powder gclatinized by ether-alcohol, and containing a small percentage of diphenylamine added to act asa stabilizer, The powder is practically a pure nitrocellulose powder, and consists of nitrocellulose (97%), stabilizer (0-5%), volatile matter (2:5 %). : The nitration of the cellulose is similar to the process in the case of cordite, but the drying of the powder is not carried so far, a con-

PROTHERO—PROTOZOOLOGY

186

siderable proportion of the solvent being retained, The stabilizer, being a substance with an affinity for nitrogen dioxide (NO2), is intended to prevent the free presence ol nitrous acid should any

decomposition occur.

It is claimed for the stabilizer that it at the

same time acts as a detector and shows when decomposition is occurring, by means of the resulting discoloration; but this claim

docs not appear to have been clearly established. The shape of the powder is different from that of cordite. The mixture is extruded through dies, for charges for smaller guns in a tubular form, and for

larger guns as a stick with several longitudinal holes; as it is ex-

PROTOPOPOV, ALEXANDER DMITRIEVICH (1864-1918), Russian statesman, was born in 1864 and educated in a military school. He served for some time in the army, but he soon left the service and went into business. As a big landowner of the Simbirsk province he took an active part in the Zemstvo life and was elected member of the executive board of the Simbirsk Zemstvo and marshal of the nobility of the Simbirsk province. In 1907 he was elected member of the third and subsequently

truded, it is cut into short lengths, the lengths having a proportionate relation to the diameter of the hole in the stick. This shape en-

of the fourth State Duma, where he joined the left wing of

ables greater ease in making up cartridges than with cordite, Te-

president of the State Duma.

quiring merely the weighing of the charge on scales as against cutting lengths of cordite according to size and weight. Nitrocellulose tubular is not so powerful as cordite, and therefore larger charges are

the Octobrist (Moderate Liberal) party.

Later be became vice-

The first unfavourable rumours

with reference to him arose in connexion with an interview with

Herr Max Warburg, the German financier at Stockholm. In March 1916 he visited the capitals of western Europe as one ofthe leaders of the Russian parliamentary delegation. On his stable in storage as cordite. On the other hand, it is more uniform ‘return journey he privately met at Stockholm Herr Warburg, . in burning (at a slower rate and with a lower temperature than cordite), and so causes much less crosion in a gun; and, further, the the head of the Scandinavian section of the German Committce loading temperature has less cffect on ballistics than with cerdite, on Food Supplies. The importance of the conversation was, and the regularity in worn guns is better. The colour of the grains however, greatly exaggerated by the press, and also by Protopovaries very much and may be buff, brown, dark blue or even nearly pov himself. At the beginning of Oct. 1916 Protopopov was. black, perhaps owing to slight changes in the stabilizer present; but appointed, through the influence of the Emperor, Minister of practically no difference in stability has been detected, except when required; it is hygroscopic, and consequently, if cartridges become damp, considerable variations in ballistics may result;-it is not so

the colour becomes brick-red, or rusty, when it may be concluded that corrosion has set in. . A flameless powder has been made in America for which it is claimed that, with field guns firing this kind of powder, it is possible for the eyes of the gunner to see the muzzle of the gun at the moment of firing, and that the flash is imperceptible at a distance of a mile, The composition of the American powder is approximately 60% of

nitro-cotton, stabilized only with potassium carbonate, 25-28 %4 of

nitroglycerine treated in the same way, 5-7 % of diphenylphthalic dicthylester of the phthalic acid obtained by esterifying phthalic anhydride with ethyl-alcohal in the presence of sodium bisulphate and 3-5 7/2 of neutral potassium tartrate; vaseline or mineral jelly up to § % is used to balance the composition. ‘The dimensions of the owder-sticks and the exact composition depend upon the farm to be used and have to be calculated. The German propellant used with the 77-mm. gun wasin the form of tubular sticks, and was a ballistite containing a stabilizer of ‘' centralite ’ type, the stabilizer being the thio-urea derivative corre-

sponding to diphenyldimethyl-urea. found

frequently

in German

This last substance has been

powders;

it is very resistant

to the

action of acids and alkalis and is oxidized by fuming nitric acid only after prolonged heating at a high temperature. A ballistite containing 60% of nitrocellulose and 38% of nitroglycerine has been used by the Germans; and also a mixture of nitrocellulose (66-16%), nitroglycerine (25-97%), sym. diethyldiphenyl-urea

(71-32%).

(5°64%),

volatile

matter

{0-91 %), mineral

matter

With certain guns the Germans tried a mixture of ammo-

nium nitrate (84:5 %), carbon (150%), ammonium chloride (05 %4),

in a compressed block, in the shape of an annulus, which was inserted in the cartridge-case above a charge of ordinary nitrocellulose

powder.

What was the exact result of this combination is not clear.

Among sporting powders which were tried during the war as propellants might be quoted as an example E.C.3—a powder made by a private company—which was used rather largely in trench warfare. This also is a nitrocellulose powder, which after forming

to required shape is treated with acetone so that the outer surface is hardened.

It is claimed

for this

process that the pressure during

burning is more evenly disteibuted ond more regularly maintained,

since the hardened skin of the powder allows of slow burning to commence with and the porous interior allows more rapid action (F. M. R.)

later on.

(1848-

), English

man of letters, was born in Wilts. Oct. 14 1848.

PROTHERO,

SIR GEORGE

WALTER

Educated at

Eton, King’s College, Cambridge, and the university of Bonn, he became fellow of King’s College, Cambridge, and was history lecturer there from 1876 to 1894, when he became professor of

history at the university of Edinburgh

1893-9.

He was a

member of the Royal Commission for Ecclesiastical Discipline 1904-6. In 1899 he succeeded his brother Rowland (afterwards Lord Ernle) as editor of the Quarterly Review. He was also editor

of the Cambridge Historical Series and co-editor of the Cambridge Modern History. During the World War he was head of the historical section of the British Foreign Office, and in that capacity attended the Peace Conference in Paris (1919). He was created

K.B.E.

in 1920.

Amongst

his publications

are

Life and Times of Simon de Montfort (1877), Memoir of Henry Bradshaw (1889), and various volumes of historical papers, as well as the British History Reader (1898).

the Interior, in succession to Khvostov, and thus entered the Sturmer Cabinet. A former leader of Liberals, he proved to be

now the strongest upholder of reaction. He enforced the censorship with unexampled rigour, and his interference with the food-supply work of the Zemstvos and Towns Union created a serious danger to the activities of these organizations. At a stormy meeting held at the Duma he was asked by his political friends to resign his post, and when he refused to do so they

struck his name off the list of members of the party.

Hated by

the Liberal circles and the Duma, Protopopov not only supported

the reactionary policy of Sturmer and Prince Galitzin with the utmost energy, but he is said also to have been one of the secret organizers of the disturbances of Feb. 1917, which he proposed to suppress by military force, and which, unexpectedly for him, resulted in the overthrow of the Empire and of himself. He was arrested by the Provisional Government and committed for trial. He remained for many months in the Peter and-

Paul fortress and was executed by order of the Extraordinary Commission in Sept. 1918. |

PROTOZOOLOGY (sce 22. 479) is that branch of zoology which is concerned with the group of animals known as the Protozea. It is not, as its name might seem to imply, a primitive form of zoology. As a science it is comparatively young, but, owing chiefly to the practical importance of some of the animals with which it deals, it had in 1921 already become one of the largest and most cultivated fields in biology. The Protozoa are very interesting animals, from both the practical and the theoretical standpoint. Nevertheless, they are all small, and most of them of microscopic dimensions, To the general public they are therefore invisible, and consequently unknown, except by the conspicuous results—-such as diseases—which they occasionally produce. In common specch they are still nameless, though they

are popularly included among “ animalcules ” and “microbes.” But these are unscientific and unnatural groups, which comprise all microscopic creatures, both animals and plants; and consequently the Protozoa are still confused, in the popular mind,

with other ‘“‘ microbes,” such as the Bacteria, with which they have no connexion. It will be evident that protozoology, as an independent science, must necessanly have arisen as a comparatively late offshoot of zoology. Its history is bound up with that of the microscope,’

an instrument which bears much the same relation to proto-zoology that the telescope does to astronomy. Before micro-scopes were invented no Protozoa could have been clearly visible, With the first lenses, the largest and most conspicuous of them. were discovered; and as microscopes were improved, more and’ more minute creatures gradually became known. Out of theconfusion of forms which the microscope has continued to

reveal, the Protozoa have ultimately emerged as a well-defined: group of animals, and, as a result, those who study these animals:

have slowly built up a new section of zoological science.

PROTOZOOLOGY As an individual

science protozoology

only became

self-

conscious at a quite recent period. The name itself, though already in use between 1870 and 1880, only became current after the opening of the 2oth century—that is to say, within the memory of many living zoologists. But the science was really born—though not baptized—when the first Protozoa were discovered.

This far-reaching discovery was made in the latter

half of the r7th century. It was made by a man who was neither zoologist nor physician, but who occupied the humble position of chamberlain

to the sheriffs of the little town of Delft, in

Holland—Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), an amateur microscopist, who studied at no university, nor under any of the great professors of his day, but whose title to fame rests upon the simple and honest application of his own native genius. This remarkable man made his own microscopes, lenses and all,

and turned them upon almost every object which suggested itself to his quick imagination. In the course of his work he examined the water from the leaden gutters of his house, from the well in his courtyard, and also fresh rain-water, snow-water

and “the water wherein pepper had lain infused.” He found that all these liquids, and many others, were not clear and empty when viewed by the microscope, but teeming with living creatures, The discovery was promptly communicated by letter to the Royal Society in London, who published a part of it in the year 1677. Some of the animals which Leeuwenhoek here described can now be identified as Protozoa, and his letter may therefore be regarded as the first page in the history of protozoology. Leeuwenhock, the father of protozoology, himself studied and

described many Protozoa. His observations were soon repeated and confirmed by others, notably by some of the early Fellows of the Royal! Society and his fellow-countryman Huygens, the great astronomer. But for many years protozoology made little progress, and

remained essentially what it was originally, an amusement rather than a science. Although many good observations were made and recorded, they were always disjointed, and often distorted by fancy

and speculation. Many good zoologists regarded with doubt and misgiving everything seen with the microscope, an attitude of mind which has not quite disappeared even in these days of perfect instruments.

Even the great Linnaeus (1707-1778), who attempted

to catalogue and classify all animals and plants, and thereby founded

modern systematic biology, never really overcame his suspicions sufficiently to incorporate the Protozoa firmly in his system. His mental attitude is shown

in the name

‘‘ Chaos infusorium,”’

with

which, in 1767, he dubbed a mixed lot of questionable protozoal organisms—the term Chaos itself having been suggested, no doubt,

by Ovid's “ rudis indigestagque moles,"

But already at this period many workers were convinced that the Protozoa—or “ Infusorta,’’ as they were then called, from their occurrence in infusions—have a real existence. The once notorious John Hill (1716-1775), in the course of his journalistic, theatrical, medical, and botanical adventures, turned his attention to micro-

‘scopes; and in 1752 he described and, for the first time, scientifically named, a number of Protozoa which he had seen in infusions. Up tothis time writers had been content to call them by diminutives of the names of larger and more familiar creatures, or occasionally by names suprested: by comparison with some common object. We thus find the early protozoologists describing their observations upon

*‘ little insects,” “ worms,” “ fishes,” and even " reptiles,” and upon “the slipper,” “the sun,” © the trumpet,” “ the gimlet,” or ‘ the bell animalcule.” lt was not until 1773 that a serious attempt was made to reduce the chaos to order by careful observation-and description and classification of the ‘' Infusoria.” This notable work was done by the Danish naturalist, O. F. Maller (1730-1784); and his last book, published posthumously in 1786, is the first systematic treatise on protozoology.

It is a remarkable work, full of shrewd

observations, and showing astonishing insight, but containing, of course, many mistakes which were inevitable at that period. Many of the Protozoa described and sketched by Miiller—mostly from observations made, as were those of Leeuwenhoek, with the aid of only a simple lens—are easily recognizable now by a protozoologist. , The circumstance that Müller was able to attempt a comprehensive systematic treatise on the Protozoa implies that a very considerable advance had taken place in biological thought since microscopic organisms were discovered.

Many of the earlier workers, like the

uneducated at the present day, believed in spontaneous generation. They believed, with Aristotle, that many “ imperfect ” animals were bred in mud, water, or decomposing matter; and so long as this view

was tenable there was no reason why these misbegotten offspring of the superabundant vitality of the earth should display any particular constancy in their appearance or any fixity of form. Consequently, to attempt to describe and classify

the “ Infusoria’’

must. have

seemed a futile task to many men of science two hundred years ago.

187

Spontaneous generation, as a scientific doctrine, was not really demolished by the admirable experiments of Redi (166%), as is often

supposed, for he disproved it for only the larger and more obvious animals, such as insects; and the later discovery of microscopic organisms raised the whole problem once more, but presented it in a much more difficult form. It was Redi's countryman, Spallanzani, who, a hundred years later, extended his observations to microscopic animals, and showed by means of ingenious and exact experiments that the “ Infusoria ” spring from living antecedents, and live, grow,

and multiply like larger creatures. Spallanzani helped to lav the foundations on which Muller built, though his. own work was not firmly consolidated until, a century Jater, the last rivets were driven in by Pasteur and Tyndall. In the latter half of the 18th century many minor contributions were made to protozoology, and although these were continued during the early part of the next century, no considerable advance was made until about 1830, when the Berlin zoologist, C. G. Ehrenberg (1795-1876), began to publish his researches. With amazing perseverance he studied, described, ahd named all the “ Infusoria ” that he could find: and as he pursued his investigations not only at home,

but also in Egypt, Arabia, Siberia, and elsewhere, the forms which he discovered were not a few, His chief contribution to protozoology was published in 1838—a monumental folio volume of more than 550 pages, accompanied by an atlas of 64 coloured plates. This is still one of the classics of the science. Jt contained much that was new and much that was true, everything of note that his industrious reading could find in the works of his predecessors, and withal a mass of mistakes, to which he clung tenaciously—in spiteof violent

contradiction and criticism—to the end of his days. Ehrenberg’s most dangerous opponent was a Frenchman, Félix Dujardin (1801-1860).

In 1841, with an octavo volume of some 680

pages, but only 23 plates, he undermined the foundations of the big folto, and thus overthrew, for all time, many of the favourite theories of his German antagonist. Dujardin’s work is also a protozoological classic. Together with Ehrenberg's volume it marks the end of the old protozoology of the micrographers and the beginning of the new science as a special branch of zoology. Rarely does the modern worker, unless he be a historian, require to consult any earlier treatises than these.

Since the time of Dujardin only one really exhaustive work on the Protozoa as a whole has been written. This is the great monograph by O. Butschli, of Heidelberg, published in 1880-9. Itissignificant of the vast modern development of protozoology that up to 1921 no work on a like scale, by a single individual, had been produced. It is now, indeed, impossible for any one man even to read all that has been written on the Protozoa, and the more recent workers have had perforce to devote their attention to some particular group of these organisms, or to some special branch of protozoology. To master a detail of the science is now the work of a lifetime. No one man could in 1921 claim to be an expert in all protozoology any more than in all mathematics or ali chemistry. The territory already surveyed was so vast that the most he could hope to do was to cultivate his own small holding properly.

The Modern Science-—Since the middle of the roth century biological theory and practice have undergone profound changes; and in more recent years protozoology, with the rest of zoology,

has largely changed its character. This period has seen—to note but a few of its more striking developments—the establishment of the Theory of Organic Evolution, the rise of the Cell Theory, the foundation of Histology and Cytology, and the`

unfolding of Physiology and Embryology

and Medicine

as

experimental sciences. Protozoology has been profoundly influenced by all these new growths, and has itself contributed not a little to them. An attempt has been made, and has already been partly successful, first. to discover all the Protozoa there are, both living and fossil; then to investigate their structure in the minutest detail, and to ascertain how they live and develop; and finally, to understand their relations to other organisms and

their place in nature. Countless monographs have been written on individual species, on the larger and smaller groups into which these can be scientifically classified, on collections made all over the world, and upon the special physiological, medical, and other problems which the Protozoa, as a whole or in part, present. But we must content ourselves here with the merest

sketch of the growth and status of modern protozoology. Before proceeding, we must note some of the peculiar difficulties which differentiate protozoology from the rest of zoology. The animals with which it deals are, speaking generally, invisible to the naked eye. Consequently, they cannot be studied and anatomized by ordinary methods, The protozoologist has first to become a master in the use of the microscope, and: to

learn its limitations as an instrument of research.

When he

PROTOZOOLOGY

188

has become proficient he must learn or devise methods for catching, watching, breeding and preserving those Protozoa that he wishes to study, and must thus become familiar with a peculiar and varied technique adapted to the investigation

of the lives and habits of animals invisible to the unaided eye. He must then acquire the power of correctly interpreting what he sees under these peculiar conditions. If he is an efficient

microscopist and a good observer, endowed

with abundant

patience and ingenuity, and if, at the same time, he is a good zoologist and sound philosopher, then, with experience and

diligence, he may hope some day to become a good protozoologist. From the very nature of the subject, therefore, it will be obvious that it is easier to make mistakes in protozoology than in most other branches of zoology; and there can be little doubt that the writings on the Protozoa, takea as a whole, contain a larger

percentage of error than those on any other group of animals. Protozoology is, indeed, still in its infancy, and icarning slowly and painfully by the method of making mistakes. Protozoology, like most other sciences, is important from two different standpoints, which may be called the theoretical and the practical. On the theoretical side we have to consider its relations to the rest of zoology, and the value of its contributions

to biological philosophy; on the other side, we must consider the

necessary to introduce some new conception if the cell theory was to become universally applicable. The extension of the theory, so as to enable it to include the Protozoa, was mace by von Siebold. Each individual protozoon, he said, is itself a “ cell.” It is comparable with a single one of. the innumerable units of which the bodies of large animals are

built.

The

Protozoa

are

“unicellular”

animals,

all

others

“multicellular.” According to this doctrine, therefore, a protozoon is not comparable, as an individual, with a whole multicellular animal, but with one of the cells in its body: or, the

other way about, a multicellular animal is not an individual of the same sort as a protozoon, but a colony of such individuals. This conception appeared so plausible—owing, it must be supposed, to the backward state of protozoology and cytology at | that date—that it found ready acceptance; and. in spite of

the cogent objections which have been raised against it by Huxley (1853), Whitman (1893), Sedgwick (1894), Dobell (1911), and: others, it has prevailed down to the present day. The cell:

theory is still taught to almost every beginner in biology. Ife is still told that he is not an individual, but a community of: individuals; and that the protozoon, which he can see with his

own eyes leading an individual existence, is not an individual— such as he believed himself to be—but the equivalent of one

utility of its practical applications, which are chiefly medical. In other words, we must look at protozoology as a pure science

little bit of his body.

and as an applied science. It is necessary to distinguish these two aspects, although they are inextricably blended in reality. Protozoclogy was actually applied in medicine before it was ready; and this led not only to great confusion but almost to

biological generalization was just emerging—the doctrine of Organic Evolution. Charles Darwin’s great work, which appeared in 1859, created a revolution in biological thinking.

the severance

of Medical

Protozoology from the rest of the

science. But progress on the medical side has now reacted beneficially upon the pure science, by bringing to light many new facts and setting many new problems. The Pure Science—The theoretical importance of protozoology is not what it appeared to be fifty years ago. It has not fulfilled some of the high hopes then entertained for its future.

In the earlicr period the writer of an article such as

this would have begun, in all probability, by declaring that the study of the Protozoa would lead to the solution of most of the outstanding gencral problems of biology. He would have pointed

out that these animals were of the greatest importance in connexion with the two chief biological generalizations of his time— the Cell Theory and the Evolution Theory—and he would probably have ended by saying that it was only lack of detailed knowledge which prevented protozoology from answering most of the fundamental questions of biology. Yet we have now an abundance of the sort of information then regarded as requisite, and the great problems are still, for the most part, where they were. It is both interesting and instructive to inquire how this has come about. The cell theory was first definitely formulated, in Germany, by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (i839), and was modelled into its modern form by Max Schultze (1861): that is to say, it

took shape at the time of the reformation of protozoology by Ehrenberg and Dujardin, when the science was still feeling for a foothold. According to the cell doctrine, all organisms, both animals and plants, are built up of structural units, called “cels,” in much the same way as a house is built of bricks.. Schultze defined “a cell ” as “a litle lump of protoplasm with a nucleus inside it,” and this definition was generally accepted. It should be noted that this proposition, so far as the larger animals and plants are concerned, is not a“ theory ” at all, but. a statement of fact easily verifiable by means of the microscope. The body of a rabbit or a cabbage is, for the most part, actually composed of ‘cells’ as conceived in the definition. The “theory” was introduced when the proposition was held to apply to all organisms at all stages in their development. Dujardin had shown that the Protozoa are soft-bodied animals composod of “sarcode’’—the

“ protoplasm”

of later workers—

in which no constituent “ cells” are discernible.

Like “ cells ”

Protozoa contain “nuclei,” but, unlike the large animals, they show no internal diffcrentiation into ctllular units. . It was thus.

When

the cell theory was being founded,

another great

Although Darwin's own work, and his statement of the theory, appear to be unexceptionable, the doctrine miscalled ‘ Darwinism ”

developed

along

extravagant

lines—chicfly,

as

is

now cvident, owing to the wild speculations and dominating influence of E. Haeckel and other German writers. The “cell theory ”? was immediately subpoenaed to give evidence for these “ Darwinists.” They wrongly believed that the evolution

theory required the presence of some “most primitive ” and “elementary ” animals—from which all the “ higher ” forms had been derived—on the earth at the present day; and the shaky

syllables let fall by the cell theory were eagerly seized upon, interpreted, and ultimatcly incorporated as incontrovertible facts in the case of the ‘ Evolutionists.’ *“ Unicellular ” organisms—such as the Protozoa—thus became the startingpoint of evolutionary speculations. The Protozoa were obviously the *“ simplest ” animals, since less was known about them than about the others; and they were clearly the ‘‘ most clementary,”

each individual representing but one of the structural elements of which

the others were

composed.

Their insignificant size.

made them the “lowest ” forms on carth, and their position— according

the bottom

of the “ Scala

Naturac,’ made them the ‘most primitive.”

to the ‘theory ’—at

It thus became.

easy to show, by specious arguments and “ question-begging.

epithets,” that protozoology occupied a position of fundamental importance in biology. By studying the Protozoa the earliest stages In evolution would be revealed. The beginnings of life would be laid bare, Physiology and morphology would appear. in their elemental forms, stripped of all confusing detail. And optimists were not wanting who divined that, by higher and still higher powers of the microscope, Nature’s inmost secrets—such as the origin of life itseli—would be divulged. These fantastic dreams have been slowly dispelled by the “ dry light” of reason. It has become clear that protozoology was placed in a false position by the devotees of the cell doctrine.

and the dogmatic evolutionists. Let us look at the fundamental conception of the “ unicellularity ” of the Protozoa from another angle, and see how it appears in the light of modern knowledge. In the first place, it is clear that the Protozoa cannot properly

be described as “ unicellular.” Every protozoal animal has an independent existence. It has its own peculiar structure, exercises its own proper functions, leads its own life—often, indeed, a very complex one.

As an animal it is, from every standpoint,

as much an “individual” as a man is. One protozoon is one whole animal,.just as one.man is.one whole animal. X

From the:

PROTOZOOLOGY

189

standpoint of common sense, no less than from that of modern

knowledge.

zoology, the whole organism is the unit of individuality. But when we examine a protozoon under the microscope we still sce—as Dujardin saw—that its body is not differentiated internally into cclls, as is that of a man. Its body is often surprisingly complex in structure, but it is never composed of cells.

obtain no information which is qualitatively or fundamentally

different from that to be derived from the study of large organisms, and their gross anatomy, with the naked eye. The mental bias just mentioned seems to be responsible for many popular—and not a few “ scientific ’—notions about the

It is clear, therefore, thal we can contrast the body of a man with that of a protozoon by saying that the one is cellular in structure, the other men-celiudur. To call it “ unicellular,” and thus com-

reasonable but common belicf that the Protozoa are “ clementary” and “ primitive’ animals. Although few biologists now

pare one whole animal with a minute differentiated fraction of another, is obviously absurd. It is as though a man who had only seen houses built of bricks were suddenly to encounter: one constructed, all of a piece, of concrete; and then, being unable

to find the familiar individual bricks in its fabric, were to declare. that the concrete house is not a house—in the sense that the brick house is—but one large and peculiarly modified brick. When once it is realized that the Protozoa are not, in any sense, “elementary” or “unicellular” animals, but a group of peculiarly constructed creatures, adapted in a special way to particular conditions of life, then it will also be realized that we have no reasons—apart from preconceived ideas derived from

unsound generalizations—for believing that they represent “ primitive ” or “ñrst” forms of life. That they are not “simple” we now know. It is true that they display, on the whole, less visible structural differentiation than most of the larger animals, but physiologically they are very complex. That they are able to perform all the chief functions of “ higher ” animals, but with fewer instruments, docs not make their mechanism casier to understand; and it is thus hardly conceivable that the Protozoa can ever offer us the easiest way of approach to physiological problems. They offer us, indeed, the most dificult feld in animal physiology, owing to their microscopic size and apparent simplicity of structure. As a great

physiologist has well said:

“ Experience and refiection have

shown me that, after all, the physiological world is wise in spending its strength on the study of the higher animals. And for the simple reason

that in these, everything being so much

more

highly differentiated, the clews of the tangles come, so to speak,

much more often to the surface, and may be picked up much more readily ” (Michael Foster). Attempts to found a ‘ general physiology ° on the Protozoa as “ccls”? and “ clements ” are doomed to failure, for they are based upon an unsound philosophy; and the speculative and deductive efforts in this

direction—such as that of Verworn in Germany—have slowly given way before the experimental and inductive methods of

Jennings and others in America and elsewhere. As a point of historic interest, it may be noted that the father of protozoology and his immediate followers had none of the extravagant later notions regarding the “ unicellular” and “elementary ” nature of the Protozoa.

For Leeuwenhoek

the

Protozoa were animals like any other animals, but delightfully and marvellously little; and he thus saw more clearly and naturally than many of his later successors. There are probably few biologists who now cherish any hopes of secing the fundamental problems of biology solved by the study of the Protozoa, though the majority still speak and write in the optimistic language of last century. For these mental survivals there is a psychological basis, which seems worth noting before we go on to consider the true status and value of protozoology. There is a curious disposition, apparently inherent in the human mind, to suppose that by studying the most minute creatures we can come nearer to first principles. And it is the same with the study of the larger organisms. As the cytologist probes into the structure of an animal with higher and still higher powers of the microscope, he feels that he is gradually “ getting to the bottom ” of his problems. He feels that when his microscope has resolved the larger animals info their smallest component parts, and has revealed every detail of the smallest

living thing, he will be face to face with fundamentals. It does not require much thought to realize that this is a fallacy. The deeper we delve, the more detail we discover. But itis all of the Same sort: we add to the quantity and not to the quality of our

Protozoa.

With the highest possible magnification we shall

It appears, for example, to be at the back of the un-

believe in spontaneous generation, yet many are able to believe

that living things must have been spontaneously generated from lifeless matter in the past; and to those-who hold this belief it still appears self-evident that the organisms so generated were microscopic. Consequently, these biologists feel that the Protozoa must, in some way, be nearer than other animals to

“ the beginnings of life,” and they find no difficulty in conceiving that the first animals were “f Protozoa.” In the same way, when these same biologists come to consider evolution, and the relations of living animals to one another, they find in the Protozoa the casiest starting-point for their speculations. The Protozoa are “ the simplest ’’? animals, and the human mind works most

readily from simple to complex conceptions. Consequently, evolution is pictured as necessarily moving in the same direction —the simply constructed creatures coming first, and the com-

plex developing from them. But it is surely a poor philosophy which would constrain Nature to order her infinite events in

that particular sequence in which thoughts happen to follow one another most easily in the mind of man. What, then, it may be asked, is the theoretical interest or

value of protozoology?

Clearly it is this. Biological theory is

sound in proportion to the truth of its generalizations. When all the facts are known about all animals and plants, we shall be able to make true general propositions about them. Before we know the facts our generalizations can be but partial and premature—more or less lucky guesses, based upon incomplete knowledge. All biological theory is at present in this condition and therefore the careful study of any animal or group of animals -—such as the Protozoa—will, if it yields new facts for generaliza-

tion, be valuable ultimately as a contribution to biology.

At

present we cannot hope to do much more than collect facts, by means of accurate observation and apposite expcriment. When

we have collected and critically analyzed them, we can sometimes make tentative generalizations of a lesser order. But the larger and truer generalizations will come Iater. It may be said that if this is all that can be expected from protozoology,

then it is no more

important

than any other

branch of zoology: there is no reason why we should study the Protozoa rather than any other group of animals. All this is quite true and reasonable; but there is also a reason why protozoology is likely to yield results of particular interest. The Protozoa are a group of animals organized on a different principle from the rest. They are, as we have just seen, non-cellular animals with peculiar lives and habits. Structurally and functionally they differ, in many ways, from all other animals.

Now all the chief biological gencralizations—almost all general propositions relating to such phenomena as birth, growth, development, sex, reproduction, heredity, variation, and death—

have been derived from observations made upon the larger multicellular animals. When genera] jdeas were formulated on such subjects the Protozoa were practically left out of account. When the more important facts about the Protozoa are firmly established, we shall be able to recast many of our biological theorems in a more satisfactory form. The Protozoa offer us, im other words, a new world of animals for generalization,

and a new standpoint frem which to survey our old-world zoological knowledge. The discovery of the Protozoa was to zoology what the discovery of America was to geography. But we are still, in protozoology, in the 16th century. For our knowledge of the new world we must still depend up6n travellers’ tales, upon reports of things ill-observed and misunderstood, marvels and myths and mysteries. But some day we shall have accurate and faithful records, and then protozoology will come

PROTOZOOLOGY

190

into its own. As yet we are hardly on the threshold of the new biology, but for those who delight in the destruction of error and the advancement of true learning, the protozoological prospect is already full of hope. The Applied Science—The chief practical applications of protozoology are to medicine. Certain of the Protozoa live as parasites in the bodies of men and animals, and thereby cause diseases. Some of these are so important that they are widely known—for example, malaria and sleeping sickness—and the elucidation of such diseases is one of the most interesting and recent chapters in biology. Protozoology also has certain applications to agricultural science, because many Protozoa inhabit the

have rehabilitated the whole silk industry—these are practical results which everyone can understand. And one has but toremember that protozoal diseases may affect man himself and.

his larger domesticated animals—not merely silkworms—to realize the practical possibilities of protozoology. Towards the close of the 19th century medical protozoology: became linked up with another branch of zoology—entomology, the science which deals with insects. This connexion has nothing’ to do with the silkworms just mentioned, but arose through the

discovery of the part played by certain other insects in the. causation of protozoal diseases. The discoveries in this field: began, once more, with the investigation of a disease of domes-soil, but their value is still doubtful. ticated animals; but the pioncer was not, in this case, theThe founder of protozoology was the first to find Protozoa Frenchman Pasteur, but the Scotsman David Bruce. His work inhabiting the living bodies of other and larger animals. In is of such importance that we must notice it at this point. The Work of Bruce-—Some parts of Africa are the home of: 1681 he described one such “ animalcule ” which was Living in his own intestine. In 1683 he described and depicted others certain large blood-sucking flics called “ tsetse.” The “ Fly from the intestine of the frog. All these are recognizable, with Country ” is uninhabitable except for wild animals; and long’ fair certainty, at the present day. Leeuwenhoek did not suggest before its full significance was understood, the fly itself was that these “ parasites’? were in any way concerned in the recognized as a serious obstacle to the opening-up of Central. causation of disease, and it is probable, indeed, that the forms Africa. Livingstone, the greatest of all African explorers, was so which he observed are not. But already at that date the ‘‘ mi- impressed with the fly’s importance in this connexion that he crobe”’ theory of disease-production was in existence, for it was put a vignette of a tsetse on the title-page of his Missionary guessed at long before any ‘‘ microbes” were discovered; and Travels (ust ed., 1857). Live stock taken into the ‘‘ Fly Country” consequently we find that, even in Lecuwenhoek’s lifetime, the rapidly succumbs to a disease which is called “ nagana ” in suggestion was put forward that his “ little animals ” might be Zululand, where Bruce’s original investigations were made. the ‘‘ causes’ of certain disorders. We find, for example, an The discase was also called ‘‘ tsetse-fly disease,’ since it was early fellow of the Royal Society remarking, in 1683, of a believed by the European settlers to be caused by the bite of the “‘ murren ”’ which had raged among the cattle in central Europe, . fly. The natives believed, however, that it was “ caused by and of which the cause was undiscovered: “I wish Mr. Leewen- the presence of large game, the wild animals in some way conhocck had been present at some of the dissections of these in- taminating the grass or drinking-water.” fected Animals, I am perswaded He would have discovered some Bruce began his work in Zululand—after an abortive sent strange Insect or other in them.” Mr. Leeuwenhock’s successors. in 1894— in Sept. 1895 (the month of Pasteur’s death). His full

have, on many a like occasion, fulfilled the expectations of

report on his researches is dated May 1896. In this almost in-

“ the ingenious Fred. Slare, M.D., and F.R.S.,”’ but his “ strange

credibly short space of time he demonstrated that nagana is

insects ” they now call ‘“‘ Protozoa ” or “ Bacteria.”

caused by a protozoal blood-parasite—since named Trypanosoma brucei, after its discoverer; that the parasite lives normally in

From the time of Leeuwenhoek to the present day the parasitic

Protozoa have been studied with increasing attention. Their relation to diseases has been gradually elucidated, though we are still very far from finality in our knowledge of this ab-

sorbingly interesting subject. The history of our knowledge is Jong, and the discoveries

have followed

devious ways—too

devious and intricate to be more than touched upon here.

Our knowledge of protozoal diseases—discases colloquially said to be ‘caused’ by protozoal parasites—really begins as recently as the middle of the roth century, when Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

began his researches on a disease of silkworms

called pébrine. Applying to the investigation of this disease the genius which stamps his work on “ microbes” generally, Pasteur first discovered its causes, and then deduced methods for its prevention. The “cause” he found to be a microscopic. parasite, now called Nosema bombycis and classified among the

Protozoa.

Although Pasteur did not know that the parasite

was a protozoon, his work on pébrine and other microbic diseases was of fundamental importance for protozoology, because it demonstrated the methods by which such diseases can be studied

and elucidated.

Pasteur’s scientific principles were impeccable,

the blood of big game, without harming them; and that it is conveyed from animal to animal by the tsetse. When the fly. sucks the blood of an infected animal it becomes itself infected with the trypanosomes, which are subsequently re-inoculated

into other animals by the fly when it sucks their blood. If these other animals are domestic stock, such as oxen or horses, they become infected with trypanosomes, contract nagana, and die. If they are wild game, such as antelopes, they also become infected, but develop no disease. In nature the trypanosome lives in the game and the flies alternately, the fly acting as an intermediary in the spread of infection from antelope to antelope.. The big game—indigenous in the country—are habituated toand proof against the infection, domestic animals—foreigners, introduced by man—are not, and when infected usually die. Bruce thus succeeded in extracting elements of truth from both the European and the native beliefs, and was able to com-

bine them into a truc theory of the causation of nagana. At the same time he threw a flood of light on many other protozoal: diseases, and suggested all sorts of possibilities concerning their causation and prevention. He forged new links between proto-

and equalled only by his own practical applications of them. zoology and medicine and between entomology and protozoology.. It is common knowledge that he founded modern bacteriology, It is true there were other lights and other links before. Trybut in so doing he also laid the foundations of medical proto- panosomes were known, and known to cause diseases, before zoology. To the casual reader it may seem strange that the study Bruce went to Zululand. Timothy Lewis and Gnffith Evans: of silkworms can have any bearing upon medicine, or could in had observed similar parasites in India more than a decadeany way contribute towards the alleviation of human suffering. earlier; and Theobald Smith and Kilborne, in America, had But there was another practical result of Pasteur’s work which demonstrated in 1893 that the disease of cattle known as “ Texas everyone will immediately appreciate, since it can be expressed in fever ’—a disease also caused by a blood-inhabiting protozoal. pounds, shillings and pence. Before pébrine attacked the. silk- _parasite—is transmitted from beast to beast by the agency of worms of France the silk industry yielded an annual revenue of ticks. But Bruce’s work was solid, complete, and demonstrative. 130,000,000 francs to the State. After the disease had raged for By clean experiments and right reasoning he contributed more a dozen years the revenue had fallen to 8,000,000, and the to science in a few months than hundreds who have followed. industry was on the brink of ruin. To have discovered the causes up his work have since been able to contribute in many years, of the disease, and to have devised, as a direct consequence, In work of this sort it is the quality, not the quantity, that,

means for its control, and, asa further consequence of this, to

counts.

Later. researches have but served to enhance. the

PROTOZOOLOGY magnitude and difficulty of the problem which confronted Bruce

in 1895; and to find a just parallel to the masterly manner in which he solved it, we must go back to Pasteur. There is, indeed, the same simplicity, the same directness, the same insight in the work of both these men. Their works are enduring demon-

strations of the method of science: they are a delight to read, and illustrate on every page the favourite maxim of Boerhaave: Simplex sigillum veri. The following-up of Bruce’s discoveries and the working-out of details and consequences have led to the accumulation of

an immense amount of new knowledge—protozoological, entomological, and medical. We can do no more than mention it here, We must, however, notice one of the first-fruits of his labours—thé application of his results to the study of human

diseases. This application was made mainly by Bruce himself. A few years after he had done his great work on nagana he attacked the problem of sleeping sickness, a human disease which has depopulated large arcas of Central Africa. Bruce and his collaborators were able to show that this discase is

similar to nagana. It is likewise caused by a trypanosome, which is conveyed to man by the bite of a tsctse-fly, and which is capable of living in other animals. In this case the parasite had been previously seen by Forde and Dutton, and by Castellani. But its relation to human disease and the part played by the ‘tsetse in its transmission were first clearly demonstrated through the work of Bruce. Malaria and Other Diseases —We must now notice another disease, which is known by name to all—malaria, “ the scourge of the tropics.” This disease, as we now know, is also carried from man to man by the agency of a blood-sucking fly—in this

case a mosquito, and it ıs also caused by a blood-inhabiting protozoal parasite, though it is one very different from

which causes nagana.

that

Morcover, this parasite lives in men and

mosquitoes only. After undergoing a peculiar development in the blood of a human being, it is sucked up with his blood by a mosquito when it feeds upon him Provided that the mosquito is of the right sort, the parasites in the blood—if they are in the proper stage of development—undergo further remarkable changes in the mosquito’s body.

IQI

protozoology, entomology and medicine have solved their respective parts of such problems, then many tropical regions which are now forbidden ground will become habitable for man and beast. The practical importance of protozoology in cases such as these is self-evident. The facts speak for themselves. Malaria is a far commoner disease than nagana, and the discoveries relating to it have therefore made a far wider appeal to the public. It intrigues the public to hear that there would still be no Panama Canal but for the great discoveries in connexion with malaria. It would excite them but little to hear that some obscure tribe of Zulus could now keep cattle in places where it was previously impossible. But the advancement of science Is not measured in such terms, and science values most

highly those who discover and enunciate new principles. Already we can observe that the problems presented by nagana and

malaria are similar, and that most of the generalizations which their solution can give us are, indeed, the same. We can see, too, that history, in the end, is generally just. Consequently, we may hazard a guess that in years to come the historian of

science, in his impartial search for beginnings and great names, will not fail to note the sequence of the discoveries which we have just considered, and will apportion his praise accordingly.

Lhe World War Period —Medical protozoology, like many another branch of science, received a powerful stimulus from the World War of 1914-8. Not only was much of the previously acquired knowledge put into practice, but this practical applica-

tion in turn revealed or emphasized the gaps, defects, and errors in Many current

conceptions,

and

so led ultimately

to the

prosecution of new researches and the acquisition of much new knowledge. Surveyed from the most general standpoint, the war appears to have taught us little that was new regarding malaria and the other protozoal diseases already mentioned. Its chief protozoological contribution has been to our knowledge of those Protozoa which live in the human intestine, and more especially

to the elucidation of the disease called amoebic dysentery. We may therefore say a few words on this subject at this point. The Protozoa known as “ amocbae ” form a large and interesting group. Most of the species live independently in such

Thereafter the mosquito 1s

places as ponds, ditches, or the soil; but some of them live in

able to infect other men with the parasites, which it injects into their blood in the process of sucking. And so the life of the para-

the bodies of other animals, and one of them—called Entamoeba histolytica—was already known before the war to live in the human bowel and “ cause” amocbic dysentery. The parasite was discovered by Lésch in Russia ag long ago as 1875. Its real relation to dysentery, however, was not made clear, though much debated, until just before the war, when the admirable researches of two Amcrican workers in the Philippine Islands— E. L. Walker and A. W. Sellards—were published. During the war their results have been confirmed and greatly extended, chiefly by the investigations of British workers. As a consequence, we now know as much about amoebic dysentery as we do about malaria or the diseases due to trypanosomes, There

site continues.

The foregoing is the briefest synopsis of a very complicated

story, in which almost every event has been worked out in great detail. Hundreds have contributed to this work, though some of them can hardly be said to have codperated in it. Indeed,

such bitter fights have taken place among them that it has now

become almost impossible to mention the names of some workers without offending others. The history of these discoveries would give an unpleasant shock to anybody simple enough to believe that men of science always labour for truth and the advancement

of knowledge rather than for fame and personal gain. Fortunate-

are several points here which are worthy of mention.

ly the names of the leading discoverers are now known to almost

We now know that no Jess than five different species of amoebae may live in the intestine of man, though only one of these—the ‘‘ dysentery amoeba ” already mentioned—ever does him any harm. Moreover, we now know also that amoebic dysentery is a comparatively rare disease. There are many different kinds of dysentery, and the kind due to amoebae is

everybody, and their individual achievements are no longer in dispute.

Even the “ general reader ” is familiar with the name

of Laveran, the great Frenchman who, in 1880, discovered the

malarial parasites in human blood; of Patrick Manson, the

founder of modern tropical medicine, who divined, in 1894, the part played by the mosquito; of Ronald Ross, who, inspired

by Manson, first worked out in 1898 the complete development of the malarial parasite of birds, and thus solved the general problem; and of Grassi and his fcllow-workers in Italy, who immediately confirmed Ross’s work and extended and successfully applicd his results to the study of malaria in man. When the roth century ended the story was almost complete. It will be evident that malaria, nagana, and similar diseases are not purely protozoological problems. It will also be obvious that such diseases might be stamped out and prevented by attacking cither the protozoal parasites which “ cause’ them, or the insects which transmit them, though there could have been but little hope of success in coping with such diseases before the life-historics of the parasites were discovered.. When

far from being the commonest.

Before the war amoebic dys-

entery was generally recognized as a disease more or less restricted to the tropics, though certain other kinds of dysentery occur all over the world. The curious fact brought into prominence by the war is that the dysentery amoeba itself is very common almost everywhere. This parasite, which can cause, by

its presence in the bowel, a violent and sometimes fatal form of dysentery, usually does no such thing. Very many people, in all parts of the world, are infected with it, but very few ever

suffer any appreciable harm from its presence.

The parasite

and the person who harbours it are usually suited to one another in such a way that they can live together comfortably, oblivious

of the existence of one another. There are, for instance, in the British Isles at this moment many thousands of people who are.

192

PROTOZOOLOGY

heavily infected with these disease-producing parasites, and yet enjoying perfect health. Another curious feature of amoebic dysentery is the circum-

stance that it cannot be contracted from a person suffering from the disease The people responsible for the spread of infection are those who harbour the parasite but themselves suffer no

ill consequences from its presence. The explanation of these secmingly contradictory facts is really quite simple, now that we know the life-history of the amoeba and its relation to disease. It is a popular fallacy to suppose that any parasite is the sole “cause” of any disease. A disease is a joint result of many

antecedent factors, and in the present case it would probably be nearer the truth to say that the person who harbours the amoeba, rather than the amocba itself, is the “ cause ° of amoebic dysentery. For dysentery results only when the infected person happens to be abnormally sensitive to infection with the amoeba, and the condition is as harmful to the parasite as it is to the patient. Normally man and amoeba fit one another, and there is no trouble. Abnormally there is a misfit, and amoebic dysentery is the consequence. The discase is really an unimportant side-show in the life-history of the parasite, the result of its being planted in unsuitable soil. The foregoing considerations will serve to show once more the value of protozoology in the study of human diseases. What hope could there ever be of cradicating a disease such as amoebic dysentery if we remained in ignorance of the life-history of the parasites connected with it? We might cure every case of the disease—we might conccivably prevent the death of every patient who contracted it; but even if we did, it is now clear that this would have no effect whatever upon the continuance and prevalence of the disease itself. Such procedure could not possibly stamp out amoebic dysentery, or even reduce by one the annual number of cases of this disorder. This is not to say that protozoology has yet enabled us to do either of these things; but it has enabled us to formulate the problem correctly, and has shown the usclessness of expending our energies in wrong directions. Greater results will follow when our knowledge is greater and more properly and consistently applied. It has been supposed for so long that the parasites which produce protozoal diseases are peculiar to tropical or subtropical countrics that the discovery of the dysentery amoeba in Britain may seem surprising. It is really not so surprising as the circumstance that nobody, until quite recently, had thought of looking for it here. And there are many equally remarkable parallels. To mention only those diseases and parasites which we have already noted, we can now say that malaria occurs

indigenously in Britain—though this was hardly suspected until recently; and that parasites closely similar to those which cause nagana and Texas fever have now been discovered in the sheep and cattle of the United Kingdom. How far these observations are of practical importance the future will show, but already they clearly indicate that protozoology may be studied with profit at home no less than abroad. Organisation and Training of Workers.—In conclusion, we shall now note very bricfly what has already been done for the promotion of protozoology as a branch of science. As a profession it still hardly exists. Most of those who have enlarged the science have been zoologists or medical men engaged in teaching other subjects and in practising their professions. Many great discoveries have been made by men who cannot be described as protozoologists. But the science has now become so vast, from the amassing of myriads of complicated details, that 1t can no longer be regarded as an occupation for anyone but a highly trained specialist. The amateur toying with his microscope, the ordinary zoologist or physician working in occasional vacations or leisure hours snatched from practice, can no longer expect to make any solid contributions to protozoology. In future all great advances in knowledge must come

from those who are bred up as protozoologists—who not only have the necessary physical and mental gifts for this most difficult study, but who also are prepared to devote their lives

and energies to it, and to it alone.

Modern science has already developed to such unwieldy proportions that it has ceased to be coherent and has burst asunder into separate segments. The day of the “scientist,” with all science for his province, is gone for ever.

If men of science are

to escape the fate of the builders of the Tower of Babel, it can only be by conscious coöperation. Each worker must do his own special work, but must do it with due regard for his fellowlabourers in adjoining sections, and with the plan of the whole building constantly before his cyes. Protozoology must, accordingly, develop along its own lines and by the labour of protozoologists, but it must remain in touch with the rest of zoology and with medicine and with all other sciences whose collaboration is likely to be mutually beneficial. We can already observe the bad effects of non-collaboration in the modern school of proto-

zoology

which

originated

with

Fritz

Schaudinn

in Berlin.

Over-specialization has there led—after beginning on an admirable foundation of fact—to fantastic speculation and the

promulgation of doctrines which are biologically unsound. One of the good results of the World War was to encourage the collaboration of workers in different branches of science, and in Britain the bonds which previously existed between protozoology and medicine have been greatly strengthened. One of the most obvious conditions necessary for the continuance of this alliance is the growth of protozoology itself. Unless the protozoologists can build solidly, and not too slowly, they will lose their advantages. Unfortunately, no adequate provision has yet been made for the training of workers in protozoology. At present there are in Britain and elsewhere few first-rate professional protozoologists and few competent teachers, but a large number of day labourers and dabblers from other sciences. Protozoologists are still mainly recruited from other professions. The remedy for this state of affairs will be found only when protozoology is recognized as a separate science—an occupation for specialists and not for smatterers; and when encouragement is given to its development by the founding of professorships in the subject—or similar appointments—in the larger universities. ‘These professorships must be primarily for research, and secondarily for teaching purposes. The professor must have ample time and funds for teaching himself, and for carrying out his own researches. If he is sufficiently gifted to do both these things, he will be able at the same

time to teach his science to others who would follow in his foot-

steps. But the time has now gone when the junior demonstrator in zoology or the lecturer on general parasitology in the medical schools can expect to “ take up ” protozoology for a term or two

and thereby profit science or himself. Unfortunately, too little had been done up to ro21 to create the necessary facilities. A professorship in the subject, founded on the right lines, was indeed instituted ir London University some years ago, but it had remained unoccupied up to ro2r since the death of its first holder in 1915. At Cambridge the Quick professorship of biology, founded later, at one time appeared likely to develop into a chair of protozoology, but these hopes were not fulfilled. An assistant professorship, chiefly devoted to protozoology, recently existed

in the Imperial College of Science in London; but no further appointment was made to this post after it was vacated by its first occupant. The medical schools of Great Britain have, in some instances, lecturers in protozoology, but these are mostly

medical men with other work to perform and no special knowledge of the science asa whole.

The schools of tropical medicine

in London and Liverpool have been more fortunate, and have been able to appoint to thcir staffs protozoologists who can devote their undivided attention to the subject. But here again it is chiefly the practical side of the science, as applied to medicine, that is being fostered. Rothamsted Experimental Station has a protozoologist to study the subject in its agricultural aspects, and several universities and other institutions of minor

importance have members who have specialized in protezoology. Veterinary medicine in Great Britain has, however, still done

little for research or instruction in protozoology. In the British colonies and dependencies things are no better.

A chair of protozoology has recently been created in India;

PRYOR—PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF but as a general rule protozoological research and teaching are still being carried out under unfavourable conditions by hardworked professors of other subjects. The valuable work already

done by many of these men is surcly a sufficient pledge of the profits that will accrue when more adequate provisions arc made. If we turn to the United States we find that Columbia University has a professor of protozoology and Johns Hopkins an

assistant professor.

There is also an American

professor of

protozoology in the Philippines. But with these exceptions, and a few of lesser importance, protozoology is advancing in America and elsewhere by the labours of zoologists and medical men

193.

on a very low footing, consisting of about 1,000 guns in all, of which more than half were short-range weapons for ditch defence, andintraditores. These were r2- and 15-cm. cannon dating from 1861, 15-cm. mortars dating from the ’cighties, and 8-cm. cupola,

disappearing cupola, and minimum port guns of old construction. About 450 of the guns were distant defence guns, being for the most part old 9-em. field guns (M 75/96) with a range of only 6km. Of modern guns the fortress at the beginning of the war had altogether only four 30.5-cm. mortars, with a range of 9°5km., and 24 8-cm. ficld guns dating from 1905, effective up to 7-5 kilometres. The distant defence guns also included some

whose appointments were not primarily established for the furtherance of the science.

12-cm., 15-cm. and 18-cm. siege cannon, dating from 1880, ro Io-cm. and 15-cm. cupola howitzers made in 1899, 13-cm. mobile

ReEcENT LITERATURE.—The most trustworthy of recent books deal-

howitzers of the same year, and 24-cm. mortars made in 1898.

ing with the Protozoa asa whole are those of E. A. Minchin, An Intro-

As regards munitions the average provision was 500 rounds per

duction to the Study of the Protozoa (1912), and F. Dotlein, Lehrbuch

der Protozoenkunde (4th ed., Jena, 1916).

See also D., Bruce and

others (1903-1919), Reports of tke Sleeping Sickness Commission, i-xvii. (Royal Society, London); C. Dobell (1911), “ The Principlesof Protistology” (Arch. f. Protistenkunde, vol. xxiii., p.269); C. Dobell and others (1921), A Report on the Occurrence of Intestinal Protozoa in the Jnhabitants of Britain (Medical Research Council,

Special

Report Series, No. 59, London);

C. Dobell

and F. W.

O'Connor (1921), The Intestinal Protozoa of Man (London); S. P. James (1920), Malaria at Home and Abroad (London); H. S. Jennings (1906), Behavior of the Lower Organisms (New York); A. Laveran and F, Mesnil (1912), Trypanosomes ef Trypanosomiases (2 ed. Paris); E. L. Walker and A. W. Sellards (1913), “* Experimen-

tal Entamoebic Dysentery,” Philippine Journ, Sct. (B. Trop. Med.,

vol. viii., p. 233). PRYOR, ROGER

ATKINSON

(C. Do.) (1828-rorg), American jurist

and politician (sce 22.533"), died in New York City March 14

1919.

In ror2 he published a volume of Essays and Addresses.

PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF, 1914-5.—The Galician town of Przemysl (see 22.534) was first fortified in 1854, when Austria mobilized against Russia. The completely exposed position of the N.E. frontier made it imperative to lay out fortifications. The Archduke Charles had already, in 1824, called attention to

this weak point. In case of an invasion of East Galicia by the Russians, the first natural obstacle capable of bringing them to a halt would be the river beds of the lower San and the Dniester,

and the obvious thing to do was to strengthen this line by constructing a series of fortifications. On the San it was orginally

gun, and not even that in the case of the modern mortars, all the four 30-5-cm. mortars

For

taken together there were 300

rounds in the fortress. Of machine-guns there were altogether 114, one-third of which were built into the forts, leaving twothirds for mobile use.

For the purpose of provisioning the fortress an estimate of 85,000 men and 3,710 horses had been established. In peace time one month’s supplies were stored in the fortress, with the understanding that an increase to three months’ should be made

during the arming period, The Austro-Hungarian Higher Command did its utmost at this time to increase the store of supplies,

and, by making full use of the available railways and motor columns, succeeded in provisioning the fortress for four months

and a-half. These precautions were all the more justified as, at the last moment, the garrison was augmented by the addition of the 23rd Honved Inf. Div., two field tramway sections and other minor formations, which brought up its strength to 130,000 men and 21,000 horses. At this strength the fortress was provisioned, not for four and a-hal{, but for three months.

The actual garrison of the fortress at the beginning of mobilization consisted of the Austrian

rirth and the Hungarian o7th

‘Landsturm Inf. Bdes., one reserve squadron, one reserve battery, 40 companies of garrison artillery, 44 Landsturm artillery brigades, 7 companies of sappers, and the essential sanitary

and labour detachments. When the Austro-Hungarian armies intended to build out Jaroslau as a fortress, but the decision in retreated behind the San, after the breaking-off of the battle 1854 fell on Przemysl. In later years a row of smaller bridge- ‘of Lemberg-Nawa Ruska, there were added to the fortress heads and points d'upput arose along the Dniester, which greatly command (under Ficld-Marshal-Lt. Kusmanck von Burgneuincreased its value as an obstacle. In the course of one year a stidten) the Austro-Hungarian o3rd and ro$th Landsturm Inf. fortified ring of no less than 65 forts had been erected round the Bdes. and the 23rd Honved Inf. Division. Earlier additions had town of Przemysl. The year 1870 saw the building of a permabeen; two Hungarian march regiments, of which, however, one nent ring of forts finished, but the works were not a match for a was handed over to Jaroslau and Radymno, one Hungarian bombardment by modern siege guns, owing to the very niggardly Landsturm hussar unit, and lastly a group consisting of four battalions formed out of various Landsturm formations, auxilexpenditure sanctioned. Although after 1888, and in the last

years before the World War, the modernization of the fortress from a technical standpoint was begun and some modern sclfcontained forts were constructed, it was In r9or4 still in a very

unsatisfactory condition.

The short time available for equip-

ment between the first days of mobilization and the first siege by

the Russians was indeed spent in feverish activity, but only a very small part of the neglect of the past ro years could now be made good. The works on the ring of forts, which was 48 km. in circumference, were more or less out of date. Only 12 of them could be considered ‘ bombproof,” while all the rest were only “‘shellproof,” and even so only against 24-cm. bombs and 15-cm. shells of old-fashioned construction. The points d'appui for the infantry and the battery emplacements lying between the forts were almost without exception only splinterproof shelters, and some were mere field fortifications constructed of wood and earth. The infantry line running through these was protected by wire obstacles, generally only three rows deep. In front of the

line of the ring of forts one enormous task had to be undertaken

in preparing for the defence—the clearing of the foreground. No less than 18 villages and from 7 to § km. of forest were levelled to the ground.

Numerous

barracks, ammunition

magazines,

communications, bridges and other buildings, had still to be erected within the ring. The armament of the fortress was also

iary police and others, cut off from the main body. All in all, the fortress establishment, when the last man of the mobile

armies had left the zone, consisted of: 614 infantry battalions (of which 404 were Landsturm), 7 squadrons, 4 ficld-gun batteries, 43 fortress-artillery companies, 48 Landsturm artillery

brigades, and 8 sapper companies; also sanitary corps, military and Landsturm labour detachments, fortress and tramway formations, balloon detachments, telegraph, telephone and radio formations, and so forth. The value of the troops shut up in the fortress may best be judged by the facts that two-thirds of them were Landsturm, including therefore older and less trained men, and that the formations which had been fighting on the open

ficld were reduced to nearly half their strength. There had been, since the beginning of the World War, only two brigades to take duty in the fortress, and one of these even was sent temporarily to the LV. Army Command. The rest of the troops in the fortress were therefore not over-familiar with the duty of the fortress. The Russian siege army, commanded by Gen. Radko Dimitricv, consisted originally of the whole of the III. Army, with the IX., X., XI. and XXI Corps and parts of the IV. and VIII. Armies. When the Austro-Hungarian forces resumed the offen-

sive in the beginning of Oct. 1914, the. Grand Duke Nicholas withdrew three divisions of the III. Army from the circle of

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

PRZEMYSL,

194

bombardment and sent them to the lower Vistula, with the object of enveloping the enemy. There were now nine and a-half infantry and two cavalry divisions left behind for the blockade of the fortress. Three of these divisions were posted on the N. front, half a division on the S., while the main force of six divisions encircled the E. and S.E. front, which was the point of attack actually fixed upon by Radko Dimitriev, and the two cavalry divisions were encamped on the W. and S.W. front. Counting the Russian infantry division at 16 battalions and the

SIEGES OF ‘Portions of the LIT. and VIIL. Armies now advanced towards

the S. and S.W. fronts, while on the W. front two cavalry divisions by Sept. 24 completed the hemming-in of the fortress. By means of numerous very vigorous sorties and by violent artillery fire, Kusmanek succeeded in his task, which was to draw as many Russian forces on to himself as possible. He turned the Russian investiture into an exceedingly difficult undertaking.

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entirely by surprise, the Russians fell back from the first position, and two infantry divisions brought up to thcir support suffered heavy losses from the artillery fire which now began.

Kusmanek’s considerable

next opportunity was when he learned’ that forces were

concentrated

in the Nizankowice-

Kurmanowice-Fredropol area, with the intention of passing along the S. sidc of the fortress to push forward towards the west. On Sept. 29 he sent Field-Marshal-Lt. von Tamassy with the. 23rd Honved Inf. Div. to attack them by way of Halicha in the direction of the Szybenica height. Here the result was the forced

deployment of considerable Russian forces against the zard The First Siege, Sept. 18-Oct. 9 1914.—On Sept. 18 1914, when the Austro-Hungarian armies had marched off westwards from

the San and the area of the Przemysł fortress, the fortress was left to itself, with orders—issued to Kusmanck on the 16th—to resist “ to the uttermost.” The building of the ring of forts and the distribution of the fortress garrison in the defence zone had

Honved Inf. Div., and consequently the delaying of the Russian westward advance, Minor sorties on other fronts were also successful, and every-

now been completed. Only one correction had to be made in the

where a lively artillery battle was kept up in order to rivet the enemy’s attention on the fortress, The Russians, for their part, maintained a violent bombardment of the forts in the ring. On Oct. 2 an interruption occurred in the Russian gunfire on the E..

line of defence—on the S.W. front, where it lay too near to the town itself, thus exposing the town and the San bridges to the

front. A parlementaire distinguished by a white flag brought a message from Radko Dimitricv demanding the surrender of the

danger of a direct bombardment. Kusmanck therefore selected a position in the foreground, 2 to 3 km. in front of the ring of forts, running from Krasiczyn over the height of Pod Mazurami to that of Helicha, and had this rapidly fortified and occupied by four battalions. This measure obliged the Russians to fix their line of investment at a corresponding distance from the town at

this point also, The Grand Duke allowed only a very cautious pursuit of the retreating Austro-Hungarians by the Russian armies. The IV. and V. Armies advanced toward the N, of the fortress and across

the San; the VIII. Army was ordered to push forward through the Chyrów and Sambor area, and S. of the fortress to the ridge

of the Carpathians; the III. Army was to take up a position

immediately in front of the E. front of the fortress. On Sept. 20 the first Russian detachments crossed the San at Walawa, to be

fortress. He was sent back as quickly as he had come bearing. Kusmanck’s written answer to Radko Dimitriev: “Herr Kom-

mandant, I consider it beneath my dignity to give your insulting. demand the reply that it deserves.” Thereupon the hail of steel on the forts began afresh. Kusmanek’s refusal had hit Radko Dimitriev hard. It was scarcely possible to fulfil the Tsar’s wish and bring about the speedy fall of Przemysl. A coup de main was impracticable, because the siege artillery material was still too far away and could not be fetched up quickly enough on account of the bottomless roads. In the first days of Oct., too, the Austro-Hungarian offensive was launched, and this might within a very short time bring Przemysl the looked-for relief. Radko Dimitriev therefore

found himself obliged to revert to a curtailed form of attack, and now tried to make up for the defectiveness of his artillery and followed at once by other troops coming from Radymno and technical preparations by reckless onslaughts. As the Austro~ Jaroslau, where the bridgeheads had been surrendered to the German general offensive had necessitated the removal of some Russians. These troops surrounded the N. front of the fortress. of his N. front divisions to the mobile armies, he made up for

PRZEMYSL, lost numbers by making excessive demands on his remaining brave divisions which he sacrificed literally to the last man. Kusmanek had tried to prevent the withdrawal! of the Russian

divisions by a sortie of the 23rd Honved Inf. Div. with r2 battalions and 7 batteries in the direction of Rokietnica. Radko Dimitriev’s plan was, while keeping up the bombardment against the whole ring of forts, to make a demonstration on the N. front and direct the main attack on the S. front against the Siedliska group. The Russian infantry had gradually worked its way up

to the ring of forts. The number of siege batteries had been successively augmented—muinly long-distance ro-cm. field-gun batteries, but also some 15-cm. and 21-cm. batteries.

SIEGES OF

195

for the works of the fortress had suffered very little, and the Austro-Hungarian losses were quite small. On the other side the brave conduct of the Austro-Hungarian defenders had saved a powerful fortress which, in the forthcoming battles on the San, afforded a good basis as a point d'appui for the field armies and was able to come to their aid when their supplies failed. Period Between the First and Second Sieges.—When the AustroHungarian armies on the San and S$. of the fortress as far as Chyrów advanced to attack along the whole front, the hope of an interval for reconstruction, which the fortress so urgently needed, was by no méans realized. On the contrary, lying as it did in the centre of the battle front, it was obliged to take a most active

When the Austro-Hungarian offensive had begun on Oct. 4

part in the battle now developing, lending garrison troops to the

there was no morc time to be lost. The bombardment was doubled in intensity, and on Oct. 5 a coup de main was attempted

field armies on the one hand and helping generously with the

by a Russian division against the Sicdliska group. But the attack was broken by the fire of the defenders, and the division streamed back to its positions, losing heavily. On the 6th three other divisions met the same fate, when, after a bombardment of the N. and S$. fronts had increased to the utmost violence, they attempted to take the Siedliska group by storm. Kusmanck, not to be misled by the Russian demonstrations, had recognized in time the direction in which the main attack would be delivered

and had raised the strength of the most exposed section of the defence (Section VI.) from rr to 25 battalions and increased its artillery to some 350 guns. The crisis came on Oct. 7. The 76th Inf. Regt. of the Russian 19th Inf. Div. had on the previous night crept up unnoticed to Fort I. and the infantry lines adjoining it. At dawn one battalion of the regiment succeeded in entering the fort. After a furious battle, heroically Jed by the commandant, Lt.-Col. Svrljuga, the 149 survivors of the Russians who had forced an entry laid down their arms. The courageous garrison had withdrawn to the interior of the fort, defending it section by section,

and all attempts to smoke them out and kill them failed. The ‘neighbouring flanking batteries at Hurko were able to prevent Russian reinforcements from coming in. While this attack was in

progress the 6gth Reserve Div. on the Grodek Road, the 6oth and 13th in front of Jaksmanici, and the 3rd Rifle Bde. on the S. front had lost heavily by unsuccessful assaults. In the night of the 7th to the Sth the Russians renewed their furious attacks but without penetrating at any point. A general

attack, which was to have followed on the next day, did not take place; and only the Siedliska group was again the object of assaults by Radko Dimitriev’s decimated divisions, both morn-

ing and evening. This last desperate effort also failed completely, and bled the Russians so severely as to put a complete stop to their attacks from that time onward. After more than 72 hours of embittered fighting a gradual détente set in, none too soon for the overstrained nerves and spirits of the defenders.

On the oth the first effects of the approaching relief were felt. In the course of the night the Russian cavalry divisions on the W. front had withdrawn, and during the day the investing ring began to be opened by the troops on the N. and 5. fronts, while those on the S.E. and E. fronts gradually retired to their positions in the line of investment. With the entry into the fortress of the first Austro-Hungarian cavalry patrol on the evening of the oth and of infantry detachments on the 11th, the relief of Przemys! was accomplished. Of the Austro-Hungarian

armies the III., under Boroević,

advanced direct on Przemrysl. Three corps of this army forced a battle upon portions of the siege army N. of Przemysl, and, on the 11th, beat them back across the river, now greatly swollen by a downpour of many days, with enormous losses. The Russians thereupon entrenched themselves on the E. bank of the river. The Russian VIII. Army now established itself on the heights S.E. of Przemysl up to the Chyrow-Sanok area. The III. Army, at a good distance, faced the E. front of Przemysl.

Radko Dimitriev had imagined that he could subdue Przemysl in a very short time. But all these enormous sacrifices proved vain. During a siege of barely three weeks he had lost nearly 70,000 dead and wounded without having any results to show,

provisioning and supplies on the other. Very soon after the relief the 23rd Honved Inf. Div. was withdrawn to reinforce the III. Army. It played a successful part in the hardest battles, especially distinguishing itself in the storming of the strong Magiera height. Altogether there were taken from the garrison, which also made repeated sorties onto the foreground of the E. front, 22

battalions and 27 batteries. Further assistance was given by the artillery support from the ring of forts. Even greater tean the active part taken in the battle, and far more lowering in its effect on the garrison, was the support in

material given by the fortress to the field armies. During the long rainy period before the relief the lines of communication for the fresh drafts of the armies had become an absolute bog.

In addition to this, the Russians in their retreat. had systematically destroyed roads, bridges and railways (the railway termini were Rzeszow and Zagorz), to the great detriment of the system supplying the armies. It was only natural that every deficiency that arose in the armies, in so far as it could not be made good by transport from the rear, should be supplied by the fortress, which, in spite of all, possessed considerable reserves of material. The fighting armics, from whose attack far-reaching results were expected at the time, had at all costs to be maintained in good fighting condition until the railways were reconstructed. AS it was confidently expected that the borrowed stores— about 21 days’ rations had been supplied by the fortress—and the munitions and other material could be replaced almost immediately, the fortress came in the end to be considered as,

to all intents and purposes, the base of supplies for the armies.

Presently the Army Higher Command realized the mistake that had been made in this matter, and not only forbade all further withdrawal of supplies from the fortress but, in the days immediately preceding the retreat, ordered the armies in their turn to provide it with supplies. On Oct. 28, too, railway communication

was restored by way of Chyrów, after the repair of the bridge at Nizankowice, and masses of supplies began to be hastily poured into the fortress. Yet another burden was imposed upon the fortress by the bringing into it of the wounded and of prisoners, in addition to the

very large number of civilian inhabitants.

The wounded, it is

truc, were evacuated almost at once into the interior, before the second siege, but during the second siege 2,000 prisoners were brought into the fortress, and 18,000 civilians had remained within it. So that, taking the average establishment at 128,000 men

and 14,500 horses, there were, at the time of the second siege, 148,000 men and 14,500 horses to provide for. By eking out supplies to the utmost, and in the end slaughtering horses, the provisioning of the fortress would last until the second half of March. If the working of the railway coming up threugh Chyrów had started one week earlier, no supplies need have left the fortress, and its stores would undoubtedly have been replenished on such a scale that it could have held out unti! the spring offensive had come into effect. The starving-out of the fortress, which forced on its commander the heart-breaking decision.to capitulate, and the setting free of the Russian armies investing it would then have been avoided. Second Siege, Nov. 6 rorq-March 2 1915—On Nov. 5 the fortress was isolated for the second time, after the field armies

PRZEMYSL,

196

had broken ofi the battle of Przemysl and the. San in the night. Once more Kusmanck was confronted with the same tasks as in

September. Shortly before the retreat of the field armies the fortress had been reinforced by the 85th Landwehr Bde. and a company of airmen, The strength of the garrison was approximatcly the same as at the beginning of the first investment. In order to extend the fortress’s sphere of action, and to force the

Russians to keep their line of investment at a greater distance {rom the actual ring of forts, at the same time obliging them to use more forces for the occupation of the longer linc, Kusmanek

had new foreground positions laid out.

These formed a curve

beginning at the Na Gorach height, and, passing 2~3 km. in front of the western ring of forts, came out S.E. of Krasiczyn at the old

foreground position. From Helicha this position was extended to the S. of the fortress through Zlota Gora up to the Siedliska group. This measure secured a double advantage: it placed another obstacle in the way of the attacker, who would have to surmount it before he could assault the ring of forts; and the works would suffer far less from the bombardment, as the siege artillery would be forced to remain farther away from the fortress. On the oth the investment of the fortress was completed for the second time. The Grand Duke Nicholas had selected

SIEGES OF great undertaking. With 23 battalions and 15 batteries, commanded by Ficld-Marshal-Lt. von Tamdssy, he pushed forward on the rsth in the direction of Bircza and Krzywcza. After four days of victorious fighting, the heights halfway between Cisowa and Bircza were captured, the enemy driven back along the

whole of the S.W, front, and the road to Bircza laid open. But as Krautwald meanwhile had been forced back by the Russians, and as the hope of cffecting a junction with him had become a forlorn hope on account of the great distance intervening, and as, further, a fresh violent attack had been launched against the northern foreground position, Na Gorach, Kusmanek found himself obliged to turn his attention to this latter, and to recall Tamássy on the roth to the fortress. Once more it was the Russian 82nd Inf. Div. which advanced on Na Gorach. Portions had already penetrated the advanced positions when Kusmanek’s counter-attack set in on the 2oth, and on the 2rst threw thern back to the line of investment. At the end of Dec. yet another order from the Army Higher Command led to a fresh sortie. After the battle of LimanowaLapanow the Russians, taking advantage of their interior lines,

had opened a counter-offensive against the troops of the III. and IV. Armies which had pushed forward into West Galicia. The

the Russian XI. Army under Gen. Selivanov for the siege. This

proposal was for a sortie to be made in a south-westerly direction,

army, consisting of about four infantry and one to two cavalry divisions, had barely half the forces used in the ñrst siege under Radko Dimitriev. This circumstance, and the comparatively small activity shown by the Russians at the beginning of the

falling in with the left flank of the Russian attack on the one hand, and on the other making a second attempt to effect a junction with the III. Army’s right wing, which was pushing forward towards Lisko, Sanok and Rymanow. But with the suspension of the offensive on the 2Sth the sortie troops were brought back. This sortie brought the offensive activity of the garrison to a

second siege, pointed to the conclusion that Selivanov was less

concerned with a rapid seizure of Przemysl than with the idea of a regular siege, in which he would effect a saving of men on his own side while exploiting the scarcity of food supplics in the fortress, leaving the garrison to grow weak from starvation before he advanced to a serious attack. Kusmanck, on the other hand, displayed all the morc activity. The months of Nov. and Dec. he employed in aggressive defence, and only desisted when the decimation of his forces by disease forced him to do so. In nine sorties he seized every possible opportunity of damaging the enemy, of preventing any withdrawals from his forces to the field armics; of destroying his supply trains and lines of communi-

cation, and finally of bringing into the fortress any food-stuffs— such as fruit and vegetables—which could be collected. In Dec., when the Austro-Hungarian armies took the offensive again, these sorties gained in importance, for each important action undertaken by the fortress with the object of containing Russian forces was necessarily a great disadvantage to the Russians defeated in the battle of Limanowa-Lapanow. Above all, in the case of a successful advance by the right wing of the ITI. Army, the possibility of coöperation between that wing and the sortie troops was not excluded. On Nov. 7 and r2 further sortics were undertaken in the direction of Nizankowice and Kormanice. On the r4th, following on a report by the airmen of movements of Russian forces through Pruchnik to the W. and $.W., an assault was delivered

on Rokictnica by 17 battalions and 10 batteries. For the same reason an equally powerful sortie was made from the S.W. front on the 2oth, the main force moving on Cisowa, and the side columns towards Krzyweza and the Szybenica height. In Dec, the Russians also became more active. Having Ict Nov. go by without doing more than prepare a more or less systematic siege, they now began their attacks and turned Dec. into

a mouth of many battles. Quite at the beginning the 82nd Inf. Div. advanced

against the N. front.

Kusmanck

delivered a

vigorous counter-blow from the area of Mackowice against the enemy’s right flank and repulsed the attack. On Dec. 9 this

action was followed by yet another sortie by 19 battalions and 10 batteries from the S.W. front, with the object of preventing the departure of the Russian 81st Inf. Div.

In the middle of Dec., when the battle of Limanowa-Lapanow

close for the time being, in consideration of their ever-increasing

losses through fighting and sickness. All forces were now to be reserved for the effort on a large scale to relieve the fortress, which was planned for the middle of February. The month of Jan. saw the beginning of a period of great selfdenial and sacrifice for the garrison, in consequence of the increasing scarcity of food. The commandant and his staff had in addition the difficult task of maintaining the striking power of the garrison with insufficient means, which involved exacting the maximum of service from each individual soldier in spite of his lack of nourishment. On Dec. 1 1914 Kusmancek, counting upon a delay in the relicf operations, had ordered the first general reduction of rations for men and horses. At the end of the month the first horses were killed for the purpose of providing meat and saving fodder. Had the fortress been consuming its full rations it could not have held out beyond the end of Jan., but by the reduction of the ration and further slaughter of horses (up to 7,480), supplics were cked out until the end of March. The extension of the life of the fortress was in proportion to the establishment of horses it was necessary to keep up. For the projected break-through sortie and for the absolutely essential fortress duties a minimum establishment of 4,500 had to be allowed for. By means of further reducing the ration, resorting to incredible makeshifts, and sacrificing 3,500 more horses, the provis-

ioning was made to last until March 24, but there was a rapid mounting-up of the sick list. By the beginning of March one-fifth of the fortress establishment had fallen. To the scarcity of food was added in the winter months that of clothing, footwear and all the other necessaries of life. The garrison had been equipped, for the most part, with summer clothing, and even this had becn badly damaged in the fighting. In respect of technical and artillery supplies also, the fortress gradually lost its power of

resistance. The barrels of the guns had been gradually burnt out by the excessive demands made on them, and the range of the guns declined accordingly. The stores of ammunition were also rapidly coming to an end, despite the utmost economy. While the striking power of the fortress was suffering sensibly from all the unspeakable privations imposed by hunger, cold and

want, the besicgers were gradually becoming more active.

had reached its height, Kusmanek received an order from the

first the Russians confined themselves to increasing

Army Higher Command to deliver a fresh assault. In the hope of being able to join hands with Krautwald’s group, advancing on the right wing of Boroevi¢’s army, Kusmanck prepared for a

men’s activity.

At

the air-

Almost every day their airmen circled round

the fortress, with very little hindrance from its quite inadequate

means of defence, dropping bombs on the forts and the town. In

PRZEMYSL, the beginning of Feb. the systematic bombardment of the fortress set in. In the middle of the month the besiegers brought up the line of investment nearer to the N.W., W. and 5.W. fronts. On the night of the 18th three regiments attacked the foreground position at Pod

Mazurami, but were beaten back with heavy

losses. It scemed to the Russians that the garrison’s striking power was still too strong; and they let three wecks pass before equipping themselves for an important attack. On March 13 a powerful Russian force advanced against the N. foreground position Na Gorach~Batycze. Against so strong an attack, delivered by at least two regiments, the 35th Light Inf. Regt. could make no stand.

As other

powerful Russian forces were advancing

against the N. front from Radymno, and as Kusmanck considered his own garrison too weak for a counter-blow and also wished to save his forces for the great final break-through, he gave up the foreground position and refrained from counter-attacking. At the same moment the Austro-Hungarian Higher Command had reached the conclusion that the IL. Army’s offensive would not be able to bring about the desired relief of the fortress, which was

therefore inevitably doomed, since the food supplies would be exhausted by March 24.

A break-through from the fortress might conceivably save a portion of the garrison for the Austro-Hungarian

and it had therefore to be attempted.

army forces,

In consideration of the

SIEGES

OF

197

honours and looked upon even by the enemy as a model of military bravery, remained about another week in Przemysl, and was then removed in large detachments by way of Lemberg. On the 24th the Russian General Artamanov took command. After four and a half months of heroic defence the fortress of Przemysl had fallen, through hunger and sickness. To the brave garrison, and in the first place to the determined commandant,

Gen. von Kusmanck, and to Gen. von Tamássy, leader of most of the sorties, the highest admiration was due, and the victorious enemy, whose own courage was proved by the enormous tribute

of lives sacrificed before the forts and ramparts of the fortress, recognized this in full measure. Reca pture of the Fortress, ay 30-F use 3 202 §.—Soon aster the fall of the fortress of Przemysl the Russians had taken in hand

the rcorganization of its works, Particularly after the visit of the Tsar, who inspected the destroyed works in the second half of April, the reconstruction was taken in hand with feverish haste. Numerous heavy guns, including French ones, were brought into the fortress, and a strong garrison was maintained.

By the middle

of May Béhm’s and Puhallo’s armies had advanced in a concentric attack on the positions S. of the fortress, as well as on the S., S.W. and W. fronts, while Mackensen’s army pushed forward in the area N. of the fortress and over the San. While the Allied armies were thus advancing on Przemysl the Russians were

state of supplies, March 19 was fixed as the latest time limit for

undecided whether to hold the fortress or not.

its execution. Kusmanek had already made all the necessary preparations. He was free to choose the direction in which the sortie was to be made. His decision fell on the E., as it appeared to him impossible for his exhausted men to effect a junction with the II. Army through the mountainous area. On the E. the ground was practicable, and he might hope to have an opportunity therc of destroying Russian railway lines and communi-

May they had begun the work of evacuation and the withdrawal of troops. But in the second half of the month the idea of holding

cations, and also possibly to have the good fortune to capture a Russian supply store. In case the break-through failed, he would then be able to take back provisions into the fortress and so prolong its life by a few days, With two infantry divisions and three independent infantry brigades (50 battalions, 6 squadrons and 18 battalions) the break-through was begun on the morning of the roth. After some opening success the troops, in a heroic seven-hour battle, fought thcir way up to the Medyka heights, coming to a stand here at

10AM.

A flanking counter-attack by the Russian s8th Reserve

Div., which had been brought up from the Carpathians, then forced them to return to the fortress, their losses being heavy on account of their exhaustion. The fate of the fortress and the garrison was now finally sealed. The Russians realized the aim of this last sortie, and they had captured on prisoners the order

Ry the middle of

the fortress gained ground, and the Grand Duke finally ordered it to be held “ to the last extremity.” When Mackensen’s army began its offensive on May 24 on both sides of the Szklo in a south-edsterly direction, the fortress became more and more

closely surrounded to the N. also by the ring of investment. By the 30th the necessary heavy artillery had also been brought up, in spite of the delay caused by the ruined roads and bridges, and the bombardment of the S.W. and northern fronts immediately began. These were the two fronts against which the attack was to be directed. While the X. Corps’of Puhailo’s army stormed the S.W. front, the Bavarians of the Xf. Army, in conjunction with one Prussian infantry regiment, one Guard battalion, and

the dismounted troops of the 11th Honved Cav. Div,, executed the main attack on the N. front. Misled by the violence of the attack of the Austro-Hungarian infantry regiments (the oth and 45th of the X. Corps), who, on the 3oth, stormed the Pralkowce fort, on the S.W. front, Work VIL, the Russians awaited the main attack there and brought their

regarding it; they therefore knew that the fortress was almost at the end of its power of resistance. Kusmanek now awaited their attacks. All the sortie troops had returned to their old positions on the roth. The same night the Russian masses made

whole strength into play against the X. Corps. But although they were able to force the Austrians to evacuate the fort, they could not themselves reoccupy it. Meanwhile the Germans had done good work on the N. front. Their bombardment was mainly directed against the forts, X., Xa., XIa. and XL., lying between Ujkowice and Dunkowiczki, and for this guns of all calibres,

a violent assault on the E. front.

Until the morning of the 22nd

including the 42-cm. mortars, were used. On the 31st, after heavy

Sclivanov exerted himself to the utmost to take the fortress by storm. An endless bombardment by the heaviest-calibre guns set in, and was followed by assaults on the N.W., N. and N.E. fronts, as well as on the E. front and the foreground position, Pod Mazurami. But the brave defenders held their ground and

as the adjacent infantry positions, and Fort XI. capitulated. On June 1 the Russians brought up strong reserves, but not in time to avert the fate of the fortress. On the morning of the and Fort

repulsed one attack afteranother. At last Kusmanek, armed with authority from the Army Higher Command, decided to destroy the fortress, since jt was pow quite impossible to save it. On

resistance had been overcome by a liberal bombardment. By the evening Fort XII. had also been captured, and Forts IXa. and

March 22 between 5 and 6:30 A.M., Just as renewed Russian attacks had begun, the works were blown up as far as possible; all guns, the small remaining store of ammunition and the technical arrangements were demolished, all arms broken, motors and other vehicles burnt, and the remaining horses shot. _Kusmanck

then sent a parlementuire to the Russian siege army. When the Conditions for the surrender had been fixed the Russians entered the town to take over the administration.

Kusmanck betook himself at once with his staff to Selivanov’s headquarters. The garrison,! which was allowed all military 1 In round figures 107.000 men, among whom were 28,000 invalids both fit and unfit for transport.

fighting, endingin a mêlée, Forts Xa. and XIa. were taken, as well

X. fell into the hands of the attacking forces after its obstinate

YNb. surrendered to Maj.-Gen. Berndt’s cavalry. The breakthrough of the ring of forts had succeeded. North of Zurawica the Russians made one more stand; but this line had also been forced by the evening of the 2nd, and the Russians betook themselves to their last line of resistance immediately in front of the nucleus. But the attack did not get as far as this, for the Russians abandoned the fortress on the night of the and, influenced prob- -

ably by the successes attained by the XI. and II. Armies. Their rearguards took up new positions on the E. front of the fortress on the line Medyka-Siedliska. At 3 A.M. the Bavarians of Lt.-Gen. Kneusel’s division entered the fortress from the north.

Maj.-Gen, Berndt followed from

the N.W. with the Austro-Hungarian 4th Cav. Division.

By 6

PSYCHICAL

198

A-M. the Austro-Hungarian X. Corps had alsocomein

But the

attacking forces did not remain long in the evacuated town.

Ina

hurried pursuit they overran the Siedliska position and pushed forward to the E. of the town. The fall of Przemysl fortress, which had been subdued in

RESEARCH such social taboos cease to operate merely because witch-burning has ceased to be a popular entertainment. In general, moreover, subjects which are inchoate and contentious are far more sensitive to changes in the social atmosphere than those which are recog-

barely four days, meant for the Russians the loss of the most powerful pivot of their San front Not without reason had the

nized, established and endowed. For toward the latter the social attitude is fairly stable and changes only slowly, and they possess, moreover, a permanent organization, which provides for their

Grand Duke—who had tried to gain a success over the IV. Army

cultivation (or is supposed to do so), and on which their progress

by a violent assault at Rudnik during the hard struggle for Przemysl—ordered the fortress to be held “to the last extremity.” By its fall the forces of the Austro-Hungarian UI. Army and the German XI Army were set free, and could go to the aid of

the dangerously situated IV Army.

On the 4th the Russians

mainly depends. In the case of the former, progress may depend chiefly on the social attitude, and indeed may even consist chiefly in a change of social attitude. It is unreasonable, for example, to expect progress in psychical research so long as the energies of researchers have to be devoted primarily to eluding

abandoned the San front Thus the recapture of Przemysl, apart from the great moral impression it made, was decisive also ina

the police or the officers of the Holy Inquisition.

stratcgical sense. PSYCHICAL RESEARCH

provides excellent illustrations of all these reflections. It is composed of a short pre-war period of obscure labour in the cold shade of social neglect, a short eclipse due to the complete

(or SPIRITUALISM)

(E. J.) (see 22.544) —

The matters referred to under the general name ‘ Psychical Research ” are distinguished from ordinary subjects of scientific interest by two characteristics. They appeal to the sense of wonder and the love of the marvellous and are concerned with “ superstitions,” that is, with beliefs which, after being ingrained in the human soul by an immemorial past, are now disavowed by

science, but still affect human action. Secondly, they seem to involve abnormal extensions of human faculty, and are readily taken to indicate a survival of human personality after death,

and a possibility of obtaining authentic communications from the departed. They consequently arouse strong emotional reactions, provoke strong dislikes and are peculiarly susceptible of vitiation by self-deception, bias and fraud. Hence they are

usually treated in a partisan spirit on both sides, like matters of politics, and not with scientific impartiality, and the good faith as well as the competence of the witnesses have always to be tested

and every allegation has to be verificd.

In al] these respects the

subjects of psychical research are intimately bound up with the religions; but it would be a mistake, nevertheless, to relegate them to the “‘ supernatural,’ and hastily to declare them unfit for scientific investigation. ‘Their investigation is difficult, but not impossible, provided that in a given society it is favoured

or permitted.

Of course, if it is proscribed as ‘“‘ sorcery ” and

madea capital offence, as was the case all the world over until recently, investigation will languish, and it may well be that the practice of burning psychics as “‘ witches,” persisted in for many centuries, has effectively eliminated most of the possessors of unusual faculties. However, to begin with, the term “ supernatural” should be discarded. It merely assumes what js the cardinal point at issue, viz. that the realm of nature has been completely explored; and only omniscience could assert this. The allegations to be inquired into by psychical research, therefore,

should be described, neutrally, as “‘ supernormal.” Nevertheless, the peculiarities of the subjects of psychical research condition further differences which should be noted in any account of their history. They render the influence of public opinion far more important than it is in the ordinary subjects of scientific inquiry. It is true, doubtless, that everywhere the progress of any subject of human interest depends on two factors, on the quantity and quality of human intelligence devoted to its elucidation, and on the social atmosphere, t.e the

attitude towards it taken up by public opinion. Of these the former is ordinarily more conspicuous and important, for it directly affects the progress made. The latter acts indirectly, by affecting the amount and sort of the attention paid to a subject, and its effects do not all lie on the surface. But if there is in a society a real desire for more knowledge on a subject, research

into it will be organized; inquiries will be set in motion, adequately equipped and endowed, and the conduct of such inquiries will became a career. If, on the other hand, there is little interest,

nothing will be done; as also if knowledge is supposed to be absolute or adequate, or if its absence is held to be inevitable and is acquiesced in, If, lastly, the knowledge sought is feared or disapproved of for any reason, various measures will be taken for effectively repressing interest in it, nor must it be supposed that

The history of psychical research during the decade rg10-20

immersion of all scientiNc workers in the pursuits and passions of the World War, accompanied by a grotesque ebullition of superstitions long supposed to have become extinct, and followed shortly afterwards by an astonishing revolution in social sentiment, which rendered psychical research popular and reputable as it had never been before, but ts now slowly yielding and relapsing into the pre-war tone of feeling. Before the World War the great bulk of public opinion was either hostile to the subjects of psychical research, or at any rate indifferent to their scientific investigation. That, at least, seemed to be the obvious construction to be put upon the general indifference towards scientific psychical research, and was borne out by the results ofa

questionnaire intended to test the extent and depth of the desire to have knowledge of the most exciting of these subjects, viz. the

individual’s survival after death. The answers, as analyzed by the writer in the Proceedings of the Socicty for Psychical Research (pt. 49, 1904), seemed to indicate that such a desire was actively functional only in comparatively few minds at any one time, and that these were nearly always excited by the stimulus of a recent bereavement. This explanation seemed, moreover, to account sufficiently for the ordinary social attitude towards the subject. For it would follow that under normal circumstances the great majority, who were not animated by the bereavementsentiment, would effectively repress the few who were, and would mould public opinion and social institutions accordingly—as had manifestly happened—both 10 scientific and to religious “ orthodoxy.” But it would also follow that if for any reason the bereavement-sentiment should become widespread, powerful and dominant, it might be predicted that there would ensue a great outburst of interest’ in psychical research, and a passionate demand for any method that held out to the bereaved human heart the immediate consolation of a direct communication with the departed. Accordingly this is what happened in consequence of the World War. If we put aside, as mere “ propaganda ”’ for the

benefit of the superstitious, the crop of bogus prophecies that

accompanied the outbreak of war, and such successful appeals to primitive credulity as the legends of the “* Russians irom Archangel,” and of the “ Angels of Mons” (the latter, though

published as fiction, was actually taken as fact), we find that at first the normal peace-sentiment persisted. It remained engrossed in mundane affairs and showed itself by a complete and exclusive absorption in the war. Nothing else seemed to matter, and scientific inquiries that did not minister to the war were

simply dropped in an ecstasv of patriotic fervour,

It seemed,

therefore, the sheer waste of a guinea to continue to subscribe to an inquiry whether the human lives that were sacrificed so prodigally on the battle-felds were really dead and done with. No wonder the membership of the Society for Psychical Research in England went down from 1,205 in 1913 to 1,055 in 1916. Meantime, beneath the surface of social convention, the bereavement-sentiment was growing to proportions unparalleled in civilized history. It was merely awaiting a signal to re-

veal itself, The signal was presently given, in a high academic

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH

199

quarter, by the courageous act of a bereaved father, who did not shrink either from exposing himself to academic ridicule

(d) Trance, (e) Automatic Writing, (f) Physical Phenomena, (g) Dowsing, (4) Thinking Animals. l

or from. divulging the private evidence which he had obtained of his son’s survival and declaring that it

Psychology during the war made considerable progress because numbers of academic psychologists were compelled to practise, and to apply their theoretical conceptions to clinical problems, while numbers of medical men, finding themselves

Sir Oliver

noe

had satisfied him.

That a distinguished physicist at

mood.”

the head of the university of Birmingham should openly endorse spiritism was a remarkable event: yet Sir Oliver Lodge’s Raymond (1916) was not in itself a remarkable book. Evidentially it did not show that Mrs. Leonard produced anything markedly

more

conclusive

and better in quality

than the evidence obtained long before through Mrs. Piper and other “ psychics”; nor was there anything remarkable about the quantity of its evidential communications. Hardened sceptics should have had no difficulty in explaining away the “‘hits”’ it narrated, as they had dealt with its many predecessors, Nor did its version of the after-life differ markedly from the descriptions of the ‘‘ summerland ” that had been the staple of spiritist literature for the past ṣo years, while its apparent crudities, e.g. of ghosts smoking “ cigars”? and drinking “‘ whiskies-and-soda,” were no less susceptible of a “ symbolical ” explanation. But what turned out to be remarkably different was the reception of the book. It was found that patriotism paralyzed the voice of criticism. The scoffing reviewer, who had been accustomed to say that interest.in psychical research was ‘ morbid ” and a sure passport to the lunatic asylum, or that the mystery of the grave was insoluble and that anyhow no sensible man had the slightest desire to solve it, was no longer regarded as the sort of person to express what the public wanted to hear about a book of that kind. So he was not allowed to touch it, or perhaps himself experienced a change of heart. Able editors perceived that, in war-time, consolations that appealed to millions of bereaved hearts must be treated tenderly, if only to keep the home front unbroken. So Raymond was reviewed respectfully and copiously, and enabled to break down the barrier of peacetime convention. A flood of lesser books followed, ascribed to the living or returning dead, and mostly composed of communications received by relatives of fallen soldiers, through automatic writing—not without an admixture of pious fraud. Unfortunately they were mostly written by people who paid little or no attention to the difficulty of getting evidential communications and of making their value apparent to their readers, and who considered the mere form of the communication as a sufficient authentication, being wholly ignorant of psychology and of the tricks they were, unconsciously, capable of playing on themselves. Nor did amateur automatism alone profit by this innovation. Professional “ psychics”? obtained an enormous vogue. The resignations from the Society for Psychical Research ceased, and accessions took their place. The membership went up from 1,055 in r916 to 1,305 in 1919; and the new members were not only willing to pay the two-guinca subscription of a

unable to cope with the profound. disturbances of mental equilibrium, inaccurately, but conveniently, designated as “ shell-

shock,” were compelled to reckon with the psychical side of medicine. Thus were large bodies of intelligent men forced not only to apply their theories to concrete cases, and to correct them by their working, but also to recognize the power of the disordered mind to simulate the most various lesions and diseases of the body. As might have been anticipated, the older systems of academic psychology, being compiled out of aesthetic preferences, metaphysical prejudices, methodological assumptions, introspective observations of conscious states, and highly artificial and limited laboratory experiments, did not stand the test of application to the battle-field at all well.

The “ psychoanalytic ”? method, however, devised long before by Dr. Sigmund Freud of Vienna, for tapping the unconscious depths of the mind. and bringing their contents to the surface

was found to be capable both of explaining the symptoms and in many cases of suggesting a cure. Hence though the psychological

theory on which Freud worked had seemed (and been) improbable, extreme and crude, and had (justly) encountered the strongest emotional repugnance, there was no gainsaying the practical validity of his method, and the reality and importance of the mind’s unconscious structure. The mind had to be conceived, like the spectrum, as having invisible (unconscious) extensions, as truly characteristic, as susceptible of investigation, and in some respects as important, as its visible (conscious) regions. Jt had in consequence to be admitted that psychic contents could be ‘repressed’ into this unconscious region without thereby losing their identity and reality, and could thence continue to produce effects in consciousness, even by: those who refused to follow Freud in assigning none but an crotic motive to this repression. These psychological discoveries had a considerable bearing on several branches of psychical research. They scemed to ihrow a flood of light on the mechan-

ism of multiple personality. A “repressed complex” could explain the growth of a “ secondary self.” They also modified the notion of “ fraud.” Not only was it clear, as had indeed already long been recognized by investigators, that a secondary or trance-personality might perpetrate a fraud of which the primary or normal self might be innocent, incapable and unaware, but a personality of

either kind might become unaware of the fraud it had committed by “repressing” its knowledge thereof. Thus the problem of the fraudulent medium was enormously complicated, and it could

be suggested, as by Dr. Culpin (Spiritualism and the New Psychology, London, 1920), that even the most honest mediums were frauds, who had cleared their consciences by “ repressing ”” the knowledge of their delinquencies. Furthermore, this same process might be used to explain many errors and gaps in the narratives of observers of supernormal occurrences. Having “ repressed,” as unwelcome, the real facts, they might honestly deny that they had ever possessed or divulged the knowledge they were bent on regarding as supernormal: it would thereupon ments. In the long run, therefore, the status of psychical re- appear to be so, Hence repression of the truth would have to be search will depend, not on the mere intensity of the desire to added as a third to mal-observation and forgetfulness, as a very know and the amount of social approval it can secure, but on the subtle source of crror in testimony to the occurrence of the supernormal; and would further complicate the problem of what the amount of solid scientific work that will have been accomplished under the stimulus of the abnormal social conditions. It is evidence really proved. On the other side it is fair to remember necessary, therefore, to turn to the scientific side of psychical that whatever goes to show how little we really know as yet research, though the developments here will be found to have about the functions of the mind should act as an encouragement been relatively small and by no means commensurate with the to psychical research, and renders more credible pro tanto claims to unsuspected powers. volume of popular interest excited by the war. In the field of multiple personality Dr. Morton Prince has. Nevertheless a certain amount of scientific progress has been made, enuring both to the benefit and to the detriment of extended and confirmed his brilliant researches, attending psychical research. It may be classified under the following particularly to the proof of the reality of ‘ coconscious ds heads: (a) Psychology, (b) Multiple Personality, (c) Telepathy, secondary selves (cf. his Unconscious, 1914). It will doubt‘*‘ member ” instead of the guinea of the “ associate,” but insisted on a more active and enterprising policy, and came within measurable distance of “ hustling” this eminently respectable society into an endorsement of spiritism. Of course a change in the social attitude produced in this way cannot be permanent. The old influences persist, and will inevitably reassert themselves and produce a relapse into the former apathy, unless the exceptional opportunites are exploited, and the abnormal will to believe is fortified by positive achieve-

PSYCHICAL

200

less have gratified the readers of his Dissociation of a Personality (1906) to learn that “ Miss Beauchamp ” was afterwards happily and healthily married though her husband did Multiple not know what a heroine of psychological romance he on-

ality.

had cspoused,

ee

eas

`

The most striking and substantial con-

tribution to the subject is, however, contained in the

admirably recorded and narrated story of the strange case of

“ Doris Fischer,” for which science is indebted to the Rev. Dr.

RESEARCH undertaken by Miss Miles and Miss Ramsden, published in the S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 69 (1014). On the principle that anything supernormal may be attributed tosome sort of “telepathy,”

one might perhaps chronicle here the very anomalous .fdtenture, experienced by two well-known academic ladies of Oxford in the gardens of Versailles, but not published until six years after the event, in r911 (cf. the review in S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 64).

in

On the other hand, elaborate attempts made by two psychologists in America to verify the existence of telepathy have

psychical research, and subsequently (1920) succeeded the late

led to results which at first sight appearto be wholly negative.

Prof. J. H. Hyslop as secretary of the American S.P.R.

Dr. J. E. Coover, of Leland Stanford Junior Universivy, was specially endowed asa psychical researcher by the brother of its

Walter

F. Prince,

who

in consequence

became

interested

The

record extends over three large volumes (1015, 1916, 1917) of

the Proceedings of the American’ S.P.R., contains almost 2.500 pages of print, and is fully worthy of such claborate treatment.

It narrates how, as a little girl of three, “ Doris Fischer ”

Was

thrown down violently by her drunken father, and so sustained a

psychic fracture, which “ dissociated’ her into “ Margaret” and ‘“ Real Doris,” the former being a personage very similar to “ Sally ” in the “ Beauchamp ” case. But for rg years no one

founder, and in due course produced in to17 @ book of 640 pages. Among its rather miscellaneous contents (it contains aler alia

a pleasing account of the putwitting ol a fraudulent “ trumpetmedium ” by hidden machinery) he describes 100 series of 100 experiments with cards (court cards omitted) made by 100 pairs of Californian students, for the purpose of testing the existence of telepathy as a faculty widely

diffused in some slight degree

discovered the dissociation, and even her mother only thought Doris a little odd and forgetful, when as ‘‘ Real Doris ” she

among human minis. The“ agent” was instructed to draw a card and to determine by casting dice whether to look at it or

displayed ignorance of what “ Margaret ”’ had just said or done. At the age of 16 another painful scene, at her mother's death-bed, led to a further dissociation and the mergence of a new personality. “Sick Doris” was born mature, grave, hardworking and

not, and in the former case to try to tmpress his knowledge

conscientious,

happened

but

totally

ignorant

before her birth.

detection, because

of everything

that

had

Again the dissociation escaped

‘‘ Margaret,” whose ‘“‘ mental

age ” never

(without contact) on the percipicnt; while the latter hat to answer in both cases, but for about half the time would thus be

really guessing at random. The results, when tabulated and added up, yielded in the first series of 5,135 genuine ‘ experiments ” 153 complete successes {most probable number, 128), in

the second series of 4,865 control experiments or “ guesses ” 141

rose above ro, undertook to instruct her uneducated partner, and

complete successes (most probable number, 122).

succeeded, at the cost of all-night sittings and violent quarrels.

There was therefore a slight excess of successes, but Dr. Coover rightly argues that it was too small to be significant of anything beyond chance. He claims therefore to have clisposed of the idea that telepathy may exist in minima] intensity in all minds, and evidently thinks that this disposed of the whole case. This, however, would seem to be going too far, on his own showing. For his figures do not dispose of the possibility that telep-

Between these two the ‘‘ Real Doris ’’ was for six years almost

completely crowded out. How she was restored by the skill and tact of Dr. Prince, after he had taken charge of the girl and discovered her condition and how first “Sick Doris’ and then

“ Margaret’? were weakened by being put to sleep whenever they cropped up, and grew younger and younger under this treatment,

and in the case of “ Sick Doris” actually infantile, until they

finally evaporated, may be read in Dr, Prince’s fascinating record. Theoretically

the case

(which

was

fully reviewed

by the

present writer in Proceedings S.P.R., pt. 74: of. also the article by Dr. T. W. Mitchell in pt. 79) is important also for two reasons. In the first place it brings out that the dissociations were plainly protective, and relieved the strain of an otherwise intolerable life.

Secondly, they were attended by a considerable number

of

supernormal incidents which, though not unprecedented in other

cases of dissociation (e.g. the “Watseka Wonder”), had formerly been recorded properly. Indeed, if one can accept record in vol. ili. of the sittings “ Doris Fischer ” had with Hyslop’s medium ‘‘ Mrs, Chenoweth,” these incidents were

not the Dr. the

clew to the whole affair, and the dissociations were caused by, or complicated with, spirit-possession. But this interpretation Is not apparently accepted by Dr. Prince, and is something of an ex-

crescence on the main story. Telepaihy.—Little progress has been made telepathy as a process in nature.

in establishing

It remains a sort of half-way

house for those who do not feel able to deny the supernormal altogether and yet shrink from the spiritist interpretation. It fulfils this function best if its nature and operation are left vague, so that anything and everything may be sct down to telepathy

of some sort. Hence behevers in ‘“ telepathy’ have not any strong motive for coming to close quarters with their theory, while the more intelligent spiritists dislike it as rendering any conclusive proof of spirit-identity practically impossible. The opponents of the supernormal first usc it freely to disparage the evidences of spiritism, and thereupon frequently proceed, somewhat illogically, to cast doubtsupon its own reality. Telep-

athy may exist in a faint degree in some minds. Indeed they rather suggest this possibility. For if we examine them with a view to testing this hypothesis, we may select, as possibly slightly telepathic, the series in which the “ percipients ?” got 3 or more complete successes in their ‘ experiments.” There were 14 of these, in which 54 complete successes were scored in 711 experi-

ments. The most probable number being 18, the excess is now large enough to be significant of something beyond “ chance.” But not, apparently, of telepathy, so much as of a sort of “ lucidity” or “clairvoyance.” For if we treat the (supposedly fortuitous) series of “‘ guesses ” similarly, we get still more remarkable results. The series with 3 or more complete successes once more turns out to be 14, and yields 49 complete successes out af 600 experiments (most probable number, 17). But curiously enough g of the 14 best “ guesses ” are identical with 5 of the 14 best

“ experiments.”

As the most probable number for such a

coincidence is only 2, it can hardly be fortuitous. Moreover, if we

add together the “ experiments” and ‘ guesses” of these 5 series, we get 41 complete successes out of 500 experiments, as

against a most probable number of 12, Again something beyond “chance ” is indicated.

As, however, this something operates

about equally well whether the percipient is trying to determine a card which was actually being thought or is only guessing, It can not be set down to conscious telepathy. This again accords with the other evidence that goes to show that telepathy, if it exists, is not greatly dependent on the conscious efforts of the

mind; or otherwise, that if minds communicate telepathically, it is by way of the subliminal. For the rest, of course, the moral is that further experiments should have been conducted with the 5

successful pairs, in order to determine whether they would

continue to produce a surplus of successes; but unfortunately this tible of experiment. Unfortunately such experimentsas are under- idea did not occur to Dr. Coover,. Dr. L.T. Troland also experimented in telepathy, with very taken not only do not succeed in increasing our knowledge of its| conditions, but hardly even confirm the earlicr experiments on elaborate apparatus, in the Psychological Laboratories of Harwhich the existence of telepathy is based. The most noteworthy vard University (1917), in order to utilize an endowment given in of the experiments that have yielded positive results were those memory of Richard Hodgson (cf. Review in S.P.R. Proceedings, athy, however, has one great advantage, that of being suscep-

PSYCHICAL pt. 80). He, too, got negative results, and did not go on long enough. In fact, he failed so completely that he failed even to prove that telepathy did not exist, or that at any rate he and his

colleague were completely devoid of telepathic ability. Only 605 experiments were made, and only 284 complete successes were obtained. Now this is very sensibly below the most probable number (302); but, as Dr. Troland observes, an abnormal deficiency is quite as significant of something other than chance as an abnormal excess. It may mean the presence of some factor that inkibits success, and if this can be established, it is just as supernormal as one that produces success. However, Dr. Troland does not hold that in his experiments the deficiency is sufficiently

great. He has not observed how it arose. His total figures were arrived at by lumping together two sets of experiments.

In

one of these the stimulus shown to the “ agent,” to which the “ percipient ” was to react by pushing an instrument cither to the right or to the left, was exposed for 30 seconds; in the other, for 15 seconds. Now in the former series there was no deficiency of right reactions; 129 successes out of 249 experiments are slightly above the probable number, 124. The whole of the deficiency was incurred in the 15-second series, which yielded only 155 successes out of 354 expcriments, instead of a most probable 177. As the only difference between the two serics was in the duration of the exposure, the idea easily suggests

itself that the 15-second exposure was too short to enable the percipient to react rightly. And not only that; it seems to have

positively inhibited the night reaction, presumably by inducing an “ anxiety-neurosis.”” In other words, if the “ agent,” or more probably the “ percipient,” got “ flustered” by the shortness of the exposure, his very knowledge of the right reaction would lead him to make the wrong one. Thus a marked deficiency in

RESEARCH

201

but also in the ‘ control” and “ communicator,” owing to the effort to communicate. It is evident that these complications may account for many errors and obstructions; but they detract pro tanto from the authenticity of the actual communications. Automatic Writing —Automatic writing continues to flourish and to furnish psychical researchers with large masses of raw material. But its quality is not equal to its quantity, and its interest is for the most part psychological rather than evidential. Nevertheless a few cases of automatism laying claim to scientific importance may be noted. Undismayed by the failure of Mrs. Verrall to get, through automatic writing, at the contents of a sealed letter left, before his death, by Frederic Myers with Sir Oliver Lodge (cf. S.P.R. Journal, Jan. 1905), many of the leaders of the S.P.R. continued to work at cross-correspondences, and the results of their labours bulk large in the Proceedings of the society 1911-9. They discovered some curious cases among the writings of their automatists, the most remarkable, perhaps being that entitled The Ear of Dionysius (1917), which was worked out by Mr. Gerald Balfour, and held to indicate the post-mortem agency of Prof. Verrall. But unfortunately the value

of the coincidences on which the method relies is not capable of exact determination, and the whole method of proving spiritidentity by cross-correspondences is too literary and recondite to be appreciated without an intellectual effort, and so fails to impress the ordinary man. The automatic writing of a Dublin lady, Mrs. Travers Smith, excited some interest, both.on account of the enormous speeds attained in its method of production (a

planchette travelling over an alphabet under glass), and because of the claim that communications had been received from Sir Hugh Lane, before it was known that the Lusitania had been

correct responscs over a long series might imply as much super-

sunk, and that he had been one of the victims of this outrage. The case is narrated in Voices from the Void (1919).

normal knowledge, and yield as good evidence of telepathy, as a marked excess; much as it is implied in the “ negative hallu-

of Remembrance

cination”’ of a hypnotic subject that.-he both secs and does not see, the object of the hallucination, and indeed that he must

Great interest was excited when Mr. Bligh Bond, in his Gate (Oxford, 1918), announced that he had been

guided in his excavation of Glastonbury Abbey by the automatic writings of a friend who produced

copious communications,

largely in very debased Latin, from a number of the monks who had inhabited the Abbey from the 11th to the 16th century, and

see it (subconsciously) in order to avoid it. Again, however, the series of experiments was not long enough to make the appeal to the calculus of probabilities decisive. For the present, therefore, it is best to conclude that the reality of telepathy is not yet either proved or disproved: the evidence is just about enough to keep it alive as a hypothesis. Trance.—The phenomena of trance continue to be studied, and although Mrs. Piper, the most famous “ medium ”’ of this

these statements sccm quite improbable. Mr. Bligh Bond also had the courage to print in the first edition of his book similar predictions about the Loretto Chapel, of which the remains had not then been found: when, after the war, excavation was re-

type, was pensioned by the S.P.R. and retired so long ago as 1910, she has no lack of successors, Indeed, the great majority of the customers of ‘‘ psychics ” frequent trance-mediums. Their

sumed, these also were found to be correct substantially—z.e. allowing for the facts that the original script was in some points capable of more than one interpretation and that the excavators

manifestations continue to be much the same; entranced psychics become obsessed by one or other of theer regular “ controls ’—-

usually grotesque personages that cannot be identified, and may fairly be suspected of being creations, at least to a large extent, of the medium’s subliminal imagination. There are poured

forth (in the ‘‘ good ” sittings one hears about) masses of details about the sitters and their concerns, often hesitant, inconclusive, vague,

sometimes

wrong,

often non-significant,

but

sometimes so startlingly apposite as to shake all but the sturdiest scepticism. The evidence presented in Sir Oliver Lodge’s Raymond was obtained in this way; Miss Radclyffe-Hall and Lady Troubridge have recorded similar evidential sittings with Sir Oliver’s chief medium, Mrs. Leonard, in S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 78. Mrs. Sidgwick produced a final and monumental review of the Piper case in S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 71 (1915).

As regards the theoretic interpretation of . these trancecommunications, the tendency, even among those most inclined to believe that they convey authentic messages from the departed, is to complicate thé process of communication. It is recognized more and more that there have to be reckoned with, not only the medium, with his natural limitations of faculty and training, but the medium’s “ subliminal ” or subconscious, the medium’s “ controls,” who are supposed to transmit the messages

from the communicator proper, and possibly the effects of abnormal conditions, not only in the medium (trance-personality)

had revealed the correct location and dimensions of the Edgar

Chapel, though all the extant antiquarian evidence had made

did not always hit upon the right one.

Cases of practically

valuable information received in a supernormal manner are extremely rare, and Mr. Bligh Bond’s is one of the best of them. Physical Phenomena.—To pass from automatic writing to physical phenomena is to pass from the least to the most contentious of the subjects that concern the psychical researcher, from a region where the facts are admitted and the interpretation alone is in dispute, to one where fraud has to be guarded against at every step and where ali the facts are suspected by some to

be due to it. Not that fraud is excluded in the former case: automatic writing can be simulated (like anything elsc) and with a little luck and ingenuity organized deception can be effectively practised with great success, as is amusingly shown in E.H. Jones's The Road to Endor (1920), describing how two British officers beguiled the tedium of their captivity and fooled both their comrades and the Turkish officials in charge of their prison camp. In fact, fraud is so easy that nothing depends on it; it is recognized by all competent inquirers that the whole value of automatic writing depends not on the mode of production but on the evidential character of the contents.

In dealing with

physical phenomena, on the other hand, the elimination or discounting of fraud is the primary consideration; the more so that fraud is certainly abundant, and that the conditions seem designed to facilitate it. This should be recognized by both sides, and should be no reason for refusing absolutely to investi-

PSYCHICAL

202

gate cases in which prima facie the evidence is good, and fraud is absent or, apparently, impossible. As for the conditions, it may

conceivably be that just as photographs must be taken in the light and developed in the dark, so the curious growths to be described presently can only be developed in more or less complete darkness. But the inadequacy of the lighting, even in cases where red light is allowed sufficient to distinguish the hands and {aces of the sitters, is a valid reason for demanding that the deeds done in the darkness of the séance-room shall be mechanically controlled by adequate substitutes for the sitters’ senses of sight

and touch, which the darkness puts out of action or renders

untrustworthy. necessary machinery record all reveals a

To secure this control, it would probably be

to construct a special laboratory in which extensive (incapable of forgetting or being hallucinated) would the physical changes going on during the sitting. It curious Jack of seriousness in the human attitude

towards. psychical research that no such laboratory had yet been provided anywhere.

In spite of these drawbacks, however, physical phenomena will not down. There have been plenty of frauds, and plenty of exposures, Including that of an Italian medium of international fame, Eusapia Palladino, who began the decade well with a favourable Report by Mr. Everard Feilding and Mr. Baggally

ona series of sittings she had given them in Naples (S.P.R. Proceedings, pt.62, 1911). ‘These investigators, though they rereported many movements of objects they could not account for, nevertheless emphasized that Eusapia needed continuous watching because she always cheated when she was given the chance. The chance was given her when she went to America in 1900, and the result was a very handsome and complete exposure, which eclipsed her reputation,.even though many of her patrons continued to hold that nothing new had been proved against or about her mediumship, and that it was not wholly fraudulent. Still she died obscure (1918) and fashion took to other mediums. At present a somewhat different type of physical phenomena is in vogue, in which puzzling movements occurring within the

radius of the medium’s arm or foot are no longer the staple of the’ performance, and which it is more difficult to set down to fraud, because the evidence is largely recorded in flashlight photographs, which seem on the face of it to involve the supernormal. In particular two or three cases of “ materializations ’’? seem to be deserving of further study. The first of these is connected with a French lady known as “ Eva C.,” whose mediumistic career goes back to 1906 and the “ Villa Carmen ”’ sittings at Algiers, which ended in the customary charges, and deniats, of fraud. Some years later she turned up in Paris, living in the house of

RESEARCH Notzing were subsequently confirmed by a French medical man, Dr. Gustave Geley, in a lecture given to the Psychological Institute at the Collége de France in Jan. 1918, on “ Super-

normal Physiology and the Phenomena of Idcoplasty,” and in the summer of 1920 “‘ Eva C.” was very searchingly examined by a committee of the S.P.R.in a series of sittings held in London: phenomena were not as copious as in Paris, nor on so large a scale; but their general character was confirmed, and no trace of fraud was detected (cf. S.P.R. Proceedings, pt. 81). The ‘ materializations ” of “Eva C.” seemed at first to receive independent support from the mediumship of Miss Kathleen Goligher of Belfast. This medium, and the family circle in which she sat, were exhaustively studied by Dr. W. J. Crawford, a lecturer in mechanical engineering in the local university, who described his conclusions in a series of books; The Reality of Psychic Phenomena appeared in 1916, Experimenis in Psychical Science in 1919, while the third, The Psychic Structures at the Goligher Circle, delayed by the author’s sudden death, appeared in Feb. 1921.

They formed a graduated series,

growing more and more sensational in their results, and in the end actually represented as visible facts what had originally been suggested as hypothetical inferences, In his first book Dr. Crawford, while candidly admitting that he believed the direct ing intelligences concerned to be departed human spirits, set himself to study the mechanics of the phenomena observed, raps, Icvitations of the table, and other movements of objects, after establishing their supernormal character. For this purpose he used phonographs, manomcters, spring balances and a variety of weighing machines, in a red light “ nearly always ” sufficient to show plainly the hands of the sitters, and proceeded to determine exacily the amount and incidence of the forces employed in producing. the movements. As a result of his experiments, he came to the conclusion that the mechanical eficcts observed could only be explained by postulating hypothetical structures, with a definite shape, connecting the bodies moved with the body of the medium at her ankles. These structures, which he called “ psychic cantilevers ” and “ psychic rods,” though invisible and intangible, had a size, shape and position which could be mapped by observing at what points the phenomena could be stopped by interposing between the medium and the objects moved. In his second book Dr. Crawford extended these results, and showed that ordinarily the weight the bodics levitated was added to that of the medium (as if she held them), while when

this psychic substance was weighed in a weighing pan at a distance from the medium,

her weight would

simultaneously

phenomena

be reduced; he claimed to have observed a temporary loss in this way of as much as 54 lb., nearly half her normal weight.

Early in 1914 the chief German

He also stated that he obtained impressions on clay of the ends

psychical researcher, a medical man, Dr. von Schrenck-Notzing,

of such a “cantilever column.” Finally these structures became visible, and his last book is adorned with flashlight photographs appearing to verify the correctness of his deductions about their origin and application, Moreover, in appearance they

Mme. Alexandre Bisson, and her materiahzation speedily attracted attention,

published a lavishly illustrated book, Afaterialisations-Phacnomene, on the matertalizations of Eva and the similar performances of a Polish girl, Stanislava P.; owing to the war it was not translated into English until 1920. It describes the elaborate pre-

cautions taken against fraud and to secure the genuineness of the “materializations ’; but the extraordinary flashlight photographs of the plastic substance out of which they were built up are even more convincing than the physiological reports on its character, It isshown exuding from various parts of the medium’s body, chiefly the mouth (whether or not the head and the hands were enclosed in muslin bags), hanging about the body in festoons, and forming itself into fingers, hands and faces, which are often incomplete and usually flat and picture-like. This of course gives a measure of support to the only explanation which the sceptics have so far been able to excogitate, viz. that the pictures are first swallowed by the medium and then “ regurgitated.” This theory, however, hardly explains how they manage to reappear so unruffled, or how the “ plasma” is got through the muslin bag when the medium’s head is sewn up, and back again. Nor does the medical and microscopic examination of small samples of the plasma which Dr. von Schrenck-Notzing was allowed to take confirm a stomachic origin: its character appears

to be epithelial. The reportsof Mme. Bisson and Dr, von Schrenck-

curiously resembled the “plasma” issuing from “Eva C.” By ingeniously applying moist dyestuffs to various points in the stockings and underclothing of the medium, Crawford claimed to have determined the course taken by this “ plasma ” in issuing from, and returning into, the body of the medium, declaring also that he had felt the collapse and recuperation of her muscles which accompanied these processes. As his narrative stood, the Goligher case appeared to provide the most impressive evidence

ever obtained for the réality of ‘ materializations.” Dr. Crawford’s premature death in 1920 made it temporarily difficult to pursue independent inquiry into the matter; but at the end

of 1921 further investigation by Dr. Fournier D’Albe proved that the manifestations were fraudulent. Observations of so-called “telekinetic” phenomena, 4e. movements of small objects such as celluloid or pith balls, matchboxes, teaspoons, balances, etc., without contact, in the presence of a Polish lady, Stanislava Tomezyk (now Mrs. Everard Feilding), who had been “ dissociated”? in consequence of experiences during the Warsaw riots of 1906, were reported by Prof. I. Ochorowicz of Warsaw in the Annales des Sciences

203

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH Psychiques (1909-12), and confirmed by Dr. von SchrenckNotzing in 1913-4. Some of the photographs appeared to give a clew to the mechanics of these phenomena by showing very fine threads connecting the hands of the medium and passing beneath the object levitated. It is argued however, partly on the strength of the negative results of investigating the medium before and after the phenomena, partly on the ground of differences in the appearance of these threads and of cotton, silk and hair (illustrated), that the threads were of a psychic and supernormal character, and in fact plastic emanations similar to those of “ Eva C.” In the summer of 1914 the medium came to London to be examined ‘by the S.P.R., but the outbreak of war prevented the continuation of the investigation.

out the right responses in the presence of his master, and even (though rarely) in his absence, and the scientific scandal became so great that an inquiry had to be made (by order of the Ministry of Education); as a result the explanation was adopted, with the

approval of the Berlin psychologist, Prof. Stumpf, that the observant animal reacted to slight, unconscious indications

given by the experimenter. Thus there was neither thought nor fraud, but only visual hyperaesthesia (¢f. Plungst, Clever Hens, English translation, New York, rg11). l Officially this report was supposed to settle the matter.

But an Elberfeld gentleman named Krall was not satisfied. He bought ‘‘ Clever Hans” after von Osten’s death, and examined his visual acuity, finding it to be 2} times that of aman.

He also

Another branch of physical phenomena is represented by what is called “ spirit-photography,” In this, as in the (now

trained up a whole stud of equine mathematicians, that became famous as “the Elberfeld horses.’”” Among them one turned

extinct) method of “ slate-writing,” everything depends on the prevention of fraudulent substitutions in the plates (or slates). If this is, neglected, the production of “ spirit-photographs ” becomes easy enough. One of the earliest practitioners of this art, William Keeler, has recently suffered annihilating exposure of his.“ Lee-Bocock ” frauds at the hands of Dr. W. F. Prince (Am. S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xi. 2, March 1920), after having had his case stated in Proceedings, vol. viii. (1913), of the same society. Other cases of ‘ spirit-photography ” may be said to be still under investigation, and, though none had in 1921 been proved genuine, their detectionis usually a highly technica! matter. Dr. Prince has also convincingly shown by a critical study of the evidence that an old “ poltergeist ”?” case, “the Great Amherst

out to be a genius, ‘‘ Muhamed,” while another, ‘ Berto,” was: blind, and so incapable of visual hyperaesthesia. Elberfeld became a place of pilgrimage; a multitude of books, pamphlets and articles appeared (cf. Krall, Denkende Tiere, Leipzig, 1912); a review was founded for the recording of the prodigies of animal

Mystery ” (1879), was in all probability due to the (unconscious) fraud of the medium, who had been “‘ dissociated ” by a shocking event in her personal history, which she had, apparently, “ repressed” (Am. S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xiii. 1, 1919). “ Dowsing,” as a method of finding water in dry places, continues to be used with considerable success, and it is certainly impressive to find that certain firms of well-sinkers regularly employ dowsers, and are so confident about their skill that they are willing to make contracts on ‘no find, no pay ’’ terms. It is said, however, that they then (not unreasonably) protect themselves by charging higher rates. The subject was somewhat actively debated in Germany shortly before the World War, because the German governor of South-West Africa had a cousin who was a water-finder, and employed him with great success (cf. Des Landrat von Uslars Arbeiten mit der Wiinschelrute in Siidwest Afrika, Stuttgart, 1912). A pamphlet by A. J. Ellis, issued by the U.S. Geological Survey (The Divining Rod, Washington, 1917), though it dismisses the matter dogmatically

as a mere superstition, has a useful bibliography.

Thinking Animals.—Before the World War Germany was also the chief home of a vigorous dispute about “thinking animals,” which must be noticed in this connexion, not only because allegations of supernormal faculty were made, but because the logical problems involved, the difficultics in ascertaining the facts and in guarding against deception, and the partisanship of the dis-

putants, were identical, For though at first the issue appeared to be simply a question of zodlogical fact, to be decided experi-

mentally by biological and psychological experts, it soon appeared that not only was there the usual divergence between conscrvatives and progressives, but that the experts were divided by the conflict between the tendencies to emphasize the unity of life and to affirm the supremacy of the human mind; moreover, when, as was soon the case, a considerable amount of. odium theologicum was imported into the discussion, a similar division was observable

among

theologians.

The

result was

a complcte

replica of a controversy in psychical research. The trouble began so long ago as 1904, when Herr von Osten produced a horse, his “ Clever Hans,” which he had taught to do simple sums by tapping with his hoofs. He had proceeded on the logically false assumption that mathematical thought is peculiarly arduous, and on the biologically false assumption that to discover unsuspected extensions of animal intelligence would be particularly cogent in directions remote from the natural interests of the beast. However, ‘‘ Hans” indisputably tapped

thought (Tierseele, 1913). Presently, at Mannheim, an invalid lady took to exhibiting a thinking dog, “ Rolf,” who, though not so mathematically minded, appeared to be gifted with a rare sense both of philosophy and humour. True, the animal refused to “ work ” unless held by a chain, and this procedure naturally fostered suspicions that the natural brilliance of his mind might have been improved bya little judicious wire-pulling; but there arose plenty of reputable observers to testify that the chain was kept slack, and even some to declare that ‘‘ Rolf” had been known to answer correctly in the absence of his owner and had furnished answers not known to any human mind: the opposi-

tion, therefore, could only attack the competence of the observers, and sometimes succeeded in showing that they had been laxer

than they had imagined.

Yet, despite the indignant protests

of those who claimed to have vestiges of common sense or knowl-

edge a priori of where the limits of the possible were laid down, the open-minded (like Darwin), not afraid of ‘ fool” experiments, went to see, and were duly puzzled: even eminent psychologists, like Prof. Claparéde of Geneva, reported favourably, more or less. A poct, Maeterlinck, came away from the horses with the conviction that the phenomena were supernormal; and was satisfied that horses, dogs and cats were by nature “ psychics,” while elephants, monkeys and asses were not

and, unlike the former, could not tap the cosmic reservoir of potential knowledge. The said “reservoir” was hypothetical, but seemed to be needed to provide for the correctness of answers not known to any human mind, and so transcending * tclepathy ” (which had also been suggested) (cf. The Unknown Guest, Eng. trans., 1914, p. 267).

Clearly, this question of “thinking animals” exhibits the.

tantalizing perversity of other problems in psychical research. The truth about it is not a problem in pure science, and is not susceptible of scttlement by its methods. For these demand that the good faith of the observers can be presupposed and that undistorted observation of the facts is possible, both conditions often far less completely fulfilled, even in the established sciences, than is usually assumed. In the unreclaimed borderland between superstition and science neither condition can be satished; every “fact” may prove to be real only as a hallucination is real, or

to be distorted into a monstrous mirage by prejudice and bias, while the will to believe (and equally the will to disbelieve) is so free to select, to emphasize, to interpret, that it can create practically any “ fact’ it chooses. In short, truth jn this region is unmistakably emotional; men’s attitude towards it essentially resembles their attitude in religion or in politics; the abstraction. from human feeling (or rather from every fecling but the desire for knowledge), which is postulated in the ideal of pure reason, is

simply impracticable here. So long as every “ fact ” adduced on cither side has to be treated as suspect, and every step is con-

tentious, scientific progress, if it is possible at all, cannot be otherwise than slow. There is only one way for believers in the supernormal to shortcircuit this procedure: if they can apply

204

© PSYCHOTHERAPY

their beliefs to the ordinary course of reality and show that they develop so much practical value that they must be reckoned with, they cannot in practice be treated as false. If, for example, secrets were regularly discovered, and information transmitted,

by “ telepathy,” if fortune-tellers frequently told their clients how to make fortunes, and business ‘ clairvoyants”’ were employed by financial houses, this pragmatic proof would be irresistible, and would suffice to convince the world. Actually, however, the pragmatic test rather tells against belief in the supernormal: for the supernormal knowledge believed in is not taken to be trustworthy normally; nor do believers in it act on it,

thus betraying the fact, which they may not realize themselves, that they do not take their beliefs quite seriously. In this respect they are like very many other people. For, as Prof. Carveth Read (The Origin of Man, ch. viii., London, 1920) has shown, even among the most benighted savages believers in “‘ magic ”’ have always to behave sensibly, for all the extravagance of their belicfs. They pray, but they also keep their powder dry, and thus

their action reveals which of their beliefs are only half-belicfs or make-believe. In ultimate analysis the question becomes one of the place, function and significance of beliefs which are not quite matter-offact about what are not quite matters of fact. To appreciate

these, we have to discard the illusion, traditionally fostered by logic, that there is no alternative to firm belief but whole-hearted disbelief. Actually the gradations and fluctuations of beliefs are infinite, and in many departments of life such unstable beliefs are normal and dominant. They can easily coexist with others, abstractly

inconsistent

with

them, in a mind

unwilling

to

abandon either, or perhaps unaware that it is entertaining them.

Thus even Herbert Spencer showed that he had some belief in ghosts by his comical indignation when his hostess told him she hoped that so stalwart a disbeliever would not mind sleeping

in the haunted room of a country house (Autobiography, i., p. 480). The only way of redeeming from this region of incomplete beliefs that are below proof a subject of general human interest— and no others ever fall into it—is to make it part of the ordinary routine of life, which every one accepts in practice (whatever the theoretic reason he may give to himself and others), simply because no one can ignore it and live. But if ever the objects of psychical research should be effectively subjected to such a transfer, this would clearly mean a spiritual revolution of the most far-reaching kind. LITERATURE.—This is still largely contained in periodicals. In England those of the Society for Psychical Research must be mentioned in the first place. Both the Proceedings and the Journal maintain a high scientific and literary level, and contribute, record or review all the important developments of the subject. The addresses which are delivered by presidents of the society on coming into office form an interesting record of the attitude taken up towards the subject by a number of eminent thinkers (e.g. Henri Bergson, 1913; Gilbert Murray, 1916; L. P. Jacks, 1917; Lord Rayleigh, 1919; W. McDougall, 1920). But the society's publications do not notice all

the tittle-tattle of the movement, for which it is necessary to consult the weekly Light and the monthly Occult Review.

The former is the

official organ of British spiritualism, and the latter is not sufficiently critical of the material it publishes, which, though entertaining enough, appears to be often (almost avowed) fiction. In July 1920 The Psychic Research Quarterly began to appear, which promises to

be a high-class periodical, and in its Oct. number published the first photographs of Miss Goligher’s “ materializations.” In America the Proceedings and Journal of the American S.P.R. have the same

standards as the English society. But they were long edited by the late Prof. J. H. Hyslop (d. 1920), who soon became a convinced (though critical) spiritist, and reflect his work and his views in a very voluminous and somewhat one-sided way. They are now edited by his successor, Dr. W, F. Prince, the brilliant investigator

of the Doris Fischer case, and the acute critic of sundry cases of fraud. In France the Annales des Sciences Psychigues have published some good material and continue to give a good

idea of the move-

ment in the Latin countries. The Bulletin of the Institut Génċral Psychologique used not infrequently to contain articles on psychical research, but now that an Institut Méta psychique has been founded in Paris, with an ambitious programme, it is probable that in future these will appear in its Bulletin (no. 1, Oct. 1920). In Germany Psychische Studien continue. In Switzerland the Archives de Psychologie used often to publish valuable studies bearing on psychical research, while it was edited by the late Prof. Theodore Flournoy

{d. 1920), the author of the famous study on the automatisms of

" Hélène Schmidt,” Des Indes à la planète Mars (1900), Esprits et Médiums (1911), and of the very remarkable study of a modern mystic “ Cécile Vé ™ (in no. 57, 1915). As regards books, many have been referred to above.

The out-

standing importance of Sir Oliver Lodge's Raymond and of W. J. Crawford's works on the Goligher case has been already explained under ‘‘ Trance”? and “ Physical Phenomena." William James's “ Final Impressions of a Psychical Researcher "’ was reprinted from the American Magazine in Memories and Studies (1911) and should be consulted for the conclusions left in the great psychologist’s mind by his prolonged interest in psychical research. As books of a gencral character taking a favourable view of the phenomena, there may be mentioned Sir W. Barrett's On the Threshold of the Unseen (1917); J. A. Hill’s Spiritualism, its History, Phenomena and Doctrine (London, 1918); J. H. Hyslop’s Psychical Research and Survival (1913), Life after Death (1919), Contact with the Other World (1919);

H. Carrington’s Problems of Psychical Research (London, 1914), Modern Psychical Phenomena (1919), Psychical Phenomena and the War (1919). Among hostile accounts the best are I. L. Tuckett's

The Evidence for the Supernatural (1912); E. Clodd’s The Question, If a Man Die shall he Live Again? (London, 1917) and J. McCabe’s Is Spiritualism based on Fraud ? and Spiritualism: a Popular Histor (both London, 1920). Prof. M. Dessoir's Vom Jenseits der Seela

(1917, 4th ed. 1920) is also unfavourable in the main, though appreciative of the attitude and work of the S.P_R., and interesting

as coming from an academic psychologist who has not disdained to

investigate the phenomena alleged. Dr. A. von Schrenck-Notzing’s works are important (AMatertalisations-phaenomene, Munich, 1914, 2nd. ed. announced for 1921, Eng. translation by Dr. Fournier d’Albe, London, 1920: Der Kampf um die Materialisations-Phaeno-

mene, 1914; Physikalische Phaenomene des Mediumismus, 1920). Dr. G. Geley’s De l’Inconsctent au Conscient (Paris, 1919) is an attempt to form a theory of the supernormal physiology of ‘ Eva

C.”

A translation by S. de Brath came out in 1920 (London).

Lastly A. J. Philpott's Quest for Dean Bridgman Conner (London,

1915) may be instanced as an instructive investigation of an auto-

matic romance (communicated through Mrs. Piper), which, though

plausible and partially correct, turned out to be essentially false, and to illustrate how untrustworthy information obtained through supernormal channels at present 1s. As medical works dealing with psychotherapy and dissactations of personality, those of Os. Boris Sidis, who made his mark by narrating the strange case of the Rev.

Mr. Hanna (cf. Sidis and Goodhart, Multiple Personality, New York,

1905), The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology (London, 1914), Symptomatology, Psychognosis and Diagnosis of Psycho-

pathic Diseases (Boston, 1914) and The Causation and Treatment of Psychopathic

Diseases

(Boston,

1916),

may

be mentioned;

also

W. H.R. Rivers’ Instinct and the Unconscious (London, 1920) and W. Brown’s Psychology and Psychotherapy (London, 1920). (F. C. S. S.)

PSYCHOTHERAPY. —The modern branch of medicine to which has been given the name of “psychotherapy ” may be regarded as covering all attempts made to mitigate or remove such symptoms as may be attributed to the operations of an unhealthy mind. These symptoms may be mental, for instance confusion of mind, or delusions, or obsessions, and may not be associated with any bodily symptoms or only with such as are trifling. On the other hand the symptoms may be bodily, for instance paralysis, or some form of loss of sensation, or indigestion, and may not be associated with any but trifling mental symptoms. The treatment of symptoms due to mental illhealth by physical agents such as rest, exercise, change of climate, baths, electricity or drugs is not psychotherapy. Psychotherapy has been practised in all ages, sometimes upon those patently suffering from mental or moral disorders, but perhaps even more often upon those whose symptoms in fact depended upon mental or moral weakness or disorder but in whom the affection appeared, from the superficial character of the medical knowledge of the moment, to be due to organic disease of the body. In such cases psychotherapy has enjoyed considerable success, whether practised in connexion with religion and philosophy or with superstition and charlatanism

(scc Fartu HEALING, 10.135). Under circumstances such as these there has always been, and indeed still is, a formidable admixture of the miraculous, and it is not intended here to examine systems like that of Christian Science or the miracles of Lourdes.

The term “ psychotherapy ” is of comparatively recent origin and has reccived wide acceptance in that it usefully stands for treatment based upon scientific psychology, normal and morbid. Three methods of psychotherapy will here be considered, from the purely medical point of view: those of Moral Suasion, Suggestion and Psycho-analysis.

PSYCHOTHERAPY Moral Suasion is historically the oldest method, and was advanced to a high level of excellence by the Stoic Philosophers. Illness, whether mental or physical, involves, to an extent depending upon the circumstances of the case and the character of the patient, pain and discomfort, disability with the fear of its consequences upon economic and social position and the fear of death. It is principally in the rclicf of discomfort and pain that persuasion has its success. Many patients are seriously alarmed at any abnormal feeling in any of thcir organs, are apt to call such feclings paihful and to colour their descriptions

with such adjectives as “awful” and “ terrible.’ Others will ascribe symptoms of a commonplace character to scrious disease of some important organ,—for example, when flatulence is mistaken for heart discase or turbid urine or pain in the back is regarded as indicative of kidney disease. Merely to induce such patients to be more precise in language and then in simple terms to offer some proximate explanation of their symptoms

will often, without the association of any remedial agent, place their ideas in better proportion and mitigate or abolish thcir pains. Therapeutics have, very naturally, up till quite recent times been dominated by the endeavour to treat the symptom

of which the patient complains rather than to attack the disease which is producing the symptom. For the most part treatment has been cither by frankly miraculous methods or by those which have been in part empirical and in part miraculous, that is, by those in which some wonderful and unknown factor has seemed to codpcrate with the supposed remedy.

It has more

recently become increasingly apparent that remedial agents not uncommonly owe their seeming success firstly to the fact that most disorders pass away whether treated or not, and secondly

to the fact that the mental attitude of the patient can in itself assist at his cure and that this attitude may in many persons be modified for good or ill by the physician or other attendants of the sick man. Galen long since pointed out that “‘ when the imagination of a sick man has been struck by the idea of a remedy, which of itself is without efficacy, it becomes endowed with beneficent power.” The method of persuasion seeks to use this recuperative power which lies in the patient’s mental field and to set it to work cither without or with the assistance

of physical agents. It seeks by reasonable explanation to impress upon the patient that his symptoms are transient and that his malady is curable, that it is important for him to aid in his own cure by taking a balanced view of the ills which afflict him and to face them with hope and courage. There is not, asin treatment by suggestion, an endeavour to impose an authoritative assertion to be blindly accepted as a matter of faith, but an endeavour to secure the penctration of an idea by the power of reason, to discuss the situation with the patient and to obtain his acceptance of the casc as put forward by the physician. The fear of the disabling effect of illness may also be dealt with by the physician, who may point out, where he is so justified, that on recovery the disability will pass away or that if any be left it will be of an cntirely trifling character. In serious disablement and in cases of which the end is hkely to be death, it becomes the duty of the philosopher and the priest to fortify the courage and resignation of the patient. Not infrequently, however, the physician, willing or not, has himself to assume their functions and to adapt his exhortations to the needs of men of various creeds and levels of culture. That persuasion on these lines is of value as a therapeutic agent there can be but httle doubt, but its chief disadvantage lies in its limited scope, in that its appeal is to highly developed and organized faculties, just those faculties with which the neuropathic are not for the most part particularly gifted and which arc the first to be weakened in disease. In practice, persuasion is apt to degenerate into partial explanations authoritatively enunciated, in which the physician has to make the best he can of the ignorance of the patient and of his own necessarily mcagre scientific acquisitions, and in which pure ratiocination plays a small part. In short, persuasion merges into suggestion. Suggestion, as a formal method of therapeutics, is but of recent origin (see 26.48). In large measure it has been, from the

205,

earliest times, ancillary to miraculous, magical and professional modes of healing. Under other names it has often been the only curative agent and has been used uncombined

with physical

agents or ritual performances, but for the most part it has becn practised in combination with these. Professional or scientific medicine, though seeing no way of escape, has often sought and still seeks to have as little to do as possible with so indeterminate and varying a mode of cure. It struggles after more exact and precise results, in the fond hope that at some distant date each>

disorder, psychic or somatic, shall cither be prevented from’ occurring at all or if it occurs shall be met forthwith by some one rapidly acting and efficacious medicament. The first great impetus to the use of suggestion as a formal:

method of therapeutics came from Mesmer during the latter part of the cightcenth century, and for well nigh a century suggestion, employed as such, was associated with hypnotism (see 14.201). The artificial induction, but not by drugs, of a state in some ways resembling sleep was first called by this name rather before the middle of the nineteenth century, and it was found that the hypnotized person was, in a great majority of cases, in a condition in which suggestions made to him’ were acted upon with astonishing accuracy either at once or at. some subsequent time as determined by the hypnotizer, in short’

that his suggestibility or capacity for receiving and acting upon suggestion had been much increased. The word “suggestion’” used in association with mental therapy has lost some of its preci~ sion. Few are agreed as io its meaning: no one can do more tham

speculate as to the mode of action implied by it. It is common

to hear detractors of some cure, whether it be miraculous, or of the character of those relied on by Christian Science, or emanating directly from orthodox medicine, explain it as being “ merely ” due to suggestion, What is really meant by such an explanation is not always apparent, and it is desirable to restrict the meaning of the term“ suggestion” as applied to therapeutics to the process in which it is sought authoritatively to instil an idea into the patient’s mind with a view to the relief of some morbid process. From the catalogues of cases set forth by some practitioners it would appear that almost any affection is capable of amelioration or cure by suggestion. A more modest and a more generally held estimate would limit the cases amenabie to this treatment to those of functional disorder and of organic disease in which super-added functional symptoms are a prominent feature.

The difference between persuasion and suggestion, as indicated above, is that in the former an appeal is made, at least in theory, to the highest levels of the patient's mind, whereas in sug-

gestion (and particularly is this the case when it is combined with hypnosis) directions are delivered to levels of which the patient is only partially conscious, or which he is not aware of

as being concerned in the production of his symptoms, or which he does not hold to be capable of activation in their amelioration, or of which, indeed, he is wholly unconscious. In the endeavour to make use of such levels it is plain that it may be necessary to endeavour to inhibit the operations of those that are higher, since these are occupied largely and sometimes almost wholly

by the miseries of the patient.

.

Suggestion suffers from the essential vice of the older therapy in that it is directed rather to the treatment of the symptom than to the disorder of which the symptom is but part. Movement may, for example, be restored to a paralysed limb, but the mental processes of which the movement is the oufcome may nevertheless remain unhealthy. A coérdinated purposive action is not wholly explained in terms of the movement of a limb, but

involves preliminary sensual, perceptual, rational and volitional activities, one or several or all of which may be affected. Criticism has largely been directed against the method of suggestion in that it would seem to convert the patient into an automatic machine which responds to activation without knowing what if does or why it docs it: there is obedience without reflection or

judgment.

Whether this be always so. or not, the physician

in any case is in ignorance as to which part of the whole psychological system he is operating upon; indeed heis ignorant as to.

which part of it is in a morbid state. Hysteria is held by many

PSYCHOTHERAPY

206

psychologists to lie in mental dissociation, that is that the various mental processes do not caéperate harmoniously and that some

are active while others are dormant.

Suggestion in the hypnotic

state seems artificially to procure this very state of dissociation,

and in fact is widely held to induce a mental state analogous to, if not identical with, that of hysteria. To avoid so unhappy a result of a therapeutic measure as the establishment of a morbid

state, endeavours"have been made to practise suggestion when the patient is not under hypnosis, that is, when he is awake. It is nevertheless usual to direct the patient to allow his mind to adopt an attitude of passive receptivity, and when, if he can, he has done this to make suggestions to him. Only so far as the critical faculties are dormant are such suggestions likely to be efficacious, and if the critical faculties are dormant the method

is open to such objection as may be made to hypnotism, This mode of suggestion is probably but little removed from the method of persuasion, the physician hoping that his case may be

accepted under the guise of suggestion with a minimum of adverse criticism, The

term

“ auto-suggestion ’’’ has been used to denote

a

hensible, or shameful, or immodest, or all of these together, and so gradually rules of thought and conduct come into being. Almost all, and perhaps all, thoughts and actions are associated with some emotional tone, that is, with feelings of pleasure or. displeasure or pain. Such feelings are of varying intensity, being in some cases so weak that they can scarcely be discerned and in others so powerful as to occupy and command the entire personality. During the education of the child a separation may be brought about between an action and the associated emotional .

tone or aficct, as it is termed. If a child has learnt to regard a. pleasurable act as blameworthy and in fact acts no longer inthis particular way, the affect which was associated with the act may become partially or wholly detached from it and may

perhaps be replaced by its opposite. It is one of the hypotheses of psycho-analysis that a dissociated affect of this character may

produce symptoms at once or in later life, either because the affect has not been passed on to some other important or more legitimate object of activity and remains as a quantum of unused psychic energy, or because it has become attached to a substitute for its original partner of unworthy or ridiculous charac-

process in which the patient himself attempts to cxercise a ter. The gradual passing on of affects from lower levels of activsalutary influence upon his malady by concentrating his thought ‘ity to those that are higher has been called sublimation, and their upon the idea of his cure or by, as it were, commanding his progress from the satisfaction of very lowly bodily wants to the’ symptoms to disappear. The operation may be assisted by the highest ethical and aesthetic acquirements of the mind has been. withdrawal of the patient to a quiet place, by his placing himself claborately examined. The failure in attachment of an affect in an attitude of repose and by his endeavour to empty his mind to any sort of substitute for its original partner may result in of all ideas save the one which is curative. Given sufficient those indefinite emotional states, sometimes of a distinctly intensity of purpose a man may: by such treatment of himself morbid character, in which the individual may be happy or rise Superior to the ills that afflict him, think or act in spite of miserable or excited or apathetic for no reason which is obvious them, and, indeed, in certain cases annihilate them. It is not, however, given to many to reach success on these lines. Afflicted: man seeks two things, one to know what really is the matter with

him and the second to obtain succour from forces external to

himself; he ardently desires a diagnosis and a healer. The desire for correct diagnosis is necessarily shared by him who aspires to be a scientific physician, prompts the constant search

to himself or to anyone else; while the attachment of affects to somewhat trifling and comparatively valucless objects is seen in the inordinate interest taken by some in domestic pets, bric-a-brac, pastimes, or fantastic and inane social entertain- : ments. Sometimes, however, the affect remains unconvericd and still attached to the original act, so that a conflict arises between the primitive and personal desires on the one hand

for the cause of symptoms and inspires the hope that, a cause

and desires of later acquisition weighted with civilized, ethical,

being discovered, treatment will be more radical and effectual. Such ideas have led to the inquiries which of recent years have

legal and religious authority, on the other. Many such conflicts arc plainly carried on in full consciousness, and are examples of the lust of the flesh against the spint and oi the spirit against the flesh and of the contrariness of the one to the other, but others are by no means so obvious, and their existence may only betray itself by trifling, though odd, deviations from ordinary conduct,

been instituted inte the development of the human mind, both

from the racial and from the individual aspects, and have resulted in new incthods of mental analysis. Psychological analysis (or “ psycho-analysis ’’) has been practised by the method of introspection for centuries. It involves _ by unexplained prejudices and habits, or by symptoms of the examination of his mind by the individual himself and functional nervous disorder or by the yet more pronounced. the attempt to differentiate between such mental operations symptoms of insanity. The conflicts which lie in the field of as those of feeling, knowing, reasoning, wishing and willing. consciousness may largely be dealt with, in so far as they come Such inquiries eventuated in difference of opinion and ceaseless under the notice of the physician, in that field. The mere discontroversy as to the spheres of these faculties, as they were closure to another of the existence of a conflict may suffice to called; nor was the introspective method, owing to the difficulty produce a therapeutic effect, and this may be further enhanced of getting it efficiently practised by patients, of much value in by the discussion of the subject and its illumination by another morbid psychology. The newer methods of analytical psychol- mind, but there are conflicts in- which the opposing elements and ogy as applied to morbid mental manifestations, or to such bodily their origin and genesis are not apparcnt or recognized or indeed ; symptoms as might be supposed to be duc to disordered mental

processes, have addressed themselves to the discovery of a presumedly basic causative idea, its association with other ideas, and its genesis. The earlicst signs of mind in the individual have the character of reflexes, that is, that upon the reception of a certain stimulus by the organism a particular series of movements ensues. Some of these pass by the name of instincts, are of a complicated character, and appear to occur without previous experience and without education or direction from without. Very early, however, in the history of the child the play of instinct is controlled, repressed or supplanted by positive injunctions {rom others, by the inculcation of habits, by lines of thought and conduct suggested to him by his observations of those about him, by his

discoverable without much labour. Such conflicts are said to. lic in the field of the unconscious and to be due to the per-

sistence in that field of repressions made at that time of life. when the instinctive desires of the individual, tutored by carly. environment and cducation,‘have undergone a process of restraint. By a wide, and as it seems to some, unnatural extension of the term “sexual” the interest of the infant in its excretory functions and its relations with its parents is ascribed to the sexual instinct, and is that which, owing to existing social con--

ventions, is most subject to repression. It is held that the rela-tions of the child to.his mother have an element of sexuality. hitherto not determined. Hence the frequent occurrence of such. terms as the “ Oedipus Complex ” and “ incest ” as descriptive.

of certain infantile affects. It is further held that the carliest desire to imitate thcir doings and to repeat their sayings, and by interest of a child in itself is of a sexual character, that it. is his personal experience. The purely natural development of the “ guto-erotic.”” Progress is made from this stage to another in. child'is interfered with in order that he may be fitted for life in a which the child’s sexual admiration for himself is termed “ narcivilized society. During this process certain actions initially _cissism”’; then to one in which the interest is extended to other` pleasurable come to be regarded as unconventional, or repre- members of his own sex, and finally to one in which sexuality.

PSYCHOTHERAPY | ‘becomes centred upon the normal object, that is upon the opposite sex. This development may be arrested at any point, and the arrest may later in life be displayed in various sexual perversions. If a person in whom such an arrest has occurred, say, at the stage of homosexuality, is living in a civilized society, difficult internal conflicts are likely in later life to ensuc between

the strength of his desires and his fear of outraging both social

convention and legal cnactment; or, owing to the fixation of his affect upon an object, not the normal end object of the sexual

instinct, he may fnd himself impotent ın his relations with one of the opposite sex. The efforts of psycho-analysis are directed _towards the discovery of repression, arrest of development and the conflicts which are thus generated. If these can be brought to light there is hope that further devclopment may occur, that unattached or badly attached affects may find appropriate and

fitting objects, and that conflicts may be resolved by the coordinating action of the conscious. Analysts are not, however, in complete agreement as to whether

sexuality is the sole or essential cause of functional nervous

symptoms. Some find in the desire of the individual to express his influence upon others, or his “will to power,” an active determining cause of the internal conflict which arises when

he finds himself in opposition to social conventions and to such activities of those about him as tend to impede his progress.

Others again seek to find conflicts not so much in the past

development of the individual as in the difficultics which arise when he endeavours to attain such ideal ends as he has proposed ‘to himself. But whatever the value attached to the elements of causation of morbid states there is general agreement that it is not only the conscious ficld with its obvious conflicts which has to be explored but that the unconscious field should also be examined in as much detail as is possible. The form of the content of the unconscious and of the conscious mind appears to be determined by analogous processes. Perceptions are apparently not invariably noted by the conscious. It is not an uncommon experience to discover perceptions which must have been made at a certain time and place which only well up into consciousness at some later date, while the details of a perception which were not clear or even considered at all at the time they were received, may be placed in their true position by analysis. In certain morbid states, for instance, delirium and mania, memories of events and even of languages which have been forgotten for many years, may be recovered. Such memories lie in depths of mind to which the term “ un-

conscious’ alone seems applicable.

Constructive ideation and

207

is in it a something which has been termed the “ censor’ which seeks to prevent the emergence of unacceptable affects from the unconscious into the sub-conscious and thence into the conscious.

To this “ censor” is also attributed powers of trans-

mutation of ideas and symbolization which render the crude and unpalatable operations of the unconscious less unacceptable to | the conscious. The examination of dreams by the analytic method is held to have demonstrated the existence. of such operations. The ideas of a given dream are one by one examined, with a view to the discovery of their associations, that is of their | immediate relation with other ideas, and it is found that the manifest. content of the dream is but a condensation of a much wider range of ideas and only indirectly and allegorically expressive of them. The dream is found to be the expression of an affect whose existence may perhaps not hitherto have been recognized and whose passageé into the conscious has been prevented. On these points. also there is not a complete consensus of opinion, and by some the analysis of dreams is held to disclose not only or so much the expression of the most primitive affects but also the ends which the individual in fact desires but of which he is but unconfessedly and dimly, if at all, aware.

Indeed the interpretation of dreams seems not infrequently to depend not so much upon a thoroughgoing analysis as upon the psychological views and imagination of the interpreter. Another method of exploration is that by free association. The patient is placed in a comfortable position and is directed to close his eyes and then to say whatever idea comes into his head, no matter how absurd or rude or otherwise offensive it

may be. Ordinary volitional precautionary control being in this way relaxed, vent is given to the repressed content or at least various groupings of ideas are disclosed. Analogous results are

obtained when, owing to intoxication or disease, patients reveal trains of thought remote from those to which in healthy states they give utterance, the very existence of which has been unknown to them and which when known is repulsive.

A third method of analysis is that by the “ time-association ” test. In this again the patient places himself in a comfortable position and relaxes his attention to what is going on or to any particular line of thought so far as is possible. He is directed to listen to certain words pronounced by the analyst, and on hearing one forthwith to say the word which first arises in his mind. The time between the signal word and the reply is noted. Normally the length of time is two to three seconds, and if it is prolonged or if after some 45 seconds no reply has been given the reaction is considered to be worthy of further examination and to indicate

ratiocination appear also to proceed in the unconscious mind. Problems which have been propounded and set aside for a while receive, as it were suddenly and unexpectedly, a solution; indeed such solutions are recorded as having been reached during slecp. Similarly the execution of works of art, pictorial, musical or literary, is, especially in the case of genius, often effected without immediately preceding conscious mental effort, while the idcas of preachers, orators, wits and ordinary conversationalists often seem voiced automatically. Indeed the obtrusion of conscious effort not uncommonly mars rather than enhances the

the existence of a group of ideas associated with a definite and perhaps marked emotional tone, that is, with a “ complex,” as such a group has come to be technically called. But the time element is in fact not the only one of importance in this test, since the character itself of the reply word is put to valuation. Test words may elicit replics of a rhyming character, or altogether commonplace, but on the other hand they may be so inconsequential and unexpected that a surmise at once arises that they imply the existence of a complex. Such then are the methods adopted in analysis, and it must value of artistic expression. Conventionally the term “ sub- be plain that if carried out in detail they must necessarily occupy conscious’ has become restricted to those states of mind which, a considerable amount of time. Unhappily in practice analysis though not at the focus of conscious thought, can be brought to is apt, owing to the limitation of available time, to be slip-shod, that focus at the will of the individual, but the differentiation while deductions are hastily drawn from hastily gathered data, between such states and those which are brought to conscious- this is by so much the greater a misfortune in that the outness only at exceptional times or by analytic methods seems to standing merit of analysis lies in its claim to be something of be of a very indeterminate nature. A much more particular an exact method of examination and thus to supply in psychomeaning is assigned to the unconscious by some who make of it therapy a way of discovering, and so of treating, the basis of the a rather sharply defined collection of primitive and instinctive symptoms complained of. Though an analysis may not be infantile affects. Whatever may be the view adopted on this thorough or the results of a thorough analysis may be incorrect, point, there is but little division of opinion as to the view that

the affects which impel conduct, whether primitive or elaborated and sublimated, lie to a great extent in the unconscious, and the search for and examination of these affects when brought into

yet some amelioration of symptoms may occur, and in such an event it is possible that the process of cure is somewhat similar to that obtaining in treatment by suggestion. Though in an

impartial analysis the physician should be little more than a

consciousness constitute the great merit of knowledge of self.

recording machine, it is extremely difficult for him to avoid

Not only does the unconscious seem to contain

making, or at least being the occasion of, suggestions.

the powers

The

already alluded to, but it has been sought to establish that there. patient seeks a cure at the hands of one whom he regards as

208

PUBLIC

ASSISTANCE

having special knowledge; he is hopeful of a good result and is prepared to act upon the advice proffered. In a multitude of cases such factors seem to constitute the essentials of the cure, while the subsequent particularity of method is but of secondary importance; and however much analysis may scorn suggestion, and it does so quite ostensibly, it, like other methods, can hardly hope to escape such vitiations of its pure practice. In analysis the patient must necessarily feel a more than ordinary degree of confidence in one to whom, through a species of psychic

vivisection undergone by himself, he is prepared to reveal such facts about himself as the penitent reveals only under the safeguards of the seal of confession, and indeed possibly to go further and reveal much more that is revolting and that is not present in consciousness. Such confidence in itself implies a faith which would move mountains and a mental state singularly receptive of suggestion. From deductions based upon their experience some analysts regard an examination as incomplete until and

unless a sexual complex has been discovered. ‘This probably accounts, at least in part, for the fact that the time occupied runs

In truth, however, the nature of this influence, like so many of the antecedents of improvement in cases of functional nervous and mental disorders, is at present unknown. There must be a very considerable advance before we obtain accurate knowledge of the relative value of the many therapeutic factors that are

perhaps concerned,

At present treatment is largely haphazard,

and improvement is ascribed to the treatment, if any, imme-

diately preceding

it; treatment

which,

maybe, has nothing

whatever to do with the improvement that occurs, LITERATURE.—The

most

important works on psycho-analysis

are four by S. Freud, the most prominent investigator of the subject, translated for English readers by Brill: Collected Papers on Hysteria (1912), The Interpretation of Dreams (1913), The Psychopathology of Evervday Life (1914) and Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex (1918). Brill has given a good account of these in his Psycho-analysis. Jung’s deviation from Freud's position is set forth in Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, edited by Constance E. Long (1917). Dream Psychology by M1. Nicoll (1920) expounds an interwetation of dreams of a less sexual character than that given by ‘reud. P. Janet criticised the methods and findings of psycho-analysis in his report to the 17th International Congress of Medicine

sometimes into years, and that even then the results are not wholly illuminating and satisfactory: while it almost certainly does account for an unfortunate persistence of thought along

(Proceedings of the Congress, Sect. 12, pt. 1, p. 13). This criticism is somewhat elaborated in Janet’s Les AMédtcations Psychologiques

sexual lines which sometimes develops in patients treated by

H. W. Armit 1906); C. Lloyd Tuckey, Treatment by Hypnotism and

this method.

It is, however, in the detailed elaboration of in-

vestigation and in the consequent establishment of unsuspected relationships between ideas and trends of thought and action that the undisputed merit of later psychological methods is to be found.

Hitherto psychological examination of the normal

mind has for the most part. been by the subject of the subject, that is, the subject has been artificially objectified by itself;

while examination of the abnormal mind has mostly been confined to the conscious superfcies. Analysis has made examination

both of the normal and of the abnormal a definite study of objective mental phenomena. Many diseases in general and many functional nervous disorders and mental affections in particular get better or well by a natural process of cure, and it is difficult to distinguish among the antecedents of the process of betterment those which especially have a causal relationship with it. Some such are artificial and have been devised on various grounds,—religious, magical, philosophical and scientific,—for therapeutic purposes; but the essential difiiculties in therapeutics are to determine the eficacy of such artificially introduced antecedents and whether the desired result might have been attaincd without them. Hence the remarkable discrepancies of opinion as to the value of modes of treatment, even when they have been originated and practised by those trained in scientific method and of ample

knowledge. The frequent apparent absence of adequate physical factors in the causation of many functional nervous and mental

diseases, the dualism which distinguishes between the spheres of action of mind and body, and the apparent potency of the psychic activities of one person directed upon the mental state

of another, combine to justify the practice of psychotherapeutics. Nevertheless, even with a proper respect for most recent developments, it is still difficult to be sure as to which js the most successful method, or whether a combination of physico- and psychotherapeutics may not be better than either alone. It is strange

to note how exccedingly exclusive the methods of therapy are apt to be. Those who perform miracles or heal by processes such as those of Christian Science claim no technical skill in medical diagnosis or any regard for it, but variation in treatment according to variation in diagnosis or at least according to the various

actiological factors discovered might be expected from the scientifically trained. Nevertheless too frequently the persuasionist, the hypnotist or the analyst apply their methods,

much in the way that their precursors of long ago applied their nostra, with entire lack of discrimination. Perhaps lying behind their particular methods there is a common factor, one of personal influence, in which certain outstanding practitioners excel

and which the remainder conspicuously lack.

That there is

(1919). On hypnotism the following works are good and ample: J]. M. Bramwell, Hypnotism (1913); A. Forel, Hypnatisme (tr. by

Suggestion (7th ed. 1921).

mended:

On persuasion the following may be com-

Paul Dubois, De l Influence de l'Esprit sur le Corps (Eng).

tr. 1910) and L’Education de Soi-méme (Eng, tr. 1911); J. Camus and P. Pagniez, Isolement et Psychothérapie (1904); J. Déjerine and E. Gauckler, Psychonérroses (1911). A book from a distinctively

Christian point of view is the Spiritual Director and Physician by Rev. V. Raymond, tr. by Dom Aloysius Smith (1914). (E. D. M.)

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE.—A marked feature in the social-economic history of the zoth century, and one which became even more marked in its second decade, has been the growth in

public expenditure in relief of private wants. ‘‘ Public Assistance ” is of two kinds, direct and indirect.

Direct public assistance is

the receipt of. any benefit in money or in kind at the expense of

the rates or taxes which is wholly or partly unpaid for by the recipient. Direct public assistance includes objects like oldage pensions, unemployed benefit, children’s meals and medical assistance. Indirect public assistance includes cheap baths and wash-houses, main drainage, cheap railway tickets, sanitary inspection and regulation generally, the control and maintenance of water supply and roads. It is with direct public assistance

only that this article deals. In the form of general doles, public assistance has always exercised a most disastrous influence on the countries where it prevailed, In the ancient world the State was founded on slavery and the citizens were a minority. In Athens the payment of citizens for attendance at the public assemblics and religious ceremonies known as the theoric fund, exercised a corrupting influence

on

Aristotle distribute are again with boles

lays down the general proposition: ‘‘ Demagogues surplus revenue to the poor, These receive them and in want. For such help to the poor is like ‘the cask init.” The free distribution of corn at Rome had the

the democracy

from

the time of Pericles, and

same results. At first it was sold cheap to the poor in 121 B.c.; then in 58 B.c. it was made free. At first only one-eighth of the citizenstook part in the distribution, but within little more than a decade the proportion had increased six-fold, and the number reached 320,000. Cxsar reduced the numbei to 150,000,

but in Augustus’ time it rose again, and the rise continued till as Gibbon relates “in the age which preceded the fall of the Republic only 2,000 citizens were possessed of an independent substances.” When the imperial granaries, namely Sicily and Carthage, were lost, the wretched people, by this time quite destitute of self-help and self-reliance, were thrown back upon voluntary charity and the Church. GREAT Briratn.—In modern times England has been the “classic land ” for State-regulated public assistance. The system dates from 1601, the 43rd vear of the reign of Elizabeth. During the Middle Ages the poorer classes depended on the feudal

such a factor is apparent when an ignorant practitioner is seen

chiefs and the Church.

to be highly successful and one who is learned to be unsuccessful.

fell back on the ecclesiastical foundations, and in the oft-quoted

As the feudal system decayed the poor

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE

209

words of Fuller, the abbeys “dispensed mistaken charity, promiscuously entertaining some who didand many who did not

(£50,700,000) brought the total capital funds traceable to the working-classes up to between {£90,000,000 and £100,000,000,

desire it: yea! these abbeys did but support the poor whom they themselves had made.” With the dissolution of these abbeys

these poor people were thrown back on the State, and under the

quite apart from their deposits in savings banks, etc., which a competent authority estimated at another £160,000,000 at the very least. So different was the position that Mr. Ludlow {the

Statute of Elizabeth, which lasted unimpaired till 1834 and in

chief registrar of the friendly societies) could say in his evidence

1921 was still the basis of the Poor Law, a compulsory assessment was made “for the relief of the impotent and the setting of

before the Commission: “‘ Now the black spots in the country may I think almost be counted on the fingers. In former days it was very nearly black, with but few white spots.” This wonder-

the able-bodied to work.” 5.880 seq.)

(See under Cuariry and CHARITIES,

ful development of sclf-help embraced all skilled labour and was

The administration of the Poor Law proceeded for 230 years

with variations of leniency and severity till 1785. when a period

gradually taking hold of the unskilled, giving the English workingman a knowledge of business and a training in self-government

of excessive expenditure set in, which in some cases swallowed up

such as the working-man in no other non-English speaking

the whole of the annual rateable value of the land and reduced

country possessed in anything like the same degree, if at ail. The serpent however was in the grass. The politicians saw

the nation to the verge of bankruptcy, leaving the population in

a state of complete demoralization,

In 20 years from 1753 the

Poor Law expenditure had more than doubled itself, and in 1817 jt had reached the enormous total of £7,871,811 for a population

of about 11,000,000. In 1832 a Royal Commission was appointed which conducted a thorough inquiry and collected

capital in the working-man as a voter. In 1886 the first breach was made in the Poor Law system by the institution of municipal distress committees which withdrew the unemployed to a certain extent from the workhouse test. In 1Sgo the fees for elementary education were remitted, that the poor might have more where-

Jt appeared from

with to pay for the food and clothing of their children, but it was

the evidence that the change made in the character and habits of

not till the beginning of the 20th century that, to use Aristotle’s expression, more holes were made in the cask. In troo5 the

striking evidence on the moral deterioration. the poor

by once receiving public relief is quite remarkable.

They are demoralized ever afterwards. ‘‘ The disease is hereditary,’ it was contended, “and when once a family has applied

Unemployed Workmen’s Act was passed.

for relief they are pressed down for ever.” The receipt of relief by a man has been compared in its results to the loss of virtue

Provisions Act, in 1908 Old Age Pensions were adopted and in ro1r the system of National Health Insurance was introduced with its famous bribe of “9d. for 4d." By 1913 it was’no longer possible to form any idea of what proportion of the population was living on its exertions and what was depending on public subsidy, or what was the administrative cost. In January of that year therefore, the writer, with the support of friends on both

in a woman.

They are never the same again.

The commis-

sioners state that pauperism seems to be an engine for the pur-

pose of disconnecting each member of the family from all others: of reducing all to the state of domesticated animals fed, lodged and provided for by the parish without mutual depend-

Meals

Provision

Act was

In 1906 the Children’s

passed, in 1907

the Administrative

ence or mutual interest.

sides of politics, began to ask for a return which would give the

The Commissioners showed that the bulk of the abuses and evils disclosed were the direct result of indiscriminate outdoor relief. They laid down the principles: (1) that the pauper’s condition shall be less eligible than that of the independent labourer of the Jowest class who has to bear the charge; (2) that the function of the State should be Limited to the relief of destitution, such destitution to be tested by the willingness to enter a workhouse or institution; (3) that remedial relief as opposed to the relief of destitution should be left to voluntary charity. The main truth is that in all public relief there must be an element of deterrence and some check or test to prevent general pauperism. On these principles the new Poor Law, the administration of which was handed over to the Commissioners, was based, and it was exercised with such efficiency that in 1871 with a population

facts and figures.

of 22,500,000 the cost was almost exactly the same asin 1817 with a population of 11,000,000; in other words the cost of paupcrism

per head of the population had sunk from 14s. to 7s. Between 1873 and 1883 the percentage of those in receipt of direct public

assistance was slightly over 3% of the population, the lowest

In 1919 the fourth edition of that return

was published, and later inlormation enables the following picture to be given in 1921.

In 1890 the expenditure on public assistance from rates and taxes was £25,000,000, in 1901 £40,000,000, in 1911 £68,800,000, in 1919 {172,800,000 according to a return which includes figures as old as 1916 (No. 160, 1920), and for, the year ending

March 31 1021 no Jess than £332,000,000 (including war pensions) as far as can be gathered from statements in Parliament. The beneficiaries from the last-mentioned return appear to number not fewer than 28,000,000 out of a population which cannot be put higher than 48,000,000. In other words 58°¢ of the population in 1921 were receiving help from public funds, at a rate of about £6115. per head, as compared with 4-6% at a rate of

4s. per head in 1871. With regard to the total of 28,000,000, on the one hand there is, as will be seen, a great deal of fraud and overlapping which may tend to reduce the number, but on the other hand there are a great many gaps in the figures of the return, the figures relating

2-9 in 1878 and 1879. In the meanwhile the not only recovered their self-respect and through their own organization, the trade

to the National Insurance Unemployment Act being given at

societies, the coéperative societies and the building societies, provided a complete answer to all the difficul-

cask, and on the means, if any, of regulating the money poured in or stopping the leaks. The principal British Acts concerned are (1) the Education Act with the Provision of Meals Acts, etc.; (2) the Old Age Pension Acts; (3) the National Health Insurance Acts; (4) the Public Health Act, (a) as to hospitals and treatment of disease, (b) as to maternity and child welfare; (5) War Pensions and Ministry of Pensions Acts; (6) Housing of the Working Class

point reached being working-classes had self-reliance but had unions, the friendly

tics of the Labour problem.

In these trade unions and friendly

socictics they themselves without help from the State had elaborated methods by which provision was made for sickness,

accident and old age. Their codperative societies provided them

with the necessaries of life of excellent quality at little over cost price; their building societies provided them with the means to acquire their own houses. At the. beginning of the ‘nineties a complete survey of the whole problem was taken by the Royal Commission on Labour, and it appeared that the income of 542 trade unions was {1.790,000 and the membership 1,080,000. There

were

29.742

friendly societies with

8,320,262 and funds of more

than

a membership

of

{£26,000,000; also 1,624

codperative societies with 1,119,000 members and {17,000,000

capital; the sale of foods amounted to £48,500,000 and the profits to

£4,774,000;

while

the

assets

of

the

building

societies

58,000—much too few for the year ending March 31 1921.

We must now say a few words as to some of the holes in the

Acts; (7) Acts relating to the relief of the poor; (8) Unemployed Workmen’s Act; (9) Unemployed Insurance Act. No account is here taken of the bread, coal and railway subsidies, which amounted in 1920-1 to about £87,000,000; they are omitted because they affected the whole population and were temporary.

The Education Act would not at first sight seem to fall under the heading of public assistance, but cducationists take an. entirely new view of their work to that of other days. “Formerly,” says an education report of the London County Council in 1910,

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE

210

“education was in the main confined (1) to the growth of character, (2) to the growth of the mind. Now it looks increasingly

at the social problems which present themselves for solution in the case of the individual child, the problem of physical deterioration, of under-feeding, of impoverished homes and unsuitable employment.”

In regard

authority remarks:

to necessitous

children, the same

‘ Necessitous children are not necessarily

ill-nourished at the time of application, though they would become so if relief were withheld.” Not a word is said about the duties of the parent. The same is true of the Public Health Acts, the administrators of which do not consider the character of the individual, but solely the health point of view. With regard to the vast expenditure under the Education Acts, the select committce on national expenditure reported in Dec. 1918 that they had been impressed by the atmosphere of financial laxity in which questions involving education are

apt to be considered, and state that under the Act of 1918 neither Parliament nor the Board of Education nor the local authorities can control education. With regard to the Old Age Pensions Acts which were to diminish Poor Law expenditure and empty the workhouses, the minister who introduced the proposal in 1908 stated that no Chancellor of the Exchequer in his senses would think of adding £3,000,000 to the sum of £6,000,000 which he proposed. In 1921 the amount voted was £28,000,000, and a proposal to add £15,000,000 thereto was only defeated by a majority of 12, the proposer stating that this was but an instalment and that he

was in favour of raising the amount of the pension from ros. to 20s. and reducing the pensionable age from 7o to 6o. As to the administration of those Acts it is noteworthy that Ireland with a pop. of 4,390,000 drew £3,320,000 for 181,000 pensioners, while Scotland with a pop. of 4,760,900 drew {1,664,000 for 90,000 pensioners. This looks as if there was a leak somewhere. Old-age pensioners have from the first received medical relief from the Poor Law, and now, if necessitous, are entitled to

receive other relief as well. The separation of the local administration from that of the Poor Law for political reasons has had unsatisfactory results, apart from the extra expense.

With regard to the administration of the National Health Insurance Act, Sir Arthur Newsholme, a well-known authority, has stated that “the system is not actuarially, financially or medically sound, and has involved expenditures in administration entirely incommensurate with the benefit received.” The overlapping of the insurance system with the Poor Law has involved endless difficulties, and it appears from the Return No. 160 (1920) that the annual expenditure for the year given (1919 is the latest available) was {4,294,000 out of a total expenditure of £20,311,000.

It was stated as long ago as 1912

that overcoats, underclothing and food were given under sanatorium benefit, thus relieving public health and Poor Law funds, and sanatorium benefit was only a rechristened form of outdoor relief. As to the Poor Law, it may be observed in passing that its expense increased between the years 1911 and 19 from £15,000,000 to {18,000,000 for England and Wales alone,

and as old-age pensioners left the workhouse their places were filled by those under 70 years of age, f With regard to the unemployed insurance it appears that the reserve of {20,000,000 which existed after the World War was exhausted by June 1921, and that the Treasury was drawn upon for another {10,000,000, while as to the unemployed dole the magistrate at the Thames police court on May 18 rg21 said:

“It has been said from this bench over and over again that such doles lend themselves to and almost induce fraud.” All that can be said with certainty as to the national housing scheme is that the losses to the central and local Government on each house annually will amount to an enormous sum. Originally 1,000,000 houses were to be built. In May rọ21 the annual

loss to the State on each house was placed officially at {60 apart from loss to the rates. This makes an annual loss of about £18,000,000, or a total eventual loss at the end of 60 years of "£700,000,000. Thus a privileged class of house-holders will be created at an enormous loss.

The attitude of Parliament to such expenditure gives little

hope of a check from that quarter, There is a constant complaint of the apathy and slight attendance at debates on economy, and the late Speaker of the House of Commons pointed out that since 1900 there has been a great change in the attitude of the House towards economy and that now the advocates of economy “ do not get a look in.” The Chancellor of the Exchequer frankly said in March 1920 that with such items as old-age pensions, a national unemployment scheme and a national housing scheme,

it was impossible to offer a blunt uncompromising refusal to

proposals for new expenditure. With regard to the central authority, economy is unlikely from that direction, for enormous increases have been made either in the shape of additional salary or temporary bonus by Whitley Councils consisting of civil servants to the lower grades

and by the Government to the higher grades (including the Treasury), which in both cases, without previous knowledge or sanction of Parliament, the central authority has by circular invited local authorities to follow, and the central authority has a means in the Exchequer grants (which it can give or withhold at will) for stirring up the local authority to spend money. On the whole then, there seem few weapons in the hands of those who would stop the progress of a democratic nation on

the road to ruin. But they comprise, first, a complete statement of accounts showing how the money is raised, how it is spent, what is the administrative cost and who are the beneficiaries, whether worthy or unworthy. Secondly, the institution of a strong but

small central commission, as in 1832, to ration the administration of the whole of the new system of public assistance, taking care not only to punish fraud and put down overlapping but also to make the position of the beneficiaries (apart from war pensioners) less eligible than that of the lowest class of independent workmen, and introduce some stringent and deterrent test. Lastly, to make it clear that all this vast expenditure from the

rates and taxes, however carcfully disguised, falls in the long run most heavily on the working-classes, by wasting the fund from which

come

new

enterprises

and

increased

wages

on

myriads of officials who make the poor man’s life a burden to him. (G. Dr.) UnITED SraTEs.—Owing to the fact that the United States

is still a new country with a comparatively poor, the nced in its communities for public relief of poverty and attendant ills has been than in European countries, One consequence

small number of assistance in the much less urgent is that the “ right

to relief” has been recognized in the laws of only a few of the states, That every man ought to support himself and his family is, or has been, the working social theory of Americans of all classes. They have looked with disfavour on continued subsidies and other payments which might seem to be part of a routine,

preferring to provide temporary assistance when necessary, treating each case as an emergency, in the expectation that the beneficiary will soon be able to shift for himself. They have declined to recognize formally the existence of a necessitous class.

Hence much of the relief work in the United States up

to 1921 was still done by privately supported agencies. In the decade 1910-20 it became obvious, however, that a change had begun. Americans seemed to be losing their aversion to paternalistic government, and the newer proposals for social betterment tended to call for some kind of legislation involving an extension of state or municipal activity and foran appropriation. Among the more progressive states and cities it became the Tule to establish departments of public welfare, which, though their duties and perhaps their theories were somewhat vague,

nevertheless made incessant demands for further appropriations and for fresh welfare legislation.

It is characteristic of the

American point of view, however, that this welfare movement concerned itself less with the lowest forms of poverty or with the most helpless layer of the dependent than with improving the conditions of life among wage-earners in general. The tendency to extend the range of Government activity in welfare work did not escape serious criticism. This criticism was perhaps most emphatic with respect to the ever-widening

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE scope of the work undertaken by public health departments. The

To determine the aggregate amount of public assistance in the United States it is necessary to state that such items as those for sanitation, prevention of epidemics, protection to life and property cannot properly be regarded as public assistance. The following tables, based on U.S. Census Bureau reports, show the increase in public expenditures in the period 1913-9 for health conservation and maintenance of charities, hospitals and correctional institutions:—

point was made that in so far as these bodies exceeded the limit of indispensable activities they were ‘‘ pauperizing ” the public.

The accepted view was that the duty of sanitary authorities was not to help any one family to be healthy, but to prevent any -one family from disseminating disease. But it is almost impossible to draw a line between necessary functjons and those which

are largely philanthropic.

217r

Thus many cities maintained a large

staff of physicians and nurses whose duty it was to visit schools

HEALTH CONSERVATION

and even houscholds, giving advice and treatment free. From the private practitioner’s point of view this work was an encroach-

Expended by

ment on his legitimate sources of income, but free medical treatment in the case of school-children, for example, is merely said, moreover,

that in most

cities free treatment

was

i

.

è

Cities

.

.

+

Counties

an incident of free education, for the ability to receive education is in large degree dependent on physical fitness. It should be

1919

States

.

$12,249,333 (1918)

z

.

.

5,000,000 (est.)

«

2,815,466

20,208,615

Total

12,000,000 (est.)

337,457,948

not

1913

$ 6,388,114 $21,203,580

CHARITIES, HOSPITALS AND CORRECTIONS

given unless the recipient was unable to pay, and that in any case the community was only protecting itself by promoting the health of its individual members. The same question was involved in the establishment of sanatoriums in many parts of the United States for the treatment of tuberculosis and other communicable diseases, both aiding the sufferer and safeguarding the public from him, as had been done in the case of the insane for many years. In some of such institutions a nominal charge

States

.

.

Cities

.

.

.

55,086,145

32,896,351

be.

om

$233,170,170

$158,297,762

.

$270,628, 118

$179,503, 342

Counties Total

.

$118,084,025 (1918) § 87,585,903

;

Grand total

60,000,000 (est.)

37,815, 508

Thus the increase in expenditures for the purposes noted was

was made, but by far the greater part of the expense was paid by taxation. Hospitalization came to be expected as a right,

somewhat more than $90,000,000 in six years. These figures, however, include the cost of certain activities which cannot. rightly be classed as public assistance, and which are approximately one-third of the total. With respect to the more recent

regardless of the ability of the patient to pay the cost of treat-

ment, Thus the American public was being taught to feel that the state or county or city was bound to provide certain kinds of public assistance which had been regarded as outside the scope

compilations of the Census Bureau, it is possible, because of.

of state subsidies. OF the newer proposals for public assistance none gained more

the greater fullness of data, to exclude those items. Thus a tabulation of the expenditures by the states for public assistance in 1918 would include the following:—

rapid headway than that for mothers’ allowances or pensions.

HEALTH CONSERVATION.

Treatment of tuberculosis—

The first such law was passed by Missouri in r911, and granted allowances to widows with children and to deserted mothers; by 3920 there were similar provisions in 39 states. These allowances ranged from $2 a week for each child up to $25 a month for the first child and $15 a month for each additional child. The age limit, after which the allowance was to cease, was

In institutions . , Elsewhere St Gace athe. we wet Treatment of other communicable diseases Conservation of child life . ae Other health activities . ,

CHARITIES AND HOSPITALS, Supervision . Outdoor relief Care of poor—

placed at 13 years in some states and as high as 18 in others. Up to 1920 the aggregate of these allowances had not become

so large as to alarm taxpayers, and in so far as the system saved the children from being committed to public institutions—orphan asylums and the like—it was undoubtedly beneficial. Legislation for mothers’ allowances, no doubt, tends to create a demand this form of subsidy. Taxes for mothers’ allowances were mostly levied and administered by the county governments.

Elsewhere

Other charities—

Another form of public assistance which grew rapidly in the decade 1910-20 was that connected with the health of children,

some form of health examination for all pupils attending public

State

schools. In later years the scope of the work was considerably expanded; skilled medical examiners were employed to give

qe

P

:

.

,

All other . Total

especial attention to eyes, throats and teeth, and, where necessary, treatment was often given at public expense. Special open-air schools were opened in many places for tubercular

In many

“abe

.

. tS

, s

2

a , 4Y

2.

.

.,

Ge.

Te.

oY

,.

cae.

,. D

ww, 4 ETS

e .

ke o.

>

ok

,

849,727 517,827

211,995 121,101 : 1,328,441 2,023,205, 4,458,758 1,713,274

8,924,208. 530,562 Ca

e

2,613,051 3,149, 100.

i

47,860,528

2,091,304

:

$84,682,175

The expenditures of cities for similar purposes in 1919 were as follows?

|.

Prevention and treatment of communicable diseases— Tuberculosis 2... we, $5,143,280. Other communicable diseases in hospitals. , 4,427,510 Other treatment . ©. . . . .), 2,271,364

Conservation of child life— Medical work for school-children, Other child conservation work .

Charitiesand hospitals—

additional amount of $908,742 on other child conservation work,

Care of chidren Other charities General hospitals

of $1,849,624 on medical work for school-children, and an |.

congested districts and the establishment of infant welfare | stations where mothers could obtain medical advice and free treatment for their babies.

a e o wi: kk, .

(UES

A

poorer districts, where the educational progress of the children was found to be retarded by under-nourishment, it became customary for the school authorities to provide a daily luncheon, which was served either free or at a nominal price. In 1919 cities having each a pop. of more than 30,000 expended an aggregate

such as the employment of trained nurses to visit mothers in

a

2...

State institutions , All otber. . . No T menefal i. & oe. Allother, ©. Hospitals for the insane—

particularly those attending school. As early as 1892 New York City provided for the inspection by health officers of school-children, and by 1920 practically every city had organized

children adequate fresh air, rest and nourishment.

os

In state institutions . . Elsewhere oa. a) ve> iat Care of children— In state institutions . . Elsewhere . |. . 1. Care of blind, deaf and mute— In state institutions . .

for old-age pensions, but up to 1921 no state had yet undertaken

children; and proper conditions maintained for giving the

$5,105,556 643,981 1,488, 186 285,674 764,497.

General supervision

Outdoor poorrelief Poor in institutions

Insane hospitals

. l. .

,

Welfare commissions e

“@

"E

2.

6 a

. a

.

.

0. B

S

0. we.

. .

. .

al

we

1,849,624 908,742

ch

OU, Soe -y

, wk a’ e. s ‘Á

‘e

.

.

.

le.

ee

2.

we.

.

.

854,466

4,631,697 7,715,949

7,125,436

3,579,951 OG, 735,615

C3,871, 082 47,397-

$50,154,114

PUBLIC TRUSTEE

212

With respect to conservation of health, items representing general administrative expenses have not been included in the two preceding tables, although a certain percentage of these un-

doubtedly belongs under the heading “ public assistance.” Whatever their amount may be it is offset-by the unavoidable inclusion of certain expenditures for preventive health measures, most of which are undertaken for the bencfit of the community at large rather than with the definite purpose of aiding needy persons. Detailed figures showing the expenditure of counties were not available, and it is possible that if the aggregate expenditure for mothers’ allowances were known, it would materially increase the totals given in this article.

The available data indicate that, exclusive of Federal provision for former soldiers and their families, and for other agencies for

dependents which come under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, the total expenditure for public assistance in the United

States in 1920 was more

than $200,000,000, the ap-

propriations originating as follows: states, $90,000,000; counties, $45,000,000; and cities, $65,000,000. It seemed probable that these appropriations would rapidly increase as the more recent

projects for public assistance became more fully developed and as the economic reaction following the World War spent itself. (F. H. H.) PUBLIC TRUSTEE (sce 27.334).—The Office of the Public Trustee, created in Great Britain by the Public Trustee Act 1906, was opened at Clement’s Inn, London, on Oct. 1 1907,

>

Staff fees 192I In

of 327 persons at Kingsway and Cornwall House. The. collected by the Public Trustee as Custodian from 1914 to amounted to £412,000. 1915 the Public Trustee Office was removed from Clement’s Inn to new Government buildings in Kingsway, Sardinia Street, and Lincoln’s Inn Fields, but the continued growth of the work . and staff made it necessary to invade the adjoining buildings, Queen’s House and Victory House. The progress made during and after the war is indicated by the following table:— Cases Accepted I9l4-15 I9t5-16 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 I9I9-20

1920-21.

, , . . . .

Total since Oct. 1 1907

+ . . . . -

Value

1,543 | £11,624,000 1,595 16,622,000 I,II 16,544,000 1,876 17,862,000 1,707 17,192,000 1,950 21,864,000

. 1,559 | 15.682.492

Fees £65,390 74.762 95,238 107,139 119,619 148,756

£61,632 72,I7I 98,330 130,457 175,551 241,787

283,499

398,389

18,030 | 166.164,701 | 1,074,109

1.345.682

Two facts stand out conspicuously from this record. The first is the large business annually brought to the Department by a “ voluntary” public and the very large number and value of the estates under the Public Trustee’s care. The second is that whereas the Department was apparently self-supporting from 1907 to 1916, after 1916 the fees earned under the Public Trustee Act were in-

sufficient by an increasing margin to cover the cost of the work done

under that Act.

The explanation in a nutshell is that the scale of

under Sir Charles John Stewart, K.B.E. (1918), who organized and controlled the Department during a period of rapid growth

fees which was in force until April 1920 was nicely calculated to cover (without a profit) the cost of staffing, housing and working the Depart-

until his retirement in rọrọ. He was succeeded in office by Mr. Oswald Richard Arthur Simpkin, to whom fell the equally difficult task of post-war reorganization. The other principal officers of the Department in 1921 were Mr. Ernest King Allen, Assistant Public Trustee (at Kingsway), and Mr. Thomas Mofiat Young, Deputy Public Trustee, at Manchester, The staff in 1921 numbered 874 in London and &6 at Manchester. The number of trusts and estates accepted for administration by the Public Trustee in the first year (1907-8) was 63, valued

ment under the conditions which existed before the war, with a non-pensionable staff of young men who were content to look to the future of a rapidly growing ofhce, rather than to the immediate present, for adequate pay. Such a scale of fees was bound to prove too low when the Department had to pay (in part) the salaries of an absent staff as well as those of their temporary substitutes, to make

at £384,000. In 1913-4 the acceptances were 1,573 cases valued at £13,500,000, and at the end of that period the Office was administering 5,480 cases, representing a value of £43,500,ooo, and had distributed 450 cases and {53,834,691 of trust funds.

Meanwhile the staff had grown in number from 19 to 370, the annual fee income from £502 to £55,283, and the expenses from £3.312 to £49,428. On April 1 1914 a Northern Branch of the

Department was opened at Manchester (Northern Assurance Buildings, Albert Square) under a Deputy Public Trustee, and following on the Report of the Royal Commission on the Civil Service the Public Trustce’s staff was made a part of the permanent Civil Service. The outbreak of the World War found the Department manned almost entirely by officials of military age, and probably no Government Office sulfercd so much from the transfer of members of its staff to the fighting services. During the greater

part of the war period most of its work had to be done by women clerks and by such temporary men as could be recruited under the existing conditions. In Sept. 1914 new and onerous duties were laid upon the Public Trustee by his appointment under the Trading with the Enemy Act and Proclamation as Custodian

for England and Wales of enemy property. The Act provided that all sums payable to enemies by way of interest, dividends or share of profits should be paid over to the Custodian; that firms with enemy partners and companies with enemy shareholders should make returns to the Custodian disclosing such enemy interests, and that all persons helding or managing prop-

erty on account of enemies should give particulars to the Custodian. Under the Patents and Designs Act 1907, the Public Trustee was also appointed to receive royalties in respect of patents avoided or suspended under the Patents, etc., Temporary Rules Act 1914. A separate ‘‘ Trading with the Enemy ” Branch

was opened at 2, Clement’s Inn on Nov. 30 1914. Further legislation in 7915, 1916 and 1917, and also the Peace Treaty, threw additional duties upon it, and in 1921 it employed a special ;

provision for pensions, to meet the charges for larger and more ex-

pensive buildings, completely to reorganize its personnel after the war on an entirely new basis of salary values, and finally to conform with the new and much more generous treatment of Civil Servants in the matter of base salaries and ** cost-of-living '’ bonus which followed the institution of Whitley Councils in the public service. On the retirement of Sir Charles Stewart the Lord Chancellor appointed in April 1919 a strong Committee, with Sir George Murray, G.C.B., as chairman, to review the whole position of the Department and to report upon questions of staffing, pay, policy, decentralization and fees, and it did soin Nov. 1919. With one dissenticnt the Committee approved the general lines on which the office had hitherto been conducted and recommended as a basic policy that “ trust estates should, while retaining the service of outside agencies,

secure the further advantages atforded by a Public Department having at its disposal within its own walls independent experts capable

of criticizing and possibly correcting or supplementing the advice received through the ordinary channels available to the private trus-

tee.” The Committee recommended the modification and strengthening of the internal organization in certain respects, and in order to restore the financial eqinlibrium,upset by the war, suggested a new scale of fees calculated to increase the income of the Department by about £120,000 a year. With regard to branch offices, the Committce recognized the successful and economical management of the Manchester office and approved the principle of decentralization, but hesitated to recommend further experiments in this direction “ until the possible deterrent effect of the increased fees on new business has been ascertained.” Mr. S. Garrett in his Minority Report advocated a restricted service and somewhat

lower charges, and doubted

whether “ business would be obtained in the provinces at the fees proposed by the Majority Report.” The Majority Report was accepted by the Lord Chancellor, and the new scale of fees became operative on April 1 1920. The increase of fees was still too recent in 1921 for its effects to be accurately measured, and the calculations upon which it was framed had already been to some extent upset by unforeseen circumstances. It remained to be seen whether Civil Service conditions strictly applied to a Department which, like the postal, telegraph and tele-

phone services, was essentially a business undertaking, but unlike them was not a monopoly, were compatible with commercial success

ina field open to competition. The competitors of the Public Trustee are (a) banks, insurance companies and other corporate trustees, and (b) solicitors, who are the active managers of thousands of trusts and

estates nominally administered by others. If the Public Trustee's charges were to rise bevond a certain level his services would not be sought, and his competitors, who as empiovers are entirely untrammelled, would be greatly stimulated and assisted. Jn 1921 there

was as yet no indication that this level hac! been reached, and those

who resorted to the Department had at any rate the satisfaction of

213

PUCCINI—PUTUMAYO knowing that the Public Trustee's fees, if and when they showed a commercial profit, would be reduced.

On the administrative side the Public Trustee Office may be regarded as an established success and an institution of great

public utility in protecting beneficiaries against the loss of trust

funds through incompetence and dishonesty. Its work has been brought up to a high standard of efficiency, and the system of

organization under which every trust is administered by an individual trust officer, who

is personally responsible for its proper

conduct, disarms the criticism that the functions of a private trustee cannot he performed by a department of the State. Another

PUTNIK, RADOMIR (1847-1917), Serbian general, was born on Jan. 25 1847 at Kraguyevats. Like many other prominent figures in the life of his country, he came of a family which had | emigrated to the Banat during the Turkish conquest and returned. to Serbia after the expulsion of the Turks. Passing through the artillery school (which afterwards became the Serbian military academy), he obtained his commission ina line regiment. In 1876 he commanded a brigade in the war against Turkey, and

is re-

when war was renewed in 1877 became chief-of-stafi of the Shumaja Division. In the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 he held a similar post in the Danubian Division, and in 1889 was

and another {apart from “enemy " property) of a nominal value exceeding (in 1921) £143,000,000, they are in fact so multitudinous in character, represented by so many separate earmarked holdings, governed by so many different trust instruments, and in so many cases controlled jointly

made deputy-chief of the general staff, and taught as professor at the military academy in Belgrade. Like many other brilliant officers, he suffered from the favouritism which Kings Milan and. Alexander had introduced into the Serbian army and from the

masse. Asa further safeguard the Public Trustee, from 1914 onwards, has enjoyed the advantage of the counsel of an Investment

was placed on the retired list, and it wag only after the military

fear, viz. that the aggregation of a vast the control of a single official might be a justification in experience. Although sponsible for investments of one kind

body of investments under public danger, has found no

the Public Trustee

by co-trustees, that it would be impossible to deal with them en

Advisory Committee composed of representatives of finance in the City of London; in 1921 it consisted of the Rt. Hon. Frederick Huth Jackson, Mr. R. Martin-Holland, C.B., Sir R. M. Kindersley,

G.B.E., and

Mr. J. A. Mullens, Junr. This Committee meets

monthly to review and discuss with the Public Trustee all investments and sales for reinvestment made by him.

Public Trustee in Other Countries —The first country to possess

a Public Trustee was New Zealand (1872), and the Public Trustee of

New Zealand had in 1921 offices at Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin and Wellington. In Australia there are Public Trustees at Sydney

(N.S.W.), Adelaide (S.A.), and Hobart (Tasmania), and Public Curators (with similar functions) at Melbourne (Victoria), and Brisbane (Queensland). In Canada there is a Public Trustee at Toronto. In India and Burma there are Administrators General and Official Trustees (offices at Allahabad, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Rangoon) who have some of the functions of the Public Trustee in England. Ireland hasa Public Trustee (at Dublin),

who receives only purchase moneys paid under the Irish Land Acts.

PUCCINI,

GIACOMO

(1858-

), Italian

composer

(see

22.632). His recent works include La Fanciulla del West (The Girl of the Golden West, 1910); Le Rondine- (1916); IL Tabarro, Suor Angelica, and Gianni Schicchi (1918). PULITZER, JOSEPH (1847-1911), American editor and newspaper proprictor, was born in Budapest, Hungary, April 10 1847. He came to America in 1864, entered the Union Army, and served to the end of the Civil War. In 1868 he became a reporter

on the Westitche Post, a German newspaper in St. Louis, and in 1871 managing editor and part owner. In 1869 he was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives; in 1872 was a delegate to the Liberal Republican National Convention which nominated Horace Greeley for president; and in 1874 was a member of the Missouri Constitutional Convention. In 1876-7, during the Hayes-Tilden controversy, he was in Washington, D.C., as correspondent for the New York Sun. In 1878 he purchased the St. Louis Evening Dispatch and Evening Post, combining them

consequent atmosphere of intrigue and personal rivalry.

He

revolution which destroyed the Obrenovié dynasty in 1903 that he obtained his real opportunity of service. In that autumn he was appointed general and chief of the general staff.

In 1906 he

succeeded Gen. Gruié as Minister of War, and again held that

office in 1912, during the decisive period when the military convention with Bulgaria was being negotiated. On the outbreak of war with Turkey he was made voivede or marshal (being the first holder of that title) and commander-in-chief,

and was

responsible for the rapid success of the Serbian arms at Kumanovo, Prilepand Monastir. It was largely owing to his vigilance and foresight that the treacherous night attack by which the Bulgarians opened the second Balkan War (June 29 1913) was so complete a failure. In the preceding months of suspense he and his staff had worked out a careful plan of action, and when Gen. Savov on July 1 gave his amazing order for the cessation

of hostilities, Putnik was able to launch a counter-offensive,

which resulted in the long-drawn-out battle of the Bregalnitsa and the final retreat of the Bulgarians.

When the World War.

broke out he was undergoing a cure at an Austrian watering place—a very practical proof that the Serbian High Command was not preparing for an armed conflict. At first placed under arrest, he was released by special order of the Emperor Francis Joseph and conveyed to the Rumanian frontier. His impaired health did not prevent him from resuming the position of Serbian generalissimo and organizing the resistance of the country to

invasion; and he inflicted upon the forces of Gen. Potiorek three successive defeats—the battles of the Yadar (Aug. 16-20), of the

Drina (Sept. 8-19) and of Rudnik, which ended on Dec. 14 1914. with an Austrian rout and the complete evacuation of Serbia. On the latter occasion Putnik’s success was rendered definitive by the genius of Gen. Mišić, the commander of the I. Army. Putnik retained the supreme command during the triple invasion

Democratic Convention. In 1883 he bought from Jay Gould the New York World (see 19.569), which fearlessly attacked political

of Serbia by the German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian armies in Nov. 191s, and shared the retreat of the Serbs through Albania. When, however, the exiled Government established

corruption. In 1884 he was elected Democratic member of Congress from the state of New York, but resigned after serving

itself at Corfu, he and most of his staff were placed on the

retired list. He himself withdrew to France.

a few months.

17 1917 at Nice. PUTUMAYO, or Ica (see 1.788), one of the larger tributaries of the Upper Amazon, rising in Ecuador in the Cordillera of the Andes, near Pasto, flowing in a S.E. direction and joining

as Post-Dispatch.

In 1880 he was a delegate to the National

In 1896 he allied himself with the ‘“ Gold”

Democrats and opposed the nomination of William Jennings Bryan. During his later years he was blind and spent much of his time cruising about the world in his yacht, but to the end continued to direct his New York paper. He died on board his yacht in Charleston harbour, S.C., Oct. 2g rgrr. Interested in improving the profession of journalism, he worked out a plan for establishing a school for training journalists.

In 1903 he

set aside $1,000,000 for establishing a school of journalism at Columbia University. His own idea as to the object of such a

school is set forth in an article, “‘ The College of Journalism,” contributed to the North American Review for May 1904,

In

Sept. 1912 the School of Journalism of Columbia was opened.

He left $500,000 each to the New York Philharmonic Society and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. His son, RALPH PULITZER (b. 1879), succeeded him in control

of his newspaper properties.

He married (1905) Miss Frederica

Vanderbilt Webb of New York City.

:

He died on May

the Amazon at a point somewhat S. of lat. 4° S. The middle reaches of the river are also known as the Caquetá, the lower reaches being called the Caqueté or Yadura. The Putumayo, which gives its name to the whole region through which it

flows—a wilderness of tropical forest of which the sovereignty has been long in dispute between the republics of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia—obtained an evil notoricty in 1912 after the publication by the British Government of the Blue Book containing the evidence, collected by Mr. (afterwards Sir Roger)

Casement, of the atrocious methods employed in this district

by the agents af the Anglo-Peruvian Amazon Rubber Co. in order to force the natives to collect rubber.

These crimes,

which recalled those of the Congo and covered the whole gamut

of hideous atrocity (there were some too horrible to publish

-PYLE—PYROMETRY

214

even in the Blue Book}, were first denounced in La Felpa and La Sancion, papers published at Iquitos, in 1907, shortly before

the Peruvian firm of Arana Brothers—who had exploited this territory since 1896—was merged in the Anglo-Peruvian Co., with its headquarters in London.

It was not, however, till 1909

that the attention of the British Government was directed to this matter by the revelations of Mr. Hardenburger, an American

traveller, in the British periodical Truth.

Since certain British

subjects, negroes from Barbadoes, were implicated in these charges, Mr. Casement, then British consul-general at Rio de Janeiro, was commissioned in 1910 to proceed to Iquitos and the Putumayo and institute inquiries on the spot. As a result of the report submitted by him a Select Committee of the House of Commons investigated the matter, and its report was issued on June 9 1913 asa White Paper (148). This analysed the evidence with great care, and, as the result, decided that Señor Julio C. Arana {who had come over to give evidence), together with other partners pf the firm, was responsible for the atrocities committed by his agents in the Putumayo. The Committee, however, was satisfied that he did not com-

municate his knowledge of them to the British directors of the company before the Truth revelations. These directors were severely censured for culpable negligence in respect of the Jabour conditions under the company, but it was found that they had

not individually laid themselves open to any charge under the Slave Trade Acts. The Committee further reported that existing enactments might be extended so as to cover the gravest offences against the person and against the. practices of forced labour which are akin to slavery. A committee, consisting of members of Parliament and others, subsequently met to devise and press forward legislation to this effect; but its labours were interrupted by the outbreak of the World War.

those who resist. And if formerly the action of our missionaries, supported by the Government, was able to prevent or to remedy a great part of these evils, nowadays, when the missionary has been

expelled, the hunters of men can operate unchecked; and the banks

of the Napo, Aguarico and Curaray, of the Pastaza, Morona and

Santiago,

have more than once presented scenes similar to those

enacted on the Putumayo."

Similar evidence is given in the reports of Padre Estanislao de Las-Corts, Apostolic Prefect of the Caquetá and founder of the Colombian settlement of Puerto Asis on the upper Putumayo, who speaks of “the arms of the devil for dragging the poor Indians down to hell, some with the title of corregidor, others

calling themselves doctors, and all in league with the caucheros, who style themselves patrénes.” In addition to the martyrdom and partial extermination of the Amazon Indians, this savage exploitation of the wealth of the Amazon forests has produced another result—the rapid destruction of the wild rubber trees, tapped by unscientific

methods, never replaced, and of late years deliberately destroyed by the Indians as the source of all their woes. Many solutions of the problem have been suggested, of which the most notable

is perhaps the proposal of an international control of the whole rubber-producing region by a commission representing the Amazon States, and scientific exploitation of these regions by means of imported Chinese and Japanese labour. There are already Japanese colonies on the upper Amazon, and both Chinese and Japanese mix and intermarry freely with the more civilized native “ Indians,” whose ultimate affinity with the Mongol race is at least highly probable.

The Putumayo atrocities called attention to the whole system

The Putumayo revelations led to movements for reform in Latin America itself. Apart from the devoted work of Capuchin Friars, Marist Fathers and Franciscan Sisters in the Colombian districts of the upper Amazon, by the Salesian Fathers in the recently established diocese of Cuenca in Ecuador, by the com-

of “loan slavery” and forced labour as practised throughout

munity of the “ Discalced ” Franciscans of Lima in Peru, or by

Latin America,

For it was clear that the treatment of the

Putumayo Indians was exceptional only in the maddest demon-

strations of its inhumanity, and that the slave-driving habit which made it possible was not confined to one region of the continent. The Putumayo region, though vast, is but a small part of the rubber-producing territory of the Amazon; and in all there was evidence that similar conditions prevailed to 2 greater or less degree. The root of the whole evil was the socalled patrón or “ peonage ” system—a variety of what used to be called in England the “ truck system ”—by which the employee, forced to buy all his supplies at the employer's store, is kept hopelessly in debt, while by law he ts unable to leave his employment until his debt is paid. Not only natives but many foreigners—including British immigrants—have been caught by this system. The peon is thus, as often as not, a de fucto slave; and since in the remoter regions of the vast continent there is no effective government, he is wholly at the mercy of his master. His main safeguard against the worst forms of cruelty is his commercial value; for labour is scarce and, as was said to the present writer by a planter from the Beni in Bolivia, “ You do not killa man who is worth £30.”

This safeguard has, however, in effect, proved insufficient;

for the rubber-gatherers have been more concerned to make

rapid fortunes than to look to the future. One result has been a hideous wastage of labour. In 1906 the Indian population of the Putumayo was estimated to number 50,000; five years later Mr.

Casement put it at 10,000 at most; while a writer in the South American Supplement of The Times (Feb. 25 1913) spoke of the labour difficulty in the Brazilian rubber districts, due to

“the dying-out of the native races from disease and bullets.” That the same process of extermination was proceeding in other districts is shown by a pastora) letter “on the amelioration of the actual condition of our Indians,” issued on March

14 tọr3 by Dr. Manuel Polit, Bishop of Cuenca in Ecuador:—

“ Our Ecuadorian Oriente has nevertheless not been free from the

man-hunts (corrias) and outrages of these inhuman traffickers, rubber-gatherers (caucheros) and others, who, ascending unhindered our navigable rivers, have despoiled of their poor possessions and.

of their liberty hundreds of savage Indians, torturing and killing

the Franciscan missions of Guarayos in Bolivia,! lay effert has not been wanting. In Peru the Sociedad Pro-Indigena of Lima took up the cause of the natives with great zeal, and the Colombian and Bolivian Governments both passed remedial legislation, But the Colombian reforms were necessarily limited in scope— and, indeed, tìll the international boundaries are fixed all effective reform is impossible—while the Bolivian decree of Nov. 25 1913 regulating ‘loan slavery ” remained a dead letter in a country whose vast distances made any effective supervision

impossible. To provide that “all contracts between master and man shall be registered at the nearest police office ’’ is not much use in a country where the police offices are scattered hundreds of miles apart, and ‘‘ where a journcy of 200 m. by launch is a serious undertaking, and much more so when runners

and canoes are alone available.” Autaoritves.—Hardenburger,

The Putumayo; G. Sidney Pater-

noster, The Lords of the Devil's Paradise (1913); N. Thompson, The Putumayo Red Book (1913), inspired partly by desire to vindicate the Colombian claims to the Putumayo region; Joseph F. Woodroffe, The Upper Reaches of the Amason (1914), the outcome of eight years

of personal expericoce; J. F. Woodroffe and 11. H. Smith, The Rudber Industry of the Amazon (1935).

Several valuable articles on the

Amazon rubber industry, the peonage system, ctc., were published in The Times South American Supplement during 1913 (see index, in the issue of Jan. 27 1914). (W. A. P.)

PYLE, HOWARD

(1853-1911), American

artist and writer

(sec 22.679), died in Florence, Italy, Nov. 9 1931.

PYROMETRY (sec 22.693).—The term “ pyrometer ” is now applicd to any device intended to measure temperatures beyond 1The work of these missions, actively supported by the Government at La Paz, has produced astonishing results. At Urabicha, a “ model town," for instance, silverware and jewelry are made, and there are workshops for cutting and polishing ebony to be used in making fine furniture. At Yotau expensive machinery for crushing and refining sugar has been installed. At Ascension carpentry is taught on a large scale. The ‘' Discalced ” Franciscans of Lima

conduct a flourishing school of agriculture.

The Capuchins of

Colombia, turned sappers and engincers, constructed a wonderful mule-road over the Andes from Pasto to Mocoa. These and other

instances of effective zeal are, however, it must

be confessed, ex-

ceptions which only seqve to heighten by contrast the effect of the inertia of the Church an’ Latin America.

215

PYROMETRY the upper limit of the mercury thermometer. The success of many metallurgical and other operations carried out in furnaces often depends upon correct regulation of temperature, and for this reason pyrometers are extensively used to control processes

conducted at high temperatures.

A number of different types of

pyrometer are in use, each having its special advantages, and the choice of instrument depends upon the nature of the opera-

tion. In order that pyrometers of every pattern may agree in their readings, each is calibrated by reference to a number of fixed points, determined by the gas thermometer.

The National

Physical Laboratory scale is used in Great Britain, and represents

the melting-points or boiling-points of a number of pure materials, chosen so as to be separated by convenient intervals of temperature. Suitable points for graduating pyrometers are the melting-points of zinc (419:4° C.), antimony (630°), common salt (801°), silver (961°), copper (1083°), nickel (1452°) and palladium (1549°). Above 1550° C. direct comparison with the gas scale is not possible at present, and instruments designed to read higher temperatures than this are calibrated by reference to

the laws*of radiation. The features of the different types may conveniently be considered in separate categorics. Thermo-electric Pyrometers.—These depend upon the electromotive force developed when a junction of two dissimilar metals is heated. The couple used should show a steady increase in E.M.F. with rise in temperature, and should not be destroyed or show an alteration in E.M.F. on prolonged heating. These conditions are best fulfilled by couples made ol the platinum series of metals, but owing to the high cost of these, “base”

metal couples are now largely used, which can be renewed when necessary at a trifling expense, The upper limit of temperature at which a thermocouple may be

used must be some degrees below the point at which destruction or change in E.M.F. would commence. Thermocouples in common use are platinum and rhodio platinum (10% Rh), which may be used to 1400° C.and generates an E.M.F. of ty millivolts per 100° C.;iron and constantan, upper limit goo® C., E.M.F. 6-7 millivolts per 100° C.; and two different nickel-chromium alloys (Hoskin's alloys), upper limit 1100°C., E.M.F. 7-4 millivolts per 100°C. Various other couples are also used. It will be noted that the base-metal couples develop a much higher E.M.F. than those made from the platinum group. Most couples require protection from furnace gases, which would cause corrosion, and are provided with shields of silica, porcelain,

fireclay, or other refractory

material,

which

should be non-porous. The indicator used with a thermocouple is usually a millivoltmeter, the range of which is determined by the couple used, and the temperature to be measured, The deflections shown when the couple is subjected to the standard temperatures enable the scale to be marked so as to read temperatures directly. Due allowance must be made for the temperature of the other junctions in the circuit, as the deflection, in general, depends upon the excess tem-

perature of the heated junction over ike “cold ” junction or junc-

tions. Errors ia this direction may be avoided by (1) locating the cold junctions in oil in a thermos flask, so as to maintain a constant temperature; (2) by water-cooling the cold junctions; (3) by the use of compensating junctions (Peake and others); or (4) by compensated

indicators (Bristol, Paul, Darling and others). For measuring special ramges—such as 500° to-1000°—an opposing E.M.F. from an ¢xternal source ìs applicà to the indicator, so that deflection does nct

commence until the junction has attained 500°. Instead of a millivoltmeter, the indicator may take the form of a potentiometer, in

which the E.M.F. due to the junction is balanced against a known difference of potential (Northrup,

Brown,

Rosenhain and others),

with the advantages that a delicate galvanometer may be used, and that the indications are independent of the resistance of the leads. Continuous records of tempcrature may be obtained by photographic means (Roberts-Austen), a mirror galvanometer being used. as indicator, and the spot of light directed on a sensitized paper moving at a known rate. Records in ink are obtained by depressing the pointer of the indicator at regular intervals, and causing it to make a dot in ink on a chart moving at a known rate, thus recording the deflection at any moment. In the “ Thread ” recorder (Cambridge and Paul Instrument Co.) an inked thread is pressed onto the

chart; in Siemens’ and Paul's recorders an inked ribbon is made to touch the paper; in Foster’s recorder a special pen, at the end of the pointer, makes the dot. Recorders may be actuated by clockwork or electric motors. The present practice is to employ thermo-electric pyrometers for all ordinary work up to 1100 or 1200° C,, when an accuracy of 5 or 10° suffices. This range embraces the temperatures involved in the heat treatment of ordinary steel and other metals and alloys. Resistance Pyrometers.—These instruments were introduced by Siemens in 1871, and are still in use. The principal utilized is the increase in resistance to electricity shown by elementary metals when heated, which, in the case of platinum, has been proved by

Callendar to bear a definite relation to the rise in temperature. The working part consists of a coil of platinum wire, suitably shielded from furnace gases, and connected by platinum leads to one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, or to one branch of a differential galvanometer circuit. Compensation for the leads is effected by dividing the bridge at one end of the coil, so that the leads are in opposing arms (Siemens), or by dummy leads connected to the opposing arm of the bridge (Callendar). The reading consists in adjusting the bridge until a balance is obtained, when the resistance of the coil may be read, and the corresponding temperature deduced. For industrial

use, indicators are provided in which the temperature is indicated on a dial when the bridge is adjusted to balance, so as to avoid calculation (Whipple, Siemens). Paul's indicator is a special form

of ohmmeter, which requires no adjustment, and gives direct readings of temperature.

Callendar’s recorder is an automatic Wheatstone

bridge, controlled

by the galvanometer,

a pen

moving

aver

the

bridge wire giving an inked record. The Leeds-Northrup recorder achieves the same end by automatically balancing the pyrometer resistance against an opposing resistance in a differential galva-

nometer circuit. The resistance pyrometer is not now greatly used for

industrial purposes, and is not suited for continuous use above 1000° C., owing to an alteration in its indications due to the vapourizing of the platinum (Crookes). It is more costly and difficult to use than a thermo-electric pyrometer, but is capable of giving closer readings under steady conditions. Total-Radiation Pyrometcrs.—The energy radiated by a “ black

body "’ or full radiator is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, and if the energy be measured the temperature can be deduced from the above relation, An enclosure at a constant temperature, such as a furnace, gives black-body radiations, and enables the laws of radiation to be applied to measuring temperatures without seriouserror. In most existing forms of total-radiation pyrometers, the rays from the heated enclosure are directed on to a blackened thermal junction, the temperature of which is raised in the proportion of the energy received. A galvanometer in circuit

with the junction serves to indicate, by its deflections, the relative amounts of energy absorbed by the junction, and its scale may therefore be marked to read temperatures directly by applying the fourthwer law. in the form due to Féry, the rays are focussed by means of a concave mirror on toa small metal disc to which the junctionis attached, a different focus being required for different distances from the

furnace. In Foster's fixed-focus instrument a concave mirror is placed at the closed end of a narrow tube, the radiations being admitted through a diaphragm at the open end, and reflected on toa thermocouple. So long as the lines joining the extremities of the

mirror with the edges of the diaphragm fall, if produced, within the heated source, the reading will be the same at any distance. In the form due to Thuring, and made by Paul, the rays are made to enter a polished cone, at the apex of which a thermal junction is placed. Various other modifications have been used by different makers. Records may be taken by attaching the junction to any form of thermo-electric recorder, and employing a chart divided in terms of the fourth-power law. ;

Radiation pyrometers are used for temperatures ranging from

800° to 2000° C., and are particularly valuable under circumstances which preclude the introduction of an instrument into the furnace, as in the case of rotary cement kilns. Optical Pyrometers.—In the most reliable of these instruments the brightness of the red rays from the heated source is matched against a standard, and calibration effected by applying Wien's lawsforthe distribution of energy in the spectrum. The red rays from standard and source are obtained either by spectroscopic means, or by viewing

through monochromatic red glass.

In Wanner's pyrometer, and the

Cambridge optical pyrometer, a polarizing device ts used for match-

ing the colours, the position of the analyser being made to indicate thetemperature. Inthe Holborn-Kurlbaum type, made by Siemens,

the filament of an electric lamp is placed in the focal plane of a telescope, and the image of the heated object brought into the same plane. The adjustment consists in increasing or decreasing the brightness of the lamp by means of a rheostat ip its circuit, until the filament disappears into the background, the current taken by the lamp being then read and the temperature deduced from a: law connecting this current with temperature. In Féry’s optical pyrome-

ter equality of tint of standard and source is obtained by means of

absorbing wedges of glass which slide over each other In all these cases experience is needed to secure an exact match. Optical

pyrometers of the ‘‘ extinction”’ type depend upon the complete absorption of the rays from the heated object, which may be effected by lowering a wedge of dark glass in front of the image as

received in a telescope, as in the ‘'' Wedge " pyrometer, or by using a layer of densely coloured liquid, the depth of which may be adjusted, as in Heathcote’s pyrometer. The temperature calibration in both these cases is obtained by taking readings at standard temperatures, and marking the instruments accordingly. No satisfactory recording apparatus for optical pyrometers has

vet been devised.

Their chief advantages are the indefinitely high

range—from 800° C. upwards—and the possibility of obtaining readings from a considerable distance, and under conditions which

would make it difficult to use any other type of pyrometer,

216

PYROMETRY

Miscellaneous Devices.-—Amongst these may be mentioned: (1)

Fusion pyrometers, which consist of pieces of materials of progres-

sive melting-points, which are placed in the furnace, the temperature

of which is represented by the melting-point of the highest in the series that undergoes fusion (Seger cones, Sentinel and Watkin's pyrometers); (2) Calorimetric or Water pyrometers, in which a

piece of hot metal taken from the furnace 1s dropped quantity of water, and the temperature deduced from which the water is heated; (3) Expansion pyrometers, linear expansion of solids; and (4) the Clay-Contraction

into a known the extent to based on the pyrometer of

Wedgwood.

All these methods are at best approximate, and are not

employed to the same extent as formerly, when accurate instruments were not available. REFERENCES.— Measurement of High Temperatures, Burgess and

Le Chatelier (contains bibliography}. Transactions of the Faraday Society, vol. xiii., Part 3; discussion on Pyrameters and Pyrometry, with bibliography by Sir Robert Hadfield. Pyrametry, Darling (deals with industrial uses). Also accounts of research in pyrometry

in the publications of the National Physical Laboratory, the U.S,

Bureau of Standards, and the Reichsanstalt.

(C. R.

QUARITCH—QUEBEC

UARITCH, BERNARD ALFRED (1871-1913), British bibliophile, son of Bernard Quaritch, the famous bookcollector (see 22.711), was born Jan. 13 1871. He was educated at Charterhouse, and afterwards went to Leipzig and France. He joined his father’s business in 1880, becoming its head in 1899. He played a very important part in the development of the firm, and purchased many rarities.

He paid several visits to America, exhibiting there a large number of valuable books and MSS., and was a prominent purchaser at the Hoe sale (1911). He died at Erighton Aug. 27 1913. QUEBEC (sce 22.724*).—Through the addition of Ungava in 1912 the area of the Canadian province of Quebec was doubled, and it became the largest in the Dominion. From 227,500 sq. m. in 1891 it had increased to 351,873 sq. m., Which with the addition of 354,961 sq. m. of Ungava (known as New Quebec) gives a total area of 706,334 sq. m, (about one-fifth of Canada), of which 690,865 sq. m. are land and 15,960 sq. m, water. The pop. was 2,003,232 in rorr. It was estimated in 1921 at

2,350,000.

About 98% are Canadian-born, and of these over

80% are of French descent.

The number of Indians in the province (including Ungava) was 13,366. The principal tribes are: Iroquois at Caughnawaga, Lake of Two Mountains, and St. Regis (the Indians of Lorette are also of Iroquoian stock); the Montagnais, who are of Algonquin stock, at Persimis, Mingan, Lake St. John, and Seven Is.; the Abenakis, also of Algonquin stock, at Becancour and St.

Francis; the Micmacs, of Algonquin stock, at Maria and Restigouche; and the Malecites, Algonquin, at Viger. Quebec, the capital of the province, had in 1917 a pop. of 103,000. Montreal (pop. in 1917, 700,000) is the largest city in Canada. Hull (pop. 28,392), just across the Ottawa river from Ottawa, is a lumber centre with a rapidly growing population. Three bridges connect it with Ottawa. The watcr-power of the Chaudiére Falls furnishes power for electric railways and for the lighting system as well as for saw mills, pulp and paper mills and match factories. Sherbrooke (pop. 22,583) is a close rival of Hull in industrial importance. It is located in the Eastern Townships, and its cotton

and woollen factories and machine shops are amongst the largest in Canada.

St. Hyacinthe

(pop. 16,540) and Valleyfield have also

large manufacturing establishments, Three Rivers (pop. 25,000) and’ Sorel have large shipping interests.

The Government

of the province consists of a lieutenant-

governor, a Legislative Council of 24 members appointed by the lieutenant-governor in council, a Legislative Assembly of S1 members elected by the people, and an Executive Council of rz members chosen from the Legislative Assembly and the Legisla-

tive Council.

The province is represented in the Dominion

Parliament by 65 members in the House of Commons, and 24

senators. Either French or English may be used in addressing either House of Parliament, but French is the language largely used. The Civil law is the old French codé existing prior to the conquest In 1760. The Criminal law is the same as exists throughout the Dominion. Education.—Very difficult problems presented themselves to the statesmen of Canada in connexion with education in the province of Quebec, for not only are 85% of the population Roman Catholics but 80% speak French as their mother tongue; and had it not been for the wise provision made as a condition

precedent to confederation the Protestant minority of 15%

would have found themselves in a very uncomfortable position. The superintendent of education for the whole province, who is a non-political officer, is assisted by a council divided into a Roman Catholic and Protestant committee, each with a secretary who is the chief administrative officer for both classes of schools respectively.

These

committees

meet

separately

as a rule,

hough they may, and occasionally do, meet together as a council. Each committee supervises the expenditure of the proportion of public moncy allotted to it, and each has its own

normal school, appoints its own teachers and exercises control by inspectors over its own schools under the general law.. The

_

217

legislative grant for higher education is divided according to population, the Protestants receiving one-seventh; of the grant for normal schools the Protestants receive one-third, and the elementary school branch is divided according to population. This is supplemented by a local municipal taxation through trustees.

In 1918 there were 6,103 elementary schools, with a

teaching staff of 8,189 and a total enrolment of 247,531; the expenditure on education was $14,481,494. A leading feature of the educational system is that all the public schools are denominational. Instruction in religion and morals given in Protestant schools is based on reading from the Old Testament, the Gospels and the Acts, and the children commit tọ memory portions of the Gospels and Psalms, together with the Apostles’ Creed, the Decalogue and the Lord’s Prayer. The religious instruction in the Roman Catholic schools is substantially part of the educational system, the Roman Catholic schools being controlled by the clergy, the episcopate forming, ex officio, one-half of the Catholic section of the council. The chief universities are McGill at Montreal, founded in 1820; Laval (R.C.), founded in 1852, the headquarters being in the city of Quebec; and the newly founded university of Mont-

real, which was formerly the Montreal branch of Laval, McGill University stands very high academically, and has an especially well-equipped department of applied science. Laval has a professorial staff of 79, the university of Montreal sas, and McGill 322. The total numbers of students were in 1918 686, 5.460 and 2,444 respectively.

Bishop’s

College, Lennoxville,

is a small Anglican university in connexion with which is a school on the lines of an English publie school, To McGill is affiliated the well-equipped agricultural college established at Ste. Anne de Bellevue by Sir William Macdonald, who is also noted for his liberal endowment of McGill University: and to Laval an agricultural school at Oka founded by the Trappist Fathers. There are numerous model and normal schools, the most important being that of Ste. Anne de Bellevue in connexion with Macdonald College. A griculture.—In recent years great progress has been made in

agriculture, especially in dairying and live stock. The. products of the soil are abundant, and large quantities of hay and oats are ex-

ported from Montreal and the city of Quebec; live stock, bacon,

heef, eggs, butter, and especially cheese, to the value of millions of . dollars yearly, are also shipped abroad, The field crops reach an annual value of $271,600,c00. Apples, plums and melons are produced in large quantities, together with many varieties of smal!

fruits. Nearly $7,000,000 is realized annually from the maple trees. in sugar and syrup. In 1920 there were 813 butter and cheese fac-

tories worth of the stock

in operation. More than 92,000,000 Ib. of butter and cheese, over $35,000,000, are produced each year. Fully two-thirds tobacco grown in the Dominion comes from Quebec, The Jive of the province was in 1920 valued at more than $205,000,-

ooo, and the total annual value of the ficld crops, principally hay, oats, barley, and some wheat, at about $305,000,000. Forests and Lumber.—Quebec, though second to Ontario in the production of lumber, exceeds it in the value of its pulp and paper

products. Of the enormous forest area but a smal! portion has been cut over, and since Quebec has been a pioneer in scientific methods of forest conservation, copying the method of old France, the timber resources promise to be maintained indefinitely. In the N. the pre-

dominating trees are pine, spruce, fir, and other coniferous varieties, while farther S. appear maple, poplar, basswood, oak and elm trees and many other hardwoods. The value of che lumber cut in 1918 was $20,916,604, of which spruce formed 66-3 °% of the output and white pine 13:1, the other commercial varictics in a smaller way being hemlock, balsam fir, birch and cedar. The capital invested in the lumbering industry amounted to $57,201,820. Fish and Fur.—The value of the annual catch of fish is estimated at $3,000,000, the industry cmploving more than 3,000 men. Fish hatcheries have been established by the Dominion Government at several places for the purpose of stocking the lakes and rivers of

the province. With considerable tidal waters along its coast Quebec may be regarded as one of the Maritime provinces. The principal fish are cod, lobsters, herring, salmon and mackerel. The mainland waters abound in trout, pickerel, whitefish, ptke and sturgeon.

The forests, especially” in the northern part, abound in game, both

fur-bearing and otherwise.

Nearly 200,000 sq. m. of territory in

* These figures.indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

QUEBEC—QUILLER-COUCH

218.

Quebec have been set apart by the Legislature for forest reserve and

for the preservation of fish and game. se is scarcely surpassed in Canada in its interest for sportsmen. In the Laurentides National Park, a district of 2,640 sq. m. N. of Quebec, caribou, partridge and

trout are found in abundance.

Bear and moose are also numerous. Minerals. —Of the econamic mineral product, cement alone yields $3,000,000 annually. Molybdenite was mined extensively, during the World War, in the district of Quyon, Pontiac county, this mine becoming the largest producer in the world. Magnesite, found in the vicinity of Grenville, Argenteuil county, was also a valuable wartime mineral. The annual production of minerals in Quebec is valued at about $23,000,000. . on eet ranks next to Ontario in the amount and value of its manufactures. There is limitless water-power almost everywhere, and at Shawinigan and yee power is being developed for commercial purposes. The chief manufactures are sugar, woollen and cotton goods, pulp and paper, tobacco and cigars, furs and hats, machinery, leather goods, boots and shoes, railway

cars, rifles, musical instruments, cutlery and gunpowder. The annual value of the manufactured products of the province has reached $920,000,000. The pulp mills in 1918 produced 288,952 tons valued at $12,018,258, and the total product of all mills, paper and pulp, was valued at $19,620,051. Paper of all kinds was manufactured to the extent of $27,546,791, of which $17,500,000 was newsprint. The total capital invested amounted to $24,490,175, and 11,793 persons

employed in the industry received $11,546,596 in salaries and wages.

Communications.—The province is well provided with railways. The headquarters of the Canadian Pacific railway is at Montreal,

and various lines of this railway connect Montreal with Toronto, Ottawa, Winnipeg, Vancouver, Quebec and St. John. The Canadian National railways connect Montreal with Halifax, passing across the St. Lawrence at the city of Quebec, and the line from Moncton, in New Brunswick, to Prince Rupert, in British Columbia, also crosses the St. Lawrence at the city of Quebec, and proceeds on its way through the northern part of the province. The National lines connect various local points, and by means of the old Grand Trunk

system reach important centres in the United States, while there are

a number of other railway companies, with lines running in various directions, especially in the extreme eastern section of the province. Both Montreal and Quebec are connected by steamship during the summer months with all parts of the world. The St. Lawrence route, which by reason of its shortness is a favourite both for freight

and passengers proceeding to Europe, has been rendered perfectly safe for navigation. During the summer season steamers ply on the

rivers and inland waters, carrying a great deal of freight and taking care of the tourist trade. (W. L. G.*) QUEBEC

(see 22.727), the oldest city in the Dominion of

Canada, hada pop. of 78,710 in r910 and 116,850 in 1920. Quebec had for some years prior to 1911 been displaced by Montreal in the shipping trade, but after 1911 the older port

steadily improved its commercial and industrial position.

Asa

manufacturing centre Quebec has profited by the cheap electric power supplied from the Shawinigan and Montmorency Falls. The harbour has been improved, and the largest dry-dock in the world has been built at a cost to the Dominion Government of

$7,000,000. Important factors contributing to the increased commercial importance of Quebec were the successful completion of the famous Quebec bridge, and the building of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway from Prince Rupert on the west coast of Canada to Quebec on the cast. The distance from Quebec to. Winnipeg by this railway is 145 m. shorter than that from

Montreal to Winnipeg by any other linc. The Quebec bridge, connecting the north and south shores of the St. Lawrence river at Cap Rouge, 9 m. from the centre of the city, was completed in ror7 by the St, Lawrence Bridge Co, for the Dominion Government. This achievement marked the end of more than 10 yeats of effort, two accidents to portions of the huge structure having delayed the work in 1907 and again in 1917, The > Quebec bridge is larger than the Forth bridge in Scotland, which

was

previously

the world’s

largest bridge.

Its total

length is 3,239 ft., the cantilever span is 1,800 ft. long and the suspended span 640 ft. long. The weight of the suspended span is 5,510 tons, The completion of the bridge made possible the running of six railways simultaneously into Quebec from the south shoré. Quebec has always been a base of supplies for a large region of mines, lumber camps and farms, but has gained

further importance in this regard of late years owing to the rapid development of the water supplies of the province for purposes of electric power, particularly for the manufacture of wood pulp. The Lake Saint John district north of the city, a centre for pulpmilling, finds its outlet through Quebec. Buildings erected

recently in Quebec include a large Government technical school, the erection and equipment of which cost $150,000. QUILLER-COUCH, SIR ARTHUR THOMAS (1863~ ), English man of letters (see 22.750), published subsequently to 1910 The Vigil of Venus and other poems and an anthology,

The Oxford Book of Victorian Verse (1912), as well as books On the Art of Writing (1916), and On the Art of Reading (1920); a memoir of Arthur John Butler (1917); a Volume of Shakespearean studies in 1918; Hocken and Hunken, a new Tale of Troy (1912);

and various collections of short stories, including Hicky-Nan, Reservist (1925).

RACHMANINOFF—RADIOACTIVITY

ACHMANINOFF, SERGEI VASILIEVICH (1873~), Russian composer and pianist, was born at Onega, in Russia, March 20 1873; his grandfather, an excellent pianist, had been a pupil of the Irish musician John Field. He began his studies under his mother, but at nine he became a pupil of Anna Ornadtskaya. In 1882, however, the Rachmaninoff family removed to St. Petersburg, and Sergei entered the Conservatorium, where he remained till 1835, when, on the family again removing to Moscow, he joined the Conserv-

atorlum there, and was on terms of friendship with Scryabin, Siloti, Taneyeff and Arensky. When, in 1892, Rachmaninoff left the Conservatorium, he won the large gold medal for a one-act

opera Aleka and followed it by many other works.

About.

1893 he composed a pianoforte suite, another for two pianos, a dozen songs, his first piano concerto, the symphonic picture The Rock and the elegiac trio on the death of Tschaikovsky. Next there followed his first symphony, produced by Glazounoff at St. Petersburg. In 1897-8 Rachmaninoff became conductor

of Mamoutoff’s private opera, a post he resigned after the season, and in 1899 he came to London to conduct a Royal

Philharmonic concert. A second piano suite, another concerto and a violoncello sonata were quickly composed, and were followed by the one-act opera The Miser Knight (Moscow 1900, Boston 1910) and Francesca da Rimini (Moscow, same evening); during 1904-6 he directed the Moscow Opera, and

from 1906 to 1908 he lved in Dresden as composer and pianist, visiting Paris in 1907. In 1909-10 he visited the United States for the first time, and then returned to Russia, where he wrote

The Island of Death, the D minor piano Sonata, and the third and fourth piano concertos (1909 and 1917).

In 1912 he pro-

duced The Bells, which was produced in Liverpool by Sir Henry J. Wood in 1921. Among his other compositions Spring, for chorus and orchestra, is particularly noteworthy, and his devotional music includes a wonderful setting of the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom (1910). In 1917 Rachmaninoff left Russia, and in 1918 he settled in New York.

RADIOACTIVITY (see 22.793*)—Among points of special interest that have arisen since the earlier article was written may be mentioned the preparation of metallic radium by Mme.

Curie and Debierne by electrolysis of a radium salt with a mercury cathode. Radium resembles metallic barium, melts at about 700° C. and is rapidly attacked when exposed to the air, The atomic weight of radium was found by Mme. Curie to be 226-45, using for the purpose about o 4 gram of pure radium chloride. A recent careful redetermination by Hénigschmid with about one gram of radium gave a value 225-9 and is probably correct to r in 1,000. An International Radium Standard consisting of about 22 milligrams of pure radium chloride has been prepared by Mme. Curie, and is preserved in the Bureau International des Poids ect Mesures at Sèvres, near Paris.

Secondary radium standards have been issued to all governments who wished to purchase them.

These have been calibrated by

‘y-ray methods both in Vienna and Paris and are supposed to be correct within rin 200. During the last few years the purchase and sale of radium have generally been conducted on certificates given in terms of this international standard. The wide use of radium for therapeutic purposes, and its high cost—from £25 to £30 per milligram element—have led to close search for uranium deposits. The amount of radium in an old mineral is always proportional to its content of uranium in the ratio of 3-3 parts of radium by weight to 10 million parts of uranium. Consequently an, old mineral containing 1,000

kgm. of uranium should contain 330 milligrams of pure radium. Initially several grams of radium were separated from the uraninite deposits in Joachimsthal, Bohemia, and some of the material, which was the property of the Austrian Government, was generously loaned to representative workers in radioactivity

in England. A part of this radium is in the charge of the Radium.

219

Institute of Vienna, which is specially devoted to radioactive investigations. The increasing demand for radium has led to the working of low-grade uranium ores on a large commercial scale. Much of the radium to-day is derived from the mineral carnotite, of which there are extensive deposits in Colorado and other parts of the United States. Although the carnotite contains only a few per cent of uranium and a correspondingly small quantity of radium, the separation of the latter is a profitable industry operating on a large scale. Large quantities of radium were employed by the Allies during the World War for night compasses, gun-sights, etc. The radium is mixed with phosphorescent. zinc sulphide to form a paint which becomes continuously luminous, but, owing to the destruction of the zine sulphide by the rays, this luminosity gradually decays. Radium Emanation.—The atomic weight of the radium emanation is now known to be 226 ~4= 222,as was inferred earlier. This was confirmed by direct weighing with micro-balance by Ramsay and Gray. The radium.emanation has proved of great service not only in radioactive researches but also in therapeutic work. The radi salt is dissolved in an acid solution and the emanation is pumped off with the large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen liberated by the action of the radiations on water. After sparking the mixture, the emanation can be purified by condensation with liquid air. A very

intense source of 8 and y radiation can be obtained by introducing the purified emanation into fine capillary tubes. Such emanation needles have been widely used for therapeutic purposes, while the

use of very thin-walled tubes provides a panel at line source of a

rays.

The £ and y activity of such tubes rises to a maximum about

four hours after introduction of the emanation and then decays with the period of the emanation, viz. 3-85 days. The quantity of emanation liberated from one gram of radium is called a curie and from one milligram a millicurig. The quantity of radium emanation in a

tube can be accurately activity with

determined

that of a radium

by comparison of its y-ray

standard, since the penetrating

rays, both from the radium and the emanation in.equilibrium, arise mainly from the same product radium C. As regards other radioactive substances large quantities of mesothorium have been obtained as a by-product in the separation of thorium from monazite sands.

This substance, which is half trans-

formed in about 6-7 years, emits only £ rays, but gives rise to radiothorium and subsequent products which emit a rays and penetrating

Sand y rays.

Asa source of powerful 8 and ¥ radiation, this sub-

stance is very analogous to radium and can be obtained in about the same concentration. Since radium and mesothorium are isotopic elements,

they are always

separated

together.

Most

commercial

soufces of thorium contain also uranium and radium, and consequently radium is always separated with the mesothorium and in relative amount depending upon the proportion of uranium to thorium in the mineral. Since mesothorium has a radioactive life short compared with radium, it commands a smaller price. The amount of mesothorium is standardized by comparison of its y-ray effect with a radium standard. Mme. Curie separated the polonium from several tons of pitchblende and obtained an excecdingly active preparation of a few milligrams, but was unable to obtain it in a pure state, although several of its spectrum lines were detected. It was hoped by this experiment to decide whether

polonium was transformed directly into lead, but

this was found dificult to establish owing to the presence of impurities with the very small quantity of polonium.

The three types of radiation, known as the a, 8, ¥ rays, emitted

by radioactive substances are analogous in many respects to the types of radiation observed when a discharge passes through a vacuum tube, but are of much more penetrating character. It may be noted here that for the electrons in a vacuum tube to obtain the velocity of the swift 8 rays from radium, a potential difference of at least two million volts would have to be applied. The very penetrating y rays are identical in all respects with X rays of very short wavelength. Intense y rays are only observed in substances which emit swift 8 particles, and apparently owe their origin to the passage of the swift 8 particle through the distribution of electrons surrounding the atomic nucleus. To produce X rays as penetrating as the y rays, about two million volts would have to be cut on the discharge tube. The a rays, shown in 1903 by Rutherford to consist of a stream of positively charged atoms projected with high velocity, are now known to consist of charged atoms of helium which are projected with velocities of about 10,000 m. per second. While the majority of products break up with the expulsion either of an a particle or a swift 8 particle, in a few cases no detectable radiation has been observed. Such

products were at first called ‘‘ rayless " products, but the sequence of " These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

RADIOACTIVITY.

220

chemical properties, discussed later, shows that a £ particle must be liberated but at too low a speed to detect with certainty. Actinium and mesothorium are examples of such products. A number of new products have been discovered, particularly in the uranium and actinium series. The results are included in the

appended table of radioactive elements.

TARLE OF RADIOACTIVE

ELEMENTS

Range cms,

Atomie |ATOMKiemert

Weight eig

Uranium-RadiHm Series. | Uranium I. Uranium X3

Uranium If,

Uranium Y (a percent) Tonium

23

gt | 1-15 min.

23

| 230 230

B C D E

Radium F (Polonium) Radium G (endproduct uranium-lead)

|4 5X10 yrs.|

go | 23-8 days 92

Rays | a rays (15 and 760 mm.)

92

Radium 226 Radium Emanation | 222 Radium A 218

Radium Radium Radium Radium

T

238-18]

234

Uranium Xi

Number

|about 2X10

yrs.

a

2-50



Av B, Y



a

2-90

-e f 90 | 24-6 hrs. 90 |ahoutgX1o'}] yrs. 88 | 1700 yrs.

8 a

—3-07

a

3°52

86 | 3°85 days

a’

214 2i4 210 210

84 | 3-05 min. 82|268 min. 83 |195 min, 32 «| 16 yrs. 83 | 4°85 days

210

a

416

af, ¥ B, Y BY

475 — ` 6-904 —_ =-

84 | 136°5 days

a

3°83

206

&2







2321

90

|z22X100 yrs]

Y

Thorium Series. a

2:72

Mesothorium 2 | 228 Radiothorinnt 225 Thorium X 224 Thorium Emanation 220 Thorium A 216 Thorium B 242

Thorium

89 | 6-2 hrs. go | 1-90 yrs. 88 |364 days

B, ¥ a a

4°30

86 | 54 secs. 84 10-14 sec.

a a

5-00 5:70

82

| 10-6 hrs.

8,7



Thorium C Thorium D

83 8r

|6o min. |32 min.

a B,Y

{T _

Mesothorium I | 223

Thorium E (end-product thoriumlead) Actinium Series.

Protoactininm i

212 203

208

§2

239

ọr | about 104 yrs.

Actintunt 226 Radioactinium | 226

Actinium X

Actinium Emanation Actinium A

Actinium B Actinium C

Actinium D Actinium E (end-product actiniua, lead)

83) | G7 yrs,

222

213 214



Bev

= — 3:87





a

3°31

R9 | 20 yrs, 90 | 19 days

ê a

a

— AG

4:26

86 | 3-9 secs, 84 | -002 sec,

a a

5:6 6-3 —

3

[11-2 days

210 210

82 | 36 min. S3 )2-16 min.

8, a

206

Sr | 4-76 min,

B, Y



206

82

=





5°15

¥n the table T is the time-period of a product or the time required for the product to be half transformed. It will be seen-that the value of T, which is a measure of the relative stability of atoms, varies between 2-210" years (Thorium) and -o02 second (Actinium A). The atomic weights and atomic numbers of uranium, radium, uranium-lead, thorium, thorium-lead have been directly determined. The atomic weights and atomic numbers of the others are deduced on the assumption that the expulsion of an « particle (helium atom) of charge 2 and mass q lowers the atomic number of the succeeding

element by 2 units and the atomic weight by 4. The expulsion of a 8 particle raises the atomic number by 1 unit, but it is not sup-

posed to influence the atomic Weight to a detectable degree. Branch Products.—In the great majority of cases each of the radioactive elements breaks up in a definite way, giving rise to one a or § particle and to one atom of the new product. Un-

doubted evidence, however, has been obtained that in a few cases the atoms break up in two or more distinct ways, giving rise to two or more products characterized by different radioactive properties. A branching of the uranium series was carly demanded in order to account for the origin of actinium. While the latter is always found in uranium minerals in constant

proportion with the uranium, Bolt wood showed that the activity of the actinium with its whole series of a-ray products in a uranium mineral was much Jess than that given by a single a-ray

product of the main radium series. The head of the uranium

series is believed to be uranium Y, the branch product of the

uranium series first observed by Antonoff. The branching js supposed to occur in the product uranium X1, 4% going into the actinium branch and the other 96 % into the main uranium series. The atomic weights of actinium given in the table are calculated on this basis. The recently discovered product, proteactiniim, is the hitherto missing link between uranium Y and actinium. The most striking cases of branching occur in the * C ” products of radium, thorium and actinium, each of which breaks up in two or

more distinct ways.

Jn the case. of radium C, a new

substance

called radium Cz was obtained by recoil from a nickel plate coated with radium C. This prout emitted only 8 rays and had a period of 1-4 minutes, Fajans estimated that the amount of the product was only 1/3,000 of that of radium C. To account for these results, the following scheme of transformation has been proposed :—~ Radium

C:

eee

End

I'4 tit

Radadium >

P

19 min.

ggo4ie ò

99), Ore m

2 Radium C, 1076 sec.

ow,

. Radium D __» ete,

where in the main branch a 8 particle is frst expelled, giving rise to radium C, which emits an a particle. The reverse process is assumed ta take place ia the other branch, Radium Ci, which emits a swift a particle, is supposed to have an excecdingly short period of transformation, Itis uncertain whether ihe radium C» branch ends after the expulsion of a 8 particle. The resulting product is an isotope of lead like radium D in the main branch. In the case of thorium C, two sets of a particles are observed, one-

third of the total number of range 5-0 cms., and the remainder of range $-6 centimetres.

Recently another set of rays, about 3/39,000

of the total, has been found by Rutherford and Wood to have the great range in air of 11°3 cms. and has been shown to consist of a particles. These results suggest that the thorium C atom breaks up in three distinct ways, cach marked by the expulsion of an a particle with characteristic but different velocity. Marsden showed that actinium C emits two sets of a particles, 99-84% of range 5-15 cms. and 16° of range 6-4 cms., indicating a dual transformation of actinium C. Jt is quite possible that a close examination of radioactive substances may reveal oiher examples of such complex methods ol transformation, for, after the violent explosion that occurs during the breaking-up of an atom, more than one state of temporary

equilibrium may be possible for the residual atom.

Relation betwden Range of a Rays and Period of Transforntation.— We have seen that each aray product emits « particles of characteristic velocity which have a definite range in air. It was early observed that there appeared to be a connexion between the period of

transformation of a product and the velocity of the a particles

emitted.

The shorter the period of transformation, the swifter 1s the

velocity of expulsion of the a particle. This relation was brought out

clearly sy the measurements of Geiger and Nuttall, where it was

shown that if the loparithm of the range was plotted against the logarithm of A, the constant of transformation, all the points lay nearly on a straight line. A similar result has been observed for the thorium and actinium products. This relation is at present purely empirical and no doubt only approximate, but it is of great interest as indicating a possible relation between the stability of the radioactive nucleus and the velocity of the expelled helium atom. This relation has proved very useful in forming estimates of the

period of transformation of ionium and other substances before the

results of more direct determinations were available.

From this

relation also the change which gives rise to the swift a particle of radium C is believed to be exceedingly rapid, and a similar conclusion js drawn for the products emitting the very swift a particles

from thorium C.,

Chemistry of the Radioelements—Apart from uranium and thorium and a few special cases like radium and polonium, the radioactive products of short life exist in too small quantity to examine by the ordinary chemical methods, but, by the use of the radioactive method of analysis, it was possible te form some

jdea of their chemical behaviour. Certain very interesting points

RADIOACTIVITY soon came to light. Soddy found that the two elements, radium

and mesothorium, although quite dissimilar in radioactive properties, were chemically so identical that it was impossible by chemical methods to separate one from the other. Other cases of this kind had long been suspected, viz. thorium and radiothorium, thorium and ionium, and radium D and lead. He named such inseparable elements isotopes, since they appeared to occupy the same place in the periodic classification of the clements. Following the chemical study of the radiocelements by Soddy, Fleck and von Hevesy, an important generalization connecting

the chemical properties of the radioelements was announced independently in 1913 by Russell, Fajans and Soddy.

After the

expulsion of an a particle from a radioactive substance, the resulting product shifts two places in the direction of diminishing

mass when the elements are arranged in families according to the Mendeleef classification. The expulsion of a 8 particle causes a shift of one place in the opposite direction. For example, by the loss of an a particle from ionium of group IV., the resulting product, radium, belongs to group I., while the loss of another particle gives rise to the emanation which occupies the group O, and so on. By this method the chemical properties of all the known radioelements can be predicted from a knowledge of the radiations emitted from the products. This generalization can be viewed from another important standpoint. From the work of Moseley, the properties

of an element are defined by the atomic number which is believed to represent the resultant positive charge on the nucleus. The loss of an a particle of mass 4, carrying two positive charges,

lowers the atomic number by two units, while the emission of a 8 particle raises it by one unit. On looking through the table of the radioelements given above, it will be seen that many of them can be grouped under the same atomic number.

These represent

the radioactive isotopes, of which some of the more important are given below, preceded by the atomic numbers:— 81 82. 83 84

Tellurium (204), thorium [D (208), actinium D (206). Lead (207), urantum-lead (206), thorium-lead (208), radium D (210), thorium #8 (212), radium B (214), actinium B (210). Bismuth (208), radium E (210). te (210), thorium A (216), radium A (218), actinium A

214).

86 Radian emanation emanation

88

Ste

90

Thorium

X

no

(222).

(222), thortum emanation

(220), actinium

thorium X (224), mesothorium

(228), actinium

(2138).

(232), radiothorium

(228), ionium

(230), uranium

(234), uranium Y (230), radioactinium (226).

X,

Tt will be seen that many of the radioactive elements are isotopic with known chemical elements. These radioactive isotopes differ not only in atomic weight but also in radioactive properties. The isotopes of lead are of special interest as they include the end-products of the uranium,

thorium

and actinium

question that will be discussed more fully later.

series—a

It has been

found that the X-ray spectrum of the y rays from radium B is

identical with that given by ordinary lead exposed to cathode rays in a vacuum tube, a result to be anticipated from the identity of their atomic number. It is of interest to note that polonium is a new type of chemical element which has no counterpart among the ordinary inactive elements. Transformation of Uraninm.—In 1900 the late Sir W. Crookes found that the 8-ray activity of ordinary uranium could be removed by a single chemical operation and concentrated in an active residue. This is due to the separation of the product uranium X, of period 24 days, which emits 8 and y rays. A complete analysis of the transformations of uranium has been a matter of much difficulty.

Boltwood

showed

that the a-ray activity of uranium

was

about

twice as great as that of a corresponding a-ray product in the uranium-radium series, indicating that uranium contained two successive a-ray products. This was confirmed by Geiger, who showed that the a rays from uranium

and

2-9 cms.

uranium

consisted of two groups with ranges 2-5

respectively.

l. and

uranium

These

two

a-ray

Il., are isotopic,

substances,

with atomic

called

weights

238 and 234 respectively. The latter, whose period is estimated at about 2 million years, exists in relatively very small quantity compared with uranium |. Following the generalization connecting the radiations and chemical properties of the series of radioelements, ‘Fajans predicted the presence of a new product with properties analogous to tantalum, and promptly succeeded in isolating it

22I

experimentally. The new product uranium X2, sometimes called brevium, has a period of 1-15 minutes and emits swift £ rays. The serics of changes is thus — Ur. L- Ur. X e> Ur. X > Ur. I] +> Ionium. We have seen that Antonoff discovered another 8-ray substance called uranium Y, separated with uranium X;, which has a period

of 24-6 hours. This exists in too small quantity to be in the main line of succession, but is to be regarded as a branch product of ura-

nium X, and is believed to be the first element of the subsidiary

actinium series.

i

Rutherford and Geiger found the number of a particles emitted per gram of uranium per second to be 2-37 X 10t. From this the period of uranium is calculated to be about 6,000 million years. Thortum.—The first product observed in thorium was the emanation of period 54 seconds, and this gives rise to the active deposit, which has been shown to consist of at least four successive products called thorium A, B. C, D. The emanation, after the emission of an a particle, changes into a product of very short life emitting a rays. lis period was found by Geiger and Moseley to be about 1/10 second. The succeeding product, thorium B, emits only weak £ and y rays with a period of 10-6 hours, changing into thorium C of period one hour. We have seen that thorium C breaks up in a com-

plex way. emitting three distinct groups of particles. Thorium D is readily separated from C-by the method of recoil. It emits pene: trating 8 and y+ rays with a half-period of 3 minutes. The active deposit as a whole decays ultimatcly with the period of thorium B, viz. 10-6 hours. A special interest attaches to the product thorium X, first separated by Rutherford and Soddy, since experiments with it laid the foundation of the general theory of radioactive transformations. A close analysis of thorium has led to the discovery by Hahn of a number of other important products. When the thorium X is separated from a thorium mineral or old thorium preparation, there appears with it another product called mesothorium 1, of period 6:7 years, which is transformed with the emission of weak 8 rays into mesothorium

2, of period 6 hours, which emits swift 8 particles and

penetrating y rays. This changes into an a-ray product, radiothorium, of period 2 years, which is transformed into thorium X, Radiothorium is an isotope of thorium, while mesothorium 1 is an isotope of radium. The radiothortum can readily be separated from a solutign of mesothorium and obtained in a concentrated form.

Mesothorium

when first separated would show a very weak

activity, but in consequence of the growth of its subsequent product radiothorium, its activity would increase for several years. After reaching a maximum it would ultimately decay with the period of mesothorium, viz. 6°7 years. - Actinium.—Actinium of period about 20 years is believed to emit weak @ rays changing into radioactinium, an a-ray product of period 19 days, first separated by Hahn. This changes into actinium X, an a-ray product of period 11 days, discovered by .Godlewski. Then follows the actinium emanation of period 3-9 seconds, which gives rise to four further products named actinium A, B, C, D, Actinium A has the shortest life of any product whose rate of transformation

has been directly determined.

Its period, as determined

by Geiger and Moseley and Fajans, is -o02 second. Atter emitting an a particle, A changes into I, a product of period 36 minutes emitting weak 8 and y rays, analogous to thorium B. Actinium C of period 2°16 minutes undergoes a complex transformation, giving rise to two distinct groups of a particles. The main branch gives rise to actinium D ol period 4-8 minutes, which is readily isolated

by the recoil method. Actinium D, which emits 8 and y rays, is. analogous tn all respects to thorium D. ln the discussion above on branch products it has been shown that the parent of actinium, called protoactinium, has been recently

isolated by Hahn and Soddy. This substance emits a rays and has an estimated period of 10,000 years. We have seen that the actinium series ts believed to have its origin in a dual transformation of uranium X. The first branch product, representing about 4% of the total, is believed to be uranium Y, a -ray product of period one

day. This is directly transformed into protoactinium. While very active preparations of actinium have been made, it

has not been found possible to separate it entirely from the rare earths with which it is mixed. Protoactinium exists in much larger amounts and should be ultimately obtained in a pure state.

End-products of the Transformations (re-stated).—After the radioactive transformations have come to an end, each of the

elements uranium, thorium and actinium should give rise to an end or final product, which may be a known element or an unknown clement of very slow period of transformation. Since the expulsion of an a particle lowers the mass of the atom by four units, and there are vight a-ray products, the atomic weight of

the end atom should be 238—8X4= 206. The atomic weight of radium by this rule should be 238—3 X4= 226, a result in good accord with experiment. The atomic weight of the end-product

of uranium is close to that of lcad, viz. 207, and Boltwood early suggested that lead was the end-product of radium. Since in

RADIOACTIVITY

222

old minerals the transformations have been in progress for intervals measured by millions of years, the end-product should collect and be an invariable companion of the radioclement. Boltwood showed that Icad is always present in old radioactive minerals and in amount to be expected from their uranium content and geologic age. In recent years this problem has been definitely attacked in the light of the chemical gencralization already given. It was clear from this that the end-products of uranium, thorium and actinium should all be isotopes of icad but with atomic weights 206, 208 and 206 respectively.

In other words, uranium-lead if

uncontaminated with ordinary lead should show a smaller atomic weight than ordinary lead (207), while thorium-lead should give a higher value. By the work of Richards, Soddy and Hönigschmid, these conclusions have been definitely confirmed.

The lowest value for uranium-lead is 206, and the highest for thorium-lead 207-7. Since any admixture with ordinary lead tends to give a value nearer 207, these results may be considered as a definite proof of the nature and atomic weight of the end-products. in minerals containing both uranium and thorium the atomic weight of the mixture of the isotopes will depend on the relative amounts of these two elements and their relative rates of transformation. In unaltered

minerals the determination of the amount of lead coupled with its

average atomic weight allows us to determine

the amount ol ura-

nium-lead even if some ordinary lead be present. In this way it should be possible to make a reliable estimate of the age of selected minerals and thus indirectly the age of the geologic strata. The

amount of helium in the mineral givesa minimum estimate of its age, for, except in the most compact minerals, some of the helium

first noted that the a rays produce scintillations when they fall on a screen of phosphorescent zinc sulphide.

It ts now known that each

of these scintillations is due to the impact of a single a

particle.

The number of scintillations can be counted with the aid of a suitable microscope. and this method has proved of great utility in many investigations. Scintillations due to a rays are observed in

certain diamonds, but they are usually not so bright as in zinc sulphide. Kinoshita has shown that a single a particle produces a detectable effect on a photographic plate. When the a rays fall on a plate nearly horizontally the track of the a particle is clearly visible under a high-power microscope. By the expansion method

developed by C. T. R. Wilson, the track of the a particle through the gas is made visible by the condensation of the water on cach of the ions produced. In a similar way the track of a 8 particle can be easily shown. The photographs of these trails bring out in a striking and concrete way not only the individual existence of a and 8 particles, but the main effects produced in their passage through matter. Properties of B andy Rays (re-stated).—We have seen that the B

particles, which are emitted by a number of radioactive products, consist of swift negative electrons spontancously liberated during

the transformation of active matter.

The velocity of expulsion

and the penetrating power of B rays vary widely for different products. For example, the rays from radium B are much more

casily absorbed by matter than the swift 8 rays from radium C. Moseley showed that in the case of these two products each disintegrating atom gave rise on the average to one f particle. There is undoubtedly a close connexion between 8 and y rays, and swift 8 rays are usually accompanied by penetrating Y rays. For example, radium C, which emits very swift 8 rays, some of which reach a velocity more than 0-98 of the velocity of light, gives rise to the most penetrating y rays observed in the uranium-radium series. There is one very notable exception, viz. radium E, which

must undoubtedly escape.

emits swift 8 particles but weak y rays.

Nature and Properties of the a Rays (re-stated).—Although the a rays from active substances are of small penetrating power

cases correspond to the charactcristic X radiations observed by Barkla. The absorption of the y rays has been determined by the

compared with the 8 ory rays, they are responsible for most of the energy evolved by radioactive substances and contribute most of the ionization. Rutherford showed in 1903 that the a rays were deflected in a powerful magnetic and electric field and consisted of positively charged particles projected with

high velocity. From the first it seemed probable that the a particle was an atom of helium and this was subsequently confirmed in a number of ways. The value of e/m—the ratio of the charge on the particle to its mass—and the velocity can be determined from observations on the deflection of the pencil of rays by a magnetic ficld and electric ficlds. In this way Rutherford and Robinson showed that the a particle, whether from the radium emanation, radium A or C, gave a value of e/m=4820 e.nt. units, while the clectrochemical value of e/m= 4826, assuming that the mass of the helium atom is 4-00 and that it carries two

unit positive charges. The magnitude of the charge carried by each particle was measured by Regener and Rutherford and Geiger and found to be twice that carried by the electron. The velocity of the a particles expelled from radium C (of range 7-06 cms.) was found to be 1-92X10% cm. per second, or about 3/15 the velocity of light. From this result the velocity of expulsion of all a particles can be calculated from the relation found by

Geiger, that Vi=KR where V is the velocity of the particle and R its range in air. The evidence indicates that the a particles from active products are in all cases atoms of helium. The a particles from a given product are all emitted with constant

velocity which is already mentioned connected with the laws of absorption

characteristic for that product. We have that the velocity of expulsion appears to be period of transformation of the element. The of the a particle were first worked out by

Bragg and Kleeman. On account of their great energy of motion, the a particle travels in nearly a straight line through the gas,

producing intense ionization along its track. The effects produced by the a particle, whether measured by ionization, phosphorescence or photographic action, vanish suddenly after the a particle

has traversed a definite amount of matter. This definiteness of the end of the range of the a particle of given velocity is remarkable. The range of the a particle is usually expressed in terms of cms. of air traversed at 15° C. and 760 mm. pressure. On account of its great energy of motion the effect due to a single

a particle can be detected in a variety of ways. Sic William Crookes .

Gray has shown that Brays

in passing through matter give rise to y rays, and that these in some

electrical method.

Radium B has been found to emit several groups

of y rays which differ widely in penetrating power.

The greater

part of the rays from radium C consist of penetrating y rays which are exponentially absorbed by matter. The ionization in an elec-

troscope falls off according to the equation I/lo=e~#é whered is the thickness of matter traversed and u the cocfficient of absorption. When lead is used as an absorbing material the value of

#=0-5 for the most penetrating y rays from radium C. The absorption coethcient for different kinds of matter is roughly propor-

tional to the density, indicating that the absorption depends only on the mass of matter traversed. ,

The general evidence indicates that the y rays consist of types of

characteristic radiations which are excited by the passage of the 8 rays through the electronic system of the atom, but the y rays from radium C are far more penetrating than any type of characteristic radiation observed in X rays generated in a vacuum tube. Rutherford and Andrade have determined the spectrum of- the rays from radium B and C by reflection from rock-salt. The

y

most intense lines duc to radium Bare identical in wave-length with the X-ray spectrum of lead. This is to be expected, since radium B is an isotope of lead. The tines due tothe “ K ” characteristic radiation are also observed. General considerations, however, indicate

that the wave-length of the most

penetrating y rays is much

short to resolve or detect by the crystal method.

too

In order to excite

such rays in an X-ray tube potential differences of the order of two

million volts will be necessary. , When the y rays from a product like radium B or radium C are bent by a magnetic field and fall on a photographic plate, a kind of magnetic spectrum is obtained. Superimposed on the continuous spectrum due to particles of all velocities (between certain limits) certain sharp lines are observed, each of which represents a definite group of 8 rays which are emitted at the same speed. The velocity corresponding to cach line in the spectrum has been determined for a number of 8-ray products by Hahn and Miss Meitner. The magnetic spectrum of radium B and radium C was examined in detail by Rutherford and Robinson and more than 50 lines were observed, representing 8 particles projected over a wide range of velocity. The appearance of these lines in the spectrum appears to be connected

with the emission of y rays and is believed to be due to the conversion of the energy of the y ray of definite frequency into the energy of an electron according to the quantum relation. When a thin layer of absorbing material is placed over the source, the primary 8 rays diminish in velocity and the lines become broad and diffuse. At the same time, however, new groups of £ rays are formed by the conversion of y rays into £ rays in passing through the absorbing ma-

terial, and these give well-marked bands on the photographic plate, occupying very nearly the same position as those due to the primary

8 rays before absorption. Results of this kind have an important bearing on the genera! problem of radiation, and give us indications of the facts to be accounted for in dealing with the conversion of swift Ø rays into y rays of high frequency, and vice versa.

RADIOTHERAPY ' Production of Helium—It was stated in the earlier article that, since the particle is an atom of helium, all radioactive matter which emits a particles must produce helium. This has been found to be the case for every a-ray product that has

been examined.

The rate of production of helium by radium in

equilibrium has been measured with accuracy by Dewar, Bolt-

wood and Rutherford.

In terms of the International Radium

Standard, the rate of production of helium by one gram of radium in equilibrium with its three a-ray products has been found to be 164 cub. mm. per year. This value is in excellent

accord with that calculated from the rate of emission of a particles, viz. 163 cub. millimetres.

The rate of production of

helium by the radium emanation, ionium and polonium has been found by Boltwood to be in fair agreement with calculation. Soddy has observed the production of helium by purified uranium,

while Strutt showed that the rate of production of helium in uranium and thorium minerals accorded with calculation. Strutt has made a systematic examination of the amount of

helium present in many minerals and rocks which contain minute quantities of radium and has utilized the results to estimate the age of the geological deposits.

On account of the tendency of

the helium to escape from mincrals in the course of geologic ages, this method gives only a minimum estimate of the age of the mineral, except in the case of very dense and compact

specimens. The measurement of the lead content should ultimately prove a more reliable method of estimating the age. Heat Emission of Radioactive Matter.—As was stated earlier, there is no doubt that the evolution of heat by radium and other radioactive matter is mainly a secondary phenomenon, resulting mainly from the energy of the absorbed radiation. Since the particles have a large kinetic energy and are easily absorbed by matter, all of these particles are stopped by the

radium itself or by the envelope surrounding it and their energy of motion is transformed into heat. The evolution of heat from any type of radioactive matter is thus proportional to the energy of the expelled a particles, together with the energy of

the 8 and y rays absorbed in the envelope.

The energy supplied

by the recoil of the radioactive atom after the expulsion of an These conclusions have been confirmed by the measurements of

Rutherford and Robinson, who found that each of the a-ray prod-

ucts gave a heating effect proportional to the energy of the a particle

The emanation and its products when

removed from radium were responsible for three-quarters of the heating effect of radium in equilibrium. The heating effect of the radium emanation, radium A and radium C decayed at the same rate

as their activity.

From their measurements

earth's surface, but becomes very small over a lake or the sea. Bis_troGRAPHY.—Mme. Curie, Traité de Radzoactiwité (2 vols. | 1910); E. Rutherford,

Radioactive Substances and their Radiations

(1913); St. Meyer and E. V. Schweidler, Radioaktivität (1916); F.

Soddy,

Chemistry of the Radioelements,

parts I. and

II. (1914-5);

see also under “ Radioactivity " in annual Reports of the Chemical Society. (E. Ru.) RADIOTHERAPY.—Since 1910 there have been notable

developments, extending the practice of X-ray treatment (see 28.887) into the wider field now included in radiotherapy, a term which had not then come into general use. Strictly speaking, under this term should be included treatment by all kinds of ` rays; thus treatment by heat, by sun’s rays, by ultra-violet

rays, by X-rays and by the rays of radio-active

substances,

all come under the etymological term of radiotherapy. In practice, however, it is restricted to the application of ultraviolet rays, X-rays and radium rays. Amongst radiologists,

the term has undergone an even sharper definition, so thattadiotherapy is applied by them to treatment with X-rays alone, the terms radiumtherapy (or, in France curietherapy, in honour of the discoverer of radium) being applied to treatment with the rays of radium and other radio-active substances. -

Treatment by means of high frequency currents and diathermy` are included rather under the term electrotherapy. Ultra-violet Rays.—These rays to a large extent are the es-

sential] feature of those forms of medical treatment which depend

upon exposure to sunlight (heliotherapy). Probably this is. not the whole story. Even though heat rays may also play some part, experience of the treatment of wounds by sunlight in France during the World War indicated that a degree of

benefit arises irom exposure to sunlight which cannot be entirely attributable

to warmth

and

ultra-violet

rays.

On the other

hand, in the Finsen light treatment of lupus and in the treatment of tuberculosis at high altitudes, ullra-violet rays probably play a predominant part. It is uncertain how these rays act;

they penetrate but a fraction of a millimetre into the epithelium and yet the fact that in tropical countries where sunlight is great, the white races show a proverbial irritability which does not characterize the pigmented native races, suggests that in:

a particle is about 2°% of the energy of the a particle.

and absorbed 8 and y rays.

223

and thorium in the earth’s crust, has been observed near the

they found that the

total heating effect of radium in equilibrium surrounded by sufficient material to absorb the a rays was 134-7 gram-calories per hour per

the one, effects are produced by the ultra-violet rays which the: pigment of the other is able to eliminate. Certain it is that: under ultra-violet light, persons vary in the appearances they present, those who freckle or tan easily when exposed to sunlight showing the potential freckles or bronzing of their skin

by dark marks which are absent from the skins of those who do not freckle or tan easily. In this connexion, it is noteworthy that those tuberculous persons are said to derive greater benefit from a sojourn at high altitudes who normally tan easily under

gram. Of this, 123-6 gram-calories were due to the a particles, 4:7 to the @ rays and 6-4 to the y rays. The energy of the 8 and y rays comes from radium B and radium C, but on account of their

sunlight, than those who do not.

accuracy. The results, however, show that the energy of the y rays is even greater than that of the 8 rays, and the two together are equal to about 28 % of the energy of the a particles from radium C. Measurements have been made of the heating effect of radium, uranium and thorium and of uranium and thorium minerals. In each case the evolution of heat is of about the magnitude to be

diagnosis when they form those branches of the subject known as radioscopy and radiography, and secondly, for the actual treatment of conditions when diagnosed. Thus by means of:

great penetrating power it is difficult to measure the 8 energy with

expected from the energy of the radiations.

The rays are bactericidal,”

but whether part of their action lies in this direction, is unknown.

X-rays.— The X-rays which were discovered by Röntgen in: 1895 are employed in medicine in two ways, firstly, as an aid to

tadioscopic or radiographic examination it may be found that.

there is a tumour in the chest, and as a result of that diagnosisit may be decided to institute treatment (radiotherapy) bymeans of X-rays or radium rays or the two combined. other elements have been shown to exhibit the property of X-radiation has the advantage that considerable doses can: radioactivity to a detectable degree, viz. potassium and rubidbe employed. It has the disadvantage that the X-rays are ium. Campbell showed that these elements emit only B rays frequently not of sufficiently penetrating power to serve for the and in amount small compared with uranium. This property “treatment of tumours deep within the body. Three varieties appears to be atomic, but no evidence has been obtained of any of X-rays are used, the difference consisting in variations in subsequent changes. If the 6 particle comes from the nucleus wave lengths and in penetrating power. These varieties are. of the atom, potassium should be transformed into an isotope of known clinically as “soft,” “medium” and “hard” X-rays, calcium, and rubidium into an isotope of strontium. the soft rays being those of longer wave length and less pene_ Radioactivity of Ordinary Matter—Apart from the well known radioactive elements of high atomic weight, only two

Radium and thorium have been found to be distributed, but

trating power, and the hard rays being those of shorter wave.

in very minute amount, in the surface rocks and soil of the earth. The emanation from the soil diffuses into the atmosphere and

length and greater penetrating power. The softest X-raysare not used clinically; those employed in the treatment of ring-. worm for example are “medium soft” since it is necessary for: penetration to reach as deeply as the hair follicles. Medium;

causes a small ionization which can be readily measured.

A

penetrating y radiation, no doubt due to the presence of radium

RADIOTHERAPY

224

hard and hard X-rays are used where a layer or mass of tissue some little distance beneath the sarface is to be treated. For the better treatment of new growths removed some distance from the surface of the body, there is a tendency at the

present time (1921) to increase the hardness of the rays to the utmost

extent with the object of producing a radiation

that

approximates in some degree to the gamma rays of radium in penetrating power. Chief amongst the new growths that are the subject of this ‘‘ deep therapy ” with intensely penetrating

X-rays are uterine fibroids. The production of soft to medium X-rays requires an apparatus capable of generating about 100,000 volts, for deep therapy a voltage of about 200,000 is necessary

treatment it becomes necessary to irradiate it through different portals, so that each area of skin shall receive less than the

erythema dose, although the tissue in question gets the full amount that the radiologist wishes to give it; this method of cross fire is largely employed.

Radio-active Substances Treatment by means of radioactive substances largely resolves itself inte treatment by means of the beta and the gamma rays of radium or occasionally mesothorium.

Just as X-rays vary in degree of penetration, so do

the rays of radium. The so-called alpha rays are little penetrating, being stopped by about 33 cm. of air. The beta rays, which are particulate negative electrons, are more penetrating

method employed is essentially use of a series of transformers. It is unnecessary here to enter into a detailed examination

but their penetrating power varies over a wide field, some of the softest being as castly absorbed as alpha rays, some of the hardest approximating to the soft gamma rays in penetrating

of the methods whereby X-ray dosage is determined, but it is obvious that estimation of the dose is one of the most important points in connexion with radiotherapy. In the case of radium,

est of any form of vibration known, and the most penetrating

and the aim of radiologists is to get a still higher voltage.

The

the matter is relatively simple, for the output of rays from the

radium is constant, but in the case of the X-ray bulb, quite apart from

variations in the primary current,

the conditions

of the bulb vary within wide limits, and the output of the bulb in X-rays varices accordingly. An important advance has been made in recent years by the introduction of the Coolidge tube in which by means of a different working principle the output of X-rays can be kept fairly steady. Under all circumstances,

the output of an X-ray bulb is heterogeneous, the bundle of rays emitted is partly penetrating, partly soft, and in order to produce a more or less homogencous bundle of rays for purposes of treatment, it is necessary to climinate the softer varietics

by means of filters. These filters are of different kinds but the chief are: aluminium, zinc, copper and lead. For absorption of the specific secondary radiations produced when gamma or X-rays impinge upon metals, such substances as rubber, gauze, cardboard are used.

When a more or less homogeneous beam has been produced, it is necessary to calculate the dose employed in any given case

for comparison with other cases.

Various

means

have

been

adopted to this end, of which the commonest is the Sabouraud’s

pastille which consists of barium platinum cyanide and changes

power.

Gamma rays are aether vibrations and they, too, vary

in degrec of penetrating power.

Their wave length is the short-

gamma rays can be detected through several inches of lead. The alpha rays are but little used, the only methods of em-

ployment being in the way of radium emanation dissolved in saline solution, or of needles upon which “ active deposit ” from radium emanation has been collected. In cither case the emanation water or the active deposit needles must be introduced into the system—whether intravenously or into the solid tissues— otherwise the alpha rays would have no power to act.

In either

case, too, they act along with the beta and gamma rays produced by the active deposit. Beta radiation is always used in conjunction with gamma radiation, but inasmuch as the ionizing power of the beta ray is about so times as great as that of the gamma ray, it follows that when beta radiation is being employed, the gamma radiation may probably be ignored. Beta radiation is used for merely superficial conditions and the radium salt which supplies it is spread over a flat or curved applicator and is covered with a thin layer of varnish, mica or aluminium or is placed in a thin glass tube; the beta rays which traverse thin solid filters act

upon the tissue in the neighbourhood of which the radium is placed. Instead of a radium salt one of its products, viz. radium emanation, is often employed clinically. No essential difference

is introduced by the ‘use of this emanation excepting that its

colour from green to yellow under a certain dosage of the rays. It was thought at first that this colorimetric test would be generally applicable, but it was soon found that the change is

intensity undergoes a progressive diminution with time since it

not brought out by X-rays of all degrees of penetration and is

conditions of the eyelids, some cutaneous non-malignant tumours

fallacious as a guide to gamma radiation of radium. It is now largely employed as a test of dosage during the X-ray treatment of ringworm and other skin diseases, but it is recognized

and birth-marks, are treated successfully in this way. Gamma radiations are used where deep penctration is required, but the law of inverse squares approximately holds good in their case also, a matter of fundamental importance in treatment. The substances used as filters when radio-active materials are

that it must only be employed with caution, with rays of medium hardness, and for superficial conditions.

Another form of test

falls to half value in 3-85 days.

Early rodent cancer, certain

is electrical (ionto quantimeter) in which the rate of discharge employed in treatment are not quite the same as those used. along with X-rays. Since one of the main objects in employof a charged gold leaf forms a measure of the output of X-rays. ing radium is to utilize the highly penetrating gamma rays, Another method depends upon the chemical reduction of todine from iodoform in a chloroform solution and is probably the the filters employed are generally of the higher atomic weights, most scientifically accurate of all the methods which have been

silver, brass, gold, lead, platinum, and there is some reason for

tion and subsequently to slight bronzing, without blistering or other damage. On the other hand there is no doubt that the

cell; the vulnerability of renal cells differs in the convoluted

believing that the more highly penetrating the rays, (i.e. the devised. Yet other methods depend upon the correlation bedenser the filter through which they have passed) the less is tween the effects produced by X-rays on the one hand and the gamma rays of radium on the other. Here the production of _ undesirable damage suffered by the tissues. Mode of Action of Radiations.—The method by which X-rays identical degrees of fluorescence on the fluorescent screen or of and radium rays produce their effects are not thoroughly undersilver deposit on the photographic plate or of biological effects stood, but it is certain that dosage must vary according to the on the animal cell has been aimed at in standardization. type of cell which it is desired to influence. Thus the vulnerSo far as treatment is concerned, it is obvious that a biological ability of skin is not the same in different individuals nor even test is the most satisfactory. The one commonly used is known in different regions in the same individual; the vulnerability as the “erythema dose,” meaning thereby that dose of X-rays of the squamous cell is not the same as that of the columnar which leads to a reddening of the skin a few days after applica-

and partly because of the

tubules and in the conducting tubules. Even in the fur of animals it is possible to recognize a differentiation, for a certain amount of X-radiation will lead to a destruction of the pigment

operation of the law of inverse squares, 1t is obvious that the

forming cells in the hair of a black rat, while a little more radia-

various cells of the body do not react to radiations in the same degree and partly on this account

skin overa tissue being irradiated may itself receive an injurious

tion will affect the cells themselves. In the former case there is no epilation but the hair comes white instead of black, in the. dose while the tissue in question is receiving the correct dose. Hence when a tissue some distance beneath the surface is under ; latter the hair falls out and baldness results.

RAEMAKERS-—RAILWAYS

225

If the question be carried still further back and the behaviour of the cells themselves under radiation be considercd, it has been found that the rays may act principally, though not cxclusively, upon the nucleus or upon the cytoplasm or upon the

the other are relatively obvious but the dangers are more insidious. Recent work has shown that long continued exposure to minute doses of radiation (in addition to the well-known occasional production of skin cancer} leads to blood changes

cell membrane or upon any paraplastic material within the cell.

which in course of time become a pronounced menace

The greater amount of work in this direction has been carried out with radium but there is little doubt that the effects of X-rays are similar. In part, changes are produced owing to the fact that the radiations break down complex chemical substances into simpler constituents. In this way, the osmotic tension of the cell or nucleus affected is raised and a dropsical condition results which can often be recognized microscopically. Other forms of degencrative change produced are fatty and mucoid. Thus radiation, if in great doses, will lead to fatty change in

voluntary muscle of man and most animals or in renal cells of the cat. Under large doses of radium, mucoid changes are excessively common in all parts which normally produce mucus, but in addition, there is a great tendency for cells which ordi-

narily do not form mucus to undergo mucoid degeneration. Sometimes the cytoplasm of the cells disappears, though not obviously by way of either of these changes, with the result that the nucleus lies naked in the middle of the cell and separated from the cell membrane by a considerable distance. So far

as the nucleus is concerned, changes produced by radiations may be intense. In cells such as those of testicle or intestine which are often found in mitotic division, mitosis is arrested or

abolished.

In other nuclei there may be evidence of vacuola-

tion or the nucleus may be converted into a mere empty sac, or the nuclear membrane may disappear, or the entire nucleus may be represented by a few points of stained material or,

finally, the nucleus may disappear altogether. Thus in one or other way, changes are produced as the result of irradiation in the tissues upon which those rays impinge and

to life.

Not only are red and white blood cells destroyed, but the rays appear to exert a deleterious eflect upon the blood-forming tissues with the result that an aplastic anemia

becomes estab-

lished. Obviously, the protection of the personnel in hospitals and similar institutions where X-rays and radium are used becomes a matter of great importance. It is probable that X-rays and radium will always continue to be employed side by side owing to the special advantage which each form of radiation possesses, and in some cases it is certain that the best results are obtained in combination. It will have appeared from what has been said above that radiotherapy is largely—though by no means exclusively— concerned with the treatment of new growths. Irradiation

by one or other method is used in cases of uterine fibroid and in cases of inoperable cancer, sometimes with astonishingly good results. It is also used in conjunction with operation for cancer with the object of warding off recurrences. Sometimes cancers, inoperable when they first come under observation, are rendered operable by treatment with radium. And, frequently, when surgery has done all that is possible a considerable degree of relief is given by irradiation. In addition to their usc in the treatment of new growths, X-rays and radium have been tried in most of the chronic forms of disease. When surgery or medicine fails tọ relicve a case, it is usual to try irradiation.

Sometimes

the results are sur-

prisingly beneficial, but the limits of utility of the rays sull need to be determined.

RAEMAKERS,

LOUIS

(W. S. L-B.)

(1869-

), Dutch

cartoonist, was

the effects produced will depend upon (1) the type of cells affected, (2). the quantity of rays employed, (3) the length of time those rays have acted. It must be remembered that the biological cell usually acts in one or other of two opposite directions when exposed to a physical agent according to the intensity with which the agent acts. Thus we distinguish between a stimulating or beneficial elect and an irritative or injurious effect. There is reason to believe that both of these may follow upon irradiation. In the case of malignant new growths, there is no doubt that death and destruction of the neoplastic cells occur where the rays act in all their intensity, but there is equally no doubt that because of the law of inverse squares and the specific absorption by the tissues a point is reached at which the injurious effect on the malignant cells which we desire passes into a stimulant effect which we may have reason to deplore. If this stimulus act on young and actively growing malignant cells at the periphery of the growth our irradiation will do more harm than good to the patient. There can be little doubt that in the early days of

born at Roermond, Holland, April 6 1869. He received his education in art at various schools, and finally at Amsterdam, where he obtained several prizes. He subsequently became director of an art school at Wageningen, in Gelderland. About 1908 he started drawing political cartoons, but it was not until the outbreak of war in 1914 that his work attained world-wide reputation, by his anti-German cartoons, illustrative of the devastation of Belgium and Northern France. Many special exhibitions of his war cartoons were held, and his work had a great eflect as propaganda. Several volumes of his work have

radiotherapy, some cases of malignant disease ran a more rapid course as the result of the irradiation treatment than otherwise they would have done. For this reason, the essential point

Cuffley on April 4 r9to. On the same date the Ashenden-Aynho line of the Great Western railway was brought into use for

of their treatment by means of radium consists in an endeavour to deal with the peripheral neoplastic cells. On the other hand, changes may be produced in cells which we are unable to recognize microscopically. Recently the treatment of exophthalmic goitre has been largely and for the most

afford an altcrnative route into London avoiding duplication

part, successfully, carried out by irradiation

and yet if the

thyroid body be examined from animals exposed for many

radiation

produces

marked

changes

Unirep Kincpom.—In i910 British railways had reached a high standard of completeness and development, and, although a number of new lines were subsequently brought into use, two

only are of primary importance in regard to through main-line traffic. One of these is the first section of the Enfield-Stevenage line of the Great Northern railway, opened for traffic as far as

goods traffic.

The former was part of a new line designed to

of the Welwyn Viaduct and, by adopting a new route, opening up a new district near London for suburban development. From 1916 onwards the northern portion was Jaid with a single line and used for goods traffic, and towards the end of 1920 a second

track was laid.

In June 1921 this section had not yet been

opened for passenger traffic, but was already being largely used

derived

for goods and mineral trains. The Ashenden-Aynho line was, however, on July 1 1910, brought inlo regular use as part of a shortened main route between London and Birmingham, and a two-hourly schedule then came into force for the principal Great Western expresses.

spermatozoa. that radiotherapy the disadvantages

Among other important new lines brought into use the following may be mentioned: June 1 1910, Filton Junction and Avonmouth Docks, and the Camerton and Limpley Stoke lines, G.W-.R.;

hours to the gamma radiations of radium bromide, it may be doubtful whether histological changes can be detected. Similarly, intense gamma radiation of the male frog produces no testicular changes that can be detected with certainty, and yet far less in the tadpoles

from normal ova fertilized by such radiated It follows from what has been said above, is not without its special dangers. Amongst to which the irradiations may give rise, too

been published: he Great War in 19716; The Great War in 1917; Derant Histoire (1918); Cartoon History of the War (1919). RAILWAYS (sce 22.819; also Licur RAILWAys, MILITARY).—

extensive destruc-

tion of tissue on the one hand or stimulation of new growth on

Armagh,

Keady & Castleblaney

railway, worked

by G.N.R.

(.),

completed December 1 1910; April 13 1911, Shropshire & Montgomeryshire light railway; May 12 1911, Lampeter and Aberayron

=-RAILWAYS

226

line, G.W.R.; May 1 1912, Goole and Selby line, N.E.R.; June 3 192, Dearne Vailey railway (worked by L. & Y.R.); June 16 1913, Mansfeld railway opened for goods traffic, and on April 2 1917 for passenger trafic (worked by G.C.R.); and July 1 1913, Kirkstead and Little Steeping Line, G.N.R. On July 1 1912 the London &

on June 26 1914; and the opening of a new lock entrance, designed to enable the largest vessels to enter at all states of the tide, at Newport,

North-Western railway brought into use a part of the ‘“ Watford new lines,” and the branch to Croxley Green, the remainder being

and the old works at Nine Elms dismantled and the area thus

opened on Feb, 17 1913. On June 2 1913 the Great Western railway opened part of the remarkable series of lines designed to improve

railway communication in South Wales and referred to generally as

the Swansea District lines. Other sections were added at various later dates. On Sept. 26 1915 the North British railway brought into use a series of new lines in the Edinburgh district, designed mainly to facilitate mineral trafic working, known as the New Lothian lines. On May 22 1916 the Great Central railway opened

the Keadby deviation line, including a new bridge over the Trent with a Scherzer rolling-lilt bridge a 200 ft. span, In duly 1915 2 section of the old Ravenglass and Eskdale railway in Cumberland was reopened on the 15-inch gauge, using locomotives of model or * exhibition ” types, but catering to public passenger and goods traffic. Extensive reconstruction works at Waterloo, L. & S.W.R., were nearing completion in 1921. Electric Railway Extensions and New Lines.—On July 27 1912 the Central London railway was extended to Liverpool Street. On December 1 1913 the “ Bakerloo " section of the London Electric

railway was extended to Paddington, and on February 11 1915 to Queen's Park, there connecting with the L. & N.W.R. On April 6 1914 the loop under the river at Charing Cross on the ‘‘ Hampstead "

section of the London Electric railway was brought into use. On May 31 1915 the four-track section, from Finchley Road to Harrow, of the Metropolitan railway was completed over Kilburn Viaduct. On Aug. 3 1920 the Ealing and Shepherd's Bush railway, connecting the Central London railway at Wood Lane with the G.W.R. at Ealing

Broadway, was completed |and opened for traffic. Railway Electrification (see also ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING).—

Equipment of existing railways for electric working has been considerably extended. On May 12 1911 the L.B. & S.C.R. commenced to work electric trains between Victoria and the Crystal Palace. On March r 1912 the London Bridge routes via Tulse Hill were added, the complete electric service becoming operative on June r 1912. Since that date equipment of various other routes has been jn hand

but owing to interruption of the war no further sections are yet electrically operated. On the London & South-Western railway

electric traction was inaugurated between Waterloo and Wimbledon, zta East Putney, on Oct. 25 1915; on the Kingston ‘‘ Roundabout " route Jan. 30 1916; on the Hounslow loop March 12 1916; to Hampton Court June 15 3916; and to Claygate Nov. 20 1916. Electric

Alexandra Docks & Railway, on July 14 1914.

New Locomotive Works.—During rot and 191r the new locomo-

tive works at Eastleigh of the L. &

5.W.R. wcre brought into use,

cleared handed over to the Goods Department.

Stratford in 1914-6. Signalling —Automatic and power signalling had already become weil established in 1910, but only a limited amount of further development can be recorded. In Jan. 1911 two-position upper-quadrant electric signals were introduced on the Metropolitan railway, and have since been adopted where semaphores are retained on the “ Underground '’ sections. On the Keadby deviation line of the G.C.R., already mentioned, three-position upper-quadrant signals have been in use since May 1916, while the Ealing & Shepherd's Bush railway is the first line in the United Kingdom to be opened with all signals of this type. In Jan. 1920 a complete power signalhing installation on threc-position upper-quadrant principles was brought into use at Victoria, S.E. & C.R. Express-Train .Ruining—During the years 1910-4 express passenger-train facilities reached their highest level, and the timetables arranged for the summer of 1914 showed the following numbers of non-stop runs of 100 m. or more: Caledonian railway 10 runs, the three longest being between Carlisle and Perth, 1503 m.; Great Eastern railway 7 runs, the two longest being of 131 m. between Liverpool Street and North Walsham; Great Northern railway 29

runs, the longest being from Wakefield to King's Cross, 1752 m.; Great Central railway 6 runs, the longest being from London to

Sheffield, 1644 m.; Great Western railway 40 runs, the longest from Paddington to Plymouth (North Road), 2252 m.: London cr South-

Western railway 4 runs, three of which were operated between Water-

loo and Bournemouth (Central), 108 m.; London & North-Western railway 74 runs, the longest being between Euston and Rhyl, 209} m.; Afidiand railway 25 runs, the longest from St. Pancras to Shipley (a stop to change engines only, not advertised)

as the specially constructed joint rolling stock began to be delivered after the war from the makers.

During 1919 L. & N.W.R. electric

trains began to work from Broad Street to Watford via Hampstead Heath. Work was in 1921 well advanced upon the new “ tube” tunnel under Primrose Hill and the entire reconstruction of L. & N.W.R., lines at Chalk Farm to enable “ flying" or ‘ burrowing "’ connexions to be made between the Euston and Broad Street routes and between the three sets of running lines, but electric operation could not be inaugurated via Chalk Farm and from Euston until this was Sulficiently completed.

On March 31 1912 Metropolitan railway

electric trains commenced

to work over the East London

rajlway

between Shoreditch and the two New Cross stations, with through trains, via Aldgate East, to and from Hammersmith. Principal developments in regard to electric traction in the provinces are the

electrification in 1916 of the Newport-Shildon section of the NorthEastern railway to enable heavy mineral traffic to be ora by

electric instead of steam locomotives, and of the L. & Y.R. route from Manchester (Victoria) to Bury, via Prestwich, in Feb. 1916, following the experimental high-tension electrification between

Bury and Holcombe Brook which had been used from July 1913. Mention may also be made of the installation in 1911 of escalators at Earl's Court, connecting the “ Piccadilly ”’ section of the London Electric railway with the Metropolitan District station above. Escalators were also provided at Liverpool Street on the opening of

the Central London railway extension in July 1912, since which date these have been systematically adopted at all new tube railway stations. They have also been introduced at several existing stations, as at Oxford Circus, London Electric railway, and on the L. & S.W.R. at Waterloo to connect the Waterloo and City station with the terminus above. ,

Dock Improvements. —Principal developments in regard to dock

and similar facilities affecting railways are the opening of Immingham Dock, G.C.R. (by the King and Queen) on July 22 1912; of the new Methil Docks, N.B.R., on Jan. 22 1913; of the King George Dock at Hull, H, & B, and N.E. railways (by the King and Queen)

206 m.;

North-

Eastern railway 14 runs, all between Newcastle and Edinburgh, working through over N.B.R. north of Berwick, 1244 m. Average speeds for the best of these runs were respectively: C.R. 49-7; E.R. 49-7; G.N.R. 57; G.C.R. 55-85; G.W.R. 54-8; L. & S.W.R. 54; L. & N.W.R, 52-7; M.R. 50°86; and N.E.R. 54:1 m.p.h. On several of these lines, however, trains making somewhat shorter runs provided even higher averages. The following non-stop runs exceeding 55 m.p.h. may be noted :— p

Miles

working on the North London and L, & N.W. railways was com-

menced between Willesden Junction and Earl's Court on May I 1914, and between Broad Street and Richmond and Kew Bridge on Oct. § 1916. On May 1o 1915 the London Efectric railway commenced to work through to Willesden Junction ta Queen's Park, and from April 18 1917 this service was continued to Watford over the “ Watford New Lines,” though it was not until ti that the L. & N.W-R. was able to take its share in the working of this service,

The Great Eastern

railway added several new workshops to the rolling-stock plant at

a

A ON Par weomm Fe G. N. EZDI C, R. R MRG E. G.E.R,

QmN

Darlington to York

Min-

ee

Average

.

O17

St., Nottingham ‘ Dorchester to Wareham Paddington to Bristol . Willesden to Coventry Grantham to King’s Cross . h F Forfar to Perth St. Pancras to Kettering Halesworth to Wood-

61-3 60 59:2 57°7

Leicester to Arkwright

bridge

.

Manchester Derby .

.

:

to West :

5

;

It may be remarked that the short L. & SWR. qun mentioned was due to an error in time-table compilation, but was worked to for some time. The S.E. & C.R., L. & Y.R., and G. & S.W.R. had runs exceeding 54 m.p.h., while the Great Southern & Western and the Great Northern railways in Ireland, the L.B. & S.C.R., the London, Tilbury & Southend section of the Midland railway, and the Hull & Barnsley railway also had runs averaging 50 m.p.h. or over. Many of the runs mentioned had been operated for several years before the outbreak of war in 1914, but in two cases at least, the

highest level was reached between i910 and 1914.

Great Western railway, the opening

Thus, on the

of the Ashenden-Aynho line,

shortening the distance between London and Birmingham to 110} m.,

provided four down non-stop trains in the even two hours. These conveyed from one to three slip coaches, detached at Banbury, Leamington or Knowle, but the over-all time of two hours was also iven to several up trains, though these had to include stops at eamington or Banbury or both. On the London & North-Western

railway a number of London-Birmingham trains were similarly accelerated to 120 minutes for the distance of 113 miles. On the London &

South-Western railway two hours became the standard for Waterloo-

Bournemouth non-stop trains as from July 3 1911. Train Service Pee TE following developments in train service facilities may he noted. On Feb. 1 1910 the L. & N.W.R. introduced ‘‘city-to-city"’ expresses between Wolverhampton and Birmingham and Broad Street. A novelty on these trains was the

provision of a typewriting compartment, in charge of a qualified stenographer. In the following May similar arrangements were

RAILWAYS introduced on certain Birmingham-Euston expresses.

In July 1910

restaurant cars were introduced on through trains between

chester, Birkenhead L. & S.W. railways.

Man-

and Bournemouth, L. & N.W., G.W., and In July 1910 certain Midland Anglo-Scottish

expresses were diverted to run over the L. & N.W.R. between Pen-

227

been “drunk in the police-court sense,’ and he was then reinstated. In March 1913 the National Union of Ratlwaymen was formed from the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, the General Rail-

way Workers’ Union, and the United Signalmen's and Pointsmen’s Society. In Oct. 1913 a Royal Commission on Railways began its

rith and Carlisle. At the same time several Caledonian expresses to and from Aberdeen began to use Glasgow Central Station instead of

sittings, which were not completed at the outbreak of the war,

trains via the Ashenden-Aynho line between Wolverhampton and

from which date the methods of preparing the annual returns of all railway companies were unified and systematized, and the previous half-yearly periods, with their Scottish variations, gave place to accounts and returns for the calendar year, providing for annual mectings in Feb. in every case. The year 1913 is the only one for which complete accounts and returns were prepared in accordance with the Act, the conditions of railway control and guarantee during and subsequent to the war having prevented later returns being presented in complete form. Indeed, during the actual war period

Buchanan Street.

In Oct. 1910 the G.W.R. introduced through

Victoria, S.E. & C.R.

In July 1910 the L. & S.W.R. improved their

Southampton-Havre route to the European Continent. In May I9t1! the S.E. & C.R. Continental service from Queenborough to Flushing was transferred to Folkestone.

On June 1 r911 tea cars were intro-

duced on the afternoon expresses between London and Manchester

and Liverpool, L. & N.W.R. From July 3 1911 through carriages forming parts of S.E. & C.R. Kent Coast and other expresses were run to and from King’s Cross, G.N.R. On the same date the N.E.R. introduced hourly expresses between Newcastle, Sunderland, West Hartlepool, Stockton and Middlesbrough. In March 1910 Metropolitan District trains commenced to work through over the Metropolitan railway to Uxbridge, and in June of the same year Troup trains between Ealing and Southend were added. In July 1913 the

G.W.R. introduced the ‘ Devon and Cornwall Special ” express (third class only) between London and the West of England.

Pullman Cars.—Hitherto used only on the L.B. & S.C.R., on March 21 1910 Pullman cars were added to certain S.E. & C.R. Continental expresses via Dover, and in the following December to those via Folkestone. In Junc 1910 they were adopted by the Metropolitan railway on the extension line to Aylesbury. In June 1914 Pullman cars were introduced on a considerable scale by the Caledonian railway, some of them replacing first- and thirdclass restaurant cars, while others were available only for first-class assengers on payment of a supplement as usual. In Sept. 1915 the

EB. & S.C.R. added third-class Pullman cars to certain trains,

From June 16 1919 Pullman cars were added to Folkestone and Kent Coast expresses, SE. & C.R. In July 1921 the S.E. & C.R. added a special Pullman express, the ‘‘ Thanet Limited,” between

Victoria and Ramsgate Harbour on Sundays. Pullman cars began to run on the G.E.R.

From Nov. I1 1920

Both first- and second-

class cars now run on its Continental expresses, and first- and third-

class cars on other routes. Withdrawal of Second-Class Accommodation.—Several railways had already withdrawn second-class accommodation, partially or wholly, before 1910, but in Oct. of that year the G.W.R. discontinued provision for second-class passengers. From June 1 1911 the L.B. & S.C.R. adopted the same course; the L. & N.W.R., Cambrian, North Staffordshire, and Maryport & Carlisle from Jan. 1912, and from July 22 1918 the L. & S.W.R. Season Tickeis.—In regard to season tickets several interesting

items may be referred to. In May rgro the G.W.R. commenced to issue season tickets at stations on application. In Dec. of the same year the G.N.R. discontinued calling for deposits on season tickets, this practice being now gencral on most lines. From Jan. 1 1912 the

Metropolitan railway issued “ limited season tickets "’ to the wives of season-ticket holders, a corollary to the shopping tickets which had been issued from Jan. 1910, available only between 10 A.M. and 4 P.M, the first-class fares being little more than for third class. Working Arrangements.—Several important working arrangements and agreements between leading railways were already in

operation as between the L. & N.W., L. & Y. and Midland railways, and in May 1910 a similar working arrangement was entered into between the G.W. and L. & S.W. railways. In Aug. 1912 the London,

Tilbury & Southend railway pany, being thereafter known same year the Great Northern the Metropolitan system, and

was taken over by the Midland comas the L.T. & S. section. In Oct. of the & City railway was incorporated into in Nov. 1912 the City & South London

and Central London railways were brought into the group controlled

by the Underground Electric Railways Co. of London, Ltd. In Jan. 1915 a reorganization of the ‘‘ Underground ” companies, co-

ordinating the several managements, was adopted.

In April of the

same year the Great Eastern railway adopted a reorganization of the chief departments, while the operating and commercial departments were separated as from July I IgI5. Strikes, etc.—In Aug. 1911 there wasa short strike of railwaymen which led to the appointment of a special Royal Commission. The principal result of this was the establrshment of Conciliation Boards, including representatives of the respective managements, of the various grades of staff and of the Board of Trade, for the purpose of dealing with questions of pay, duties and other problems affecting railway staff. In Sept. 1911 there was a strike of Irish railwaymen. In March 1912 a coat strike entailed many difficulties upon the railways, the Great Eastern being the only large company which was able to maintain approximately full train services throughout. In Dec. of the same year there was a strike on the North-Eastern railway owing to the suspension of a driver named Knox, for alleged drunkenness, but this did not spread to any serious extent. Knox was actually fined for being drunk by the Newcastle magistrates on Oct. 26. He was off duty at the time. But eventually an inquiry b Mr. Chester Jones, the London police-magistrate, resulted in his

reporting (Dec. 14) that Knox (though “ not quite sober") had not

Railway (Accounts and Returns) Act 1911.—Commencing Jan. 1

1913, the Railway (Accounts and Returns) Act 1911 came into force,

the accounts and returns were reduced to bare essentials, and tables are still necessarily in abeyance.

some

“ Safety First." —In tot4 the Great Western railway adopted systematic “ Safety First" propaganda, immediately followed by the London ‘“ Underground ” railways, and since that date the matter has been closely followed up by other companies, several having

issued publications tọ their staff setting forth ‘‘ Safety First” principles, On Dee. 1 1916 the London “ Safety First ” Council was constituted, including representatives of several railways.

Locomotive Development.—Superheating was already recognized as a desirable feature of locomotive practice in Igto, and has since

become firmly established as an essential part of almost every locomotive design, including tank and shunting as well as main-line

pa eree and goods classes. The Schmidt and Robinson types are ath widely employed, the former in the hands of the firm known as Marine & Locomotive Superheaters, Ltd., and the latter in those of the Superheater Corp., Ltd. Both have been developed, and. dampers or draft retarders are now seldom employed, improved designs of release, snifting and other valves or adjuncts, or the use of a steam circulating system, being found to meet the needs of the

situation. The designs mainly used in each case are the types A and B of the respective firms. Several other designs are, however, now in

considerable use; Mr. G. J. Churchward’s ‘‘ Swindon" apparatus on the Great Western railway; Mr. G. Hughes's ‘‘ top and bottom header" and ‘twin plug header"’ designs on the Lancashire &Yorkshire railway; Mr. R. W. Urie’s ‘' Eastleigh ’’ superheater on the London & South-Western railway; Mr. H. N. Gresley’s “ twin-

tube" superheater on the Great Northern railway; Mr. R. E. L.

Maunsell’s special form of header (MI.L.S. superheater, Type C) on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway; and Mr. E. A. Watson's

design on the Great Southern & Western railway of Ireland.

Mr.

J. G. Robinson, of course, uses the * Robinson"’ pattern on the Great Central railway and his designs are largely used also on other railways. High-degree superheating is now invariably employed. Feedwater heating is used to a limited extent on certain lines. and the Weir apparatus has been experimentally installed on several

others, but the practice is still far from general. The use of oil for fuel continues to be the subject of experiment, but is still exceptional, though during the 192r coal strike engines were adapted on many lines. Mention may be made of trials of the “ Scarab” system on the L. & N.W.R. and other lines, while on the Great Central railway Mr. J. G. Robinson is stated to have obtained notable results {rom

pulverized fuel and a “colloidal” mixture of pulverized coal and

oil, also with the ' Unolco” oil-burning equipment. Recent locomotive practice tends towards the systematic adoption of the 4-6-0 type for express and ordinary passenger and fastgoods locomotives, while the 2-6-0 type has appeared on several lines for mixed-traffic duties. The former is often associated with the use of four high-pressure cylinders, and on several railways three-cylinder locomotives of various types have been placed in service, but the ordinary two-cylinder system is still the most general. Walschaert valve gear is becoming more and more widely used. On many railways large tank engines have been introduced, notably of the 4-6-2, 2-6-4, 4-4-4, 0-6-4, and 4-6-4 wheel arrangements, with o-8-2 and 2-8-0 locomotives for heavy local goods and shunting work.

Rolling Stock.—In the carriage department there have been no

special developments since 1910, though improvements in designs already in use have, of course, been made. To some extent, steel panels are being employed, and for electric rolling stock steel con-

struction is now largely used. On the L. & Y-R. all-steel coaches are

used on the Manchester-Bury electric route. To provide for rapid detraining and entraining of passengers at busy ‘‘ Underground " stations, new designs of rolling stock have been adopted, including three sets of double doors on each side, one midway and the others

towards, but some distance from, the ends. Steadying pillars and hand-holds are superseding the straps hitherto provided for the convenience of standing passengers. On the goods and mineral side no special developments in rolling stock need to be referred to, except that the use of high-capacity wagons up to §0 tons’ capacity is extending, though as yet to a limited extent only.

Miscellaneous.—During 1910 express locomotives of the G.W. and L. & N.W. railways were exchanged for comparative trial; also

228

RAILWAYS

between the Highland and North British, the L. & N.W. and North , Railway Agreements, whose report was issued early in rg21, but’

British, and the Great Southern & Western and Great Northern in

Ireland, On April 4 1914 the well-known horse

&

i

p

r

Dandy," which had | during the period of hostilities, and notwithstanding the very

so long worked the Port Carlisle branch of the North British railway, |wide und to some extent undefined scope of control which was at last gave place to a steam train. On Dec. 19 1915 occurred the | eventually forced upon the Railway Executive Committee, the disastrous landslide at” The Warren,” Folkestone, necessitating the arrangements made by the Committee on behalf of the State

Ga hi ew o So a

a

ae ‘with the railway companies are generally regarded to have been

:

“|

reasonable and equitable. The Government Profit on Railways—It may be pointed out Railway Executive Commiltee-—As far back as 1865 an Engi- that, according to a Government return issued under date of neer and Railway Staff Corps had been formed to provide an April 30 1919, if all Government traffic had been charged for at organization of railway managers, engineers and contractors | authorized pre-war rates the amounts would have been as folBRITISH RAILWAYS UNDER WAR CONDITIONS

who, in the event of war, would, under the direction of the miti-

lows for the periods stated:—

tary authorities, superintend the operation of railways and carry

Aug. uS

out such additional works as might be necessary.

In 1896 the | Yearigi6

Army Railway Council was constituted, this body being known

from 1903 a8 the War Railway Council.

3E I9

|

Year 1917

e

From these bodies was | Year 1918.

* aa Tey hrany Tarr | formed3 in Nov, 19124 thea Railway Executive Committee, com

prising the general managers of certain leading railways.



oe a

It may be explained that this Committee was never intended to of railways,

ce

ac

ee

5

RS

fe

he

oe

ne.

649/126 35698554

GTZ 024 _,,

to Dec. 31 1915

England, Scotland and Wales were taken over by the Govern- | Year Hoty ment under the Regulation of the Forces Act 1871, and directed | Year 1918 on behalf of the State by the Railway Executive Committee. management

“me.

35



D0

£112,043,808

ment had to provide by way of compensation were:—

Aug. 4 1914, on the declaration of war, nearly all railways in

the actual

]

For the corresponding periods the amounts which the Govern:

work of the Committee was mainly advisory, but included certain preparatory measures which bore good fruit when, on

supersede

ff]

.

Total

The

a‘

||

.

-

ke

es kek

RS we

3

aa

E

2...

.

e 1075.76 8 4 251.3.26

l

Total

©. a

a

a

.

a

£5,313,607

but to issue

Beside the actual working of the railways, the use of railway

directions and to coérdinate the working of all lines concerned as required by the various emergencies as they arose. Otherwise, and notwithstanding the many uncontemplated developments in the scope and operation of the Committee throughout the war period, the ruling principle was always that the officers of the respective railways should continue to operate their lines without State interference. Railway Control and Guarantee —The Act of 1841 provided that, to avoid the complexities of payment for services rendered

steamers, docks, canals, etc., represented a value estimated at from £10,000,000 to {15,000,000, while munition and similar

work done (to the value of about £17,000,000) in railway workshops at cost price and therefore without profit to the companies, also the provision of locomotives, rolling stock, permanent wavy, etc., for use overseas, indicate the complexities of the arrange-

ments ultimately entailed and the tremendous scope the utilization of the home railways for war purposes eventually attuined,

a L

The Irish railways were not concerned at first in the Government control and guarantee. They were, however, taken over under similar conditions from Jan. 1 1917. The appended table shows the manner in which the control of railways in association

and other difficulties which necessarily would have arisen, the Government guaranteed to make up any ascertained deficiency

in the aggregate net receipts of all the railways taken over as compared with the aggregate

for the corresponding period of

with the Government guarantee operated, In other words, the aggregate of all the freight, munition, troop ancl passenger trafic carried on Government account, if

1913. Throughout the war period, therefore, all ordinary financlal arrangements on the operating side ceased, and the work of the Railway Clearing House in regard to the division of receipts according to ownership of lines and various arrangements between companics was discontinued. The original agreement provided for adjustment according to the conditions dur-

charged for, would greatly have exceeded the sum payable by the Government to bring up the annual net receipts to the preIt has to be remembered, however, that arrears of

war level.

maintenance and cost of replacement of stock, etc., apart from

ing the first half of the year ror4 as compared with the corre-

what was essential at the time, could not figure very prominently in the accounts until after the termination of hostilities. After the

sponding period in 1913, but, when the question of war bonuses to railway workers to meet the higher cost of living arose early

Armistice, however, heavy costs were entajled under these and

in 1915, it was agreed that this proviso should cease to operate in consideration of the first 25% of the war bonus conceded in

other headings, while the reduction of Government trafhe to the relatively very small figures of the post-war period converted the Feb, 1915 being borne entirely by the companies, though all | profit of the war years into a scrious deficit. The fact remains, subsequent increases were undertaken by the State. In Aug. | however, that while the war emergency continued the bargain 195 the Government accepted the principle of making allow- | made was a very good one for the State, and it was only in 1913 ances to the railway companies supplementary to the periodical | that the, by then, generous wage and war-bonus concessions to compensation payments in respect of deferred maintenance and | the railway staff tended to convert the profit to the State into

renewal. Ata later stage agreements were made as to the pay- | a deficiency—even then a relatively small one. ment of interest upon various capital works unproductive at War Bonuses and Concessions to Staff—As showing the trethe time of the outbreak of war, or completed and brought into | mendous effect of these concessions it may be mentioned that usc during the earlier war period, and in regard to many other | for the financial year ended March 31 1020, as compared with complicating factors which arose. Some of these agreements | 1913, the increased cost of working the railways was estimated at occasioned severe strictures by Lord Colwyn’s Committee on ' £57,000,000 on account of war wage and other concessions, and OPERATION OF GOVERNMENT GUARANTEE 1915

£

Revenue earned by railways over expenditure! . 7... Amount of compensation paid hy Government to railway companies

on basis of published accounts for 1913

Profit or Loss to Government

;

«wk

kt

et,

45,171,403 :

46,130,000 —958,507

! Fncludes estimated value of services rendered by railways to the Government

1916

1917

eee

53,885,849

46,319,000

+3,707,063

£

46,515,000

+7,370,849

1918

£

44,068,705

46,576,000

— 2,507,805

free of charge, as shown in White Paper, Cmd. 402,

apart from value of services rendered to the Government in respect of steamboats, canals, docks, hotels, etc., estimated at from {10,000,000

to £15,000,000 for the war period. ~

Was

RAILWAYS from £20,000,000 to {25,000,000 due to the eight-hour day and further concessions then recently granted or under discussion.

In the opinion of experts it is thought, however, that even these difficulties would not have arisen, at least in so acute a form, had

it not been for the maintenance of pre-war rates and charges for goods trafic throughout the war period, while it was not until Jan. 1 1917 (June 1 1918 in Ireland) that ordinary passenger fares were increased by so per cent., and then mainly with the

object of restricting travel rather than of raising revenue,

Had

adjustments been made stage by stage, as was done in the case of prices in general trade and industry, the financial situation in regard to railways would have been very greatly improved, and there would have been relatively little objection to the

increase which became imperative in the post-war period, Mobilisation Trafic—Very complete plans for mobilization had been prepared by the Railway Executive Committee long before there was any probability of war, and continually revised and brought up to date, so that everything was ready for

the wonderful transportation achievements which followed the declaration of war. Thus between Aug. ro and 31 no fewer than 670 trains, coming from all parts of the country and conveying horses, guns, baggage and stores, as well as approximately

120,000 men of all ranks, were dealt with at Southampton Docks with little interference with ordinary civilian traffic. Throughout the war period achievements of this character were regularly accomplished at all the chief embarkation centres and there is no instance on record of the breakdown of railway arrangements

at any time, even when the tremendous volume of munition and other traffic conducted in national interests, but not directly for war purposes, was also placed upon the railways.

Public Railway

Transport—During

the war period it was

necessary to impose many restrictions upon both passenger and goods traffic. Excursion and many cheap-fare facilities were early discontinued, as also tourist and certain other classes of

tickets carrying special facilities. Continental traffic was, of course, subject to special regulations and from the outbreak of war

Dover

became

a closed

area,

such continental

steamer

services as were maintained being diverted to other ports.

In

fact, at all the great railway ports there were severe restrictions

upon civilian traffic. During 1916 further regulations came into force for passenger travel, following a process of deceleration of express trains, partly due to the insertion of stops to enable them to serve the purpose of trains which were withdrawn in order to free the lines for Government traffic, and partly in view of the exceptional loading which became gencral, and to case the strain on permanent way, bridges, ete., which could not be

maintained to usual standards.

From Jan. 1 1017 still further

restrictions were imposed upon railway travel and conveyance of

luggage; restaurant cars were withdrawn entirely on many lines and reduced on others, and passenger traffic was allocated to specific routes where alternatives had hitherto been available for the same journeys. An increase of 50 per cent. was made upon ordinary passenger fares and from ro to 20 per cent. on season tickets, the issue of which was regulated, while it was

required that they should be shown by each passenger on every journey made. Certain branch lines were closed, most of the rail-motor intermediate services withdrawn, and a large number of stations closed.

Release of Railwaymen.—An important object of these reductions

in train released 184,475 cent. of

services and facilities was to enable railwaymen to be to serve with the forces, and altogether no fewer than men were thus contributed. This figure represented 49 per the staff of military age in railway employ on Aug 4 I914.

Large numbers of men, apart from Reservists and Territorials, had,

of course, joined voluntarily quite carly in the war, but the general

important Government

229 appointments in connexion with various:

existing and new State departments. In other instances, railway officers were temporarily loaned to the Government, employment of Wamen.—Comparatively early in the war women were mtroduced into many ranks of the railway service, and in due course they were seen on a wide varicty of work-——at passenger and goods stations and depots, in engine sheds, on electric trains as “watemen"’ and in a few instances as guards, on cartage and delivery vans, and ia the railway workshops, in addition to more obvious employment as clerks, waitresses and in booking-offices:

To some extent these measures were rendered practicable by the discontinuance of the more complicated travel facilities, the reduction of record-keeping to a minimum, the abolition of detailed statements between railway companies and Railway Clearing House work; but to a great extent women were cmployed in direct replace-

ment of men who had been released with but little adjustment of their duties. A total of 55,000 women were thus employed in railway working, and about 6,000 on munition work in railway shops. Goods and Mineral Traffic Allocation.—Goods and mineral trattic,

especially when the manufacture of munitions on a very large scale was going on all over the country under Government direction, became òf vital importance, and all other traffic was made subservient thereto. For the control of non-Government traffic a system of allocation was widely adopted, requiring consignors to despatch their goods by specified routcs and from particular depots and sometimes on particular days, according to destination, while at times it was necessary to refuse to accept traffic for a time.

Arrangements had already been made between the leading railway companies in regard to ‘‘ common user " of wagons of ordinary type,

while private owners’ wagons were brought into the “ pool.” tear Control—A system of coal control was adopted in 1917, partly due to the necessary discontinuance of a large proportion of the normal coastal water-borne conveyance of coal, by which each

part of the country drew its coal supplies from specified colliery areas, and this traffic alone represented an enormous burden. Military and Naval Trafic—TFor the needs of the Army and Navy facilitics on a very large scale had to be provided. Apart from the movements of troops for service overseas, continual streams of traffic passed to and from the training camps. Leave travel, however restricted, was inevitably a very big factor, and, as the war progressed, ambulance trains passed very frequently between the Channel ports and hospitals in various parts of the country. Among

special facilities which had thus to be afforded may be mentioned the

naval leave trains which ran regularly between the north of Scotland and London in connexion with the fleet in northern waters, while a continuous stream of coal trains had to be run between South Wales and other suitable coal areas and the far north of Scotland fer

the use of naval vessels. One of the chief difficulties, indeed, was the need for using the Highland railway for naval traffic on so large a scale, and parts of this were doubled during the war in order to

relieve the congestion which necessarily followed the lengthy singletrack mileage of this, as it proved, vitally important fine. Munition Trajfic.—Widespread munition manufacture necessarily occasioned a great deal of civilian trafhe directly and indirectly in national interests, while in a number of places ordinarily quiet stations or branches became very busy owing to the erection of army

camps or of munition works.

A few stations had to be specially

erected and several new branch lines made.

Railway Docks and Harbours.—As owners of several of the bestequipped docks and harbours, including new ones such as Immingham, G.C.R., and the King George Dock at Hull, WH. & B. and N.E. Railways, and the new lock entrance at Newport, Alexandra

(Newport & South Wales) Docks & Railway, brought into use shortly before the outbreak of war, in addition to the older ones, such as Southampton, the railways provided the nation with some of the most complete embarkation depots. Most of these became closed areas, and all of them were used to their fullest capacity, either for direct war traffic or when the submarine menace diverted

shipping traflic from its accustomed ports.

Railway Steamers.—Railway steamers also were widely used, and of a total of 218 vessels 126 were taken over and 36 lost {rom various causes. They were uscd as transports, for the maintenance of national supplies, as minesweepers, and as hospital ships. Fre-

quently even those which remained on regular services had to asstst in mecting emergencies, such as the evacuation of Belgian refugees. Railways and Aw Raids.—An important difficulty with which the

railways had to deal was that due to the numerous air raids over Great Britain. Relatively little serious damage was done, but the fact that traffic had often to be or worked under difficulties, the re-

duced lighting generally maintained throughout the more vulner-

enlistment of railwaymen was not favoured until 1916, by which time a definite scheme of release had been adopted on a system which

able parts of the country, and the congestion which followed each

yet enabled reasonable proportions of men to be supplied. Railway Officers in Government Service —Throughout the war railway officers of many grades were freely utilized by the Government, some for special duties involving commissioned rank in the

bility of invasion had to be faced, and many special arrangements

reduced inconvenience to the railway companies to a minimum and

army or navy, and others for renderiny expert assistance in civilian capacities to various Government departments. „In fact, a con-

siderable number of railway. officers in high positions were given

cessation of traffic constituted serious hindrances to railway working. Armoured Trains.—Throughout the war period, too, the passi-

made with a view to the possible need for transferring the civilian population from the coast towns to the interior. Several armoured trains were constructed in the railway workshops, though they were never called upon for use under service conditions. _, Miscellaneous.~-At many of the principal railway stations free buffets were instajled for the benefit of soldiers and sailors, and in

230

RAILWAYS

some cases these provided special facilities, as at Victoria, S.E. & C.R., where arrangements were made for the exchange of French for English money, the amount dealt with reaching a total of approximately £10,000,000. At one period the railways were severely con‘gested by the traffic due to the evacuation of Belgium, and one resuit of this was the continual stream of Belgian soldiers coming to England on leave to visit their families, a total of 237,000 thus travelling. At many stations local bodies, such as the V.A.D., etc., made very complete arrangements for providing rcfreshments to soldiers travelling through and for attendance upon the ambulance trains. Frequently valuable assistance was given by the various ambulance associations belonging to the railway service,

BaitisH Rarrway Work IN THE WaR

During the war period British railways rendered essential services on 2 very large scale, both in regard to traffic requirements at home and those associated with active service in the

various war areas.

To some extent the former has already been

covered by general reference, but further details must be given. Military and Naval Special Trains.—Betwceen the declaration of warand the date of the Armistice all the larger ratlways were called upon to run special trains conveying officers and men,

frequently with guns, ammunition, horses and equipment, when passing to a port for embarkation to France or other theatres of war.

There were also transfers of units between camps, leave

travel and special events, such as the arrival of Canadian, S. African and other contingents from abroad and their journeys

from ports of arrival to training centres, together with that portion of the American army which passed through the United Kingdom, In the aggregate the numbers of special trains operated by the leading railways were very great, and the follow-

ing table shows, as far as information js available, the number of special trains mainly, if not exclusively, on the passenger side,

run by the railways mentioned, with the numbers of officers and men who travelled:— Trains L. & S.W.R. L. & N.W.R. GWR. : NER.. a L.B.

&

58,859 56,470 33,615 24,172

u

S.C.R,

G.E.R.. GCR.

;

27,366

a

13,000 ,663

Officers and Men

conveyed 20,223,954 22,268,000 — 11,810,290 —

6,231,293 2,656,726

Three other railways may be mentioned, though their totals include also ambulance trains, goods and other specials:— Trains

N.B.R. .

; `

`

,

163,000 11,502

000

Officers and Men conveyed 12,141,933 2,282,000

The numbers of special trains required on the freight side are more indefinite, as they included many trains run to meet

the needs of the Government

munition undertakings and of

coal traffic passing from the colliery areas to the Fleet bases,

and, to some extent, in connexion with the coal control scheme. However, it may be mentioned that on the London, Brighton & South Coast railway no fewer than 53,376 special trains were Tun mainly for traffic to and from the ports on the system. On the Great Western railway the total was 63,349 and on the

Great Eastern railway 11,000.

To meet the needs of the Fleet

several railways ran 20 or even more trains per day conveying Admiralty coal. The arrival of the American army in Great

Britain entailed the running of 1,684 special trains on the London & North-Western railway and 1,139 on the Great Western railway. When the Canadian contingents first arrived in England the London & South-Western railway was required to run g2 specials from Plymouth alone. . Ambulance Trains —For home service a total of 20 trains was equipped for army use: G.C.R. 3; G.E.R. 2; GW.R. 4; L. & Y.R. 2; L. & N.W.R.

5; L. & S.W.R. 2; M.R. 2. There were also two in

Ireland, one ek equipped by the G.N. and G.S. & W. railways.

Five naval ambulance trains were also in use, these differing some-

what in regard to internal arrangements and equipment. Many individual vehicles were also fitted for the purpose of conveying small numbers of men in ordinary trains, and there were nine other trains

sufficiently equipped to be brought into use as emergency ambulance trains. For service overseas 30 ambulance trains were equipped by the home railways, each consisting of 16 bogie coaches. These were ee

as follows:

G.C.R.

1, G.E.R. 4, G.W.R. 8; L. & YR. 3;

L. & N.W.R. 7; L. & S.W.R, 1, L.B. & S.C.R. 1; M.R. 2; N.E.R. 1; L. & N.W.R. and G.E.R.1 jointly, L. & N.W.R. and L.B. &S.C.R.1 jointly. Two trains presented by the United Kingdom Flour Millers’

Association were constructed by the G.E and G.W. railways joint-

ly, and the Lord Michclham (or “‘ Queen Mary ") presentation train

was

equipped by the L.B, & S.C. and L. & N.W. railways.

A further

train, known as the Princess Christian Hospital Train, was built by the. Birmingham Carnage & Wagon Company. A majority of these trains was employed in Frate. but two went to Egypt and one to Salonika. When the American army came arrangements were made for 19 other trains, of the same general type as those previously supplied for overseas service, to be equipped by British railways for the use of the U.S.A. forces in France, as follows’: G C.R. t, GER. 1; G.W.R. 4; L. & Y.R, 3; L. & N.W.R 4; L. & S.W.R. 1; M.R. 5. Twenty-nine others were on order at the date of the Armistice, when,

of course, work was at once suspended. Including spare and extra vehicles, a total of 822 vehicles was thus adapted for the Government trains, and 304 for the U.S. trains. The following numbers of journeys made by ambulance trains on various railways will indicate the enormous volume of this traffic, these figures applying, of course, only to the ambulance trains running on the home railways: L. & N.W.R. 13,318; L. & S.WLR. 10,173; S.E. &C.R. 7,515; G.W.R, 5,000; M.R. 4,982; N.B.R. 1,800; G.E.R. 1,172. This traffic was dealt with at various ports, but it is worthy of note that no fewer than 3,166 were despatched from the

new Marine station at Dover, uncompleted at the time of the outbreak of war, but finished off at an early date sufficiently to serve for the transfer of wounded men. Troop Movement and other Military Trafic.—The numbers of special trains given above will indicate the enormous dimensions which the trafhc entailed by troop movement involved. At suitable places large numbers of both passenger and goods vehicles had to be kept in reserve to provide for movements of troops at short notice and many of the cross-country or connecting lines proved of special value in enabling through journeys to be made from one system to another and by providing alternative routes to avoid congestion, The North London, Hampstead Junction, and North and SouthWest Junction railways carried nearly 14,000 special trains, and on several dates public traffic was entirely discontinued. The “widened ’’ lines of the Metropolitan railway, through Farringdon Street and the connexion to the South-Eastern & Chatham railway at Ludgate Hill, were used by no fewer than 626,000 special passenger or goods trains, though this route was restricted by the limited loading gauge and could not, therefore, be used for ambulance trains and certain other traffic. The West London railway dealt with

about 150 troop or special trains per month, and the East London a gross total of about 1,000. Bearing in mind that the magnitude of the forces involved a tremendous amount of leave travel, it may be mentioned that, during 1917 only, over 28,000,000 of H.M. forces travelled free by warrant on the home railways, while nearly 2,000,-

000 journeys were similarly made by civilians in Government service. Traffic nt Ports.— Dover was largely uscd as a centre for ambulance train traffic, but at Southampton a very large volume of stores, munitions and other material was dealt with, besides a considerable amount of shipping traffic necessarily continued. The Southampton

train ferry to Dieppe was brought into use in Nov. 1917, that ac Richborough, near Sandwich, being completed in Feb. 1918, Both enabled goods wagons to be sent across without transshipment, and they were especially useful for the conveyance of tanks, heavy guns, locomotives, etc. Avonmouth, Devonport and Liverpool were used as ports for supplying the Mediterranean and Mesopotamian forces. | Immingham and other East Coast ports were largely used for supplying the fleets in more southern waters, while Leith, Aberdeen, Invergordon, Thurso and other Scottish centres were kept very busy in meeting the demands of the Grand Fleet. Newhaven and Little-

hampton together dealt with nearly 7,000,000 tons of traffic on war

account. In addition to the steamer traffic across the Channel the South Coast ports, including Richborough, sent over 1,000,000 tons by means of sea-going barges. Munition and Admiralty Coal Trafiic.—Besides the trafic directly required for the army and navy, the railways had to meet many other

trafic requirements, as indicated by the following: The SouthEastern & Chatham railway alone convcyed nearly 200,000 tons of army mails, parcel-post oea and lighter stores not dealt with in-

bulk, via Dover and Folkestone.

Qn the London & North-Western

railway nearly 16,000 trains were run for the conveyance of Admir-alty coal. In many parts of the country extensive forestry work was

undertaken, and the conveyance of the cut timber amounted to hundreds of thousands of tons on many railways. On the North-Eastern railway the tonnage of goods conveyed on Government account amounted to 5,500,000, ant of Admiralty coal nearly 12,000,-" 000 tons, while to serve the numerous munition centres in the north-

eastern area involved the conveyance of some 84,000,000 workpeople. . On the Great Western railway at one time no fewer than 360 additional trains had to be run daily, solely for the conveyance of.

workers to the various war factories.

oe

231

RAILWAYS Locomotives and Rolling Stock sent Overseas.—A number of loco-

motives under construction for various colonial and foreign railways

were commandeered

by the Government

and diverted for use in

France and elsewhere, while large orders were given for the building of engines by British firms for use in France. A total of 247, of a contemplated order for 500 of the 2-8-0 type alone, was constructed. But to meet immediate needs it was necessary for British

railways to supply considerable numbers of engines from their own

stocks, mainly for France, though some went to Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Salonika. The total locomotives thus supplied num-

bered 675, of which the L. & N.W.R. provided 111; G.W.R. 95; M.R. 78; N.E.R. 50; G.C.R. 33; and G.N.R. 23; the remainder being sent by other companies. In addition, 30,000 goods wagons were sent overseas, together with 100 special wagons and 40 30-ton

coal wagons.

The Great Central railway constructed six engines to

the design adopted for the War Department 2-8-0 locomotives which were in fact, substantially to G.C.R. designs; 2,500 20-ton covered wagons were built in railway workshops. Besides the standard-gauge rolling stock, large numbers of steam,

petrol, and petrol-electric locomotives of small types, and wagons

of various designs, for use on the light railways in France, were built

by various firms, though not much of this work was done by the railway companies beyond the equipment of Ford cars as rail tractors at Crewe Works. A considerable amount of permanent way was, however, sent overseas by the home railway companies, partly by taking up certain light-traffic branch lines or by converting double lines to single track, and also to a considerable extent from stock. A great quantity of bridge parts, machinery, cranes and other material was also supplied from stock, while the equipment of the army railway workshops in France was largely provided by the various railway companies. War Work in Railway Shops.—As already mentioned, this was undertaken to the value of about £17,000,000, and covered a wide range of products—from ambulance stretchers, road vans and guncarriages to the repair of cartridge cases and the production of shell

cases, frequently of large sizes.

Several travelling workshop trains

were also equipped in the British railway shops. In a number of instances, too, railway companies undertook the repair of Belgian and other locomotives sent over from France. The Railway Troops.—As already mentioned, a total of 184.475 men was released from railway service to join H.M. forces, They were largely utilized in the formation of, or transferred to, the various sections known generically as the Railway Troops attached to the Royal Engineers. A number of the companics were recruited mainly

from the men of a particular railway, especially in the case of the L. & N.W.R. (155th) and the G.W.R. (116th, 262nd and 275th), while the 118th was recruited chiefly from the G.E. and N.E. railways. There were two principal sections, the Railway Construction Troops and the Railway-Operating Division, the former numbering 35 companies and the latter 424 companies, including those dealing

with the light railways.

Besides these there were Labour, Roads,

Canadian Overseas Construction, Canadian Operating, S. African and Australian companies, bringing the total to 118} companies.

The various camp railways were also supplied from these bodies.

THe Post-ARMISTICE PERIOD On the cessation of active hostilities the pressure of war traffic at once eased, though it was some wecks before Government traffic materially decreased in volume. Necessarily, for some time afterwards the completion of work in hand and the traffic occasioned thereby kept the railways fairly busy, though with

less urgency and strain.

Leave travel was even more freely

Their sale, also the large traffic occasioned by the return of

rolling stock and material from overseas, and the sale of army

stocks of all kinds under the direction of the Disposals Board, added appreciably to the work of the railways. Arrears of Maintenance and Construction —The

work thus Involved was necessarily of great volume and expense. It entailed relaying of lines, repair and reconstruction of bridges,

completion of deferred new works, repair of locomotives and rolling stock, and the construction

of overdue replacements.

In addition certain war extensions had to be dismantled, and workshops cleared of special machinery, and not a few new machines added in place of those which had become worn out. Public opinion ceased to look quite so favourably upon

the

large expenditure thus incurred. The companies had, of course, placed to reserve large sums in view of this work, but as they had been limited to net receipts on a pre-war basis, these were necessarily on pre-war standards, though usually with increases as far as practicable, whereas when the moncy had to be spent costs of materials and labour had increased approximately threefold. Agreements made between the Government and the companies provided for the difference being made up, but the amounts involved became so great that in Oct. 1920 a Committee was appointed to report upon these agreements. In large measure this was little more than a sop to public opinion, for

the report of Lord Colwyn’s Committce, as it is generally

called, took little account of the merits of the case, and appeared mainly concerned with a solution which presented very much the appearance of repudiation of agreements when they became unpleasantly, expensive. However, it was generally realized that these costs were the inevitable corollary to the great benefits, and actual profit as shown in a previous section, obtained by the nation from the railways during the war period; anc a settlement was ultimately arrived at in May 1921, providing for the payment in two instalments of {60,000,000, after the

termination of Government control in Aug. rozr.

Until then

the arrangements already adopted for monthly payments in respect of arrears of construction and maintenance were COntinued. This solution avoided much prospective litigation and represented a reasonable degree of give-and-take on both sides. The Colwyn Report suggested that a total of {156,000,000 would thus be involved, but this was given without data and

was almost certainly overstated. Payments already made must be considered in conjunction with the {60,000,000 accepted in settlement. The corresponding amount respect of the Irish railways was £3,000,000.

Railway Guarantee and the Subsidy —As

agreed

upon in

Government traffic

diminished in volume, and more and more national trafics were

returned with de-control to private enterprise, the effect of the high cost of materials and supplies, and the generous wage and other concessions, quickly resulted in the railways requiring ' considerable subsidies.

At the end of roro belated action Was

given, and the demobilization of the forces for many months placed a big strain upon the railways on the passenger side. National traffic on the- goods side, too, remained heavy, as systems of control of food-stuffs, coal and necessities could not

taken to increase railway charges to an economic level, the lack of which action had largely caused the very serious position which

at once be discontinued, and was further complicated by the public call for the return of unrestricted transit conditions, for improvements in facilities, and for a resumption of the relative freedom of pre-war conditions. There were also tremendous

and the receipts, including the estimated value of Government

arrears of construction and maintenance of railway permanent

arose after the conclusion of active hostilitics. Thus, whereas the amount of Government compensation in 1918 was £46,576,000, traffic, £44,068,105 on account of railway working alone, for

the year ended March 31 1920 the realized deficit amounted to £41,349,530, even after allowing for certain increases in charges which came into force during that period.

And for the 1920-1

way and rolling stock to be overtaken. Demobilization of the Forces—This trafic was a very big thing in itself, and numerous special trains had to be run between the ports and the demobilization centres. It was estimated that 40,000 men would be dealt with daily, and that was about the

period the net Exchequer liability was estimated at £54,500,000. Wage Concessions and Increased Costs.—These provide the

number realized.

guarantee of net receipts was based. Thus the gross receipts, expenditure and net receipts for 1913, 1919 and 1920 were:—

But the effect of public pressure caused great

irregularity, and, as a result, the railways had to deal with much of this traffic—which also included the dispersal journeys of men from the demobilization centres—as best they could.

One

dispersal depot alone thus dealt with over 1,000,000 men. Horses had also to be conveyed in large numbers, many being

brought back in through trucks via the Channel train-ferries.

chief explanation for the large subsidies entailed, expenses hav-

ing risen nearly 200% and receipts an average of only 80% as

compared with 1913, the year upon which the Government ERETT. AON O OU! 2 |e Gross Receipts, Expenditure... Net Receipts (Railway)

£129,194,000 | £226,363,000 | £298,249,000

£83,385,000 | £180,098,000 | £251,575,008 £45,809,000 | _£46,265,000

£36,674,000

222

RAILWAYS

In'the case of four representative railways, English, Scotch,

Irish and Welsh, wages and salaries alone showed the following increases :—

and (7) a Scottish Group for the whole of Scovland. 1913

London and North-Western — . North British . è Ero

Great Northern (Ireland)

| Taff Vale.

Great Eastern; (5) North-Eastern, the present North-Eastern system and the Hull & Barnsley; (6) London Group (local lines);

onn‘

1920

. | £6,000,000 | £20,000,000 £1,660,000 {6,600,000 £357,000 £1,406,000

us

o

£384,000

£1,187,000

War-time concessions consisted mainly of the flat-rate allowances of 33s. per week, reached by successive increases in view of the rising cost of living, but after the Armistice action was taken by the Railwaymen’s Unions in respect of the eight-hour

These pro-

posals were severely criticized, and the Railway Companies’ Association adopted the following alternative: Group r, London & North-Western,

Midland,

Lancashire

& Yorkshire,

North

Staffordshire, Furness, Caledonian, Glasgow & South-Western, and Highland railways; Group 2, Great Central, Great North. ern, Great Eastern, Hull & Barnsley, North-Eastern, North

British, and Great North of Scotland railways; Group 3, Great Western and Welsh lines; Group 7, London & South-Western, London, Brighton & South Coast, and South-Eastern & Chatham

railways; Group 5, London railways (local lines). On May rr day (granted from Feb. r rọrọ), standardizing of wages and grading. ‘The eight-hour day caused many difficulties and is 1921 the promised bill was placed before Parliament, and embodnecessarily costly, especially as it had to be equalized for many ' ied the following modified scheme: (1) Southern Group, London & South-Western, London, Brighton & South Coast, Southmen whose wages were not calculated on that basis. Throughout 1919 there were continual labour difficulties, and a serious strike Eastern, and London Chatham & Dover railways; (2) Western lasted from Sept. 26 until Oct. 5, settled by an agreement that Group, Great Westernand Welsh railways; (3) North-Western and Midland Group, London & North-Western, Midland, Lancashire no reductions in wages should occur before Sept. 30 1920, and

the whole matter thoroughly explored. In Oct. 1919 Central and National Wages Boards were set up. In Jan. 1920 an agreement was announced providing for an addition to the wages of each grade of 38s. per weck and for cost of living allowances

rising or falling In accordance with Board of Trade figures, with standardized rates of pay which should not fall below 100% over pre-war rates. This was at first objected to, but was accepted on Jan. 15 1920.

Subsequent negotiations dealt with

supervisory and other grades. Certain further advances were given in June 1920, and in view of the accompanying costs of materials and supplies it will be understood that these additions much more than balanced the alleged railway “ subsidies.” Ministry of Transport—An

announcement,

apparently

un-

authorized, by Mr. Winston Churchill in Dec. 1918, that nationalization of the railways was contemplated caused a great deal of misunderstanding.

There were, however, many matters

requiring attention, and these together resulted in the bill for establishing a Ministry of Ways and Communications presented to Parliament in Feb. rọrọ.

As first introduced its contemplated

scope and powers were considered to be too far-reaching, but in a modified form it was passed as the Ministry of Transport Act, receiving Royal Assent on Aug.

26 1919, the Ministry

being established as from Sept. 23 rọrọ. The Ministry took over several sections of existing departments, including the Railway Department of the Board of Trade and the Roads Board. The Railway Executive Committee continued as such until Jan. r 1920, but most of its members were retained on the

Raiway Advisory Committee.

Various other advisory and

reporting committees have since been established. Rates, Fares and Charges.—Apart from the 50% increase in ordinary passenger fares, and of ro to 20% increases in season-

ticket charges, railway rates remained as in pre-war years until the Ministry of Transport announced increases in demurrage rates as from Jan. I 1920, and of 50% on goods rates as from Jan. 15 1920.

These were followed on Aug. 6 by further increases

bringing ordinary passenger fares up to 75% and season tickets 50% over pre-war rates, and from Sept. 1920 workmen's tickets were increased, and goods rates raised to substantially 100%. On Dec. 22 1920 the Rates Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Transport reported on the general question of rates and charges, and their recommendations materially influenced the Railway Bill placed before Parliament on May tr 1921. Grouping and the Future of Railways.—One of the provisions of the Ministry of Transport Act was that a policy for the future of the home railways should be promulgated within two years.

& Yorkshire, North Staffordshire and Furness railways, (4) North-Eastern aid Eastern Group, North Eastern, Great Central, Great Eastern, Great Northern and Hull & Barnsley railways; (5) West Scottish Group, Caledonian,

Glasgow

& South-

Western and Highland railways; (6) ast Scottish Group, North British and Great North

of Scotland

Railways.

During pro-

ceedings in Committee of the House of Commons the 5th group was combined with the istpand the 6th with the 2nd, substantially as proposed by the Railway Companies’ Association, and the Act, which received Royal Assent on Aug. 19 1921, therefore provides for four groups only:—Southern; Western; North-Western, Midland and West Scottish; North-Eastern, Eastern and East Scottish. Amalgamation is tọ become eflective on July 1 1923. The proposed London group was dropped

in view of proposals for the setting-up of a London Traffic Board. Provisions were also made for the inclusion of representatives of the Railwaymen’s Unions in association with railway officers on advisory councils, etc. (not as directors as at first claimed), and for the continuance of the Central, National and local Wages Board. It was considered that these provisions, some of which represented agreements already made in conjunction with the fare and rate increases in force according to the ' proposals of the Rates Advisory Committee, would enable the

railway companies to operate under solvent and economic conditions on the termination of control on Aug. 1§ 1921. In regard to.amalgamation it may be mentioned that early in 1921 preliminary arrangements of this character had already been made in regard to the North-Eastern and Full & Barnsley railways, and the London & North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire rail-

ways, in addition to several smaller companies to be absorbed by their larger neighbours. The chief difficulty, in fact, was in regard to Scottish railways, which, it was claimed, would be so seriously affected that they could not hold their own in a group by themselves, the alternative of amalgamation with appropriate associated English companies being favoured. Hence the altered grouping adopted by the Act as finally passed. Control was actually terminated at midnight on Aug. 15 rg2I. Restoration of Facilities -——During the war many usual facilities of travel were withdrawn, but during 1920-1 a number were restored, as follows: pre-war luggage allowance for passenger-train trafic, June 14 1920; passengers’ luggage in advance, July 1 1920; day.

excursion tickets, Aug. 12 1920; period excursion tickets, Dec. 2

1920; week-end tickets, May 11 1921 (deferred, owing to the coa strike, untif Aug. 20, and Aug. 19 in the case of commercial travellers). G.E.R. continental services were resumed Feb. 25 1919;

L.B. & 5.C.R., June 1 1919; the Dover-Calais route, 5.E. & C.R., Jan. 8 1920; and the Hull and Zeebrugge route, N.E. and L. & Y.

An outline of proposals was issued in July 1920, suggesting, inter alia, the amalgamaticn of railways into groups as follows:

railways, May 14 1920.

(1) Southern, combining

July 1921, both {for speed and number. On some tines, indeed, prewar schedules were definitely reinstated, and in certain instances

the South-Eastern

Brighton, and the South-Western;

& Chatham,

(2) Western,

Great Western system with the Welsh lines,

the

the present

(3) North-Western,

combining the North-Western, the Midland and the Lancashire & Yorkshire, North Staffordshire and

Furness;

(4) Eastern,

combining the Great Northern, the Great Central, and the

Express-train running was rapidly restored

to a good level during 1920, and though still below pre-war stan-

dards the main line services on al! routes became very creditable in facilities were even better than before the war.

The suburban

traffic problem was, however, still serious. On the 7 Underground 2 lines new rolling stock, when delivered, materially eased the imevi-

table congestion. An arrangement had been made. during the war

whereby

the associated ‘‘ Underground"

railways, of which the

RAILWAYS Metropolitan District only was controlled and subject to Government guarantee, should pool their receipts, including also the London

General Omnibus Company. To meet the peculiar conditions of the situation a special Act ef Parliament was passed, and from Sept. 26 1920 these lines were empowered to charge “ revised fares," the Metropolitan District railway ceasing to come under the guarantee. Allocation of passenger travel to specific routes, already partly in desuctude, partially disappeared during the early months of 1921, and finally in July of that year. Goods Traffic—lDuring 1920 most of the special regulations

imposed under war conditions disappeared, though the common-

user of wagons still continued, and by cooperative action it had become possible to realize a higher standard of wagon loading. Commencing with the four weeks ending Jan. 29 1920, the Ministry of Transport commenced to issue detailed statistics of goods trafhe operation, and on the completion of twelve months these were altered

to agree with

the calendar

months,

important

developments

in organization,

management,

and

During the early part

agencies of transportation with the several branches of the Federal Government was absolutely essential, the experiment of voluntary unification was not satisfactory, and on Jan. 1 1918, as a temporary war measure, the railways were taken over by the Government, to be operated by a director-general responsible to the President. Federal operation continued until March I 1920, when the railways were returned to private operation

under the terms of the Transportation Act of that year. That Act fundamentally amended the existing policy of national regulation of railways and extended the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Principally because of the scrious business depression of 1920-1, and the decline in the volume of railway traffic, the results of the first year of operation under the Transportation Act were disappointing. In the summer of 1921 the subject again was commanding national attention. A choice

among three policics was then incumbent upon Congress: (1) to rely upon private ownership and operation under the principles of the Transportation Act (hereinafter described), to take

care of the situation when business conditions became normal; (2) to make some compromise between a policy of private control and initiative and Government operation or ownership; and (3) completely to nationalize the railways. Pre-War Conditions and Legislation.—The 1910 amendment to the original (1887) Act to regulate commerce (sce 22.830) created the Commerce Court to act upon appeals from decisions of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The new court was intended to spe-

cialize in the technique of transportation and to expedite the determination of cases theretofare passed upon by Federal courts of general jurisdiction with crowded dockets containing cases of In many of its early decisions Commerce

the Commerce

Commission’ and,

appeared to limit the effectiveness of the Commission,

became unpopular.

The

public attitude

and

(1t)original cost to date, in the cases

could be obtained; (3) estimated

(2) estimated cost of

cost of reproduction,

new,

less depreciation. The work of determining values had been in progress since 1914, but no final figures were available in rg21 or expected until 1923 at earliest, although tentative valuations of a few properties had been made public.

Another piece of Icgislation, known as the Clayton Act, of 1914,

contains a section which has an important bearing upon railways. The Act was intended to strengthen the so-called Anti-Trust Act

and to prevent collusion between directors and officers of railways and directors and officers of manufacturing and other concerns dealing in railway equipment, coal and other supplies.

It requires-that

was postponed until Jan. 1 1921. Abouc 1906 a downward tendency began to be apparent in the rate

half of the preceding decade, toward a decreasing rate of return on the investment in railways caused serious financial distress and a marked decline from the normal rate of development of railway facilities, equipment and service. The years 1915 and 1916 brought large increases in freight tonnage through the transportation of war materials for the Allies. The active participation of the United States in the World War, beginning in April r917, made even greater demands upon facilities already overtaxed. To mect these demands the railways tried the experiment of voluntary unification through a committee of railway presidents clothed with plenary power by the boards of directors of practically all railway companies to operate the railways as one national system during the war. In the national emergency, in which the closest possible codrdination of the

the Interstate

new;

fundamentally

of the period a tendency, which had begun during the latter

overruled

reproduction,

force from 1916, but because of war conditions the effective date

by many

public regulation of American railways.

all kinds.

where the information

with

J.A K)

UNITED STATES

The decade roro-z20 was marked

were prescribed tentatively:

Three bases

contracts for supplies which will cost more than $50,000 must be open to competitive bids invited by advertisements. A railway company is prohibited from having dealings in excess of $50,000 per year with a concern having a director, officer or agent who is also a director, officer or agent of the railway. The Act was to be in

in combination

corresponding passenger traffic statistics.

233

reflect all changes in property values after that date.

toward

Court

because

it

the Court

railways at that

time was unfriendly, and Congress responded to public pressure by abolishing the Commerce Court in 1913. In response to an insistent public demand, growing out of the belief that the railways were being allowed to earn returns on fictitious capitalization, the Federal Valuation Act was passed in 1913. The Act required the Interstate Commerce Commission to determine the physical valuation of the railways individually, as of June

30 1914, and to cause records to be kept which would accurately

of return on railway investment.

This change restricted the flow of

new capital into railway development—new fines and improvements

of existing lines. The traditional policy of American railways had been to keep their facilities well ahead of the demands of growing traffic. In view of the fact that the volume of freight traffic doubles

about every 32 years, and that the numbers of passengers carried one mile doubles about every 15 years, the need of such a policy is apparent, The practice of the conservative railways was to “ plough in” a substantial part of their net income each year by making improvements out of income instead of issuing new securities. Such a policy, however, could not be continued with constantly diminishing net income. The downward tendency in the rate of return was caused in part by a hardening of the rate structure through a more inflexible policy of public regulation, in part by steadily increasing costs of wages and materials, and jn part by the greater difficulty of finding means through economics and new operating methods of overcoming increasing costs. With declining net returns, and a

general Jack of confidence on the part of the public toward railways,

railway securities lost their attraction, and investors sought other fields. The railways experienced much difficulty in obtaining new

capital for the additional facilities required to keep their plants in step with traffic growth, and many of the weak lines reached such financial straits that they could not maintain thcir solvency. The cumulative elfect of these tendencies reached the climax in 1915 when 2,000 m., or about one-sixth of the entire mileage of the country, was in the hands of receivers, and when less new mileage was built

than in any year since the period of the Civil War, Effects of the. World War.—This was the situation when the effect of the World War was first felt by American railways. The orders from the Allies for munitions and other war supplies caused a sudden increase in freight tonnage. The additional revenues acted asa stay against financial distress, but the railways found their trattccarrying capacity taxed to the full. Then came the added traffic burden when the United States entered the war in April 1917. To

meet

the emergency

the railways,

through

the American

Railway Association, organized a railroad war board and delegated to its five members complete control over operation. The purpose was to codrdinate management under private ownership and control so that the railways, during the war emergency, would merge their merely individual and competitive activities ın the effort to

produce the maximum of transportation efficiency. The board did much to increase the capacity of the railways through unified opera-

tion and common use of facilities, and during the first six months following voluntary unification, the heavily increased traffic was handled satisfactorily. But during the late autumn and early

winter of I917 acute traffic congestion occurred at the Atlantic seaboard ports, through which the greater part of the war supplies was exported, and the blockade extended back to the important inland industrial centres. The congestion was caused by several fac-

tors, among which two were outstanding. One has already been mentioned—the financial inability of the railways to keep up their former programmes of providing additional facilities in advance of traffic needs. The second was the lack of effective coérdination between the railways and the several branches of the Government, each of which demanded priority of movement for its freight, thereby creating great confusion. The congestion and its interference with traffic, the perilous financial

condition

spirit of unrest among railway employees

of the railways,

the

because of the greatly

increased wage rates paid by manufacturing and ship-building plants,

and the need of better coérdination of all agencies essential to the successful prosecution of the war, led to the President's proclamation of Dec. 26 1917, taking over the railways to be operated by the Government from Jan. 1 1918. The Government could advance

the funds required to provide the additional facilities urgently needed

for war purposes; by paying a rental equivalent to pre-war net operating income it could prevent further bankruptcy of railway companies; by paying higher wages than the railway companies were able to pay, it ald remove the cause of unrest among cm-

RAILWAYS

234

employees; by making the railways a branch of the Government it

tives of the labour organizations, representing the employees.

of corporate interest a more effective unification of all facilities and equipment would be possible.

During 1918 there were no strikes or other labour disturbances. The director-general was given almost autocratic authority to increase freight and passenger rates and other transportation charges or regulations. The Interstate Commerce Commission and the state commissions temporarily were shorn of power.

could more effectively coérdinate transportation with other Government activities; and by the complete temporary elimination of lines

Federal Control in the War.—The Federal Control Act of 1918

provided that the railways should be operated for the President by a director-general of railroads. Practically all of the railways were taken over, and were operated, with little change in

An increase of 25% in freight rates and about 20% in passenger

finance, purchasing, trafic, operation, labour,

rates was made effective in June, a few days after the wage increases were announced. While in a general way it was hoped that the advances in rates, coupled with the expected economies in unified control, would offset the higher wage rates and other increases in operating costs, the net financial results were regarded as of secondary importance as compared with the

accounting, public service and capital expenditures. With few exceptions the entire organization, from the Federal managers

sufficient to meet rising costs and the final result of the first year of

the individual units, by Federal managers

{in nearly all cases

the former operating executive) reporting to regional directors, seven in all, who in turn reported to the director-general. The latter was assisted by staff-directors in charge of the several divisions—law,

to the regional and division directors, was made

up of men

carefully selected from the railway service. Political influence had no play in appointment. The Act provided that the railways should be returned to their owners for private operation within 21 months after the signing of the treaty of peace. The Government during the period of Federal control was required to keep

increase of transportation capacity.

Therate advances were in-

Federal control, with no allowances for deficiences

in main-

tenance or depletion in stocks of materials and supplics, was

The annual rental was set as a sum equal to the

a deficit of over $200,000,000. In other words, the net operating income tarned by the director-general was that much less than the rentals paid to the railway companies. This deficit, however, may properly be regarded as one item of the cost of carrying on the war. In view of the satisfactory transportation service, particularly during the summer of 1918 when the armics of the United States were at the height of thcir activitics, and comparing the deficit with the expenditures of other branches of the Government, the cost was not great.

average annual net operating income carned by the companies during the three years ended June 30 1917. The principles of

the signing of the Armistice in Nov, 1918, until March r 1920,

up the usual standards of maintenance,

so that the properties

would be returned at the end of Federal control in as good condition and as complete in equipment as when taken. Failing to do this, the railway companies were to be compensated for the

deficiencies.

unification and consolidation of facilities and equipment were carried much further by the director-gencral than by the Railroad War Board. Terminals and other facilities, and locomotives and cars, were used in common. Advertising, soliciting,

off-line agencies, and other normal competitive activitives were abolished. Traffic was routed by the most convenient lines, regardless of shippers’ directions, or of the effect of diversions on

the earnings of the individual units in the national system. The aim was to utilize every instrumentality of transportation to the highest degree of traffic-handling efficiency. The results of Federal control during the year 1918 while the war was in progress were satisfactory in that they met the emergency. The traffic of that year, both in ton-miles and in passenger-miles, exceeded all previous records. What was more important, the coérdination of railway management with other branches of the Government had the effect of producing the kind of transportation most necessary for war purposes.

The congestion of the

early winter of 1917 was quickly relieved. The heavy demands of troop movements were completely met. The loaded cars on hand

at the scaboard were always a little ahcad of the ocean-going tonnage capacity, and the railways, after May 1, kept up their part of the programme of moving export food supplies for the civilian population of the Allies.

The-insistent preference given

to war traffic naturally entailed some curtailments in service

for civilian population of the United States.

These curtailments

were patriotically accepted. A system of centralized control established priority for the various kinds of freight and con-

trolled traffic at the source by requiring permits before freight would be accepted. Such permits were not issued unless transportation conditions at destination were such that the freight could be quickly unloaded. Manufacturers and dealers were asked to load cars with larger shipment units, or otherwise to conserve car space by changing methods of packing. One of the first acts of the director-general was to appoint a commission to make recommendations as to wage increases.

The commission

made its report in May and its recommendations were adopted and made retroactive to Jan. 1 1918. The increases in pay-roll expenditure were substantial. Coincident with the promulgation of the new wage scale, the director-general created the Board of Railway Wages and Working Conditions and later he appointed three Boards of Adjustment to pass upon disputes as to working rules and discipline. Both the wage and the adjustment boards were bi-partisan with equal representation from the officials, representing management, and from the execu-

The second phase of Federal control was the period from when the roads were returned to private management, This post-war period of Federal control was not marked by results as satisfactory as those of 1918. It would have been much better if the period of Federal control had ended Dec. 31 1918. Immediately after the Armistice the moral factor of patriotism, which had been so effective during the first ten months of Federal control, almost entirely disappeared. As soon as the war was ovcr the employees through their organizations began a campaign to hold and to extend further the concessions which had been made freely under the exigencies of war; the thoughts of the officers began to turn to their corporate and personal interests; and among a minority of the administration officials active steps were taken to bring about an indefinite extension of Federal control with the ultimate aim of nationalization. The public, however, had little patience with the director-general’s proposal to Congress that Federal control should be extended five years, and the suggestion had little support outside of the labour organizations and the political forces aligned on the side of nationalization.. Chambers of commerce, shippers’ organizations, and the general public, in the natural reaction against perpetuating war-time governmental control of business, insisted that the railways should be returned to private control. This general attitude

toward

the subject, and the alarming

deficits which were being added to that of 1918, influenced Congress to take active steps to restore the railways to their pre-war status, but great difficulty was experienced in agreeing

upon a plan which would be satisfactory in detail to both the’ House and the Senate. While the hearings and the debates dragged throughout the year 1919, the transportation service suffered in efficiency and among the more radically inclined employees there were frequent and scrious strikes. It was found necessary to grant further increases in wages and to enter. into the so-called ‘‘ national agreements” containing many burdensome

and

restrictive

rules such

as, for example,

the

abolition of piece-work in shops. Most of these national agreements were made almost on the eve of the return of the railways. They were drawn by the labour advisors to the directorgeneral and were adopted over the protest of the railway operating officials. These national agreements were partially abrogated July 1 1921, by order of the Railway Labor Board created by the Transportation Act of 1920.

The final cost to the Government for the 26 months of Federal control was estimated by the director-general at a minimum of $1,200,000,000. It seemed probable that it would be much

RAILWAYS greater, as this estimate allowed only about $300,000,000 for under-maintenance and for differences in the quantities of materials and supplies on hand at the beginning and at the end of Federal control. A great deal of controversy arose over the question of relative maintenance during and prior to Federal control, but the differences hinge mainly upon the degree of under-maintenance, There can be no doubt that the condition of the propertics was not so good at the end of Federal control as at its beginning, but the exact degree of deterioration cannot be determined as no inspection or survey was made when Federal control began. The records show conclusively that the normal rate of renewals of rails, ties and ballast was not kept up during Federal control, and the universal complaint of the railway executives that freight cars were not maintained at normal standards is sup-

ported by the opinions of experts.

On the whole, the conditions

of locomotives did not suffer, but less than the normal amount

of work was done on passenger cars. Bridges and buildings suffered because of neglect in painting, but on the other hand many improvements were made in shops and in engine-house facilities. Whatever may be the degree of under-maintenance

235

care of the further wage increases granted in that year. The attitude of the administration was that it made little difference whether the higher operating costs were met indirectly through taxes or were dircctly collected from shippers and passengers in higher rates.

As between the two alternatives the administra-

tion chose the first on the ground that another rate advance would have a serious effect upon the already much disturbed business conditions, and would be made the excuse for further

profiteering.

Speaking in general terms it may be said that the

policy of the Government in taking the railways and operating

them while the war was in progress was vindicated by the favourable operating results which flowed from a centralized and unified control. On the other hand it may be said that the experience of the post-war period of Federal control was not such as to justify a peace-time policy of Government operation or ownership under a democratic form of Government which relies upon the free play of the forces of competition. The unfavourable reaction of public opinion may be traced primarily to the elimination of competition in service. The railways were finally returned in response to an overwhelming public demand that private operation be restored, and almost immediately after its

it should be remembered that it was impracticable during the greater part of the period of Federal control to obtain the necessary amount of materials and full forces of men. These difi-

restoration, the desire for competitive service caused the abandonment of practically all the innovations of unification under Government control and operation.

culties were partly removed in rgrg, but in that year the serious decline in trafic and in earnings made it inexpedient, in the judgment of the director-general, to attempt to make up the

The Transportation (Esch-Cummins) Act of 1020.—The conditions under which the railways were returned, and the policies of public regulation as they existed in 1921 were fixed by the Transportation Act of Feb. 1920, amending the original (1887) Act to Regulate Commerce. Besides providing for the restoration of operating control to the owning companies the Act provided that during the first

deficiences. A proviso in the contract between him and the railway companies gave the director-general the option of

measuring his maintenance obligations by the amounts actually spent by each company during the three years prior to Federal control, these amounts to be properly equated to allow for increases in the cost of wages and materials, and he chose to

limit the expenditures so as to keep them within that obligation, leaving the accounting and the settlement to be worked out after the termination of Federal control. Instructions were issued, however, that nothing essential to safety in operation

was to be left undone. An inspection of the amounts spent for maintenance, particularly for maintenance of equipment, indicates that even with a generous allowance for the higher wage rates and material costs, the director-general! expended amounts

which were equivalent to those spent by the railway companies

prior to Federal control. This method of comparison, however, takes no account of the important factor of relative efhciency of labour. During 1918, when so many railway men were drafted or had volunteered for military service, the percentage of inexperienced employees was abnormally large, and during 1ọ1ọ the general lowering of the morale and the frequent strikes of men engaged in maintenance work led to a much lower degree of efficiency.

The director-general

held to the

view that the Federal Control Act and the standard contract based upon it did not require him to take account of .relative efficiency—that his obligation ended when he had expended an amount equivalent, when properly equated for the higher wage rates, to that spent in the test period. The railway com-

panies on the other hand insisted that if in the test period 100 man-hours cost $30 and produced to units of work, and if during

the year rg1g the same number of man-hours cost S60 but produced, say, § units of work instead of 10, the spirit of the Act is not followed unless the director-general spent enough in excess of $60 to produce 19 units of work. This is the real point of difference. In the settlements made since the termination of Federal control this issue has been avoided by a policy of ‘compromise and by lump-sum adjustments in which maintenance is but one factor, but it is probable that some of the companies which have large claims for under-maintenance pending may prefer to take the case to the courts for decision, Too much emphasis, however, should not be placed upon the financial results of Federal control. Deficits might have been reduced or entirely avoided, and a surplus laid aside for the settlement of claims, if the 1918 advances in rates had been greater or if supplementary advances had been made in 1919 to take

six months, the so-called transition period, while railway rates and wages were in process of further upward revision, the Government

would continue the guaranteed rentals paid during the period of Federal control. A Railroad Labor Board was created to pass upon wage matters, and made substantial increases in July 1920. The Interstate Commerce Commission was instructed to establish rates $0 that on the basis of current costs and under honest, economical

and efficient operation, they would yield net operating income sufficient tọ pay a fair rate of return upon the value of the railway properties held for and used in the service of transportation. For

the first two years the fair rate of return was set at 53°, with an extra 0-5 % (6% in all) to make provision for improvements charge-

able to capital accounts.

This mandate to the Commission, how-

ever, applied to the railways as a whole, or as a whole in territorial groups. For the purposes of the Act the Commission Jater divided

the railways into three general groups, the eastern, the western and

the southern. The mandate did not apply to individual roads in a

group.

Obviously a rate scale which will yield 6% to all of the railways in a group will yield more than 6% to some and less than 6% to others. No relief is provided for the railways which earn less than 6%, but when more than 6% is earned by a railway, the excess is to be evenly divided with the Government. The railway is to hold its Proportion of such excess in a reserve fund and the one-half which goes to the Government is to be held by it as a general railroad contingent fund to be administered by the Commission in assisting

the weak roads by loans.

The reserve fund created by a railway from

its excess earnings is to be held for interest charges or dividends in lean years, but whenever that fund is more than 5 “4 of its property value, the excess over 5% may be used for any lawful purpose. The problem of the weak railway has been for many years the principal obstacle in the path of a satisfactory solution obthe railway question. In the determination of competitive rates, for example, a scale which will give a reasonable return upon the value of a weak railway will give too much to the strong railway. Conversely, when the seale gives a reasonable

return,

but

not

more,

to the strong

railway, the weak one cannot live. [n practice the regulating authorities have been forced to adopt a middle ground with, perhaps, a tendency to lean more toward preventing an unreasonably high return to che strong chan an unreasonably low return to che weak. An attempt has been made to meet this problem in the Transportation Act which provides for the ultimate elimination of the weak rail-

ways by consolidation with the strong. The Commission is ordered to prepare and adopt a plan for the consolidation of railway propertics into a limited number of systems. Such a plan isto preserve a reasonable degree of competition and to maintain so far as practi-

cable the existing routes and channels of trade and commerce.

The

desiderata are that the several systems shall be so arranged that the cost of transportation as between competing systems, and as related to the values'of ihe properties, shall be approximately the same, so

that these systems can employ uniform rates in the movement

of

competitive trafic, and can earn, under honest and efficient management, substantially the same rate of return ypon the value of

their respective properties. The Commission in June 1921 was engaged upon the iormulation of such a plan, but as the Act pro-

RAILWAYS

236

vided no way in which its recommendations might be enforced when objections were raised against its terms, there seemed likely to be fong-drawn-out controversy and additional legislation before an ideal

scheme of consolidation nto a small number of systems of fairly equal financial strength would be made effective. The new Act enlarges the powers of the Commission over financial management and

requires it to exercise a general supervision over all new issues of securities. The Railway Labour Board (consisting of nine members

divided equally among representatives of management, labour and

the public) is empowered to fix wages and working rules. The foregoing outline mentions most of the important new features

in the 1920 legislation amending the original Act to Regulate Com-

merce and the amendments up to 1920. The fundamental provisions of the original Act remained in force in 1921 and had been extended or otherwise strengthened. Briefly, the Commission is required to gee that rates and charges are just and reasonable; to prescribe the rules under which rates may become effective; to prevent unfair discriminations between shippers, carriers or localities; to prevent, except when specifically authorized, the charging of a higher rate for a short haul than for a longer haul over the same route in the same direction; to prevent the pooling of freight or earnings; to require complete

reports from carriers in prescribed form; and to

prescribe and enforce uniform rules for accounting and for compila-

tion of statistics of operation, i In addition to the Federal legislation just described, cach state exercises its powers of regulating intrastate trafhe and of exercising what may be termed “ police powers” over railway management and service within its own borders. The line between Federal and State regulation is not clearly drawn, and controversies between the two authorities have been frequent. On the whole, the tendency of

court decisions during the decade 1910-20 was toward according greater powers to the Federal commission and less power to the

State commissions, as 1t has been shown that the states, when ex-

ercising control over intrastate rates and service, may indirectly discriminate against interstate traffic and service. In addition to the changes in the Act to regulate commerce,

new

legislation was enacted during the decade which strengthened and

extended the laws pertaining to safety appliances and accident prevention. These laws govern certain features of design and maintenance of locomotives and cars and of operating methods in train service. For example, the use of high-power headlights has been made compulsory, and the requirements as to boiler inspection and

the generai condition of locomotives have been made more rigid.

The scope of the Jaws governing maximum hours of service was enlarged. The eight-hour basic day, prescribed for train service employees by the Adamson

Act, passed by Congress in 1916, was

extended during the period of Federal control to apply to practically

all classes of railroad cmployees. Statistics —The salient features

with route mileage as shown in Table I1., madé up ‘of 178,707 m.

owned and 53,990 route m. operated under lease or similar arrange” ment, The average route mileage operated per Class I, road was 1,251 miles. For raiways of Classes IL. (those with operating revenue $100,000 to $1,000,000 per year) and 11). (these with operating revenues below $100,000 per year, including switching and terminal railways) the average was 44 miles. The greater part of the mile-

age owned by the large number of small companics is leased to and operated by Class I. roads.

Finances.—The total railway capital outstanding Dec. 31 1917 was $21,249,357,241. This, however, included certain duplications in $€curitics of one company held-by another company and used by

the second company as the basis for additional securities, Eliminating the intercorporate holdings and other duplications, the net

capitalization on that date was $16,401,786,017, or $66,699 per route mile. Of this net capitalization, $39,930 per route m., or §9-9%

of the total, was in capital stock, and 826,769, or 40-1°% of the

total, was in bends or other forms of funded debt. In that year the average dividend paid on all stock was 4:24°, but no dividends whatever were paid on 36-7% of the stock. The average dividend rate on the dividend paying stock alone was 6-81 percent. The average rate of interest paid upon funded debt may be estimated

as about 4 percent. The number of stockholders was approximately 670,000 and the number of bondholders about 300,000.

Table HI. gives the income account of all railways considered as one system, including switching and terminal companies, for the year ended Dec. 31 1917:—

TasLe lil. INCOME ACCOUNT, ALL RAILWAYS, 1917 Railway operating revenues $4,178,784,652

Railwav operating expenses . 20 Net revenue from railway operations. Railway tax accruals PR te Uncollectable railway revenues.

A a

2,956,770,809 =. | 1,222,013,843 227,301,093 6 711,879

Railway operating income

:

7

,

:

:

994,000,873

Equipment and joint facility rents (net

deduction)

.

2...

26,573,773 Net railway operating income ., ., . . 967,427,008 Other income (non-operating) n a, K 101,808,148 Gross income . . «ws tts— weapon pure and simple.

This arm shoots 9 mm.

pistol ammunition at the rate of about

540 shots per minute. The gun weighs 9 lb. 6 oz. without the magazine dram, which itself weighs 1 tb. 8 oz. empty. It is recoil-operated and air-cooled, and has an 8-in. barrel, protected by a casing perforated to allow circulation of air. The magazine (32 shots) is of the

snail type (see PrsroL). The breech mechanism 1s of the ‘ blow-back ”’

class in which on firing the inertia of the bolt, the compressing of the mainspring, and friction of the cartridge in the chamber momentarily bold the action firm. The gun fires when the bolt reaches its forward position as the striker projects through the face of the bolt, and is cocked when the mainspring is compressed and the holt drawn to the rear. This has the advantage that the chamber is always left empty, but the forward movement of the heavy bolt after pulling the trigger is able to disturb the arm. The gun is sighted to 200 metres only.

This gun was only brought into use just before the Armistice.

Fic. 15.—Bergmann Light Machine-Gun. Machine Carbine- Pistols. —The idea of securing more accurate

shooting from a pistol by fitting it with a shoulder stock and lengthening the barrel is an old one, and one well-known modern

example is the Mauser pistol (for description see 21.657-8). But while in the pistol proper, from the nature of the arm and its

uses, all modern development has been in the direction of per-

fecting the semi-automatic action (see PrsToL), there arose in the World War a neer! for some weapon lighter and handier than the rifle yet capable of developing an intensely rapid fire at short ranges,

The outcome of ihis need was a class of firearm which

at present has few representatives and no recognized gencric title, but is very interesting. In the absence of an accepted designation, these may be called machine carbine-pistols. I,

101

o8

oa.

99

wa

102



Bein. Bachksignt

Z Fees Drum

Safety

Ferd

Soft Lever 7); f j 4

£

Ejection Opening

cee arreti Caging

Fic. 17. Fic. 18. }Thompson Sub-Machine-Gun,

Portion of Main Spring

Fic. 16.~Bergmann Pistol-Gun.

The Thompson Sub-Machine-Gun (hgs. 17 and 18) is an inter-

In this field the precursors appear to have been the Italians. The pistola migliatrice Fiat (Tiat mitrailleuse pistol) was largely used by them as a substitute for the light machine-gun,

no

doubt because extreme lightness both in the gun and its ammunition was essential in an automatic arm for mountain warfare. The “ machine pistol” is fitted with a small shield which also

serves as a mounting, though the weapon can be used in the hands, if necessary. It is double-barrelled, each barrel having a separate box magazine of 25 rounds above the receiver. It is

gas-operated and air-cooled.

The bolt and its dependent parts

are supported but not positively locked on firing. It weighs 14 Ib.

without shield, takes 9 mm. pistol ammunition, and is sighted to 500 metres.

An outstanding feature is the very high

rate

of fire. Both magazines (50 rounds) are fired in two seconds, and with highly trained loaders and a full supply of magazines it is said that 1,000 rounds can be delivered in @ minute. This extreme

rate, in spite of certain

advantages,

militates

against

steadiness and accuracy, especially with so slight a mounting.

Nevertheless, according to the Germans the weapon proved trustworthy and effective. The Bergmann Pistol-Gun (fig 16), on the other hand, was intended not to replace the light machine-gun but to provide

esting type of a very light portable automatic weapon which shoots a -45-calibre pistol cartridge. The action is semi-automatic or automatic at will. The rate of fire when used as an automatic is 800 to 1,500 shots ner minute.

The weapon is about

23 in. in length, weighs 7-5 Ib., and uses a straight magazine (fig. 18) holding 20 cartridges in staggered rows, or drum magazines holding 5o or 100 cartridges (fig. 17). The

novel feature of this weapon

is the angular wedge breech

closure wich utilizes the farce of adhesion developed by che heavy breech pressure to Jock the breech. The principle, developed by Comm. Blish of the U.S. navy, has been briefly stated as follows :— “In any breech closure consisting of a breech plug in a suitable housing and having two preéssure-resisting surfaces, the forward surface disposed normally to the axis of the bore, and the rear surface inclined thereto and bearing upon a suitable surface of the housing, the force of adhesion will under heavy pressure immovably fix the breech block, but at a comparatively small pressure (whose value depends upon the inclination of the two surfaces) the force of adhesion eeases to act and the brecch block is rendered free to move under the influence of the forces then existing.” The principle permits the use of a very simple breech-locking mechanism, the essential element being a bolt (98) having an angular slot cut in the under side, into which the lock (99) is free to slide, anda housing or receiver (100) having a slot (101) into which a projecting lug on the lock engages when the bolt is in its firing position. Under high pressure the Jock firmly adheres tg the receiver shoulder and

RIGHI—RISLEY

286

prevents the bole from being blown to the rear, When the pressure

(formerly Avenida Central), built through the heart of the city in

is reduced, the adhesion ceases, and the lock, actuated by the remaining pressure, automatically slides upward and clear of its retaining

hemisphere.

(102) and cocks the firing pin, When the weapon is cocked the entire bolt group is held by the sear (104) in a retracted position, as shown in fig. 17. On the trigger being pulled the bolt, driven forward by the recoil spring, pushes a

private and public buildings. The military, naval and jockey clubs are situated there, and also the offices of some of the principal newspapers, such as the Jornal ĝo Comercio and O Paiz, besides many fashionable shops, cafés and business places. At the southern end is a group of elegant State edifices, the Municipal theatre, the

the hammer pin, its top end strikes the firing pin and the cartridge is

Jt is adorned with three rows of trees, and with broad sidewalks of white and black stone set to form figures in mosaic, as in Lisbon. For this both material and workmen were imported from Portugal.

shoulder while the bolt moves rearward against the recoil spring

cartridge into the chamber. During the forward motion of the bolt the hammer (103) strikes a shoulder of the receiver and rotates on

fired, Firing is discontinued by releasing the trigger; the sear (104) then engages the bolt in its retracted position, Jcaving the chamber empty. By means of the disconnector (105) the weapon can be made semi-automatic at will. When the magazine is emptied, the trip

1904, is now one of the handsomest thoroughfares in the western

Over a mile long from N. to S., it is lined with fine

Monroe palace, and the National library and Academy of Fine Arts.

The Municipal theatre, designed in 1904, cost over £2,000,000, although it seats but 1,700 people. The building which houses the National library, opened in 1910 in commemoration of the centenary

(106) allows the sear to engage the bolt in a rear position ready to feed and fire again when the trigger is pulled. Sights graduated to 600 yd. are provided. The sub-machine-gun is intended as an auxiliary Weapon for trench

of its founding (1808), is also a notable addition to the city. It isa

use and for close fighting generallv.

in suburban road-building.

It has been adopted also by the

police of several American cities for use as a riot weapon, both for

shot and ball cartridges.

RIGHI, AUGUSTO

(H. O'L.)

(1850-1920), Italian physicist, was born

at Bologna Aug. 27 1850. Details of his experimental work in magnetism and the problems of electricity and light are given in 17.389, 301 and 346, 6.859, 9.206, 21.936. He was specially

fireproof structure of granite, marble and stecl, equipped with every modern library applance.

One of the important developments of Rio de Janciro has been As the hills come practically to the bay

and sea, construction is difficult, but great progress has been made

and a 40-m. motor drive over pied roads ts now joining all the famous beaches with Tijuca and the city. The magnificent bayside drive, the Avenida Beira-Mar, with its double motor track and

intervening lawns and gardens, is particularly remarkable. Sanitation.—The city, formerly a hotbed of yellow fever and smallpox, has become one of the healthiest tropical cities in the world,

Ihe death-rate has fallen to about 20 per 1,000.

This is the

noted for his discovery of the electrical conductivity of bismuth and other metals, and for his pioneer work in wireless telegraphy. G. Marconi was his pupil. He died at Bologna, June 8 1920.

result of a campaign of scrupulous cleanliness, rigid enforcement of sanitary measures and scientific eradication of mosquitos and

(see 23.343), died at Indianapolis, Ind., July 22 1916. In rors, by proclamation of the governor of Indiana, his birthday, Oct. 7, was observed throughout the statc, in honour of “ Indiana’s most beloved citizen.” In 1913 he issued in six volumes a biographical edition of his works. Sce Clara E. Laughlin, Reminiscences of J. W., Riley (1916).

passed by Congress creating a national department of public health, consisting of three divisions, one in charge of the federal capital.

RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB

(1853-10916), American poct

RIO DE JANEIRO (sce 23.383).—According to the census of 1920,

the pop.

of the independent

municipal

commune,

or

federal district, which contains the city and is detached from the province of the same name, was 1,157,873 inhabitants, As the census of 1906 showed 811,443 inhabitants, the pop. has increased 43% in 14 years, an annual increment of 3-05 per cent. In 1020 there were 1,263 factories, large and small, with 46,9353 operatives,

representing a capital of nearly 270,000,000 paper

milreis, and an annual production valued at about 500,000,000 milreis. In 1920 the number of buildings in the municipahty was about 113,000, aS against 84,375 in 1906. The federal district is governed by a prefect appointed by the president of the

republic, and elects three senators and ten deputies to the national congress. The legislative power of the municipality is vested in a council consisting of 24 intendentes elected for three years.

The consolidated debt of the municipality in 1920 was computed at 227,080,200 paper milreis, of which 129,225,450 milrets

was an external debt, and 97,863,750 milrcis internal.

The

revenue had grown from 209,070,883 paper milreis in 1910 to 81,182,357 paper milreis in rọrọ. Education.—Primary instruction is provided by the municipality,

which in 1920 maintained 320 day-schools and

68 night-schools,

with a matriculation of 74,111 pupils in the former and 8,662 in the

latter. There are in addition 236 clementary private schools, with 19,825 pupils; over 80 receive a subvention from the Government on condition that they adopt the official curriculum and admit a cer-

tain number of children

free.

Secondary instruction 1s cared for

in public lycées and in many private establishments.

There is no

university, but the capital possesses higher faculties of law, medicine and enginecring, besides schools providing instruction in pharmacy,

dentistry, commerce, music, dramatics and the fine arts. The national Government also maintains a naval academy, a military college and a preparatory school of tactics. The most important li-

other germ-bearing insects, inaugurated under the direction of the celebrated Brazilian scientist, Dr, Oswaldo Cruz, in the first administration of President Rodrigues Alves (1903). In 1920 a law was

(C. H. H.)

RIO DE ORO (sce 23.357).—The area of the Spanish Sahara defined and extended by the Franco-Spanish

Conventions of

1904 and 1912 is about 110,000 sq. miles. The frontiers have not been delimited. The colony proper (area, about 65,500 sq. m.) extends from lat. 21°20’ N. to 26° N. The 1904 Agreement

recognized a Spanish

Protectorate

over an area on the N. of

about 34,700 sq. m., extending to lat. 27°40’ N. and bounded E. by the meridian 8°40’ W.; and the ror2 Agreement acknowledged the sovereign rights of Spain over this region, Still farther N. is an “ occupied territory ” of about 09,800 sq. m., extending to Wad Draa (lat. 28°45’ N.), and forming an intermediate zone between the Spanish possessions and Morocco. The interior has been little explored. A central volcanic tabletand, the Tiris, about 1,000 ft. above sea-level, falls by terraces broken by ravines to the coastal plain and to the Sepiet el Hamra on the north. To the S., the vast dunes of Azefal separate the Spanish Sahara from Mauretania (see 17.908). Wad Shebika enters the sea

about 36 m. S.W. of Wad Draa and runs parallel to its lower course. The only permanent water is in brackish wells which frequently

become choked.

The only district likely to repay colonization ap-

pears to be the wide basin of the Segiet cl Hamra and its tributaries, whose flood-waters suffice to fertilize pasture and arable land or

date-groves, There are no roads and is the most

as at the oasis of Smara. few main tracks and a network of smaller tracks, but but few villages. Smara, 160 km. inland from C. Juby, important settlement and is the headquarters of the

notorious religious agitators Ma el ‘Ainin and his son El Hiba,

Vil

Cisneros, on the Dakhla peninsula, the residence of the governor (deputy

for the governor-general of the Canaries), has a garrison

ad. fish-curing industry; pop. (1918) 529 foreigners and 495 na-

tives, with an adjoining village of 800 negroid half-castes (Imragen). The

desert

population,

roughly estimated at 80,000, is nomadic,

fluctuating between French and Spanish territory, and is split up into pro-French and pro-Spanish partisans. In 1912, there was a general rising under El Hiba, In 1916, a small Spanish expedition occupied C. Juby, but the fishermen, of whom the chief are the Aulad Delim Arabs and their allies the Regeibat (Arabized Berbers), remained practically uncontrolled.

Camels and ostriches are reared.

In 1916 the total value of imports by sea was £4,820; of exports

braries are:—the National library, the best appointed in S. America; the Municipal; the Gabinete Portuguez da Leitura; that of the Lycée

£4,910, chiefly fish and fish products.

tries and departments.

Tarfaya, about 180 km. farther north. The climate is fairly equable on the coast, but intense heat and drought prevail inland, with di-

of Arts and Crafts; and the collections existing in the various minis,

Streets and Buildings.—During the decade 1910-20 the ambitious

rogramme of municipal improvements inaugurated in 1903 was in arge measure completed. The port works, including a sea-wall over 2 m. long, 8 ft. above mean high-tide, and lying almost entirely in deep-water, enclosing a broad reach of reclaimed land between it and the former shore-line, provide the city with the most modern

facilities for loading and unloading ships. The Avenida Rio Branco

The fishing industry would

be considerable if better methods were employed.

There are open

roadsteads at E] Msit, at the mouth of the Segiet el Hamra, and

urnal variations of temperature in the shade of as much as 74°.

At Villa Cisneros the mean maximum summer temperature is 86° F., and the mean minimum winter 48° F.

(E. G. S.)

RISLEY, SIR HERBERT HOPE (1851-1911), English anthropologist, was born at Akeley, Bucks., Jan. 41851. Educated at

- RITCHIE—ROBERTSON Winchester and New College, Oxford, he entered the Indian civil service in 1873 and he had a distinguished career; but his principal work was done in connexion with Indian ethnography, the discussion of the caste system, etc., and he published under Government auspices some important volumes of anthropometric

data. He had charge of the Indian census operations of rgor. In 1910 he was appointed secretary of the judicial department

of the India Office. He was made K.C.LE. in 1907, and he

died at Wimbledon Sept. 30 rgrr.

RITCHIE,

ANNE

ISABELLA,

LADY

(1837-1910),

English

writer (see 26.716), eldest daughter of W. M. Thackeray, died

at Freshwater, I. of Wight, Feb. 26 1919. She is best remembered perhaps as the author of Old Kensington (1873).

Amongst her

other novels were The Story of Elizabeth (1863) and The Vilage on the Cliff (1865). She also published various volumes of biographical essays (Wadame de Sévigné, 1881, and A Book of Sibyls, 1883, ete.), and contributed a most interesting series of prefaces to the Library edition of her father’s works, thus supplying a substitute for the regular biography of him that he had

287

ship in the high offices that he filled in India and at home was advantageous to the army and to the State. An eminently knightly figure, Lord Roberts was a fine horseman, a great gentleman, an ardent patriot and a devout Christian.

ROBERTS, GEORGE HENRY (1869}, English Labour politician, was born at Chedgrave, Norfolk, July 27 1869. His parents removed to Norwich where he attended an elementary school and evening classes.

In 1883 he was apprenticed to the

trade of printer and compositor. At the expiration of apprenticeship he went to London and joined the London Society of Compositers. After a year he returned to Norwich and identified himself with the movement to organize local printers in a branch of the Typographical Association, of which he became president and ultimately

secretary. He also became president of the Norwich and District Trades and Labour Council. He was elected to the Norwich School Board in r8go9, being the first candidate run by the local Labour party to win a seat on a public body.

In 1904 he was clected to the post of national organizer of

THACKERAY

the Typographical Association and was chosen as its parliamentary representative, He was returned as one of the members for

Rircure (b. 1854), became permanent Under-Secretary of State

Norwich at the general election of 1906, and has held the seat

for India in rgro, and died Oct. 12 1912.

since. He was whip of the parliamentary Labour party for about eight years and a member of the executive counol of the

always deprecated.

Her husband,

Sir RICHMOND

RIVIERE, BRITON (1830-1920), English painter (sce 23.387), died in London April 20 1920.

His later works include “ Aphro-

party.

When the Labour party joined the Coalition movement

_dite” (1902) and “ Hark! Hark! the Lark ” (1909), also a portrait of Lord Tennyson (1009). His eldest son, HucH GoLp-

in 1915 he became a Lord Commissioner of the Treasury; he was parlamentary secretary to the Board of Trade 1916-7; Minister

win (b. 1869}, became a well-known painter; and the second son, Crutve (b. 1872), & prominent physician.

of Labour, 1917-8; Food Controller, Jan. zorg. He resigned from the Government Feb. 1920.

RIVINGTON, FRANCIS HANSARD (1834-1913), British pub-

ROBERTS, JOHN (1837-1019), English billiard-player, was

lisher (see 23.387), died July 2 1013. RIVOIRA, GIOVANNI TERESIO (1849-1910), Italian archaeologist, was born at La Manta di Saluzzo in Piedmont Sept. 22

born at Ardwick, Manchester, Aug. 15 1847, the son of John

1849. He came of an old Piedmontese family and on his mother’s side was descended from the Riccati (see, 23.288), a family of mathematicians and architects. He took his training as an architect and engineer at the university of Turin, entered Rome with

the Italian army in 1870 and thenceforth resided there, devoting his life to travel and to the study of the architecture of the later Roman Empire.

In 1884 he married Edith E. Johnson of

Roberts, also a great player of billiards. Details of the exploits both of father and son are given in 3.937, John Roberts, jun., died at Worthing Dec. 23 1910. ROBERTSON, SIR GEORGE SCOTT (1852-1916), British soldicr and administrator, was born in London Oct. 22 1852. He was cducated at Westminster hospital medical school, and in 1878 entered the Indian medical service. He served through the Afghan War of 1879-So, and in 1888 was attached to the Indian

He published two monumental works, Le Origini

Foreign Office, being employed as agency surgeon in Gilgit, on the frontier of Kashmir. In 1590-1 he travelled in Kafiristan

del? Archkileltura Lombardo (1ọ90or~7, Eng. trans. rọ10o) and 4rchilellura Musulmana (1914, Eng. trans. 1919). At the time of his death in Rome March 3 1919 he was engaged upon a third,

(see 15.630), In 1893 he went as political agent to Chitral, and in 1895 was besieged there by hostile tribesmen (see 6.252). Yor his services he was created K.C.5.1., and appointed British

Architettura

published in

agent in Gilgit. He retired from the Indian service in 1899 and returned to England. He unsuccessfully contested Stirlingshire

TONY (1837-1911), French painter (see

in the Liberal interest in rqo00, but was elected for Central Bradford in 1906. He died Jan. 1 1916.

Cheltenham.

Romana,

which

was posthumously

Rome (1020) by his widow.

ROBERT-FLEURY,

23.403), died in roit. ROBERTS, FREDERICK

SLEIGH

ROBERTS,

EARL

(1832-

ROBERTSON, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT, Barr. (18595).

Lord Roberts took an active and leading part, as head of the

British field-marshal, was born, of poor parentage, in Lines, Sept. 14 1859. He enlisted as a private in the 16th Lancers in

National Service League, in the movement in favour of compulsory military service for home defence. On the outbreak of the World War he was a frequent and welcome visitor at the

he won a commission in the 3rd Dragoon Guards, then in India. On joining he cagerly studied his profession in all its branches

1914), British field-marshal (see 23.403).

Subsequently to 1905

War Office, and shortly after the arrival of the two Indian divisions in France he crossed the Channel to visit them when the weather was cold and inclement. He was attacked by pneumonia while at the front, and he died at St. Omer on Noy. 14.1914. the title going by special remainder to his elder daughter, Aileen Mary. He was buried in St. Paul's, Lord Roberts was a tried and brilliant commander in the field. His self-reliance and willingness to accept risks when planning operations were demonstrated by the daring advance to Kabul after the massacre of the Cavagnari Mission, and by his swoop across the Orange Free State from the Modder to Bloemfontein

in Feb.

1900, abandoning

his communications,

That instinctive grasp of a tactical situation which stamps the great Captain was displayed by him on many occasions, notably when he attacked the Afghans on the Peiwar Kotal andat Kandahar, and on the occasion of his riding on to the field of Paardeberg. Hisattractive personality and his natura) kindliness made him a most popular chief, and, even if he hardly ranked as a military administrator of the very foremost class, his steward-

1877 and served jn the ranks of that regiment until 1888, when

and he was very successful in learning the native languages.

He

was sclected to be railway staff officer in the Miranzai and Black Mountain operations of 1891, and in the following year he joined

the intelligence department at Simla; while on its staff he carried out a reconnaissance to the Pamirs, and in 1895 served with the Chitral Relief Force, being wounded and receiving the D.S.O, He passed through the Staff College in 1897-8—the first officer risen from the ranks to do so—-and then, after a few months xt

the War Office, went out to S. Africa on the intelligence staff, he accompanied Lard Roberts on his advance from Cape Colony

into the Transvaal and was promoted brevet licutenant-colonel for his services. He spent the period from i901 to 1907 at the War Office, being promoted colonel in 1903, and he then went to the staff at Aldershot, where he spent three years. In 1910 he was appointed commandant of the Staff College, was shortly afterwards promoted major-general, and jn r913 became director

of military training at the War Office. On mobilization of the army for the World War, Sir W. Robertson-—he had been given the K.C.V.O. in 1913—was nominated

ROBINS—ROCKEFELLER

288

quartermaster-gencral of the Expeditionary Force; he filled that appointment most successfully for five months and then, in Jan. 1915, he became chief of the general staff to Sir J. French. In

His works include The Torrent and the Night After (1896); The Children of the Night (1897); Captain Craig (1902); The Town down the River (1910); Van Zorn (1914, a play); The Porcupine

the autumn of that year he was promoted licutenant-general

(1915, a play); The Man against the Sky (1916); Merlin (1917);

for distinguished service and in the following Dec. was brought

Lancelot

back to the War Office to take up the post of chief of the imperial general staff. There he immediately introduced great im-

(1921); Collected Poems (1921). ROBSON, WILLIAM SNOWDON ROBSON, Baron (1852-1918), English lawyer and lord of appeal, was born at Newcastle-uponTyne Sept. 101852. He was educated at Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1877. In 1880 he was called to the bar and entered politics, sitting as Liberal member for Bow and Bromley from 1883 to 1886, and for South Shields from 1895 to

provements in the office organization, and during the first year and a half of his holding the appointment he was successful in

keeping the general control of operations on sound lines. While convinced that the western front represented the decisive theatre of war, and fully aware how mischievous was disper-

(1920);

The

Three

Taverns

(1920);

Avon’s Harvest

sion of force in principle, he saw to it that, where circumstances

1910.

unfortunately. rendered operations in distant regions unavoid-

advocate, and became a Q.C. in 1892. In 1905 he was knighted.

He earned a reputation as a distinguished and energetic

able, the commanders on the spot were furnished with what was deemed essential to achieve success—with the result that the

and became solicitor-general in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s Government, being made Attorney-General in 1908. In rọro he

position of affairs in Mesopotamia, on the Suez frontier and in E. Africa was completely transformed within a very few months of his taking up his task. His services were recognized by his being promoted general in 1916 and by his being given the G.C.B. in

was made a privy councillor, and became a lord of appeal and

1917. He had, however, always experienced some trouble in sufficiently impressing upon the Government that the war could only be won in the west, and in the later months of rory he found it more and more difficult, in view of the somewhat disappointing results obtained by Allied offensives in France and Flanders, to persuade the War Cabinet that diversion of fighting resources to Alexandretta, or to Palestine, or to Macedonia, or to the Austro-Italian frontier, endangered prospects of victory

23.424), Ged at Grasmere Jan. 2 1915. Ye contributed a chapter on Roman law to the second volume of the Cambridge Afediacval History in 1913.

at the decisive point and might lead to disaster near home.

His

anxieties were increased by the manner in which the problem of man-power was treated. He moreover foresaw that the plan of having a supreme war council composed of military representatives of the Allies, such as was introduced towards the end of the year, was an unworkable one. Finally in Fel. 1915 he resigned—just one month before the success that attended the

life peer. He resigned his office in 1912, and diced at Battle, Sussex, Sept. 11 1918. ROBY, HENRY JOHN (1830-1915), English scholar (sce

ROCHEFORT, HENRI (1830-1913), French 23.426), died at Aix-les-Bains June 30 1973. ROCKEFELLER, JOHN DAVISON (1839-

politician

(see i

+), American

capitalist (see 23.433), continued after roro to live a retired life,

and to give great sums for charitable and educational purposes. In 1r9r3 the Rockefeller Foundation was chartered under the laws of the state of New York (Congress having refused to enact the legislation necessary for a national charter) “to promote

the well-being of mankind throughout the world.’ To this, the most extensive of his benefactions, Rockefeller had given in all $180,000,000 by 1921. The income and $10,090,000 of the original

gifts were expended from time to time by its trustees.

With

great German offensive of March proved how correct had been

increasing deliniteness the Rockefeller Foundation focussed its

his appreciation of the situation. He was given charge of the eastern command, and three months later he succeeded Lord French as commander-in-chief in Great Britain. On the final distribution of honours for the war he was rewarded with a baronetcy and grant of £10,000, and he was nominated G.C.M.G.

efforts in the fields of medical education and public health. After 1913 it supported by appropriations the International Health Board, an independent organization engaged, in coöperation with governmental agencics, in demonstrations for the control of hookworm disease in 14 southern states of the United States and 22 foreign states or countries; of yellow fever in

From April 1919 to March 1920 he commanded the British troops on the Rhine, and, after relinquishing that appointment on the force being reduced, he was promoted ficld-marshal, ( at his autobiographical volume From Privaie to Freld-marshal

1921), ROBINS, ELIZABETH

five South and Central American countries and of malaria in ro southern states of the United States. In addition, the International Health Board, with funds provided by the Rockefeller Foundation, organized in 1917, partly as a war measure, the

(186s-

_—s+),- Anglo-American novelist

and actress, was born at Louisville, Ky., Aug. 6 1865, and educated at Zanesville, O. She had had her early training as an actress in America with the Boston Museum stock company, and

afterwards with Edwin Booth.

Coming to London she first

appeared in The Real Litlhe Lord Fauntleroy in 1839, and between 1890 and 1896 she played in most of Ibsen's plays, in which she

established her position on the stage. In 1902 she was Lucrezia in Stephen Phillips's Paolo and Francesca at the St. James’s theatre, London. [ler first novels, George Mandeville’s Husband (1894), The New Moon (1893) and Below the Salt (1896), appeared

over the pseudonym of C. E. Raimond, but in 1898 the success of The Open Question led to her publishing in her own name, her reputation as a writer being maintained in The Afagnetic North (1903); A Dark Lantern (1905); Come and Find Me (1908); Camilla (1918) and The Messenger (1920). She took an active part in the agitation for woman suffrage. Her play Votes for Women was acted at the Court theatre, London, in 1907. ROBINSON, EDWIN ARLINGTON (18695), American poet, was born at Head Tide, Me., Dec, 22 1869.

From the

public schools of Gardiner, Me., he proceeded in 1891 to Har-

vard, but withdrew after two years to take a business position in New York City. From 1905 to 1910 he was connected with the N.Y. Customs House, and then returned to Gardiner to devote his time to literature, and especially to poetry. He

became a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters.

Commission for Prevention of Tuberculosis in France; this commission conducted in limited areas, as demonstrations, vigor-

ous campaigns of popular education in hygiene, and provided for the training of French women as health visitors. By the end of 1920 arrangements were under way for the continuation of the work of the Commission by French authorities. In ror4 the Rockefeller Foundation established the China Medical Board to promote the development of scientific medicine and hygiene in China through medical schools, hospitals, and training schools for nurses.

In rọrọ the Peking Union Medical College, founded

by it, was opened together with pre-medical and nurse-training schools. Gifts have been made also to other institutions in China offering pre-medical courses, and to hospitals. In 1920 the Foundation established a Division of Medical Education,

through whose advice large pledges of money were made for the development of medical centres in London, and in various cities of Canada. Asa part of its public health work, the Rockefeller

Foundation also made grants for the support of schools of hygicne at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and at the university of São Paulo, Brazil. A special feature of the work was provision for fellowships to persons from many different countries cngaged in study in medical education and public health. During the year 1920, 71 fellows from 13 countries (including the

United States) were supported.

During the World War the

Foundation contributed to wat work agencies;, and before crystallization of its general policy of limiting its work to

RODIN—ROMER medical education and public health, it made appropriations to a number of objects in other fields.

To the General Education Board, the next largest of his charities, Rockefeller had given up to Dee. 1920 over S$r15,000,000. By the close of the fiscal year 1920, this Board had contributed more than $32,000,000 towards the endowments of different colleges, excluding professional departments, the

289

part in the struggle for constitutional changes in the Government of Russia. He strongly opposed the reactionary policy of the Impcrial Government, and always defended the rights and privileges of the Duma. By the force of events Rodzianko was placed at the head of the national movement at the moment of the revolution, and, as president of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma, he sent a telegram to the Tsar pointing out the

general practice being to make gifts contingent upon the raising of additional sums. Among medical schools which

necessity of his abdication. But he had no real influence on the course of the revolution. He played for some time a purely

received help were Washington

decorative réle, recciving telegrams of congratulation and delivcring speeches, but he soon disappeared from the stage. After the Bolshevist revolution, he made his way to the south of Russia, where he took part in different anti-Bolshevist organizations and bodics. Later he emigrated to Germany. ROGERS, BENJAMIN BICKLEY (1828-1919), English classical scholar, was born at Shepton Montagu, Som., Dec. rr 1828. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, he was elected a fellow

University,

52,345,000; Johns

Hopkins, over $2,200,000; University of Chicago, $2,000,000 (joint fund with the Rockefeller Foundation, r916); Vanderbilt, $4,000,000 {1r010); Rochester, $5,000,000 (1920); Yale Medical

School, $1,582,000; and the Meharry Medical College (for negroes), Nashville, Tenn., $150,000 (1920). The Board's facilities for aiding medical education were greatly increased in 1919 by a further gift from Rockefeller of $20,000,000, both principal and interest to be expended in the United States during the next so years. In rọrọ it gave $500,000 towards the endowment of the Graduate School of Mducation at Harvard, opened the following year; and in 1920 appropriated $1,000,000

to the proposed building fund of Teachers’ College, Columbia University, the largest gift yet made to any institution for training teachers. To the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, Rockefeller gave in all upwards of $25,000,000. In Nov. 1920 announcement was made that he had given more than $63,000,000 to the Laura Spelman Rockefeller

Memorial, New York, largely for the continuing of charities in which Mrs. Rockefeller, who died in rors, had been interested. By that time more than $8,000,000 had already been appropriated, chiefly for the benefit of women and children. Jt was cstimated at the beginning of 1921 that the total

amount given by Mr. Rockefeller for philanthropic and charitable purposes exceeded $500,000,000. Nearly four-fifths of this had gone to the four great charitable corporations which he ` created: The Rockefeller Foundation, General Education Board,

The Laura Spelman RockefcHer Memorial and the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Quite as significant as the magnitude of these gifts was the fact that they were free from all restrictions, having been given for the gencral purposes of the respective corporations, the trustees of which have power to dispose of the principal as well as the income. As the corporate purposes of these organizations are extremely broad, and the giftsare free from restrictions, they will always be adaptable to the changing needs of the future generations. While it was probably truc that Mr. Rockefeller was the richest man in the world, it would appear, in view of the statements made by competent authorities, that his wealth in 1921 was less than $500,000,000,

and that in making his gifts he had drawn very heavily upon capital as well as income.

RODIN, FRANCOIS AUGUSTE (1840-1917), French sculptor (sce 23.447), presented in Nov. 1914 20 examples of his work in

bronze, including ‘‘ L’Enfant prodigue,” “ La Muse,” “ France,” “ Cybele,” “L'ange déchu,” “ Balzac,” and a bust of Mr. George Wyndham, to the Victoria and Albert museum, London, as a token of his admiration for the deeds of the British army. In 1916 Rodin presented all the works remaining in his possession to France, and in 1917 a replica of “ The Burghers of Calais ” was placed in the garden adjoining the House of Lords, He died at Meudon, near Paris, Nov. 17 1917. RODZIANKO,

MICHAEL

VASSILIEVICH

(1859-

), Rus-

sian politician, was born in 1859 and belonged to a family of great landowners. At the age of rg he joined the Horse Guards, but he soon resigned and retired to his large estates in the government of Novgorod. He took an active part in local life and was also a member of the conferences of Zemstova and Towns. In 1905 he was elected member of the First Duma and was re-

elected at all subsequent elections. He joined the right wing of the Octobrist (Moderate Liberal) party, and with the support of the Conservatives was elected president of the Third Duma after the resignation of A. Guchkov in March ro11. Later he was rcélected president of the Fourth Duma, and took an important

of the college in 1852 and was called to the bar in 1856. There he was on the high road to success, when increasing deafness obliged him to retire and devote himself exclusively to literature. He translated all the plays of Aristophanes, reproducing the

Greck metres in the English version. Sept. 22 1919. ROGERS, JAMES

GUINNESS

Ie died at Twickenham

(1822-10911), British Noncon-

formist divine, was born at Enniskillen, Ireland, Dec. 29 1822.

He was educated at Silcoates school, Wakefield, and Trinity College, Dublin. From 1865 to rg00 he was a minister of the

Clapham Congregational church.

He is best remembered for

his close association with Dr. Dail in the Liberal-Nonconformist education and disestablishment campaigns of 1865-75, and for his friendship with Mr. Gladstone and Lord Rosebery, who consulted him as the foremost representative of Nenconfermist statesmanship. He died at Clapham Aug. 20 1911. ROLLAND, ROMAIN (1866~ s+), French man of letters, was born at Clamecy, Nièvre, Jan. 29 1866. He was educated at

Clamecy, and later in Paris, where he had a distinguished academic career. From 1889-91 he was a member of the French School in Rome, in 1892 went with an archaeological expedition to Italy, and in 1895 was appointed professor of the history of

art at the Ecole Normale Supéricure, later occupying the same position at the Sorbonne, where he introduccd the study of the history of music. He produced many critical and historical works, among them Histoire de POpéra en Europe arant Lulli et Scarlatti (1805); Des Causes de la Dêcadence de la Peinture italienne (1805); and Le Thédire du Peuple (1903); besides studies on Millet (1902); Beethoven (1903) and Michel-Ange (1906). His most famous work, however, is the romance of Jean Christophe, the biography of a German musician, one of the most remarkable productions of the present day. The work is in three serics, Jean Christophe, Jean Christophe à Paris and La Fin du Voyage. It appeared in ro volumes, the first, £’ clube, in 1904, and the last, La Neuvelle Journée, in 1912. A series of articles published by Romain Rolland in the Journal de Genève during Sept. and Oct. 1914 created an extremely bad impression in France owing to the “ defeatist ’ attitude of the author. His later works include Au-dessus de la Aféléc, of which the niath edition appeared in 1915; Colas Brangnon, a novel (1918); Les

Précurseurs (1919) and Voyage musical aux pays du passé (19109). See Jan Romein, Romain Rolland (1918); I. Debran, AL. R. Rolland, initiateur du défaitisme (1918); W. Kuechler; Romain Rolland (1919).

ROMER, SIR ROBERT (1840-1918), English judge, was born in London Dec. 23 1840. He was educated privately and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler and Smith’s prizeman in 1863. From 1865 to 1866 he was professor of mathematics at Queen’s College, Cork, but in 1867 was called to the bar, becoming in 1881 a Q.C. and in 1884 a bencher of

Lincoln’s Inn. In 1890 he was raised to the bench of the Chancery division and knighted, and in 1899 became alord justice of appeal. He presided over one of the inquiries made after the South African War, and was also a member of the royal commis-

sion on university education.

He received the G.C.B, in 1901

RONALD—ROOSEVELT

290 and retired in 1906.

Romer, who marriedin 1864 the daughter of

Mark Lemon, editor of Punch, died at Bath March 19 1918.

RONALD, SIR LANDON

(1873-

), English conductor and

musical composer, born in London June 7 1873, was educated

at St. Marylebone and All Souls grammar

school, and the

high school at Margate. His first appearance as a musician was in 1890, as solo pianist in the wordless musical play L’Enfant

impressions made upon him by this journey, in a long and intimate letter written at the time to the English historian Sir

George Trevelyan, and published in Bishop’s Theodore Roosevelt and His Time. It was in vain for him to claim that he was only a “private citizen with no claim to precedence”; for

everywhere he was received with the honours ordinarily paid only to sovereigns.

He was warmly received in France where

Prodigue, and in 189r he was engaged by Sir Augustus Harris as conductor for a Covent Garden season. During the following years his reputation as a conductor steadily increased, and in

he made a public address at the Sorbonne.

1908-9 he had a successful European tour.

conductor of the New Symphony Orchestra (now the Royal

and he was designated by President Taft to represent the United States at the State funeral of Edward VII. His most

Albert Hall Orchestra), and in 1910 was

striking experience was in Germany, where he was received with

of the Guildhall school of music.

In 1908 he became appointed principal

His compositions include

various orchestral works, ancl a large number of songs, many of

which have attained wide popularity.

He was knighted Jan.

In England his

Romanes lecture at Oxford, and particularly his Guildhall speech on the management of a great empire, were noteworthy;

cordiality by the Emperor, but, as he said afterwards, it was the only country in Europe where he felt that “‘ every man, woman and child was my natural encmy—that is, the enemy of my country.” Returning to the United States, June 18 1910, Roosevelt

I 1922. ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN DELANO (1882}, American politician, was born in Hyde Park, N.Y., Jan. 30 1882. He was a distant cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. He was educated

found that both his African and European experiences had been followed closely by the American people. President Taft had

at Groton, Harvard (A.B. 1904), and the Columbia Law School

now had a year and a half of expericnce with the country, with

(LL.B. 1907).

He was admitted to the bar in 1907 and began

practice in New York City, He began his public carcer in 1910 when he was elected to the New York State Senate, being the first Democrat in 28 years to represent his district. Jfe was an anti-

Tammany man and was associated with the group that successfully opposed the Tammany candidate for the U.S. Senate in the session of 1911-2. In ror2 he was reélected to the New York State Senate. The same year he strongly supported Woodrow Wilson for president and on the latter's election was

appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy inro13. He then resigned from the New York Senate. In 1915 he was a member of the National Committee of the Panama-VPacific Exposition. After America’s entrance into the World War he went to Europe in 1918 to attend conferences and to inspect the U.S. naval forces, and early in 191¢ was in charge of their demobilization.

He was a supporter of the League of Nations; he indorsed woman suffrage and was a strong advocate of civil-service reform for the post-office and consular appointments. At the Democratic National Convention in r920 he was unanimously nominated for vice-president on the ticket with James M. Cox, but was defeated in the ensuing election. ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (1858-1019), twenty-sixth President of the United States (see 23.707), completed his second term, March 4 1909, the most famous man in his country, with

a wealth of personal friends, and a reputation as a master of men. Yet from the presidency, like most of his predecessors, he stepped down into a retirement which seemed to forbid a re-

Congress, and with reforms and policies which Roosevelt

had

initiated and expected would be carried out. There was a riit in the Republican party. Some of Roosevelt’s friends were in opposition to the ‘Taft administration. In the Ballinger controversy over western public lands, Roosevelt sided against

the administration.

A group of dissatisfied Republicans, the

“insurgents,” had arisen in Congress, and prepared to dispute the supremacy of the Conservatives in the party, on whom

Taft seemed to be relying. To Roosevelt's mind, the “ mossbacks ” were in control; and a few hours after landing he agreed to throw his personal influence on behalf of Governor Hughes of New York, who was engaged in a struggle with the Republican Legislature over the direct primary.

He made an address

at Ossawatomie, Kan., Aug. 31,in which he laid down a radical programme of political and social reform to which he gave the name of the “ New Nationalism.”. Plainly he was dissatished with Taft's administration. As early as Nov. 21 he discussed with an intimate friend the possibility of his accepting the nomination in 1912, to succeed Taft in the presidency. ‘Through

1911 this quarrel grew.

Soon alter returning, Roosevelt became

an editorial writer, bearing a free lance, in The Outlook, and alike in his editorials and in public addresses he took the side of the insurgent element. He regarded Taft as the representative of “the interests.” Early in 1912, a group of seven Republican governors united in an appeal to Roosevelt to declare his willingness to be nominated. On Feb. 12, Taft made a bitter speech, in which, without mentioning Roosevelt, he spoke contemptu-

entry into public life or a recovery of the headship of his party. In the ro remaining years of his life he displayed the same

ously of the extremists.

qualities of intense thought and action that had characterized him before; within a year after his withdrawa} he again became

openly as a candidate for the nomination by the party conven-

a great force in American society and public life.

Meanwhile the usual campaign for the choice of delegates to the Convention was going on, following the same lines as in 1908. In the southern states, where the Republicans were hopelessly in the minority, delegates were elected by the usual rump and machine-!cd state conventions. Roosevelt’s friends made a

A sense of

fair play to his successor, President Taft, for whose choice he was indeed responsible, and that drawing-force of the unknown

to which his nature was susceptible, led him to make plans

for a hunting and exploring trip in Africa, some months before the end of his presidential term. He was also influenced by

This seems to have been the incident

that decided Roosevelt’s course; for on Feb. 26 he came out tion in June.

campaign in the northern and western states, especially in those which had provided for a choice of delegates through a popular

invitations to make addresses in England and France. Accordingly he sailed from New York on March 23 1909 for Africa, where, in conjunction with his son Kermit and the well-known hunter Selous, he travelled a long distance, shot big game, and safely emerged at Khartum in March rg1o. Here he plunged at once into politics by addresses at Khartum and

vote in party primaries. A majority of the Republican voters in those states favoured Roosevelt. When the Republican Convention met in Chicago, June 22, Taft was strong in the

Cairo, in which he stood for orderly and vigorous government for Egypt. In both instances the addresses were requested and approved by the local military authorities. From Egypt he proceeded to Europe, and, apparently to his own surprise, found himself an international celebrity. He was received in all the courts of central Europe except the Vatican, where an official interposed between him and the Pope by stipulating guarantees of hisconduct in Rome. He left a most interesting account of the

only six were finally assigned by the Committee of Credentials to

delegations chosen by state and local conventions; and Roose-

velt in those representing a predominance of Republican voters. The organization of the Convention, however, was in the hands of the Taft men, because they had a large majority in the National Committee. Out of the numerous contested seats, the Roosevelt column. Ona test vote for the choice of temporary chairman, the Taft men showed a narrow margin. The turn of 15 votes—which might have been secured had Roose-

velt come out a few wecks earlicr—would probably have brought

ROOSEVELT on a “landslide” for him.

A speech by Roosevelt a few weeks |

earlier before the Ohio Constitutional Convention, advocating the “ Recall ” of judicial decisions, also gave alarm to some men

291

The outbreak of the World War gave him a new opportunity for his pen and voice. His instinct was against Germany as an oppressor of weak nations; but he stayed his desire for positive action for a time, from the feeling that he ought not to embarrass

who might otherwise have supported him. Once organized, the Taft forces were able to carry through the report of the Committee on Credentials, which assigned them a safe majority. Roosevelt himself had come to Chicago a few days before the

his countrymen,

Convention, and was the centre of the hardest battle of his life.

and the public enjoyed.

He rallied his supporters,

cdged leaders of the Republican party, brought a suit in April 1915 against Roosevelt because of an accusation of unfair and corrupt politics as a ‘‘ boss” which Roosevelt had made against him. Roosevelt vigorously defended himself and won the suit. For ro days he was on the witness-stand, and his testimony,

and

addressed

an enormous

pub-

lic meeting, ending his speech with “ We stand at Armageddon, and we battle for the Lord.” Most of his followers stood by

him; but they could not break down the walls of precedent and conservatism, The Roosevelt delegates, on their leader's reguest, remained in the Convention until the end, but refused

to vote on the nomination; and Taft was duly nominated for a second term by the vote of about two-thirds of the Convention,

Roosevelt was a party man, who had stood by the party in 1884 when many of his friends boltcd. His standpoint in 1912 was that he was trying to save the Republican

party from a

ruinous yielding to the forces of organized wealth and reaction.

the President. It was at this time that a personal enemy gave Roosevelt the opportunity of again showing his character to

through

a publicity which

both Roosevelt

William Barnes, one of the acknowl-

which was spread broadcast throughout the land, revealed his

undiminished force and appealed to the popular imagination. The sinking of the “ Lusitania”? by a German submarine in May

1915 brought his bitterest denunciation,

and from that

time he foresaw first the possibilitv and then the likelihood of war between Germany and the United States. He made himself the leading spokesman for ‘ preparedness,”

and presently

Ie was also a fighter, and felt himself deprived, by technicali-

drew down the wrath of President Wilson's administration for

ties and personal hatreds, of an honour which the majority of his party was eager to bestow upon him. He unhesitatingly decided to * bolt,” and on the evening of the adjournment of the Convention, at a meeting in Orchestra Hall, he advised the

a speech at Plattsburg.

formation of a Progressive party. A later Convention of the Roosevelt men throughout the country, including a considerable number of Democrats, nominated Roosevelt, with Gov.

Hiram W. Johnson of California for vice-president. Meanwhile the Democrats had nominated Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey. The result was a three-cornered political contest, in which it was clear at the beginning that Tait could not be elected, but that Roosevelt probably could not win enough Democratic votes to prevent the choice of Wilson. Nevertheless, Roosevelt fought vigorously through the campaign, violently attacking Taft as a reactionary and tool of reactionaries. While on a speaking tour at Milwaukee he was shot by a fanatic, but was not scriously injured.

The result of the election was the choice of Wilson, who had

From that time he did not spare sharp

criticisms of President Wilson’s policy as showing unwillingness to face the dangers of war. His utterances against Germany and in favour of the Allies had great influence. As the election of 1916 drew near, the remaining Progressives, aided by some who had stayed in the Republican party, made an cffort

Roosevelt.

to force

the Republican

Convention

to nominate

They called a Progressive Convention to meet at

Chicago at the same time as the Republican, hoping to make a

joint nomination

with the Republicans.

Roosevelt

did his

best to secure the prize, but again the party leaders would have none of him. Hugbes was nominated, and this time Roosevelt

accepted the situation as a loyal member of the Republican party, and supported the nominee. As the World War

went

on, Roosevelt became the severest

critic of the administration and the strongest advocate ol preperedness. He formed a plan for raising a special division, in which he hoped to have a command, and which he would offer

6,000,000 popular votes and 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt, 4,000,-

to the Government.

coo popular

with Germany came, he offered the services of himself and his sons, all four of whom subsequently enlisted. He requested that he might have a personal command, which was denied by the

votes,

and

88 electoral;

Taft, 3,500,000 popular

votes, and 8 electoral. On this showing the Progressives had more voles than their Republican adversaries, and therefore hoped to compel a reconstruction of the party. Their Republican opponents, however, kept tight hold of the name, organization and prestige. They had deliberately accepted defeat in advance in order to put Roosevelt out of the running. This, the first serious defeat that Roosevelt had ever encountered, was tohima bitter humiliation. He felt that his public

career was ended.

Tis first movement was characteristic.

He

had cordial invitations to visit S. America and make addresses in the principal cities. As in his experiences of rg10, this dovetailed in with a plan of exploration. Accordingly, early in 1613, after visiting several S. American countries, including Brazil and Argentina, he returned to Brazil, made his way overland, and came down a river, whose uncharted course he followed for 600 miles. The hardships were severe, and he received an

injury, scrious for a time, and drew into his system the sceds

of tropical malaria.

The Brazilian Government

named the

stream Rio Teodoro.

On his return to the United States, out of office, a defeated

candidate, an insurgent, the personal encmy of the Republican Icaders, he seemed justified in his belief that his career was

over. But as usual his enemies played into his hands. An obscure journalist ventured publicly to accuse him of drunkenness. In May 1913 he instituted a suit for defamation of character, with the result that the defendant broke down and acknowl-

edged his error. A large section of the American people resented the affront, and rejoiced in the vindication. During this period Roosevelt, was indefatigable as journalist and writer, first in The Outlook,

then in the

Metropolitan

magazine,

through the columns of the Xexsas City Slar.

and finally

Early in to17, when the American breach

administration, although both Houses of Congress united in a bill making his plan possible. During the year he made some of the most notable addresses of his life, especially that before the “Order of Moose” Convention in Pittsburgh. By this time the Republican politicians were looking forward to the election of 1920 and began to group themselves about Roosevelt. His most persistent enemies, even Willam Barnes, accepted his nomination as a foregone conclusion. The year 1918, however, was a sud one for Roosevelt. His son Quentin was killed in the war. Ever since returning from Brazil, Roosevelt’s constitution had shown weakness. He was several times in hospitals, and underwent a serious operation for abscess due

to infection received during his Brazilian explorations. The hearing of his left ear was wholly destroyed. Still he continued his writing and speaking, and his direct personal influence upon his thousands of friends. Even in the first days of 1919, when he sutiered from renewed disease, he looked forward to public service.

On Jan. 6 rọrọ he died in his sleep.

A man who could do so much could not do everything perfectly, though few have ever done so many things so well. It was more true of him than of most men that his defects were inherent in his virtues. There were few half-tones in Roosevelt's moral perceptions and fewer in his vocabulary; he saw things as either black or white, and he forgot sometimes that he had not previously seen them as he saw them at the moment. He had enemies, and even former friends, who charged him

with breaking promises, betraying political associates and setting his own wishes and interests above all others.

The very

intensity of his convictions sometimes blinded him to the sincer-

Sian U

ROOT

292

ity and even to the justice of other points of view. Nevertheless

this intensity, this moral fervour, gave his ideas a momentum and a success which they could never have acquired had they

proceeded from a more judicial mind.

He scorned “ weasel

words,” and on occasion he did not hesitate to describe his enemies as thieves and liars. His remarkable energy reminded

observers of some great elemental force which, like any natural phenomenon, is controlled by its own necessary laws.

When

Lord Morley was leaving the United States in roog he was asked

by reporters what in America had impressed him most, “ Two things,” he reped, “ Theodore Roosevelt and Niagara Rapids.” His fearlessness was as conspicuous as his energy. With a courage very rare in political life he attacked the iniquitics that had crept into the conduct of American business.

He

asserted the importance of personal rights when these were being openly denied in the name of property rights. He rallied the patriotic elements of the country against the menace of a

private ““ money power 7 Which not only had frequently dictated the course of legislation but threatened to usurp the authority of the Government

itself.

He felt strongly that any position

involving the exercise of power had its obligations as well as its privileges,

and this feeling lent force to his denunciation

of

“ predatory interests ? and “ malefactors of great wealth.” On the other hand he had Little patience with demagogic attacks on men or corporations merely because they were rich or successful, as was shown in his famous utterance in which he compared the authors of these journalistic attacks with the “ muckrakers ” in Pilgrim's Progress.

It was said of him satirically that he

had invented the Ten Commandments; but Roosevelt's carnest-

ness in behalf of old iruths was of the essence of bis service to his countrymen, and more important at the juncture than the discovery of new ones, His great personal power

was

used in the furtherance

of

honesty, fair dealing and patriotic service, when more than lip

service to {hese virtues was vitally needed. He threw all his energy into the effort to bring about a reapplication of fundamental moral principles to American business and political life. While he was unquestionably an astute politician, the secret of his success lay in his imaginative understanding of the views and feclings of his countrymen: his enthusiasm was contagious

because he vividly expressed what they already felt and believed to be the truest American ideals. When he spoke for the “ square deal,” the American people as a people always responded. Born of a wealthy family, in an aristocratic society, enjoy-

ing all his days a literary and artistic atmosphere, he was still a natural democrat.

He had a personal interest in every man or

woman that he met, and a genuine affection literally for thousands of individual persons. He was a scientific man whose observations and deductions were valued by naturalists and investigators. He was a literary man, very widely read. He was an intellectual man, interested from youth to age in literature and

philosophy, He was a politician without a rival in his time for boldness, foresight, and an innate knowledge of what his fellow countrymen were thinking about.

He was a statesman of the

most brilliant ability, who after a crushing defeat returned to power over the minds of the people and was on his way again

to the presidency of the United States.

His bitterest politi-

cal encmies accepted his coming back to national leadership,

To few men in history has it been given to wield such spreading and wholesome personal influence.

far-

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Between 1909 and 1919 Roosevelt published about 15 bouks, several of them consisting of articles and addresses. The more important are African Game Trails (1910); Conservation of Womankind and Children (1912); Theodore Roosevelt, an Antobrag-

raphy (1913, contains little beyond 1909); Life-Lftstories of African Game Animals (2 vols. 1914); A Hunter-Naturalist in the Brasidian

Wilderness (1914); Through the Brazihan Wilderness (1914); A Booklover's Holiday in the Open (1910). His principal later books on public affairs and on the World War are Realicable Idents Gonny America and the World

War

(1915

and

1919); Fear Ged and

Take

Your Qua Part (1916); National Strength and International Duty (1917); The Great Adventure (1918). Numerous collections of extracts and speeches have been published, especially those of W. F. Johnson (1909); L. F. Abbott (African and European, 1910); W.

Griffith (1919); J. B. Bishop, Letters to his Children (1919).

The most important biographies are those by J. B. Bishop (1920); H. Hagedorn, Boy's Life of Theodore Roosevelt (1919); W. D. Lewis (1919); W. R. Thayer (1919); Bradley Gilman (1921) and H. Hagedorn's Roosevelt in the Bad Lands (tgz1).

A useful list of books by

and about Roosevelt is J. H. Wheelock’s, Bibliography of Theodore Roosevelt (1920). (A. B. H.)

ROOT, ELIHU (1845-

), American lawyer and political

leader (see 23.711), was elected president of the N.Y, State Bar Association in roro, and chairman of the board of trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1913. He was chairman of the N.Y. State Republican Convention in 1912, 1913, 1org, 1916, and permanent chairman of the Republican National

Convention in ror2,

In 1013 he favoured the repeal of the bill

exempting American shipping from Panama Canal tolls. He also approved President Wilson’s policy of non-interference in Mexico. He assailed as class legislation the exemption of labour

unions and agricultural associations from the Sherman AntiTrust Act.

On Dec. 10 1910 he was awarded the Nobel peace

prize because of his work in the pacification of the Philippines and Cuba as well as his part in the negotiations between the United States and Japan. The same day he became a member of the Court of Arbitration for settling the claims of British,

French and Spanish subjects in connexion with property seized by the Portuguese Government when a republic had been proclaimed, In rors he opposed Secretary Bryan's treaty with Colombia, disapproving any apology for incidents attending the acquisition of the Canal Zone and regarding the proposed payment of $25,000,000 ag too large. He attacked the Ship Pur-

chase bill, pointing out dangers of international difficultics in case interned vessels were taken overt, Te also argued that for the Government to acquire shipping would discourage private enterprise and was socialistic in tendency. He was president

of the State Constitutional Convention in 1915 and worked for many reforms, including the short ballot, means for remedying

the law’s delays and the excessive cost of securing justice, and the making of impeachments easier. When submitted to the voters, however, the new constitution was defeated.

He was

unanimously clected president of the American Bar Association in tts. The same year he retired from the U.S. Senate, Daving refused to stand for a reëlection. He had long advocated preparedness on the part of the United States and early in 1ọ17 spoke in favour of war

against

Germany.

After

the

United

States

World War he urged full support of the President.

entered

the

In May ror

he was appointed chairman of the special American mission sent to Russia and was given the rank of ambassador. Arriving at Petrograd in June he addressed the Russian Council of Ministers and in Moscow spoke at a special session of the Duma and

at a meeting of the local Council of Workmen's and Soldiers’ Delegates. Later he visited General Brusstlov at staff headquarters. On his return to America he was elected honorary president of the National Security League, succeeding Joseph

H. Choate.

On Sept. 25 1917 he presided at the meeting of the

National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage and denounced suffrage agitation during the critical period of the war. He bad never supported

the movement

and in 1914 had been

blacklisted by the National American Suffrage Association, He approved in genera} the Covenant of the League of Nations but in rọrọ suggested six amendments to protect American interests, including reservations concerning the Monroe Doctrine and immigration, He favoured separate consideration of the Peace Treaty and the League. He was strongly opposed to the Prohibition amendment to the Federal Constitution; was retained

as counsel by several

brewing Interests and in 1920 argued

before the U.S. Supreme

Court against

its constitutionality,

but unsuccessfully, In 1920 the President reappointed him U.S. delegate to the Hague Tribunal and he went to Holland to assist in organizing the Permanent Court. In July 1920

he spoke at the unveiling of St. Gaudens’ statue of Lincoln in London. In ro2r he was onc of the four U.S. delegates at the Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armament. He was the author of several volumes of lectures and addresses,

including Experiments in Government and the Essentials of the Con-

ROSCOE—ROSS, stitution

(1913, lectures delivered at Princeton);

Addresses

on

International Subjects (1916); Addresses on Government and Citizenship (1916); The Military and Colonial Policy of the United States (1916); Latin America and the United States (1917); Miscellaneous Addresses (1917); North Atlantic Coast Fisheries at The Hague (1917) and The United States and the War (1918).

ROSCOE, SIR HENRY ENFIELD (1833-1915), English chemist (see 23.725), died at Leatherhead, Surrey, Dec. 18 1915.

ROSEBERY, ARCHIBALD PHILIP PRIMROSE, sTH Ear or (1847), British statesman (see 23.731), took an active part in the constitutional crisis in 1910 and 1911.

He treated the

Parliament bill as a revolutionary measure which constituted

single-chamber

Government,

in effect

and did his utmost

to arouse the nation toa sense of its danger. But he disapproved of the bill which Lord Lansdowne introduced in May rorr for the reconstitution of the House of Lords, holding that the Opposition ought to have contented themselves with reaffirming his own resolutions of the previous year. If the Parliament bill became Jaw, Lord Lansdowne’s bill mattered litle; who would then be the acolytes and sycophants who would accept the degrading position of members of a second chamber? While, however, he bitterly condemned the conduct of ministers in going to “a young and inexperienced King ” for contingent guarantees, he declined to follow the extreme course of rejecting the bill recommended by the “ Die-hards.” He shrank from the scandal of a great creation of peers. If the bill were allowed to pass, the House would be left with some vitality; if the creation of peers

was forced, they would have none at all. He showed his own

R. B.

293

ROSENWALD, JULIUS (1862), American merchant and philanthropist, was born at Springfield, IU., Aug. 12 1862, and was educated in the public schools. From 1885 to 1906 he was president of Rosenwald & Weil, clothing manufacturers, Chicago. In 1895 he became vice-president and treasurer of the mailorder house of Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago, and in roro president. The gross sales of the company, which were $1,750,-

ooo in 1896, increased under his management to $258,000,000 in 1919. He served during the World War under appointment by President Wilson as a member of the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense. In 1918 he was sent on a special mission of cheer by Secretary Baker, of the War Department, to the American troops in France. In 1919-20 he served in Washington as a member of the President’s Industrial Confer-

ence,

He devoted much time to work for philanthropic, educa-

tional and civic organizations. He gave $150,000 to Tuskegee (Ala.) Normal and Industrial Institute; $250,000 for a build-

ing to house Jewish philanthropic organizations of Chicago; and (with Mrs. Rosenwald) $750,000 for new buildings for the university of Chicago. Of the latter sum $250,000 was used to

erect a building, Julius Rosenwald Hall, for the departments of geology and geography, and $500,000 for buildings for the medical department. He founded dental infirmaries in the

Chicago public schools.

During the World War he gave large

sums to relief organizations,

in 1917 alone $1,000,000 to aid

sufferers in eastern Europe.

He contributed gencrously to, and

took a leading part in securing contributions for, the Hoover Children’s Relief Fundin 1920-1. Beginning in 1914, he stimulated

estimate of the impotence of the House after the passage of the bill by ceasing to attend its debates; and indeed he took no further part in public life till the outbreak of war in 1914 fired

ern states by agreeing to contribute toward their cost and toward

his patriotism.

As lord-licutenant of Midlothian and Linlith-

the lengthening of the school terms, provided both the whites

gowshire he promoted recruiting and other warlike activities in

and the negroes of the neighbourhood contributed also and that public funds were appropriated. Up to 1920, 800 schools were thus constructed at a total cost of $1,500,000, of which Mr. Rosenwald gave $400,000. In 1920, soo additional buildings were authorized for immediate construction at an approximate

his own country; and heiped to hearten the nation and to avert

a premature peace by occasional speeches, His feeling was shown by a preface which he wrote in Oct. 1014 for the first volume of Col. John Buchan’s History of the War. He spoke of “the

incalculable blessing which the damnable invasion of Belgium has conferred incidentally upon ourselves. . . . It has revealed to the world the enthusiastic and weather-proof unity of the Empire. . . . Blood shed in common is the cement of nations, and we and our sons may look to see a beneficence of empire, not such as the Prussians dreamed of, not a war-lordship over

other nations, not a nightmare of oppression, but a world-wide

British influence which shall be a guarantee of liberty and peace, and which, hand-in-hand with our Allies in Europe and with our kindred in the United States, should go far to make such another war as this impossible.” The war cost Lord Rosebery his younger son, the Right Hon. NEIL PRIMROSE (1882-1917), whose political advance had been watched by his father with eager sympathy. He was undersecretary for the Foreign Office in 1915, parliamentary secretary for Munitions in 1916, and at the close of that year became

Coalition Liberal Whip under Mr, Lloyd George. But these appointments were only held for short periods in the intervals of fighting as a captain in the Buckinghamshire Hussars, and he died of wounds received in action in Palestine in Nov. 1917. He had married Lord Derby’s daughter in 1915. Lord Rosebery had a further domestic sorrow in the dissolution, in 1919, of the marriage (celebrated in 1909) of his elder son Lord Dalmeny with Dorothy A. M. A. Grosvenor, Lord Rosebery was created Earl of Midlothian in the peerage of the United Kingdom—the earldom of Rosebery being a Scottish carldom—at the coronation of King George in 1911, at which ceremony, as at the coronation of King Edward, he was one of the lords who bore the canopy. He became chancellor of Glasgow University in 1908 as he had long been chancellor of London University; and was chosen Jord rector of St. Andrews University for the year of its quincentenary celebration in ror1, ROSEGGER, PETER (1843-1918), Austrian poet and novelist (see 23.724), died in 1918. (See AUSTRIAN Empire: Literature.) ROSENTHAL, TOBY EDWARD (1848-1917), American painter (see 23.735), died in Berlin, Germany, Dec. 28 1917.

a programme for building rural schools for negroes in the south-

cost of $2,000,000,

of which

Mr.

Rosenwald

agreed

to pay

$500,000. At the close of 1920, 14 cities had Y.M.C.A. buildings for negrocs, costing altogether $2,000,000, because of Mr. Rosenwald’s offer to contribute $25,000 to each city under certain conditions. His share in the cost was $350,000. He was an official of several leading philanthropic, civic and educational organizations of Chicago, including the university of Chicago, also of the Rockefeller Foundation, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, the Baron de Hirsch Fund and the

American Jewish Committee, and was identified with many other movements for public benefit throughout the country.

On Dec. 29 1921 it was announced that Mr. Rosenwald had pledged about $20,000,000 to safeguard the interests of Sears, Roebuck & Co. during the critical period of business readjustment after the World War.

He increased the company’s

fluid assets by purchasing for $16,000,000 part of the real estate owned by the company in Chicago, and gave the company from

his own holdings 50,000 shares of its common stock (par value $100). In 1920 and 1921 the company had paid no dividends on its common stock and it was apparent that its accounts at

the end of ro2r must show a deficit, But Mr. Rosenwald by this action enabled the company to readjust its finances without impairing its capital stock, and protected its stockholders, many of them employees. It was recognized generally that he established a precedent which raised the standards of business when he thus faced heavy loss in order to protect those who had bought shares because of their confidence in his leadership, and also in order to foster the practice of employees’ participative investment. ROSS, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM

(1841-1914), Canadian politiclan (see 23.739), was knighted in rọro. He published, amongst other works, The Life and Times of the Hon. Alex. Mackensie and Getting into Parliament and After. He died March 8 ror4.

ROSS, ROBERT

BALDWIN

(1869-1918),

British

art critic

and writer, was born at Tours May 25 1869, the son of the

294

ROSS, SIR R.—ROTHERMERE

Yon. John Ross, Q.C., attorney-gencral for Upper Canada, his mother being a daughter of the Hon. Robert Baldwin, premier at Upper Canada. He was educated privately, and later at King's College, Cambridge. After leaving the university he took to journalism. As a judge of pictures he was in very high repute, and from 1912 to 1914 he acted as adviser to the Board

of Inland Revenue on picture valuations for estate duty. -The most noteworthy feature of many years of his life, however, was his friendship with Oscar Wilde, whose literary executor he ultimately became. Ile was responsible for the publication of Wilde’s De Profundis (1905), and subsequently for a complete edition of Wilde’s works. Not long before his death Ross received from hisadmirers a presentation of plate, and also a sum of money which, at his request, was applied to the foundation of a scholar-

ship at the Slade school of art. IIe died in London Oct. 5 1918. ROSS, SIR RONALD (1857}, British physician and bacteriologist, was born at Almora, India, May 13 1857. He studied medicine at St. Bartholomew's hospital, and in 1881

entered the Indian medical service, About 1893 he commenced a series of special investigations on the subject of malana, and by

1898 had arrived at his theory that the micro-organisms of this disease are spread by mosquitos (sce 17.463, 20.786).

In 1899

he retired from the Indian medical service, and devoted himself to research and teaching, joining the Liverpool school of tropical medicine as lecturer, and subsequently becoming professor of

tropical medicine at Liverpool University.

In 1913 he became

physician for tropical diseases to King’s College, London, During the World War Ross was appointed to the R.A.MLC. and became War Office consultant in malaria. In 1902 he received the Nobel prize for medicine, in r91r a K.C.B., and in ro18 a

K.C.M.G. He has also been the recipient of honours from many British and foreign universities. He published in roro The Preveniion of Malaria, and also produced Psychologies, a volume of poems (1919), and a romance, The Revels of Orsera (1920). ROSTAND, EDMOND (1869-1920), French dramatist (sce

23.754), devoted himself during the World War chiefly to the writing of patriotic verse. Various comic versions of Cyrano de Bergerac were performed by the soldiers at the front, one of which, Cyrano de Bergerac aux Tranchées (1916), was prefaced by Rostand with some of his own verses. He died in Paris Dec. 2 1920. His two sons, Maurice and Jean, have produced various works, the former having published a volume of poems, Le Page de la Vie and Le Cercucil de Cristal, and the latter an important pamphlet on wealth. ROSYTH (sec 14.718).—The development of the German navy in the first years of the zoth century rendered it necessary to create a British naval base suitable for a fleet concentrated in the North Sea, and in 1903 it was decided to establish a firstclass naval base at Rosyth on the Firth of Forth. Land was acquired and works were planned, but the development of possibilities of torpedo attack soon made it evident that the outer anchorage, as originally designed, would be insecure, and

naval opinion became doubtful as to whether the base would be adequate, The plans of construction were, therefore, modified in r908, but, up to the outbreak of war, Rosyth was regarded as the principal þase and headquarters for the Grand Fleet, though it was decided that initial stations must be established at Cromarty (see CROMARTY) and Scapa Flow (see Scapa FLow). When the war began, Admiral Jellicoe preferred to establish his headquarters at Scapa Flow, but Rosyth was

used as a secondary base, particularly for the battle cruisers. The Firth of Forth had been selected, before the war, as the eastern

terminus of a mid-Scotland canal which was toconnect with the existing canal and follow its line for part of the way, and then crossing the low ground in the neighbourhood of Stirling, to enter Loch Lomond, and ultimately to reach the sea by a short canal from Balloch tọ a point near Dumbarton. The canal was projected not only for commercial purposes but also to enable warships to pass safe] and rapidjy from \W. to È. and to make the great Clyde shipyanils easily accessible from the naval base at Rosyth, and thus to avoid the necessity of constructing docks and repairing yards there. The project was again under consideration during the war, but it was obvious that it coukl not be accomplished in time, and Rosyth was

developed as a great dock-yard.

The original scheme included a high-level main basin covering

an area of 55 ac., with an entrance lock from the fairway, a dry or graving dock 750 ft. long and rio ft. wide, a submarine tidal basin,

the construction of an entrance channel, and the erection of work-

shops and offices, and work was begun in Igug. The whole site of the works has been reclaimed from the sea, and a great sca-wall was

built to form the southern boundary of the docks, the number of

which was increased from one to three.

Great progress had been

made by the outbreak of war, and it was anticipated that the works

would be completed by the summer of 1916. Operations were pushed on vigorously during the war, and a special Act of Parliament was passed tn 1915 to facilitate the provision of dwelling-houses for Admiralty employees. By the original Act for the construction of the base, the whole area between the town of Dunfermline and

the land purchased by the Government was brought within the

municipal area, which was thus extended from 2,016 to 7,730 acres. The erection of houses has involved the construction of new roads,

and new water and sewerage schemes,

ROTHENSTEIN, WILLIAM (1872}), English artist, was born at Bradford, Yorks, Jan. 29 1872, and was educated at the

Bradiord grammar school. In 1358 he entered the Slade school, studying under Legros, and afterwards worked in Pars. in 1893 he began exhibiting at the New English Art Club.

paintings Doll’s

include

House”

Mourning”

“‘The (1900),

Browning ‘Aliens

Readers” at Prayer”

(190s), ‘“‘ Carrying the Law”

(1900), (1904),

His

“ The ‘ Jews

(1910), “ Morning

at Benares ” (1911), “ Bourlon Church ” (roro), and “ The Last

Phase: on the Rhine”

(ro1g}.

Among his portraits may be

mentioned those of Augustus John, Sir Francis Darwin (1905),

Mr. Charles Booth (1908), Prof. Alfred Marshall (1908), Mr. Bernhard Berenson (toro), and Sir Rabindranath Tagore (1912); besides a portrait of himself (1900), now in the Metro-

politan Museum, New York. His work is represented in many galleries, including the Dublin Gallery of Modern Art, the National Gallery, Melbourne, the National Edinburgh, and the galleries of Bradford,

Portrait Gallery, Manchester and

Johannesburg. He was in 1017 elected prolessor of civic art at the university of Sheifeld. His published works include Oxford Characters (1896); Enelish Portraits (1898); The French Set, and Portraits of Verlaine (1898); Manchester Portraits (1899); Liber Juniorum (1899); a Life of Gove (1900); Plea for a Wider Use of Artists and Craftsmen (1918); Twenty-four Por-

traits (1920). His brother, ALBERT DANIEL RUTHERSTON (b. 1881), who took the name of Rutherston in place of that of Rothenstein in roré, was bern at Bradford Dec.

5 1881.

He studied at the

Slade school in 1808, and after roor exhibited regularly at the

New English Art Club. He became well known asa theatrical designer of great taste and originality, his work including designs for The Winters

Tele (1912); G. B. Shaw’s Andrecles and

the Lion (1913) and Le Mariage Forcé (1913), The Children’s Blue Bird by Madame

He also illustrated

Maeterlinck (1913).

ROTHERMERE, HAROLD SIDNEY HARMSWORTH, 15T VISCT. (1868), British newspaper proprietor and financier, was the second son of Alfred Harmsworth, and brother of Visct.

Northcliffe (sce NortHCLIFFE).

He was born April

26 1868

at Hampstead, London, was created a baronct in rg1o, Baron

Rothermere in 1914, and Visct. Rothermere of Hemsted after his services as Air Minister, in 1918. He married in r503 Mary Lilian, daughter of George Wade Share, At the age of 21 he entered the publishing firm in which his brother Alfred (after-

wards Lord Northcliffe) was then the principal, soon after the date when Axswers was launched. He assisted in developing the business on sound and economic lines, and for the next 20

years he was the close associate of his brother in all his great undertakings and shared in his triumphs. His administrative and financial skill admirably seconded Lord Northcliffe in working out his original schemes. He took an important part in the reorganization of the London Evening News, when his business talent helped to make that once insolvent newspaper a large

prefit-vielder,

He was one of the three principals in the estab-

lishment of the Datiy Afail (1806), for many years controlled the finance of that newspaper, and was largely responsible for developing its methods of distribution, He was equally active at the Amalgamated Press, the gigantic pericdical publishing

ROTHSCHILD—ROUND business which his brother had founded after. the success of Answers, He founded the Glasgow Duily Record, bought the Leeds Mercury, and shared in the purchase of The Times (1908). We became known also as a most generous benefactor of charities. By the gift of a large sum he enabled the Union Jack Club to provide worthy accommodation for sailors and soldiers in London; and he gave £10,000 to the Territorial Force County

of London Association.

In roro he founded the King Edward

chair of English literature at Cambridge, and in the same year he ceased his connexion with The Times, Daily Mail, and Ervening News. In ror4 he acquired the Daily Mirror from Lord.

Northcliffe, and this henceforth became his special organ. In 1o15 he founded the Sunday Pictorial, the first fully illustrated Sunday newspaper in London. In the World War, Mr. Lloyd George, while Secretary for War, appointed Lord Rothermere in 1916 Director-General of the Royal Army Clothing Department. In the following year he accepted the office of Air Minister, under Mr. Lloyd George as Premier. He at once declared himself “ whole-heartedly in favour of reprisals,” which were the best means of carrying the

295

succeeded his father as Austrian baron.

He sat in the House

of Commons from 1865 to 1885 when he was created a peer by Mr. Gladstone, the first of his race and religion to be raised to the House of Lords,

He was welt known as an agriculturist as

well as a financier, and he was renowned for his charities. died in London March 31 rors.

He

His brother, Lrororp dE Rorusciitp (1843-1917), who had

been throughout associated with him jn the management of the financial house, succeeded him as its head and also took over most of his public offices, besides interesting himself especially in

the Jewish community and becoming president of the United Synagogue,

He was an art collector and owner of race-horses.

He died at Ascott, Leighton Buzzard, May 29 1917. ROUND, JOHN HORACE (1854-

), English historian, only

son of John Round, Jord of the manor of West Bergholt in Essex,

and through his mother grandson of Horace Smith, author of Kejected Addresses, Was born at Brighton on Feb. 22 1854.

He

was educated privately, afterwards going to Balliol College, Oxford, where he took a first-class. in modern history.. The teaching of Dr. Stubbs, then Regius Professor of History, great] y

war into Germany and protecting British towns against air

stimulated the young student, whose independent and critical

attacks. Suflering from precarious health and his bereavements in the war, he resigned on April 25 1918, alter he had carried

genius had

out the fusion of the Royal Naval Air Force and Royal Flying Corps.

“ My second tragic loss in the war, ten weeks since,”

he wrote to the Prime Minister,

caused me great distress of

mind and body . .. I was suffering from ill-health and insomnia.” Immediately after the war he began a most energetic campaign against extravagance in national and local finance, himself contributing numerous articles to his newspapers. The tragic Josses to which he referred were those of his two sons, Capt. Harold Alfred Vyvyan St. George Harmsworth, M.C. (b. Aug. 2 1894) and Licut. Vere Sidney Tudor Harmsworth (b. Sept. 25 1895), both of whom, after showing exceptional promise in civil fields, served with extreme gallantry in battle and fell in the national cause. Harold, in the Irish Guards, was twice severely wounded in 1015, and was then given a staff appointment in England. This he insisted on resigning’ and

returned to his battalion at the front,

There in Bourlon Wood,

on Nov. 27 1917, he reccived mortal wounds of which he died on

Feb. 12 1918.

In recording the grant of the M.C. for his con-

duct on that occasion the London Guzelte stated:

“ He led his

company forward under heavy fire and himself put out of action two cnemy machine-guns. It was entirely due to his splendid example that his company

reached

their objective.”

In his

memory Lord Rothermere founded and endowed the Harold Vyvyan chair of American history at Oxford University in

June 1920.

Vere, educated for the navy which he had to leave

owing to gun-deafness, joined the Royal Naval Division immediately after the outbreak of war, took part in the expedition to Antwerp, and, when his battalion was driven across the frontier into Holland, made his escape from Dutch internment. He was in the terrine fighting at Gallipoli and in the battle of the Somme, having refused a staff appointment, like his brother, because he was determined to share the fortunes of his men. ‘twice

wounded in the storming of Beaucourt on Nov. 13 1916, but

still advancing and setting an example which, as his commander wrote, “ thrilled with pride the men of his battalion,” he was struck a third time by a shell and killed.

In memory of him

Lord Rothermere in 1919 established and endowed the chair of

naval history at Cambridge which bears his name.

Lord Rothermere’s third and only surviving son, Esmond Cecil (b. May 26 1898), who had served during the last part

already

begun

to revolt

against

the superficial

methods of historical study traditional in the English schools, and after a few years he devoted himself to historical research, His own aim as a historian, as stated by himself, was “to add to or correct our knowledge of facts” (preface to Feudal England), and from the first he insisted that students of mediaeval history must go to the records in order to find evidence to supplement

and check the chroniclers on whom historians of the type of Freeman had too exclusively relied. In 1883 he published in the

Antiguary a criticism of Brewer’s introduction to the Book ef Howth (Rolls Series); In which he proved that the author was

“strangely at fault ” in his views on its authorship, its origin and its contents; and three years Jater, in his Eurly Life of Anne

Boleyn, he again pointed out errors “ on the simplest matters of fact ” made by the same eminent scholar. In 1884-5 he published in a magazine articles on “Fhe Origins of the House of Lords ” (reprinted in Peerage and Pedigree, 1910), in which he argued for “that feudal origin of the House which, in view of the teaching of Freeman and Stubbs, it was, at that time,

heresy to assert,” In 18883 appeared his edition of Ancient Charters, Royal and Private, prior lo 1200 (Pipe Roll Soc; vol. x.), in the preface to which he pointed out their use for genealogy, topography, legal and ecclesiastical antiquities, etc. In r8gr appeared his Jnfroduction of Knight-service into England (privately printed, reprinted in Feudal England, 1805), in which he

proved the entirely Norman and feudal origin of this institution (see the article by Round in the #.B. 15.867).

In 1892 he published in the Quarterly Review (vol. 175, No. 349) his famous attack on.Freeman’s -historical method. He

accused him of working as a historian ‘ not from manuscripts, but from printed books,” and pointed out ‘“ the danger to our

national school of history in the wide-spread and almost superstilious belicf in his unimpeachable authority.” This authority he proceeded to assail, centring his attack on that “ palisade ” of solid iimber which, in his Nerman Conquest, Freeman had imaginatively built round the English host at “ Senlac,” and

proving that this palisade had as little existence as “ Senlac ” itself (see E.B. 13.59 note).

Round had begun openly to attack

Freeman as early as 1882, but the fact that the Quarterly article, though written before Freeman’s death, did not appear till afterwards excited unjust comment, and blinded the dead historian’s friends to the convincing force of the criticism.itself. The long and bitter controversy that followed was summed up by Round in “ Mr. Freeman and the Battle of Hastings ” in Feudal England. In 1892 also appeared Geoffrey de Mundcville, a study of the anarchy under Stephen, which established the author’s reputation a3 a constructive historian. In Feudal England, which appeared in 1895, Round published in collected form some of the results of his researches into the history of the rrth and r2th centuries, the first part of the book setting forth views as revolu-

of the war in the Royal Marine Artillery, was in rorg elected “ anti-waste” M.P. for Thanet, and was then the youngest member of the House of Commons and the fifth of his family in Parliament. (H. W. W.) ROTHSCHILD, NATHANIEL MAYER, rst BARON (1840tor5), Jewish financier, was born in London Nov. 8 1840, the son of Lionel Nathan de Rothschild, Austrian baron, head of the English branch of the famous financial family (sce 23.758). He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1879" tionary on the Domesday side and the whole system of land

ROUVIER—ROVNO,

296

BATTLE

OF

assessment as on the actual introduction of the feudal system

battle at Gologory and on the Zlota Lipa.

into England.

In 1899 was published his Calendar of Documents

and the N. wing of the VIL. Army engaged Lechitski’s PX. Army,

preserved in France illustrative of the history of Great Britain and

Puhallo advanced with the main body of the I. Army towards the bent back N, wing of Brussilov’s VIII. Army to throw it back on Dubno; and Field-Marshal Roth-Limanowa pushed forward onthe Kovel (Kowel)-Luck road in order to capture from the

Ireland, vol. i, pp. 918-1206, and also another collected series of studies under the tithe of The Commune of London. In the following year he published his Studies in Pecrage and Family IZ istory, and at the Congress of Archaeological Studies he read a paper (subsequently published) on “the systematic study of our English place-names,” in which he again pointed out the impossibility of accomplishing any scientific work in the department of research until ihe place-names of England had been classified and traced to their origins.

Round’s vast and detailed knowledge of the periods which he had made his own led to his opinion being sought by sucecssive

law officers of the Crown charged with the conduct of pecrage cases brought before the House of Lords. His attention was thus drawn to pecrage law, and he soon cliscovered that there “was room for its treatment on fresh and historical lines.” Jn roro he published Peerage and Pedigree, containing studics on

peerage law and its problems, in which incidentally he attacked “the muddle of the law,” pointing out that the lawyer, whose

vision is bounded by his “ books,” is still in the Middle Ages,

while the historian is a man of science. Although the labour involved in these pecrage cases Was immense, Round refused to accept any remuneration; in r912, however, his services were publicly recognized by the creation in his favour of the new office of Honorary Adviser to the Crown in Peerage Cases. His passion for historic truth led him to wage ruthless war on the

‘ nedigrec-mongers,” whom he attacked with mordant wit (see, e.g. in Peerage and Pedierce, “Some ‘Saxon’ Houses,” “The Great Carington Imposture ”’), and on those who were attempting to give a false value to the possession of coats-of-arms (ibid.

“Heraldry

and the Gent’).

Occasionally he extended

the

range of his attacks, falling, for instance, upon those who, consciously or unconsciously, falsified history in the interests of particular political or religious opinions (e.g. “ The Elizabethan

Religion, in correction of Mr. George Russell,” Century, vol. xli., p. ror). History on a large scale Round never attempted.

Nineteenth

He edited, with prefaces, a whole

serics of the Pipe Rolls; he was a frequent contributor to the English Historical Review; he helped to edit the Ancestor, for

which he also wrote; and innumerable papers by him are scattered in various historical and archaeological journals and re-

views, In 1913 he had begun to prepare a catalogue of these scattered works, but in 1921 this had not yet been published. Round’s historical method—reaching conclusions by induction from isolated facts whose connexion he had in turn to prove— prevented his becoming a popular writer; but his style is always luminously clear, and the articles contributed by him to this Encyclopaedia (Domesbay, KNIGHT SERVICE, BARON, BARONET, art, Bayeux Tapestry, Scutacr, the families of FITZGERALD and NEVILLE, etc.) are excellent examples of his capacity for

concise statement.

Russians the command of the northern flank. Puhallo’s advance decided Ivanov to break off the battles and to withdraw Brussilov during the night, and Shtcherbachev and Lechitski's N. wing on the 28th and 20th to a position behind the Sierna, on the watershed between the Bug and the Styr, on the Zloczéw heights and behind the Strypa. The S. wing and centre of the Austro-Hungarian front followed immediately in pursuit, and in consequence two battles developed, after the occupation of the Russian position: one, on the 30th on the Strypa, from whose

bridgcheads Shtcherbachevy and Lechitski delivered mighty blows against Bothmer’s S. wing and Pflanzer-Baltin’s N. wing; the other, on the 29th at Zloczéw, where Béhm-Ermolli attempted to break through. Puhallo only arrived before Brussilov’s front on the 2oth and had to put off attacking until the gist. Roth, having encountered opposition at Rozyszcze on the 29th, had advanced with the main body across the Styr at Sokul, and that day began a forced march towards Luck. The XXXIX. Corps, brought up by train, flung itself upon him but was defeated on the joth.

Ivanov made

Brussilov withdraw in the night behind

the

Putilowka and go into position at Olyka, Miynow, Kozin and the source of the Ikwa. Luck was surrendered, Shtcherbachev held the Zloczéw heights until the morning of Sept. 1, although he was surrounded on the N. and his front was broken through

in places. He then retired to the position Radziwillow-Podkamien-Zalozce. Lechitski was still holding out on the rst, in spite of the failure of his counter-assaults, and Pflanzer-Baltin therefore deliv-

ered an assault with his group, established N. of the Dniester close to the mouth of the Sereth. During the night the Russians fell back on to the strongly fortified Sereth position, which was

provided with several bridgcheads. His books

are all collections of particular studies, and they represent but

a tithe of his published work.

Bothmer’s S, wing

(W. A. P.)

ROUVIER, MAURICE (1842-1911), French statesman (see 23.781), died at Reuilly-sur-Scine June 7 rgrr. ROVNO, BATTLE OF.—The Rovno operations played an important part in the Russian campaign of 1913 on the eastern front (sce EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS). In consideration of Austro-Hungarian troops having been

set free by the rally of Mackensen’s group of armies in their victorious march on Brest Litavsk, and of the connexion between

the Russian N.W. and S.W. fronts having been broken by the withdrawal of the former N. of the Polyesie, the Austro-Hunganian army Higher Command decided, on Aug. 27 1915, to take the offensive with the army front which had been inactive on the

Zlota Lipa and the Bug. The objects in view were Rovno (Rowne) and the liberation of the east portion of East Galicia. The S. wing of the JI. Army under Bohm-Ermolli, and the N, wing of the Southern Army under Bothmer, made a successful

attempt to break through Shtcherbachev’s XI. Army in the

Ivanov hoped that his N. wing, which had been bent back a long way and was difficult to envclop owing to the adjacent marsh arca, and had, further, been reinforced by fortress artillery from Rovno, would be able with the aid of flank attacks from the region of dense forests and impassable swamps known as

Polyesie (“the Woods ’’) to hold out until the S. wing, opposed by far weaker forces, should have Hited the whole front olf its hinges by a victorious assault. The Austro-IIungarian army Higher Command arranged for the N. wing,

now

divided

into two

armies

under

Archduke

Joseph Ferdinand, to deliver a decisive blow by means of assaults on Rovno and Dubno; for Béhm-Ermolli to break through in the centre of the Russian front; and for Bothmer and PflanzerBaltin to contain the Russian forces by an attack on the Sereth position, Lechitski wanted to employ the time until his N. and Shtcherbachev’s S. wing should be ready, by removing the

threat to his flank offered by Pflanzer-Baltin’s troops, who had advanced on both sides of the Lower Sereth.

These battles on

the 4th and sth, combined with a simultancous attack on the

Bukovina, failed in their object. While Bothmer was grouping his army for a break-through S. of Tarnopol, and Pflanzcr-Baltin’s N. wing was waiting to attack simultancously with him on the 7th, the Russians, on the afternoon of the 6th, opened the battle of the Sereth (the battle of Tarnopol) with a great mass assault from the Trembowla area. On the same day Béhm-Ermolli finished the battle at Podkamicn, begun on the 2nd, with a victory that resulted

in Shtcherbachev’s N. wing retiring asfaras Butya on the Goryn, while Brussilov’s S. wing, abandoning Dubno, fell back behind the Middle Ikwa. Archduke Joseph Ferdinand’s I. and IV. Armies, which had come up in front of the Russian positions on the 2nd, defended themselves against numerous countcr-assaults, by which Brussilov was trying to prevent the diversion of troops to the N.

ROWELL—ROYCE wing.

297

The pressure on the flank from Polyesie grew, and it

made Gerok wheel to the N.E., and intercepted the Russian

became impcrative to bring up all cavalry divisions within reach.

blow. The allies’ decision to grant the much-exhausted troops some rest in a permanent position brought the battle of the

These became entangled in dificult minor combats in the midst of forest and marsh. On Sept. 8 Archduke Joseph Ferdinand

delivered at Cuman the blow which decided the battle of Olyka, Brussilov escaped by retreating behind the Stubla. These successes barred the advance of the Sereth

Ivanov, in his anxiety for his N. wing, ordered the S, wing re-

serve to be diverted and sent to its relief. This wing was for the moment endeavouring to cover the flanks of the attack-group which had advanced a great distance, but could overpower neither Bothmer’s N. wing in the direction of Tarnopol nor the troops in the foreground of the Zaleszczyki bridgehead. On the roth the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand began the battle of the Stubla, which he hoped to bring to a decision by sending the N. wing to cross the Goryn below the mouth of the Stubla, and then “make anadvance on Rovnosimultancously with that of Puhallo’s army coming from Dubno. By the 12th the road to the Goryn clear, one division

brought

across

the river,

and the groups which threatened the N. wing driven back a considerable distance. The arrival of Russian

reinforcements opposite

The Russian command refused to be satisfied with this close

to a campaign which had not brought them much gratification. front,

which by 7 p.m. had forced back Bothmer’s and PflanzerBaltin’s inner wings as far as the Strypa. Béhm-Ermolli's S. wing executed a relief attack E. of the Sereth towards Zbaraz.

had been made

Putilowka to an end on the evening of the 3oth.

to Béhm-

Ermoili’s sparsely occupied front, as well as the arming for a continuation of the Sereth front’s advance, showed that [vanov

was planning a great offensive on both sides of the Tarnopol-

On Oct. 3 Gyllenschmidt delivered a flank blow from Rafafowka, W. of the Styr, but was driven completely back by the 6th. The attack against Serbia was a spur to renewed exertions, On the 6th a fresh battle set in on the Putilowka, which on the 7th spread over the whole front up to the Rumanian frontier, lasting until the roth—until the 13th on the Strypa—without a change in the situation.

On the rsth Ivanov once more deliv-

ered a blow on the N. flank in the bend of the Styr at Czartorysk, which at first made great progress.

But Linsingen’s clever con-

centric placing of the hurriedly brought-up reinforcements drove the Russians back with heavy fighting behind the Styr by Nov. 14. During the crisis Shtcherbachev had attacked the JI. Army in vain from Oct. 21 to 23 In the second battle of Nowo Alek-

simicc. More dangerous still were the Russian attempts to break through on the Strypa from Oct. 30 to Noy. 8, which culminated in the struggle for the village of Siemikowce. Finally in the middle of Nov. a prolonged lull fell upon this theatre of war.

(M. H.)

ROWELL, NEWTON WESLEY (1867~ ), Canadian politician, was born Nov. 1 1867 in Middlesex county, Ontario. He was called to the bar in 1891, and became head of the Iaw firm of

Rowell, Reid, Wood & Wright, Toronto; ultimately being made The Austro-Hungarian army Higher Command bencher of the Law Society of Upper Canada in rrr, He stood stopped Puhallo’s advance, drew back Bothmer’s N. wing to- unsuccessfully as a Liberal for the Dominion Parliament at the the level of the Strypa front and dispatched thither the VL general election of 1900, but in ro1r was elected to the Ontario Corps which had been intended for use against Serbia, Legislative Assembly for N. Oxford. From ro11-7 he was leader On the 13th the counter-offensive set in with the battle of of the Liberal Opposition in the Ontario Legislature, On Oct. Lemberg line.

Krzemienicc-Gontowa, and won some initial successes,

wing’s attack was now also stopped.

The N.

On the 14th the Russians

broke through the Strypa front and reached the W. bank. The VI. Corp’s attack, together with an advance by Bothmer’s N. wing and a group of Béhm-Ermolli’s posted W. of the Sercth on the N. flank, caused the Russians to retire again in the night

Š

e

of the 16th-r7th to their Sereth position.

During

this

time

Bohm-Ermolli had repulsed the assault, and used the rcénforcements sent by the Archduke for an attack. But a calamity had overtaken the N. wing.

Keeping the attention of the weakened

group of armies on the Stubla cleverly riveted, Brussiloyv with the XXX. Corps on the 15th threw back the N. wing behind the Putilowka and forced the Archduke, by continuous envelopment, to retreat behind the Styr and the Ikwa on the evening of

the 17th.

The bridgehead at Luck could not hold out, and on

the 23rd the Russians stood on the E. bank of the river. On the same day Shtcherbachev and Brussilov’s S. wing advanced to the attack on the IL. Army and Puhallo’s I. Army, now under command of Böhm-Ermolli, from the Upper Sereth to the mouth

of the Ikwa.

This second battle of Krzemieniec ended on the

25th with the failure of the Russians.

At the same time Brus-

silov received the news that German troops had taken part in the storming of the bridgehead at Kolki on the Styr. Recognizing the intentions of the allies, he at once ordered a retreat to the Putilowka position, while concentrating a powerful group to the N. of the Kormin brook to fall on the encmy’s flank.

Linsingen, the new commander of the IV. Army and of the troops in Polycsie, was in fact planning a blow on the Russian flank and rear by way of Kolki-Sokul, using for this purpose the

German XXIV. Reserve Corps (brought up from the German front through Polyesie after Gyllenschmidt’s forced retreat

behind the Wicsiolucha and the Styr) and the Austro-Hunga-

rian XVII. Corps which was to have been sent against Serbia. Gerok’s group, the NNIV. Reserve and the XVII. Corps, had

now to do with nothing but rearguards, who by the 27th had been overthrown. On the 28th, when Shtcherbachev at the

battle of Nowo Aleksiniec again attacked Béhm-Ermolli in order to keep his forces engaged, the main body of the N. wing

arrived at the Putilowka.

Linsingen guessed Brussiloy’s scheme,

1917 he entered the Federal Unionist Government as president of the council and vice-chairman of the War Committee of the Cabinet, and was elected to the Dominion

House of Commons

for Durham county, Ontario, Dec. rory. He was a member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, 1918; Canadian

Government

representative

at

the

International

Labour Conference at Washington, 1019; and a Canadian delegate to the first assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, 1920. He resigned his seat in Parliament in May 1921, ROWING: sce SPORTS AND GAMES, ROYCE, JOSIAH (1855-1916), American philosopher, was born at Grass Valley, Cal., Nov. 20 1855. He graduated from

the university of California in 1875 and the following year went to the newly established Johns Hopkins University, being one of the extraordinary first group of fellows elected there.

After receiv-

ing his Ph.D. in 1878 he was instructor in English literature and logic for four years at the university of Califernia. In 1882 he prepared A Primer of Logical Analysis for students of English composition, In 1882 he was called to Harvard where he taught as instructor in philosophy, assistant professor (1885-92),

professor of the history of philosophy (1892-1914) and Alford protessor of religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity (after

1914)»

Ie was

the leading American exponent of idealism

(sce 14.284) and his works were distinguished for thcir literary

qualities. He was made a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and received hon. degrees from Harvard, Yale,

Johns Hopkins, Aberdeen, St. Andrews and Oxford,

After the

outbreak of the World War he was a staunch supporter of the Allies, and on Jan. 30 1916, in a notable address delivered in

Tremont Temple, Boston, advocated a breach with Germany. He died in Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 14 1916, He was the author of The Religious Aspects of Philosophy (1885); California

(1886,

in the

American

Commonwealth

Series);

The

Fend of Oakfield Creck (1887, a novel): The Spirit of Modern Philosophy (1892); The Conception of God (1895): Studies of Good and Evil (1898);

The World ond the Individual

(2 vols., 1900-1,

Gifford Lectures at the university of Aberdeen) The Conceplion of Immortality (1g00); Outlines of Psychology (1903); Herbert Spencer. An Estimate and Review (1904); The Philosophy of Loyalty (1908); Race Questions, Provincialism and Other American Problems (1908);

ROYDEN— RUBBER

298

William James and Other Essays on the Philosophy of Life (1911); Bross Lectures on the Sources of Religious Insight (1912); The Problem

g Christianity

(2 vols., 1913, lectures before Manchester College,

xford); War and Insurance (1914);

The Hope of the Great Commu-

nily (1916, war addresses) and the posthumously published Lectures on Modern Idealism (1919).

ROYDEN, AGNES MAUDE (1876}, English social worker and preacher, was born at Mossley Hill, Liverpool, Nov. 23 1876, the daughter of Sir Thomas Royden, 1st Bart., of Frankby Hall,

Birkenhead. She was educated at Cheltenham Ladies’ College and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, and afterwards for some years did settlement work in Liverpool. She also lectured on English literature for the university extension movement, and in 1909 was clecied to the executive committee of the N.U.W.S.S. From 1912 to tot4 she edited the Common Cause, the organ of the union. Miss Royden became well known as a speaker on social and

religious subjects, and in 1917 became

assistant

preacher at the City Temple, being thus the first woman to occupy this office. RUBBER (sce 23.795*).— Since roro the rubber industry has developed very largely and taken increased importance in the commercial world. ‘The word rubber is applied to three diffcrent substances: (a) an elastic solid, the chief constituent of the coagulated latex or milk of a great variety of trees, shrubs, vines and plants, as Pará rubber; (b) an elastic solid found in solution

the product of the Hexa brasiliensis from S. America, and “virgin gum” from the Castilloa elastica of Central America. In r921 all grades from whatever source were termed India rubber, and there were some 200 sorts. They were divided generally as follows: (1) S. American rubber, from the Heveu brasiliensis and kindred species which comprised Pará rubber in 3 general grades and 20 sub-grades; Caecrá rubber (Manicoba) from the Manihot glaziovii and kindred species, 6 grades; Mangabeira from the Hencornta speciosa, 2 grades; and Caucho rubber from

the Castilloa ulei, 3 grades. (2) Central American rubber, known as “centrals,” the product of Castilloa elastica and kindred species, some 25 grades; virgin rubber, the product of the Sapium tolimense and kindred species, 3 grades; Guayule rubber, from the Parthenium argentalum, 12 grades. (3) African rubber, a lower grade of wild rubber, produced by a great variety of

vines of the Landolphia genus and to a degree from trees. as the Ficus vogelii and the Funtumia elastica. The number of grades was 120. (4) E. Indian rubber, the product chiefly of the Ficus clastica from Rangoon, Penang and Java, 9 grades; together with Borneo rubber from the IVilloughbia firma, 3 grades; Pontianak (Jelutong), from the Dyera costulata, 4 grades. (5) Plantation rubber. From 1860 attempts to cultivate rubberbearing trees and vines have been undertaken in various parts

of the tropical world.

‘The most persistent and finally the most

in the tissues of a few shrubs and vines, as Guayule rubber; (c) a chemical product from isoprene or homologous hydrocarbons, as synthetic rubber. In all commercial rubber caout-

successful were carried on in the British experiment stations and Royal botanic gardens, especially in Ceylon and the Straits

chouc exists in two forms, one fibrous or hard, the other viscous

the Manihot glasiovi, the Castilloa elastica, the Ficus elastica and the Funtumia elastica. All of them proved to be good rubberproducers but could be tapped only at intervals of several months.

Settlements.

and soit. In the best trades the fibrous form preponderates. The soft form can be dissolved by benzol and many other substances of that class; the fibrous form swells but does not dissolve,

A measure of success was attained in cultivating

The product found ready sale, and considerable plantations of

Vulcanization (the chemical union of caoutchouc and sulphur) hardens the viscous portion. As the result of this process the rubber becomes less sensitive to heat and cold and to the effect of acids and alkalies and becomes more durable. A small amount

Manihot in Ceylon, and Ficus and Castilloa in the Federated Malay States were installed.- American interests also planted thousands of acres of Cusfilloa in Mexico, Nicaragua and Guatemala. Experiments with another tree, however, the Hevea

of sulphur in rubber produces soft rubber.

By using more

brasiltensis, developed the fact that through what was termed

sulphur and greater heat a very hard black substance called hard rubber is obtained. Moulding India rubber consists of softening by heat the still rubber dough until it is plastic, pressing

“wound response’ it could be tapped daily without injury. This process in brief was the opening of the tapping cut by the

it into a mould and vulcanizing it at a heat much less than that required to melt it; not in melting, pouring and casting

cach tapping was small, but the year’s product far exceeded that of the planted trees of any other sort. The result was that most of the others were abandoned or destroyed and the Hevea brasiliensis put in wherever it could possibly thrive.

according to popular misconception, Rubber once melted remains a sticky, worthless semi-fluid. Wild Rubber.—At first there were but three types of rubber to be found in the world’s markets: India rubber, the product of the Ficus elastica from Assam, Burma and Java; gum elastic,

removal daily of a thin shaving of the bark.

‘The amount from

Thus the Hevea plantation product, which in Igoo was four tons, increased to 8,400 tons in 1910, and from then on

the increase was very large, as shown in the table below.

Hevea Plantation Acreage and Production. Plantation

Plantation

Acreage

1910

1,122,550

1912 1513 1914 1915 1916

1,817,350 2,021,730 2,181,050 2,293,750 2,458,950

28,518 47,618 71,000 107,567 152,650

1917

2,611,350

1918

2,759,950

IQII

1 Estimated.

United States Great Britain France Italy Russia :

Canada . Scandinavia

a.’ .

go 0a’

Japan and Australia

Germany and Austria Belgium

Total

.

.

3

70,500

70,410 00,822 49,000 50,835 48,948

98,928 103,440 120,330 158,702 201,598

213,070

52,628

265,698

255.950

40,629

296,579

60,730

285,225 320,000

8

o :

:

:

45,928 14,500

46,400

10,000

6,500

1,000

2,000

9,000 1,500 — 1,000

18,640 9,000 1,600

oB

16,000

1,500 1,300 18,500

i



3,000

98 928

108 446

61,240

18,000

75,149

41,775 40,000

Distribution of the World's Rubber Production (Gross Tons). 1915 1916 IQEZ 1912 1913 1914

Country

Production (tons)

62,300

14,419

2,900,000 200,000

Total World's

Production (tons)

8,200

1,505,350

1919 1920!

Total Wild Rubber

Production (tons)

327,000 360,000

1918

06,792 | 116,495 | 177,088 | 142,772 | 236,977 15,072 26,760 | 25,983 30,104 2,520 10,770 14,000 18,000 | 22,000 6,500

9,000

10,000 4,500

7,500 4,000 4,525 4,500 3,000

9,800

7.500 6,281

5323

4,506 3,000



158,702 | 189.780

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

14,000

2,000 1,500 8,300 9,500 5,000 7,000 7,400 | 12,000 1,000 4,000 —

5,000

RUBBER Approximate World Consumption of Rubber, 1920. United States

.

France Italy . Japan.

i :

:

:

: .

‘ :

Great Britain and Colonies i $ .

Other Countries

..

:

i

.

6

:

og,

r : : : i ee ee oe 2 eke

.

;

260,000 tons

t , .

20,000 7? T0000 á*“ R000

50,000

"

16,000‘

Total

364,000 tons

Synthetic Rubber, —From the time when India rubber began to be important in the arts, its synthetic production was the

dream of the inventor. Analysis of rubber with a view to ultimate synthesis was made between 1835 and 1840 by Dalton, Lichig, Himly, A. Bouchardat and Gregory. A mare systematic

attempt to isolate and examine the products in crude caoutchouc distillate was made in 1860 by Greville Williams, the English chemist. He obtained isoprene,CsHx, a hemitcrpene, a fluid boiling at 37° C., and a hydrocarbon now known as dipen-

tine, boiling at 170 to 173° C., which he named “ heveene.” An important step towards the production of artificial rubber was that taken by Gustave Bouchardat of the Paris School of Pharmacy in 1879, when, in studying the action of hydrochloric acid on Isoprene, he noted the formation of a substance having the

same percentage composition as isoprene, lacking chlorine, possessing elasticity, insoluble in alcohol but soluble in ether and carbon bisulphide like natural rubber, and yielding on distillation the same hydrocarbon as caoutchouc. Sir William Tilden, the English chemist, in 1882 observed the polymerization of isoprene and that it could be converted into true caoutchouc with certain chemical reagents. In 1884 he obtained iso-

prene by passing the vapours of turpentine through a hot tube. in 1887 Prof. Otte Wallach of the university of Gottingen noted that isoprene

undergoes

polymerization

on expusure

299

pared with the production of natural rubber and the manufacture

to light

with the production of a rubber-like mass, and Tilden in 1892

showed that such material could be vulcanized with sulphur. The synthesis of isoprene and, as a consequence, that of caoutchouc, was accomplished in 1897 by Prof. Euler-Chelpin of the university of Stockholm. In 1909, due to the rapidly mounting

cost of natural rubber, greater efforts were made to produce

of goods therefrom. In the manufacture of the hydrocarbons of the isoprene series for synthetic rubber there are such large quantities of by-products that their removal or utilization presents a problem more difficult than the production of the artificial rubber; hence competition with natural rubber is very unlikely. Synthetic rubbers lack the durability of natural rubber, possibly because they lack the resins, albumen, cte., which act as protective colloids to lessen the vulnerability of the natural article,

Then, too, for a wide range of

needs, synthetic rubbers cannot be substituted for natural rubber because the latter product is a uniform vegetable substance, not a mixture like the artificial product. While synthetic rubber must be

greeted as a chemical triumph, it is not an industrial success, and

must still be classed commercially with the more or less haphazard production of alleged rubber substitutes prepared, often by honest inventors and manufacturers,

from oils, gums, cellulose, or in fact

anything that will produce a waterproof plastic.

Reclaimed Rubber.—In few other industries is conservation such an important factor as in rubber manufacture. Nearly all kinds of worn-out vulcanized goods are collected and the basic material recovered to be compounded, manufactured and vulcanized again into new articles that compare favourably with those made from new gum. Toso many uses is devulcanized or reclaimed rubber now put, that its annual consumption

fully equals that of new crude gum. Experiments carly demonstrated the value of “reclaim,” and while the more conservative long looked askance at the utilization of “ refuse rubber,” buyers of goods made wholly or in part from the regenerated material found that for most purposes the goods were practically as serviceable as those made directly from fresh gum. The clement of cost, too, played an important part in popularizing

reclaimed rubber, as articles made of it could be produced and sold for much less than those made with new gum only, and to a considerable degree the price of the crude gum has been kept

from rising too high by the ample supply of the reclaimed. As the advantages of reclaimed rubber became better appreciated, and as through the activities of rubber chemists and manufacturers the quality of the product was improved, it became an important factor in the industry. To meet more satisfactorily the fast-growing demand, large companies with world-wide connexions and specialized equipment soon sup-

the artificial kind on a commercial scale, the problem being

planted the small reclaimers.

attacked in England by W. H. Perkin, his assistant Weizmann, and Francis Matthews; by August Fernbach in France; and

analytic laboratories for control of the processes, for standard-

in Germany by the Bayer and Badische companies.

izing the products, and for the study of reclaiming and com-

In 1884

the most

modern

Such concerns employ not only

machinery but also maintain research and

Tilden suggested that not only isoprene but its homologues

pounding problems.

should be capable of similar polymerization.

The first attempt to reclaim rubber commercially was that made in the early ‘fifties when Hiram L. Hall, the pioncer manufacturer

Now these bodies,

chief among them butadiene, form the basis of methods for obtaining synthctie caoutchoucs.

Dr. Fritz Hofmann and Dr.

Carl Coutelle, chemists in Germany, in 1909 devised a process

for making absolutely pure isoprene, converted it into rubber by heating it in a closed tube or in the presence of other sub-

stances, and sent the sample to Prof. C. D. Harries, of Kiel University, who pronounced it true rubber. In īgro Prof. Harries showed that isoprene could be converted into rubber by heating it in a closed tube with glacal acetic acid. He had in 1905 determined the chemical constitution of natural rubber. The German scientists did not confine themselves to isoprene

but experimented successfully with the homologous hydrocarbons suggested by Tilden.

Matthews

and

Harries and the English investigators,

E. Halford

that polymerization

proceeds

Strange,

noted

independently

at great velocity in the pres-

ence of metallic sodium and the resulting rubber differs much in its propertics from that produced by mere heating. German chemists observed diferent results when polymerization by

in Massachusetts, boiled powdered vulcanized rubber in water and then sheeted it. Francis Baschnagel, an early American experimenter, next patented a method for devulcanizing rubber, finely ground, by exposing it to live steam. An important later develop-

ment was the destruction of fibre in the ground material by means of

acids, chiefly sulphuric, for which processes over 50 patents were granted, which incidentally became the subject of much litigation. The acid process was of use chicily in the reclaiming of worn-out footwear or “ dry heat” goods, but was not of great value in recovering other waste. The alkali process, patented by Arthur Hudson Marks, an American manufacturer, solved the latter problem. In this, caustic soda was used to destroy the fabric and incidentally it proved to be the most effective agent in desulphurizing the mass. The entire removal of not only the free sulphur from vuleanized rubber (which modern reclaiming accomplishes) but also of the sulphur which during curing umites chemically with the crude rubber, is the goal towards which experimenters were striving in 1921.

Notable

progress in this direction had been made in England by Dr. David Spence, who used an accelerator, aniline-potassium, but in solution in excess of aniline, He claimed not only the dissolution of the waste rubber but the liberation in soft rubber of from 78% to 90% of the combined sulphur, and the changing of the latter into an insoluble alkaline sulphide. In hard rubber 73 °% of the combined sulphur was

sodium was carried on in an atmosphere of carbonic acid. A later process in Germany was based on the use of ozonizers on sodium hydrogen peroxide as catalysers. Some of the synthetic rubbers are soluble, elastic, and may be readily vulcanized; others possess only some of these qualities. They are obtained from butanes, dimethylbutanes, and from isoprene, tnd in each of the three classes are to be found standard ozonide, carbonic acid and sodium rubbers.

cured with live steam in various types of vulcanizers.

Despite this wide range of materials with their possible ‘use in the arts, the making of synthetic rubber is still a minor industry as com-

otherneeds the dry-heat cure, in which the goods are placed in a hot compartment without either wrapping or mould protection, has

said to be similarly reduced, Videantsation, or curing, is effected generally by cither the

heat cure or the cold cure.

In the first-named method cither

steam or heated air is employed.

A wide range of rubber goods,

either in moulds wrapped with strips ef cloth, or imbedded in pans of French tale to preserve their shape, is very efficiently

For many

RUBBER

300

been found serviceable. Still another heat cure, now but little uscd, is that of solarization, whereby the fabrics, coated with a thin skin of rubber, are exposed to the sun’s rays for vulcaniza-

tion.

In very exacting work, such as the vulcanizing of hard-

rubber sheets, curing is effected by immersion of the materia]

in hot water. In the cold cure cither the acid or the vapour process is employed. In the former, goods are dipped in solution of chloride of sulphur dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, after which they are given an alkali wash.’ For the vapour cure,

rubber goods are suspended in a heated compartment in which the fumes of chloride of sulphur pass freely over the surfaces to be vulcanized. Over-curing is checked by the admission of ammonia fumes. Since Charles Goodyear (see 12.240) in 1839 discovered, and in

tion was reduced by one-half, thus doubling the vulcanizing output without extra heat or pressure.’ The theory of catalytic action, according to M. André Dubosc,

an eminent

French

chemist, is explained as follows. He found that when a typical organic accelerator derived from an amine, such as hexamethylene tetramine, was mixed with sulphur, placed in a sealed tube, and heated to 135°-145° C., not only carbon sulphide or hydrosulphuric acid but also sulphocyanic acid was evolved. At the vulcanization temperature, sulphocyanic acid separated,

yielding hexavalent sulphur and cyanhydric acid.- While the same temperature was maintained, this acid combined in the presence of ordinary divalent sulphur, producing unstable sul-

phocyanic acid which by dissociation again furnished hexavalent sulphur. M. Dubosc holds that cyanhydric acid is the true

1844 patented, his process for vulcanizing rubber with sulphur by

active agent in such catalysis, the practical effect of which is

produced is still cured by the sulphur and heat method.

sulphur of a double bond in the rubber molecule, then by saturation of two such bonds the speed of the reaction between sulphur and rubber should be doubled, and by saturation of three bonds the speed would be tripled. Saturation is accomplished with hexavalent sulphur generated during vulcanization through catalysing action of cyanhydric acid, evidently the true accelerator, and corresponding to Dr. Spence’s “ active principle.” While a single molecule of rubber reacting with ordinary divalent sulphur will saturate only one double bond, hexavalent sulphur in vulcanizing may saturate three double bonds belonging to rubber with which it is in contact and during its polymerization, which M. Dubosc explains thus: (x) In the case of an aggregate of rubber molecules, the end molecules, which have a double bond, will be broken and give a molecule of rubber of which the four valences will be saturated. The aggregate will have its polymerization increased by one molecule and its resistance to break will be modified in a shght degree only. (2) In the case of vulcanization with hexavalent sulphur, saturation of the terminal free valences of three physical aggregates of rubber will take place. Polymerization will therefore be three times as great as that produced with ordinary vulcani-

means of heat, numerous attempts have been made radically to improve on his method and material; but the bulk of the rubber goods

In the long

train of experiments, many of which have led to important results, the curing of rubber has been effected by the use of sulphates, sulphides, chlorides, nitrates, fluorides, bromides, todides and phosphorets

of nearly all the corimon earths and metals, as well as chlorine, sulphurous acid and various gases. The Russian chemist Ivan Ostromislensky, in later experiments, succeeded in vulcanizing rubber with trinitrobenzene and other nitro-compounds so as to impart all the qualities given it by sulphur, effecting the curing more rapidly

than with sulphur, and with but one-twelfth of the material, while a lower temperature was maintained during the cure. Victor Henry, a French chemist, also reported in 1909-10 that he had effected the

vulcanization of thin layers of rubber solutions by means of the ultra-violet rays, and others have made similar researches along the same line that have much scientific if not practical interest. The

period of vulcanizing ranges from a few minutes to many hours, depending on the degree of heat employed, the nature of the compound, the thickness of the goods, etc. Factors which affect the rate of cure, as shown in England by Dr. Philip Schidrowitz, are the amount of protein or nitrogen in the crude gum, its stay in storage, its density, the amount of smoke, formalin or other preservatives used, quantity of acid used in coagulating the latex, time in drying, age of latex-yielding tree, etc. An important vulcanization development is the chemical process of vulcanization described by S. J. Peachey,

the English chemist, in 1918, after an investigation of the behaviour

of rubber towards the various allotropic forms of sulphur. Unlike the Parkes process, which yields an adcition-product ol both sulphur and chlorine, this leads to the formation without the aid of heat of a sulphur addition equal to that produced by the hot-curing process,

By it rubber, alone or compounded with fillers and pigments, is

exposed successively to the action of two gases, sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Diffusing through the rubber and interact-

ing, the gases produce an especially active form of sulphur capable of combining with and vulcanizing the rubber at the ordinary temperature, and more thoroughly than by either the hot process or the sulphur-chloride cure.

A density is acquired, it ts said, unattainable

by the older methods. The dual gas treatment can be used either for rubber in its original solid form or liquefied with a solvent. In the latter case the gases effect a complete pectization of the solution,

forming a jelly which, on evaporating the solvent, is found to be fully vilan eal rubber. One of the advantages claimed is that fabrics, as well as organic fillers such as leather waste, sawdust, woodmeal,

etc., that would be more or less decomposed by the hot cure or the sulphur-chloride cure, could be used with rubber for a wide variety

of new and useful purposes, as in the making of fine or heavy reformed leathers, lincleums, etc. It may also effect a considerable

improvement in the waterproofing of cloth.

Rubber footwear, it is

said, may be produced by the new process without either the heat or pressure hitherto deemed essential, and without special machines for stitching and riveting, thus greatly cheapening the product. An additional advantage pointed out is that this process makes it possible to use both natural and coal-tar colouring-matter in rubber, so as to obtain both deep shades and delicate tints impossible with the old methods of vulcanizing.

Organic Accelerators in Vulcanization.—The recent discoveries of Dr. Spence and others that certain organic substances, termed accelerators or catalysers, mixed with rubber, notably hastened the process of vulcanization, have caused a revolution in compounding and vulcanizing. Mineral or inorganic catalysers, such as litharge and magnesia, had been in use since the discovery of vulcanization. The organic type was, however, unknown until in attempts to vulcanize synthetic rubber it was found necessary to add organic accelerators to effect the union of sulphur and the rubber-like substance. It was but a short step to their use in connexion with natural rubber, and the results were surprising, In fact, the time required in vulcaniza-

the transformation of ordinary divalent sulphur into hexavalent sulphur. Assuming that vulcanization is the saturation by

zations, because it acts on three aggregates instead of one. Resistance to break, dependent on polymerization, will there-

fore be much increased and its theoretical tripling has been demonstrated experimentally. > This theory would appear to apply not only to the amino (NH:}) or imino (NII) groups, but also to the nitroso compounds discovered by Peachey. Nitroso bodies decompose during vulcanization and generate cyanic acid. The latter, influenced by sulphur, yields sulphurous anhydride and sulphocyanic acid. The acid dissociates and leaves hexavalent sulphur, and the liberated cyanhydric acid again functions as a catalyser. ` The most important organic catalysers are: (1) Aniline, extensively employed

to quicken the combining of rubber and sulphur in

vulcanization, particularly in the manufacture of tires and tubes, and obtained through a series of chemical transformations from

coal-tar. It is anoily liquid boiling at 184-8° C. Special precautions are taken to carry off ils noxious fumes and prevent contact of the oil with the skin of the workers.

(2) Carbon bisulphide with aniline,

diphenylthiourea or thiocarbanilide, melting at 154° C., used_for quick-curing stocks. (3) Carbon bisulphide with dimethylamine; effects vulcanization within 15 minutes at 135°C. (4) Carbon bisul-

phide with either dimethylaniline, tetrahydropyrrole or dimethyl X methyl! trimethylene amine. (5) Ammonium borate; efective but not practicable. (6) Aldchyde ammonia; melts between 70 and 80? .; a very useful catalyser. (7) Quarternary ammonium bases;

patented, rapid accelerators with aldehyde ammonia, para-phenyl-

ene-diamine, sodium amide, bencylamine and naphthylencdiamine.

(8) Accelerene; widely used and powerful English catalyser. Used in one-third to one-half of 1% reduces vulcanizing period to one-

third of normal, and with quick repair compounds to one-eighth. It owes its activity to the presence of the nitroso group and adds notably to tensile strength of goods. (9) Para-phenylene-diamine; a very poisonous catalyser melting at 140° C., and subliming at

267° C., used with synthetic rubber. (10) Tetramethylenediamine; a substance formed from decomposing animal matter such as fish; called also putrescin. (11) Hexamethylene-tctramine; known also as hexainethylenemine

and formin;

an accelerator

largely

used;

caution is required in its use as it is not only very soluble in water but

vaporizes frecly, irritating the exposed skin of the workmen.

Piperidine or aminopentane;

(12)

a liquid easily miscible in water, boiling

RUCKER—RUFFEY at tos-7° C. and smelling like pepper and ammonia. A prototype of the more recently discovered organic catalysers, it was brought out in 1912 for use in making synthetic rubber, but was soon found to be of remarkable value for vulcanizing hard and soft natural rubber, cutting down the curmg time three-fourths. (13) Methyl piperidine; an active catalyser boiling at 107° C. (14) Quinoline; a good accelerator, boiling at 240° C. and witha strong, disagreeable odour, little used.

(15) Quinoline

sulphate; a catalyser yielding

good-looking, well-vulcanized rubber. (16) Hydroxy-quinoline, rearded as a valuable accelerator, It melts at 76° C., boils at 266-6° ., and 1s soluble in alcoho! and volatile with steam. (17) Quinosol; a catalyser of special value to users of litharge, such as rubber-footwear manufacturers. It cuts the vulcanizing period one-half. (18) Oxiquinoline and oxiquinoline sulphonic acid; the latter gives good acceleration but porous rubber. (19) Oxiquinoline sulphide; a catalyser that can be used in practically every kind of vulcanizing; regarded by some as tog rapid. (20) Anthraquinone; a catalyser

used time like and

in batches containing rubber substitutes and cutting curing-

three-fourths. (21) Antipyrine and (22) naphthylamine; act anthraquinone. (23) Urea formanilide, (24) thioformanilide (25) guanidine are useful catalysers.

The Manufacture

of Rubber

Goods—-The

manufacture

of

rubber goods begins with the tearing of the rubber into shreds,

passing it between corrugated rolls and washing out the impurities. A stream of water flowing over the rolls carries off a large part of the dirt, while the rolls flatten the rubber into a thin sheet. The sheets require drying, after which they are ready for mixing with sulphur and other substances into what are called compounds. Compounding is done either on a machine called a masticator or in a mixing mill which kneads the mass until it is homogeneous. The rubber is next run into sheets, cut into various shapes, built up over forms and lastly baked or vulcanized. Hard rubber is handled in much the same manner except that after vulcanization it may be turned, shaped, buffed and polished.

A list of the uses to which rubber is put would, if complete

qualities and in wear.

301 It finds a large market in medium-grade

footwear but has not been accepted by makers of the best

grades of leather shoes.

To a large degree the rubber heel has

also displaced leather in medium-grade footwear.

Balloon Compounds.—With the interest in pilot and dirigible balloons stimulated by the World War, came marked progress in rubber compounds used in their manufacture.

dients and surface coatings that remained unaffected by the sun's rays, and compounds practically impermeable to gases and infla-

tion. As a successful application of the last-named may be cited the gas-proof masks evolved by rubber chemists, that effectually protect the wearer from poison gas and have a wide field of use in many of the perilous industries of peace. Bathing suits and bathing caps of rubber, beautiful in texture, colours and ornamentation, are recent accomplishments. This is due to the production by chemists of colours unaffected by heat and sulphur.

Rubber fills a Jarge place in sports, but most of the

goods supplied have been familiar for decades. An exceptional and novel use is rubber thread in golf-ball manufacture. The standard ball was for years made of solid gutta. In 1898 Coburn Haskell of Cleveland, O., invented a golf ball with a small ball of rubber as a core around which was wound rubber thread

under tension. Outside of this was moulded a thin cover of gutta percha. The ball because of its long flight soon took the place of the “‘gutty”’ and helped enormously to popularize golf. Hard Rubber —Electric batteries employed in motor cars for lighting and starting and for a host of commercial uses resulted in a great demand for hard-rubber battery jars. Formerly made by a slow hand process, the invention of building and moulding machines greatly added to the quality of the product and the ability to mect the trade demands. The production of hard-

to-day, be only partial to-morrow. The main lines of its use may be briefly indicated as follows:—mechanical rubber goods; pneumatic and solid tires (see Tires); moulded work; druggists’ and stationers’ sundries; dental and stamp rubbers; surface clothing; carriage cloth; mackintoshes and proofing; boots

are successfully imitated.

and shoes; insulated wire; hard rubber; cements; notions; plasters. Such a list, not of articles manufactured but of special lines, some of which include hundreds and even thousands of

AUTHORITIES.—T. Seeligman, G. Lamy Torrillion connet, India Rubber and Gutia Percha (1910); Philip Rubber (1911); A. Dubose and A. Luttringer, Rubber, (1918); Henry C. Pearson, Crude Rubber (1918).

different articles, is sufficient to indicate the great varicty of uses to which rubber is put. In the period 1910-20 not only was progress shown in such chemical discoveries as catalysers but the mechanics of rubber manufacture was revolutionized. For example, for many years rubber, after being cleaned by washing, was dried in airy lofts, often hanging fora year to“ age,” With the growth of the business came hot dryers, bringing the drying-period down to weeks and sometimes days.

Eventually the vacuum dryer came into use and a few hours sufficed

to extract the moisture. More than 250 fillers and compounding materials are used in rubber manufacture. Their purpose is chiefly to enhance or supplement certain qualities in which rubber may be

lacking.

For example, powdered asbestos in quantity makes a

compound that is heat-resisting, as in packings and brake linings. Most of the above materials have been known for years. The successful use of organic plastics such as glue is of recent accomplishment, as is the preparation of elaterite in plastic form, known as mineral rubber and largely used.

The Pressure Cure.—From the time of Goodyear, rubber footwear was vulcanized by the dry heat cure, that is, in closed rooms filled with hot air. This was very slow, entailing some seven hours of heating. Furthermore, only rubber containing a considerable amount of litharge could be used for this type of cure. The colour was always black, and variety in compounding and stocks was impossible. The discovery of the pressure cure by Augustus O. Bourn, of Providence, R.I., in roor, however, practically revolutionized the business. In this process the goods were confined in large boiler-shaped shells. These were filled with hot air under pressure and the air from the inner surfaces removed

by a vacuum process, the result being that

vulcanization was hastened and a great variety of tough compounds, as for example those used in tire treads, were at once available.

Rubber and fibre soles are coming in again, with a

far better product. This is a compound of rubber and finely shredded cotton fibre. It is superior to leather in waterproof

Of these the

most notable were cements of vastly increased tenacity; ingre-

rubber bowling balis, better than the lignum vitae, and of aero-

plane propellers, better than laminated wood, points the way to the use of hard-rubber lumber, as nearly all the fine hardwoods and H. FalSchidrowitz, its Chemistry (H.C. PL)

RUCKER, SIR ARTHUR (1848~10915), English physicist, was born at Clapham Oct. 23 1848. Educated at Clapham grammar school and Brasenose College, Oxford, he became professor of

mathematics and physics at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, in 1874 and professor of physics at the Royal College of Science in 1886. This post he heid until 1901, when he became principal

of the university of London.

He received the Royal medal of

the Royal Society in 1891, was one of its secretariés from 1896 to

1901, and was knighted in 1902.

He died at Newbury, Berks,

Nov. 1 1915.

RUFFEY, PIERRE XAVIER EMMANUEL (1851-

), French

general, was born at Dijon (Côte d'Or) on March 1ọ 1851.

He

entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1871 and two years later was appointed sous-lieutenant in the artillery. He became a lieutenant in 1875 and a captain in 1878. In 187ọ he went

through the staff course at the Ecole de Guerre, to which he later returned as professor of artillery. He was promoted major in 1891, lieutenant-colonel in 1897 and colonel in 1901.

He

served with the expedition to Madagascar, and in 1905 was made a general of brigade. In 1910 he was promoted general of division and in 1913 he was made a commander in the Legion of

Honour. On the outbreak of war in Aug. 1914 he commanded the II. Army, but a month later, after the Longwy battles, he was removed from the command of his army, being succeeded by Sarrail.

Thereafter he was not employed in an active com-

mand at the front, and in Jan. 1917, having already attained the age of retirement, he ceased to hold any appointment. General Rufley, during the last years before the World War, had persistently advocated the increased employment of heavy artillery with the field army, and it was perhaps due to him more than to any other leading personality that the French Army was able to adapt itself so readily to the use of the new arm.

302

RUMANIA

RUMANIA (see 23.825).—Before 1913 Rumania had an area of about 50,702 sq. m.; and by the treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 7 1913) it received from Bulgaria an addition of 2,969 sq. m. in the Dobrudja, which formed the departments of Durostor and Caliacra. By the treaties following the World War, this area was more than doubled, the additions consisting of the Banat (11,009 sq. m.), Bessarabia

(17,146 sq. m.), Bukovina (4,030 sq. m.),

Crisana (8,038 sq. m.), Maramuresh (6,258 sq. m.) and Transylvania (22,312 sq. m.), making the total arca of the kingdom 122,282 sq. miles. Thus during the period roro-21 Rumania, from being slightly smaller than England,

became

somewhat

larger than the whole British Isles. In shape Rumania is nearly circular, with a perimeter of about 1,850 miles. The Carpathiansand Transylvanian Alps, which formerly scparated Rumania from Austria-Hungary, run in a sickle-shaped curve from near Mt. Pietros to the Iron Gates, and almost down the centre

of the country, which takes in the Transylvanian plateau and extends westwards into the Hungarian plain.

Bessarabia forms

a continuation of the plain of old Rumania.

The territory cor-

responds roughly to the ancient Dacia, and the new Rumania constitutes a satisfactory ethnological unit, while its physical

boundaries are, except in some parts, more defined by natural features than would appear from small-scale maps. Population.-The Rumanian people form the great majority of the population, which was estimated in 1920 at 173 millions,

males being about 100,000 in excess. Apart from the alien elements of mediacval or earlier origin many foreign stocks are represented in the territories which form new Rumania, and throughout the roth century Jews driven from Poland penetrated far into the country, particularly into Moldavian towns. But no one of these heterogencous elements numbers one-tenth of the population, and the very high rate of natural increase

among the Rumanians, the common use of the Rumanian lan-

guage and the wide toleration which prevails in matters of religion, all tend to unification.

The National Orthodox Church had in 1918 a membership of over og} millions, and the Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic and Protestant

churches

each

nearly 13 million.

Jews numbered

about 830,000, Mahommedans 44,000 and Armenians 17,000.

The chief towns are Bucharest, the capital (estimated pop. in 1010 400,000), Jassy (80,000), Galatz (60,000), Braila (60,000), Kolozsvar (60,000), Ploesci (50,000), Craiova (46.000). Kishinev, the capital of Bessarabia, has a pop. estimated at 125,000.

Government

and Administration—The

Senate

consisted in

1920 of 170 members, of whom 82 represented the old kingdom,

45 Transylvania, 24 Bessarabia and 19 Bukovina,

The Chamber

of Deputies had 347 members; old kingdom 168, Transylvania 112, Bessarabia 51 and Bukovina 16. The Constituent Assembly elected in May 1920 was charged with the adjustment of the constitutions of the old kingdom, Transylvania, Bessarabia

and Bukovina.

In the elections of June 1920 the returns of

parties were:—People’s party 215, Federal Democrats 34, Bessarabian Peasants 25, Transylvanian Nationalists 21, Social-

ists 19, Independent Democrats 6, others 12. For administrative purposes Rumania is divided into tricts and 129 urban and 5,735 rural communes.

rae

$99

dis-

Education —Fducation continued to make progress although a

large a of the population was still iHiterate and compulsory school attendance was difficult to enforce. There were in 1920 19,374 schools with 1,612,763 pupils.

Universities were founded at

Cluy (Kolozsvar) tn 1919 and at Cernatiti (Czernowitz) in 1020.

Finance.—The national debt of Rumaniiz at the outbreak of the World War amounted to 2,086,008,329 lei. This increased during the war by 2,910,012,500 lei and subsequent increases brought the total to 11,148,408,330 lel as on April 1 1920, of which 3,956,008,330 was funded and 7,162,400,000 lei unfunded debt. To this was to be added about 10,000 million lei as Rumania's share in the national debts of the states added to her territory by the various treaties al peace, and at least 5,000 million lei required for the withdrawal of Austrian kronen and Russian rubles. The deficits of the war vears were largely covered by a ‘ National” Joan (1916), a‘! Unirea”’ loan (1919) and Banque Nationale loans, and a loan against Treasury Bonds. The revenue and expenditure for the financial year 1919720 were respectively £,140 million lei and 4,127 million let. About onethird of the revenue is obtained from indirect taxes and one-third

from State monopolies and public services.

There were in 1919 notes of the National Bank of Rumania

amounting to about 4,431 million leji, notes of the General Bank of Rumania (issued by the Germans) 2,172 million fei, more than 8,000 million Austrian kronen and about 1,000 million Russian rubles.

When

the krone and ruble are replaced by Rumanian notes the

equivalent

paper circulation

may

be taken at 11,500 million

lei.

The National Bank had in gold 315 million le in Moscow, 80 million in Berlin and 98 million in the Bank of England :adding to this drafts and other interest-bearing resources abroad, the guarantee of the notes was nearly 3.4%, a high percentage compared with the notes of most banks of issue in other countries. A ericulture.—Four-fiiths of the population of Rumania are engaged in agriculture. About 40%, of the land under cultivation consists of holdings under 25 ac. and 50% of farms of 250 ac. or more. Far-reaching measures of agrarian reform were begun in 1917, and

large areas had in 1921 been expropriated and transferred to the

peasants. Of the 34 milhon acres which made up Rumania after the Peace of Bucharest in 1913 (2 millions of which consisted of rivers or lakes) about 12} million acres were under cereals; 500,000 under pulse, vegetables and various tndustrial plants; 400,000 were

vineyards and orchards; pastures covered nearly 3 million acres and nearly 1} milhon acres were meadowland. Wheat and maize are the principal crops, the former being produced chiefly for export and the

latter (or home consumption, Maize is the characteristic crop of the small holder in the hill regions, while most of the wheat is produced in the larger farms in the plains. The methods of agriculture are in

many parts still very backward; by the development of irrigation

in the plains and the abandonment of the fallow system, production could be largely increased. Table 1 shows the arca under cultivation and the production (in tons) of the principal crops in the years 1914, 1915, 1919 and 1920. TABLE I. Area and Production of the Principal Crops. 1914 | 195 1919 1920

s|

Cee |

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The cultivation of industrial plants is little developed.

The vine-

yards produce in good years as much as 66 million gallons of wine, Plum trees take the place of the fig tree in Mediterranean countries.

The tobacco and beetroot produced barely suttice fer The number of domestic animals was greatly reduced war: in 1920 it was estimated that in the new Rumania less than § million cattle and rı milion sheep. The

local needs. during the there were breeding of

horses was again becoming important, particularly in the Banat and

the Nistru (Dniester) valley.

Forests.—Rumania has nearly rọ million acres of forest, of which

¥ millions are tn old Rumania, 54 millions in Transylvania, 1} millions in Maramuresh and 14 millions in the Banat. A great deal

of timber is required locally for building and there is a considerable export

from Piatra and Galatz, but the development of the immense

timber reserves had only made a beginning before the war. Minerals. —The useful minerals occur chiefly in the hill districts; petroleum is by far the most important. The production of petroleum amounted in 1914 to over ił million tons, placing Rumania fourthin the list of the world’s oil-fields. Oil has been chicfy obtained

in the region between the lalomitza and the Bistritza, the main wells being in the districts of Prahova, Dambovitsa, Buzeu and Bacau and especially in Prahova; but there are strong indications that the helds are much more extensive. A line of three pipes from the oilfells to Constantza, carricd over the Danube by the Cernavoda bridge, was completed shortly before the war. The wells and oil refineries were wrecked by a british mission in Oct. and Nov. 1916 to

prevent their falling into enemy hands, but during the occupation they were largely restored and a new pipe-line was laid through Bucharest to Giurgevo on the Danube. ‘The production was 517,500 tons

jn 1917,

1,214,000

tons

in 1918, and 920,000 .tons In

1919.

Considerable importance is attached to discoverics of natural gas, of

which it was estimated in 1920 that the annual available supply ts

2,500 millton cubic feet.

Salt, which is a Government monopoly, is mined at Targu Ocna,

Ocnele Mari and Slanic. About 4 million tons of lignite are produced annually, chiefly in the region hetween the Danbovitsa and the falomitsa. Small quantities of coal (Jess than 400,000 fons in all annually) are mined near Oravitza

in the Banat.

The exploitation of iron (400.000 tons annually),

copper, lead and manganese hus been begun.

The gold mines in the

Aranyos valley are the most productive in Europe.

,

Manufactures.—The development of manufactures in Rumania

scarcely began before the 20th century.

The chief industries are

RUMANIA petroleum refining, sugar manufacture, flour milling and saw milling. Bucharest, Braila and Galatz are the most important centres. In 1915 there were 1,149 industrial establishments employing 58,871

workmen and having invested capital of 805,472,618 let. It has been estimated that water-power amounting to 150,000 H.P. is available, but in 1912 Jess than 9,000 H.P. had been brought into use. Imports and Exports.—The total imports and exports for the years 1911-5 and 1919 are given in Table 2. TABLE 2.

Imports and Exports (900's omitted). O11 1912 1913 1914 1915 £ £ £ £ £ . | 22,790 | 25,516 | 23,601 | 19,970 | 13,186

Imports

Exports... |27,669 |25,684 |26,828 |17,807 Í 22,5811

4.116

Before the war exports were chiefly to Belgium and Holland, and cereals formed the most important articles. In 1919 more than half the value of exports was made up by petroleum. Of imports in 1911 29 % in quantity and 15 % in value came from the United Kingdom, 25% and 24% respectively from Austria and 19% and 32% from Germany. The chief imports in 1919 were cereals and cereal byproducts (220,149 tons; value 362 million lci) and manufactured articles.

Exports to the Umted

Kingdom were valued at £2,742,000

in 1919 and £3,227,000 in 1920, imports from

dom £5,585.085 in 1919 and £7,121,555 in 1920.

the

United

King-

Commun tcalions.—Rumania had in 1913 2.586 m. of national roads, 3,066 m. of departmental roads, 22,000 m. of cammuna) and village roads and about 7,000 m. of unmetalled tracks. The main

roads are well constructed and maintained, but the communal

and

village roads are not well adapted for traffic and are often impassable

at certain seasons.

À

By the Treaty of Versailles the Commission of the Danube is

composed of representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy and Rumania alone. The Pruth, the only important waterway in Rumania besides the Danube, is navigable for ships of about 600 tons as far as Jassy.

Jn 1919 Rumania

had 158 merchant

vessels aggregating

71,158 tons, including 17 steamers of 29,441 tons.

The number of

vessels entered at Rumanian ports in 1919 was 10,546, total tonnage 2,993,095 Tons.

The railway system is inadequate. Four main lines of standard gauge radiate from Bucharest and a number of transverse lines cross the plains. The Carpathians are crossed at three points. There were 2,200 m. of line open in 1914 and 7,240 m. in 1920.

The gauge of the

Among his colleagues were

T. Maiorescu, N. Filipescu, and one of the country’s foremost writers and orators, the lawyer B. St. Delavorancea.

The new Government far from satished the hopes of the pub. lic.

The Minister of the Interior, Alexander Marghiloman, long

regarded by Carp as his future successor, was chiefly preoccupied with assuring his party, despite its unpopularity, of a majority at the polls. To this end no pains were spared. Directly Parliament

1910 £ [143,318

393

obtained the King’s call to office.

met, a virulent campaign

was opened against the

Liberals, beginning with an attack on their new economic policy (inspired chiefly by Vintilă Brătianu, brother of the leader of the party), which aimed at combining the interests of private capital with those of communal and state capital in such great transport concerns as the electric tramways of Bucharest. The Liberal opposition, numerically small, left the Chamber, and combined with Take Jonescu in a furious campaign for the over-

throw of the Government. At the same time J. J. Bratianu, influenced by the Socialists, and by a Bessarabian ‘* Poporanist ”’ (peasant party) who had gained a high position in the party, raised the long-abandoned question of universal

suffrage, and

definitely pledged himself to the considerably milder policy of a single electoral college, with, morcover, only literate clectors—

the intention seeming rather to be that of weakening the spirit of independence of the first and second electoral colleges, whose

sympathies were tending towards new formations like the National Democrats. Efforts were made at the same time to retain the votes of the rural school-teachers. The Carp Government did something to ameliorate conditions of life for the peasantry; and N. Filipescu strove to improve the army, which had received scant attention of late years. In the matter of the Rumanian ecclesiastical schism—a quarrel between the Bishop of Roman and the Metropolitan Primate Athanasius —hoth protagonists were persuaded to resign and quit the field. It was at this moment that the Balkan Confederation went to war with Turkey, whose European possessions they intended

war which broke out in the Balkan

to share among themselves. Not only had no support been sought from Rumania, but certain clauses provided for the event of war with both that country and Austria-Hungary. At the outset, in Nov. the Rumanian Government professed complete unconcern with what was happening beyond the Danube. The

peninsula in 1911 as a consequence of the Italo-Turkish confict and the Albanian risings demanded the anxious attention of the

rapid successes of the allics, however, and above all the Bulgarian victories of Kirk Kilissé and Lule Burgas, opened the eyes

Rumanian government, now headed by J. Bratianu in place of

of neutral spectators to the danger of a new imperialism in the

Bessarabian

railways differs from

the others.

Many

new

lines

were in course of construction or were projected in 1921.

HISTORY,

The Balkan War.—The

1910-21

Sturdza, whom ill-health had compelled to withdraw finally from

Balkans.

political life.

military collaboration, in order to prevent the victors from

Rumania’s official attitude towards the conflict

of rorr was strictly neutral, public sympathy being manifestly on the side of attacked Turkey. Towards the end of the year

the Liberal ministry was obliged to resign.

Rather surrepti-

tious methods had been employed to pass a measure providing the church with a new constitution, which established a Supreme Consistory of the Protestant type, representatives of the priest-

hood sitting side by side with the bishops—this being the result of recent episcopal scandals of a private nature. The new convention with Austria-Hungary had sacrificed the vital interests of the Rumanian herdsmen of Transylvania, accustomed to

feed their flocks and herds on the Rumanian slopes of the Carpathians and on the Wallachian plain. An endeavour had been made to regulate the internal distribution of petrol; and at the last moment the Minister of Finance, Costinescu, introduced a

scheme for a progressive income tax, which was not adopted by the succeeding Liberal administration.

There were two candidates for the succession: on the one hand

M. Take Jonescu, who, having left the Conservative party in consequence of a long-standing feud with the leader of its younger

members, the rich landowner Nicolas Filipescu, had then a Conservative-Democratic party, which the longing classes for a new era had rendered remarkably successful elections, on the other P. P. Carp, whom the death of G. cuzéne had placed at the head of the Conservative party.

formed of all at byCantaProm-

realizing

From

Austria-Hungary

came

formal

proposals

of

the expected profits of their astounding success, and

General Conrad von Hoctzendorff arrived at Bucharest, charged with this express mission, But already the minds of a new gencration, educated in the consciousness of a Rumanian moral unity which should necessarily produce practical results at the first great European upheaval,

were totally opposed to the continuance of the policy inaugurated in 1884. After a visit from Francis Joseph himself to Bucharest in 1909, the Crown Prince Francis Ferdinand made his appearance at Sinaia, hoping to strengthen ties that were daily growing looser. The Hungarian Government, of which the Crown Prince pretended to disapprove, none the less pursued its denationalizing policy, imposing, with the full rigour of the Apponyi

law, which monopolized nearly the whole of primary education with the study of Magyar, an examination in that official state language even on pupils belonging to Orienta) religions or to the Greek church. The Emperor-King rejected the representations of the church of Sibiu on this subject. Political prosecutions, even of women, roused public fecling among the Rumanians of Transylvania. Efforts were made, under cover of seemingly democratic intentions, to turn against the Rumanians a project of Wungarian electoral reform then in preparation; and the clectoral contests of June 1910 were of unusual brutality (¢. the present writer’s pamphlets: Les Hongrots et la nationalité

ising a Jong programme of reforms, including an administrative

roumaine en 1909 and Les dernieres elections en Hongrie et

transformation

les Roumains, Valenii-de-Munte, t909-10). The idea of Rumanians marching shoulder to shoulder with the soldiers of

(the districts

to be merged

in “ regions”

of

greatcr size administered by captains), it was the latter who

304

RUMANIA

Hungary was received with almost general indignation (cf. the writer’s pamphlet: Les Roumains ct le nouvel élat de choses en Orient, Valenii-de-Munte, 1912). The necessity for a policy based on the existence of 13 million Rumanians, even though they inhabitcd three different countries, impressed public opin-

ion more and more; and whatever may have been the Government’s first intention, it began to realize its difficultics. In the autumn the Bulgarian minister Danev, all-powerful at that moment, visited Rumania and offered to procure Bulgarian renunciation for ever of all claims to the Dobrudja—where, indeed, Bulgarians formed but a minority of the population— and also the modification of the fronticr by flattening salient angles to the advantage of Rumania. His proposals were not accepted. ‘‘ Compensation”? was demanded for the huge territorial gains realized by the neighbouring state; and a formidable agitation for this broke out all over the country.

M. Take

Jonescu, with whom after the Court of Cassation’s verdict in favour of the Tramway Co. an alliance had been made in a new ministerial grouping, with Maiorescu as president of Council, went to London to promote an arrangement, but was unsuccessful. The case was submitted to the Conference of St. Petersburg, which assigned Silistra to Rumania (April).

There lacked but one element, absolutely essential (granted the local conditions), namely the national bishop. He had been promised to the Rumanian faithful by the Treaty of Bucharest; but the clause had never been applied, as much through the

Rumanian Government’s own negligence as through the ill-will of the new Serbian and Greek masters of the situation. Germany hailed Rumania’s success as a means of retrieving through her ally that influence which the defeat of her protégés the Turks had caused her to lose in the East. As to AustriaHungary, the imperial and royal minister at Bucharest, Prince

Fürstenberg, presented a note from Count Berchtold in which

the recently concluded treaty was referred to as a simple “ preliminary arrangement.” ‘This conception was energetically rejected, and the scheme for a European congress to arrange Oriental affairs “definitely ” was wrecked. But it did not prevent the Tsar Ferdinand from issuing to his army an order

of the day in which, speaking of “ spoliation,” he indicated “ better days of glory ” as yet to come. Rumania during the World War.—Yhe World War was now brewing. In the month of June rg14, under the form of a pilgrimage to universities, Turkish intellectuals came to Rumania

to make soundings with a view to reconcilation with Bulgaria.

The mere delimitation of this territory raised many difficultics; and soon after the discussions between the Bulgarians and

One month Jater Austria-Hungary declared war with Serbia, on the pretext ofavenging the murder of the Crown Prince and

their allies, the question presented itself anew in different conditions. At that moment Carp, supported by Filipescu, was conducting a violent campaign against the Government, which had “lowered the dignity of Rumania,” of which Silistra would even be “ the tomb.” The Government was called upon either to resign or to declare war on Bulgaria. Maiorescu obtained a parliamentary victory in the debate on the convention of St.

his wife at Scrajevo by a Serbian. The treaty with the Triple Alliance had only just been confirmed by the minister Maiorescu. His successor, the head of the Liberal party, who had come to power with a long programme of reforms —foremost among them an agrarian law based on the expropriation of the large landowners, and an electoral law establishing universal suffrage with the exclusion of illiterates—had never shown any intention of abandoning the foreign policy identified with King Charles’ views and sympathies. Vienna felt assured that the Rumanian army, long prepared to that end, would march at her orders. The King’s interview with the Tsar of Russia at Constantza, though it had caused a profound sensation in the country, raising hopes of a change of orientation, had produced no diplomatic results.

Petersburg. But when the Scrbians were treachcrously attacked by the Bulgarians, and Bulgarian schemes for a Balkan hegemony became obvious, the idea of military intervention

beyond the Danube had to be accepted.

Russia, whose repre-

sentative at Bucharest, Cheheckov, manifested Rumanian

sym-

pathies, advised in that sense, Serbia just then enjoying the support of the Russian Cabinet. In June the Rumanian army, 500,000 strong, crossed the frontier, occupying on one side the

Public opinion was violently hostile to the Austrian adventure.

Southern Dobrudja as far as Kavarna; and on the other side

During the Bulgarian campaign the soldiers had clamoured to

advancing in an irresistible rush upon Sofia by Vrasta and Orhanic. The exhausted Bulgarian soldiers deserted en masse and the Rumanians sent them back to their homes,

be Jed to Transylvania; the King himself had witnessed their

As the Rumanian troops, commanded by the Crown Prince, drew near the Bulgarian capital, the Tsar Ferdinand despatched a telegram to King Charles asking for peace. Negotiations were immediately begun at Bucharest between Rumanians, Serbians, Greeks and Bulgarians. Peace was concluded in August: as regards Rumania, she obtained the territory which she had already occupied in the Dobrudia; and, furthermore, her rights of protection over the Rumanians in Macedonia were recognized. Question of Rumanians in Macedonia.—In that region, isolated from the national soil, all through the Middle Ages sturdy local

Rumanian communities had persisted, with forms of autonomy respected by the Turkish Government. Besides the shepherds, whose flocks covered the plateaux of the Pindus (see Wace and Thomson,

The Nomads

of the Balkans, London,

1913), there

was an industrious urban population of artizans and traders, who spread, morcover, into towns in other parts of the Balkan peninsula. Later the activity of these “ Koutzovlaks” turned towards Austria, and their colonies advanced from Budapest, Vienna, and Trieste to London and even to Philadelphia. Meeting with the Rumanian intellectuals of Hungary they initiated a new national programme, and in 1830 revived the ancient relations with Bucharest. The Rumania of Charles I. not only welcomed

them as brothers, but created, chiefly through the

manifestations. In face of Italy’s disclaimer of her obligations under the treaty, and England’s declaration of war against the Central Powers, Charles 1. and his advisers were forced to adopt the compromise of an armed ncutrality, which the king hoped to break on the first opportunity. When the German march on Paris failed, Rumanian politicians had to reconsider their position. M. Take Jonescu passed

from the first idea of “loyal neutrality ”’ to that of intervention on the side of the Allies, and in this he was supported especially by the combative energy of Filipescu. The latter did not shrink from dividing his own party, opposing Marghiloman, whose traditional Junimism favoured the Central Powers; and joining hands with his former rival, he effected a fusion with

Take Jonescu.

Meanwhile, popular demonstrations continued

against Austria-Hungary and Germany, who by means of conventions were exploiting Rumania to feed the population of the German Empire, and whose subventioned Rumanian press was generally despised, despite the assistance given it by Carp and a few of his personal friends. At the ‘‘ Lemberg moment” (the invasion of Galicia by the Russians), Filipescu had vehe-

mently demanded rupture with Austria-Hungary. In Sept. J. J. Brătianu succeeded in obtaining a declaration

from the Allies (including the much-feared

Russia) that in

exchange for a benevolent neutrality Rumania should have the right to occupy those Austro-Hungarian territories which be-

wise agency of their leader, the Apostal Miargirit, a complete system of Rumanian education in Macedonia, including a /ycée

longed to her by virtue of nationality.

at Monastir, and a commercial school at Salonika.

policy, facilitated the task of those who desired it. The suffer-

The Porte

was persuadéd to differentiate the Rumanian communities of that region from the Greeks of the patriarchal organization, and from the Bulgarians of the Exarchy residing at Constantinople.

The sudden death on

Oct. 10 of King Charles, to the last irreconcilable to a change of ings of the Rumanians of Transylvania, induced to serve in the

army of the Emperor-King by the lie that Rumania herself had embraced the same cause, and that her soldiers were fighting in

‘RUMANIA Galicia, together with the humiliations imposed on their religious and political leaders, increased the indignation provoked from the first by the conduct of the Germans in Belgium and invaded France. Soon after the Russian retreat from the Bukovina, moreover, rumours began to spread about the man-hunts organized by Austrian gendarmes against Rumanian “ traitors.” The head of the Government, knowing the inadequacy of the

395

Rumanian army, forced it to capitulate, and advanced through unresisting Silistra into the Dobrudja, which despite General Averescu’s sturdy defensive was soon the prey of Marshal Mackensen; while in Transylvania itself General Falkenhayn was striking a decisive blow near Sibiu-Hermannstadt.

For the Rumanians nothing was left but the tragic duty of defending, with utterly inadequate technical preparation, their

military preparation and the difficulty of completing it, thought

Carpathian frontier.

best to delay yet longer.

longing until the end of Nov., when, served by the spies of the Austro-Hungarian companies for the exploitation of the forests, and favoured by exceptionally mild weather, they penetrated

Meanwhile Count Czernin, Austro-

Hungarian representative at Bucharest, spoke to the Crown

Prince Ferdinand (married to Princess Marie of Edinburgh, whose sympathies were well known, and whose political attitude and charitable activities were equally admirable) about the “ miserable treachery ” of Rumania if she abandoned her allies (Diplomatische Aktenstiicke betreffend die Beziehungen Oesterreich-Ungarns su Ruminicn in der Zeit von 22 Jult 1914 bis 27 August 1916, Vienna, 1916). The irresistible trend of public opinion was pointed out to him in reply. In Parliament discussion was forbidden on the burning question of relations with

the belligerent powers. Troops concentrated in view of possible events were now partially demobilized. And on the side of Austria all that was done was to offer the Rumanians of Transylvania, through the Orthodox Archbishop, ‘‘a certain consideration for the wishes of our non-Magyar fellow-citizens relative to the church-schools,” and ‘ the admission of the maternal

language in direct communication with the authorities,’ and “ modifications of certain dispositions of the electoral law.” As Rumania refused to allow the passage of munitions for

Turkey, whose capital was now menaced by the attack in the

Bosporus, war on Serbia began anew in rg15. The Brătianu Government, which continued negotiations about the frontiers of the Bukovina, claiming to receive back the province precisely as Austria had taken it in 1775, and also about the frontiers of

the Banat, where owing to Serbian colonization in the western districts there was no decisive preponderance of Germans and Rumanians, once more managed to hold public Impatience in check.

Ilenceforward, all the Central Powers could exact from

Rumania was the passing of measures necessary for provision-

ing their populations.

Italy’s declaration of war in May 1915

served to raise still higher the popular excitement, which was

now clamouring fora prompt decision in the only possible sense. But when the offensive of General Brussilov onee more reached

Galicia and the Bukovina, further delay was impossible, especially as now, in the month of July, the treaty assuring Rumania

of the desired territorial limits had just been signed.

Russia

This defensive they succeeded in pro-

the valley of the Jiu, and occupying Craiova proceeded towards Bucharest, whose fortifications, constructed against the Russians in 1880 by the Belgian General Brialmont, had no longer any military value. After brilliant initial success a stand was made on the Argesh by advice of the French General Berthelot, but ended in defeat. The army retreated in disorder towards Moldavia to reorganize there, sheltered behind Russian troops who had at last arrived on this new theatre of war; king, ministers, and par-

liament were already in the ancient Moldavian capital of Jassy, where they had to remain until the end of 1918,

A counter-offensive,

carefully prepared during ro17, had

already begun, and in July had opened the path through Wallachia, when the Russian defection in Galicia and the subsequent push by Mackensen, who threw all the forces at his disposal upon the Sereth for an advance upon Odessa, brought upon the new Rumanian army the great disaster of Marasesti —a battle lasting ten days and ending in complete inability for further resistance. As the disintegration of the Russian army

proceeded, yesterday’s allics turning into pillaging bands dangerous to the whole life of the country, hostilities were perforce suspended; and eventually it became necessary to submit to the

armistice imposed by the Germans on General Shtcherbachev, who had assumed the chief command on the Rumanian front, passing over King Ferdinand’s right to the supreme command. Rumania, nevertheless, parleyed yet another two months before

entering into negotiations that could only mean the abandonment of her rights, the diminution of her pre-war territorial possessions, and the loss of her economic independence. Agrarian and Electoral Reforms.—l-ver since in Dec. 1016 the Parliament had met at Jassy and enthusiastically approved

the prosecution of the war to a finish, Bratianu had shared the burden of power with Take Jonescu and his section of the Conservative party. (Filipescu had died at Bucharest before the débdcle.) The activities of the Coalition Ministry had naturally

became urgent: the Rumanian Cabinct was warned that delay

been limited to ordinary current affairs.

would

rian question once more became urgent, owing in part to the reactions on the public mind of the triumph of the social revolution in Russia. (The chief of the Rumanian socialists, a Bulgarian named Rakovski, after having been kept for some time under arrest at Jassy, had managed to escape, and was now agitating with his followers against the king and the bourgeoisie.) Influenced by the Crown, the Conservatives at last accepted the radical policy of expropriation, to be applied to an area fixed at 2,000,000 hectarcs. Parliament debated the project for two months, the result being a law promulgated in July 1917, which left the original proprietors soo hectares at most for cach separate estate (absentees being completely expropriated), and assigned them a compensation in State bonds, the amount not to exceed twenty times the annual value of the property. A scheme for the com-

cause

the

cancelling

of the

territorial

engagements.

Certain illusions had been cherished with regard to Bulgaria, whose Prime Minister Radoslavov had formerly declared in Nov,

1894 that his country was “ ready to give all the guarantces which should eventually be desired that she would not attack Rumania if the latter should take part in the general war.” Now, however, Russia, who undertook to unite with the Ruma-

nian forces when they entered Transylvania, and to march in concert upon Budapest, was asked to send into the Dobrudja troops sufficient to supervise the somewhat mistrusted neighbour who had participated with such zest in the annihilation of Serbia. Without having ever made one serious proposal, the German and Austrian

ministers prepared

to depart the moment

Ru-

mania’s declaration of war arrived at Vienna (Aug. 28 1916). As regards the internal political situation, the Liberal Government, which had achieved the entry into war unassociated with

any of the opposition parties (for Maiorescu, summoned to the palace on the eve of the declaration, had fancied he was going to be called to power in order to prevent the rupture), did not even call the Chambers together to obtain their approval of the step. The armies were swiftly crossing the mountains by all the passes, to unite and form one single front upon a diagonal line in the middie of Transylvania. The enemy’s feeble forces were everywhere retreating; but Germany had soon moved in her ally’s interests, and had declared war. Bulgarians armed and led by

German officers now surprised at Turtucaia a badly organized XXX, —6

But in April the agra-

munal holding by village associations of the land thus obtained was rejected in favour of the traditional individual tenure. Details of the distribution were to be fixed by law; but now, under

the menace of a German occupation even in Moldavia, members of parliament were dispersing. When the triumph of the Central Powers scemcd certain, and the armistice foreshadowed an carly peace, the leaders of the war-party were practically forced to fce the country. A number of them took refuge in Pans, where they formed a national Committee of Claims. Reunion of Bessarabia; Peace of Bucharest; Expulsion of Occupying Forces—Already, however, the depredation of the

RUMANIA

306

Russian Bolskeviks had obliged the Rumanians of Bessarabia to form a Moldavian Republic; the ancient Rumanian spirit had quickly awakened, thanks in part to a group of young writers who had never ccased to cultivate spiritual relations with free Rumania. An attempt to form a local army having failed, appeal was made to the Rumanian troops, who had morcover an interest in defending the stores of food in Bessarabia.

The union of the Principalities was celebrated in Feb. rọrọ at Chishinau, capital of the province, as well as at Jassy; and on April 9 the Sfatul Tdrit (Council of the country), formed on the model of all the other revolutionary assemblies of the former empire of the Tsars, was to proclaim the union of Bessarabia with the kingdom of Rumania. J. J. Bratianu had already resigned (Jan. 1918) in face of the equal impossibility of either

organizing resistance or signing a treaty of abdication.

General

Averescu, charged with the negotiations because of his military

prestige, went for this purpose to Buftea near Bucharest, and found in the capital a party of violent opponents of the war led by the Germanophils Carp and Stere. Count Czernin, irreconcilable in his attitude towards the Rumanians, rejected Ger-

many’s advice, brought him by von Kuhlmann, to concentrate

solely on placing Rumania in a state of cconomic servitude, and procecded to carve up in fantastic fashion the mountainous fronticr of the kingdom; cutting off, morcover, the Dobrudja, whose future was to be settled between the Germans and the Bulgarians, Rumania being only left access to the sea under terms to be subsequently fixed. The Danube would become an artery for Austrian and German commerce, Vienna taking foothold at Severin, and Berha at Giurgevo by means of “ purchases ” of wharves and sites on long leases. The entire export of.the chief products of the country was assured to the Central Powers. Their army of occupation would have to remain for years to

enforce the fulillment of provisions, unexampled in severity, imposed on the country as expiation for its “ crime.” This treaty was signed by the new Marghiloman Ministry, installed in office just alter the arrival of a secret mission from

the Emperor Charles acquiescing in the maintenance of the Rumanian dynasty. The king had been subjected to the extreme humiliation of having to go to a Moldavian railway station to meet Count Czernin, who had come there expressly to aiford himself the satisfaction of that revenge. The Marghiloman Ministry, whose chief certainly possessed statesmanlike qualities, struggled against insurmountable difficulties through months of unexampled suffering for the exploited

and humiliated country.

In the occupied territory everyone

was snatching greedily at the remnants of national prosperity now in process of dispersal; the unlimited issue of paper moncy

imposed on the country by the Austro-Germans through the Banque Générale presaged financial ruin; while economic ruin was ensured by the exportation of sheep and cattle, by the cutting down of forests, and by the dismantling of factories.

The

population, meanwhile, was starving, reduced to famine rations, and the morals of its working-class were being perverted by

revolutionary propaganda. A Parliament elected under the pressure of enemy armies—a Parliament, moreover, composed of the worst elements of political lifce—often succeeded in disgusting even those who had desired to have it. This state of things lasted until the battle-front of the Central Powers had been penetrated both on the Rhine and in the Balkans. The king then called to power General Coandă, an old soldier who had already had experience in diplomacy, together with General Grigorescu, to whom was due the chief credit for

the victory of Marashti, as Minister of War. This Cabinet, without reference to Parliament, decreed a law for the expropriation of landowners, in accord with liberal ideas, and on the basis of the new constitutional text (the acts had been passed by the dissolved Marghiloman Parliament, the decisions of which had been declared null and void).

But no sooner had the French

troops commanded by General Berthelot arrived on the Danube, than the head of the Liberal party claimed, as initiator of a war duc chiefly to pressure of public opinion, a change of Gov-

ernment in his favour.

In a few days he entered Bucharest at

the side of the king, to inaugurate an administration which only lasted one year.

Reunion of the Bukovina and of Transylvanta.—The new Liberal Government had the extraordinarily difficult

task of re-

uniting, in one political whole, provinces which had been under

the domination of different alien states.

Bessarabia was al-

ready incorporated in the ancient kingdom, having completely

abandoned the idca of autonomy, which had at first been supported by her leaders, Inculetz, Pelivan, and Halipa.

Before

the King’s departure from Jassy he had received a deputation which came to offer him the Bukovina with the delimitation of 1775.

Menaced by a Bolshevist agitation begun at Czernowitz

by demobilized soldiers, this province had in Nov. proclaimed its reunion with the mother-country, under the inspiration of the historian,

Prof.

Jean Nistor, and of Jean Vlandon, formerly

head of the National party and of the Rumanian Political Union (his rival, Auréle, chief of the Democrats, had compromised himself by projects fora great Austria, toinclude Rumania), The German immigrants, the few Poles, and the Jews had given their assent; only the Ruthenians held aloof, planted cut as they had been by Austria and sedulously represented by statistical

artifices as being the principal nationality in the Bukovina. In Transylvania during the war the Magyar administration had spared no pains to reduce the number and importance of the Rumanians, over 3,000,000 in numbers, and predominant especially in the rural districts. The prisons were filled with suspects; judicial murders were the order of the day; a measure was framed to expropriate in favour of alien immigrants the widows and children of soldiers killed in action. At Bucharest the Bessarabian C. Stere performed the deplorable réle of editing a journal which advocated the candidature of the new EmperorKing Charles to the throne of Rumania (Prince Joachim of Prussia had also been suggested). Directly Vienna and Budapest repudiated the Habsburgs and their followers, as being responsible for the defeat, a great Rumanian assembly at Alba Tulia declared (Dec. 1918) that Transylvania henceforth formed part

of the kingdom of the united Rumanians, but that they promised absolute national liberty to their Saxon and Magyar fellowcitizens. The Saxons gave their adhesion immediately; but the Magyar bishops, Catholic, Calvinist, and Unitarian, did not take the oath of allegiance to King Ferdinand till 1921. A Council of Direction, presided over by Jules Maniu, took the reins, established order, and gave new national forms to Transylvanian life. The greater number of non-Rumanian officials were retained; communcs kept their accustomed privileges; Magyar and Saxon schools worked unmolested side by side with Rumanian institutions both old and new. Latest Events: The Agrarian Question —During the few months of Liberal Government the reunited country awaited in vain its definitive constitution, The reconstruction of the devastated districts had to be attended to, and difficult diplomatic negotiations had to be conducted that should result in the recogni-

tion by the Allies of the new frontiers. Those fixed by the treaty of 1916 were drawn back in places to give the Hungarians a part of the hinterland of Oradea-Mare (Nagy-Varad,

Gross-

Wardein), and the Serbians a good half of the Banat—they had pressed to be given also the town of Temesvar (Temisoara). After the end of 1918 a Bolshevist Government had been in power at Budapest, Count Karolyi having resigned rather than acquiesce in the military convention which deprived Hungary of the provinces which she had conquered and held since the Middle Ages. This Government showed from the first its intention of serving the party of revenge, and of trying to restore the mediaeval kingdom. An armed attack on Rumanian territory by the greater part of the Red army led, in Aug. 1919, to a Rumanian counter-offensive, which—despite the interdiction of the Allies —arrived at Budapest in a few days; and there the Rumanians

remained until the appointment of Admiral Horthy as regent. This was expected to promote the same policy of revenge by preparing the return of Charles of Habsburg.

The treaties of Versailles and of St. Germain recognized as Rumanian the territories which had belonged to the Dual Mon-

RUNCIMAN—RUPPRECHT archy. Austria quickly signed what regarded her; but Hungary resisted till r921, and then expressed her ratification in terms which left no doubt as to the sentiments animating a large part of the nation. Nevertheless, Rumania now considered it nght and safe to demobilize (April 1921).

The Brătianu Government had resigned in order to avoid signing a treaty which imposed on the kingdom a system of minority rights that they would have preferred to establish by their own legislation. As a matter of fact, by two successive measures full political rights had already been granted to the

Jewish population, without distinction between old inhabitants and recent immigrants; so that this ‘‘ question” had finally ceased to exist.

For the first the “ Ministry They resulted chief was the

time the elections were free, under supervision of of Generals ” presided over by Arthur Vaitoianu. in a large majority for the Peasant party (whose rural school-teacher Jean Mihalachi) and the

National Democrats; the Liberals now formed but a fifth part

of the total number of deputies; the National party of Transylvania, the Peasant party of Bessarabia, and the National party

of the Union of Bukovinians were united in their representation; a certain number of Socialists made their appearance in this first Parliament of united Rumania. The majority parties coa-

lesced as a “‘ bloc parlementaire,” and in Nov. 1919 formed a democratic Government of advanced tendencies under presidency of the Transylvanian Alexander Vaida Voévod, who at once visited Paris and London and obtained the formal recognition of a Rumanian Bessarabia (this was confirmed by his successor at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Take Jonescu). Measures

were elaborated for a definitive solution of the agrarian question (the Mihalachi scheme, leaving landowners only roo hectares for each estate, but granting concessions to those who had farms and agricultural installations); for the reorganization of education and administration; and for remedying the shortage of housing accommodation (scheme of Dr. Lupu, Min-

307

ing and stimulating power to the new writers was fully appreciated by Titu Maiorescu, who became the leading critical spirit

in Rumanian letters.

Under Maiorescu’s influence a group of

national writers gathered round the newly founded periodical Convorbiri Literare. Among them were J. Creanga, who in the Recollections of Childhood and other tales embodied the spirit of the Moldavian peasantry; Caragiale, who, besides a realistic drama and two volumes of short stories and sketches of unsurpassed craftsmanship, showed in his comedies Ze Lost Letter and Stormy Night the grotesque effect resulting from a hasty

introduction of Western manners into a society still stamped with an Oriental character; and above all the poet Eminescu. The last-named, who has been compared with Leopardi, was dominated by a note of profound. penetrating, overwhelming sadness, which affected all his successors, not excepting Al. Wiahutza, a poet with a strong individuality of bis own, But there is another side to Eminescu, his broad conception of the Rumanian race. It was this that impressed writers of the later generation such as Prof. Jorga, who, in his History of Rumanian

Literature, arrived at a clearer understanding of what a national literature may be. In his own weckly, Sămănătorul, as weli as

in such other periodicals as Cenverbiri Literare under the editorship of Prof. Mehedintzi, Lucedfarnl and Viata Românească, was first published almost all the modern writing which reflects artistically the deeper characteristics of the Rumanian people. A corner of the humble life of Banat is described in PopoviciBanatzeanu’s short story, Out in the World; the romantic Vlach population scattered throughout the mountainous parts of Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly is represented in Marcu Beza’s volume of short stories On the Roads and his novel A Life; Transylvania has produced the pocts G. Cosbuc, Octavian Goga, and

Stephen Josif. To the last-named, a Transylvanian of Vlach paternity, are duc the best renderings into Rumanian of Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream and Shelley’s To a Skylark. Barbu Delavrancea has given to the theatre an historical trilogy. Victor Eftimiu’s poctic excursion into fairyland, String ye pearis!

ister of the Interior). General Averescu, who in April 1917 had founded a “ League of the People,” demanding penalties

is founded on a popular Rumanian folk tale. And among story-

against the abuses of the Liberals during the war, and who had developed this organization—which contained many Conserv-

writers must be mentioned Bratescu-Voineshti, Dulhu Zamfirescu, and Michacl Sadoveanu. . important repairs. ae repairs medial

Carriages, 3rd class, new Carriages, 4th class, new Carriages, for goods, new . Tramways > 3 The real productivity of

Delivered ty

> e

e

>

2 I 2 o

Prevision 4 3

10 2

4 2 A . ‘ 13 3 ee 6 309 OD >. 22.” Er a o ea 3 9 the factory is irom 3 to 19 times inferior . =, a.

to those of the scheme of production established by the superior Council of National Economy. (Report of Mr. Molitof to the Petro. grad Soviet, Aug. 15 1918, Labry, 187.)

RUSSIA

339

specialists was recommended as a necessary measure, Under the regime of the workmen’s control, technical experts were treated

reckoned at their indicated value.

as second-rate persons

less product of capitalistic exploitation, But the Communist Commonwealth had not yet discovered the means of replacing this system by a more adequate instrument of exchange. Figures in rubles were still being handled as if they represented realities. The only hope left for the Bolsheviks was that when they had

to be ordered about by the ignorant

“demos ” of proletarian boards, but experts were now invited to proceed to Sovdepia in order to help to restart productive industrial activity. In the factories piece-work was given a prominent place as against the “ ca’canny ” devices of time work, although previously workmen used to protest most violently against this form of remuneration.

Altogether payment by results was being

more and more recognized as an antidote against slovenly labour. As for working hours no account was taken of the 8-hour day, and forced labour was exacted for 10 or 12 hours when deemed necessary by the commissars.

Stundurd of Living. —Thus the Sovict dictators were trying in 1921 to back out of the impassé into which they had run the industry of the country. There was among the working class onc group which had profited by the Oct. revolution—it was the

communistic nucleus used by the Sovict administration to spy on their comrades and to coerce them. They enjoyed all the privileges of an official class and could afford not only necessaries of life but such luxuries as were to be had in the market. Apart from these privileged Communists the working class was reduced toacondition of utter destitution. Even judging by the standard

of the prices fixed from time to me by the ruling powers they could not make the two ends mect, because the prices had risen during Soviet domination from 16 to 25 times. In 1921 bread cost 19 times as much asin the second quarter of 1917, manufactured goods 22 times as much, footwear and soap 25 times.

Wages indeed had increased also, but their nominal increase did not keep up with the cost of living. About the middle of 1918 an engucte had been made in Moscow as to the budgets of 2,173

workmen, and it resulted from it that on the average a bachclor working-man’s

wages

did

not exceed 462

rubles per

month,

though by occasional extra work they might be brought up to 624. The head of a family earned on the average 703 rubles, and might increase his earning by supplementary labour to 1,077

rubles per month.

The ordinary budget was made up in the

case of a bachelor by 22-2 rubles for lodging, 46-9 for food, 47-7 for clothing, 1-1 for house implements, 19:6 for health (baths, drugs, cte.), 13°4 cultural expenses (newspapers, books, etc.), 13 (parcels sent to village home), 32 miscellancous expenses; jn all, including other items, being 609 r.. For heads of families the

The Chief of the Soviet

State often spoke with contempt of money currency as a worth-

spent the reserves captured from the Imperial Government and from the defeated armics, the national capital represented by the natural wealth of Russia in forests, minerals, fishcrics, ete., should

be put into the market.

The handing over of this wealth to

foreigners would mean, of course, economic subjection, a state similar to that of Asiatic and African dependencies of western Powers. But the Bolsheviks were not deterred by a prospect of

that kind, provided it enabled them to continue in power, They mapped out a programme of concessions on the widest scale. The Council of the Commissars of the people laid down a set of rules as to concessions, and the Councils of Economy and of Agriculture outlincd a vast scheme of natural resources which should be offered to foreigners for exploitation. The rules were as follows :— (1) Concessions should be granted by agreement on the principle of a division of profits. (2) In case of the introduction of special machinery and appliances the concessionnaires would be granted

privileges, e.g. large orders.

(3) The concessionnaires would be allowed to remain In possession

for long periods in order that they should draw sufficient benefits from their concessions. (4) ‘The Government of the Sovicts guaranteed immunity to the concessionnaires from navionalization, confiscation and requisitions.

(5) The concessionnaires would have the right to hire labourers on conditions specified in the Laws of the Commonwealth or on special

conditions safeguarding the life and the health of. the workmen.

(6) The Government pledged itself not to make any change in the

conditions of the agreement by a one-sided exercise of ils authority.

It would be impossible to enumerate all the resources of the country offered to enterprising capitalists for exploitation,

Two

or three examples must suftice to give an idea of the booty offered to foreign capitalists by Russian Communists. In Western Siberia, along the rivers Ob, Irtysh and Taz, an area of 70 mil-

lion dess. (about 180 million ac.) was reserved for them. It is covered by immense forests of pines, firs, cedars and Jarches. If it were found necessary at the start to restrict exploitation to a strip along the rivers some 15 versts wide along each bank, there

average monthly expenses rose to 952°7, of which 672-5 r. fell on food (Zagorsky, La République des Sovicts, 214, 215). These

would still be available for immediate and easy use some 16 million dess, (about 42 million acres). The timber should be sawed

figures show a considerable deficit in normal and well-regulated

and worked into pulp and cellulose in mills to be erected by the

houscholds: any disturbance in personal conduct, conditions of labour or health, was bound to result in downright starvation and ruin. Let us also notice that distress was much more marked in rozo and 1921 than in 1918. The only consolation for workmen was derived from the fact that the hated bourgeois were subjected to even greater hardships. In the carly stages of Bolshevik domination this kind of consolation was a potent one: the feeling of triumph of the Jower class over jts former superiors made up for many privations, but in course of time the bourgeois were trodden down to that extent that there was not much satisfaction to be ebtained from kicking them, while new contrasts arose between the mode of life of halfstarved workers and of the Sovict bureaucrats shepherding them.

estuary of the Ob. Such mills ought to make up a settlement of the size of another Archangel. The natural route westwards lies down the Ob and by the Kara sea: it had already been utilized to some extent and its future importance could not be exaggerated. The whole region should be opened up by a number of railway lines. Mineral wealth of various kinds—platinum, coal, lcad—is

The food situation became catastrophic in rg21. As a result of the restriction of cultivation, transport difficulties and civil disorder, a great part of the country was visited by downright famine, With terrible prospects ahead. Credit and Finance—In such conditions nothing could be expected but growing decay in public credit and finance. The

to be found in these districts.

One of the most stupendous

advertisements as to mincral wealth concerned the Kuzsnetsk coal mines along the Tom river. They were estimated to contain about 250 million tons of excellent coal. In European Russia 14 uyezds (districts) were advertised for agricultural exploitation and the construction of ways of communications of all kinds,

All these districts are situated in the black soil region of southcastern Russia. The application of powerful traction engines and steam ploughs would soon convert then into one of the principal granaries of Europe, Such were the prospects held out in 1921 to enterprising

capitalists. Not a word was wasted on the social and legal condi-

tions of the human material connected with these tracts. It remained for the concessionnaires to fashion it with the assistance under monarchical rule, The gold fund of the Imperial Treasury of the enlightened commissars: it was evident that the 5th clause had been its chief asset in conducting political and commercial of the Soviet rules ought not to be applicd in such a way as to negotiations. Its remnant represented something like £50,000,- hamper the great process of economic restoration. The principal ooo in the first quarter of 1921. The needs of the home circula- object was to get capitalists to speculate on the material basis Sovict Government had been living on the reserves accumulated

tion were satisfied by constant emissions of paper notes. was no system and no limit in this process of inflation.

There Paper

notes had cven come to be measured by weight instead of being

described with such graphic details. It remained to be scen how they would organize and keep in order the labouring population required for the carrying out of

340

RUSSKY

the concessions—whether the foreign capitalists would obtain feudal franchises with police powers of their own, or the Soviet

lion,I (Berlin, 1921):—

stress of dire need was presented by the appeal to the help of

“ By order of the commissars 5,000 applicants as freshmen in the medical faculty, although the constructed for 250, Representations had been impossible to admit persons who had received

power would keep watch on their behalf and usc coercive measures to keep the Russian workmen up to the mark. Another side of the repressive policy of the Soviets in the codperatives. These organizations had gone through a chequered existence under the rule of the Soviets. In the early days of 1917 and 1918, the proletarian dictators used them as convenient tools at home and abroad in order to counteract the impression that Russia was ruled by an uncompromising despotism. The leaders of the codéperatives were encouraged to preach a non-party

attitude, and to concentrate their efforts on purely economic work without any admixture of political opposition. In the campaign for the reopening of trade with Sovict Russia it was usual to assert

that such

trade would

be carried on exclusively with

coéperators and not with the il-famed Moscow Government. In 1919, however, a sharp turn was given to the wheel, and the

codperatives were “ nationalized ’’—declared to be subordinate committees of the Central Economic Council. In Sovdepia this measure was explained not only as a consequence of the general

policy of Communism, but also as a necessary precaution against Social revolutionaries and Mensheviks, accused of having barricaded themselves within the codperatives for purposes of politi-

pseudonym of “Donskry” in the Archives of the Russian Revoluhad been admitted Iecture-rooms were made that it was no appropriate instruction, but they were disregarded. The only thing required was that applicants should have attained the age of 16 years—the rules

as to admission did not mention even the necessity of knowing how to read and write. The crowd of students dwindled to small num-

bers very soon, however, on account of the absence of heating during the winter and of the almost insuperable difficulty in getting materials for experimental teaching.” Books or REFERENCE.—Claude Anct, Through the Russian Revolution (1917); Lujo Brentano, Russland der kranke Mann (1918): E. J. Dillon, The Eclipse of Russia (1919); A. Iswolsky, The Memoirs of Alexander Iswolsky (edited and translated by C. L. Seeger, 1920); arl Kautsky, The Dictatorship of the Proletariat (1920); A. Keren-

sky,

The Prelude

to Bolshevism—the

Kornilov

Rebellion

(1919);

Raoul Labry, L'Industrie Russe el la Révolution (1919), Une Légtslation communiste (1920); M. A. Landau-Aldanoff, Lénine (1919); V. Lenin, “ Left Wing Communism, an Infantile Disorder (1920), Land Revolution in Russia (1919), The Great Iniialive (1020); Roger Lévy, Trofsky (1920); Francis MacCullagh, A Prisoner

of the Reds (1921);

P, N.

Miliukov, History of the Second Rus-

sian Revolution (1920); Balshevism—an International Danger (1920);

K. Nabokov, Ordeal ofa Diplomat (1921); A. Nekludoff, Diplomatic

Reminiscences before and during the World War, rori—1017 (1920): New Russia (weekly publication, 1920); Boris Noldé, Le Régne de

cal agitation. In the beginning of the year ro21 a new current set in: cooperatives were to some extent reéstablished as autonomous

Lenin (1920); R. W. Postgate, The Bolshevik Theory (1920); Maurice

organizations, The object was to revive them as agents of repartition. The Soviet decree of April 7 1921 was drawn up, however,

and Economic)

in such a narrow and ambiguous form, that the institution re-

mained doomed to mechanical subjection. The Act concerned primarily codperatives of consumers, Jt allows combinations for protection and traffic only in an exceptional case and in obscure terms. As far as allowed, codperatives are included in administrative units of state origin and local delimitation. All freedom of action is curtailed and subjected to strict supervision. Lastly, the members are not voluntary associates intending to help each other according to free agreement, but people brought together

by the fact of dwelling in the same locality or belonging to the same professional group,

All this shows to what extent the principle of autonomous association was felt to be antagonistic to Soviet despotism.

It

might be assumed that the codperatives wowd either remain inactive and fictitious, or else that they would contrive to escape the jealous supervision and the step-motherly pressure exercised by the “‘ Glavki”’ and “ centres.” The hard facts of economic decay admitted of no controversy and could be illustrated by tabulated results. It was still impossible in 1921 to apply the same tests to the moral aspect of the condition of Russia, although there could be no doubt that the deterioration of national life in this respect was more harmful than economic decay. The ageressive tone of Communist propa-

ganda could not deceive any one who considered the efforts of the “ Proletcult ’ with common sense. It was not the number of schools that mattered, but their efficiency and educational influence. The prophecy of Dostojevsky in The Possessed had come true: the Bolsheviks had not only squandered the reserves accumulated by orderly government, and scattered some 2,000,coo of the best educated Russians across the world—they had poisoned the mainsprings of national morals for generations to come. One or two of the conclusions of Lord Emmott’s Committee may be appropriately cited in this connexion; their studied moderation makcs them particularly efiective:— " Child education in Soviet Russia is based upon an attempt to dissolve the ties hitherto existing between parent and child, and children are removed from the care of their parents soon after birth;

we have received no information on the moral and physical effects of this policy. E:lucation, both child and adult, is not merely secular, but directly anti-religious in bias.”

As a specimen of the educational practice of Soviet Russia we will quote from the experience of a leading professor of the medi-

cal faculty of the university of Moscow, published under the

Paléologue,

‘La

Russie

des Tears pendant

La Revue des Deux Aondes (Jan-May

la grande Guerre,”

1921); M. A. Ransome,

Six

Weeks in Russia (1919), The Crisis in Russia (1921); Report (Political

(1921);

C.

of the Commiltee to Collect Information on Russia

E. Russell,

Unchained

Russia

(3918),

The

Russian

Economist (N 1, 2 and 3 periodical 1920-1), The Russian Common-

wealth; Alexander Schreiber, L'Organisation judicaire de la Russie des Soviets (1918); Ethel Snowden, Through Bolshevik Russia (1920),

Soviet Russia (weekly publication, vols. {, and Jf. 1919-20); John Spargo, The Psychology of Bolshevism (1919), The Greatest Failure in all Llistory (1920), Bolshevism. the Enemy of Political and Industrial Democracy (1919), Struggling Russia weekly magazine, in progress 1919); Leon Trotsky, fhe Bolshewtki and World Peace (1918), Our Revolution (1918), War or Revolution (1918), A Paradise in this World (1920); The History of the Russian Revolution to Brest-Lilovsk (1919); Émile Vandervelde, Three Aspects of the Russian Revolution (1918); Maurice Verstraete, Mes Cahiers Russes (1920); V. Vietoroff-

Toporoff, La première Année de la Révolution

Paul

Vinogradoff,

Self-Government

in Russia

Russe

(1915),

(1919);

Sir

The Recon-

struction of Russta (1919); H. G. Wells, Russia in the Shadows (1920); Ariadna Tyrkova Willams, From Liberty lọ Brest-Litovsk (1919); Robert Wilton, Russia's Agony (1918), The Last Days of the Romanovs

(1920); S. Zagorsky, La République des Soviets, Bilan économique

(1921).

(P.Vi.)

RUSSKY, NIKOLAI (1854-1918), Russian general, was born in 1854.

On leaving the infantry military school in St. Petersburg

in 1874 he was given a commission in the Guard. Graduating from the Academy of the General Staff in 1881, he served as an officer of the general staff in the Kiev military district, and by 1896, after commanding an infantry regiment, had reached general’s rank. During the war with Japan in 1904-5 he was the head of the staff of the II. Army, and planned the offensive carried out by Gen. Grippenberg which led to the prematurely abandoned offensive of Sandepu. In 1900 he was assistant com-

mander of the Kiev military district. He enjoyed the special friendship of the War Minister, Sukhomlinoy. At the beginning of the campaign of r914 he commanded the III. Army, which

attacked in Galicia, and after the vicissitudes of the bloody heavy battles about Krasnik and Rava Ruska advanced to Lvov (Lemberg), through which it passed in the further advance

to the San-Dniester line. ‘The dramatic entry of the III. Army into Lvov created for Gen. Russky a popularity and prestige out of proportion to the real importance of his success. In Oct. 1914 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the north-western

and afterwards of the northern “front” (i.e. group of armies), but, suffering from very bad health, he had on more than one occasion to leave the front for a time.

He continued, however,

to hold the command, and it was at his headquarters that the

final scenes of Nicholas IL.’s reign and his abdication took place in March 1917. Soon after the Revolution Russky retired and in 1918 he was reported killed by the Bolsheviks.

341

RUTHERFORD—RYDER RUTHERFORD, SIR ERNEST (1871), British physicist, was born at Nelson, New Zealand, on Aug. 30 1871. Ile was educated at Nelson College and Canterbury College, Christchurch. After graduating at the New Zealand University (ALA. 1893 and B.Sc. 1894), he proceeded with an 1851 science exhibi-

tion to Cambridge, where he entered Trinity College and prose-

RUTHERFORD, MARK (Witurane Hare Write] (e. 18301913), English author (see 23.940), died at Groombridge March 14 1913. His eldest son, SiR WiLtiaM Hate Wuite (b. 1857), who was created k.B.E. in rgr9, became a well-known physician,

and during the World War was a colonel in the R.A.M.C. RYAN, JOHN DENIS (18643~ ), American capitalist, was

cuted rescarches in the Cavendish laboratory, Sir J. J. Thomson

born at Hancock, Mich., Oct. ro 1864.

being then the Cavendish professor. He published numerous rescarches upon the conduction of electricity through gases, for which he obtained the B.A. Research degree and the CouttsTrotter studentship in 1897. In the following year he was appointed Macdonald professor of physics in McGill University, Montreal. There he carried out ascriesof brilliant investigations,

public schools, for eight years was clerk in an uncle’s store, and at the age of 25 went to Denver, where he was employed as a

in conjunction

with Soddy, which established

upon

a firm

basis the existence and nature of radioactive transformations. In 1993 he was elected F.R.S. In 1907 he succeeded Sir Arthur Schuster as Langworthy professor of physics in the university of Manchester, and he attracted therc a large school of radioactive research workers.

In collaboration

with sevcral of these the

science of radioactivity was rapidly developed: among other work the production of helium asa product of disintegration of radium was shown spectroscopically, the spectrum of the emanation measured, the number of a particles (charged helium atoms)

during a disintegration process counted, the properties of numerous radioactive products and the radiations accompanying their formation examined. Among the most important of the researches emanating from his laboratory was that of the experimental demonstration of the nuclear nature of the atom. It was also in his laboratory that Moseley determined the X-ray spectra of a number of elements. Rutherford was knighted in ror4 andin roro succeeded Sir J. J. Thomson as Cavendish professor of experimental] physics in the university of Cambridge.

Many British and foreign honours and degrees were bestowed upon him: the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society (1905), the Barnard

Medal

(1910), Bressa Prize (1908), and Nobel Prize

for chemistry (1908). In 1920 he was appointed professor of physics at the Royal Institution, London. His works include Rudioactivity (1904), Radioactive Transformations (1906), Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (1912).

He was educated in the

salesman of lubricating oils, In rg0r he secured an interest in a bank at Butte. In 1904 he was made manager of the Amalgamated Copper Co. in Montana, and after the death of Henry H. Rogers, in 1908, he succeeded him as president.

He had been

elected president of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. in 1905, and after the merging of the Amalgamated interests in the Anaconda in 1910 he continued as president of the latter until 1918, He developed large water powers in Montana, and in 1913 electrified the railway between Butte and Anaconda {100 m.),

the success of which led to a wide introduction of electrification. By 1920 hydroelectric power from the Montana Power Co. organized by Ryan was used in most of the mines of Montana and for lighting in all parts of the state. During 1917-8 Ryan was a member of the war council of the American Red Cross and after 1918 of its central committee. After the failure of America’s aircraft programme had led to a reorganization, he was appointed in April 1918 head of the Aircraft Board of the Committee of National Defence, and in Aug. was appointed second assistantsccretary of war and director of air service of the U.S. army. After the signing of the Armistice in Nov. he resigned. Official investigation was made later, and Ryan was both attacked and defended. It was generally felt that the newly organized board fell heir to popular criticism of past failures for which it was not responsible, and the short time before the Armistice scarcely

afforded opportunity to develop efficient production. In 1919 Ryan was elected chairman of the board of directors of the Anaconda Copper Mining Company, and he took a prominent part in connexion with other commercial aud financial concerns. RYDER, ALBERT PINKHAM (1847-1017), American painter

(sce 23.949), died at Elmhurst, Long Island, March 28 1917.

342

SAAR VALLEY

AAR VALLEY.—The Armistice of Nov. 1018, in restoring Alsace-Lorraine

to France, “again brought the French

frontier close to Saarbruck and the Valley of the Saar, This region, thanks to its large coal output, had ever since 1871 been in close relations with the coal-mines of Metz

and Thionville.

The big metallurgical establishments of Lor-

raine were largely dependent upon coal from the Valley of the Saar, from which the new French frontier would have cut them off, to the detriment of the economic development of both countries. On the other hand, France had been deprived of a large portion of her output by the destruction of her northern coal-

fields, a situation which had as far as possible to be remedied

by Germany.

The geographical situation of the coal-mines in

the neighbourhood of Saarbruck clearly pointed to their utilization for this purpose. Nevertheless, and although Saarbruck had belonged to France from 1794 to 1815, the French annexation of this country was difficult without running a risk of violating the inhabitants’ right of self-determination.

These were the

elements of the problem which the authors of the Treaty of Versailles had to consider. Treaty Stipulations —Section IV. of Part IIT. of the Treaty deals with the Saar Valley

Articles 45 to 50 lay down the fron-

tiers of the Saar territory, andstate the general principles adopted. The regime agreed upon is laid out in an annexe which follows Article so, It is clear from the text that the authors of the Treaty intended to cede to France complete ownership of all coal deposits in the valley. This could not have been effected had the

district remained under the authority of the German Government. Disturbances were to be feared between the French State, sole proprietor of the mines, and the German Government,

which would have remained the only public authority. In order to get over this difficulty, and to ensure 10 France the free disposal of Saar coal, the territory of the Saar was completely detached from the German State, both from a political as well as from an administrative point of view.

Frontiers —The territory (see EUROPF, inset on map) as created by the Treaty stretches W., N. and E. of the town of Saarbruck (60 km. E.N.E. of Metz, and go km. N.W. of Strass-

burg).

On the S. and the W. there is the French frontier, from

Hornbach, S. of Deuxponts, to Ritzing, W. of Merzich (Merzig). Leaving Ritzing, the frontier includes Mettlach and its suburbs, passes near Neuenkirchen, and, going E. reaches the southern frontier of the Birkenfeld district, which it follows. From Namborn the line goes S.E., taking in Homburg, and, after bending

so as to exclude Deuxponts, rejoins the French frontier near Hornbach. The territory thus formed is considerably larger than the district where coal-mines are actually being worked.

The

peace negotiators intended, in fact, to include in it the whole coal deposit, and net only the fields being exploited.

France has

become sole owner of all the fields and of all mining concessions. Indemnification of the former owners was made the concern of Germany. Transfer to France of the mines being worked was made comparatively easy by the fact that nearly all the concessions belonged to the State of Prussia or

to Bavaria.

The

trict with administration and government, France, apart from the mines, being concerned only with Customs. The Peace Treaty entrusted the League of Nations with this task, as from Jan. ro 1920. The country is governed by a commission of five, Which sits at Saarbruck, and consists of one French member, one member chosen among the local population, and three who may be neither French nor German. This commission is appointed yearly by the League of Nations, which may renew cxpiring

mandates.

It is presided over by one of its number, appointed by

the League of Nations. This president acts as executive agent. All powers previously enjoyed by the German Empire, Prassia and Bavaria have been transferred to the commission. ‘The commission maintains in force the laws and regulations passed previous to the Armistice, with the exception of special war measures. It has the power to modify them if necessary; collects

taxes; administers justice; directs the administration of the country, and can create new administrative organs. It is responsible for public order; the safety of the inhabitants of the district, and

their representation abroad; it manages the railways and looks

after all public property. These powers, for the use of which the commission is responsible to the League of Nations, are subject to several restrictions. First of all, they cannot affect the rights of the French State in its capacity 2s owner of the mines, and no

restriction can be piaced upon the circulation of French moncy. On the other hand, the country maintains its local assemblies, its religious freedom and its tongue. No fresh taxation (Customs excepted) can be levied without consultation with elected representatives of the inhabitants. Men and women over 20 years of age have the right to vote for the local assemblies.

The Treaty in no way affects the existing nationality of the inhabitants. It stipulates that the governing commission shall be the last judge of any dispute arising from the interpretation of

the Treaty itself. The régime thus formed does not establish a state of the Saar, similar to that of Luxemburg, since no new nationality is formed, and since the League of Nations is only

acting as trustee, It is none the Jess true that the Saar territory consiitutes a political and economic entity entirely independent and entirely separated from Germany and France. The Peace Treaty did not intend to prolong this state of affairs indefinitely without giving the inhabitants of the Saar an opportunity of expressing and obtaining the fulflment of their wishesin the matter. Therefore, 15 years after the coming into force of the Treaty, that is to say, in the course of the year 1935, the future régime of

the Saar was to be settled by a plebiscite. The Plebiscite.—The details of this plebiscite were to be settled by the League of Nations, All persons over 20 years of age who

were resident in the territory on June 28 1919 were to have the tight to vote. Three alternatives were to be submitted to the population. First, the permanent maintenance of the system of government provided for in the Treaty—that is to say, autono-

mous government under the ægis of the League of Nations; second, reunion with France; third, reunion with Germany. Voting was to be taken by commune or by district, and it would therefore be possible to take into account the various votes of

the inclusion of the district in the French Customs system. This

different portions of the territory. The League of Nations was to fix the new frontiers, if any, in accordance with the results of the

provision had extremely important economic and political effects.

plebiscite. The fate of the mines ceded to France would be decided

rights of France in the district were still further guaranteed by

However, in order to avoid a brutal cessation of the close economic relations which existed between the Saar and the rest of Germany, trade with Germany was to remain free of any Customs dues until Jan. 10 1925. France was empowered to build any railways or canals which she might deem necessary in order to link up the

fields with France.

All the nghts and duties of the former pro-

prietors towards their employees and workmen were assumed by France, who was also free to use French currency in all its trans-

actions within the zone, The value of the mines thus ceded was to be credited to Germany in the Reparations Accounts.

Political Régime——Steps had to be taken to provide the dis-

by the plebiscite also.

If the Peace Treaty régime were con-

tinued, or if the voting went for reunion with France, there would be no further difficulty; but ifall or part of the coal-fields returned

to Germany, Germany would have to buy out the interests of the French State in the fields which Germany would then reoccupy.

The price was to be fixed by experts and to be payable in gold. Physical Features—The river Saat comes into contact with the territory at Sarrequemineés, and forms the French frontier to a point

just above Saarbruck.

It then flows through the territory to a point

jun downstream from Mettlach, The valley, which, between Saar-

fuck and Merzich, is fairly wide, runs through picturesque hills

covered for the larger part with forests, the working of which ls a

SABINE—ST. JOHN valuable industry. Agriculture plays but a very secondary part, and it is upon industry that the population is mainly dependent. The pop. amounts

to 703,000, which, on an area of 1,900 sq. km.,

shows a density of 370 persons per sq.km. unevenly distributed.

the valley around

built.

The population is very

It is very dense in the industrial regions, in

mineheads, and wherever factories have been

It is sparse in the farm and forest lands.

The chief towns

are Saarbruck (110,000), Voeltlingen (19,000), Sarreclouis (16,000), Dillingen (8,000), Merzich (9,000), which are all in the valley itself. Then there are the mining towns elsewhere: Dudweiler (21,000),

Sulzbach (23,000), Friedrichsthal (14,000), and the industrial town

of Neuenkirchen (35,000). The chief towns in the Bavarian portion of the territory are St. Ingbert (19,000), Homburg and Blies-

kastel. The chief industry, and the only one mentioned in the Peace Treaty, is the extraction of coal, The mines being worked in 1g21 are situated in a district bounded on the one side by the Saar Valley from Burbach to Fraulautern, and by two lines drawn from Waldmohr (N.E. of Neuenkirchen} to Burbach and Fraulautern. Mines are most closely clustered in the little valleys between Saarbruck and Neuenkirchen, and before the war all of them, with the

exception

of those at Hostenbach

Prussia or Bavaria.

and

Frankenholz,

belonged

to

The total production of the basin averaged

12,000,000 tons a year.

It exceeded

13,000,000 tons in 1913, and,

in the opinion of experts, a very considerable increase in output

ought to be obtained without much dithculty. All the mines are worked for France, with the exception of that of Frankenholz, which

was left in the hands of the company which previously owned it. Output fell off during the war, as the result of fewer working hours and less productive labour. In 1920 about 9,500,000 tons were produced, and in 1921 the output would have been bigger had it not been for the general economic crisis. The mines employ over 70,000 persons, and, taking into account their dependents, it may be safely said that about a third of the total population of the country relies

upon the mines for its living.

The output is consumed, to the

extent

The

of about

Lorraine, varies is not has to coke.

France

50°,

and

locally.

Southern

rest is exported

Germany.

The

to Alsace-

export

market

in accordance with the general economic situation. The coal very satisfactory for the purposes of stecl manufacture, and be mixed with coal from the Ruhr before it produces good On the other hand, it is very suitable for heating and the

manufacture

railways

and

of lighting gas, and therefore

municipal

authorities,

finds a ready sale to

Mectallurpical

industry

is

highly developed, and there are no less than 31 blast-furnaces and many steel plants.

anies, are situated

The factories, which are run by powerful comat Burbach,

veuenkirchen and St, Ingbert.

Brebach, Voeltlingea,

Dillingen,

343

fram Ohio State University in 1856 at the age of 18 und after two years’ further study at Harvard received the degree of A.M. In 1889 he was made assistant in physics at Harvard and the following year instructor. After passing through the usual stages of promotion he was appointed professor of mathematics and natural

philosophy in 1905 and the following year assumed the deanship of the newly organized Graduate School of Applied Science. He was an inspiring teacher but his publications were confined to papers contributed to scientific journals. In 1g16 he went to France as exchange professor at the Sorbonne but devoted most of his time to removing French tuberculous patients to Switzerland under the auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation. In rọr7, however, he lectured on architectural acoustics, a subject of which he had made a special study. He himself fell a victim to tubercu-

losis and died in Cambridge, Mass., Jan. ro 1919.

SAGE, MRS. RUSSELL

[MaxcGaret Oxivii Stocum] (182$~

1918), American philanthropist, was born at Syracuse, N.Y, Sept. 8 1828, being descended on her father’s side from Capt. Miles Standish. After graduating in 1847 from the Troy (N.Y.) Female Seminary, afterwards known as the Emma Willard School, she taught, first in Philadelphia, and later in Syracuse and Troy until 1869 when she became the second wife of Russell Sage (see 23.1002), She proved herself a shrewd business woman anc for several years before his death had full control of his affairs.

She

had long been interested in charities, and in estimating the services of Sage himself it should be remembcred that he left to her without restriction his entire fortune, over $64,000,000, doubtless foreseeing its probable final distribution to charity.

In 1907 the Russell Sage Foundation was incorporated under the laws of the state of New York, for the “improvement of social and living conditions of the United States of America,” and to it she gave $10,000,000, The Ioundation made many surveys of social and educational conditions in various states and issued many publications dealing especially with housing improvement and reform. In 1912 Mrs. Sage bought Marsh I., off the Louisiana coast, containing about 79,000 ac., later turned over to the state as a perma-

The stecl output in 1912 was over

nent refuge for birds. She died in New York City Nov. 4 1918. Her will provided that after enumerated bequests to relatives

producing machines and machine tools, so that after coal the iron

$36,000,000, should be divided into 52 parts and variously distributed to many colleges, museums, hospitals, charitable institutions, Bible socictics and missions. ‘To most of these she had made guts during her lifetime. The largest portion, seven parts, was

2,000,000 tons. Since the Armistice French capital has been largely invested in the metal industries of the Saar and metal workers and miners receive their wages in francs. There are a number of works

and steel trades rank as second in importance. Glass and ceramic industries, the formerat Sulzbach and St. Ingbert, and the fatter at Mettlach and Merzich, are the next important employers of labour. There are over 120,000 persons, counting 70,000 miners, industrially employed. ‘The majority of the workmen are natives of the country, and labour therefore has a stability not often to be found. Communications —A good system of communications provides an outlet for these industrial products. Saarbruck is at the junction of the Metz—Mayence and Strassburg-Tréves—Cologne line, and is also on a direct line towards Ludwigshafen and the Rhine, as well as in connexion with a number of minor or local railways. There is also a canal through the Saar, which has been canalized upstream from Sarrelouis in order to mect the mine canal and the Marne-Rhine

canal in Lorraine. There is no waterway towards General Considerations.—It will be seen that the almost entirely industrial. In the towns there are retail dealers, and the works and factories are owned

the Moselle. population is wholesale and by big limited

companies. There is therefore but a small middle class and a backward intellectual and artistic development. From a religious point of view Catholics are in a considerable majority, although there is a fairly strong group of Protestants at Ga orice. Since the German

revolution the Socialists and Catholic Centre have been practically numerically equal; and trades unions are either Christian or Red.

It is economic questions, output and wages which chiefly concern people. In 1921 there were a number of problems to which no defnite

solution had beenfound.

There were the change of the Customs front-

ier, the coexistence in the Saar of the French franc (with its higher

and more stable rate of exchange) and the German mark, and the

natural increase of economic relations with France.

resources of the country,

The great

however, enabled one to hope that the

Saar would be able to adapt itself to these new conditions. The stipulations of the Treaty of Peace, in placing the territory under the authority of a government independent both of France and of Germany, were peculiarly calculated to assist the economic development of the region. ‘They gave to the Saar the means of protecting its own Interests, and at the same time spared it the burdens and worries which are the common fate of all great states. (P. DE T.)

SABINE, WALLACE CLEMENT WARE (1868-r019), American educator, was born at Richwood, O., June 13 1868. He graduated

and friends amounting to about $12,000,000, the residue, some

left to the Russell Sage Foundation. It was estimated that during her life she had made public gilts of some $40,002,000. SAID, HALIM, Prince (1859-1921), Turkish statesman, was born at Cairo in 1859, a nephew of the Khedive Ismail. He was a keen politician, and became the official head of the Young Turk party, which carried out the revolution of r908. He was called upon by Sultan Mahommed Y. to form a Cabinct in r911, and remained at the head of affairs until July r912. After the murder of Shefket Pasha in June 1913 he became grand vizier and Minister for Foreign Affairs, and during his tenure of power was a strong supporter of German influence in Turkey. We resigned in Feb. 1917. He was murdered in Rome Dec. 6 rg2r.

SAID PASHA (c.1830-1914), Turkish statesman (see 23.1008"), again became chicf minister in the autumn of rorr, and in Dec. proposed to restore to the Sultan the power of dissolving the

Chamber without the assent of the Senate. This proceeding gave rise to many storms, and Said Pasha reconstructed his Cabinet Jan, 22 1972. On Jan. 21 he published in the London Daily Telegraph the proposed reform programme of his Ministry. He was forced to resign July 17 1912 owing to the strength of the revolutionary movement in the army. He died in ror. ST. ALDWYN, MICHAEL EDWARD HICKS BEACH, 1ST EARL (1837-1916), English statesman (see 23.1013), was created an earl in 1915. He died in London Apmil 30 1616.

ST. JOHN, FLORENCE (1854-1912), English actress, whose maiden name was Greig, was born at Tavistock, Devon, March 8 1854.

She was three times married, first to Mr. St. John, R.N.,

secondly to Lithgow James, and lastly to C. D. Marius, both on the stage. Her rst appearance was in 1868, and she subsequeatiy

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

ST, LOUIS—SAION]I

344

played in a very large number of light operas, winning special success as Germaine in Les Cloches de Corneville and in Madame Favart. In 1902 she abandoned opera for drama, playing Nell Gwynne in English Nell and other comedy parts. She retired in roro and died in London Jan. 30 1912. ST. LOUIS (see 24.24).—The pop. of St. Louis in 1920 was

772,897, an increase of 85,868 since 1910, or 12:5%. In the preceding decade the increase was 111,791 or 19°4%. The area

remained as fixed in 1876, but the increasing pop. and industries have spread beyond these limits. The city, the counties of St. Louis and St. Charles in Missouri and the counties of St. Clair and Madison in Illinois are grouped as the St. Louis district and

treated as a whole in the U.S. industrial census. In 1920 the district contained 1,145,443 inhabitants, Municipal Government and Activtties—A new charter adopted in

1914 reduced the elective officers to mayor, comptroller, president

and board of aldermen, collector, treasurer, recorder of deeds, sheriff

market in the world was maintained, the volume of business in 1919 being $50,000,000. The city continued to be the largest primary fur market of the world, with sales of $27,200,000 in 1920. Sales of meat products in 1919 were $128,000,000; hog receipts, 3,650,534: head cattle receipts, 1,500,000, The foreign trade of St. Louis was

$100,000,000 in 1920, an increase of $25,000,000 over 1919.

The

total] tonnage shipped out of St. Louis in 1920, domestic and export, was 29,036,405 (by rail) and 166,140 (by water); tonnage received in the same year was 43,104,519 (by rail) and 177,925 (by water). The more important new buildings of the period 1910-20 with the amounts they cost were: the Statler hotel, $3,000,000; the Warwick hotel, $400,000; the cathedral of St. Louis, $2,000,000; the Missouri athletic club, $500,000; the Railway Exchange, §3,000,000, 18 storeys, covering an entire city block; the University club, $600,-

000; the Young Women's Christian Association, $500,000; the Boatmen’s bank, $750,000; the Arcade, $1,250,000; the Post-Despatch ‘building, $506,000; the Bevo Manufacturing Company, $1,000,000. The cost of new buildings in 1919 was $20,538,450. The St. Louis Republic, a morning newspaper founded in 1808, was purchased in 1919 by the St. Louis Globe-Dentocrat (a Republican paper), and discontinued, This left two morning newspapers,

and coroner, with terms of four years. The legislative branch is unicameral. Each of the 28 wards has a resident alderman elected by the entire city vote, one-half of the board retiring biennially. Mayor, comptroller and president of the board of aldermen form a board of

the Globe-Democrat, and the IWestliche Post (German), There wasa marked increase in the circulation of the evening papers.

estimate and apportionment.

city’s pop.—56,944-——Was in the army, navy or marine corps.

An appointive board of public service

consists of a president and four directors of divisions, public welfare, public safety, public utilities, and streets and sewers. Municipal departments and bureaus are grouped in the four divisions. The president of the board has charge of public work and improvements.

In 1919 the city's outstanding bonds amounted to $19,884,000, to

which in 1920 was added $5,500,000 for removal of railway grade crossings, for a municipal farm to afford better treatment of the tubercular and insane, for new engine houses and reconstruction of streets and for municipal lighting equipment. The tax rate for 1920-1 was $2.55 per $100 assessed valuation, divided as follows:

When the Armistice was signed Nov. 11 1918 one in 13 of the

The total casualties were 2,511, of which 1,384 were killed in battle. Of the three Liberty Loans, St. Louis took the equivalent of 25% of the assessed value of the city’s realty and personalty.

On the third, fourth and fifth calls for loans the St. Louis Federal Reserve district was the first to subscribe its quota.

On the

third loan the city subscribed $65 for every man, woman child, nearly three times the quota,

ST. MIHIEL,

and

(W. B. ST.)

BATTLE OF; sce WOEVRE,

BATTLES IN THE,

state purposes, $0.18; public schools, $0.78; municipal government, $1.51; public library, $0.04; art museum, $0.02; zodlogical park,

section 2.

commission of nine citizens and five ev-oficio members.

years of the decade 1910-20 this little French colony suffered scverely as a result of unprofitable fisheries, and large numbers of its people emigrated to Nova Scotia and Quebec. After the World

$0.02. The assessed valuation of realty and personalty for 1920-1 was $777,500,000, City planning was undertaken in 1912 with a ‘The work

done includes a concrete dock, mechanically equipped to convey freight between river and railways. A zoning Jaw determines definitely the residential, industrial and commercial districts; 29 street

widenings, openings and cut-offs were under construction in 1921. Neighbourhood parks, playgrounds and squares were increased to

80, cmbracing 2,908 acres. A pageant and masque given by 2,000 participants before audiences of 100,000 led to the construction in Igi ofa municipal theatre in Forest Park, with accommodation for 9,270. At a cost of $7,200,000, the city completed in 1917 a municipal bridge of massive steel construction, double track and double deck, across the Mississippi. About five years earlier the McKinley

ST. PIERRE and MIQUELON (sce 24.41).—During the early

War began in 191g the French draft law called all the male inhabitants of conscript age to France where they took part in various

services.

As their withdrawal crippled the fisheries, which could

not be prosecuted by the older people and the women and children,

the survivors were returned as speedily as possible and ordinary operations were resumed.

But during the decade, also, the use of

bridge was erected by the Ilinois Fraction Co., primarily to admit

the steam trawlers in the fisheries was on the increase, displacing the wooden sailing vessels previously employed, and this also lessened the number of those finding steady employment. However,

pleted in 1912 at a cost of $500,000, crosses the railway tracks and unites western sections of the city. A municipal court building, a city jail anda children’s detention house, all of stone, were erected,

colony became very prosperous, and after the Armistice the French

interurban electric trains.

Kingshighway viaduct, 855 ft. long, com-

the first in 1912, the others in succeeding ycars, at a cost of $1,855,000. Charities and Education.—At a cost of $5,000,000 a new medical

school, hospital and children’s hospital, occupying several

city

blocks fronting on Forest Park, have been completed since 1911. The hospital, opened in 1914, represents an investment of $2,000,000, the sum feft 50 years ago by Robert A. Barnes, a banker whose

name the institution bears.

The medical school, a department of

Washington University, includes Jaboratory, anatomical, clinical and other buildings. In 1914 James Campbell left an estate, valued

at $10,000,000, in trust to St. Louis University (subject to the life income of certain surviving relatives) for the erection and support of a hospital and for the advancement of medicine and surgery. From the surplus of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was constructed in 31914 the Jefferson Memorial costing $485,000 and devoted to the collections of the Missouri Historical Society. On new public school buildings, and expansions of old, St. Louis expended during 1910-20, $3,177,000.

Finance-—In 1920 the assets of the banks and trust companies of St. Louis were $637,615,811.45, and bank clearings were $8,294,027,135; in 1910 the latter were $3,727,949,379. The First National

Bank, with total resources of $155,953,137, Was formed in 1919 bya consolidation of three existing banks, Commerce and Industry —According to the records of the Mer-

chants’ Exchange and the Chamber of Commerce, 35 lines of industry

in the St. Louis district did a business in 1920 of $1,582,957,145.

Some of the largest items of wholesale trade in 1920 were dry foods,

$240,000,000; carpets, rugs and linoleums, also $240,000,000; boots and shoes, 175,000,000; groceries, $175,000,000; railway supplies, $210,000,000; hardware, $115,000,000: foundry products

during the later years of the war, with fish increasing in value, the

Government decided to build a large refrigerating plant, costing

about £1,000,000 at St. Picrre for the treatment of cod and other fishes. The financial success of this project was doubted by many, but this deep-sea fishery was being supported by France as a training school of men for its navy, and for the same reason

generous bounties are given on all the fish caught. The pop. was in 1920 about 4,500, but the prosperity of the little community was impaired by the difliculties of exchange.

SAINT-SAENS,

CHARLES

CAMILLE

(1835-1921),

French

musical composer (sce 24.44), died at Algiers Dec. 16 1921, SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (1845+), English man of letters (sce 24.45), published subsequently to 1910

a History of English Prose Rhythm (1912); The English Novel (1913); A First Bookof English Literature (1914); The Peace of the Augustans (1916); A History of the French Novel (2 vols., 1917-9)

and Notes on a Cellarbook (1920). SAIONJI, KIMMOCHI, Prince (1839-

), Japanese states-

man, was born in Kyoto, in 1839. When less than 20 years of age, he took part in the councils which led to the Restoration and at

Ig was commander-in-chief of an imperial army. He studied in

France from 1869 to 1880 and returned home imbued with democratic ideas. In 1881 he commenced his official carcer and in

the following year accompanied Mr. (afterwards Prince) Ito to Europe and the United States to investigate the parliamentary

$125,000,000, St. Louis receives 70,000 H.P. by a 110,000-volt transmission line from the Keokuk dam in the Mississippi at Keo-

system. In 1885 he was appointed minister to Austria; in 1883

in 1919-20.

president of the Board of Decoration.

kuk, la. Motor ticenses issued in 1914-5 numbered 9,867, and 45,949 The position of St. Louis as the largest horse and mule

he occupied a similar post in Berlin and in 1891 was appointed

In 1893, he became vice-

SAKHALIN—SALONIKA president of the House of Peers and was raised to the Privy Council in 1894. In the same year he received the portfolio of education in the second Ito Cabinet, temporarily acting as Minister of Foreign Affairs during the illness of the late Count Mutsu. He was again Minister for Education in the third Ito Cabinet from Jan. to June 1898, and was nominated president of the Privy Council on the death of Count Kuroda, three times acting as prime minister during the interval between the resignation of one Cabinet and the formation of the succeeding one. In July 1903,

he became the leader of the Seiyu-Kai and in 1905 formed his first Cabinet as prime minister; he was again premier in 1911 to 1912. Jn r919 he represented Japan as chief envoy at the Peace Conference and was invested with the Grand Order of Merit. He was made a prince in 1920 in recognition of his services in connexion with the World War and the Peace Conference. SAKHALIN (see 24.54}.—The Japanese portion of the island of Sakhalin, tọ the S. of the parallel of 50° N. lat., known officially as Karafuto, was ceded to Japan under the treaty of peace with Russia in Oct. r905. The area is about 13,148 sq. m. and the pop. in rgz0 was 105,765.

The taxes and other sources

of revenue from the island, with the addition of a grant of about 700,000 yen from the national treasury, are sufficient to cover the

administration, the budget balancing at about 10,000,000 yen. The chief industry of the island, and one of the oldest, is that of the fisheries, and these are being successfully developed. The most important is the herring fishery, followed by trout and salmon,

these all being relegated to specially controlled areas; cod and crab are also plentiful, the latter being canned and exported chiefly to America.

About 17,000 ac. of land were under cultivation in 1918, the chief

crops raiscd being oats, barley, potatoes, peas and buckwheat. Mare than 900,000 àc., suitable for cultivation and pasturage, are stil avaiable and many settlers arc engaged in agriculture, the cli-

mate and soil rendering this a profitable undertaking.

There are

over 8,000,000 ac. of practically untouched forest, chiefly conifer, on the island, providing in the future an almost inexhaustible suppiy for the manufacture of pulp for paper-making. In consequence, fye pulp manufactories haye already been established, each producing over 10,000 tans per annum, and five more are projected,

‘There are three important coal-fhelds in about 136,000 tons annually. Alluvial gold beds, iron pyrites exist in Jarge quantilics in and in 1907 and 1913 oil-bearing strata were coast in large areas at Anshi and Notasamu.

the island, producing is found in the river the Notoro peninsula, discovered on the W. (H. Sa.)

SALANDRA, ANTONIO (1853), Italian statesman, was born at Troia in 1853. We first entered parliament as member [or Lucera and from the beginning of his political career he sympathized with the vicws of Baron Sonnino. When the latter became Treasury Minister in the Crispi Cabinet of 1893, Salandra was chosen under-secretary in that department.

He was Minister

of Finance in the first Sonmno Cabinet of 1g06 and Treasury Minister in the second (1909-10). When in March rorgq Sig. Giolitti resigned, Sig. Salandra was called upon to form the new Cabinet, and he was Premier when the World War broke out in

Aug. following.

On the death of the Marquis di San Giuliano in

Oct. he offered the Forvign Office to his former chief, Baron Son-

nino, who accepted it. It was the Salandra Cabinet which took the momentous decision of bringing Italy into the World War on the side of the Allies, and it conducted the Government of the

country during the frst months of the campaign more successfully than any of the succeeding war Cabinets.

On resigning

office in June 1916, he continued to support both the Boselli and the Orlando Cabinets. As professor of Constitutional Law in the university of Naples he published several important works on legal subjects, and translated Spencer's Principles of Sociology. SALISBURY, JAMES EDWARD HUBERT GASCOYNE-CECIL, 4TH MARQUESS OF (1861-

), English politician, eldest son of

the 3rd marquess (see 24.76), was educated at Eton and University College, Oxford, where he took a second-class in History in 1884. The next year he entered Parliament as member for Darwen. He was defeated in 1892, but he returned as member for Rochester in 1893 and remained in the House of Commons till he succeeded his father in 1903. He fought in the S. African War with the 4th battalion of the Bedfordshire regiment, and was mentioned in

despatches.

On his return in 1900 he became Under-Secretary

for Forcign Affairs, a post which on succeeding to the pecrage he

CAMPAIGNS

345

quitted for that of Privy Seal in the Cabinet of his cousin, Mr, Arthur Balfour; and he held, for some months in 1905, the ofiice of President of the Board of Trade.

Lord Salisbury never loomed

large in the House of Commons, though he was for some years chairman of the Church Parliamentary Committee, and discharged competently his duties as Foreign Under-Seerctary. But he gradually came to occupy a position of increased authority in the Upper House.

He threw in his Jot in 1911 with the “ Dic-

hards,” and spoke in favour of defeating the Parliament bill and daring the Government to create sufficient peers to carry it. During the early years of the war he was energetic in the discharge of

his military duties as lieutenant-colonel of his yeomanry regiment. He did not join either Coalition Government, but was critical of both, taking an independent line. As the war drew to a close he gradually came to assume the informal leadership of a Conscrva~ tive and Unionist Opposition in his House, showing himself particularly sensitive to departures from the old policy of his party

on Irish and ecclesiastical questions. He marricd in 1887 Lady Cicely Alice Gore, daughter of the 5th Earl of Arran, and had two sons and two daughters. He was created K.G. in 1917. SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS, 1915-1918.—Under the heading of SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS the conquest of Serbia in 1915 by AustroHungarian forces is narrated. The idea of reinforcing the Serbian front with Allied forces had been contemplated both in England and in France some time before it was carried out.

British and French guns, in charge of naval missions, had taken some part in the campaign of 1914, and stores had been sent up from Salonika at intervals.

In the winter of rọr4-5

Lord

hitchener several times considered the advisability of sending a number of the British Army Divisions into Serbia zu Salonika, On the part of the French, M. Briand, it is said, proposed Jater in 1914 to make a serious military effort in the Balkans. But

the Dardanelles campaign diverted attention from this project, and it was not till in August 1915, when the failure of the Dar-

danelles offensive was evident, that the creation of an AngloTrench army on the Balkan front was seriously undertaken. General Sarrail, whose military reputation stood very high in

France, had been suddenly deprived of his command of the ITI. Army by Jotfre, ostensibly owing to an unsuccessful combat

at Boureuilles in Argonne, but really as the result of long-continued friction between

the two.

Sarrail, however, stood in

close relations with the political leaders of the Left, and the autocratic methods of Jotfre’s G.Q.G. had already raised con-

siderable opposition in the Government

and the Chamber;

it suited the Government, therefore, to satisfy the Left, to snub

the G.Q.G., and to remove to a distance a forceful and ambitious personality, by sending Sarrail to the Mediterranean as com-

mander of an army yet to be created. Appointed on Aug. 5, Sarrail was ordered to study the military situation and submit proposals. In his written projects he came to the conclusion that it was impossible to abandon ground in

the Gallipoli peninsula, and had asked for both his own and the British contingents to be made up entirely from forces in France orin England. An inter-Allied conference, held at Calais early in September, had agreed to this, but with the reservation that no forces were to go till after the forthcoming Champagne and

Artois offensives had taken place.

But the news of the Bul-

garian mobilization drove home at last the urgency of the crisis. Orders went to the Dardanelles on Sept. 26 for two British

Divisions—in the sequel one~—to go thence to Salonika; the French “‘ Expeditionary Corps” was likewise to send a Division, and the Greek authorities had agreed to permit the landing. Sarrail himself was to bring a mixed brigade from France, as an earnest of the forces promised later.

On Oct. 3 advanced parties of the French landed at Salonika without difficulty, only a formal protest being made by the authorities on the spot. Next day M. Venizelos in a speech

at Athens declared that Greece would come to the aid of her ally Serbia against any attack by Bulgaria, and at once a crisis arose at Athens. On the sth King Constantine informed

Venizelos that the policy indicated had not his support, and the Government fell, to give place to the neutralist Zaimis cabinct.

346

SALONIKA

CAMPAIGNS

During the first few days instructions from Paris to Bailloud {commanding on the spot pending Sarrail’s arrival) varicd several times, apparently in accordance with political nuances,

urgent thing was to relieve pressure on that part of the Serbian forces which was retiring by the Babuna pass on Prilep, while reserving the possibility of action towards Veles if the Serbian

At first (Oct. 3) the word was to concentrate at Nish, in the

in time to aid the Serbian railway guards in repelling an inroad

Main Army should after all seck to break through towards its Allies. Orders were therefore given to the Krivolak-Kavadar foree (57th Div. to be reinforced by the 122nd Div.) to take the offensive westward over the Cerna, so as to strike the pursuers in flank or rear. On the 6th-9th accordingly the s7th Div. crossed the Cerna and pushed an advance into the mountains towards the Babuna, still held by the Serbs. But the Bulgarians were in force, and the French retired to their Cerna bridgeheads, which the Bulgarians attacked without success on the 12th, 13th, r4th and 15th. During these and the following days instructions came repeatedly from Paris to modify the French commander’s views and dispositions, now laying emphasis upon coöperation with the Serbs, now upon dangers from the Greek Army in rear. Finally

from Strumitsa.

on Nov. 2r Sarrail was given a free hand tọ decide what aid he

heart of Serbia; next, the Greck frontier was not to be crassed (Oct. 10); and then again (Oct. 12) authority was given to take

over protection of the railway between Demir Kapu defle and

the Greek frontier against possible attack from Strumitsa in Bulgaria, thereby releasing a small Serbian force to rejoin its own army. Meantime the Serbians demanded more direct assistance, but Sarrail (who arrived on the r2th), taking into account the size of his force—only 1} divisions plus the British roth Div. which was not under his orders—and the fact that it

could only disembark and push on by driblets, determined to limit his advance to the near side of Demir Kapu.

On Oct. 14

the leading French troops arrived at Strumitsa station (in Serbia)

In Sarrail’s opinion the only service he could render was to

could give to the Serbians and at what moment he should

concentrate on the routes to Strumitsa, and, by an offensive into Bulgarian territory, to draw off as many Bulgarian forces as

retire on Salonika. He adopted at first a middle course. He wished neither to attack at the risk of involving two-thirds of

possible from the main attack further north.

his forces in the Serbian débácle (the Babuna had been turned by the N. on Nov. 14), nor to fall back to Salonika, where

General Mahon,

commanding the British roth Div., took the same view,) and formed a mixed force which began to move up to Doiran, on the right rear of the French group in the Rabrovo region. On the

prestige counted for so much, but to hold on in the cntrenched

17th, however, in answer to a request irom the Serbian commander at Uskub, Sarrail began to push a brigade bevond the Demir Kapu defile to Krivolak, but he refused to advance it to

On the 2rst-22nd, however, the retirement of the r22nd Div. over the Cerna under some pressure, together with the general military situation and a definitive refusal of reinforcements from

Veles, though again pressed to do so by the Serbs, and in fact a sharp attack: developed from Strumitsa on Rabrovo on the 2tst and 22nd, which, till it was repulsed, threatened to isolate all French detachments N. of Strumitsa station, Meanwhile, Paris sent further instructions to the effect that all possible

France,? decided him in favour of falling back to Salonika, a decision approved by Galliéni. Four days later Sarrail was officially informed that the Serbians were retreating in the Adriatic direction, The preparations for the Vardar retirement had

help should be afforded to the Serbs, subject to the limitation that the French communications with Salonika were in no case to be compromised, In reality, the French and British Governments were very uneasy about the attitude of the Greek Army, a considerable force of which lay in the region N.E. of Salonika.

E. bank, tọ prevent interference with the retreat of the KrivolakKavadar force on Demir Kapu. On Dec. r only rear-guards remained at Krivolak, By the night of the 3rd-4th all troops were inside Demir Kapu, and on the 6th this position also was

The fall of Venizclos had put an end to the prospect of Greek coöperation, and under the new régime the local military and

civil authorities began to oppose every move

of the Allics,

which was not entirely covered by Serbia’s treaty rights, to the

use of Salonika and the railway. Thus, when Mahon’s force moved forward the use of the Salonika-Kilkish (Kukush)—Doiran line was

refused,

and it had

to use

the main line, detrain

in the midst of the French, and work thence outwards towards ils post at Doiran. On Nov. 1 the r22nd French Div. began to arrive from France, and Sarrail had already prepared to attack from Rabrovo towards Strumitsa with Bailloud's 156th Div., with Mahon in echelon behind his right, while his forces about Krivolak and Kavadar (51st Div.) made ready to attack in flank any Bulgarian force which should advance up the Cerna (Tserna) in

pursuit of the Serbians,

On Nov. 3 an attack was accordingly

delivered northward from a front E. of Rabrovo; weather and

the difficulty of the country brought it, however, to a standstill on the 6th, though local advances were made later. At this moment (Nov. 4) Galliéni, having become War Minister in the new French cabinet, telegraphed orders for the French Army

to operate towards Veles, adding that four more British divisions were to be sent, which on arrival would take over the front leftwards from Doiran, The British 22nd Div. was in fact already close to Salonika, with another under orders to follow. But Sarrail judged that it was impossible to wait for these rein-

forcements.

Todorow’s Bulgarian Army had already thrust

itself between the Scrbian Main Army and Krivolak, and the t According to Sarrail, the British Government instructed Mahon that his troops were to remain at Salonika, and it was on his own

initiative that the British general formed a mobile force. Further instructions authorized Mahon to move forward but forbade him

to cross the Greek frontier, until on Oct. 27 a final telegram removed this restriction.

camp of Kavadar in the hope of “something turning up.”

already begun on the 24th with the scizure of a position on the

given up. On the 8th the Bulgarians, who had from time to time attacked the rear-guards on the Vardar and the positions

near Kosturino on the Strumitsa route, delivered a more concerted attack on the front Ormanli (now held by the British)Kosturino-Gradets on the E. and Mirovcha Petrovo on the W.

of the Vardar.

Their evident intention was envelopment, and

on the oth, judging the centre of his line to be too pronounced a salient, Sarrail took up a position along the Petrovska stream, W. of the Vardar and the heights of Dedeli E. of it, the village of Dedeli being held by Mahon’s forces, which from that poiut were echeloned back to Lake Doiran. From this position also the Allics retired under threat of envelopment during the night 1r~12, after holding their ground against aitacks on the rith. Lastly, the French r22nd and 57th Divs., at Gyevgyeli (Gevgcli) and near Doiran, covered the evacuation of part of Mahon's force on to the Salonika railway and the reconstitution of the 156th

French Div., which had been considerably split up. Thus the drive into Serbia came to an end, with little material

loss, but a sad diminution of prestige, and the forces fell back to the following positions about Salonika: advanced guards of 120th French Div. Karasuli with a detachment at Gumenye, and -

of s7th French Div. with cavalry, Kilkish, with a detachment at Kilindir; main body (122nd, 156th, 57th) in position on the line Doganyi-Daudli. British roth and 22nd Divs. Salonika, with other British forces arriving. Important points on the railway had been destroyed during the retreat.

2 At that moment,

Meanwhile, on Dec. 4,

according to Falkenhayn,

the combatant

strength of the Allies in France was to that of the Germans in the ratio of rather more than 3 to 2. Sarrail says that in his interview with Lord Kitchener on Nov. 17, the latter informed him that Joffre had declared that he would not give him (Sarrail} another man, and that the British would furnish five divisions instead. In accordance with this promise, besides the 10th and 22nd Divs., the 27th and 28th Divs. from France Janded at Salonika in the last days

of Nov. and first days of Dec., and the 26th Div. also from France,

early in Jan. 1916.

SALONIKA

CAMPAIGNS

347

the Serbs had evacuated Monastir in their now frankly west- | the Bulgarians alone should remain on this front. They were, by the terms of the military agreement, unavailable for any other, ward retirement. and if they succeeded in containing even a smaller force of The reassembly of the Allicd Salonika forces around their port of origin naturally raised the question—were they to remain there? Their locus standi had been the fact that they

were Allies of Serbia using a line of communications to which Serbia was by treaty entitled, This part of the case no longer existed, Serbia being wholly in the hands of the enemy, and could only be revived if and when the Serbian Army were transferred from the Adriatic ports on which it had retreated to Salonika. Another part of the justification for the Ailics’ presence was the admitted fact that they had come at the request of Venizelos, and for the purposes of common action with

the Greeks, but since Vemizclos’s fall even the Zaimis cabinet, representing “ benevolent ” neutrality, had given way to a cabinet representing at least strict neutrality, which gave the Germanophil element at Salonika all the official justification it needed to pursue the policy of obstruction that it had already initiated in the Zaimis period. On the other hand the factor of

prestige was one of great weight, especially in view of the pend-

Entente troops that was not so limited, something was gained for

nothing. On the other hand this idea implied a defensive position short of the Greek frontier, as a purely Bulgarian advance into Greece was impossible Thus, at the beginning of 1915, the opposing forces stood roughly 20 m. apart, each limited against its own will to a strict defensive by political conditions and each regarded by its own superior authorities as a “ commitment.” At the end of the year two incidents occurred to illustrate the complexities of the Salonika front. On Dec. 30, though Bulgarian and German forces were forbidden to cross the frontier, German aircraft, by order, bombed the city of Salonika itself, where nine out of ten of their possible victims were neutrals and the tenth an agent of their own side. Sarrail promptly retaliated by arresting the German, Austrian and Bulgarian consuls, hitherto left unmolested. Another air raid took place on Feb. 1 1916, to which the Allics replied by bombing the village of Petrich, just within the Bulgarian frontier, but as the

ing abandonment of the Dardanelles campaign, and although Sarrail suggested that evacuation followed by a dramatic

village contained

offensive at some

not to repeat such raids. A few days before this another incident showed that the personal estrangements of Joffre and Sarrail were still operative. ‘The army of the Orient had been brought under Joffre’s command? carly in December, and Jofire had taken the opportunity to send out Castelnau to report on Sarrail’s management of the situation. Castelnau, however, pronounced himself satisfied with what he saw, and only issued a few instructions as to details. Nevertheless, in various ways the friends and the enemies of Sarrail alike busied themselves with accusations and counter-accusations, out of which a regular

other point would more

than restore

the

lost prestige, it was decided that Salonika should be held. Beyond that decision, however, no clear military or political intention was at that time formed. ‘The policies of the British, French

and

Russian

Governments

were

in unison

as to the

problem of Greece, and it seems to have been thought that, by remaining, the Salonika force would confront the enemy with as difficult a diplomatic problem as its own. This was, indeed, the case. The policy to be followed by the Central Powers, both towards Greece and in occupied Serbia and Albania,

was wholly unsettled. “ While the troops of the two Imperial Armies were hastening from victory to victory,” says Gencral

yon Cramon, the German military commissioner at Austrian headquarters, “ behind the scenes, at the two general headquarters, the clouds were gathering of that conflict which in the end brought about the reverses of 1916.” Although on Nov. 6 it had been agreed that operations were to be pushed with all

energy towards Salonika, Falkenhayn almost immediately began to check the further south-westward advance of German troops, and though Conrad succeeded in bringing the German command to renewed codperation, this was obviously to be limited to a minimum, both on account of supply difficulties in the Balkans and of the pressing requirements of the two main theatres—

in particular those of the forthcoming attack on Verdun, of which only a few men in the German headquarters and none in the Austrian had the secret. Falkenhayn’s view was that the Bulgarians alone should undertake the campaign in southern Serbia. But, whatever the attitude of Greece towards Germany,

it was so hostile towards Bulgaria that to cross the frontier in pursuit of Sarrail without a large proportion of German troops being included in the advance was politically impossible. Austria hersclf was absorbed in Montenegrin-Albanian enterprises, and could give no direct assistance in the advance to Salonika

that her general staff advocated.

Moreover, Conrad had his

secret as well as Falkenhayn—he was planning to carry out his

offensive of Asiago, with or without the aid of Germany. At the end of tors therefore, though the Central Powers had succeeded in their purpose—Serbia being conquered and the railway to Constantinople reopened—whereas the Entente had failed, the outlook was no clearer for the former than for. the latter. The pursuit was accordingly suspended at the

frontier, partly perhaps in the hope that the Entente would itself take the initiative in closing down the operations.

If

they did not do so Falkenhayn was determined that eventually 1The first act of the Skouloudis ministry had been to announce

that any of the Allied forces in Serbia which retreated into Greece would be disarmed and interned. A prompt note from the British and French Governments

of policy was unmistakable.

closad this incident, but the indication

About the same time Skouloudis noti-

fied the Bulgarian Government that it would not permit the latter's

troops to cross the fronticr.

Greck and Serbian as well as Bulgarian in-

habitants, a complaint was made, and Sarrail reecived orders

affaire was growing up to complicate an already confused situa-

tion. Relations between Sarrail and Mahon on the other hand were excellent, and although cach was independent of the other, and the British general was himself under the command of General Sir C. Monro, commander-in-chief in the Mediterrancan,

no important divergencies of policy developed during the phase

of passive defence in the precincts of Salonika. With existed. are not scemed of view

the Greeks, naturally, all possible causes of friction Army commanders operating under war conditions prone to sacrifice realities to appearances, and what Lo them plain military common sense was, from the point of the Greeks, high-handed conduct to be resisted by all safe means of obstruction. Amongst the major questions at issue Were the disarmament of the coast defences of Salonika, the use of the Salonika-Doiran railway for the British contingent, the feeding of the Greek forees E. of Salonika who were dependent for supply upon railways seized by the Allies, and the continuance or non-continuance of the Greek garrison in Salonika city. Minor questions of an administrative character were naturally innumerable.

Most of the energy of the staffs in

Salonika and the legations at Athens was devoted to finding

solutions for conflicts which the equivocal position of the Allies made inevitable During these contlicts the Salonika lines, 2 Joffre was Commandant en Chef of the ‘ North-Eastern group of

Armies,” no other formations having been contemplated before the war. On being sent to the E. Sarrail was appointed Commundant en Chef also.

But, in Dec., Briand

placed Sarrail’s forces under

Joffre's supreme command. 3On Jan. 12 1916 the bridge of Demir Hissar on the Struma

was

blown up by a special force sent out by Sarrail in the presence of the

Greek forces stationed there—a high-handed act which could only be excused or justified by the necessity of preventing the Bulgarians and Germans from deploying heavy artillery against the N.E. part of Salonika in case of siege. On Jan. 28 1916 another problem received an enforced solution, after negotiations had failed to find an “elegant ” one. Anglo-French forces by a coup de maim occupied the Greek coust-defence batteriés on the Gulf of Salonika. These incidents naturally intensified the hostility of the Greek officers and otficials to the Allied occupation, or at least gave them tangible grievances. In particular, the feeding of the Greek forces isolated

by the cutting of the Struma railways caused difficulties, and from it, in part at any rate, arose the critical question of demobilizing the _Greck Army in the Spring of 1916.

SALONIKA

348

with the aid of civil labour, were made defensible by the first wecks of the new year. The line selected ran from the Vardar mouth, round by Doganzi and Daudli to the neighbourhood of Langaza, whence it passed along the barrier of lakes to the head of the gulf of Orfano—8o m. of frontage for a force of nine divisions.! Of this frontage, however, nearly 45 m. was guarded by lake and swamp; and, taking into account the presence of

large bodies of Greek troops in the Seres-Rupel region to the right front and in the Vodena-Florina region to the left front, Sarrail considered that danger was practically confined to the central sector between Lake Langaza and the Vardar, in the event the position was ever attacked. During this period (Jan.-Feb. 1916), the Bulgarians were reinforced by the German XI. Army (von Gallwitz) consisting or the IV. Res. Corps (1o1st and ro3rd Divs.) and the Alpine Corps, and by their own ist Army, all these forces aligning themselves along the Greek border from Lake Ohrida to the point at which the Struma enters Bulgarian territory. The 1st Bulgarian Army, with flank guards at Dibra and Elbasan in Albania, had two divisions? on the front S. of Monastir-

Duditsa; the XE. German Army, with 1} Bulgarian Divisions attached, held the Vardar valley between Duditsa and the Belashitsa Planina, and Todorov’s II. Bulgarian Army of three divisions that ranged from Strumitsa to Petrich, with, detachments further E. at Nevrekop (Mesta valley}. But in March Falkenhayn began to withdraw all the German formations

CAMPAIGNS Meantime, an important incident had taken place on the Struma frontier. In accordance with their declared policy of standing aside and leaving a “ lists” for the combatants, the Greeks had disarmed ani evacuated their fort of Dova Tepe, situated on the watershed between the Vardar and Struma basins and commanding a knot of communications. In the

course of his gradual advance to the frontier, Sarrail put a detachment into this fort on May 10. But further to the right, outside his reach, lay a still more important fort, that of Rupel defile. This fort was not merely disarmed but actually handed over to the Bulgarians by the local Greek general, with or without authority from Athens (May 26).

Events had moved.

Though the German forces (except the

cadre of the rorst Div.) had by this time been withdrawn from the Balkan front, the Greeks had apparently overcome their repugnance to a purely Bulgarian inroad, to the extent of actually facilitating it. The Alies’ right was, potentially, turned, and if the occurrence were any indication of probabilities of the future, their rear also was endangered. Action was taken promptly by Sarrail, A mobile group of all arms was moved into the Struma region, and with the agreement of

Gen. Milne (who in May succeeded Mahon in command

of

slight demonstrations towards Doiran and towards Vodena, but otherwise no move occurred. Early in March 1916, however, in the crisis produced by the attack on Verdun, Joffre telegraphed

the British) and of the Entente Governments, the Greek authoritics at Salonika were deprived of power by the proclamation of a state of siege (June 3). A day or two later London and Paris also acted. An economic blockade of the Greek coast was declared, and on the 18th Sarrail was ordercd to send a brigade by sea to Athens. King Constantine accepted the ultimatum of the Allies (June 21), and Zaimis returned to power on the basis of friendly neutrality.

å

950,579

Herts Hunts,



; g

311,284 55,577

Lancs. Leics.

. «| we

Ess. Glos

è

Hereford

E 5

.

Kent.

o.

Lines. . Lond. .

1,350,881 736,007

.

17 243

;

114,269

a

21

248

1,045,591

85 236

ne 2

ute 6

19

265 126

404

56 12

22 15

77

Som.

Staffs. Suf.

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Warwick

Westm. Wilts. Wores.

. ..

Yorks, N.R.

Yorks, W, R.

9

40

ia

458,025

109

20

39

168

1,348,259 394,000

508 85

63 18

478 209

156

663,378

55

68

36 85

217 526

701 2,714

8 18

225 106

391 481

108

687

63,575 286,822 526,087

12 82 138

8 19 23

100

639

164

555

ra

2

103

5

7

122

316

1,239 570

9 3

27 19

154 236

18

34

226

43 64 265

8

3 1 5

4o

i

189

23

260

264

964

3,193 700

7

14

134

55

343 100

2

233

63

31

I

172

303

16

:

39

57

787 690

57

116

n

9 79

IO

15

46

1,040,409

Yorks, E.R. .

176 17

28

845,578

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30 I

36

20,346

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270 116

3

24

246,307

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.

116 46

7

15

30

ia

21 6

334

4t

184

199,269

P

3 sje

3 10

198

e

1,046

79 163

604,098.

r

225

18 13

696,803

.

255 219

240

à

704

52

60

.

699

37 26

H

250 254

375

252 885

190

37 163

gI

414

109 174

1, 167 218

Notts,

Rutl.

©

919

106

14 75

5

293

234

179

II

23

330 29

58 166

Salop

89

52. 37

260

9I

10

I, 147 335

499,116 348,515

;

194

347

124

2

3

250

2 70

à ,

a,

253

23 74

Norf. . : Northants,

Oxon.

40

6

152 1,607

Northumb.

23

345

563,960 4,521,085

1,126,465

7

8

37

š :

.

38

243

. ;

Middlesex,

8

16

260

130

2

I

Totals

59

ms

364

72

223

4,707,832 476,553

6

4

e

97

II

nD

6&8

274

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a

3

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16

22

954,779

Spiel icy

92

21

50

Friend]

Schools

27

76

f

198,074

.

Churches

73

271,009

+

.

Panas

194,588

à

.

Ches..

i

Population

47

200

41I

592

702

543

166

5 13 19

844

58 153 97

129 332 547

432,759

II2

30

85

10

22

87

346

.

439,546

42

1,160

13

294

103

1,235

ink

7

130

295

.

50,928

6

10

22

59,287

4

Il

. | 3,045,377

53

166

313

4

19

2

17 24

3:220

Wales:—

Anglesey Brecknock

.

:

Cardigan . , Carmarthen. Carnarvon.

Denbigh Flint

Glamorgan

59,879 160,406

.

. 6

Merioneth .

125,043

7

T

I 2

19

sa

ad

7

35 9 146

55 13 386

,

395,719

III

41

26I

89,960

.4

10

99

ea

22,590 ea

ea aie

4 ae

30 a

I aoe

$e

a

ya

ea

a

2,452

10,866

Pembroke.

.

45,565

Radnor . A Overseas Army Associa-

ee

.

I

53,146

si

:

pi

9

ps

I

53 16 101

967

58

478

2

14

129

I

21 20

57 20

aus

936

936

1,379

R242

32,067

we

3

37

I

160 5I

19

4 I

392

58

136 235

45

2 2 42

7

34

3

9,540

I 2

61

II

14 4 285

.

Totals

12

ae

101 158

144,783 92,705 1,120,910

Montgomery

tions

32

I4 28

. + ‘ ;

Monmouth

3 2I

.

55

2

74

In addition the undermentioned | Saving: Associations were aluated under epoca! schemes :— iployers

-

i

Schdol Post Office: 5 Government Offices

ote

g

è

are

ee

ke

ac

ow

g

ee eh

Oe

a

he

ak)

a

we eM

rar

e

en

OE

e

587

ue

ai

SALES AND REPAYMENTS OF NATIONAL WAR SAVINGS CERTIFICATES (Feb. ror6-Dec. 2020) s

;

Period

Poa

Purchase Price

Repayments includ-

ing exchange for

,

Interest paid

War Loan, etc.

1916 1917

Feb—Dec.

;

6 months ended June

i>

a

e

.

Ye

SAG

1919

aa

eae

ne

;

Dec.

‘June

od,

“Dee. “o

Joe

ts

it

Dec.

S

ao

pe Dec

Totals Feb. r9g16—-Dec. 1920

res whe.

aa

a

a

hy

-

ew

.

ew S

eso .

o

2.)

.

42,183,718 43,695,933

1,294,750

6

30,083,722

23,314,884

1,840,983

*

eo

aunan ;

oa‘ :

2

74,210,407

57,513,066

65,594,472

50,835,716

53,173,874 s

48,778,963

32,741,850 25,045,649

ei .

56,381,849

|

we.

=

£

54,430,604

ei

g

£

a

:

440,441,390

41,200,752

287,448

£

eel

492.

10,972

2,372,009

36,524

3,914,892

85,216

7.926,293

272,769

37,803,697

I 1,938,325

597,968

"341,342,077

£61,404,660

+

25,374,933 19,410,378

17,096,541 14,733,338

3,202,495 1,316,381 £3,522,81

SAVINGS

MOVEMENT

369

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE BRITISH SMALL INVESTOR, 1914-0 {Decreases are printed jn italics) Post Office Issues

Postraces Office San

_ Date

its (Net Reccipts)

Total for year 1915

.

Total for year 1916

.

Tota) for.ycar 1917

.

£

Aug.

1914 to Dec.

oh} f

£

1,152,000

ote

War

Savings

Certificate

Repayments

Sand6% | Wat YOadss ) Certificates | Including

Exchequer | 4% Victory | “purchase | Exchanges Bonds

Bonds + 4% Funding Loan **

£

£

n

Price

£

ce

vi

a

42,371,000

10,856,000§

66,424,000

for War Loans, cte.

£

£

a

1,152,000

6,456,000 | 39,961,000* 11,938,000

. 1919

o

ae

33,505,000

135,000} _43,900,000

5,683,000 | 36,606,000}

Total for year 1918 . Total for year 1919

as

Bank Depos- a oaa

Total for fve months 1914

re

5X2 . ae

Savings

4,092,000 _

38.81 3,000

38,700,000% | 108,349,000 ]

43,541,000%

13,700,000§ 9,900,000f

94,671,000

7,400,000 **

76,429,000

7,992,000

80,556,000

200,000

97,781,000

3,733,000 | 120,928,000

6,287,000 | 179,575,000

79,013,000 | 19,864,000 | 133,690,000 296,557,000

66,631,000

{| The deposits included 455,169,506 on account of war gratuities to soldiers and sailors. N.B.—During the year ending Dec. 31 1920, §7,787.499 certificates of a cash value of £44,785,311 were sold, and repayments, including exchange for War Loans, ete. (excluding interest), amounted to 431,829,879.

Government securities furnish by far the best and

safest medium for the investment of small sums of money, and we

the benefit under the scheme, since, although they receive only

are plad to notice that steps arc to be taken, by means of savings

half the proceeds of the certificates sold, they are not responsible

associations, to continue the policy which had proved so success{ul during the war.”

for finding any of the money required to meet withdrawals. A critic of the ordinary savings bank in the last century said:

and economy.

Immediately after the Armistice steps were taken to consolidate the position of the organization and to render perma-

nent the machinery which had been set up during the previous three years.

The county committees were disbanded, their work

having been delegated to local committees which they had formed jn practically every local area in the country. Steps were taken to devise a complete representative system through-

out the organization.

Adopting the association, or savings club,

as the fundamental unit of the movement, steps were taken to ensure representation of the associations on the local committees. The local committees in their turn elected representatives on A

new body called ‘ The National Savings Assembly,” which was to meet twice a year to discuss questions relative to the movement and at one of these meetings to elect representatives on the National Savings Committee, which, by the authority of the Government, dropped the word ‘‘ war” out of its title. At the same time the personnel of the National Committee was considerably strengthened. In 1921 it formed a powerful body

composed of representatives of Government departments and corporations and interests connected with thrift, together with representatives of the savings organizations in London and the

provinces elected on a wide franchise, so that its continued influence could not fail to be beneficial to the community. Savings and Local Government Finan¢e.—In the summer of 1920 a Step was taken which might well have far-reaching eflects on the relations between local and Imperial finance. The Finance Act 1920, Section 59, provided that 50% of the

proceeds of the sales of savings certificates could be invested through the National Debt commissioners in local loans stock or bonds on the security of the local loans fund. Half the proceeds of the gross sales after Oct. 1 1920, in the area of each local

authority, would be available, if required, for loans to meet

authorized expenditure in connexion with the assisted housing scheme of that authority. These loans were to be made, irrespective of the ratable value of the local authority, by the

Public Works Loan commissioners, on the terms in force for the time being for ordinary loans to local authorities from the local loans fund for subsidized housing schemes. In the first instance, such loans would be restricted to housing purposes, but it was hoped that, when the existing difficulties with regard to housing finance had been overcome, the scheme would be given a more general application and that the system would become a permanent feature of Jocal finance, bringing to the aid

of local authorities a new source of capital which many of them had long been seeking. The authorities derive the greater part of. XXXU.—7

,

“The

savings bank is after all only a slot in the wall, with a

sure grasp, but no tonguc to advise it. Having no fructifying use for the money that comes to it from productive employment it closes over it like a grave and effectually stemlizes it’; and Sir E, Brabrook, Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies in 1897, said he “could look upon ordinary savings banks merely as infantile efforts in thrift.” He regarded “ a person who deposited his money in a savings bank so that it should be kept safe for him by someone else as very much less worthy of encouragement than a person who used his savings in some way in coöperation with other people for his own benefit or the benefit of others.” He “did not look upon the progress of the savings bank with unalloyed satisfaction, but only as one step to self-help.” The system of linking up National Savings certificates with local finance becomes, in effect, a national credit bank spread

over the whole country. The credits of the small investor, even the half-pennies and pennics saved by the school-children, are rendered, through the machinery of the savings certificates, the

Post Office, the National Debt commissioners, the Treasury, the local loans fund and the local

investment in social people themselves. the moncy is ratsed, term loans with the

authorities,

available

for

and beneficial enterprise for the good of the Owing to the widespread area from which short-term borrowing can be used for longminimum of risk, while saving is stimulated

amongst the very class to whom in the past it has been most difficult to teach economy and saving. The linking-up of “saving” with the definite use of the money saved continues effectually the teaching of the war and inculcates the lessons of economy, and goes far to mect Sir E. Brabrook’s criticism of the savings bank. The system is certain to stimulate the interest

of the small investors in local finance generally. Not only will this be a source of financial strength to the local authorities, but educationally it will be a great advantage, and the active codperation of the local authorities and the savings committee

should do much to stimulate habits of thrift and saving, OTHER COUNTRIES The American savings movement is dealt with later. As regards other countries in the war it may be noted that the British Nationa] Committee had its organization in the East for the sale of War Savings certificates, the China and Japan War Savings Association

having nine centres in China and three in Japan. The Japanese Government itself during the war sent its representatives to inquire into the methods of the National Savings Committee,

and estab-

lished its own system of Nationa! Savings certificates with terms of

three, five and ten years. ; In Canada, war savings and thrift stamps were issued by the Canadian Government. a

SAVINGS

370

MOVEMENT

The Government of S. Africa after the Armistice placed ‘' Union Loan Certificates ” on sale at every post-office where savings bank

or money order business is transacted. resembled

the British

savings

spaces for 15 one-shilling stamps.

The S. African scheme closel

scheme.

Cards

were

issued wit

The cards were issued at an initial

price of sixpence. When the card was completed, it could be cxchanged for a 155s. 6d. certificate which is worth £1 jn five years. The maximum purchasing limit is £387. 10s. od. for 500 certificates.

The S. African Government also adopted the scheme of associa-

tions in savings clubs on the British model.

and either strictly limited in their use of wheat to a definite percentage of their normal requirements or were denied the use of wheat entirely. Wheatless days and other measures for wheat conservation were established. Mills were permitted to grind only a certain percentage of the amount of wheat milled during a corresponding

period the previous year. Wholesale dealers were prohibited from purchasing wheat flour in excess of 70% of the amount they had purchased during a corresponding period of the previous year. In sales to consumers the retailers were required to sell an equal quantity of substitutes to the purchaser at the time wheat flour wassold.

Sratistics,—In the preceding tables statistics are given of the results of the work done under the National Savings Committee. (T. G. Ch.)

The pledge-card campaign was started in Oct. 1917, and between

UNITED STATES

saving of more than 50,000,000 Ib. of flour and wheat products. Flour-mills were required to raise their percentage of extraction to

Upon the declaration of war by the United States in April 1917 it became evident that the nation must practise strict economy if the huge war-time expenditures were to be successfully financed and material aid given to the Allies. Not merely in money, but in consumption (which means money), the resulting movement for economy among the American people was vigor-

ously taken up. As a first step toward conservation, President Wilson on May 19 1917 outlined a food control programme and appointed Herbert Hoover Food Administrator, and Congress passed the law commonly known as the Lever Act, effective Aug. ro 1917—‘‘an Aet to provide further for the national

security and defence, by encouraging the production and con-

servation of supply and controlling the distribution of food products and fuel.”

‘The administration of the Act was under the

direction of a U.S. Food Administrator and a U.S. Fuel Admin-

istrator. The Food Administration summed up its purpose in the motto: “ Food will win the war.” The following specific ends were sought: (1) to save food and eliminate waste;

(2) to

distribute food equitably and cheaply; (3) to stimulate production; (4) to prevent hoarding; (§) to save transportation;

(6) to provide for the needs of the U.S. army and navy; secure the largest possible amount of food for the Allies.

(7) to

The most vital early need both for America and for the Allies was the conservation of sugar and wheat. The shipping shortage was so acute that it was impossible to procure the large surplus of raw sugar in Java, amounting to nearly F,000,000 tons. Exports of sugar from the United States for the year 1917 were more than 17 times the average for the three years preceding the war. In Aug. 1917 the cost of spot sugar reached $9.15 per cwt. seaboard basis, and the demand was still unfilled. During this month an Interna-

tional Sugar Committee was appointed. Under the operation of this committee the price of Cuban raw sugar declined to $6.90 by Sept. 14, which was the fixed maximum for the season’s crop. The prices to the consumer were maintained at from $4 cents to ‘10 cents per lb., varying with the location. As the difference of one cent per lb. added to the price of sugar meant an added burden on

American homes of $72,000,000, the importance of the sugar regulations is evident. As the needs of the United States and of the Allies became more acute, the Licence System

governing dealers in food

supplies was put into effect and various regulations adopted which

governed the producer and consumer alike.

in order to control the

sugar situation it was announced on May 2 1918 that on and after

May 15 sugar should not be sold for manufacturing purposes either by refiners, wholesalers or retailers, except upon the presentation and cancellation of certificates issued by a State Federal Food

Administrator, showing the quantity of sugar sold. Retailers were restricted from selling sugar to consumers in quantities greater than 2 Ib. for city residents and 5 lb. for those-residing in the country, except for home canning, in which cases the dealer was required to secure certificates for the amount

sold.

By the operation of this

system and the voluntary restriction of household consumption, a saving of between 400,000 and 600,000 tons was effected in 1918.

The most serious crisis faced by the Food Administration during its Operations was the wheat shortage of the season 1917-8. In the United States the crop, following the exceedingly short harvest of the previous year, was only sufficient to meet normal demands for

home consumption. France and England, which together normally produce about one-half the wheat they consume, both suffered very

great crop losses, and their total production was considerably less than one-third their normal consumption. In Jan. 1918 an official communication was received from Great Britain stating that, unless America could send the Allies at least 75,000,000 bus. of wheat over

and above what they had exported up to Jan. 1, there was grave

fear that the war would be lost because of the lack of food.

The

United States Food Administration replied to this advice: " We will export every grain that the American people save from their normal consumption.

emergency.”

We believe our people will not fail to meet the

All manufacturers in the United States using wheat

flour in the production of various foods were placed under licence,

13,000,000 and 14,000,000 women registered in support of food conservation by substitution, Between Oct. 11917 and Aug. I 1918 hotels, restaurants, dining cars and clubs of the country effected a

74% and to eliminate altogether the sale of patent flours. This resulted in a saving of £3,504,300 bus. of wheat. Bakers were required to usc a certain percentage of substitute flour in all breads, and this resulted in the saving of 16,830,000 bus. of wheat. These various measures made it possible for the United States to send abroad

in 1918 approximately 140,000,000 bus. of wheat. The importance of fats and oils in the diet of a people caused the Food Administration to Jay stress on the conservation

products.

of meat

Export of fats to neutrals was greatly restricted and the

amount of fats used in bakery products limited.

In 1918 1,125,397

short tons of hog products were exported as against $39,000 in the fiscal year ending June 30 1899, the Jargest in any previous year. In

March 1918 exports averaged 10,000,000 Ib. a day. Normally the United States exports yearly a little over 10% of its tota! pork

production. In 1918, under the pressure of war needs, nearly 20% of a much larger production was exported. In 1918 773,000,000

lb. of beef were exported, or over three and a half times the exports

on the average of the three war years. These supplies were made available by the conservation of meats formerly wasted, by volunteer rationing and by the adoption in many localities of meatless days and meatless meals. As the demand on transportation facilities became increasingly heavy, it was vital to keep the routes by which food passed from the producer to the consumer as active as possible. The tremendous increase in the exportation of food and munitions, coupled with the shortage of ocean tonnage, congested eastern terminals. To remedy this condition, a regulation was promulgated providing an average increase in the minimum

car-loads of about 50% over those of the

published tariffs of the carriers. Thus the number of cars required for the distribution of the commodities on the list of non-perishable groceries was reduced fully 25%. Much material formerly wasted was salvaged by the Waste Reclamation Service, organized originally under the War Industries Board and later transferred to the Department of Commerce. One million five hundred thousand tons of book and writing material were made in 1918 from old paper. The tota! value of all waste material reclaimed during 1918 was approximately $1,500,000,000. In monthly reports as to garbage utilization during 1918 it was shown that the redemption plants reclaimed

more

than 50,000,000 Ib. of garbage grease and 160,000 tons of

fertilizer tankage from garbage. Several conservation projects were developed in conjunction with food conservation. The National Emergency Food Garden Corporation put 1,500,000 ac. of city and town land under cultivation in 3,000,o00 gardens, resulting in an increase of the food supply to the value of over $350,000,000 in one year. The School Garden Army, 6,000,000 strong, raised and preserved fruits and vegetables and also aided in the utilization of waste products. Community canning kitchens were widely conducted. The Women’s Land Army had during the summer of 1918 units in 20 different states, showing an

enrolment of 10,000 in camps and 5,000 in emergency units. They. were engaged in fruit packing, dairy work, truck gardening and gen-eral farming. Cash-and-carry plans were encouraged and the limitation of deliveries to one a day to any family or on any one route was recommended. The U.S. Fuel Administration began its work in Aug. 1917, with Dr. Harry A. Garfield as director. The Administration set out to accomplish: (1) increased production; (2) better distribution; (3) fair sale prices; (4) the elimination of waste. Small production

was largely due to strikes. The Fuel Administration succeeded in getting employers and employees into agreement and eliminated much of this difficulty. In April 1918 a nation-wide plan designed to insure equitable distribution of coal was put into effect. An essential feature was the zoning system, by which more than 5,000,ooo tons formerly shipped from eastern mines to western territory adjacent to western mines was saved for the eastern states where the demand of war industries was greatest. All the price-fixing was done

by territory. Inspectors visited each one of the 250,000 industrial plants in the United States using Jarge amounts of coal and worked out with the management systems of conservation. In one week 50,000 tons of coal were thus saved in Pittsburgh alone. Rationing was put into effect, the supply of coal to non-essential industries being greatly reduced. It was estimated that this saved over 1,000,ooo tons. All industrics were held to their minimum needs. Stores

and office buildings were encouraged to take their electric current

SAVINGS from central plants.

MOVEMENT

The “ skip-stop’ system on electric street

railwavs by which no stops were made at unimportant crossings resulted in a great saving. Economy was algo effected by lightless nights, which affected window lighting, electric display and street

illumination.

Home instruction was given in the operation of heat-

ing systems and in the use of electricity.

Mondays were amusement. A of the coal year On March rg

For several weeks heatless

observed in stores, office buildings and places of saving of 12,700,000 tons of coal for the first half was thus effected. 1918 the President approved the legislation entitled

“ An Act to save daylight, and to provide standard time for the

United States.” The purpose of this legislation was to conserve daylizht and the Act is commonly known as the “ Daylight-Saving Law.” It provided for setting the clocks of the nation ahead one

hour at two o'clock on the morning of the last Sunday in March of each year and for retarding them by one hour at the same time on the last Sunday in Oct. of each year. By the same piece of legislation the United States was divided into five standard zones. After the repeal of this Act in Aug. 1919, several of the states enacted daylightsaving laws. The operation of the daylight-saving plan caused the saving in seven months of approximately 1,250,000 tons of coal. Gasoline-less Sundays were inaugurated in Aug. 1918. A cessation

371

(ree copies to advertisers except not more than one copy each for

checking purposes; (5) discontinue arbitrary forcing of copies on news-dealers; (6) discontinue the buying back of papers at either wholesale or retail; (7) discontinue payment of salaries or commissions to agents, dealers or newsboys for the purpose of securing equivalent of return privileges; (8) discontinue all free exchanges.

On Sept. 20 the following additional regutations went out: no publisher shall sell his paper at retail less than his published prices; no publisher shall use premium contests or similar means to stimulate

his circulation; no publisher shall issue holiday, industrial or Sunday special numbers. These regulations brought about a saving in paper during Sept. of 10:4% of the average monthly tonnage during the six months preceding and in Oct. of 5%. There was produced in Sept. 1918 104,209 tons and in Oct. 110,498 tons.

relative to paper were withdrawn on Dec. 15 1918.

All regulations

The universal response by the people of the United States to the request that they lend money to the Government to provide

necessary funds for the prosecution of the war was one of the most significant things of the war period. Millions of pcople purchased Liberty Bonds and Victory Notes in various denomi-

nations from $50 to $10,000 (see LisERTY Loan Pusuicity CAMin an estimated saving of 1,000,000 bar. of gasoline, from which it is PAIGNS), and other millions invested in the smaller War Savings of Sunday motoring from 75°%

to 99°% was effected.

This resulted

known that 500,000, or 10 shiploads, were sent overseas. The order governing the use of gasoline was withdrawn on Oct. 20 1918.

Under the provisions of ‘‘ An Act to authorize the President to

increase the military establishment of the United States,” approved

May 18 1917, and later amended, the President was authorized to raise and maintain military forces by selective draft ‘‘ under such

regulations as the President may prescribe not inconsistent with the terms of this Act.” Under this law certain exemptions were made removing the liability to military service from those whose industrial

occupations were deemed essential to the proper prosecution of the war. Along similar lines several of the states passed like enactments, commonly termed “ Work or Fight laws," by which those who had

been exempted from military service were forced to accept employment in essential industries or else join the military or naval service and thus conserve the man-pewer of the nation. Non-essential occupations were listed and because of the simultaneous enactment of a drastic law against loafing in the state of New York the New York City Federal Employment Service was overrun with applications. Over 6,000 were registered July 1, and the next day after the order had been given publicity one bureau registered over 10,000. The majority were from the non-essential occupations, together with a small percentage of the idle or vagrant classes. The Conservation Division of the War Industries Board was established May 9 1918. Its purpose was to eliminate wasteful or unessential -uses of labour, material, equipment and capital. Its specific aim was: (I) to secure the maximum reduction in the number of styles, varieties, sizes, colours or finish of products of the

various industries; (2) to climinate accessories which

used material

for adornment or convenience, but which were not essential: (3) to substitute materials which were plentiful for those which were scarce; (4) standardization; (5) reduction of waste; (6) economy in

samples; (7) economy in containers and packing. The length and swing of men’s sack coats and overcoats and the width of facing were limited, the size of samples reduced and each manufacturer restricted to not more than 10 models of sack suits for the season.

This resulted in a saving of from [2 to 15% of material.

A saving

securities. ment:

Early in the war President Wilson made the state-

“I doubt that many good by-products can come out of

a war, but if our people learn from this war to save, then the war is worth all it has cost us in money and material.” This statement, together with the desirability of having the entire nation participate in financing the war, suggested the underlying pur-

pose behind the war savings movement, which was put into operation in Dec. 1917.

Section 6 of the Second Liberty Bond

Act, approved Sept. 24 1917, authorized the Secretary of the Treasury “to borrow from time to time ọn the credit of the United States for the purpose of this Act and to meet publie

expenditures authorized by law, such sums as in his judgment may be necessary and to issue therefor at such price or prices

and upon such terms and conditions as he may determine War Savings Certificates of the United States on which interest to maturity may be discounted in advance at such rate or rates and computed in such manner as he may prescribe.” The Act further provided that “ each War Savings Certificate so issued shall be payable at such time, not exceeding five years from the date of its issue, and may be redeemable before maturity, upon such terms and conditions as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe.”

A limitation of $2,000,000,000 was placed by the

Act upon the amount of War Savings Certificates which might

be outstanding at any one time; it also provided that no person should be sold at any one time certificates amounting to more than $roo, and it also placed a $1,000 limitation upon the amount of certificates which might be held by any one person. The original Act was amended by the Act approved Sept. 24 1918, which increased the amount of certificates which might

of 33°% of wool used in the knitting of sweaters was effected by the reduction in styles and colours. For example, only one shade of green was used where formerly there were many. Manufacturers of shoes were restricted to white, black and tan: wasteful features

be issued from $2,000,000,000 to $4,000,000,000, removed the Sroo limitation on the amount of certificates which might be sold to any one person at any one time, and also altered the

his line from 81 colours and shades to 3, and manufacturers im general

exceed $1,000 worth of any series of certificates. Pursuant to the authorization contained in the original Act, the Secretary of the Treasury appointed a committee of five, with Frank A. Vanderlip as chairman, to confer with him as to the form of security and the terms on which it should be issued. Following the recommendation of this committee, the Secretary of the Treasury offered for sale on Dec. 3 1917 an issue of War Savings Certificate Stamps, Series of 1918. Each certificate

were eliminated and height limited. As a result one tanner reduced reduced their line by about two-thirds.

A schedule issued Sept. 13

1918 to manufacturers of rubber footwear provided for the elimina-

tion of 5,500 styles, with an estimated annual saving of 29,012,600 cartons, 5,245,300 sq. ft. of shipping and storage space, 2,250,272

Ib. of material to be dyed, 74,750 Ib. of starch, 30,380 gal. of varnish, 125,300 lb. of tissue paper and 49,617 days of Jabour.

In addition to the efforts of the War Industries Board there were numerous appeals by Governinent officials and patriotic organizations to conserve clothing and shoes. Asa result a very great proportion of the people wore garments which in normal times would have been discarded. Patching and remaking of clothing became popular ractices, Although it is 1mpossible to estimate the saving effected, it is undoubtedly true that many milions of dollars, which would ordinarily have gone for the purchase of wearing apparel, were used to purchase Liberty Bonds-and to aid various war philanthropies.

The Pulp and Paper Section of the War Industries Board was organized June 6 1918 to restrict the use of paper and its products

and thus to save fuel, transportation and labour. On July 5 1918 the following preliminary economies were requested of all! newspapers publishing daily and weekly editions: that they (1) discontinue acceptance of the return of unsold copies; (2) discontinue the use

of all samples and complimentary copies; (3) discontinue givin copies to anybody except for office working copies or where require by statute law in the case of office advertising; (4) discontinue giving

previous Act by allowing persons to hold an amount

not to

stamp when affixed to a War Savings Certificate (a folder with

spaces for 20 stamps) would have a fixed maturity value of $5, with the date of maturity not to exceed five years, the purchase price to vary one cent each month throughout the year of issue, beginning in Jan. at $4.12, increasing to $4.23 in December. The stamps might be redeemed before maturity, their redemption value increasing one cent cach month. There were also provided 25-cent Thrift Stamps, bearing no interest and not redeemable for cash, but to be accumulated on a Thrift Card

until there were 16, when they could be exchanged for a War Savings Certificate Stamp by paying the additional odd cents necessary to cover the current price of the War Savings Cer-

SAXONY

372 tificate Stamp.

Succeeding issues of War Savings Certificate

During the last few years before the World War political life in-

Stamps were on Jan. 1 1919, Jan. 1 1920 and Jan. r 1921. In addition to the original securities there were offered in July 1919 Treasury Savings Certificates, one of $100 and the other $1,000 maturity value. Treasury Savings Certificates

the German kingdom of Saxony was dominated by a conflict about the constitution. The parties of the Left had for years demanded a reform of the First Chamber, the Upper House, by which the predominance of the Agrarians In that House should be broken, and commerce, industry, and handicrafts should obtain greater influence,

were registered at the Treasury Department at the time of purchase and increased in redemption value monthly on the same interest basis as War Savings Certificate Stamps. In Jan. 1921

the Social Democrats once more introduced resolutions with this object in the Second Chamber, the Lower House, but these proposals

there were offered for sale $1: non-interest-bearing

Treasury

Savings Stamps and $25 Treasury Savings Certificates, in addition to the other Treasury Savings Securities. Following the working out of the types of securities in 1917, an organization for their sale was effected. In addition to the National War Savings Committee, consisting of the chairman and four members, the Secretary of the Treasury appointed six Federal directors, each having general supervision over approximately two Federal Reserve Districts;

and §2 state directors,

each of whom had complcte charge of War Savings activities in his state or part thereof. ‘The National War Savings Committee and the six Federal directors functioned at the National War Savings Committce headquarters in Washington. It was the duty of this sales organization to obtain coöperation from the

heads of ail enterprises operating nationally and tralize the work through the Federal directors to state directors coming under their jurisdiction, goal being to offer every man, woman and child

In Jan. ie the National Liberals, the Liberals

(Freisinnige) and

met with the keenest opposition from Government, which shared the

opinions of the Right. Notwithstanding the majority in the Lower House for the Reform, it was defeated by the refusal of the Upper House to accept it. It was only in Dec. 1917, that the Government

introduced a bill for the reform of the Upper House, which again led

to fierce conflicts between the Right and

Left parties in Parliament,

but the advent of the Revolution put an end to these conflicts. Simultaneously controversy concerning a new Electoral Law the Lower House had constantly been going on since 1910.

for In

Nov. 1911 a Social Democrat was for the first time elected Vice-

President of the Diet. With the outbreak of war these questions fell into the background. In the educational sphere the reform of

the National Schools System, which was especially advocated by the teaching profession in Saxony, aroused sharp conflicts of opinion among almost all classes of the people. ‘The teachers were fighting for a development of the school system on lines of greater liberty and particularly desired that religious instruction should be regarded in a more liberal light. In 1912 the Government introduced a bill, which did not fully meet the wishes of the school teachers. After some elaborate debates in the Lower House, which produced great excitement throughout Saxony, the bill was rejected in Dec. 1912. On Nov. 30 1910, Dr. von Riiger, who had been Minister of Finance for many years and at the same time had presided over the Ministry, retired, his successor as Finance Minister being von Seydewitz, while the minister of Justice, von Otto, took over the presi-

then to decenthe respective the ultimate in the United States the privilege of aiding the Government by investing in Government securities, and at the same time to’ develop habits dency of the Ministry and was in turn succeeded by the Minister of of thrift. The War Savings securities were put on sale at every War, Fretherr von Hausen, in Sept. 1912, who on May 21 1914 gave place to von Carlowitz, The latter resigned his office to Lt.-Gen, post-office, at banks and in thousands of voluntary agencies. _von Wilsdorf on Oct. 27 1915 on taking a command in the field. House-to-house canvass for their sale was made by postmen, The year 1913 saw the opening in June of an airship base at boy scouts, representatives of insurance companies and memLeipzig, the largest in Germany at that date. n Oct. 18 1913 the unveiling of the monument commemorating bers of women’s organizations. In the autumn of 1918 the Treasury Department created a Savings Division of the War the Volkerschlacht (the great victory of the continental Allies over Napoleon Oct. 16-18 1813) took place in Leipzig, a cctebration at Loan Organization, which took over the work previously carried which the Emperor William II. and all the German sovereigns were

on by the National War

Savings Committee, so that the

people of the country might be taught for their peace-time value the lessons of thrift and saving learned during the war. The specific ends sought were: (1) to develop and protect all war issues of Government securities; (2) to sell Treasury Savings

securities; (3) to make permanent the habits of regular saving

and investment in U.S. Government securities. The Savings Division was placed in charge of a Director of Savings, with an

organization in Washington, and one in each of the 12 Federal

Reserve Districts. School Government Savings systems were established. Instruction in thrift, saving and the principles of sound finance was introduced in schools throughout the nation. At the annual convention of the National Education Association in July 1920 a committee of state superintendents was appointed to work out

with the Savings Division the best plans for placing the savings movement permanently in the American school system. The American Federation of Labor and various labour bodies passed resolutions commending the work of the Savings Division and calling on the Government to make permanent the policy

of issuing small securitics.

Many local labour organizations

invested their reserve funds in Government securities. In industrial plants throughout the country Government Savings Associations were established and the employees put aside small amounts regularly each week in Government Savings securities. Women’s organizations of the country during the years 1919 and 1920 created the office of thrift chairman in their boards of officials.

They took up the study of finance at club meetings,

promoted the use of the household budget and with the savings thus effected purchased Government securities. The total sale of War Savings securities from Dec. 3 1917 to Jan. 4 1924 amounted in round figures to $1,176,111,000. The total redemption of War Savings securities for the same period amounted to $415,174,000. (W. M. LE.) SAXONY (see 24.265).—The pop. of the Territory and Free State of Saxony, according to the census of 1910, was 4,663,298; in rọro it was 4,306,661.

present.

After the ceremony the foundation stone of the German

Library was laid, an institution which has since been completed

and put in working order. All German publishers have undertaken to place a free copy of every work published by them at the disposal

of this library, so that it already possesses more than a hundred thousand volumes. On July 29 1916 the Technical School of Minin

at Freiberg, the oldest institution of its kind in Germany, celebrate the hundred and fifticth anniversary of its foundation.

Saxony, which is chiefly an industrial country and cannot boast of much agriculture, suffered morc undcr war conditions

than most other German states. As a country which had been

hitherto provisioned from outside, it found the problem of supplying food to its population extremely difficult. There was in many places 4 real dearth in the most important foodstuffs, such as corn and potatoes, so that the population was frequently obliged to have recourse to substitutes (Ersatzmittel).

Shortly before the outbreak of war, during the week July 17~

24 1914, King Fricdrich August of Saxony was on a visit to the Russian court at Petrograd; then on Aug. 2 the King’s warlike appeal to the civilian and military population was published. At the beginning of the war the Saxon troops suffered heavy losses during their advance into the north of France. Already in 1917 the extreme Left in the Saxon Diet had begun an agitation, which never abated, for the early conclusion ot peace;

this demand led to violent debates between the Left and the Government, the latter being supported by the parties of the Right. On Oct. 26 1918 the Cabinet was forced to resign and to give place to a new Government of a more Liberal colour under Dr. Heinze. On Nov. 9 1918 the revolution broke out, and King Friedrich August abdicated on Nov. 13. A Cabinet of Commissaries of the People (Volhsbcauftragie) was formed and was entirely composed of members of the extremist section of the Social Democrats, the Independent Socialists. The revolutionary conflicts of Jan. roro, which entailed sanguinary street fighting in Leipzig, Dresden and other Saxon cities, led to the resigna-

tion of the Cabinet, which was succeeded by a Government of the right wing of the Social Democratic party.

The extreme

Left instituted demonstrations against this Government through-

SAZONOV, S. D. out the country, and there were serious excesses, especially in

Plauen and Leipzig. In April rọrọ a Councils (Soviet) Republic was proclaimed-at Leipzig.

It was only on May 12 that the

Reichswehr (the regular army of the Reich) under Gen. Macrker entered the city and put an end to the Soviet Republic. Serious

disturbances followed in the Vogtland and in Chemnitz in June and August. On Oct. 2 1919 the (non-Socialist) Democratic party joined the Ministry, which was now composed of Social Democrats and Democrats. The Ministry kept in power till April 25 1920. It was replaced by a Coalition of Social Democrats and Independent Socialists; which, when the Diet reassembled, received a vote of confidence. This Cabinet was vigorously combated by the non-Socialist parties, all of which voted against the salaries of ministers in April 1921. The insurrectionary movement of the spring of 1920 had been very formidable, especially in W. Saxony. In Leipzig sanguinary fighting continued for several days, and there were heavy casualties. In the Vogtland the Communist Hélz formed a band of several hundred men, with which he conducted a reign of terror in the towns and villages. The Government long hesitated to take action against him; finally, however, Hölz’s force

was surrounded and dispersed by Reichswehr troops. Hélz himself fled across the frontier into Czechoslovakia, where he remained until the Communist rising of March 1921 in central Germany, when he returned and took command of the insurgents. After the collapse of the insurrection he was for a time in hiding in Berlin, where he was ultimately arrested, and after a trial which lasted a fortnight was condemned to penal servitude for life with the loss of civil rights (June 1921).

In July and Aug. 1920 there were widespread food riots in

Saxony, but they did not assume the dimensions of the fighting in Leipzig and in the Vogtland.

In the first half of 1921 there

had been no further disturbances. (C. K.*) _ SAZONOV, SERGIUS DMITRIEVICH (1866), Russian statesman, came of a family of great Russian landowners. He was educated at the Alexandrovsky Lycée. In politics he was connected with a group which formed the Right Centre in the

Council of the Empire and supported the general policy of Stolypin. Enlightened and convinced of the necessity of reforms, he remained, however, a staunch supporter of the monarchical and orthodox tradition of Imperial Russia. He entered the diplomatic service, and his first important post was that of Councillor of Embassy in London, where he assisted Count Benckendorff in the task of improving the relations between Great Britain and Russia. He subsequently acquitted himself successfully as Russian Minister at the Vatican. He was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in St. Petersburg at a critical juncture when Isvolsky left that office for the Paris Embassy. Russian policy had just disengaged itself from the coils of the traditional friendship

with Germany, and the Kaiser, though still corresponding with “ Dear Nicky ” and keeping a personal representative in attendance on the Tsar, had given up the scheme of cementing an alliance with Russia against England and forcing France into the combination.

Germany was demonstrating ‘in shining armour”

by the side of Austria-Hungary, and was drawing Turkey away from her former protectors, the Western Powers.

The idea of the

penctration of the Near East was developing the more effectually as the scheme of directing Russia towards the Far East had proved unsuccessful. The backing of Austria and Turkey by Germany meant necessarily the crushing of the Slavonic Balkan States and a conflict with Russia. Sazonov was the most appropriate person to oppose this aggressive tendency with

firmness and dexterity, but without chauvinism. to strengthen the Great Britain by Asia or in Persia; beyond question.

He managed

tics of mutual confidence between Russia and avoiding all kind of provocation in Central as to France, the solidity of the alliance was The treatment of the Balkan nationalities was

a much more complicated problem.

And when, after the dis-

astrous squabble between the Balkan allies in 1913, the peace of Bucharest left Bulgaria bleeding, humiliated and weakened, the result was not only the destruction of the Balkan League,

but a lasting alienation of Bulgaria from Russia and from the

373

Western Entente. Russian diplomacy did not shine in those days: ineffectual attempts at arbitration between Serbia and Bulgaria, ineffectual discontent with the progress of the negotiations at Bucharest, and eventual recognition of defeat in the

end, did not enhance the prestige of Russian foreign policy. When the great crisis broke out in 1914, after the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Tsar and Sazonov found themselves heavily handicapped by events. Both had tried to avoid the outbreak of war: but it was impossible for Russia to

look on while Serbia was being dclivered to the tender mercies of an Austrian inquisition, or to alow Germany to mobilize under

the protection of specious formulas without herself taking any steps as regards the slow mobilization of the Russian army. Sazonov saw clearly that war had been decided upon in Berlin, and he helped to make it clear to the Tsar that the German talk about the ancient tie between the two Empires and the services rendered to Russia during the Japancse war was mere manceuvring for position. The precise sequence of events is narrated elsewhere. Suffice it to say that the early course of the war itself showed how the Balkan situation had been irremediably jeopardized by preceding diplomatic mistakes and mishaps. Turkey, Bulgaria and Greece fell away onc after the other. Possibly none of these events could have been averted, but it is sufficiently clear that neither the Entente Powers nor Russia in particular were prepared for them, and that they did not take in time measures which would have made them less injurious: the

Straits could have been forecd when-the “ Gocben ” and “ Breslau ’”’ passed them; Bulgaria might possibly have been won over by concessions, or attacked with advantage before she was ready to strike. In any case the actual results were disastrous; they determined the isolation of Russia at a time when she stood greatly in need of technical help from her allies. As an indirect consequence of the Balkan events there was a gradual change tn the Russian demands as regard Constantinople. It is interesting to compare the reports of two conversations between the Tsar and the French Ambassador, M. Paleologue. In Nov. 1914, Nicholas II. restricted his claims to the opening and neutralization of the Straits, the expulsion of the Turks from Europe and interna-

tional administration for Constantinople. In March 1915 he declared that the Russian people were more and more intent on the annexation of Constantinople as the ancient site of orthodox Christianity. Sazonov succeeded in getting from the Western Powers a promise to grant these demands in the hour of victory. It is superfluous to say that Sazonov was staunch in his fidelity to the Entente and in his opposition to the projects for a separate peace or armistice, which at times cropped up in court circles; he had however, like all other moderate Liberals, the greatest

difficulty in resisting the discreditable influences which swayed the Government in its reactionary policy. He opposed as far as he could the assumption of the Army command by the Tsar, as this measure could not effect any improvement in military matters, weakened the home Government and made it more accessible to intrigues. He strongly urged the necessity of winning over the Poles by a real measure of Home Rule, and he seemed to have convinced the Tsar of. the necessity of such a measure, but this apparent success was really the occasion of his fall. The Empress Alexandra brought pressure on the Tsar; the measure was countermanded, and Sazonov was dismissed.

He was preparing to start for London as ambassador to succeed Count Benckendorff, when the revolution of March 1917 broke out.

He deplored its advent, which brought an end to

Russia’s participation in the war and plunged the country into an abyss of uncertainty and misfortune. He consented, however, to proceed to London as an envoy of the Provisional Government when the fall of Milyukov and the subsequent degradation of the Government made it necessary for him to step aside. He was again put in charge of the Ministry of Forcign Affairs by Adml. Kolchak, and proceeded to London and Paris in the hope of contributing by his personal authority to win a recognition of the claims of historical Russia from her former allies. Such hopes proved to be in vain. The Peace Treaty of Versailles made only general allusions to the possibility of her reappearance in the

SCAPA FLOW—SCHEIDEMANN

374 future.

Nor was Sazonov the man to curry favour with Esthonia,

Latvia and Georgia, in order to obtain help, at the cost of a renunciation of the imperial interests of his country. (P. V1.) SCAPA FLOW, an expanse of sea, in the S. of the Orkneys, bounded by Pomona on the N., Burray and South Ronaldshay on the E. and S.E., and Hoy on the W. and S.W. The arca contains seven small islands and is about 15 m.. in extreme

SCARFOGLIO, EDOARDO (1860-1917), Italian journalist, was born at Paganico (Aguila) in 1860, and died at Naples Oct. 6 1917.

He was one of the most vigorous and ablest journalists of his time and an excellent newspaper manager as well as editor. He founded the Corricre di Roma, the Corriere di Napoli, the Ora of Palermo and the Mattino of Naples. It is with the latter paper, which he owned and edited for many years, that his name is chiefly associ-

There are

ated. He was the husband of the novelist Matilde Scrao (sce 24.

two chief exits—one, 7 m. in Iength and 2 m. in mean breadth, into the Atlantic Ocean by Hoy Sound, and the other, 3} m. in

661), from whom, however, he had been separated for many years.

length (N. to S.), and about 8 m. in mean breadth.

length by 2 m. in mean breadth, into the North Sea by Holm

Sound. Scapa Flow contains several good anchorages, the best being Longhope in the island of Hoy. When the danger of a war with Germany came first to be apprehended, it was proposed to establish the chief British naval base, in the event of war, at

Rosyth in the Firth of Forth, but it was afterwards decided that a larger base in a natural harbour farther N. would be required,

and in r912 it was proposed to construct defences both at Cromarty and at Scapa Flow. Permanent defences at Scapa were, however, abandoned in 1913, owing to the developments of sub-

marine warfare, which rendered it very costly to protect the various entrances. Immediately on the outbreak of war, batteries were crected at Scapa and the Territorial Garrison Artillery of the Orkneys were mobilized to man them. Scapa Flow

was preferred to the Cromarty Firth as his chief naval base by Admiral Jellicoe, but no preparations had been made and everything had to be improvised, guns being landed from the ships to strengthen the defences. The absence of preparations came to be felt more strongly with the rapid growth of the submarine menace, for the depth and number of the entrances made it a serious problem to establish adequate defences. By the middle of Oct. 1914, “‘U”’ boats were active in the neighbourhood of Scapa Flow, and on Oct. 16, an enemy submarine was reported to be

in the Flow.

The few capital ships which happened to be there

put to sea, and it was recognized that the base would be unsafe until anti-submarine defences were installed. While the necessary operations were in progress, the fleet occupied temporary

bases in Skye and Mull and in the defended harbour of Lough Swilly in Ireland, and the absence of the fleet was successfully concealed. By the end of 1914, the entrances of Scapa Flow had been adequately protected, facilities for carrying out all but the most serious repairs were installed, and Scapa Flow gradually assumed the aspect of a great naval station, which it retained to the end of the war. As a precaution against espionage, navigation in the adjacent waters was very severely regulated, and an ever-widening region of the mainland (ultimately extending as far S. as the Caledonian Canal) was proclaimed as a prohibited area. The German ships which were surrendered in Nov. 1918 were interned in Scapa Flow, where on June 21 1919, all the battleships and battle cruisers, with the exception of the battle-

ship “Baden” and five light cruisers, were scuttled. Three light cruisers and some smaller vesscls were beached.

SCARBOROUGH, England (sce 24.301).—The pop. decreased from 38,161 in tgor to 37 224 in ro1I.

In 1913 the municipal

area was Increased from 2,562 to 2,902 acres. The town was bombarded by a squadron of German cruisers on Dec. 16 1914; 18 persons were killed, 84 injured, and damage done to 231 buildings. On April 27 1917, it was incflectually shelled by submarines, but in a second attack, on Sept. 4 of the same year, 3 persons were killed. The repair of the castle walls and keep,

considerably damaged in the bombardment of Dec. 1914, was in progress in 1921.

Excavations of archxological

interest were carried out on the

foundations of the old Northstead Manor House at Peasholme, and

the remains of the Roman camp on Castle Hill have been bared and

opened up.

To the amenities of Scarborough were added during

IQTI-21; a bathing pool measuring 350 by 100 ft. at the foot of the cliff in South Cliff Gardens; a new Floral Hall of Glass in Alexandra Gardens, with accommodation for 1,500 people; Peasholme Park as

a public garden, with a boating lake; and the Spa Promenade was extended and a bandstand and large café added. A town-planning scheme was prepared in 1921. Some industrial works were established during the decade, including a piano factory at the Mere, clothing factories, a motor-body works and a colour-printing works.

SCHARLIEB, MARY DACOMB (1845_+}, British surgeon, was born in London June 18 1845, the daughter of William Candler Bird. She was educated privately, and married a barrister

who was then practising in India. She wished to study medicine, at that time an extremely difficult profession fora woman to adopt,

and entered the medical college at Madras, recciving its diploma in 1878. She afterwards went to England and studied at the London School of Medicine for Women, taking her degree as Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery in 1882 with very high honours.

In 1883 she returned to India, and became lecturer in midwifery and gynecology at the Madras Medical College and examiner in the same subjects to the university of Madras. In 1888 she took her London degree of M.D., and from 1887 to 1902 was surgeon at the New Hospital for Women, being senior surgeon from 1889. In 1887 she was appointed lecturer on forensic medicine to the Royal Free Hospital, in 1889 lecturer on midwifery, and in

1902 chief gynecologist. She retired from these pests in rgo09. In 1917 Mrs. Scharlich was made C.B.E. She was a member of the royal commission on Venercal Diseases (1913-16), and published A Woman's Words to Women (1905); The Mother’s Guide

(1905); The Seven Ages of Woman (1915); The Hope of the Future (1916); The Welfare of the Expectant Mother (1919).

SCHEER, REINHOLD (1863), German admiral and ultimately commander-in-chief of the German battle fleet in the World War, was born Sept. 30 1863 at Obernkirchen in HesseNassau. He served in the German colonial. wars in Cameroon * and E. Africa and was appointed in 1903 to the command of the rst Torpedo Division. Subsequently he was for a time at the head of the Central Section in the Imperial Navy Office. In 1913 he was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral and was made commander of the 2nd squadron. In 1916 he was appointed to the command

of the German

battle fleet (Hochseeflotte).

He was in command of the Fleet at ihe battle of Jutland, and in his book Deutschlend’s Hochseeflotte im Weltkrieg claimed to have won a victory there.

In July 1918 he was made chief

of the Admiralty staff and again in Aug. of the same year chief in command of the Fleet. In Dec. 1918 he was retired. SCHEIDEMANN, PHILIPP (1865), German Social-Democratic leader, was born July 26 1865 at Kassel. He was by trade a printer, but in 1895 took to editing Socialist newspapers,

first at

Giessen

and

afterwards

successively

at

Nurnberg,

Offenbach and Kassel. In 1903 he was elected member of the Reichstag for the great industrial constituency of Solingen, and in the course of the World War he became the leader of the

Social-Democratic party. In his reminiscences of the war period, which he published in 1920 under the title of Der Zusammenbruch (The Collapse), he gives an account of the attitude of the Socialist party as a whole at the beginning of the war, and

of the change of policy which, to the disappointment of intcrnational socialism in other countries, Iced the German Socialists

to give an all but unanimous vote in the Reichstag for the first war credits. He refers to the hurried visit of his Socialist colleague Hermann Müller to Paris on Aug. r 1914 to discuss the situation with the French Socialists, and the effect of Miiller’s report, when with great difficulty he had managed to make his way back to Berlin. Scheidemann represented the attitude of the great majority of the Socialists in the Reichstag, if not in the country, by persistently supporting the Government in the main lines of its war policy, up to the months immediately before the so-called “ Peace Resolution ” of July 19 1917 at any rate. In conjunction with Erzberger he was one of the leading authors of this Resolution, which demanded “ peace without annexation or indemnities.” Before this date the

-SCHIFF—SCHLESWIG improvement in the position of the Socialist party in German political life had been shown by the way in which its leaders, particularly Schcidemann, were frequently called into conference with the imperial chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg. Scheidemann, in his book, gives a vivid account of some of these conferences,

and also of the cclebrated interviews which

the



375

of his Ministry. He then resumed the leadership of the Majority Socialists in the National Assembly and subsequently in the first republican Reichstag. In Jan. 1920 he was elected chief burgomaster of his native town, Kassel. SCHIFF, JACOB HENRY (1847-1920), American banker and philanthropist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, Jan.

10 1847. He was educated in the schools of Frankfort and for a time worked in a banking house. In 1865 he went to New York. City and two years later organized there the brokerage firm of the modification of the so-called ‘‘ Peace Resolution” before it was produced in public. It was Jargely owing to the firm atti- Budge, Schiff & Co., which was dissolved in 1873. In 1875 he: tude taken up by Scheidemann and the Majority Socialists married a daughter of Solomon Loch, head of the banking firm that the chancellorship of the incompetent Michaelis (July to of Kuhn, Loeb & Co., was taken into the firm and, on Loeb’s retirement in 1885, succeeded to the leadership. Meanwhile, Oct. 1917) was brought to a close. In June 1918 Scheidemann was elected vice-president of the Reichstag, and on Oct. 3, on largely due to Schiff’s energy, the firm had greatly expanded its business and had become known throughout the financial world.the formation of the last imperial Ministry by Prince Max of Baden, he received a secretaryship of State without portfolio. In 1897 his house took an active part in reorganizing the Union The part which he and his associates in the leadership of the Pacific railway, which later secured control of the Southern Governmental or Majority Socialists played on the eve and on Pacific, assisting E. Hf. Harriman in these transactions. In rgor a struggle took place between Schiff and the Harriman interests the outbreak of the Revolution was somewhat ambiguous. There is said to be evidence that, while insisting upon the ab- on the one side and James J. Hill and J. P. Morgan on the other dication of William II. and the renunciation of the Crown for possession of the Northern Pacific railway. The resulting Prince’s rights of succession they were prepared to tolerate the compromise was the formation of the Northern Secunties Co, continuance of the monarchical form of government in the shape as a holding company for their joint interests (see 27.733). of a regency, with, perhaps, the Crown Prince’s eldest son, a After the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 Schiff inyoung boy, as the prospective monarch. If this be so their troduced Japanese war loans in America and subsequently was plans were speedily brought to naught by the greater vigour of decorated by the Mikado. In his later years he gave much perthe Minority or Independent Socialists, led by Haase. The sonal attention to charities, especially for the Jewish people, and Independents had been active in sowing the seeds of revolution on his seventieth birthday distributed $700,coo among various among the troops at the front, the sailors at Kiel and Wilhelms- charitable organizations and public institutions. He was a hafen, and the workmen in the munitions and other great founder and president of the Montefiore Home for Chronic’ factories. It was the Independents who forced the hand of Invalids, New York City, and vice-president and trustee of the Baron de Hirsch Fund. In 1903 he presented a Semitic Museum Scheidemann and his associates by the arrangements which they had made in Berlin in the first weck of Nov. 1918 for a to Harvard. He was vice-president of the N.Y. Chamber of general strike, a demonstration of the masses, and an appeal to Commerce and a director in many large corporations. He died the soldiers of the garrison to follow the example which had just in New York City Sept. 25 1920. His estate was estimated at been set in Kiel and other northern towns. And it was for this about $50,000,000.. He bequeathed $1,350,000 to various inreason that the leaders of the Minority Socialists had to be stitutions, most of which had received benefactions during his admitted on equal terms and in equal numbers into the Pro- life. The largest bequests were $500,000 to the Federation for visional Government of the ‘‘ Commissioners of the People,” the support of Jewish Philanthropic Societies of New York City formed on Nov. ro by Ebert, Scheidemann, Haase and three and $300,000 to the Montefiore Home, SCHIMMEL, HENDRIK JAN (1825-1906), Dutch poet and others. How little Scheidemann’s party had been prepared for the course events took was shown by the fact that a proclama- novelist (sce 24.326), spent his last years in work on spiritualistic research. He died at Bussum in 1906. tion appeared in the Socialist Verwaris on Nov. 10, announcing SCHLESWIG.—The older “ Schleswig-Holstein Question” (see that Prince Max of Baden in resigning the chancellorship had handed over the conduct of affairs to Ebert, who accordingly 24.335) had animportant sequel as the result of the World War, signed this proclamation as “ Imperial Chancellor ” (Reichs- in the severing from Germany of part of Northern Schleswig. The Peace of Vienna of 1864 had set up a joint administration hancler). On Nov. 9, when the revolution in Berlin was slowly and, at first, peacefully spreading throughout the city, it was of Schleswig-Holstcin by Austria and Prussia. In the Peace: only after the announcement of the Kaiser’s abdication had of Prague (1866) Austria surrendered to Prussia her claims to been published by Prince Max of Baden on his own initiative, both duchies. Asregards the administration of Northern Schlesat noon, and after the troops which were in occupation of the wig (Nord Schleswig), an eventual cession to Denmark was Reichstag building had thrown their rifles into the Spree and reserved if the population should decide in this sense by a free vote. In 1878, however, Austria gave up this reservation, and gone home, that Scheidemann appeared in front of that building Denmark in the Treaty of 1907 with Germany recognized that at two o’clock and dramatically proclaimed the republic. Scheidemann was closely associated with the policy, alleged by the agreement between Austria and Prussia the frontier to have been inevitable, which Ied the provisional and, after- between Prussia and Denmark had finally been determined. wards, the first properly constituted republican Government to The Danish population of Northern Schleswig. had, it is true, retain the services of reactionary officers and troops for the never acquiesced in this settlement. Propaganda for union Je was, therefore, together with Denmark never ceased, although it had greatly diminished suppression of communist disorders. with Ebert and Noske made the subject of violent denunciations, in the years which preceded the World War. At the first elections for the Reichstag the Danes of Northern Schleswig won two seats, not only by the Communists but also by the Minority Socialists after they had seceded from the Provisional Government at the but afler about 20 years they retained only one of them. During the World War the movement in Northern Schleswig beginning of Jan. r91r9. When the National Constituent Assembly met at Weimar on Feb. 6 rọrọ Scheidemann was se- for separation from Prussia seemed to be in abcyance. It was only the Armistice of 1918, which gave prominence to certain lected as president of the first regularly constituted republican

leaders of parties in turn had with Hindenburg and Ludendorff in Berlin when

the army

Ministry of the Reich.

authorities endeavoured

to obtain

He guided the affairs of Germany through

the stormy pcriod of the first half of rọrọ, when it repeatedly looked as if the communist

insurrections, which broke out in

various parts of the country, might result in the the democratic republic and in an experiment in Bolshevism. On July 20 1919, being unable to signature of the Treaty of Versailles, he resigned

overthrow of some kind of agree to the with the rest

points in President Wilson’s programme, that once more inspired

among the Danish population a vigorous demand for a plebiscite to decide the nationality of the North-Schleswigers. The Danish Government had at first adopted an attitude of reserve. But from the spring of 1919 onwards a propaganda was conducted in Copenhagen for “ South Jutland,” the chief leader in the movement being Hansen-Nérremélle, who till then had

SCHLICH—SCHREINER, O.

376

been the representative of the Danish population in the German | The determination of the frontier took along time. Germany Reichstag. The German Government declared its readiness advocated the so-called Tiedje line, while on the Danish side to apply President Wilson’s programme for the “ self-deterpropaganda was made for the so-called Clausen line. The mination ” of nationalities to the Danish portions of Northern Council of Ambassadors of the Alies gave its decision at the Schleswig. The Treaty of Versailles provided for a plebiscite beginning of June. On June 15 the president of the Paris in that region. The original intention was to take the plebiscite Peace Conference handed the German delegation a note in throughout the whole of the Duchy of Schleswig, which for this

purpose was to be divided into three zones. Finally, the idea of taking a plebiscite in the most southerly zone was abandoned,

as the population of that district was purely German. Article

109 of the Treaty

established

two zones

for the

plebiscite. The northern, or first, zone was bounded on the S. by a line passing through the islands of Rém and SyJt, keeping S. of Tondern, and then running to the N. of Flensburg, through

the middle of the Flensburger Fjord, and leaving the island of Alsen to the N. of the line. The second zone included the islands of Sylt and Föhr and ran on, after bulging somewhat to the S. to the Flensburger Fjord on the east. Within this second

zone lay Flensburg.

The whole of the plebiscitary area had to

be evacuated by the German troops and civil authorities within

10 days after the Treaty of Peace came into force. Powers of administration were transferred to an Inter-Allicd Commission. In the first zone the plebiscite was to take place, at latest,

three weeks after the German evacuation; in the second zone, at latest, five weeks after the plebiscite in the first zone. The decision regarding the assignment of territory to Denmark or to Germany on result of the plebiscite was to be taken on the proposal of the Inter-Alicd Commission with due consideration for the special economic and geographical conditions of the region. The Danish Government appointed the former Reichstag deputy Hansen to the post of Danish minister for Schleswig, with the task of maintaining Danish interests in the plebiscitary area. All persons, without distinction of sex, who had cormpieted their twentieth year and either had been born in the plebiscitary area or had lived there before Jan. 1 1900, were entitled to vote. On the German side, a German committee for Schleswig was formed, and was entrusted with German propaganda and preparations for the plebiscite. On Jan. 15 1920 the Inter-Allied Commission, which had previously assembled at Copenhagen, took over the administration of the plebiscitary area. The German officials had to leave this territory, and their place was taken by native Landréte and administrative officials appointed by the Commission. The German troops evacuated the region by Jan. 20. A battalion of British troops was stationed at Flensburg, a French battalion at Hadersleben and another at Sonderburg. The Inter-Allied Commission was composed of Marling (Great Britain), Claudel (France), Heyste (Norway), and von Sydow (Sweden). It promptly issued regulations for the plebiscite, dealing with the voting qualification and the registration of votes. A control over persons entering the plebiscitary area was also established. A vigorous propaganda was initiated both on the Danish and on the German side and lcd to a number of incidents especially at Flensburg. The plebiscite in the first zone took place on Fcb. 10. On the whole it passed off quietly. It resulted in a great Danish majority; 75,151 votes were cast for Denmark and 25,231 for Germany. The larger towns, Tondern, Hoyer, etc., had in all cases a German majority, while the rural population, with the exception of a few German enclaves, voted almost in its entirety Danish. The campaign

was much keener in the second zone, where the polling day had been fixed for March 14. There were sharp conflicts, particularly at Flensburg, where the burgomaster, Todsen, was expelled by the Inter-Allied Commission. When a prohibition. against the display of flags on the day of the plebiscite was issued on March 6, the German assessors of the Inter-Allied Commission resigned their posts. Repeated collisions with the French troops of occupation took place at Flensburg, and were not

unattended by bloodshed. The plebiscite resulted in a great German success; about 51,000 votes were recorded for Germany and only 13,000 for Denmark. There were only two communes which had a Danish majority.

which the German-Danish frontier was fixed as follows. It begins at the entrance to the Flensburger Fjord, passes through the middle of that fjord, reaches the mainland immediately to the N. of Flensburg, leaves Flensburg to the S. and then

follows a line which reaches the North Sea at Siecltoft.

The

island of Sylt falls to Germany, the island of Rém to Denmark.

On the whole this meant the adoption of the Clausen line.

The

territory assigned to Denmark was at once handed over to her on June 15, while the territory that remained German was forthwilh placed once more under German administration. German troops reéntered Flensburg on June 16 after the members of the Inter-Allicd Commission had left the town. The detailed settlement of the territory to be ceded to Denmark was eflected by a treaty concluded between Germany and Denmark and signed in the middle of July. At the beginning of July Denmark gradually took over the administration of the ceded districts, the administration of justice being the last department to become Danish. It is worth noting that the day of the plebiscite in the second zone coincided with the Kapp Putsch in Berlin. (C. K.*) SCHLICH, SIR WILLIAM (1840_), British forestry expert, was born at Darmstadt Feb. 28 1840, and educated there and at the university of Giessen. In 1866 he entered the Indian Forests Department, became conservator of Forests in 1871, and ten years later inspector-general of Forests to the Government of India. He was one of the pioneers of the study of forestry in England, organizing the first school at Cooper’s Hill, which was afterwards transferred to Oxford in 1905. He was appointed professor of Forestry at Oxford the same year. Among his books on

the subject are A Manual of Foresiry (1889-95; 3 vols.), and Forestry in the United Kingdom (1904). In igor he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1909 he was created K.C.L.E. SCHMOLLER, GUSTAV (1838-1917), German political economist (see 24.344), died in 1917.

SCHOLL, AURELIEN (1833-1902), French author (see 24.356), died in Paris April 16 1902.

SCHONAICH, FRANZ, Fremerr

von (1843-1916), Austro-

Hungarian general of infantry and Minister of War, was born at Vienna in 1843, and entered the army as a lieutenant in 1861. He spent the greater part of his service on the gencral staf and on special employments, especially as a chief of sections in the

War Ministry. For a short time in command of the IX. Corps he became head of the Austrian Imperial Ministry of Defence, after which he took over the charge of the Imperial War Ministry. Schdnaich had an attractive personality, was a practised orator, and well-informed in political matters. Therefore he knew how to maintain good relations with the parliamentary parties, to whom his capacity as an organizer, in the crisis of.

the winter of 1908-9 (the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina), was of great advantage. He was less successful in connexion with the Defence Act of 1911, the financial basis of which he was only able to arrange with important restrictions and serious limitations. In this matter he came into conflict with other influential personages, a circumstance which led to his retirement in the autumn of 1911. During the World War be was in supreme command of the War Provisioning Department, and died at that post in the spring of 1916, SCHOULER, JAMES (1839), American lawyer and hbistorian (see 24-377), published in 1913 a seventh volume of his History of the United States of America Under the Constitution, covering the period of reconstruction (1865-71). The original plan of his work had been enlarged by the publication in 1899 of a sixth volume, covering the period 1861-5. SCHREINER, OLIVE (¢.1862-1920), pen-name of Mrs.

Cronwright Schreiner, was born in Basutoland, the daughter of a German missionary sent out by the London missionary

SCHREINER, W. P.—SCHWAB society. She was a sister of W. P. Schreiner, afterwards Prime Minister of Cape Colony, and married in r894 Mr. S. C. Cronwright, also a S. African politician. Early in 1882, when she was 29 years old, she brought to England the MS. of her first novel, The Story of an African Farm, and submitted it first to George Meredith, then reader for Chapman & Hall. He praised the

book and suggested certain alterations, most of which she accepted. Eventually it was published by the firm in 1883, over the pseudonym “Ralph Iron.” Its success was immediate, but nothing else that she wrote had quite the same Literary quality. Her later work includes Dreams (1891); Trooper Pcter Halkett of Mashonaland (1897), 2 much-cmniticized attack on the first settlers in Rhodesia; Au English South African’s View of the Situation (1899); and Woman and Labour (1911), a fragment of

an earlier MS. which had been burnt with other papers during the S. African War. She died at Cape Town in Dec. 1920.

SCHREINER, WILLIAM PHILIP (1857-1919), South African lawyer and statesman, the youngest son of a German missionary, was born in the district of Herschel, Cape Colony. He studied law at Cape Town and at Cambridge and London universities.

He was called to the bar (Inner Temple) in 1882 and the same

year returned to the Cape where he was admitted an advocate

377

of the Philippines in the near future; in rgr4 he declared in favour of woman suffrage. He resigned the presidency of Cornell University in 1920. He was appointed minister to China in 19221. He was the author of Tke Balkan Wars 1912-19173 (1914, lectures

at Princeton). SCHUSTER,

SIR ARTHUR (1851~ _—+), British physicist, was born in Frankfort-on-Main Sept. 12 1851, the son of Francis Joseph Schuster, of Frankfort, who in early life made his home in London, where he carried on a successful business as merchantbanker in Cannon St., his three sons, Ernest Joseph (b.1850), subsequently a well-known lawyer, Arthur, and Felix (see below), being brought up, like himself, as British subjects. Arthur Schuster was educated at Owens College, Manchester, and at Heidel-

berg University, and devoted himself to a scientific career as an astronomer and mathematical physicist. He was chief of the “Eclipse” expedition to Siam in 1875, and from 1888 to 1907 was professor of physics in Manchester University, his main work for many years being connected with advanced research in spectroscopy, on which subject he contributed the article in the oth ed.

of the E.B. in 1887 (as also to the r1th ed. in rg10). He was ‘awarded the royal medal of the Royal Society in 1893, and was one of the secretaries of the Roya) Society from 1912 til) 1920. He was president of the British Association in 1915, having in

of the Supreme Court. He soon attained success and was for many years leader of the Cape bar. In 1893 Schreiner, who had been legal adviser to the High Commissioner since 1887, began

well known throughout the scientific world, receiving hon. de-

his political career as attorney-general in the second Ministry

grees from both Oxford and Cambridge.

of Cecil Rhodes. He resigned the same year, took the same portfolio again in Sept. 1894 and remained in office until the

of the International Research Council, and during the World War, both in that capacity and as a representative of the Royal Society, he did invaluable work as a scientific adviser in con-

istry.

nexion with the organization of research in various departments. He was knighted in 1920, and was appointed a member of the royal commission on the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. His numerous publications include works on Theory of Optics (2nd ed. 1909), The Progress of Physics (1911) and Britain’s Heritage of Science (1917).

Jameson Raid brought about the downfall of the Rhodes Min-

In 1898, having helped to bring about the fall of the

Sprigg Ministry, Schreiner became Prime Minister of Cape Colony and held that position when the Anglo-Boer War of 18991902 began. During the crisis which preceded the outbreak of hostilities he allowed the passage of armaments to the Dutch

republics, and when the war broke out he wished to keep Cape Colony neutral {sce 5. 244).

Acute differences in the Cabinet

caused Schreiner to resign office in June r900.

Later he advo-

cated, unsuccessfully, the fedcration instead of the unification of the South African colonies. In 1914 he accepted the office of High Commissioner of the Union in London and held that post until his death. He died at Llandrindod Wells on June 28 1919.

Schreiner married, in 1884, Frances, sister of F. W.

Reitz, President of the Orange Free State. of Olive Schreiner, the novelist.

He was a brother

Schreiner was a man of high

attainments, great industry and impressive speech. His qualitics showed at their best at the bar, and the proper crown of his career would have been a seat on the bench. But as a politician he suffered from a lack of suppleness which disqualified him from becoming a popular leader. He had also too much of the cross-bench mind. He was a sincere friend of the natives, and, in 1908-9 successfully defended Dinizulu

against the charges of treason and murder brought against him. He also went to London as a delegate of the Coloured Races

Political Association to oppose restrictions in the Act of Union.

SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1536-1903), German theologian (see 24.382), died in 1903. SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD

His brother, Sır FEL

), Amcrican educa-

tionist (sce 24.386), was appointed in 1912 U.S. minister to During the World

Greece and Montenegro, serving one year.

ants long recognized by civilized peoples. In ro15 he was first vice-president of the N.Y. State Constitutional Convention. In was appointed a member of the N.Y. State Food resigning in June 1918 to go to France as lecturer soldiers under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A. He to many of President Wilson’s policies, especially

in connexion with Mexico, and also to Article X. of the Covenant

of the League of Nations, believing that it would involve the United States in war. As early as 1913 he urged the independence

He was also secretary

SCHUSTER, Bart. (1854-

}, was

also educated at Owens College, Manchester, and studied further abroad, afterwards making his career in London banking. From 1895 he was identified, as governor, with the Union Bank of London, afterwards the Union of London & Smiths Bank, and in 1918 amalgamated with the National Provincial Bank as

the National Provincial & Union Bank of England. He was a member of the Council of India from 1906 to 1916, and became chairman both of the Central Association of Bankers and of the Committee of London Clearing Banks. In these years he established for himself a leading position in financial and economic circles, and was made a member of several important Government committees and royal commissions, his annual addresses to the shareholders of his bank being recognized, with those of Sir Edward Holden (of the London, City & Midland Bank), as

among the most important contributions of the day to sound thinking on current monctary problems. He was created a baronet in 1906. SCHWAB, CHARLES MICHAEL (1862), American capitalist, was born at Williamsburg, Pa., April 18 1862. He was educated

(1854-

War, when Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare, he urged that American rights be firmly insisted upon; he pointed out that the destruction of the “ Lusitania” in 1915 threatened to cfface the distinction betwcen combatants and non-combat-

Oct. 1917 he Commission, to American was opposed

1892 acted as sectional president for astronomy, and he became

in the public

schools and at St. Francis College,

Loretto, Pa., where he gained an clementary knowledge of engineering. From 1878 to 1880 he was a clerk in a store at Braddock, Pa., and then became a stake driver in the engineering corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works of Carnegie Bros. & Co. His ability brought him rapid promotion and in 1881 he was made chief engineer and assistant manager. Six years later he was appointed superintendent of the Homestead Steel Works. In 1889, on the recommendation of Henry Frick, he was made gencral superintendent of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, and in 1892, after the formation of the Carnegie Stcel Co., he was

made also general superintendent of the Homestead Works. In 1897 he was elected president of the Carnegie Steel Co., and

when this was merged in 1901 in the U.S. Steel Corp. he was made president of the latter.

He resigned in 1903.

He then

turned his attention to shipbuilding and a few years later with other capitalists secured control of the Bethlchem Steel Corp.,

378

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

which owned the Bethlehem Steel Co., and several other cor-

porations engaged in the iron, steel and shipbuilding business. He was made chairman of the board of directors. After the outbreak of the World War in 1914 and before the United States entered it, these companies filled orders for the Allies aggregating between 400 and 500 million dollars. The manufacture of submarines for England raised the question of neutrality, but this was solved by shipping parts to Canada, where they were

assembled Jt was generally understood that German interests made attempts to secure contrel of the Bethlehem works in order to shut off munitions from the Allies, and a report that Mr. Schwab was offered $100,000,000 for his interest was not

only widely published but was given prominence in a reception given to him by the New York Chamber of Commerce, and

neither then nor at any other time denied by Mr. Schwab. After America’s entrance into the war special attention was given to the speeding up of shipbuilding, and in April 1918, at

the urgent request of President Wilson, Mr. Schwab became director-general of the shipbuilding board of the Emergency Fleet Corp, His power of rousing enthusiasm among workers by personal contact began immediately to produce results. The

leaving the product just as suitable for its purpose as before, would enable the process to be carried out faster. A different method of handling the work, the machine or the tools might be developed, involving a new series of motions on the part of the workman which would result in a saving of time. Not only would specific improvements be made of the kind suggested above, but the effect of each of the many clements which influ-

enced and limited the speed of a process would be reduced to a law, the knowledge of which would save a great deal of experimentation in applying the process to changed conditions. Investigation of the second question might lead to equally valuable discoveries. For instance, it might be found that the precess was stopped altogether for portions of the working week for such reasons as Jack of continuous supply of material to be worked on; changes of the “set-up” of a machine due to change

in the nature of the work to be done; breakdowns of the machine; adjusting or sharpening of tools; waiting for instructions and many other possible causes, The attempt to remedy these would Icad to the development of methods of work-control and. planning. These would aim at ensuring that material was always ready to hand to be worked on; that all work of a like nature was

resulting output for 1918 was 410 stcel vessels {2,570,077 dead-

carried through at the one time, to avoid needless resetting of

weight tonnage), 106 wooden ships (376,480 deadweight tonnage), and 10 composite ships (37,500 deadweight tonnage), a

instructions as to the next job were prepared and ready in ad-

total of 526 vessels. After the signing of the Armistice in Nov, ror8, feeling that his services were no longer required, he resigned

from the Emergency Fleet Corp. in Dec. and returned to his position as chairman of the board of directors of the Bethlehem Steel Corp. Later, charges were brought that he had wrongfully used Government money for expenses unrelated to public duties during his tenure of office, but official investigation completely exonerated him. His benefactions include a Catholic church at Loretto, ag well as buildings and endowment for St. Francis College; a church at Braddock, Pa., a school at Weatherly, Pa., and a country home on Staten Island, N.Y., for children of the

New York Foundling Hospital.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—This is one of the names adopted for a certain body of principles and methods of management which have been propounded as applicable to industrial undertakings, other names being Efficiency Engineering and Industrial Management. Developed in the United States, mainly since about roos, and particularly in connexion with engineering work, the methods of Scientific Management have exercised a profound influence on methods of factory manage-

ment in England and on the continent of Europe, as well as in America. Though applicable to most of the problems of industrial administration, they have in fact been worked out main-

ly in connexion with the control of workshop processes. The theory underlying Scientific Management is briefly that there is “one best way” of doing every act that has to be performed in a workshop, and that it is the duty of the management to discover that “onc best way’ and to make such arrangements as will ensure that it is always carried out. The method of procedure may be indicated by propounding the following three questions :~ 1, What are the factors which limit the speed of a particular workshop process or machine?

machines; that tools and appliances were ready to hand; that

vance; that the nature of each new piece of work was clearly described and so on, Schemes of periodic inspection or adjustment of machines or tools might be indicated in order to reduce time Jost through breakdowns.

The third question would Jead to the discovery that different workmen had slightly different ways of doing the same thing, and that the ways of the faster workers could be explained to and adopted by the others; that some workers were temperamentally more suited to a particular kind of work than others; that

some were not trying; that others were trying too hard and were worrying themselves by their failure; that in some cases the relations between the workmen and the foreman were happy and in other cases not. The remedying of these troubles would Jead to careful methods

of choosing workmen for particular jobs, to ensure that men of Suitable tempcrament as well as capacity and skill were employed; to schemes of instruction for showing the worker exactly

what was required of him, and for teaching him the methods which had been found to be the best for carrying out the work in question. A scheme of payment by result might be developed, to give the workman the necessary incentive to ensure that he would profit by the instruction given him and would follow the methods laid down. The methods of control, the relationship of the various grades of personnel and the demarcation of the spheres of authority of the various officers of the workshop might also require rearranging, to allow of the foregoing changes and to ensure satisfactory relations between the workmen and those directing them. Built up on the result of such investigations as have been indicated, a variety of systems of manage-

ment have grown up, one emphasizing one factor and another specializing in another direction, and all known by the general description of Scientific Management.

The origin of the movement is traceable to the work of F. W.

2. Why is it that the volume of output from a particular process is always less at the end of the week than the product of the speed .of the process or of the machine, multiplied by the working hours in the weck, would lead one to expect?

Taylor, an American engineer, for many years a manager in the

ing under the same conditions?

lay down a standard fair day's work and to see that he got it from

3. Why do some workers produce so much more than others work-

An attempt to discover full answers to these questions leads

to very far-reaching inquiries, and radical changes in organization and administrative methods may become necessary if the results of such inquiries are to be put to effective use. Thus, the investigations prompted by the first question may be expected to lead to modifications of the mechanism and construction of a machine to enable it to run faster; to modifications of tools or appliances used; to changes of the material used for machine parts, for tools or for accessory purposes. Changes in

the design of the work to be done might also follow. which, while

works of the Bethlehem Steel Co., Midvale, Pa.

His investiga-

tions, leading later to the development of his methods and principles of management, sprang from the attempt on his part to the men under his control.

This led him into a deep analysis of

the elements affecting the amount of work that could be done in a given time, and in turn by the kind of steps already indicated to the formulation of his system. One of the largest single pieces of investigation carried through by him was concerned with es-

tablishing the laws governing the rate of removal of metal by

cutting-tools in a machine. This was carried on at intervals during 26 years. One result of it was the discovery in 1809 of modifications in the composition of tool steel from which the modern high-speed stecl was developed. The whole results were

SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT

published in 1906 in the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers under the title‘ The Art of Cutting Metals.” In this Taylor distinguished 12 different factors as influencing the possible speed, and he established formule expressing the effect which each had on the rate at which metal could be removed during a machining operation. He found that the maximum speed of working could only be attained by a correct adjustment of each variable in relation to all the others. To enable this calculation to be made quickly, one of Taylor’s assistants, C. G. Barth, devised a type of compound slide rule, by which the best adjustment of the 12 variables referred to could quickly be found, so establishing the combination of conditions under which the work could be done in the shortest time. An account of these slide rules was published in the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1904). A special slide rule was needed for every variation of every type of machine, and in order to reduce this complication it was necessary to group together all machines capable of doing similar work and to modify them so as to make their movements identi-

cal. One calculation and one slide rule would then serve for all the machines of a group. In other words, machines were, where possible, standardized. To enable maximum cutting speeds to be attained Taylor established, as a result of the foregoing investigation, a set of standard cutting tools for the commonest kinds of machine operations, such as lathe work. These standard tools were specified as to contour of cutting cdge, all angles of cutting edge, size of shank and hardening treatment, etc. Another piece of standardization work resulting from Taylor’s

investigations was in connexion with the design and use of belt drives. Obviously, if a machine was to be called on to give its maximum performance the means of driving it must be suitable to ensure adequate power. This necessitated an investigation into the laws of power transmission by belting and the drawing up of rules for the standardization both of the material of the belts themselves and of the conditions under which they should be used. One of the most important of these conditions is the

tightness of the belt before starting up the drive. Besides laying down suitable rules for this, apparatus was designed for measur-

ing and checking it. Accounts of this work were published by Taylor in 1894 and elaborated by Barth in 1908, both in the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Concurrently with all this investigation thought had been receiving attention, both others, again mostly in connexion with the This was the problem of obtaining from the

another line of from Taylor and engineering trade. workman a higher

level of effort than he gave under ordinary methods of workshop management. Although “piece work ’’—payment by the piece as against payment by the hour or day—was in very general use in many industries, the practice of “cutting the rate” had reduced its efficiency as a stimulus to maximum effort.

One of

the earliest attempts was the development during the ’eighties

by H. R. Towne of the Yale & Towne Mfg. Co., United States, of a scheme called by him ‘gain sharing,” according to which improvements in the efficiency of a works department resulted in the payment to workers in it of a bonus on a prearranged

scale. Other plans were the Rowan scheme, which consisted ‘in the fixing of a variable rate per piece, the rate falling according toa fixed scale as the workmen's output rose.

By-this

plan, although the workman benefitted by extra effort, the rate of increase of benefit constantly diminished.

The aim was to

avoid the temptation to “cut the rate” while still making an attempt to fix a standard of expected output from the workman. This plan was published in 1891. In 1895 Taylor published his Differential Piece Rate, which ‘may be considered to be the basis on which all the multitudinous

systems of payment by result of the Scientific Management

movement are founded. Taylor’s system contained two revolutionary ideas. The first was the careful specification in great detail of the work to be donc, with standard times allowed for each element of the work as against the ‘‘ overall” time hitherto specified for the complete job. The second was the offering of

379

an increased rate of return to the worker for increases in his efficiency—exactly the opposite to the Rowan plan. This was achieved by offering two alternative piece rates, the lower to

apply if the work was done at less than the standard speed

and the higher if it were done at the standard speed or faster. The feasibility of this scheme depended entirely on the accuracy | with which the “standard time” could be determined. So important did this become that the idea of “time study,” with

its later development of “ motion study,” is probably the bestknown feature of Scientific Management, and indeed is often taken to be synonymous with it. Many modifications of Taylor’s scheme of payment by result were developed by other workers in the movement. All retained as their basis the setting of a standard time by careful time study, the time being built up of the times for the elements of the work, and the nature of the work to be done and the methods

to be followed being specified in great detail. All provided that the rate of incentive should increase at or about the efficiency needed to accomplish the task. The best known of

these other schemes are the ‘Gantt bonus plan” by H. L. Gantt, published in 1901, and that of Harrington Emerson,

published in r909.

It will be realized that the characteristic features of Scientific Management so far touched on—the standardization of appliances and methods, the detailed specification of the work to be done, time and motion study, setting the workmen’s task, regulating his payment by his performance of it—all lead to increased complication of management functions. The material equipment of a works requires special attention to keep it in conformity with the standard, The quality of raw material must be more carefully regulated to enable it to be worked at the standard speeds and on the standard methods.

The elimination of waiting between jobs requires elaborate planning of work; the making of time studies is the work of experts; the studies themselves require constant revision to suit

changes in design, working methods or material; the incentive to output necessitates systematic inspection of work to ensure the standards of accuracy or finish being maintained. In these and numberless other directions work of a much higher order than hitherto is demanded from the management staff if the system is to function at all. In order to enable the works management to cope with the new demands made upon it, Taylor devised a new method of administrative organization known as functional control, and applied it particularly to the sphere of the shop foreman. Under the usual methods of organization a foreman has complete charge of the men undcr him. All instructions from the higher management pass through him and reach the workman as though they were the foreman’s own orders. Taylor’s idea was that the instructions which had to be given to the workmen under his system were so much more detailed and elaborate, and dealt with so many more aspects of his work than hitherto, that. it became impossible to pass them through a single foreman. It was impossible, he claimed, to find a foreman sufficiently expert in all the sides of the control work or having a sufficiently rich endowment of qualities to carry out the multiplicity of functions now embodied in management. Thus, he would have to be sufficiently skilled at the particular process to teach the men under him how to carry it out; he should have the impartial judgment of an inspector; he must have the assertiveness and force of character needed to get a good day’s work out of his men; knowledge of character, sympathy and sense of justice to deal with matters of discipline; he must be methodical and

sufficiently versed in clerical and statistical methods to plan out his work and avoid loss of time between one job and another. He must understand costing, methods of handling material, time study and the sctting and adjusting of piece or bonus rates, and so on. Because of the obvious impossibility of creating a staff of foremen who should be experts in all these lines, Taylor re-

placed the single foreman having complete charge of a group of men

by a number

of ‘functional

foremen,” each specializing

on one aspect of management control. Each individual workman

380

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

would now receive his orders from perhaps half a dozen experts. One told him which job to do next, or in what order to do a series of jobs. Another supplied him with the instructions as to the nature of the work to be done or the article to be worked on. Another told him at what speed to run his machine. Another . saw to the upkeep of the machine; another set the piece rate; another judged the quality of the product, and so on. Behind each of these functional foremen was a special department look-

ing after a particular the mouthpiece, as far This rigid and literal ment by experts” had

aspect of management, of which he was as the workman was concerned. working-out of Taylor’s idea of ‘“‘manageusually to be modified in practice on account of the friction and confusion it almost inevitably led to, due to the difficulty of defining sufficiently clearly the sphere of each functional foreman, or to the clash of personalities, Harrington Emerson embodied the necessary modification of Taylor’s scheme in his plan of “Staff and Line” organization, published in 1909. In this the usual chain of executive authority, the “line,” was maintained, by which a group of men was wholly answerable to a single foreman, a group of foremen to a departmental manager, several of these to a works manager, and so on. The experts, on the other hand, were collected into special “ staff ”

departments, and their functions were to advise or instruct the “line” officials as to what instructions should be given, or how their work could best be done. This plan gives scope in the line organization for that personal leadership which was fatally destroyed by Taylor’s functional foremanship, but still enables

the methods of work and the technical policy to be laid down by experts in the various functions.

The last of the three questions propounded at the beginning of this article did not reecive the same amount of attention as the other two at the hands of any of the leaders of the Scientific Management school of thought. Taylor in his paper on Shop Management (1903) does, it is true, make a feature of selection of the worker to suit the job, but his ideas in this direction were very different from those of the later school of applied psychology. Taylor’s aim was the discovery, by records of individual performance, which men were as a matter of fact most successful in carrying out the task set them. The less successful were to be shown the correct methods of working, but if they still failed to reach the predetermined level of achievement, which was that of a good man, not an average worker, they were to be discharged to make room for others. A follower of Taylor, Dr. Katherine Blackford, made an attempt at selection of the workers beforehand, in distinction to Taylor’s selection by trial and error on the job. In her book, The Job, the Man and the Boss (1914), she attempted to devise tests which should indicate the capacity of men for various kinds of work, i.e, their chance of making good if taken on and given trial. In view of the recent progress of applied psychology in this field, her work is not, however, worthy of serious consideration. It may be useful to summarize the features embodied in

Scientific Management systems as actually applied to an industrial undertaking. Standardization of all machines doing similar work; of all fac-

tory equipment, e.g. driving and power transmission gear, factory

furniture, etc.; of all tools and appliances; of materials to be worked on; of routines; of quality of work, etc. The maintenance of the standards usually necessitates several special departments, e.g. for

inspection of quality, for upkeep of machines and tools, for dissemina-

tion of information, etc.

Time and Motion Study.—Time studies are made of the elements of all jobs, as distinct from overall times. Motion study isa development of time study, being an analysis by special methods (includin photographic and even cinematographic) of the motions Rakd in an clement of work. From this study motions or parts of motions which are useless are eliminated and the new method taught to the worker. The results of time and motion studies are embodied in written instructions for the use of the worker. These are in considerable detail, covering not only a full description of the work to be done but also of the exact methods of doing it, the tools to be used, the "setting ” of the machine, etc., with times for each element both

of the machine’s work and the work of handling.

Payment by Result.—Some schemes of extra payment for the successful performance of the task as laid down in the instruction based

on the time study,

Functional Management.—This may vary from complete functional foremanship to functional study of methods, technique and procedure, the results being conveyed to the workman via a departmental foreman. Planning.—A special functional department is charged with laying down the order of preference of all work, the sequence of operations or moves through which cach job has to pass, the arranging beforehand that all material, tools, appliances, etc., shall be on hand for each job when needed, the conveying of all instructions either to the foreman or to the workman according to the degree of functional management in operation. The planning department is also the central statistical bureau of the factory where all records of

the state of advancement

of all jobs, of costs, of machines

able, often of stores, of men available, etc., are kept.

avail-

These features do not exhaust all the functions of management, but may be taken as those which distinguish Scientific Management

schemes

of organization from earlier types.

Of course,

certain of these features have been selected and applied in many instances where the full and complete scheme has not been adopted. A scheme which could claim to be ranked among the instances of Scientific Management would, however, include all the above features. This account would not be complete without some mention of the attitude of labour to Scientific Management. Taylor himself, and later some of his followers, made extravagant claims to the effect that the new methods, by enabling standards of work to be laid down and the worker’s achievement to be measured and his exertion rewarded on a prearranged scale, solved the labour problem. Not only has this happy result failed to materialize, but the attitude of labour, suspicious at

the outset, has tended to harden into declared antagonism. The extension of the system in America was opposed more and more vigorously as ,time went on, leading to a serious strike against

it in the Watertown Arsenal in roir.

As a result of growing antagonism the United States Commission tion and sity

on Industrial Relations in 1914 directed that an investigainto the working of Scientific Management should be made, appointed for this purpose Prof. R. F. Hoxie, of the univerof Chicago, with the assistance of a Scientific Management expert and a labour leader. This Commission visited many of the chief establishments in the United States at which Scientific Management was in operation, and its findings are given in Prof. Hoxie’s book Scientific Management and Labor, Everywhere the investigators found labour antagonistic; the objections which, with minor ones, appear to be fundamental were as follows:— The system leads to“ driving” the worker and to sweating, due to its attempt to speed up all to the speed of the fastest. The minute splitting up of jobs leads to very much increased

specialization of the worker, to the narrowing of his range of skill, and consequently to the destruction of craftsmanship. The work became more monotonous and less satisfying to the worker.

It was claimed that the individual task and reward, and the constant selecting of the fastest workers, destroyed the solidarity of the workers in a factory. The knowledge of a ‘trade’ was no longer necessary to the workmen;

all the specialized knowledge having

been acquired by the management, the workman had less to sel! than previously, For these and other reasons it was claimed by the workers that the system was anti-social; that it was undemocratic; that it treated the worker as a tool, denied him scope for his personality, and condemned him to endless routine meticulously laid down and arbitrarily enforced.

There can be no doubt that much of the resentment of labour has been aroused by the personality and mental attitude of the Scientific Management experts and the staffs they created in the works which they reorganized, rather than by the fundamental ideas of their system. Their conception of industry was entirely mechanical. Their organizations were ingenious structures of men, machines and routines. Each of these had its place in their buildings, but like stecl, brick and cement, though diifering in their qualities, all alike were simply building materials, inanimate and obedient to the hand of the builder.

This cast of mind inevitably bred bitter antagonism in labour, and by the year 1921 there was already distinct evidence of a change on the part of the most advanced organizers, both in America and in England. It was significant of this change that Taylor’s scheme of functional foremanship had come to be re-

SCOTLAND garded as mistaken even by many of his closest followers, who were inclining to believe that in forfeiting the vital factor of personal leadership the loss was greater than could be compensated for by any amount of intensification of expert knowledge. There was a growing tendency too to concentrate study and standardization on the inanimate side of industry, on machines, tools and equipment, on materials and their treatment, on handling methods and appliances, on labour-saving devices, rather than on speeding up and regulating the motions of the

worker. The same distinction was seen in the attitude of British labour leaders to Scientific Management. Among the more intellectual leaders the accumulation of more and more of the technical knowledge of an industry in the hands of the management and the more detailed regulation and instruction of the

manual worker which results were recognized

as inevitable.

They were seen to be merely a continuation of the process of re-

placing hand labour and hand skill by machinery.

Such men

accepted the need for the application of science to industry as far as the inanimate [actors were concerned, and concentrated their antagonism against the treatment of the worker as mere

impersonal mechanism, By the end of the World War some 100-200 American undertakings, largely engineering concerns, had adopted Scientific Management in one or another of its forms, as a complete system. In Great Britain the number of such firms was perhaps one-tenth

of those in America, and the positions in France and Germany were perhaps less advanced still, The influence of the movement, however, cannot be estimated by any such figures. For every concern that had adopted the system in its entirety there were

ro or 20 that had adopted portions of it, or had modified their previous methods of management under the influence of ideas

first given prominence by the Scientific Management

school.

281

merce were frequently interrupted by strikes, but the only se-

rious riots, took place in Glasgow on Jan. 31 1919, when considerable damage was done to buildings. Political interests, before the war, pursued their traditional course, and in the general election of Dec. 1g10, Scotland returned 58 Liberal, 11 Unionist,

and 3 Labour or Socialist members.

By the date of the Armistice,

party politics had undergone a complete transformation, and, at the general election of Dec. 1918, Scotland, which by the Reform Act of ror received two additional members, returned 58 sup-

porters of the Coalition, 7 Independent Liberals, 7 Labour representatives and 2 Independents.

A feature of the period has

been the large number of state visits paid by King George and Queen Mary. An Accession Court was held at Holyrood in June 1910, and, a year later, the King dedicated the new chapel of the Thistle in St. Giles’s cathedral, Edinburgh. Royal visits to Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, Perth and Stirling took place in July 1914.

During the war, the King paid some private visits

to centres of munition industries, and the programme of state visits was resumed in July 1920, when the King and Queen held a Court at Holyrood, and in their yachts visited the Clyde during the regatta known as the “ Clyde Fortnight.” In church affairs, the most important events have been the issue in r9ro of the final Report of the Royal Commission appointed under the Churches (Scotland) Act of 1005, allocating the property of the old Free Church between the United Free Church and the Free Church, and the series of negotiations for

union between the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, which became a matter of practical politics after the discussions in the Assemblies of r9r2 and had advanced so far

by 1919 that, on Dec. 17, the commission of the Assembly of the Church of Scotland agreed to approach the Government with a view to carrying a bill through Parliament. The recent growth of a keener appreciation of the value of

The conception of “the one best way,” the belief that every act, every relation and every implement of industry is worthy of close and systematic study, has provided an inspiration and a

historical records and monuments is illustrated by the enact-

stimulus to management methods in all industries and in every country, the effect of which can hardly be less than that of the introduction into industry of machinery a hundred years ago, (C. GSR.)

gift of four great historical buildings to the nation.

SCOTLAND (see 24.412*).— The history of Scotland from r910 to r921 resolves itself largelv into the elfect of the World War (1914-9) and of the conclusion of peace upon industry and commerce, In the history of actual military operations, Scotland

played, naturally, a small part, although for the first time in the history of Great Britain as a sca-power, the main activities of the fleet took place in Scottish waters. Zeppelins attacked

Edinburgh and the E. coast on April 2 1916. On May 2, in the

course of a raid which was upon an unusually large scale, but had very slight results, a Zeppelin (L20) missed Edinburgh and sailed

as far N. as Aberdeenshire, where it dropped bombs which harmlessly on fields. Another fruitless expedition to the of Scotland took place on Aug. 9 1916; the raiders got thick weather and their bombs were dropped in mural areas,

fell S.E, into On

May rs 1918, St. Kilda was bombarded by a German submarine

and damage was done to the church and some other buildings. The surrender of the German fleet is the only other operation definitely associated with Scotland.

German

naval emissaries

arrived in the Firth of Forth on Nov. 15 1918, and the surrender began on Nov. 21. It was in Scapa Flow that the crews of 70 German warships scuttled their ships on June 21 10919.

The part played by Scotland in supplying man-power and in providing munitions of war was worthy of the national tradition. The Scottish recruiting record in the period preceding the introduction of compulsory service will compare with that of any other portion of the United Kingdom, and Scottish industries, like those of England and Wales, were directed to the production of war material. The Clyde, naturally, took a large part in naval construction and repairs, and all over Scotland, munition factories came into existence. In the naval warfare, the E. coast of Scotland was of great strategic importance.

Apart from the war and its effects, the ten years witnessed few important internal events or movements. Trade and com-

ment

in 1913 of the Ancient

Monuments

Consolidation

and

Amendment Act, by the work done by the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments, originally appointed in 1908, and by the In 1918,

Lord Glenconner presented Dryburgh Abbey to the nation, and in the same year the Duke of Buccleuch followed his cxumple by the gift of Melrose Abbey. In 1919, the Duke of Roxburghe made an arrangement with the Commissioners of Public Works

and Buildings by which Kelso Abbey became a national monu-

ment and is maintained by the State, and in 1920 Col. Halt Dempster placed Restenneth Priory (Forfarshire) in the charge of the Commissioners of Works for national guardianship and for the benefit of the nation. On the other hand, by an outrage attributed to suffragettes, Scotland lost on Feb, 26 1914 the

church of Whitekirk (Haddingtonshire), one of the few beautiful pre-Reformation churches surviving. Two

important

centenary

celebrations

took

place in the

period—the quin-centenary of the foundation of the university of St. Andrews, held in 1911, when Lord Rosebery was installed as Lord Rector and made a famous oration, and the sex-cen-

tenary of the victory of Bannockburn (June 24 1314), which was celebrated by a procession and a banquet at Stirling on

June 27 1914, when Sir George Douglas delivered the address. The town council of Aberdeen commemorated the quin-cen-

tenary of the battle of Harlaw, fought in 1411, and the town council of Arbroath, in Sept. 1920, held a patriotic and religious

service to celebrate the sex-centenary of a famous assertion of the independence of Scotland in a letter addressed to the Pope by a Parliament which met in the abbey at Arbroath in 1320. More practical evidence of renewed interest in Scottish history was given by the success of the Scottish Historical Exhibition at Glasgow, opened by the Duke of Connaught in May torr, the proceeds of which formed the main endowment of a Chair

of Scottish History and Literature founded in the university of Glasgow in 1913.

The demand for some form of Scottish Home Rule has been

insistently pressed by its advocates

since roro but there has

been no evidence of any wide-spread feeling on the topic, apart

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

SCOTLAND

382

from the more general question of the adoption of a system of Devolution for the United Kingdom, a suggestion which received much parliamentary support in the years 1918-20.

Apart from the extensions of Edinburgh and Glasgow, the most important municipal event is the amalgamation, in 1920, of Motherwell (about 42,860 inhabitants) with Wishaw (about 27,484 inhabitants) to form a single municipality known as Motherwell and Wishaw. Legislation.—In addition to the emergency war legislation which affected Scotland equally with England the decade 1911-20 was marked by a series of important legislative enactments, intimately affecting the political and social life of the country. A vast change was made in the parliamentary clectorate by the Representation of

the People Act of 1918, which increased the number of voters

(counties, burghs and universities) from 800,448 at the general election of Dec. 1910,to 2,211,178 at the general election held in Dec. 1918. The Fourth Reform Act (1918) not only made a wide extension of the franchise; it also, by its redistribution of the constituencies, severed the last link with the old tradition of Scottish

union. and

parliamentary

representation

as it existed

before the

The shire ceased to be the unit of county representation,

the old Scottish

system

of separate

burghal

representation

was abandoned. The burgesses had sat in the Scottish Parlament, as a separate estate, from a much earlier period than the

commissioners of shires, and the royal burghs, which they represented, had special trading privileges which distinguished their interests from those of the counties in which they were situated. The principle, adopted in 1707, of grouping together small burghs, sometimes geographically distant, as separate constituencies, Was retained

in 1832, 1868 and 1885; e.g. the inland burgh of Elgin voted with

the distant seaport of Peterhead, instead of forming part of the constituency of Morayshire, In Igi8 the burgh of Perth, which had enjoved separate representation, and cight groups or districts of burghs were merged in county constituencies; six districts of burghs still exist, but the constituent members of each group are in close geographical proximity. The last vestiges of the privileges of royal

burghs, in which the distinctively Scottish system of distribution originated, had been removed as long ago as 1846. The other important Acts of the period may he described as social legislation, dealing with housing and provision for medical attendance, land questions, temperance and education. An Act of 1g0g had extended to Scotland the Housing of Working Classes Acts, 1900-3, with certain modifications, and had given powers to local authorities, with the consent of the Scottish Local Government Board, for the compulsory acquirement of land; for the borrowing of money from the Public Works Loan Commissioners to provide working-class dwelling-houses; and for the execution of town-plan-

ning schemes. The shortage of houses which became a serious social danger after the war, not only led to various emergency Acts limiting rents and mortgage interest and severely restricting the powers of landlords to terminate existing tenancies, but was also one of the

status was given to the Land Court by a provision that its chairman should enjoy the same rank and tenure of office as a judge of the

Court of Session.

The powers of the Board of Agriculture and Fish-

eries, under previous statutes, Were distributed between the Board of Agriculture and the Board of Fisheries, and an Agricultural (Scot-

land) Fund was created for the establishment, enlargement and im-

provement of small holdings. Disputes between landlords and the Board of Agriculture are settled in the Land Court, which also determincs the amount payable to landowners as compensation for permanent improvements, fixes rents in certain cases and prescribes regulations for pasture, grazing and common rights. Phe decisions of the Land Court are not subject to review by other courts, though

the Court of Session may be consulted by the Land Court on questions of jaw. The first Report of the Land Court, for the nine months

ending Dec. 31 1912, showed that 2,434 applications for small holdings had been received, and that 256 had been decided, the total rents, in these cases, being reduced from £2,226 16s. to £1,568 2s. and arrears of rent amounting to {1,721 14s. being reduced to {77

19s. In roig,“ fair rents” were fixed for 170 holdings. the average reduction of rent being 10%, and 275 holdings were re-valued, at the expiry of seven years from the fixing of a “fair reat"; the original rents of these holdings amounted to £2,823, the first “fair rems" to £1,927, and the rents fixed in 1919 to £2,038, representing an increase of over 63% on the previous decisions—an indication of the improvement in the value of land. Further provision for the acquisition of land for the purposes of small holdings was made by the Land Settlement (Scotland) Act of 1919 (9 & to Geo. V., C97), which

also amended

the Small

Landowners

Acet of rogir.

Fresh

powers were given to the Board of Agriculture by the removal of restrictions as to total area to be acquired and as to methods of pur-

chasing or taking land on lease or feu, and by widening the range of

its activities. A Mrge series of statutes for crofts and small holdings Is now jn operation, and the Land Court ia us r919 Report drew atrention to the urgent necessity for their codification in order to remove ambiguities, inconsistencies, and difficulties of interpretation. Less important measures dealing with land were the Feudal Casualties Act of 1914, for providing for the redemption of duplicands and grassums (entry fees) and other sums payable by feuholders to their superiors ar sntervals of more than’ a year: the Ental (Scotland) Ace of 1914 restricting the possibilivies of future entails of land or property;

and the Duplicands of Feuduties (Scot-

land) Act of 1920, passed to reverse the effect of a decision of the

House of Lords in 1g19 that a‘ duplicand” payment of a feudutry means, unless otherwise defined in a deed, the payment the regular feuduty in addition to the ordinary annual

of double payment.

The Act defines a duplicand, in accordance with what has been the

traditional usage, as “one year’s feuduty only over and above the

feuduty for the year.”

The prevalence of the system of leus in Scot-

land rendered the legal decision a matter of considerable importance. Liquor Licensing.—The Temperance Act (Scotland) I9I3 pro-

vided that, on the \ct's coming into ferce in June 1920, local authorities should, on the receipt of signed requisitions from electors in

their arcas, take a poll on three alternative resolutions dealing with the number

of licenses in an area.

The resolutions were

(1) that

causes of the creation of a Scottish Board of Health by an Act of 1919. The powers and duties of the Local Government Board for

licensing court should grant not more than 75°, of the licenses pre-

powers of the Privy Council canferred by a large variety of recent

the area, except,

Scotland, and the Scottish Insurance Commissioners and also some

Acts, were transferred to the Board of Health, which was entrusted with the execution of all measures conducive to the health of the people. A Housing (Scotland) Act of the same year (9 & 10 Geo. V , C. 60) gave to the new Board of Health the supervision of the schemes of local authorities for the provision of working-class dwellings, and empowercd it, in the event of the failure of local authorities to prepare schemes, to make a public inquiry in any such locality and to arrange for the preparation of a scheme. The Act made provision for financial assistance (under the supervision of the Board of Health) to local authorities, public utility societies, and housing trusts, for the building of houses, largely increased the powers of

local authorities as regards compulsory purchase, and made it come pulsory for them to prepare town-planning schemes. Other measures affecting public health which were passed during the decade were the Highlands and Islands (Medical Service) Grant Act of 1913, which created an annual grant of £42,000 for the improvement of medical services and nursing in the Highlands and Islands: and the Midwives (Scotland) Act of 1915, which provided for the training and certification of midwives. The powers granted to the Privy Council under these two Acts are among those transferred to the Board of Health. The first Annual Report of the- Board of Health (for the year 1919) showed that 212 housing schemes had been submitted by focal authorities, providing for the erection of 112,573 houses, the total pop. represented by the authorities being 4,169,501, The report brought out the interesting point that, even in localities which are near stone quarries, the cost of building in stone exceeded, by a considerable sum, the cost of building in brick. A very important measure dealing with land was passed in Igit. By the Smalt Landholders (Scotland) Act, the Scottish Land Court and the Board of Agriculture lor Scotland were constituted, and the rovisions of the earlier Crofters Acts were extended to other small ndholders, and were amended in various respects. A dignified

there should be no change in the system of licensing, (2) that the viously in force and (3) that no license should be granted within in special circumstances,

tọ bona fide hotel and

restaurant keepers, who might be allowed to sell drink in retail to residents in hotels or to persons taking meals at restaurants. The areas were defined as burghs of a pop. not exceeding 25,000; separate wards in larger burghs, and parishes in the counties. The voters were defined as electors to town councils in burghs and electors to parish councils in the counties. Each voter could vote for only one resolution, but, where a no-license resolution

was not carried, the

votes given for no-license were to be added to the votes given for limitation of licenses, A no-license resolution was to require 85%

of the recorded votes in a poil of not less than 35“, of the electors, in order to be carried; a limitation resolution required a bare majority vote in a poll of the same size. Polls were held in Nov. and Dec. 1920, In 580 out of 1,221 polling arcas; of the remainder, about 300 were arcas in which no license existed, and in the rest to requisitions

were submitted fora poll. The polls took place in all the towns and in the more thickly populated rural districts. Five hundred and nine

areas voted for no change, 35 for limitation af licenses, and 40 foe no ficense. The total numbers of votes were :—708,727 (60%) for no change, 19.400 (1-6%) for limitation; and 453.728 (38-4 %) for no license. In Glasgow, four wards (Camphill, Cathcart, Pollok-

shields and Whiteinch)

voted for no license, and nine wards for

limitation; in Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen no change was carried in every ward. There were in Nov. 1920,9,37 r licensed premises in Scotland, of which t.471 were hotels or inns, 4.447 were

public-houses and 3,053 were grocers’ shops.

The reduction made

in May 1921, in accordance with the result of the polls, involved the extinction of about 450 licenses, a majority being in urban areas, where middle-class residential districts voted for the abolition or reduction of licenses. Glascow contributed 99 to the total number of withdrawals of licenses, but these were chiefly in the residential districts already named or in other residential districts like Govanhiil, Kelvinside, Park and Pollukshaws, in which there was an unusually

SCOTLAND large proportion of grocers’ licenses.

Among

the smaller towns

which “went dry” were Buckie, Cullen, Kirkintilloch, Sanquhar, Lerwick, Stornoway, Stromness and Wick. The contest was fought by the Temperance party on a prohibition programme, and its 1n-

fluence was thrown was, tion 1913 and

against the himitation resolution; the result therefore, rather a repudiation of prohibition than an indicaof satisfaction with existing licensing conditions. The Act of provided for further polls, on a requisition by electors, in Nov.

Dec.

1923, but the experience of the poll of 1920 made it clear

that modifications were required in the Act, especially in the defini-

tion of an “area "as a single ward in the larger burghs, which must be treated asa whole in order to secure that any reduction of licenses shall be more equally distributed than was possible in 1920, Education.—A large amount of attention has been devoted to education, with a corresponding increase in public expenditure,

both national and local.

The English Education Act of 1918, which

marks an ¢ra in State provision for education, was accompanied by

383

the substitution of a local income tax;

some reform of the system

of local rates has been promised by the Secretary for Scotland.

In

addition to State grants for elementary and secondary education,

financial assistance to the Scottish universitics has been increased

from an estimate of {93,000 in the year ending March 31 1911 to an estimate of {195,000 for the year ending March 31 1921, besides a share of a non-recurring grant to universities and other institutions adversely affected by the war. Private benefactions, including grants from the Carnegie Trustecs, have provided funds for the institution of new chairs and lectureships in ail the universitics,

including chairs of Scottish History and Literature, French, German, Bacteriology, Organic Chemistry, Physiological Chemistry, Mercantile Law and Engineering at Glasgow; chairs of Agriculture and Political Economy at Aberdeen; and chairs of French, German, Accounting and Business Method, Chemistry in relation to Medicine, Zodlogy, Forestry, Clinical Medicine, Bacteriology, Tuberculosis, Therapeutics and Psychiatry at Edinburgh.

The Act swept away

Evidence as to social conditions is available in reports of Govern-

the system of school-boards, created in 1872, in favour of the prin-

ment departments. The Mental Deficiency and Lunacy (Scotland) Act of 1913 reconstituted the existing Commissioners of Lunacy asa General Board of Control and amended the Lunacy Laws. ‘The

the Education (Scotland) Act of the same year.

ciple of a larger area for educational administration than a parish. The new administrative body created by the Act is known by the awkward

name

Edinburgh,

of an Educational

Glasgow,

Aberdeen,

Authority.

Dundee

Five large burghs,

and

Leith, were

made

separate educational areas; the number has since been reduced to four by the amalgamation of Leith with Edinburgh. Elsewhere, the

area js the county, including the burghs within its bounds, and the Secretary for Scotland was empowered to make, by order, electoral

divisions within the areas, to define the number of members of each

educational authority, and toapportion the representativesamong the divisions of the area. Electors to educational authorities are the persons registered as local government electors under the Representation of the People Act (1918). Voting is conducted on the principle of proportional representation; cach elector has one transferable vote. School management committees, acting under an education authority and including representatives of parents and of teachers, exercise general powers of supervision and management, but have no control over finance, or over the appointment or dismissal

of teachers.

Education authorities are empowered to expend public

money not only on the maintenance of schools but also on the provision of food and of books for the children (including books for general reading), and they may make grants to pay travelling expenses of young persons resident at a distance from the nearest intermediary or secondary school, and may give assistance to a qualified person attending a university or training college. They are bound to provide free primary, intermediary and secondary education in all districts, but may maintain a limited number of fee-paying schools and may also make contributions to certain schools not under their jurisdiction.

Relgious instruction may be given in the schools, put

no child whose parents object to such instruction is thereby to lose any other advantage of the school. Voluntary or denominational schools may be (and nearly all have been) transferred to educational

authorities and managed as public appointed by the local authority and rehigious belief by representatives of the school was conducted. In such devoted

to religious instruction

schools, their teachers being approved as to character and the church or body by whom transferred schools, the time

is not less than it was

under the

former management. Voluntary schools, not thus transferred, are not eligible for grants from the Education Fund; new voluntary schools may be established by educational authorities under conditions similar to those affecting transferred schools.

An educational

authority administers the Education Fund of the area, arising from Government

grants or loans, supplemented

by its own

education

rate, which is fixed by the authority and levied by the parish councils

of the area. The Act also extended the school age to 15 years an severely limited the ¢mployment of children of school age, prohibiting the employment of children under 15 in factories, workshops, mines or quarries, and forbidding street trading by persons under seven-

teen.

A system of continuation

schools was

also provided for.

An attendance of 320 hours annually in a continuation school may be required from al! young persons up to the age of 18, unless their education is otherwise provided for, and instruction in such schools is to include English and general education, instruction for special forms of employment, and physical culture; when the scheme comes

into operation, employers will be bound to afford facilities for an

attendance of 320 hours, exclusive of hours between 7 P.M.and 8 AM.,

unless hours within these limits are sanctioned by the Scottish Education Department,

the approval of which is also required for the

exercise of a large number of the powers conferred by the Act. The operation of the Act of 1918, contemporancously with a large increase in the salaries of teachers, has resulted in a vast increase of

expenditure, The estimate for ordinary public education in Scotland for the year ending March 31 1911, was £2,253,725, and for the

rear ending March 31 1921, 6,877,220, and to this increase have to be added the large sums raised by local rates, which have risen proportionally. The system of assessment, based on house rent, and divided, in almost equal proportions, between proprietor and tenant, is generally regarded as being no longer suitable to the circumstances, the valuc of the house occupred by a ratepayer not affording a satis-

factory test of his ability to pay, and a demand has been made for

Board's first Annual Report (for 1914) showed that there were 19,557 insane persons in Scotland, of whom 16,870 were paupers, In 1919 the total was 17,580, of whom 14,562 were paupers. The

latest Report of the Board draws attention to the decrease, pointing out that the average total for the five years from 1911 to 1915 was 18,537, and for the five years 1916-20, 18,132, and remarks that “it may be assumed that but for the influence of the war the numbers

in the last quinquennium would have been at lcast 19,883 instead of 13,132."

The Prison Commissioners, in their Report for 1919, state

that the influence of war conditions was ceasing to operate at the end of that year. The total number of persons committed to prison in 1918 was 9,773 as compared with 14,505 in 1917 and 43,535 in 1914. The figures for 1918 are the lowest on record; there wasa continued decrease in the first four months of 1979, but the total number of commitments for that year was 11,725: similarly, the judicial statistics for 1919 show an increase of 26-9% in the number of per-

sons dealt with in criminal courts, as compared with the previous

year, the numbers being 80,152 in 1918 and 101,687 in 1919. The total for 1911 was 155,537. The most satisfactory feature of the

year 1919 was a decrease (from 10,772 to 9,176) in the number of persons dealt with in juvenile courts, as compared with 1918; the numbers of such persons had risen during the war from 10,761 in IQII to 11,851 in 1915 and 12,180 in 1917, a result attributed to the absence of paternal control during the war years.

f

,

:

Shipbuilding.—The figures of production in Scottish shipbuilding for 1911 represented a considerable increase over 1909 and 1910, the number of vessels being 557 in 1911 against 450 in 1910, and the tonnage 671,624 against 420,250. These numbers exceeded the previous record of production—757 vessels with a tonnage of 675,173 in 1907—because the I.1I.P. (indicated horse power) figures were 742,299 in 1907 and 837,668 in 1911. The output for 1911 consisted

chiefly of vessels of moderate size, and the types of vessels were very varied. The main increase was, naturally, in the Clyde area; the E. coast shipbuilding areas (the Forth, the Tay, the Dee and the Moray Firth) produced 144 vessels with a tonnage of 41,041 and 1.H.P. 47,739—an increase of 13,183 tons and 17,311 J.H.P. upon 1g10. In 1912, a fresh record was created, the total Scottish tonnage being

688,188, with LH. P. 914,741, and in 1913 the figures rose to a tonnage of 809,711 and L.UI.P. 1,148,225.

The Clyde output for 1913 was more than double that of any other British shipbuilding area, except the Tyne, and it exceeded the output of the Tyne by 317,000 tons, the advance since 1910 was the most remarkable in the whole history

of Clyde shipbuilding,

for the tonnage of 1910 had been nearly

doubled in 1913; but the increasing cost of production caused some anxiety about the future. Among the larger vessels built before

the outbreak of war were H.M.S. ' Conqueror," ihe largest battleship yet built on the Clyde, which was launched in 1911, and the liner “ Aquitania,” the largest vessel then built fur the merchant serv-

ice (tonnage 45,600, speed 23 knots), which was launched in 1913. In the seven months of 1914 which preceded the outbreak of war, the

output showed a continuous decrease, and a period of depression

was believed to be at hand, and from Aug. three of the largest yards

had to devote practically their whole attention to naval construction. The total tonnage as published for 1914 was 460,258 with I.11.P. 496,120, but these figures are exclusive of the construction of warships and must be compared with the 1913 figures for mercantile construction, viz.:

692,601

tons with LHL.P. 649,240—a decrease of

232,343 tons and 153,120 I.H.P.

The naval figures, now available,

show that the outbreak of war had not merely checked the depression

but had produced afresh ‘ boom" in Scottish shipbuilding. mercantile construction

amounted

In 1915

to a tonnage of 233,501, with

1.H.P. 205,288—figures not far helow the U.S.A. construction for the

year—although the yards were almost entirely controlled by Government,

and

merchant

work

was

nevlected.

No separate Scottish

figures for 1916 were published until after the close of the war, and, in 1917, the mercantile tonnage for the United Kingdom was a state

secret. Mercantile construction had been, to a large extent, in abeyance until the end of 1916, but great activity was shown in this

SCOTLAND department in 1917 and 1918. The totals (including naval construction) for the five war years were:—

Vessels

Tonnage

LH.P.

451 386

591,396 331,410

1,192,347 1,233,043

477

541,527 502,875

1,898,044 1,628,959

613,7¢

miralty and home

1,958,

In no one of the war years did the tonnage approach that of 1913, but this is explained by the circumstance that the proportion of ton-

nage to LH.P. is much smaller in naval than in mercantile construc-

tion, and the 1913 LH.P. figures were exceeded in every year of the war. Inthe war years, the volume of naval repairs was also very great, in 1919 the tonnage figures of Scottish yards rose Lo 729,490 With LH.P. 1,590,894, and in 1920 to 778.914, with LH.P. 673,040; the

figures relate entirely to mercantile shipping, as naval construction

was stopped, The increase of tonnage over 1918 was in the building of many cargo steamers, the average size of which was greater than before the war, and the decrease in new machinery indicated in the 1.H.P. figures is explained by the circumstances that such steamers are of comparatively low power. Judged by the test of tonnage, the output for 1920 was not far below that of 1913, alhourt the machinery installed was not much more than half; compared with the purely mercantile output of 1913, both the tonnage and the LH.P. figures wer larger in 1920, and the year ranked as second only to 1913, but the prospects for the future were very poor. Shipping.—The year 1g91f was marked by a rise in freights which continued throughout 1912 and the first half of 1913, but in the end of that year there was something like a collapse, and the “slump” continued until the outbreak of war, when a temporary suspension of chartering was followed by a very sharp rise in freights which continued, progressively until Government control began, in 1917. A further rise took place at the beginning of 1918 in order to cover Government

reorganization

liability for losses in tonnage

through sinkings.

The

of Scottish shipping, after the interruption of the

war, did not make much progress unul the latter half of 1919, owing

tọ the necessities of demobilization; and the process of reorganization was hampered in 1920 by labour troubles and especially by the uncertainty of the export coal trade. Freights continued to be high inthe early part of che year, but even high rates proved to be unprofitable in view of the cost of coal and of labour and rises in harbour tolls, stevedoring, and insurance premiums; and in the end of the year there was a “slump” in freights. The effect of the war may be

traced in the decrease in the total number of vessels registered in Scottish ports. In 1914 there were 494 sailing vessels, with net tonnage 153.323 and 3,441 steam vessels with net tonnage 2,675,720— a total of 3.935 vessels with net tonnage 2.829.043. In 1918 there

were 354 sailing vessels with net tonnage vessels with net tonnage 1,797,907—a total tonnage 7,880,088, the decrease in tonnage gressive untif 1918, in which year there was

downward movement.

$2,181 and 2.759 steam of 3,113 vessels with nec being constant and proa check to the rate of the

The decrease in net tonnage registered in

Scottish ports Was 172,134 in 1915, 232,994 in 1916, 389,183 in 1917 and 154,644 12 1913, the tigures in each case representing the decrease on those of the previous year. Statistics showing the recovery jn

191g and 1920 were not available in Feb. 1921.

The following table

shows the effects of the war and of the first vear of peace upon the imports and exports of merchandise at Scottish ports:—

,

;

Importsin £.

British and Irish Exports

.

Forcign and Colonial Exports Total in £ 3 i .

. :

:

; ee

.

Exports were

specially low in the Forth

half of the year, but, by the beginning of 1912, they showed an ad-

vance of from Is. to 2s. per ton tn all classes of fuel.

Prices remained high in 19f2 and rose in 1913; they varied at ditferent periods in 1914, and the advance of recent years began in 1915, although there were remarkable fluctuations in 1916. Maximum retail prices were fixed for home consumption in 1917.

After the Armistice, prices advanced’

rapidly in the second half of 1919, and the supply was unequal to the demand. Export prices reached an unprecedented level in 1920, but the beginning of 1921 witnessed a “slump” inexports. Before the

war, the Scottish coal trade had to face German competition.

At

one time, Germany was an important market for Scottish coal, but. exports to Germany had fallen to under 3,000,000 tons, and German’

coal was competing with Scottish coal inforeign markets.

New mar-

kets were, however, being opened up, and from 1911-4 Fife coal. was developing large exports to S. America, A new dock at Methil, built principally for this trade by the North British Railway Co. (at

a cost of nearly £1,000,000), was opened in 1913. Tron and Steel—In spite of a temporary decline in the price of hematite pig-iron and steel scrap in rgii, the decade opened well for the steel and iron trades. There was an increase in steel exports in 1911 and it was maintained, in spite of the coal strike, in 1912, and in the first half of 1913; but German competition was severely felt both in home and in Japanese, Canadian and Indian markets,

In ig1q both the pig-iren trade and the stecl trade were inactive, but a rapid improvement followed the outbreak of war, and steel and malleable iron continued to be in great demand throughout the war. ‘The pig-iron market, on the other hand, suffered in 1915 from an unprecedented advance in the price of ore and from freight difficulties. Early in 1916 all the works in which pig-iron was produced were placed under the Ministry of Munitions, and there was a steady de-

mand in spite of reduced exports.

The pressure of work in the steel

and iron trades continued after the decontro! of steel in Jan, 1919

and of iron in the following April, and prices were high.

In the

end of the year steel ship-plates were f19 13s., boiler ship-plates

{24 10s., and angles f19 53., net per ton delivered on the Clyde,

as compared with {7 2s. Gd., {7 17$, 6d., and {6 15s., respectively, the highest prices in 1911. Hematite iron rosę to 210s. per ton as compared with 72s., the highest price in r911. Prices reached still higher levels in 1920, demand farexcceding supply in the earlier part

of the year, but prices proved to be too high tor remunerative trade, and reductions were made in November.

Imports of pig-iron from

France and Belgium were begun, but in quantities so small that competition with Scottish production had not yet become serious. Mineral Oi}, —The Scottish mineral oil trade, the centre of which is W. Lothian, was suffering severely from foreign competition in the

1911

1915

55.442.334 38,242,899

677.301 94.299.012

use.

area because the ports of Bo'ness. Grangemouth, Granton, and Burntisland were largely or entirely requisitioned by the Admiralty. In 1920 the coal controller, to safeguard an expanding home demand,. placed very severe restrictions upon exports; and Scottish exports, in the first ten months of that year, amounted to 1,156,475 tons as compared with 2,129,059 tons in the first ten months of 1919; these figures are exclusive of bunker coal. Total output was reduced by strikes in igi2 and ta 1920, and, during the war, by shortage of labour. Prices were low at the beginning of 1911 and fell in the first

46,053,053

46937,7535

,

.

.

the E. of Scotland, which is largely dependent on overseas trade. Exports further decreased from 1915 to i917. In 1918 they amounted to 7.460,000 tons, or about 45% of the pre-war average, but, in the end of that year, shipments to foreign countries were almost entirel suspended, owing to the demand for bunker coal and for coal for Ad-



1,442,711 QS.127,044

197

1918

1919

76,970,408 44,048,744

100,343,800 32,333,700

112,031,887 69,061,877

1,025,330 122,044.592

520,349 142,203,915

6,146,906 | 183,440,070

Coal.—The table at the foot of the page shows the output of

years immediately preceding the war. Low prices and decreased dividends marked the year 1911; there was a revival in 1912, due partiy to the general “boom ` in trade and partly to the opening up of wider markets, and 1913 was also prosperous in spite of the grow-

closed markets in Germany, Austria, Russia, and Turkey, and inter-

about the average of over 3,000,000 tons of shale in 1914, but prices

Scottish coal in the decade. The export trade before the war amounted in round numbers to 16,000,000 tons per annum, of which 6,500,000 represented bunker coal and coal shipped to home ports. The outbreak of war at once

rupted trade with other countries. T

~,

Nool

i

ee

ARER

The effect was specially felt in

‘3

A

518 520

£

3

y

Goal

ing competition

of the Mexican

oilfields.

Production remained

fluctuated, and exports decreased from 324,704 tons of oil in 1913 to -

No. of persons employed

No. of tons of coal produced

138,377

41,518,163

542

143,302 147,549

39,518,629 42,456,516

535 537 522

121,854 127,104 130,027

35,596,856 30,193,000 38,569,964

547

522

512

146,168

124,475

144,286

38,847,362

-

The estimated output for 1920 was 31.000,000 tons

31,890,218

32,457,864

|

SCOTLAND 311,000 tons. Prices were maintained at a high level throughout the war, and the demand was steady, but, at the beginning of 1919, the largely increased cost of production rendered it very doubtful if the industry (which was estimated to employ directly about 10,000 workpeople and indirectly probably about 50,000) could be continued on a remunerative basis.

The problem was solved by an offer from

the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. to form a new consolidated company known as Scottish Oils Ltd.;

its acceptance by the shareholders

of the Scottish companies allied the Scottish oil trade with a strong

group of oil interests under one central management, and the result has been satisfactory, although demand decreased in the end of 1920 owing to the general uncertainty of trade conditions, Textiles.—The woollen trade in the Borders had a year of great prosperity in 1911, the output and the export trade (especially with Germany) being very great. Thread and yarn makers had also a prosperous year, and the linen trade of Dunfermline was steady, though not bee but the jute trade of Dundee passed through one of its worst years, with unprecedented curtailment of production,

due chiefly to over-production in Calcutta. The following year saw a remarkable revival in the jute industry, which enjoyed a period of unparalleled success, the woollen trade continued to be prosperous

385

agricultural necessities, and the army fent military labour at certain

seasons of the year.

The Corn Production Act of 1917 fed to the

division of Scotland into districts with District Wages Committees to fix wages. The general prosperity of agriculture is shown by the rise in Fiars Prices—average prices ascertained annually by an inquiry held by the sheriff of a county in order to fx the amounts payable to parish ministers for each kind of gram, The prices vary considerably in different counties, but the value of all sorts of grain and of oatmeal was doubled or trebled between Ig11 and 1918, and

remained at its high level through 1919 with a slight decline in 1920.

The wages of agricultural labourers increased proportionally, and their standard of living rose, giving impetus to a tendency notable before the war, to abandon the traditional brose and porridge in favor of more expensive foods and especially butcher's meat. A result of agricultural prosperity was a very large number of sales of land in 1919 and 1920. Scotland, to a large extent, ceased to be a country of huge estates, and the number of farmers who farm their own lands greatly increased. Forestry.—Before the war, there was a revival of interest in forestry,

due to the exertions of several Scottish landlords, and

to the action of the Board of Agriculture and the Development

crease in the purchase of luxuries and from the cessation of imports of raw material. Jute, which had been prosperous in the early part of the year, became unremunerative towards its close. New outlets

Commission. In 1912, a departmental committee, appointed to select a suitable locality for a. demonstration forest area, issued an elaborate report on steps for the promotion of sylviculture, some of their suggestions being adopted by the Development Commission in 1913. These developments were interrupted by the war, for scarcity of labour put an end to afforestation, and the extensive demand for timber brought about a depletion of woodland areas from 1915

military blankets, but reorganization took time and was delayed by lack of dyes and by the circumstance that Scottish flannel was largely made from Belgian raw materials. Throughout the war, the

forests. The depletion of woodlands was continued owing to the demand for timber for purposes of reconstruction in 1919 and 1920,

and conditions in the linen trade were normal.

Prosperity

in textile

industries continued through 1913 aad was not checked until the outbreak of war, when the export of tweeds and linen came suddenly to an end, and the textile industries as a whole suffered from a de-

were found in the manufacture of khaki cloths, fannel shirtings, and

Dunfermline linen tradé suffered more severely than other textiles,

the looms being unsuitable for the goods which were required.

The

jute trade recovered in 1915, largely owing to Government orders.

hese conditions continued to the end of the war;

prices, in spite

of Government control, were very high, and rose after the Armistice.

The year 1919 was very prosperous for the jute trade, and linen made a considerable recovery, in spite of digiculties about raw

matcrial, but the woollen trade suffered from a poor clip after a

severe winter and a late spring, The general prosperity in textile trades continued into the first quarter of 1920, but was followed by an almost complete cessation of demand for woollen and linen goods, and similar conditions prevailed in the jute trade. All over, prices, as determined by cost of production, were too high for the consumer, Agriculture —Agricultural conditions have undergone a large number of changes. Jn 1910, agriculture was an unprofitable occuation for the tenant, and rents were low—~-on the average, about

alf what they were in the ’cighties.

Agricultural wages were also

comparatively low, although they had recently advanced, and the average weekly earnings for all classes of agricultural Jabourers were

higher in Scotland than in England. Farmers were feeling the burden of forcign competition and of the expense of the machinery necessary for scientific farming. The food problem during the war gave a new impetus to agriculture, the effect of which may be seen from the following table:— Area under :=—

Crops and

Arable

Permanent

grass

crops -

acres

acres

acres

acres

grass

land

Corn

I9lt 1914

4,345,535 4,786,179

3,348,568 35295,040

1,497,267 1,491,139

1,218,055 1,186,432

I915

479I

3:240,543

1,490,873

1,220,307

1916 1917

1918

4I

4,775525 3:503,180 4,776,200 | 3,360,342

4,701,101

4,751,475,

3,453,494

3,408,479

1,472,345 1,415,853

1,234,748 1,273,549

342,996

1,378,318

1,307,607

1,493,109

The largest increase in production was in the years r917 and rgr8.

In 1917, the total produce of wheat was 304,169 quarters (an increase of 21,000 quarters over 1916) and in I918 it rose to 402,000 quarters. The figures for barley and bere are 704,788 quarters in 1917 (an increase of 57,600 quarters over 1916) and 677,000 in 1918; and for oats 5,446931 quarters in 1917 and 6,457,0001n 1918. The total produce of the potato crop was 1,110,085 tons in 1917 (an increase of 79,000 tons on 1916) and 1,151,000 tons in 1918. Live stock showed similar variations; the number of horses rose from 206,474 1n IQHI

and 198,704 in 1915 to 207,113 in 1916 and 210,048 in 1917, falling slightly in 1918. Numbers of sheep and pigs declined slightly in the war years—sheep from 7,164,342 in torr to 6,878,198 in 1918, and pigs from 171,115 in 191 to 128,007 in 1918, but cattle rose from 1,200,017 in 1911 to 1,225,330 in 1916 (1,209,842 in 1918). The increases in corn crops and potatoes were the result not only of economic conditions, such as rising prices, but also of administrative and legislative measures. In the summer of 1915 the Secretary for Scotland appointeda departmental committee to report on the measures necessary to increase the production of food during the war; in 1916, the attention of military tribunals was directed to

onwards.

It was estimated in 1916 that more than half of a home

production of 40,600,000 cubic ft. of timber had come from Scottish

and in June of the Jatter ycar there was a series of destructive forest fires in Ross-shire, Inverness-shire and Aberdeenshire. In 1919, a

Forestry Act, passed for the United Kingdom, transferred to the Forestry Commission the powers in this respect of the Board of Agriculture for Scotland. The Commission had acquired, by the end of 1920, about 60,000 ac., of which about half was plantable.

Fisheries.—The character of the Scottish fishing industry was

already undergoing an important devclopment

by the year 1910.

It was ceasing to be conducted by small fishing boats, owned by the fishermen who used them, and was passing into the hands of large

companies whose capital provided the necessary fleets of steam drift-

ers. The capitalization of the industry was extending to salmon fisheries, which were being bought up by wealthy companics. These conditions have persisted even in the Highlands and Islands, where the combination of fishing with the cultivation of crofts became much less common. In 1910, the Scottish fishing fleet consisted of 9,724 vessels, valued at £4,..09,027, of which 1,073 (valued at £2,457,+

586) were propelled by steam; in 1919, there were 6,534 fishing vessels, valued at £7,198,431, of which 3,722 were sailing or rowing

boats; the remainder consisted of 294 steam trawlers (valued at £3.342,255),

767 steam

drifters, and

1,75£ auxiliary motors.

The

number of boats which possessed auxiliary motors in 1910 was 156, Between 1910 and 1919, the number of sailing and rowing boats de-

creased from 8,175 to 3,722, and the estimated value from £642,902 to £122,823. ‘The sailing and rowing boats were manned by 25,985 men and boys in 1910, and by 9,830 1n 1919; the total number of men and boys employed as crews decreased from 38,946 in 1910 to 27,408 in 1919. The increase of motor vessels in the western area was a notable feature of the period. In 1910, 40 motor vessels belonged to Campbeltown and 11 to Ballantrac, and 23 to other W. coast fishin ports; in I919, the numbers at Campbeltown and Ballantrae ha

increased to 78 and 88 respectively and there were 209 belonging to

other ports, of which Loch Carron and Skye possessed 80 (as come

pared with 4 in 1910) and Inverary 70 (as compared with 8 in 1910). Stornoway, where there were no mechanically propelled vessels in 1910, had 18 steam liners and driftersand 13 motor-boats inI9g19, The steam trawlers were still, in 1919, confined to Leith, Montrose, Aber-

deen (which possessed 193 out of 294), and Peterhead, except for 8 belonging to Greenock. The large use of motor-boats was partly a result

of the diversion of steam drifters to other purposes during the war, and the demand for them decreased in 1919, when steam drifters again became available. In the course of the war, 302 trawl

ers, 829 drifters, and 133 motor-boats (a total of 1,264 fishing vessels) were requisitioned by the Admiralty, chiefly as naval auxiliaries.

Of these, about 100 were lost while on war service; of the remainder,

all except 131 were released in 1919 and most of them had been re~ conditioned and were again engaged in the fishing industry by the end of that year. The number of Scottish fishing vessels sunk while engaged in fishing in the course of the war was 96, of which 51 were

trawlers.

In June 1915, no fewer than 34 vessels were lost, and the

experience of that month led to the enforcement of very severe res strictions upon the fishing industry. The effect of war restrictions is evident from the total quantities of fish (exclusive of shell-fish}

landed in Scotland in successive years by Scottish vessels:—1913,

7,267,328 cwts.3; I9T4, 6,926,241 cWts.; 1915, 2,319,390 cwts.; 1916,

3,412,030 Cwts.; 1917, 3,079,768 cwts.; and 1918, 3,313,228 cwts. In 1919, the quantity rose to 5,968,866 cwts. The value of the catch

naturally rose in proportion to scarcity; the value of over 7} million

SCOTT, C.—SCOTT, R. F.

386

‘ewts. in 1913 was £3,733,379; of about 2} million cwts. in 1915, £2,051,171; and of over 3 millioncwts. in 1917, £3,645,015. The most remarkable rise occurred in 1g18, when about 34 million cwts. were valued at £5,991,693. In a week of Jan. of that year, the average price of all white fish sold in Aberdeen was £7 9s. 2d. per cwt. Maximum prices were fixed, but they had necessarily to be fixed at a

high level in view of scarcity of labour and the special dangers attaching to fishing industry. In 1919, the increase in quantity over 1918 was 80%, but the value was £6,063.739—an increase of only a little

above 1%, as compared with 1918; but the average price in 1919 was

about double that of 1910, and prices remained high through 1920. The stress of the outbreak of war was felt specially heavily by the herring industry, for the chief markets for cured herrings were in continental Europe and communication was cut off. There was a

large existing stock of unsold herrings, and great quantities had been sent to German ports. As the war progressed, decreased production and increased home demand led to a great improvement, and exports were resumed—in 1916, 366,682 barrels of herring were exported (as compared with 1,385,323 barrels in 1913), and 113,284 barrels in

1917—so that 1914 was the only disastrous war year.

Increased

production in 1919 brought about a difficult situation, for political

and economic conditions in Russia and in Central Europe prevented the resumption of trade, and the industry was saved from disaster

by a Government guarantee, which was renewed for 1920, but was

refused for 1921, which opened with very gloomy prospects for the herring fishing industry. A committee of the Fishery Board recommended in 1919 that whaling operations should be prohibited in any art of Shetland, on the ground that the decline of the herring fishing in Shetland is directly connected with the introduction and development of whaling, an industry carried on almost entirely by foreigners. Railways and Transport.—No new railways have been constructed since 191%, and the whole railway conditions have been abnormal since 1914. Serious railway accidents during the decade include a collision at Burntisland on April 14 1914, in which two railway employees were killed; collapse of a culvert near Carrbridge on June 18 1914, involving a disaster to a train and the deaths of five passengers by drowning; and an accident at Ratho on Jan. 3 1917

resulting in 12 deaths,

The gravest railway disaster occurred to a

troop train at Quintin’s Hill, near Gretna, on May 22 1915, when 227 of the 7th Royal Scots were killed and 246 were injured. The acci-

dent occurred through the carelessness of two signalmen, both of whom received sentences of imprisonment.

There has been a large

increase in motor transport, but agriculture, fishing, mining and commerce are still handicapped by the lack of transport facilities. The proportion of mileage of railway to pop.is much smaller in Scotland than in such a small maritime country as Sweden, the number of miles of railway per 10,000 pop. being 16-2 in Sweden and 8-2 in Scotland. Transport conditions compare even more unfavourably with Belgium, which has a great system of canals, in addition to an elaborate system of railways, light railways and steam tramways, A committce on Rural Transport, appointed by the Secretary for Scotland, reported in 1919 that the construction of a considerable number of railways and light raifways is essential for the development of the country, especially of inland straths and glens in various regions and of the W. coast and the islands. They gave illustrations of the results of lack of transport—the impossibility of growing early

potatoes on soil specially suitable, the continued use of land for

sheep farming which could be turned into good meadow land, the closing of a lead mine and the impracticability of working iron stone.

In many districts, land could carry more stock and would be capable

of closer settlement if better transport were available. The system of water transport could also be extended with advantage. Scottish

canals fell largely into disuse after the introduction of railways, and some of them were acquired for the construction of their permanent way by railway companies. The total mileage of canals inBcotland is

183. There has been much discussion of the project of a reconstruction of the Forth and Clyde Canal, but without any result, The

question of transport is closely associated with the utilization of water-power, several schemes for which are under consideration, the most important being schemes for the utilization of water-power in the districts of Lochaber and Fort William. In the large towns, there has been a grcat development of systems of electric tramways

shirt-making, umbrella manufacture, straw hats and bonnets manufacture, small ware and fancy goods, but only one person was re-

rted as engaged in lace-making. The total number of workers in

Koine industries was 5,649, about 500 of whom were males. An attempt by Lord Leverhulme to establish in Stornoway a large fishcuring and packing industry and to develop the whole resources of the island has been hampered by the seizure of land by returned soldiers, and the future of the project was in 1921 still uncertain. Lord Leverhuime's proposals included the construction at Stornoway of a fishing harbour superior to any existing harbour on the

W. coast or in the western islands and the completion of a canning

factory and of carding and spinning mills, the building of which was begun before the interruption of the execution of the scheme by. the “raiding " of farms in the spring of 1920. The organization not

only of the fishing industry but also of the Lewis and Harris hand-

woven tweed industry was thus contemplated, along with the open-

ing up of the common grazing lands in Lewis and Harris and the

provision of some 3,000 allotments of a quarter of an acre in size, selected so as not to interfere with existing dairy or other farms, The effects of the World War can readily be traced in Scotland of the present day. The efforts made, alike for the recruiting of the fighting armies, for the production of ships and munitions, and for the maintenance of food supplies, and generally, of the social and

national organization, rendered those years the most strenuous period

in the whole history of the country, and constitute a record of courage and endurance which cannot but leave its mark upon the national character. Like other portions of the Empire, Scotland has, since the end of 1918, suffered from the weariness produced by stupendous effort and from a consequent restiessness and impatience which has found vent in industrial disputes and in an eager adoption, by

some of the youth, of new social ideals, in which the influence of Russian Bolshevik experiments. and propaganda has been conspic-

uous.

Such

manifestations can be paralleled from other periods

following the end of a great military struggle, and there is already

evidence that the disturbances in organization and habit produced by the experiences of the war have reached their climax, and, with the restoration of commercial and industrial prosperity, will cease to operate adversely upon the peace of the country.

SCOTT, CYRIL (187g-

(R. S. R} _—+),English musical composer, pianist

and author, born at Oxton, Birkenhead, Sept. 27 1879, was musically educated at the Hoch conservatorium, Frankfurt A/M, chiefly under Ivan Knorr. While still in the pupil stage Scott heard his first symphony performed at Darmstadt in 1899.

On

Scott’s return to England Hans Richter produced an orchestra suite by him at Liverpool. Subsequently Scott produced a vast amount of music, more especially of songs, most of which are on the same high level as that of the Schumacherlicdcr of his student days. Violin and pianoforte music also poured from his pen. A series of early overtures written for plays by Maeterlinck seem to have been suppressed, but there remain a Christmas overture, the two fine Passacaglias, the Ballad of Fair Ifelen, La Belle Dame sans Merci, and a pianoforte concerto and also two quintets, a

piano quartet and a violin sonata.

Scott also published several

volumes of poems, including The Voice of the Ancient (1910);

The Vales of Unity (1912); The Celestial Aftermath (1915) and the prose book The Philosophy of Modernism (1917). In 1920 his Nativity Hymn was accepted for publication by the Carncgie Trust, and in 1921 he paid a visit to the United States. SCOTT, SIR JOHN EDWARD ARTHUR MURRAY, Bart. (18471912), English art collector, was born at Boulogne Feb. 23 1847. The son of an English doctor at Boulogne, he became secretary to Sir Richard Wallace, heir of the 4th Marquess of Hertford. He

helped Sir Richard to organize relief for the sufferers of the siege of

Paris in 1870, and after the siege, to transport the treasures of the and motor omnibuses, and motor vehicles running in rural districts Hertford art collection from Paris to Bethnal Green museum. It was largely through his influence that Sir Richard Wallace’s have proved formidable competitors to the railways. Highlands and Islands.—The Board.of Agriculture issued in 191 3 ‘widow left the collection cx bloc to the British nation, together with a report on home industries in the Highlands and Islands by Prot. Hertford house, and he acted as chairman of the trustees’ comR. W. Scott, who pointed out that most of the existing home industries depend upon raw materials derived from the land—the hosiery mittee until hisdeath. He becamea trustee of the National Gallery in 1897, was created a baronet in 1899, and a K.C.B. in 1908. He and tweed industry using wool, and the baskct industry, osiers, and that the encouragenemt of these industries must be closely connected died in London Jan. 17 1912. : with gencral agricultural policy. Shetland industries depend upon an improvement of the wool of Shetland sheep; in the Hebrides a

deterioration in the quality of home-grown wool has led to large

imports for Harris tweeds, while in Skye little has been done to encourage the cultivation of osiers. The report recommended the

creation of local committees, under the authority of the Board, to supervise cottage industries, but the outbreak of war prevented the

carrying out of the suggestions made. The home industries in existence in the Highlands and Islands in 1911r were hosiery, wool and worsted manuiacture, basket-making, lace-making, -sik-spinning,

SCOTT, ROBERT FALCON (1868-1912), English sailor and ex-

plorer, was born at Devonport June 6 1868, the sonof Joha Edward Scott of Outlands, Devonport, and entered the navy in 1882. He

was promoted lieutenant and appointed to the “ Amphion” in 1889, and torpedo-licutenant to the ‘‘ Majestic,” flagship of the Channel Squadron, 1898, becoming commarider rgoo. He commanded the National Antarctic expedition of 1901-4 (see 21.966) and

in 1905 published his account of it in The Voyage of the “ Discovery.”

SCOTT-GATTY—SCRIABIN On his return he was promoted captain and commanded first the “ Victorious,” flagship of the Channel Squadron, and subsequently

the“ Essex” and the“ Bulwark.” He was awarded the gold medals of the Royal Geographical Society and of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, and received medals from the geographical societics of many foreign countrics, and an hon. degree from Cambridge. During part of. 1909 he was naval assistant to the Second Sea Lord of the Admiralty, and in June 1910 he again set out for the Antarcticin the “ Terra Nova’ in command of a new expedition, financed partly by private individuals but aided: by a Govern-

ment grant. He arrived at Lyttelton, N.Z., in Oct. and reached

McMurdo Sound at the end of the year. On Nov. 2 1911 he started

387

the college, and in 1904 was made Garter principal king-at-arms and knighted. Sir Alfred Scott-Gatty was an authority on heraldry and genealogy, and presented many copies of records to the Heralds’ College. He was also an accomplished musician, many of whose songs became popular. In 1911 he was created K.C.V.O. He died in London Dec. 18 ror8. SCRIABIN, ALEXANDER NICHOLAEVICH (1871-10915), Russian composer,

was born at Moscow

on Christmas day 1871

(O.S.). His father was a lawyer; his mother, a good pianist and pupil of Leschetitsky, died when he was one year of age. His schooling was reccived in the Moscow Cadet Corps, but he never showed any liking for the military career for which he was intended, and at 18 entered the Moscow Conservatory of Music

on his journey of $50 m. to the Pole, accompanied all the way by Dr. E. A. Wilson, Capt. L. E. G. Oates, Lt. H. R. Bowers, and where he was a pupil of Safanov and Tanier. On leaving the Petty-Officer Edgar Evans. He reached the Beardmore glacier on conservatory Scriabin was greatly helped by the patriotic music Dec. 10 and on Jan. 4 1913 left behind him his last supporting publisher Belayef, who brought out his earlier works and party in lat. 87° 32’S. When last heard of he was about 150m. from arranged a European piano recital tour for him. At 20 he the Pole, which his record shows that he reached Jan. 17 only to returned to Moscow and joined the conservatory staff. Later. find Amundsen’s tent and records left there one month earlier. he again travelled, this time for six years, visiting the United. On the return journcy Evans fell (Feb. 17) in descending the States amongst other countries. Ife then settled in Brussels Beardmore glacier and died shortly after. Blizzards were for some time, and in 1910 returned to Moscow. In ror14 Scriabin encountered and progress was slow. Food ran short, and on visited England, giving two piano recitals, playing his own March 17 Oates went out alone to die. Three days later a fresh Concerto and appearing as pianist in his Prometheus. He was blizzard checked the survivors, whose supply of oil-fuel was ex- then suffering from a tumour of the lip, from which, soon after hausted and their food-supply very low. Scott’s last entry in his his return, he died, April 14, rors. diary was made on March 24. He was then only 11 m. from One Asa composer Scriabin represents what may be called the classical Ton depot and a supply of food; but he was unable to reach it school carried forward to its most advanced point. The form of his and symphony movements he derives from Mozart, through and died, with Wilson and Bowers, on or about March 27 1912. sonata Beethoven; however bewildering these may at first sound, they will A search party, sent out from the base in March 1912, had been driven back from One Ton depot by the weather, andit was recognized that there was no chance of Scott’s party surviving the winter, Nothing further could be attempted until Oct., when search parties went out, and on Nov. 12 Dr. Atkinson and Mr.

Wright found Scott’s tent with the bodics of Scott, Bowers and Wilson and the valuable scientific records. Capt. Scott had a warm sympathy for scientific research and a good knowledge of many branches of scicnce qualifying him for the leadership of an expedition, the main results of which were obtained by the labours of his scientific colleagues. The news of the disaster did not reach England until the survivors landed in N.Z. Feb. ro 1913. A memorial service, held in St. Paul’s cathedral, London, Feb. 14, was attended by King George, and by royal warrant the rank and precedence of the wife of a K.C.B. were conferred on Capt. Scott’s widow, A fund was raised as a memorial of Capt. Scott, from which ample provision was made for the surviving relatives of the lost explorers, and the balance was devoted to the promotion of polar research, a substantial amount being granted in r921 towards the endowment of the Polar Research Institute of the Geographical department of the university of Cambridge. On Sept. 2 1908, Scott had married Miss E. A. Kathleen Bruce, daughter of Canon Lloyd Bruce.

Lady Scott had attained some

reputation asa sculptor, and, later, executed statues of her husband, which have been erected in Waterloo Place, London, and. at Portsmouth. Her other works include a statue of his companion, Dr. Wilson, at Cheltenham, one of Capt. Smith of the ‘‘ Titanic” at Litchfield, and portrait busts of Mr. Asquith, Lord Knutsford,

John Galsworthy, Granville Barker, and other well-known contemporarics. She was one of the first women to undertake munition making, and in 1916 she became private secretary to the secretary of the Ministry of Pensions. In Jan. 1922 her engagement to Lt.-Comm. Edward Hilton Young, D.S.O., M.P. (b. 1879), financial secretary to the Treasury, was announced.

SCOTT-GATTY, SIR ALFRED SCOTT (1847-1918), British herald and genealogist, was born at Ecclesfield, Yorks, April 26 1847, the son of the Rev. Alfred Gatty, vicar of Ecclesfield and sub-dean of York, by his wife Margaret Scott (see 11.530), a popular writer. One of his sisters was Juliana Horatia Orr-Ewing (see 10.40), the writer of children’s books. The additional name of Scott was assumed by him by royal licence in 1892. He was educated at Marlborough and Christ’s College, Cambridge. In 1880 he entered the Heralds’ College and became Rouge Dragon pursuivant, and in 1886 was appointed York herald. In 1899 he became registrar of

be found, on a second or third hearing, to be laid out on essentially

the Mozart-Beethoven lines. In his pianistic idiom and general pianistic qualities of style, Scriabin derives largely from Chopin, of whose work he was a great admirer. All this then indicates a conservative side to his composition, but he was more radical in his harmonies, and it was, probably, largely the novelty of these that retarded appreciation of his later works. Gradually he evolved what may be called a new scale or, from another point of view, a new chord. It consists of the upper partials of the fourth octave from the fundamental note, less two (taking C as the fundamental note— C, D, E, F#, A, B> or, arranged as a superposition of fourths, as Scriabin most frequently uses them, C, FZ, Bb, E, A, D). The hint of this new harmonic scheme may be seen in the earliest compositions, and its development was fairly regular and consistent, until it came to dominate his later output. In his later works he discards entirely the old key signatures. In his orchestration Scriabin calls for a large force, and uses it very freely: his scores are excessively contrapuntal in texture, the various instruments moving very independently and weaving together their respective themes: muted brass plays a large part in his orchestral colour scheme. In the First Symphony a chorus is used in the finale; the ‘‘ Poem of Tire "’ also uses a chorus, but in an orchestral way, no words being supplied. For the lastnamed work the composer also wrote an optional part for a “ Tastiera per luce,” or keyboard of light, the intention being that varying colours should play upon a screen as the work was being performed. The composer was greatly interested in theories as toa correspond ence between the musical scale and the scale of colours. In his great Mystery (left unfinished at his death) music, dance, speech, perfume

and colour were

to be combined;

this work was to be

rather a work of ritual than of art, and was to express its author's idealistic mysticism through the medium of 2,000 participants.

It is usual to look upon Scriabin’s musical work as largely the expression of theosophical views, and undoubtedly much of his in-

spiration was drawn from the works of Blavatsky and others.

He

was not, however, a close reader, or a careful thinker, Seizing the main idea of a book or a erced, he would neglect the details, and his imagination would quickly develop a huge scheme of thought having little relation to what he had read, The titles of many of his works and of their separate parts, and the marks of expression afhxed to particular passages, indicate plainly the existence of a spiritual programme.” The emancipation of the human soul through ceaseless striving, and its achievement of self-expression, may be said, very roughly, to represent the general sense of the spiritual basis of Sertabin’s musical works.

The works of Scriabin have been variously classed into periods. A logical classification is into four periods as follows: Ist period, with

a strong Chopin influence; the dividing line between this and the 2nd

period runs through the First Symphony, and the 2nd period shows some Wagner and Liszt influences;

and the 3rd period runs begins with the “ Poem Works.—Orchestral: JI. (29); Symph. HI., Prometheus, or *‘ Poem

the dividing line between this

through the Fifth Sonata, and a 4th period of Fire.” Revery (op. 24); Symph.. T. (26); Symph. or Divine Poem (43); Symph. IV. Gy: of Fire" (60). Piano: Sonatas Il. (op. 6);

SCULPTURE

388

II. (19); JIT. (23); TV. (0); V. 653); VI. (62); VIT. (64); VIH.

(66); LX. (68); X. (70). A very large number of preludes, études, impromptus, mazurkas, poems, etc., including the great * Vers la Flamme’’ pocm and the much-discussed last work, the Five Preludes (op. 74). Piano and Orchestra: Concerto (op. 20). No songs or chamber music are included in Scriabin's output. (P. A. S.)

SCULPTURE (see 24.488).—The state of coma which, so far

The revival of sculpture which marked this period was not evident alone in parochial and civic patronage; it was found— not for the first time—a suitable and convenient, and certainly an effective, channel, through which might be expressed international courtesies adaptable to various occasions.

‘Three such

works, which might be regarded as political, were erected in as public interest is concerned, had afflicted European, and London during the year 1920-1, to which reference will be made particularly British, sculpture up to the neighbourhood of 1910, Jater. During 1912 two such monuments were unveiled in France, yielded at about that date to a long-sustained treatment of both of which were in the form of courtesies between that counshocks administered by the exhibitors of what has been regarded try and Great Britain. On April 12 M. Poincaré unveiled at as ‘‘freak” sculpture. These shocks, sporadic but startling Nice the Queen Victoria Memorial, and on April 13 a memorial and lingering in their effect, had persisted throughout the pre- to King Edward was presented to the public at Cannes. ceding decade, and the so-called “ rebels,” authors of these | In the meantime one of the most important events of 1912 frequently unintelligible sculptural efforts, found their ranks in England was the completion of Alfred Stevens’s monument considerably swelled by converts to a system that seemed both tothe Dukeof Wellington in St. Paul’s Cathedral by the addition easy of adoption and financially profitable. Hitherto, indecd, of the bronze equestrian statue of the duke which was designed British sculpture had been well-nigh moribund, and only on to surmount the monument. Alfred Stevens, the designer of occasion had the public evinced an interest in the case by crowd- this splendid work, had died leaving the memorial incomplete, ing the bedside of the invalid to witness in some London gallery.

the delirium of the dying art as represented by the works of some new “ rebel.” The attention of the public was caught and their mind entertained to an unusual degree in the closing years of the last century when

Rodin, the great French

world by his originality of freshness and vigour of his was, however, ill sustained academicism which Rodin

master, startled the

thought and won admiration by the work. The interest thus awakened in England, until the breach with inaugurated by his originality and

independence was reflected and rendered

the artistic “rebels” in Great Britain.

wider in the work of

The wave of revulsion

from academicism and realism reached perhaps its high-water mark in ro1o, and in 1921 had shown no sign of ebbing.

It would be difficult to classify these revolutionaries or to apply to their work any generic term, yet this movement has something in common with the post-impressionism of the painters.

It had reached England from the Continent, where it was

far more widely spread and had rooted more deeply. In France it received smaller encouragement than in Germany and Austria, where its influence is revealed in much of the recent monumental sculpture. The gospel of the movement forbids in chief any show of anatomical detail, and allows but little of true construction or of natural forms, There can be little doubt that to this movement, in part at least, was due the awakening of public intcrest in sculpture about the year 1910, It was during the following year that con-

and it must for ever remain a matter for regret that many important architectural features in Stevens’s original design were modified with results destructive to the purity of the style and the elasticity of the structure.

It was not until 45 years after

Stevens's untimely death that the screens were removed and the completed monument revealed to the public gaze. Fortunately the great sculptor had left behind him a small model which he had designed for the equestrian group, and John Tweed, who was finally commissioned to carry out this portion of the work, followed and developed with no mean intelligence the ideas con-

veyed in the small original model. The result is not, however, as happy as could have been desired. The horse is in the Renaissance style as intended by Stevens, and is in keening with the rest of the design; the light is quite inadequate to illuminate the upper parts of the monument, which is far too high for its position, the bronze group barely clearing the overhead structure of the building and consequently suffcring some obscurity. The Tate Gallery, in London, latterly more fittingly known as

the National Gallery of British Art, was enriched by the addition of Havard Thomas’s bronze statue “ Lycidas,” the gift of Mr.

and Mrs. E. Sadler, while perhaps the most interesting work in the Royal Academy exhibition of rọr2 was the same sculptor’s statue ‘‘Thyrsis,” which was acquired by the Felton Bequest

Committee for the National Gallery of Melbourne. The outbreak of the World War had no immediately noticeable

efiect on British sculpture.

The work shown at the Royal

Academy exhibition just then concluded had been of an unusual-

siderable efforts were made to collect for public exhibition the

ly high standard, Sir Thomas. Brock’s statue of Capt. Cook had

works of that foremost of British sculptors, Alfred Stevens. That these efforts were successful was plain from the space de-

been set up in the Mall, London, and a very large number of

works of some importance were well on the way to completion voted to the exhibition in the Tate Gallery during Nov, and in the autumn of ror4. These did much to cover any paucity Dec. rq1r and Jan. following. This exhibition constituted in which might have been apparent in the exhibition of the followthe case of the majority of visitors a first introduction to the ing year. Neverthcless, upon the outbreak of hostilitics a vast finest sculptor Great Britain had produced. ‘The interest it number of contracts for important architectural sculpture were provoked encouraged a scheme for a further and more permaat once cancelled or their exccution postponed. This, it is hardly nent collection and preservation of the scattered works of this necessary to say, resulted in a period of distress and stagnation great master. Public interest in Stevens was promoted to a very which terminated only with the demand for war memorials after large extent by the labours of the Stevens Memorial Committee, the signing of the Armistice.

and by the enthusiasm and solicitude of Prof. Legros, and it

was on behalf of this Committee that in 1911 the late Sir William Richmond presented to the trustees of the gallery an interesting bust of Stevens by Edouard Lantéri. Since then the collection

at the Tate Gallery has been enriched by a cast of Stevens’s remarkably fine chimney picce at Dorchester House. Foremost of European sculptural works raised in ro11 were,

in Rome, the large memorial to King Victor Emmanuel, and, in London, the great memorial to Queen Victoria at Buckingham

Palace. The Victor Emmanuel monument reveals no individualism or inspiration in its design or modelling. The Victoria Mem-

orial, largest of sculptural monuments in London, is imposing in its effect and is magnificently situated at the head of the Mall

and before the Palace. In 1912 the great bronze quadriga by Adrian Jones was placed upon Decimus Burton’s arch at the top

of Constitution Hill, London.

While general attention was focussed upon the war, British

sculpture suffered a severe blow by the death of Prof. Edouard Lantén, of the Royal College of Art. Asa sculptor his output amounted to little, but, as he himself would have had it, the

fruits of his teaching will long survive him, and those sound constructive principles of sculpture which he taught will remain an influence in that distinctively British school of sculpture which he endeavoured to promote. Two works of outstanding beauty and remarkable workmanship in the Academy exhibition of 1914 should be mentioned: Havard Thomas’s bronze cast of his “ Thyrsis,” which had appeared in wax two years previously, and Derwent Wood’s

bronze bust of Mr. Henry James. No sculpture of importance was made public during 1015 beyond Rodin’s “ Burghers of Calais,” Lady Scott’s statue of Capt. Scott, and such works as were exhibited at the Royal

SEAMAN—SEDGWICK

389

Academy. Mr. Toft’s figure, “The Bather,” was a notable exhibit, and it was bought by the Trustees of the Chantrey

Edward VII. was unveiled in Waterloo Place by King George. The sculptor was knighted after the ceremony. In Scotland Mr. Pettendrigh MacGillivry was made “ King’s Sculptor,” a

which attracted much attention was the statue “‘ Premier Matin”

title that has no counterpart in England. (C. Po.) Unitep States.—Although the period 1910-20 brought to light no new master in American sculpture, it showed an in-

Bequest for the national collection.

A large work in marble

by the Belgian sculptor Egide Rombeaux.

Political interest in

Serbia, arising out of the war, was in part responsible for the exhibition this year in London of the work of Mestrovic, the

crease in the number of sculptors, and much good work was

Serbian sculptor; his work, though showing an extreme revolt

done. D. C. French, who in 1920 had reached the age of 70,

against academicism, is undoubtedly powerful and full of individualism. Rodin’s already well-known bronze group, “ The Burghers of Calais,” purchased in 1912 by the National Arts Collection fund, was crected in Victoria Tower Gardens, London,

was still indefatigable; conspicuous among his later works were the “Melvin Memorial” and the statue of Emerson, both at

and the memorial statue of Capt. Scott was set up in Waterloo

Concord, Mass.; “ Lincoln,” at Lincoln, Neb.; the Longfellow and Lafayette reliefs; the exquisite Spencer Trask Memorial at Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and the imposing “ Lincoln” for

Place, London.

Washington, D.C., besides a score of architectural groups of

Derwent Wood won further honour with his child’s head (a portrait of Master Charles Haviland Hillman) in the Academy in 1917. This year was specially marked, however, by the death

high value. F. W. MacMonnies erected a “ Pioneer Fountain” at Denver and a Washington group at Princeton, N.J. G. G. Barnard was as always original; his gigantic processionals in Harrisburg, like his rugged “ Lincoln ” in Cincinnati, compelled attention and discussion. Paul Bartlett devoted years to his equestrian “Lafayette” for Paris, following this with the pedimental group for the capitol, Washington, D.C. Henry Shrady’s

of that greatest of modern sculptors, Auguste Rodin, a master

who has exercised probably a greater influence upon the sculpture of his day than has any before him. His works had long since found their way into every important public and private

collection of modern art in Europe and America; a triumph of extraordinary significance, because it was not until comparatively late in his career that he won official recognition. In Aug. 1919 a picturesque figure was removed from sculpture circles by the death of Walter Winans. Never a sculptor of more than technical ability, Winans worked to please himself and for the entertainment of his friends. Horses and shooting were perhaps as great a passion with him, and, though in sculp-

ture he was a gifted dilettante and no more, he had some successes and was widely known. Save for the few exceptions of those men unable to render war-service, almost every now been for some time with the fighting the hospitals or munition works at home. those of which bronze is constituted—were

to General

Grant

(Washington,

D.C.)

was

a

work of sincerity. H. A. MacNeil embellished Ohio’s capitol with his “McKinley Memorial” and Albany with a soldiers’ monument.

St. Paul and Springfield, Il., and Worcester, Mass.,

gained new works by Andrew O’Connor,

A. A. Weinman’s

Baltimore group, C. Keck’s “Republic” in Pittsburgh, and H. A. Lukeman’s various monuments were important contributions. Karl Bitter’s untimely death in 1915 was a great loss:

among his last works were the admirable East pediment of the Wisconsin state capitol, the austere “‘ Carl Schurz”’ (New York),

who were physically British sculptor had forces or engaged in Mctals—particularly controlled by Gov-

ernment in order to safeguard the supply necessary to the manufacture of war munitions, This supply, though suficient for

those needs, did not very far exceed them; it is worthy of note, therefore, that the Government, in the interests of sculpture,

ascertained the average amount of bronze used by those sculptors who were still at work, and assigned to cach such quantity of metal as was in fair proportion to his previous needs. Beyond this, however, the British Government did little or nothing to encourage or to make use of sculpture, though Germany, in the meantime, found a valuable weapon in the production of war

medals, which were designed as propaganda to serve the double purpose of heartening the German people by commemorating real or supposed victories and of disseminating in neutral coun-

tries evidence of Albion’s perfidy and of the success of German arms.

monument

These medals, of which some hundred or more were de-

signed, are in very many cases works of a high artistic order, and several museums in Great Britain have secured fairly

and the“ Lowry Memorial” in Minneapolis.

Another good pedi-

ment was that of the Kentucky capitol by Charles Niehaus. Miss Anna Hyatt’s “ Joan of Arc”? (New York) wascompletely

successful. Cyrus E. Dallin continued his mounted Indians; “The Appeal to the Great Spirit’ was perhaps the finest. J. E. Fraser’s “ End of the Trail" wasa notable achievement. Among portrait statues were Weinman’s seated “Lincoln” (Hodgensville, Ky.); Edmund T, Quinn’s “Edwin Booth” (New York); R. Tait McKenzic’s ‘‘ Whitefield” (Philadelphia); and Leonard

Crunelle’s “Governor Oglesby” (Chicago). Herbert Adams produced his ‘ Bryant” (New York), as also his graceful MacMillan Fountain in Washington, D.C. In portrait busts Charles Grafly continucd to lead, with his former pupil, Albin Polasek, aclose second. Atillio Piccirilli’s “ Outcast ” and “A Soul” were

sculpture “ by first intention.”

McCartan’s graceful fauns and

Rudolf Evans’ beautiful “ Golden Hour” were of this period. Chester Beach and Paul Manship continued their successful work.

Sherry Fry’s fountain for St. George, Staten Island, re- .

vealed skill of a high order. Evelyn Longman was well represented by her Allison Memortal (Des Moines, Ia.), and the Illinois Centennial Monument, Logan Square, Chicago. Nellie V. Walker had important works in many western cities—for

representative collections of them.

example, her heroic “Keokuk.”

During 1920-1 no fewer than three public statues which may well fall under the category of ‘‘ International Courtesies” were erected in London: the monument of ‘ Gratitude” (a bronze group by Victor Rousseau)—the gift of Belgium—erected on

and several fountains were also of this period. Doubtless the most stimulating event of the decade was the Panama-Pacifie Exposition of 1915 in San Francisco. Among the many sculptors who made valuable contribution to its display of decorative art were Calder. Aitken, Roth, MacNeil, Jaegers, and Konti. (L. T.) SEAMAN, SIR OWEN (1861— }, English poet and cditor of

the Thames Embankment in Canning Enclosure, Westminster;

the statue of Abraham Lincoln by Saint-Gaudens—a gift of the United States; and the bronze replica of Houdon’s George Washington, presented by the state of Virginia and set up in Trafalgar Square. The London memorial to Nurse Cavell by Sir George Frampton, erected near St. Martin’s church, Trafalgar Square, caused something like a sensation in 1920 by the evidence it gave of this well-known academic sculptor’s conversion to simple and severe forms of archaicism. This was particularly noticeable in the treatment of the architectural forms. Some remarkable sculpture was exhibited in June 1921 by Paul Manship, a sculptor of great individuality and strength of modelling. In July 1921 Bertram MacKennal’s equestrian statue of King

Lorado Taft’s “ Black Hawk”

Punch (see 24.543), was knighted in rọr4. His later volumes include War Time (1915); Made in England (1916) and From the Home Front (1918), mainly reprints of verses contributed to

Punch. At the beginning of the World War he joined the “ Veterans” corps of the former Inns of Court Volunteers, later known as the Inns of Court Reserve Corps (2nd batt. of the County of London Volunteer Regt.),

He was gazetted lieutenant in 1916.

SEDGWICK, ADAM (1856-1913), English biologist, was born at Norwich Sept. 28 1856. Educated at Marlborough, King’s College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became fellow and tutor of his college and assisted F. M. Balfour, the first

SEEBOHM—SEISMOLOGY

390

professor of animal morphology at Cambridge.

From 1890 to

1907 he held a readership in that subject himself, and in 1907

became professor of zodlogy in Cambridge University. Two years later he was transferred to the Imperial College of Science and

Technology in the same capacity. Details of his work in cytology and embryology are to be found in 7.720, 9.320 and 328. Hedied in London Feb. 27 1913. SEEBOHM, FREDERIC

(1833-1912), English historian, was a

native of Bradford and came of a Quaker family. His interest in problems of modern life, social and religious, led him tọ study the conditions of English rural life in the past and the religious movements of the Reformation. In his English Village Community (1853) he dwelt on the survival of Roman influencesinagricultural life; and in his Tribal Systems in Wales (1895) he‘reconstituted a Celtic society from r4th century evidence. He died at Hitchin Feb. 6 1912.

SEELY, SIR CHARLES, rst Bart. (1833-1915), British politician was born at Lincoln Aug. 11 1833. He came of a family which held large property, including coal-mines, in the Midlands, and also in the Isle of Wight. In 1869 he entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for Nottingham, but lost his seat at the gencral election of 1874. He was reélected in 1880, but seceded

from the Liberal party on Irish Home Rule, and in 1885 lost his seat. He was once more elected in 1892, and held the seat until 1895. In 1896 he was created a baronet. Sir Charles Seely was a warm supporter of the Volunteer movement, He died suddenly at Brooke House, Isle of Wight, April 16 rors, His youngest son, JON EDWARD BERNARD SEELY (1868), British politician, was born at Brooke Hill Hall, Derbyshire, May 31 1868. Educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1897, and from 1900 to 1901 served with

the yeomanry during the South African War. In 1900 he entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Isle of Wight, but was defeated at the 1906 election.

Ile was, however, elected

the same year for the Abercromby division of Liverpool. In 1908 he entered the Asquith Government as Under-Secretary for the Colonies, but in roxo lost his seat, although in the second general election of that year he stood successfully for the Ilkeston division of Derbyshire. In 1911 he was made Under-Secretary for War, and in 1912 became War Minister. Owing, however, to the events attending the Curragh incident of r914, he resigned in the summer.

He served in the army with distinction in the World War, rising to the rank of general in 1918, and on his return to official life became parliamentary under-secretarv to the Ministry of Munitions and deputy-Minister of Munitions (1918). In Jan. rọrọ he became Under-Secretary for Air, and president of the Air Council, but resigned in Nov. of the same year.

SÉGUR,

PIERRE

M. M. H., MARQUIS

DE

(1853-1916),

French author (see 24.534), died at Poissy Aug. 13 1916.

SEISMOLOGY (see 8.817 and 24.589).—Strictly speaking, seismology is that department of knowledge which is concerned with the study of earthquakes, and such was its meaning up to the end of the roth century, the older seismology being exclu-

sively concerned with the earthquake which could be felt.

In

the early nineties it was discovered that suitably designed and sufficiently sensitive seismometers recorded disturbances which were evidently connected with great carthquakes, and, as it was known that the intensity of disturbance decreased with an in-

of the Californian earthquake of 1906, arrived at the conclusion that the fractures and dislocations of the surface rocks, which gave rise to the destructive earthquakes, were but a secondary consequence of a deep-seated disturbance, to which he gave the name of balhyseism, and suggested that this, and not the earth-

quake, was the origin of the disturbance which, propagated

through the interior of the earth, gave rise to the long-distance records, commonly

known

as scismograms,

Subsequent

con-

sideration of other earthquakes confirmed his belief in the correctness of the conclusion, and from this it results that the word “seismology ”’ is at present being used to cover two distinct and independent departments of study, which may be distinguished

as teleseismology (rpde, distant) or the study of the long-distance records, and engysseismology (€yybs, near) or the study of the earthquake proper, each being distinct and independent offshoots of the bathyseism, or deep-seated disturbance. It is the first of these which, at the present day, is more especially meant by scismology, and it is an instance of the way in which words

gradually depart from their original meaning, that the term should have come to imply something which has no direct connexion with earthquakes.

Nothing is known at present of the origin of the bathyseism, and very little of the depth at which it originates. The latter probably varies considerably, those disturbances which give rise to well-marked teleseisms and moderate surface earthquakes taking place at greater depths than others which are

accompanied by violent and destructive earthquakes. The only suggestion which has yet appeared of the depth of origin is by Dr. G. W. Walker, who has followed up certain investigations, started by Prince Boris Galitzin, of the angle of emergencies of

the wave-paths, and finds that in many cases they indicate an origin at a considerable depth (it may be as much as 1,200 km.)

below the surface. These investigations require following up before they can be accepted as conclusive, but the suggestion is of interest; there is no inherent impossibility, and it scems to offer a possible explanation of some difficulties which have arisen in the interpretation of the long-distance seismograms. Since 1910 many improvements in detail have been made in

the instruments used for obtaining the long-distance records of the newer, or tele-, seismology, and an entirely new principle

was introduced by the late Prince Boris Galitzin for a direct

measurement

of the acceleration

of the true motion of the

ground, This instrument is based on the fact that, if a plate of quartz is subjected to pressure between two sheets of metal, a free electric charge appears in those sheets, the amount of which

ig proportioned to the pressure.

An instrument was actually

constructed on this principle and subjected to experimental tests, but has not been applied to the recording of natural disturbances, owing to the death of the inventor and the effects of

the political revolution in Russia. The rate of propagation of wave-motion through the earth, as registered by long-distance seismographs, has been investigated by Dr. C. G. Knott, who has succeeded in solving the mathemat-

ical difficulties of the problem.

He finds that the rate of trans-

mission of both the first phase, condensational, and of the second

phase, distortional, waves increases continuously till the wavepath attains a depth of about three-tenths of the earth’s radius, the wave-paths reaching lesser depths than this having a con-

crease of distance from the central region of greatest violence, it

tinuously curved form, convex towards the centre of the earth.

was

disturbances,

Beyond this the rate of propagation is nearly constant, even de-

registered at great distances, were due to the same cause that

creasing at certain depths so that some of the wave paths are concave towards the centre in part of their course. Below sixtenths of the radius the distortional wave is killed out, and is not registered at distances greater than 120° from the epicentre. The rate of propagation of the two forms of wave-motion is about 7-2 and 4-0 km. per second respectively, near the surface of the earth, and about 12-8 and 6-8 at depths of over 1,500 kilometres.

natural

to conclude

that

the very

small

gave rise to the destructive earthquake. With the accumulation of observations difficulties began to arise; it was found that neither the magnitude. of the disturbance, nor the distance at which record could be obtained, bore any constant relation to

the magnitude of the earthquake. Some shocks of great violence gave small records, not very extensively distributed, while

others of much less severity at the place of origin gave much larger records and were registered all over the earth. The distant records, however, continued to be regarded as records of the earthquake itself, and are still generally described as such.

In 1909 R. D. Oldham,

when examining the circumstances

For the older seismology or study of earthquakes proper, see

GEoLocy (section Dynamical Geology). AUTHORITIES.—The best general introduction to the newer seismology is Dr. G. W. Walker, Modern Seismology (1913). The most complete is by Prince B. Galitzin, original in Russian; a German translation, Vorlesungen in Seismomeirie, appeared in 1912. G. W.

SEITZ—-SELF-DETERMINATION

391

Assn. Rep. (1917, | the nations of the Entente were then supposed to be fighting, Walker, “Focal depth and the Time Curve,” ofBrit.Earthquake Waves

p. 13). C. G. Knott, * The Propagation Through the Earth, and Connected Problems,” Proc. Roy. Sec. Edin-

burgh (1919, p. 157).

SEITZ, KARL

(1869-

(R. D. O.)

), Austrian politician, was born at

Left withVienna on Sept. 4 186ọ, the son of a wood merchant. out parents at an early age, he grew up in an orphanage, and, after

completing his course in the public clementary school, began to learn the tailoring trade, until through the medium of patrons he

was provided with a place in the teachers’ seminary at St. Pölten.

In this way he became an clementary school teacher. Originally inclined to the German National party, he joined in 1883 the Social Democratic party. He organized the Social Democratic teachers of Vienna, andin the Diet of Lower Austria waged a fierce fight against Burgomaster Lueger and the dominant Christian Socialist party. Elected to the Austrian Reichsrat in 1901, he became, after the death of Pernerstorfer, its vice-president down to its dissolution. After the revolution of 1918 he was president of the German-Austrian National Assembly, and subsequently of the national parliament (Nationalrat) until the new elections in Oct. 1920, and federal president until Nov. 1920. He wasin 1921 chairman of the committee of the Social Democratic party and of the parliamentary party, and vice-president of the Nationalrat, SELBORNE, WILLIAM WALDEGRAVE PALMER, 2ND EARL OF }, English politician (see 24.599), on his return from (1859the governorship of South Africa resumed his prominent posi-

tion in the House of Lords. He took an active share in defending the House against Liberal attack, and was one of the leading “Die-hards” who maintained an uncompromising resistance to the Parliament bill. In regard to Irish Home Rulc, he constantly pressed for a referendum to the people. As a former First Lord of the Admiralty, he contributed decisively to the condemnation

passed by the House on the Declaration of London. When the World War came he was largely occupied with his military duties with the 3rd Battalion of the Hampshire Regiment; but he

joined the first Coalition Ministry as Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. As minister he appointed a committee of technical experts and practical agriculturists, under the chairmanship of Lord Milner, to report on the means of maintaining and increasing food production in England and Wales; but, fortifed by the opinion of a Scottish committee appointed for the same purpose,

he and the Government rejected the English committce’s recommendation to guarantee farmers a minimum price of 45s. a quarter for the four years following the harvest of 1916. He preferred a plan for organization and coöperation through ihe county councils and the Board of Agriculture. In June of the following year he resigned his office because he disapproved of the Irish policy accepted by Mr. Asquith’s Government as a result of Mr. Lloyd George’s negotiations with Irish leaders. He did not join Mr. Lloyd George’s Ministry, and after the war he was mainly conspicuous in ecclesiastical matters; he was forward in promoting the movement for self-government in the Church which culminated in the Church Enabling Act of 1919. His elder son, ROUNDELL, CecIL, ViscT, WoLMER (b. 1887), entered Parliament in 1910, and proved an active member of the Unionist party. A younger son was killed in the war. SELF-DETERMINATION.—This phrase, defined in the Oxford New English Dictionary as “ the determination of one’s mind or will by itself towards an object,” was used exclusively, from the ryth century to within quite recent years, as a synonym for

“ free will ” in the individual person, as opposed to the determination of this will by God’s predestination—the doctrine of Determinism. Thus John Scott, in his Christian Life (1683-6), speaks of ‘‘ necessary agents, that have no Free-will or Principle of Self-determination,” and Bishop Stillingfleet, in his Origines Sacrae (1662), of giving man “ the freedom of his actions, and a sel{-determining power.” The New English Dictionary fails to show any use of the phrase in earlier days in the sense in which it became widespread and familiar at the close of the World War, and it has been commonly assumed that it was a new word coined, or rather adapted from the Russian Samo-obrachenie, to give convenient expression to the political principle for which

that is to say, the right of nations to determine their own alle-

giance and form of government. this sense even before the war.

It had, however, been used in Thus in his article on RoME in the earlier volumes (11th edition) of this Encyclopaedia (a recension of the oth edition article by Prof. H. F. Pelham) Prof. H. Stuart Jones, writing of the Roman provincial government,

says that ‘ nothing could compensate for the lack of self-determination ” (see 23.653). It was after the Revolution of March 1917 in Russia that * self-determination ’’ as a political catch-word came into sud-

den prominence. On April 10 the Russian Government, then dominated by the Radical element under Kerensky, issued a statement which said, among other things, that “ Free Russia

does not aim at dominating other nations; . its object is to establish a durable peace on the basis of the rights of nations to decide their own destiny.” The substance of this proclamation was at once condensed into the formula “ self~ determination, no annexations, no indemnities,” which was to produce so profound, and in some ways so disastrous, an infiuence on the world-settlement which followed the war. The principle

of self-determination had, indeed, already been laid down by President Wilson in his address to Congress of Jan. 22 1917. ‘No peace can last,” he said, ‘‘ or ought to last, which does not recognize and accept the principle that Governments derive all their just powers from the consent of the governed.” The principle, and the words in which it is defined, are those of the American Declaration of Independence; it was not till a year later that President Wilson himself crystallized this principle in the word “ self-determination ” in the address to Congress of Feb. 11 1918, in which he defined the Fourteen Points; and on

this occasion the phrase is still marked as a neologism by being printed between inverted commas.

“ ‘ Self-determination’ is

not a mere phrase,” he said; “it is an imperative principle of action which statesmen will henceforth ignore at their peril.” Two months later, in his speech of April 6, the phrase had become, as it were, naturalized; he speaks of ‘‘ the free self-determination of nations upon which all the modern world insists.” The inverted commas no longer appear. President Wilson has been blamed in certain quarters for his failure at the Peace Conference in rọrọ to make the principle of self-determination the only basis of the ultimate settlement, for allowing the old diplomatic Adam too much say in the adjustment of national boundaries. In this respect the blame is not deserved; for he had carly pointed out that the application of the principle must be conditional; the fourth of the “ Four Principles ” laid down in his speech of Feb. 11 1918 was “ that all well-defined national aspirations shall be accorded the utmost satisfaction that can be accorded them without introducing new or perpetuating old elements of discord and antagonism that would be likely to break the peace of Europe and consequently the world.” This is, of course, a serious limitation of the principle of self-determination in its practical application, since it involves a check upon this determination by an outside authority, which authority President Wilson defined as “ the organized force of mankind ’’—embodied in the League of Nations—but which in effect has been, and always must be, those nations that

are in a position to make their will prevail, whether inside or outside the League. In practice, then, self-determination has proved largely illusory. The Treaty of Versailles made advances

towards the application of the principle, but these advances were tentative and timid. No transferences of territory of the first — importance—such as those of Alsace-Lorraine to France or of Posen and West Prussia to Poland—were made subject to plebiscites. In the treaty with Germany plebiscites were prescribed in the cases of the districts of Allenstein and Marien-. werder, of Upper Silesia and of North Schleswig, and negative plebiscites in the case of Eupen and Malmédy. In the Austrian treaty plebiscites were prescribed in the cases of Klagenfurt and Teschen, but it was only in the former case that a popular vote

was actually taken. A plebiscite was refused in the case of Western Hungary, transferred to the Republic of Austria under

392

SELF-DETERMINATION

the name of Burgenland. The case of East Galicia was left open, and so remained in 1921. Experience in the case of Upper Silesia abundantly proved the wisdom of thus limiting the right of self-determination. Plebiscites had worked smoothly enough in the case of fairly homogeneous areas defined by ancient boundaries, as in Avignon in 1791 and Savoy and Nice in 1860; they

are altogether another matter in districts inhabited by mixed populations divided by bitter national jealousies. The method proved in any case to be costly and dilatory. In large areas it involved an extensive military control which the victorious Allies were unable to provide, while it was impossible to set up provisional governments to supervise the partition of areas over which they exercised control. The experience of the diplomatists at Versailles has then, if properly studied, great value as a corrective to the dreams of idealists who persist in building theories for an imaginary world. But, apart from this experience, it is certain that the principle of self-determination could not be universally applied without overthrowing all that remains of the world’s order. Yet the principle remains, in spite of disillusionment, a powerful solvent of established bodies politic, and it is therefore still important

to understand its implications. The phrase ‘‘ the self-determination of nations” is widely accepted as the expression of a principle as clear as it is just. So far as the meaning of self-determination is concerned, it is indeed clear enough. What is not so clear is what is meant by a “ nation.” This is a subject round which interminable discussions have centred, and which must be examined if the full implications of the principle of selfdetermination are to be realized. Definition of Nation and Nationality—Legally defined, a nation is the aggregate of the subjects or citizens of a particular

sovereign state, and nationality is the quality of such subjection or citizenship. But the word “ nation ”’ has also a wider meaning, which the New English Dictionary embodies in the following

inclusive definition:—‘‘A nation is an extensive aggregate of persons closely associated with each other by common descent, language, or history, so as to form a distinct race or people, usually organized as a separate political State and occupying a definite territory.” This definition is open to criticism, as involving some confusion of thought: and this confusion is not made less confounded by the definition of “ nationality” as primarily synonymous with “ nation ” but “ frequently a people potentially but not actually a nation,” while a ‘‘ people ” is defined as “a body of persons composing a community, tribe, race, or nation.” The truth is that the vagueness of our terms reflects the vagueness of our idcas about a problem the intricacies of which we have only recently been called upon to unravel. No satisfactory definition of the- word “ nation ” is possible because, save in its legal sense, it conveys no definite idea; and the same is true of the word “ nationality.” Yet a clear definition is the essential preliminary to any fruitful discussion. It is proposed then, for the purposes of the present argument, to use the word “nation” in the sense of “the sum of people constituting a sovereign and independent body politic,” the Latin populus as distinguished from natio. The word “ nationality ” it is proposed to deprive of its legal connotation, and to defne a nation-

ality as “ an extensive aggregate of persons conscious of a community of sentiments, experiences, or qualities which. make them feel themselves a distinct people.” The various elements that produce this consciousness will be discussed later. They ` have an important bearing on the practical problem which was only very imperfectly solved by the Treaty of Versailles, namely, the problem raised by the claim of nationalities, thus defined, to become nations. The complexity and perils of the issues involved in this claim may be illuminated by the fact that, even now, in the actual polities of the world, nationalities and nations nowhere coincide. It remains, therefore, of great importance to determine what are the essential qualities of nationality and what are its necessary relations to the conception of the state. Theories of Nationality—On few subjects has there been so

great a difference of opinion as on the question of what con-

stitutes nationality. Fichte explained it, in terms of his trans scendental philosophy, as a thing divine and spiritual, a manifestation of the mind of God revealing itself in the national soul, So, too, for Mazzini, the prophet of the Italian risorgimento, nationality was a thing sacred, not to be profaned by a cold analysis of its elements, but believed in and suffered for as a

prime article of faith—the “ faith in liberty ”; for him the map

of Europe would have to be redrawn on national lines as the

necessary first step towards ‘ the universal association of the human race.” 1 No student of the history of the rise of nationalities during the last hundred years will underrate the part played by such prophets as these.

Yet their enthusiasm by

itself explains nothing and would have achieved nothing; it is like fire, itself a subtle and mysterious element, which yet needs very material fuel to feed its destructive and creative force. The explanation of the phenomena of nationality, as other thinkers have realized, must be sought, not in the region of metaphysics, but in that of observed facts. If we analyze the composition of the several nationalities, we find these elements: race, language, religion, common habitat, common conditions, mode of life and manners, political association. These elements are, however, never all present at the same time, and none of them is essential.

Community of race,

even where thisis put in the forefront of the claim of nationality, is mainly a politic fiction, at least in countries of European

civilization, in which the races are inextricably mixed up. Language, again, is as little as race the criterion of nationality, It may be, as Bluntschli says, the expression of a common spirit and of intellectual intercourse, and as such it may be brought powerfully to the aid of nationality, as in the case of the Czech language in Bohemia, or, still more strikingly, of the English language in the United States. But nationality and inherited community of speech are not identical. The Swiss are a distinct nationality, though they speak four different languages. Community of language, on the other hand, has not prevented the British and the Americans from developing different nationalities. Religion, too, has clearly no necessary connexion with nationality, though it has played a great part in creating and stereotyping nationalities, notably in countries of backward civilization, as in the Balkan peninsula or in Ireland.

A common

habitat and common conditions are doubtless powerful influences at times in determining nationality; but people have thus lived together for centuries without developing a national consciousness, and in many cases—notably in the east of Europe—they have evolved separate national consciousnesses in spite of a

common habitat and common conditions. As for manners and mode of life, these are apt to raise stronger barriers between classes than between nationalities. Lastly, political association, though—as in the case of the Swiss—it sometimes encourages the spirit of nationality, is more often its result than its cause. All these elements, then, may or may not contribute towards the formation of a nationality, but when we have summed them up we are no nearer to a solution of the problem of its formation. Some

theorists seek this solution in a psychological process.

“A nationality,” says Bluntschli, ‘‘ only comes into being slowly, by a psychological process which gradually produces in a mass of men a distinctive form of existence and community of life, and stereotypes these as the inheritance of the race.” ? For him time, and a tradition of many

generations, are the essential

conditions. This may be true of the evolution of new nationalities; it is not true of the creation of a new sentiment of nationality in even large masses of persons. It is, for instance, ? Scritti (18 vols., Milan-Rome, 1861-91), viil., 205; xi., 181, 243; xii., 245. Mazzini_ avoided the practical problem involved in the reconstruction of Europe on national lines by saying that it was sufficient to indicate the ‘' large lines’ and “‘ to leave details to the future and to the votes of the peoples” (x., 137). His own plan of reconstruction included the restoration to Poland of the frontiers of 1772, and the setting up of a Bohemian-Moravian-Hungarian federation.

As Signor Salvemini

(Mazsint,

1920)

points out, “the

‘design of God ’ was not quite so clear as Mazzini believed.”

2? Lehre vom modernen Staat (5th ed. of Allgemeines Staatsrecht, 1875), i, p. 92.

SELF-DETERMINATION the boast of the United States that they have been able to absorb annually some million of alien immigrants, and that one

generation has usually sufficed to give them not only the name but the full sense of American nationality. The‘ psychological ” element, indeed, may be admitted, but it does not explain the

whole of the phenomena nor the ultimate driving force, so to speak, of nationality. The German historian Karl Lamprecht came nearer the truth when he added another element, the economic, as the creative force in the evolution of nationality. Like Bluntschli, he found a general law for this evolution in the development of the Volksgeist, but he explains this development by changes in economic conditions. Nationality, that is to say, is but a manifestation of the instinct of men to group themselves for the defence of their common interests, and it follows that the groups thus formed tend to shift and change with the ebb and flow of the

economic struggle for existence. This view, which—if it be sound—obviously conflicts with the belief that the triumph of the principle of self-determination would bring permanent peace to the world, was elaborated by the Austrian Socialist Otto Bauer, in his Nationalitalenfrage, with special reference to the

393

coloured humanity, but by the economic objection of the labouring masses to the slave system. Relation of Nationality to the Nation or State—In considering the relation between the idea of nationality and that of the state we are apt to be confused by the romantic and idealistic

tinge given to the idea of nationality by the poets and philosophers of the struggles for freedom. A nationality, conceived as something divinely inspired, is believed to have not only the capacity but the right to become a nation, and its legitimate growth to be necessarily stunted if it be prevented from doing so.

Bluntschli,

for instance,

described

a nationality

as

an

incomplete organism which could only become completed as an effective “‘ personality ” by political organization as a nation or

state, and some such idea underlay the Liberal enthusiasm for that “ principle of nationalities ” which during the last hundred years has so profoundly changed the map of the world. But when we come to examine this principle, as stated by its mast conspicuous champions, we find no clear conception of what it ultimately involves, while the main question—of what constitutes a nationality—is consistently begged. ‘The late M.

Emile Ollivier, for instance, defines the principle of nationality

nationality question in the former Habsburg Monarchy. “It is,” he said, ‘‘ the battles of the economic classes, everywhere

(and incidentally of self-determination) as follows:—

active, the changes in the means and the conditions of work which determine the strength and weakness, the death and rebirth of nationalities.” The determining factors of nationality in Austria-Hungary—which for the purpose of this study might be considered the laboratory of Europe—he declared to be not

an independent individuality; free, sovereign, enjoying the imprescriptible right of self-determination (de disposer d'elle-même) both

cultural but economic.

The mass of men, the peasants and the

labourers, are incapable of that consciousness of a widespread, common, inherited culture which is supposed to be the hallmark of nationality; but they are dissatisfied with their lot, resentful of the dominant powers whom they hold responsible, and ready therefore to group themselves against them. This revolutionary tendency, which among the lower classes of the dominant races is anti-national and cosmopolitan, is apt among subject races to express itself in nationalism. The process was strikingly exemplified in Bohemia, where the flood of Czech

nationality followed the channels opened up by industrial change, and German nationality succumbed not so much to cultural as to economic pressure. Before the World War the same process was taking place in all the eastern marches of

This principle is that every association of men called a people is in internal and external affairs.'

If the word

“people” be taken in its usual non-political

sense, this statement was, and remains, obviously untrue, or represents at most an aspiration; if it means a nation, then the principle as here defined is merely that of the sovereign independence of nations,

7.e. states, which

has always been a fun-

damental doctrine of international law; it js, that is to say, a conservative, not a revolutionary principle.

But this is not

what M. Ollivier meant by it. For him, as the apologist of the Libera] Empire, the principle of nationality was dynamic, not static; it involved a regrouping of the nations, not—as Alexander J. of Russia had once proposed—by the formation from above of homogeneous populations fenced off by their

natural boundaries, but by the free vote of the people concerned—the Napoleonic plebiscite. This principle of nationalities, he says in his L’Empire libéral, is to be carefully distinguished from the theory of great agglomerations, the natural

Germany—in Silesia, in Posen, and in East and West Prussia,

limits of the race, for race has nothing to do with it:—

in which for years past the German clement had been succumbing to the irresistible flood of Polish nationality, of which the unifying force was the economic opposition of the Slav proletariat and peasantry to the German capitalist and governing classes. The same phenomenon is apparent in the case of Ireland. The idealists of Sinn Fein never succeeded in inspiring the shrewd

In the politics of nationality there are no natural frontiers. The true frontiers.are those fixed by the will of the populations. The idea of race is barbarous, exclusive, retrograde, having nothing in common with the large, holy, civilizing idea of country (patrie}.

peasantry with their own enthusiasm for their ‘‘ Milesian past ”’;

the use of the renovated Gaclic language remained a conccit of the “intellectuals ” of the cities; and the labourers and peasants were won to the Republican cause by a frank appeal to their economic interests—the promise of small holdings and of freedom from war taxation and the burden of the national debt. It is then clear that there is an economic basis for nationality,

and that, whatever other elements may enter into it, a sense of community of material interests is always present. It may be added that this sense is the strongest and most essential factor, and that without it nothing else will serve to maintain the common sentiment. Common origin, common language and a common tradition of culture and laws will not preserve the unity of a nationality when the material interests of its parts come into violent conflict. This truth received its most momentous illustration in the secession of the southern states of the American Union in 1860~1 and the bitter struggle that followed. The

principle of state sovereignty and independence on the one side, and that of American national union on the other, did but dis-

guise the true causes of the struggle, which were less political than economic;

the agricultural south was determined to pre-

serve its economic system, based on negro slavery, the industrial north was primarily inspired, not by any abstract love of

Renan, in his Qu'’est-ce qu'une nation? comes to much the same conclusion.

A Zollverein, he says,is not a palrie; a nation is

a grand aggregation of men with a moral conscience which causes them to sacrifice their individual intcrests to those of the community; wherever the existence of such a moral conscience is proved a nation exists as of right. “If there is any doubt as to its frontiers, consult the populations in dispute.” This solution of a difficult problem would be admirably easy were the rivalries of nationalitics confined to the frontiers of states, which we have the best reason to know they are not, and were these frontiers themselves a mcre question of marks on the

map.

But in any case, as Herr Bauer points out, this “ psycho-

logical-voluntarist ” theory begs the whole question of nationality, for it does not explain the factors that determine the will of populations to form a nation or to attach themselves to a nation already formed—supposing they are conscious of possessing a choice. It does not, that is to say, give us the real con-

necting link between nationality and the state, nor does it explain why in the roth century, for the first time, nationality was erected into a Staatsprinszip. Historically it seems clear that the explanation is at least largely economic. It may be true that a Zollverein does not constitute a palrie, but the experience of Germany proved that it may be a powerful element in the constitution of one. It was 1 L'Empire libéral, i., p. 164.

SELF-DETERMINATION

394

not enthusiasm for the abstract rights of man which bound ‘classes it created, sapped their foundations. Artificial boundaries became a nuisance, and the German Zollverein was the together the old provinces of France in a sense of common nationality; it was the economic gains of the Revolution, the beginning on a large scale of a process of economic concentracreation of a prosperous nation of bourgeois and of peasant pro- tion, segregation and exclusion which has continued ever since, and is likely still to continue. To say that it is economic presprietors, that made the patrie. It needed the passion of Mazzini and Garibaldi for an ideal Italy to rouse the Italians to throw off sure which has largely determined the formation of nations is the yoke of an oppressive and alien system, but it was the long not to pretend that the economic vision of peoples is always prosaic labours of Cavour that laid firmly the economic basis of clear. The group instinct sometimes defeats its own ends. Italian unity. Instances, indeed, might be multiplied to show The disappearance in 1918, for instance, of the last of the great purely territorial monarchies,

Austria-Hungary,

destroyed an

that, whatever may be the constituent elements of nationality, it is only a strong sense of common material interests that can create and maintain a nation. Itis certainly no mere coincidence

economic unit of the greatest importance to all its constituent countries. It used to be said that if Austria did not exist, Austria

that the development of the principle of nationality during the roth century kept pace with the vast economic changes pro-

view.

duced by the industrial revolution. The factor of sentiment is not, of course, excluded;

but the

sentiment of nationality is not a thing apart, or especially holy. It is, as Mr. A, J. Balfour has pointed out, but one of a group of such sentiments for which there is no common name. Man is a gregarious animal; he has the group instinct; and this implies also the instinct of self-sacrifice for the sake of the group—esprit de corps, the civic sense, local or national patriotism.

AH human associations are directed to some common

would have to be created.

This was from the political point of

From the economic it was true still.

National Expansion.—‘‘ Hf men had any strong sense of the community would serve But because nothing but

of nations,’ says Bertrand Russell, “ nationalism to define the boundaries of the various nations. men only feel community within their own nation, force is able to make them respect the rights of

other nations, even when they are asserting similar rights on

their own behalf’? (Principles of Social Reconstruction, p. 33). The truth of this is revealed in the whole history of the last hundred years. The Magyars, after securing their own liberty

good, and from the point of view of the group sentiment it

by a gallant struggle, proceeded to force their own national

matters little how this good is conceived—whether as material or spiritual. A trade union is an association for a purely economic purpose; but it demands self-sacrifice on the part of its members, and it certainly develops a strong sense of esprif de corps. To say, then, that the strongest and most permanent bond of a nation is the sense of common interests is not to belittle the value of loyalty to a national cause. The modern world has become so accustomed to hearing of

ideals on the races subject to them.

nationality as the basis, or the only sound basis, of the state that it is apt to forget how very recent is this conception, which for many people is rooted in the very nature and justice of things. The sentiment of nationality is of course very ancient; it is indeed (as the Latin word natio, from nasci, ‘‘ to be born,” implies) a natural development of the sentiment of the family

The Germans, welded into

a great nation by “ blood and iron,’”’ embarked on a policy of

conquest beyond their own borders.

The Italians, when they

had liberated themselves from the Germans, aimed at recapturing the “national frontiers” of Italy, though this involved the attempt to absorb alien populations, and even began to dream of reéstablishing the Mediterranean empire of Rome. The Poles, reunited after a century and a half of agony, scarcely

waited for the ink on the Treaty of Versaules to dry before starting on the great adventure of reconquering their frontiers

of 1772.

Even Bolshevist

Russia, wicked fairy godmother of

and the tribe. But this sentiment was, until comparatively recently, not consciously associated with any conception of the

the bantling “ self-determination,” showed litle disposition to allow her outlying provinces to determine themselves. The Sinn Feiners in Ireland passionately claimed self-determination for themselves, but equally passionately resented its application to the solid minority in Ireland concentrated in north-east Ulster

state as we understand the term. The ancient Greeks were strongly conscious of their common Hellenism, but their political unit was the city state; there was a Greek people, but no. Greck nation. The Roman Empire, which, as it were, flattened

All this, though lamentable from the point of view of selfdetermination considered as an instrument of peace, is merely the natural outcome of this principle considered as the expres-

when they too demandcd it.

out national differences throughout the civilized world, was in essence the expansion of the city state; it was In no sense

sion of group selfishness.

“ national,” even from the point of view of the Romans. The Middle Ages, which inherited the Roman tradition, recognized

later it will seek to expand, if it is a healthy organism and thus subject to the ordinary laws of growth. German political theory

nationality,

before the World War conceived of the national group as such

but

not

as

the constituent

principle

of bodies

politic. The voting in general councils of the Church was by “ nations,” but these had so little to do with the conception of states that it was not until the Council of Constance, in 1414, that a fourth nation was added to the Italians, the French and

the Germans—the among the Germans.

English, who had hitherto been included Yet so early as the rrth century the poet

of the Chanson de Roland celebrates “ French ” valour and puts into the mouths of his warriors praises of “ sweet France,” and

in the next century the German minnesingers are denouncing “welsh ” arrogance and exalting German nationality. Yet there was so such thing as a national state, the root reason being that the material basis of society was feudal, that is to say, deter mined by the ownership of land—the only stable form of wealth then existing—and by an claborate system of reciprocal services and obligations which took no account whatever of the frontiers of nationality. With the growth of the fenced cities, and of the commerce of which they were the centres, the feudal system gradually decayed. But the monarchies which rose upon its ruins had still for the most part a purely territorial basis, and so continued as fong as Iandownership gave the strongest title to wealth and power, that is to say, until the beginning of the

19th century.

The industrial revolution, with the vast impetus

it gave to international commerce *nd the new self-conscious

If the national group is bound together

by a vivid sense of common and exclusive interests, sooner or

an organism, and as subject to the universal law of the struggle

for existence and the survival of the fittest. “A cessation of growth,” said Paul Rohrbach in his Der Deutsche Gedanke, ““would be for us a catastrophe both internal and external, for

under our present conditions it could not possibly be natural or voluntary, but would only happen when another people or combination of peoples should hurl us to the ground in such a way as to make us infirm for a long while to come.” “ In every great nation,” he says again, “ the instinct of self-preservation reveals itself in the form of a natural pressure to expand, which only finds its frontiers where it meets other national-political counteracting forces strong enough to resist it.” From the ideal point of view this ‘‘ doctrine of conquest ” is, of course, wholly evil and misguided. From the strictly scientific point of view, judged that is to say by the experience of the past and even of the last few years, it must at least be treated with respect. To this world-old doctrine of conquest, reinforced by the new spirit of national exclusiveness, the new doctrine of democratic selfdetermination, combined with a new organized spirit of international good-will, is prescribed as an antidote. likely to prove effective?

How far is it

Self-determination and Peace.—The advantage of the old unnational conception of the state was that it offered no rigid

SELOUS, F. C.—SENUSSI

395

barriers to the economic expansion of the nationalities, in so far as these existed outside the political sphere, the overflow of a nationality in one state percolating, or occasionally flooding,

states. For such a universal union, however, the world is not ripe; for there are peoples who are not yet capable of selfgovernment, and will only become so, if ever, by a long process

into another without any sense of inconvenience to the state

of education.

invaded, which merely received a very often welcome addition to the number of its subjects. In the days before the industrial revolution these transferences of population were, indeed, more

often determined by other than economic causes. Thus in the 17th century some 30,000 Slav and Albanian familics migrated into the Habsburg dominions, Slavonia and southern Hungary, in order to escape the fury of the Turks; Flemish and French Protestants fled in thousands to the British Islands; and the

Electors of Brandenburg peopled their waste spaces with Huguenot refugees from France and Protestant refugees from southern Germany. In the industrial age the migrations took another form. German industrial expansion demanded a vast supply of cheap labour, and this was provided by a mass immigration of Slavs, which created misgiving even when the German Empire was supremely powerful.) Little misgiving was created, on the other hand, by the still vaster immigration of all the less developed nationalities of Europe into the United States and, later,

into the British Dominions. The process, indeed, was in itself unobjectionable so long as the migrating masses carried with them no conscious sentiment of nationality in a political sense,

and no claim to assert themselves as separate entities, i.e. so long as allegiance was conceived as due not to the nationality but to the state. It is quite another thing when, under the principle of self-determination, the balance of nationalities in any given state becomes a matter of vital importance to the state itself. The Emperor Leopold I. would hardly have given special privileges to the Slavs who sought refuge in his dominions had he foreseen that this migration would lead, some 200

years later, to the downfall of the Habsburg Empire and dynasty. The danger of similar consequences is increased when the con-

stitution of the state itself is made dependent upon a popular vote, and all the signs point to the fact that self-contained nations will no longer permit promiscuous immigration—the United States has set the example by “ tightening up” its immigration laws—and will be increasingly intolerant of national divergencies within their own borders. The effect of the principle of self-determination, logically applied, would therefore be to

a mockery.

To talk of self-determination for such peoples is It is also a wrong;

See W. Alison Phillips, ‘‘ Europe and the Problem of Nationality,” Edinburgh Rev. for Jan. 1915, of which parts are incorporated in the above article; J. W. Headlam-Morley, ** Plebiscites,” Quarterly Rev. for July 1921 (No. 468); Sarah Wambaugh, A Monograph on Pleb» tsciles, with a collection of Official Documents (1921); Plebiscites, vol. xxv, of the Peace Handbooks issued by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office (1920); A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, edited by H. W. V. Temperley (3 vols., 1920). Among more modern

foreign works

(1905);

Otto

status quo or of readjusting it according to the ebb and flow of the national life of the several communities; for the pressure of the forces of expansion of vigorous nationalities, artificially restrained, would blow the League to pieces. It may be that the economic development of the world, by

increasingly demonstrating the interdependence of nations, will reduce the sentiment of nationality to the position it occupied during the long ages when it was not the basis of the state, still less an intolerant crusading power. But the World War at least proved that the international movement associated with labour, disfigured as it was by its insistence on the necessity of a new form of war—that of class against class—was powerless against the passion of nationality. The true hope of peace for the future lies in the recovery by the world of the idea of the state, whatever form it may take, as a thing apart from and above the idea of nationality and infinitely tolerant of national divergencies.

on the subject

are Schalimeyer,

Vererbung

und Auslese im Lebenslaufe der Völker (1903); Kirchhof, Zur Verständigung über die Begriffe “ Nation” und * Nationalität " Bauer,

Nationalitatenfrage

und

die Sozialdemokratie

(1907). (W.A. P.) SELOUS, FREDERICK COURTNEY (1851-1917), English explorer (see 24.614),in 1909 organized Mr. Roosevelt’s hunting ex-

pedition in East Africa, and in 1910 represented Britain at the Congress of Field Sports held at Vienna. In Aug. 1914 he offered his services to the War his age (he was over altern’s commission (25th Fusiliers} and

Office, but they were declined on account of 62). Persistence, however, gained him a sub(Feb. 1915) in the Legion of Frontiersmen he reached Mombasa in May following. Se-

lous took part in many engagements in the East African campaign, was promoted captain and (Sept. 1916) given the D.S.O. He was killed in action at Beho Beho on Jan. 4 1917 (a year after his

eldest son had been killed on the western front). His private col-

lection of trophies was given by his widow (Mary Maddy, whom he married in 1894) to the Natural History Museum, London, where in June 1920 a national memorial to him was unveiled—a bronze half-Ggure by W. R. Colton—a Selous scholarship being also founded at his old school, Rugby. See J. G. Millar's Life of Frederick Courtney Selous (London 1918),

and Geog. Jnl., vol. xlix. (1917). SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES (sce 24.649) —The military activity of the Senussi from 1900 to roro had been directed against the advance of the French in the regions bordering the Sahara between Lake Chad and the Nile basin. There was evidence of an

establish the nationalities as jealously segregated nations, probably surrounded by tariff walls, certainly defended against dangerous infiltration of alien elements from without by rigid rules as to naturalization, and earnestly bent on reducing all within their borders to the same national model. The danger to peace of attempting to confine the expansive forces of nationalism within such artificial limits is obvious, and the danger will not be avoided by the creation of an international force, such as the League of Nations, charged with the duty of preserving the

for, as Senator Elihu Root

wisely said with reference to the Philippines, “‘ the right to government is prior to the right to self-government.”

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It is the ideal towards which the British Empire has been con-

sistently tending.

The ideal League of Nations will be some

such loose confederation, embracing all the world, of which each constituent state, while guarding its own interests, will realize

that these interests are bound up with those of the totality of 1See a remarkable series in the Frankfurter Zeitung in 1911.

THE

SENUSSI

COUNTRY

increase of adherents to the sect in Egypt and in Arabia; in N.W. Africa and in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Senussiism made practically no headway.

396

SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES

Activity in Cyrencica.—While continuing hostilities against the French, the Senussi sheikh Sayed (Sidi) Ahmad esh Sherif in 1911 aided the Turks in Cyrenaica, then commanded by Enver Bey (later Pasha) in the campaign against Italy. The traditional policy of the Senussites was one of suspicion in regard to the Turks but they had been won over by Pan-Islamic propaganda.

By the Treaty of Lausanne, Oct. 1912, the Turks agreed to evacuate Tripoli and Cyrenaica. At that time the Italians held only the chief seaports of Cyrenaica, the rest of the country being

in the military occupation of the Senussites and their allies. Sidi Ahmad continued the war with Italy, aided by a body of

Turkish troops, which, contrary to treaty engagements, remained in Cyrenaica. The Italians devoted their attention to the occupation of the hinterland of Tripoli (including Fezzan), a process completed in Aug. 1914. In Cyrenaica they remained mainly on the defensive. General Ameglio, appointed governor of Cyrenaica towards the end of 1013, had however begun a vigorous campaign against the Scnussites, when in Feb. 1914, in consequence of the threatening situation in the Balkans, orders were issued from Rome to suspend operations. When the World War began, and while Italy still remained neutral, Turkish agents, with German support, sought to make Cyrenaica and Tripoli bases of actlom against the French and British. To the tribes which rose in revolt in Tripoli and its

hinterland the Senussites gave some support, but Sidi Ahmad, through the intermediary of chiefs friendly to Italy, was conducting unofficial negotiations, and had the Italians been willing to acknowledge his independence an accommodation with them

might have been reached. He refused however to accept the position of “a protected Bey.” By the spring of 1915 he was again attacking Italian posts. Strong efforts had been made for some time by the Turks and their German advisers to induce the Senussites to invade western Egypt; a special Turkish mission now visited Sidi Ahmad and endeavoured to get him to proclaim a jihad. The Senussi sheikh was disinclined to take the advice offered him. The Senussites had always maintained good relations with Egypt—for much of their trade they were dependent upon the good-will of the Egyptian authorities. It was the demonstration that the Turco-Germans could give him substantial military and financial aid which finally changed Sidi Ahmad’s views. A large number of Turkish officers and some

Arabic-speaking German officers from the German garrison at Constantinople were smuggled into Cyrenaica, a matter of little

ern base, in November, of that year.

In the middle of ror4

Bardai, the chief settlement in the Tibesti highlands, was occupied.” These newly conquered regions on the southern fringe of

the Libyan Desert were placed under the control of Lt.-Col. J. Tilho. Though risings against their authority by chiefs acting on Senussite instructions, and raids by nomads continued up to the carly months of 1917, the French posts formed an effective

barrier against any Senussite advance into central Africa. Campaign in Western Egypt.—Since May 1915 the danger of a Senussite invasion of western Egypt had existed, It was due to the great tact with which Lt.-Col. C. L. Snow,? whocommanded the small force stationed in western Egypt, handled a very delicate situation that the rupture with the Senussites was delayed til Nov. 1915. final effort was made Idris, Senussite envoy arrange for the Senussi

At the last moment, early in November,a to avoid a break, Sidi Mohammed el in Egypt, being sent to Cyrenaica to sheikh ‘ to get nd of his Turkish advisers

in return for a sum of money.” It was too late; Sidi Ahmad was already well supplied The enemy plan of with two forces, one stone tableland—the

with German gold as well as arms. campaign.was to advance in parallel lines. across the Libyan platecau,—a great limeother farther S. along the string of oases

leading from Siwa to the Nile.

Simultancously the Sultan of

Darfur was to rise in revolt, invade Kordofan and advance on Khartum. The plan was boldly conceived, but the danger to Egypt and the Sudan was not chiefly in the military force at the command of the Senussi sheikh and his allics. That danger lay in the spiritual authority exercised by Sidi Ahmad and the high prestige he enjoyed in Egypt. Many if not most of the 200,000 Bedouins of western Egypt were adherents of

the Senussi sect and should the Senussi forces gain any strik-

ing success it “might lead to serious religious and internal disorders.” So wrote Gen. Sir John Maxwell, then commanding the forces in Egypt, who added that the Senussi peril was his

principal source of anxicty—not

the Turkish attack on the

Suez Canal. The opening of the campaign was accompanied by great activity by German submarines off the Cyrenaican coast and in the Gulí.of Sollum; among the boats sunk were the British auxiliary cruiser “ Tara ” and the horse transport “ Moorina.” Survivors of the crews were handed over to the Senussi and suffered great privations (Cyrenaica is a very desolate country and the

difficulty. Among the arrivals was Nuri Bey, a half brother of

Senussites themselves were often short of food), Land hostilities began on Nov. 15 but in view of the isolation and smallness of

Enver Pasha who exercised much influence.

the Egyptian garrisons at Sollum and other advanced

Nuri was joined in

posts

and other stores, including wireless and telephonic apparatus.!

they were withdrawn, and a stretch of country 200 m. or more in length was at once overrun by the Senussites. They advanced as far as Dabya (oo m. W. of Alexandria and the terminus of

By Aug. 1915 the Germans were using the landing places be-

the railway along the coast), sweeping past, but not attacking

April ro15 by Ga‘far Pasha, an Europeanized Arab of considerable ability, and with and after Ga‘far came arms, ammunition tween Sollum and Tobruk as submarine bases. The time for putting the Turco-German plans into operation was approaching. These plans were, mainly through Senussite instrumentality, to threaten at once French north and central Africa, Nigeria, Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It was also designed to penetrate to Cameroon and establish land communication between the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Guinea. The German Emperor, as ‘ Islam’s Protector,” exhorted Sidi Ahmad to “expel infidels from territory which belonged to true be-

lievers,”’ But besides the Senussi sheikh the only important chief won over to the cause was ‘Ali Dinar, Sultan of Darfur, a tributary state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and the plan failed. French determination to secure their position in the central Sudan contributed largely to the localization of the conflict. In 1909-ro the French had conquered Wadai (see 28.225), which adjoins Darfur, thereby withdrawing from the Senussite sphere a country in which they had been all powerful. In 1913, pushing N. from Kanem into the Saharan borderiand, Colonel Largeau conquered Borku, capturing ‘Ain Galakka, the Senussite south-

1The German political agent was a certain Mannismann, who

after the defeat of Sidi Ahmad endeavoured to persuade the Senus-

sites to continue the war. He was attacked and killed in the desert by tribesmen hostile to Ahmad.

Mersa Matruh, the chief port of western Egypt and reached by

boat from Alexandria in r2 hours.

This port was made the base

for the British operations. General Maxwell’s endeavour, in view of the internal situation, was to avoid anything in the nature of a reverse, to keep the enemy as far as possible from the Nile valley, and, as soon as

possible, to strike a decisive blow at the Senussi and by his defeat

to diminish his influence as a spiritual potentate.

These aims

were achieved, but at the outset the difficulty was to get together a force strong enough to undertake operation. In Aug. 1915, when the situation on the western Egyptian frontier became critical, the Gallipoli campaign was being vigorously prosecuted,

while the Turks had again advanced towards the Suez Canal. When the Scnussi invasion occurred the decision to evacuate Gallipoli had not yet been taken, while the British Government

had just committed itself to the Salonika campaign.

In these

circumstances Sir John Maxwell had to content himself with collecting a “scratch” force tooppose the Senussi. The strength ? Turkish troops had occupied Tibesti in 1910 and Borku in 1911.

They were recalled at the outbreak of the war with Italy. 3 Col. Snow was killed in the first action (Dec. 11 1915) by an Arab whom he was endeavouring to persuade to surrender. He had served over 20 years in the Eyyptian coastguard and was intimately acquainted with the desert tribes.

SENUSSI AND SENUSSITES of the Senussi is conjectural. The Turkish troops with them may have numbered 1,000; the Afuhafisia or Senussite regulars were perhaps 5,000 strong. In addition there was an irregular body of tribesmen, Arabs and Arabized Berbers, probably numbering 20,000, all well armed and accustomed to desert

warfare, but undisciplined and untrustworthy. The Senussites were well supplied with rifles and small-arms munitions; they had field guns and machine-guns; they had an ample camel transport and many of their troops were well mounted. With them were about 100 Europeans; Ga‘far Pasha was commanderin-chief, and was accompanicd by Sidi Ahmad and Nuri Bey. Through bad leadership, or from other causes not explained, the Senussi offensive was not carried out as planned. When the advance across the Libyan plateau was made, Siwa oasis was also occupied; but no further progress towards the Nile by that route was then attempted.

Moreover, ‘Ali Dinar of Darfur,who had

formally renounced his allegiance to the Sudan Government in April 1915, while preaching a jikad and indulging in abusive letter writing, did not carry out his threat of invasion. Thus at

the outset the British had to deal only with the enemy advance

along the Mediterranean coast.

Orders for the formation of a Western Frontier Force were issucd on Nov. 20. Maj.-Gen. A. Wallace, who was given the command, took up his headquarters at Matruh on Dec. 7. His troops consisted of Yeomanry, Territorials, Australians, New

Zealanders, Indians and Egyptians, with a squadron of armoured cars and a squadron of aeroplanes.

The striking force was a

composite mounted brigade under Brig.-Gen. J. D. T. Tyndale Biscoe and a composite infantry brigade under Brig.-Gen. the Earl of Lucan. “Regiments and staf had been collected,” wrote Sir John Maxwell, “somewhat hastily. . . . The composite yeomanry brigade contained men from 20 or more different regiments.

. .

. It was not until the middle of Feb. (1916) that

the condition of the Western Frontier Force could be considered really satisfactory.”

The Senussites were engaged on Dec. 11 and 13 in the neigh-

bourhood of Matruh with indecisive result. Having received reinforcements, General Wallace again engaged the enemy, on

397

Souter) ina fine charge broke into the enemy lines and captured Ga‘far Pasha.3 Nuri Bey took over the command of the Senussi forces, which offered little further resistance. Two British columns advanced on Sollum, which was reoccupied on March 14. Sollum is close to the Cyrenaican frontier and into Cyrenaica, that is into Italian territory, Nur Bey and his forces retreated

after blowing up their main ammunition dump.

General Peyton

did not further pursue Nuri, but on March

17 @ squadron

of armoured

cars, under Major

the Duke

of Westminster,

raced 120 m. across the desert and rescued the survivors—some go in number—of the “ Tara” and ‘‘ Moorina.” Shortly afterwards General Peyton’s force was reduced, the S. Africans leaving in April for France.

Sidi Ahmad had been with Ga‘far Pasha until the end of Jan. 1916.

He then went to Siwa and began the advance along

the oases that lead to the Nile.

The advance came too late to be effective, but on Feb. 1x Senussites occupied Baharia oasis, some roo m. from the fertile and densely peopled districts of Fayum and Minia.

Before the end of February the Senussites

had also occupied the more southerly oases of Farafra and DakhJa. Thereupon the Egyptian officials were withdrawn from Kharga (the Great Oasis), which is connected by railway with the Nile valley, and the Senussites proceeded to occupy it. The strategical importance of the oases is great, but having no troops available for an offensive in S.W. Egypt, General Maxwell took defensive measures only, A command under Maj.-Gen. J. Adye patrolled the region from the Fayum to Assiut and Esna. The oases were kept under constant observation by aeroplanes, and the Senussites did not emerge from them. After the complete defeat of their northern force they abandoned Kharga, which was reoccupied by the British on April 15 1916. Gen. Sir Archibald Murray had meanwhile (March 19) succeeded General Max-

well in the Egyptian command, Darfur Campaign.—aAt this period, in the Sudan, the Sirdar,

Gen. Sir Reginald Wingate, was dealing with ‘Ali Dinar of Darfur. For over a year the Sultan had been openly defiant and since Dec. 1915 had been making arrangements to invade Kordofan. As the Sudan Government had not in 1915 any force

Christmas Day, at Gebel Medwa, a few miles from the coast.

available for action in Darfur, negotiations were entered into

The Senussites, severely handled, retreated to Halazin (officially

with him, but without result, and the belicf grewin the Sudan that the Government was toc weak to deal with so powerful a sultan (‘Ali Dinar had a regular “slave” army some 10,000 in number, for the most part well armed). Early in 1916 it had

misspelt Hazalin), 25m. S.W. of Matruh.

Torrential rains now

interrupted operations; in any case General Wallace was too weak to resume the offensive until further reinforced. The first of

these new reinforcements consisted of the znd Regt. of the rst South African Infantry Brigade, which disembarked at Matruh on Jan. 20 and 21 1916. They were the first S. Africans from the Union to take part in the war outside the limits of S. Africa.? On. Jan. 23 the Senussites were attacked at Halazin and after an eight-hours’ stubborn engagement were defeated and ficd. The country had been turned by the rains into a quagmire and mud played an important and unfortunate part throughout.

General Wallace’s successes now induced many of the Egyptian Bedouin (mostly the Walad ‘Ali tribesmen) to desert the Senussi cause. Wallace had been ticd to his base at Matruh by lack of sufficient camel transport, but by February this difficulty was overcome and the force had been further strengthened, partly by more South African infantry. The time for a real

offensive had come.

At this period General Wallace resigned and

was succeeded by Maj.-Gen. W. E. Peyton (Feb. 9 1916). On Feb. 20 General Peyton sent forward a force under Brig.Gen. H. T. Lukin (commander of the rst S. African Inf. Brig.) with orders to take Barrini, 50 m. E. of Sollum. On the 26th an engagement was fought at Agagia, in which

Ga‘far Pasha

attempted to carry out his favourite manoeuvre—an enveloping movement. This movement was checked, the infantry pressed forward and after a two-hours’ struggle the Senussites were compelled to evacuate their position. The yeomanry were then sent in pursuit, and the Dorset Regiment (under Col. H. M. tHe addressed one letter to “ The Governor of Hell in Kordofan

and the Inspector of Flames in Nahud.”

2 A volunteer force raised in Rhodesia (the 2nd Rhodesian Regt.)

had gone to E. Africa in 1915+

become imperative to clear up the situation if the general peace of the Sudan was to be preserved. Though it was the worst season of the year for military operations the Sirdar determined. to anticipate ‘Ali Dinar’s offensive. An expeditionary force,

3,000 strong, was organized tinder command of Maj. (temporary Lt.-Col.) P. V. Kelly. Except fora detachment of the R.F.C. the troops consisted entirely of units of the Egyptian army— this being the first time since the Makdia that Egyptian troops had fought Sudanese Arabs, The expedition was highly successful. It was remarkable for the manner in which transport diffculties were overcome.

Khartum,

the base, is 500 m. by rail

from the nearest seaport: El Obeid, railhead, is 428 m. from

Khartum; and from El Obeid the force had to advance nearly 400 m. across a desolate roadless country. It then had to engage a numerically superior enemy of indomitable valour. Battle

was given by the Darfurians on May 22 (1916) at Beringa, near

El Fasher, ‘Ali Dinar’s capital. A body of 2,000 riflemen, supported by a large mounted force, attacked the Egyptians with

all the accustomed bravery of the Dervish warrior. They were beaten back, counter-charged and completely defeated, losing 3 Like many other Arab officers and men in the Turkish army who

fell into the hands of the British, Ga‘far Pasha joined the Arab forces under the Emir Faisal and took part in the Syrian campaign against the Turks. After his capture at Agagia he had been confined in the

citadel at Cairo.

He tried to escape by means of a rope.

Ga‘tar

being a very heavy man, the rope broke; he fell, injured himself, and was removed to hospital. While there, he learned of the Sherif of Mecca’s revolt and resolved to join his forces. In 1920 he became Minister of Defence in the Provisional Arab Government of Mesopotamia. He was a delegate at the Near East Conference held in

Cairo in March 1921.

SERBIA

398

over 50% of their number in killed alone. ‘Ali Dinar and a con-

ions.

was chased and bombed by airmen, but the Sultan made good his escape. He retired to the confines of French central Africa. In Oct. t916 a column was sent against him; he again fled, was pursued and killed in action on Nov. 6. The Siwa Defcat.—In the oases west of the Nile (where Maj.Gen. W. A. Watson had taken over the command) there was

agreement was ratified and Sidi Mohammed, to whom the Italians gave the title of emir (prince), himself visited Rome to pay homage to the King of Italy. An indication of Sidi Mohammed’s attitude was the permission he granted at this time to an English woman to visit Kufra, though in the guise of a Moslem: The lady in question, Mrs. Rosita Forbes, testified to the desire of the Senussi chiefs to resume trade with Egypt.

siderable following of horsemen fled from the field. The party

little change between April and Oct. 1916.

The patrolling of

the desert front, over 800 m. in length, was done by light-motorcars, the Imperial Camel Corps and aeroplanes.

In October, the

British, with slight opposition, reoccupied Dakhla oasis, where Sidi Ahmad had a farm and where he had been hving for some

By the accord of Regima concluded Nov. 1920 the 1917

AUTHORITIES.—See the despatches of Sir John Maxwell, Sir Archibald Murray and Sir Reginald Wingate (London Gazette supplements June 21, Sept. 25, Oct. 25 and Dec. 1 1916 and May 27 1919); The Times History of the War, vol. ix., chap. exlv.: Lt.-

Col. J. Tilho, ‘The Exploration of Tibeste . . . in 1912-7," Geog.

of British, in motor-cars, to reconnoitre Kufra, but it was found impossible to cross the belt of sand dunes west of the oasis.

Jnl.y vol. Ivi (1920); Capt. Gwatkin Williams, R.N., In the Hands of the Senusst (1916); Rosita Forbes, The Secret of the Sahara: Kufra (1921); W. T. Massey, The Desert Campaigns (1918). ë (F. R. C.)

Sidi Ahmad now retired by way of Farfara and Baharia oases to Siwa. As long as he remained there he was not utterly dis-

which after the Balkan wars was increased to $7,358 sq. kilo-

months.

From Dakhla a daring attempt was made by a party

credited in the eyes of the Egyptians.

It was therefore decided

to attack Siwa with a force sent in motor-cars from Matruh. The distance to be covered was 150 m., but the ground was for the most part hard. Leaving Matruh on Feb. rt 1917, the armouredcar force, under Brig.-Gen. H. W. Hodgson, reached the escarpment, below which lies Siwa oasis, the next afternoon, and was

in action the whole of Feb. 3. The Senussites were about 1,000 strong, including 800 rificmen, and had mountain and machineguns. An attempt to rush the cars was frustrated, but the action appeared to be indecisive, However, at daybreak the next morning the Senussites, having blown up their ammunition, retreated west, The head of their column was ambushed, but the main

body got away. Sidi Ahmad, with Mohammed Salih (ex-commander of the Egyptian coastguard, who had deserted at the beginning of the campaign), had already fled to Jarabub (the

oasis in which is the mosque-tomb of the founder of the Senussite fraternity). Thither he was not pursued, and in the Kufra oases he had a practically inaccessible place of refuge. Nevertheless, with the defeat of Siwa the danger to Egypt from the Senussi movement disappeared and though raids were

made on the Darfur border they did not seriously affect the Sudan, In Cyrenaica, too, the situation was altered. An AngloItalian agreement had been concluded in July 1916 for common action against the Senussi and it was in contemplation to trans-

fer from the Egyptian to the Italian sphere Jarabub and that part of the Libyan Desert containing Kufra. An Understanding with Italy—During 1917 and 1918 Turkish and German influence among the Senussites steadily declined while strong efforts were made by the Italians to come to an ‘understanding with the sect. They secured the release of 700 Italian soldiers, prisoners of war. Sidi Mohammed el Idris, the

‘former envoy to Egypt, and the eldest son of Senussi cl Mahdi, had disapproved his cousin’s action and had taken no part in

the invasion of Egypt. He had an influential following and was desirous of peace with both Italy and Great Britain.

After the

fight at Siwa he entered into an agreement with both Powers. Sidi Ahmad himself was-deeply committed to his Turkish and German counsellors. Many of these, including Nuri Bey, had left Cyrenaica. In the summer of 1918 the Idrisi party gained the mastery in the Senussite ranks. Sidi Ahmad’s position was

undermined and he found it convenient to quit Cyrenaica.

In

-August of that year he was conveyed by a German submarine from

.Misurata to Polo, whence he went to Turkey, still claiming to be the head of the brotherhood. In rọrọ he “ girded the Sultan with the sword of “Othman” but in 1920 had turned Nationalist and aided Mustafa Kemal. The Senussi chiefs in Libya had chosen Sidi Mohammed

el

Idris as Grand Senussi, and the new head of the order in Jan. Igrg sent @ mission to Rome, when Italian sovereignty was implicitly recognized.

Neither Italy, France or Great Britain

had challenged the right of the Senussj sheikh tọ exercise spiritual authority over the members of the brotherhood; Italy in 1917 had gone further and had acknowledged Sidi Mohammed’s

SERBIA metres.

(see 24.686) had in 1910 an area of 48,303 sq. km., The pop., according to the census taken on Dec. 31

1910, WaS 2,911,701, showing an increase of 417,931 Over that of

1900. The country was divided into 18 districts, as follows, (the pop. is shown in brackets) :—Belgrade! (155,815), Belgrade City (89,876), Valjevo (157,648), Vranja (252,937), Kragujevac (189,025), Krajina (112,142), Kruševac (167,371), Morava

(203,638), NiS (198,768), Pirot (112,314), Podrina (238,275), Pozarevac (259,906), Rudnik (85,340), Smederevo (143,216), Timok (149,538), Toplica (110,216), Užice (146,763), Čačak

(138,911). Of this total pop. 2,528,810 lived in the country, and only 382,882 in towns. Of these the most populous were Belgrade (89,876), NiS (24,949), Kragujevac (18,452), Leskovac (14,236), Požarevac (13,411), Sabac (12,100), Vranja

(11,439), Pirot (10,737).

In 1900 the density of population

was 51.6 per sq. kilometre. The territory acquired by Serbia in the wars of 1912-3 contained (according to not very reliable statistics) a pop. of 1,481,614, divided among the following 12 districts:—Pri-

jepolje (40,315), RaSa (81,214), Zvetane (81,643), Kosovo (193,337), Prizren (124,101), Tetovo (146,803), Skoplje (Uskub,

157,078), Kumanovo (144,983), Bregalnisa (101,442), TikveS

(84,657), Bitolj (Monastir, 252,646), Okhrida (84,395).

Thus Serbia on the eve of the World War had a pop. of

roughly 4,500,000. The births, deaths, and marriages in Serbia

amounted in rgrr and rgr2 to 107,219 and 114,257, to 64,369 and 63,358, and to 30,420 and 13,289 respectively.

Agricullure.—Serbia is a land of small holdings. the former Turkish

proprietors having been expropriated in 1833 and 1880: in 1900, out of a total of 401,093 families, no Jess than 91-5 °% were owners of land. Of these only 86 persons owned over roo hectares of land, and only threé persons over 300, while there were 98,253 properties (33-4 %o) of under three hectares. There has been a very rapid development of codperative societies since 1895 (900 in 1909, with! 35,000 members; 1,200 in I913, with 40,000 members), Of a total area of 2,045,176 hectares there was in 1905 (a) culti-

vated land 1,223,671 (arable land 1,027,815, gardens 25,815, vineyards 33,101, orchards 136,939); (%) grazing land 418.391; (c) com-

mons and uncultivated land 110,101.

In 1908 the chief products of

the harvest were (in tons) maize §33,691, cereals 457,734, hay and clover 226,858, straw 777,728, plums 530,061, potatoes 54,946.

In 1905 (latest statistics available} the live stock was distributed

as follows: horses 174,363, cattle 969,953, pigs 908,580, sheep 3,160.-

166, goats 510,063. "i Forests. —Òver one-third of Serbia's total area (3,750,000 ar.) is forest land, all but 750,000 ac. of this belonging to the State or the various communes, The chief varieties of tree are beech (750,000 ac.), oak and conifers.

Afines.—The mining industry of Serbia has a great future, but has hitherto been but little devcloped, owing to lack of capital and means of transport.

Table 1 gives the export of ores (in metric tons)

according to the last statistics available. That these are merely the

first primitive beginnings is best shown by the fact that in the year ' The phonetic spellings of the names of the districts and towns, following the system adopted by the Committee of the Royal Geo-

graphical Society, are: Belgrade, Valvevo, Vranya, Krajina, Krushevats, Morava,

Nish, Pirot, Podrina,

Kraguyevats,

Pozharevats,

Rudnik, Smederevo, Timok, Toplitsa, Uzhitse, Chachak, Leskovats, Shabats, Priyepolye, Rasha, Zvechane, Kosovo, Prizram, Tetovo, Skoplye, Kumanovo, BregaJnitsa, Tikvesh, Okhrida. The

temporal authority in what may be called his hereditary domin- . spellings given above follow the Croatian form or its equivalent.

SERBIA TABLE 1.—Exports of Ores. 1904 2,631,810 Coal and Lignite . 3 g

Gold (in kilogrammes) Silver “ s% Black copper . Lead a

Antimony. Pyrites

.

Cement

.

399

and would have preferred a more conciliatory attitude towards Austria-Hungary, were reduced to silence by Achrenthal’s refusal to admit the international aspect of the problem or to consider the Serbian proposals for arbitration before the Hague Tribunal. Isolated in Europe and jealously shut off from her natural outlets on the Adriatic, Serbia was driven to seek new

political and economic ties in the east and south.

The policy

of Achrenthal inevitably strengthened the tendencies towards the creation of a Balkan League, and these were accelerated

.

1910 a single copper mine (Bor) exported ore to the value of over 8.000,000 francs, thus exceeding the total result of all the mines given above. i Foreign Trade.—The progress of Serbian trade may best be gath-

by the political unrest evoked throughout the Balkan Peninsula by the Young Turk Revolution,

TABLE 2.—Imports and Exports.

ous negotiations between Prince Michael Obrenović and the

ered from the following Tables 2 and 3. In 1910 maize to the value 1905-7

1908-10

(triennial) (triennial)

Bulgarian exiles of his day, and also between Kossuth, Prince

1999

Michael, and Prince Cuza of Rumania. The last serious overtures had been made in 1891 by the Greek premier Tricoupis, and after their betrayal to the Porte hy Stambulov the

6,821,000 | 9,196,000] 2,941,403 | 3,387

Imports Exports

004.000

110,626,000]

3,719,270 1 3,035

idea remained

TABLE 3.—Distribution of Trade. Exports to Imports from 1910. 1909. 1909, Igo. £876,594 £1,154,068 | £1,399,033 | £ 623,791 712,875 1,163,866 711,894 | 645,930

Germany

Austria-Hungary U.K. and Brit-

ish Colonics

Turkey France Italy . Russia

.

303,409 | 194,224 541,460

i

456,997 237.382 LPIA

2

5,696 |

878,967

97,172 121,864

92

66,892 938,837 47,644 42,786

I

RIS

of over 21,400,000 francs was exported. The famous plum industry (known to the west only through German intermediaries) accounted in 1908 for the export of 49,042 tons of prunes (value 10,350,725.

francs) and of 14,398 tons of plum jam (value 3,251,093 francs). The pig trade, upon which Serbia's prosperity very largely depended, having been injured by Austria-Hungary's tariff policy, a new system of slaughter-houses was established in Belgrade, and in 1911

the chief of these exported 9,751 tons of pork (68,047 head).

By

1913 the amount exported had risen to 12,913 tons (100,776 head). Finance-—On Jan. £ 1913 the public debt amounted to £26,362,240. Table4 shows how the budget balanced in the years before the war. In 1915 the budget was fixed at the same figure. From 1915 to 1918, owing to the conquest of the country, no proper budget was possible, the Government and army subsisting upon the subsidies of the Allied Powers, TABLE

19099.

7910 IQI

-

£4,145,764

a

f 1§55ft.(s97ft.Gin.)!

“ Ramillies”

vig; |

27 Ít. 6in.

545 ft, (581 ft.) | 88 ft. G in.

IQII ; “ Monarch ” “ King George V.” | I9 191r “ Centurion ”

“Malaya”. “ Royal Sov“ercign ". “Royal Oak” “ Revenge", “ Resolution”

. Load Dis-

PU

Draught

III

“ Conqueror ”

“ Warspite ” a eras “Valiant” .

Sinan

PA irat ons

Breadth

perpendiculars: (length over all)

. |Gooft, (643ft.9in.))

; , 90 ft. 6 in. | 28 ft. 9 in.

N |580ft. (624ft.3in.)|

A 88 ft.6in, | 28 ft. 6 in. 1o2 fr. with bulge.

: 632ft.(671ft.Gin.)]

89 ft.

oo tty

3 oe 6-in. 2— 4—21-in. T. T.

27,500

25

75,000

25,750

23

: 40,000 | 8—15-1n. 14— 6-in. 4—2I-in.

22

34,000

2I

26,000

223

37,000

27,500

:

23,000 [s25ft.(ssoft.6in.)} or it. 7 in. | 28 ft. 6 in. | 625 ft. (661 ft.) | 92 ft. 28 ft. Gin. | 28,000 |

s

cae T. I.

7

ee AE 3—2i-in. T. T., oigo im oit 4—21-in. T. T., |10—14-in,16—6-in 4—21-in. T. T

f 13 in.

; 13 in.

.

Qin. ; 12 in. 7 gin.

SHIP AND

430

before, and two shortly after, the declaration of war.

SHIPBUILDING

Four torpedo-

tubes were carried in licu of three in the previous ships, and after

the battle of Jutland a considerable amount of additional protection was added over the magazines—a course which was practically adopted in all British ships at that time as a precautionary measure. Only in one case was any portion of a shell found to have penetrated below the protective deck; but with the ever-increasing range at which actions were fought, and the increasing penetration of improved shell, the danger of the decks being inadequate had to be considered. Special interest is attached to this class, as the “ Iron Duke ” was the fleet flagship during the whole time of Adml. Jellicoe’s appointment as commander-in-chicf, and she was in action at

Jutland with her sister ships,

the stress of war conditions, it being found easier to keep up a high sustained speed, with the smaller complement carried. It should be noted that Sir Philip Watts was responsible as Director of Naval Construction for the design of the “Iron Duke” and ‘Queen Ehzaheth " classes, thus completing a series of 27 battleships of the “ Dreadnought " type designed and built during his tenure of office at the Admiralty—in addition to the large number of battle cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and other vessels built during that period—truly a great record.

Following the “Queen

Elizabeths"

came

the " Royal Sov-

ereign "’ class of the 1913-4 programme (sce figs. 4 and 5). These were the first capital ships built hy the Admiralty to Sir Eustace d'Eyncourt’s designs, he having succeeded Sir PL Watts in Aug. 1912,

These vessels were to have the same armament as the “ Queen

Elizabeth,” but as there was some question about the supply of oil fucl when the design was discussed, it was decided to revert to coal,

and also to accept the slower speed of 21 knots, which would make them more homogeneous with other “ Dreadnoughts.” Subsequently, when the vessels were in process of construction and the great advantages of the use of oil fuel with other types of warships became apparent, it was decided to change from coal to oil, so enabling increased power, giving a speed of about 23 knots, to be obtained. When fully laden with about 4,000 tons of oil, the ‘ Revenge" attained 22 knots, which was equal to about 23 knots in the designed

load condition.

A somewhat different disposition of deck and side

armour Was also adopted by which the thick protective deck at the

FIG. I

The “ Marlborough,” it should be specially noted, was the only

British battleship of the post-‘‘ Dreadnought ” type struck by a torpedo during the whole war, and the value of the longitudinal protective bulkhead and of the subdivision and arrangements adopted was clearly shown, as the ship was able to remain in the line, no vital damage being done. She was afterwards safely docked in the Tyne and repaired. This is specially interesting, as many of the older ships, some with centre-line bulkheads and with other arrangements not so good for dealing with under-water damage, were sunk

in the Dardanelles and elsewhere by enemy torpedocs.

centre of the ship was brought up to the level of the main deck; this portion of the protective deck being thus well above the level of the deep load linc, and giving more protected freeboard in the damaged condition than on any of our earlier battleships. This Was an important feature, as a somewhat reduced metacentric height was decided upon for these ships with a view to making them steadier gun-platforms than some of the ships with more initial sta-

bility. The vessels were provided with good under-water protection, which was later reinforced by adding outside bulge protection. This was done tọ “ Ramillies |" before her launch and to the other vessels of the class after they had been in commission some

time.

The addition of “ bulges’’ was suggested first by Sir E.

d Eyncourt originally for the ‘ Edgar "’ class, for which this form of rotection was added in 1914 after experiments had been made. [he results proved the efficiency of the bulges.

The next type to note is the ‘Queen Elizabeth" class of the 1912-3 programme (sce figs. 2 and 3). Three of these vessels, after taking a little more

than two years to build, were completed

in

Jan., March and Oct. 1915. The other two were completed in Feb. 1916. A very considerable departure was made in the “ Queen Elizabeth ” from any previous ‘‘ Dreadnoughts,” the 15-in. gun taking the place of the 13-5-in., and the designed speed being increased by 4 knots over previous ‘ Dreadnoughts,” whilst the secondary armament was similar to that of the “Iron Dukes,” consisting of 6-in. guns. Their very great increase of speed involved more than doubling the H.P. of the “ Iron Duke” to give the 25 knots desired, and the great increase in the weight of the 15-in.

guns and mountings over the 13.5-in. meant accepting only four turrets with cight 15-in. guns, as against five turrets with 10 13-5-in.

guns in the previous ships, and even so the armament was considerably heavier. The further great departure from previous practice in battleships was the adoption of oil-only as the fuel. This necessitated special arrangements of the oil bunkers, many of which were 30 ft. in height, and required special construction to withstand the head of oil. The armour and protection were fully maintained as compared with previous ships, but all these additions involved increasing the displacement to 27,500 tons.

In the battle of Jutland the Fifth Battle Squadron, consisting of our vessels of this class, were heavily engaged for several hours,

and although they inflicted and sustained heavy punishment, especially in the case of '* Warspite,” all the vessels gave a splendid account of themselves and were not seriously damaged or put out of action. After the battle of Jutland additional protection was

added to the magazines.

The three battleships taken over by Great Britain from foreign

Governments

were of different

types.

H.M.S.

“Agincourt” (sce

fig. 6) was commenced in Sept. 1911 lor the Brazilan Government, from designs got out under Mr. Perrett at Elswick, but modiñed by Sir E. d'Eyncourt in Rio Janciro, where he was then representing the Armstrong firm, before his appointment at the Admiralty.

The Brazilian authorities, after much discussion, decided upon 14 r2-In. guns, twin-mounted in seven turrets. This involved a ship

with a length of 632 ft. between perpendiculars and 670 ft. over ail. The main armour was somewhat lighter than that of British * Dread-

novghts ” and in other respects, such as fuelling facilities, the ship

hardly came

up to the British standard.

lowever,

she was well

reported on, and the 14 big guns were liked by the gunnery oflicers; who preferred a large number of guns for their salvocs. Certain

alterations had to be made to fit her for the British service, but in the main she was left as designed. It should be mentioned that in 1914 the “ Agincourt ” was transferred by Brazif to Turkey and she was on the point of leaving the Tyne for Constantinople when, on the declaration of war, she was taken over by the British Government.

The design of the “ Erin” was settled by three firms, Armstrong's, Vickers and John Brown, in consultation with the Turkish authorities, for whom the vessel was built, being commenced in 1911. In general characteristics she more nearly followed the * King George V.” class than any other British ship, except that the secondary armdment consisted of 6-in. guns, as in the “ lron Duke” class. This vessel also was taken over by the British Government in Aug. 1914, and

certain

modifications

made

to fit her for the British

service. In respect of quantity of fuel carried, the “ Erin” was The oil fuel proved a complete success in e RL A PR a: e i below the standard adopted for vessels designed for the British navy.

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

The third ship taken over from a forcign Government was ordered and commenced in 1911 at Elswick from designs prepared at Els-

of very fast battle cruisers. Instructions to redesign these ships were given about Christmas 1914. The new design had to give a speed of 32 knots, with the largest number of big guns possible for such a vessel, and with pro- `

wick by Mr. Perrett for the Chilean Government. There were two ships of the class, the “ Almirante Latorre " (which became H.M.S. “ Canada "’}, and the sister ship the ‘Almirante Cochrane" (now

H.M.S. l Eagle"). The “ Canada" had Io 14-in. guns, twinmounted, in the centre line, and was originally designed to have 22

4-7-in. as the secondary

431

pulse” as battleships and to alter the design completely into that

tection similar to that of the ‘‘ Invincible " class.

A modified form -

of bulge was adopted in these ships to give additional under-water

battery, but this was subsequently

protection against

altered to 16 6-in. guns. The protection again was somewhat lighter than that of the British “ Dreadnoughts,” byt the speed was rather

torpedo attack.

After the war further addi-

tions were made to the bulge protection and to the armour.

higher, viz. 227 knots, and as a matter of fact this speed was con-

siderably exceeded on tial. The ship was taken over by the British

Admiraltv in Sept. 1914, and completed, after certain necessary modifications, a year later. Her fuel consisted of coal, with the

addition of a certain amount of oil, as in most British battleships. In 1920 the 't Canada" was returned to the Chilean Government under her original name. The sister ship, Almirante Cochrane,” remained in an uncompleted condition on the stocks at Elswick till eafly in 1918, when she was taken over by the British Government and rearranged as an aircraft-carrying ship. She was renamed H.M.S. “ Eagle,” and us a compliment to the U.S. navy, she was, at the request of the Admiralty, launched by Mrs. Page, the wife of the then American Ambassador to Great

Britain.

Battle Crutsers—aAs regards the British battle cruisers later than

the “ Princess Royal,” particulars are given in Table 1V.

The “ Tiger” was included in the 1911-2 programme and fol-

The gencral outline design was completed and approved in ten days, and 6 15-in. guns adopted as the main armament, the secondary armament consisting of 17 4-1n. guns, of which 15 were mounted in five specially designed triple-gun mountings. It was necessary that the ships should be completed at the carliest possible date,. and the ‘ Tiger's” machinery was repeated with some additional boilers, with oil as the fuel, thus increasing the power to 120,000, which, with the extra length given to the ship, made it possible to obtain the desired speed of 32 knots.

lowed on the " Queen Mary,” the gencral features of the two ships

being much alike, the chief differences being that the secondary armament of ‘ Tiger ” is 12 6-in, guns in lieu of 16 4-in. in “ Queen Mary,” and “ Tiger” has two submerged torpedo-rooms, whereas “Queen Mary ” had only one. The “ Tiger ” was laid down at Clydebank on June 12 1912, and completed in Oct. 1914. In common with so many ships completed during the war, the eurly commissioning and joining of the fleet was So lnperative that no exhaustive trials in deep water were carried out, but the runs made on the Polperro course showed that the designed power of 108,000 S.H.P. could be obtained with little difficulty, corresponding to a speed of 30 knots. In the early stages of the design the oil-fuel capacity was very largely increased from 1,000 tons originally intended to a maximum oil stowage of 3,450 tons, in addition to the 3,320 tons of coal.

Lord Fisher also insisted that the ships must be completed within

15 months—an abnormally short time for an entirely new design— this period of completion was not realized, although not greatly exceeded. By Jan. 21 1915 the two firms entrusted with the orders, viz. Messrs. John Brown and Fairfield, were supplied with sufficient information to enable them to proceed with the structure, and both

keels were laid on Jan. 25, which was Lord Fisher's birthday. All the drawings and specifications were completed by April and the design finally approved in that month. The arrangement of the whole ship, showing the protection, is given in fg, 7, the plating over the magazines having been considerably increased as a result of the Jutland fight. “ Repulse ” was launched in Jan. 1916, less than a year from the

laying down, and “ Renown”

was launched three months later.

" Repulse ” went through her commissioning trials early in Aug.,

and “ Renown "’ followed one month later and was completed in September. The speed of * Repulse "’ on trial was over 31} knots in the deep condition, and the “ Renown" obtained 32-6 knots mean speed in the normal condition. The construction of these vessels in a Jittle over one and a half years from the first order to get out the design constitutes a record in design and construction of two such important vessels, and

Fic. 7.

At the commencement of the war two additional battleships of slightly modified ‘ Royal Sovercign "' type, viz. the “ Renown” and “ Repulse ”’ (see figs. 7 and 8), had been laid down, but in view of the long time it would take to complete these ships, the construction was not pressed forward. Immediately after the battle of the Falkland Is., ra which the British hattle cruisers ‘Invincible ” and “ Inflexible,"" in company with other smaller cruisers, annihilated Von Spee’s fleet, the value of the battle cruiser type became very apparent, and on the initiative of J.ord Fisher, then First Sea Lord, it was decided to stop the construction of ' Renown ” and “ ReTaBLe

Date of | Length between Launch

c

Igio

“ Princess

R oyal ” Att.8 “ Queen Mary ”

X911 )

" Tiger” “ Renown ” “ Repulse ”

“Hood”

.

1912

perpendiculars

length over all) a

660 Ít.

reflected great credit, not only upon the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors, but also upon the contractors and all concerned in the construction and completion of the vessels. In fact, the Admiralty conveyed their appreciation of this to Sir E. d'Eyncourt, the Director of Naval Construction, in a letter dated Sept. 1916.

The battle cruiser H.M.S. “ Hood ” (see figs. 9 and 10), the latest addition up to 1921 to the capital ships of the British Fleet, was designed carly in 1916, and had only just been ordered from Messrs. J. Brown & Co, when the battle of Jutland took place. This great event naturally led to a revision of the design and in view of the

damage which was then done to British battle cruisers and also to

[V.—Particulars of British Battle Cruisers. Breadth

88 ft, G in.

Mean

Draught 28 ft.

Load disS ; placement : Knots peed ns

26,350

28

(700 ft.) 89 ft.

28 ft.

27,000

1913- | 660 ft. (704 ft.) | go ft. 6 in.

28 ft. 6 in.

28,500

S

go ft.

25 ft. 6 in,

26,500

104 ft.

28 it. 6 in.

41,200

Goo ft.(703ft.6in.)

750 ft.

1916

(794 ft.)

1918

810 ft. (860 ft.)

28

ThickAimament

| est side ' Armour

8—13 S-in.

j

16— 4-in. j 2—21-in. T.T, 8—13°5-in. 16— 4-in. 2—21-in. 5.T. 8—13'5-in. t2— Gin.

4~—21-in. T.T. 6—15-in.

17— 4-in.

2—21-in. T.T. 8—i5-in,

12— 5:5-in.

6—21-in. T.T. L

Q iñ,

9 in,

l

SHIP AND

432

SHIPBUILDING

the German ships of similar type, it was deemed advisable toincrease the armour protection, if possible.

As the result of very extensive

investigations, it was found possible, by accepting a deeper draught and a slightly reduced speed, to add very considerably to the protection atthe vessel as already designed, without otherwise seriously affecting the design of the ship as a whole. The alterations were

of a very radical character, the armour belt being increased from 8

to 12 in. and the barbettes from 9 to 12 in.; and certain increases were also made in the deck protection, At the same time the eight 15-in, gun mountings had their design modified to admit of an elevation of 30 degrees, and certain other modifications

were

made,

both in the torpedo armament and also in the arrangements for pre-

venting the flash penetrating to the magazines—a

form ol protec-

cited as an example of what can be achieved by going to a large size, Her design embodies the armament and armour protection of a first-class battleship, including also good under-water protec:tion against torpedocs, and at the same time gives the speed of the fastest battle cruisers. ‘Thisinvolved great length and displacement.

The under-water bulge protection, which has entirely superseded the provision of torpedo netting, is additional to anything provided in pre-war '' Dreadnoughts.” In connexion with the size of the “‘ Hood ” and general considerations of design, it is interesting to note the chief characteristics of the ‘Queen Elizabeth’ and ‘ Renown.” The “ Queen Elizabeth " is a well-armoured ship of about 28,000 tons, with eight 15-in. guns and speed of 25 knots, while ‘' Renown,” of slightly less dis-

placement, viz. 27,000 tons, though of greater length, is a vessel tion which was claborated forall British ships at thie time, Ali these with 7 knots more speed than “ Queen Elizabeth,” but with only increases involved an additional weight of nearly §,000 tons, the Six 15-in. guns against eight, and approximately about half the legend displacement of the ‘ Hood ” becoming finally 41,200 tons The when carrying 1,200 tons of fuel; the ship then having a draught of armour protection provided in the “‘ Queen Elizabeth.”” _“ Hood” has the same armament, viz. eight 15-in. guns, as the 283 ft., and a draught of 312 ft. with full fuel load, viz. 4,000 tons. “Queen Elizabeth,” armour protection fully equal to and, in fact, The original length and beam of the ship were maintained as before. Some extra plating had to be provided on the decks for rather heavier in the aggregate than that of the ‘ Queen Elizabeth,” 7 knots more spced than the ‘ Queen Elizabeth,” which strength purposes, but the under-watcr protection against torpedoes makes the speed about equal to that of “ Renown,” and in addition was retained as in the original design, With the modifications made, complete protection against torpedo attack. the * lood ” when completed was by far the most up-to-date capital ship in existence. The changes in the design and other circumstances militated against the quick construction of the ship, and it was about four

years from the approval of the original design in April 1916 to the

time of her completion, this betng about double the time taken to build recent British capital ships, and nearly three times that taken

to build the * Repulse ” and “ Renown.”

The modifications were,

however, quite justified by the circumstances,

and they made the

ship a much more powerfully protected: one, whilst increasing her displacement, and consequently the weight of material to be worked,

to about 50%, more than that of ‘ Repulse ” and * Renown.”

The main machinery of the ‘* Hood,” consisting of geared turbines to develop 144,000 H.P., has the largest power which has ever been put through gearing, nae 36,000 H.P. on each of the four shafts. The machinery is placed in three engine-rooms, of which the forward one contains two independent sets for the outer shafts; the middle and after engine-rooms contain one independent set for each of the inner shafts. This power, which was designed to give 32 knots for the earlier design of 36,300 tons displacement, was expected to give at least 31 knots in deep water with 210 revolutions of the propellers, at a displacement of 41,200 tons for the “ Hood ” as built. The 24 botlers represented the small-tube type with forced draught, arranged in cue boiler-rooms. Such boilers were

first adopted for large vessels in the ‘' Courageous " class. Oil is the

only fuel used in “ Hood.’ On trials on the measured mile the “Hood” obtained a speed of 32-07 knots with 151,000 S.H.P., at

42,200 tons displacement, and 31-9 knots with 150,000 S.H.P. at

44,600 tons displacement. It will be seen from the plan (fig. 9) that the main armament of eight 15-in. guns was mounted, as in recent British battleships of the “Queen Elizabeth "' and ‘ Royal Sovereign ”’ classes, in four turrets, all on the centre line, with very large ares of training, the

forward ones training to 60° abaft the beam, and the after ones to 60° before the beam. The anti-torpedo-boat destroyer armament consists of twelve 54-in. guns arranged on the forecastle deck and shelter deck. here are also four 4-in. anti-aircraft guns on the shelter deck aft. There are two 21-in. submerged torpedo tubes,

each in a separate compartment

forward, and four 21-in. above-

Large Light Crutsers—Early in 1915, as sanction was not given by the British Government for building more capital ships taking two years or longer to complete, while additional light cruisers had been already approved of, it was decided to build ‘ Courageous ”

and “ Glorious"

(figs. 11 and 12) on the lines of very large light

cruisers mounting a few guns of heaviest calibre, so as to be able to

annihilate any enemy light cruisers or raiders, They were to have light protection, similar to British light cruisers, and a speed of not less than 32 knots, the draught being restricted to about 22 ft.,

or about 5 ft. less than any existing battleships or battle cruiser carrying such heavy guns, the main armament of four 15-in. guns in

two turrets, one forward and one aft, making them a match for any raider or light cruiser that might be encountered. At this time it should also be remembered that the armaments of ships, especially as regards heavy guns, had to be regulated by the guns and gun mountings which would be avatable or could be manufactured in a short time, and this condition applicd to the 15-in. mountings which were adopted for these ships.

The secondary armament

consisted

of eighteen 4-in. guns in six triple mountings, similar to the triple mountings of the ‘ Renown " and “ Repulse.” The side armour consisted of 2-in. protective plating added to the 1-in. shell plating, and a thin protective deck was worked all fore and aft, but this was

water torpedo tubes between the upper and forecastle decks; these above-water tubes being a further addition since the original design

considerably thickened over the magazines after Jutland. A modified ‘‘ bulge ” was arranged for, as in “ Renown” and “ Repulse.” The machinery adopted for these ships was of the type fitted in the hight cruiser ‘ Champion.” It consisted of a 4-shaft arrange-

main belt was a strake of 7-in. armour to the height of the upper

ment of geared turbines, the power being transmitted to the proler shafts by double helical gearing. The eightcen boilers of.

was made. The distribution of armour is also shown, The 12-in. belt had a length of 562 ft. and a depth of 9 ft. 6 inches. Above the

deck,

and above

that again there was

5-in. armour

between

the

upper and forecastle decks. The side armour all sloped outward from below, the shell being thus unable to hit the armour normally,

so that the virtual thicknesses were somewhat greater. There was thick plating behind all the armour, varying from 2 in. over the greater portion to 1} in. and 1 in. elsewhere. The torpedo protection consisted of the bulge arrangement, with an outer compartment. of air and an tinner one specially strengthened with the necessary separating bulkheads, etc. This protection extended throughout the whole length of the machinery spaces and magazines, and

'arrow small-tube type were also similar to those of the light cruisers,

and with all-oil firing a power of 90,000 S.H.P. at about 340 revolutions of propellers was aimed at. Such trials.as it was possible to make showed that 32 knots could easily be obtained at the designed displacement, and on service this was actually exceeded. t was intended

that these vessels should

be built in a year, or

_as near that as possible, but this was not realized, and the ships were both commissioned in Oct. r916.

se

i

,

The “ Furious ” (see fig. 13), was similar to, but a modification of, it has been proved that it renders the ship as safe against attack from _ the ** Courageous "' and ** Glorious,” having about the same length and the same machinery, but the form of midship section was sometorpedoes under water as she is against gun attack above water. what different, having a more pronounced bulge and a simpler form The oil fuel tanks are arranged along the sides, thus giving additional protection. The ‘* Hood’ was successfully launched in Aug. _of main framing and structure of the hull. The armament also was 1918 at Clydebank, the ceremony being performed by Lady Hood, different ; each turret, instead of having two 15-in. guns, was arranged widow of Adml. Hood, who lost his life whilst gallantly leading to carry one big gun of 18-in. bore. _ : into action the Third Battle-Cruiser Squadron at Jutland. The Early in the spring of 1917 the necessity for having fast aeroplanelaunching weight was about 22,000 tons.

As the other three ships

of the class which were commenced had none of them reached the launching stare at the time of the Armistice, it was subsequently decided not to proceed with them, in view of the international conditions, and the ‘* Howe,” ‘' Rodney " and * Anson ” were accord-

ingly scrapped. As regards the general design of the ship, the ‘“ Hood” may be

carriers became very obvious, and it was approved to fit “ Furious ” for this purpose. This entailed the removal of the fore turret and making other considerable alterations. A large hangar was built on the forecastle deck, and a flving-off platiorm 160 ft. long was arranged on the roof of the hangar, which was designed to house about 10 machines. Later it was decided to remove the after-turret

as well, and a flying-on deck 300 ft. long, extending from the funnel

SHIP AND

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SHIP AND aft, was constructed.

SHIPBUILDING

The secondary armament, which had con-

sisted originally of tf S-in. guns, was retained, with the exception of one gun; the remaining 10 guns being rearranged. Four sets of

triple 21-in, torpedo tubes were fitted on the upper deck aft, and

433

chased in 1915. These vessels were considerably heavier than the C” class and more closely resembled the British “Chatham” class. They carried an armament of ten 54-in. guns. The boilers were modified to burn only oif in the “Chester,'‘ instead of coal and

one pair each side on the upper deck forward. After these alterations were completed, the ship was tried and commissioned in July s917, a speed of 313 knots being obtained

oil as in the “ Birkenhead,” and the resulting increase in power to 31,000 gave the former a speed of 264 knots. Designs were prepared in 1915 of the "Raleigh" class (figs. 17

of a destroyer it is possible to drive a ship of nearly 20 times the displacement at the same speed. This in smooth water; in anything

and 18), a considerably heavier type of light cruiser, more especially suited for ocean work in any part of the world. They were to havea spced of 30 knots and a large radius of action. Various armaments were considered, and it was finally decided to adopt an armament of seven 7-5-in. guns with twelve 3-in. (four being on high-angle

with 94,000 S.H.P. at 339 revolutions. From the speed point of view the yreat advantage of size and length is clearly shown in these ships compared to T.B.D.s, since with about three times the H.P.

of a head sea the F.B.D.s are left behind altogether by the great ships (sce Table V.)}. ;

mountings).

Five of the big guns were placed on the centre line,

Light Cruisers —Following upon the previous light cruisers of the town classes, a very important departure was made in the light cruiser design in the programme 1912-3, when the * Arethusa” class (see fig. 14) was designed by Sir Philip Watts. The importance attached to speed was specially brought out in this design, and it was decided to install very powerful machinery of 40,000 S.HLP. and this could only be achieved by adopting, engines and boilers closely approximating to those hitherto used only for destroyers, In conjunction with high speed a good armament was provided, consisting of two G-in. and six 4-in. guns, though in the original design the armament consisted entirely of q-in. guns, The ship's sides up to the ievel of the upper deck were protected by a high tensile plating varying from 2-in. to 1j-in. and 1-in. in addition to the T-in. shell plating. ‘This arrangement of plating also greatly

added to the strength and stiffness of the ship. Further particulars of the class are given in Table V. The “Arethusa” and other light cruisers were in the action off Heligoland on Aug. 28 1914; In the 1913-4 programme the “Calliope” class, slightly larger vessels than the ‘Arethusas,’” but with the same power, were decided upon, the designs being made by Sir E. @Eyncourt. After considerable discussion regarding the merits of mixed or homogeneous armament, it was decided to give these vessels two 6-in. guns, both on the centre line placed aft, and eight 4-in. guns. The protection consisted, 2s in the previous design, ef a belt with a total thickness of approximately 3 inches. Most of this class had practically the same machinery as the “Arethusa,” but Farsons geared

turbines were

installed in two ol them, the “Calliope”

having

and the other two were on the broadsides amidships. The bow and stern guns were superposed, thus giving a fire of four guns, both ahead and astern, and six guns on either broadside. These ships

were originally designed to burn oil and coal, but the coal-burning boilers were subsequently altered in three ships of the class to burn a larger amount of ail, the original power of G0,000 S.H.P. an a fourshaft geared turbine arrangement being thus considerably increased up to about 70,000 shaft horse power.

These vessels also ditfered from the light cruisers referred to above in having modified bitlges as protection against under-water attack, The protective plating was similar to that of the other light cruisers. One of these ships, the ‘Cavendish, was altered into an aircraftcarrier, and renamed “Vindictive.”

four shafts and the “Champion” two shafts. This was at the time a very important experiment, the putting of 20,000 H.P. through gearing being a very bold depariure from anything which had been hitherto contemplated. The final results obtained with

Monitors (see Table V.).—The first vessels of this type to be added (or reintroduced) to the British navy were the three ex-

“Champion” were, however, excellent, and she obtained a speed of 294 knots with 337 revolutions and about 41,000 S.H.P., this speed being slightly in excess of any of the other vessels of the class at corresponding displacement. The “C” class are the first ships, other than battleships, to have superposed guns on the middie line, a sort of spoon-shaped bulwark being fitted to protect the crew of the lower from the blast of the upper gun firing over them. For the subsequent vessels of the “C” elass reference should be

ber,” ‘Mersey’ ' and “Severn.” The particulars of these vessels are given in the table, from which it will be seen that the armament consisted of medium-calibre guns, viz. 6-in. and 4-7-inches. These vessels, though designed for river service, did very good work in the war, both on the E.-African and Belgian coasts. : The need for vessels of the monitor type mounting heavy guns soon became apparent, and in Nov. 1914 it was decided to prepare designs of monitors ‘of more substantial structure for sea-going service, but of light draught, with good protection and carrying some heavy guns, the lizht draught combining the advantages of

nade to the tables, which show a gradual growth in size and power

of armament;

“Ceres” class (fig. 14) finally having a length of

425 ft. and a beam of 43 ft. G in., and a normal displacement of about 4,200 tons. These vessels carried five 6-in. guns, all on the centre line.

Brazilian river monitors built by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., and taken aver by the British Government in Aug. 1914, and renamed ‘'Hum-

being able to go close inshore and greatly reducing the risk of being.

struck by a torpedo. The earliest design was that of the 14-in. gun monitors, four in number, which was commenced in 1914. Four twin-mounted 14-in. guns and mountings were available, and with the very simple form of structure adopted, these vessels were designed and built in six months. They were quickly followed by the 12-in. monitors, which were of similar design but carried pairs of 12-in. guns, taken from older battleships. These vessels were also built in about six months.

They all had a complete bulge of a form which was of simple construction, With an air space outboard

320

YHA. 22"

FIC. 15.

The next class were the D's”

(figs, 15 and 16), the gencral

arrangement and protection of which followed that of the “Ceres,”

except that six 6-in. guns were carried on the centre line instead of five. The power was only slightly increased in these ships over the previous classes, but the revolutions were reduced to 275, all these later classes having the twin-screw geared arrangement, and although the displacement of the D's” increased to 4,650 tons, the additional length and the reduction of revolutions enabled the speed of cinse upon 30 knots of the whole class of light cruisers C's" and “Ty's to be maintained. In addition to these light cruisers, which were all to Admiralty design, two vessels—the "Birkenhead" and "Chester" —built at Messrs. Cammell; Laird's for the Greek Government, were purXXXIL—&

and a water space between

that and the ship proper. Following on the f2-in. monitors, early in Jan. 1915 two more vessels were ordered, mounting a pair of 15-in. guns. For these. ships, internal-combustion engines, which were well under way, but designed for another purpose, were installed. These vessels were named the “Marshal Ney” and “Marshal Soult.” l In Sept. 1915 two improved 15-in, monitors were ordered and named the “Erebus” and “Terror” (figs. 19 and 20).

These were

of finer form, of more horse power and a speed of 14 knots. Following the earlicr 15-in, monitors, some much smaller vessels, each carrying @ 9-2-in. gun, were designed, and others again which carried 6-in. guns. A good many of both large and small monitors went out to the Dardanelles in the early part of the war, and did

very good work, and for a long time they seemed to bear a charmed life, as they enjoyed complete immunity from torpedo attack.

Later, however, the “Erebus” and “Terror” were both torpedoed; the latter received three torpedoes, two hitting forward of the bulge with severe damage resulting; the third, which hit the bulge itself, did very little damage. The former ship was hit full amidships by a distance-controlled boat carrying a very heavy charge, but the bulge gave her complete protection and both ships were quickly repaired, Itis interesting to note in this connexion that some of the ofd.

SHIP AND

434

SHIPBUILDING

TaBLe V.—British Light Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, etc. Length

between Date of | Perps. | Breadth| Launch | (Length

LIGHT CRUISERS i

“ Courageous ”’.

Draught} in. 6

17,400

90,000

4—15 in. 18—4 in.

3 in.

o|]17

3

9,750

30-1

|60,000-70,000)

7—7-5 in. 12—3 in.

3 in,

15

10

5,440

254

25,000

6

3,500

30

40,000

3,750

30

40,000

65

“Chatham ” Class .

1912-3 | 430 (457

]49

“ Arethusa”

"

191374 | 410

|39

o0j13

“ Calliope ”

-

1914-5

41

6{

13

“ Caledon ”

Ú

1916-7

14

“ Ceres"

i

1917

“p”

is

1918

IE”

i

1919-20|

DESTROYERS;

HR” & MONT

S” Class

eee

i

DESTROYER LEADERS: ““ Kempenfelt " Class

(605)

(436) 420 (446)

10)

425

42

9]

nee

43

6/14

445

46

Of

(450)

450

(471)

545 | 54 (570)

1

4,120

29

40,000

I

4,190

29

40,000

14

4,650

29

40,000

16

7,550

33

80,000

1916 1915

405 177

88 31

of o|

itt ó

o ọ

8,000 540

Igl5

177

3I

oO

4

o

355

8|

8

8

1914

273

26

1916-8

276

26

1917-9

312

29

32

9:0

17

2,400

2—4 ìn. or 4'7 in.



9 o

810 750

15 16

1,400 1,800

I—3 in. 1—3 in.

— —

1—3 in. 5-18 in, T. T.



OW

1916 1916

246 231

29 28

o] of

1912

181

22

6/112

face | metged iface| merged| face | merged 6 | 660} 800/15 | 10 | 1,600] 840

1915

275 | 23

14

© [1,210/1,820] 193] .9} | 3,600) 1,350

1916

338

26

©] 6) '

16

o

1917 1917

231 2

23 24

6/13 6/135

1918

163

15

6

1915 I91I

237} 126

|36 20

of ol

i

“ CHINA Large

10

7

6 7

Sur-]

oR”

GUNBOATS:’ ee

Small

11

4 2

7

o 0

to them early in the war, were torpedoed in the Mediterranean, but the bulge gave them complete protection. They were taken to port and repaired. In fact, no bulged ship struck bya torpedo was sunk.

On the heavier monitors it may be remarked that of al) ships carrying hea uns these vessels were probably more often in action off the Belgian coast and elsewhere than any of our heavygun ships, and they no doubt gave the enemy in occupation of that coast a very anxjous time.

Destroyers and Flotilla Leaders (Table V.).—With regard to the of British destroyers and flotilla leaders during the

war reference may be made to the tables and plans and 24). These vessels gradually increased in size war requirements continually added to the weights to carry, including considerably more fucl, heavier

8ub |Sur-}

(figs. 21, 22, 23 and power, and which they had armament both

500

645 o8





1—4 in. 2—I4 in. T. T.



2111n. T.T.

Bob {| Sur- | Sub

, 41,880! 2,560) 24 | 9}

420|

4—4 in.

5—47 in.

4—21 in. T. T.

1—3 in. or 4 in.

6—18 in. T. T. I—4 in. 1—3 in. 8—18 in. T. T. 1—4 in. 6—18 in. T. T. I—12 in, I~} in.

110,000) 1,400

6 {| 890! 1,070] 174] 104 | 2,400] 1,600 9g }1,600) 1,950) 16 | 97 | 2,400) 1,600

British cruisers of the ” Edgar ” class, which had had bulges added

development



1,250

3

oH

4—4 in, or 4—5 in.

D

268

te es



4,000

1915

ae.



4—21 in. T. T. 3—4 ìn, 4—21 in. T. T.

22

SLOOPS

pe “



573

9|

LST “M”

— a5

2—6 in

7

i23

2

2—15 in.; 8—4 in. I—9-2 in

1,650

2244

es

3 in.

1,800

1915

ER

3 in.

7— in. 12—21 in. T. T.

o

PATROL BOATS: “P” Class

eee

6—6 in.

12-21 in, T. T.

oO

gf

o|o

SUBMARINES: “E” Class

3 In.

4 or 6—21 in. T. T.

|31

#

3 in.

ditto

o

31

Paddle A Twin-screw

3 in. 3 in.

5—6 in..

8—2I in. T. T.

1,300

3 in.

6/9

325

MINE-SWEEPERS:

8—21 in. T. T. 4—6 in. 4—21 in. T. T.

3—4 in.

332}

;

6—21 in. T. T.

8 or 9—6 in. 2—1 in. T, T. '

1,065

1914

speare ”

14—21 in. T. T.

3—46 im. 44 in.

1,02

1917-9

H Scott ” & “ Shake-

. Side Armour

in. | ft. of} ar

565

* M” Class

- Armament

ft. 8

1917-21

.

HorsePower

ft. 735

(786)

“ Raleigh ”

6 in. Gun Monitors

Speed : Knots

over all)

1916

MONITORS: “ Erebus ” od 9-2 in. Gun Monitors

| Displacement: Tons

94

I4 10

15

240|

4—18o0r21 in. T. T.

1,200

6—18

2,000 I

1—4

in. T. T.

2—6 in. in.; I—3

=

å



— — —

in.

of guns and torpedoes, depth charges, larger bridges, and other

additions.

In fact, some of the ships which before the war were

g0o-ton vessels, exceeded 1,000 tons towards the end.. The introduction, however, of the geared turbine added enormously to the

efhciency of the machinery and propellers. During the war nearly 300 EBD.’ and flotilla leaders, which .

are simply a larger form of T.B.D. with improved accommodation,

were added to the British fleet, and the whole class of these vessels

was called upon to do continuous work often in heavy weather. They came through the ordea! with very few breakdowns of machin-

ery or other parts of the ship, whilst the duties they were called

upon to perform in combating the submarines, convoying, ete. were continuous and varied. Numbers of these vessels were built by

firms who had never built a warship before, but the work turned gut by them fully met the Admiralty requirements,

SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING The flotilla leaders, with a deep load displacement of about 2,000 tons and an armament of five q-in. or 4-7-in. guns, and with their very high speed, might well be described as fast scouts or thirdclass cruisers. Patrol Boats (Table V. and fig. 25).—Patrol boats were specially

designed to relieve the T.B.D.'s of some of their duties such as patrolling, submarine-hunting and escort work, for which high speed was not a necessity. They had to be as small as possible, consistent with keeping the sea in all weathers, with sufficient speed to run down submarines, besides having shallow draught and all top hamper

kept low to prevent their being seen at a distance. Economy of fuel was also an important feature, and it was desirable to have them built of mild stec! rather than high-tensile steel, in order to simplify

the construction. Some were provided with a special hard steel ram, with which a considerable number of enemy submarines were sunk. The various features were combined in a vessel of something under 600 tons, with geared turbine engines of 3,800 H.P., giving a speed of over 22 knots, with 330 revolutions of the propellers.

The boats had large rudder area and were cut up aft, so

that they could turn very quickly ne the enemy—a most important

feature for ramming purposes.

They proved very valuable boats

i

e

EL

dies, a further design of twin-screw mine-sweepers was got out. These were vessels of about 800 tons and about 16 knots speed. Submarines (Table V. and figs. 27, 28 and 29).——During the war the design of submarines was enormously developed. A very large number of these vessels were added to the British Fleet. There

were some twelve different types, some embodying very special requirements and all being improvements on their predecessors. The Admiralty produced the fastest internal-combustion engined submarine in ‘J’ class, which attained a speed of over 19 knots. As a still higher speed was wanted for fleet work, the " K” boats were designed with a surface speed of 24 knots. To arrive at this it was necessary to go to steam, and special arrangements had to be made for shutting down watertight the funnels, etc.

all these difficulties were overcome.

However,

It is an interesting point about these vessels that, besides the

steam turbines for full speed on the surface and the electric drive when under water, they were provided with a Diesel engine for use just before diving or immediately after breaking surface, in order to quicken diving or getting away after coming up. Although the Germans had the advantage of more power per

i a

AAR ER r

435

with somewhat heavier armament than our own ships. The French Government were very satisfied with the vessels. In addition to this, at a later stage, for sweeping in shallow water, some paddle mine-sweepers were designed at the Admiralty. These were 15-knot boats, with draught just under 6 ft. 9 inches. They did good work, but were of course not such good sea boats as the sloops. As there was some danger of mines getting under the pad-

aN

cylinder in their Diesel engines, Great Britain produced submarines,

A

faster and more heavily armed than theirs.

M. 1. submarine was a monitor submarine armed with a 12-in.

gun; she was an experimental boat, and proved quite successful. “ China Gunboats.""—For use tn Mesopotamia or for river work

two classes of so-called ‘* China gunboats" were designed by Messrs. Yarrow, The smaller of these vessels, 120 ft. long and of about 100 tons, were constructed in Great Britain in such a way that the parts could he sent out tọ Abadan, where they were assembled, and the

vessels reérected and completed under the supervision of Admiralty officers. Some of the larger boats 230 ft. long and of 645 tons, were completed in England and went out to Mesopotamia, where all of on service and did a great deal of work against the submarines in all them were of the greatest service in that campaign. Most useful weathers. They were armed with only one 4-in. gun, mounted in a work was also done by motor launches and many other types. commanding position on the forward superstructure, one 2-pdr. and Other Auxiliary Craft and Aircraft Carrters.—The Admiralty was two 14-in. torpedo tubes, and later it was arranged to carry depth called upon to design many other auxiliary craft—notably some fast charges. Their cost was, of course, considerably Jess than that of a Fleet oilers which were able to carry 5,000 tons of oil and had a modern destroyer. speed of 1§ knots. There were also designed a great number of Some of these boats were afterwards disguised to look like small special smaller craft for all purposes, and a number of merchant mercantile craft—a device which also proved quite successful. php were taken over and modified to meet diverse requirements. Sloops and Mine-Sweepers.—On the outbreak of war it became ‘The most important modifications were those made to vessels clear that there would be a great demand for mine-sweeping vessels. taken over and converted into aircraft-carriers, including ‘' CamA good many coasting and cross-channel steamers were taken up pania,” “Ark,” " Royal," “ Engadine,” ‘ Riviera,’’ etc.; the for this purpose, but more were required, and st was decided in ‘Furious '' was also altered, and the ‘‘ Cavendish” (now named Dec. 1914 to build twelve single screw ships (fg. 26) of simple “ Vindictive ”’) was converted intoan aircraft-carrier. The “ Argus ” design to this end. With the view of hastening construction, it was (fig. 30) was originally built as a passenger mail ship of 20 knots, decided to adopt mercantile practice as far as possible in both hull and was taken over and converted into an aircratt-carrier with and machinery. The vessels, although of very fine form, were built complete flush deck, the funnels being carried aft in long horizontal of simple construction and under Lloyd's survey. The boilers were ducts, discharging the smoke astern. The " Eagle ” was taken for of ordinary Scotch type, and single screw machinery was provided. conversion into a large aircraft-carrier with a somewhat different

Fic. 19.

arrangement, with the funnels and all deck erections included on an

“island on one side of the deck. Aircraft-carrying ships are in fact gradually becoming more important for the Fleet. Altogether during the four years more than 2,000,000 tons were added to the navy, at a cost between £250,000,000 and £300,000,000 sterling, exclusive of modifications to auxiliaries. Reference to the navy estimates shows that the aggregate sum spent during the four

years before the war on new construction amounted to approximately £60,000,000. In fact, during the four years 1915-8, more tonnage was built for the British navy than during the previous 25 years.

SSS Om TRIPLE 2 TT.

JHA

TEF D q

p

Later Vessels have 4-47 Guns in heu of 4-4 Guns

Fic. 21.

In the end nearly 100 of these vessels were built, and the armament, which at first was two 12-pdrs., was subsequently increased to two 4-in. or two 4-7-in. guns. A great many of these vessels were

built in about six months from the order, and the first 36 averaged 25 weeks in building. They proved excellent sea boats, and were used not only for mine-sweeping, but also for submarine work and for convoying. At later stages some of these vessels were disguised as ordinary merchant ships. They were economical steamers, and were able to attain a full speed of 17 knots, with a H.P. of about

1,800 to 2,000 in the earlier, which was increased to 2,500 in the

later, vessels,

Several of the vessels were mined, but although the damage they

sustained was very severe, they kept afloat and were repaired. The Admiralty was asked to design and provide some vessels of this type for the French Government, and eight of these were designed by Sir E. d’Eyncourt and built for that purpose and armed

II, NAVIES Of THER COUNTRIES During the period 1910-20 foreign naval construction of all types gencrally followed the line of British designs, with one or two important exceptions which must not be overlooked. The most important departure from the British practice was in respect of the number of guns mounted in the barbettes. Triplegun mountings for the main armament have been adopted by several nations, viz. France, Italy, Austria, Russia and the United States, while in 1914 the French began the construction of quadruple-gun turrets, but neither these turrets nor the ships for which they were intended have been completed. The British example in regard to the adoption of turbine machinery for propulsion of the first “ Dreadnought ” battleship and battle cruisers was not followed by the other nations at once. In some cases, for example, Japan and the United States, sister vessels were built, one having turbine engines and the other reciprocating engines. Finally, however, turbine engines were almost universally adopted, while the United States made a fur-

436

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

ther advance by the adoption of the electric drive. The first American battleship in which this was installed was the “ New Mexico,” and it was arranged for all subsequent vessels to be

propelled similarly. In the adoption of oil only as the fuel the British again took the lead, and up to Aug. 1021 this had only been followed by the United States. The German authoritics had considered that their sources of supply were not sufficiently reliable to justify their depending on oil alone. On the whole, therefore, it may be said that the designs, apart from the above features, of foreign warships did not differ essentially from the British types, as can be seen from the notes and

tables which follow. Of the minor navies, many of which depended on British or other foreign builders for the design and construction of their warships, little need be said, as with the war the development of their navies practically ceased, and some of the most important vessels, such as the battleships building for Chile and Turkey, were taken over for the British navy.

in six twin-grn turrets arranged all on the centre line in three super-

posed groups, one group forward, another just abaft of amidships

and the remaining group. aft. The ahead and astern fire thus remained as in previous vessels at four guns, but all 12 guns could

be fired on either broadside. The secondary armament was 16 5-in. guns in a 6-in. armoured battery. The protection was generally similar to the previous vessels, the water-line belt and barbette

armour being 11 in. thick, The turrets and conning tower were of 12-In. armour. These vessels were the last U.S. battleships mounting 12-in. guns. The example of the British in fitting 13-5-in. guns in the “ Orion ” class was followed by the adoption of 14-1n, guns in the next vessels laid down by the United States.

These were the “ Texas"

“New

the dimensions

York,”

launched

in 1912,

of which

and

were

slightly greater than those of the " Arkansas" and the displacement 1,000 tons greater. Ten r4-in. guns constituted the main armament and was mounted in five twin turrets, arranged gener‘ally in a similar manner to the British “ Orion,” four guns firing

ahead and astern and all 10 on either broadside.

The secondary

armament remained as before, 16 5-in. guns being mounted in an amidships battery protected by 6-in. armour. The water-line belt was 12 in. thick with a 9-in. belt above it, and the protection generally was somewhat greater than that of the previous vessels. An

important feature in these vessels was the return to reciprocating

At the Armistice both the German and Austrian navies ceased to exist as factors in the general naval situation, all their principal ships being surrendered to the Allics, the great majority of

engines, which on a power of 27,000 pave the vessels a speed of 21 knots. The reintroduction of this type of engine was made chiefly to obtain greater economy at cruising speeds.

the vessels being finally destroyed, either being broken up or used as targets, with the exception of a few of the less important

launched in 1914, were of slightly increased length and tonnage. The main armament was the same numerically as the “ New

The next pair of battleships,

' Nevada"

and

“ Oklahoma,”

units, such as light cruisers and destroyers, which were incorpor-

York's,” but was arranged in four turrets, two containing two guns

ated in the French and Italian navies.

cach and the other two three guns cach. The twin-gtin turrets were superposed above the triple-gun turrets at each end of the vessels. The secondary armament of the '' Nevada” and “ Oklahoma” consisted of 12 5-In. guns arranged in an unprotected battery farther forward than in previous vessels. Turbines were again adopted for

Battleships (1) United States—The first vessels of the ' Dreadnought ” type constructed for the U.S. navy were the “ Michigan ” and ‘South Carolina,” launched in 1908. These vessels, carrying only eight 12-in. guns, were of about 2,000 tons less displacement than the “ Dreadnought,” and 2 knots slower than this vessel. The

main armament of the U.S. vessels was disposed, however, in an original manner, constituting a bold departure in that they were

all mounted on the centre line of the vessel in two superposed twingun turrets forward, and two aft, with large arcs of training on each beam. This arrangement of turrets gave an ahead and astern fire

of four guns and a broadside fire of all the eight guns. The waterline armour belt was 11 in. thick with 8 in. above. Cage masts constructed of a large number

of steel tubes were fitted in these

vessels and such masts have been fitted in all later U.S. capital ships and also in some of the cartier vessels in substitution of their original masts. The “ Michigan and ‘‘ South Carolina” were propelled by twin screws driven by reciprocating engines, thus differing from the '' Dreadnought." The next battleships built were the ‘ North Dakota” and “ Delaware,” launched respectively in 1908 and 1909.

were a considerable advance in size over their

more than 60 ft. longer, 4,000 tons heavier, a

while they carried two additional 12-in. guns.

These vessels

the propulsion of the “ Nevada,”

but reciprocating engines were ftted in the “ Oklahoma.” The reduced power of the machinery, n 24,800 H.P. of both vessels, resulted in a reduced specd of 20}

znots. - The British example of adoption of oil only as the fuel for the “ Queen Elizabeth ” class was followed by the United States in the “ Nevada ” and “ Oklahoma,” the total quantity of fuel arranged for, however, being 2,000 tons, compared with 3,400 tons in “ Queen Elizabeth.”

The saving in weight resulting from the adoption of triple-gun turrets and oil fue! enabled considerable additions to be made to the armour protection of the ‘‘ Nevada" and “ Oklahoma.” The belt amidships was 13} in. thick and extended from 8} ft. below to 9 ft. above the water-line. The conning tower was protected by 16-in. armour, this being also the thickness of the front plates of the twin-gun turrets, those of the triple-gun turrets being of 1£8-in. armour. The vessels are further distinguished from their predecessors in that only one funnel, instead of two, is fitted.

are protected by 13}-in. armour.

The uptakes

predecessors, being two knots faster,

The Io guns were

mounted al] on the centre line, the two turrets forward being superposed as in the previous class, while the three turrets aft were arranged so that one could fire over the other two, which were both

on the same deck so that one could only fire on either broadside.

The arrangement of guns thus increased the broadside fire but left

the ahead and astern fire as before.

The armour belt consisted of a

tier of 11 in. at the water-line, with a tier of 8 in. above.

The

advance in speed involved an increase of 50°% in the H.P. of the engines, viz. from 16,500 to 25,000. Turbines of the Curtis type were

installed in the “ North Dakota ” for the first time in a U.S. capital ship, but the ‘‘ Delaware " was fitted with reciprocating engines.

An important departure in these vessels was the fitting of 14 5-in. guns as secondary armament in a battery amidships, protected by

5-in. armour. The next pair of battleships, named the “ Utah,” launched in 1909 and the “ Florida,” launched tn 1910, were enlarged “ North Dakotas,” but both had Parsons turbine engines of 28,000 shaft horse-power. The tonnage was increased to 21,800 tons on the same

draught, and the speed remained practically the same, The length was increased slightly to 521 ft. and the beam to 88 ft. The main armament was the same in number of guns and arrangement of turrets as in the “ North

Dakota,”

but the secondary armament

was increased to 16 5-in. guns, protected by 5-in. armour, The armour was practically the same as in the previous vessels. The succeeding pair of battleships, ‘ Arkansas” and " Wyoming,” launched in 1911, were characterized by another large increase in dimensions, the length being increased to 562 ft. and the

beam to 93 ft., while on the same draught as previous vessels the displacement was 26,000 tons. The engines were Parsons turbines of about 28,000 S.H.P., the speed being about $ knot less than the “Utah,” of the same power but 4,000 tons less displacement. The greatly increased displacement enabled 12 12-in. guns to be mounted

Fic. 34. The “ Nevada” and ‘ Oklahoma" were succeeded by the “ Pennsylvania" and ‘‘ Arizona” (fig. 31), launched in 1915, in which the dimensions were further increased and the displacement became 31,400 tons. The main armament was increased to 12 14-in. guns arranged in four triple turrets in two superposed groups forward and aft. The secondary armament originally consisted of 22 5-in. guns, but has been reduced to fourteen. The protection of the vessels was generally similar to that of the ‘ Nevada" and ** Oklahoma,” but the side armour was increased to 14 In. maximum. Turbine engines were fitted in both vessels of the class, the ‘‘ Pennsylvania "’ having geared cruising turbines in order to secure economy. The “ New

Mexico,” ‘‘ Idaho" and “ Mississippi,” launched

in

1917, were similar in general design, protection, and main arma-

ment to the " Pennsylvania." The displacement was slightly increased to 32,000 tons. The main armament of 12 14-in. guns was again arranged in four triple turrets, with front plates of 18-in.

armour, side plates 9 in. to 10 in. and roof plates 5 inches.

The

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

‘secondary battery of 14 5-in. guns was fitted a deck higher than in * Pennsylvania " and was unprotected. The “ New Mexico” was distinguished from her sister vessels by the adoption of electric motors for her propulsion, the other two

vessels having turbines arranged as previously; she had two turboelectric generating sets of 11,400 kw. eapacity installed, and this electric power was transmitted electrically to four motors of, nominally, 6,600 H.P., one on cach of the four propelling shafts.

These

motors were reversiblc, thus avoiding, as in the ordinary turbine method of propulsion, the necessity for astern as well as ahead prime movers. The electric drive appears to have been successful, especially as the ‘‘ New Mexico’? was not originally designed for

this method of propulsion; the accommodation for the machinery being obtained by modifications in the arrangement of the spaces

provided in the original design for turbines, without affecting the other features of the design. ‘he vessel was put through exhaustive

trials with satisfactory results, a maximum speed of just over 21 knots being obtained at 31,200 H.P. on adisplacement of 32,800 tons,

437

going. In 1919 a second three-year programme was considered, to consist of 156 vessels in all, including a further batch of 10 battleships and six battle-cruisers, E) France.—The French navy did not immediately adopt the

single-calibre main armament, their first vessels, designed after the “ Dreadnought ” era had begun, being the “ Danton ” class,

which resembled the “ Lord Nelson ” in armament, 12 9-4-in. guns being carried in addition to the usual 4 12-in. guns. They were about 2,000 tons heavier than the “‘ Lord Nelson " and were fitted with turbines of 22,500 H.P., giving a speed of 20 knots. The first French battleships of the ‘ Dreadnought ” type were the “‘ Jean Bart" class, Jaunched in 1911 and 1912. These vessels, “Jean Bart,” " Paris,” “ France ” and “ Courbet,” were a consid-

erable advance on the “ Danton” class, being 546 ft. long, as against 481 ft., with increased beam and draught, and displacement of 23,100 tons. Turbine machinery of 28,000 H.P. was fitted, giving a speed of 20 knots, The main armament comprised 12 12-in. guns

with economical steam and fuel consumption. An advantage conferred hy the electric drive at cruising ship speeds arises from the

mounted in six twin-gun turrets arranged in two superposed groups forward and aft, with the remaining two turrets on the broadsides amidships. The ahead and astern fire was thus 6 guns and broad-

President

sisting of 22 5-5-in. funs protected by 7-1n. armour. The side armour was 102 in. thick, tapering to 7 in. at the bow and stern, the turret armour being also 1032 in. thick.

ability to obtain the necessary power from only one of the electric generating sets, which can thus be worked at nearly full power and therefore give very good cfficiency. The “* New Mexico” escorted Wilson

across the Atlantic, and on both eastward

and

westward voyages only one turbine gencrating set was used. The weight of the machinery was greater per H.P. than that of turbine machinery of about the same power in British warships, but it was considered that this was capable of improvement in the future,

especially in the case of vessels intended from the outset to have the electric drive.

side 10 guns.

The secondary armament

The ' Jean Bart" Austrian submarine ments were flooded, to Malta, where she

was very numerous,

con-.

successfully withstood torpedo attack by an in 1915, being struck well forward. Compartbut the vessel proceeded under her own power was repaired in H.M. Dockyard.

The electric drive has been adopted for all suc-

ceeding U.S. capital ships. The ‘ Tennessee’? and “ California,” launched in 1919, were practically repeats of the “© New Mexico,” the displacement being 32,300 tons.

These vesscls, however, have two funnels,

Also a new

system of under-water protection (which has since been adopted for all U.S. battleships) was-introduced.

This consists of five verti-

cal longitudinal bulkheads extending parallel to the ship’s side from the forward to the after magazines, thus protecting the whole of the vitals of the ship. The innermost bulkhead is about 17 ft. inboard, the other bulkheads being approximately equidistant from one another: the bulkheads next to the skin bulkhead and innermost

bulkhead are all thin plating, the other three being of thicker plating; the middle three of the five spaces formed by this arrangement are utilized as oil-fuel bunkers. In Aug. 1915 Congress approved the first building programme ever drawn up for the U.S. navy, according to which 10 battleships, 6-battle cruisers,

9 flect and 58 coast submarines were to be added in three years to the U.S. navy, in addition to a number of auxiliary vessels. The first battleships to be built under this programme were the “Colorado"’ (launched 1921), ‘ Maryland” (launched 1920 and completed 1921), “ Washington ” and *“ West Virginia,” The dimensions of these vessels are not greatly different from the “ Tennessee,” except that the displacement is slightly greater, being 32,600 tons, the H.P. of the electric propelling machinery being increased to 28,900 1o maintain the speed of 21 knots. The chief departure in the new vessels was the adoption of 8 16in. guns as the primary armament, arranged in four twin-gun turrets stperposed in pairs forward

and aft.

Fio. 33.

TO scouts (or light cruisers), 50 destroyers,

The secondary armament consists of 14 5-in. guns.

armour protection is generally as in the ‘‘ New Mexico” class.

The

The next battleships built by the French were the “ Bretagne ”’

(name ship of the class) (tig. 33), ‘‘ Lorraine ’’ and “ Provence,” all launched in 1913, ‘practically repeats of the ' Jean Barts,” except that the main armament consisted of 10 [3+4-in. guns mounted in five twin-gun turrets, all on the centre line of the vessels, the usual superposed

groups of two turrets forward and aft, the fifth turret

being amidships. The secondary armament again consisted of 22 5:s-in. guns, arranged slightly differently from the “ Jean Bart,” but this number was decreased after the war to 18, during a partial

reconstruction when director-firing was installed on a new foremast.

tripod

These vessels were the last battleships completed for the French

navy, the completion of the: five vessels of the “ Normandie” class,

launched

in 1914 and

1915,

having

been abandoned,

with

the

exception of the “ Bearn,’’ which has been converted into an aircraft-carrier. The ‘ Normandie’ class were designed to carry 12

13-g-in. in three quadruple-gun turrets, a unique arrangement. The four guns in each turret were arranged on two mountings, so

that virtually they comprised two twin guns. The secondary armament was to have consisted of 18 5-5-in. guns. The machinery in-

Fic, 32. The remaining six battleships of the 1916 programme had not yet been launched in 1921. Their names are “South Dakota,” “ Indiana,” ‘‘ Montana.” ‘‘ North Carolina,” ‘‘ Iowa,” and “ Massachusetts ” (fig. 32). They are a very great advance on their predecessors, being 684 ft. long, 106 ft. widé and displacing 43.200 tons on a draught of 31 feet. An increased speed, 23 knots, is aimed at, the electric drive being of 60,000 horse-power. The main armament is increased by 50%, consisting of 12 16-1n. guns mounted in

four triple-gun turrets, and the secondary armament comprises 16 6-in. guns. The torpedo armament was two submerged 21-in. torpedo tubes throughout all the battleships described in the fore-

tended for these vessels was of an interesting type, consisting of a combination of turbine and reciprocating engines, the two inner shafts being driven by turbines and the two outer shafts by reciprocating engines, which alone were powerful enough to have given the vessels a speed of 16 knots, the full power of 35,000 H.P. being designed to give a maximum speed of 21 knots. It was intended to have laid down in Oct. 1914 four battleships of the “ Duquesne ” type, but the outbreak of the war caused this intention to be abandoned. The vessels were designed to carry 16 I3-4-in. guns in four quadruple-gun turrets, arranged in two super-

posed groups forward and aft. The displacement was to have been

29,500 tons, and, with combination turbine and reciprocating engine, a speed of 23 knots was anticipated.

It should be noted that during the whole war period the French

Government dockyards, and many private vards also, devoted their whole capacity to the production of munitions of al! kinds for the army; naval work being almost entirely relegated to the background.

No provision was made in the French naval budget for 1921 for the construction of any capital ships. (3) Japan.—The ‘Satsuma ” and " Aki’ were the first battleships built in Japan after the ‘‘ Dreadnought "' era had begun. They were a development of the “‘ Kashima ’’ class, and thercfore

ccoo en

438

SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING

resembled in type the “‘ Lord Nelson.” Launched in 1906 and 1907, they mounted 4 12-in, and 12’ Io-in. guns on a displacement of about 19,500 tons. Turbine machinery of 24,000 H.P. was fitted in

the “ Aki,” giving a speed of 204 knots. The “ Satsuma,” reciprocating engines of 18,500 II.P., was 2 knots slower.

with

The first Japanese battheships of the ‘““ Dreadnought “ type were

the “ Settsu,” launched in 1911, and the ‘‘ Kawachi,” launched in

1912. The latter vessel was blown up in 1918 in a Japanese harbour by the explosion of her magazines. These vessels were of

20,800 tons and mounted 12 12-in. guns, arranged in six twin-gun turrets, one forward and aft on the centre line and the other four on

the broadsides. The ahcad and astern fire was thus 6 guns and broadside fire 8 guns. The secondary armament was 10 6-in. guns, mounted in an amidship battery protected by 6-in. armour. Eight

4 7-in. guns were also mounted.

The armour belt was 12 in. thick

amidships at the water-line and 9 in. above, with 5-in. armour for-

ward and aft, the 12-in. guns were protected by 11-in. armour, and the conning tower by 12-in. armour. Turbine machinery of 25,000

H.P. was fitted, giving a speed of 204 knots.

©

class (of the ‘‘ Formidable’ type) being made without triaJ as was done in some other navies, of vessels of the ‘‘ King Edward VII.’” Nelson” types. The first German “ Dreadnoughts "

or ‘Lord

were the four vessels of the ‘‘ Nassau "' class, launched in 1908. Shorter but wider and somewhat heavier than the ‘‘ Dreadnought,”

the ‘ Nassau,” on a displacement of 18,600 tons, Carried 12 I1-in, guns in six twin-gun turrets, mounted one at each end on the centre

line, and two on each broadside, thus giving an ahead and astern fire of six guns and broadside fire of eight, The secondary armament consisted of 12 5-9-in. guns, mounted in a battery protected by 7-in.

armour. A large torpedo armament of six I7-7-in. submerged tubes was fitted. The water-line armour belt was 11} in. thick, with an 8-in. belt above, and tapering to § in. forward and 4 in. aft. The speed was 19 knots, the requisite H.P. of 20,000 being developed by reciprocating engines. The “ Nassau " class was followed by the four ships of the ‘“ Helgoland ” class (fig. 35), launched in 1909 and 1910. These vessels marked a considerable increase in dimensions and displacement. The 12-in. gun was adopted for the first time in these vessels, the Germans claiming that this weapon was the equivalent of the 13-5-in. gun then being adopted by the British in the “ Orion ” class. The ” Helgoland ” carried 12 12-in. guns arranged similarly to the t1-in. guns in the “ Nassau.” The secondary armament was increased to" 14 5-9-in. guns and the six submerged tubes were of 19°7-in. diam-

FIG, 46.

Large increases in dimensions and power characterized the next

class (fig. 34) of Japanese battleships, 14-in, guns being adopted. These vessels were the “’ Fuso ’’ and ‘* Yamashiro,” of 36,600 tons and 40,000 H.P., launched in 1914 and 1915 respectively, and the “Ise” and “ Hyuga,” of 31,260 tons and 45,000 H.P., launched in 1916 and 1917. The main armament consisted of 12 14-in. guns mounted in twin-gun turrets all arranged on the centre fine of the

vessel. Two turrets are superposed forward, with a similar arrangement aft, the remaining two turrets being abaft the forward and after funnels respectively. The first pair of vessels named mount 16 G-in. guns, and the second pair 20 5-5-in. guns, as the secondary armament in an amidships battery protected by 6-in. armour.

The belt and turret armour is 12 in, thick. The speed of the vessels is about 223 knots.

eter. The protection was generally the same as that of the “ Nas-

sau ” class. The speed was increased to 20-5 knots. The various increases involved a displacement of 22,440 tons and engines of

25,000 H.P., but the reciprocating type was still adhered to.

The “ Kaiser ” class (fve vessels), launched in 1911 and 1912, were slightly larger and faster than the “ Helgoland ” class, being of 24,300 tons and 21 knots, but the main armament was reduced to 10 12-in, guns without loss of broadside fire, as they were arranged similarly to the British ‘ Neptune” (designed two years previously), with one turret forward, two superposed aft and two broadside turrets en échelon, all guns thus being able to fire on either broadside. The secondary armament was unaltered and the bow torpedo tube was omitted. The armour protection was considerably increased, the water-line belt being of 13% in. maximum thickness

59 $959

59 59 59°

FIG. 37. The next class of Japanese battleships are characterized by the fitting of 16-in. guns. These vessels were “ Negato" (launched 1919 and completed 1920) and ‘‘ Mutsu ” (launched

1920), of 33,800

tons displacement, and “ Tosa” and ‘‘ Kaga" (building 1921) of 40,600 tons displacement. The former pair-of vessels mount 8 16-in, guns in four twin-gun turrets arranged in the now usual manner, with 20 5-5-in. guns as secondary armament. The latter pair of

vessels were probably to mount 10 16-in. guns.

The torpedo arma-

ment, which in previous vessels consisted of five or six submerged

tubes, was increased to cight tubes, four of which are mounted above the water-line. The vessels were slightly faster than previous vessels, a speed of 234 knots being intended, geared turbines providing the requisite power, which was about 46,000 in the " Nagato ” and “ Mutsu ” and 60,090 in the “ Tosa ” and “ Kaga.” Under the 1920-8 Navy Law four battleships were projected.

(4) Germany.—The ‘ Dreadnought ” type of battleship was adopted at once by Germany, the advance from the *‘ Deutschland ”

tapering to 9 in., with an upper belt of 73 in., the secondary battery above and both ends of the ship being protected by a like thickness. Turbine engines were installed for the first time in German battleships, the power being 28,000 ior a speed of 21 knots, which. was somewhat exceeded on trials. i

The four ships of the “ König ” class (see fig. 36), launched jn 1913

and 1914, were, with the exception of slightly greater dimensions and displacement, generally repeats of the “ Kaiser " class in respect of number and calibre of guns and torpedo ‘tubes and of protection. The main armament was arranged all on the centre line, as in the British “ Orion ” class, the amidship turret being, however, between the two funnels. An important advance lay in the increased oilfuel (700 tons) capacity, previous vessels having only 200 tons. The fast battleships built by the Germans were the “ Baden ” and “ Bayern ” (see fig. 37), launched in 1915, two others of the class

not being completed at the time of the Armistice. A very comers

description of the “ Baden ” was given in a paper read by Mr.

5. V.

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

Goodall before the Institution of Naval Architects in March 1921. The “ Baden ” and ‘“‘ Bayern” were about 3,000 tons heavier than the “ König " class, the dimensions being increased proportionately. The chief difference, however, was in the main armament, 8 15-in.

guns being mounted in four turrets on the centre line in two super-

sed groups forward and aft, as in the British ‘‘ Queen Elizabeth.” he secondary armament was increased to 16 5-9-in. guns, and the torpedo armament consisted originally of 5 23-6-in. submerged tubes, one forward in the stem and the other on the broadside forward and aft. The forward torpedo room was damaged by an under-water explosion and when repairs were made the torpedo tubes were not replaced. Turbine machinery of about 50,000 H.P. total was fitted, driving three propellers, and a speed of about 22 knots was obtained on trials. The main armour belt was 13% in. thick, tapering to 62 in. at the lower edge. Above was a belt of 1œin. armour extending to the upper deck. The secondary battery was protected by 63-in. armour. Forward the side armour was 6 in. thick and aft 7 inches. The latter and a deck of 43 in. thickness

provided protection to the steering gear. The maximum thickness

of armour for the barbettes, turrets, and conning tower was

13}

inches. Protection against under-water attack was provided by a longitudinal bulkhead 2 in. thick, set in about 13 ft. from the side. (3) Italy—The first Italian ‘' Dreadnought” was the “ Dante

Alighieri,’ of 19,200 tons, Jaunched in 1910.

This vesscl was then

remarkable for the high designed speed of 23 knots and the adoption of triple-gun mountings for the main armament of 12-in. guns, of which 12 were carricd in turrets all fitted on the centre line of the vessel, The turrets, funnels and .masts were so disposed that the vessel could practically be described as ‘‘ double-ended.” The vessel was protected by a water-line belt of 10-in. (maximum) armour . amidships and 4-in. at the ends, with an upper belt of 6-in., b which 12 of the secondary battery of 20 4-7-guns were protected. The remaining 8 4:7-in. guns were mounted in four twin-gun turrets onthe upper deck. The 12-in.-gun turrets had a maximum thick-

ness of 10-in. armour. Turbine engines of 26,000 H.P. were fitted; these developed 35:900 H.P. on trial, when 24 knots were attained. Three torpedo tubes were fitted.

The ‘‘ Dante Alighieri ’’ was followed by the “ Conte di Cavour,”

“Leonardo da Vinci” and “ Giulio Cesare,” launched in I91I. These vessels were 3,000 tons heavier than their predecessor and

mounted an extra 12-In. gun, making 13 in all, four of which were in two twin-gun turrets superposed above triple-gun turrets forward and aft, a further triple-gun turret being fitted amidships. This arrangement enabled an increased all-round fire to be obtained over the previous vessel. The secondary armament of 18 4-7-in. guns was carried in an amidships battery protected by 5-in. armour,

which was aboye the upper belt of 9-in. armour, the water-line belt being 10-in. amidships and 4-in. at the ends. Turret armour was 10-in, and conning tower 12-inches. Turbine engines of 24,000 H.P.

were fitted to give a speed of 22 knots.

439

class were launched in 1911 and three of the “‘ Imperator Alexander III.” class (for the Black Sea Fleet) in 1914. The first four

were slightly heavier, longer and faster than the others, eneral characteristics are similar. They all mount 12 our triple-gun turrets on the centre line of the vessel, similarly to the Italian ‘‘ Dante Alighieri,” the speed of

knots, was the same as that of the ‘‘ Sevastopol,” the Black Sea

vessels being 2 knots slower, all the vessels having turbine engines. The ‘‘ Imperatritza Marie” was blown up by an internal explosion at Sevastopol in 1916, and refloated and

docked upside down in

1919, similarly to the “ Leonardo da Vinci.” (7) Austria.—Three battleships of intermediate (“ Lord Nelson") type were completed in I910 and 1911. Following these vessels four ‘‘ Dreadnoughts "’ of the “ Viribus Unitis ” class were completed in 1912-5. On a displacement of 20,000 tons, 12 12-in. guns in four triple-gun turrets (of 11-in. armour maximum) were

carried in two superposed groups forward and aft with 12 5-9-in. guns as secondary armament in an amidships battery protected by

6-in. armour. The water-line belt was I1 in. amidships and 5 in, at the ends. An upper belt of 8 in. was fitted amidships. Turbine engines of 25,000 H.P. gave a speed of about 20 knots. Two vessels, the “ Szant Istvan ”’ of this class and the old battle-

ship “‘ Wien,” were sunk during the war as the result of daring

attacks by Italian fast motor-boats. The “ Viribus Unitis” sank in 1918, due to the explosion of a mine placed in contact with the vessel by two Italian officers in a small torpedo-like motor-boat. A contemplated programme of four battleships of 25,000 tons, carrying eight 15-in. guns, did not materialize owing to the war. (8) Argentina.—The only “ Dreadnought’ battleships are the # XÍoreno " and " Rivadavia,” launched in the United States in I911 and completed in 1914; 12 12-in. guns, in six twin-gun turrets, and 12 6-in. guns are carried on a displacement of 27,600 tons, tur-

bine engines of 39,500 H.P. giving a speed of 22} knots. (9) Brazil—The “ Rio de Janeiro,” laid down at Armstrong’s,

Newcastle, in 1911, was sold later to Turkey, from whom the vessel

was requisitioned by the British on the outbreak of the World War, and renamed “ Agincourt.” The ‘“ Minas Geraes” and ““Sio Paulo” are thus the only two ‘‘ Dreadnought ” battleships possessed by Brazil. (10) Chile-—The “ Almirante Latorre” and ‘ Almirante Coch-

rane’’ were building at Armstrong’s in 1914 for the Chilean nayy.

The former vessel, after service during the war as H.M.S. “ Canada,” was sold back to Chile, but the latter vessel remains as

H.M.S. ‘ Eagle.” Chile thus possesses only one ‘' Dreadnought,” (11) Greece.—The “ Salamis,” of 19,500 tons and 23 knots speed, building in Germany at the outbreak of war in 1914, had not been completed, The four twin-gun turrets constructed in the United States for this vessel were purchased by the British and fitted in the first four large monitors. i (12) Norway.—The ‘ Nidaros ” and "“ Bjorgvin ” (coast-defence battleships), launched by Armstrong’s in 1914, were taken over by the British during the war and completed, with the addition of bulges, as H.M.S. “ Glatton ” and ‘ Gorgon.” (13) Spain.—The smallest “ Dreadnought ’’ battleships ever de-

signed have been completed for the Spanish navy.

Fic. 38.

The “ Andrea Doria "’ and ‘‘ Caio Duilio ” (see fig. 38), launched in 1913, were slightly longer and heavier than the ‘‘ Conte di Cavour,” but except for an improved secondary armament of 16 é-in. guns fitted abreast the forward and after turrets, the changes were of a minor nature. The ‘‘ Leonardo da Vinci,” blown up at Taranto in 1916 by the explosion of her magazine, was refloated and dry-docked upside down in 1919. After repairs she was floated out of dock still upside down and then righted. This opcration reflects the greatest credit

upon the Royal Italian Corps of Naval Constructors, who conducted

the operations throughout. The vessel, will, however, not be restored as a warship, but utilized for a subsidiary service. The last four battleships laid down in 1914 and 1915 for the Italian Navy, the ‘‘ Caracciolo " class, have not been completed. They were to have been generally similar in size, armament, speed

and protection to the ‘* Queen Elizabeth.” (6) Russia.—The Russian navy has ceased to exist as an important factor, but technically the various classes of battleships built are of interest, Following the construction of two vessels of the intermediate

“Lord

Nelson’

type, four battleships of the “ Petropavlovsk "

but their 12-in. in arranged which, 23

On a displace-

ment of 15,500 tons, the ‘Alfonso XIII,” "España, and “ Jaime I.” carry 8 12-in. guns in four turrets (the amidships turrets being en échelon) and 20 4-in. guns. Turbine engines of 15,000 H.P. give a speed of 193 knots. Armour protection consists of a g-in. water-line belt, with 1o-in. armour for the turrets and conning tower. The vessels were built in Spain from designs and under the supervision of British firms. (14) Sweden.—Three small battleships, the “ Sverige” (completed in 1917), and the ‘‘ Drottning-Victoria ’’ and the “ Gustav V.” (which in 1921 were nearing completion), are of 7,600 tons displacement. They mount four 11-in, and eight 6-in. guns, and with turbine engines of 22,000 H.P. a speed of 22 knots 1s expected. (15) Turkey—Two battleships completing in England for the Turkish navy were taken over by the British Government on the outbreak of war and renamed “ Agincourt ”’ and ‘ Erin.” Batlle Cruisers

Up to 1921 battle cruisers had been built only for Japan, Germany and Russia, besides Great Britain (see Table VII.). The United States had six vessels building. United States.—The ‘‘ Lexington” class (fig. 39) were designed in 1916, but no progress was made in their construction during the

war. After the Armistice their design was reconsidered. The displacement was increased from 35,300 tons to 43,500 tons, the main

armament being changed from 10 14-in. guns to 8 16-in. guns. The S.H.P. was 180,000 total, driving four propellers, and this was esti-

mated to give 35 knots as the original design displacement and 33} knots for the final design. This enormous H.P. (the maximum so far contemplated for any ship) is developed by the clectric drive, on generally similar but improved lines to that of the “ New Mexico.” Qil fuel only is burnt in the boilers. ‘he changes made included considerably increased protection against gunfire and under-water attack. The result of all the changes made is that the vessels will be powerful battle cruisers, with good offensive and defensive qualities as compared with the initial design. The torpedo

440

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

Tanre VI.—Non-British Battleships, 1o21. No.

Country and Class

Date of | Length

Launch | Ft. In.

UNITED STATES:

Breadth | Draught}

Displace-

Ft. Jn. | Ft. In.

ment: Tons

Speed :

HorsePower

Knots

|

l

Armament

!

“South Carolina ”

“ Delaware ”

1908

nh

;

453.

0

1908-9 | 519

80h

27

16,000

8—12 in. 12—3 ine 2—21 in. T. T. 10—12 jn. 14—5 in. 2—21 in. T. T. 1—12 in. 51im 2—21 in. T. T, I2—12 in. 16—5 in. 2—21 in. T. T.

o

85}

26

20,000

agoo-10

521

6

863}

29}

21,825

“ Arkansas”.

IQII

s62

0

934

295

26,000

“New York”.

1912

573

0

95%

29)

27,000

1914

583

©

953

293

27,500

10—14 in. T2—5 in.

97

30

31,400

12—14 in. 14—5 in.

o7}

30

32,000

12—14 in.

“Florida”

.

“Nevada”

Side Armour i

.

.

.

wy

Pennsylvania ”

J915

te

New Mexico ”

,

Ge

ti

Tennessee ”

;

to

t~

Maryland ”

:

|608

o 0

“ South Dakota ”

in. T. T.,

2—1

in. T. T.

2—21

in. T, T.

1919

624

0

OTF

30

32,300

12—14 in. 14—5 in.

0

972

304

32,600

8—16 in. 14—5 in,

31

43,200

2—2r1in. T. T. 12—t6in, 16—6 in, 2—2] in.eh T.T

0

106

4—21 in. T. T. 2—21

mn

ee |

fF

FRANCE: “Jean Bart”.

.

I9II~2 | 544

6

883

292

23,100

“ Bretagne ”.

4

1913 | SH

6

88}

294

23,200

29,009

“Normandie”

.,

TOT4—-5 | 574

°

89

29

24,500

35,000

not compicted.

Il in.

i

1920 & | 624

rer

an

ą—21

624

Bldg. | 684

II in.

IL in,

10—Ty in. 16—5 in.

1917

bldg.

II in.

in. T. T.

12—72 in. 4—18 in, T. L2— 1j 40n. 22—55 4—13 in.

1213-410. 6—21 in. T. T.

JAPAN; “Aki”

.

3

* Settsu ”

.

it

Fuso

;

t

1907

460

0

83}

273

19,800

24,000

I9II

500

0

84

27

20,800

4—T? in. 12—10 in. 5—1$ in, T. T.

to

26,500

12—12

1914-7 | G40

O

94

28}

31,000

45,000

sT. T. 12—34 In. 20 3°75 in.

sf

“ Kaga ”

700

o

1908 | 473

Lhlr

;

,

8—16 in. 20—55 in. — _—_—

Ime

.,

in.

40,600

GERMANY:

t Nassau”

TOG

.

1910 andl

S

in.

0o

$84 | 206

7

18,600

T2—I1 in. 12—5. 9.in,

* Ostfriesland ”’

1909-10]

546

3

93

6

|26

II

22,440

12—12 in. 4—5 ain.

“Kaiser”

.

I91I-2 | 564

4

95

2

|27

3

24,310

“König”

.

1913-4 | 573

2

96

9

|27

4]

25,390

6—197 I10--}2 in. 5—197 10—12 in.

“Baden”

,

A

G—17-7 in. T. ia. T. T. 14—59 in. in. TV, T.

14—59 in.

5—19°7 in. T. T

1915

588

7

98

5 | 27

8

28,070

$—15 in. 1 16—5 ‘Qin.

* Dante Alighieri

1910

549

6

$7

G6 | 28

6

19,200

" Giulio Cesare ”

1911

576

0

92

01/29

Oo

22,000

12—12 in. 20—47 in a—ıi5 in. T. T.

a—73-6 in. TP. 7,

II-4 in.

Iin, 13:8 in. 13°8 in. 13'S in,

ITALY:

“Caio Duilio” “ Caracciolo ”

. 3

1913 | 576

Jaid down. | O91

2 in.,

To in.

16—6 in.

10 in. 131m

g in,

3—8 in. T. T.

0

92

0 |2

oO

22,600

O

97

O | 29

©

30,900

oO

87

0 | 27)

34

23,000

12—12 in. 16—47 in.

12—12 In. 20—5-1 in. $—18 in. T. T.

I2 in.

12—12? in. 12—5-9 in.

II in..

ditto

8—15 in.

IQT4 Dot

COM ue

10 in.

7in.

I$

i |

Russta:

“ Petropavlosk ”’

IQII

590

4—-15 in, T. T.

“Imperator

Alexander III.”

AUSTRIA! “ Viribus Unitis ”

191374 | 550

9

89

6 | 29

OO]

22,600

1911-4 | 530

0

8&9

3127

0

20,000

20

4-21 ARGENTINA: “ Moreno"

.

IQIHI

$

BRAZIL: “ Minas Geraes ” Cie: ‘ Almirante Latorre` STF “ Alfona XI”

585

O

95

o

|28

o

27,600

12—12

|

1908-9 | 543 |

|

0

83

0

|25

o

19,200

92

0 | 28

6

28,000

1913

|YL 661

o

1912-4

| 459

0

785 9

1914 | 397

0

61

|25

i)

in. T, T.

in.

12—6 in.

nn

ț

12—12 in. 22—47 in. 1O—T.p in. 16—6 in. 4—21 in. T. T.

6 | 15,500|

8—12 in.

20—4

in.

SWEDEN:

“ Sverige”

,.

.

oO | 2t

6|

7,000

|

4—I1 in. 8—6 in. 2-18 in. T. T.

A

SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING

441

ful torpedo armament of 8 submerged 21-in. torpedo tubes.

armament is very large for a U.S. vessel, consisting as it docs of four submerged and four above-water 2I-in. torpedo tubes. None of the vessels had vet been launched in 1921. Russia.—Four battle cruisers were launched in 1915, but they had not been completed up to 1921. On a displacement of 32,200 tons, with a length of 750 [t., 12 14-in. and 24 5-in, guns and 6 tor-

Four

battle cruisers of the ‘‘ Amagt’”’ class were in 1921 under construction. They were reported to be vessels of 40,000 tons displacemeut and 30 knots speed, with a2 main armament of 8 16-in. guns. Germany.—As with the “ Dreadnought " type of battleship, the Germans

followed

the British

in their battle cruisers.

The

first

vessel of the type, * Von der Tann,” was launched in 1909. Ona

displacement of 19,100 tons she carried 8 11-in. and 12 59-in. guns. The armour belt was of 10-in. (maximum) thickness and her designed speed was 24 knots, the turbine engines developing about 45,000 horse-powcr. This speed and+H.P. were exceeded on trials. The “ Moltke " (1910), t Goeben ” (1911), of 22,600 tons and 25 knots, and “ Seydlitz " (1912), of 24,600 tons and 26} knots (fig. 4o) were

generally improvements on the * Von der Tann.”

The main arma-

ment consisted of 10 II-in. guns arranged as in the British * Neptune” (of two ycars carlier design), as compared with 8 13-5-in. guns in contemporary British battle cruisers. The ‘‘ Goeben ” was transferred to Turkey early in the war, having been in the Mediter-

rancan when the war broke out. Return to Germany being impos-

FIG. 39.

pedo tubes were to have been carried, turbine engines of 66,000 H.P.

being estimated to give a speed of 27 knots.

The side armour had a

maximum thickness of 12 inches.

. Japan.—The

“Tsukuba”

;

and “Ikoma”

were laid down’ in

1905 and the “ Kurama " and “ [buki” in 1907. These vessels are classed as battle cruisers, Dut they lacked the high speed consid-

ered an essential feature of the battle-cruiser type. The “ Tsukuba was blown up in a Japanese harbour in 1917. The next

| ro

a

|

l 595959"

59

Fic. 4I.

sible, she escaped to Constantinople.

The “ Seydlitz” was badly

damaged at the battles of Dogger Bank (1915) and Jutland (1916). Her return to harbour after the latter was only effected with great

difaculty, and probably only the close proximity of the German

coast enabled her to reach port in time.

The “ Derfflinger " (1913)

and “ Lützow” (1913) were the first German battle cruisers to mount 12-in. guns, of which they carried eight on a displacemént of 26,200 tons. The speed was 26$ knots and maximum armour 12 ìn. thick. Fhe “Lützow” was sunk at the battle of Jutland. The "“ Hindenburg ” (fg. 41), launched in 1915 and completed in 1917, and “ Mackensen,’ launched in 1917 but not completed, were virtually repeats of the “ Lützow,” with the same armament, but improved speed of 28 knots. The ‘‘ Graf von Spee,” also launched in 1917 but not completed, was of 27,000 tons, with six I§-In. guns as the main armament. A sister vessel, ‘ Prinz Eitel Friedrich,” had not been launched at the Armistice. The last three vessels were dismantled, as well as other battle cruisers whose construction had not been far advanced. Light Cruisers The light cruiser type of warship has in recent years been constructed by very few nations (see Table VIII). The United States

battle cruisers built by Japan were the four vessels of the “ Kongo ”

class. launched in 1912=3, the name ship being constructed by Vickers at Barrow, and her sisters in Japan. These vessels resemble the “ Lion ’ class, having an armament of 8 I4-in. and 16 6-In, guns on a displacement of 27,500 tons. a specd of 27 knots being obtained with turbines developing 64,000 horse-power. The vessels are well protected by 10-in. (maximum) armour, and they carry a power-

TABELE VH.—Baltle Cruisers af Non-British Navies. No Date aR] Length | Breadth | Draught Displace- | Speed anr | Launch nent: Tons io

Country Ta and UNITED STATES: “ Lexington”

RUSSIA: “ Navarin”

.

6

.

4

ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. Bldg. | 874 o | 105 G6| 31

in.

43,500

331

32,200

27

0 | 273

27,300

aoe

0

40,000

30

0!

100

4

1913. | 653

6|

92

4

Bldg. | 850

o | 100

I

1908

1528

6]

80

5

1909

|562

8|

87

3|26

2

1910-1 | 610

3}

96 10 | 26

| 180,000

Armament

8—16 in. 16—6 in.

Side Armour in.

8

4—21 in. T. T.

0 | 30

1915 | 750 Not

HorsePower

.

66,000 | 12—14 in. 24—5 in. 6—18 in. T. T

completed

JAPAN; “ Kongo" H Amagi”

.

4;

GERMANY: “Blücher”

.

,

t Von der Tann ”

OI

us Moltke ”

64,000

15,500

24

32,000

7

19,100

24

43,600

It

22,640

25

52,000

|26}

-H Seydlitz" . “ Derfllinger’

. ,

i 2

1912 | 656 1913 | 689

2| o}

93 ọ5

6} 2

27 |27}

24,610

26}

63,000

26,180

26}

63,000

|“ Hindenburg"

.

2 | 1915-7 | 697

ol

96

3]|27}

26,640

28

8—14in. 16—6 in. 8—21 in. T. T. 8—16 in. 12—8-2 in. 8—5-9 in.

4—17-7 in. T. T. 8—I1 in. 1O—5-9 In. 4—17'7 in. T. T. IO—I1 in. 12—S-G in.|

4—19-7 in. T. T. ditta. .

8—12 in. 12— 5:9 In. 4—19-7 in. T. T. 85,000 | 8—12 in. 12—§-9 in. 6—19-7 in. T. T.

7 9°83

HI

11-8 12 12

442

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

TaBLE VIII.—Light Cruisers of Non-British Navies.

Launch)

FE

n

UNITED STATES:

“Omaha”

Displace-

Speed

Horse-

ment Tons

ai

Power

Date of | Length | Breadth | Draught|

Country a

.

.

IO]

Ft,

S

O,

Ft.

R

33%

1920 tr

|rt |

90,000

|

cy.

«:

w

3

1911

475

464

16}

4,950

26

22,500

“ Tatsuta”

.

.



2]

1918

440

4t

13

3,500

31

51,000

“ Tama"

eet

.

20]

I9

500

46ł

153

51500

33

90,000

r

6

12—6 - in.

4—21 in. T. T.

|

JAPAN: “ Yahagi®

ITALY: 1 Basilicata " ,

Side Armoni

Armament

O

8—6 in, 3—18 in. T .T. —5-5

in.

¿Si T T.T. 7—5'5 in. 8-21 in. T.T,

3 3 3

6—6 in.

2

2— T.T. m

GERMANY:

“Stralsund”

,

-

2

" Regensburg " J yok (now French “ Strasbourg "’) “ Königsberg ” 4 (now French “ Metz "')

“ Frankfurt”

.

4}

| a,

|a

fa

|

a

a

fr

1912

446

43}

16

4,480

27

24,000

1914

456

45

17

4,850

27}

26,000

I915

450

43}

16

4,200

28}

45,000

1915

465

453

17

5,120

28

45,000

" Brummer"

2.

«

+

1915

430

41

15}

4,000

30

46,000

WC OUTS

ai's

ate,

‘’s

1918

489

47

163

5,600

27%

29,000

gE.

7—5'9 in. 2—17-7 in, T. T. 7—5'9 in. * 2—19°7 in. T. T. 7—5'9 in. 4—I9-7 in. T. T. 8—5-9 in. 2—19-7 in. T. T. 4--5-9 in. 300 mines 4—19-7 T. T.

8-5-9 In.

4—23:6 in. T. T.

RUSSIA: Admiral class

.

02a‘

1915

535

51

18

7,600

30

55,000

15—5 in. 2—18 in. T. T.

did not construct any after the completion of the ' Salem ” class in 1908 until after the World War, when the construction of ro light cruisers of the ‘‘ Omaha" class (fe. 42) was commenced. These vessels were designed in 1916 and their construction authorized by the Act of Congress of 1917. The chief characteristics of these vessels, which are classed as “‘ Scouts "’ by the U.S. navy, are an over-all length of 5554 ft., a displacement of 7,100 tons, S.H.P. of turbine engines 90,000, giving an estimated speed of 35 knots. The

armament at first consisted of eight 6-in. guns arranged in double-

similar to the British reduced armament.

“ Arethusa ’’ class, with higher speed and

On a displacement of 3,500 tons, a speed of 31

knots is obtained with 51,000 H.P, and four §-5-in. guns are carried. Following these vessels were cight light cruisers of the "“ Tama" class, some of which have been launched. Twelve additional light cruisers of the 1920 programme will follew. It is understood that these 20 vessels are generally of the same class and are a considerable improvement upon the “ Tatsuta.” Ona displacement of 5,500 tons, seven §:5-in. guns will be carried and engines of go,ooo H.P, will be fitted to give a designed spced of 36 knots. Germany.—The German naval programme provided for a small

number of light cruisers to be built each year,

The four vessels of

the * Céln ” class, completed in 1910 and T1911, were of 4,280 tons, 253 knots and carried 12 4-I-in. guns. They were an advance in size and speed on their predecessors.

In 1912 and 1913 six vessels of

slightly greater displacement and speed than the “ Céln,” but with the same armament, were completed. The next 14 vessels, completed

1914-5, were of 5,000 tons, 27 knots, 30,000 H.P., and had an im-

proved armament of 2 5-9-in. and ro 4-1-in. guns. During the World War a number of light cruisers were built, the chief characteristics

of which were their improved armaments, 6, 7, and 8 5-9-in. guns

Fic, 42, storicd batteries of four guns each, forward and aft, but recently this armament has been augmented by the addition of a twin 6-in. gun turret on the centre fine forward and aft. The torpedo armament is to consist of two 2I1-in. above-water torpedo tubes. Protection, consisting of 3-in. total, is provided amidships to the machinery compartments. With the exception of some protection to the steering gear, the side protection does not appear lo be so extensive as that provided for British light cruisers. Qil fuel only is burnt in the boilers of these vessels, the machinery arrangement of which is of considerable interest, The turbine engines drive four propellers, the engines for the outer shafts being accommodated in an engineroom situated between two groups of boiler-rooms, the engines for

the inner shafts being in another engine-room abaft the second group of boilers. The turbines are geared, the reduction gears being of the Westinghouse floating-frame type. Cruising turbines are fitted to obtain economy at cruising speeds. Japan.—Three light cruisers were completed for Japan in 1912. These vessels, of about 5,000 tons displacement, 26 knots and carrying eight 6-in. guns, are very similar to their British contemporaries

of the ‘t Neweastle ” class. No other light cruisers were built by Japan until the “ Tatsuta ” and ‘ Tenryu.”’ were laid down in 1917

and completed in Ig1g. These vessels are in general characteristics

Fic. 43.

being carried. Some of the earlicr cruisers were rearmed with 5§-9-in. guns in lieu of g-1-in. guns originally fitted.

and

*“ Bremse,”

two

of the surrendered

The “ Brummer ”

vessels,

were

interesting

ships. They were mine-laving cruisers of 4,000 tons, and, with turbine engines of 46,000 H.P., were generally credited with a speed of — 34 knots, but this was at least 4 knots higher than the actual speed. They were arranged to carry about 300 mines. One of the chicf

differences between British and German light cruisers lay in the

SHIP AND protection.

SHIPBUILDING

British vessels, after the ‘ Weymouth ” class, were

protected by side plating of 3-in. total thickness, the German vessels having Jess or no side protection, but with decks of tf-in. or 2-in. thickness. A number of light cruisers were under construction at the Armistice. The “ Cöln ”' is typical of them. On a waterline length of 489 ft. and displacement of 5,600 tons, she was to

have carried 8 5-9-in. guns (five of which could be fired on the broadside), 3 3}-in. H.A. guns and 4 revolving 23-6-in. torpedo tubes.

Turbine engines of 29,000 S.H.P. were to have been provided for a

speed of 273 knots.

The protection consisted of about 2j-in. side

and 2-in, deck.

pe

Four of the German light cruisers were incorporated, with new

names, in the French navy, and three in the Italan navy. Austria.—In 1910 the light cruiser * Admiral Spaun ” was com-

pleted and in 1914 three similar but slightly improved

vessels. hese were of 3,500 tons, 27 knots, and mounted 9 3:9-in. guns. Two of these vessels were taken into the Italian navy, and one into the French navy, all with new names. Italy, —Six small light cruisers were completed between 1912 and 1916. The most interesting were the ‘‘ Quarto” class (three vesa 3,400 tons and 28 knots, carrying 6 4'7-in. and 6 3-in. guns

see

fig. 43).

Russia.—At the outbreak of the World War two small light cruisers, which were taken over by Germany, were under construction in German yards. One is now in the French navy, and the other was lost at Jutland. Eight Jight cruisers of a larger and more powerful type were under construction in Russia, but were not com-

pleted. They were designed to be 520 ft. long, of 7,600 tons dis-

placement, armed with 15 5-in. guns, and, with turbines of 55,000 H.P. a speed of 30 knots was expected. Holland.—Two light cruisers of 7,000 tons and 30 knots, with 10 5-g-in. guns, were under construction for a long time, but had not

yet_been completed in 1921,

Spain.—A light cruiser of 5,600 tons, generally similar to the British ‘‘ Birmingham,” was being compicted in 1921, and others of this class were projected. France.—Six light cruisers of 5,000 tons, 30 knots speed and 8 5-5-

in. guns, were projected in the 1920 programme.

Torpedo-Boats and Submarines Specifications of the torpedo-boats and flotilla leaders.and submarines of foreign navies are given in Tables IX. and X., and the

reader is referred to the Transactions of the Institute of Navel Archifects, 1920, for further information.

(3) MERCHANT SHIPS The ordinary course of mercantile shipbuilding development, which continued from 1910 until the autumn of 1914, was

443

abruptly checked by the World War. As the result, merchant shipbuilding was practically stopped in France, Germany, Italy and Austria, and it was very much reduced in the United Kingdom owing to men joining the colours. At the same time a great fillip was given to shipbuilding in the United States and neutral countries. In England many of the best ships building were requisitioned and fitted out for war services, or for auxiliary services with the fleet. Large numbers of vessels were also withdrawn from the mercantile fleet for similar purposes, and this, together with the great losses due to submarines, very quickly created great demands for new ships. Shipbuilding resources were developed with great rapidity all over the world, leading up to: (1) a vastly increased output; (2) new types of vessels which could be constructed quickly; (3) development of new methods of construction. At the same time a vast increase

took place in the plant of all kinds for the manufacture of armament, etc. The services rendered by the mercantile marine during the war were invaluable (see Surprinc}, while, broadly

speaking, the ships themselves stood the brunt of war with very remarkable success. In some cases, however, large passenger ships were quickly sunk because of the existence of passages, or doors in bulkheads, which permitted the sca to

find access to compartments other than those directly damaged, thus leading

to the foundering of the vessels.

This caused

renewed attention to be given in all maritime countries to matters of life-saving and subdivision. Many very notable vessels were lost. Some of the best known are shown in Table XIE. Among these losses, the “ Britannic ” and “ Justicia ” (formerly “ Statendam”’) were the largest vessels building in the United Kingdom in 1914. After the war the German ships which had been seized or interned were distributed among the Allies. Germany also had to surrender all ships above 1,600 tons afloat or on the stocks, many smaller ones, floating docks, cranes, and other craft, amounting to about 3,000,000 tons, These were divided chiefly between Britain and the United States, with smaller shares to France and Japan. She also had to undertake to build 1,000,000 tons for the Allics if required, but this was not enforced. Table 12 gives the names of some of the most noteworthy vessels thus distributed.

Taste 1X.—Torpedo-Boats and Flotilla Leaders. Date of | Length Ft Launch

Displacement

Armament

Tons

France

Italy

1912

320

1914

26

1917 .

1913

Japan .

1916

United States Germany

1,800

2—47 in,: 2—4 in. 4-—21 in. T. T.

2—3°9 in. 2

Vas

T. T,

1—47 in. 4—3 in. 4—18 in. T. Ty 4—4 in.

4—18 in. T. T. 3—47 in.

6—21 in, T. T. 4—4 in. 1x I-T:

,

å—41 in: 24 mines, 6—19'7 in. T. T.

3—41 in. 6—19-7 in. T. T. 2—34 in. 1—17°7 in. T. T.

4—59 in.

4—23 61n. T. T. cy

Russia

à

eee

a

4—4 in.

9—18 in. T. T. Austria Italy

2—4 in. 4—3 in. a eee

.

5—4

—21

in. T. T.

444

SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING

Table XII. includes a number of very fine vessels which Germany was building in 1914 to compete with the “ Aquitania,” “ Olympic,” and such types of British ships, in order to gain a still larger proportion of the Atlantic trade. Amongst them were

launched in the United Kingdom reached the record total of approximately 2,060,000 tons in 1913, and in 1914 it had decreased by over

the largest vessels afloat in rọzx. In certain cases German companies were afterwards enabled to repurchase from the Allies some of the surrendered ships, which then reverted to German ownership. Austria had to surrender all her shipping, about

great fluctuations occurred; the output on the coast had fallen to g§,000 tons, and on the Great Lakes to 75,000 tons in 1911, while In 1913 228,000 tons were launched on the coast and only 48,000 tons on the Lakes. Table XIII. shows the tonnage of ships launched in various countries from 1910-20. The diagram Fig. 44 has been prepared on the basis of these figures. The striking results obtained in the British colonies and Japan will be noted, and the overwhelming influence of U.S. shipbuilding. Many of the American yards which were specially constructed for war purposes were in 1921 being closed,

tł million tons. This was handed over to Italy, with the cxcep-

iion of about 70,000 tons for France.

l

Statistics.—The world’s output had reached a maximum

3,330,000 tons in 1913, and was falling again in 1914.

of

The tonnage

10 per cent,

Great efforts had been made in France, Germany,

Holand, Japan and Norway, and the totals in these countries showed distinctly upward tendencies. In the United States very

TABLE X.—Submarines of Non-British Navies. Displacement: Tons

Date of] Length Launch Ft. eS

BRAZIL

|

a

1913 g

FRANCE

.

1915

wo} * wm

Se

=

ee

wi

i

wy

wae

reports as to the first voyage were not quite so good. The other three vessels named had not yet gone on service in 1921. Another very interesting case is that of the ‘‘ Cuba,” a vessel 310 X 40 x 26-9 of 2,963 tons gross. This vessel has also been fitted with a turbine electric drive by the General Electric Co., Schenec-

Motor-Ships.—The period 1910-21 saw immense changes in the means of propulsion, In rọ1rt the “ Selandia ” and “ Jutlandia ” were launched, and a number of other vessels were being built, in which internal-combustion engines of a more or less experimental character were being fitted. Lloyd's Register reports that by 1914 there were 290 motor-ships of 234,000 tons cross, while in 1921 there were no fewer than 1,447 ships of 1,263,000 tons gross, so that in 1g21 there were nearly five times as many motor-ships in existence as there were in I914, and the tonnage of these ships was nearly six times as great. In these seven years motor-vessels increased from “47 to 2-1 per cent of the world’s tonnage. Dr. Diesel’s master patents expired in 1909 and 1910, and since then many successful types of intcrnal-combustion engines have been established in Europe and in America (see I[NTERNAL-COMBUSTION EnGInes), and the proportion of motor to steam

rapidly increased.

vessels building

In June 1921 183 motor-vessels of 502,944 tons

were under construction, and out of this number 57 of 241,003 tons were being built in the United Kingdom. Oil Burners.—Another very great improvement is in the use of oil instead of coal under steam boilers. Lloyd's Register reports that in 1914 364 vessels of 1,310,000 tons were fitted to burn oil, but in

tady, but in this case a synchronous motor is fitted.

Steam of 190

Ib. with 200° super heat is supplied to an 8-stage Curtis turbine, as

in “ Eclipse.” This runs at 3,000 r.p.m. and 1,150 volts. The motor gives 3,000 H.P. at roo r.p.m. and 4,150 volts, and is fitted directly on the shaft. The trials of this vessel were well reported on. Both vessels are of If knots speed.

The question of the efficiency and economy of the electric drive

was being very much discussed in 1921, On the one hand it was said that the transmission loss of the electrical system was 8%

instead of 3°% with the mechanical current, but the other ships with electrical current reported very good economy of fuel.

Wood Vessels—In

1914 wood vessels amounted to 1% of the

total steam tonnage, but owing to the special building during the war it had risen to nearly 4° in 1921. Of this large increase the United States owns one million tons. The Emergency Fleet programme provided for ordering 1,067 wooden and composite ships, of 3,227,200 tons; but only 607 of 1,948,250 tons, were actually produced. In June 1921 288 cargo carriers remained in the possession of the U.S, Shipping Board, 15

being on active service and 273 tied up. The board also had 14 tugs, of which 9 were on active service. Up to this date 211 had been sold,

1921 these had increased to 2,563 ships of 12,797,000 tons, or from 2-62 tu 20°65 °° of the world’s tonnage. In the United States four vessels burn oil to every three vessels burning coal. This use of oil fuel has demanded a Jarge increase in the number of oil-tank

tugs. One had been fitted for carrying oil in bulk. Seventy-four were incomplete when sold. In Aug. 1921 the remaining wooden vessels were reported to be sold to the Ship Construction and

steamers.

Trading Company.

In 1914 there were 385 tankers of 1,479,000 tons, while

in 1921 there were 861 tankers of 4,419,000 tons, an increase from 2:94 to 7-16 per cent of the world’s tonnage. Electric Drive—It has been the almost universal practice for submarines to be propelled by electric motors when submerged.

In a few cases of small surface vessels electric drive had also been

12 of which had been built for service as cargo carriers and 61 as

Concrete Ships.—Prior to the war a number of small vessels for harbour or river service had been built of ferro-concrete in Italy, Norway and France. During the war a few experimental vessels of small size were built in various places, and the system was adopted

to an increasing extent, practically all over the world.

As larger

test the method of electric transmission devised by Mavor, using Squirrel cage motors. The experiment was not altogether a success, but it gave a good deal of experience. Mavor proceeded to

vessels were built, the methods reccived careful consideration, and by proper development vessels up to 7,500 tons dead-weight were successfully produced. The complication of rods and ties in the larger vessels became very great, and sectional or panel systems were introduced, as contrasted with the usual monolith system. The reports as to results varied. The weight of hull was reported

America and discussed his ideas with Emmet, and no doubt assisted

to be from §0 to 100% more than for steel, or about equal to wood;

used prior to 1910.

The earliest recorded appears to be Nobel's

tank vessel '‘ Sarmat,” fitted with the system in 1904. About 1916 a small vessel named the “ Electric Arc "' was built on the Clyde to

Emmet in the great undertaking carried out for the American navy in the collier ‘‘ Jupiter" (now aircraft-carrier ‘‘ Langley”). The American navy built three colliers at this time of identical dimensions, about

20,000

tons displacement,

7,500 H.P., 15 knots full

speed, and cargo 12,000 tons. The “ Cyclops” has two reciprocating engines, the “ Neptune ” has Parsons turbines'and a West-

while the saving of steel for carrying a given dead-weight amounted to 55.to 66% of the steel ship. This was an enormous advantage

during the steel shortage, and a further advantage was the power to build by a new class of labour, giving a greater aggregate of

labour for shipbuilding. The most notable vessel was perhaps the 5.9. “ Faith,” built by the San Francisca Shipping Co. in 1918. ~

SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING

447

was a great success. On arrival in England with a cargo the holds were found to be absolutely dry. Table XV. gives the total tonnage

recorded of vessels of this type.

sion, cyls. 504 in., 864 in. (2), 96 in. and 70 in. stroke; but these were exceeded in size by those of ‘' Britannic," (fig. 46) which were 54 in., 84 in. (2), 97 in. and 75 in. stroke, to give 32,000 I.H.P, on two wing shafts, and in addition “ Brittannic "’ had Lp. tur.

TABLE XV.—Ferro-Concrete Vessels Included in “‘ Lloyd's Register,” 1921-2.

“ Britannic '’ were probably the most powerful single sets made foranocean liner, while the “ Kronprinzessin Cecilie ”’ (now ‘‘ Mount

This vessel, 320 ft. long, 3,427 tons gross, and fitted to burn oil fuel,

Country

Steam and Motor Vessels

The engines of

Vernon’) had the greatest total 1.H.P., as she had two sets of 4-cyl. engines on each shaft; they were 374 in., 49 in., 75 in., and 112 In. (quadruple expn.) and 71 in, stroke. Other new vessels being added

Sailing

Vessels

Tons United Kingdom Canada (coast) . United States (sea) : : Denmark 4

bines to give 18,000 S.H.P. on two central shafts.

by the White Star line are:—‘ Regina ” (16,314 tons), and * Rim-

ouski” (9,281 tons) for Canadian service; * Laurentic ” (18,000 tons), * Doric ” (16,600 tons) and “ Pittsburgh ” (16,600) for U.S. services.

The Cunard Co. acquired the “ Berengaria ” (formerly

15

" Impera-

tor’) of 52.022 tons, launched by Vulcan Works, Hamburg, in 1912. This vessel has Parsons’ turbines of 60.000 H.P. on four shafts

France .

Italy Norway Spain

and can attain a speed of over 22 knots with 185 revolutions.

Total

Large Liners—Particulars of notable Atlantic liners of recent construction are given in Table XVI, When the “ Lusitania ”’ was sunk during the war, the ‘‘ Mauretania” only pre-war 25-knot Atlantic liner left.

(30,704 tons) was the She was followed, how-

ever by the ‘ Aquitania ”" (45,647 tons), of 24 knots, launched by

John Brown & Co., for the Cunard Co., in 1914, and the “ France,”

of 23,666 tons gross, launched at St. Nazaire for the Cie. Générale Transatlantique in 1912. The * France” had turbines of 45,000 H.P. on four shafts for her 24 knots, and carried 1,926 passengers besides her crew of six hundred. The “ Aquitania ” was completed during the war as a hospital ship, but saw very little service as such.

After the war she was overhauled and fitted to burn oil fuel, so as

to carry 3,250 passengers. In 1917 another great French liner was launched, the ‘‘ Paris,"’ of 33,700 tons; it was not completed until June 1921.

She could

carry 98 passengers in cabins de luxe, 468 first-, 464 second-, 1,100 third-class (in cabins), also 1,100 steerage in open berths—the total,

including crew, amounting to 3,900 persons. She was fitted with four screws driven by Parsons’ turbines, manufactured at Havre. During completion she was modified to burn oil fuel on the Wallsend-Howden system. On her first trip, with 12 boilers out of 15 in service, she averaged 21 knots. Of the great White Star liners, the “ Adriatic,” of 24,541 tons gross, capable of carrying a total dead-weight of cargo and fuel of 19,710 tons, at a speed of 184 knots, may be taken as typical. A later ship, the ‘‘ Belgic,”’ of 24,347 tons gross, which was put prematurely into service during the war (1917), could carry 22,025 tons at the same speed. The ‘ Adriatic,” “ Baltic,” “ Cedric ” and “ Celtic,” averaging 22,600 tons gross, with a total dead-weight capacity of

ma 55,000 tons, became well known to Atlantic passengers as the ‘ Big Four.” The White Star policy of combining comfort for passengers with a large cargo-carrying capacity found its highest expression, however, in the “ Olympic,” of 46,359 tons, launched by Harland & Wolff in 1911. She could carry a total of 12,770 tons dead-weight ona draught of 34 ft. 7 in., with a displacement of 52,300 tons, and could take 2,400 passengers, besides her crew of 900, across the Atlantic at 21 knots, Having been altered to burn oi! fuel, she

could take sufficient at New York (7,500 tons) to provide for the double journey. Her maximum speed is 22} knots at 55,000 horse power. The ‘ Olympic’’ was in r921 the biggest British-built vessel, but her dimensions had been exceeded by the “ Britannic,”

of 48,158 tons, which was launched by Harland & Wolff in 1914, and was sunk in Greek waters while serving as a hospital ship in 1916. Still larger, however, were the three great liners built in Germany

She

carries 4,000 passengers and a crew of 1,200. The Cunard Co. decided immediately after the war to build a large number of intermediate vessels somewhat of the “ Olympic" type, but smaller and of less speed. The first four were 600 ft. ships

of about 21,000 tons gross and 27,000 tons displacement, at 30-(t. draught, and were named “ Scythia,” ‘‘ Samaria,” “ Franconia,”

“Laconia.”

The ‘ Samaria,” (fig. 47) which may be taken as

typical, was built by Cammell Laird & Co. in 1921,

Her engines

(turbines) are fitted with double helical speed reduction gear, to drive the propellers at an economical speed. The boilers are of the cylindrical type, fitted to burn oil fuel with forced draught on the

Wallsend-Howden combined system. They will give steam at 22Q tb. with 200° F., superheated by means of Schmidt's smoke-

tube type of superheater.

Her twin screws are operated by Brown-

Curtis turbines, which run at 2,750 revolutions.

Triple expansion

is arranged for as follows: On each side of the ship a H.P. and 1.H.P.

turbine are fitted in tandem on the shaft of the first driving pinion, and the l.p. turbine jis fitted on the shaft of the second driving pinion of the first reduction gear, both then operate through the second reduction gear and give the propeller shafts a speed of 90 revs. per minute. The total $.H.P. of 13.500 givesa sea speed of 16 knots. The astern turbines are compound, and are incorporated in the exhaust casings of the intermediate and Jow-pressure ahead turbines, and give a total power equal to about 70% of the ahead

power. This may be taken as typical of the best turbine arrangements of 192%. The ‘‘Samaria”’ can carry about 350 first-, 350 second- and 1,600 third-class passengers. Her deck machinery is driven by electric power through hydraulic variable-speed gear at each of the machines. Two large sects of turbo-driven generators are provided for this purpose, and an oil-driven emergency dynamo is also fitted. A gyro-compass installation is fitted, the master com-

pass being on one of the lower decks, with three separate controlled

compasses at suitable positions for navigation. Her subdivision is on the most approved principle, with increased numbers of watertight bulkheads, the water-tight bulkhead doors being operated on the Stone-Lloyd hydraulic system. She is further subdivided by

fireproof bulkheads, and the ‘' Gronwald " system of fire extinguishing is installed. Electric passenger hoists are provided.

Among great pre-war German liners which came into the service

of U.S. shipping companies were the ‘ America,” of 17} knots and

22,622 tons, launched by Harland & Wolff, Belfast, in 1905, and the ' George Washington,” (fig. 48) of 18 knots and 25,470 tons, launched by the Vulcan Works, Stettin, in 1908.

In addition, the

“ Leviathan,” of 54,282 tons, and 21 knots, launched by Blohm & Voss, Hamburg, in 1914, was still in 1921 awaiting renovation and allocation to service.

During the war these great vessels were util-

ized to transport immense numbers of American troops across the Atlantic, For this service they were specially prepared and ballasted, and, on sailing, the ‘‘ Leviathan” had what may perhaps be a record

during 1912-4, The largest of these (and in 1921 the largest in the world), the “' Majestic,” (fig. 45) launched by Blohm & Voss in 1914, and acquired by the White Star for entering service in 1922,

draught for a vessel leaving port, viz. 40 ft. rf in, “ Leviathan ” carried as many as 11,000 troops on a single trip. Among American liners the place of the old " St. Paul” has been

shafts, the greatest installation yet fitted in any merchant vessel,

troopships (fig. 49). The first on the Atlantic service were the “ Panhandle State,” and the ‘‘ Old North State,” vessels of 10,500 tons, completed in 1920. There were five other vessels also of the same type, 522 ft. overall, with 502 ft. between perpendiculars.

is of 56,000 tons gross.

Turbines of about 100,000 H.P, on four

give her an ocean speed-capacity of 23

knots.

She is 956 ft. in

length, 100 ft. in width, and 102 ft. in height from keel to boat deck. Parsons’ turbines, arranged for triple expansion, are fitted on four shafts, and steam is supplied by Yarrow water-tube boilers at 260lb. pressure. The machinery weighs 8,500 tons, and 5,700 tons of fuel are consumed on one trip. The funnels come up at the side of the ship, joining together above, and thus leave the central part clear for dining-halls, etc. The ventilation involves 18 m. of piping, while there are 15,000 electric lamps, and 225 electric motors for various purposes, requiring a total of 1,565 horse-power. She can carry 4,000 passengers, while the food for one voyage includes 12 tons of fresh meat, 12 tons of vegetables, 14 tons of milk and about 5 tons of eggs.

Amongst the latest additions to the White Star line up to 1921

was the “ Homeric,” of 35,000 tons, carrying oie passengers at 21 knots; she was launched at Danzig in 1913 as $.S. “ Columbus.” The " Homeric " is notable as being the last large ship propelled by reciprocating engines only, of which she has two sets, triple expan-

taken by ships of the ‘“ State” class, which were started as 522-{t.

Supplemented by the great ex-German ships named above, they

enabled the Shipping Board to send their faster (535 ft.) State type

of vessel to the Pacific. Germany in 1921 retained the old ‘ Deutschland,” which had now only machinery for 15} knots, and

was

named “ Hansa.”

Just prior to the war Germany was building a serics of splendid

vessels, most luxuriously fitted out, and supplied with every modern device for the attraction and comfort of passengers in order to capture the S. American trade. They were fitted with a combination of reciprocating engines and turbines. The best-known vessel, “Cap Trafalgar," 18,710 tons, 17} knots (1913), was, as an armed merchant cruiser, met and sunk after a stiff fight by the Cunarder u Carmania," also fitted out as an armed merchant cruiser. Other vessels of the type were the “ Cap Finisterre,” 14,503 tons, 17 knota, (911) (now the “ Taiyo Maru "), and the '‘ Cap Polonio,” 19,500

SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING

448

tons, 18 knots (1914). The last had specially luxurious apartments to fit her for the use of the ex-Kaiser, but after the war British

finest vessel trading to S. American ports. She has four sets of turbines of 21,900 H.-P. with single reduction gearing driving four propellers, giving a speed of 19} knots speed on trial, and carries

owners could not run her at a protit, and she was sold back to Germany, and was, in 1921, far the best and fastest German steamer. France replied with the “ Lutetia,” 14,654 tons (1913), and the

243 passengers in de /uxe state-rooms, 306 second-class, 800 steerage

and a crew of 520, giving a total! of 1,569.

“ Massilia," 15,147 tons (T914), both havinga combination of reciprocating engines and turbines for 20 knots. i The " Esperia,” of 11,393 tons, the finest passenger vessel built as such in Italy, was launched at Genoa in 1921. She is fitted with Parsons’ turbines, of 19,600 H.P., on two shafts, with mechanical

Spain had two fine vessels built just before the war, the ‘ Infanta

Isabel de Borbon,” of 10,348 tons, 17} knots, launched by Denny at Dumbarton (1913), and the “ Reina Victoria Eugene,” 10,137 tons, launched by Swan, Hunter & Co. (1913), 174 knots, and of about the same general dimensions. Both are fine well-fitted vessels, and both have a combination of reciprocating engines and turbines of 10,000 H.P, for propulsion at 174 knots spced. Spain also built herself vessels of a steadily improving class. The ' Alfonso

reduction gearing, for 21 knots, and carrying 480 passengers in addition to a crew of three hundred. Italy also ordered two fine vessels

in Great Britain. One, the ‘ Conte Rosso,” built by Beardmore, Dalmuir, was requisitioned by the Admiralty, razeed to give an uninterrupted flat deck, with no funnels, and fitted out as the air-

XIL”

1921

by Beardmore,

15,500

tons,

183 knots

speed, dimensions

about 374 knots.

570 ft. x 74:2 ft. x 36-1 feet. The second vessel, ‘‘ Giulio Cesare, laid down by Swan, Hunter & Co. at Wallsend, stood half plated during the war, and was finally completed in 1920, 21,500 tons, 18} knots sea speed. In her the fitting-out of the German “ Cap" vessels was rivalled by a combination of British and Italian art, and

Particulars of notable recent Pacific liners are given in Table 17.

The wonderful development of what might be spoken of as secondary liners is illustrated by the new vessels built for the Canadian Pacific railway (now Canadian

TABLE Speed

Tons

~“Mauretania ”

39,704

Cunard Co. ’

" Aquitania ” .

45.647

Cunard Co.

“ Berengaria ”. {ex " ImperScythia

re

:

“Samaria”

2

xX

$7.1

12,2350

70,000

4

Parsons’ turbines

X

07

xX

4Q.7

12,913

60,000

4

Wallsend Slipway Co. Steam turbines

J. Brown, Clydebank,

Glasgow. 832.9 x 08.3 x 571 Vulcan Werke, Hamburg.

12,000

Steam turbines

19,503

Cunard Co.

600.7

12,400

Steam turbines

29,937

Cunard Co.

White Star Co.

46,439

White Star Co.

56,000

White Star Co.

Bis-

B3

Cunard Ca.

48,138

.

X

73,8 x

40.7

Vickers, Barrow

6o1.5

X

737

I

40.7

Cammell Laird, Birkenhead. 352.5 X ð x Harland & Wolf,

Vulcan Werke, Hamburg.

Vickers, Barrow,

12,400

59-5

Vast,

Reciprocating & Lp. turbine

59-5

DI?

x

57-1

Steam turbines Blohm & Voss, Hamburg.

4

x

44-7

Reciprocating & lp. turbine Harland & Wolf.

R

x 48.9

74.3

X

o70.4

24,547

Brown Curtis turbines with double reduction gear. Cammell Laird. Reciprocating ‘& Lp. turbine Harland & Wold.

S2.5$ X 62.5 x Harland & Wolff, Bellast. xX

I90

Harland & Wolf.

Blohm & Voss, Hamburg.

marck ”’).

atBelgic ne

Steam Horse- |No. of ‘ oe ‘oe Types of Machinery and Makers | pressure Screws IhS.

power

x

J. Brown, Clydebank,

.

{ex

Dead-

; weight To ns

swan Hunter, Newcastle.

NO37

“ Britannie ” ilost in World

“Majestic ”

Dimensions Builders

52,022

ator ”} ii

xX

Harland & Wolf, Belfast.

“ Homeric ”

35,000

White Star Co,

bus ”} “ America "

22,622

U.S. Government {War Department)

668.8

478

20,765

Reciprocating Harland & Wolf.

54,282

U.S. Government (Navy Department}

997.6 X 100.3 x 58.2 Blohm & Voss, Hamburg.

15,000

Steam turbines Blohm & Voss.

25,570

U.S. Shipping Board

boo.

x

78.2

X, $9.5

13,465

Reciprocating

19,361

U.S. Shipping Board

634.3

%

72.3

X

10,533

U.S. Shipping Board

23,666

Cic, Gen. Transatlantique

tex “ Colum-

{ex “ Amerika ”).

“Leviathan ” . {ex * Vater-

land ”). “George Washington '’}

“ Apamemnon ” F

(ex “ Kaiser Wilhelm 11°) “ Panhandle State”. * France ”.

X

x

Harland & Wolf,

“ Massilia ”

15,147

Cie. de Nav. SudAtlantique.

A. G. Vulean, Stettin.

40,2

8,700

502.5 x 622 X 28.3 New York S. B. Corp.

13,009

“ Rotterdam ”.

24,149

HoUland-Amcrika Line

“ Limburgia ” .

19,980

Koninkl,-Hollandoche Lloyd loy

“ Giulio

21,500

Nav. Gen. Italiana

15.550

Lioyd Sabaudo Sacy,

11,393

Soc. Italiana* di Servizi Marittimi. i

” Infanta Isabel de Borbon ”.

10,348

Cía. Transatlantica

“ Stavenger-

12,977

Den Norske Amerika Linje

" Bervensfjord” .

10,709

Den Norske Amerika Linje

12,834

Cunard Co.

18,075

Great Eastern 5.5. Co.

689.0

x

756

x

Shed

734.9

X

85.2

X

59-1

St. Nazaire. 574.0 xX 64.0

X

40.2

550.

X 43.5

Ch. & Atel. de St. Nazaire, St. Nazaire.

Ch. & Atel. de St. Nazaire,

Cesare ”

Rosso”. “ Esperia ”

.

fjord”,

.

" Campania ” , {lost in World

ar). “ Great Eastem

Forg. & Ch. de la Médit., La Seyne.

X

77.4

Harland & Wolff, Belfast.

§92.0 X 72.3 X 397 J. C. Tecktenborg, A. G., Geestemunde. Gor.4

x

760

X

51.0

570.0

X

74.2

x

46.7

Swan Hunter, Newcastle.

“ Conte

Reciprocating

F. Schichau, Elbing.

Beliast.

A. G. Vulcan, Stettin.

Cic, Gen. Transatlantique

.

750

F, S5chichau, Dantzig.

32,000

" Pans”.

The “ Empress of

will be the finest vessel on the Pacific Ocean.

XVI.—Particulars of Notable Atlantic Liners. Date of

Knots

Pacific Ocean services).

Canada,” of 22,000 tons and 22 knots, built in 1920 by Fairfield

this vessel was in 1921 the largest and finest Italian liner, and the

Name

(of 10,137 tons gross), built in 1921 at Bilbao, was the finest

vessel yet constructed in Spain. Her dimensions are 480 ft. x 61 ft. x 41 fect. She is fitted with two sets of geared steam turbines of 19,300 S.H.P., giving 14 r.p.m. at the propellers, and a speed of

craft-carnier “! Argus.” She was finished just before the Armistice. To take her place another vessel of the same name was launched in

Beardmore, Glasgow. 492.1 X O17 XX34.3

Soc. Esercizio Bacini x

61.3

X

327

W. Denny Bros., Dumbarton. 532.5 X G4.2 X. 20.3

Cammell Laird & Co., Birkenhead. St2.4

KX

61.7

X

29.4

Cammell Laird & Co., Birkenhead.

6or.0 x

Reciprocating New York S B. Corp.

Steam turbines Ch. & Atel. de St. Nazaire. Steam turbines Chant. de Penhret. St. N,

Reciprocating & 21.p. turbines

Forg. & Ch. de la Médit.,.M.S.L. Reciprocating Harland & Wolf, Belfast, Reciprocating & l.p. turbine

J. C. Techienborg, A. G., Geest. Steam turbines Wallsend Slipway Co. Ltd., Newcastle. Steam turbines W. Beardmore, Glasgow. Geared steam turbines

N. O. dero fie A Seotui. P.

Riva Trigoso.

481.9

6,384

A. G. Vulean, Stettin, Reciprocating A. G. Vulcan, Stettin.

65.2 x 37.8

Fairfield Co. Ltd., . >» Glasgow. Roo x 82.8 x 48.2 Millwall,

Reciprocating & r l.p. turbine Denny & Co., Dumbarton.

Reciprocating

`

Cammell Laird & Co. Reciprocating

Cammell Laird & Co. Reciprocating Fairfield Co. Ltd., Glasgow.

S. screw & paddles.

195

SHIP AND

The Australian Government

The U.S. Shipping Board has allotted many of its best vessels to various companics for service on the Pacthc. The ‘* Wenatchee ” and ‘‘ Creole State” are typical of the 535-[t. vessels so appropri-

ated.

These vessels are 535 {t. overall, 516 ft. between perpendicu-

ment

21,250 tons.

They have accommodation

for 257 first-class

besides 200 of ship's company.

They can also carry 6,700 tons of cargo, and can maintain 17} knots for long distances, having obtained over 19 knots in some

cases on trial. They are fitted with water-tube boilers 265 lb., and 75 superheat. Westinghouse double-flow type turbines are fitted, run at 3,650 revolutions, with double reduction gearing, to drive two propellers at 110 revolutions.

per minute, and on each ship astern turbines are provided equal to 60 to 65% of the full power ahead. South A frica.—For the direct service to the Cape the Union Castle line added the ‘‘ Balmoral Castle,” of 13,361 tons, of 18 knots maximum speed, in 1911. Two very fine vessels had in 1921 been recently added: the ‘“‘Arundel Castle,” and ‘* Windsor Castle,” 650 [t. x 72 {t., and of 19,000 tons gross. They were the first four-funnelled ships on the Cape line, and were fitted with 15,000 H.P., and single reduction gear, to two shafts, for a sea speed of 17 knots. They could carry 273 first-, 224 second- and 566 third-class passengers, besides the crew of 400, and a large cargo, the total dead-weight

The smaller vessels of the same

type are 522 ft. overall, 502 ft. between perpendiculars; breadth 62 Ít. and depth to “ A ” deck 42 ft. They only carry 78 passengers, but they can take another 1,000 tons of cargo. They are fitted with

cylindrica! boilers 220 lb., and two sets of four-cylinder triple expan-

sion engines giving 6,000 H.P. for 14 knots at 105 revolutions. For service between Europe and Australia, via The Cape, the “ Ceramic,” of 18,481 tons and 17 knots, triple screw, of the White Star line, was the finest and largest vessel running in 1921. She was built by Harland & Wolff in 1913, and can carry 19,590 tons cargo, and bunkers, at a sea speed of 17 knots, with a maximum of 18} knots. For the India and Australia service of the P. & O., a new series of ''N " class of steamers was being built. The first of these ‘“‘ Naldera,”’ 15,825 tons, was built by Caird, and used by the Government

during the war.

" Narkunda,”

is the “ Mongolia,” buile by Armstrong, 550 ft, x 72 ft. x 42-3 ft.

When loaded to a draught, of 30 ft. they will have a displacement of 24,500 tons, and 15,550 tons gross, and carry a dead-weight of about 13,000 tons. They can carry over 400 first- and second-class passengers, and of seven cargo-holds two are insulated. Two later vessels—* Maloja ” and "“ Mooltan "’—are 20,700 tons gross. The Cunard Co. has also built a number of vessels of the ‘ Ausonia ” type for the Cape and Australia services. These vessels are 519 {t. x 65-3 ft. x 43 {t., and 13,000 tons gross at a draught of 29-6 feet. Their displacement is 20,420 tons with a dead-weight of 10,120. Geared turbines of 8,500 H.P. are fitted for a speed of 15 knots. They can carry over 500 cabin passengers and about 1,200 thirdclass, The “ Ausonia ” is remarkable, as making a record of 1,000

ships built by Messrs. Armstrong, of a total of 3,000,000 tons. these, 800 were merchant ships and 200 were warships. TABLE

Tons | Speed erie gross | knots

Name

“ Wenatchee”

|14,127]

“ Aeolus” (ex | 12,642/ “ Grosser

15 14}

|United States Shipping Board. (United States Shipping Board. |Union Castle S.S. Co.

192I

|Union Castle S.S. Co.

I9IO

1899

“ Balmoral ` Castle” .

13,361|

173

18,481|

17

|WhiteStar Line | 1913 (Australian

22

Service). |Canadian Pacific | 1920 Ocean Serv-

“ Empress of Canada".

é

"

i

22,000| .

Empress ọ

Asia

2 ee ac 16,

oe

“ Niagara ” i

oF

13,415! a

21

anadian

1921

fe

Pacific | 1913

Ocean Serv-

APeran eine

18

nion S. Shiping Co. of New Zealand, Ltd.

New Channel steamers have continued to be built in England, France and Belgium. The fastest steamer on the English Channel

service in 1921 was the “ Versailles,” built in France and completed

in 1921, 305 ft. long and 36 ft. in breadth; she had obtained 25 knots

on speed.

An important type of cross-channel steamer is the train ferry.

During the war such vessels were used by England for the first time. These vessels are 363-5 ft. Jong, 61-5 ft. broad, draught 9 ft. forward and ro ft. aft. They displace 3,654 tons, and have 12 knots speed,

Two were built by Messrs. Armstrong and one by Messrs. Fair-

Wolf, Belfast. {627-0x 77-7x 42-0] Fairfield, Glas-

gow.

|570°1 x 68-2.x 42-0]

Fairheld, Glas-

1920

|5814 x 694x277]

“ Ausonia".

15

iCunard $.S. Co. | 1921

gow.

| Steam turbines, Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. | Reciprocating, F. Schichau, Elbing. ; | Steam turbines, Harland & Wolff. | Reciprocating, Fairficid & Co.

| Reciprocating and I L.P. turbine,

g

9,135)

..

..

3,720

N.H.P.

| 12,000

415,550]

17

|P. & O. Line.

1921

Co., Newcastle

a T

Steam turbines,

q

Fairfield, Glasgow.

$

eciprocating, J. Brown, Clydebank, Glasgow.,

190

š

,

220

1,428 | 2 | Reciprocating,

Harland & N.H.P. Harland & Wolff. Wolff, Belfast. [519-0x 65-0x 43-0] 10,120] 8,500 | 2 | Parsons geared turbines, Armstrong, Armstrong, Whitworth. Co., Newcastle |§50-0x 71-7 x 42:2] Armstrong, Whitworth &

ae

i

Whitworth &

Mongolia *

is

220

Harland & Wolff. 2 | Steam turbines, Fairheld, Glasgow.

..

:

|5247 x 663x 345| J. Brown, Clydebank, Glas-

[P. & O. Line.

|weight Dead-) trorse-| 5ene2 | Type of machinery and |Steam aye T resTons | POW fz 9 nee sure,lb.

i

1913

18}

{13,0501

These were, perhaps, the finest vessels that had yet

been built in the United States, though not the largest.

|5165 x722 x278 z New York S. B. Corp., N. J. [560-6 x 62°3.x 35°9 1,016 | 2 F. Schichau, N.H.P. Danzig. |6300X 725X45) kA 2 Harland Wolff, Belfast. 1570-0x64-5x 33-9] .. 2,234 | 2 Fairfield, GlasN.H.P gow. 1655-1 x 69:4x 43-8] 19,590 3 Harland &

gow.

“Narkunda ” . | 16,118} .

Of

losher type, and Parsons turbines driving three screws, and giving

22,000 S.H.P.

Date | Dimensions of Builders build | L. B.

Owners

18

“ Ceramic".

in 1915 for service between San Francisco and Astoria, are 8,255

tons gross and 24 knots speed. They are 500 ft. x 63 ft. x 50-5 ft.,

moulded, to promenade deck. When loaded to 21-{t. draught they have dead-weight of 2,185 tons and displacement of 9,700. They carry 550 first-class passengers and 316 second and_third-class assengers. They are fitted with 12 water tube boilers of the

XVII.—Particulars of Pacific, ete., Liners,

Kurfürst ”) * Arundel 19,600] Castle” . ., .

being 14,000 tons. Coast and Channel Steamers, elc-—The finest recent vessels of these types have been built in America. Two remarkable vessels, the ‘Great Northern ” and ‘ Northern Pacific,’ built by Cramp

16,118 tons, was the

first liner to be completed by Harland & Wolff at Belfast after the war, These are vessels of 18} knots speed. For the India service direct a new serics—‘t M " class—was being built. Typical of these

was in 192t providing itself with

seven liners of 12,500 tons, 15 knots full speed, built on the isherwood longitudinal system. The ‘Largs Bay,” built by Messrs. Beardmore, may be taken as typical of all five. She is 530 ft. long, breadth 68-3 ft., depth 39:8 ft., 12,500 tons gross tonnage, and can carry 12,000 tons dead-weight at a draught ol 29 ft. 9 in. and displacement 23,120 tons. She can carry 730 third-class and about a dozen first-class passengers. Machinery, of 9,000 S.H.P. on two shafts, is provided for a speed of 15 knots; Parsons’ geared turbines are fitted in two complete sets. The h.p. turbines run at 3,200 revolutions, and |p. turbines at 2,100. They are independently connected to the shafts by double reduction gearing 35-5 to 1, and 23-4 to 1 respectively, giving a speed of propellers of go revolutions

lars, with a beam of 72 ft., and moulded depth 27-8 ft., and to “A” deck 50 Ít.; about 14,000 tons gross. When loaded to a draught of 30-6 {t. their total dead-weight is 10,000 tons, and total displaceand 300 second-class passengers,

449

SHIPBUILDING

a 220

.

13,000] 13,000 | 2 | Steam turbines,

Armstrong, Whitworth.

ii

450

SHIP AND

SHIPBUILDING

field. On the deck, well protected by deckhouses, are four lines of

rails, which will take 54 10-ton wagons. Heavy guns and heavy machinery of all description were transported by these vessels. Some of the most remarkable vessels in the world are the Sound and Lake steamers of the United States. Recent vessels on the Lakes are the largest paddle steamers ever built, such as the “ City of Cleveland I1.” (1907), 4,568 tons and tg knots speed; “ City of Detroit III.” (1912), 6,061 tons and 20 knots speed; and ‘* Seandbee’ (1912), 6,381 tons, 19} knots. This last remarkable vessel is 484:5 ft. x 58-1 ft. x 24-0 ft. To drive her paddle wheels she is fitted with: compound, three cylinder engines; cylinders being, one 66 in. in diameter, and two 96 in. in diameter, with a stroke of 9g feet. Developments in Shipbuiding.—The greatest innovations during 1910-20 were in connexion with rapid shipbuilding during the war. The production of “© standard ships’ in Great Britain has been already referred to. Six types were “ standardized ° (see Carter I.N.A., 1918, and, for detailed summary builder, May 1918).

with dimensions,

Ship-

Others were approved at a later date, and permission to build large numbers of such ships was given to various shipbuilders. In these ships special methods were adopted to reduce risk of submarine attack, such as improved sub-division, making both ends

alike, with bridge, poop and forecastle ends rounded, funnels and

masts symmetrical in profile elevation with regard to a vertical fine

amidships, but not on the fore and aft centre line so as to increase difficulty of detecting speed and course of vessel. Very greatly

improved accommodation for ship's company was also provided. The best method of expediting the building of merchant ships occupied many minds, and proposals were made by Sir Eustace d’Eyncourt in 1917 to simplify the construction of war-time vessels by making all frame-lines straight, and the plating so far as practicable of developable surfaces. A successful design was proposed on this basis, and adopted by the Controller of Merchant Shipbuilding

for use in the fabricated ships about to be built at the National Shipyards on the Severn. The first fabricated “ straight line ship,” the S.S. “‘ War Climax,” was completed at Wallsend by Swan, Hunter& Co., on Sept. 28 1918, 31 wecks from laving keel. In Great Britain large numbers of vessels of standard designs were built by various shipbuiiders according to their usual routine. The “ fabricated |’ ship followed later.

was built by Geary at Ashtabula Harbour, Ohio. This vessel was 42 Ít. long, 11 ft. beam and 6 ft. 6 in. draught, and the welding was carried out with bare metallic electrodes. Two vessels of 52 to 62 ft.

in length have also been built, one in France in 1y1g and one in 1920

in Sweden “ Esab IV." In each case the welding was carried out by the Kjellberg process, and each of these craft is propelled by semiDiesel crude oil engines, which can also be used to provide electric power for welding, and compressed air for use in carrying out the repairs of ships by this process as they float in harbour. In this

process the arc is also used, but a fireproof sleeve of non-conducting

material projects over the are so as to shield the molten metal from oxidization. A boiler 15 ft. 6 in. in diameter, known as the Hawthorn-Wyber boiler, has been successfully constructed by means of

this process. The process of the General Electric Co. is quite different; in this case metallic contact takes place, the welding material is raised to the necessary temperature by resistance to the passage of the current, and it is at the same time pressed into place by hydraulic pressure, A 46-[t. section of a 9,600 ton vessel being built in New Jersey has been used to test the practicability of this, and other methods, and it is reported that these experiments show a saving of 60% on labour and 15° on material, as compared with riveted work. During the war a steel barge, 120 {t. by 16 ft. and 275 tons dis-

placement, was built at Richborough, Kent, in order to test to what extent labour could be saved. Here the Quasi-Arc process was used and the vessel was satisfactorily completed. On this system the stcel electrode has a sheath of blue asbestos, which melts and flows down over the molten

metal, thereby extinguishing the arc.

This

asbestos also forms a floating covering over the molten metal and protects it from oxidization. In order to give further protection, an

aluminium wire is carried down by the side of the steel electrode, so that the molten aluminium may take up any oxygen which gets

beneath the flux. Messrs. Laird built a small sea-going

S.S.

Fullagar,” in 1920, using the Quasi-Are process.

vessel, the

If welding

can be adopted as the genera! practice, a very large saving should arise in the cost of labour, and an appreciable saving in the case of weight and material.

In the United States, however,

the standard ships were mostly fabricated ships also. The first series were produced by the Submarine Boat Corporation in new premises at Newark Bay. The most wonderful of all the American shipyards was, however, at Hog’s I., Philadelphia, which in less than 12 months passed from open 50 ft. ground to the greatest shipyard in the world, with full equipment and deep water jetties. The contract was signed on Sept. 13 1917, and work started Sept. 20. The first keel (5.5. ‘* Quistconck "’) was laid Feb. 12 1918, launched Aug. 5 1918, and by Jan. 8 1919, 16 vessels had been launched and 7 completed, 50 slips had been built and 7 jetties, 1,000 ft. long and

100 ft. wide for fitting out afloat. By April 17 1920, 102 ships of $00,000 tons d.w. had been launched and 84 of 657,000 tons completed. The fabricated parts were prepared in 90 engineering works from 10 to 1,500 m. away. Ferro-Concrete Shtps.—For many years small vessels had been built of reinforced concrete in localities where steel and the special labour required for steel shipbuilding was not available. Such vessels had been built in Italy, Norway and France. Between 1887 and 1917 some 200 craft had been built, but in the latter year the subject was more seriously considered, and craft of increasing size were

built, and greater

numbers

of them

fitted with

propelling

machinery. In England 1,000 ton barges, tugs of 730 h.p., and cargo steamers of 1,150 tons d.w. were built. The first steamship, ** Armistice,’ was built at Barrow, and was reported to run well and

cost very much less than a steel ship for upkeep. In Great Britain most of the concrete vessels were tow barges, but in a number of cases steam or oil engines were fitted. Cargo boats 1,150 tons d.w. 205 ft. x 32 [t. with engines of 350 J.H-P. for 7} knots, and tugs 125 ft. x 27 ft. 6 in. with engines of 750 1.H.P. were

built.

In the

United States very much larger vessels were built as experience was gained. The 5.5. “ Faith” was 320 ft. x 445 ft. x 30 ft., dw. 950 tons on 22 ft. 6 in. draught, triple expansion engines of 1,600

.H.P. were fitted giving 103 knots speed.

3,000, 3.500 and

7,500

tons

Others were built of

d.w. as well as eight oil tankers of

7,500 d.w. The Emergency Fleet Corporation ordered §6 ships of an ageregate d.w. of 300,000 tons, besides 34 barges and fighters. Welded Ships.—The Oxy-Acetylene process, for cutting out damaged portions of ships and machinery, and for welding in portions in the course of repair, has been of great service, particularly for the repairs of large forgings, castings and boilers. To a less extent the “ Thermit "' process has been used for welding purposes, but its application has been of a comparatively limited character. During recent years very considerable progress has been made in develop-

ing systems of electric welding, which were used to carry out repair work of considerable magnitude during the war, It has also been proposed that the complete ship should be welded, thus avoiding a great portion of the labour and expense of riveting. Several systems have been developed which can be operated in the ordinary shipyard, and considerable progress has been made in Sweden,

England, the United States and France.

In 1915 a small vessel

Fic. 50. Isherwood System.—For many years warships have been built on the longitudinal system of framing, t.e. the principal structural members of the framing run fore and aft in continuous girders, the

transverse framing being of a secondary character (apart from bulkheads), and fitted between the longitudinal girders as necessary for local support. This system of framing has not found genera) acceptance for merchant ships, because of the theory long held by shipowners that a merchant ship must have such strong transverse frames that she may ground in an ordinary berth with a cargo on board and without damage. With the improved wharf accommoda-

tion now available for important vessels this idea is being gradually relinquished. The most important movement in this connexion was inaugurated by Mr. (later Sir) Joseph Isherwood, who devised a plan for utilizing the whole of the framing of the bottom of the ship and of the decks so that it might be incorporated as part of the

structural girder strength of the ship. In 1998, six ships were built of 31,000 tons; for the next six years, 40 or 50 ships were built per annum; but in 1915, under war conditions, the number very greatly increased, and in 1918, 250 ships of nearly 2,500,000 tons deadWeight capacity were built. Clearer holds, greater strength and a

saving of about 10° of weight of structure are obtained, as well as decreased cost of building. By June 1921 1,400 ships, aggregating 12,600,000 dead-weight, had been built on this system.

The combination of a longitudinal system in the double bottom,

and a transverse system above the bottom, has been adopted by Mr. W. Millar of Greenock, and several vessels have been built on

the Millar system.

Other systems in which a longitudinal construc-

451

SHIPPING tion is adopted are associated with various names-—-Mr, King, Dr. Montgomery, and Sir Westcott Abell.

Foster

ported during the war were waiting in vast accumulations to be

The “Unsinkable" Ship—A so-called “ unsinkable’’ ship has been designed by M. La Parmentier. It consists of two cylinders,

In fact, so far-reaching were the effects that they were certain to

draught of 16 ft. fitted with twin screws, and engines of 700 H.P. for eight knots. In 1921 several such vessels were being built in

(1) Untrep Kincpom The year r910 was, judged by the ideas then ruling, a compara-

22 ft. in diameter and about 300 ft. in length, each divided into 7 holds, connected so as to form a vessel 320 {t. in length and about 48 ft. extreme breadth, estimated to carry 4,250 tons d.w. ona

the United States. Cruiser Sterns.—Several of the new liners have a rounded stern, with the profile sloping forward in a curved line as it rises from the

water upwards. This is called a “ cruiser stern,” and is being ve generally adopted. It gives somewhat increased capacity, and wit the same total length of ship provides a longer water-line, thus

facilitating propulsion. In the case of a 550-ft. ship, for 18 knots this meant a decrease of 2,000 H.P., which resulted in a saving of 225 tons of machinery, as well as 220 tons of fuel per trip, giving a saving of over 400 tons available for extra cargo. In 1921 over 160

vessels were built with sterns formed in this way. ; On this system the flat plate rudder is replaced by two curved plate rudders ( Kitchen

rudders’), forming an almost cylindrical

carried, and in 1921 the effects on shipping were still being shown. be felt for many years.

tively satisfactory one for British shipping, although the industry

did not entirely escape the consequences of a strike of coalminers caused by difficulties traceable to the operation of the Eight Hours Act. In r1o1r there were a number of industrial disturbances, notably in the collieries, on the railways, at the docks, among seamen and in the cotton-mills. Yet rates of freight were on a higher basis than for some years previously. The time charter rate, i.e. the monthly rate of hire per ton dead-weight for ordinary cargo steamers, may be taken as a good barometer of the condition of freight rates generally.

As

casing round the propeller. By revolving these curved rudders as desired the stream of water is directed as necessary by reaction to

compared with a rate of about 3s. a ton, or rather more, ruling in 1910, the time charter rate rose to about 5s. in rg11. There was a further upward movement in 1912, which was regarded as

abaft the propeller. Safety at Sea.—During the war many other points were developed

a very satisfactory year for the shipping industry. Time charter

steer the ship. For going astern the rudders are brought together for increase of safety in navigation, such as use of range-finders,

directional wireless, gyro-compasses, reflex sound apparatus, “ clear

view ” weather screens, submarine sound signalling, and ‘‘ Leader”

cables laid along the bed of the channel. Following the loss of the “ Titanic ” on April 16 1912, rigorous

enquiries were conducted, in New York under Senator W. A. Smith

of Michigan, and in London under Lord Mersey. In both cases recommendations were made that liners should have boats for all,

regular boat drill, more efhcient W.T. arrangements, and improved sub-division in construction. The British Board of Trade appointed

two committees. Sir Archibald Denny presided over the first committee (Bulkheads and Sub-Division) and Sir John Biles over the second committee (Boats and Davits). As a result the Board of Trade laid draft rules before Parliament (Paper Cd. 6402 1912) and took immediate action to improve the supply of boats, while ship-

owners proceeded to improve the sub-division of their ships. An International Convention was called with a view to similar treatment of these questions by all maritime powers. This Convention was signed on Jen. 20 1914 and rules embodying the agreement as to life-saving appliances were unmediately put into force in Great Britain (Parliamentary

Paper 219 Merchant

Appliances dated May 8 1914).

Shipping Life-Saving

The whole Convention was dis-

cussed in Parliament, and an Act was passed (Aug. ro 1914) authorizing its adoption, but the Board of Trade was left with the power to decide the date on which the Act was to be put into operation. On account of the war, action was postponed, but discussions were proceeding in 1921 between the principal maritime powers with a view to the holding of another Convention. During the war a great demand arose for improved life-saving appliances. The most successful of all these was the Carley Life Raft, made in the United States. It is made in various sizes. A large copper pipe is bent into the form of an O, brazed up to be airtight, surrounded by cork and canvas, provided with

a strong rope netting

to form a floor within the O, and fitted with hand ropes, etc. This type was the means of saving very many lives; for instance, a float 9 ft. by 14 ft. will support more than 60 people.

Research and Ex periment.—Increasing attention is being given to

the study of naval architecture and marine engineering, and of research, in America as well as in Europe. Chiefly owing to the advocacy of Sir W. H. White, and the generosity of Sir A, F. Yarrow, a national experimental tank has, in England, been provided

at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. The experiment tank is intended for the service of any shipbuilding or shipowning frm. Primarily intended for the experimental investigation of any problems connected with ship resistance and propulsion, it has successfully dealt with such different problems as the manweuvring of ships, torques on rudder heads, skin friction, resistance due to rough seas, rolling and pitching of ships, stability of ships and

hydroplanes in motion on the water, and the form of _flying-boat

hulls for efficient and stable action in getting on and off the water. During the war it dealt with many problems, including the detec-

tion of submarines, mince-sweeping, torpedo fring, design of anchored mines, protection against torpedoes, and the design of standard ships. (E. T. D'E.)

rates ranged from about 4s. 6d. a ton to 7s. 6d. Employment for shipping was good, although, as some set-off to the increased rates, there was a general rise in working costs. In 1913 rates declined, partly owing to the increase in shipbuilding which had been carried out during the good years. The year 1914, destined to be one of the most important for shipping as for all other industrics, opened with freights on a downward grade, and in midsummer the industry was in a very depressed condition. All freight rates for cargo steamers were low, and the liner companics were feeling the severe competition of the German ownerships. The two great German companies in the N. Atlantic trade—the HNamburg-Amerika and the Norddeutscher Lloyd—had been for years claiming a larger share of the passenger traffic. In the summer of ror4 the Deutsche-Australische Gesellschaft announced its intention of inaugurating a direct service from Ham-

burg to New Zealand.

Discussions were in progress with the

British shipping managers when war broke out. Beginning of the World War.—Immediately a number of liners

were requisitioned by the British Government for service as merchant cruisers, transports, and hospital ships. Freight markets were almost staggered by the unexpected blow which had fallen, and, at first, chartering of all sorts came to a standstill. Happily, the Government at once put into operation a scheme of war insurance on the lines of the recommendations of a committee which had been previously appointed and was presided over by Mr. Huth Jackson. These recommendations provided for the granting of war insurance on shipping by the Government up to 80% of the values. This insurance was worked through the mutual associations of shipowners which were in existence for the purpose of covering such liabilities as shipowners could not obtain under ordinary marine insurance policies. In the preparation of this scheme Sir Norman Hill, the secretary of the

Liverpool Steamship Owners’ Assn., had taken an active part. The shipping entered in the Liverpool Steamship Owners’ Assn.

represented 3,948,623 tons, and that in the Liverpool and London War Risks Assn., which included the great bulk of the liner tonnage of the United Kingdom, 6,371,329 tons.

There were also important associations of the same kind with headquarters in London and on the N.E. coast. The main result of putting this scheme at once into operation was that all ships could proceed on their voyages and others could leave without involving disaster to their owners if the vessels were captured or

destroyed by the enemy.

Had no such scheme been available, a

_ SHIPPING (sce 24.983).—In the decade following rọro, the influence of the World War had a profound effect on the shipping

Nor can it be limited to the period between the be-

great many vesscls, if not all, must have been detained in port. Commerce would immediately have come to a stop. In those days it was the possibility of capture by the enemy’s surface cruisers that was in men’s minds: that was considered serious

ginning of Aug. 1914 and Nov. 1918, when the Armistice was

enough. The risk of destruction by the enemy’s submarines had

signed,

hardly been taken into account.

industry.

For many months after the cessation of hostilities, a

great strain was imposed on the British mercantile marine in the repatriation of millions of men. Goods which could not be trans-

As a complement to this scheme for the insurance of hulls, there was also established a Government office for the insurance

452 of cargo.

SHIPPING The marine insurance market continued actively in

business, but underwriters had themselves realized that bad news or heavy losses could easily have the result of forcing up rates to levels that might be prohibitive for commerce. The Government office was intended to exercise a steadying influence.

It was vital that essential goods should continue to be shipped,

the best, imposed without the authority of Parliament, and the surplus remaining to the owners meant higher profits than, in pre-war ycars, could ever have been thought possible by them. For nearly two and a half years the real responsibility for the shipping not requisitioned by the Admiralty rested with the

and, if the risks were greater than insurance companies or private

Board of Trade, of which Mr. Walter Runciman was then President. The President of the Board of Trade, with his multitudi-

underwriters could bear, it was for the nation to assume them, The first rate quoted by the Government was £5 55.%. On Aug. 8 the rate was reduced to f4 4s., on Aug. 18 to £3 3s., and on Sept. 2 to {2 28. All the time underwriters in the market continued to write war risks. Their rates of premium were frequently below those of the

nous duties of endeavouring to watch over the welfare of all industries, was obviously incapable of giving the close attention to shipping which all the circumstances demanded. The public gradually became keenly interested in the rise that was proceeding in freights and was irritated by it. As its interest developed, it grew into indignation. The matter was raised in Parliament,

Government, and there were many risks which the Government office would not accept. For instance, the Government office would not accept lines after a ship had Ieft port. Merchants sometimes found that larger quantities of goods had been shipped

but the Government of the day showed complacency, regarding the movement apparently as inevitable. It is true that on Christmas Ive, 1915, when freights were still climbing, Mr. Ar-

than they had anticipated, or that the values were greater. Then insurances were effected in the open market. As Germany was no respecter of the rights of neutrals, insurances were also placed

thur Balfour referred in the House of Commons to the “terrible level” of freights which, he admitted, increased the price, both

of the necessities of life to the poor, and of many things which

While credit was due to several underwriters who gave their

were essential to the Government in the proper conduct of the war, Yet the Government, when it was spurred into action, contented itself with adopting further piecemeal measures. Government Measures —One successful measure taken at the outset might have formed a model for a broader policy, and, two and a half years later, did so. This was the requisitioning by the Government of the whole of the refrigerated space in the meatsteamers trading between the United Kingdom and Australasia. This transaction was followed, a few weeks afterwards, by the requisitioning of similar space in the steamers trading with S. America. Arrangements were, at the same time, concluded by the Government with the meat companies for a proportion of their weekly production at fixed prices. Thus, not only were there ample supplies secured for the navy and army at reasonable cost, but supplics were available to maintain the civil population.

services in the working of this scheme, much of the organization fell upon Mr. W. E. Hargreaves, a leading member of Lloyd's, who worked in close coöperation with the Board of Trade.

ty informed of the movements of their ships. It was a peculiar fact that very little, if any, information was then in the hands of

in the market on behalf of steamship owners abroad. Some underwriters of insurance companies and at Lloyd’s wrote war risks freely from the outset. They took big risks and made large sums of moncy. The nies writing war risks the pre-war standard. insurance against war

premium incomes of the insurance compawere, in some cases, as much as five times This was duc not only to the demand for perils, but also to the great increase in

values of commodities which set in as they became scarce. The Government office was inaugurated under the auspices

of the Board of Trade. The services of anumbcr of leading underwriters were enlisted. On Aug. 5 1914, the office was opened at the Cannon Street hotel and the knowledge that there was a

market for the risks undoubtedly had a very reassuring effect.

There were thus in existence from the very beginning of the

war facilities for the insurance of ships and cargoes against all the perils that then had to be faced.

There was not the same

mobilization of the shipping industry. Immediately after the declaration of war, freights remained listless. A very few shipowners were and chartered neutral steamers for ruling, and, in the event, found the Most shipowners, however, did not

able to sce what was coming, “time” at the low rates then transactions very profitable, foresee the extremely heavy

demands which would be made by the Government upon the industry for ships for direct war purposes. Cargo steamers were requisitioned to act as colliers to the fleet and were needed to carry supplics to the armics abroad, It was not until the end of 1914 that freight rates began to move upwards. Just before

the outbreak of war the grain rate from Argentina which may be regarded as a representative rate, was 12s. 6d. perton.

By the

end of the year this freight had advanced to 50s. per ton.

It

rose again sharply in the autumn of 1915, and its movements indicated the influence of the introduction of the Excess Profits duty. On Sept. 20 of that year, when Mr. McKenna, the then. Chancellor of the Exchequer, introduced the tax, the Argentine grain freight stood at 57s. 6d. per ton.

Within a month it had

risen to 7os., by Nov. 20 it had advanced to 8ss., and by Dec. 20 to 120s. In 1916 the rate advanced further. By Jan. 20 of that year it stood at 140s. and by Feb. 20 at 157s. 6d. The rate further advanced in 3916 to 183s. 6d, Similar increases took

place in other shipping trades. These increases were clearly due, in the first place, to the diminution in the supply of shipping available for commerce, which, in turn, was caused by the everincreasing requirements of the Government, and by the destruction of shipping by the enemy, and also to the incidence of the

Excess Profits duty. This tax provided the argument that the nation got the benefit of the increases. The Treasury did, but not the country which had to pay for them in the increased cost of imported commodities, It represented a form of taxation, at

In the autumn of 1914 owners were asked to keep the Admiral-

any Government department of the services of the British shipping companies. Such information had to be sought from the companies themselves.

In the summer of 1916 a scheme was instituted, on behalf of the Indian Government, for buying in India, transporting to the United Kingdom and sclling there the exportable surplus of the Indian wheat crop and, through the formation of a committee of brokers, the freight rates were kept on a comparatively modcrate basis. In the autumn of that year the Imperial Government was forced into further action. A committee was appointed to consider the desirability of particular voyages and a system of licences was introduc@l. Another committee was formed for the requisitioning of vessels for the transport of foodstuffs, and a third, known as the Port and Transit Executive Committee, was

formed to deal with the congestion at the ports of the United Kingdom, which, by then, had become a very serious matter. As from March r 1916, licenses were required for all ships of over 500 tons gross trading to and from the United Kingdom. Licences were granted for whole services or particular voyages.

The system also cnabled discrimination to be exercised between the different ports of the United Kingdom and sọ it was impor-

tant in the relief of congestion. The committce appointed to deal with the requisitioning of ships for foodstuffs followed the policy of directing owners to load their vessels where the need was most urgent and then to

leave the owners to accept the full market rates of freight. The first chairman of the Port and Transit Executive Committee was Lord Inchcape, and the Committee included representatives of the Admiralty, the War Office, shipping, railways and dock

authorities. It was subsequently strengthened by the addition of

Labour leaders. It owed responsibility, directly, to the Prime Minister and adopted such measures as would tend to relieve congestion at the ports. Its task was a formidable one and, while the Committee was able to bring about certain reforms, it could not entirely remove the troubles, These actually seemed to be

SHIPPING at their worst after the Armistice. Immense supplies of commodities which could not be moved during the war were poured into the country, and the facilities for removing these proved quite inadequate, with the result that ships were detained for long periods, owing to inability to discharge their cargoes. Much

public attention was focussed on the waste of shipping thereby involved. Strenuous efforts were made by all concerned to improve

the situation.

As an indication of what was being done, the

Port of London Authority issued a weckly bulletin showing the number of vessels detained, and continued to issue this until the situation was completely changed and, carly in 1921, the weekly

return showed that large numbers of steamers were laid up idle owing to the lack of employment.

Lord Inchcape was suc-

ceeded as Chairman of the Committee by Sir Norman Hill, who, on a breakdown of health caused by overwork was, in turn, succeeded at the cend of rọrọ by Sir John Barran. The Committee was formally dissolved by the Prime Minister early in 192r. During the period of its activity it had wide powers, and, at the outset, had, among other measures, effected a change in the Cus-

toms Regulations which, as was proved, were then having the

effect of accentuating the difficulties. The chairman of the Ship Licensing Committee was Mr. (afterwards Sir) Maurice Hill, and it included Mr. (afterwards Sir) F. W. Lewis, then deputy chairman of Messrs. Furness,

453

order that the utmost use might be made of the continually declining supply of tonnage and so that ships might be employed

in the most effective way, irrespective of the individual trades of the ownerships to which they belonged.

It was realized that this

could only be brought about when all ships were hired to the Government, so that it would become for the owners a matter of more or less inconsequence into which routes the vessels were put. The principle of standardization was also persistently urged in order that large numbers of vessels might be constructed on identical plans and of parts fabricated from the same models. It was not, however, until the formation of Mr. Lloyd George’s

Government in Dec. 1916 that the shipping situation was completely taken in hand. Afinisiry of Shipping. —A feature of the new Government was the creation of a Ministry of Shipping. As Shipping Controller, Sir Joseph Maclay was appointed. Sir Joseph Maclay had been known in shipping circles as a success{ul manager of cargo steam-

ers and, while he was little known to the general public, the appointment was regarded in the shipping industry as a good ene.

By his own wish Sir Joseph Maclay was not a member

of the House of Commons, but was represented there by Sir Leo Chiozza Moncy, as parljamentary secretary. Various measures were soon taken to sccure a better grip of the

Withy & Co., as vice-chairman, Mr. H. A. Sanderson (president

shipping problem. One of the most important of these was a general requisitioning of liners by the Government. These ves-

of the International Mercantile Marine Co. and chairman of the

sels were hired to the Government on the basis of what were

Oceanic Steam Navigation Co.), Mr. Scholefield, of Newcastle, Mr. Purdie, of Glasgow, and Mr. Burton Chadwick, of Liverpool. The Committee for the requisitioning of ships was presided

over by Mr. J. H. Whitley, who in April 1921 became Speaker of

known as Blue-book terms—those agreed early in the war with the Admiralty by a committee of owners presided over by Lord Inchcape. The management of such vessels as could be retained in ordinary commerce was left with the owners, who were re-

the House of Commons.

quired to give a financial account of their stewardship to the

It included three shipowners, namely,

Mr. (afterwards Sir) T. Royden, deputy chairman of the Cunard Co., Mr. (afterwards Sir) E. W. Glover, of the shipowning firm

Government, and to pay over all profits above the Government rates of hire. Under this system it was less important to the individual owncrships into which routes their vessels were put. It was well that control was centralized, for, early in 1917, the

of Glover Bros., and Mr. R. D. Holt, the chief of the important shipowning firm of Liverpool. All these members had previously been advising the Transport Department of the Admiralty. In spite of the measures that were being adopted, freights remaincd on a very high level, and the shipping situation was very unsatisfactory. The need for complete control was urged persistently in The Times newspaper, and in Feb. 1916 the Government was again forced to act. In that month an Allocation Committee, or Shipping Control Committee, was formed

year and for the second quarter of rọ17 the losses totalled 1,362,000 tons. Sinkings of foreign vessels were proceeding apace all the time, and in the sccond quarter of 1917 the total losses for

urgent demands that were made upon it. Lord Curzon was appointed chairman of this Committee. Other members were

the world amounted to 2,237,000 tons. The losses for cach quarter throughout the war period are shown in the following table extracted from a White Paper (C.9221) issucd at the end of 1918:—

in order to apportion the tonnage according to the various and

Lord Faringdon, then better known as Sir Alexander Henderson, Mr. Thomas Royden, and Mr. F. W. Lewis.

enemy submarine war intensified and the losses greatly increased. As compared with a loss of 617,000 tons in the Jast quarter of

1916, the British tonnage sunk in the first quarter of 1917 amounted to 912,000 tons,

The pinnacle was reached in April of that

Period

Supply of Tonnage.—It became plainer every day that the

cver-reducing supply of tonnage was becoming less adequate to meet all the demands made upon it. Consequently, the Govern-

ment decided to place restrictions on the importation of various commodities. The first of these to be effected were paper, papermaking materials, tobacco, dried fruits, furniture woods, stones and slates. In March 1916, a prohibition was placed on the

importation of many articles under the general heading of “luxuries.” Among such articles were motor-cars for private use, musical instruments, cutlery, hardware, cotton and woollen manufactures, chinaware, fancy goods and soap. A restriction was also placed on the importation of certain brewing materials.

The inadequacy of the tonnage to meet the supplies was at that time due more to the requirements of the Government for ships for direct war purposes than to the depredations of the

enemy.

The highest quarterly loss of British shipping due to

the enemy was 356,000 tons in the third quarter of rors. In 1916

the ratio of loss fell; in the second quarter, the total amounted to 271,000 tons and in the third quarter to 284,000 tons.

This

drop was, however, only temporary, and in the fourth quarter of 1916 the total sprang up sharply to 617,000 tons and then con-

tinucd at a high rate until the conclusion of the Armistice.

Throughout 1916 what became known as the “shipping problem” continued to attract great public attention.

Articles were

published in The Times urging the need of centralized control, in

Aug. and Sept. 4th Quarter

Ist Quarter 2nd i 3rd a

4th

. be

2n

3rd

. :

IQI5 . a

4th

Sete

as

1st Quarter

E o“

Gross 427,771! 281,416

215,905} 223,676 356,659!

104,542] 156,743) 172,822|

320,447 380,419 529,481

198,958}

524,195

251,599)

522,289

284,358]

617,563]

S

191

ae .

tons

85,947/ 126,688

325,237]

- ih

tons

341,823( 154,728,

270,690!

3rd 4th

Gross | Gross

307,139]



Ist Quarter 2nd z

2n 3rd 4th

a



E

Total Worldof

tons

1914

Ist Quarter

British | Foreign

187,234) 494,373

307,681]

592,039

541,780] 1,159,343

QII, 840] 707,533] 1,619,373 1,361,870) 875,064] 2,236,934

ee | 952,938]

541,535] 1,494,473

782,889]

489,954) 1,272,843

697,668)

445,668. 1,143,336

630,862] 331,145} 962,007 512,030| 403,483} 915,513 83,952! 93,582] __177,534

Totals 9,031,828 6,021,958 15,053,786 'This figure includes 210,653 gross tonnage interned in enemy ports. After Oct. 31 the tonnage lost by enemy action was: British 11,916, Foreign 2,159.

SHIPPING

454

New Construction.— Attention was at once given by the Shipping Controller to the need of construction, and a programme for standardized ships was laid down. The principle of standardization had already received practical recognition in June r916, when the Standard Shipbuilding Co., to operate at Chepstow on the river Wye, was formed. This company received very powerful support, the capital being subscribed by, among other companies, the P, & O. and British India, New Zealand Shipping,

Orient Steam Navigation, Federal Steam Navigation, Messrs. Furness, Withy & Co., the Shire Line, Messrs. A. Weir & Co., Messrs. Harris & Dixon, Messrs. Trinder, Anderson & Co., Messrs. Bethell, Gwyn & Co., and Messrs Birt, Potter & Hughes. Mr. James Caird, the head of Messrs. Turnbull, Martin & Co., was appointed chairman, and Mr. John Silley, managing director of R. & H. Green and Silley Weir, an old and famous shipbuilding firm, was appointed vice-chairman. In Aug, of that year this company acquired the engineering firm of Edward Finch & Co., Ltd., which had originally been formed to build Brunel’s Bridge over the river Wye. In this yard three building slips were pre-

pared, and at the beginning of 1916 two cargo steamers of 3,300 tons were being built there, in addition to a Jarge number of smaller vessels. The first four slips for building steamers of up to 10,000 tons in the Standard Co.’s new yard were also being prepared. Difficulties had to be overcome in the way of securing sufficient labour and part of the scheme provided for the construction of a garden city Early in 1917 much progress had been made with the provision of housing accommodation under licences from the Ministry of Munitions. These yards were subsequently taken over by the Government. A great deal of moncy was spent upon them.

Various diflicul-

ties arose, and the results of the work there were very disappointing. After the Armistice the great bulk of the property was sold to private interests.

On assuming office, Sir Joseph Maclay at once tackled the problem of shipbuilding, and appointed a committee to advise him on all matters connected with the acceleration of merchant ships under construction and nearing completion, and the general administration of a new merchant shipbuilding programme. This committee included Mr. (afterwards Sir) George J. Carter (of Messrs. Cammell, Laird & Co., Ltd.), president of the Shipbuilding Employers’ Federation, as chairman; Mr. (afterwards Sir) W. S. Abell, (chief surveyor to Lloyd’s Register of Shipping); Mr. (afterwards Sir) F. N. Henderson (of D. & W. Henderson &

Co., Ltd.); Mr. James Marr (of J. L. Thompson & Sons, Ltd.); Mr. Summers Hunter (of the North-Eastern Marine Engincering Co., Ltd.); Mr. (afterwards Sir) C. J. O. Sanders (of the Marine Department, Board of Trade); and Mr. (afterwards Sir) W. ~ Rowan Thomson (of Messrs. D. Rowan & Co., Ltd., president

of the North-West (Clyde) Engineering Trades’ Employers’ Association); Mr. A. R. Duncan, secretary to the Shipbuilding Employers’ Federation, who, as Sir Andrew Duncan was later appointed Coal Controller, was secretary to the new committee.

The last word in merchant shipbuilding then rested with the Admiralty, on the ground that it was necessary for the naval authorities to determine what proportion of labour and material should be allotted to naval and merchant construction respectively. These proportions were dependent on the view held as to whether it was better to concentrate on the building of destroyers and other craft for the destruction of enemy submarines and for the protection of merchant vessels, or to build merchant ships. There was a great deal to be said for the theory that it was better to prevent ships being sunk than to build vessels to replace those _ destroyed. In May 1917 Sir Eric Geddes was appointed to the

post of Navy Controller, and shortly afterwards, Maj.-Gen. A. S, Collard, director of inland waterways and docks, in the department of the director-gencral of movements and railways, was appointed deputy controller for auxiliary shipbuilding. The latter term was used to cover all merchant vessels.

In July 1917,

Sir Edward Carson was succeeded as First Lord of the Admiralty by Sir Eric Geddes, and Mr. (afterwards Sir) Alan Anderson becamt Navy Controller. The problem of merchant shipbuilding

was at this time acute.

The British shipping destroyed by the

enemy in ror6 represented 1,498,000 tons, or nearly three times the production in British yards. This had fallen from the very poor total of 650,000 tons in 191§ to $41,000 tons in 1916, The peak in British shipbuilding had been reached in 1913, when 2,280,000 tons gross had been built, consisting of 1,920,000 tons of merchant vessels and 320,000 of warship tonnage calculated on

a converted basis. It was to repeat such a production that the authorities at last aimed, the difficulties being enormously increased by the fact that large numbers of skilled men had been withdrawn from the shipbuilding industry for the fighting forces. The military authorities agreed to release such skilled men as could be spared, but as these were scattered over the various theatres of war, their return was very slow.

When responsibility for mercantile shipbuilding was transferred from the Ministry of Shipping to the Admiralty, some little friction arose between the new authorities responsible and the old Advisory Committee to the Shipping Controller, and in

the autumn of 1918 a Shipbuilding Council to the Navy Controller was created, consisting of the members of the old Committee and advisers from the Admiralty. The position continued in some respects unsatisfactory, and in the spring of r918, after an

agitation fora more energetic merchant shipbuilding programme, Lord Pirrie was appointed Director-General of Merchant Shipbuilding, the official appointment being announced in the House of Commons on March 20 1918. He was regarded as the outstanding figure in British shipbuilding, and he was able to infuse energy into the shipbuilding programme. Once of his first efforts was very greatly to improve the organization for the repair of

damaged ships. Many vessels, after being torpedoed, managed to imp into ports, some of which, notably Falmouth, became

seriously congested.

A system of close and centralized control

of the repairing facilities was organized, and much was done to make the damaged ships soon available again for service. The assistance of the United States in merchant construction had

been earnestly invited. That country threw itself into the effort with immense fervour, and the height of the shipbuilding campaign was reached there in the summer of 1918. In June 1918, as responsibility for merchant shipbuilding now rested with the

Department of the Controller-General, Sir Alan Anderson resigned from the position of Navy Controller. After the Armistice the responsibility for the completion of the merchant shipbuilding programme was transferred again to Sir Joseph Maclay, the Shipping Controller. Financial results of the shipbuilding programme were described in the House of Commons on March 12 1921, by Col.

Leslie Wilson, parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Shipping. Colonel Wilson stated that the total cost of 228 ships built in the United Kingdom for the Government was £36,481,ooo, and that the ships were subsequently sold for £47,591,000,

showing a total profit of {11,110,000. An agreement was entered into with the Government by Lord Inchcape, who undertook to distribute the ships to those British owners who desired them, in proportion to their losses. The agreement was made on the basis that no profit should accrue to him through the transaction. Outside the United Kingdom there were built for the British

Government 122 ships, the vessels being built at much higher prices than those paid for the vessels constructed in the United Kingdom. The total cost of these vessels was £26,884,000, and the selling price was {18,289,000, showing a Joss on the ships built abroad of £8,s95.000.

The net profit on 378 ships built and

sold, excluding any allowance for depreciation, was £2,515,000. Colonel Wilson maintained that the Government would have been fully justified in taking depreciation into account, and,

allowing 5% depreciation on 311 ships which were being worked, there would have been a net profit not of £2,515,000, but of f£5,122,000. Again, but for the new ships it would have been necessary for the Government to try to charter neutral vessels, for which high rates of freight would have had to be paid. This would, it was estimated, have involved an additional expenditure of £27,000,000. There was no question that the Government acted wisely, at any rate from the financial point of view, in dis-

posing of the ships when it did. They were offered to the ship-

455

SHIPPING ping industry at a time when freights were still high, and so substantial prices were bid. A very different situation existed when the ex-German ships allotted to this country were offered to British shipowners, again through the medium of Lord Inch-

cape. Severe depression had, by then, fallen on the shipping industry, and the absorption of the ships, many of which were not of attractive type fo British owners, was a very slow matter.

tania.” At first she was employed in the ordinary trans-Atlantic

service, where her speed was of great importance in view of possible attacks by German cruisers. In June 1915 she flew the White Ensign, conveying troops to Mudros for the Gallipoli campaign. Four months later she became a hospital ship. In Dec. 1916 she again became a troopship and brought Canadian troops to this country. Early in 1918 she became an armed cruiser, but was

Replying to a question in the House of Commons on May 24 1921, Sir Robert Horne, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, stated

soon engaged in bringing American troops to Europe.

that 202 ex-enemy ships allotted to the British Empire for final

it necessary for them to cross the Atlantic. Fine service was also rendered by the Cunard liner “ Aquitania,” of 45,600 tons. Only

ownership had been sold, and that 85 merchant ships and 22 trawlers remained unsold. The gross amount realized was £14,523,074. From this gross total there fcH to be deducted expenses of repair, delivery, etc., and a considerable part of the purchase money was payable in instalments over a period of

years. War British services vessels,

The net cash then passing was {6,500,000. Services of the Mercantile Muarine-—All the classes of ships which form a great mercantile marine rendered of immense value to the Allies during the war. Merchant in comparison with warships, were once described as

being mere cockleshells, yet their crews faced the hidden dangers of mine and torpedo without flinching. The persistent reduction of the British mercantile marine which proceeded was a matter of extreme gravity to the Allies, Experience showed that the

She also

carried many distinguished passengers whose urgent duties made

three round voyages between Liverpool and New York had been made by this great ship before the war. At once she was requisitioned by the Admiralty and was commissioned as a merchant cruiser, Jeaving Liverpool in this capacity four days after the outbreak

of war.

She became a transport later and carried

30,000 troops to the Dardanelles; then she became a hospital ship and as such carried 25,000 men. Early in 1918 she was re-. fitted as a transport, and in nine voyages carried 60,000 American troops. The liner was extremely useful in repatriating troops after the Armistice, and in the spring of 1921, in the middle of the

shipping depression, had the reputation of being the only ship afloat that was carning any money. Besides carrying large numbers of saloon passengers, she was eminently fitted for the

losses of the large and fast liners were, in every way, more for-

transport of emigrants, of whom she carried enormous numbers

midable than those of the ordinary cargo vessels. When at last the United Kingdom, enthusiastically supported by the United

from the Continent,

States, bent energies on the construction of merchant vessels, it was the simple cargo steamers that were built. In both countries

war, distinguished herself by sinking the German

the plan of building simple vessels of standard type was adopted. Everything that was complicated was ruled out. Straight lines were substituted for curves, and parts were produced in great numbers, so that identical ships could be built rapidly. In the United States the principle of standard construction was carried further than in England. There, steel works, which had never undertaken shipbuilding work before, produced shapes and angles for ships, and the assembling of the parts was carned out by bridge builders and other steel workers who had had no previous experience of shipbuilding. In England fabrication on somewhat similar lines was planned in connexion with the new

The “Carmania,” well known

as a Cunard liner before the

merchant

cruiser “Cap Trafalgar’ in a duel. The “Laconia,” another Cunard liner, shared in the operations in the Rufiji river, East Africa, when the German cruiser “Königsberg?” was sunk. Besides the ‘Lusitania,’ the Cunard Co. lost the following vessels:—the “Caria,” “Veria” (1915), “Franconia,” “Alaunia” (1916),

“Tvernia,”

“Lycia,”

“Folia,”

“Trachia,”

“Feltria,”

“Ukonia,” “Volodia,” “Vinovia” (1917), “Andania,” “Valeria,” “Aurania,?

“Ansonia,”

and “Ascania”

(1918).

“Vandalia,”

“Carpathia,”

“Flavia”

These represented extremely serious

losses, and after the Armistice the company put in hand an ex-

tensive programme of construction.

Unfortunately the cost of

building was then on a very high level.

shipyards on the river Wye, of which control was assumed by

Losses of the White Star Line were also serious and included,

the Government, but these plans did not begin to show their full

besides the “Britannic,” the Oceanic,” “Arabic,” ‘Laurentic,” “Cymric,” “Alric,” “Georgic,” “Cedric” and “Delphic.” Shortly after the outbreak of war, the “Oceanic,” “Teutonic,” “Cedric,” “Celtic?” and “Laurentic? were commissioned as armed cruisers. The “Laurentic” was sunk by submarine off the coast of Ireland in Jan. 1917, while carrying gold, of which a substantial proportion was recovered in salvage operations after the Armistice. The “Teutonic,” built in 188ọ, and one of the most

effect until the conclusion of the war made such longer necessary. While, in a case of emergency, could be established for building cargo vessels in mass like Ford motor-cars, there was no similar way of

methods no a good case production, building the

large liners. In the height of the crisis and, indeed, throughout the war, the building of such vessels yielded place to the need for carriers of food and munitions. Yet the duties devolving on the liners steadily increased. At first a comparatively small number were requisitioned to serve as merchant cruiscrs, patrol vessels,

hospital ships, and transports. The Dardanelles campaign made heavy demands on this type of vessel, and, later, the Salonika expedition.

The climax was reached when, in the spring, summer

and autumn of 1918 every possible ship that could be provided was needed to transport American troops. Liners were withdrawn from every British service and vessels never intended for

such work were put into the N. Atlantic route. It was indeed fortunate for the nation that a large mercantile marine was in existence at the outbreak of war, and the magnificent services of some of the greatest ships will be always remembered. Of all the crimes committed by Germany at sea, the destruction of the “Lusitania” on May 7 1915 remains the outstanding cxample. The liner was torpedoed near the Old Head of Kinsale, when 1,195 persons were drowned, including 2901 women and 9

children. Represented in tonnage alone this loss was exceeded by the “Britannic,” sunk in the Aegean Sea on Nov. 21 1916, by submarine or mine, while employed as a hospital ship. The “Britannic,” uncompleted on the outbreak of war, was of 48,158 tons and was the largest White Star liner. The ‘Lusitania,” built in 1907, was of 31,550 tons.

Splendid service was performed by the sister ship “Maure-

famous of the White Star liners, was subsequently acquired by the Government and was later publicly offered for sale. Services

of immense value were rendered by the “Olympic” of 46,439 tons. She was employed in carrying troops to Gallipoli and in bringing, first, Canadian troops, then Chinese labour battalions, and, finally, American troops to Europe, Her war record included that of transporting more than 200,000 persons during the period, including the wives and families of Canadian soldiers returning to Canada after the war. Among her special services were the rescuc of the company of the super-dreadnought battleship ‘ Audacious,” sunk by a mine off the N. coast of Ireland, and the ramming of a large German submarine in the English Channelin May r918. Several of the ships of the allied company, the Atlantic Transport Co., were employed in the transport of troops. 'Fhese included the liners “ Minneapolis,” “ Minnesota,” “ Minnewaska,” “Minnetonka,”

“Marquette,”

“Manitou,”

“Menominee,”

“ Missouri’? and ‘‘ Maryland.” Besides carrying troops, the vessels of the Atlantic Transport Co. carried large numbers of horses and mules, for which service the vessels were especially suitable.

The losses of the line, representing 24,100 tons, or 43% of the flect, included all the regular passenger liners which were most favourably known in the trade between London and New York,

cg =I i

456

SHIPPING

Liners of the Canadian Pacific Ocean Services were employed

(renamed “ St. Margaret of Scotland”).

Many vessels of the

as merchant cruisers and transports. At once the “ Alsatian,” “ Victorian ” and “Virginian ” were requisitioned and placed in the roth Cruiser Squadron which was responsible for a share of the blockade of Germany. The “ Calgarian ” was sunk on March ï 1918 when proceeding in charge of a convoy of 30 ships. The total number of vessels lost by the P. & O. Co. and its allied lines was 81, representing 491,600 tons, whiJe 14 vessels of

fleets were sunk, including the large liners “ Amazon,” “ Drina,” and ‘‘ Merionethshire.” No fewer than six of the Union-Castle liners were torpedoed or mined while serving as hospital ships, namely, the ‘‘ Galeka,” “ Braemar Castle,” ‘ Dover Castle,” “‘ Glenart Castle” (twice), “Gloucester Castle,’ and ‘Llandovery Castle.” While based on Southampton the hospital ships of the company carricd

76,600 tons were lost through marine causes.

331,000

One of the most

British wounded

officers and men

to port and also

heroic actions of war at sea was fought between the “Otaki” of the associated New Zealand Shipping Co. (whose commander,

landed 8,200 enemy wounded.

Lt. Archibald Bisset Smith, received a posthumous award of the V.C.) and the disguised heavily armed German cruiser “ Moewe.”

Castle”? were commissioned as armed merchant cruisers, The company’s vessels also carried very large numbers of troops. It

After the “Otaki” had suffered several casualties and much damage had been done to the hull which was heavily on fire, Lt. Smith ordered the boats to be launched in order that the crew might be rescued. He remained on the ship and went down with

was

. her when the vessel sank with colours flying. The Orient Co.’s liners “Otranto,” “Orama” and “Otway” were carly commissioned as armed cruisers and, at the beginning

of 1915, the “ Orvieto” and “ Ophir ” were likewise commissioned. Subsequently the “ Ophir” was bought by the Government. Other vessels of the line were employed as transports. ‘The “Otranto” was lost by collision on Oct. 6 1918. Heavy losses were suffered by the various companies controlled by Sir John Ellerman. In all, 103 ocean vessels, with a total cargo capacity of 600,000 to 750,000 tons, were destroyed. ‘These included the liner “City of Athens” mined off Cape Town in Aug. 1917. The “City of Winchester” was the first merchant vessel to be destroyed during the war, being captured by the German

cruiser “ Königsberg,”

while homeward

bound

from

India with a very valuable cargo of produce. Another liner belonging to the Ellerman fleets was mined far from Europe. The “ City of Exeter,” a fine passenger ship, struck a mine in the Indian Ocean, about 400 m. from Bombay. Number t hold filled at once, and the master gave orders for the passengers and crew to leave the ship. Then the master and chief engineer returned and, at grave risk, made a thorough examination of the ship.

They decided that, with the exercise of the greatest care, the crippled vessel could reach Bombay under her own steam. The passengers reémbarked and the vessel safely arrived in port. This was only one example of fine seamanship, of which thcre were many hundreds of magnificent cases during the war. When the enemy’s submarine campaign became intensified not a voyage through infested waters could have been completed without the exercise of courage of the highest order, and repeatedly the seamanship and endurance of the officers and crews were put to the severest test. There were lurking dangers for the ancient little collier which had to feel her way up and down the North Sea, her one protection being a little gun—slhight armament against a powerfully armed submarine; for the great Lners which proceeded without escort and relied on their speed, their own guns, their ‘dazzle painting,” and their zig-zag courses to baffle the efforts of the enemy to sink them with, perhaps, several thousand troops on board; and for the slower cargo vessels which, in convoy

formation, when thick weather obscured the other ships, ran the very serious risk of collision. Vessels of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. had the distinction of being the first among the British liners to be fitted before the war for carrying a gun for defensive purposes. This was in accordance with the policy initiated, before the war, by Mr.

Winston Churchill when First Lord of the Admiralty.

Royal

Mail vessels were largely employed as armed cruisers, transports and hospital ships. As armed cruisers there were commissioned the “ Andes,” “ Arlanza,” “ Almanzora,” “Avon,” (“Avoca”), “Ebro” and“ Alcantara.” The last named, only lightly armed,

fought the disguised German raider “ Greif ” for 20 minutes in the North Sea, and sank with colours flying just before her enemy went to the bottom. The “Asturias” was torpedoed while bearing all the marks of a hospital ship. Other ships of the line which

bore the Red Cross were the “ Araguaya,”

“Edinburgh

Castle,”

not surprising

The liners “ Armadale Castle,”

‘Kinfauns

Castle,”

and

that, after the Armistice,

“Kildonan

many

months

elapsed before a sufficient number of vessels could be again placed in the ordinary S. African passenger service to provide weekly sailings. Recognition of the services of British shipping during the war was made by the King and his ministers in various speeches. Speaking at the Guildhall on July 29 1919, the King declared that the splendid services of the officers and men of the British mercantile marine had been vital to the successful issue of the

war.

From day to day these men had been facing death no less

than the soldiers in the fighting line, and, even when the sub-

marine menace was at its height, no single British crew ever refused to sail. Tle urged the re-creation of the merchant navy and the development of the ports as essential if the United Kingdom was to regain its old supremacy. Men of the mercantile marine marched in the procession of the Allied and Associated Forces through the streets of London on July 19, rọrọ. There was also a special pageant of the Sea Services on Aug. Bank Holiday 191g. ‘This took the form of a procession of lifeboats, bearing the House flags of all the shipping companies, from the Pool of London to Chelsea. The procession

was headed by a launch {lying the flag of the Port of London Authority, followed by a steam vessel of Trinity House, with the Duke of Connaught, as Master, on board. Then came a

picket boat with a naval officer in charge as escort to the Royal barge. In this were the King and Queen, Queen Alexandra, the Prince of Wales, Prince Albert (afterwards Duke of York) and other members of the Royal Family.

Following this was a speci-

ally prepared barge bearing the Lords of the Admiralty and iben the Lord Mayor, as admiral of the Port of London, in the barge of the commander-in-chief at the Nore. These were followed by launches of the Ministry of Shipping, the Customs

and Excise, Lloyd’s and the Thames Conservancy. A dozen twelve-oared naval cutters, four picket boats and an armed motor-launch of the navy, models of naval guns, motor and steam lifeboats, a motor-launch carrying Trinity Housc pilots,

steam-boats of the Mercantile Marine Association from the training ships, fishermen’s motor drifters, representing the Missions to Seamen. The rear was by 70 lifeboats towed by tugs bearing the flags of shipping ownerships.

and boats and vessels brought up the various

Bands were placed along the line of route

and famous old sea songs were sung. Such a commemoration was unprecedented, but then the services of the mercantile marine during the war were likewise unique. The Commonwealth Government Line.—In the summer of 1916

a development occurred of great importance to shipping. For some time Australia had been seriously disturbed about the difficulties encountered in arranging for her exportable surplus of wheat, a matter of vital importance to the Commonwealth. With the ever-diminishing supply of tonnage, British vessels had naturally been directed more and more into the N. Atlantic, since it was obviously much quicker to bring wheat to the United Kingdom—less than 3,000 m. across the ocean—than more than

12,000 miles. Mr. W. M. Hughes, the Prime Minister of Australia, arrived in the United Kingdom in March 1916, but he got little satisfaction from the Imperial authorities on the shipping question. He sailed for home in June and, when he was on the

“ Drina,” | water, the announcement

was made that he had bought, on

“ Essequibo,” “ Tagus,” “Agadir,” “ Berbice” and “ Balantia ” ; account of the Commonwealth

Government,

r5 second-hand

SHIPPING

457

cargo vessels. The steamers had an average dead-weight carrying

Kingdom the Cunard Co. acted as managers for the line. The

capacity of between 7,000 and 8,000 tons, and 10 of them were

usual practice in making these arrangements with the shipping

taken from Messrs. Burrell’s Strath line. For the larger vessels the price worked out at about {19 a ton. This was, perhaps, from four to five times greater than the pre-war price, but as events occurred, the purchase proved a profitable one, financially, for Australia. One effect was that the vessels were removed Irom the United Kingdom Register and were no longer subject to excess profit taxation. This action of Mr. Hughes hardly com-

companies was for the Canadian National railways to represent the steamship companies in Canada, and for the agents of the shipping companics abroad to act similarly for the railways. This policy of working in conjunction with the shipping companies disarmed criticism, which was very strong in the case of the Australian scheme.

mended itself to any of the shipping authorities in the United Kingdom, but he had shown unmistakably that full recognition

and fusion schemes took place between

had to be given to the Australian viewpoint.

In the autumn of

that year the President of the Board of Trade announced that a large purchase had been made of Australian wheat on behalf of the Imperial Government, and that a number of steamers had been requisitioned to proceed to load the wheat in Australia. As the supply of available shipping became steadily less, it „proved impracticable to transport all the wheat bought, and

immense quantities were stored in Australia until after the conclusion of the war. The purchase of the 15 cargo vessels represented the foundation of a Commonwealth Government line. Being free from taxation and with freights ruling high, large profits were earned, which made the venture temporarily, at any rate, profitable to the Australian people. A number of German steamers seized in Australia were added to the fleet and, later, ships were built

both in Australia and the United Kingdom. In rọrọ Mr. W. M. Hughes, on a visit to the United Kingdom, placed contracts for five large steamers with leading builders. These were designed for carrying a large amount of refrigerated cargo, and some hundreds of third-class passengers. Limited accommodation was to be provided for a few passengers in the saloon, The first of these steamers, the “ Moreton Bay,” of 14,500 tons gross, was launched from Messrs. Vickers’s shipyard at Barrow on

April 23 1921. It was then asserted that the four other vessels would be in the water during the ensuing few months, and that all the vessels would be in service before the end of 1921. Between

the time of the placing of the contracts in 1919 and the time of launching, the cost of ship construction had risen very seriously. All work was done on the “ time and lime” principle, by which the owners paid for the cost of materials, the cost of labour, an

allowance for overhead charges, and a sum, cither as a fixed amount or as a percentage on the outlay, as profit to the builders. The ships were thus understood to have cost considerably more than had been expected, and with freights falling, the problem of making the vessels pay their way was enhanced. A wooden ship programme carricd out for Australia in the United States was hardly successful financially. The building of wooden vessels, of which large numbers were constructed. for the American mercantile marine, could only be regarded as an emergency measure. The inauguration of the Commonwealth line aroused much criticism from shipping managers, who cordially dishked the idea of a State enterprise. They maintained, and could do so justifiably, that a State enterprise could be carried on without the same consideration for profit and loss as a public company, if, for instance, a Government chose to carry merchandise at below cost price. The Canadian Merchant Marine.—Canada instituted a line of Government steamers. It found itself after the Armistice with a great fleet of vesscls which had been built in the period of emergency. Instead of offering them to the shipping industry, it decided to operate them on account of the nation.

A corpora-

tion was formed, entitled the Canadian Government Merchant Marine, Ltd., in close conjunction with the Canadian National railways. The policy of the management was to institute new services and to work in coöperation with the existing lines,

rather than to compete with them. New services were established to and from the United Kingdom and many parts of the world. In 1920 an agreement was entered into with Messrs. Alfred Holt & Co. for a joint trans-Pacific service to and from Vancouver, and with the British India Co. for a service between

Amalgamation and Fusion Schemes.—Numerous amalgamations 1910 and 1921.

Sir Owen

Philipps, who at the beginning of 1910 was chairman of the Royal. Mail Steam Packet Co., was particularly active in the policy of

fusion,

In that year the capital was acquired of the Pacific Steam

Navigation Co., which was mainly interested in the trade with the E. and W. coasts of S. America. In the same year a fusion agreement was entered into with Elder, Dempster & Co., Ltd., which owed its

development largely to the genius of the late Sir Alfred Jones. In Ig1I, the capital was acquired of Lamport & Holt, Ltd., largely concerned in the trade between the United Kingdom and also the

United States and S. America, and in the same year an agreement

was entered into with the Glen Line, Ltd., which is concerned in Far Eastern trade. Incidentally, the Glen Line is notable among British ownerships for its policy of building motor-ships, which 1s known to have been very successful. In 1912 the capital of the UnionCastle Co. was acquired by the Royal Mail Co. and the Elder Dempster Co. This, perhaps, was the most important of the fusion

agreements which Sir Owen Philippseffected.

The Union-Castle Co.,

a consolidation of the old Union and Castle companies in the S. African trade, had been feeling the loss of a greatchief in the death of Sir Donald Currie, to whose extraordinary powers the line owed very much. In 1913 control was secured of the Nelson Lines, Ltd., which was and is engaged in the carriage of meat to the United King-

dom from Argentina, together with participation in the passenger

trade. In 1917 an interest was acquired in MacAndrews & Co., Ltd., concerned in trade with the Peninsula; in the Coast Lines, Ltd., a consolidation of coasting companies trading round the United Kingdom; and in the Moss Line, Ltd.

In 1919 an interest was se-

cured in the old-established ownership of David Maclver & Co., Ltd., in Messrs. Bullard, King & Co., Ltd., and in Messrs. J. & P. Hutchinson, Ltd. While Sir Owen Philipps thus had enormous interests

in British shipping, Lord Inchcape was also tothe forefront in effecting fusion schemes.

i

At the end of 1914, Sir Thomas Sutherland retired from the posi-

tions of chairman and managing director of the P. & O. Company. For 42 years he had occupied the office of managing director and for

34 years that of chairman. The expansion of the P. & O. Co. will always be associated with his name. His last important act was to effect an amalgamation with the British India Co., of which Lord Inchcape was managing director. On the retirement of Sir Thomas Sutherland, Lord Inchcape became chairman and managing director

of the P, & O. Company.

In June 1916, the P. & O. Co. acquired an interest in the New Zealand Shipping Co., which, in turn, controlled the Federal Line trading with Australia. Exactly a year later, in June 1917, a representative interest was secured in the Union Steamship Co. of New Zealand, which not only provided various coasting services in New Zealand, but also maintained services with Australia, British Columbia, and India. In the autumn of 1917 shares were secured in the Hain & Mercantile Steamship Co., and also in the Nourse Line,

each of which possessed a considerable amount of cargo tonnage.

The fleets of these three companies, together, included 107 steamers of 370,000 tons gross.

Other notable fusions of the war period included the acquisition of a controlling interest in the Prince Line, Ltd., which had been associated with the name of its founder Mr. James Knott. This acquisition, which was effected in Aug. 1916, involved the addition of 37 steamers, mainly cargo vessels, to those controlled by Messrs. Furness, Withy. In Oct. 1916, Sir John Ellerman, chief of the Ellerman Lines, acquired all the shares of Messrs. Thomas Wilson, Sons & Co., Ltd., the Wilson fleet including nearly 80 vessels of about 200,000 tons. Its services were based on Hull. At almost the same time an agree-

ment was concluded between the Anchor Line (Henderson Bros., Ltd.) and the Donaldson Line, Ltd., for a fusion, under the title of the Anchor-Donaldson Line, with Sir Alfred Booth, chairman of the Cunard Co., as chief of the new formation. The agreement meant that the Cunard Co. secured control of the Donaldson Line, for it already had a controlling interest in the Anchor Line. Shipowners’ Associations. —Important work was done by the Liverpool Steamship Owners’ Association, especially through the war

period.

It acted on the principles upon which it was founded in

1848. These were, broadly, that the growth and prosperit of the British mercantile marine is dependent on the enterprise, skill and ability of the individuals directly concerned, and that neither State

control nor State aid can prove an effective substitute for these

qualities. The Association has not sought to interfere with the indi-

opposed Montreal and Indian ports, via the Suez Canal. In the United ‘ vidual freedom of its members, It has, however, consistently

SHIPPING

458

all measures calculated either to transfer the control of the country’s shipping to official hands, or to hamper its devclopment by rigid rules and standards.

owner is to secure the safety of the lives and property entrusted to his care, but it has maintained that the individual shipowner, as long as he is discharging that duty, is entitled to carry on his business in the manner which will attajn the best results. The Association had much to do, particularly through the work of its secretary, Sir Norman Hill, with the establishment of the War Risks Insurance Scheme. Throughout the war period it consistently worked with the object of getting the maximum

number of voyages

made and the maximum number of cargoes carried. It codperated with the Government authorities when control of shipping was obviously necessary,

and when the great emergency had passed, it

pressed for freedom for the shipping industry. A marked development has taken place in recent years in the organization of London shipowners through an extension of the activities of the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom. Rather curiously, the formation of the Chamber in Feb. 1878, was

distinguished by the appointment of a Hull shipowner as president. This member was Mr. Henry John Atkinson. The Chamber was composed of local shipowning associations in various ports and of most of the Protection and Indemnity

in London.

Clubs, with a central office

Its primary objects were to discuss questions affecting

shippinz: to disseminate information, from time to time, on matters

concerning

the industry, and to secure the advantages of united

action, especially in communications with the Government and va-

rious bodies. The Chamber did useful work for many years under its

original constitution, but the events of the war showed the need for a more effective organization that would include all classes of shipping.

Largely due to the enterprise of Sir Kenneth

Anderson,

the

president of the Chamber in 1915, the reconstruction of the Chamber was carried out. Sir Kenneth Anderson was succeeded as chairman in 1916 by Sir Wilham Raeburn, who held the office for three years assisted by Mr. J. Herbert Scrutton as vice-president. During the years 1916-7 new life was put into the Chamber, and much was dong

to keep the public informed on matters affecting the shipping industry. Until the reconstruction, the Chamber was fairly representative of the ordinary cargo steamship owners, but the great passenger and cargo steamship companies had not actively been identified with its work, In 1917 a number of highly important steamship companies joined the Chamber, including the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Co., the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., and the Union-Castle Mail Steamship Company. The finances were put on a sound basis, enabling the necessary cost of maintaining the work to be secured on the plan of a levy on the tonnage. New offices were taken, and Mr. H. M. Clominson,a leading shipping lawyer and member of the frm of Messrs, Botterell & Roche, was appointed general manager.

Sir Willam

Raeburn, who was elected president

in 1916, held othee for two years and was succeeded as president by

Lord Inchcape in 1918, who also held the position for two years. In 1920 Mr. W. J. Noble was clected president. He was succeeded by Sir Owen Philippsin 1921, with Sic Frederick Lewis as vice-president. The constituents of the Chamber at the beginning of 1921 consisted of 19 local and special associations, ‘such as those at Belfast, Swansea, on the N.E. coast and Glasgow;

TI Protection

and

ln-

demnity Clubs, 7 Freight, Demurrage and Defence Clubs and ship-

owners entering their tonnage direct, of which early in 1921 there Was 5,430,800 tons. The aggrecate amount of tonnage entered under the heading of Protection and

Indemnity Clubs represented

6.364.300 tons. Membership of these clubs is open to any shipowner possessing a seaworthy vessel who wishes to cover himself against third-party risks. Only British owners are cligible for membership of the Chamber. Unal rorg the Chamber was not incorporated, but in that year jt obtained the grant of a Royal Charter. The business of the Cae is conducted by a council of shipowners who are nominated by the various constituents, Incorporated in the Chamber is the Documentary Committee, which examines and approves forms of charter between shipowners and merchants.

Stalistics.—]n the 1919-20 edition of Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the figures for the mercantile marines of the principal maritime

countries before and alter the war were set out. These figures were so important and authoritative that they are piven in the table following. Outstanding facts were the decrease of 2,547,000 tons in the

shipping owned by the United Kingdom, the gain of 7,746,000 tons

to the seagoing merchant

marine of the United States, the loss of

1,888,000 tons by Germany, and the gain of 617,000 tons to Japan. In this edition the Register went further than setting out the actual figures of gains and losses. It attempted to estimate the position of the world’s tonnage as tt would have been if there had been no war.

There were obvious difficulties in the way of arriving at a definite conclusion in the case of various countries, for many factors had to be taken into account, but a careful estimate was prepared on the following assumptions. These were: (1) it was reasonable to expect that the percentage of addition to the world’s tonnage would have

continued at the ratio (a decreasing one} recorded during the previous

15 pre-war years, and that the percentage of the United Kingdom tonnage to the world's tonnage would show, approximately, the same

Steam Tonnage of Principal Countries, 1914, 1010.

Jt has recognized that the first duty of the ship-

ratio of decrease

recorded during the most

recent of these

years; (2} countries in which there had been a large addition of

Country

June 1914 Thousand

June 1919 Thousand

tons gross

tons gross

18,592

16,345

1,632

1,503

United Kingdom British Dominions America (United States):

Seagoing . x Great Lakes

Denmark

tons

cent

2,027

+7,746

1,052



339 139

+382-1 — 44 — 322 18-1 21 36:8

2,260

Austria-Hungary :

Difference Thous'd Per

—2,547 | = 135 231} + Igi

+



100

77



France.

1,922

+

Germany

5,135

— 1,883

Greece. Holland Italy

:

Japan,



530 102

1,430



192

1,708

Norway , Spain ie Sweden Öther Countries Grand total Tota) abroad

40

821 1,472

32

1,957 884 1,015 2,427 45404 26,512

64:6 6-9 134

+ ~

+2.493 +5,040

tonnage during the previous quinquennial period might be expected to show a reduction in the ratio of increase, and, asa rule, the larger the previous increase the larger would such reduction be; (3) allow-

ances were made in the special cases of countries where pre-war conditions pointed to the acquisition of tonnage, in the near future, at a higher ratio than that recorded during the previous period. The net result of the calculations made was to show that the British mercantile marine had suffered a loss of 5,202,000 tons, and foreign mercantile marines, with the exception of the United States of America, a loss of 9,000,000 tons, making a total loss to the world of 14,202,000 tons.

Asa partial set-off to these losses, the United States

gained 6,729,000 tons, so that the net world’s loss expressed in gross tonnage, Was 7,473,000 tons. Germany's loss was set out a8 3,582,000 tons, but it was explained that her losses were actually greater, since vessels which at the date of the Armistice had not been captured or

requisitioned by other countries were included in her mercantile marine. Excluding enemy countries, the greatest sufferers after the United Kingdom were Norway, whose losses were estimated at 1,025,000 tons; Italy, which sutfered a diminution of 677,000 tons; and France with an estimated loss of 536,000 tons.

In these calculations the question of the comparative efficiencies

of the pre-war and post-war merchant fleets was nat taken into account. The Register pointed out that, apart from additions to the merchant fleets of the world before the war, replacements of steam tonnage lost, broken up, etc., amounted cach year to about 14%

of the total tonnage owned, while during the war it required new tonnage equivalent to 33% of the steam

tonnage owned

In 1914 to

replace the Josses. There 1s no doubt that a large amount of the tonnage afloat at the end of the war represented shipping which, in ordinary conditions, would have been broken up and replaced by modern and more economical! vessels, Jow this factor affected the statistical position is indicated by the statement that in the three pre-war years 1911-3, nearly 2,000,000 tons of steamers were sold to foreign owners and replaced by better vessels, while during the three ycars 1916-8 probably less than 100,000 tons of steamers were sold in this way. Further, a large proportion of the shipping built during the war was, undoubtedly, not the equal in general efficiency

of that built in the few years immediately preceding. these

considerations

into account,

the

Register

Taking all

estimated

that,

through the war, the world had lost 8,500,000 tons gross of shipping,

representing a dead-weight carrying capacity of 12,500,000 tons. Within 12 months the position was very much chanved. The total tonnage of the world increased from 47,897,000 tons in June 1919 to 53,905,000 tons in June 1920, an increase of 6,008,000 tons. The loss suffered by the United Kingdom as at June 1919 of 2,547,000 tons had been reduced to a decrease of only 781,00010ns.

The United

States gain of 7,746,000 tons had been increased to one of 10,379,000 tons. Germany's loss had been increased by the surrender of tonnage, from 1,588,000 tons to 4,716,000 tons. Japan further increased her

gain of 617,000 tons to

1,288,000

tons.

Once

more

the Register

endeavoured to estimate what would have been the position of the world’s mercantile marines in 1920 if there had been no war. It found that the joss suffered by the United Kingdom was 2,920,000 tans; that of Germany 6,103,000 tons; and that of other countries a loss of 3,330,000 tons, making a total loss of 12,353,000 tons. As against this loss, the United States gained 8,837,000 tons, thus re-

ducing the world’s net loss to 3,516,000 tons. This estimate again did not take into account the question of the comparative efficiencies of the mercantile marines before and after the war. While such cat-

culations are of great interest, the fact remains that, as the result of the great shipbuilding effort during the war, the world's shipping was greater in June 1970 by 9,282,000 tons. This fgure was increased

further during the year. The president of the Chamber of Shipping

of the United Kingdom stated at the annual meeting held on Feb. 2§

SHIPPING 1921, that the world’s merchant

shipping since 1914 had been

actually increased by more than 10,000,000 tons. Unfortunately for the shipping industry, the world’s trade had not developed in propor-

tion. Owing to the complete breakdown of credit in some countries trade was practically at a standstill. An unprecedented step was taken by the Register in April 1921, when issuing its shipbuilding returns for the first quarter of the year. It issued with these returns a statement tothe effect that, asthe times

were not normal, the figures of tonnage reported to be under construction did not provide a true index of the relative position of the shipbuilding industry as compared with, say, 12 months previously. The total tonnage under construction in the United Kingdom at the end of March 1921 was given as 3,798,500 tons represented by 884 vessels. In ordinary times such an amount of work in hund would have indicated great activity and prosperity in the shipbuilding industry. It compared, for example, with 1,890,800 tons under construction at the end of March i914, showing an increase of 1,907,700 tons, and with 1,722,100 tons under construction at the end of June

1914, the last quarter completed before the outbreak of the war. But the amount of tonnage stated to be in course of construction at the end of March 1921 included a considerable amount on which work had been suspended, owing to the heavy fal! in shipping values consequent on the severe decline in freights and the corresponding decline in the demand for tonnage. The tonnage on which work had been suspended in this way amounted to 497,000 tons. There were also included in the total figures some 350,000 tons, the completion of which had been delayed owing to the cessation of work by ship joiners. To arrive at comparative figures, it was therefore necessary to deduct these two figures, amounting together to 847,000 tons, from the amount of tonnage described as being under construction. The total figures of tonnage on which work was actually proceeding at the end of March 1921 was thereby reduced to 2,951,500 Lons, showing an increase of 847,000 tons over March 1914. There would have been grounds for satisfaction in such an increase if the world’s commerce had been active. Unfortunately, enormous

numbers of the world’s inhabitants were taking no part in international commerce, and, further, there were immense numbers who were not producing goods or working at the same rate as before the war. Consequently the construction of so much tonnage, although the work was proceeding at a slow pace, could not be regarded with unmixed satisfaction. Cancellations of shipbuilding contracts by owners were common, and large sums were paid in order that owners might be relieved of their commitments. The surplus of ordinary cargo steamships was especially large. The losses of mail

and passenger liners during the war had not been made good, but the high cost of building tended to prevent replacements. As compared with the figures for the quarter ended Dec. 1920,

there was a reduction in the shipping launched during the first quarter of 1921 of 146,000 tons. The tonnage started during the quarter declined by 113,000 tons, while in the tonnage in preparation, but not actually commenced, there was a fall of 75°, as compared with the figures of the first quarter of 1920. Attention was called by Lloyd's Register both at the end of 1920 and in the be-

ginning of 1921 to the lower rate of construction as compared with pre-war times.

In 1913 the average amount of tonnage completed

during each quarter was over 23% of the total work in hand at the

beginning of the quarter, whereas the figures for 1920 fell below 13 %.

During the frst quarter of 1921 the output fell as low as 8% of that

under construction at the beginning of the year. The total amount of tonnage being built abroad was 3,288,100 tons—not quite so larce an amount as the tonnage deseribed as being under construction in the United Kingdom, but actually larger than that on which work was actively proceeding there. The Register pointed out that the returns for foreign countries, unlike those for the United Kingdom, were not subject to any material reduction on account of suspended or delayed work, of which there appeared to

be comparatively little in other countries.

The shipping being built

abroad was less by 183,000 tons than that under construction at the

enc of 1920. The decline was duc to the continued decrease in the United States of America, where the tonnage under construction was less by 27% than that building at the beginning of 1919. Apart from the United States, the countries in which the largest amount of shipbuilding was taking place were France, with 427,100 tons, an increase for the quarter of about 30,000 tons; Holland with 417,600 tons; vay with 351,600 tons; and Japan with 294,300 tons, an incrcase of 46,000 tons. The returns showed that there were then 187 steamers and motorships, each of over 1,000 tons, with a total of 1,320,100 tons, under construction for the carriage of oil in bulk. Of the total number, 84, of 557,000 tons, were under construction inthe United Kingdom, and 82, of 632,000 tons, in the United States. In the former the oiltank tonnage represented 57% of the total amount of construction. The tonnage of vessels under construction to be fitted with internal combustion engines amounted to 503,300 tons.

A highly unsatisfactory feature was the diversion of a large amount of British shipping from British to foreign shipyards for reconditioning. This was due toa refusal on the part of the ship joiners to accept the lower wages proposed by the employers and the consequent cessation of work by the ship joiners in the United Kinedom for many months. Large liners were diverted to Dutch and French ship re-

459

pairing works. The work of reconditioning was essential, and the stoppage by the ship joiners meant the loss of a large amount of work to the United Kingdom, which, it was to be feared, might have a

far-reaching effect on the British industry. Condition and Prospects —What might be described as a bird'sis afforded by the course of prices of a “ new, ready, 7,500-ton carro

eve view of the state of the shipping industry during 1910-21

steamer "' as recorded in the chart published by the weekly shipping journal Fairplay and described as “ Fairplay’s Curve.” This type

of vessel may be considered representative of ordinary cargo steamers. In 1910 the price of such a vessel was £37,000. Prices then rose sharply and by the end of 1911 a price of £47,000 was reached. A further rise took place in Igt2 to £58,000. That year, as has been shown, Was a prosperous one for shipping, and from the high point reached, values fell to £48,000 at the end of 1913. A further drop occurred in 1914 to £43,000, The great rise then began. By the end of Ig14 the price had advanced to £60,000, In 1915 prices more than doubled and £125,000 was reached. In 1916 there was a further advance to £188,000. The effect of the Excess Prohts duty was seen

in 1917 and values fell to £165,000. In 1918 there was a recovery to £181,000 and then a fall to £169,000. An extraordinary rise took place in 1919, the high price of £232,000 being reached. Early in 1920 there was a further upward movement. Then a great and steady fall began and by the end of the year the value of £105,000 had been reached.

In the first six months

of

I920, values

again

receded. On May 24 two new, ready steamers of 9,250 tons deadweight built by the Furness Shipbuilding Co. to Lloyd's highest class were sold for £85,000 each, representing rather more than fg aton. These ships were of the shelter-deck type, with the tonnage openings closed. Vessels of similar size with tonnage openings would carry only 8,300 tons dead-weight. and on that basis the prices bid for the two ships appear somewhat better. Another ship which was

of 5,500 tons dead-weizht and was built by Charles Nill & Sons, Ltd., of Bristol, was sold for £40,000, representing only rather more This particular ship had not been launched, and was not expected to be ready for sea for at least two months. The Chamber of Shipping estimated that at the beginning of 1921 there were laid upin the United Kingdom, the United States and Scandinavian ports, 5,000,000 tons dead-weight of shipping, or, approximately 3,000,000 gross. This amount of tonnage was made up of 2,250,000 tons in the United Kingdom, represented by 600 vessels, of 2,000,000 tons in the United States represented by 250 vesscls, and of 750,000 tons represented by 428 vessels in Seandinavian ports. In addition, many vessels were laid up in Spain, Italy, Japan and other countries, and in the early months of 1921, the amount of tonnage laid up throughout the world steadily increased.

than £7 a ton.

In 1920 there took place the greatest fall in freights that has ever been recorded. The extent of the drop is shown by the movement of the time charter rate, t.e. the monthly rate of hire for ordinary cargo steamers. When vessels are chartered in this way the owners

provide and pay the crews and pay for the stores. The charterers pay for the coal, since the amount consumed and the cost depend upon the trade into which the vessel is put. At the beginning of 1920

the usual time charter rate for carco steamers weight. By midsummer the rate had dropped less. By the end of the year the rate had fallen very little inquiry it fell further. By the end 1921 steamers were chartered at a rate of 6s.a

was 30s. a ton deadto zos. a ton or rather to ros. a ton, and with of the first quarter of ton. There were also

heavy falls in the voyage rates. As compared with maximum rates during the war for free British steamers bringing grain from Argentina of about 183s. a ton, the freight early in 1921 had fallen to about 355. Then, when the coal

stoppage occurred at the end of April, rates advanced, owing to the necessity of steamers proceeding from this country in ballast, and to the dithculty of securing bunkers. By the end of May, rates of about 57s. 6d. a ton were being quoted for vessels that were available for immediate loading. It was generally accepted in shipping circles that a freight of about 50s. was necessary to cover the cost of sending a vessel to S$. America in ballast and bringing her home with a cargo of grain. The fact that, before the war, cargoes of coal had always been available from the United Kingdom meant competition for the

homeward voyage and enabled freights to be restricted. The new conditions were distinctly scrious for the shipping industry.

Coal also represented a serious problem for the liner companies. Sir Owen Philipps, chairman of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., gave some figures respecting comparative costs at the annual meeting of the company in June 1921. He stated that in 1902 the average cost of all coal consumed by the company’s steamers in all ports served, including rail carriage and freight, was exactly 22s. a ton. In 1903, the average price had increased to 22s. 3d., while 10 years later, in 1913, the averave cost, including railage and freight, had increased to 22s. tid., which was then considered a very high average price. Jn 1920, the average cost per ton of all coal consumed by the company's steamers, including railage and freight, was 1208. 1d. Early in 1921 the price fell very considerably, largely owing to the supply of coal by Germany to France and Belgium, with a consequent falling off in the demand for British coal. Then when the

stoppage at the British collieries had been proceeding for some little time, and stocks were being exhausted, British shipping had to look to the Continent for supplies.

SHIPPING

460

The Cunard and White Star companies were in a favourable position as regards the great trans-Atlantic liners, ‘‘ Aquitania,’’ of

for vessels of less than five vears of age in the Panama Cana! Act of 1912, but had remained wholly futile up to the war of 1914, which suddenly gave exceptional value to the ilag of the ereatest neutral.

45,600 tons, and ‘ Olympic," of 46,300 tons, since these vessels had been adapted to the use of of} fuel in 1920. Oil fuel, after the war, increased in popularity, although some owners hesitated to commit themselves too much to it, owing to fears that supplies would not be

Pre-war

(C. Ma.)

rine, it had certainly not been from any lack of cargoes. Official

records

merce conveyed in American ships, for the five fiscal years ending 1

with their insular dependencies. The American people at no time in their history have been out of intimate touch with shipbuilding

Ships

Registered for

Year | Built. | Foreign

and navigation,

Trade

Unlike other nations the United States has steadily maintained commerce

Gross tons 1910 | 342,068

capable of holding its own with formidable railway competition. This coast wise commerce, including the trade with Alaska, Porto

Rico and Hawaii, by an unshaken national policy, has been reserved entirely to American vessels, and has had a significant bearing on the development of the American merchant marine. It is interesting to recall that in 1860, the year before the opening of the Civil War, the commercial fleet of the United States was

Enrolled or Licensed

for

Moe

Proporion f pi raue t ofl mports

i Nia ant | & Exports

| Coastwise | VATNE j Carried in | Ipade American | Ships |

Gross Gross Gross tons tons tons 782,517 | 6,665,966 | 7,508,082

| Per cent 8-7

I9IE | 291,162

863,495 | 6,720,313 | 7,638,790

8-7

232,669

923,225 | 6,737,046 | 7,714,183

9'4

346,155 | 1,019,165 | 6,816,980 | 7,886,518 316,250 | 1,066,288 | 5,818,363 | 7,928,088

8-9 8-6

These records Indicate a condition of virtual stagnation in the American merchant marine during the period immediately before

divided almost equally between 2,379,396 gross tons registered for foreign commerce and 2,644,867 tons enrolled or licensed for coastwise carrying. In 1866, the year after the close of the

the World War.

New construction was only slightly in excess

year after year of tonnage lost or worn out and abandoned.

Civil War, the registered foreign trade flect, as a result of the war, had fallen off to 1,387,756 gross tons—a decrease of almost a million tons—while the coastwise fleet had increased to 3,381,522 tons. This tendency of the foreign trade shipping to decrease,

It

was a time of disheartenment among those who desired to see an

adequate ocean service under the American flag, and a valuable

naval reserve for an emergency. Inthe Panama Canal Act of Aug. 24 1912 Section 5 provided that “No tolls shall be levied upon vessels engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States.” It was contended before and after the passage of this Act that it contravened the provision of the Hay-Paunce-

and of the domestic trade fleet to grow, was even more manifest by the year roro, when the former had fallen to 782,517 gross

tons, or actually less than the 981,019 tons which the United

fote treaty, that ‘‘ The canal shalt be free and open.

States had possessed a century carlier in 1810, while the coastal

.

. to the

vessels of commerce and war of all nations . . . on terms of entire equality, so that there shail be no discrimination against any nation or its citizens or subjects in respect to the conditions,or charges of trafhe or otherwise.” President Wilson, who had originally

fleet had increased to 6,668,966 tons, or more than twice as much as the entire American commercial shipping of 1860. This sharp contrast between the steady decline of the overseas tonnage and the unbrokenadvance of the domestic tonnage is attributable to the intensity of forcign competition in the one trade and

favoured this exemption of American coastwise ships, and had heen

elected

on

a platform

approving

it, uncxpectediy

early in 1914

advocated the repeal of the exemption provision on the ground that

to the absence of it in the other. Through those years the wages of American crews and their subsistence and general style of living im-

it was in conflict with the treaty, and also that “repeal be granted

by Congress in support of the foreign policy of the Administration.” After an animated debate in the course of which the President was opposed by several senators of his own party, and at the same time upheld by some eminent Republicans, including Senator Root of New York, repeal was finally accomplished. No actual advantage had accrued to American coastwise vessels from the toll exemption, for the canal had not then been opened to commerce. lt was opened Aug. 15 1914, and was utilized in its first year by 1,317 vessels, including merchant carricrs, men-of-war and yachts, of an aggregate net Panama Canal tonnace of 4,506,644. Tolls paid amounted to $5,216,149. In the coast-to-coast fleet of the United States there

posed a higher cost upon the operation of American ships, and Amer-

ican-built ships in addition bore a substantially higher cost of con-

struction. Moreover, American laws and regulations governing ships have contributed somewhat to this higher expense by their more exacting character. Against this higher expense the ccastwise vessels from 1860 onward were absolutely protected by the exclusion of foreign vessels from domestic trade, while the overseas vessels were

protected in no way whatever, except for casual postal subsidies to a few regular lines. In view of the fact that from 1860 high protection has been almost continuous in the United States, this exception of the most intensely competitive of industries, ocean shipping, is difficult to understand. The generally accepted explanation is that

was soon a notable expansion, and new and important steamers of 10,000 or 12,000 tons dead-weight capacity were plying on the route

it has not been possible at any time to present a definite form of

shortened from 13,000 m. via the Straits of Magellan to 6,000 m.

national encouragement to.the overseas shipping industry which was acceptable to all of the various sections of the country. Subsidies

via the Canal.

These

large coastwise steamers were destined to

prove of abundant value to American overscas commerce in the

have almost been voted by Congress several times. Discriminating customs duties and tonnage dues, an expedient first adopted in 1789 and maintained in whole or in part for 60 years thereafter, have had a powerful advocacy but, as a matter of fact, have never been made effective because of general commercial treaties which have forbidden them. "Free ships'’—that is, the free admission and registry of foreign-built vessels instead of the general prohibition of American

the amount of shipbuilding, the total

June 30 1914, to have been as follows:—

onthe Great Lakes or on the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific seaboards

registry for forcign-built vessels obtaining since 1789——-were adopted

show

registered overseas and the total coastwise tonnage, the total merchant marine and the proportion of American overseas con-

quently seen in foreign waters, a great and valuable merchant

domestic

as distin-

No change or event oÍ consequence marked the years from rgo to 1gT4 1n the annals of American shipbuilding or navigation.

shipping was in existence, with well-equipped shipyards and a large force of officers and seamen, chiefly employed in home trade

and increasing waterborne

shipping

bestowcd upon the promotion of forcign commerce in these years of wonderful domestic devclopment, the total foreign

(2) UNITED STATES From the founding of the Federal Government in 1789 onward the United States has possessed a considerable merchant marine. For a hundred years it was the second power in amount of merchant tonnage in the world, surpassed only by the United Kingdom. From the end of the Civil War in 1865 to the outbreak of the World War in 1914, though the American flag was infre-

an important

overseas

trade of the United States had increased markedly from a value of 762,288,550 in 1860 to $2,982,799,622 in 1910. Whatever the cause of the decline of the overseas American merchant ma-

into account all possible measures conducive to cheap transport at -

American

and sufficed to convey only 8-7 % of the total imports and exports of the United States. Though relatively little effort had been

was to be expected. It was quite certain in 1921 that a strenuous competitive period lav ahead for shipping, and owners had to take

sea.

Position.

guished irom coastwise shipping reached almost the lowest ebb in rg1o, when only 782,517 gross tons were recorded by the Commissioner of Navigation as registered for foreign commerce

sufficiently abundant, and planned their vessels with a view to the use of either oilarcoal. Scandinavian owners, especially, pinned their faith to motor-engines, and it was notable that while coal-burning steamers were laid up idle, motor vessels belonging to the same ownerships were being profitably employed. There was good reason to believe that an extensive development of the use of motor-engines

emergency presented by the war.

War Period —When the World War began in Europe Aug. I 1914 all but 8-6% of the imports and exports of the United States were being conveyed in foreign vessels, chiefly of British and German nationality. The first result was the voluntary |

“interning” in American harbours cf a considerable feet of

SHIPPING

46E

German and Austrian steamers, including the “ Vaterland,” the largest ship afloat, and other passenger craft of the HamburgAmerican and North German Lloyd lines. Another and a much more serious effect upon the carrying of American passengers, mails and cargoes was produced when the British Government,

the disposal of the Board for the rapid construction of merchant ships on a scale before undreamed-of. Chairman Denman resigned on July 24 1917, and the President nominated in his place Edward N. Hurley, who had been the President of the

under the increasing stress of the conflict, withdrew month after

ted to the development of the merchant marine. A subsequent change made Charles M. Schwab, the steel manufacturer and

Illinois Manufacturers’ Association, an organization long commit-

month from overseas service to and from American ports its own passenger ships and freighters, for the transport service of

head of the Bethlchem Shipbuilding Corp., the Director of the

the gathering British armies and for the auxiliary service of the

Emergency Fleet Corporation.: Under the stimulus of Messrs.

war fleets. Then the lack of an adequate merchant shipping of

Hurley and Schwab, the war programme of merchant shipbuild-

its own began to be severely felt throughout the United States.

ing, which had at first lagged badly, began to take on a new life and vigour. These men had not only directed their vast organization, but aroused the country to respond with all its wealth

In the autumn and winter of 1914 agriculture, both North and

South, was gravely depressed by the inability to export grain, provisions and cotton, because of the scarcity of ocean ships. Freight rates soon became exorbitant. In Dec. 1914 the freight on cotton from New Orleans to Rotterdam had risen to three or four times its pre-war figure, or to $2 per hundredweight. Grain in July 1914 had been carried from New York to England for four or five cents a bushel. In Dec. 1914 the cost was 16 to 17 cents, and it still went on advancing. The Democratic party, in power at that time, had as a whole opposed shipping subsidies, but in this crisis the Wilson administration early in rọr5 brought forward in Congress a proposal to create a great merchant marine under government ownership and operation. This proposition for what was stigmatized as a dangerous adventure Into state socialism was sharply opposed in Congress by conservative Democrats and the great body of Republicans. Meanwhile, the

and power to Mr. Lloyd George’s appeal for “‘Ships, and more ships and yet more ships,” to compensate for the havoc wrought by the German submarines. When the United States entered the war in the spring of 1917 there were in the country 37 stecl

shipyards with 162 ways, and 24 wooden shipyards with 72 ways, capable of Jaunching vessels of 3,500 dead-weight tons. At the signing of the Armistice there were in all 223 shipyards, steel and wood, with a total of 1,099 ways.

There is no parallel in history for this swiftness with which additional shipyards were created.’ In April 1917, when the United States declared war, every one of the 234 shipways in this country was occupied by a vessel under construction—in part for American owners, in part for foreign owners, the remain-

der for the navy or other branches of the Government,

crisis continuing, Great Britain, France and Norway in their

acute need of ships to make up for losses by German submarines, began to place contracts for new tonnage in the established and not over-busy shipyards of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the

276,318 dead-weight tons provided for in the maximum building programme of the Shipping Board. Scores of new shipyards, for steel and wood vessels alike, had to be built. Proper sites were

United States. In the report for the fiscal year ending June 30 1916 the Commissioner of Navigation noted that of ships build-

rapidly selected on the Atlantic, the Gulf and the Pacific sea-

board, the yards hurriedly laid out, and the requisite tools and

ing or ordered at that date in American yards ‘‘fully 125,000

machinery installed. This work was pushed with the utmost

tons were for foreign shipowners,” and that “since July 1 1916 the tonnage ordered in American yards for foreign shipowners

vigour. Long before the new yards were ready a nation-wide movement had started to recruit an army of shipyard volunteers.

exceeded that ordered for American owners.’’, Many of these vessels, it transpired, were being built by funds furnished or guaranteed by the British Government. So much antagonism had been created by the proposal for a government-owned and operated merchant marine that it was not until Sept. 7 1916 that the Shipping Act desired by President Wilson was passed, and then in a much-amended form with government ownership and operation reduced to a temporary character. Section 3 of this important law provided:—

It was represented to the workers that they were as truly serving the Allied cause as if they had enlisted in the navy or army. This new crusade was advanced by the State Councils of Defense and’ by the Department of Labor. Within the first two weeks no fewer than 280,000 workers were enrolled. At the signing of the

Armistice 381,000 men were employed in the old and new American shipyards, as against 44,000 when the war began.

American shipyards before 1917 were adequate only for the fairly steady demand of the coast and lake trades and for the

“That a Board is hereby created, to be known as the United States

Shipping

Board, and herermafter referred to as the Board.

The

Board shall be composed of five Commissioners, to be appointed by

the President, by and with the advice anc consent of the Senate; said Board shall annually elect one of its members as chairman and one as vice-chairman. “The first Commissioners appointed shall continue in office for terms of two, three, four, five and six years respectively from the date of their appointment, the term of each to be designated by the President, but their successors shall be appointed for terms of six years, except that any person chosen to fill a vacancy shail be appointed only for the unexpired term of the Commissioner whom he succeeds.”

Under the authority of this act the President appointed on Dec, 22 1916 the first Federal Shipping Board, headed by Mr. Wiliam Denman, an admiralty lawyer of San Francisco.

Not

one of the members of the Board had ever operated Americanflag ships in ocean commerce. Under the Act the Board was authorized to form a shipping corporation with a capital stock not exceeding $50,000,000, of which a majority was to be held by the United States for the purchase, construction, equipment, lease, charter and operation of merchant vessels in the commerce

of the United States. This became known as the Emergency Fleet Corporation. Its power to operate vessels would cease, under the original Act, five years after the close of the war. Less than four months after the appointment of the first Shipping Board the United States itself entered the World War, and the powers and resources of the Board were immensely increased by war legislation. Vast sums of money were placed at

It was

absolutely necessary to create at once the additional facilities required for the building of the 2,115 vessels of a total of 17,-

|

requirements of the navy, which, however, were partly filled from Government yards. Only now and then was an overseas steamer constructed. But the coast and lake trades of the United States employ many relatively large and heavy vessels of from 6,000 to 19,000 tons, fit for the 2,o00-m. voyages from Portland,

Boston, New York and Philadelphia to the Gulf of Mexico, or the 6,000-m. voyages through the Panama Canal between the Atlantic and Pacific seaports. Six or seven yards on the Atlantic and two on the Pacific before the war were capable of building the most powerful dreadnoughts and armoured cruisers. Ocean shipyards, large and small, possessed well-trained and experienced managers and workmen, and there were also many exccHhHent shipyards on the Great Lakes. These efficient stafis were drawn

on for the more responsible positions in the new war-born shipyards. The great body of 381,000 workers enlisted were, of course, unfamiliar with ship construction.- Most of them had never laboured in a shipyard of any kind. There were thousands from the general building, electrical and other engineering trades, and other thousands from inland farms.: It was a composite array, and there was undoubtedly at first much inefficiency and

shirking.- But the men already trained were set to show the others. Proficiency was rewarded by high wages. The incompetent were gradually weeded out.’ Appeals to patriotism were effective. Riveting and other work was “speeded up ” by offers of prizes, and more and more all hands were made to realize

that they were taking an essential part in the winning of the war.

462

SHIPPING

As a result, unheard-of achievements in the way of production speed were soon recorded. The “‘ Tuckahoe,” a 5,500 dead-weight

ton collier, was completed by the N.Y. Shipbuilding Co. at Camden, N.J., in 37 calendar days; the“ Crawl Keys,”a 3,500ton freighter, at the Great Lakes Engineering ‘Works, Ecorse, Mich., in 34 days. Heavy 8,800-ton freighters were built in Pacific shipyards in from 78 to 88 days, where before the war

from six to ten months would have been required. The Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corp. yard at Alameda, Cal., launched the 12,000-ton cargo liner ‘‘ Invincible” 31 days after the laying of her keel. It was thoroughly realized that such haste would often mar the quality of the work—that ships built in such brief time might well prove less efficient and enduring. But the Gevernment and the builders realized also that it was a race with the German submarines, and that enough ships must be provided by whatever methods at whatever cost to feed and supply the Allies, and to carry and sustain the troops that would soon be crowding over. One expedient which greatly helped toward quick production was the fabricated ship. One factor in the choice of this plan of construction, never adopted on a large scale before, was the success of the Submarine Boat Corp. in building in 1916 a fleet of 550 submarine-chasers for the British Government. These little vessels were of wood. It was obvious that steel would lend

itself more readily to fabrication, and Mr. Henry R. Sutphen, Vice-President of the Submarine Boat Corp., submitted to the Emergency Fleet Corp. a proposal for manufacturing standard steel ships from the same kind of commercial structural steel that is employed for buildings and bridges. This plan was successfully carried out. Structural plates, shapes and other material were prepared at plants all over the country where they could be produced to the best advantage, and shipped to the assembling yards for final riveting together, a certain number of rivets indeed having already been driven before the material arrived. One hundred and fifty fabricated steamers of about 5,000 tons dead-weight were contracted for with the Submarine Boat Corp.’s. yard on Newark Bay, N.J. One hundred and eighty fabricated ships of about 7,500 tons were ordered from the great Hog I. Shipyard near Philadelphia. This shipyard, the largest in the world, with 50 ways, was created in less than six months under the direction of the engineers of the American

International Corp., out of what had been a waste marsh on the shores of the Delaware River. With its ways, storchouses and workshops it covered goo acres. Its cost was $66,000,000. On the completion of its building programme, and when its ships were no longer needed, it afforded an admirable site for a

great rail and ship terminal. Several hundred wooden steamers of a dead-weight capacity of from 3,500 to 5,000 tons were ordered by the Emergency Fleet

Corp. in the war emergency. There was much criticism of this project, for the building of wooden steamers for overseas service had long been abandoned in America.’ Among practical men there never was any delusion that wooden steamers would be of lasting value in peace time service. As Chairman Hurley of the Shipping Board stated: “It was not contended by any responsible authority that wood ships would prove commercially advantageous, that they would be formidable competitors with the ships of the maritime powers in time of peace; but they were regarded, at least as far as the subsequent development of the wood ship programme was concerned, as mere war emergency ships.” It should be borne in mind also that when these wooden steamers were contracted for a war lasting for years was contemplated as possible, and elaborate gencral preparations were being made to that end. As a matter of fact few wooden steamers were completed in time to carry supplies before the signing of the Armistice, and most of the wooden craft that did get to sea were laid up as soon as possible. Many of them seemed structurally fit, but their cargo capacity was too small to permit of profitable employment. The Emergency Fleet Corp. built more of the relatively small steel ships than could be absorbed by the requirements of normal commerce. Justification for this is to be found in the inexorable needs of war. These small steel steamers of from 3,500 to 5,000 dead-weight tons are of a type

very useful in limited numbers in a near-by trade, like that with the West Indies, for example. Some of them, particularly the oil-burners, are capable of engaging advantageously in trans-

oceanic trades.

Moreover, no steamers more than 260 feet in

length and of about 4,000 tons dead-weight capacity could be brought out into the St. Lawrence River and the Atlantic through the Canadian canals, and it was important in the war months that the Great Lakes shipyards should be utilized. American commerce, coastwise and overseas, is relatively a trade of rather large cargoes. It is the larger ship, with the lowest crew wage cost per ton, which American shipowners can operate to the best advantage. Nevertheless, these prudential considerations were frankly cast aside by the American Government in the crisis of the war. The authorities deliberately planned and built the kind of a merchant fleet that could. be

most quickly constructed in the greatest numbers and employed to the best advantage of their Allics.

After the War—On the signing of the Armistice immediate steps were taken by the Shipping Board to reduce its programme of construction. In most cases where a contract could be cancelled at a cost to the Government less than the difference between the cost to complete and the probable market value of the ship at time of completion, cancellation was ordered. By June 30 1920 the building programme of the Shipping Board, which in Oct. 1918 had totalled 3,115 vessels of 17,276,318 dead-weight tons, was reduced to 2,315 vessels of 13,675,712 tons, of which 1,696 vessels of 11,656,961 tons were of steel

construction. An important element of the new fleet not cancelled consisted of 23 passenger and cargo steamers of about 13,000 tons each, which were designed as army transports but

have been adapted to commercial use.

This class of ships, of

which the American merchant marine still had too few, is adapted to service across the Atlantic and Pacific and to South America, Appropriations for the Emergency Fleet Corp. up to the end of the

fiscal year 1920 amounted to the immense sum of S3,255,413,024, of which nearly all was expended for shipbuilding in the war emergency and afterward. Government-built steamers cost on the average

S200 to $225 per dead-weight ton. Ships of the same type were built in the United States before the war for from $60 to $70 per ton, as

compared with $40 to $60 in the United Kingdom.

The record of

America's war effort is clearly written in the returns ol the Commissioner of Navigation of the total gross tonnage of shipbuilding in thẹ United States in the fiscal years from 1915 to 1920 inclusive :— Gross Tonnage Year uilt IDIS.

ce es de > a sa 225,122 gig s s œ i f ° : : oe oe 325,413 1917 1918 1919 1920

i ; à .

7 ‘ i

r ‘ Z

; ` g

‘ . å

s $ š

: Š :

š è

z 2 :

. -

664,479 3,300,868 3,326,621

3,880,639

In 1920 a marked decline in shipbuilding set in as the Government War programme approached completion. On March I 1921 only 330 steel vessels of a total gross tonnage of 1,434,000 tons were on the ways, More than one-half of this tonnage was of tank oil carriers. Fifty-four of the 330 vessels, representing 435,000 tons, were building on Government account, and 276, of 999,000 tons, for private owner-

ship. . This sharp decrease in shipbuilding was then manifest all over the world, and was intensified

by the shrinkage of trade and the

unprecedented fall of ocean freight rates, which characterized the winter of 1920-1.

Manning and Operation.—Far less formidable than the task of creating new shipyards and building 13,000,000 dead-weight tons of ships for the war emergency was the work of officering, manning and operating these vessels. In the existing merchant marine of the United States, in Aug. 1914, there was a trained

personnel of about 86,000, only a small part of whom could be spared for the new overseas services which the war demanded. Moreover, many of the trained American officers were required at once in the navy and the naval reserve.. Two steps were promptly taken to meet the crisis; the President, by executive order July 3 1917, suspended the provision that watch-officers of vessels of the United States registered for the foreign trade must be American citizens, and the Shipping Board established

an extensive sea recruiling and training bureau for the instruc-

SHIPPING tion of both officers and men. Many who had followed the sea in their youth and had left it now returned, and new recruits appeared in great numbers. From June 30 r9r7 to June 30 1920 this service produced 9,642 licensed officers and 32,335 men, all American citizens. Many others who did not pass through the training service also joined the new ships, and wherever there was need officers and men were ordered from the navy personnel,

which had reached a total strength of 500,000 Few ships were anywhere seriously delayed for lack of crews. For the control of the new Shipping Board tonnage a division of operation was developed. Relatively few of the new vessels were directly operated by the Board itself. Most of them were

placed in the hands of the established private companies or new concerns which the war had brought into existence. The vessels were ‘placed on routes indicated by the Shipping Board. Their freight rates were controlled by the Board during and for some

months afterthe war. Division of expenses and profits was difficult to arrange, and was Jong the cause of much friction between private operators and the Government. Not until 1920 was a fairly satisfactory plan finally devised by which the Shipping Board assumed the risk of the voyage, and a fixed percentage of the gross receipts was allowed to the manager for his services.. Government ownership and operation of shipping, especially in the stress of war, proved a difficult undertaking in the United States, aselsewhere. Particularly important was the work of the Ship Control Committee, which directed the movements of

shipping to the best advantage. This committee was composed of President P. A. S. Franklin of the International Mercantile Marine Co., President H. H. Raymond of the American Steam-

ship Owners’ Association, and Sir Connop Guthrie, representing the British Government. At the signing of the Armistice, Nov. 11 1918, the Shipping Board controlled a total feet of 1,196 vessels of 6,540,205 deadweight tons,

composed of American, requisitioned, chartered, neutral and seized German tonnage. On Aug. 3 1917 the President, under authority bestowed by an Act of June 15, requisitioned for the national service all steel hulls and materials in American shipyards of vessels of over 2,500 deadweight tons, building either for American or foreign owners, @ total of 431 vessels, of 3.056.000 deadweight tons. On Oct. 12 1917, as & further step in Federal control of the shipping situation, another executive order requisitioned all American steelbuilt

power-driven cargo vessels of 2,500 deadweight tons and over,

and all American passenger vessels of 2,500 gross tons and over fit for overseas service. This established control over an American fleet of 444 vessels of 2,938,758 deadweight tons.

ships were transferred to their owners for operation.

Many of these

Others were

chartered to the war and navy departments. About 600,000 tons of German vessels, seized in American ports when the United States

entered the war, were divided among the Shipping Board and the army and navy. In addition the Shipping Board secured the use of a considerable fleet of enemy vessels seized in waters of other countries.

To obtain an adequate amount

of tonnage the Board also

chartered many Allied and neutral ships, a resource which on Sept. 1 1918 amounted to 331 ships of a deadweight tonnage of 1,084,986.

By order of March 20 1918, an act which though necessary was

deeply regretted at the time, the President caused the navy to seize for the use of the United States 87 Dutch vessels of 533,746 deadweight tons, at that time in or bound to American waters.

A little more than one-half of the two and one-quarter million American soldiers sent to Europe were conveyed in the passenger steamers of Great Britain, France and Italy, chiefly in large vessels of the British lines. Most of the soldiers sent over under the American flag were borne in the former German

liners that had had their

damaged machinery repaired. After the Armistice, however, most of the American troops were repatriated under the colours of their

463

seamen deserting from foreign vessels in American waters.

of the wages due to them, once every five days, is charged with

promoting the desertion of foreign crews in American waters and of urdening foreign companies with the cost of hiring substitutes at the American wage rate and with the expense of returning these substitutes to their country. It is insisted by the seamen’s unions, however, that these provisions of the law tend to bring foreign ship wages up to American standards.

Other Legislation.—By Act of Congress of Aug. 18 1914 the free ship clause of the Panama Canal Act of Aug. 24 1912, which had proved wholly incffective, was amended by admitting ships more than five years old, and exempting all foreign-built vessels admitted to American registry from compliance with American survey, inspec-

tion and measurement laws and regulations. Under this amended law 140 foreign-built vessels of 583,000 gross tons, owned by Amer-

ican Citizens or corporations, Were admitted to American registry for foreign trade in the fiscal year 1915, when the security afforded by the American flag was valuable. The number of vessels thus admitted fell off, however, to only 26, of 69,697 tons, in the fiscal year 1916, as the higher wages and operating costs of the American flag

came to be realized by the owners of foreign-built tonnage.

were transferred to foreign flags in 1916. On Feb. § 1917 the President by executive order forbade the sale, lease or charter of American

vessels to foreign flags without the approval of the Shipping Board.

In the spring of 1920 a most important measure known as the

Merchant Marine Act of 1920, or the Jones law (from Senator Wes-

ley L. Jones, Chairman of the Committee on Commerce), was finally passed by large majorities in Congress and signed June 5 by Presi- . dent Wilson. This Act solemnly declared it to be the purpose of the

American people to possess a merchant marine capable of carrying “the greater portion’ of their commerce and to serve aS a naval or military auxiliary in time of war, this merchant marine “ ultimately

to be owned and operated privately by citizens of the United States.” A new Shipping Board of seven members, fairly representative of political parties and of all sections of the country, was duthorized in

the Act and given large authority over the merchant marine. Board was directed to sell the Government-owned

vate owners "as soon as practicable.”

One of these was the La Follette Seamen's Law,

approved March 4 1915, after a long and bitter controversy in the ouse and Senate.

agement to new and necessary shipping routes were provided for.

is sufficient.

Encouragement was given to American Marine insur-

ance, and to the American

Lloyd's.”

provided.

Bureau

of Shipping, the ' American

A new and favourable system of ship mortgages was

Amicrican vessels in forcign trade were exempted from

excess profits taxes on condition that the amount of the exemption and twice as much more of the capital of the owners were applied to

the building of other ships in the United States.

The President was

directed to secure the amendment of provisions in commercial treaties that prevented the United States from imposing discriminating customs taxes and tonnage dues on goods imported in ships of foreign registry. President Wilson refused to carry out this last-named requirement on the ground that the action indicated would provoke the resentment of foreign ship-owners and their Governments, The Treasury Department failed to prepare regulations for the application

of the clause exempting American foreign-trade ships from excess

profits taxes. Preferential treatment for American ships in the dispatch of imports and exports hauled at low rates on American railways Was not made effective by the Shipping Board and the Inter-

state Commerce Commission, whose coöperation was necessary for

the actual enforcement of the law. Statistics—The amount of shipbuilding, the total registered overseas and coastwise tonnage, the total merchant marine, and the proportion of American imports and exports conveyed in American ships for the six fiscal years ending June 30 1920 are as follows:— P

Enrolled Registered | |. OF

year | Ship- | ildi

This law to a large extent govefns working con-

ditions on American ships at sea and in harbour.

for

oreign

bulang

Trade

Gross tons

Gross tons

It requires a certain

A

Totat

i

{ef Imports

Merchant | and a :

Coastwise | Marine Trade

Gross tons

ti

seNalua

fixed proportion of able seamen and certificated lifeboatmen, a com-

plement of boats and rafts sufficient for all passengers and crew, and improved living spaces and sanitary conditions, Most of the Act in

fact deals with life-saving methods and appliances, in accordance with the recommendations of the London Conference on safety of

Gross tons

ports

Per cent

require

143 163

1917

664,479 | 2,440,776 | 6,392,583 | 8,871,037

1918 | 1,300,868 | 3,599,213 | 6,282,474 | 9,924,518|

18-6

One section, which has been the cause of much displeasure among the

1919 | 3,326,621 | 6,665,376 | 6,201,426 | 12,907,300 1920 | 3,880,6 924, 6,357,706 ! 16,324,02

27'8 42:

a more humane discipline than had been frequent in the eld cave foreign shipping companies, brought about the amendment of treaties requiring the U.S. Government to seize and return to their ships

Car-

ried in

American Ships

1915 | 225,122 | 1,862,714 | 6,486,384 | 8,389,429] 1916 | 325,413 | 2,185,008 | 6,244,550 | 8,469,049]

life at sea, following the ‘ Titanic "’ disaster. Several sections

This

tonnage to pri-

Postal subsidies and encour-

Deferred rebates and discrimination against shippers were forbidden. The coastwise law barring foreign ships was extended after Feb. 1 1922 to the trade between the Philippines and the United States. Benefit of preferentially low railway rates on imports and exports was reserved to American vessels wherever their capacity

The La Follette Law.—I\n the years from 1915 to 1920 inclusive

merchant marine.

Many

of these owners, indeed, sought to change their naturalized ships back to foreign registry, and 160 American vessels, of 102,479 tons,

own country.

there were several important Federal enactments relative to the

This,

and a complementary section permitting seamen of American or foreign vessels to demand at every port the payment of one-half

21-9

SHOCK

464 A new Shipping Board, pent

in June 1921, by President

Harding. headed by Albert D. Lasker of Chicago and including Admiral Wilham S. Benson in its membership, quickly effected an important reorganization of the executives of the Board, installing a group of practical shipping men as officials of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, and committing to these men the active management

of the government-owned merchant fleet.

Following this reorgani-

zation, the new Shipping Board addressed itself to the working out of a comprehensive subsidy system for postal liners and cargo ships,

intended to facilitate the sale of the government-owned ficct to private owners, as directed by the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. ;

(W.L. M.)

dioxide from one of the component amino-acids found in the protcins of tissues, namely histidine, shows that we have to deal cither with this compound or with a very closely related one. Dale and Laidlaw found, in fact, that a small amount of histamine injected into the veins of cats or dogs produced a large fall of blood pressure, accompanied by the other signs of shock,

which increased progressively until death. The heart was unaffected and continued to beat powerfully, although nearly empty of blood. Now, until the work of Dale and Richards, it was believed that to produce a fall of blood pressure without removal of

To define it, Cowell suggested the name “ wound:-shock.” The symptoms are very difficult to distinguish from those of mere

blood or depressing the heart it was necessary that the muscular coat of the arterioles should be relaxed and thereby the periphcral resistance decreased. But the previous work had shown that histamine has the effect of causing contraction of all smoath muscle, including that of the arterioles. The fall of pressure produced by a very small dose of histamine remained a paradox until the work mentioned, which was published in 1918. In this research it was shown that the effect was due to a wide-spread dilatation of the capillary blood vessels. In order to appreciate .the significance of this discovery, a few words are necessary on the reactions of the capillaries and on the importance of the volume of blood in circulation.’ Although various observations had been made indicating that the capillaries are not mercly incrt channels, but that their walls are capable of contraction

Joss of blood, but it became obvious that it might be present

and dilatation in response to chemical stimulation or nervous

although actual hacmorrhage had been very slight. This fact is of significance in the interpretation of the actual pathology

influence, there seemed to be difficulty in realizing how protoplasmic cells such as those of the capillary wall succeed in doing this.: The changes of shape in amoeba and in pigment cells, nevertheless, show the possibility. Dale and Richards, by an ingenious series of experiments, demonstrated that histamine does actually cause a marked widening and opening-up of the capillaries of the body generally. It may also be pointed out that Krogh has recently shown the existence of a nervous regulation of these vessels, which appears to be of an antidromic na-

SHOCK, in surgery (see 24.991*).—Experience during the World War has thrown new light on the nature of “shock” in pathology. The first effect of an injury is usually to produce a state resembling that of fainting. This is clearly produced through the nervous system and is recovered from more or less rapidly, supposing that the injury is not in itself sufficiently severe to -be fatal. This ‘primary shock,” asit may be called, does not show itself to any important degree in the case of operations done under an anaesthetic. But it has long been familiar to surgeons that another kind of shock may appear during or after an operation. This“ secondary shock” was of frequent occurrence during the war of 1914-8 and the cause of many deaths.

of the condition, as will be seen later.

As indicated

above, it

docs not show itself at once; it may, however, develop in less than an hour if the injury has been great, and primary shock may sometimes pass into it gradually without a period of recovery. It shows itself by a state of general collapse, with pallor, coldness, thirst, low blood pressure and the various consequences of this, such as vomiting, sweating and sometimes rapid shallow

No evidence of heart failure or of paralysis of vaso-

ture, like that of the dorsal roots described by Bayliss. Now,

motor centres has been obtained. The higher nerve-centres do not sufer until the late stages.’ Pain is not a prominent factor. If the state has not been of long duration nor of severe intensity,

when we observe how enormous a share of the total vascular system the capillaries make up, we realize what a large volume of the total circulating blood may be penned up or pooled in these vessels when they are dilated, leaving very little to be sent round by the heart to supply the organs with oxygen obtained by its flow through the lungs.. The whole of the body is therefore suffering from want of fresh blood containing the oxygen necessary for its existence.

breathing.

it may pass off on warming and rest, but if left alone death nearly always ensues. Observations made by Sir Cuthbert Wallace in operations before the war suggested to him that the actual injury to the tissues, and especially to muscle, played an important part. This surgeon noticed that operations involving much section or removal of tissues were more liable to produce shock. The fact might, of course, be also interpreted as the result of the irritation of nerves, acting subconsciously on the centres; but Quénu, a French surgeon, at an early date in the war, propounded the view that the serious effects of wounds are due to an absorption

into the blood of toxic products arising in the injured cells. This view was confirmed by the recognition of the importance of carly removal of the injured parts; operative procedure was pushed nearer and nearer to the fighting line as the war progressed.’ It was also noticed that, even after shock had developed, a marked improvement was frequently brought about by excision of the damaged structures. Experimental work by Bayliss and Cannon

showed that it was possible to produce in anaesthetized cats a condition similar to that of wound-shock. This could be done by extensive injury to the muscles and skin of the legs. It was found that the results were identical whether the nerve channels {rom the injured tissues were severed or not, but that they were absent if the blood returning from the tissue was prevented from passing into the gencral circulation. Thus the name “ traumatic toxaemia,”’ proposed by Quénu, is an appropriate descriptive title for the state under consideration. ` But what is the nature of the poison and how does it act? These are important questions in dealing with appropriate methods of treatment. The possibility of bacterial toxins has been

definitely excluded, and although it cannot be stated that we

These facts have caused renewed attention to be paid to the

question of the volume of blood in circulation. By the injection into a vein of an innocuous. dye, which does not quickly diffuse out of the blood vessels, such as “ vital-red ” or better ‘‘ congo-red ”’. (Harris), the degree of dilution of the amount injected indicates the volume of the fluid part of the blood. When observations of this kind were made by N, M. Keith on men suffering from shock, it was found that, even when they had lost little or no

blood, the volume actually in circulation was greatly reduced. Hence we are justified in postulating the presence of a toxic action dilating capillaries, an action similar to that of histamine. It was early recognized that shock might be greatly exaggerated or even brought on by various conditions incidental to the state of the wounded man, or to the treatment necessary afterwards. Some of these throw additional light on the subject. Anaesthetics —Dale observed that a dose of histamine highly toxic to a cat under ether was innocuous to a normal animal. Thus there are processes in the healthy organism which either destroy the poison

rapidly but are inactive under cther, or the anaesthetic itself makes

the capillaries more sensitive. In any case, it was often noticed in the war that a State of shock came on during an operation under ether and that there was less risk with nitrous-oxtde and oxygen. Haemorrhage.—Since the serious nature of shock is due to the deficiency of circulating blood, it is obvious that when blood has actually been lost a lesser degree of capillary stasis will suffice to induce shock, This was also found to be the case, experimentally, by Dale and by Bayliss and Cannon, A practical conclusion as regards operations seems to be that loss of blood should be avoided as far as possible

that means for replacing it by intravenous injection should be have yet found the actual substance produced in wounded tis- and at hand in case shock makes its appearance. sues, the work of Dale and his colleagues on the properties of a Thirst—There was always a notable demand for water by the base called “ histamine,” which is formed by removal of carbon © wounded soldier, lf he was already suffering from thirst when * These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

465

SHORT—SIAM wounded, his blood volume was diminished,

Water is a valuable

remedy and, as absorbed from the alimentary canal, it is very effect-

ive in restoring the blood volume.

As we shall sce, it is the actual

volume of the blood, rather than its dilution, that is of consequence.

Unfortunately, the vomiting frequently present in shock prevents this treatment in many cases. Water or saline solution may, however, be given by the rectum, Cold.— Exposure to cold has a very potent exaggerating effect

in shock. It may happen that spontaneous recovery takes place in the comparative comiort of the casualty clearing station, but, for the reason to be given below, it is not well to wait long if no sign of improvement is seen ina short time. It is difficult to give precise reasons why cold is so markedly deleterious. It may be the result of the generally depressing effect on all bodily functions, which would naturally be greater in states of inadequate circulation of blood. Anxiely and Fear are recognized also as predisposing factors of

shock.

Perhaps the depressing effect is the cause, as with cold.

©

Trealment.—Since the cause of the trouble is the deficiency of blood in circulation, it is obvious that the chief remedy is to increase this. Much attention was given during the war to improving the methods of transfusing blood and there seems no doubt that many lives were saved by this means. But donors

Owing to the fact that gum-saline is quite Innocuous and can now be obtained in sterilized form from the dealers, it should al-

ways be at hand in operations for use if shock threatens, as also for accidents or serious haemorrhage from any cause. See Special Reports, Nos. 25, 26, 27, Medical Research Council (London H.M. Stationery Office, 1919); E. Quénu, La Toxémie traumatique (Paris, Atcan, 1919); Bayliss, Intravenous Injections in Wound-Shock (London, I918).. (W. M. B.)

SHORT,

SIR FRANCIS

JOB (1857-

), English engraver

(sce 24.1007), was elected R.A. in 1911, and in the same year was knighted. In 1910 he became president of the Royal Society of Painters, Etchers and Engravers. His later work exemplifies every type of his activity. Among etchings, ‘On the Banks of the Bure’ and “ The White Mill, Canterbury ” show his adherence to the use of line in that medium, and a version of Turner’s “ Ehrenbreitstein to Coblentz ” continues his series of translations

are not always available and it is clearly a matter of Importance

of paintings. He also added ‘ Moonlight on the Medway at Chatham” and ‘ Dumbarton Rock” to the plates in etching and mezzotint completing Turner’s “Liber Studiorum.” Two aquatints, “‘ The New Sloon ” (1918) and “ ’Twixt Dawn and Day, ”

to possess, if possible, an artificial solution which can be used in unlimited amount. Simple saline or glucose solutions were soon

show broad handling and remarkably rich quality in the darks; and two mezzotints, ‘Orion over the Thames” (1913-4) and

found to be useless. They disappear from the blood in less than an hour. To prevent this disappearance, it is necessary to add to the solution some colloid which has an osmotic pressure equal

“The Night Picket Boat at Hammersmith” (1914-5), are among his finest plates in a medium peculiarly his own.

to that of the colloids in normal blood.

“ eum-saline ” introduced. by Bayliss.

This is done in the

The solution contains 6%

or 7% of pure gum arabic in addition to o-9% sodium chloride, The reason for the addition of the colloid may be stated thus: the blood-vessels are impermeable to colloids, hence the osmotic pressure of these substances can manifest its effects. The im-

portant point is that it causes an attraction of water and thus prevents any rapid filtration by the blood pressure on the arterial side and brings about a reabsorption in the capillary and venous regions, where the blood pressure is Jower than the osmotic

pressure of the colloid. Thus a solution containing a sufficient amount of gum arabic is not lost from the circulation. Of course, the blood actually in circulation is diluted by such injections, but the work of Gesell shows that the greater flow more than compensates for the lesser oxygen-carrying capacity per unit volume. Moreover, as the circulation improves, the

SHORTER, DORA (Sigerson) (1866-1918), Irish poet, was born in Dublin, Aug. 16 1866. She was the daughter of Dr. George Sigerson, the Celtic scholar, and married in 1896 Clement K. Shorter (b. 1857), editor of the Sphere and other London illustrated papers (see 19.563). Her first volume of verse appeared in 1894, and she established a considerable reputation as a writer of lyrics and ballads; the subjects often religious, or drawn

from the treasures of Irish legend, or in praise of the Irish country. Her Collected Poems were published in 1909, and she wrote one novel, Through Wintry Terrors (1907).

She died in

London, Jan. 6 1918. Two posthumous volumes of poems appeared in 1918 and 1910, as well as A Dull Day in London and oiher sketches, with a preface by Thomas Hardy, in 1920.

SHORTT, EDWARD (1862), British lawyer and politician, was born at St. Anthony’s Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne, March 10 1862. He was educated at Durham school and University, and in 1890 was called to the bar. In 1907 he became

capillaries begin to give up their stationary corpuscles to the recorder of Sunderland and in roroa K.C, In 1oro0 he entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for Newcastle. In general mass of blood. When the state of shock is complicated by haemorrhage it May 10918 he became Chief Secretary for Ireland, but in 1919 might seem that the addition of blood itself is imperative. It is resigned and was appointed Home Secretary. SIAM (sce 25.2).—For the purposes of administration the remarkable, however, that in actual expericnce the benefit of gum-salinc was more obvious after haemorrhage than in severe kingdom of Siam is divided into 17 provinces (Monthons), the cases of wound-shock without haemorrhage. It seems probable area of which is given officially at 484,128 sq. kilometres. The that these latter cases were such as to have arrived at that stage revised census figures for 1910-1 gave a pop. of 8,149,847, and in which a second action of histamine shows itself. To this we the official estimate of the pop. for the year 1920 Was 9,022,000, On the death in rọrọ of King Chulalongkorn he was succeeded may now turn, After large doses or prolonged action of smaller by his son, the Crown Prince Maha Vajiravudh, who in 1917 ones, the capillary blood-vessels become permeable to the colloids of blood as well as to the salts. The addition of solutions of col- assumed the title of King Rama VI. Under this monarch the loids or even blood itself is useless in this stage. They are quickly work of consolidation and development progressed steadily. To lost. It was found by observations on wounded men that the foster the idea of the duty of national service among the elder plasma of the blood transfused was lost rapidly. Whether the generation the ‘“ Wild Tiger’? Corps was established. The Siaeffect on the capillaries is a direct one or whether it is due to the mese boy scout organization, of which the King became presiasphyxial state brought about by the low blood pressure is not dent, educates the younger generation on the same lines. The clear at present. Krogh brings evidence that, when the capil- number of boy scouts was In 1920 over 15,000. Among various changes may be noted the royal decree that all laries are rapidly and widely dilated, there may be formed minute pores between the cells of their walls, which allow colloids to pass

through. The fact warns us, in any case, not to allow the state of low blood pressure to last for any length of time. Cases of shock in this stage were generally regarded as hopeless. It was not found possible to restore them cither by blood or by gum-saline. Some experiments made later by Bayliss suggest, however, the possibility that further repeated injections might in some cases have been effective. Although the greater part of the fluid of the first injection was lost, it seemed that some improvement in the state of the capillaries resulted, since a second injection produced a slight permanent rise in the blood pressure and a third injection recovery.

privy purse property should be subjected to ordinary taxation, the abolition of lottery farms and public gambling-houses, the ‘strict regulation of the opium traffic, and the great development of football and other athletic sports. Under the patronage of the King, a Nav League was established, and the Red Cross Society was reorganized. The Red Cross Society has under its direction the Chulalongkorn hospital, the Pasteur institute and laboratories for the preparation of vaccines and serums. í The calendar has been revised. The Siamese year formerly dated from the foundation of Bangkok. It now corresponds with the Buddhist era. The new year begins on April I and terminates on March 31. Hence April 1921 to March 1922 is, in the Siamese calendar, B.E. 2464. The day is divided into two periods of 12 hours each as in Europe, except in the railways and the post and tele-

graph department, where the 24-hour day is used.

SIBELIUS—SIBERIA

466

Finance —Annual revenue rose from tes. 17,334,469 in B.E. 2437

On July 22 1917 Siam declared war on Germany and Austria-

(1894-5) to tes. 66,494,006 in B.E. 2460 (1917-8),

Hungary. Enemy aliens were interned, and later sent to internment camps in India. A military mission was sent to Europe early in 1918, and a Siamese military contingent landed at Marseilles in Aug. of the same year. This contingent comprised moter ambulance transport, which rendered efficient service on the western front, and an aviation corps. trained by French officers, and although

289,

Siam in 191g.

of 42°, one for £1,000,000 floated in 1905, and one for £3,000,000 floated in 1907, both free of taxes present or future, fevied by the

The aviators were many had gained

Siam was represented at the Versailles Peace

.

The main clauses affecting Siam are Articles 135, 136 and 137:

In Article 135 Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions and agreements between her and Siam, and all rights, titles and privileges derived therefrom, including all rights of extra-territorial jurtsdiction, terminated as from July 22 1917. In Article 136 all goods and property in Siam belonging to the German Empire or to any German State, with the exception of premises used as diplomatic or consular residences or offices, pass Tpso faclo andewithout compensation to the Siamese Government, while the goods, property and

private rights of German nationals in Siam shall be dealt with in

accordance with the provisions of Part X (Economic Clauses) of the Treaty. By Article 137 Germany waives all claims against the Siamese Government on behalf of herself or her nationals arising out

of the seizure or condemnation of German ships, the liquidation of

German property, or the internment of German nationals in Siam, this provision not to affect the rights of the parties interested in the proceeds of any such liquidation, as governed by the provisions of Part X (Economic Clauses) of the Treaty. Under the Treaty Stam

became a member of the League of Nations, and took part in the first Assembly of the League at Geneva in 1920. Agriculture Owing to deficient rainfall in 1919, rice, the main agricultural crop of Stam, was barely sufficient to supply the needs

‘of the population, and the price rose to five Limes pre-war rates. To meet the deficiency the export was prohibited, but was resumed

in 1921. The question of extensive irrigation works, which had been considered in the previous reign, was again investigated in 1913, and important works were started. The difficulty of obtaining steel work from abroad during the war delayed their progress but work on the Prasak scheme, estimated ta cast some 3,000,000 ticals, Was

afterwards vigorously pushed forward, and was expected to be completed in 1922.

Army and Navy—The law of 1903 making military service compulsory was revised in 1917. Every able-bodied man of 21 to 22

years of age is liable to be called to military service for a period of two years with the colours, passing afterwards into the reserve, of which there are three classes according to age. There are various

military schools for the training of officers, non-commissioned officers, aviators, military engineers, ctc., as well as a General Staff school. The arms and equipment are modern, and in 1914 4 national

cartridge factory was established. The navy ts recruited from the maritime population under the miliary service Jaw. There are some 5,000 men available for service afloat, with a reserve of 20,000. In 1920 35-knot destroyer was purchased from the British Admiralty and rechristened the "Phra Ruang.” Communicalions:—On the declaration of war the northern and southern State railways were amalgamated

under a Commisstoner-

General, H.R.H. Prince Purachatra of Kambaeng Bejra. The personnel, which had included German engineers, became chiefly Siamese, with a few engineers of Allied nationality. A standard metre auge was adopted for ali Jines. The southern Jine through the Talay Peninsula was originally constructed of metre gauge to permit of through connexion with the Federated Malay States railways.

The work of converting the northern line, frst built to the normal

pauge of 4 ft. 8} in, was begun. A through service of trains from Penang to Bangkok was opened on the southern line in 1918, and in March 1920 raithead reached the Siam-Kelantan boundary. The northern line reached Chiengmai in 1920, and the Bandara-Swanka-

lok branch was then under construction. in 1920 was:

The length of State lines

opened 2,215 km., under construction 211 km., and

under’ survey 460 km.

The average capital cost per km. of open

line was tcs. 54.584. Education.—There were in 1920 over 380,000 pupils receiving pri-

mary education, of whom 250,000 were being educated by priests in the Buddhist monasteries, 100,000 in local and private schools, and

30,000 in schools directly under the Ministry of Education.

The 1905

loan will be entirely paid off in 1945, and the 1907 loan in 1937.

dn

1909 a loan of £4,000,000, increased in 1913 to £4.750,000, was nego-

tiated with the Federated Malay States Government.

This loan

is exclusively for constructing railways in the Malay Peninsula, the

amount advanced is limited to £750,000 in any one year,-and interest is at the rate of 4°%> on the money actually received. The amount actually advanced on this account to March 31 1921 was £3,880,000,

by three delegates, who signed the general Peace

Treaty on behalf of their country.

The national debt consisted in 1921 of two sterling loans both

Siamese Government and repayable by yearly drawings.

pilot’s certificates, hostilitics ceased before the corps was prepared to commence operations. The contingent returned to Conference

During this

period the expenditure increased [rom tes. 12,847,165 to tes. 74,149,-

Second-

ary education, reaching a standard approximating to that of the London University Matriculation, is provided for by the Ministry

of Education, with 120 schools attended by 8,500 pupils, by the two

when the total debt of the kingdom stood at £7,312,560. a The mint was closed to the free coinage of silver in 1902, and, supported by the Treasury, exchange had steactiedl to around tes. 13 to

the pound sterling by 1909.

In 1917 and 1918 the rate was main-

tained at tes. 13-02 to the pound sterling, but by 191& the Treasury

had sold to the banks tes. 77,000,000, representing nearly £6,000,000 sterling. Asa result of these sales a large proportion of Treasury funds was transmitted abroad. The rise in the price of silver nearly denuded the country of silver coinage, and in 1920 the exchange rose

to tcs, 10 to the pound sterling and over. The gold standard reserve fund, established for the maintenance of the gold value of the tical,

remained untouched on March 31 1918 at £1,222,146. Trade.—For 1917-8 the valne of imports exceeded tcs. 97 million, including tes. 3} million of yold leaf and treasure. This shows an increase of some to millions over the previous vear and 22 millions

ever 1915-6. The exports amounted to tcs. 1234 million, showing an Increase over the previous year of tes. 2 million and over 1915-6

of nearly tes. 18 million.

The value of rice exported was over tcs.

7% million and of teak tes. 5} million.

Justice. ~The Penal Code became law in 1908, and the preparation

of other codes continues. All courts are under the Ministry of Justice, The judiciary is composed of native or European-trained Siamcse judges, assisted in cases where foreigners are concerned by European legal advisers In commercial cases where there is no Siamese |

statute or precedent customary law is administered. Where preccedents are wanting the Siamese courts are guided generally by English statutes and cases as circumstances admit. On the outbreak of war with Germany and Austria a prize court was established to

deal with enemy ships seized “ jure belk.”

Twenty-five enemy ves-

teks were taken, and condemned as lawful prize by this court.

Public Health Modern sanitation began in Stam in 1897 with the creation of a Public Health Department under a director-general,

assisted by a medical officer of health and a city engineer. The principal developments have been the inspection of cattle and meat and the regulation of the public abattoirs under veterinary inspec-

tion, the establishment

of infectious diseases hospitals,

medical

treatment of the insane, quarantine, registration of births and deaths,

compulsory

notification of plague

and compulsory vaccination and An

efficient

public-health

the department.

and

cerebro-spinal

revaccination

laboratory

has

been

against

smallpox.

organized

under

Bangkok is now efficiently drained and lighted.

Pure filtered water is supplied from the Government

New

diseases,

water

works.

roads have been cut through congested districts, and num-

erous bridges have been built over the canals which

intersect the

with broad roads lined with trees.

(A.C. Cad

city, On the outskirts new residential quarters have been laid out,

SIBELIUS, JEAN JULIUS CHRISTIAN (1865), Finnish musical composer, was born at Tavastehus, Finland, Dec. 186s.

Ie was educated at Helsingfors, and later studied music at Berlin and Vienna. In 1916 he became a professor of literature at Helsingfors. Ilis orchestral works include “Romance in C” (1890); Karelia (1893); Friühlingslicd (1893); Finlandia (1905) and five symphonies (1897, 1901, 1905, 1910, 1915). He also composed many songs and pianoforte pieces, His music to the tragedy Kuolema (1904) contains the “Valse triste,” which has gained wide popularity. In 1921 he visited England and produced his sth symphony. SIBERIA (sce 23.10).—The name Siberia now generally excludes the Steppe provinces but includes Kamchatka and Russian Sakhalin. Little progress has been made in the mapping of the wide tracts between the great rivers or the mountainous regions in

the south.

Even in the existing maps of southern Siberia little

reliance can be placed on the detail except near the railway.

There are no large scale maps of northern Siberia.

The whole

Royal Pages’ schools and King's College, under the direct patron-

course of the Yenisei river has been mapped ona large scale,

Chulalongkorn University was opened at Bangkok with four Faculties— Medicine, Arts and Science, Engineering and Political Science.

exploration in the Amur basin and some parts of the upper Lena basin has resulted in accurate maps.

age of the King, and by certain missionary schools. It includes hostels for 100 resident undergraduates.

In 1917 the

the shores of Lake Baikal have been surveyed and geological

SIBERIA Kamchatka contains a notable range of volcanoes which forms

part of the Pacific ring. Forty have been located of which 14 are active. The loftiest active volcano, the loftiest mountain in Siberia, is Klyuchevskaya, 16,130 fect. Koryatskaya is 11,522 feet. Investigations in Lake Baikal have shown that there are three basins of unequal extent and depth. The southerly basin has an extreme depth of 791 fathoms, and is separated by a shoal ridge of jess than 300 fathoms from the middle and most extensive basin which reaches 832 fathoms in depth. The northern basin does not exceed 540 fathoms. On the W. of the lake the deep water goes inshore but on the E. the coastal waters are shoal. The area of the

Jake is 13,200 sq. m.; its surface is 1,561 ft, above sea level. — New surveys of the Arctic coast by Tolmachev, Vilkitski and others have resulted in considerable modifications in the chart. Shitkov explored the Yamal peninsula and cleared up some doubtful oints in its hydrography. The small islands between the Gulf of

Venice! and Taimir peninsula have proved to be more numerous

than was supposed and Taimir Gulf has been found to be relatively narrow. Cape Chelyuskin lies in lat. 77°42’ N. Nikolas Land and other islands have been discovered to the N.W. of this cape, and new discoveries have been made in the New Siberia and Wrangel Is. (see ARCTIC Recions). There is still some doubt about the configuration of the coast-line between Cape Chelyuskin and the Lena delta. Hydrographical surveys have resulted in the discovery of some harbours on the Arctic coast including several in Taimir Land;

Tiski Bay, E. of the Lena delta; and Chaun Bay in long. 170° E.

467

North of lat. 58° N. in western Siberia, and lat. 54° N. in eastern

Siberia, there are very few Russians permanently settled. Total exemption from military service and other privileges which the State offered colonists in the lower valleys of the Yenisei and Lena did not succeed in attracting many settlers. The migration of Chinese anc Korcans

to the Amur

and

Ussuri

valleys

and

the

Transbaikal region was marked for many years. The Chinese came as temporary labourers but the Koreans were more inclined to become permanent settlers. Japanese artizans are found throughout eastern Siberia. In 1914 the Russian Government was making attempts to exclude Asiatics at the same time that it offered inducement to Russians to settle in the Far East.

Native Races —While

no strictly ethnological

classification of

Siberian natives is yet possible, it is recognized that the tribes of the extreme N. and E., even if they differ from one another, have certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from later ar-

rivals in Siberia,

For these earlier tribes, who may possibly have

migrated to Siberia from America at a very early period, the name Palaesiasts is used by Schrenk and Palaco-Siberian by Czaplicka. For later tribes the term Neo-Siberian has supplanted Ural-Altaians to which there are linguistic and cthnological objections, Czaplicka classihes the native tribes of Siberia as follows, taking numerical

statistics from Patkanov, who based his estimates on the census of 1897 which gives the latest trustworthy data: I. Palaeo Siberians. i. Chukchee; in north-eastern Siberia, 11,77! wu. Koryak; S. of the Chukchee, 7,335. Hi. Kamechadal; southern part of Kamchatka, 2,805. iv. Ainu; in southern Sakhalin and Yezo, 1,457. vy. Gilyak; near Amur mouth and in northern Sakhalin, 4,649.

Surveys in the Sea of Okhotsk have shown that the best harbours are Yamskava Bay; Ola Bay, off Taui Bay; and Port Ayan. Okvi. Eskimo; shores of Bering Strait, 1,307 (in Asia). vii. Aleut; hotsk is falling into decay owing to its poor site. In Kamchatka in Aleutian Is., 574. viii. Yukaghir; between the lower Yana and Baron Korfa Gulf has been found to contain several good harbours. lower Kolima, 754. ix. Chuvanzy; S. of Chaun Bay, 453. x. In the Maritime province the best harbours, in addition to Peter the Great Bay, are de Castries Bay, Imperial Bay and Olga Bay. De Ostyak of Yenisci; on the lower Yenisci, 988. II. Neo-Siberians. Castries Bay, a little S, of the Amur mouth, affords a far better | i. Finnic tribés (2) Ugrian Ostvak; lower and middle Ob, 17,221. (b) Vogul or Maniza; middle Ob, 7,476. ìi. Samoyedic tribes; in and more accessible harbour than the Amur estuary. The Tartar from Europe to Khatanga mouth, 12,502, ti. Turkic harbours are closed by ice from Nov. to April or May and the far tribes (mainly outside Siberia) (a) Yakut; from the Lena to the Amur Okhotsk harbours for a month or two longer. Population —There has heen no census since 1897 but in 1915 the and Sakhalin, 226,739. (2) Turco-lartars of Tobolsk and Tomsk, 176,124. iv. Mongolic tribes (¢) Kalmuk or Eleut; aac Ps all pop. was estimated at 10,377,900 on the basis of the last census and c uryat; | outside Siberia (b) Mongols proper or Kalkha, 402. the yearly rate of increase. It was distributed as follows:— around Lake Baikal, 288,599. v. Tunguskic tribes (a) a ies far eastern Siberia, 62,008. (0) other Tunguskic tribes, totalling Dens14,439, viz. Chapogir: on the lower Tunguska; Goldi: on the lower Population ?| ity per Governments and Provinces! | “7am Amur; Lamut: on the shores of Sea of Okhotsk; Monagir: on the Sq. mM, sg. m.

Tobolsk (Govt.) Tomsk (Govt.) Irkutsk (Govt.) Yeniscisk (Govt.)

£

533,739 327,173

:

280,429

4 @& 4 e

Yakutsk (prov.)

«

Transbaikalia (prov.) Amur (prov.) A ar. ue Maritime or Primorsk (prov.)

Kamchatka (prov.)

Sakhalin (prov.)..'

Br

«

od

4

Total

middle Amur; Oroche: E. of the lower Amur; Orochon: on the Olekma; Oroke: in Sakhalin; and Solon: S. of the middle Amur. Tribes who live in the more fertile parts seem to be increasing in numbers but those who occupy the more barren regions of the N. are dwindling. The natives probably do not exceed one million. There is much disease, particularly among the native tribes, although the climate itself is not unhealthy. In addition to goitre, leprosy occurs in the Lena and Amur valleys and elsewhere. Small-

2,085,700

4,053,700

821,800

981,607 1,530,253 238,308 154,795 266,456 902,424

I,143,900

14,668

971,700 261,500 631,600 41,600 34,000

4,831,882

10,378,100

332,600

pox is endemic in many parts and tuberculosis is prevalent, Cholera



3 These indicate the administrative divisions in force under the empire. The present (1921) divisions are uncertain and unstable.

2 The pop. estimates are probably somewhat too high.

The two Steppe provinces, Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk, which are geographically part of Siberia, though they were administratively distinct under the late imperial regime, have a combined

area of

403,394 sq. m. and an estimated pop. (1915) of 2,421,400. The figures given above include native tribes (sce below). Colonization.—The Russians number over 85% of the total pop. of Siberia as a whole and about 93% of the total pop. of western Siberia Asiatic

(Tobolsk and Tomsk). The number of settlers entering Russia (including the Steppe provinces) from Russia in

Europe rose from 141,000 in 1906 to 619,000 in 1909,

For some

years after there was a decline, due, it is said, to a succession of good

harvests in southern Russia: in 1912 and 1913 the annual immigration was little over 200,000. In 1914 it was 242,000. From 1906 to

1914

nearly

2,000,000

3.000,000

of whom

went

Russians

entered

to Siberia.

The

Asiatic

Siberian

is never absent in the Far East and occasionally assumes the proPlague sometimes enters from Manchuria. Venereal diseases are rampant throughout Siberia. A curious

hw PC oCwabOmh portions of an epidemic. oV AODA

Russia,

railway

about zone

continued to attract most settlers in western and central Stberia but many went to the Baraba steppe, the Altai region and the district round Minusinsk and the upper Yenisei. The Uryankhai region around the head streams of the Yenisei in the Sayansk mountains, which is nominally part of outer Mongolia under the suzerainty of China, contains many Russian settlers and for some vears has been

more or less under Russian control. In Transbaikalia much land is occupied by Cossacks and their descendants, and natives (largely Burvyats), but in the upper Amur and the Ussuri valleys there are considcrable areas of Russian settlement. The efforts, however, that were made by the State before 1917 to attract colonists to the Amur and Maritime provinces met with somewhat meagre response. Attempts to colonize Kamchatka have been practically abandoned and for many years Russian Sakhalin has failed to attract settlers.

nervous affection known as Arctic hysteria is common among the natives of the far north. It is not infrequently associated with melancholia and suicide. The hysterical manifestation of Shamanism may not impossibly be associated with this nervous affliction. Education. —The last statistics date from I912 when there were 6,245 schools in Siberia with a total of 341,271 pupils. The number

of pupils per 1,000 of the pop. was thirty-six.

Out of every 100 per-

sons under nine years of age only 16 could read and write. Towns.—Towns situated on or near the railway. have grown rapidly but others have made little or no progress, In 1914 towns

with a pop. of 10,000 or over numbered at least 21 compared with 17 in 1900; but estimates of the pop. of Siberian towns vary con-

siderably and must be accepted with reserve. The largest towns are Tomsk (112,000) and, Irkutsk (113,000), the capitals of western and eastern Siberia respectively. Omsk (128,000) is really a Siberian town but actually within the Steppes. Other large towns in western Siberia are: Novo-Nikolaevsk (63,000), a centre of rapid growth situated where the Siberian railway crosses the Ob; Barnaul (52,000) and Biisk (28,000), both centres in the rich Altai region. Kurgan (35,000) on the Tobol, a great agricultural market; Tyumen (30,000) now on the railway and a focus for trade between Russia and Siberia; Tobolsk (21,000), a declining fur and fish market on the Irtish; Kolivan (13,000) on the Ob, with agricultural interests; Mariinsk (13,000), a mining centre on the railway and Achinsk (10,000) a little farther east. In castern Siberia other important towns are: the great port of Vladivostok (95,000); the two Amur ports and agricultural centres,’ Blagovyeshchensk (76,000) and Khabarovsk (53,500); Chita (73,000) with growing agricultural and commercial interests; Krasnoyavsk (73,000), the chief river and railway port of the Yenisci; Nikolsk-Ussuriski (34,700), a msing industrial and railway centre 70 m. from Vladivostok; Nikolaevsk (12,500), the port at the Amur mouth; the two mining centres on the Yenisei, Minusinsk (14,000) with agricultural interests, and Yeniscisk (10,000); Kansk (10,000) on the upper Yenisei and Siberian railway; Stryctensk (10,000), at the head of the Amur-Shilka navi-

SIBERIA

468

Salmon caviar to the extent of 2,477 tons was exported from the same districts. Salmon-canning is a new industry: in 1913 the outin Transbaikalia. ‘The towns of the far N, are smal! and primitive. Yakutsk, a fur-trading centre on the Lena, has a Pr of 8,200 and put from Kamchatka was over 500,000 tins, and from the lower Verkhoyansk, on the Yana, only 450. The pop. of S redne-Kolimsk, | Amur 100,000 tins. Attempts to send frozen fish from the Amur to Europe met with some success when begun in 1913. The fisheries on the Kolima, which is the largest centre in the N.E. of Siberia, of Russian Sakhalin are losing their importance. In the Sea of is 650. Petropavlovsk, the capital of Kamchatka, has fallen to some 500; Alexandrovsk, the capital of Russian Sakhalin, about 6,000, japan the herring-fishing from Imperial and Peter the Great bays

gation; and Verkhne-Udinsk (9,500), a railway and industrial centre

a figure, however, which includes more natives than Russians; and

Okhotsk to less than three hundred. Agriculture.—In western Siberia about 17,000 sq. m. are under crops (1913) but there are still great_areas of natural grassland

waiting for cultivation. In eastern Siberia agriculture has not made great progress except in the southern Ussuri plain: natural grasslands are scarce but there are many forest areas on the Amur which, if cleared, would afford good agricultural land. The area

under crops in eastern Siberia is 2,800 sq. m. (1913). Agricultural methods in the W. have undergone some improvement, through the use of fertilizers and the importation of American agricultural

machinery.

Many flour-mills have been erected.

Western Siberia

sends its surplus wheat to Russia and eastern Siberia. The latter region also imports corn from Manchuria. In 1913 the total ccreal

production of Siberia was 68,200 cwt, and the average annual pro-

duction (1908-13) was 50,200 cwt,

Land. Tenure.—After the revolution of 1917 the State became the owner of all land in Siberia except some 5,000,000 ac. granted to Cossacks or other private persons. All other holders of land are

is growing in value.

Timber.—Siberian forests of commercial timber are estimated

to cover about 470,000 sq. m. or about one-tenth of the total area

of the country, but owing to absence of transport facilities only 150,-

oou sq. m. are considered to be exploitable, In western Siberia there is little trade in timber and the demands for home use and the havoc

of forest fires are decreasing the available supply.

The principal

saw-mills are at Tobolsk, Tyumen, Omsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk and Tomsk. In eastern Siberia the timber industry is confined to the Amur and Maritime provinces except in respect of the demand for:

fuel for railway, industrial and domestic purposes. The principal saw-mills are at Irkutsk, Blagovyeshchensk, Nikolaevsk, Imperial Bay, Vladivostok and Alexandrovsk (Sakhalin). Export is from

Vladivostok, Imperial, Olgi and Posiet bays to Australia, the British Isles and Japan. Before the war great efforts were being made to

encourage this trade. Muinerals.—Gold is the most important mineral in Siberia. The Lena drainage area, especially the valleys of the Olekma and Vitim,

is considered to be the richest gold-producing area in the world. All

tenants of the State, enjoying in some cases hereditary leases. The State ownership would seem to apply also to minerals, timber, fish-

the gold worked is alluvial and the annual yield (1916) was some

Live Stock.—The rearing of live stock has made more progress than agriculture. In 1913 the Steppe towns of Petrepavlovsk and Omsk had become great centres for the export of meat to European Russia, drawing a large part of their supply fromthe Tomsk province. In the Transbaikal, Amur, and Maritime provinces cattle-breeding promises to attain greater importance than agriculture, but the meat supply of eastern Siberia is partly dependent on imports from

town of Zeya Pristan on the Zeya is the principal mining centre on the middle Amur. The Bureya valley is also rich in gold. On the lower Amur there are rich gold-fields near Lake Chyla. The Amur gold is alluvial and most of it is very fine. British interests control the principal goid-fields of both the Lena and Amur basins.

central Siberia holds promise of much wool production in the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk provinces. Pig-breeding is a growing industry in western and central Siberia and by 1914 bacon exports had become important. Reindcer-breeding is the chief occupation of most of the far northern tribes. Maral deer and other species

able deposits in the Abakan valicy. In western Siberia the gold out-

eries and water power but some concessions have been recognized in favour of foreigners.

Manchuria.

The successful acclimatization of the merino sheep in

of wapiti are bred in the Altai, the Maritime province and elsewhere

for their horns, which to the Chinese have a reputed medicinal value. The official figures (in round numbers} for the number of live stock in Siberia in 1911 and 1914 are as follows :—

Horned

Horses - 4,598,000 840,000

Sheep and

cattle

goats

5,719,000

5,250,000

6,5

5.74

1,000

000

Pigs

In

Igl2 there were 1,060 co6perative dairies in the Tobolsk province,

and 2,042 in the Tomsk province. The export of butter from western Siberia reached 35,000 tons in 1903 and 76,000 tons in 1913: in the latter year the home consumption accounted for an additional 75,000 tons. The industry is of less importance in eastern Siberia. iTunting.The fur industry retains great importance and was much stimulated during the early years of the World War by the high price of. skins. But decrease of game is causing hunting in many parts of the N, to take a secondary place to fishing and reindeer-breeding, The sable became so scarce that from 1913 to

1916 its slaughter was forbidden. The white fox is becoming rare, The principal fur fairs are at Irbit (Feb.) and Yakutsk (July), but

Nikolaevsk

and. Anyui are also

fre-

quented by traders in search of furs. Yakutsk kas also a trade in fossil ivory from the New Siberia Is.: in 1913 nearly 20 tons were

sold. In order to prevent their extermination the few seals of the Commander Is. were protected for five years from 1912. Fishing.—In western Siberia the most important fisheries are

on the Ob. Tobolsk is the headquarters of the industry: Obdorsk, Beresov, Surgut and Narim are also important centres. At least

10,000 men take part in the fishery and the annual catch is about 15,000 tons. On the upper Irtish Pavlodar and Lake Zaisan are

centres of fishing. The fisheries of the lower Yenisei send S. about

3,000 tons every year.

In Lake Baikal there are valuable fisheries

both in summer and, through the ice, in winter.

In the Lena and

Kolima regions the natives live chiefly on fish but lack of transport

facilities prevents cxport.

put is declining but, as placer mining gives way to quartz crushing, shows prospect of reviving. Quartz veins are rich in the neighbourhood of Ust-Kamenogorsk and Lake Zaisan. The gold-bearing

rocks in Siberia as a whole, including the Urals, are estimated to

cover over 800,000 sq. miles.

The total output of gold in 1913 was

estimated at 1,500,000 oz., of which over 90% was from eastern

Siberia; but there is reason to doubt the accuracy of official figures. In the same year the number of men employed in the gold industry in Siberia was 56,400. Climate, labour and transport, apart from political difficulties, afford obstacles in the development of the

but numerous rich deposits are known to exist in the Altai region and around Nerchinsk. The production of zinc has increased, largely

1,428,000

The dairy industry has devcloped quickly, fostered by State en-

Ishim, Blagovyeshchensk,

Gold is reported from several places on the Sea of Okhotsk, in the Chukchee peninsula and in the Anadir region. The output in Transbaikalia is falling off. In the Yeniseisk region there are valu-

industry. The output of silver has shown a decline for many years,

I, 126,000

couragement and the export facilities afforded by the railway.

400,000 oz, Bodaibo, connected by rail to the Vitim, is the centre of the industry. The gold-felds of the Amur valley when fully explored will probably prove to be even greater in extent. The new

Fisheries in the Amur, Okhotsk and

Kamchatka regions steadily increase in importance. The fish are mainly species of salmon but not the same as those in western Siberia. The fisheries are largely in Japanese hands but legislation in 1899 restricted to Russians all fisheries in the Amur and its estuuary. In 1913 the mouths of certain rivers on the Okhotsk and Kamchatka coasts were closed to all fishing in order to conserve the fisheries. In 1913 the Okhotsk and Kamchatka fisheries resulted in a

total catch of 46,000,000 salmon, most of which went to Japan,

due to the rich Tyutikha mines in the Priamur. Lead is obtained from these mines and also from the Altai mountains and Ust Orlinskava on the Lena. Zinc and lead mines at Riderski in the Altai are linked to the Irtish by a 70-m. narrow-gauge railway. Tin occurs in the Onon valley in Transbaikalia, but it is little worked. New deposits of graphite have been reported from Cape Dezhneva on Bering Strait. Copper occurs mainly in the Urals and in the Karkaralinsk district oe the Kirghiz steppes, both of which regions are outside Siberia proper. There has been little if any progress in the production of iron except in the Urals, but valuable deposits of iron ore are reported in the Amgun valley near the Amur mouth, in the

vicinity of Vladimir and Olgi Bays in the Priamur, in many parts

of the Altai and near Karkaralinsk in the Steppes. Considerable coal deposits of varying quality have been located, but comparatively few are mined. Want of markets and transport facilities are drawbacks even where the coal is of good quality. The most prom-

ising deposits are the Kuznctsk beds in the Altai region which contain

coking coal; beds around Cheremkhovskoe, 70 m. W. of Irkutsk, where some 5,000,000 tons of lignitic coal are mined annually, principally for use on the railway; the Suchan mines, 60 m. from

America Bav, on the Sea of Japan, and the Mongugai beds near Amur

Bay on the Tartary coast. The Mongugai beds and those at Due in Sakhalin both consist of good anthracitic coal but neither is seriously worked. Coal in the Amur and Lena valleys and Transbaikalia 1s chiefly lignitic. There are large deposits of lignite at Baron Korfa Gulf in Kamchatka. In the Kirghiz steppe coking coal is worked at

Ekibas-tuse.

The mines, which are controlled by a British company

arc connected with the Irtish at Yermak by a railway 70 m. in jength. Petroleum-bearing strata exist on the eastern shores of Lake Baikal and near Nabilski Bay in Sakhalin, but the oil is not exploited. Manufactures.—Manufactures on a large scale have made little progress except in engineering works and repair shops for the railways. The competition of the Ural iron foundries, which have

better transport

facilities,

has adversely

affected the Siberian

foundries, but a few persist, notably at Petrovsk in Transbaikalia, Blagovveshchensk and Tyumen. At Ekibas-tuse in the Steppes the

zinc and lead ores from the Riderski mine are smelted. Some river

ports, as Khabarovsk, Blagovyeshchensk, build and repair vessels.

SICKERT—SIDGWICK, A. Tanneries, tallow factories. brickworks and breweries are widely scattered. Only 7-6°% of the pop. is estimated to be engaged in manufacturing industry (1914). ,

Communications. —Eforis to open up communication with Siberia by its northward flowing rivers and the Arctic Ocean have

met with some success, but access by this route is possible only in the height of summer. Experience has shown that during Aug. and Sept. ice seklom presents any rea) difficulty in the Kara Sea and a steamer can rely on making the estuary ot the Ob cr Yenisei. One or two vessels take this route annually. Along the castern part of the

Arctic coast the only regular navigation is by occasional vessels between the mouth of the Kolima and Viadivostok. The Ob affords 17,000 m. of navigable waterways, but the delta impedes communication with the Arctic Ocean. Seagoing vessels

ean reach Obdorsk, but large vessels have to lie at Nakhodka Bay in the Gulf of Ob. River steamers ascend the Ob to Biisk, 2,059 m. from the sea, and the Irtish to Lake Zaisan, 3,100 m. from the sea.

The Ob-Yenisei canal between the Ket and the Kas is acces-ible

only to small barges. In 1915 there were 350 steamers and several hundred barges on the Ob and its tributaries. The Yenisei js navigated to Minusinsk, 2,045 m. from the mouth. Small seagoing vessels can reach Yeniscisk, but larger vessels discharge and load at Golchikha (Ghilghila) in the delta. The Yenisei is the only Siberian river for which sailing directions and large-scale charts are published.

Beacons and buoys assist navigation: In 1915 there were 60 steamers on the Yenisei. Tbe tributaries are of litle value for navigation, The Lena has a navigable lcngth of 2,760 m, to Kachugskoc, 230 m. from Irkutsk, the nearest point on the railway, In 1914 there were some 30 steamers on the river, mainly between Yakutsk aned Vitimsk. The Vilyui, Aldan and Vitim are tributarics on which a

few steamers ply. The Amur with the Shilka is navigable for 2,000 m. to Stryetensk on the Siberian railway. There are many sandbanks, but vessels drawing 3 ft. can make the whole journey. The river is buoyed and marked and supplied with a few dredgers. Seagoing

vessels stop at Nikolaevsk in the delta, but if the stream was dredged in a few places they could reach Khabarovsk. In 1916 there were about 400 steamers and several thousand harges on the Amur and its navigable tributaries. Practically all the vessels were Russian, although Chinese vessels have cqual rights down to Khabarovsk, On the Sungari, the Manchurian tnbutary of the Amur, there is Chinese and Japanese shipping. The Ussuri is navigable throughout its length. Steamers ascend the Ussuri and Sungacha to KamenRibolov, on Lake Khanka, 500 m. from Khabarovsk. Navigation on Lake Baikal has become less important since the construction of the

systems join at Kyakhta.

469 Wireless telegraph stations exist in many

places in the far N., and in 1916 were working at Cape Mare Sale

in the Yamal peninsula; Dickson I. at the Yenisei mouth; Novo-

Mariinsk

and

Markovò

on the Anadir;

Gizhiga Bay; Okhotsk:

Khabarovsk; Nikolaevsk; Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka; Iman on

the Ussuri and Vladivostok.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J.

f

F. Baddeley, Russia, Mongolia and China,

A.D. 1602-1676 (with many maps of northern Asia during the AVI. and XVIS. centuries. 2 vols., 1919); A. M. Stanilovski, “Lake Baikal,” in Isvestia Imp. Russ. Geog., East Sib. Sect. No. 7. (1912, in Russian); B. M. Shitkov, ‘ The Yamal Peninsula,” in Zap. Imp. Russ. Geog. Soc. Gen. Geog. 49 (1913, in Russian); J. G. Grand, Les formes de relief dans I’Altai Kusse "in Fennia, 40, No. 2 (1919); Explorations géologiques dans les régions auriféres de la

Sibérie (varous volumes and dates, in Russian with French sum-

maries); V. Shostakovich, " Temperature of Rivers of Siberia,” in Zap. on Ilydrography, 33 (1911, in Russian); Zhe Jesup North Pacific Expedition (1904-11), various volumes, mainly ethnological and anthropological; Central Statistical Committee's Year Book J914 (1915); S. Patkanoff, Statistical data for the racial composition

of the population ef Siverta (1912, in Russian); M. A. Czaplicka,

Aboriginal Siberia (1915), with a full bibliography; A. Schultz, “ Die Verteilung des Landbesitzes in Sibirien” (with maps) in Petermanns Milleilungen, 66, p. 252 (1912); V. Rodevich, “ The Uriankhanski District and its Inhabitants " in fsvestta Imp. Russ. Geog. Soc. 48, pp. 129-188 (in Russian). For a recent account of Siberia, with maps, see Handbook of Siberia and Arctic Russia, LD. 1207 (prepared by N.L.D. Admiralty, 1918) and Atlas of A static Russia, with three volumes of text (1914, in Russian), More gencral books include:—M.

Wright

and

RB. Digby,

Ural bis Sachalin (1913);

G. Price, Siberia

Through Stberia F. Nansen,

(1912); R. L.

(1913); O. Goebel,

Von

Through Siberia (1914, with

a valuable appendix on the Kara Sea) and “ The Sea Route to Siberia" in Geographical Journal (May 1914); M. D. Haviland, A Summer on the Yenisei (1915); M. A. Czaplicka, My Siberian Year (1910); L W. Shklovsky, Ju Far North Fast Siberia (1916); K. Wie-

denfeld, Srbirien in Kultur und Wirtschaft (1916).

(R. N, R. B.)

SICKERT, WALTER RICHARD (1860~ ), British painter, was born at Munich, May 3: 1860, the son of the painter, Oswald Adalbert Sickert, a well-known contributor to Fliegende

Bldlter, and grandson

of Johannes

Sickert

of Altona,

railway round the southern end. In addition to two powerful icebreakers there are about 12 steamers on the Jake, some of which

painter and lithagrapher. Walter Sickert studied painting and etching under Whistler in Tite Street, Chelsea, but in 1885, following the advice of Degas, began to paint from drawings

with

instead of from nature.

ascend ihe Selenga. lighthouses.

The shores of Lake Daikal are well provided

The best harbors are Baranchuk

on

the

west

and Misovski on the east. Both are provided with breakwaters and wharves and are on the Siberian railway. In 1916 the railway mileage in Siberia was approximately 6,800 m., not counting the Chinese astern (trans-Manchurian) railway, The Amur railway was built between 1908 and 1916. It marks a reversion to the course originally projected for a railway to the Pacific and provides a through route independent of Chinese territory. The Amur railway is a single track linking Kuenga via the Amur valley with Khabarovsk, 1,295 m.; the embankments and bridge piers are built for a double track. There are branches to the Shilka river at Chasovaya,

and

to the Amur

at Reinova,

Chernyaeva,

Blagovyeshchensk, Innokentievskaya, and Pashkova. The bride across the Amur at Khabarovsk is 7,038 ft. in length and has 22 spans. In western Siberia the line from Petrograd to Tyumen has

been extended via Ishim to Omsk on the origina! Siberian line. A bne from Ekaterinberg destined to reach Tobolsk goes via Irbit and

ends at Saitkovo on the Tavda river. The Altai railway from Novo-

Nikolaevsk to Barnaul (with a branch to Biisk) and Semipalatinsk, 408 m., was opened in 1915. it serves mining and agricultural intercsts in one of the most promising parts of western Siberia, The new line from Achinsk to Minusinsk, 300 m., opens a rich agricultural district in the valley of the upper Yenisei and tributaries. From Tatarskaya, 105 m. E, of Omsk, a line goes S. to Slavgorod, 196 m., in a region which in 1913 was attracting settlers. From Yurga, 385 m. W. of Krasnoyarsk, a line to Kolchugino, 200 m., taps rich coal-felds. These two tines were built by private enterprise. The Siberian railway is now double-tracked from Omsk to Narimskaya where the Stryetensk and Amur fine begins. Some of the bridges still require tọ be widened. There is a double track from NikolskUssuriski, the junction of the Ussuri and Chinese Eastern railways, to Vladivostok. A line 93 m. long connects the Suchan coat-mines with Vladivostok, During the years 1915-6 the Siberian rollingstock was much increased from the United States, and new railway shops were crected at Pervaya Ryeka near Vladivostok, The telegraph system has been extended into Arctic Siberia; lines follow the Ob to Beresov, the Yenisei to Turukhansk and the Lena to Yakutsk and Vilyuisk. There are lines from Yakutsk to Okhotsk and from Khabarovsk to Nikolaevsk with connexion to Sakhalin. The Sibertan telegraph system is linked via Semipalatinsk with that of Turkestan, and via Chuguchak with that of Mongolia,

A second hne to Mongolia between Kosh Agach, on the frontier, and Kobde was incomplete in 1921, The Siberian and Chinese

His first work on these lines, ‘‘ Mam-

moth Comique,” was published in the Yellow Book. The dramatic quality of his work owes much to his study of the technique of wood engraving and to his interest in the work of John Leech and Charles Keene, while he was also much influenced by Wilhelm Busch (see 4-869) and Adolf Oberlander (see 19.046), His subject pictures include ‘‘ Mamma mia po’ areta ” (1903), “ Noctes Ambrosianae ” (1906), “The Camden Town Murder ” (1906), “ Army and Navy”

(1913), ‘‘ Ennui”

(ror), “ Sinn

Fein” (1915), ‘‘ Pierrots on Brighton Beach at Night ” (1015), “* Baccarat at Dieppe” (1920) and ‘‘ Supper at the Casino” (1920). He also produced some architectural paintings, including ‘Hotel Royal, Dieppe” (roo), “ Miracoli” (1903), “Lansdowne Crescent” (1017) and “Pulteney Bridge” (1018), while his best known landscapes are “ The Happy Valley” (1919) and “ The Priory of Auberville ” (1919).

Examples of

his work are in the British Muscum, Tate Gallery, Bibliothégue

Nationale, the Luxemburg and the art galleries of Manchester and Johannesburg. He became a member of the Société du Salon d’Automne, the Society of Twelve and the International Society, and was a fellow of the Royal Society of Painters, Etchers and Engravers. As a teacher he exercised a strong influence over the younger school of British painters. SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825-1014), American soldier

and diplomatist (sce 25.36), died in New York City, May 3 1914. In 1912 after having served for more than a quarter of a century as chairman of the New York Monuments Commission he was removed following the discovery of a shortage of $27,000.

His last years were disturbed by financial difficulties. SIDGWICK,

ARTHUR

(1830-1920),

English

scholar

(see

25.39), was in his jater years an ardent advocate of the abolition of compulsory Greek at Oxford, both in the interest of the classics and with the view of extending the fticld whence the university.shotld draw its students. He was also a warm supporter of the admission of women to the university degrees, as he

SIDGWICK—SIEGECRAFT

470

had previously been both of woman

suffrage and indeed of al}

aspects of the higher education of women.

He died at Oxford,

Sept. 25 1920. ¢ His elder brother, WittiaAM Carr SipGwick (1834-1919), also a classical scholar and fellow of Merton College, Oxford, died at Rugby, Oct. 18 1919. SIDGWICK, ELEANOR MILDRED (1845~ }, British educationalist, was born in Scotland, March 11 1845, the daughter of

James Balfour of Whittingehame and his wife Lady Blanche Cecil. She was thus the sister of Mr. Arthur James Balfour. She was educated at home, and in 1876 married the philosopher Henry Sidgwick (sce 25.39). Mr. and Mrs. Sidgwick were both much interested in the advancement of the higher education of

women, and were actively concerned in the founding (1880) of Newnham College, Cambridge, of which Miss Clough was the first principal. On the death of Miss Clough in 1892, Mrs. Sidgwick succeeded her as principal, and retained the position until

1910. In that year she retired, and until 1919 was bursar of the college. Mrs. Sidgwick shared her husband’s interest in psychical phenomena, andin 1910 became secrctary of the Society for Psychical Research. SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE.—Thce earlier article on FORTIFICATION (10.679) reviews the prevailing ideas of defence against siege-warfare Just before the World War.

Opinion was

then still unsettled on fundamental points, as well as on those differences

im

arrangement

of

the

available

elements

of

AND SIEGE WARFARE means of a masking force—eliminated as a factor in the campaign. Cases indeed remained, and still remain, of “ obligatory points

of passage,” where local control of the route by means of fortification implies strategic control of the adjacent regions which are limited for their intercommunication to that route. Especially is this true still of rail communication.

But in the main, armies

and their transport can, in present-day west and central Europe,

move where they will, except through areas directly under the tactical control of fortifications. Further, the rapidity of communication as well as the wealth of routes enables a modern state to concentrate its defensive forces in the threatened region far more rapidly than of old, and the necessity for fixed defences, to gain time for the assembly of mobile forces, steadily declined. (d) The development of the technique and manufacture of weapons of war, from about 1860, became so rapid that permanent fortifications of any given design were liable, like modern warships, to fall into obsolescence after a brief life of usefulness which

contrasted sadly with the long carcer of a place like the old citadel of Antwerp, built in 1567 and besieged with al] the forms and means of siegecraft in 1832. Three out of four of these operating causes, it will be noted, are extrinsic, and one only intrinsic.

In the case of the latter,

operating alone, it is easy to conceive of a sort of ducl between the gun constructor and the military engineer, analogous to the continued contest of gun versus armour plate. Few fortresses have

defence which have always divided the military engincering

ever had the good fortune to be fully up to date in design and

world into two or more Schools.

equipment at the moment of siege. The reply of the French engineer who was asked what he would do if the Germans made the length of their scaling ladders greater than the depth of his

In the earlier days, Vauban and

his competitors might disagree as to design, but they were in agreement as to purpose; and even at a later date, when the “bastion” school carried on its controversies with the “ polygonal ” or caponnière school, there was complete unity as to the necessity of permanent fortifications and substantial unity as to their functions. But the economic history of the roth century, and the military history of its latter half, had brought the principles as well as the practice of fortification into the melting-pot. Amongst many reasons for this, the following were the more important:— {a} The increased size of armies, made possible by the credit

system of finance, the universal service system of recruiting, the industrial system which could arm them, and the road and rail system which enabled them to disperse without risk in order to feed on the countryside, or to remain massed Without starving through a breakdown of convoys, or both. This increased size soon reached a point at which the oldfashioned fortress ceased to be an adequate base for the army's depots, or an adequate shelter in which to refit after defeat. There were signs of this even in 1870, although by that date the fortress had expanded into an entrenched camp of large perimeter, and between 1870 and 1014 the scale of field artillery, field transport and field ammunition for a given force, was practically doubled. (b) The character of war, as between “armed nations,” in

which, in principle, a speedy decision by battle was sought at all costs, whereas warfare between the old professional armies had been prolonged from campaign to campaign. The objects sought by each side were now rather spiritual than material, or at any rate more general than local; and the fortress, which used to be judged according to the degree of protection tt gave to the material objects of enemy desire—a city, a province, a port— came to be judged according to the degree in which it aided or impeded the manccuvres of a field army seeking to win the war in battle.

The task of fortification thus became much Jess posi-

tive and definite, and a programme of works took on a somewhat speculative character, (©

Development of communications, which, besides the effects

referred to under (a), had that of making civilized countries

everywhere or nearly everywhere penetrable. The fortress as conceived of in the 18th and early roth century, therefore, no longer exercised any power of control beyond the range of its guns or the striking radius of its semi-mobile garrison. And it could easily he “ turned,” and then either enveloped or—by

ditches, expresses an inevitable condition of permanent fortifica-

tion design. “ Tt will always be easier,” he said, "for the Germans to make scaling ladders than for me to dig ditches.” Simi-

larly, it will always be easier to make a new gun that will cut

through a given thickness of concrete or armour than to increase the latter. For—questions of expense apart—the fort is a permanent sentry guarding against surprise, and the reconstruction

of its works isa heavy piece of enginecring which not only takes

time but frequently renders them uscless for the period of the repairs. Thus, in 1914, war surprised the fortress of Belfort

when four of its principal works were under reconstruction. And if, as is generally the case, the programme of reconstruction is so drawn up as to minimize these risks, some part of the fortification system is sure to be obsolescent at any given

moment.

At any such moment, then, the question js not whether

the means of attack have the upper hand—practically this is almost always the case-—but whether the superiority is of such an order that the fortress or fort is useless. The new long-ranging

powers of siege artillery in 1870, subjecting the area inira muros to concentric bombardment by an indefinitely numerous attacking artillery, and the demolishing powers of the superheavy siege howitzers evolved in Germany and Austria between

1900

and 1914—at least as against average concrete-——were superiori-

ties of that order.! But such cases are not frequent in military history, and it is more usual—in

modern times, especially—to

find a sort of thrust and parry, in which the artillery of the attack maintains a lead, but not a decisive lead. The extrinsic causes in operation, meantime, were tending to bring about radical changes in the very meaning of fortification. Outwardly, the controversies of the period 1885-1914 turned on technical questions, and chiefly on whether improvised fortifcations could be shown to possess a resisting value practically

equivalent to that of permanent fortifications.

But i reality it

was the fecling that the purposes and principles of fortification, 1 Even in this instance, it must be admitted, the event was due in part to faulty designs which were not up to date even when laid down. Thus the new Antwerp forts (sce ANTWERP) were only built to resist the 24-cm. mortar, although the Japanese had already,

under very unfavourable conditions as to communications,

man-

aged to employ 28-cm. pieces at Port Arthur. On the other hand Fort Douaumont at Verdun, where the concrete was excellent

(1892) and of adequate thickness, resisted a far heavier bombardment even by 42-cm. howitzers.

SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE as they had heen understood in the past, no longer responded to the needs of warfare, that produced the multiplicity of designs

471

find Antwerp, Copenhagen, Bucharest, Paris, designed as self-

and proposals for artillery works and infantry works, armoured

suficing ring-fortresses, but not so much for playing a part in a battle-system as for serving as refuge for an army and a govern-

and

ment that for the time being could not maintain'its line of battle

unarmoured

works,

self-contained

and

mutually

inter-

dependent works, and so on, characteristic of the period of unsettlement.

If most of this ingenuity remained, as it did, un-

in the open field. Three of these four were called upon in the World War to play the assigned rôle and it is significant that not

convincing, this was due to the fact that there were great general

one of them did so successfully.

causes at work, of which, in default of war experience, only the

result of an unsuccessful linear battle in the foreground; Antwerp

existence and not the effects could be seen. The size of armies steadily increased, all the European conti-

Bucharest was evacuated as the

was given up by the Belgian field army and Government as soon as the choice had to be made between standing a siege and con-

nental Powers being drawn into a competition based on the numbers of citizen soldiers who could be conscripted and finan-

tinuing the war in the open; while in the crisis before the Marne

cially maintained. The power of armament increased also, and with it the possibility of holding a wider front per unit of armed force. The special results of this, from the point of view of fortifCation and sicgecraft, were the extension of perimeters and the thinness with which a circle or arc of investment could now be

ring-fortresses, Maubeuge and

maintained.

But the more general results were the more im-

portant, An army developed along a front of some hundreds of miles could no longer be worked by radial lines of communication centring upon one or two ring fortresses, In Napoleonic practice, a stronghold of some sort was always the centre of operations on which the army’s movements pivoted; and only that portion

the evacuation even of Paris was seriously considered.! Besancon,

were

Two

constructed

in

France in advance of the battle-system, in order apparently to

draw upon themselves a part of the invader’s effort condensed on the wings, and to control certain nuclei of communications which might otherwise be useful to him as he pressed forward. But the latter task is really that of a barricr-fort, and indeed Maubeuge was in process of being converted into a pure barrier

position when war broke out, the old intention of an isolated defence à outrance having been abandoned. The lincar systems with end-redoubts, on the other hand, performed in the war all

the services for which they had been designed, with the exception

of the theoretical base-line, which was in relation with the stronghold in use at the moment, formed what has been called the

of Li¢ge-Namur; and even in this case failure—so far as there

“ effective’ base. With the modern extended fronts, on the contrary, the effective base has widened more and more, until it

factors.

practically coincides with the theoretical base. In other words, each part of a great army has its own lines of communication and

was failure—was due not to any vice of principle but to other

The tendency to force a speedy decision in battle at all costs, specially characteristic of citizen armies, could not but reinforce the effects that the size of armies in itself produced upon

its own sources, the connexion between the army line and the

fortification.

base line, or front edge of the home supply area, being a sheaf of

deployment on each side would inevitably be carried out, wholly or largely, in accordance with an a priori plan of battle. Strategic considerations for the side which had chosen the pure offensive and moral and political considerations for the side

more or less parallel routes.

Whatever local variations may

appear when portions of the system are isolated and examined by themselves, in the ensemble the strategic structure of warfare in civilized countries had become linear. But the more the front extended, the more difficult it became

to collect any considerable force at one part of it for offensive effort. The “ parallel battle in all its horror ’’—unit facing unit all along the line—was admitted to be the negation of general-

ship. But whether the dispositions were made a priori or by mancuvre within the battle, whether envclopment or breakthrough were the method chosen, the parallel battle could only be avoided by reducing the living forces on certain passive or semi-passive parts of the line to a minimum. The small economies that could be effected on these parts by judicious tactical arrangements in the open—though certainly not to be despised—

would no longer suffice to give the really considerable superiority of force necessary for decisive victory on the active front. The expedient of economizing force by sacrificing territory had becomé, under modern conditions of social and economic life, more dangerous than it had ever been before. Recourse was had, therefore, to fortification.

It became

one of the rôles, if not

indeed the principal réle, of permanent fortification to economize active living forces on the passive fronts—a principle already applied to field fortification within the tactical sphere. As soon as the competition in numbers had set in all over military Europe, we find permanent fortification developing a new tend-

ency to be linear instead of circular in type. The ring fortress becomes a sort of end-redoubt to a long line of forts, usually drawn along some natural barricr. This tendency is shown in the creation of the Meuse line (Verdun-Toul), and the Moselle

line (Epinal-Belfort) in France, the line Namur-Huy-Liége in Belgium, the Sereth line in Rumania, the Bobr-Narew-Bug line in northern Poland, and lastly the Diedenhofen-Metz and Molsheim-Strassburg—Istein lines in Germany. In the same way, most of the new ring fortresses that were not so connected by permanent works were so placed as to be keystones of a linear battle-system; conspicuous instances are the systems Lille-La

Fére-Laon-Reims-Verdun and Dijon-Langres-Epinal.

Of the

rest—setting aside the fortresses of eastern Europe where poverty of communications enabled permanent works, as of old, to

dominate great areas by dominating a few nerve-centres—we

With such a tendency on both sides, the initial

which had chosen

the defensive-offensive, imposed

concentra-

tion close up to the frontier, in the first case so as to seize the initiative, and in the second so as to surrender as litile of the national territory and resources as possible. Frontier fortification therefore had as its first duty protection of a line or zone of railheads close behind it; and since railway communication is in principle highly sensitive, a system of ring-fortresses at intervals could not give the same protection against sudden raids as linear defences of equal trench-length. But there was a further consideration. Ana priori scheme of battle, with frontage and not depth as its main characteristic, is liable to require considcrable modification when contact has been made and the first serious combats

have produced

their varied results, and

thus a regrouping process begins in the course of the operation itself. In this regrouping, fortification is called on not only to protect the lateral shifting of masses by rail (as for instance the

moves of the French IX. and XVIIL Corps from eastern Lorraine to the Ardennes in the middle of Aug. 1914), but also to send

away its own local reserves to the area of decision (as in the case of the three French divisions transferred from the Meuse-line front to the Somme at the end of Aug. 1914).

The more penetrable the country, the more pronounced the linear character of the fortifications that must cover it. Not knowing the direction of attack, the defender must either prepare for it at all points of his allotted frontage of influence, or else resign himself to giving up country that ex hypothesi is economi-

cally valuable, and manœuvre in retreat to gain time. The old policy of devastating a deep zone to cover manœuvre, occasionally practicable when the organization of the state was simple and predominantly agricultural, is almost or wholly inapplicable in an industrial country. In Oct.-Nov. 1914 Hindenburg devastated part of W. Poland as cover for a lateral regrouping. But when it

came to including Upper Silesia in the devastation programme, industrial influences promptly intervened to mitigate it. The ‘In the event Paris played the part, originally assigned to LaonLa Fére, of end-redoubt in the battle-system. Antwerp, after capture, was organized by the Germans for the same purpose, viz. to serve as end-redoubt to the Antwerp-Meuse line.

472

SIEGECRAFT AND

SIEGE WARFARE

expedient of making even a narrow zone truly impenetrable by

orders from the commander-in-chief of the field armies.

means of radical destructions, adopted by the Germans in France in the spring of 1917, requires both time and an elaborate labour

era of “‘cabinct wars’? made little difference to this state of

programme, neither of which is available in a battle crisis.

towns as in the country, but to the governor and his troops the fortress was still a charge to be defended. Moreover, it was a teal base for the armies in the field, in that the stores and supplies

In

some cases, inundations serve the purpose, but even inundations take time to spread. On the Yser front in Oct. 1914, five days clapsed between the order to open the sluices and the creation of an effective barrier thereby. Moreover, in a generally penetrable country the area of decision might turn out to He in an unexnected direction, and, if so, a system of fortifications designed to protect regrouping by likely lateral routes might prove to be useless for covering those which actually were required to be used. Thus, a speculative element began to come into schemes of forti-

fication. It was no Jonger possible to justify heavy capital expenditure om works by reference to plain and defnite needs. Already it was admitted that if the unexpected happened, it would be necessary to make shift with improvised works; already

a considerable body of opinion held that permanent works, if

The

things; the population might be indifferent to the war in the

for those armies were accumulated in the fortress, and a real

strategic aid in that it commanded routes that were obligatory. for both sides.

But when, in our own times, the governor had

become simply the commander

of a certain group of forces

destined like other forces to take their part in a general scheme of battle; when the area within his defences had to a great extent

ceased to be the source of stores and supplies for the field army, and when railways, needing protection at all points and not merely at a focus, became the principal lines of communication, the choice between evacuation and defence came to be governed by larger considerations of strategy. The governor’s decisions therefore were assimilated in principle to those of any tactical

and the tendency in these circumstances was inevitably to trust to the latter, which were cheaper, could be built just where they were wanted, and according to many experts were just as good

executant of the strategist’s instructions. He evacuate as a field commander might hold his But the peculiar character of his responsibility in France, the country which has been most

in principle as permanent works, and indeed better than most of the expensive fortifications already in existence.

fied in the 1913 “ Regulations for the conduct of Higher Forma-

This underground growth of the linear principle was fostered

tions,” which empowered the commander-in-chief to assume con-

admitted at all, should be similar in general design to field works;

by another cause.

The time-honoured relation of the town and

its defences was altered.

Under the influence of tradition theory

continued to conceive of the fortress as a circular defence round atown. But the town had ceased to interest the military engineer, who now called it the “ nucleus.” He disposed his ring of defences at such a distance as to protect the nucleus from bombardment, a convention which was imposing a larger and larger perimeter with every improvement in the range of guns, but his works were now meant primarily to take a share in the operations in the field. That being so, except in such cases as that of Port Arthur, where the nucleus contained establishments regarded as essential to the conduct of the war, it was almost a matter of

indifference whether a particular town should be protected or not. The old relation of the town and its walls had been based on the

fact that the walls preserved the town from pillage and murder. In the course of time this had changed to a great extent, and in

the era of “ cabinet wars ” it had almost vanished. But the old mediaeval spirit of the towns came to life again in such instances as Zaragoza, Colberg, Venice, and even if the towns-people were indifferent or sullen, the governor could usually resist pressure from them, because he was strong in the conception of his plain duty as a soldier to defend the post entrusted to him. But when the defence perimeter had advanced out of sight of the town, and the enceinte had either been turned Into a public garden or retained, demilitarized, as a historical monument only; when, further, in peace-time no military barrier whatever differentiated the defended area fram the open country; when, lastly, two generations of railway traffic had destroyed the self-centred economic life of the town and blurred its particularism—then from the point of view of the town it was in much the same position as any undefended town or village in the theatre of war. It might come within the ambit of military operations or it might not;

if it did, it might either resist the invader heroically in the manner of Belfort in 1870-1, or agitate for demilitarization as Lille did in 1914, but the fact that a ring of forts lay out in the country

around it had very little influence either way on its conduct as a town. Open towns in modern times have behaved like fortresses of old, and fortresses like open towns of old. Correspondingly, the position and outlook of the governor has changed. Formerly the town was his charge, and almost his viceroyalty. His troops were his own; organized for sedentary

warfare and not for campaigning, they were not at the disposal of a field army which happened to be operating in the neighbourhood, and the town was in practice defended—sometimes with spirit, sometimes fecbly—whatever course operations took outside. Up to the very eve of the World War a French fortress governor was responsible to the Government only, and took no

might defend or ground or retire. was gone. Even tenacious of the

fortress tradition, the old regulation, already quoted, was moditrol of any fortress and its forces if he thought fit} Qn the German

side, units made up from fortress garrisons

formed quite one-third of the Eastern armies during the first cam. paigns of 19f4 opcrating sometimes a hundred miles away from their fortress of origin and in the sequel, never returning to it.

In sum, therefore, causes of a general character operating before 1914 produced these tendencies: (a) to divorce fortifica-

tions from their nucleus or central town, (4) to make them rather linear than circular in trace, (c) to bring them into conformity

with the battle-scheme of the feld armies (with déclassement ag the alternative), and (d) to construct them as far as possible according to the principles of field fortification,

The theory of fortification, on the other hand, was still bound by the notion of a nucleus, and unable, therefore, for the moment to employ its stock of ideas and. methods to the best advantage. The practical technique of fortification and sicgecraft

was, meantime, progressing in details; reinforced concrete had

come into normal usc, armour was improving in quality, the defence had it in its power no less than the attack to profit by developments in the design of quick-firing guns and howitzers of medium calibres. Observation balloons and kites were available,

superior to the old spherical types; wireless telegraphy removed some of the dangers of investment and made it possible to coordinate the activity of a besieged garrison with that of a relieving

army. The technique of bored mines developed, and trenchmortars and grenades reappeared. The lessons of Port Arthur in matters of detail-tactics and design were assimilated in the

various armies. The enormous defensive power of the machinegun was realized and to some extent exploited. It remained to synthesize the application of these elements, old and new, in an

art of fortification that responded to the new demands and conditions of warfare.

This art began to take shape with the introduction of the “ group ” principle.

Advocated by several theoretical writers in

the period of controversy, it was applied practically, and on a large scale, by the Germans in the celebrated Feste constructed on the Moselle and the Rhine in the last ten years before the t It was in virtue of this new regulation that Galliéni’s Paris

forces were brought under Jofre's command

in the battle of the

Marne; and in accordance with the spirit of it that Sarrail acted in

the same crisis, when, although only an army commander, he sent

imperative orders to the governor of Verdun to despatch his mobile reserves to the battle-field of Revigny.

The fact that.the governor,

General Coutanceau, though himsclf under attack, complied with this requisition instead of standing on his undoubted legal rights, is itself evidence of the changed outlook of the fortress governor in

modern warfare.

In a somewhat different way, the coniused story

of the déclassement of Lille in Aug. 1914 points the same moral.

SIEGECRAFT AND World War. They may be considered from two points of view: locally, as examples of a type of fortification, and collectively as a defensive ensemble, The Feste, as its name indicates, is rather a self-contained fortress on a smaller scale than a fort in the old sense.

Although

it forms with other such works, and with forts or batteries, part of a defensive system which as a whole may be cither linear or circular, it contains within its own wire entanglements each of the elements of defencc—artillery for counter-battery, artillery for flanking the intervals, and infantry works for the protection

of this artillery against a close attack. But it combines them in a way which differentiates it in principle from the types of fortifcation characteristic of the 1873-1903 epoch,

In that period there were, broadly, two opposed schools of thought, and a school of compromise.

One school, fairly perhaps

designated as the French, favoured an arrangement in which the “ forts ” form the close-defence element and intermediate battery-positions the distant-defence element.

The opposite, or

Brialmont school, exemplified in the Liége and Namur works (see 10.698-9 for plans), relied on a simple ring of powerful self-

contained forts, each including both these elements. Variations within the respective schools turned chiefly on the use or non-use of armour, some relying upon it for the protection of all defensive weapons, Others confining it to the close-defence weapons and yet others excluding it altogether. The compromise school, favoured by Austrian opinion, sought to modify the characters of each type so as to combine them. In all cases, it should be added, the intervals were intended to be garnished in war with an improvised

trench system, with its wire, its dugouts, and its

machine-gun emplacements.

The Feste, on the contrary, attempts to combine the two ele-

ments of defence without modifying either.

Full security for

the long-range elements is given in principle by dispersing them, equally full security for the close-defence armament by concen-

tration within an obstacle.

To add positive or negative pro-

tection, armour is introduced wherever necessary, and loose and * provisional ” as the forms may seem to the student of earlier

fortification, it must not be forgotten that, structurally, every

detail of the Feste is a picce of permanent work. This very warning, however, suggests that it is necessary— more necessary than ever—for the student of fortification, whether practical or theoretical, to find a satisfactory answer

to the question: What is it exactly that we require of “ permanent ” fortification in the tactical sphere? The rôle of permanent fortification, it is suggested, is to give

to the garrison or defence force a greater degree of security, and to its armament better conditions of employment, than “ provisional,” #.e. heavy field, fortification can give.

To prevent the enemy’s guns from obliterating the defences of the front attacked, and thus enabling his infantry to make its way into the defended arca, these guns must be counter-battered and (if possible) destroyed, but in any case neutralized as far as

practicable. This implies a counter-battery armament on the side of the defence. According as the guns of this armament are exposed to enemy observation or not, they require, or they can dispense with, fighting protection. But in both cases, and especially in the second, they require to be screened against hostile

SIEGE WARFARE

473

the protection of what may be called the main armament. The wire or grille, as compared with the ditch, is greatly inferior as an obstacle, but much more readily created, more easily destroyed, but more easily repaired also. Obstacles can be traversed, either after being broken down by bombardment in advance of the assault or by means of scaling ladders and bridges-accompanying it. As against destruction by bombardment in advance, the only remedy of the defence is the counter-battery which entirely or partially stops the bombarding guns. But even without such destruction, the obstacle may be overcome by ladders and bridges, wire cutters, petards and other appropriate means, in the course

of the assault itself, unless the work of placing these devices is

made impossible by the defenders’ fire. Hence the obstacle, whether it be ditch or wire, must be protected by a close-defence armament, and nowadays it is generally admitted that this armament must be a specialized organ. But how is this in its turn to be protected against destruction or neutralization at the critical moment? Practically by its own defensive arrangements alone. And thus, in the element designed to guard the obstacle, we reach the alternate unit of fortification upon which the whole system depends, that which in the last analysis ensures for the main armament the power of undisturbed counter-battery (in

the case of a Jort d'arrêt of keeping the forbidden area under

steady fire). ’ The close-defence organ, then, has two functions—to protect

other clements and to protect itself. The former presents no particular difficulty, and is merely a question of providing the

necessary fire-power.

But the latter is the critical problem of

modern fortification. If the counter-battery guns are concentrated, as in a fort, and the obstacle is a ditch, then—quite apart from the material cover required for these guns to enable them to fight—material cover

is also needed for the close-defence organ, since its position is practically obligatory. But the cover is obtained relatively easily since the weapons covered are sunk to the level of the ditch-

floor, and any necessary thickness of protection can be provided over it both on first construction and later. But such a concentration of counter-battery methods creates large intervals between work and work, and access to the defended area (which with a dispersed main armament is automatically

barred by the obstacles defending this and the fire of the organ which protects them) must be prevented by organs in the works

so placed as to control the open zone. In some systems reliance

has been placed on the counter-battery guns themselves to do this, but modern engincer opinion generally may be sald to be

opposed to this, since guns which have been engaged in the artillery duel may have been put out of action by the time that they are wanted

for close-defence,

and

even

if intact should

be

wholly absorbed in their proper task. The organ providing ditch defence, by reason olf its situation is not as a rule able to undertake control of the open intervals; and in short the only alternatives are small cupolas or fraditore batteries. The former are open to many objections. If built into the same work as the main armament they are almost as much exposed to premature destruction as the latter is? and must be provided with fighting protection on the same scale. If mobile, they are exccedingly

costly in proportion to the fire-power they develop. For these

raids or brusque infantry assaults that may develop during this counter-battery phase, emerging perhaps from dead ground close jn front. This protection can be given in the form of an obstacle to the

reasons modern practice generally favours the traditore battery, which is a casemated emplacement (sometimes a cupola) at or near ground level, giving fire only to the flanks and rear of the work, situated in the rear portion of it and protected against

enemy’s passage, so serious that a great and organized effort is necessary to reduce it. Such an obstacle may be a deep ditch, or

bombardment to a great extent by the mass of the work itself.

But, from the nature of its duty, the site of the traditore battery a system of wire entanglements or grilles, or both. Normally, | is frequently obligatory, and when it is combined inside the same the former is the better obstacle, but except in country already obstacle with a concentrated counter-battery armament, the intersected with canals, wet ditches, river-channels, the use of a needs of the latter as to site may conflict with those of the tradiditch requires that the armament to be protected shall be grouped tore. In the avoidance of this, perhaps more than in any other very closely. Unless, therefore, the engincer and his Government 2 The cupolas of this class in the Antwerp forts suffered nearly as are prepared to face the expense and provide cover of the solidest severely as thase of the main armament, although they were hardly kind? the ditch as obstacle is usually excluded, so far as concerns 1 As Col. J. C. Matheson has pointed out, the closer the grouping

the denser the material required to protect it.

called upon to exercise their special functions, since the infantry attack of the Germans was not pressed into the intervals before the fre of the forts had been beaten down,

474

SIEGECRAFT AND

single factor, lies the central idea of group-fortification of the

Feste type. Two dissimilar elements have to be both protected _by the same obstacle and yet spaced some distance apart. But the obstacle (in such conditions mainly wire or grille) itself re-

quires local close-defence. This “ultimate unit” has thus not yet been arrived at. Nevertheless, this ultimate unit, in groupfortification, has only to give short-range

protection to the

obstacle, and in practice it is an infantry-manned stronghold, designed to give fighting protection to its garrison,’ sometimes provided for, its own local safety with a deep ditch and sunken flanking defences, sometimes organized with a fighting parapet frontally commanding an artificial foreground which is wired, but always having as its real function the protection of am obstacle externa) to itself. In the case of concentrated main armament, therefore, it would seem that fighting protection for the counter-battery guns, for the traditore battcries, and for sunk ditch defences is required to be designed on such a scale as will enable these elements to defy, actively or passively, the attack guns of the day and the morrow. The same applies to the shelters in which—in the case of group fortification—the garrison of the infantry work is placed in readiness to man the parapets, but not necessarily to these parapets

themselves. Further, in proportion as wire replaces the deep ditch, as an obstacle, heavy and expensive work in peace-time is dispensed with.

In the system of deployed main armament, on the other hand,

SIEGE WARFARE attack,” proposed by the Bavarian General von Sauer, had many supporters; and as the tendency already mentioned, of modern warfare between ‘‘ armed nations ” is to push the line of resistance as nearly up to the frontier as possible, the fortifications of that line were in fact exposed to instant attack.? Those of Verdun and Toul were little more than 20 m., the easternmost fort of Liége only 13 m., from the German frontier, while the

western Metz forts could be bombarded from French soil. In former days, this would have mattered less, but the growing mobility of heavy artillery—from about 1890—for the first time made it possible to employ true siege artillery within a few hours of the opening of hostilities. The attacker, on the other hand, naturally had to forego some of the powerof hisattacking means in attempting a coup. His truly mobile siege artillery was limited,

or supposed to be limited, to the calibre of 21 cm. Heavier pieces though they no longer took weeks or months to arrive in their emplacements, at any rate took days to do so, and bya sort of gencral agreement (to which however there were exceptions) the situation was met by placing a part of the main armament of the defence—callcd the safety armament—inside a closed obstatle. Usually it was an existing fort that was adapted to house

the safety armament, but sometimes it was included in the design of a new work. The fort thus in practice reverted partially to its old duty of serving as a battery position, while in theory its function had become entirely that of locally protecting a traditore or other interval defence. The distinction between property and

the proportion of permanent work, it would seem, can safely be much less. With modern artillery means, the sites for counterbattery armament are rarely obligatory; observation must be provided for; but the actual position of the guns, and therefore the

accident was no doubt clear to specialists, but the result was

line of liaison between observation post and guns, are—to a great

extent at least—free from limitations of ground. This being so,

them—too thoroughly, indeed, for in the revulsion, not merely safety-armament guns but even interval-flanking guns were removed from closed works.

and the enemy.

easier to house a safcty armament. No element within the ring of wire need cramp any other, or be drawn into the fighting. activity of another, or suffer from the shells intended for another.* |

the close-defence element of the fortifications may be disposed to the best advantage for carrying out its task—that of protecting a system of obstacles suitably placed between the battery zone

In point of permanent work, then, although parts of the bat-

tery positions themselves may occasionally require concrete or even armour, concealment of virgin earth, and alternative posi-

tions in the great majority of cases afford all necessary protection.

For the close-defence guns, on the other hand—the element which must be able to endure at all costs—the chosen positions are often (if not in most cases) obligatory, and full-scale fighting protection must be given. Even so, there being by hypothesis, no necessity to develop frontal fire, and the volume of the reguircd lateral protective fire being relatively little, a permanent work which is essentially a traditore battery and nothing else can

be both small and well-covered against frontal fire at an expense much less than that of a great self-contained fort. Its own local protection may be either a ditch with sunk defences or an in-

fantry system surrounded by wire, but these auxiliaries, too,

would be withdrawn from the crest facing the enemy to positions on the reverse slope. The only case in which it would be necessary for any part of the system to go forward to the crest and front

slope would be that in which the artillery observation and com-

mand post is combined with the tradiiere in one work or one

that the generality of armics and peoples continued to-look upon a fort as thcir fathers had looked upon it, till the astonishing events of Aug., Sept. and Oct. 1914 so thoroughly undeceived

In the system of group-fortification, it was naturally much

Full fighting protection will be necessary, as is always the case with safety armaments, but, as has been noted above, with more

room the same safcty can be given with less expense. In sum, therefore, the necessity of compromise on this question

of safety armament has caused the dispersed-clements and the concentrated-elements schools to agree upon: (a) the group or Feste principle for interval-flanking clements, obstacles and defence of the same, and safety portion of main armament; (b) the order principle of deployed artillery, with an obstacle covered by flanking fire, for the remainder of the main armament, This,

it will be noted, leaves a real liberty for the treatment of particular cases. The proportion of total armament installed as “safety ” is whatever the designer chooses to make it in each instance, the Feste being adaptable to any proportioning within reasonable limits fixed by the contour of the ground.

A practical check on

enclosing an unnecessarily high proportion will always be the

expense of giving full fighting protection. Examples of Group-Forttfication—-Types of forts, both main

armament forts and others, being described and illustrated in 10.696, ee ee 2 To wire a perimeter or frontage of 30 km. to a depth of eight yd. only requires three eight-hour shifts of (in round numbers) 6,000 workers cach, as well as mechanical, animal or human transport for about 4,000,000 yd. of barbed wire, weighing 300 tons oF so,

ae a e ge enclosed group. In such a case the post in question would un- pee

doubtedly require special treatment as regards its own closedefence. But all that in principle is necessary is that the post and its liaisons should be immune. On the other hand, the security of the main armament against a rush of hostile infantry was far greater when an obstacle defended

by fire completely surrounded it, and military engineers were very loth to impair this security.

No doubt, when the obstacle cover-

ing the front of the batteries in the deployed order was fully organized, the latter might be considered safe enough for practical purposes so long as the interval-defence remained effectively in action to protect it. But a danger period was foreseen in which

the obstacle was not yet fit to perform its function with certainty. The “ brusque ” or (more accurately) the “ abbreviated 1The term “ storm-proof,” frequently applied to such infantry works, hardly seems to connote their real function.

and 100,000-130,000 stout posts. Other work to be done includes

the clearance of the field of fire, the digging of trenches, the con-

struction of shelters (if not in existence already), opening of communications and liaisons, etc. Land which is occupied by a fort-

ress garrison in war rarely belongs to the Government in peace.

3This can be demonstrated by the “theory of probabilities.

Assume a main-armament cupola 16 ft. in diameter, under accurate attack by a gun having a probable error of 60 ft. in range and 3 ft.

in line. Calculation shows that this will probably be hit by 7% of the shots fired. Now assume a traditore element having a vulnerable

surface on top of 20 ft. from front to rear and 25 ft. laterally. Placed with its front edge 120 ft. behind the centre of the cupola, this will reccive 3-62% of the shots aimed at the latter. Placed with the front edge 240 ft. behind, it will be hit by 0:2 % of the shots. In

other words, at twice the distance it is eighteen times as safe,

SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE it is only necessary here to consider examples of the newer group-

fortification. Three forms may be taken, one of which, the Metz form, has been applied on a large scale, while the others, though

academic examples, are fully representative of principle. Common to all, it will be seen, are:

(a) a wire obstacle round the

whole group, and behind it an infantry large area, equalling that of town and

trench-position; (b) very fortifications together in

some of the old Vauban fortresses, and six to eight times that of

the typical! 1873-1903 fort; (c) batteries, closed and under armour,

for the guns of the main armament (or safety armament) irregularly disposed within the wired area. So far, all are in agreement. But beyond, there are some impor-

tant differences. Thus, the Metz group, and those proposed by de Mondesir, both possess powerful N works with ditches, whereas the Austrian type lacks this element. Again, de Mondesir and the Austrian text-books agree in attaching the greatest importance to the treditore element, remarkably neglected in the Metz works—at least as originally built. Lastly, the Austrian and German engineers tend to place the centre of gravity of the artillery, and even that of the infantry, defence well forward, while the

French author puts them as far back as possible, with only observatories and frontal trenches in the forepart of the area. The Austrian design (fig. 1) as the simplest, is taken first. On the height 130 is an armoured battery P B, containing four 6-in. howitz-

ers in cupolas, with an observation post in a small cupola in the centre.’ Between the cupolas are magazines for the storage of 800 rounds per gun. A passage runs along the backs of the cupolas and ammunition rooms, and two barrack rooms are provided at the ends, with other small rooms as offices, etc., in the centre. In the actual design the thickness of the concrete is, in places, less than 2 metres, which is considerably below present-day standards, On the forward slopes at S, 5, S, are smal] works, combining in each 2 cupolas for quick-firing guns (intended for frontal close-

defence, not main-armament work), with an armoured observation post between them and ashelter for infantry and machine-guns in waiting,

to man

the trench-line

against assault.

These

are built

with a roof of about the same thickness as that of the main-armament battery. On the rear slopes are two powerful iraditore batter-

475

dealing with counterscarp casemates, but it is an effective one.

At Fort Vaux (Verdun) the Germans made their way through a counterscarp casemate into the tunnel system of the fort, and the

terrible gallery fighting of Port Arthur repeated itself.

But, unlike

the Japanese, the Germans had no difficulty in gaining access to the galleries in the first instance, as the French had themselves

blown away the backs of the casemates in order to get convenient

access to some external trenches. It is noteworthy that in the final stages of refortifying Mctz on the group principle, the Germans were careful to provide the foundations of counter-mine systems. In the Austrian design here considered, nothing prevents the devel-

opment of mine attack on these casemates except the fire of the

central battery P B and the batteries, S, S, S, all of which are exposed

and liable to neutralization or destruction by counter-battery. The depth of the ditch containing the main wire varies, and no

walls exist to make it an important obstacle jn itself, The integrity of the obstacle therefore depends purely on the fire of the counterscarp casemates, and—quite apart from the question of mining

attack on these—later war experience has shown that there is great

risk of the flanking fire being impeded or intercepted by the debris

produced by intensive bombardment.

This weakness is common to

all ditches, and the problem of keeping the field of fire open had not yet been solved in 1921, But it is evident that the longer the ditch,

the more chance there is of a heap of debris collecting at some point init.

In ane case, it would seem that to attempt ditch protection

for the whole perimeter of a group work involves the expenditure

of money that might more profitably be devoted to other elements

of defence,

Another defect seems to be the small number of the

infantry shelters, having regard to the time required for the defending infantry to come out and man the parapet. This is the more important, as this design altogether lacks the strong self-contained infantry work which is the kernel of those naw to be described. The

evolution of Metz as a ring-fortress is dealt with at 10-696. Allu-

sion is there made to new works in progress outside the existing perimeter.

These were the famous Feste.

They were built in suc-

cession from 1899 to the outbreak of the World War, and were continued and practically completed in 1915, Their characteristics were only approximately known at that time, but when Metz was tetroceded to France by the Treaty of Versailles, not only their present

condition,

but thew history and cost accounts

became

available. (See the French official Revue du Génie of Jan.—Feb. 1921.)

The Feste in fig. 2 (from the Revue du Génie) shows an actual

example. It should be understood that the Germans designed the earlier works of this class with a minimum of defensive precautions, notably in respect of external interval flanking, but that, in the

later works constructed in the two or three years prior to the World War, there was a marked tendency to develop the hitherto inade-

quate external flanking, even at the expense of the main armament, which on this line of evolution would, in due course, have become a “safety armament only. The group-work illustrated is rather of the earlier than of the later kind, as it is lacking in the traditore element. But it is one of the greatest advantages of the group-work over the cramped fort that additions and alterations can be made as

required, and in fact many such works at Metz were provided later

Ce AEa

parane KAI

with §7-mm. and 77-mm. traditore batteries.

The Feste forms an irregular quadrilateral, measuring, from outer

Ë

edge to outer cdge of wire, 1,200 yd, from front to rear and the same from flank to flank, with an area within the outermost wire of about

Fig 1.—Austrian Type

120 acres. At the front and rear angles there are strong and minutely organized infantry works, which form the basic units of the system: their rôle is to flank the wired perimeter and to look after their own close-defence as well. At the right and left angles, the perimeter

ies, T T with quick-firing guns (4 to 6 in each, in order to have suff-

trench takes the form of redoubts, which contain, in their forward sides, infantry observation posts, and, in their rear sides, both observa-

cient for a distributed fire over the interval, in case fog or darkness makes accurate aim impossible). The inner parts of the concrete

of the Feste, four armoured batteries for main armament are dis-

100

£00

masses are organized as barracks (U) and magazines. The traditore

is In two tiers, the upper commanding the country outside and the lower sweeping the (wired) bottom of the ditch. Armour is used for the faces of the gun casemates and nearly 3 metres of concrete form the roof. Those parts of the wired ditch not swept by the traditores

are flanked by counterscarp casemates (F F) contaiming machine-

guns or pompoms and protected by 2:8 metres of concrete. Tunnels connect the various elements of the group.

Jn this design, which is

simple and, owing to the absence of refinements that would not

stand bombardment, strong, there are nevertheless some

weakness, which may

because they afford

points of

bediscussed here, not by way of criticism but

convenient

illustrations of certain practical

points which the engineer cannot ignore.

,

The whole of the front wire depends for its intimate flanking upon the counterscarp casemates, F F. In such cases it is necessary

to protect the backs of the casemates and their communicating galleries from mine attack, by providing the roots of a counter-

mine system at the outset. This was a form of attack which played

a considerable rôle at Port Arthur.

It is perhaps the only way of

1 This is a miniature of the gun cupola, with a telescope placed in the part. The development of the periscope now makes the pro-

vision of protected command ports much easier than it was at the

time of this design.

tion posts and organs for

flanking the rearward wire.

In the interior

posed irregularly and cach has a war barracks attached, communicating with it by underground passages. The perimeter trench is

provided at intervals with armoured sentry posts,

The artillery

observatories are aligned on the front slope, and have tunnel con-

nexions with their batteries. The fifth battery is a dummy—a device

freely used in these Metz works, in which there is plenty of room.

The perimeter wire is sunk to a depth of 2 metres, and the ground

in which it is bedded is sloped up to the infantry line, which has the

lowest command

compatible with its functions.

wire is carried round the main works

This perimeter

(01, 02) also (though partly

unflanked), but the strength of these lies in their inner system.

Behind the perimeter wire and the advanced parapet or covered way

lies a deep ditch (20 ft.), wired at the bottom and provided with a

concrete counterscarp.

The floor of this ditch is flanked (in the

case of the forward work or) by a double counterscarp casemate at the apex and a small caponnière in the gorge. s About the same time as these Metz works were being evolved in Germany, Lt.-Col. (afterwards General} Piarron de Mondesir, in France, advocated another type of group-fortification, which, though generally of the same class as the Feste, shows some characteristic differences.

De Mondesir’s group is in general outline oval, or rather lens-

shaped, with the curved front towards the enemy and the flattened front towards the defended region. Like the Feste it bestrides the

SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE

476

natural crest. Immediately beside the main wire is a continuous infantry parapet, which has at frequent intervals concrete shelters for machine-guns as well as infantry. On the naturaf crest, a central structure of concrete and armour contains the commanding officer's observation post and two machine-guns in cupolas for the direct

batteries,” was destined to survive and multiply in the World War. The rear defence of ihe inner system is provided by the rear por-

tion of the perimeter trench, with rts concrete machine-gun shelters

and its wire.

i

The most marked characteristic of this design is the fact that

the interior space of the “ group” is organized principally for step-

by-step close-defence, whereas it is utilized in a Feste for battery

sites. The middle foreground is under the fire of two quick-firing guns in cupolas, but the author of the system evidently docs nottrust to these organs overmuch, for he arranges that they shall be

fired into and destroyed by the main-armament guns if captured. ay

ee a

The essential clement of the first stage of clost-dcfence is the machine-gun detachments in the front trench, which are housed under concrete till the moment of action. The second stage, which

r. —

errr =Sls

begins when the assault has broken into the front trench, is a com-

Viste Oe

bination of counter-attack from the great shelters behind the crest with machine-gun fire fram the central crest cupolas, to facilitate this counter-attack, the back of the front trench is smoothed to

glacis-form.

When all this is lost, the inner system with its “ infan-

try batteries ” sited well down the reverse slope, has still to be car-

ried before the main-armament or traditore batteries can be reached, and the machine-gun cupolas of the keep not only codperate in this third stage, but (with the blockhouses attended to earlier) make it difficult for the enemy to make a lodgimcnt even in the fourth and last stage. In all stages after the first, the curved fire of the trenchmortar battery playsa part. In this respect, and in the free use of

machine-guns and local counter-attack,

de Mondesir’s

fortifica-

tion anticipated by ten years or more the trench-warfare methods that developed in the World War.

The above outhne account of applications, practical and theoretical,

of the new " group ’”’ principle requires the addition of a few details as to the principal! constituent elements of such works,—the counter-

scarp casemate or caponnière for low-flanking of a ditch, the main-

armament or safety-armament battery made up of cupolas (as dis-

tinct from the cupolas themselves), and the traditore battery. The Austrian counterscarp casemate, illustrated in fig. 4, is con-

structionally a simple example. Under the counterscarp. wall, on the further side of the ditch, facing the salient angle of the work, a

chamber is formed with embrasures for rifie, machine-gun or lightartillery fire along the two adjacent ditch lengths. armour 1s used for the embrasures,

Fic. 2.—Plan ofa Metz Feste. References. or, 02, main infantry works; 03, 04, flank portions of infantry positions organized a3 “ redoubts"; br, b2, etc., armoured batteries (b5, dummy); al, a2, etc. war barracks, f1, {2 etc. artillery observatories; h1, h2 ete. coun-

terscarp casemates, caponnières and the like for flanking perimeter

wire or ditch wire; kr, k2, ete., infantry observatories (armoured); m, m, parapet sentry posts; cf, c2 etc. concrete shelters for infantry on duty; i, entrance blockhouse. sweeping of the foreground, and towards the flanks two somewhat Similar structures house €ach a 75-mm. ©.F. gun, its observation

post, and the observation post of one of the main armament batter-

jes mentioned below. Just behind the crest are two large battle4390!

ea

each gun-room

In this case (K K) having

two very light guns or pompoms. B isa living room for the squads assigned to the defence, A a fatrine, St a stairway leading to P,

a conerete tunnel under the ditch which communicates with the body of the work. Fig. 5 shows a Counterscarp

casemate

of more

advanced

type.

It is amongst the most modern examples of such structures, forming part of a 1914 work at Mctz, It fires in one direction only. The inner portion of its mass is in ordinary, the outer in reinforced concrete, and the total thickness is 3 metres. Fire is arranged in two

tiers, for rifles, and for machine-guns, and one embrasure (the safest) is allotted to a searchlight. The details are worthy of close

attention.

The top of the wall is formed as an overhang, under which the fronts A ole fighting chambers are recessed. This gives enhanced protection from fire, and also from the risk of grenades

PT 0K)

Fic. 3.—Section of infantry work or of fig. 2, on line a~b. shelters in concrete for counter-attack infantry. Then, well back, comes an inner systern forming a still flatter “lens.” This contains the main armament batteries, the traditore element, and the infantry keep.

lts front wire traverses the whole interior of the group, leav-

ing the crest elements and counter-attack shelters outside jt, and resting its flanks on the infantry parapet, the junction being sealed

by blockhouses. Within this wirc, which is protected frontally by several ‘infantry batteries,’ i.e. loopholed steel screens or penthouses for riflemen, he, towards the flanks, two batteries of main armament artillery in cupolas and one or two ‘‘ Bourges casemates " —genuine traditore batteries which can only fire to the flank and Tear and are heavily protected and masked towards the front, Cen-

trally placed between the artillery positions is the infantry keep, in

this case as in the German the basis unit. It is four-sided and has a

deep wired ditch which is fanked not by counterscarp casemates, but by two low caponniéres springing from the base of the escarp at the diagonal angles. In the concrete of this keep are the war barracks of the whole garrison, observation cupolas, and at least two machine-gun cupolas which are in fact the essential defence of the keep. Embryonte counter-mine systems are provided at the salients of the keep. Behind the keep is a battery for small short-range mortars—-a novelty which, unlike the present writer’s “ infantry

being thrown in by an assailant overhead.

At the foot of the wall is

a pit which lowers the Hoor of the ditch so far that the assailant in the ditch cannot reach the embrasure. This pit aiso serves to take debris that might otherwise mask’the fire of the lower tier. A gallery formed in the mass of the counterscarp connects the casemvates

of the different angles,

An example of the modern counterscarp is shown in fig. 6 from another Metz work, Here it will be noticed that, far defence and also for ventilation, the gallery possesses a loophole. Over this tsa

grille to prevent the placing of scaling-ladders and the upper part

of the counterscarp wall is formed to a peculiar section which gives a

minimum foothold to an assailant scrambling down, and presents an unfavourable striking angle to all projectiles.

The Mass—for it is a mass rather than a wall—is 7 metres thick

for 7 metres of height, The communication tunnel between such a gallery and the body of the work (fig. 7) gives 2 metres of (ordinary

and reinforced) concrete protection besides that afforded by the earth of the ditch floor, Some designers, owing to the risk of the backs of counterscar chambers and galleries being breached by mining, or the comuni-

cating tunnel destroyed from above or below, prefer to keep the ditch between the enemy and the flanking organ. Jn this case a

SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE low caponniére is built out into the ditch from the escarp or from. the mass of the work; in the work 01 of fig. 2 the ends of the twostory concrete barrack are arranged to act as caponnières.

477

a rule dispersed over the open ground comprised in the ‘ group” they require subterranean communications with each other and with their observation posts. The latter are sometimes included in the same concrete mass with the gun cupolas, but it is more usual to withdraw the battery mass behind the crest and to push the observatory forward. Batteries are often wired in, and sometimes given means of local protection against surprise attack. They contain

not only a large stock of ammunition, but also, nowadays, laboratories and workshops.

i

We M

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SER SOE z pe PS S A, $,GT SoS EL AT ALAR ANAE

CAIN EL E e igeee aa hg fe oe te el ft es Oo t= m AE ANENA E E OAIE ae;E A ANA INEN

KAINIS SOOS: AO KOS PERK

LPS

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PA

{+1,00}

fe “4 wy

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EOT

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ASE Oe ODS PNTIGES

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Fic. 6.—Counterscarp from Metz. Traditore batteries, hy hypothesis, fire only to the flank and rear. They are thus always placed, so to say, behind a corner; that is, protection is accumulated in front of the gun casemates, and this

protection is continued laterally for such a distance that a projectile

Fic. 4

SP

from any likely direction will cither meet the covering mass or pass clear of the gun muzzles. The original form is that designed in France and known as the‘‘ Bourges casemate” (fig. 9) Irom de Mondesir’s Fortification Cuirassée.

oy

An unusual flanking organ designed for Metz is shown in fig. 8. Here the difticulty of giving sufficiently thick protection for an organ flanking wire at or near ground level (e.g. the outer wire of a Feste) is met by providing a sort of detached caponniére in the form of

~ 6.00

a low, fixed, armour-

structure

bedded

concrete,

the

in

guard-

room, ctc., being formed in the mass of the latter. It is intended for rifle and pistol fire through loopholes, and like all modern German flanking organs it has a small searchlight. A battery for main armament is substantially an assemblage of two to four individual gunorhowitzer

cupolas in line within

one mass of concrete, with the space available between and be-

hind cupolas formed

into

expense-maga-

zines, shell-rooms, duty men’s rooms, offices, etc. Being as

Fic. 5.—Counterscarp Casemates.

gts eae

Fe

ET

age ae

Fic, 7—Communication Tunnel to Counterscarp. A larger tradifore of Austrian design is shown in fig. to. This is formed in the end of a concrete mass of which the remainder contains the war barracks, storehouses, etc. The lower embrasures flank the floor of the fort ditch, the upper—the real traditore bat-

tery——sweep the flanks and rear of the external intervals.

(T T are

the gun casemates; B St is the post of the officer controlling the fire; M M the ammunition room; G S a small Sanking element to

control the ditch just under the ¢raditore.) Armour is used to reduce the thickness of concrete, both vertically and horizontally. The gun usually employed in /raditore batteries is a held gun of about 75-mm., or a gun of the small naval or tank class, 57-mm., being the commonest calibre. Pompoms (1-pdr. Maxims) and even machine-guns are also found, but as a rule it is the field artillery type of effect that is required and provided for. Cupolas are sometimes, but rarely, employed, as their characteristic virtue of allround fire is not wanted.

Administrative Arrangements,—Any work that has to act in isolation, or semi-isolation, is provided with all the necessary “services,” Store-rooms, hospitals, barrack-rooms, etc., with all

SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE

478

furniture and equipment, must be formed in the interior of the available concrete masses; water must be laid on, lighting and heating provided for. Though hitherto it has not been thought desirable to provide power for working cupolas, etc., it has al-

ready become necessary to include a power-room (dynamos and Diesel engines) in the equipment of the Feste.

either by embrasures, cupolas, scatings or fissures, while pure air | must be supplied and foul air evacuated somehow. It may be, indeed, that the question of aération, hitherto subsidiary, will become one directly affecting the fighting design.

Materials -—Earth was always the common property of permanent and of field fortification. Before 1914 concrete and armour were reserved for permancnt work, but during the World

War both came into use for heavy field works as well. Further, as both in permanent and field work care is taken nowadays to disturb the natural earth as little as possible, and tunnelling freely

employed, relief being kept down to a minimum, there remain only, as specially characteristic

of permanent

work, (a) the

heavily armoured, deeply-sunk, mechanically highly finished gun-mounting, and (6) the great concrete mass. It is not unreasonable to consider the necessity, or otherwise, of these elements in a fortification scheme as a critcrion of the necessity of “ permanent fortification,” using the words here in the technical sense for fortification of a kind that can only be carried out at leisure in peace conditions,

We

As ye x

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w

a

ARS

Od. ww Fe

aeAAA x

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Y



Eaa wi PS ATU RA

+=)ie

Ct

r Um~

ros’

OF gs Y aa e Y re wt aa

wif x ar

>A

eK Pa $ rs v e Waj

Fic. 9.—Traditore Battecry—the Bourges Casemate.

Fic. 8.—Flanking Organ (Metz).

Amongst these auxiliary arrangements, there is one, however, which during the World War proved to be of predominant im-

The justification of the claborate gun-mounting under armour (the cupola, according to present practicc) lies in its power to resist, for an indefinite time, counter-battery by the most power-

portance—ventilation. The fall of the forts of Li¢ge and Antwerp

ful guns available. That power was tested, during the World War,

was largely due to the ventilation arrangements proving inade-

above all in the case of the Belgian fortresses ahd at Verdun. The gross resultsof these two trials were diametrically opposite— the Belgian cupolas failed, usually through the failure of their

quate.

Poisonous fumes from the burst shell penctrated the

concrete fissured by its explosion, and filled the underground galleries of the fort, asphyxiating or disabling a large proportion

of the already overstrained garrison. In the latter part of the war, the development of gas warfare added a further complication, as it became unsafe to draw in air from outside. The solution adopted by the French for the Verdun forts (which, it should be noted, no longer contained either main-armament or fradifore artillery, but had become pure close-defence infantry works) was to deliver filtered air from a considerable distance, under slight

pressure, to certain rooms in the fort, which were sealed against local air by air-tight doors or otherwise. AI men working elsewhere than in these rooms wore gas-masks. Although the group principle of fortification, by dispersing the elements of defence, ipso facto dispenses with the subterrancan labyrinths of the Belgian forts, and so reduces the efiects of explosion fumes, the fact remains that the men in the armoured batteries and the traditore and flanking organs, must be protected {rom gas entering

surroundings but sometimes by their own defect, while the Verdun cupolas held out magnificently. Influenced by the general distrust of permanent work which the Belgian failures had produced, the French had ceased to rely upon their forts for the

flanking of the intervals, and the traditores had been actually disarmed before the attack of Feb. 21 1916. As this was the principal rôle allotted to the forts, the action of the few distantdefence guns in cupolas (safety-armament) could, ex hypothesi, be only a small part of the total artillery defence. But their powers of passive resistance were presumably tested as thoroughly

as if they had been the protagonists of the main-armament, and practically rione, save some minor cupolas for observation and

machine-guns, were disabled at the close of the great siege. Yet they had endured an unexampled bombardment. Fort Vacherauville, for instance, was hit by no less than 2,250 shells, of 28-cm.

and above—two such shell for every three square metres of sur-

oe pE

SIEGECRAFT AND SIEGE WARFARE face. Monlamville reccived 330 hits by 42-cm. shell. The more exposed forts, such as Douaumont and Souville, deluged with

medium and field as well as heavy shell, received over 30,000 hits apiece. Thus, cupolas of the thickness and quality of those

of Verdun are capable of all necessary resistance.

479

margin in application, proved capable of meeting the heaviest strain of bombardment which history records. The problem of the engineer to-day is to determine what safety margin is required for new work or reconstruction calculated according to the standards of Verdun. A fixed resistance, i situ, of several months, then, is practicable with the materials and means of permanent fortification. That it is not so with those of field fortification is shown by the various trench-warfare offensives of 1916-7. At Verdun the German attack progressed rapidly till it confronted a close-defence system which had permanent works as its backbone. At the Somme, though the Allies’ progress was slow, it was sure, and the defense

finally evolved a system of “ elastic ’ or “ coilspring ” resistancé, which by its very nature implied the giving-up of ground until an organized counter-attack could be mounted for its recapture. The success of this type of defence, so long as the moral of the defending troops, and their skill in group, platoon and company tactics, remain high, is a matter of history.

But it is equally a

matter of history that there are positions which, strategically or morally, must be defended to the end without yielding ground,

on which the defender must say, with Pétain at Verdun, “ On ne passera pas.’ And it is for these cases, so far as they can be foreseen in peace, that permanent fortification exists. The very words of Pétain’s defiance, however, carry the implication of a linear system. Fournier at Maubeuge, Kusmanck of Przemysl—governors of ting-fortresses—could not say that the enemy “shall not pass,” for the enemy could go round. It was not Verdun the ring-fortress, but Verdun the end-redoubt of the fortified line Verdun-Toul, that compelled the Germans to

traverse Belgium in August 1914. In 1916 Falkenhayn hesitated Fic. 10.—

1909

Flaxsced . 7 4 Potatoes .

. | 1919 1909 1919

A

ti

t

1,830,089 1,558,643

43,565,070 12,515,768

794:929

22,396,130 4 ALT S43 194.072 1,109,303

J,114,531

463,132 13,779 159,234

5,061,741

115,126

4,759,794

518,566 58,150

2,863,156

50,052

3441,092 4,996,846 tons]

5,07 1,747

3,651 706

3,435,907

1009

60,323,996

42,878,223 33,318,937 16,044,785 15,375,922 10,873,522

47,054,590 51,991,904

3,217,255

1910

ity

31,086,995

3,591,468

1909

Tay and forage

Valve

69,060,782 bus. 550,779,010 55.558.737 “it 26,395,985

2,037,058

1900 1919 :

Production

2,756,234

1909 1919 1909 1919 1909 1919

#

4,580,931 7,OO1,717 7,157,983 1,907,550

71,988,845 15.247.570

In 1919 receipts for the sale of dairy products were $12,222,562} of chickens, $1,477,500. The total value of domestic animals on farms was $232,364,625. : Minerals — The value of the mincrafs produced in the state in 1919 was $5,500,000. Prof. Freeman Ward, state geologist, has computed the mineral products in yearly averages for the hve-year periods, 1905-9 and 1915-0, as follows :— 1005-0 Bentonite,

Coak

:

:

:

:

ee

ty af gs . =. eae

gk. “ae. “e o er

ce. so

a da

a ua

Balmer series:

v= J-A

(m=3)4

-

eds

Paschen series:

v= Bom

(m=4,5)

«

+)

+

Thus, a general formula for the primary hydrogen spectrum, which

might include other undiscovered

serics, would

be

ne

N is a constant, whose value? is 109678-3. m is a constant integer for any one series;

and nm, has a different

integral value for cach

line of a series. R. W. Wood? has recently extended the Balmer series to m=22, 1.€. to 20 lines, by experiments with long vacuum tubes. In the spectrum of the sun’s chromosphere, 34 lines of the series have been recorded.

There is only one other known spectrum which has the same sim-

plicity as that of hydrogen—namely, the enhanced spectrum of helium. This includes the series first found by Pickering in the star ¢ Puppis, and the line 44686 and others calculated by Ryd-

berg, by whom both scrics were attributed to hydrogen. These lines were produced in the laboratory by Fowler,! and additional lines of the Pickering series, first indicated by Bohr's theory, were afterwards observed by Evans” and by Paschen.!’ It was, in fact, the theoretical work of Bohr which first suggested that the lines in question originated in helium and not in hydrogen. The enhanced serics of helium can be represented by a formula similar to that for hydrogen,

with

the difference

that the series

constant has rather more than four times the value for hydrogen.

dicyanin.’? By this method excellent photographs of the arc spectra of a large number of elements, extending to 10,000, have been obtained with a concave grating, and the positions of the lines have

. fl Thus, the series which includes 44686 is given by v=4N F

1 Several papers in the Astrophys. Jour. 2 Fowler and Shaw, Proc. Roy. Soc. A Ixxxvi., 128 (1912). * Meggers and Kiess, Sc. Pub. Washington Bur. of Standards, No. 324, p. 644 (1918).

when N’ is 109723. The complete Pickering series is given by substituting 1/4? for 1/3? in this formula, and a further series calculated by the use of 1/2? has been partially observed by Lyman. lt should, be noted that alternate lines of the Pickering series are nearly coincident with the Balmer series of hydrogen.

been measured with a high degree of accuracy.

For the present,

4Stimulation by ‘‘ active nitrogen,” according to the methods of

R. J. Strutt (now Lord Rayleigh), is particularly effective for the spectra of many compounds.—Prec. Roy. Soc. Ixxxvi., 105 (1912). 5 An excellent photographic map of this spectrum has been given by T, R. Merton, Proc. Roy. Soc. A xevi., 382 (1920). € Lockyer, Inorganic Evolution (1900), 7 Scientific Papers, Bureau of Standards, No. 312 (1918), and subsequent papers.

:)

m2

4 Astrophys. Jour. \ii., 1 (1920). R 9W.E. Curtis, Proc. Ray, Soc. A xcvi., 147 (1919). 10 Proc. Roy. Soc. A xevii., 455 (1920). i Monthly Notices R.A.S.\xxiii., 62 (1912); Phil. Trans. A cexiv.,

254 (1914).

a ook

2 Phil, Mag. xxix., 284 (1915).

8 Ann. d. Phys. 1., (1916).

SPECTROSCOPY

560

Other spectra exhibit several series superposed. The three types

of series early recognized as occurring in the same spectrum were denoted by Schuster as the “ Trunk,” “ Main Branch,” and “ Side

Branch ” series, but these names are now entirely superseded by the titles; “ Principal,” ” Sharp,” and “ Diffuse,” originally assigned

by Rydberg. A fourth type of series, called the “ Fundamental ” or “ Bergmann " series, has since been recognized. The four chief types are closely interrelated, but apparently have a certain measure of independence. Each series may consist of singlets, doublets, or

triplets.

n each series the lines converge to a definite limit, and their

wave-numbers are obtained by subtracting a sequence of“ terms ”

from the wave-number of the limit.

The formula for series in gen-

eral, however, are not known with the same accuracy as for hydro-

gen and enhanced helium. In some spectra, notably the are spectra of the alkali metals, a close approximation to a serics is given by

such a formula as that of Hicks, namely, p=A—N/(m+uta/m)?

where N has nearly the same value as for hydrogen, while # and a

are constants and À is the limit of the series; as before m takes successive integral values. In some series, however, such a formula by no means gives an accurate representation of the observed lines.

All that the theoretical investigator can accept with confidence at present is that the general term formula is N/{f(m)j?, where f(m) 1s a function of m whose form is known only for hydrogen and

enhanced heljum. The four main sequences of terms are denoted, for brevity, by the symbols mP, mS, mD, mF, where different integral values of n

correspond to the different terms in each sequence. The limit of each of the four series is the first term of one of the others, so that in the abbreviated notation, we have:— Principal scries =1S~mP Sharp series =1P—mS Diffuse series =1P~—mD

Fundamental series =2D -mF The term 1P has one, two, or three values, according as the series

consists of singlets, doublets, or triplets: and, similarly, the term 2D has two or three values, in doublet and triplet scries respectively,

when satellites are present in the diffuse serits. It was first shown bv Ritz, and expressed in his t “ combination principle,” that lines often occur in positions corresponding to other differences of terms besides those giving the four main series. Thus, there may be a series 285—mP, 1P—mP, and so on. Many lines not previously included have in this way been proved to form part of general series systems. . . The recognition of the importance of “ terms ” is a definite step towards the simplification of spectra, since the number of terms is less than the number of lines included in the series and combinations.

Moreover, theoretical investigations indicate that the terms

selves.

On this account, it is of great interest to construct a “ term-

have a more immediate physical significance than the lines them-

spectrum,” in which the terms, instead of the lines, are plotted along a horizontal scale. Such a term-spectrum—for the element lithium—is shown in the appended diagram.

For economy of space,

the terms are represented horizontally by their logarithms instead of their actual values. i LITHIUM

tions of research. According to this theory, the atom of an clement

consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by an appro~

priate system of electrons, such that the total negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus, Nearly the

whole of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which

is very small in comparison with the distances separating it from the

electrons. When an electron is removed from its, normal position by the application of an external stimulus, it may traverse tempo-

rarily one or another of certain orbits determined by quantum considcrations. In cach of these orbits it has a certain amount of energy, which is assumed to remain constant while the electron revolves in the orbit. The terms of the spectrum are then taken to be proportional to the respective amounts of energy. When the electron returns to its normal position, it comes to an orbit in which, for equilibrium, it must possess less energy than it had in the temporary

orbit.

The difference of energy, which

is proportional to the

difference of the corresponding terms, is emitted as a homogencous radiation, and gives rise to a definite spectral line, while, if the electron occupies successively different orbits on its return, several lines will be produced in succession. The actual spectrum at any moment is the summation of the different lines yielded by atoms in

different states. The term spectrum can thus be regarded as a diagram of the atom, in which the nucleus is at the zero of the scale (to the night in the diagram), and the strokes are parts of the possible orbits,

A spectrum line appears when an electron passes from

one orbit to another on its return towards its normal position in the innermost orbit. _ The differences between the arc and enhanced spectra receive a simple explanation on the Bohr theory, The lines of an arc spectrum are supposed to be generated by the disturbance of a single electron

and its subsequent interaction with the nucleus and remaining clectrons. When two electrons are removed from their normal positions, and one remains at a great distance, the return of the second

electron generates an entirely different spectrum consisting of the

enhanced lines. An atom which has lost one or more electrons is said to be “ fonized.” Assuming the hydrogen atom to consist of a nucleus and a single electron, the energies of the possible orbits can be calculated, and are found to be proportional to the observed terms N/m* Helium, the next lightest clement to hydrogen, is believed to have two elec~

trons, and the mathematical problem of determining their motion

has not yet been solved. If one of the electrons is removed, however, the atom is similar to that of hydrogen, except that the nucleus has a double positive charge and a greater mass. The resulting enhanced terms are therefore calculable. They again have the form

Nim ?, but N Bas now a much larger value than it has for hydrogen. ef : . 2me’E* mM It is represented in both cases by the expression cht nr

where e, m, and E, M, arc respectively the charge and mass of the electron and nucleus, # Planek’s constant and ¢ is the velocity of light. In the case of hydrogen E=e, and when the experimental values of the various quantities are substituted in the formula, the

- series constant

is reproduced

with remarkable

accuracy.

The

second factor increases with M, so that it will be slightly greater for helium than for hydrogen. Also, the double nuclear charge makes the first factor in the expression for N four times as great for enhanced helium as it is for hydrogen. These theoretical requirements have been completely verified by experiment. Fowler, calculating N for hydrogen and helium from the observed lines, used the

theoretical expressions to calculate the value of M/m,—1.e.

the

ratio of the masses of the hydrogen atom and the electron—and obtained a result in very close agreement with that arrived at by direct measurement. Moreover, he has shown? that in the more complicated spectra of the alkaline earths, the enhanced line terms Lou w

PRINCIPAL «15 -mP SHARP ~tP.ms COMBINATIONS:

DIFFUSE ~ 1P-mO FUNDAMENTAL = 2D-mF

IP -mP; 2P-mD:

28-2P: 1P-3F. &e

In the term-spectrum diagram, the four main sequences are dis-

tinguished by the varying heights of the strokes by which their terms are represented. The highest principal term (1P) minus the sets of sharp and diffuse terms, gives the sharp and diffuse series of lines respectively, while the highest sharp term (15) minus the set of principal terms, and the highest diffuse term (2D) minus the set of fundamental terms, give the principal and fundamental series.

These four series are generally well developed, but, as already remarked,

other combinations

often arise.

Jt appears, however,

are also represented by formule in‘which N has four times its value

for arc spectra.

it has not yet been possible to calculate the theoretical terms of other spectra, on account of the mathematical difficulties connected with the interaction of more than two bodies. The same principles, however, are believed to apply to atoms containing many electrons, and the physical conceptions of the theory have led to valuable information regarding the order of excitation of the lines under gradually increasing stimulus. Further developments of the theory, taking into account the variation of the mass of the electron with velocity required by the theory of relativity, have indicated that the lines of the hydrogen and enhanced helium serics are complex, and under high resolution should appear to consist of several components. This has been verified by Paschen,! who found results for helium in remarkable agree-

that all the combinations which are mathematically possible do not occur with the same frequency. Origin of Spectra.—The theory of Bohr,? which has already been mentioned, offers a remarkably accurate explanation of the spectra

ment with the predictions of Sommerfeld. The intensities of the several components also are in the ratio calculated by Sommerfeld by a special hypothesis.

of hydrogen and enhanced helium, and gives a physical meaning to the terms which has proved very fruitful in suggesting new direc-

theory is given by experiments in which atoms are bombarded by electrons, with a view to temporary disintegration. If an electron, of charge e falls through a potential difference, v, it acquires a

1 Phil. Trans. A vols. ccx., ccxii., Ccxill., CCXVIL., CCXX, = Phil. Mag., vol. xxvi.. pp. 1-253, 476-502; 857-875

(1913);

vol. xxvii, pp. 506-524 (1913); vol. xxix., pp. 332-335 (1915),

Resonance and Ionizing Potentials —Strong support for the Bohr

$ Phil, Trans. A cexiv., 254 (1914). 4 Ann. d. Phys., vol. L, pp- 901-940 (1916).

SPECTROSCOPY Š

Arce

ee

.

.

Enhanced.

Vill.orO

|__I,

Ji.

Hi

.

. | Notcom- { Doublets | Tripletsand|

.

à

pletely quae yze (?)

Not completely anazed

GROUP

Doublets

singlets

561

IV.

V.

Triplets? | Doublets?

Doublets | Tripletsand | Doublets? singlets :

Triplets?

VI.

VII.

Triplets

(?}

Doublets?

Triplets?

quantity of energy, ev, expressed in appropriate units. If such an

element will make the outer ring similar to that of the immediate

place until v reaches a certain value, when there is a sudden radia-

lines of the first element of the same type of complexity as the arc

electron bombards a neutral atom, it is found that no change takes

tion of energy corresponding to a particular line—usually a strong flame line—in the spectrum of the bombarded atom.. According to Bohr's theory, the energy in this particular radiation is equal to hv, where v is the wave-number of the line, and k is Planck's constant. Experiments with several elements show that this critical value of V is determined by the relation ev=ky., This means that

the energy

of bombardment has been just sufficient to remove the

electron in the atom from its normal position to the next orbit, and, on its return, the clectron restores the energy in the form of mono-

chromatic radiation of the appropriate frequency. If v is expressed in volts, the wave-number of the emitted line is numerically equal

forerunncr of the element in the table, and so make the enhanced lines of the second.

Removal of a second electron would restore the

arc type of complexity, for the number of outer electrons would again become odd or even, as the case might be. A second ioniza-

tion is difficult to bring about in most cases, but with silicon it is probable that one, two, and even three electrons have been removed, step by step, thus making possible four. distinct spectra, These

appear to show the alternation of complexity required by the dis-

placement

law.

The table above

gives the types of series pro-

duced by the neutral and ionized elements of the various groups, so far as they are known at present.

is

The spectra of the higher groups are much more complex than those of the lower ones. Their series, if they possess any, are possibly of

by increasing V, it is possible to remove an electron from the atom altogether. If the energy, ev, in this case is equated to hy, the

series—and therefore terms—might be detected in such spectra,

to vxé6102.

The

value of v when

known as the “resonance”

resulting value of » is found spectrum—usually the term This term would correspond and the result suggests that

emission

or “radiation"’

first takes place

potential.

Further,

to be equalal to the largest term in the: IS, the limit of the principal series. to the innermost orbit of the electron, the energy which must be applied to

remove an electron from the atom is just equal to the energy sessed by the electron when revolving in its normal position,

poshe

potential required to remove an electron from the atom is known as the “ionizing potential” It has been determined experimentally for a number of elements and has been found to be in complete

a different type from those with which we are familiar.

The dis-

placement law, however, suggests that, by repeated ionizations,

of the same kind as those of the groups of elements on the left, But since, with each successive ionization, the term constant, N, the chief series lines might

is multiplied in the ratio I Ge

tend rapidly to approach the far ultra-violet and become difficult

to observe. Band Spectra.—Several band spectra have been studied in further detail, but it docs not appear that any very fundamental advance in our knowledge of the structure of these spectra has been made. The discovery of a band spectrum of helium, however, is probably

agreement with the orbital energy as calculated from the largest

of considerable importance.

picture of the processes taking place in experiments of this type.

the heads of some of them are arranged in accordance with the laws of line series. In this respect the helium bands appear to be quite unique. Unlike the limes of helium, the bands have not yet been

term in the spectrum.

The Bohr theory thus presents a simple

The Stark Effect—The resolution of spectral lines under the influence of intense magnetic fiells—usually known as the Zeeman

effect—has been extensively studied for a large number of elements. Somewhat similar effects, but much greater in magnitude, pro-

duced by an electric field, have been brought to light by Stark,}

and

examined

in considerable

detail

by a number

of workers.

Nicholson and Merton ? have shown that the Stark effect may oper-

ate to an appreciable extent in an ordinary vacuum-tube discharge,

causing a broadening of the lines. Both the Zeeman and Stark effects have been treated on the basis of the Bohr theory,? with some success.

,

Spectra and the Periodic Table.—Attention is being drawn more

and more to the relation of the spectrum to the periodic table of the elements.

While it cannot be said that the relation is known

with any approach to completeness, a number of important facts have been noted which may ultimatcly prove of great service in the interpretation of the table. It has long been known that, when doublets or triplets occur in the spectra, the wave-number separa-

tions of their components

(which are constant in the sharp and

diffuse series) are approximately proportional to the squares of the

atomic weights of the elements producing the spectra—so long as those elements belong to the same family group.

The Zeeman effect

also is generally the same for lines of corresponding series in the spectra of elements belonging to the same group But perhaps the most comprehensive connexion of spectra with the periodic table is established by the ‘‘ displacement law ” of Kosscl and Sommerfeld.‘ It has been observed that the “ complexity ” of the lines of a series— z.e, their character as singlcts, doublets or triplets—is constant

throughout a group, but varies from one group to another,

displacement

law states

that, when

an

element

is ionized,

The

the

It has been shown by Fowler& that,

while the individual bands follow the ordinary laws of band spectra,

traced in any celestial source.

The Solar Spectrum.—A striking feature of continued work on the

solar spectrum is the identification of a large number of faint lines

with lines composing the bands of certain compounds, in addition to the band lines of carbon and cyanogen previously recognized by Rowland and Lockyer. The peculiarities of the region about the

G group of Fraunhofer have been shown by Newall” to be due to

the absorption of the well-known

hydro-carbon

hand 44315, and

the group P has been found by Fowler and Gregory® to include

the strong ultra-violet band of ammonia having its maximum near

43360. In addition, the band of luminous water vapour beginning at 43064 has been found by Fowler? to be present in the solar spectrum. A large number of previously unknown solar lines have

thus been accounted for, and it 1s not improbable that the thousands of faint lines which remain unidentified may eventually be traced to other band spectra.

;

An interesting application of modern theories of spectra to solar

problems has been made by M. N. Saha.” On the reasonable assump-

tion that the composition of the sun is essentially the same as that of the earth, it remains to account for the absence of spectral indica-

tions of many of the elements.

Dr. Saha urges that the varying

representation of different elements arises from the varying response of these elements to the solar stimulus, depending upon the structure of their atoms, and the consequent difference in their tonizing potentials. Casium, for example, has a low ionizing potential and is considered to be completely ionized in the sun, so that the familiar lines do not appear, while the chicf lines of the ionized cle-

group) in the periodic table. It is assumed that electrons arrange

ment are out of range. In contrast, sodium has a higher ionizing potential and is only partially ionized in the sun, so that the lines of the neutral atoms appear strongly. Other elements, such as neon and argon, have very high ionization potentials, and are not excited

are produced by electrons in the outer ring. If the outer ring contains an odd number of electrons, the spectrum will consist of doub-

percentage ionizations of various elements at different tempcratures and pressures, and it is possible that the peculiarities of the solar

and singlets, In the periodic table each element contains one outer

Stellar Spectroscopy.—Our detailed knowledge of the spectra of the stars has been greatly advanced by the use of the large telescopes which have been erected, and considerable progress has also

enhanced series take on the same type of Comper as the arc series produced by the element to the left (Ze. in the preceding themselves round the nucleus in rings, and that spectrum phenomena

lets, while, if the number is even, the. spectrum will show triplets

electron more than its neighbour in the preceding

group, while a

group consists of elements having the same number of clectrons in the outer ring. It follows that the removal of an electron from an

1 Ann. d. Phys., vol. xliii., p. 965 (1914), etc. 2 Phil. Trans. A. vol. ccxvi., Pp. 459 (1916).

Bohr, Danish Acad. Sc. iv., 1, part 11., pp. r-1oo (1918); H. A. Kramers, Mémoires Acad. Sc., Copenhagen, 8th ser., iii., No. 3, pp-

a

(1919); Epstein, Ann. d. Phys., vol. |, pp., 489-520, 815-840

1916).

3 Verh, Deut. Phys. Gesell. (1919). XXXIH.—10

at all,

Dr. Saha finds support for his views in calculations of the

spectrum may be satisfactorily explained by these considerations.

aaalllt pm

sW., E. Curtis, Proc. Roy. Soc., lxxxix., 146 (1913); E. Goldstein, Verh. Deut. Phys. Ges., xv., 10 (1913). ® Proc. Roy. Soc., xci., 209 (1915). 7 Monthly Notices R. A. S., xxvi., 640 (1916). 8 Phil. Trans. A cexviii., 351 (1918). 9 Proc. Roy. Soc. A. xciv., 472 (1918). 1 Phil. Mag. xl., 809 (1920).

SPEE—SPITSBERGEN

562

been made in the interpretation of the stellar lines through experiments in the laboratory. In particular, the use of stronger discharges than had previously been employed has led to the discovery of new lines of several elements, which have been identified with the lines occurring in the hotter stars. Certain lines of the Wolf-Rayet stars, for example, have thus been traced to carbon by Merton,’

and others to oxygen by Fowler and Brooksbank.?

The general

outcome of the experimental reproduction of stellar lines is to sup-

ort the view that the order in which the different classes of stars

Pad been arranged is a true temperature sequence.

This order, pre-

viously indicated by Secchi and Vogel, is now generally expressed by the classification introduced at Harvard by E, C. Pickering, in which the most important classes, passing from the white to the redder stars, are designated by the letters B, A, F, G, K, M.? On passing from the relatively cool M stars to the hot B stars, it is necessary, in accordance with the work of Lockyer, to employ a

gradually increasing stimulus in order to excite the spectra which appear at successive stages of the stellar sequence.

There are certain peculiarities of the successive stellar spectra which call for explanation, if it be assumed that all stars are of essentially the same composition. Thus, at every stage of the stellar

sequence there are many elements which are not represented at all, and different selections of the elements appear at the various stages.

The earlier attempts to deal with such questions are incompatible with modern views as to the origin of spectra, The new theory of spectra, however, supplemented by a theory of the temperature radiation of gases, has been shown by Dr. M. N. Saha ‘ to provide a very probable explanation of most of the phenomena. According to this theory, a gas or vapour may emit radiations, or become ionized, by subjecting it to appropriate thermal stimulus, depending in part upon the density, and the emissions produced mechanically by the spark may thus also be generated by the action of a sufficiently high temperature. Dr. Saha concludes that, under the temperature stimulus prevailing in the atmosphere of any particular star, certain elements are excited to radiation of their characteristic lines, in accordance with their resonance and ionization potentials, while other elements are cither ionized, or the stimulus is too weak

to excite

the lines by which their presence could be recognized. When an element is completely ionized in this way, it will often happen that the most characteristic lines of the modified atoms will lie far in the ultra-violet, outside the range of possible observation, so that the

element will escape detection. Again, under the action of the highest temperatures, a second step in ionization may set in, producing still more refrangible chief lines as a rule, so that even the elements which yield enhanced lines in the ordinary range of spectrum at some stages will eventually cease to be represented. The simplification of the spectra of the hotter stars thus receives an acceptable explanation; the surviving elements represented in the spectra are those for which the maximum

amount of energy is required to

produce the succes-

sive ionizations, or those for which these conditions yield lines of sufficient intensity within the range of spectrum which is open to

observation. Preliminary calculations of the probable temperatures at which such changes of spectrum would occur are in substantial agreement with the temperatures of the various classes of stars deduced from spectro-photometric observations by Wilsing and Scheiner. It therefore seems probable that temperature is the controlling factor in determining the character of the spectrum given by a star, and, as Dr. Saha remarks: ‘‘ The stellar spectra may be regarded as unfolding to us, in an unbroken sequence, the physical processes succeeding each other as the temperature is continually varied from 3000° to 40,000°.”

LrBLIOGRAPHY.—To the works mentioned in the earlier article

the following should be added :—Eder and Valenta, Atas typischer Spekiren (1911); P.

Zeeman, Researches in Magneto-Optics

(1913);

Violet (1914); A. Sommerfeld, Alombau und Spekirallinien

eae

L. Silberstein,

(1920);

J. Stark, Die Atomionen chemischer Elemente und ihre Kanalstrahlenspectren (1913); T. Lyman, The Spectroscopy of the Extreme UltraReport on the Quantum

Theory of Spectra

A. L. Hughes, “ Report on Photo-Electricity, including Ionising and Radiating Potentials and Related Effects,” Bull. of National Research Council, Washington (1921); A. Fowler, Series in Line Spectra, Phys. Soc., London (oars

SPEE, COUNT MAXIMILIAN VON (1861-1014), German admiral, was born June 23 1861 at Copenhagen. He was first officer of the battleship “ Brandenburg ” when it was sent to

East Asia in 1899 during the Chinese boxer disturbances, In 1 Prac, Roy. Soc., A, xci., 498 (1915).

2 Monthly Notices, R.A.S., \xxvii., 511 (1917).

3 The work of H. N. Russell, in general agreement with that of

Lockyer, renders it probable that the true sequence is from to B with increasing temperature, and thence from B to M with decreasing temperature, the density increasing throughout. Stars of rising temperature, on account of their great volume, have been called “ giants,” those of falling temperature “ dwarfs.” Differences

between the spectra of giants and dwarfs of the same spectral class have been found by Adams (see Monthly Notices, R.A.S., lxxxi., 334)4 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, xcix., 135 (1921).

1908 he was chief of the staff of the North Sea command, and in 1913 he was appointed chief in command of the Cruiser Squadron, . When the World War broke out he was on a voyage with this squadron from Tsing-tau to the South Sea Islands. He was hard pressed by British and Japanese naval forces, but was at an. advantage when he was engaged on Nov. 1 1914 off Coronel on:

the Chilean coast by Adml. Cradock with a British squadron which was inferior to his own in numbers and specd, as well as in

range and weight of fre. Adml. Cradock went down with his ship, the ‘‘ Cape of Good Hope,” and the “ Monmouth ” was

also sunk, On the following Dec. 8 Count Spee’s squadron was drawn into action off the Falkland Is. by the powerful cruiser squadron of Adml. Sturdee which had been sent out to look for him. Count Spee’s own ship, the “ Scharnhorst, ” was sunk, he himself and his two sons going down with all hands. The “ Gneisenau ” was also sunk, as were the “ Leipzig ” and the “ Nürnberg.” The light cruiser “ Dresden” escaped, but was afterwards sunk off Juan Fernandez in the Pacific. SPIELHAGEN, FRIEDRICH VON (1829-1911), German hovelist (sce 25.667), published during his later years Freigeboren. (1900); Die schinen Amerikanerinnen (1902); Ultimo (1903); and Am Wege (1903). He died at Charlottenburg, Berlin, Feb. 25 IQII. SPIERS, RICHARD PHENE (1838-10916), English architect’ and author. Phené Spiers occupied a unique position amongst the English architects of the latter half of the 19th century, his. long mastership of the architectural school at the Royal Academy: having given him the opportunity of moulding and shaping the minds of more than a generation of students. He was educated in the engineering department of King’s College, London, and proceeded thence to the atelier Questel of the Ecole des BeauxArts, Paris, for upwards of three years, a method of study rare for an architectural student in those days. On bis return he won the gold medal and travelling scholarship of the Royal Academy, and in 1865 the Soane medal of the R.I.B.A.

In 1871, after he

had worked in the offices of Sir Digby Wyatt and William Bur-

ges, he gained second premium witha spirited design (showing a good deal of the Neo-Grec feeling consequent on his French training) for the new Criterion building, London. His work of about this period included Lord Monkswell’s house, Chelsea. Phené Spiers travelled in France, Spain, Egypt, Syria and the East, and besides his record of more purely architectural data, he made many water-colour sketches showing much talent and facility. He was a frequent exhibitor at various galleries, and a good specimen of his art—the loggia at Hampton Court—is in the Victoria and Albert museum. His works and publications were many, and covered a wide ground. Amongst them are his new edition of James Fergusson’s Zfistory of Architecture and the further volumes on Indian and Eastern art; Architectural Draw-

ing; The Architecture of Greece and Rome (conjointly with the late W. J. Anderson); The Mosque at Damascus; and the articles on Persian and Roman Architecture in Dr. Russell Sturgis’s Dic-

tionary of Architecture, besides an edition of Pugin’s Normandy. For the £.B. Spiers wrote most of the articles dealing with architecture,

‘The position to which his erudition and ability en-

titled him was fully recognized in other countries as well as his own, as is shown by his election to membership of many foreign societies in France, Spain and America. He died in London Oct. 3 1916. SPIRITUALISM: see PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. SPITSBERGEN (see 25.708).—The highest peaks in Spitsbergen are believed to be Mount Newton, 5,676 ft., and Mount Poincaré, 5,446 ft., both in the eastern part known as New Friesland. Mount Eidsvoll in King James Land is 4,770 ft. and Mount Monaco on Prince Charles Foreland is 3,543 ft. Geology. —Considerable exploration has not greatly modified the main conception of the geological structure. The old rocks of the, W., generally described as the Hekla Hook series, seem to be of Silurian age to which may also be ascribed the so-called Archaean rocks of the N.W. There are no Permo-Carboniferous rocks in King James Land and the strips of rocks on the N.E. side of Prince Charles Foreland and the opposite shores of the mainland, formerly attrib-

SPORTS AND uted to that age, are now known to be Tertiary. Certain of the coal measures in Advent Bay prove to be of Cretaceous and not Tertiary

age and these Cretaceous beds probably appear also below the

Tertiary beds in Lowe Sound. , An extinct volcano and several hot springs with a temperature of

75° to 82° F. were discovered in Bock Bay, of Wood Bay, in 1910.

The volcano seems to date from a later period than any other volcanic manifestation found in Spitsbergen. Research has proved

that dislocation has Paa a great part in determining the main features of the fjord system, especially in Ice Fjord where the course of the fjord has been decided by great faults. , Climate.—From the meteorological data now available, including eight years’ records from Green Harbour, the following means may

be given: Cape Thordsen, Jan. 0-3° F., July 39-9° F.; Green Harbour, Jan. 6-7°, July 39°7°; Axel I. (Lowe Sound), Jan. 1-6°, July 403°: S.E. of Edge 1, Jan. 1-5°, Aug. 37-4°; Bear I. Feb. 10-4°, Aug. 401°. The mean annual precipitation at Green Harbour is

11-6 in.; Prince Charles Foreland has more and the interior of Spitsbergen Jess.

Exploration.—There is little doubt that the land called Sval-

bard (“cool coast”) in the Icelandic annals, discovered by Norsemen in 1194, was really Spitsbergen. If Spitsbergen was forgotten by the Norsemen it was possibly rediscovered by Russian hunters from the White Sea in the 15th or 16th centuries or at least previous to Barents’ rediscovery in 1596. Recent exploration in Spitsbergen has been devoted mainly

to geological work, largely with cconomic ends in view, and detailed cartographical survey. A German expedition under Lt. Schroeder-Stranz in 1912 came to grief on the N. coast, after the

loss of the leader.

Half the staff were lost and the survivors

were rescued by Norwegians under A. Staxrud. The principal survey work has been done by Norwegians working in small parties every summer since 1906, assisted by grants from the Norwegian State. These parties have been successively com-

563

GAMES

Tertiary and Cretaceous age and proves to be good steam coal. Bituminous coal of Carboniferous age will soon be available for export. Jurassic coal occurs but is of poor quality and no longer worked. Mining continues throughout the year but the export season at present is from June to Sept. The largest mining camp is Longyear City in Advent Bay, housing some 400 men in summer and 300 in winter. No other minerals besides coal are as yet exploited commercially, but large deposits of iron ore (36% iron) and gypsum are known, as well as smaller deposits of zinc and asbestos. Signs of oil have been-reported. A Norwegian company is exporting coal from Bear Island. The approximate area (in sq. m.) of estates owned by various nationals in Spitsbergen is as follows: British 6,500, Norwegian goo, Swedish 400, Russian 60 and Dutch ro. Whaling was revived in Spitsbergen waters in 1905, abandoned in 1912 and restarted during the

World War.

The only station is now in Green Harbour.

Winter

fur-hunting is pursued by a few Norwegians.

Political History —The question of political control had been discussed since about 1870, mainly by Norway, Sweden and Russia, without any solution being found. Spitsbergen therefore occupied the curious position of being terra nullius. In 1907, however, Norway again opened negotiations for an international conference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one was held at Christiania in July-Aug. 1910, followed by another in Ior2, without definite result. In July 1914 a conference which included also representatives of Britain, France, Belgium, the United States, Holland and Germany tried to devise a form of administration consistent with the country remaining a terra nullius, but the outbreak of the World War put an end to the discussions. In 1919 the Supreme Council conferred the

manded by G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud and A. Hoel, and have mapped

sovercignty of Spitsbergen, including Bear I., on Norway. The signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and the British Dominions, France, Italy, the United States, Japan, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The rights and territories of nationals other than those of Norway are safeguarded, and Norway is not allowed to show prefcrential treatment to Norwegian mining companies or to levy taxes except for expenditure on the administration. Disputed claims to estates were to be decided by a neutral commission presided over by a Dane. BipLioGRAPHY.—The literature is in the main scattered in period-

several of the highest peaks on the W. coast, including Mounts Monaco, Rudmose and Barents. Hydrographic surveys have been

skapsseiskapets skrifter (Christiania), Naturen (Bergen), Scottish Gea-

in detail the western side of the mainland from the N. coast to the South Cape. The work is expedited by the use of photogrammetric methods to assist triangulation, The detailed survey of Prince Charles Foreland has been completed by Dr. W. S. Bruce and assistants who have also mapped the area between Klaas Billen and Sassen bays. Swedish surveyors have mapped the land round Lowe Sound and Braganza Bay. The Prince of Monaco has shown continued interest in Spitsbergen exploration by giving assistance to several explorers, including the Swiss IT. Stoll who in 1913 crossed the unknown country between Lowe Sound and Agardh Bay on Stor Fjord. Lt. W. Filchner in 1910 surveyed the glaciated region between Temple Bay and Mohn Bay. In 1920 J. M. Wordie scaled

carried out by G. Isachsen and others on the W. coast and in Green Harbour, by W. S. Bruce in Foreland Sound, Klaas Billen and Sassen bays and Stor Fjord.

Swedish Government surveyors have

been at work in Lowe Sound. Oceanographical work has been done in

Spitsbergen waters by Dr. F, Nansen, The Norwegian Government has maintained a wireless telegraph station and meteorological observatory in Green Harbour since Ig11. A German meteorological station was founded in Eleltoft Haven, Cross Bay, in 1910 as the outcome of a visit by Prince Henry of Prussia and Count Zeppelin

ical publications:

specially useful are

Ymer

(Stockholm),

Viden-

graphical Magazine and Résultats des Campagnes Scientifiques, par Albert I., Prince de Monaco, vol. xl., xli., and xlv. Two modern works giving recent history and economic developments are Spits-

bergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches, by R. N. Rudmose Brown (1920), and Spitsbergens Natur og Historie, by G. Holmsen (1911).

‘Fra

Ishavet ” by G. Jsachsen in Det Norske Geografiske

station was abandoned in oe 1914. In 1920 Norway opencd a new meteorological and geophysical station for aerological and geomagnetic research. Besides the Norwegian state wircless station at Green Harbour, there were in 1921 seven others (4 Norwegian,

Selskabs Aarbok (1916-19) gives much information about Norwegian hunters. The Duich Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen 15901829, by F. C. Wieder (Amsterdam, 1919), has many reproductions of early maps. The meteorological observations at Green Harbour ‘are published Palen in Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Metcorologischen Instituts (Christiania), Mit Zeppelin nach Sptisbergen, by A. Miethe and H. Hergesell (Berlin 1911), is noteworthy for the excellence of its illustrations, including colour plates. Some of the results of the Norwegian surveys are collected in Expédition Isachsen au Spitsberg

Mining.—The development of the coal-fields has proceeded

ogy of Spitsbergen is explained by G. de Geer, ‘‘Onthe physiographical evolutionof Spitsbergen” in Geog. Annaler, I. (otockholm 1919).

when experiments with dirigible balloons were conducted.

This

2 English and one Swedish), In Aug. 1921 a Norwegian Church was consccrated at Longyear City.

rapidly; greatly stimulated during the war by the scarcity and high price of coal in Scandinavia. The coal-mine in Longyear Valley, Advent Bay, which had been under American ownership since 1905, was sold in 1916 to Norwegians who have been assiduous in their export. Several other Norwegian mines have started, notably in Kings Bay, Green Harbour and Hjorth Haven in Advent Bay. Swedish mines were opencd in Lowe Sound (Braganza Bay) in 1917. There are Russian mines in Green Harbour and Dutch mines at Cape Boheman. British enterprise, hampered by war conditions, revived in 1919 in the

coal-bearing areas in Klaas Billen Bay and Lowe Sound.

By

1900-10.

Résultats scientifiques (Christiania 1916).

The geomorphol-

.N.

R.

SPORTS AND GAMES.—The tendency towards “internationalism” in competitive sports and games had been rapidly growing in intensity, partly as a result of the establishment of the Olympic Games, from 1896 onwards; but it was rudely interrupted by the World War, and conditions were still unfavourable up to 1921 for more than a limited renewal. The decade from IQII to 1921 offers no proper material, therefore, for a consistent history in this field, by way of supplement to the separate articles in the earlier volumes of this Encyclopadia; nor, indeed, in the case of most sports and games, as carried on in 1910-21, had there been more than minor changes, either in equipment, methods or rules. So far as British and American interests, however, are concerned, the chief statistics, as regards the main

1920 practically all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one or other company and at least five mines had reached the export stage. The total amount of coal exported in 1919 was 90,000 tons, all of which went to Norwegian ports, including some to events in the more important sports and games, are recorded Narvik for the Swedish railways. The coal exported so far is of in the following sections.

SPORTS

564

AND

Athletics, Track and Field—The Olympic Games were held at

Stockholm in July 1912, the highest number of points being scored by the United States, and again at Antwerp in 1920, the 7th Olympiad being projected for Paris in 1924. While the United States won the track and field events of the

1920 Olympic games in Antwerp by a considerable margin in the

point score, and set new records in the pole vault, the high jump, and the 4oo-metre hurdles, the Americans totalled only 9 first places, the same as the team of 24 men from Finland. The ‘‘stars” of the

American team were C. W. Paddock in the 100 metres, Allan Woodring in the 200 metres, Frank Loomis in the 400-metre hurdles, Richard Landon in the high jump, Frank Foss in the pole vault, Pat Ryan in the hammer, Pat McDonald in the 56-lb. weight, and

H. H. Brown, the individual winner in the 3000-metre team race, the

only American to win a distance event. In swimming the Americans were supreme, with Duke Kahanamoku and Kealoha, both of wlawaii, Norman Ross, Ethelda Bleibtrey, Aileen Riggin and Charlotte Boyle. The winners at the American eastern college meetings were: 1911, Cornell; 1912, Pennsylvania; 1913, Pennsylvania; 1914, Cornell; 1915, Cornell; 1916, Cornell; 1918, Cornell; 1919, Cornell; 1920. Pennsylvania; 1921, California. Princeton won against Oxford (July 8 1920) at Queen’s Club, London, by 6 events to i At the Pennsylvania Relay Games (April 39-May 1 1920) the Oxford-Cambridge 2-m. team, Tatham, Stallard, Milligan and Rudd, set a new world’s record of 7 min. 50 # sec.

Cricket —Before the war English cricket was in a flourishing condition. The visit of a South African team to Australia in 1910-1, in which the South Africans did hardly as well as had been expected, served as a prelude to the so-called Triangular Tournament of 1912; and in the meantime an English team under the management of the Marylebone Cricket Club carried through a successful tour in

1911-2.

Of 18 eleven-a-side matches the M.C.C. team lost only

the first test match; four were drawn, and 18, tncluding four test matches, were won by the Englishmen. At the end of 1910 a team sent to South Africa by the M.C.C. won two and lost three test matches. In 1912 the interest in county cricket was largely eclipsed by the Triangular Tournament between England, Australia and South Africa, in which nine test matches were played. England proved victorious, winning four matches (three against South Africa and one against Australia) and drawing twice with Australia, owing to bad weather. The Australians beat the South Africans twice. Of the 102 matches played up to 1920 between England and Australia, England won 46 and Australia 35. Of those played in England the home team won

17 and Australia 8, and 17 were drawn.

In

those played in Australia England won 30 and Australia 27, three being drawn. In 1921, however, Australians won an easy victory.

in their visit to England,

the

A new method of deciding the English county championship was

inaugurated in I91I. With the idea of discouraging the players from aiming at drawn matches, five points were given for a win, and

three points (with one point to the losing side) for a first-innings victory. The championship was won by Warwickshire in 1911, by Yorkshire in 1912 and by Kent in 1913. In 1914 the championshi was not decided owing to the outbreak of war, but the M.C.C. Committee adjudged Surrey the winners. It was resumed in 1919, when a new system was adopted, by which only wins counted, the

winners being the county with the highest proportion of wins to

matches played. Yorkshire was at the head of the list in 1919, and

GAMES

Ireland.

The University match went in favour of Oxford in 1910,

I911, and 1913.

Cambridge won in 1912, 1914, I915 and 1920.

(2) Assoczatton.—lIn 1910 a tour was undertaken in Brazil by the Corinthian Football Club, and another in North America in 1911-2, From 1907 to 1914 amateur international football was affected by a dissension among English clubs. In consequence of the Football Association insisting upon the admission of professional clubs (so-called) to the district associations, a large number of amateur clubs, including the University, College and Public Schools Club, seceded to form the Amateur Football Association. The officers of the army, while sympathizing with the seceders, considered it advisable for the sake of regimental football to retain their con-

nexion with the Football Association.

But in 1911-2 they used

their influence to promote a reconciliation.

A conference was held

at which the delegates of the two associations only failed to arrive at an agreement because the older body would not accept an arrangement by which the younger could receive the adherence of newly formed amateur clubs. In 1914, however, the Football Association

and the Amatcur Football Association sank their differences, The Amateur elevens of the Football Association won matches with Wales, Belgium, France and Holland in 1910-1, but lost to Ireland.

In rg11-2, besides victories at the Olympic Games, they defeated

Ireland,

Wales,

Denmark,

Holland

and

Belgium.

The

Amateur

Football Association teams beat Wales and France in both seasons.

The full representative eleven of the Football Association defeated Ireland Bie Wates in 1911 and drew with Scotland. ireland lost to Wales and Scotland, and Scotland drew with Wales. In 1912

England and Scotland again played an indecisive match, but both beat Wales and Ireland; Wales lost three matches. In 1913 England beat Scotland and Wales; Wales beat Ireland and drew with Scotland; Scotland beat Ireland; and Ireland beat England. In 191 England beat Wales; Scotland beat England; Ireland beat Enoland and Wales and drew with Scotland; and Wales drew with Scotland.

In 1920 England beat Scotland and Irctand; Wales beat England and.

drew with Ireland and Scotland; and Scotland beat Ireland. The Football Association Cup was won in 1911 by Bradford City, in 1912 by Barnsley, in 1913 by Aston Villa, in 1914 by Burnley, in 1915 by Sheffield United, and tn 1920 by Aston Villa. The championship of the Football League was carried off by Manchester United in 1911, by Blackburn Rovers in 1912, by Sunderland in 1913, by Blackburn Rovers in 1914, by Everton in 1915, and by West Bromwich Albion in 1920. The principal trophy of the Amateur Football! Association was won in i91t by the Old Malvernians, in 1912 by Oxford City, in 1913 by the New Crusaders, in 1914 by Ealing, and in 1920 by Dulwich Hamlet. The Arthur Dunn cup for public school clubs fell to the Old Reptonians in 1911, to the Old Malverniansin 1912, to the Old Brightonians in 1913, to the Old Reptonians in 1914, to the Old Wykchamists in 1920, and to the Old Carthusians in 1921. Oxford won the University match in 1911 and Cambridge won in 1912, 1913, 1915; in 1914 and 1920 the match was drawn. American Football—Of all amateur sports in America, college

football (the American Rugby game) drew the largest crowds and

aroused the greatest enthustasm. Occasional professional teams drew big gate receipts, especially in Ohio and Michigan, where the

professional game was popular, but in general it was not encouraged. After 1908 a number of colleges abandoned lootball because of the

deaths and injuries that resulted from the old-style mass playing.

In the following years, especially in 1910 and 1912, radical revisions of the old rules were made; the new rules were designed to foster a more open style of plav and to make the game more interesting to spectators. The periods of plav,formerly two halves of 35 min. and 1918. In 1911, 1914 and 1919 Oxford won, and in r912, 1913 and 1921 Cambridge were the winners, the match in 1920 being each, were altered to four periods of 15 min. each, with an interdrawn. From 1911 to 1921, with the exception of the years 1915 to | mission of one minute between the first and second, and third and fourth periods, and 15 min. between the second and third penods. 1918, when the match was not played, Eton won against Harrow. English Football—(1) Rugby.—In 1911 a French team for the first The playing field, from goat line to goal line, was shortened from time was victorious in an international match, beating Scotland in 110 to 100 yd. and each side was given four trials in which to make Middlesex in 1920 and 1921,

The Oxford and Cambridge match was not played between 1915

Paris.

In the same season Wales beat England, Ireland, Scotland

and France; Ireland beat England, Scotland and France; England at Twickenham

beat Scotland

and France.

In 1912 all the interna-

tional matches that took place in the United Kingdom were won by the fifteen playing in its own country. England defeated Wales and Ircland, but narrowly lost to Scotland. Ireland beat Scotland and Wales, and Wales

beat Scotland.

In no match

was

France vic-

torious. A strong South African team began a tour in Great Britain

in the autumn of 1912. After gaining several decisive victories over counties, the South Africans lost to Newport, were with great difficulty victorious over Llanelly, the United Services and London, beat Oxford and Cambridge Universities, were narrowly beaten at Twickenham by another London fifteen, and easily beat Scotland at Edinburgh. They next gained their most decisive victory at Dublin, securing 36 points against Ircland, and beat Wales by a try at Cardiff, but lost to Swansea by the same margin. In the international matches in 1913 England defeated Scotland, Wales, Ireland and France; Wales beat Scotland, Ireland and France; Scotland beat Ireland and France; and Ireland beat France. In i914 England beat Scotland, Wales, Ireland and France; Wales beat Scotland, Ireland and France; and Ireland beat Scotland and France. From 1915 to 1919 the matches were not played. In 1920 England beat

Scotland, Ireland and France; Wales beat England, Ireland and France; Scotland beat Wales, Jreland and France; and France beat

the required

10 yd. The removal of the restrictions on the forward

pass was one of the most conspicuous changes; this with other new rules, had the effect of encouraging an open, running game, in which the advantage lay rather in quick thinking and skillful playing than in mere weight or strength. The full possibilities of the new rules were not realized for some time, but, as familiarity with them increased, the play became more spectacular, and there was

no question that the game had been improved from the standpoint of both spectator and player. Ordinarily the schedule of football games was not designed to determine the champion team among

eastern colleges; therefore in reviewing the football games of the

decade 1910-20 the choice of the strongest teams is to some extent a matter of opinion. From T910 to 1915, inclusive, Harvard University had a succession of strong teams, which in nearly every year gained what appeared to be a clear title to the championship, The succession was interrupted in 1911, however, when Princeton defeated both Harvard and Yale. Inthe next year the honours went to the smaller collezes—especially the university of Pittsburgh and Colgate University—and this was interpreted as due in part to the fact that the new rules had removed certain handicaps from the less powerful teams. Football probably had never been so popular as in 1916; it was estimated that in that year 35,000 games were played throughout the United States, with an attendance of 6,500,000. Owing to the entrance of the United States into the war, the

SPORTS

AND. GAMES

major teams practically cancelled their schedules during the two

following years, but in the army and navy every unit had its team.

A full schedule was played by the A.E.F., the winners being the

goth Div. team, captained and coached by Captain Gerhardt of West Point. The resumption of college games in the east in 1919 showed that college footbal! had Jost none of its popularity. Qne of the strongest teams of 1919 was that of Pennsylvania State College,

565

Australia (Brookes, Dunlop and Heath) after beating Great Britain

Dixon, Lowe and Beamish). In-1912 Great Britain (Dixon, Parke and Beamish) defeated Australia (Brookes, Heath and Dunlop). In 1913 the United States (Hackett, McLoughlin, Little and Williams) beat Great Britain (Parke, Dixon, and Roper-Barrett). In 1914 Australia (Brookes, Wilding, Dunlop and Doust) beat the United States (McLoughlin, Wiliams, Behr and Bundy); Mc-

though Harvard went through the season without experiencing defeat. Despite a tie with Harvard, Princeton was generally conceded to have had the best team turned out in the east in 1920, the

and Wilding by 6-2, 6-3, 2-6 and 6-2, but McLoughlin and Bundy lost the doubles to Brookes and Wilding. In 1920 the United States

first really norma! year of play after the war. The tendency among colleges Was more and more towards open play, with much kicking and forward passing. The east, however, continued to play a far

Britain, France and Australia.

more conservative game than was popular in the west and south. Among the colleges of the middle west the strongest teams were Michigan (1910), Minnesota and Michigan (1911), Wisconsin

(1912), Chicago

(1913),

Ilinois

(1914), linois and Minnesota

(1915), Ohio State (1916-7), linois (1918-9), Ohio State (1920). Ohio State, champions of the middle-west group In 1920, played an

intersectional match at Pasadena at the Festival of Roses in that year with the university of California, and was badly defeated. The large attendance at football matches led to the construction of immense stadiums of concrete and steel to accommodate the crowds. Two of these stadiums, those at Harvard and at Syracuse University, had been constructed before 1910; after that year there were built a number of others, among which the most noteworthy were, perhaps, those at the university of Chicago, Yale (the “ Yale Bowl”), the university of Michigan, Princeton (the Palmer Memorial stadium),

the university of Pennsylvania and the college of the City of New

York. The greatest of these structures, the Yale Bowl, has exterior

dimensions of 940 by 744 ft. and a permanent scating capacity of 61,000. This huge amphitheatre cost more than $300,000 and is considerably larger than the Roman Colosseum, which had a seating

Loughlin defeated Brookes in a memorable match (14-16, 6-3, 6-3);

(Hardy, Johnston, Tilden, Williams and Garland) defeated Great,

.

In the English singles (world’s) championships A. F. Wilding

won in IQII, 1912 and 1913; N. E. Brookes in 1914: G. L. Patterson

in 1919; and W. T. Tilden in 1920 and 1921. Mrs, Lambert Chambers won the English ladies’ singles in 1911, 1913 and 1914; Mrs.

Larcombe in 1912; and Mlle. S. Lenglen in 1919, 1920 and 1921.

In the English covered court championship A. H. Gobert won the singles in I911, 1912, 1920 and 1921; Gobert and M. J. G, Ritchie won the doubles in 1911, Wilding and S. N. Doust won the doubles in rọ9r2 and 1913.

and 1919.

P. M. Davson won the English singles in 1913

In 1914 Ritchie won the English singles and in 1914 and:

1921 T. M. Mavrogordato and Davson won the doubles.

In 1919.

the English doubles were won by R. Lycett and R. W. Heath, and

in 1920 by Gobert and Lycett. In the United States, William A. Larned won the championship, for the seventh time in Igri, his experience proving too much for the challenger, Maurice F. MeLoughlin; the doubles went to Raymond }). Little and Gustave Touchard, while Miss Hazel Hotchkiss won the women’s title for the third time. In 1912 McLoughlin won the American championship, Larned not being in the tournament;

MeLoughlin and ‘Thomas Bundy won the doubles from Little and.

Touchard, and Mary Browne won the women’s championship.

The

The Palmer stadium at Princeton pro-

outbreak of war in 1914 robbed the Newport tournament of interest.

only among American colleges and the country clubs, þut among the big industries as well. Each year the United States Football

was won in 1920 by the Ben Milter Athictic Club of St. Louis from

Bundy the doubles. ln 1915 much attention was paid to building up the junior tournaments. There was no international competition. Wiliam M. Johnston, of California won the championship. With Clarence J. Griitin, another Californian, he also won the doubles.

Bethlehem Steel Co., the Fall River Rovers, and the Brooklyn Field Club, , ;

championship.. In 1916 the United States was the world’s lawntennis centre. The season was marked by the appearance of two.

capacity of about 45,000.

vides seats for 41,000 and cost $350,000. o , The Association game made remarkable gains in popularity not

Assn. conducted a national cup competition, the final round of which

the Fall River Club of Quincy, Mass.

Previous winners include the

Baseball, the universal American sport, occupied the attention of

the public in the United States chiefly as a professional game in which the leading cities were represented by baseball teams comprising two major leagues—the American and the National. At the

end of each year the winning teams of the two leagues played what was known as the world series for the championship, During

1910-20 these contests were by far the most popular of all annual sporting events. This is indicated by the attendance and gate receipts, which in 1920 were 174,414 and $564,800, respectively, and in 1919, 236,928 and $722.414, as against an attendance of 125,222 and receipts of $173,980 in 1910. In the following list of worldseries contests since 1910, the name of the winning team is given

first, that of the Josing team second, and the score in games third: i910,

Philadelphia

(American

League)

vs.

Chicago

(National

League), 4—1 ; 1911, Philadelphia (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 4—2;3 1912, Boston (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 4-3, One game tied; 1913, Philadelphia (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.), 4-1; 1914, Boston (N.L.) vs, Philadelphia (A.L.), 4-0; 1915, Boston (A.L.) vs. Phila-

delphia (N.L.), 41; 1916, Boston (A.L.) vs. Brooklyn (N.L.}, 4-13

1917, Chicago (A.L.) vs. New York (N.L.}, 4—2: 1918, Boston (A.L.) us. Chicago (N.L.), 4—2; 1919 Cincinnati (N.L.) as. Chicago (A.L.), 5-3; 1920, Cleveland (A.L.) vs. Brooklyn (N.L.), 5—2. In 1914 an attempt was made to organize athird major league, known as the Federal, but this was unsuccessful, and at the end of the following season it was amalgamated with the two older leagues. After 1919 baseball was for a time under a cloud, owing to charges that certain members of the Chicago American League team had been bribed by outside persons to lose the 1919 world series. The

accused players were expelled from organized bascball, and there was a general overhauling, with the result that final authority over the game was given to Kenesaw Mountain Landis, a Federal judge known for his proficiency in the law and his knowledge of baseball. During the World War American soldiers carried the game to England and France. where it was a favorite diversion in the camps of Canadian and U.S. soldiers. The professional game enjoyed an extraordinary revival after the war, the crowds breaking all records, especially since Sunday playing was more generally permitted by law than before. Colleces generally resumed the game, though interest in college baseball was slight in comparison with interest in college football. Lawn Tennis.—American players, during 1910-21, were in the

forefront, but an increasingly high standard of play was being shown among other nationalities besides the British and American,

notably the French and Japanese. The International Davis Cup was won by Australia in 1911 and 1914, by the British Isles in 1912, and

by the United States in 1913 and 1920. In 1911 the United States team (Larned, McLoughlin, Little and Bundy), were beaten by

The

German

team

was

interned

in England

on the way

home.

Meantime Williams won the national title, and McLoughlin and

Miss

Molla

Bjurstedt

(later Mrs.

Mallory),

wan

the women's

Japanese players, Kumagae and Mikami, in the principal tournaments. Williams won the national singles title, Johnston and. Griffin the doubles. Miss Bjurstedt took every title she contested.. In 1917, with the United States in the war, tennis was transferred. to the army and navy, all the ranking to players being in the services.

The “ patriotic "’ singles, in lieu ofa national championship, was wor by R. L, Murray, a Californian settled in the east.

In 1918 R. L.

Tilden and Vincent Richards won the doubles title.

In rọr9 Johns-

Murray won the title in straight sets from William T. Tilden.

ton won the singles title from Tilden, while Brookes and Gerald. Patterson, from Australia, took the doubles. Brookes, Patterson, Lycett and Thomas, of Austrulia, invaded the United States, but

were beaten at Forest Hills, 4 matches to 0, by Johnston and Williams, and in the doubles by Tildenand Johnston. In 1920 Tilden won back the singles titles from Johnston, while Johnston and. Griffin won the doubles.

Polo.—The United States retained the cup against England at

Meadowbrook in 1911, winning by 2 to o, the American team

consisting of the famous “ big four,’ Lawrence Waterbury and J. M. Waterbury (forwards), Harry Payne Whitney (No, 3), and Devereux’ Milburn (back); in 1913 the same team won again by 2 matches to 0. In 1914 Lord Wimborne’s team took the trophy to Great Britain

Winhing 2 straight matches from an American team consisting of Milburn, who played both 3 and back, the two Waterburys, and

Rene La Montagne.

ln 1921 an American invasion of Hurlingham

was led by Devereux Milburn, whose team, consisting of himself at back, J. Watson Webb at No. 3, Thomas Hitchcock, Jr., at No. 2, and Louis E. Stoddard at No. 1, brought the cup back to the Unite States winning 2 straight matches by 11 to-4 and Io to 6.

Yachting.—J ust before the outbreak of the war Sir Thomas Lipton

renewed his challenge for the America’s Cup, there having been no races since 1903.

“ Shamrock IV.,’’ a much-criticized boat, was'sent

to a drydock in Brooklyn, while “ Resolute” and “ Vanitie” reappeared and contested the right to.sail as defender, The thirteenth series of races for this trophy was not sailed until July 15-27. 1920, off Sandy Hook. The challenger was designed by C. E.

Nicholson and was sailed by Capt. William P. Burton, an amateur

skipper.

Capt. Andrew Jackson Applegate, an American familiar

with conditions on this course, acted as professional

pilot.

The

defender was * Resolute,” winner of 7 out of t3 races against t Yanitie,” 4 being won by the latter and 2 called otf. ‘ Resolute”

was built by a syndicate of New York yachtsmen, composed of J. P. Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Arthur Curtiss James, George F.

Baker

and

others.

The

skipper

was

the well-known

amateur,

Charles Francis Adams of Boston. The sailing-master was Capt. Chris Christensen, he and the mates being of Scandinavian birth,

but American citizens. The defender was designed by Nat. Herres-

SPORTS AND GAMES.

566

hoff, of the Herreshoff family of Bristol, R.I. The first 2 races were won by “ Shamrock,” the last 3 and the cup by “ Resolute.” Twice the yachts failed to finish within the 6-hour time limit. Once the wind was deemed too strong to permit a start. It was feared that with lee decks awash there was risk of losing a man overboard. In all but one race " Resolute '’ was allowed 6 min. 40 sec. handicap, due largely to the challenger’s great sail area with Marconi mast and extreme hoist. In the same year was held the first race for the

championship

of the

“* Esperanto,

United

North

Atlantic

fishing

States, defeated

fleet off Halifax.

** Delawanna,"”

Canadian,

in two straight races over a 40-m. course, for $4,000 and a cup. Golf —In Great Britain, H. Vardon was the champion in 1911 and 1914, E. Ray in 1912, J. H. Taylor in 1913, G. Duncan in 1920, and Jock Hutchison in 1921. Jn the amateur championships H. H. Hilton won in 1911 and 1913, John Ball in rọr2, }. E C. Jenkins in 1914, C. J. H. Tolley in 1920 and W. I. Hunter in 1921r. The ladies’ open championship fell to Miss I). Campbell in 1911, to Miss G.

Ravenscroft in 1912, to Miss Muriel Dodd in 1913, and in 1914, 1919,

1920 and 1921 to Miss C. Leitch. In the United States the amateur championship was won by H. Hilton in 1911 and by Jerome Travers in 1912. J. J. McDermott won the open tournament both in 1911 and 1912. Travers defeated Anderson

for the amateur

title in 1913, and Francis Ourmet

won

the open title, after a tie with Harry Vardon and Ted Ray of England. No amateur before had won this title, and Ouimet was only 20 years old, Miss Gladys Ravenscroft, of England, won the American ladies’ championship in 1913. In 1914 Ouimet defeated W. C. Fownes for the amateur title, and Walter Ilagen won the open from a field of English, French and Scotch professionals; the

women’s title went to Miss Georgiana Bishop. The amateur title for 1915 went to Robert M. Gardner; and Jerome Travers won the

open, the second triumph of an amateur.

In 1916 " Chick " Evans

took the amateur title from Gardner, and the open from the pro-

fessional Jock Hutchison. With the United States at war in the following year golf was abandoned save as exhibitions were given in aid of the Red Cross. The first revival came in 1918 with a match in Canada between American and Canadian amateurs, which was won

by the Canadians, 23 S. Davisson Herron champions, Travers, ‘* Bobby "’ Jones was Hagen,

while

to 19. A complete revival followed in 1919; won the amateur title, though four former Gardner, Ouimet and Evans, were entered, the runner-up. The open was won by Walter

Miss Alexa

Stirling easily took

the women’s

title.

Gardner went to England in 1920 for the amateur championship, and was only beaten in the final, after an extra hole, by Cyril J. Tolley,

the Oxonian.

Ray and Vardon made this year a remarkable invasion

of the United States, Ted Ray winning the open championship. The amatcur title went to Evans. The U.S. team easily won the Devonshire Cup from Canada. In 1921 an American invasion of England by the strongest of professional and amateur teams resulted in the winning of a team match by the Americans, and of the open championship by Jock Hutchison, of St. Andrews, a naturalized American. Horse Racing.—The following is a list of the winners of the Derby

in England from 1911 to 1921 :— Winner Owner

Trainer

IQII Sunstar

Mr. J. B. Joel

C. Morton

1913 ‘Aboyeur

Mr. Cunliffe

Lewis

1912 Tagalie

Mr. Raphael

1914 Durbar I].

Mr. H. B.

1915*Pommern 1916°Fifnella 1917 "Ga

Mr. S. B. Joel Mr. E. Hulton _.

Cead 1918 2Gains-

Duryea

Mr. Fairie Lady James

Jockey G. Stern

D. Waugh

1;Reiff per

Club issued a notice suspending

all racing under their jurisdiction, except the Newmarket fixtures, until further notice. Substitute races for the Derby, Oaks and St.

Leger were arranged at Newmarket.

In the United States, too, horse-racing was interrupted by the war, but there was a prompt revival afterwards. In 1920 Man-Q’War, a chestnut colt by Fair Play-Mahubah, from the Glen Riddle Farm, and trained by Louis Feustel, started in 21 races, winning 20 and taking one second. Its total winnings amounted to $244,465. Man-O'-War held the American running records for 1 m. (1 min. 35 45 sec.), 14 m., 1} m.and t{ m. The climax of the 1920 season

was and and for

a match race between Man-O'-War,

owned by Samuel

Riddle,

Sir Barton, owned by Commodore Ross of Canada, at a mile a quarter, at the Kenilworth track, Windsor, Ont. The race was a purse of $75,000 and a $5,000 cup offered by A. M. Orpen.

Man-O'-War won by seven lengths in 2 min., 3 sec., three seconds slower than the record made by Whisk Broom I]. in 1913.

Rowing.—For the professional championship of the world, the

following contests took place:— 1910—R. Arnst beat E. Barry on Zambesi. rg1t—R. Arnst beat H. Pearce on Parramatta. 1912—E. Barry beat R. Arnst on Thames. 1912—E. Barry beat E. Durnan on Thames, 1913—-E. Barry beat H. Pearce on Thames. 1914—E. Barry beat J. Paddon on Thames. 1919—A. D. Felton beat E. Barry on Thames. 1920—E. Barry beat A. D. Felton on Parramatta.

In England the winners in the Oxford and Cambridge boat races

for 1911-21 were :—

TOLI. pei aanas Oxford TOTA odu arta Oxford

IQI5S—Q.... eee Not rowed 1900 25s tetas Cambridge

TOII einni Oxford IYlesalo sira Cambridge Olgi nisana Cambridge In the 1912 races, as originally rowed, both boats became waterlogged and Cambridge sank. But the race was rowed again the following Monday, Oxford winning. American rowing, interrupted by the war, was promptly revived, and assumed an international character when in 1920 the veteran crew of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis defeated a picked English eight over the canal course at Brussels for the Olympic championship. In 1921 the Annapolis crew, with two new men in the boat, was defeated by Princeton University ina race on Carnegie Lake, over a course of a mile and three-quarters.

The same Annap-

olis crew in the same year won the revival of the Poughkeepsie Regatta over three miles, easily defeating California, Cornell, Pennsylvania, Syracuse and Columbia, the last named up to that time an unbeaten combination. Yale defeated Harvard in 1921, on the Thames river at New London, Conn., at four miles, using English

C. Peck R.C. Dawson

S. Donoghue J. Childs

the eleventh hour as coach at New Haven. In 1920 Harvard beat Yale, but the previous year Yale won under the coaching of Prof.

A. Taylor

S. Donoghue

2,000-guineas Newmarket Sunstar Sweeper IT. Louvois Kennymore

1915 'Snow

Not run

Pommern

1916 !Fifinella 1917 ! Sunny Jane 1918 ! My Dear

Not run “ “ N ty

1919 Bayuda Keysoe 1920 Charlebelle Caligula . 1921 Love in idleness : 1Run at Newmarket.

On May 16 1915 the Jockey

rigging and boat, and being coached in the last two weeks by James Corderry, an English sculler, who had succeeded Guy Nickalls at

Doncaster St. Leger Prince Palatine aN Night Hawk Black Jester

Marten

military. Owing largely to the King’s desire that the interests of the many people employed in racing establishments should not be endangered, the remaining fixtures were carried out, so far as regarded the more important ones, For the first time since 1865 the Derby was won by a horse bred and trained in France, Durbar IT.

MacGee

France)

J. Childs F. Templeman F. O'Neill Donoghue

Other ‘“‘classic’’ races resulted as follows:—

Oaks Cherimoya Mirska. Jest Princess Dorrie

During

(trained in

borough Douglas A. Taylor 1919 Grand , Parade Lord Glanely Barling 1920 Spion Kop Major G. Loder Gilpin 1921 Humorist Mr. J. B. Joel Morton i Craganour, who came in first, was disqualified. 2“ New Derby ” run at Newmarket.

1911 1912 1913 1914

In 1914, before the season was half over, came the war.

most of August racing was suspended, partly because of difficulties

of transit and also because some courses were occupied by the

a3.

Clarissimus Gay Crusader Gainsborough The Panther Tetratema

Craig an Eran

1,000-guineas Newmarket Atmah Tagatie est -rincess Dorrie

Silver Tag

Canyon Diadem Ferry

Roseway Cinna

Bettina

Mather Abbott, an Englishman who had taught rowing for many va at St. Paul’s School, Concord. Syracuse in 1916 won the ~oughkeepsic Regatta under the coaching of James A. Ten Eyck. In 1920 Charles E. Courtney, Cornell’s rowing coach, the foremost of American coaches, died. The winners of the American Intercollegiate regatta after 1909 were Cornell (1910, 1911 and 1912), Syracuse

(1913), Columbia

and 1920), Annapolis (1921).

(1914), Cornell

(1915), Syracuse

(1916

The Yale-Harvard races were won as

follows: Harvard (1910, 1911, 1912, 1913), Yale (1914 and I915), Harvard (1916), Yale (1919), Harvard (1920), Yale (1921). Boxing —The official maximum boxing weights (Great Britain and

the United States) are as follows:—Flyweight, 8 st. (112 Ib.); Bantamweight, 8 st. 6 Jb, (118 Ib.); Featherweight, 9 st. (126 1b.); Lightweight, 9 st. 6 lb. (132 Ib.); Welterweight, to st. 7 Ib. (147 1b.}; Middleweight, 11 st. 6 lb. (160 lb.); Light-Heavyweight, 12 st. 7 Ib. (175 lb.); Heavyweight, no maximum. , In 1920 the ofħcial list of the world's champions was:— Flyweight,

Jimmy

Wilde

(Gt.

Britain);

Bantamweight,

Peter

Hermann

USA): Featherweight, Johnny Kilbane (U.5.A.); Lightweight, Benny Leonard (U.S.A.); Welterweight, Jack Britton (U.S.A.); Middle, Mike O'Dowd (U.S.A.); Heavy, Jack Dempsey (U.S.A.). The results of the Amateur Boxing Association Championships in England were as follows in 191I-4:—

Bantamweight

1911 W. W. Allen 1912 W. W. Allen 1913 A. Wye

1914 W. W. Allen

Featherweight

Lightweight

G. R. Baker

R. Marriott

H. Bavers G. R. Baker G. R, Baker

A. Spenceley R. Marriott F. Grace

SPORTS AND GAMES Middleweight

by 2,000 points to 1,721.

Heavyweight

19tr W. Child 1912 E. V. Chandler

championship by 2,000 points to 1,729, but in the Billiard Control

W. Hazell R. Smith

1913 W. Bradley

Club’s Amateur Championship Tournament

R. Smith

E. V. Chandler the bantamweight championship

of

England was won by Digger Stanley against Alec Lafferty in 1912, by B. Beynon in 1913 (vs. Digger Stanley) and by Curly Walker in 1914 Cs. C. Ledoux). Fred Welsh was the lightweight champion of England in 1912 (zs. Matt Wells), 1943 (vs. El. Mehegan) and 1914 (vs. W. Ritchie). Johnny Summers was the welterweight champion of England in rgt2 (vs. Arthur Evernden) and 1918 (vs. S. Burns).

Jack Harrison was the middleweight champion of

England in 1912 us, Private McEnroy), In 1913 (@s. Packy Mahoney) and 191 (vs. Colin Bell) Bombardier Wells was the heavyweight champion g

England, and in 1913 (vs. Alec Lambert) Kid Lewis was the feather-

weight champion of England.

the featherweight championship

In 1912 Jim Driscoll (Cardiff) won

of the world against Jean Poesy

(France); Jack Johnson (America) (heavyweight champion of the

world)

beat Jim Flynn

(America);

Georges

Carpentier

(France)

beat Jim Sullivan (England); Frank Klaus (America) beat Carpentier; Billy Papke (America) beat Carpentier. In 1913, in the middleweight championship of the world, F. Klaus beat Billy Papke; in lightweight championship of the world F. Welsh beat H. Mehegan; in featherweight championship of the world, J. Driscoll and Owen Moran drew; and in heavyweight cham-

pionship of Europe, Carpentier beat Bombardier Wells. In 1914, in lightweight championship of the world, F. Welsh beat W. Ritchie; and in heavyweight championship of Europe, Carpentier

beat Gunboat Smith. In 1915, at Havana, E Willard defeated Jack Johnson in the 25th round for the world’s championship. In 1910, at Toledo,

U.S.A.,

Jack Dempsey

beat Jess Willard

(holder) for the world’s championship in the 3rd round.

On Dec. 4 1919, at the Holborn Stadium, London, Carpentier

beat Joe Beckett in a fight for the heavyweight championship of Europe. Beckett was knocked out in the first round after the fight had lasted one minute fourteen seconds. In 1921 Carpentier was beaten at Jersey City, U.S.A., by Dempsey, in the 4th round, in a contest for the heavyweight championship of the world, the greatest

interest having been excited by this fight. Swimming. —American swimmers in 1920 held a majority of the world's records.

A large number of these records were held by three

men—Duke Kahanamoku of Hawaii, Perry McGilvray of Chicago and Norman Ross of San Francisco. Kahanamoku won the 100metre race at the Olympic games of 1929, establishing a new world’s record of 1 min, 2g sec. Ross was winner in two events (400 metres and 1,500 metres); Warren Kealoha of Honolulu was victorious in the Ioo-metre backstroke race, and the American team carried off the

honours in the 800-metre relay. Two races were lost to Swedish swimmers. American women also proved themselves good swim-

ters, one of their triumphs was the defeat in 1919 of two Australians, Miss Fanay Durack and Miss Wylic, who visited the United States

in that year. The victorious Americans were Miss Ethelda Bicibtrey

and Miss Charlotte Boyle, both of Brooklyn.

Miss Bleibtrey won a

number of races at the Olympic games in 1920, where she established a record of 4 min. 34 sec. for 300 metres open water. English Billiards.—Since the prohtbition of consecutive spot hazards and the push stroke, English professionals have relied chiefly upon the top-of-the-table game. An innovation, however, was introduced in 1911 by the Australian, George Gray, who repeatedly made huge breaks by means of a series of losing hazards

from the red ball.

was beaten by Major

Fleming by 2,000 points to 1,903. In 1920 Fry again won the Amateur Championship, by 3,000 points to 2,488.

{walked over)

1914 H. Brown In professional contests

567 In 1919 S. H. Fry won the Amateur

In ail, he scored 24 breaks of four figures, of

which the highest was 2,196. Gray invariably declined to play matches with ivory balls, and these breaks were not made under Billiard Association rules. H. W. Stevenson, though not at his

A break of 1,016 was made by Stevenson in 1912 against W, Cook, without a series of spot strokes, anchor cannons or long successions of losing hazards. Stevenson made a break of 919 in 1913, and in the same year M. Inman made one of 894. In 1903 the amateur

S. H. Fry made a break of 236.

_ Archery.—The opportunity may be taken here to correct the ear-

lier article on ARCHERY in some particulars.

The bow now used by

men is from 6 ft. 1in.to 6ft. qin. in length; a lady’s bow ranges from 5 ft. 6 in. to § ft. 8 in., measured between the nocks; these lengths according in the one case with an arrow of 27 in. to 28 in. and in

the other with an arrow of 25 in. to 26 in.

Exceptionally long

arms may render necessary an arrow an inch longer and a corresponding addition of one or two inches to the bow.

The “weight”

of a bow is the number of pounds required, when appended to the string, to draw to the head an arrow of 28 in. fora man’s bow or 25 in. for a lady's. The weight of men's bows varies from 36 lb. to 58 lb., of ladies’ from 18 lb. to 30 Ib., the lighter weights

being sufficient for beginners. Bows are styled “ self’ or “ backed ” according as they are made of one wood or of two or more glued together.

“ Self bows,” if of yew, are usually made of two pieces

joined by a double fish splice at the handle:

to find a piece of this wood

as it is difficult

(incomparably the best) of sufficient

length while free from knots. If made of lance they are invariably of a single piece. ‘* Backed bows '’ may be of yew, backed either with the same wood or with hickory; or alternatively of washaba or of

ruby, lance, or other woods backed with hickory; the back being the flat side of the bow, and the “ belly ” the rounded side. Three woods are somctimes employed, a thin strip of fustic being interposed between a belly of yew and a back of hickory. There should be an inflexible centre of about 21 inches, whence the bow should taper gradually towards each end. It should be straight, the back true, and, when strung, the string should appear to cut the belly into two equal

parts. Self yew bows are the best. They are light in the hand, the

swectest to pull, and have the best cast; but they require careful handling. They are also expensive, costing from £5 to £15, and the are liable to ‘ crysals,”’ or tiny cracks, which gradually spread until

the bow breaks. A yew backed yew, which is next in merit, can be bought for £5 and is somewhat less liable to crysals. Between the others there is little to choose, provided that they are properly made, and not ‘ reflexed,’” as they are said ta be when the ends bend out-

ward: for these jar the hand.

guineas.

Their price varies from 25s. to 3

The string for a man's bow should be from 6 in. to 6% in.

from the back of the bow when strung; for a 6 in., according to the length of the bow. The never called the ‘‘ notch '’—should not be rounded. The feathers must be wing and not

are quite useless.

lady's from 5} in. to nock of arrows—it is “cut square’ but body feathers, which

They should be from the same wing, te. right or

left, about 14 in. Jong and tapering to the front from a depth of 2 in. at the nock. If balloon-shaped, their greatest depth should be at one-third of their length from the nock-end. With regard to target scoring and handicapping it should be noted that a St. George's Round has never been shot at a publie meeting, or, indeed, at any meeting held within the fast 60 years. Handicapping by the loss of rings has been obsolete for more than 35 years, nor is there any system which can rightly be called handicapping by points. Handicapping is now carried out either by dividing the archers into classes according to their powers, or by deducting percentages from their scores for previous successes. As regards the history of archery, some corrections may also be made. The bow was used in war at a later date than 1860, viz, by the Japanese against the English at Surni Nosake, September 5

1864.

Nor did the Armada year see the last appearance of the

best in 19:1, beat M. Inman twice for the championship of the

English archer. A company of archers was raised teethe expedition to the island of Rhéin 1627, There were archers among the Russian

and defeated him in two games out of three of 18,000 up. M. Inman beat ‘I. Reece for the Billiard Control championship in 1912, 1913

troops in the Crimea. Again, the relation of Finsbury Archers, the Hon. Artillery Company and the Royal Toxophilite Society requires

Billiards Control Club.

In Jan. 1912 George Gray met Stevenson

and 1914. In 1919 Inman beat Stevenson in the Billiard Association championship by 6,532 points in 16,000. In 1920 W. Smith beat C. Falkiner in the Billiard Association championship by 1,500 points in 16,000. In 1921 Newman beat Reece in the professional championship by 5,256 points in 16,000. A In 1911 H. A. O. Lonsdale did not defend his title of amateur champion, and the cup reverted to H. C. Virr. An alteration was made in the arrangements, the champions of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales meeting in competition in the finals. Virr beat Major Fleming by only seven points in 3,000 for the amateur championship in 1912. The influence of Gray's example was plaini perceptible in this competition in the use made of the losing Hazard. In 1913 Virr beat J. Nugent by 1,044 points in 4,000 and in 1914 by 1,962 in 3,000. In 1914 the Scottish championship was won by A. Croneen, and the Welsh championship by A. Paton. Jn 1915 the Welsh champion was A. Cable. In 1915 the United Kingdom Amateur Championship was won by A. W. T. Good (England)

by 3,000 points to 2,716.

In 1918 it was won by Graham Symes

restatement. In July 1676, William Wood, Marshal of the Finsbury Archers, was sent round with a paper, signed by Sir E. Hungerford and others, setting forth that the ‘‘ officers and others of the Society of Archers, within the cities of London and Westminster” have determined “ that the bearer shall have a silver badge and bear the same as Marshall tọ the Queen's Majesty's Regiment of Archers.” The names of the subscribers were appended (Guildhall MSS. 193). Consequently this badge or shield had no connexion with Oxford. The Finsbury Archers became extinct about 1761, but the Royal Toxophilite Society was not founded until 1781, when Mr. P. Constable, the last captain of the Finsbury Archers, joined it and

handed to it the shield and other valuables. There was, therefore, no combination of the two clubs in 1841. It is incorrect to assert that the Finsbury Archers were not connected with the Hon. Artillery Company. They were connected, and under their powers shot over the Finsbury Fields up to 1657. The Archers’ Division of the Hon. Artillery Company was formed by members of the Royal

Toxophilite Society in 1784.

(X.)

SPRING-RICE—STAFF, MILITARY

568

SPRING-RICE, SIR CECIL ARTHUR (1859-1918), English diplomatist, was born in London Feb. 27 1859, the second son of the IIon. Charles Spring-Rice (1819-1870), sometime assistant under-secretary

for foreign affairs, and grandson

of the rst

Baron Monteagle. He was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, and entered the Foreign Office in 1882, becoming private secretary to Lord Granville in 1884 and précis writer to Lord

portant of its proposals was that a General Staff Department, which was to constitute the foremost branch of the professional side of the War Office, should be created forthwith out of certain existing sections, with entirely new sections superposed. The committee further urged that a general staff organization, acting under the aegis of, and in close touch with, the general staff in Whitehall, should be introduced into military districts and

Rosebery in 1885. He went to Washington as third secretary in

commands.

1886, and after various brief appointments went in 1895 to Berlin. In 1898 he became secretary at Teheran, and from there went in rgor to Cairo as British commissioner on the Caisse de la Dette. In 1903 he went to St. Petersburg, first as secretary and

cepted by the Government, and so it came about that a British general staff was established ten years before the outbreak of the

later as councillor of embassy, remaining in Russia during the war with Japan of rge4-5 and the revolution of 1905. In 1906 he was sent to Persia as minister, having lately been created K.C.M.G., and his stay there coincided with the period of the delicate

emergency of Aug. ror4 it had at its disposition a body of well-

negotiations which preceded the signing of the Anglo-Russian

agreement of 1907.

In 1908 he was created G.C.V.O, and went

to Sweden as minister, and in 1912 was appointed ambassador to the United

States.

Ill-health,

however,

prevented

his un-

doubtedly brilliant capacity from making his work at all prominent during his tenure of this position. He diced at Ottawa on his way home to England Feb. 14 1918. Ife married in 1904 Florence, daughter of Sir Frank Lascelles, and left two chihlren. SQUIRES, RICHARD ANDERSON (1S80-

), Newfoundland

politician, was born at Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, Jan, 18 rSso. He was educated at the Methodist College, St. John’s, and Dalhousie

University,

Halifax.

In

1902

he was

admitted

a

solicitor, and in torr was called to the bar (K.C. ro14). In 1909 he entered the Legislature as Liberal member for the Trinity district, for which he sat until 1913. In 1914 he became Minister of Justice and Attorney-General, from 1org to 1917 Was a member

World War.

The recommendations of the committee

were ac-

During those ten years remarkable progress was

made, and when the nation was confronted by the tremendous

trained general staff officers, sufficient for the comparatively small army that was available to take the ficld at the opening of hostilities, although totally insufficient to meet the requirements of the vast forces which had to be improvised after war had broken out. The Government of the United States was still later than that of the United Kingdom in establishing a general staff of the kind that Scharnhorst had thought of a century before. This was only sct on foot in 1911, six years before the entry of the

Republic into the great conflict which was to upset so many preconceived ideas on the subject of conducting war, but which was to prove—even

more

conclusively than had the Franco-

German War and the Japanese triumphs of 1904-5—how imperative it is under modern conditions for a state which embarks

upon a serious struggle with a foreign foe to have an efficient and

suitably organized military staff at its command. very small number

Owing to the

of trained general staff officers that were

available when the country became committed to hostilities on a vast scale, the U.S. forces were even worse equipped in this respect when they took the field in Europe than were those of the

of the Legislative Council, and from 1917 to 1918 Colonial Secretary. He was nominated leader of the Liberal party in Aug.

United Kingdom in their greatly expanded form. The remarkable progress that has taken place in science of

1919, and the same year became Prime Minister.

recent years has tended to impose some entirely new duties upon military staffs, brought about their expansion in certain dirce-

STAFF, MILITARY (sce 25.752).—Once result of the unqualified success which Prussian arms achieved in the wars of 1866 and rS7o-1 was that the general staff principle, which had so largely contributed to give victory to the hosts controlled by von Moltke in those contests, was adopted by almost every military power during the last quarter of the roth century. The exact nature of the arrangements necessarily varied in different countries, but

the ideals sought alter were the same. Thus in the different staff organizations as they were constituted in peace-time, work in connexion with devising plans for offensive operations and for ensuring territorial defence, duties dealing with the collection of military information, the superintendence of the education of

officers, the conduct of manoeuvres and the training of troops, were kept as far as possible distinct from administration— “adjutantur,” as the Germans call it. Before the ycar 1900 most armies possessed a general staff which was more or less in close touch with its Government on the one hand and, thanks to its ramifications, with the troops on the other.

Only two of the more important nations—the United Kingdom and the United States—adhered for all practical purposes to previously existing systems, under which preparation for war was

relegated to the background in staff duties. It is true that in either state certain improvements were effected by the military authorities, tending towards ensuring that at least some of the

functions properly performed by a general staff should be allocated to special branches of the staff; but, such as they were, they

did not go very far. Then came the $. African War of 1890-1002. The difficultics and disappointments encountered by British military forces in that protracted struggle, coupled with the

unsatisfactory working of the staff in the field (especially in its higher grades) during the progress of the operations, made plain the need of reform, and the War Office was considering the ques-

tion of far-reaching modifications of the system in force when, in 1904, the Government suddenly set up a ‘ War Office Reconstitution Committee” charged with the duty of reorganizing the central administration of the army.

ia number

of drastic alterations,

The committee recommended

but by far the most

im-

tions, and even necessitated the creation of some entirely new branches as part of their organization, There is, for instance, in the first place that development in railway communications which has occurred in most civilized countries and in many possible and actual theatres of war, as also the contriving of numberJess devices by which the construction of new lines of rail is

facilitated during operations in the field. Then again there is the question of electric communications, which to-day play so conspicuous a part in war.

Improvements in small arms

and in ordnance have brought it about that the volume of ammunition needed for the weapons in the hands of troops has come to be out of all proportion to the amount which experience had proved to be ample in campaigns of the past. Developments in

mechanical traction are giving this an ever-increasing military importance, not merely from the point of view of the supplying of armies but also from that of their tactical employment. The appearance of the tank on the battlcfield is another feature of very recent date which tends to increase staff work. Finally, there is the establishment of air power which has introduced a

factor of incalculable importance as affecting the control of belligerent armies; whether the combatant acronautical service of anation form part of its military organization or be independent, its operations in time of war impose dutics upon military staffs such as had not to be performed by them in any contest previous to the World War. In some cases it is mainly the general staff that finds its labours increased by these modern decvelopments, in other cases the new work falls rather upon the administrative stall. But in all cases both subdivisions of the staff are, at Jeast to some extent, affected. One most important duty which devolves upon the general staff in a State compelled by its geographical position and by political and international problems to maintain fighting forces

both by sea and by land is the establishing and the maintenance of intimate relations with the naval authorities. Such conditions prevail in the case of most maritime nations, and, where this is so, it is imperative that the two services shall be capable of

STAFF, MILITARY effective coöperation in the event of war. Effective coöperation when an emergency arises can only be ensured if the military staff has been in close touch with the corresponding naval staff in time of peace. Much attention had fortunately been paid to this question in the United Kingdom during the period that intervened between the creation of the British general staff and the outbreak of the World War. Permanent contact existed between the thinking branches of the Admiralty and of the War Office. Problems which might possibly arise in the future had been examined by them in conference, principles of action had been laid down, details had been worked out, and to this is to be attributed the secrecy and the smoothness with which the British Expeditionary Force was transported across the Channel to France during the fortnight succceding the declaration of war in 1914. Moreover, thanks to their being brought into contact at staff rides with naval officers and to the happy relations which existed betwecn these two services, British general staff officers as a bady had studied and were acquainted with naval doctrine and naval procedure, a great advantage when, as was the case at the Dardanelles, operations partook of an amphibious character. General stafis on the Continent’ did not, on the other hand, prove to be equally well-informed as to maritime conditions; this was made apparent during discussions such as often took place between military authorities: representing the diffcrent Allies, concerning the policy which ought to be pursued in the Near East and other problems in which sca-power was necessarily involved. It isonly natural, however, that a military staff which is representative of a sea-faring people should devote more attention to such subjects than will that of a non-maritime nation

569

at.the War Office in the case of the United Kingdom, asit was onthe “ Great General Staff’ of the days of von Moltke and the. German Empire, that devolves the duty of maintaining relations with the Government and of advising it regarding the military aspect of problems created by the international situation. That central directing branch of the general staff is entitled to expect

that the Government shall keep it fully eu courant with the political conditions of the day. . The merits of the doctrine preached by Clausewitz seem to be. self-evident, but leaders of opinion in the United Kingdom were slow to realize its importance, There existed an almost unaccountable inability to perceive the dangers to which a State unprepared for emergencies is exposed. When a Royal Commission presided over by Lord Hartington virtually recommended: the setting up of a general staff in 1889, one of its members, a

prominent politician who at a later date came to be Prime Min-. ister, actually—in one of the most fatuous documents ever written by a public man—objected to the proposal on the grounds that, owing to its peculiar position, Great Britain had no need to study possibilities of conflict in advance. With such ineptitude

or of a nation possessing small maritime interests and limited

in influential quarters, the bitter: experiences of the S. African. War were required to awaken British statesmen to a realization of their responsibilities. The lessons of that contest were to some extent learnt. By the setting up of the Committee of Impcrial Defence, in which professional opinion was given a powerful voice, some preliminary steps had been taken in the right direction even before the creation of the gencral staff in 1904, and, subsequent to that date, the gencral staff at the War Office has been constantly consulted by the British Government and has been kept well-informed on all points of importance connected with

maritime Tesources.

the international situation,

When a country elects to make of its air service a department of State distinct from the army, as has happened in the United Kingdom, it necessarily falls to the lot of the military general staff to maintain those intimate relations. with the aerial general staff by which alone mutual coöperation can be secured in time

How, as a matter of administration, the relations between the general staff and the executive are to be governed, and by what

of war.

Under such circumstances

the military general staff

stands towards the air service as it does to the navy. “War,” said Clausewitz, “is only a continuation of State policy by other means,” and elsewhere that “‘ none of the princi-

pal plans which are required for a war can be made without an insight into the political relations.” It was a recognition of this truth on the part of her Government that led to the triumphs of

Prussia, first over Austria and then over France, in the days of von Moltke, the forcmost professional interpreter of Clausewitz’

doctrines. The executive in Berlin had during the middle decades of the roth century been working hand in hand with the

general staff. Sadowa and Sedan were the outcome. The history of the short-lived German Empire indicates that in later years a tendency made itself felt for the general staff to attempt to direct, and even partially to succeed in directing, the policy of the Government. A system of genuine militarism in its worst form began to creep in, which in due course brought untold disasters

on the German people; but the passages quoted above from the great Prussian military writer do not inculcate anything of that kind. What they do inculcate is that there should be at all times an intimate understanding between what has been called the “ brain of the army ” and the civilian executive at the head of the State. The truth is that any Government which understands its business will always, when any question of a delicate nature arises between it and the rulers of some foreign Power, keep itself fully acquainted with the resources at command for enforcing its wishes should a quarrel supervene. If, moreover, the most is to be made of such fighting force as a country will dispose of in the event of finding itself in a state of belligerency with some neighbour, it is indispensable that the military—as also naval—authorities shall have made beforchand a study of -the strategical situation that will, as far as ean be foreseen, arise when hostilities break out. It is also indispensable that those authorities shall have been made aware in advance of the likelihood of the struggle’s taking place. It is on the central directing branch of the general staff, z.¢. on the General Staff Department

process communications between

them are to be carried out,

necessarily depends upon the political system in vogue in the state concerned. In any country possessing representative institutions the general staff can only be acting in a consultative capacity, at all events in peace-time. In the United Kingdom in

the years preceding the World War the Chief of the Imperial General Staff and the Director of Military Operations were exofficio members of the Committee of Imperial Defence. When strategical or administrative questions in which military force was or might be concerned were to be discussed by the committce, documents setting out the gencral staff view on the subject were laid before it by the general stali representatives. The decision of the committee on the points under discussion was taken and recorded, and executive action sometimes followed if it was involved by the decision. But although the more prominent members of the Government were included in it, the committee itself was mercly a consultative body, and no executive action involving expenditure could follow on one of its decisions without. the obtaining of at least nominal Cabinet sanction. Such recommendations were liable to be vetoed on account of the expense by the committee without reference to the Cabinct. Moreover, it did not necessarily follow that the view of the general staff would be accepted by the committee even on academical questions. An interesting example of the working of the system is provided by the story of the Dardanelles. The expediency ofan attack upon the Straits in the event of a war with Turkey was gone into

by the committee as an academical question in 1906. The general staff were opposed to such a venture and the Admiralty repre-.

sentatives in the main agreed with them, the committee decided that the undertaking would in the event ef a contest be inadvisable, and the result was that study of the subject on the part of the general staff virtually ceased. When early in the World War the project was brought up afresh by the First Lord of the Admiralty, the decision which the Committee of Imperial Defence had arrived at eight years before was ignored, and when the operations were undertaken their progress was hampered by lack of information, owing to the gencral staff’s having acted on that decision and having to some extent abandoned research with regard to the topography, the resources and so forth of this

STAFF, MILITARY

570

potential theatre of war. But experience proved that the general staff had been right. When hostilities arise some instrument a good deal more effective than a consultative committee is necded to control

It cannot be too clearly understood that neither in the United kingdom nor in any other military state does the staff of an army in reality consist of a general staff alone.

There must

always be what, for lack of a more distinctive nomenclature, is

conduct of the war, and, from Aug. 1914 to the date of the

called in the British service its ‘‘ administrative ” side—although

Armistice, the operations were, in the case of the United King-

in point of fact many of the duties of a general staff are neces-

dom, for the first two and a half ycars of the struggle under supreme charge of various forms of war council directly representative of the Cabinet and given a free hand by that body. They were Jater under supreme charge of the specially established War Cabinet. The general staff was practically always represented at the mectings of the war councils and of the War Cabinet, but purely in an advisory position without voting power. They were responsible to the council or the Cabinet for the advice they gave, but the council or the Cabinet was responsible to the

to be maintained, otherwise there will be no troops for the general

sarily of an administrative character. It is indced the case that, at least in peace-time, the administrative staff of an army isin a sense the more important of the two. The army has to be recruited and fed and clothed and equipped, and its discipline has staff to dispose of and there will be no raison d’être for the general

Staff. Whereas the general staff will often in peace-time be engaged on work which in the event may prove of little profit, the administrative staff is constantly busy disposing of questions

It is true that

which if not dealt with will cause a collapse. Calling the admin-

as a result of somewhat peculiar conditions that held good in the early days of the struggle, attributable partly to the unique

istrative staff “ adjutantur ’’ may alter its status and may lower

country for accepting or rejecting that advice.

its dignity, but does not alter the fact that itis a staff and that it performs staff duties. The organization as affecting the administrative staf that was introduced into the War Office in the United Kingdom in r904, and in due course extended throughout

personality of Lord Kitchener and partly to the weakening of the general staff at the War Office when its cream was skimmed off and dispatched to the Continent, the influence of the brain of the army was not for a time exerted very effectually in the councils of the Government. But that was only a passing phase. At a later stage the general staff was always at least allowed to express its views, even if its opinion was not necessarily accepted. As a matter of fact its opinion was occasionally ignored in questions of considerable importance. This was no doubt partly

paragraphs), worked extremely well both at headquarters and with the troops during the pre-war period, and it also gave good

due to some want of confidence in its judgment felt in Government circles owing to the slow progress made towards victory, and

came to be put to the test in warfare on a gigantic scale in many parts of the world, was it found wanting. Although the problems

partly due to the personality and the tempcrament of certain members of the Government itself. The general staff also must have been sometimes at fault on occasions when its advice was

rejected, although, should the full facts ever be made known impartially, posterity will probably pronounce it usually to have been right. Still, a gencral staff, however well-organized it may be and however gifted and informed its personnel, is not infallible. That this is so was demonstrated in the protraction for years of the World War, whereas the British general staff had at the outset confidently reckoned on its only lasting some months. The German general staff, again, looked with contempt upon

the huge forces that Lord Kitchener was known to be improvising, until the value of the British ‘‘New Armies” was proved up to the hilt in the field; and at a later stage of the struggle it totally miscalculated

and underestimated the mili-

tary potentialities of the United States. Moreover, all the European general staffs alike, in their forecasts made in time of peace, underrated the wastage in personnel and the expenditure in ammunition in a modern campaign on a great scale.

It has been said that a general staff must “ think politically.” If this maxim is merely to be taken as meaning that a general

staff should appreciate political habits of thought, watch politica]

tendencies, and keep itsclf acquainted with the political aspects of every question influencing military action alike in peace and

in war, its truth is indisputable. But one of the most important ‘duties falling to the lot of a general staff, especially in times of

emergency, will often be to strive to prevent mere policy from adversely influencing the conduct of operations of war or affecting Government decisions in connexion with military subjects. History provides some striking examples of political considerations gravely prejudicing the prospects of armies in the field. MacMahon’s fatal march to Sedan was a case in point. The retention of Gen. Penn Symons’ advanced force at Glencoe in the opening days of the Natal campaign of 1899 furnishes another instance. Had the question at issue been regarded solely from the soldier’s point of view, it is more than doubtful whether Gen. Townshend would ever have been launched on his ill-omened effort to reach Bagdad in Nov. 1915. When problems

of this kind present themselves, a general staff will often have a difficult and delicate réle to play. But the golden rule to govern its conduct on such occasions would seem to be that it ought to regard and present the problem from the fighting point of view

alone.

The politicians can look after the political side.

the army (the details of which have been touched upon in carlier

results when subjected to trial at manoeuvres between 1609 and

1914. The same staff organization was extended to India shortly after it came into force in the United Kingdom. Nor, when it engaging the attention of the quartermaster-gencral’s staffs and

the inspector-gencral of communications’ staffs were in many respects fundamentally the same in the Gallipoli Peninsula, in Mesopotamia, and in France and Flanders, the wide differences

in the geographical and topographical conditions as between the three theatres of war obliged the problems to be solved on separate lincs in each case. In France and Flanders several railways

connected the troops at the front with the secure and wellequipped ports that acted as bases. In the Gallipoli Peninsula open beaches under fire served for bases, and the communications were to all intents and purposes maritime. For most of the time in Mesopotamia it was a case of an army dependent on one single line of river communication, hundreds of miles long, although the river was gradually to some extent supplemented by specially constructed sections of railway. And yet the organization of the administrative staff as it had been designed in peace-time met requirements under these diverse sets of circumstances. Where failures occurred, they were due to errors

in execution or else to Jack of essential resources. Such alterations as have recently been carried out as a result of the teachings of the World War have been in detail and not in principle. The British plan subordinates the administrative staff to the general staff less than is the common practice, This is perhaps due to the nature of British campaigns of the 1874-1902 ¢ra, campaigns fought in regions often destitute of communications and always poor in resources. Almost everything hinged on supply and transport in these contests, and the transport generally had to be improvised on entirely new methods for cach particular case. Losses in action were as a rule trifling as compared to losses from disease. For one thought that the commander or his chief advisers gave to the enemy, ten thoughts were given to communications, Instead of looking to the front they

were gencrally looking to the rear. Duties such as are now ap-

portioned to the administrative staff greatly outweighed in im-

portance duties such as are now apportioned to the general staff.

There was little difficulty in beating the enemy if only supplies could be got up to permit a fight. But, to whatever cause it may

be attributable, the fact remains that the chief of the general staff of a British army nowadays is merely in the position of primus inter pares relatively to the adjutant-general and the

quartermaster-general—and it is the same at the War Office. In almost al} other armies, on the other hand, including that of the United States, the chief of the general staff is definitely chief

STAMBOLIISKI—STANMORE

571

virtually his equals, even granted that under it less of his time heads of different branches of the administrative staff being will be available for the consideration of the strategical and absolutely subjected to him. The “chief of the staff” plan was tactical situation than would otherwise be the case, the system moreover adopted in the case of several British campaigns of does seem a more satisfactory arrangement for purposes of modern date, e.g. that of 1882 in Egypt and Lord Wolseley’s operations in the field than that which found favour in the of the staff. And he also is usually called chief of the staff, the

and Lord kitchener’s expeditions up the Nile in 1884-5 and 1898. A chief of the staff was appointed to Sir R. Buller at the outset of the S. African War (although owing to unforeseen events he

never took up the post); and at a later date Lord Kitchener went

out as chief of the staff to Lord Roberts. If the existing British staff organization comes to be compared

with those where the chief of the general staff is also chief of the staff, it will be found that there is something to be said on both

sides. That part of the British system under which a command

or a district is in peace-time supplied with a superior officer

in charge of administration, to whom wide responsibilities are allowed and who is generally in practice senior to the principal

general staff officer, permits the general in command to devote nearly the whole of his attention to preparing his troops for war. But that arrangement would be unworkable in the field. There the progress of operations is so dependent on the work of the administrative staff that the commander cannot transfer his authority in connexion with the latter to somebody else—as is recognized in the British staff organization in time of war by the heads of the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-gencral

staffs, as well as the inspector of communications, then dealing direct with the commander. Still, the fact that a peace arrangement does not fit in with the requirements of war is not a con-

clusive argument against that arrangement’s holding good in peace-time, which after all represents the normal condition of things; and the British plan of a chief of administration is only a

special feature in a larger question.

Objections do undoubtedly

exist in peace-time to the supremacy of the chief of the general

staff. That automatically makes him responsible for the work of the administrative staff, and as all manner of administrative

problems—unimportant problems, perhaps, but problems which have to be solved—are constantly arising in peace-time, most of the chief of the gencral staff’s time may come to be occupied

with matters that are not general stafi matters at all, and mili-

tary policy, manœuvres, training of troops, higher instruction, defence schemes, and so forth, may suffer, But, if peace represents the normal state of affairs, armics none the fess exist for

purposes of war, and in time of war the case for the British system is not so strong. In face of the encmy, operations—planning them, deciding whether the plan is feasible, and taking the necessary steps for their execution—are of paramount importance, but cannot be

said actually to govern administration, for unless the army’s establishments are maintained and unless it has its food, its

ammunition, etc., it cannot carry out the operations. The success of the plan may in the main depend on strategical and tactical factors; but in framing the plan the duties which the administrative staff will have to perform in connexion with its execution must have been considered with meticulous care. It

is for the administrative staff to say whether the plan is feasible

from the point of vicw of supply, transport, depots, hospital service, and so forth. There may be great administrative diffi-

culties in the way, which will as a matter of course be represented. It is, however, for the gencral staff to weigh the administrative as against the strategical aspects of the case and then lay the whole subject before the commander for a final decision. The British

British army after the setting up of the Army Council. Nor would it seem to follow as a matter of course that the “chicf of the staff” system must not be adopted in war-time, simply because it does not obtain during peace. (C. E.C.) STAMBOLIISKI, ALEXANDER (18797 ), Bulgarian statesman, was born at Slavovitsa in Bulgaria Sept. x 1879. He was of peasant origin, but obtained a good cducation at Sofia and then at Halle in Germany. In 1902 he became editor of the newspaper

of the Agranan League and later entered the Sobranje.

He soon

acquired great influence among the peasants, and from the first took up an attitude of fearless opposition to King Ferdinand’s policy. In 1908 Stamboliiski headed the Agrarian protest against the Declaration of Independence, as being in the interest of the dynasty rather than of the people. In 1911 he made a violent speech in the Grand Sobranje, opposing the amendment to the constitution by which the King was given the right to make secret treaties, and in 1913 he openly accused the King of hav-

ing brought about the calamitous war with Serbia. On Sept. 17 1915 Stamboliiski accompanied the other leaders of the Opposition to the palace, and, in a forcible speech and later in ` personal conversation, he warned the King with characteristic brusquerie that if he again plunged the country into war it would end in disaster and that he would lose his throne, if not his head. Stamboliiski was then condemned to imprisonment for life, and

was kept in strict and painful confinement {rom Sept. 30 1915 for three years; he was, however, allowed access to books and spent much of his time in study and writing. On Sept. 25 1918, when imminent catastrophe compelled Bulgaria to seek an armistice, he was released, and, alter a stormy interview with the King, went to the front, where a revolutionary movement among the troops was developing. He returned with the insurrectionary

troops to Sofia, and order was restored only after much loss of life; Stamboliiski was obliged to go into hiding, even after the King’s abdication. The Government, however, soon realized that his help was essential in the critical state of the country, and he became Minister of Public Works in Todorov’s Cabinet. Although the Agrarians had not an actuaf majority after the election of Aug. 1919, Stamboliiski became President of the Council and Minister for Foreign Affairs; on Nov. 27 he had the

courage to sign the Treaty of Neuilly on behalf of his country. In April 1920 the Cabinet was reconstructed, Stamboliiski remaining as Premier, Minister for War and of Forcign Affairs in a Cabinet composed entirely of his own followers. STANFORD,

SIR

CHARLES

VILLIERS

(1852-

), Irish

musical composer {see 25.773), published in 1911 AMusicad Compositions; three years later appeared Pages from an Unwritten Diary and in 1916 A History of Music, written in conjunction with his former pupil, Cecil Forsyth. In later years his music included the operatic piece The Critic (op. 144), produced by Beecham in 1916, and The Travelling Companion (op. 146),

which won a Carnegie award in 1917, but had not yet been produced in 1921. In 1919 his symphony L’ Allegro ed [1 Pensieroso also won a Carnegie award, and in 1921 his setting of a poem by Mr, Justice Darling entitled At the Abbey Gate—the

Field Service Regulations clearly admit by implication that the chief of the general staff is the superior of the adjutant-general, the quartermaster-general and the chief of communications,

point being the burial of the Unknown Warrior in the Abbey— was produced by the Royal Choral Society in the Albert Hall. Stanford’s Songs of the Fleet, originally produced in 1910, gained great popularity, and he also composed much chamber music. STANMORE, ARTHUR HAMILTON HAMILTON-GORDON,

without their being actually under him. That, under conditions

1ST Baron (1829-1012), British administrator, was born Nov. 26

such as develop on active service, is apt to prove a somewhat

1829, the youngest son of the ath Earl of Aberdeen. He was educated at Cambridge and afterwards entered politics, becoming private secretary to the Prime Minister, Lord Derby, from 1852 to 1855, and sitting as member for Beverley from 1854 to

clumsy arrangement and to give rise to friction. It is neither one

thing nor the other.

Granted that the “chief of the staff”

system means centralization, granted that it demands from the

chief of the general staff a somewhat closer acquaintance with

1857.

purely administrative questions than would be necessary if the

Mauritius (1871-4), Fiji (1875-80), New Zealand (1880-2) and Ceylon (1883-90). He was raised to the peerage in 1895, and

heads of the chief branches of the administrative staff were

He was successively governor of Trinidad

(1866-70),

STEAD—STINNES

572

died in London Jan. 30 1912. He was succeeded by his son, George Arthur Maurice Hamilton-Gordon, born Jan. 3 1871, who in 1916 was appointed lord-in-waiting to King George V. STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849-1912), English journalist (see 25.817), was drowned on the “ Titanic ”’ April 15 1912. STEED, HENRY WICKHAM (1871), English journalist, was born at Long Melford, Suffolk, Oct. 10 1871, the son of a local solicitor, and was educated at Sudbury grammar school and the universitics of Jena, Berlin and Paris. From 1896 to

Heiberg Island.

The following year he travelled, again over

moving ice, as far as lat. 80° 30’N. and long. 112° W.

The

expedition returned to Canada in 1918 (see Arctic REGIONS).

Stefansson published My Life with the Eskimo (1913), The

Friendly Arctic (1921) and an anthropological report on the expedition of r908-12, besides many articles in scientific journals.

He received many honours from learned societies. STEIN, SIR (MARK) AUREL (1862__), British archaeolo-; gist, was born at Budapest Nov. 26 1862. Educated in the

1913 he acted continuously as foreign correspondent to The

public schools of Budapest

Times, beginning in Berlin, passing on to Rome, where he remained five years (1897-1902), and thence to Vienna (1902-13), His Hapsburg Monarchy (1913; 4th ed. 1918) is recognized as

the universities of Vienna and Tiibingen, where he studied Oriental languages and antiquities, he went to England for further study and then to India, where he became principal of the Oriental College, Lahore, and registrar of the Punjab University in 1888. Eleven years later he was appointed to the Indian

the most illuminating work that has been written on AustriaHungary. In 1914 he became foreign editor Gn London) of The Times, and in Feb. 1919 was appointed to succced Mr. Geoffrey Dawson as editor. During the World War he was a prominent supporter of the Yugoslav movement. In 1918 under Lord Northcliffe he was engaged on propagandist work in the enemy countries, and he headed a special mission to Italy in March and April of that year, His other publications include The Socialist and Labour Movement in England, Germany & France (1894); L’ Angleterre et la Guerre (1915); L’ Effort Anglais (19016); La Democratie Britannigue (1918).

STEER, P. WILSON (1860-

_—+), English painter (see 25.868),

exhibited after 1886 practically the whole of his work at the New English Art Club, in whose formation he took a leading part and of which he was at one time president. His earlier work, such as the “‘ Boulogne Sands” showed the influence of impressionism in its feeling for light and its handling of colour; but

after 1895 he adopted a more sober palette, at times using strong

Education

and Dresden

Service, and for the next two

and afterwards

years

carried

at

out

archaeological explorations for the Indian Government in Chinese Turkestan. In 1906-8 he made further explorations (see 27.425) in central Asia and western China, receiving the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. From 1909 he was superintendent of the Indian Archaeological Survey, and in 1913-6 carried out explorations in Persia and central Asia, described by him in the Geographical Journal (1916). He was created K.C.ILE. in rgr2. His other publications include

Chronicle of Kings of Kashmir (1900); Ancient Khotan (1907) and Ruins of Desert Cathay (16%2). STEVENSON, ADLAI EWING (1835-1914), American political leader (see 25.907), died at Chicago June 13 1914.

STEWART,

JULIUS

L. (1855-1919), American painter (see

25.914), died in Paris Jan. 4 19109. STEYN, MARTINUS THEUNIS (1857-1916), Dutch S. African

black shadows with silvery lights, and gave increased attention to design. After 1900 he returned to the use of a full range of pigment, and produced some of his finest work, such as ‘ Richmond after Storm ” (1903) and ‘“ The Isle of Purbeck ” (1909). In later years he only used the impressionist colour analysis to

politician (see 25.915). After the prominent share which he took in the work of the S. African National Convention in 1909-10 ex-President Steyn retired into private life at his farm, Onze Rust (Our Rest), near Bloemfontein. From this retirement he

a very limited extent, and generally worked within a chosen and limited colour scheme. His feeling for colour harmony and power of rendering subtle variations in tone relate him to

occasional meetings of the Dutch people of S. Africa on topics of national interest. Yet this almost complete retirement from public activities did nothing to lessen his influence with his own people. It cannot be said that this influence was exercised to

Guinsborough (a likeness well exemplified in “ The Beaver Hat ”), and give his work its characteristic quality. Most typical perhaps are his landscapes, mainly wide stretches of country with broken skies, full of light, atmosphere and a sense of space; but he also produced many portraits and figure compositions, his paintings of the nude being marked by great appreciation of the character and quality of flesh.

His later work includes

“A Summer Evening” (1914), “‘ Painswick Beacon” (1916), “ The Vale of Gloucester” (1917), ‘ Chirk Castle ” (1917), and a considerable group of water-colours, very delicately and directly handled. A self portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, and he ts represented in the Tate Gallery, the Municipal Gallery, Dublin, and the Johannesburg Gallery.

never emerged till his death Nov.

28 1916, except to address

promote racial peace in S. Africa. When the dissension between Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister of the Union of S. Africa, and Gen. Hertzog began to shake the frame of the Ministry,

ex-President Steyn might have had a decisive influence in composing that difference, which was ultimately to break Gen. Botha’s Cabinet and to lead to long dissension among the Dutchspeaking people of S. Africa. His weight, however, was thrown without reserve on the Hertzog side. The ideas of ex-President Steyn were the ideas of Kruger. He held with tenacity the creed

of the Boer who regarded himself as the holder of S. Africa by a

was born at Arnes, Manitoba, Nov. 3 1879, of Icelandic parentage. He was educated at the universities of North Dakota and

species of divine right, who resented the intrusion of the British clement, and was determined to treat that element as intruders and “ foreign adventurers.” Beyond doubt they were sincere, if narrow. He held, as Kruger had held, and as Gen. Hertzog held, that the intrusion of the British element involved a descent into

Jowa, and afterwards at Harvard. He became a newspaper reporter, but later was appointed to an instructorship of anthro-

ideas and embroilment in the tangles of world-politics.

STEFANSSON, VILHJALMUR (1879-

_), Canadian explorer,

pology at Harvard, and became deeply interested in the prob-

lems of the Arctic regions.

He made a private expedition to

Iceland in 1904, and the following year returned with a Harvard

archaeological expedition.

He visited the Eskimo of northern

Alaska (1906-7), and in 1908 started on a four years’ expedition

to the Arctic shores of Canada under the auspices of the Geological Survey of Canada and the Amcrican Museum of Natural History, with interesting results.

In 1913 Stefánsson was ap-

pointed commander of the Canadian Arctic expedition which sailed from Victoria, B.C., in June of that year to explore the northern shores of Canada and Alaska.

In 1914, with two com-

panions, he crossed Beaufort Sea on the moving ice from Martin Point, Alaska, tothe north-western corner of Banks I.; in ro15 he visited the sca west of Prince Patrick I. and discovered more

land to the north; and in 1916 discovered land west of Axel

the muddy waters of commercialism, the strife of contending

STINNES, HUGO (:870), German industrialist and financier, was born at Miilheim on Feb. 12 1870. He was the son of Hugo Stinnes, and grandson of Matthias Stinnes, who was the founder of a firm in no great way of business at Miilheim in the Ruhr district. After passing his leaving examination from a Realschule, young Stinnes was placed in an office at Coblentz where he speedily picked up the elements of a business training. In order to get a practical knowledge of mining he worked for a few months as a miner at the Wicthe colliery. He then, in 1880, attended a course of instruction at the Academy of Mining in Berlin. In the following year he entered the firm which his grandfather had founded. He remained there only two years and then established a firm of his own, Hugo Stinnes,

Ltd. The whole original share capital was 50,000 marks (prewat=f2,500). Gradually, from dealing in coal, he became

STOCK EXCHANGE ‘himself the owner of several mines and extended his business to the manufacture of different kinds of fuel such as briquettes.

He also began to purchase sta-going vessels as well as river steamers and barges, the latter, especially on the Rhine, on a constantly increasing scale. He next organized an extensive

international business in coal, and had 13 steamers trading to and from North Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Sea ports. They carried coal, wood and grain, also iron-ore, Stinnes having begun to manufacture iron and steel. He also imported great quantities of English coal and had an agency at Newcastle as

573

be coördinated like one gigantic concern regulating production, transport and the supply of the German markets and those of the whole world. It might thus be possible to avoid waste, sudden crises, ruinous competition and foreign commercial dic-

tation. He was reported to have already expended the equivalent of about £250,000,000 on these alms and to be continuing to sink further millions in them. The Social Democrats were believed not to be averse from Stinnes’ vaster scheme, as it corresponded in certain aspects with their own plans, when they were in power, for coérdinating all German industries, pending

Before the World War he was the possessor of a fortune which

the possibility of socializing them. An instrument for superintending this codrdination in the social and economic aspects was ready to hand in the Economic Council of the German Reich,

was vaguely estimated at several millions of pounds.

set up by the new Republican constitution of 1919.

well as an interest in some English mines.

This Ied to his estab-

lishing branches of his business at Hamburg and at Rotterdam.

He was

a director of many of the greatest industrial and mining com-

panies of Westphalia, the Rhineland and Luxemburg. Business interests of this magnitude were constantly expanding, and he became interested in numerous subsidiary enterprises, such as tramways and the supply of electric power and light. He was always engaged

in founding

new

concerns

or amalgamating

existing ones. Stinnes managed to maintain an extensive and even a detailed knowledge of the working of all the concerns in which he was engaged, and im all of them to exact zealous and conscientious work from his business subordinates. The secret of his success was essential unity of direction and co-

ordination of aims in all branches of his enterprises. When the World War broke out he secured an enormous share in the war profits which flowed into the coffers of the great industrialists. In enemy countries, it is true, his enterprises Were sequestrated, and his firm at Rotterdam placed on the Allies’? “ black list.” But -he was richly compensated, apart from the regular indemnification paid by the German Government, when he was called in by Ludendorff as the most competent expert to give advice, to organize the coal and the industrial production of occupied Belgium and to help to set in motion the gigantic production of war material which the German G.H.Q. demanded [rom the homeland. His connexion

The only public check which Stinnes was known to have received in the course of his carecr was at the Spa Conference in 1920, when he attempted to address that assembly in percmptory language concerning the impossibility of the coal deliv-

eries demanded þy the Allies and was summarily silenced by the president. STOCK EXCHANGE (see 25.930).—Before the outbreak of the World War in Aug. 1914 the London Stock Exchange

had for several years experienced ¢wo remarkable periods of activity, both being the outcome of industrial development which caused a rapid intensifying of the demand for two commodities—namely, oil and rubber. This was the sequel to the discovery of the internal-combustion engine and its increasing adoption In mechanical road transport. Pre-war Rubber and Ot! Booms.—The rubber boom came first. It began in 19009, and lasted until about 1912. The demand

for rubber applicd a great stimulus to the rubber plantation industry in the Malay States, the Dutch East Indies, Ceylon

and India. The price of rubber rose at one time to over 128. per lb., and an enormous number of new companies were formed, mostly with capitals of moderate size. In order to popularize rubber as an Investment the resourceful company promoter introduced shares of the denomination of 2s. each. The innova

with Ludendorti led to his becoming an intluence behind the

tion was extraordinarily

scenes in German politics, and, after the revolution, to his enter-

of companies were floated with capital divided into 2s. shares, while others formed prior tv the boom sub-divided their shares into the smaller and more popular denomination. Prices of

ing the Reichstag, as well as to his début as a newspaper pro-

prictor on a grand scale.

During the war he had extended

his activities in Hamburg and had bought up in ror6 the Woer-

mann and the E. African lines. In these fresh undertakings he became associated with the two greatest German shipping

concerns, the Hamburg-American line and the North German Lloyd. His Hamburg interests continued {rom that date onwards to multiply in something like geometrical progression. Half a dozen landed estates were purchased in Saxony to supply timber for pit props. At Flensburg in Schleswig he secured control of the largest Baltic shipping concern, and proceeded

successful, and a very large number

shares rose to extraordinary heights. Premiums of thousands per cent were common, the shares of the Patalung and Sclangor companies, two of the earliest plantation companies, rising to

premiums in excess of 3,000 per cent. Jn Stock Exchange parlance the public “ got the bit between its tecth,” and the boom persisted for a long time. Large fortunes were made by people who participated in the boom in the early period. A reaction in the price of rubber, which ultimately feil below 15, per lb. in

1921, had already put an end to the boom before the war began,

to build a new fleet of ships, christening one of them the “ Hin-

Although the extravagant prices paid during the boom were at

denburg,” In the elections of June 1920 he secured a seat in the Reichstag as a member of the Deutsche Volkspartei, the

no time justified, the companies paid very satisfactory dividends

new clectionecring name of the former National Liberal party.

for years; and it was not until the post-war depression, which was unparalleled in its severity, swept over the commodity

He had about the same time begun to buy up leading German

markets in the latter part of 1920 and the first part of 1921 that

newspapers, one of his main objects being to organize a solid and powerful blec of opinion in Germany in support of law and order and ihe promotion ol the highest industrial and com-

the industry was faced with real difficulties.

mercial

efficiency.

His

newspaper

purchases

included

the

Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung in Verlin, formerly the organ of Bismarck and then of all succeeding German Governments, the Münchener Neueste Nachrichten and the Mfiinchen-Augsburger Zeitung, the last-named being one of the oldest newspapers in Germany. Both of the South German journals were previously exponents of a very much more democratic trend of opinion than that which came to characterize them under the new proprietorship. Ancillary to these acquisitions large interests were secured by Stinnes

in paper-works in order to

make his newspapers independent of the paper market. - Īn the autumn of 1921 he was reported to be contemplating some still vaster venture in the nature of a super trust to control

évety industry in Germany, so that the whole might ultimately

The tremendous

stimulus applied to planting in 1910, I911 and 1912 led to the inevitable overproduction, and in 1919 and 1921 schemes for limiting output were put into force. The oil boom began shortly after the activity in rubber had

been well spread, It persisted for a Jonger period, for the reason that the price of oil rose steadily from the introduction of the

motor-car.

It eventually reached its maximum height jn 1920,

but a reaction began in 1921, and this produced a corresponding movement in the share market. There was an enormous demand for petroleum spirit in the war period, and the price rose steeply. After the cessation of hostilities the price rose further, a circum-

stance which was partly due to the conversion of locomotives and ships’ engines from coal to oil, partly to the great extension

of mechanical transport on the road and in the afr, and partly to the fact that the refinement and distribution of oil was in the

hands chiefly of two vast organizations, The boom was accom-

STOCK EXCHANGE

574

panied by the flotation of a number of companies, particularly in Russia, where the Maikop field for a time attracted much

attention.

But in comparison with rubber, oil did not provide

the same opportunities for the company promoter, and the flotation of companies for the exploitation of oil-fields, known

and unknown, was comparatively limited.

The oil boom lasted

approximately ro years, when a reaction set in. But meanwhile huge fortunes were made.

Bonus shares were issued in great

numbers by the principal oil companies, and this, together with high dividends, kept public interest at a high level. , With the exception of the oil market, stock markets were in

a depressed condition for some time before the outbreak of war. The War Period.—Early in July 1914, rumours of war began to affect the Continental bourses. On July 13 the Vienna market was demoralized by fear of hostilities, but it was not until July

24, when the terms of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia were made known, that the London market became seriously perturbed. From that date until Friday July 31, when the London

Stock Exchange Committee for General Purposes decided to close the House for an indefinite period, markets were inundated with a vast flood of selling orders from home and abroad, and excitement was intense. The European bourses virtually ceased to function, and this diverted an enormous stream of foreign selling orders to London. Inter-bourse securities naturally suffered a very heavy decline.

On Monday July 27 many Lon-

don jobbers ceased to ‘* make prices.” This was “ gencral carry over ”’ day, and the dilfiiculties to be met by speculators were formidable. The settlement, however, was completed on Wednes-

day July 29, without any very scrious disaster, though 9 failures, involving 20 members, were announced.

Dealing, however,

had become a matter of negotiation entirely, and on Thursday July 30 1014 the House opened for the last time that year.

During the first two hours no attempt was made to do

business, and the next morning the committee decided not to reopen the House until further notice. On Monday July 27 four consecutive transactions in consols were officially recorded at prices showing àa movement of £r between each bargain, a circumstance without precedent in modern London Stock Exchange history. During the closed period, business, despite oficial discouragement, was not entirely suspended. A certain amount

of dealing, on a strictly cash basis, was

found

to be

possible. On Sept. 14 the committee fixed minimum prices for trustee stocks, based on the quotations ruling on July 30, the object being to prevent disastrous depreciation. The New York Stock Exchange similarly made minimum prices for American shares, and these values were adopted by the London committee. The maintenance of these prices was insisted upon by the banks, which had undertaken to continue their loans against securities without asking for any additional margin. Meanwhile the question of dealing with the uncompleted mid-August account was taken in hand on the London Stock Exchange and completed on Nov. 19, a special set of rules governing its arrangement. The gist of these rules was that bulls of stock carried over on July 27 should put up a 5° margin on high-class securities, and 10% on others, and pay interest fortnightly, or alternatively pay a higher rate of interest in lieu of margin. The “taker in” was put under the obligation of continuing to ‘‘ take in” stock at July 27 prices until 12 months after the war, or the expiring of the Courts (Emergency Powers) Act, 1914, whichever event was the sooner.

The declaration of

a moratorium, which was continued until Nov. 4 1914, made it impossible to reopen the Stock Exchange for some months. About {90,000,000 had been borrowed against securities before the war began, and it was not until the moratorium came to

an end that the mid-August scttlement was carried through. The affairs of a small number of members were in this operation

wound up under the liquidation rule, but the amount of stock carried over under the temporary regulations was smaller than had been feared, As stocks rose to the mean price of July 27 they

include inter-bourse securities. Minimum prices were gradually abolished as liquidation ceased and prices settled down to the new level of investment values. minimum prices were removed.

On July 3 1916 the last of the

The London Stock Exchange was reopened for the first time after the outbreak of war on Jan. 4 1915. Severe restrictions were placed upon the transaction of business, in accordance with arrangements made in Dec. 1914, between the Committee

for General Purposes and the Treasury. These arrangements were embodied in Temporary Regulations which were substituted for the old regulations governing Stock Exchange practice. All bargains had to be done on a cash basis. The suspension of virtually all speculative business was the most important innovation introduced by the Temporary Regulations. Normally, speculation forms the great bulk of business effected on the Stock Exchange, and its temporary abolition deprived many members of their occupation. The volume of business which it was possible to do was further restricted by two other features of the Regulations—namely, the ‘“ physical possession” rule, which prohibited dealings in stock that had not been in physical possession in the United Kingdom since Sept. 1914, and the fixing of minimum prices for trustee and other securities, which were in nearly every case the mean prices on July 27. Both of these rules were relaxed to some extent during rg15; the former to facilitate sales of American securities held in Allied and neutral states, and to allow shles of colonially held stock. When they were established, minimum prices undoubtedly served a very valuable purpose, but when the issue of high-yielding war loans completely altered the standard of investment, as regards the yicld in interest, no useful purpose was served by them. The retention of minimum prices fixed on a pre-war basis of credit made it impossible to deal in the securities affected, and that was the reason for their removal. But the absence of speculation naturally caused a considerable reduction in membership. On the day of reopening the number of transactions was less than 1,000. On subsequent occasions the number rose to well over 3,000 per day, but in 1915 the daily average was nearer

2,000 than 3,000.

A heavy loss of revenue was sustained by

the company owning the Stock Exchange, and in r915 it failed to distribute an intcrim dividend. The arrangement by which all stocks carried over at the outbreak of war were continued until after the end of the war, unless the “end of July 1914” prices were reached, worked well in practice, thanks largely to the American demand for securities; and the “open” position on the London Stock Exchange, which in Aug. 1914 was about go millions sterling, had been reduced by the end of 1915 to about 20 millions. With the reopening of the London Stock Exchange an important reform was introduced which was continued after the cessation of hostilities. The Temporary Regulations provided that every bargain should be recorded. This practice was much preferred by the public to the pre-war custom of marking only occasional bargains.

The absence of buying and selling prices,

dealers being prohibited from offering stock in the market, was one of the reasons for the compulsory marking of all bargains. This reform led to the issue of a supplementary list of bargains in securities not quoted in the daily “ official” list. Thus, from Jan. 4 1915 onwards, a complete record of business done was

furnished by the two lists, on the authority of the committee. Another innovation was the retention in the lists of prices of previous bargains, which added to their value to the public.

The course of prices in 1915 and subsequent war years was generally downward. In June-July 1915 the flotation of the unlimited 43% British Government War Loan made a lowering of investment values inevitable. This for a time checked business in the stocks protected by minima, and caused a heavy fall in

other fixed interest-bearing securities. In March 1915 minimum prices were reduced to a small extent. The minimum for Consols was reduced from 68} to 66} prior to the issue of the 43°% War

had to be taken up or sold. On Dec. 23 1914 the conditions governing the reopening of the London Stock Exchange were

Loan, and it was removed later when the great bulk of the stock

promulgated.

securities was very active and strong throughout 1915, and

The minimum price list was then extended to

had been converted into the 43% stock. The market for American

STOCK EXCHANGE prices showed a substantial advance on the year. The war-time prosperity in the United States caused a great demand for American securities held in the United Kingdom and France. European holders were encouraged to sell by the appreciation

of the dollar in terms of sterling, which enabled a profit on exchange to be made. In the second half of the year the British

575

which £736,216,000 was due to conditions brought about by the war. The war-time depreciation in fixed interest-bearing securi-

ties was greater than this.

Taking the values of ro8 fixed

interest-bearing securities we find that the total on July 20 r914 was {£1,989,000,000, at the close of 1918 {1,.575,000,000, and at

the end of rt919 £1.378,906,000.

On the other hand, the value

Government bought large quantities of American securities held in the United Kingdom and sold them in the United States

of 279 speculative investments, i.e. the dividends on which fluc-

in order to provide itself with means of making payment for

at the close of 1918 {£1,226,000,000, and at the end of i919 £1.255.578,000. Thus there was a net depreciation in fixed interest-bearing securities of £610,004,000, or 30%, in the whole

munitions, ctc. (sce DOLLAR

SECURITIES

Moptrizationx).

It

is estimated that in this year about 150 millions sterling of American securities were transferred to the United States.

tuate according to profits, was £1,382,000,000 on July 20 1914,

the market, and invited holders either to sell or loan approved securities to it. Thus came into force what was subscquently known as the Dollar Securities Mobilization Scheme. The terms of purchase were approximately the parity of the New York

war period, of which {106,094,000 occurred in rọrọ; while speculative investments showed an increase of £29,578,000 in value during 1919, or 2.4%, but a net depreciation of {126,422,000 on the whole pcriod, or 9 per cent. After the War—In spite of marked activity in speculative investments, the year ror1g witnessed a generally downward

price, and for loan a bonus of 4% per annum in addition to the interest or dividend on the loaned security, plus a premium of

of the appreciation which took place in the closing months of

Towards the end of 1915 the Government ceased operations in

22% in the event of the Government exercising its right to sell the stock loaned to it. The Temporary Regulations were made more stringent as the war céntinued, but 1917 witnessed a check

to the depreciation of fixed interest-bearing securities for the first time since the S. African War of 1899-1902, and also a sustained upward movement in industrial securitics.

The following table, compiled from figures published by the Bankers’ Magazine, shows the course at different important dates of investment values since the calculations were first made. ‘The values relate to 387 representative securities:—

£3,843,000,000

Jan. 1907 *Tuly JNov. Dec. Dec.

20 1914 1918 1919 1920

*Pre-war.

at

634,784,000 13195777 000

{Month of Armistice.

The gencral depreciation was due not only to the exceptionally heavy demand for money to carry on the war, but also to the growing burden of direct taxation in the United Kingdom. For a time the British investor showed a marked preference for industrial securities, on which high dividends were paid together with, in many cases, bonuses either in the form of cash or scrip, Bonus shares were created and issued by a large number of concerns. The scarcity of capital caused a steady rise jn the rate of interest, and first-class companies found it necessary to pay 8%

and even more on new debentures and preference capital. The Treasury scheme for buying and borrowing dollar securities in 1916 was followed in 1917 by a scheme for requisitioning those which had been neither Jent nor sold. This put the finishing touch to the process which had begun in 1915, of extinguishing the American market in London. Throughout the war period the London Stock Exchange Co. had a very Jean revenue. Receipts, which in 1914-5 amounted to £296,757, dwindled to £130,304 in 1917-8; and the dividend dropped to £1 per share. A feature of the year 1918 was the advance in foreign Government securities, especially those of neutral nations. Bonds of the neutral countrics were bought for exchange purposes, and they changed hands up to extraordinarily high figures in the first half of the year, Spanish 4’s touched 135 at one time, owing to the rise in the sterling value of the peseta, and Swedish 33% stock rose to 11s, through appreciation in kroner.

Calculations made by the Bankers’ Magazine show that the values of 387 representative securities fell during 1919 from £2,801,089,000 to £2,634,784,000, a decrease of £166,605,000, equal to 5-9 per cent. (As on July 20 1914, the total was £3,371,000,000, the decline in the five and a half years to Dec. 1919 was no less than £736,216,000, or nearly 22 per cent.) At one time during the war the values touched £2,572,000,000. This was on April 20 1918—at the height of the Germans’ last great offensive effort. It is interesting to note that in Jan. 1907, when the valua-

tions began, the total was £3,843,000,000.

The valuation at the

end of 1919 showed a het shrinkage of £1,208,000,900, 01313 7%, of

tendency in prices of securities, with the result that a large part 1918, following the collapse of Germany’s war effort, was lost. The reaction was due in a large measure to heavy Government expenditure, bringing with it the pressure of high taxation, and an adverse Amcrican exchange, the former involving a continu-

ance of heavy borrowing, and the latter a rise in the Bank of England rate from 5 to 6%, at the beginning of Nov. r9rg. ‘The failure of the British Government’s Funding Loan operation in the summer had an adverse effect on the market for gilt-edged investments, and the City of London received something like a shock on learning that national expenditure in the second half of the year was scarcely distinguishable in amount from that of

a Jarge part of the war period. Markets, however, presented a generally animated appearance. This was in part duc to the. return of warrior members. Attention was mainly concentrated on speculative securities, notably oil, brewery, insurance, shipping, S. African gold, and commercial and industrial securities. Fixed interest-bearing securitics were persistently neglected, owing to the higher value of money and the competition of numerous new issues oficring yiclds as high as 9 per cent.

In the sum-

mer of 1919, various war-time restrictions were removed from the London Stock Exchange with the approval of the Treasury.

The

removal of the embargo on exports of capital enabled foreign-held stocks to be realized in the London market; but arbitrage transactions continued to be prohibited. Some of the declarations which had to accompany cach transaction were abolished, but the temporary regulation prohibiting any but cash transactions was retained.

Gold-mining shares made a substantial advance in the closing months of rọrọ owing to the high premium reccived on gold under an arrangement come to in July for restoring free conditions to the market for gold newly produced. This enabled the companies tọ declare larger dividends in Dec., and rescued a

large number of low-grade mincs from imminent bankruptcy. Towards the close of 1919 Rand Mines shares were introduced on the New York market, this being the first time that 5. African gold shares were listed in Wall Street.

The diamond

companies enjoyed a wonderful prosperity during the year, the De Beers Co.’s revenue amounting to as much as one whole day's war expenditure at the maximum level. Record dividends were

paid, and share quotations reached unprecedented figures. The year 1920 was the most remarkable of the carly post-war period. At the beginning markets in London were extraordinarily active, owing to the boom in trade. The oil market was ina state of ceascless activity, and other speculative markets felt some

of the reflected glory of inflated oil profits. Nomination for membership of the London Stock Exchange rose in price to £650, but was almost unsaleable at the end of the year. There was a great congestion of work in brokers’ offices in the carly months, and they were kept open until Jate at night for several weeks. But the introduction of a British budget of 1,200 millions, with its unpleasant reminder of the burden of taxation, administered

a check to the reckless buoyancy of markets. The collapse of the exchanges of all the countries except the United States

STOCK EXCHANGE

576

Sweden, Switzerland and Holland, caused a steady stream of liquidation in London from the Continent, which grew in volume when, later in the year, a heavy fall occurred in wholesale com-

modity prices. The fall in commodities forced traders to realize securities.

The pressure to obtain money to finance production

and distribution and pay taxes caused persistent liquidation in the gilt-edged market, and British Government securities fell to a level giving a return of well over 6% per annum. In Dec. 1920 the leading stocks, in some cases, touched the lowest points on record. The 5% Funding Loin to 65 sine calculations of in Dec. 1920 showed

War Loan fell to 8r,;, Victory Bonds to 703, 5,,and Consols to 432. The Bankers’ Magathe prices of 381 representative securities a fall in values of no less than £315,000,000,

the largest loss ever recorded in one year. British and Indian funds fell in value in 1920 by 11-9 %, forcign Government stocks by 18-8 %, home railway stocks by 17-3 %, foreign Government stocks by 23-5 per cent. The decline in commercial and industrial securities was much greater, the percentage being 40-9. The severity of this reaction was, of course, due to the sudden

collapse of the six-year-old boom in trade. Iron and steel shares

suffered a depreciation of 33:7 %, shipping securities of 21:7 %, and S. African mining shares of 39-2 per cent. The losses of the investor were so severe that he lost all interest in speculative stocks and turned his attention to gilt-edged stocks. ‘This brought about a steady recovery in the latter in the first half of 1921. The issue of foreign Government loans in London, which was suspended on the oulbreak of war, was renewed in 1921,

when a loan to the Sao Paulo Government was issued, followed by an issue of Norwegian Government bonds.

American and Foreign Stock Exchanges—The shock of the World War caused stock markets all over the world to shiver and collapse more or less. By custom London was a market to which every bourse abroad turned for help when there was any pressure, and for a period of atleast a fortnight after the middle

of July ror4 the London market was called upon to absorb a flood of selling orders from every mart in Europe where securities were dealt in. While the European bourses had to all intents and purposes suspended business by the beginning of the weck ended Aug. 1, there was a fairly free market for securities in London in the great majority of international securities down to the middle of the week. The news of the coming war affected the European deurses carly in July, On the 13th of that month the Vienna market was described as having become quite de-

moralized by the fear of war. nervousness

because

Germany

The Berlin bourse reflected this was

Austro-Hungary’s

chief

lender, Government and municipal loans of the Habsburg Empire being held in Germany to the extent, it was estimated, of over f200,000,000. On Monday July 27, the day before the declaration of war by Austria, the panic in Vienna was such that the bourse was ordered to be closed for three days. Subsequent events showed it was destined to be closed for an indefinite period. The Brussels market followed the lead of Vienna, ceasing business

on July 27, and the Paris coulisse, or outside unofficial market,

also suspended operations on that day.

On Tuesday July 28,

before the declaration of war by Austria had become known,

dealings became very difficult. On July 29 all account dealings in Berlin were suspended, transactions being confined to cash bargains. The Amsterdam and St. Petersburg bourses were enturcly closed that day, while on Thursday all markets suspended business except London, Berlin, Paris and New York, but the

settlement in Paris fixed for July 31 was postponed. Business on the Berlin bourse was ordered to be suspended on the following day (July 31), though the bourse was kept open. The Paris market remained open throughout that day, July 31, but only Six quotations were available out of some sixty stocks and shares usually quoted in reports from that centre.

The Paris

bourse was the only stock-markct to keep open its doors after Thursday July 30. But this bourse is under the direct control of the Government, and the authority of the Goverment was no doubt responsible for the bourse being kept open.

Down to

Sept. 2 a few quotations were forthcoming from Paris, but on

approach of the Germans to the French capital. The New York Stock Exchange was open on Tuesday July 28, when the news

of the declaration of war by Austria first became known, and it was called upon to withstand the first shock of that announcement. By the end of the day's session 1t was found that transactions for the first time that year (1914) had exceeded one million shares. On Tuesday July 28 the Toronto Stock Exchange was closed, after being open for ro minutes, and business on the

Montreal market ceased in the afternoon. On July 30 violent breaks in prices occurred on the New York Exchange, but there was at all timesa market.

The next day, however, the committce

decided to follow the lead of London and to close the Exchange, New York.—In the latter part of rq12 there was a scrious

declinc in American securities, owing to sclling from Europe brought about by the Balkan War, but as soon as this unloading ceased the market was much unsettled by the decision of the

Supreme Court of the United States ordering the dissolution of the Union Pacific-Southern Pacific merger. Down to the beginning of the World War New York had shown a tendency to develop more and more as a market for international securities, though very Little was actually done to encourage foreign securi-

ties to seck a market there. In the’short and frantic period in the last few days of July 1914 bankers saw ordinary standards of value scattered to the winds and loans aggregating $2,000,000,+ coo imperilled almost in a night. When the House was closed special committees were set up to undertake the stupendous task of straightening out the apparently hopeless tangle of contracts outstanding when opcrations were suspended. The New York Stock Exchange tentatively opened its doors again on Nov. 28 1914, for trading in bonds only.

As the ex-

perience was encouraging, the committee decided to reopen the House for regular trading on Dec. 13. Minimum prices had been fixed by the committee on Oct. 13, and trading in unlisted securities was resumed on the following day.

The minimum

prices were revised from time to time and abalished on March 31 1915, owing to a rise in quotations having rendered minima no longer necessary. Then began the most remarkable cra in the history of the Exchange. In point of feverish activity and wild fluctuations in prices, the year rors was then without precedent. Million-share days, sensational advances, and equally sensational declines, were common occurrences. Price movements were very erratic. The most conspicuous feature of the enormous volume of trading was the participation by the outside public seldom if ever before witnessed on the New York Exchange, Under clique and pool manipulation, prices were whirled upward with startling rapidity. Stocks which led the advances were those of companies which, it was supposed, would benefit most largely from war orders. Throughout the year there was heavy buying of both stocks and bonds by investors and financial interests of the first rank. Many securities reacted from their highest levels before the close of the year, but others, on good business prospects, retained the greater part of their phenomenal rise. Even more remarkable was ro16. Activity was Intense, and prices rose to exceptionally high figures. Every dollar security offered from Europe was eagerly snapped up. The following year witnessed a reaction. The depreciation in the market value of American railway securities was estimated at $3,000,000,000—about one billion in bonds and two billions in shares, The principal causes of this great shrinkage in the market value of railway securities, in which about one-twelfth of the wealth of the United States was invested, were reported to be as follows:— (1) Enormous destruction of capital in the war, with un-

precedented Government !oans at rising rates of interest. (2)

The liquidation by Europe of about $1,700,000,000 of

American railroad securitics in payment for munitions of war.

(3)

A-rapid advance in the cost of railroad materials and

labour, with no compensating advance in railroad rates, and fear on the part of investors that the Government would not

promptly raise rates to maintain railroad property and credit. When the U.S. Government declared war, the composure and

that day the bourse was shut until further notice owing to the. strength*of the Stock Exchange was an impressively favour-

STOCK able omen. year.

EXCHANGE

577

This composure did not continue throughout the

to take up foreign bonds. This had a serious restricting influence

Prices of outstanding bonds declined steadily; and in

on America’s export trade, and owing to the inability of Europe to pay for her purchascs by exports she had to depend largely on

Sept. and Oct. an extremely violent movement of liquidation swept over the Stock Exchange, carrying prices of the best investment stocks down to a level lower than that of the panic of 1907. This extreme demoralization of the Stock Exchange did not result from money tension—lending rates were comparatively low throughout the year—nor was it primarily a.consequence of decreased earnings or of a weakened economic position on the part of the investing public. It was due to war taxation legislation, and the drawing up of estimates as to how much would have to be raised by taxes and by loans. In 10918 there was a recovery, With prices generally higher on the whole. In 1919 there was a boom in stock markets which will rank

in American finance as one of its greatest historical episodes. The pegging of sterling exchange at $4.763 was removed on March 20 1919, and the other Allied exchanges were released a few days later.

But the depreciation of European currencies

which followed did not stop European purchases. These increased in volume, and the demand acted as a powerful stimulant on the stock market. There began a speculation in stocks of an unprecedented description. Thousands of industrial corporations were endowed by the war with enormous reserves of cash which war taxation had barely skimmed.

The atmosphere of Wall

Street was charged with the wildest rumours of “ melon splitting,” increased dividends, and Liberty Bond distributions. Prices advanced by 10 and 12 points in a day, and on some days 20- and

30-point rises were not uncommon.

Amidst this furious activity

credit given by the United States.

In 1921 the depression ia

trade became very marked, but later a recovery set in.

Paris.—Down to 1911 Paris had been a powerful and persistent supporter of the world’s money markets, because of the saving habits of the French people, but in the three years prior

to the outbreak of war a change had developed. This was particularly noticeable after the Balkan War of 1912 had disturbed the European bourses.

France had begun early in 1914 to bring

moncy home to meet her own needs.

Excessive issues of short-

term notes, the disturbances in Mexico, and the collapse of the St. Louis & San Francisco railway in 1913, caused a fecling of

revulsion as regards American securities, and Paris, in the year prior to the outbreak of war, was steadily selling them. On the other hand, Germany was increasing her creditor position in the

world’s markets. The Paris bourse witnessed the end in ror of a bull campaign which had lasted for several years, and 1912 sawa persistent depression in gilt-edged stocks. The price of French 3% Rentes, which touched 105 in 1898, when Mr, Cochery dreamed of conversion, fcll to 87} in 1912, and with the outbreak of the Balkan War there was a panic. The bourse was reopened after the events of Sept. 1914, on

Dec. 7, and thereafter there was a steady rise in prices. After 15 months of war the first war loan was raised. As a necessary preliminary the settlement of the long-deferred end of July r914 bourse account

was, begun on Sept. 30 1915, and was carried

the million-share day ceased to be exceptional. In May the Stock

through with comparative ease.

Exchange was obliged to close on Saturdays in order to give the staffs an opportunity of overtaking arrears of work. When, in

very largely reduced by gradual sales, and the Bank of France

the latter part of June 1910, the first reaction occurred, there

former about 150 and the latter 35 million francs. The plan of settlement adopted differed considerably from the London Stock

had been 46 consecutive million-share days. The rise in the value of money was said to be the chief factor which brought the boom ta an end. By the middle of Oct, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York found its proportion of reserve to liabilities

reduced below the minimum prescribed by law.

Call money

rose to 30% in Nov., the highest figure since 1907. Acoal strike, the heavy fall in the exchanges, and the failure of the Senate to

ratify the Peace Treaty, were depressing factors. Stocks reached the peak of the rise in Nov. 1919. On that occasion the figure was only fractionally below the high-water mark of the war period, viz. ror-s1, which marked the culmina-

tion of what was described in the picturesque language of Wall Street as the “ war-brides ” boom of 1916. Then followed the bursting of the distended balloon. In about three weeks the average price of 50 stocks dropped more than 15 points to 85.

The collapse remained in the minds of members for a Jong time afterwards.

Despite occasional rallies, prices dropped steadily,

and it was manifest that the World War boom was definitely over.

November

1020 was also a month of devastating declines,

which produced conditions resembling a panic. The index figure of the ṣo stocks fell to 68-85, against 94-07 in April. In the first 11 months of 1920 transactions in stocks on the New York Stock Exchange showed a considcrable reduction

in volume from those of the corresponding period in 1919— 210,220,428 shares, against 296,822,497.

The par value of the

shares dealt in was $17,983,885,575, or about nine billions of dollars less than the year before. Bond transactions, on the

other hand, were much larger, increasing from $2,473,588,050 to $2,495,821,750 for Government bonds, from $258,442,500 to $310,567,400 for state and municipals, and from $522,315,000 to $693.527,000 for those of private corporations.

Arbitrage dealings were restored between New York and London at the beginning of Dec., but there was little business of this character. The depreciated paper pound killed the market for American securities in London. Throughout 1920 a growing interest in foreign securities was shown by American investors, and a comparatively large number of foreign Government and municipal obligations were sold in the American security markets. Competition of domestic issues, however, was fierce, and no

little difficulty was experienced in inducing the American public

The open account had been

came to the rescue of both Parquet and Coulisse, lending the Exchange scheme—s5°% interest was charged from July 1914, to

Sept. 1915; holders were asked to pay their differences in full, or were given the option of paying 10% of their differences at the first settlement, and 10% on each subsequent monthly settlement until the balance was wiped off; 6% was fixed as the rate on all unpaid differences; from the make-up prices of the end-Sept. account differences had to be settled at cach settlement as before the war. After the first post-bellum setulement contangoes averaged about 43 per cent. All new business was for cash, dealing on account being confined to clearing up accounts which existed before Aug. 1 1914. Berlin. —Before the war the Berlin bourse was subject to frequent attacks of nerves. On Sept. 4 1911 the bourse had what was described as its worst day of the year, It was alarmed by the forcign political situation. Nevertheless business was very active in that year, and the stamp duty on bourse transactions produced {75,000 more than in 1910.

In 1912 the bourse was again much

disturbed by political fears, and rumours of war caused heavy selling from time to time. Excessive speculation in the earlier months of 1912 caused the Government bourse to issue a public warning.

Commissary

of the

On Oct. 1 of that year came

news of the Balkan mobilization, and a panic seized the market. Settlement stocks in one day lost, on an average, 20 points. The total loss in values in that year was estimated at about {150,000,-

eco. On the outbreak of war, Germany imposed more stringent conditions upon the Stock Exchange business than any other country, The open market for stocks and shares was abolished, and the publication of prices was strictly forbidden. Towards the end of 1915, cautious efforts were made, with some success, to

liquidate bourse transactions which had remained in suspense since the outbreak of war. In 1916 there was much speculation on the German bourses, and this was given as a sufficient reason for continuing the veto upon the publication of quotations. But at the end of that year, lists of ‘prices were issued for the first time since July 1914, for the purpose of taxation assessments.

The quotations showed many large gains in industrial securities, due, of course, to the enormous profits made by German companies. In 1916 the dividends of 10 explosives manufacturing con-

cerng averaged 224%, a group of melal companies paid out 20%

STOKER—STONE-

578

on 2 capital of £9,000,000, and a group of leather companies paid 19% on an average. All the German war loans were, however, listed by special instruction at the price of issue. In 1917 there was again considerable speculation on the bourses, with generally rising prices; but the intervention of the United States in the war caused a set-back. At the end of ro17 the listing of prices was resumed, but publication of pnces was strictly prohibited. Ger-

and at Trinity College.

He entered the Irish civil service, to

which his father also belonged, and wrote critical articles for various newspapers. He was called to the English bar, but in 1878 he joined Sir Henry Irving at the Lyceum theatre and was for many years his secretary and finally his biographer. He wrote a number of novels, of which Dracula (1897) was the best known, as well as Personal Reminiscences of Sir Henry Irving

man 3% stock rose 7 to § points, and there was a strong demand for industnals. Between Sept. and Dec. 1918 the quotations of

(1906).

German securities on the German markets fell so heavily that German financial writers estimated the decrease in capital value at about so per cent. Meanwhile Germany witnessed her foreign credit—such as it was—go to pieces. This was proved not only by the price of the mark, but by an almost universal desire in neutral countries to withdraw outstanding credits to Germany, The index figures prepared by the Frankfurter Zeitung showed the following (a. representing values of 24 of the principal shipping, mining and dyeing concerns; b. of 10 important muni-

statesman, was born in 4863, the son of Admiral Stolypin by his wife, a princess of the house of Gorchakov. He was educated at

tions, metal, petroleum and potash concerns. The table shows the effect of speculation before the German collapse, then a heavy fall, followed by a slight recovery at the end of 1918):—

Amsterdam.—The

Amsterdam

Stock Exchange, which was

closed on the outbreak of war in 1914, was reopened on Feb. 9 1915. Business at first was not very extensive, except in shipping and home industrial shares. Foreign stocks were very weak in

1915 owing to persistent selling from Germany. The year 1916 was a record of remarkable fluctuations, and at the close all kinds of shares showed enormous gains. The largest improvement took place in the securities of home industrial concerns, which made huge profits, as the result of the elimination of German competition. The Dutch Indian plantation companies made enormous

profits, especially the sugar plantations, which sold a great part of their output to the British Government at high prices. Rubber and tobacco shares also improved in value. Royal Dutch shares were introduced for the first time on the American market in 1916. In xr917 the stock markets were rather quiet. Russian

stocks fell enormously in the last months in consequence of the stoppage of interest payments, and the announcement that the Bolshevist Government would cancel the national debt. This

latter step could only mean a serious financial disaster for Holland, where Russian stocks had found a ready market as being thoroughly sound investments. The total Dutch ownership of Russian stocks of State as well as private railways was estimated at 1,500,000,000 tO 2,000.000,000 florins. New shipping shares amounting to 27,500,000 florins in face value were added to the market in 1917. In the following year the tendency was irregular,

and sometimes weak, directly owing to the German collapse, but towards the end of the year prices rose again. Large new issues were made by shipping, plantation, and trading companies. Vienna and Budapest.—In the carly years of the war there was extravagant speculation on the Vienna and Budapest bourses, and prices rose to extraordinary heights on the enormous profits on paper made by all the industries of the country. But a heavy

collapse succeeded the military breakdown in 1918, and the subsequent break-up of the old Empire.

Switzerland.— Following the example of the chief foreign bourses, the Basle and Zurich Stock Exchanges suspended operations towards the end of July 1914. The Geneva and Lausanne bourses, however, remained open even during August. On Jan. 7

1915 the Basle Stock Exchange resumed the publication of its daily price list. A further step forward was taken on Dec. and on April 25 1916 the bond market was reopened

entirety.

1915, in its

On June 26 transactions were extended to the full

pre-war list. The Zurich bourse restarted official business on May 15 1916. (C. J. M.) STOKER, BRAM (1847-1912); Irish author, was born in

Dublin Nov. 8 1847 and was educated at a private school there

He died in London April 20 ror2.

STOLYPIN,

PETER

ARCADEVICH

(1863-1911),

Russian

the university of St. Petersburg, and in 1884 entered the Gavernment service. In 1902 he was appointed governor of Grodno, and in 1905 was transferred to Saratov, where he became known as a firm administrator. In 1906 he was recalled to take up the

position of Minister of Internal Affairs, and in July of the same year succeeded Goremykin as Minister President. His career as Premier is described in the article Russia. His firm and repressive policy toward all kinds of sedition caused him to be regarded as a deadly enemy by the revolutionary party, and many attempts upon his life were made. In Aug. 1906 a2 bomb was exploded at his summer residence, which seriously injured one of his daughters, but all efforts to kill him proved vain until 1911, when he was shot in a theatre at Kiev on Sept. 14, before the eyes of the Imperial family, by a Jew named Mordka Bogrov. The minister died of his wounds Sept. 18 rgrr.

STONE, MARCUS

(1840-1921), English painter (see 25.957),

died in London March 24 1921.

STONE, MELVILLE ELIJAH (1848-

), American journal-

ist, Was born at Hudson, Ill., Aug. 22 1848. His father was a Methodist minister, of New York birth, wha had moved to

Illinois in carly life and combined his activities as a circuitpreacher with the running of various small businesses, including book-selling and printing. He had English, Scottish and Irish blood in his veins, the Stone family having scttled in New England in the 17th century. In 1860, when Melville was r2, his father was made pastor of a Methodist church in Chicago,

and it was there that he got his schooling. In 1864 he began work as a newspaper reporter, but after sundry journalistic experiences he was set up in business in 1868 as proprictor of an ironfoundry and machine-shop, which incidentally made a specialty of the supply of folding theatre-chairs, etc. In the great Chicago fire of 1871 this was destroyed, and Stone was then for some

time occupied in the administrative work of municipal relicf and reconstruction after the fire. But in 1872 he again took up journalism, as one of the editors of the Chicago Republican (subsequently

Juter-Ocean),

and later of the Post and Mail,

becoming for several years a political correspondent at Washington. At the end of 1875, having returned to Chicago, he and a colleague started a new Chicago paper, the evening Daily News

(sce 19.571), and, after he had obtained the help of a new partner in Victor F. Lawson as its manager, their venture soon became

increasingly prosperous. In 1878 he and Lawson bought out the Post and Mail, and in 188r they established the Morning News (later Revord

and

Record-Herald).

In 1888 Stone's interest

was bought out by Lawson, and he retired, taking a prolonged holiday in Europe. Returning to Chicago in 1891, he took to banking by the foundation of the Globe National Bank, of which he became president, and he kept up this connexion for about ten years; but meanwhile pressure was put on him to take

part in the reorganization of the Associated Press, then already a well-known news-agency, and in 1803 he accepted the position of general manager. In this capacity Melville Stone became even more prominent and powerful in the journalistic world than he had been as a Chicago editor and newspaper proprictor. At that time the Associated Press was still struggling (sce 19.547) with its competitor, the United Press, but its enterprise

now

received a new

stimulus, and by 1897, under

Stone’s

management, and as subsequently reorganized in rgo4, is service

knew no rival. Stone had intimate relations with al! the leading men of his time and played an important part in the publicity

given to events and movements.

He held this position until

_ STOREY—STRAIGHT the close of 1918, when he retired. During that period of 25 years the budget of the Associated Press had grown from $500,000 to $6,000,000 and it had come to furnish more than half the

news printed in American newspapers. See the Autobiography:

Fifty Years a Journalist (1921).

STOREY, GEORGE ADOLPHUS (1834-1919), English painter, was born in London Jan. 7 1834. He was partly educated in Paris, but in 1850 returned to England and commenced studying

in London at J. M. Leigh’s school, subsequently entering the Royal Academy schools. His first picture was hung in 1852. He was in early life a follower of the Pre-Raphaelite school, but gradually changed his style, beComing well known both as a subject painter and for his excellent portraits. He was elected

A.R.A, in 1876 and R.A. in 1914.

He became teacher of per-

spective at the Royal Academy in 1900. Among his bestknown pictures are “ The Old Soldier” (1869); “ Christmas Visitors” (1874); “ Mischief” (1897) and “ The Love-Letter ”

(1901). Storey published several books, the most important being Meissonier (1886) and Theory and Practice of Perspective (1910). He died at Hampstead July 29 1910. STORY-MASKELYNE, MERVYN HERBERT NEVIL (38231911), English mincralogist, was born near Wroughton, Wilts, Sept. 3 1823; he was descended on the mother’s side from Nevil Maskelyne, the Astronomer Royal. He was educated at Bruton grammar school and Wadham College, Oxford, and studied for the bar, but in 1850 was invited to deliver lectures at

Oxford on minerals, where he stipulated for a chemical laboratory,

then a complete novelty in the university. He was prominent in the struggle over the proposal to erect a museum of science and in 1856 became professor of mineralogy with a laboratory in the new muscum; but from 1857 he combined the work with the keepership of the minerals at the British Museum and resided in London. In 3880 he resigned this post, but retained his Oxford professorship until 1895. He had inherited a Wiltshire estate from his father, and in 1880 he entered Parliament as Liberal

member for Cricklade, In 1885 he was reélected for N. Wilts as a Liberal Unionist and sat until 1892. He studied especially

579

portfolio but he declined beth offers. In June 1893, however, he was elected at a by-election for Inangahua as an Independent Liberal, and at the general elections of 1893 and 1396 he was

elected for Wellington City, to which he transferred his residence. and his legal practice. In 1898 Sir Robert Stout resigned his seat, and in June 1899 he became Chief Justice,

In politics Sir Robert Stout was a strong Liberal of the indi-

vidualistic school, devoting special attention to the land and labour questions and to educational and temperance reform.

Among his principal measures were the Land Act of 1877, the frst Land Tax Act, which he drafted in coöperation with Ballance and which became law in 1878, and the Civil Service Reform Act of 1886, which threw the doors of the service open to women and made examination and competition (the latter being added by the Legislative Council) the tests of all appointments except those of experts, As a member of a Royal Commission appointed in 1881 he helped the fate Mr. Allen Holmes in forming the Codec of Civil Procedure, which was enacted in the following year and made

the Supreme Court Procedure of New Zealand one of the simplest in the world. A life-long abstainer, Sir Robert Stout was always a keen advocate of temperance reform. The local option bills which he introduced in 1876 and 1893 did not get further than their second reading, but the second of these measures forced the hand of the Seddon Government and led to the establishment of local option by a less liberal measure in the same session.

He became a member of the New Zealand University Senate in 1884, and also of the Victoria University College Council, Wellington. In 1903 he was elected chancellor of the university. He was

made a K.C.M.G. in 1886.

Besides writing many essays and

lectures on social, literary and legal subjects, he was the author,

jointly with his son, J. Logan Stout, of Vew Zealand in the Cambridge University Manuals of Literature and Science, and of

the article on New Zealand in the Oxford University Survey of the British Empire. He married in 1876 Anna Penrhyn, daughter of Mr. J. Logan, official clerk to the Superintendent of the Province of Otago. He had four sons—of whom two served in the war

as medical men and onc obtained the D.S.O0.—and two daughters. STRACHAN-DAVIDSON, JAMES LEIGH (1843-1916), British crystallography, meteorites and gem-stones, and was the author of many scientific papers, and of a book On the Morphology of classical scholar, was born at Byficet, Surrey, Oct. 22 1843, and educated at Leamington College and Balliol College, Oxford. Crystals. He also possessed a valuable collection of antique

where he was educated at the parish school and became a pupil

He graduated first class in liferae humaniores in 1866, and was elected to a fellowship of his college the same year. This he held until 1907 when, on the resignation of Edward Caird, he was clected to the mastership of the college. His whole life was

teacher. He arrived in New Zealand in 1863, and became second master in the Duncdin grammar school and afterwards in the

tutor, examiner, delegate of non-collegiate students, pro-vice-

gems.

He died at Bass Down, near Swindon, May 20 1011.

STOUT, SIR ROBERT

(:844-

), New Zealand judge and

statesman, was born on Sept. 28 1844 at Lerwick, Shetland Isles,

Dunedin district high school. On July 4 1871 he was admitted asa

barrister and solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, and he then matriculated at Otago University which opened in that

month. In 1873 he took first-class honours in mental and moral science and political economy, and from 1874 to 1876 he was Law lecturer at Otago University. Elected a member of the Otago Provincial Council in 1872, he became provincial solicitor in 1873, and he held that position until the abolition of the provinces in 1876. In 1875 he was clected to Parliament as Liberal member for Caversham and in Feb. 1878 he became Attorney-Gencral and

Minister of Lands and Minister of Immigration in Sir George Grey's Ministry.

But in the following year he resigned owing to

the serious illness of his partner, and he did not return to public Wife till 1884 when he entered Parliament again as member (M.H. R.) for Dunedin East.

On the defeat of Sir Harry Atkinson’s

Government he joined with Sir Jules Vogel in forming a Ministry, which lasted less than a fortnight (Aug. 16-28 1884), but after

devoted to university teaching and administration, as classical chancellor, ctc., and to the study of Roman history. Amongst

his published works were Ciccro and the Fall of the Roman

Republic (1894), Problems of the Roman Criminal Law (1912), as

well as articles on the Roman Constitution in Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities. He died at Oxford March 28 1916. STRACHEY, JOHN ST. LOE (:860}, English journalist, was born at Sutton Court, Som., Feb. 9 1860, the second son of

Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Bart., and Mary Isabella, daughter of John Addington Symonds, He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, graduating with a first-class in modern history, and was

subsequently called to the bar, but he adopted journalism as his profession from

the age of twenty-four.

In 1856 he became

assistant editor of the Spectator, and after the death of R. H. Hutton (1897) and the retirement of Meredith Townsend

(1898)

he became proprietor of the paper, which under his editorship not only maintained but increased the high reputation it had gained (sce 19.562) for sober political criticism and well-informed

another Atkinson Government had held office for a few days (Aug. 28-Sept 3) a second Stout-Vogel Government was formed

appreciation of art and literature, so that he exercised great influence upon English opinion. St. Loe Strachey also edited

eral election in 1887 the Government was defeated and he lost his seat by a narrow margin, Refusing the offer of other seats, Sir Robert Stout remained out

generally. Amongst his publications are: The Manufacture of Paupers (1907); Problems and Perils of Socialism (1908); The

which lasted three years. In both the Stout-Vogel Governments Sir Robert Stout was Premier and Attorney-General. At the gen-

of politics till after the beginning of the long Liberal-Labour régime in 1893. Both by Ballance and by Seddon he was offered a

(1896-7) the Cornhill Magazine.

He was specially interested in

problems of rural housing, pauperism

and local government

Practical Wisdom of the Bible (1908);A New Way of Life (1909). STRAIGHT, SIR DOUGLAS

(1844-1914),

English lawyer and

journalist, was born in London Oct. 22 1844 and was educated

STRAITS—STRAITS SETTLEMENTS

580

at Harrow. Up to 1865 he engaged in journalism, but was then called to the bar and soon worked up an extensive practice, especially at the Central Criminal Court, London. He sat in the House of Commons as Conservative member for Shrewsbury from 1870 to 1874, and from 1879 to 1892 he was a judge of the

High Court of Judicature at Allahabad.

He was knighted on

retirement, and four years later he returned to journalism

as

editor of the Pall Mall Gazette. He retired in 1909, and died in

infant diseases (5,848) and malaria (4,623), and the other most serious maladies as returned were tuberculosis, beri-beri, pneumonia, and dysentery, but probably many deaths were due primarily to influenza. The epidemic of this disease resulted in the revival, after

30 years, of the native wang-kang ceremony at Malacca, in which a model boat is constructed in a temporary temple, and is subsequently burnt as a sacrifice to some supposedly neglected god. ; princina nationalities and religions were shown by the census as ollows :— Nationalities

London June 4 1914.

STRAITS (DARDANELLES AND BOSPORUS.)— The waterway formed by the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora and the Bosporus,

f Chinese}

Europ. and Amer. 366.765 | 235,762 | $81,928 | 7.276

which connects the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, has pos-

sessed marked political importance from the carliest times. This importance, however, grew with increasing rapidity during the 2oth century. The increase of population, the growth of commerce, the construction of railways, and the rise of nations in

Straits Setts. proper

Labuan

Christmas]. , Cocos Is. Lo,

ge

1.799]

; be

1,252 — Religions

the basin of the Black Sea, enormously added to the political and military significance of the Straits. And while these factors

, Chinese’

gained in weight yearly, the Ottoman Empire, which held the

guardianship of the Straits, declined yearly in vigour and strength. Correspondingly, it became more and more the object of national intrigue and ambition on the part of foreign Powers, whose designs would benefit were they in a position to control the Straits themselves.

These matters received forcible illustration during the World War.

Problems having their origin in the existence of the

Straits became then of supreme importance, even to the extent

of prolonging or shortening the period of war. At the Peace Conference, too, questions of the Straits became acute. The seaborne commerce

of the roo million inhabitants occupying

the basin of the Black Sea must perforce pass through the Straits. By railway communication with central Asia this region, too, is concerned with control of the Straits. The tradi-

tional Russian ambition for a warm water port looked to Constantinople and the Straits for fulfilment; and in rors the Powers in alliance with Russia accepted the Russian claim to the great position. Apart from Russia and Turkey, three states— Georgia, Rumania and Bulgaria—had a coast-line confined to the Black Sea, and therefore depend upon the Straits as the one route for their maritime trade with the outer seas. To Germany, control of the Straits in war by her ally Turkey meant the isolation and strangling of her enemies, Russia and Rumania. In fact the closing of the Straits at this time had much to do with the collapse of Russia, the outbreak of the revolution, and the prolongation of the war. With such possibilities and interests hanging upon them, the Peace Conference dealt comprehensively with the Straits in the Treaty of Sèvres. Under this treaty they were thrown open to all navigation in peace and war, without distinction of flag, and blockade of these waters was prohibited. An International ‘‘ Commission of the Straits” was established to control the waterway.

And still further to ensure that military

interruption should not take place, a demilitarized “ Zone of the Straits ’’ was created, embracing all adjoining coastal territory. Within this area all military works and fortifications were to be

razed, and the construction of similar works was forbidden. (W. J. C.*) STRAITS SETTLEMENTS AND DEPENDENCIES (sce 25.980*).— The resident pop. of the Straits Settlements proper, according to the census of 1911, was 705,405, divided as follows: Singapore, 303,321; Penang, 141,559; Province Wellesley, 128,078; Malacca,

124,081; the Dindings, 7,466. Males outnumbered females nearly as 2 to 1. Included also in the Government of the Straits Settle-

ments are Labuan (pop. in 1911, 6,546), Christmas Island (1,369)

and the Cocos Islands (749).

In Labuan and Cocos Islands males did not greatly outnumber fe-

males, but in Christmas Island, with an almost wholly labouring pop.,

males were 1,328 and females 41.

In 1919 the pop. of the whole colony was estimated at 827,719.

That of Christmas I. was 514 on Jan. 1 and 617 on Dec. 31. in the colony the birth-rate in 1919 was 30-3 per thousand. The death-rate, which was 46-45 per thousand in 1915, fell ta 29-15 in 1915, rose, with an epidemic of influenza, to 43-85 in 1918, and was 33°04 in 1919. The principal causes of death in the last year were

Malay | Indian

4.434

a

4

.

19 39

Mahom-] zy: medan | Hindu

Straits Setts. proper » | 359,760 | 261,154] Labuan . ww, — 4,430 — 46

Christmas L. Cocos Is. . %2

34

— —

668



Chrisaa

52.579 | 24.474 — 116 = 32

669

=

! Other than Mahommedan and Christian.

Chinese immigrants in 1919 numbered 70,912—21-4% more than in 1918, and 73:6% less than in the “record” year, 1911. Adult males were 62-4% and females 19-5%. 101,433 immigrants arrived at Penang from southern India, and 46,767 Indians quitted the colony. There were 2,439 labourers from Netherlands India. The Chinese community was on the whole prosperous during the World War; the increased cost of living and the high rate of exchange with China bore hardly upon the poorer classes, but the increase of wages in great measure counterbalanced these disadvantages.

The

Chinese freely supported patriotic and charitable funds, and after some demur, before its purpose was fully understood, recognized without further dithculry the war-tax ordinance of 1917. The war, however, produced its problems for the community. It was necessary to establish a censorship of Chinese newspapers, and in June 1919 an anti-Japanese boycott resulted in rioting in Singapore and Penang, while a Chinese patriotic league and an anarchical body, the so-called Truth Society, gave some trouble.

Finance,— Revenue in 1911 amounted to $11,409,220, in 1919 to

$34,108,465; expenditure in 1911 to $9,085,389, in 1919 to $34,901,233 ($1 =2s. 4d.). A noteworthy financial measure was the introduction of an income tax, which, in spite of controversy, raised {£400,ooo sterling in 1917 without friction.

The colony had at the end of 1919 a debt of {6,913,352 sterling in respect of the loan raised by the issue of 3}% Straits Settlements

inscribed stock, 1907. About four-fifths of this loan was expended on

account of the Singapore Harbour Board, and the rest on account of the Penang Harbour Board, the municipal commissioners of

Singapore and Penang, and on Government interest charges are borne by these bodies.

harbour works, and

Among Government monopolies that of opium is by far the most productive; the sales of chandu in the colony in 1919 yielded $17,511,229, in addition to which there were sales to the Federated and

Non-Federated Malay States and Brunei. But prices were raised and other measures were taken in that year with a view to the gradual reduction-of the amount of opium consumed. Economic

colony

condttions:

actually

Agriculture,

etc.—In

many

benefited from the World War:

respects

the

there was, for

instance, an increase in the gross value of trade from £63,600,000 in 1914 to £148,200,000 sterling in 1917. The more serious economic

problems were not all results of the war. For example, it was about 1909-10 that a remarkable development of agricultural activity set in, especially in Malacca and Province Wellesley. This took the direction mainly of rubber planting, which Jed to the neglect of fruit cultivation and other forms of native agriculture; and this tendency

has persisted. It has been asserted, indeed, that the rubber industry has been overexploited here: the people ceased in great measure to cultivate their own food crops and raise their own live stock, and became dependent on imported food stuffs. In 1917 rice was imported from Rangoon, Siam, and French Indo-China; wheat flour from Australia and India: cold storage foodstuffs from Australia, and

other foodstuffs from China.

Difficulties connected with shortage of

supplies and shipping made it necessary to set up food control in 1917. An enquiry was instituted into measures for increasing home produce of rice and other foods, and “ cultivation clauses" were

inserted into leases of newly alienated lands.

In 1918 the United

States restricted imports of rubber, with a consequent reaction upon the Straits Settlements industry. This could not, however, immediately affect food cultivations, and in that year shortage in

India, floods in Siam, and the demand for imported rice in Java and

* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS AND DEPENDENCIES Japan caused serious conditions in the Straits Settlements. Siam prohibited export of rice in July 1919: the Straits Settlements controller took entire charge of import and wholesale dealing, and a food production department was established which fostered home lanting, and in spite of many difficulties it was found possible, carly in 1920, to ensure supplies for several months. The Governments of the Straits Scttlements, Netherlands India, and Ceylon agreed in | 1919 to purchase through a single agent to avoid competition, The cultivation and yield of coco-nuts declined in and after 1917,

and the destruction of palms to make room for rubber had advanced

so far in Singapore and Province Wellesley that an enactment was directed against it. Copra prices, however, rose in 1919. The clove, nutmeg, gambier, and areca nut industries of Penang shared in the general decline of cultivations which had become subsidiary to that of rubber. The pineapple cultivation was affected by the difficulty of obtaining tin plate for the canning industry. As for live stock (of which mention has been made above) a report for 1917 showed that whereas in 1910 Malacca exported 12,000 pigs, in the

581

Penang and the Dindings, 86 m.; Province Wellesley, 166 m.; MaJacca, 231 m.; Labuan, § m.); and the Public Works Department had charge, in addition, of §0 m. of gravelled roads in Malacca, and 93 m.

of ' natural ” roads in Penang, the Dindings, and Prov. Wellesley.

Education.—The centenary of the modern foundation of Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles was the occasion of local celebrations in

Feb. 1919, and by way of commemoration it was decided to found a Raffles College for higher education. Evidence of the general

enthusiasm for this scheme was given by the prompt provision of

subscriptions which ensured its success and enabled plans to be laid forthwith. The Straits Settlements Government promised a dona-

tion of $1,000,000

and an

annual

contribution

of $50,000:

the

Governments of the Federated Malay States and Johor, and many

private individuals, contributed. There have been other signs of a demand for a more active education policy; it being especially desirable as a counter measure against undesirable propaganda.

later year that number was imported, and that the former large export of poultry from Penang was more than balanced by import.

_ Fhe Government maintained in 1919 eight English schools, and aided 45 English, Anglo-Tamil, Malay, Tamil, and Chinese schools: it also supported the Malacca Training College for Malay teachers. The Central Training College in Perak, the erection of which was

Forestry.— Measures have been taken to amalgamate the forest

started in that year, is intended for Malay teachers not only in the

services of the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States,

the first step being taken in 1918, when the forests of Malacca were placed under the deputy conservator of forests for Negri Sembilan. The area of reserved forests in 1920 was 107,270 ac., about 11 % of

lands in the’colony.

Federated Malay States but also in the Straits Settlements. Labuan.—Revenue collected in Labuan in 1919 amounted $38,308, and expenditure was $81,927.

to

The total value of trade

was $3,748,930 in that year, and $2,763,561

in 1918.

Merchant

The mangrove industry has been fostered by

shipping entered and cleared amounted to 141,686 tons in 1919. The

Armistice the price, already declining, was further lowered when

showing a large increase, fell to 53,370 tons in 1918 and amounted to 68,621 tons in 1919. The export was taken in 1919 by Japan (71% and Australia, Shipping entered and cleared amounted to 81,197

imposing a control over cutting, and by replanting, over 2,000,000 seedlings having been planted in Penang and the Dindings in 1919. Tin.—War conditions reacted favourably upon the tin trade. In July 1918 the price reached $160 per picul, and subsequently $185 when buying was prohibited except under licence. But after the

the Imperial Government ceased to buy direct, and the Federated

Malay States had to guarantee purchase at $118 per picul. — Commerce.—Imports were valued at {43,856,000 sterling in 1914, and exports at £38,032,000. Both rose annually thereafter almost

without exception, until in 1919 the figures were: imports, £96,664,-

000; exports, {99,318,000. The entrepét trade in tin and Para rubber is illustrated by the following figures for 1919:~— Imports (piculs) From

Malay States . Netherlands India

. ,

Siam , : i Other countries

i

,

r .

Tin 133,000 38,000

2,000

Tin Ore

Rubber

686,000

1,412,000

113,000 207,000 32,000

456,000

79,000

Exports Tin,

To

Value

piculs

United Kingdom United States Elsewhere

324,000 454,000

. 2

219,000

|$41,347,000} 406,000}5 44,088,000 |$59,928,000] 2,310,000] 5230,51 1,000}

{$27,445,000}

254,000/5 24,227,000

Shipping —The total tonnage of shipping entered and cleared for the year 1919 is shown as follows: Singapore 14,088,775; Penang, 4,009,126; Malacca, 564,400; Christmas I. and Labuan, 222,882. The principal flags were Dritish (nearly five-ninths of the

whole), Japanese, and Dutch, and the total increase over the year 1918 was 5,820,913, nearly four-fifths of which was in British shipping. The total of 18,885,183 tons thus compares with 13,064,270 tons for 1918 when the shortage of shipping was most acute, and with 27,124,789 tons in 1913. Work on the Lagoon wet dock and main wharf reconstruction, Tanjong Pagar, was completed and made over to the Singapore

Harbour Board in May 1917.

The revenue and expenditure of the

Board, which reached $6,015,648 and $4,216,015 respectively in 1912, declined to $5,432,425 and $3,421,271 in 1915, and amounted to $9,617,718 and $5,444,410 in 1918. Penang wharf and dock receipts amounted in 191g to $996,372 (approximately), and ex-

penditur to $815,092. The wharf tonnage returns for Singapore and enang show the foliowing figures:— Net Tonnage

Inbound and Outbound

2,708 | 5,794,536

1,338,495 | 1,462,788 732,231 | 1,213,730 282,067 399,412 60,020 251,18

No, of Vessels}

Singapore Penang Land

1913

..

1918

. | 2,114]

19I8

.

1913

3,330,791

732 | 1,532,301 SI

Communications —The

SBI,I32

Coal, tons |Cargo,tons

Singapore Railway Transfer Ordi-

nance, 1918, enabled the Government of the Federated Malay States to construct a causeway across Johor Straits and tọ lay a rail-

way to connect the Singapore line with the Johor and Federated Malay States systems. The sale of the Singapore Railway and

railway stores involved a sum of $4,149,750.

Metalled roads in the

colony at the end of 1919 had a length of 584 m. (Singapore, 96 m.;

Labuan Exploration Co, of London undertook a geological survey in 1920 with the view of prospecting for minerals. Christmas Island.—Revenue (1919), $26,155 ; expenditure, $12,791.

The export of phosphate of lime, which reached 89,889 tons in 1917,

tons (61% Japanese). There is a small export of rubber. The phosphate company maintained its output during the war, completed an inclined haulage way, and carried the railway to new quarries at South Point in 1918-0. Cocos Islands —A typhoon in 1909 left standing only 3% out of

over 1,000,000 coco-nut palms, but replanting was completed in 1911, and export of copra was resumed two years later and reached 800 tons in 1918. An exchange cable station of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Co. and a high-power wireless station are estab-

lished on Direction Island. The German raider ‘‘ Emden” landed a

party to destroy these on Nov. 9 1914, and was caught and herself destroyed by the ‘' Sydney " of the Australian navy, running ashore on North Keeling Island, while her landing-party captured and escaped in the schooner belonging to the proprietor of the islands,

The governor of the Straits Settlements is high commissioner for the Malay States, Federated and Non-Federated (see MaLay STATES), and also for Brunei, and British agent for Sarawak and British North Borneo. These three divisions of northern Borneo are dealt with below. Brunei

(see 4.681).—Pop.

(1911),

$162,020; expenditure, $138,844.

21,718.

Revenue

(1919),

Imports were valued in 1916 at

$254,756, and $614,061 in 1919; exports at $734,254 in 1916 and

$1,134,864 in 1919, including plantation rubber ($243,596), cutch

($304,249), and coal (3296,621).

The demand for sago, wild rubber

(jelutong) and other forest produce, and dried fish, was great, and purchase prices ceased to be controlied by a group of traders as previously, which enabled the peasantry to profit to the extent of balancing the high prices of rice and other foodstuffs. Attempts were made to increase home production. The rice crop of 1918-9 failed, but the effort was maintained and rewarded in the following season, Plantation rubber (429,823 |b.) came mainly from the Brunet district, which has become the chief centre of the industry, in place of the Temburong basin. The cutch industry was suffering from the former indiscriminate cutting of mangroves in accessible districts where no replanting had been done, and the production was only maintained at the expense of heavier labour and transport. The Brooketon collieries yielded 29,565 tons of coul in 1918 and 26,274 tons in 1919. Attempts to develop a petroleum field at Tutong at this period were unsuccessful, though it was still expected that

later there would be good results. Plantations and mines were encountering a serious shortage of labour, owing to the prosperity of the native traffic in forest produce, etc., above referred to. Sarawak (see 24.207).—Pop. (estimated 1919), 600,000. Revenue

(1918), $1,921,964; expenditure, $1,455,692. ‘Imports, $9,908,732;

exports, $11,540,190. Gold was exported to the value of $1,256,500

in 1915 and $923,100 in 1918. An extensive oil-field has been developed in Baram district, and 74,400 tons of oil were exported in 1918, Other principal exports include sago, pepper, and jelutong.

There are four wireless stations, affording communication with Singapore. Charles Vyner Brooke (b. 1874) succeeded his father, Sir Charles Johnson Brooke, as rajah on May 17 1917. British North Borneo (see 4.262).—Pop. (1911), 208,183;

seek (esti-

mated 1919), 227,000. The revenue of the British North Borneo Chartered Company (exclusive of land sales) has shown unbroken increase since 1910, from £170,767 in that year to £234,804 in. 1914

STRANG—STRIKES

582

and £373,936 In 1919; expenditure for 1919 amounted to £193,230. Imports were valued in 1919 at £925,235, and exports at £1,453,990, including rubber (£782,037), tobacco (mostly grown on estates;

£230,122), coal (£78,706), copra ({39,629), cutch (£24,651), sago, and

dried fish. The company's railway from Jesselton extends to Melalap in the interior, and has a branch from Beaufort to Weston, and a total length of 130 miles. There are four wireless stations. A

Legislative Council was established in 1911 to aid the governor and

civil staff in the local administration:

the commercial,

planting,

AND

LOCK-OUTS

lated into English by A. Teixcira de Mattos, appeared in rors

under the title of he Path of Life. In 1912 appeared Het glorierijke Licht (“ The Glorious Light ”’). STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS

Chinese, and native Communities are represented on it. The com-

pany created an opium monopoly department in 1913, following the policy of the Straits Settlements Government. (0. J. R. H.)

STRANG, WILLIAM (1859-1021), British painter-etcher (see 25.982), Was in 1918 elected president of the International

Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers. In 1909 the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by Glasgow University. His

(A) Untrep Kincpou I. Statistics -—Table 1 shows

Walls of the Alhambra”

loss of working days due to these disputes. Table 1.

No. of Disputes

(1012) and “ The

He had only recently been elected a full

601

R.A. when he died suddenly at Bournemouth, on April 12 1921.

399

Sce Catalogue of William Sirang's Etched Work, 1882-1972 (1912).

436-

STRATEGY: see TACTICS. STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, DONALD ALEXANDER

§57

SMITH,

Isr

BARON

(1820-1914),

Canadian

1907 to 1920, inclusives:

the number of workpeople involved therein, and the aggregate

Mirror? (1912); besides various portraits, including one of Thomas Hardy (1910).

53I 903

statesman (sce

No. of Workpeopie Directly and Indirectly Involved

2,162,000 10,534,000

689,000

(see

885,000 1,142,000 2,515,000 1,932,000

and the same year Der Rosenkavalier, first produced at Dresden in ro1o, was performed at Covent Garden with great success,

eight performances being given; in point of fact, this proved to be Strauss’s most popular opera. His other recent works include Festliches Praeiudium, for orchestra (1913), and Joscphs Legende (1914).

In addition to the works enumerated mention

should be made of Eine Alpensinfonie, (1015, op. 64); and the

Disputes in Working Days

147,000

449,000 453,000

281,000

25.1003). His opera, Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), was produced at His Majesty’s theatre by Thomas Beecham in May 1913

Aggregate

Duration of

296,000

301,000 515,000 962,000 1,463,000

25.1000), died in London Jan. 21 1914. His barony passed by special remainder to his daughter Margaret Charlotte, wife of

Robert Jared Bliss Howard, of Montreal (d. 1921). STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864), German composer

.

the total number of strikes or

Jock-outs recorded in each year from

later work includes the etchings “ The Little Flower Girl ” (1909); “ Nymph and Shepherds ” (1910); “ On the Omnibus ” (i911); “The

(sce 25.1024).—In the following

account of later developments between 1907 and 1921, strikes in the United Kingdom are first dealt with, sections following for other countries.

2,774,000 9,595,000 10,329,000 49,915,000 11,631,000 10,111,000 3,040,000 2,581,000 5,809 000 6,332,000 34,903,000 27,011,000

Tt will be seen that the figures show a general advancing tendency, partially checked during the World War. The total for the year 1920 shows the highest figure ever ‘recorded for number of disputes, the highest figure (with one exception)

for the number of workpeople involved, and the highest figure (with three exceptions) for the aggregate duration of disputes. The exceptions in this latter case are 1893, with 30,468,000 working days; 1912, with 40,915,000 working days; and 1919, with

three-act opera, Die Frau ohne Schatten, libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1916, op. 65). In the winter of 1920-1 Strauss

34,903,000 working days.

visited 5. America, where he officiated at Buenos Aires as opera

figures were principally due to great coal strikes; the year 1919

conductor, subsequently returning to Vienna.

was a year of great industrial unrest.

STRAVINSKY, IGOR (1882-

_—+),Russian musical composer,

was born at Oranicnbaum, near St. Petersburg, June 18 (O.S. June 5) 1882. His father was an opera singer, who early discovered his son’s remarkable musical gifts. At the same time, however, he wished the boy not to devote himself entirely to music but to study law, and with this end in view Igor Stravinsky

entered the University of St. Petersburg. At the age of 22, however, a mecting with Rimsky-Korsakov decided him in the direction of a musical career, and the former declared himself ready to take Stravinsky as a pupil. His first work for orchestra was a symphony (1907), followed by a suite, Faune ct Bergére, and two short works, also for orchestra, Feu d’artifice and Scherzo fantastique. A mecting with Serge Diaghiliev turned his attention to the possibilities of the ballet, and in rapid succession

appeared L’Oiscau de fex (1910), Petrouchka (1911), and Le

Sacre du Printemps (1913). His next important work was an opera, Le Rossignol (1914), founded on Hans Andersen’s fairy story of The Nightingale, of which the second and third acts were later worked up into a symphonic poem, Le Chant du Rossignol (1917). The opera was produced at Covent Garden in 1920, and the same year appeared a revision by Stravinsky of Pergoles?s Pulcinella. STREUVELS, STIJN, the pen-name of FRANK LATEUR (1871-

), Flemish author, who was born at Heule, West

Flanders, Oct. 4 1871.

He was a nephew of Guido

Gezelle

(1830-1899), a celebrated Flemish poet, and until 1905 worked asa baker at Avelghem, a village near Courtrai in West Flanders, Writing in the West Flemish dialect, he was accepted in Belgium

~ and Holland as the most distinguished Low Dutch author of his day. He produced many short stones, including Openlucht (1905) and De Viaschaard (1908), a collection of which, trans-

In 1893,

1912 and 1920 the high

As showing the general advancing tendency of the figures, —

it may be instructive to compare the average of the four years 1907-10 with the average of the four years 1917-20:— Average of Years 1907-10

No. of Disputes .

No. of Workpeople Involved . . Io a Aggregate Duration (in Working Davs)

Average of

Years 1917-20

492

1,308

315,000

1,633,500

6,416,000

18,511,000

It should be stated that the increase in the number of disputes may be partly accounted for by improved facilities for obtaining information with regard to minor disputes, which may have previously escaped notice; but this will not account for more than an insignificant part of the increase in the figures for number of workpeople involved and for aggregate duration, since the greater disputes, involving large numbers of workpeople, have always been well reported in the newspapers. Table 2 (p. 583) shows the distribution of strikes between the principal groups of

trades, taking the averages for the 10 years 1911-20. _ Table 2 shows that the average number of workpcople involved in each dispute was a little over 1,000, and that the average duration of disputes was about 14 days. The figures, however, vary

widely as between one trade and another. Thus, the average number of workpeople varies from a little more than 200, in the building trades, to over 3,000 in the mining and quarrying group; while the average duration varies from 8 days, in the transport trades, to 27 days in the building trades.

The figure for average numbers involved, and still more that for the average duration, give an exaggerated idea of what may be

called the *“ normal ” magnitude and duration of a strike. It is the great strikes, involving many

thousands of workpeople,

that are.

commonly also the hardest fought and the most prolonged. Great

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS masses of workers are not mobilized for industria! conflict except for some object which they regard as of first-class importance; and it is exceptional for a strike or lock-out of this magnitude to occur unless all means of reaching a pacific settlement have been exhausted, and unless both emplovers and workpeople are organized in strong combinations, with great financial resources. All these factors tend to prolong precisely those strikes—in reality a small minority—

which involve large numbers of workpeople, and thus exaggerate enormously the figure for ‘ aggregate duration.” For example, nearly 30% of the aggregate duration of disputes in the building trades was due to the great dispute in the London building trade in 1914, which lasted for more than six months and accounted for about

2,500,000 working days. In the mining and quarrying industry, two-thirds of the total aggregate duration of all the disputes was due to the two great coal strikes of 1912 and of 1920; if these were eliminated, the average number involved in disputes in this group of trades would be reduced from over 3,000 to 1,800, and the average duration from 14 to 8 days. The case is much the same with the other great groups of trades; and, speaking broadly, it may be said that the vast majority of recorded disputes involve comparatively small numbers of workpeople, and fast less than a fortnight—often indeed, only a few days.

To put the same thing in another way.

The number of disputes

which had an aggregate duration of 25,000 days and upwards varied, in the period 1904-13, from 1r (in 1994) to 72 (in 1913), with an average of 32, or §% of the total number of disputes. Yet

the period the proportion of disputes settled in favour of the workpeople was 24°, on the average; settled in favour of the employers,

in the industry, and in the clothing trades the proportion is not

ing to their causes, and (b) according to their results :— Table 3.

mie

oS

5

m

ae sc A

Oo

aa

OS ale,

et sis

a

Other mining and quarrying . : Metal engineering and shipbuilding

Textile trades

.

6.

Other trades

.

s0

Clothing trades»

4

wee

Dig .

Oa,

G

è ; . eg

a‘

2a

a o7 -24 .

2-2 33 0'4

a

r3. 7

All Trades o0 -4 4-8 (e s& @ & 44 The statistics of causes show, on the whole, remarkable regularity. Such fluctuations, as there are, are due principally to the prevalence or otherwise of wage disputes. In years of good or improving trade, strikes for advances in wages are numerous;

in years of bad and

declining trade such strikes become much fewer. The statistics of reslis show somewhat less regularity.

The

principal features of this part of the table are the diminishing pro-

portion

of disputes settled in favour of the employers, Table 2.

and the

Aggregate

No. of

Group of Trades

Disputes

No. of Workpeople involved (Thousands)

Duration in Working Days (Thousands

of Working Days)

Building . . 3. Mining and Quarrying

25 508

Metal Engineering and Shipbuilding . Textile : Clothing . Transport. Miscellaneous tics) .

i

2,765 2,143 258 1,230

i .

(inclu-

ding Employees of Public Authorii

:

652 7:007

260

968

Average for all above Trades!

|F

2 mi

Sen. av| Eztæ 7T

3

Bet)

Per | Per| cent.

Icent

oe

= 2

: al

©

w

Eok

Per } Per | Per] cent. | cent.Jcent.|

>

L|3

£5

a | 5 =

> 2 z

O

iS 5 £ =

©

9

cent.|

34

34

13 | 20 | too] 26 7 44 | 30 13 | 22 100| 2 47 28 If } 22 100 | 2, 48 | 29

1904] 1905]

4 4

3 3

13 13 II 14 I4

18 100 | 17 100| I8 | 109! 19 100| 2I 100]

16 7

I7 17

15 | 100| 16 | 100} 13 100|

1907| 64 I9go8 j 62

59 57

6 4

aS

=

£

Per | Per | Per | Per cent.|

4 5 4 3

3I

£

“a

1901 | 63 1902 | 60 1903 } 60 68

IVO}

a

=

14

65 66

I7



~

5

u ii

cent.

1

100

.. | 100 I 100 100

32 4I 20 | 44

32 33 31 27 30

100 100 100 100 100

100] 25 32 100 | 27 | 31

43 42

100 100 100 100 100

I4 | 2I 100] I5 | 24 | 100|

17 5I 20 | 47

cent.)

32 | 37

18 | 46 | 30 25] 3? 33

100 100

rgtrd 1912|

Of 63

3 3

1913} 1914) 1915]

66 63 73

3 3 2

16 18 12

t916|

7

3

12

1 2

15 17

II 100| 13 | 100]

31 | 20 | 48 29 | 21 48

64 { II

15

TO

7100|

24 } 22

54

47

160

t4 | 17 1 1001

25 | 36

9

100

1917 | 73 1918] 68 1919}

1920| 69 Averages | 65

3

15

9

13

29 | 25 | 46 25 } 33 | 42 23 | 37 40

100 | 22

100i

27

24 | 29

51

100

2

100 700 100

Il. Principal Disputes —The year 1908 (in contrast to 1907, which was entirely free from any disputes on a great scale) saw three great disputes: (1) a shipbuilding dispute involving 38,000 workpeople, and with an aggregate duration of 1,719,ooo working days; (2) an engineering dispute on the N.E.

coast, involving 11,000 workpeople, and with an aggregate duration of 1,706,000 working days; and (3) a dispute in the cotton trade, involving 120,000 workpeople, and with an aggregate duration of 3,830,000 working days. In each of these three disputes the workpeople struck against (or were locked out to enforce) a proposal to reduce wages. This was at one time a common and important cause of disputes; the great coal strike of 1893, for example, was against a reduction in wages. During 1910-20 there were few or no disputes of any importance on this ground; in fact, these three disputes in 1908 were the last important disputes arising out of an attempt to. reduce wages, until the ship-joiners’ dispute, which, beginning in Dec. 1920, was the precursor of a series of strikes or lockouts culminating in the coal strike of rg2r. In each of the three disputes referred to above, one or more of the trade unions concerned was prepared, before the strike or lock-out occurred, to accept the terms offered by the employers; but in each case one or more other trade unions resisted

1,061

? Exclusive of the general strike at Dublin in 1913-4, which cannot be classified under any of the separate trade headings.

2a

=

2

a

I

The mean percentages of workpeople involved in disputes for the ge

y

g

6=

ra >

68

1909] 1910|

Building trades Coal mining

na

Sj a!

Elja]

ee a Su

Bl

cent.|

AE

£

S

“=

ge h

g 2

1900|

|Z

ae

a

5

Per!

JER]

_

È

a

^

ee

putes settled

Sul

ae

1906|

years 1904-13 were as follows :—

Proportion of Dis-

Proportion of Disputes arising on questions of

much higher; whereas in the coal-mining industry the proportion who

strike or are locked out rarely falls below 5%6 and frequently rises above 20% in a year.

In the second

half of the period the corresponding percentages were 26, 28, and 46. It should be noted that the second period includes three or four years of exceptional prosperity, a condition which tends to promote settlements in favour of the workpeople; and that this was followed by the period of the war, when prices were constantly rising and industrial conditions were altogether abnormal. Table 3 classifies the disputes of the years 1900 to 1920, (a) accord-

people involved, and for no less than 86 % of the aggregate duration. Or again, the number of disputes in which 2,500 workpeople or upwards were involved varied, in the years 1904-13, from a mintbut this 3°% of disputes accounted for 67% of the total number of workpeople involved, and for 74% of the aggregate duration. Some trades are far more subject to industrial disturbance than others; in the building trades the proportion of men who strike or are locked out rarely reaches 1° of the total number employed

In the first half of

44°; and compromised, or partially successful, 32%.

this 5% of disputes accounted for 65° of the number of work-

mum of 4 (in 1905 and in 1907) toa maximum of 43 (in 1913), with an average of 18, or less than 3°% of the total number of disputes;

583

increasing proportion settled by a compromise.

This

strike involved about 20,000 workpeople, and had an aggregate duration of about 1,900,000 working days.

the reduction.

Modified terms offered by the employers were

accepted in all three cases. There were no important disputes in 1909; but in rore several

prolonged disputes, involving large numbers took place.

STRIKES AND

584

Trouble arose in Northumberland and Durham in Jan. roto, with regard to the working of the coal mines under the Eight Hours Act (the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1908), which came

into operation, in those two counties, on Jan. r 1910.

Agree-

ments had been reached between the two coal owners’ associations and the respective miners’ union in Dec. 1909, as to the working of the mines under the new arrangements; but a large number of men at the various mines repudiated the agreements, and refused to go down the pits. About 85,000 workpeople were involved in Durham, and about 30,000 in Northumberland. At most of the pits the strike was over by the end of Jan.; but

a minority of men stood out, and the strike was not finally settled until April. The aggregate duration of the dispute was about 1,280,000 working days in Durham and about 1,080,000 wotk-

ing days in Northumberland.

Certain members of the United Society of Boilermakers and Iron and Steel Shipbuilders stopped work in Aug. rọrọ, iÐ

breach of an agreement with the Shipbuilding Employers’ Federation, at two shipyards, one on the Tyne and the other on the Clyde; and the Employers’ Federation locked out the members of the Boilermakers’ Society at all the federated shipyards on Sept. 3. About 25,000 workpeople were dircctly or indirectly affected. A provisional agreement made between representatives of the parties on Oct. If 1910, was twice rejected by the work-

people on a ballot vote, and it was not until Dec. that a final agreement supplementing that of March 1909 was reached, and accepted by the workers. Work was resumed on Dec. 15. The aggregate loss of time in this dispute was about 2,850,000 working days. A strike of coal miners and surface werkers in the Rhondda Valley began on Sept. t ro1o and continued for nearly a year, being settled in Aug. rọrr. It arose out of a dispute at one pit concerning the price hst for a particular seam, and was followed by sympathetic strikes at other pits belonging to the same employers. An agreement was finally reached on the price list,

and on a guarantee of an average wage. About 12,300 men and boys were involved at the beginning of the strike. The years 1911-2-3 were years of violent, and almost continuous

industrial unrest. Among the most important disputes of these years were those described below. A series of seamen’s and transport workers’ strikes began in

LOCK-OUTS got into touch with representatives of the companies and of the trade unions on Aug. 16; and on the following day the Prime Minister announced that the Government was prepared to appoint immediatcly a Royal Commission, to investigate the working of the Railway Conciliation Agreement, and to report

what amendments, if any, were desirable in the scheme. This announcement did not prevent a strike; but a provisional settlement was reached on Aug. 19, and work was generally resumed

on Aug. 28 (except on one railway, where it was resumed on Aug. 23).

The Royal Commission began its sittings on Aug.

23, and reported on Oct. 18. The trade unions, however, refused to accept the Commission’s recommendations without

various modifications; the railway companies, on their side, took the line that both sides were bound by the findings of the Commission. On Nov, 22 the House of Commons debated the question, and passed a resolution to the effect that the parties should be invited to meet with the view of discussing the best mode of giving effect to the report of the Royal Commission. The Board of Trade significd to the parties their readiness to call a fresh conference “ on the understanding that the findings of the Royal Commission were accepted in principle and in substance.” The parties accepted these conditions, and a conference was held, at which an agreement was reached, the recommendations of the Royal Commission being accepted with certain alterations and additions. The effect of the new agrecment was to expedite the settlement by the conciliation boards of matters in dispute, to secure greater uniformity in the decisions of the conciliation boards, and to give such decisions greater finality than they had previously possessed. The Cotton Weavers’ Association of N, and N.E. Lancashire engaged in an active campaign in this year (19rz) against the employment of non-unionists. The employers replied by a general lock-out, which began on Dec. 28, about 160,000 wark-

people being involved.

This is exclusive of the workpeople

in the spinning section of the trade, who were put on short time, or thrown out of work, owing to the stoppage of the principal outlet for their production. The chief industrial commissioner (Sir George Askwith) invited the parties to a conference, which was duly held; and an agreement was reached on Jan. 19 1912.

Work was to be resumed on Jan. 22, under the old conditions of employment, on the understanding that no action should be

firemen came out on strike at various dates in June 1911, many

taken for six months in the way of tendering notices or stnking mills on the non-unionist question. It was also agreed that, at the end of that period, Sir George Askwith would, if requested, submit proposals for the settlement of the question. The great coal strike of 1912 involved an aggregate loss of working time of over 30,000,000 working days in the coal mincs alone. There was also, of course, much consequential unemployment and under-employment in other industries. The

of the principal ports being affected.

(London was not affected

percentage unemployed among members of trade unions rose to

till a little later.) Strikes of dock labourers, carters, tramwaymen, and other transport workers occurred at some of these

11.3% at the end of March 1912; while blast furnaces, steel sheet works, and the glass bottle industry, were brought almost to a standstill, and tinplate mills working were reduced to about 14% of the normal number. The strike arose out of a demand by the Miners’ Federation for the payment of a minimum wage for every man and boy working tinderground in the mines. A conference between representatives of the coal-owners and of the miners had discussed the question of the earnings of miners in “ abnormal” places

June rorz.

The original occasion of the first dispute was a

demand put forward by the National Sailors’ and Firemen’s Union for the formation of a conciliation board, consisting of representatives of the Union and of the Shipping Federation, to consider a programme of reforms desired by the Union. The Federation refused to discuss the demands, and the seamen and

ports, partly in sympathy with the seamen, and partly in support of demands of their own for improved working conditions.

Serious disorder occurred at Hull, Manchester and Salford. Settlements were reached at various dates in July and Aug. affecting seamen and dockers at Hull and Goole; seamen and carters at Manchester; dock labourers and tramwaymen at Liverpool; and seamen and transport and other workers at Cardiff. There were also a large number of sectional settlements in the London dock, shipping, and transport trades. The railway dispute of rorr began with a strike of 1,000 railwaymen (goods porters, etc.) at Liverpool on Aug. 5, the

men alleging their inability to get their grievances dealt with by the conciliation boards set up under the scheme of 1907. They were joined by railwaymen at Manchester and at many

other centres. On Aug. rs the executives of four of the railwaymen’s trade unions scent to the various railway companies

(i.e. in working places where, owing to the thinness of the seams, or other causes beyond their control, the hewers were unable to earn the recognized minimum or average rate for the district), and a considerable measure of agreement had been reached; but

at the annual conference of the on Oct. 6 1911, it was decided " an individual district minimum ing in mines in the area of the

Miners’ Federation at Southport to take immediate steps to secure wage for all men and boys work-

Federation, without any reference

members to declare a strike, and giving the companies 24 hours

to the working places being abnormal,” A ballot of the members of the Federation was taken on the question of handing in notices to establish the principle of an

to decide whether they would immediately meet representatives

individual minimum wage, as expressed in the resolution quoted

a resolution, stating that they were being pressed by their

of the workers to discuss their grievances,

The Government

above. There was a large majority (445,801 to 115,721) in favour

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS of giving notice; and notices were accordingly handed in, to terminate at the end of Feb.

At a subsequent meeting the Miners’ Federation fixed the minimum rates they were prepared to accept in each district for piece workers “at the face ” (i.e. hewers, etc.); and also added the following general instructions to their representatives, for their guidance in any negotiations that might ensue with the “mine owners:— “ No underground adult worker should receive a rate of wages less than 5s. per shift.”

(This did not apply to the Forest of Dean, or to

Bristol and Somerset.) “ Individual minimum wages for al} piece workers other than colliers to be arranged by the districts themselves, and to bẹ as near as possible present wages.” - Day rates for underground workers, and boys’ wages, were also to be left to local arrangement; the boys’ wages not to be less than’ the then existing wages, and not in any case less than 2s. a day.

Unsuccessful negotiations took place between the coal owners and the men; and on Feb. 20 Mr. Asquith, who was at that time

Prime Minister, intervened, and invited both parties to meet him and other members of the Government, separately, in con-. ference on Feb, 22.

From that date onward till March 15 the

Prime Minister kept in constant touch with the parties, who

finally met, in joint session, with representatives of the Government, on March 12,13 and 14. On March rs, the Prime Minister announced that the Government had decided to ask from Parliament “ a legislative declaration that a reasonable minimum wage,

accompanied by adequate safeguards for the protection of the employer, should be a statutory term of the contract of emplayment of people who are engaged underground in coal mining.” In accordance With this announcement the Prime Minister introduced a bill in the House of Commons on March 19 1912,

which received the Royal Assent on March 20, as the ‘‘ Coal Mines (Minimum Wage) Act, 1912.” The Act provided for the

setting up of a joint district board in each of 22 districts specified in a schedule to the Act, to determine the minimum rates of wages for workmen employed underground in coal mines. On

March 27 the coal owners met and adopted a resolution in favour of working the Act; and on the same day the men’s Federation decided to take a ballot of the members on the question of resuming work, pending the settlement of minimum rates by the dis-

trict boards. The ballot showed a majority (244,011 to 201,013) against resumption, but, ata national conference held on April 6, it was decided to terminate the strike.

585

Transport Workers’ Federation ticket, or any discussion for such recognition.’ Following upon debates in the House of Commons, and upon further conferences with the parties, the Government put forward various proposals on June 7; these were accepted

(in substance) by the men, but refused by the employers. The Transport Workers’ Federation thercupon declared a national strike of transport workers. Certain of the unions affiliated to the Federation took a ballot of their members as to the advisability of ceasing work, the result being in each case a majority: against a strike; and only about 20,000 men, at Manchester and

some of the minor ports, Came out on strike. These all returned unconditionally after a few days’ stoppage.

The places of the men on strike in London had by this time begun to be filled up by non-unionists; and the employers took a very determined attitude, refusing to agree to any conditions

precedent to the men returning to work. Further negotiations were fruitless, and on July 27 the men’s strike committee recom-

mended an immediate resumption of work.

By July 31 the re-

turn to work was fairly general; and by Monday, Aug. 6, prac-

tically all the men who could find work were reinstated. About

100,000 workpeople were involved in the dispute, and the aggregate duration was about 2,700,000 working days.

A strike of fube and other metal workers in Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Wednesbury, and other towns in the “ Black Coun-

try,” began on April 25 1913, and continued until the middle of July. As many as 50,000 workpeople were involved at the height of the dispute, and the aggregate duration was about

1,400,000 working days.

The majority of the strikers were

labourers or semi-skilled workers; but a large number of skilled men were thrown idle owing to the absence of the labourers. The men demanded an all-round advance of 2s. a week on day-rates, and 10% on piece-rates, With a standard minimum of 23s. a week for unskilled men; and Various rates, on a scale rising with each

year of age, for youths and for girls. The parties were brought together through the intervention of the chief industrial commissioner; and an agreement was signed on July 7, fixing the. standard rate for adult able-bodied unskilled labourers at 235.

in the Birmingham district, and at 22s, in the Black Country district, to be raised to 235. after six months. ‘The rates for youths and for girls were also fixed, on a scale rising by ages.’

Piece-work rates were to be fixed by agreement between the’ several employers and their workmen, the day-rate, however,

A great strike of dock and other transport workers in the Port of

being guaranteed irrespective of piece-work earnings. The Dublin dispute of 1913~4 was unique in British industrial

over two months. The immediate occasion of the dispute was the refusal of a workman who belonged to the Amalgamated Socicty

sincé regular records have been compiled, in which all the trades

London and on the Medway began on May 21 1912, and lasted

of Foremen Lightermen to join the Amalgamated Socicty of Watermen, Lightermen, and Bargemen; the latter society is affiliated to the National Transport Workers’ Fedcration, but the former is not. The employers refused to interfere, and between 5,000 and 6,000 lightermen left work on May 21, followed

later by a number of dock workers, who ceased work in sympathy. The underlying cause of the dispute, however, was dissatisfaction with the carrying out of the various agreements that had

been arrived at in settlement of the disputes in the previous year (see above). The Government ordered an enquiry to be held by Sir Edward Clarke, K.C.; and the alleged grievances of the workmen were found to come under seven heads, including:— Employment of non-union men, in alleged breach of an agreement, by two of the employers’ associations,

Refusal of an employers’ association to meet the trade union to

discuss rates of wages and conditions of labour.

Refusal of certain employers to pay rates of wages fixed by various awards or agreements. Alleged interference with union workmen. The board of trade invited representatives of the employers

and of the workers to a conference, to discuss Sir E. Clarke’s report. The men accepted, but the employers declined to be present, and stated that they could not accept Sir E. Clarke’s report as an award on the points dealt with by him. They were unable to adopt certain suggestions made by the Board of Trade

for the formation of a federation of employers; and refused, “under any circumstances, to any recognition of the Union of

history, in that it was the only dispute of importance, at least

of a whole city and district were involved, including even agriculture. It was, in fact, the nearest approach to a “ general ” strike that had ever been known. Ever since the year 1908 there had been much industrial unrest in Dublin, frequently taking the form of the sympathetic strike. The “ sympathetic ” strike, in this developed and organized form, is a species of boycott,. aiming at the complete dislocation of the trade of the firm orfirms attacked; the withdrawal of their own employees is sup-

plemented and reinforced by the refusal of the employees of other firms to handle their goods. The immediate occasion of the strike was an announcement by the Dublin Tramway Co. of the temporary closing of their parcels department, and of their intention, when that department was reopened, not to allow their

employees in that department to belong to the Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union, which had been active in the policy of the sympathetic strike, A number of tramwaymen struck work on Aug. 26, demanding the reinstatement of the locked-out workpeople in the parcels department; they also put in claims for increased wages, shorter bours, and other concessions. Following this came strikes (or lock-outs) of employees of

flour millers, coach builders, biscuit manufacturers, coal merchants, steamship companies, master carriers, master builders,

timber importers, cement and brick merchants, and farmers in the County Dublin; besides a large number of independent

firms, in a wide varicty of trades. At a meeting on Sept. 3, 400 employers in Dublin passed a resolution to the effect that “ the

586

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS

position created by the Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union (a union in name only) was a menace to all trade organizations, and had become intolerable ”; and pledging themselves not to employ members of that Union, or any persons refusing to carry out his employer’s lawful and reasonable instructions. A large number of employers endeavoured to require their work-

people to sign an undertaking in the following terms:— “ I hereby undertake to carry out all instructions given to me by

or on behalf of my employers, and, further, I agree to immediately resign my membership of the Irish Transport and General Workers’

Union (if a member), and | further undertake that I will not join or in any way support this Union.”

On Sept. 26 it was announced that a Court of Enquiry had been appointed, consisting of Sir George Askwith, Sir Thomas Ratcliffe Ellis, and Mr. J. R. Clynes, to inquire into the dispute, and to take such steps as might seem desirable with the view of arriving at a settlement. The Court of Enquiry heard evidence at Dublin on Sept. 29 and on Oct. 1-4, and issued their report on Oct. 6. The report (1) regretted that no steps had been taken to set up Conciliation Boards, as had been several times suggested; (2) reported that there were indications that substantial grievances existed in the various industries; (3) condemned the policy of the sympathetic strike; ‘‘ no community,” it declared, “ could

exist if resort to the sympathetic strike became the gencral policy of Trade Unionism ”’; and (4) condemned the undertaking which

the employers had endeavoured to impose on the workpeople, as contrary to individual liberty, and such as no workman or body of workmen could reasonably be expected to accept.

The report

also made proposals for the settlement of the dispute, based on the establishment of a series of conciliation committees. These proposals were accepted by the workers but rejected by the employers, who declared that they could not recognize the Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union, until it was reorganized

on proper lines, with new officials approved by the British Joint Labour Board. Various other cflorts were made to settle the dispute, notably by the Joint Board (the “ British Joint Labour Board,” already referred to). This was a composite body representing the parliamentary committee of the Tradcs Union Congress, the Executive Committee of the Gencral Federation of Trade Unions,

and the Executive of the Labour party. These overtures came very near to success, the parties being brought together in joint conference; but the negotiations broke down, on Dec. 20 1913,

on the question of reinstatement. All this time the employers had been gradually replacing the men on strike or locked out; and a few of the men who had struck (or been locked out) had

returned to work. During Jan. and the early part of Feb., the majority of the remaining strikers whose places were still open returned to work, most of them agreeing to handle all goods and

their employces throughout the country, if the dispute were not settled by Aug. 15. Before the threat could be carried out, however, the World War had begun; and a settlement was hastily reached, on the basis of the acceptance by the men of the terms

last offered by the employers, with certain modifications. chief points in the settlement were:—

The

_ Employers to be at liberty to employ any man, but unions to have , right of appeal against any operative who has made himsclf specially objectionable to his fellows. Ticket inspection granted, but not during working hours. National executives of unions to guarantee observance of rules. Six months’ notice to be given for termina-

tion or modification of rules. There was a strike of coal miners in Yorkshire, lasting from the middle of Feb. to nearly the end of April 1914, in which about

150,000 workpeople were at one time involved. The employers at certain collieries had refused to add the usual percentages to the newly established district minimum rates; and it was finally decided that a lower minimum should be fixed for certain collieries, and the percentages above standard calculated on these reduced minima, The outbreak of the World War brought all the important current disputes to an end; and, though there were a large number

of disputes in the remaining months of 1914, and indeed during the whole period of the war, most of them were quite unimportant, and were brought to a very speedy conclusion. After the passing of the first Munitions Act in 1915 many of these strikes were illegal; and, even when they were not illegal, they were

sometimes unauthorized by the central executives of the respective trade unions. The fact that the dispute was illegal or unauthorized; the swift intervention of the Government, armed with

emergency powers; and—pcrhaps more important than all these—the severe reprobation of strikes by public opinion, tended to restrict their scope and above all to shorten their duration. Hence the aggregate duration even of some of the disputes that excited most public feeling, such as the Clyde Engineering dispute of Feb. and March 1915 (about 110,000 working days) was quite

trivial by comparison with the great disputes before the war. On Feb. 4.1915, the Government appointed Sir George Askwith, Sir Francis Hopwood, and Sir George Gibb, as a “ Committee on Production in Engineering and Shipbuilding Establishments,” to enquire and report as to the best means of insuring that the productive power of the employees in engineering and shipbuilding establishments for Government purposes should be made fully available. The Committee recommended (ruler alia) that industrial disputes should never be allowed to result in a stoppage of work; and that disputes which could not be settled by the ordinary means should be referred to an impartial tribunal for immediate investigation and report with a view to a settlement. The Government accepted the recommendation, and appointed

to obey orders. In some cases the men also undertook not to belong to the Transport Union.

the Committee on Production as the tribunal indicated. Hence in 1915, though there were over 700 disputes, there was

The principal dispute of 1914 wasin the London building trade. Numerous strikes had occurred against the ¢mployment of non-

strike in South Wales, arising out of a deadlock over a wages

unionists, although most of the trade unions were bound by

agreements which contained (inter alia) a stipulation that.there should be no discrimination between union and non-union labour. At a conference with cight of these trade unions, held on Dec. 23 1913, the employers put forward certain proposals for enforcing

these agreements by means of penalties; these proposals were rejected by the trade unions, and on Jan. 7 1914, the London Master Builders’ association gave notice that they regarded the working-rule agreements as no longer in force.

The employers

next endeavoured to impose on the workpeople an individual undertaking to work peacefully with non-unionists, on pain of 2

penalty of twenty shillings. Most of the men refused to sign the undertaking, and the strike began on Jan. 26 1914. Various eflorts were made to scttle the dispute; but proposals which had been agreed to by the men’s representatives were twice rejected by the trade unions on a ballot vote. One of the smaller unions, however, accepted the terms at the second vote, and came toa sectional agreement; and sectional agreements were afterwards made with two other trades. At this point the National Federa-

tion of Building Trade Employers resolved on a lock-out of all

only one with an aggregate duration of over a million days, a coal agreement.

There was also only one Jarge dispute in 1916, a strike of 30,000

jute workers at Dundce, which lasted from March 24 to June 8. The workpeople claimed an advance of 15% on piece-rates of wages, but ultimately returned to work on the old terms. This

year was particularly free from disputes in the coal industry, which is generally the most affected by disputes. Several unauthorized strikes, on a fairly large scale, occurred

in the enginecring trades in 1917. These excited a great deal of public attention, both because of the vital importance of maintenance of the fullest possible engineering output during the war, and also because the strikes were openly outbreaks of revolt, not only against the restrictions imposed on industrial freedom by various statutes and regulations, but also (what was felt to be even more serious) against the authority of the trade union executives. Measured, however, by the test of aggregate duration, only one of these disputcs—the engineering strike of May 1917—was of very serious importance, and, as all the disputes

had many features in common, it will suffice here to give an account of the dispute in May and of another in November,

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS In Nov. 1916 the Government had introduced a system of “ trade cards,” under which certain trade unions, including the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, were permitted to issue cards to their own members, conferring (under specified condi-

tions) protection from military service. The system was obviously open to abuse, and the Government decided to abolish it. Simultaneously they had before Parliament a new munitions bill, which, as originally drafted, proposed (infer alia) to make

provision for “ dilution ” (i.e. the partial utilization of unskilled

or semi-skilled labour on work hitherto confined exclusively to skilled men) on commercial engineering work. Previously

“ dilution” had been confined to Government work. The immediate occasion of the strike was a trivial dispute at

an engineering works at Rochdale, the owners of which had committed a technical offence against the Munitions Acts. They were prosecuted and fined; but the result of the prosecution was not known until after the strike had begun.

On April 29 1917 the honorary secretary of an unofficial body called “‘ the Manchester Joint Engineering Shop Stewards’ Committce ” sent out a letter calling upon engineers to come out on strike at the close of work on the following day against (1) dilution on private and commercial engineering work, (2) the withdrawal of the trade cards, and (3) the new munitions bill. Most

of the engineering employees in Lancashire (which is the chief centre of the textile engineering trade) came out; and also in Sheffield, Derby, Southampton, and finally London. On the other hand, Glasgow, Newcastle,

Cardif,

Birmingham,

and Leeds,

which were mainly “ munition ” centres, and not likely to be affected by the new policy, remained at work. The unofficial committee who had taken charge of the strike denounced the official executives of the trade unions in violent terms. The executives, on their side, denounced the strike, and

587

Apart from the engineering and munition trades the most

important dispute of 1917 was a strike of colliery examiners (overmen, firemen, and shot-firers) in South Wales for the recognition of their trade union; the other underground and surface workers, to the number of nearly 128,000, were thrown idle by the strike. After a stoppage of three days the Colliery Examiners’ Trade Union was recognized, and the employers agreed to set up a joint board to decide questions relating to firemen and shot-firers. Industrial disputes were very numerous in 1918, but the great

majority involved small numbers and were of short duration. Nearly all the considerable disputes occurred in the second half of the year; the extreme seriousness of the military situation in the first half of the year exercised a restraining influence suffcient to prevent many large movements. The only strike of any magnitude in this period was one among coal miners in the employment of a “ combine ” in S. Wales, who sought for recognition of a committee of thcir own, confined to workers in the pits of the combine. An engineering and munition strike occurred at Coventry and Birmingham in July 1918, against the introduction of what was

known as the “ embargo.” This wasa prohibition by the Government of the engagement of any additiona) skilled men by certain firms. The prohibition applied only to a very small number of firms, but this fact was not known to the workers; indeed the existence of the embargo at all was not generally known until a

notice (in misleading terms) was issued by one of the firms affected. The strike was brought to an end, after a weck’s stoppage, by the Government announcing that men absent from work on July 29

would have their protection certificates withdrawn. Two strikes in the cotton trade occurred in this year, one in Sept. and the other in December. The first arose from a demand of the cotton spinners and piccers for unemployment pay for

came to an agreement with the Government for the abolition of the trade card system. The Government supported the execu-

time lost owing to the restrictions on the working of the mills

tives, declared their determination not to recognize the rebellious

raw material.

tions, which were very bad, owing to the influx of munition workers and the consequent excessive overcrowding. On Nov.

ployees. The matter was ultimately referred to arbitration, and decided in favour of the society.

19, the toolmakers and toolsetters at one of the engineering works

The years 1919 and 1020 were years of great industrial unrest in a variety of trades. The hours of labour in the engineering and shipbuilding trades were reduced, as from Jan. 1 1919, from 53 or 54 to 47 per week; but many of the workers were dissatisfied, some desiring a reduction to 44 or even 40 hours, while others were aggrieved because the rates paid to piece workers and to

imposed by the Cotton Control Board to meet the shortage of They returned to work after a week’s stoppage on

the promise of an enquiry by an independent tribunal, to be shop stewards, and finally arrested cight of these. Ultimately, appointed by the Government, The second strike was in support however, the Government was obliged to receive the shop stew‘ards’ leaders; but under the guise of “ the unofficial strike com- of a demand by the cotton spinners and piccers, and the cardmittee,” and accompanied by the Executive Council of the room workers, for an advance of 40% on the current rates of wages (i.e. on the list prices, plus all the percentage additions Amalgamated Society of Engineers (the principal trade union concerned), A settlement was immediately arrived at, the unofficial already made thereto). They returned after nine days’ stoppage, having obtained an advance of 50% on the standard piece-price committee agreeing to go back to their districts and get the men back to work, and leaving the negotiations in the hands of the list of wages, equivalent to about 30% on the current rates. ‘In this year there was also a long dispute (lasting 47 working Executive Council of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers. The trade card system was abolished; but later in the year the days) between a codperative socicty and the Amalgamated Union minister of Munitions announced the withdrawal of the clauses of Codperative Employees. This union seeks to organize all in the Munitions Bill which would have permitted dilution on. classes of employees of codperative societies, whether distributive or productive, without regard to occupation, or “craft.” The private work. ; The Coventry strike was also a ei “shop stewards” strike, codperative society, however, demanded that its employees in printing works should belong to one or other of the “ craft” Coventry being one of the centres of the Shop Stewards move. ment. Unrest in this town was increased by the housing condi- unions, and not to the Amalgamated Union of Codperative Em-

in Coventry adopted a “ stay-in”’ strike, as a protest against their inadequate rates of pay (in comparison with the unskilled men whom they had to instruct), and also in support of their

demand for the recognition of the shop stewards. Next day the shop stewards went in a body to interview the head of the firm; he was ready to meet them, “and not ask who they were,” but

this was not enough for them; they demanded to be received as shop stewards. The employer refused, and the shop stewards called out all the workpeople. The whole of the engineering firms at Coventry were stopped within a few days, when it was estimated that 50,000 workpcople (men and women) were out. The strike was settled on Dec. 2 1917, by four members of the Government, who interviewed representatives of the employers and of the workpeople, the latter including some shop stewards. The negotiations which followed led up to an agreement between

the Engineering Employers’ Federation and the trade unions

which for the first time recognized shop stewards, if duly elected

and officially endorsed and controlled by their trade unions.

‘Chieu ” workers were not increased to compensate for the reduc-

tion of hours.

(Time workers received the same rate of pay for

the reduced hours as for the hours previously worked.) Workpeople, to the number of 150,900 in all, came out on strike in Jan. at various centres, and remained out for periods ranging from

one to eight wecks.

Some returned to work unconditionally;

others agreed to return on the promise of a national settlerent. There was much unrest in the coal mining industry. One hundred and fifty thousand miners were on strike in Yorkshire in Jan. 1919, in support of a demand for a simultaneous stoppage of 20 minutes per shift for meals for surface workers; most of these were out for one or two days only. The demand was granted, for the period of Government control. The same men were on strike

STRIKES AND

588

again in July and Aug., for an advance of 14-3% in piece-rates to compensate for the reduction in hours from eight to seven per day; after a stoppage of from 25 to 29 days they accepted the national settlement, which gave an advance of 12-2%. In March 100,000 miners in South Wales, the Midlands, and Yorkshire were on strike, and another 75,000 miners in Nottingham-

shire, Derbyshire, Lancashire, and other districts were on strike in July, over the question of the miners’ demands for increased wages, a reduction of hours, and the nationalization of the mines. There was a great strike in the cotton trade, for a reduction of hours and 30% advance in wages, in June and July ro19, both the

spinning and the weaving sections being affected. The advance was granted, and the hours were reduced from 55% to 48 hours per week (instead of 46}, as asked). The greatest railway strike that had ever occurred in England began at midnight on Sept. 26 rọrọ.

An agreement had been

made between the Government, the Railway Executive Commit-

tee (representing the companies), and the trade unions in March 1919, providing, jxtler alia, for the determination by negonation of new standard rates of pay for the various grades. Standard

rates were agreed upon, in Aug., for drivers and motormen, firemen and assistant motormen, and engine cleaners; and in Sept. the Board of Trade forwarded to the National Union of Railwaymen their proposals for the standard rates of other grades, showing an average advance of 160% on pre-war rates, with a minimum of £2 a week. The Union rejected these proposals, claiming that the new rate should be based on the highest standard rate already existing for cach grade, plus 33s. war wage, with a minimum of £3 a week. Failing a favourable reply by Sept. 23,

they announced an immediate strike. Negotiations continued, and fresh proposals were made by the Government; but the Union did not feel justified in postponing the strike, which accordingly began, as stated, at midnight on Sept. 26. The Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen, although not directly concerned in the dispute, supported the National Union of Railwaymen, and its members also ceased work. On Oct. 1 a conference, arranged by the National Transport

Workers’ Federation (to which the railwaymen are affiliated), was attended by representatives of the Trades Union Congress Parliamentary committee, of the Labour party, and of a number

of other trades besides railways. A mediating committee was appointed, and negotiations were resumed between the Government, the mediating committee,

and the National

Union of

Raihwaymen. A scttlement was reached on Oct. 5, and work was resumed on the following morning. l The settlement provided for the resumption of negotiations,

LOCK-OUTS Bristol and other centres, to enforce the termination of the dispute. At most of the centres involved in the lock-out settlements were reached by the end of Oct., advances in wages being granted; in some cases provision was made for the discussion of proposals to introduce sectional work, piece-work, or female labour, where not formerly in operation. The original dispute was also settled at the end of Oct., various advances being granted. At High Wycombe, where the largest number of workpeople was involved,

the lock-out was not brought to a close until nearly the end of Nov.; here also advances in wages, varying according to sex and

standing and the class of work done, were granted.

The year 1920 was remarkable for one dispute, the national coal strike of Oct. and Nov., the aggregate duration of which was second only to those of the two previous great coal strikes in 1893, and in yor2; and for an unprecedented number of smaller disputes, in a great variety of trades, many of which would have ranked as “ great ’’ disputes in a normal year. There were also many minor disputes in the building and in the textile trades. ‘The coal strike began out of a demand put forward by the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain (1) for a flat-rate advance in wages of zs. a shift for all persons of the age of 18 years or over,

with corresponding advances for those under that age; and (2) for a reduction of 14s, 2d. a ton in the price of domestic coal. These demands were presented to the Controller of Coal Mines on July 15, and refused by the Government on July 26. A ballot of the Federation showed a great majority (606,782 to 238,865) in favour of a strike in support of these demands; and strike notices were handed in, in every district, to expire on Sept. 25. Negotiations between the Government and the miners continued, in the course of which the miners dropped their demand for a reduction in the price of domestic coal. The Government, after making various alternative proposals which were not acceptable to the miners, concentrated on the policy of making any advance that might be granted bear some relation to increascd output.

The miners, however, still pressed for an immediate

unconditional advance of 2s. The strike notices were twice postponed, at first for a week and then for another fortnight, in order to allow the negotiations to continue. At this stage the mune-owners were called into conference; and meetings between

representatives of the miners and of the mine-owners took place almost daily from Sept. 25 to Oct. 2, inclusive. During the first fortnight of Oct. a second ballot of the miners took place on certain proposals which had been formulated by the minc-owners at these conferences. These were to the effect that if, during the first fortnight of Oct. there were indications

with the understanding that they should be completed by Dec. 31 1919; and for the stabilization of wages at their then existing

that the output of coal was at the rate of 240,000,000 tons per annum, an advance of rs. a shift should be conceded as from Oct. 1, with an additional 6d. for each 4,000,000 tons, up to 35. at.

Aug. 1 1920). It was also provided that “ no adult railwayman in Great Britain shall receive less than srs. so long as the cost of

would be similarly regulated, and the whole scheme would come

level up to Sept. 30 1920 (subject to review at any time after living is not less than 110% above pre-war level.”

A strike of ironmoulders, coremakers, and iron and steel dressers began on Sept. 22 1910, and lasted until Jan. 12 1920. About 65,000 men were involved in the immediate dispute; but the

shortage of castings consequent on the dispute greatly hindered the working of the engineering industry for many months.

The demands of the men were for an advance in wages of Iss. a week for journeymen and 7s, 6d. a week for apprentices, At the settlement on Jan. 12 they accepted an advance of ss. for men

over 18 years of age, the same as had been granted to men in the engineering trades in the previous November.

It was also agreed

that negotiations should be resumed on the questions of: (1) the general working conditions in foundries; (2) questions arising out of the introduction of the 47-hour week; (3) minimum standard rates for the various districts; and (4) the jurisdiction of the unions over apprentices, and the wages of apprentices.

A strike of all classes of workpeople in the furnishing trades begantin the Manchester district and N. E. Lancashire on June

27 1919, in support of a demand for an advance in wages, a working week of 44 hours, and other concessions. On July 26 a lock-

out was declared at High Wycombe, Birmingham, Nottingham,

265,000,000 tons.

The wages for the remainder of the year

up for review at the end of December. The owners also pledged themselves to codperate with the men in measures for increasing output. These proposals were rejected by the men, on a ballot vote, by a still larger majority (635,008 to 181,428); and work at the mines ceased on Oct. 16, except that certain men were allowed to continue at work for keeping the mines in order. The strike was debated in the House of Commons on Oct. 10; and tentative suggestions for a settlement were made by Mr. Brace (at that time a member of the executive of the South

Wales Miners’ Federation), and by other members. Informal conversations, and then formal negotiations, followed between the Government and the miners’ representatives, to which at a later stage the mine-owners also were called in; and an agreement was reached on Oct. 28 which the miners’ representatives undertook to submit to their members, with a recommendation of acceptance “as a temporary measure.” The agreement pledged the miners and the mine-owners to codperate with the view of increasing output; also to prepare a scheme for the future regulation of wages, ‘ having regard, among other considerations, to’

the profits of the industry, and to the principles upon which any

surplus profits are to be dealt with.” Pending the preparation of this scheme an immediate advance of 25. a shift was to be granted

STRIKES

AND

to persons of 18 ycars of age and over, with corresponding advances to persons under that age; and from Jan. 3 1921, until the new scheme was ready, the advance would be automatically adjusted, at monthly intervals, in accordance with the surplus

output in excess of 219,000,000 tons a year.

The ballot upon

these terms showed a small majority against acceptance (346,504

to 338,045), on a reduced total vote; but at the miners’ delegate conference at which the result was announced it was decided that work should be resumed on Nov. 4, or as.soon after as possible,

in view of the rule of the Miners’ Federation which requires a two-thirds majority for the continuance of a strike. A strike in the building trade of Scotland occurred in May, June, and July 1920. During the war wages in the Scottish building trade had been regulated by awards given every four months, as in the engineering and shipbuilding trades.

A claim

for an advance of 6d. an hour, as from April 1 1920, came before the Industrial Court in March under this agreement, and was refused. The joiners in the west of Scotland, influenced by the high rate of wages given to joiners in the shipyards, had with-

drawn from the National Agreement, and claimed the advance of 6d. independently of the other building trades operatives; and,

LOCK-OUTS

589

Coleraine, Dublin, and other towns, began on June 12 1920, and lasted for over two months. The cutters only were directly involved, to the number of about 302; but about 17,000 other

workpeople were thrown out of work. ‘The cutters demanded higher wages, and the strike was settled by a compromise, A strike in the spinning branch of the colton trade began at Oldham on Sept. 13 1920. During the war an agreement had been made for the employment of female “ creelers ” (who carry away the finished yarn) to help the spinners in cases where “ little piecers ”’ (boy assistants) were not available; and it was part of the agreement that the spinners should receive extra payments, in compensation for the additional work thrown upon them when “creelers ” were employed instcad of “little piccers.”” In Sept. 1920, an agreement was signed between the master spinners and the Operative Spinners’ Trade Union withdrawing, in part, these extra payments. A large number of the spinners came out on

strike against this agreement, in defiance of the executive of their union,

The strike began on Sept. 15, and the maximum number

on strike was reached a week later, when the number was about

20,000; and about an equal number of cardroom workers and others were thrown out of work by the dispute. The men grad-

was given, they came out on strike, to the

ually went back to work on the terms of the agreement; most of

number of about tert thousand. Negotiations with the employers ensued; and at the beginning of July about a third of the operative joiners had obtained their demand for a rate of 23. 6d. an

them were back by Oct. 5, but the strike was not quite at an end until the end of that month. Coal Strike of 1921. The first seven months of 1921 were notable for a rapid and continuous increase in the number of trade

when

hour.

this award

Bricklayers and masons

and their Jabourers had also

obtained an advance in the west of Scotland; but at Edinburgh

and Dundee, and in Ayrshire, they were out on strike. As delay to housing schemes was feared through the strike, further con-

disputes concerning proposals for reduction of wages. The strike of shipyard joiners and carpenters against a proposed reduc-

tion of r2s. per week, which had begun on Dec. 1 1920, and

ferences were held under the chairmanship of an officer of the

came

Ministry of Labour; and an agreement was reached on July 8

until Aug. 1921, when a settlement was reached on the basis of a reduction of 9s. per week, to take effect in two stages. Among other important disputes in this period was the strike

giving all classes of operatives an advance for the period from July 9 to Nov. 30. The parties also agreed to meet again, to consider a scheme for levelling up rates between sections, and for the grading of districts. Shipyards joiners and carpenters came out on strike on Dec. r 1020, against a proposed reduction in wages of 12s. a week. (This was the first strike, on a considerable scalc, against a reduction of wages since those of 1908, mentioned above.) The emPloyers alleged that the ship-joiners had received a special additional bonus during the preceding time of pressure in the shipyards, over and above that given to other shipvard workers, because it would have been impossible otherwise to obtain the

necessary labour, in view of the intense competition from the

to involve directly some

in Feb.

1921

of some

10,000

5,000 nut

workpeople,

continued

and bolt workers

in the

Black Country against a proposed wage reduction, which lasted five weeks, the employers’ terms being then accepted. In March 3,300 vehicle builders and 2,170 waterproof garment finishers

came out on strike against proposed reductions of wages; the former dispute lasted four weeks and ended in the acceptance of a modified reduction; the latter lasted five weeks and ended in

the acceptance of the reduction on condition that it should take effect in two stages. In June a national engineering strike was threatened but avoided at the last hour, while 10,000 engi-

necring apprentices in the Manchester district struck against a

building trades; and that the exceptional circumstances which The num-

proposed reduction in wages, which three weeks later was accept-

had justified the advance had now come to an end.

ed.

ber involved at the end of Dec. was about ten thousand. A strike of piano workers in London, to the number of about

industry, involving an immediate reduction of about 19% on actual wage rates, was only made after a dispute which lasted

6,300, began on April 10 and lasted for three months. The employers sought to introduce a system of payment by results,

which was objected to by the workers. Work was resumed on the systems of payment existing in each factory; with a provision that a ballot vote should be taken within three months to determine the future system of payment for the entire trade. A strike of electricians, which was of great importance owing

to the principle involved, began on July 2 and ended on Sept. 16 1920. The members of the Electrical Trades Union came out on Strike at an engineering works at Penistone (Yorks), against the employment of a foreman who was not a member of their trade union. The Engineering Employers’ Federation replied by a

lock-out of all members of the union employed in federated firms throughout the country. The Government appointed a Court of Enquiry, under the Industrial Courts Act, to enquire into the dispute; but the day after the Court had begun taking evidence the Electrical Trades Union notified to the Joint Industrial Council for the Electricity Supply Industry their readiness to withdraw the question of principle, i.e. the claim that foremen must be members of a trade union, The dispute was settled on these lines on Sept. 16, the men withdrawing their strike notices and the employers the lock-out notices. The number of men involved by the lock-out was about seven thousand. A strike of skirt and collar makers in Belfast, Londonderry,

In June, also, a new wages agreement in the cotton textile

three weeks and involved some 375,000 operatives.

None of the strikes of 1921 against proposed reductions in Wages compares, however, in magnitude or consequence With

the great national coal strike, which began on April 1 and ended on July x in an agreement which was to last until Sept. 30 1922, and thereafter, until terminated by three months’ notice on either side. The position at the end of the coal strike of 1920 has already been described. Briefly a temporary settlement has been made under which the wages of miners varied according to the total output of coal from the mines of

Great Britain: the more the output, the higher were the wages to be received. The miners and owners were under an obligation to prepare a scheme not later than March 31 1921, for the future regulation of wages in the industry, “ having regard, among other considerations, to the profits of the industry and to the principles upon which any surplus profits are to be dealt with.” The industry was still under Government control, and

the “ control”? powers of the Mines Department of the board of

trade did not expire, in any event, until Aug. 31 1921. The coal industry, however, did not escape the effects of the general industrial depression, which indeed may be dated from the coal strike of 1920. The valucs of exported coal fell heavily,

while the demand for coal for industrial or domestic consump-

tion at home also decreased. The output figures for each of the

590

STRIKES AND

LOCK-OUTS

four months from Dec, 1920 reflect the changes in the current demand. In the five weeks ended Dec. 25 the output for Great Britain was 25,406,700 tons; while in the five weeks ended Jan. 29 1921, it was 21,803,600 tons. In the four wecks ended Jan. 29

not they were prepared to abandon temporarily the policy of a national wages board and a national pool, and to empower the national executive to proceed with the negotiations with a view

it was 18,540,500 tons; while in the four weeks ended Feb. 26 it was 17,369,100 tons, and in the four wecks ended March 26,

March 24 the Conference reassembled to receive the replies of the several districts, and these indicated that a very large majority of the Federation were against the proposal to enter into any temporary agreement on a district basis. There was thus no movement towards the owners’ position. Notices terminating on March 31 contracts of employment at the existing rates having already been issued by the owners, the Executive Committee of

16,435,200 tons, An incidental result of this decreased output was the disappearance as from Feb. 28 of the wages advances

granted under the settlement of Nov. 1920.

In so far as the

position, as affected both by the decreased output and by the reduction in values of export coal, may be judged from the Mines Department statistics, in Feb. 1921 the average loss over the whole of the collicrics of Great Britain on every ton of coal disposed of commercially was ss. rrfd. In two districts, namely Yorkshire, and Derby, Nottingham and Leicester, there were small credits of 33d. and 13d. per ton respectively; while the debit balances ranged from 4s. o}d. per ton in Durham to 18s. 14d. per ton in South Wales. In these circumstances the Government decided to terminate their control of the mining industry on March 31. This was the date at which the agreed scheme for the future regulation of wages in the industry was to be ready, but it was five months earlier than the date at which decontrol had been expected. On the one hand, the fall in the price of export coal to such an extent that there was no appreciable difference between the export price and the inland price, made it no longer necessary to regulate the pit head prices and the distribution of coal, and all such regulation was withdrawn as from March 1. On the other hand, the continuance of financial control, which had been a corollary of the regulation of prices and distribution was only involving the Government in heavy financial liabilities.

The Coal Mincs

(Decontrol) Act, 1921, “an act to curtail the duration of and

“amend the Coal Mines (Emergency) Act, 1920,” was therefore passed. The Act received Royal Assent on March 24, and its effect was to terminate the special interest the Government had hitherto had in the Mining Industry, as regards, for example, output and prices, wages and profits. Control at that moment meant financial assistance to the industry, and the removal of that financial assistance on March 31 made the formulation of a new wages agreement a matter of imperative urgency, if the work of the mines was to be continued after decontrol. The decision of the Government to decontrol was communicated by the president of the board of trade to the mine-owners

and miners, ż.e. the Mining Association and the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain, on Feb. 23. At the time the announcement was made, the Mining Association and the Miners’

Federation were in the midst of negotiations with regard to the permanent scheme for the regulation of wages, which under the agreement of Nov. 1920, they were to complete by March 31 1921, On Feb. 25 the two bodies met again, and agreement was reached upan a considerable number of important points. But on one fundamental issue it was found impossible to agree. The representatives of the Miners’ Fedcration insisted upon the necessity of a national wages scheme, with some form of a national! pool, for the industry. The representatives of the owners insisted that wages must be based upon the wage-paying capacity of the districts, national discussion being confined to the

enunciation of certain general principles which might provide the districts with some uniform method of determining their wage-paying capacity, A definite conflict of principle had thus occurred. It was clear however that no scheme designed to be permanent would be applicable without modification to the abnormal position in which the industry would find itself on decontrol on April z. It was therefore conceivable that agreement might be reached on a temporary scheme applicable strictly to the emergency period, leaving the points of difference on the permanent scheme for further discussion. In this way the occurrence of a dispute immediately upon the cessation of control might be avoided. Following upon a joint meeting of the two sides held on March 17, the National Delegate Conference of the Miners’ Federation decided to ascertain the opinion of the districts as to whether or

to establishing a temporary agreement on a district basis.

On

the Miners’ Federation met on March 30, and sent out the fol-

lowing instruction to the districts: —* That all notices must take effect regardless of occupation in evcry mine and plant in the

Miners’ work in shift on districts

Federation.” Practically the whole of the men ceased accordance with this instruction at the close of the last March 31. There was, however, some divergence in the on the question of withdrawing the pumpmen and en-

ginemen who were covered by the official instruction of the Federation. These men were not withdrawn in all cases. At this stage it may be noted that there were some points of agreement between the owners and miners. The agreement of Nov. 1920, envisaged a permanent scheme for the regulation of wages which would have regard “ to the profits of the industry and to the principles upon which any surplus profits are to be dealt with.” Working from this basis, by the time of the joint meeting of Feb. 25, four further principles had been agreed upon as follows:— 1, Wages must conform to the capacity of the industry to pay. 2. The receipt of a standard wage should justify a corresponding minimum profit to the colliery undertakings.

3. Any surplus remaining after these, and, of course, the usual

working costs, had been met, should be divided bet ween the men and the owners in agreed proportions, the workpcople’s share to be an

addition to their standard wages.

4. Joint audits of the owners’ books by accountants representing cach side should be made to ascertain all the data necessary for the

periodical determination of wages,

On all other matters arising out of the proposed permanent scheme there were differences of considerable importance between the two sides. The following account of the main differences is based upon the draft agreement approved by the Delegate Conference of the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain on March 10 (i.e. at the first available opportunity after the joint meeting of Feb. 25), and the report of the mine owners on the situation which was submitted after approval by the Central Council of the Mining Association, to the president of the board of trade on March 25 (i.e. immediately after the refusal of the miners to enter upon negotiations with a view toa temporary settlement on a district basis) :— 1. The

miners proposed that there should be established

a

National Board, consisting of 16 representatives of each side, which

should determine all questions of wages and profits affecting the mining

industry as a whole, ze. the national regulation and dis-

tribution of wages. The National Board would take over the powers and duties of the existing district conciliation boards with regard to the fixing of general rates of wages, The owners would agree to maintain in production by the means of a national profits fund all

existing collieries, and all collieries developed subsequently, until such times as the National Board might decide to the contrary. On these points, the owners’ position was that the idea of a “ national profits fund " was abhorrent to them, that they wished

district conciliation boards to be the sole authorities for fixing wages, and that national discussions should only deal with questions of principle, so as to provide the districts with a uniform

method of determining wages.

2. ‘The miners proposed that the new standard wage should be made up by incorporating all the existing percentage additions to

district basis rates with those district basis rates, special allowance being made in favour of the men who were benefitting under the fiat rate minimum advance which was guaranteed with the 20% wages

advances of March 1920. The owners proposed that the new standard wages should be the district basis rates, plus the percentage additions prevailing in July 1914, plus the percentage additions made consequent upon the reduction in hours from 8 to 7. 3. The miners proposed that against their standard wages should be set, as minimum profits to the owners, a sum amounting in the aggregate to 10% of the sum paid as standard wages.

owners proposed that this figure should be 17%.

The

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS 4. The miners proposed that any surplus remaining after meeting standard wages, other costs and minimum profits, should be divided

between miners and owners in the proportion of 100 to 10. The owners proposed that that proportion should be 80 to 20.

5. The miners proposed that their share of this surplus should be

distributed by means of national uniform flat rate additions to their standard wages. The owners proposed that the miners’ share of the surplus as ascertained in each district should be distributed as a percentage addition to the standard district rates. 6. Whereas the miners’ proposals meant that the whole mining industry in Great Britain should be treated as one unit within which wages would be varied uniformly, the owners proposed to take as the units of uniform variation, the 25 districts among which the collieries

of Great Britain are distributed by the Second Schedule of the Mining Industry Act, 1920.

With regard to the question what modifications, if any, might be introduced to meet the abnormal conditions of the period following immediately on control, the owners expressed their willingness to waive their share of the surplus in favour of the workMen, on condition that ascertainment of the proceeds of the

industry in cach unit should be made at monthly pcriods during the continuance of the concession; but they insisted that it was inevitable that wages should go down on decontrol. From the miners’ point of view it was evident that the introduction of their scheme at that moment might mean the loss to the men of war

wage and Sankey wage, and the miners’ argument therefore was that the Government’s obligation to pay war wage or Sankey award did not cease by the decision to decontrol the trade on March 31. The war wage had been given to meet the increased cost of living when the latter was only 80 per cent in excess of the pre-war figure, and (though the Government rejected this interpretation) under the terms of the award the miners claimed that the wage was liable to revision only when the cost of living fell again to that point. With regard to the Sankey wage, the argument of the miners was that the Government had accepted the Sankey Commission’s recommendations for an advance in wages of 2s. per day, and if the Government now proposed that

these conditions should be abandoned, it would be guilty of a breach of faith. The miners reiterated at all times from Feb. 23 to March 31 their demand that the Government should abandon its decision to decontrol the industry, or at least should continue

to subsidize it during the existence of the depression from which it was suffering.

The general argument of the miners at this time was that the situation demanded a full national settlement of the wages and

profits problem for the industry.

59I

if their demands for a wages settlement along national lines, and a national profits’ pool, were totally unacceptable. But the infiuence of the other members of the Triple Alliance secured a modification of both points of view, and joint negotiations were resumed on April rr and 12. On April 12 the view of the Government was outlined that, while the miners’ demand for a national settlement of wages might be practicable, their demand for a national pool of profits was impracticable. A pooling arrangement for the equalization of wages in the industry was declared not to be possible without the resumption of complete and permanent control by the State of the mining industry. A national scttlement of wages, however, was suggested, by which the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and sth points at issue between the owners and miners as outlined above should be determined by the joint conference, whilst subsequent differences of interpretation should be referred to a national joint committee of owners and miners. The prime minister explained the Government’s proposals as regards the abnormal period following upon decontrol, as follows:—~ “Tf and when an arrangement had been arrived at between the

coal owners and the miners as to the rate of wages to be paid in the industry, fixed upon an economic hasis, the Government would be willing to give assistance, either by loan or otherwise, during a short period, in order to mitigate the rapid reduction in wages in the

districts most severely affected.”

sympathetic action was finally settled. The mediatory efforts of the railwaymen and transport workers on April 9, which

secured the resumption of negotiations between owners and miners, had been supported by a decision that a sympathetic

strike should take place on the night of April 12 unless negotiations between the miners, owners and Government

were reopened

before that date. This strike of April 12 was avoided by the resumption of negotiations on the 11th, but on the 13th, the day

The trade as a whole needed

after the failure of the resumed negotiations, the rathvaymen and

uniform peace and security, and district or local negotiations

transport workers determined to strike at r0 par, on April 15 in

must result in strife. The workmen and their familics had to live

in the poor districts as well asin the rich, and for uniform expend-

i

These proposals were fully discussed, but the miners’ officials intimated their inability to accept them or to abandon their formcr position, and the conference thereupon ended. This failure. at once brought to a head the question whether the other two members of the Triple Alliance, namely, the National Union of Railwaymen ! and the National Transport Workers’ Federation, would take sympathetic strike action in support of the miners. A general meeting of the National Union of Railwaymen, and a iull conference of the executives of unions affiliated to the National Transport Workers’ Federation, were summoned, and remained in session until April 16, when the question of

support of the miners. This sympathetic strike of April 15 was avoided, however, at the last moment.

In the late evening of the

iture of energy there should be uniform reward. This had been 14th a group of private members of the House of Commons, after _Tecognized by the Government, first by the payment of uniform ‘hearing a statement by Mr. Evan Williams, president of the war wages to meet the increased cost of living, and, secondly, by ‘Mining Association, dealing with the effect on the miners’ actual the acceptance of the decision of the Sankey Commission to earnings of the owners’ proposals, invited Mr. Frank Hodges, the raise uniformly the wages of all coal miners to mect the agreed secretary of the Miners’ Federation, to make a similar statement case for a uniform advance in their standard of living. A Na- on behalf of the miners. In the discussion which followed his tional Wages Board, exercising the right to distribute nationally speech, it was undérstood from Mr. Hodges that the miners both wages and profits, need not necessarily result in a uniform would be prepared to discuss a temporary wages settlement, proprofit for all undertakings, but by means of a small levy upon the vided that a period of time were fixed for the negotiation of a _total tonnage raised in every mine, money would be made avail- permanent settlement, to contain the principles of a national able for maintaining poor collicries in production as long as their pool and a national wages board. The Prime Minister was at coal was in demand. once communicated with, and on the following morning he The view of the owners, on the other hand, was that the wide invited owners and miners to meet him again for a further convariations in the losses of different coalficlds made anything in sideration of the wages question. The exccutive of the Miners’ the nature of a national settlement of wages impossible. While Federation, to general surprise, abruptly declined this invitation, there were such divergencies between district and district, cach and Mr. Hodges, whose ‘ offer’ was thus ignored, tendered his district must determine its own wages by its ability to pay, and resignation (though it was afterwards withdrawn). The leaders the individual who could not pay the wages so determined must of the railwaymen and transport workers, however, in these cirdecide for himself whether to close his pits or to bear the loss. cumstances decided not to proceed with the sympathetic strike, The country could net afford to keep unprofitable pits working. and a breach was created in the Triple Alliance. From the opening of the strike on April r, four whole months The next stage in the history of the dispute was a second series passed before an agreement between the owners and miners was of joint negotiations between owners and miners, from April 22 reached. The first difficulty to secure a resumption of negotia1The Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen tions encountered was in the Government insisting that the first before the close of this episode joined the other railwaymen and the subject to be discussed should be the return of the safety men to transport workers in the discussions and the decisions on the ques-

_the mines, while the miners held that negotiations were uscless

tion of sympathetic strike action,

STRIKES

592

AND

to 28, asa result of a further invitation from the Prime Minister,

This conference produced a further set of proposals from the owners, and the first detailed proposals for a settlement made by the Government in the course of the dispute, but these were rejected on the 28th by the National Delegate Conference, on the ground that they did not concede “ the fundamental! principles of a National Wages Board and a National Pool.” No definite progress had been made as regards the proposed establishment of a permanent scheme for the regulation of wages in the industry. The Government suggested that the period of the permanent scheme should be one year from the close of the temporary period, subject thereafter to 3 months’ notice on either side. This suggestion became part of the final settlement of July 1. They declared that a national pool or levy would involve legislation and must be regarded as a political issuc; but they would accept a “‘ National Wages Board” entrusted with the tasks of drawing up a schedule of districts and determining the principles by which wages should be adjusted in the districts, as well as with the duties of interpretation. The owners also spoke at this time of “ areas ” rather than “ districts,” the “ areas ” being the six divisions of Great Britain, among which the 25 districts are distributed by the Second Schedule of the Mining Industry Act, 1920.

of the owners made with the the emergency proposals may

On the other hand, asa result of the statements

and the Government, substantial progress was preparation of a detailed temporary scheme for or abnormal period. The main points of these be summarized as follows:—

1. The duration of the temporary scheme was to be three months. 2, In each of the three months, a maximum sum per shift should be fixed, and the wages of no miner should be reduced by more than that maximum sum. The maximum reduction would be expressed as a national flat rate,

3. For the first month a maximum reduction of 3s. per shift was

proposed and for the second month, one of 3s. 6d.

4. The Government were prepared to make a grant of £10,000,000 as their share in the cost of the scheme, and it was suggested that a

portion of this grant might be carried forward into a fourth month.

5. The owners were prepared to waive all share in the surplus in any area, if the taking of that share would have the effect of reducing the rates of wages in one month as compared with the previous month. This was an elaboration of the proposal of the owners as ee emergency period given above, and made public on

LOCK-OUTS Delegate Conference of the Miners’ Federation adopted a recom. mendation of their executive to refer the alternative courses of action to a ballot vote of their members, The alternatives were put to the men as follows:— (1) Are you in favour of fighting on for the principles of the

National Wages Board and National Pool, with loss of Government subsidy of £10,000,000 for wages if no settlement by June 18 1921? “ (2) Are you

in favour of accepting

the Government's

owners’ terms as set forth on the back of this ballot paper? ”

and

The result of the vote was known on June 17: the first question was answered in the affirmative by 435,614 members, and the second question by 180,725. The previous decisions of the representative bodies of the Federation were thus emphatically confirmed. The Government therefore announced their withdrawal of the proposed subsidy, and the basis for a temporary settlement had for the time being disappeared. From the point of view of the final settlement, however, this third series of negotiations was important for the modifications which were made in the owners’ permancnt scheme. The owners definitely adopted the Government

suggestions regarding the

duration of the permanent scheme and the establishment of a National Wages Board; they proposed the establishment of similarly constituted district boards to determine district questions; they accepted a proposal made by the Government that if the rates of wages as fixed under the permanent scheme did not provide a subsistence wage tolow-paidday wage workcrs, additions in the form of allowances per shift worked should be made by the decision of the district wages boards; and they were prepared to guarantee that the miners should receive during the first year of the agreement a minimum percentage addition of 20% to the

standard wage as proposed by the owners. The final period from June 17 to July 1 was remarkable for the marked

changes in the attitude of the executive of the

Miners’ Federation. On June 1§ an invitation was ecutive committees of all unions affected by wages the miners’ executive at the earliest possible date, of taking joint national action with the miners several demands.

issued to the cxdisputes to meet with the object to secure their

The mecting was arranged for June 25. Mean-

The miners, however, were as much opposed to this proposed

while the annual conference of the Labour party held at Brighton on June 21-4 showed plainly that no support for extended militant action would be given by other trade unions. The projected meeting of. June 25 was therefore abandoned, and the Prime Minister was again approached by the miners’ executive with a vicw to securing a satisfactory wages settlement. Joint negotia-

temporary scheme as to the owners’ permanent scheme. They could not accept a temporary settlement which was related to district settlements; they could not accept reductions which

tions between miners and owners were accordingly resumed on June 27, and on the evening of that day it was reported to the Government that an agreement had been reached, upon the

a. T e s were also prepared to agree that, during the period of the temporary scheme, deficiencies in standard profits should not be carried forward from one accounting period to another.

would force their wages below the cost of living level; and they assumption that the Government would reopen their offer of a maintained their demand that the Government should render grant of {10,000,000 to the industry. On June 28 the Governfinancial assistance to the industry so as to prevent this occurring. ment expressed their willingness to subsidize wages as required, On a cost of living basis they argued that the maximum reduction during the temporary period, up to a maximum of £10,000,000. in the first place should be zs. per shift: whereas the. Govern- The miners’ executive then referred the proposed terms to their districts; and their recommendation that the terms should be ment proposed a first reduction of as. per shift, From the close of the second series of joint negotiations on April accepted was indorsed at the district meetings. On July 1 the 28, a whole month elapsed before official negotiations were final agreement between the Miners’ Federation and the Mining resumed. A third serics of negotiations was then begun on May Association was signed, the House of Commons voting, on the 27, an address being made by the Prime Minister tọ a joint assem- ‘game day, a subsidy in aid of wages in the form offered by the bly of the central committee of the Mining Association and the Government on June 28. Work in the coal mines throughout executive committee of the Miners’ Federation. Proposals for a Great Britain was resumed as rapidly as the circumstances at scttlement were submitted by the Government separately to the cach colliery permitted. The agreement largely incorporated the terms of the interim two sides on May 28, and on June 3 the observations of owners and miners on these proposals were communicated to the Prime proposals. With regard to the temporary period of three months, Minister. The reply of the Miners’ Federation, drawn up by jt was agreed that the maximum national flat-rate reductions their executive committee, was to the effect that in every instance should be 2s. per shift in the first month, 2s. 6d. in the second the districts had rejected the proposals. On June 4 the Prime month, and 3s. jn the third month; and that, in those districts Minister announced that the Government’s offer of a grant of where it was not necessary to enforce the full maximum reduc£10,000,000, intended to mitigate the reductions in wages and tion, the wages payable during the temporary period should be allow of a gradual scaling down of wages until they reached an calculated in terms of uniform district flat-rate reductions, and economic level which the industry could sustain, would be with- not in terms of basis rates plus percentages. On the other hand, drawn unless a settlement were reached within 14 days.

This

announcement was followed by joint meetings between owners and miners on June 6, 7, 8 and 9, and on June 10 the National

the Government

subsidy was now a maximum

sum, and

any

balance not issued in respect of the temporary period of three ‘months was no longer available to ease any further reductions

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS which might be necessary in the fourth month after the settlement. With regard to the permanent scheme the scttlement provided that standard profits should be 17% of standard wages,

593

Statistical Office. The figures for the period 1907 to 1918 are summarized below:

Number of Work-

and that 83% of the surplus proceeds should be applied to the

Year

payment of wages above the standard rates. The duration of the guarantee that the miners should receive a minimum percentage

Number of Disputes | people directly or

1907

1908 1909

2,512

280,016

addition of 20% to the standard wages, was extended from one year to the whole period of the permanent scheme. In other respects the permanent scheme was the once first outlined by the owners before the beginning of the strike, but it included the important modifications and safeguards introduced in the course of the third series of joint negotiations.

1910 19tl

3,228

390,706

1912

2,834

493,749

indirectly affected

1,524 1,652

119,781 130,883

2,798

385,216

The outbreak of the strike had led to the Government passing

an Emergency Powers Act into law, to enable exceptional provision to be made for the protection of the community when “ any action has been taken, or is immediately threatened by any

person or body of persons, of such a nature or on so extensive a scale, as to be calculated . . . to deprive the community, or a substantial portion of the community, of the essentials of life.” On March 21 a proclamation was made under this Act declaring a * state of emergency ” to exist, and by successive renewals at monthly intervals the “ state of emergency ” was continued until the settlement of July r, Within this general period a state of more intense emergency occurred from April 8 to June 2. During this latter period the Reserves were embodied, and in addition to the enrolment of special constables, a Defence Force was enlisted with the object of supporting the police in providing protection to volunteers who were maintaining the mines in condition, or who might be required to carry on transport work in the event of the extension of the coal strike to railway and transport services. During the state of emergency, a series of emergency regulations were in force under which the Mines Department of the board of trade controlled the supply, consumption and movement of coal,

The principal groups of industries affected by disputes in 1913 were the metal and engincering group involving 81,025 workpcoplc,

the mining and smeiting group involving 78,221 workpeople, and the building trades group involving 69,899 workpeople. In 1918 the principal groups were the mining and smelting group with 336,378 workpeople involved, and the metal and engineering group with 210,021 workpeople involved. Of the total number of disputes occurring during the period 1907-18, JAA arose on questions of wages, 16% on questions of hours, and the balance on questions of the employment of particular classes of persons, working arrangements and miscellaneous matters. During the same period 15% of the total number of disputes were

settled in favour of the workpeople, and 39% in favour of the employers, while 469% were compromised. Belgium.—Statistics of strikes and lock-outs are published by the Belgian Ministry of Industry, Labour and Supplies. The table given below shows the number of strikes and lock-outs, and the number of workpeople directly affected, in the period 1908 to 1919, with the exception of 1914 to 1918.

Number of Disputes

affected

and the police authorities in the various parts of the country

were endowed with special powers for the suppression of sedition. (B) FOREIGN A brief account is given below the strikes and lock-outs in the other than the United Kingdom,

COUNTRIES of the most recent statistics of principal European countries, available in 1921.

France.—Detailed statistics of strikes and lock-outs for the years 1890 to 1912 and summaries for the

years 1913 and 1914

had been

published by the French Ministry of Labour. The following are the totals for the years 1907-14:—

Year

Number of Disputes

Number of Workpeople directly affected

Aggregate

Duration in Working

1,279

3,563,237

1,036

169,509 290,899 239,795 268,230

3,581,928 4,887,837 4,037,475 2,335,891

1,511 1,474 1,120 1,07

692

220,448

160,566

118 123 110 162 206

17,085

23,469 27,257 57:293 63,772

167

23,752

72

164,030

The mining and quarrying and the textile industries accounted

for 6,096 and 3,114 respectively of the workpeople affected in 1908,

for 6,456 and 2,846 of the workpeople affected in 1909, for 21,103 and 2,388 in 1910, for 34,417 and 9,089 in Ig11, and for 38.479 and 5,856 in 1912. In 1913 the textile industry accounted for 10,158 of workpeople affected, and in 1919 the mining and quarrying industry for 99,035 of the workpeople affected. The causes of the disputes during the period 1908-13 were mainly questions of Wages, 52% of the workpeople being involved on this account. Of the total number of strikes during the same period 13 % ended in favour of the

Days

198,136 124,248

1,104

Number of Workpeople directly

2,307,120

2,223,781

8

? The figures for the years 1913 and 1914 relate only to strikes, _ The principal groups of industries affected by the disputes were

in 1907 the transport group involving 43,248 workpeople; in 1908 and 1909 the building trade group involving 56,691 and 42,658

workpeople respectively; in 1910 the transport group involving 83,025 workpeople, and the building group involving 75,695 work-

people; in Ig1t the building group involving 93,660 workpeople; and in 1912 the mining and quarrying group involving 137,602. During the years 1907 to 1912, 46% of the total number of workPeople affected were involved in disputes concerning wages, 19% in disputes concerning hours of labour, 10% in disputes concerning the employment of particular classes of persons, 11% in disputes

concerning working arrangements and the remaining 14% in dis-

putes due to other causes. The results of disputes during the period under survey were as follows: disputes involving 12% of the total number of workpeople directly affected terminated in favour of the workpeople; disputes involving 44% in favour of the employers; those involving the remaining 44% in a compromise. : Germany.—From 1899 statistics of strikes and Jock-outs other than

in agriculture have been published annually by the German Federal

workpeople, 59% ended in favour of the employers, and 28% resulted in a compromise.

Holland.—Statistics of disputes in Holland are published by the Central Statistical Bureau. The figures for the years 1907-19 are given in the table below :—~ Number of Disputes

Number of

Workpeople directly

affected 15,154

7,165 8,455

13,238

20,005 21,672 30,101 25,569 13,179 18,127 31,317

39,640 61,66

Aggregate Duration in

Working Days

4,366,691

91,8690

272,013 3345595 435,992 367,751

787,876 361,400 165,247 249,442

526,507

607,236 T,051,88:

During the period 1911-5 the proportion of disputes due to questions of wages was 55%; it was 58 % in 1916, 55 %o in 1917, 57 v in 1918, and 58% in 1919. The results of the disputes during the

period 1910-9 were as follows;—22 % ended in favour of the workpeople, 28% ended in favour of the employers; 44% were compromised; and 6% were either indeterminate or the result unknown.

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS

594

Sweden.—The Swedish labour department has published statistics of strikes and lock-outs since 1903. Figures for 1908 to 1919 are shown below :— Number of : Disputes

Year

1908 1909. IQIO IQII

I9IZ2 IQI}

.

>

. a

œ è

s. >

1914 . IIS < m9I6—t

1017.

mi8 . 1910__.

Number of: Work

e

76 98

es a -« ‘ :

tk

. 3

people directly affected

œ

. >

Australia,—T he systematic collection of statistical data regarding

Strikes and Jock-outs in Australia was initiated by the Common-

The following table shows the number of strikes and the number

of workpeople directly and indirectly affected in the years 1913-9 :— Number of Disputes

by questions of wages.

61,223 81,041 In the same

period

28%

of strikes are published

Spanish Institute of Social Reforms.

annually

56,439

of the

by the

The figures for 1905-18 are

given below :—

Number of Strikes

people directly 20,176 24:394

127 7 151 118 169 201 140 gI

12,748 6,683. 35,897 22,154 36,306 84,316 49,267 30,591

12,071

178

Operators soon granted the wages increases demanded.

by referendum of the strikers. The miners returned to work in Sept.; the union had paid out $674,216 in strike benefits. The

same year, in Columbus, O., the street-railway employees struck three times, in April, May and July, because of discharges of

during the period 1910-8. In the same period 32% of the strikes terminated in favour of the workpeople, 34% in favour of the employers and 34% were compromised. In 1918, 29% of the workople directly affected were employed in agriculture and cattle reeding, 11 % in the textile industry, 10% in the mining industry,

and 9% in both metal and engineering and clothing trades.

(C) BRITISH. DOMINIONS Canada,—Statistics of disputes are published by the Department

The following table shows the number of disputes, the duration

in

Year

Disputes

1908 1909

1910 I9II 1912 1913

Workpeople directly or indirectly affected

company

The state Board of Arbitration considered the

responsible.

The strikes were marked

by violence;

much of the company’s property was destroyed and a number of

lives were lost. Twice the militia were used to restore order. In 1912 there were strikes led by the Industrial Workers of the World among the silk workers of New Jersey, the lumbermen in Louisiana, and the textile workers in Lawrence, Mass. (See Trave Unions.) The Lawrence strike lasted for nine weeks and affected 12 mills. On Jan. 11 about 14,000 employees walked

out, and during the strike the number increased to 23,000. The cause of the strike was the announcement by mill owners, when children to 54 a weck, that the reduction in hours would not be

Aggregate _ Duration in

accompanied by an increase in the hourly rates of pay.

Working Days

25,293 17,332 21,280

30,094

708,285

871,845 718,635

1,099,208

8,678 9,140 21,157

430,054 106,149 208,277

39,536

48,392

1,287,678

violence, for they preached passive resistance; however, threats

1,134,970 1911-5,

Violent acts by strikers, greatly exagger-

ated by the press, and violent acts by deputies, police and militia, scarcely mentioned by the press, embittered the struggle. Early in the strike Haywood, Ettor and Giovannitti, I.W.W. organizers, went to Lawrence. Their coming resulted in a reduction of to prevent strikebreakers from working probably continued.

1988

during the period

At the

beginning of the strike only a small number of the operatives were organized; the paid-up membership of the I.W.W. in Lawrence was not more than 300. During the strike the I.W.W. claimed 14,c00 members; but the next year the membership had dwindled to one-half.

2,046,650

40,511

68,489 Of the 449 disputes recorded

union members.

the state law went into effect limiting the hours of women and

Number of Number of

Some

In July the union concluded an

agreement with the remaining operators, only to have it rejected

71,440 709,108

number of *workpeople involved and the aggregate working days during the years 1908-19 :—

UNITED STATES

45,000 miners remained out.

Questions of wages were the main causes of 48% of the strikes

of Labour.

(D)

In Nov. 1909, more than 25,000 shirt-waist makers struck in

as to district boundaries prevented its renewal without friction. On April 1 about 300,000 miners struck. In most districts the

96,882

176

In r919 the total number of working days lost on account of strikes and lock-outs was 5,652,726. (J. H.)

These strikes were remarkable for the numbers involved, and for the plans of adjusting grievances which resulted. The joint agreement of the bituminous mine operators with the United Mine Workers expired April 1 1910. Disagreements

affected

118

157,591

New York City; in July roro the cloak and suit makers in the same city; and in Oct. the men’s clothing workers in Chicago,

Number of Work-

130 122

50,283 71,949 81,292 170,683 173,970

disputes were settled in favour of the workpeople, 28% in favour of the employers, and 42% were compromised.

Spain.—Statistics

Number of Workpeople affected

208

Of the disputes recorded during the period 1910-9, 63% were caused

recorded in 1919, 223 were due to wages. In the same year 157 of the disputes terminated in favour of the workpeople, 88 in favour of the employers and 23 were compromised.

wealth Bureau of Census and Statistics at the beginning of 1913.

3,671 20,576

708 440

strikes, involving 10,779 workpeople and resulting in a loss of 287,146 working days, occurred in the building trades. Of the 298 disputes

128

occurred in the building trades, 103 in the metal trades, 51 in the

clothing trades, 39 in the general transport trades and 29 in the mining industry. The majority of the disputes during the same period were due to questions of wayes and hours, about 70 % of the disputes

being due to this cause. With regard to the results of the disputes during this period 139 or 30% resulted in favour of the workpeople, 164 of 36% in favour of the employers, 79 or 17 % were compromised and in the remaining 67 cases the result was indefinite. In 1919 the industry most affected-by disputes was the metal and engineering, in which there were 45 strikes, involving 70,268 workpeople and a time loss of 1,993,704 working days. Forty

A

business man of Lawrence, not connected with the strikers, was arrested and fined for placing sticks of dynamite in various parts of the town, presumably to discredit the strikers. The American Federation of Labor contributed $11,000 to the strike relief fund, the Socialists $40,000 and the I.W.W. $16,000. Two

hundred children of the strikers were sent to New York to be fed

by other workers in order that their parents might hold out

longer. Ettor and Giovannitti were arrested in connexion with

the murder of a woman, and used their trial for propaganda.

The I.W.W. urged a general boycott of Lawrence. As a result of the strike 30,000 employees received wages increases of from 5%

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS to 20%, and an increased rate for overtime.

The largest in-

creases were given to the unskilled workers. The anthracite coal strike, beginning March 31 1912 lasted seven weeks, About 170,000 men and boys were out. The results

were wages increases, abolition of the sliding scale and provision

for a grievance committee.

A strike of the coal-miners of Paint

595

A lock-out of 16,000 coal-miners in Ohio which lasted more than a year was settled in May 191s, by Federal mediation, For a year after the war broke out in Europe, business was depressed in the United States, and many workers were competing for em-

ployment; but with increasing demand for labour on war contracts strikes again became numerous.

In 1915 there were 102

Creek and Cabin Creek in W. Virginia lasted from April 1912 to

strikes and 6 lock-outs of machinists in the four months July to

July 1913, and was marked by violence and lawlessness.

Oct.; in nearly every case the basic 8-hour day was gained.

Thir-

tecn lives were lost. It has been estimated that the employers Jost $2,000,000 because of the strike, the strikers $1,500,000 in wages and that the strike cost the taxpayers of the state or county $500,000. Miners in other states contributed $602,000 to the strike fund. The U.S. Senate ordered an investigation. In 1913 business was active, the cost of living was rising, and there were many strikes. A strike of silk workers in Paterson, N.J., beginning in Feb. involved 293 establishments and over

25,000 workers. The strike was in protest against the introduction of the three- and four-loom system, and to enforce shorter hours and increased wages. After the strike began, the I.W.W. sent in their leaders. They succeeded in holding the workers together during the five months of the strike. The attempt by the American Federation of Labor to organize the workers and effect trade agreements with the employers failed. The strike was lost through exhaustion of the workers. A strike in the copper mines of upper Michigan, for recognition of the Western

Federation of Miners and to compel the enforcement of certain state laws, began in the summer of 1913 and lasted until April 1914.

The nien were taken back with the promise of wages in-

creases and reduction of hours, but on condition that they give up membership in the union. In Sept. 1913 a strike broke out among the employces of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. for recognition of the United Mine

Workers’ Union, wages increases and the enforcement of state mining laws. In Dec. a Federal grand jury indicted many of the union officials for violating the anti-trust Act by trying to cre-

ate a monopoly of labour. Mine operators were also indicted for violating state mining laws. In Jan. 1914 the Federal House of Representatives ordered an investigation. Early in the strike the state militia had been sent in and martial law declared.

Both sides were guilty of violence. The strikers had moved from the houses owned by the company to tent colonies on land leased by the union. One of the largest of these was at Ludlow. On April 20 1914 militia fired into the tents, which were ignited, and 7 men, 2 women and 11 children perished. Each side accused the other of initiating the attack. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., on behalf of the employing company, refused to go to arbitration with the union, which he believed to be controlled by eastern agitators.

President Wilson then sent 2,000 Federal troops to

restore peace. They took the place of the militia, who withdrew, and disarmed the strikers and mine guards and deported the strikebreakers. In Sept. President Wilson proposed that the company should take back the strikers not guilty of violence and establish grievance committees and a committee of appeals to effect arbitration. The proposal was accepted by the miners

but rejected by the operators.

Early in Dec. 1914 the President

appointed a commission to settle future disputes in te Colorado mines, made up of representatives of the employers, the union and the public.

The union then voted to call off the strike and

on Dec. 30 part of the Federal troops were withdrawn. At no time during the strike did the directors of the company visit the property, but after investigation by the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, John D, Rockefeller, Jr., visited Colorado. The result was the introduction of a system of employce representation. The miners voted to accept the plan, which provides for annual election, by the workers in each camp, of representatives to meet in conference with the employers’ representatives. Fach district conference names committees on conciliation, safety,

Sanitation, health and housing, education and recreation. A supervisor of welfare work was appointed. The workers were granted the basic 8-hour day and check-weighmen. A promise was given that union men would not be discriminated against,

but the union was not recognized.

In

1916 there was noting in connexion with strikes in the oil refineries at Bayonne,

N.J., of iron and stee] workers in East

Youngstown, O., and of 30,000 workers of the Westinghouse Electric Co. in Pittsburgh. Unorganized iron miners on the Mesaba range in Michigan were on strike from June to October. In the same year there were also strikes of longshoremen on the

Pacific coast, and street railway employees in several cities. Coal strikes affected 350,000 men. Some 10% of the strikes that year were in New York City where more than. 300,000 workers were out, chiefly in the garment trades.. After the United States entered the war the American Federation of Labor discouraged strikes in essential industries, Disputes were settled by negotiation. A number of strikes did occur, however, in some cases involving large numbers of workers; the great majority were settled by Government committees. Those

responsible for war labour administration were of the opinion that the period of the war should be one of truce in the industrial

ficld. Demands for closed shop or for radical social change were barred. The truce was not always respected by workers or em-

ployers, but on the whole it was adhered to. Local machinists’ unions in Bridgeport and Newark came under radical socialist leadership. As many of the Allies’ war orders were placed in Bridgeport there was great demand for machinists and the town became overcrowded. The men were dissatished because their pay was lower than that of men in the shipbuilding yards, and because employcrs discriminated against the unions. In the summer of 1917 the men demanded the 8-hour day, 10% increase in wages with certain minimum rates of pay for cach class of workers, right of union membership and shop committees for the adjustment of grievances. The answer of the employers was

to ask the U.S. attorney-general for criminal action.

Various

Federal agents were sent to Bridgeport but were unsuccessful in preventing the strike which occurred in May 1918. The strikers, however, were persuaded by the Federal mediator to return to work. Hearings were held in Washington before a special board of the Ordnance Department, and on June 8 the

award was made public. After some protest the workers accepted it, but the employers refused, with the result that the men again went out on strike June 26. The War Labor Board took up the matter, but unsuccessfully, an umpire was appointed, who

granted the 8-hour day, arrangements for collective bargaining, and wages increases for the most poorly paid workers; but not classification of workers with minimum wage rates, The men felt that the Government should have sustained its earlier award,

and they refused to accept the sccond, which seemed to them to be a compromise with the employers. A third time they went out on strike. President Wilson then wrote to the strikers threatening that unless they returned to work immediately, they would be refused employment in any war industry in their

community,

they might not claim draft exemption on the

grounds of employment in an essential industry, and that the U.S. Employment Service would refuse to find them work in other localities. On Sept. 17 1918 the men voted to return te work. The President also required the employers to reinstate all strikers. The collective bargaining machinery provided by the award never functioned. In the summer of 1917 the entire lumber industry of the north-west was disorganized by strikes. The chief demand was for the 8-hour day, The President's Mediation Commission was unsuccessful in its attempt to settle the difficulties. The employers continued the 10-hour day, but they had difficulty in keeping men, and those who did accept employment practised sabotage. In the shipyards workers refused to handle “ 10-hour lumber.” These conditions continued until Col. Brice P. Disque, sent into

STRIKES

596

AND

the field by the “spruce division” of the War Department, effected the organization of the Loyal Legion of Loggers and LLumbermen made up of both employers and employees and with the aim of improving conditions by mutual agreement.

Members

signed a pledge of loyalty to the U.S. Government. On March 1 1918 the employers introduced the 8-hour day without reduction of wages. A sanitary survey of the camps was instituted, and other improvements in living conditions were made. Labour

turnover decreased and output increased considerably. Although at first it had aroused suspicion, the organization won support of most of the employers and men, but both A. F, of L, unions and I.W.W. continued to oppose it. In many places the public, in sympathy with the employing interest and angered by the philosophy of the I.W.W., attempted to prevent strikes by arresting labour organizers as these came into a locality. Some were thrown into jail and sometimes kept there for long periods without trial, Among the strikes in connexion with which violence occurred were those of the miners in Arizona, in 1917, who struck near Jerome (May) and Bisbee (June) and also in two other districts.

The chief demands were

for higher wages and grievance committees. Mine owners charged the I.W.W. as responsible, although an A. F.of L. international union was actually in charge of the strike. About roo miners were deported from Jerome by the employing interests, in cattle-cars. The train was turned back at the California state

line, and the men were kept in jail for three months. On July 12 r917 in Bisbee, 1,200 strikers were dragged from their beds by

armed citizens, compelled to march, and then confined in a ballfield and loaded on cattle-cars. The train was sent through the desert until taken over by soldiers camped at Columbus, N.M. Here they lived on army rations for three months, and then scattered. One-third of these men were members of the LW.W. In July rọrọ county officials arrested 107 men, prominent citizens of Bisbee, charged with kidnapping and assault, in connexion with the deportations of two years before. Civil suits for damages were filed against mining companies and the railways by the men who had been deported; these were settled out of court. In the six months following America’s entrance into the war 3,000 strikes were reported; in the first six months of ro18 the

number was 1,771,

When the Armistice was signed, the War

Labor Board had on hand several hundred cases awaiting hear-

ings. Now that the national emergency had passed, many employers and employees ceased to codperate. Strikes began again. As in 1916 and 1917, the greatest number of strikes in 1918 and 1919 were in the metal trades, building, clothing, textile, transportation and mining. The largest number of workers in any one strike In 1916 was 60,000, in the men’s clothing strike in New York; in 1917 no strike involved as many as 40,000; in 10918, 60,000 machinists were on strike in northern New Jersey. The strikes of roro were remarkable for the number of workers included; the total number was reported to the Bureau of Labor

Statistics as 4,112,507. Not many strikebreakers were employed; the labour reserve was still depleted owing to business prosperity of the war period. Many of the larger strikes occurred in New York City and its vicinity; 176,000 struck in the clothing trades; 150,000 textile workers in New Jersey and New England; 16,000 marine workers struck in New York harbour in Jan.; 17,000 in March ; and 20,000 longshoremen in March. In July 40,000 marine workers of the Atlantic coast struck; 100,000 were out sometime during the year. In 1910, also, 65,000 struck in the stock-

yards in Chicago; 100,000 in the shipyards of New York and

vicinity; 151,000 in the New York building trades; 43,000 anthracite miners in Pennsylvania, After the Armistice, war labour adjustment boards, one after another, were dissolved. Workers who had been prevented from striking by the promise of peaceful settlement of grievances, felt that the Government and employers had broken faith. The result was widespread unrest, and a number of spontaneous strikes by the rank and file of union membership, not authorized by the union officials.

Demands both for the closed shop, and

for the open shop were pushed without thought of compromise.

Employers discriminated against union men, and recourse was

LOCK-OUTS had to force. In accordance with a resolution of the convention of the A. F. of L. in June 1918, the 24 international unions which claimed jurisdiction over the trades in the steel industry cooperated to organize all the workers in that industry. Mass

meetings were held in Sept. in mill towns. The companies replied by discharging union members; the U.S. Steel Corp. ignored the request of President Gompers of the A, F. of L. fora

conference. On July 20 1919 the committee of the 24 unions decided to submit a strike vote to their membership. Twelve demands were made.

The real issue was recognition of the union,

Wages in the industry were high, but the hours long. In ro1% the stockholders of the Steel Corp. had ordered an investigation of conditions of work. The report showed that 50% to 60% ol the employees in rolling-mills, open hearth and blast furnaces

worked a 12-hour day. The committce recommended a reduction in hours, but the recommendation was quashed by the financé committee. In Sept. 1918 the basic 8-hour day was granted, which resulted in increased pay, not shorter hours. The com-

munities in which steel workers lived were ruled politically by

company influence. In W. Pennsylvania organizers were denied free speech and assemblage by local authorities. The unions voted to strike. The call to strike on Sept. 22 1919 was published in seven languages, to all workers in iron and steel mills and blast furnaces not bound by trade agreements. The companies prepared for battle.

At McKeesport alone 3,000 citizens

were sworn in as special police subject to instant call. The mills of the Pittsburgh district were fortified and provisioned. On Sept. 2r rioting and arrests began.

The next day 365,000 men

stayed away from work. The state constabulary were sent in. Gradually the men went back to work. On Jan. 8 1920 the national committee for organizing the workers permitted the 100,000 men, still out to return to the mills. Those who were taken back were required to give up their union cards. The national committee reported that 156,702 union members paid initiation fees between Aug. 1 1918 and June 31 1920, and es-

timated at 250,000 the total number organized. February 6 to 11 rọrọ there was a general strike in Seattle Wash., involving 60.000 persons, in sympathy with shipyard employees who were striking for an increase in pay. The general strike was carried out by craft unions of the A. F. of L., although I.W.W., propaganda in the interest of industrial solidarity may have helped to put the workers into the spirit for such a mass demonstration. On the first day rro unions stayed out; some workers had permits from the strike committee to work in the interests of public health and safety; garbage was collected and milk was delivered to distributing stations.

A Labour guard

patrolled the streets to preserve order. The business men viewed the strike as a “revolution.” The mayor announced that unless the strike were called off on the morning of Feb, 8, he would declare the city under martial law. This threat was not carried out, although citizens armed themselves, and the governor sent troops and machine-guns. On Feb. 11 the strike was called off. Workers had been returning, indeed, since the second day and a month later all were back, without wages increases. The Ney York harbour strike of Jan. roro arose spontaneously as the result of local initiative and comprised practically all the 16,000 or 17,000 men employed on harbour craft.

As a result

50,000 longshoremen also were idle. The harbour had been the scene of industrial dispute since'1017. The immediate cause of the rọrọ strike was the refusal of the employers to appear for arbitration before the War Labor Board to which the men had appealed for the 8-hour day and increased pay. The employers were persuaded by President Wilson to accept arbitration, and the men returned to work. The award did not provide for the 8-hour day, and the men struck again. The Railroad Administration then made concessions to the men on boats, and they returned

to work, Other Government employees followed, and by April the private employers settled for the original ro-hour day but with wages increases. On Oct. 7 the railway men struck again. The longshoremen joined them, against the orders of their national officials, They wanted increased pay; the strike dwindled away and was over by November.

STRINDBERG—STRYPA-CZERNOWITZ, In Aug. 1919, although forbidden by their national oflicers,

STRINDBERG,

BATTLE OF

AUGUST

(1849-1912),

597

Swedish

author

(see

the railway shopmen called a strike because of the delay of the

25.1038), died at Stockholm May 14 1912.

Wage Adjustment Board to reach a decision on the demands of the men for increased pay. The strike began in Chicago and

translated into English by E. and W. Oland H. B. Samuel (1914).

spread to New York and Boston; 250,000 men went out. After six days the strike was called off and the men returned to work.

(1914); C. D. Marcus, Strindbergs Dramatik (1918), C. L. Schleich,

See

A,

Henderson,

European

His plays have been

Dramatists:

(1912-3) and

August

Strindberg

At the request of President Wilson the demands for wages in-

Erinnerungen an Strindberg (1917).

creases were postponed. Other strikes not authorized by national

STRYPA-CZERNOWITZ, BATTLE OF.—The fighting in the area between the River Strypa and Czernowitz (the capital of

officers of the union were those of employees of the General

Electric Company in four cities in 1918 and of the New York

the Bukovina) in the winter of 1915-6 comprised an important

local of the International Typographical Union in rorg. For 1917, 72 “unauthorized strikes’ were reported, 58 for 1918, and 125 for 1919. Those in 1919 involved 1,053,256 strikers.

scries of operations on the castern front between Russia and the Central Powers. In the middle of Nov. 1915 the fighting activity in the Russian theatre of war had died down (sce EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT CAMPAIGNS). Both for Austria-lIlungary and for Germany the war against Russia became of secondary importance in pro-

In Nov. rọrọ 435,000 bituminous coal-miners struck for wages increases of 60%. They also demanded the 6-hour day, and the 3-day week in order to distribute the work through the year. The miners at first refused to arbitrate the dispute as they

portion as the war of annihilation against Serbia progressed.

feared the delay would give advantage to the employers. An injunction was issued to prevent the use of union funds for strike benefits.

The Central Powers had for the moment no offensive in view

against Russia, who was exhaustcd after the heavy fighting

An award of an impartial committee was accepted in

March 1920, which granted an average of 27% increase in wages,

which had gone before. Both belligerents now settled down toa war of position, which cnabled them to restore their armies. This

but the 8-hour day was retained.

lasted until Christmas.

About 93% of the policemen of Boston struck in Sept. rorg

|

In the middle of Dec., Ivanov, who was in command

of the

for the right to organize and affiliate with the American Federa-

Russian S.W. front, prepared for a new great offensive. This was,

tion of Labor. The the National Guard police strike to be a missioner filled the

no doubt, with the view ol raising their fallen prestige and tepaining the confidence of the wavering Balkan States; above all to

city was subject to rioting and crime until restored order, President Wilson declared a crime against civilization. The police complaces of the strikers with other men. In

relieve Montenegro, whose overthrow by Austria-Hungary was

imminent; and not least to serving the advantage which a Russian victory would have in influencing Rumania, which was still vacillating, to join in against the Central Powers. Three Russian armies—the VIII. under Brussilov, the XI. under Shtcherbachev and the [X. under Lechitski, with 32 infantry and 13 cavalry divisions as well as some Reichswehr formations—attacked the Austro-German front §. of the Polesic in E. Galicia and in the Bukovina. From N. to S. there stood opposed to the Russians the main body of Linsingen’s group of

Aug. 1919 there was also an actors’ strike, in which the stage

hands and musicians joined in sympathy. An “ outlaw ” strike on the railways in April 1920, due to the delay of the President in appointing the Labor Board provided by the Transportation

Act, was opposed by the brotherhoods. In 1919 and 1920 there were strikes on the Brooklyn Rapid Transit road, and in 1919 also on the Interborough Rapid Transit of New York. A strike and lock-out in the men’s clothing industry in New York of six months’ duration was settled June 2 1921. The settlement may be regarded as a victory for the union, and for the principle of trade agreements. Since Sept. 1920 negotiations had been carried on between the employers’ association and the union. Business depression gave an advantage to the employers, for

armies, Béhm’s group of armies and Bothmer’s and Pflanzer-

Baltin’s armies, counting roughly 40 infantry and 13 cavalry divisions. The approximate strength expressed in rifles was in the proportion of 450,000 Austro-Hungarian to 480,000 Russian.

The Austro-Hungarian infantry divisions were on a lower establishment than the Russian. Whereas on the N. wing and in the centre no particular actions took place, the main attack, assigned by Ivanov to Lechitski’s and Shtcherbachev’s armies, was delivered against Pflanzer and

whom a lock-out would not mean such a Joss as if it had come a year carlicr, On. Dec. 2 the employers presented an ultimatum to the union stating that unless piece work, a reduction in wages and the employer's full control of employment and discharge were accepted before Dec. 6 the manufacturers would put their

Bothmer on a front stretching from the Rumanian frontier to

own programme into effect, regardicss of the decision of the impartial board, The union rejected the ultimatum. The reply of

the employers was an announcement that the impartial machinery had ceased to function. Stoppages of work by employees and lay-offs and shut-downs by employers followed.

union instituted picketing.

By Dec. 13 the

An offer of mediation by the state

Industrial Commission was accepted by the union, but rejected by the manufacturers. ‘The manufacturers’ association resigned from the national federation. In Jan. 1921 one of the employers

mania.

and dissolution of the union because of its alleged revolutionary character. The suit for dissolution was dismissed on March 29.

The preparations for the attack on the Bessarabian front had

By March 27, 425 shops had reopened under agreements with the union, SO that 25,000 of the 60,000 clothing workers were again at

work. On April 5 the union announced that $1,000,000 had been raised 10ward their defense fund. Early in May certain of the

reached an agreement with the union, by which the bargaining machinery with the impartial chairman was reinstated. The workers accepted a 15% cut in wages. The union brought suit

for $1,000,000 damages against the employers on the charge of attempted boycott of union members. BIBLIOGRA PRY.-—A. M. Bing, War-Time Strikes and their Adjust(1919); J. H. Cohen,

Law and Order in Industry (1916); U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Review.

(J. R,

Co.,}

been evident since the middle of December. Lechitski had during that month assembled 4 corps in front of Pflanzer’s 5S. wing

between the Pruth and the Dniester. A sharp watch was kept on

this section by the XI. Corps under von Korda, general of infan-

employcrs resigned from the association, and the remainder

Monthly Labor

And besides, an advance into Bukovina was the shortest

cut to the Carpathians, the rcacquisition of which was among their most cherished ambitions. They hoped, by defeating Pflanzer’s army, to roll up Bothmer’s and Béhm’s fronts.

began suit for an injunction against picketing, $500,000 damages,

ment (1921); P. R. Brissenden, The I.W. W.

Burkandéw on the Strypa. The main burden of the attack fell on Pflanzer-Baltin’s army, which was fighting with 8 infantry and s cavalry divisions against the Russians’ 10 infantry and 6 cavalry divisions. Not without reason had the Russians selected the S. wing as the point of attack. A success which should give them back the capital of Bukovina could not have failed in its effect on Ru-

ee

try, with 3 infantry divisions and 1 of cavalry. Pfanzer was prudently preparing for the anticipated attacks by organizing the positions so strongly as to compensate for the deficiency in numbers. Reinforcements did not arrive until later. On Dec. 23 an attack on Papp’s brigade was repulsed with heavy Russian losses. In the following days small enemy attacks multiplied themselves at numerous points of the front. On the 26th heavy artillery fire began, and on the morning of the 27th, heralded by a heavy bombardment from at least 200 guns, the

Russian mass attack was launched on the Bessarabian frontier

STUART

598

and to the N.E. of Zaleszczyki, having as its centre of gravity the positions N. of Toporowce. In the afternoon also the Russians flung themselves six times on the Austro-Hungarian positions, 15 or 16 rows decp, but in vain. They were driven back with heavy losses either by artillery fire or in hand-to-hand fighting.

On the 8th, oth and roth, it seemed as if the Russians had again

Mogila height had to be brought back to the main position. On the 29th the battle reached its height. Not only the XI. Corps but also the VI. Corps and the 36th Inf. Div., defending the heights on the E. bank of the Strypa, were furiously attacked. The Russians had brought up fresh forces from Odessa and Kherson for the attack on the N. wing of Pflanzer’s army. The

stormed the Austro-Hungarian positions unceasingly in the attempt to break through. But each new attack ended in a precipitate retreat, thanks to the excellent artillery defence. Pflanzer’s front had meanwhile been reinforced by the goth

to pause and take breath. Austro-Hungarian airmen reported the approach of new Russian reinforcements opposite the N, wing of Pflanzer’s army. On all these three days, however, the Russians continued to fire on the positions. On the roth the On the 28th they repeated their ruthless attacks, which, as at firing at Toporowce and Rarancze became considerably more Toporowce and Bojan, became exceedingly violent. The S. wing vigorous, and when it reached its greatest intensity on the rrth, of the S. army was attacked on the same day by the Russian XI. and finally resolved itself into a bombardment, Korda again Army, now commanded by Gen. Sakharov in place of Shtcher- prepared for a most determined resistance. From three o'clock bechev. At Burkanéw an Austro-Hungarian outpost on the in the afternoon until ten in the evening, the Russian masses

Russian VII. Army, with 5 to 6 divisions of the Caucasian V.

Corps and the IJ. Army Corps, pushed in between Lechitski’s and Sakharov’s armies, and in addition the II. Cav. Corps came over from Lechitski’s S. wing. Considerably reinforced by these new forces, Ivanov continued to bring fresh masses into the attack on the Austro-Hungarian VI. Corps and the 36th Inf. Div. But as on the previous days all these attacks, courageous as they were, broke down. Sakharov’s S. wing met with the same fate in attacking the Burkanéw bridge-head. Here the 132nd Inf. Bde. of Hoffmann’s Corps heroically repulsed one onslaught after another and brought goo prisoners behind the lines, leaving as many Russian corpses in front of the obstacles. On the 30th and 31st the Russians, after hours of preliminary bombardment, renewed their attempts to break through opposite the VI. Corps. But Arz, reinforced by the 38th Honved Inf. Div. which had been brought up from the S. army, repulsed all the assaults. On the 31st the Russians, having had no success, and considerably weakened by their enormous losses, withdrew in the evening. On the Dniester front and the Bessarabian frontier they confined themselves on both days to moderate artillery fire,

being greatly exhausted by the preceding days. On the II., I. and IV. Army fronts also, only artillery duels took place. On New Year’s eve and the morning of Jan. r 1916 the attacks on Pflanzer’s S, wing in Bessarabia increased in intensity. But Korda repulsed all the Russian IX. Corps attacks in handto-hand fighting, with the help of the 9th Inf. Bde., which had come up from the Italian theatre. In the afternoon 6 Russian infantry regiments returned to the assault at Rarancze, and succeeded in forcing back the Austro-Hungarian position by about 300 paces on a breadth of 1,200 paces. A counter-attack was at once put in hand, but could not penetrate owing to renewed Russian attacks.

Arz’s and Bothmer’s S. wing, which was attacked

by the Russian XXII. Corps at Sokolov, repulsed all attacks on New Year’s day. On the 2nd the Russians repeated their efforts to break through at Rarancze, but failed in each case. But in view of the Russians’ superior numbers, the Austro-Hungarian higher command re-

nounced the idea of winning back the lost position. On the 3rd and 4th the battle burst forth again on the Dniester front. At Toporowce and Rarancze furious fighting again took place. But the Russians’ efforts remained fruitless, their attacks being frustrated by the striking bravery of the defenders in close fighting. Here the brave Croats of the 16th Inf. Reg. played a most glorious part. At Ocna, too, and at the bridge-head of

Honved Inf. Div., the 2nd Cav. Div. and the 24th Inf. Division.

It was not until the 13th that the Russians girded themselves forafreshattack. With their divisions filled by fresh troops, they launched against Korda’s positions eight violent assaults before the evening of the 14th, but were obliged to retire each time with heavy losses. This was their last effort. Their strength seemed broken, and on the 15th, except for some firing on the positions, there was peace. The failure of the Russian attacks, and the cessation of hostilities against Montenegro which followed on the 17th, indicated

the close of the New Year’s battle. There were still a few isolated attacks in the next few days, but the need for rest on both sides brought about a speedy return to the war of positions. The embittered attacks of the Russian S$. army persisted with only a few intervals for 24 days, ending in a complete victory for Austria-Hungary along the 130-km. battle-front of the VII. Army. At Rarancze only was a small portion of the front given up, whereas the Russian masses paid heavy tribute before the strong Austrian positions.

Thus the Russians failed to achieve their great aims. Their offensive was not able to save Montenegro from her fate, the Austro-Hungarian front had not been forced back, and the failure of the attack, which cost the Russians at least 170,000

dead and wounded and 6,c00 prisoners, could not definitely influence Rumania’s policy. (E. J.) STUART, JAMES (1843-1913), British educationist and politician, founder of the university extension movement, was born at Balgonie, Fife, Jan. 2 1843, the son of Joseph Gordon Stuart, a manufacturer. He was educated at St. Andrews and

at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was third wrangler in 1866. In 1867 he was elected a fellow of Trinity, and became a mathematical tutor. The same year he lectured in astronomy to women teachers at Liverpool, and such was the success of these

lectures that he was invited to repeat them at other centres. From this small beginnning arose the university extension movement, which, though undertaken at first merely as an experiment, has now attained a very great success. In 1375 Stuart became first professor of mechanism and applied mechan-

ics at Cambridge, and in this capacity was responsible for the organization of the university workshops and the teaching of engineering generally. In 1882 he unsuccessfully contested Cambridge University as a Liberal, but in 1884 was elected for Hackney. He held this seat till 1885. From 1885 to 1900 he was member for Hoxton and from 1906 to 1910 member for Sunderland. He was created a privy councillor in 1909. For many years he was a Progressive member of the London County

Michalcze, N.W. of Uscieczko, the front and fianks of which were

Council, and was also interested in the management of the Star

already surrounded by the Russians, all attacks were untiringly

and the Morning Leader. Stuart married in 1890 Laura Elizabeth,

repulsed.

the daughter of J. J. Colman, head of the great firm of mustard

On the sth, after these assaults, a short lull set in once

more in E. Galicia and on the Bessarabian frontier. On Jan. 7, the Russian Christmas Day, which was also the

opening day of the attack on Montenegro, the Russian stormmasscs again attacked the VII, Army. At Dobropole a counterattack by the 12th Inf. Div. drove the troops of the 3rd Turkestan Div. out of a captured line of trenches. At 11 a.m. the Russians opened a heavy bombardment on the Korda’s XI. Corps, follow-

ing it up at one o’clock with an infantry attack on the Toporoutz and Rarancze positions. But this again brought no success.

manufacturers, and became a director of the firm in 1898.

He

died at Norwich Oct. 13 1913.

STUART, RUTH McENERY (1856-1917), American writer, was born in Avoyelles parish, La., in 1856. She was educated in private schools in New Orleans and in 1879 married Alfred C. Stuart, a planter. Her first story, Uncle Mingo’s Speculations, appeared in 1888 in the Princeton Review. She moved to New York City in 1891 and soon became known for her stories of negro lifein the South. She also wrote much verse for magazines..

STUBBS—STYRIA _ She often appeared as a public reader of her own works, which were characterized by humour and pathos. Tulane University, New Orleans, conferred upon her in rors the degree of Litt.D.

She died in New York City May 6 r917. (1896);

career in the Chamberlain’s department of the Imperial Court, but he held at the same time different situations in the Senate,

(1898);

the Ministry of Justice and elsewhere. When in 1892 the Government rejected the candidate nominated to the presidency of

Wooing of Salina Sue (1905); Sonny's Father (1910); The

the executive board of the Tver Zemstvo, Stiirmer, whose name was on the list of the Tver gentry, was appointed to this office,

Her numerous

In

books include Carlotta’s Intended (1894); Sonny

Simpkinsville

(1897);

Moriah's

Mourning

Napoleon Jackson, the Gentleman of the Plush Rocker

Second

399

are the only explanation of his brilliant success in a circle to which he did not belong by birth or fortune. He started his

Unlived Life of Little Mary Elen

a

The

(1910); Daddy Do- Funny's Wisdom

Jingles (1913) and Plantation Songs and Other Verse (1916). STUBBS, CHARLES WILLIAM (1843-1912), English divine, was born at Liverpool Sept. 3 1843, and educated at the Royal

Institution

school,

Cambridge.

His father and grandfather were Yorkshire agricul-

Liverpool,

and

Sidney

Sussex

College,

turists, and throughout his life he took a strong interest in the welfare of the agricultural labourer, publishing three volumes on the subject, Village Politics (1878), Christ and Democracy (1883) and The Land and the Labourers (1890}. He was a strong

Liberal with somewhat socialistic views, and was preferred by Mr. Gladstone to the living of Stoekenham and Chivelstone in Devon in 1884. In 1887 he was transferred to Liverpool, becoming

rector of Wavertree, In 1893 he became dean of Ely, remaining there til] r905, when Sir Henry Campbell-Banncrman nominated him to the bishopric of Truro, He was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1904, and published his lectures under the title

The Christ in English Poetry (1905). His other works include A Creed for Christian Socialists (1896); Charles Kingsley and the Christian Social Movement

(1898) and a Handbook

te Ely

Cathedral (1898). He died at Truro May 4 rg12. STURDEE,

SIR

FREDERICK

CHARLES

DOVETON,

isr

Barr. (1839- — ), British Admiral, was born at Charlton, Kent, June 9 1859, the son of a naval officer, and entered the navy in 1871. He was promoted lieutenant (1880), commander (71893),

captain (1899), rear-admiral (1908), vice-admiral (1913), admiral (1917) and admiral of the fleet (1921). He saw service in Egypt (1882) and in Samoa (1898~9) when he was In command of the Anglo-American

force.

He was

assistant-director

of

Naval Intelligence to the Admiralty (1900-2) and chief of staff, Mediterrancan Fleet (rqgog-7) and Channel Fleet (1907). In 1910 he became rear-admiral of the first Battle Squadron, and

commanded the 2nd Cruiser Squadron (1912~3),

During the

World War he was commander-in-chief, on the “ Invincible,” of the squadron which won the battle of the Falkland Is., Dec. 8 1914, and he took part in the battle of Jutland. He was created K.C.B. (1913), and K.C.M.G. (1916); and a baronetcy was conferred on him in 1916, with the title “ of the Falkland Is.” In 1918 he became commander-in-chicf of the Nore. STURDZA,

DEMETRIUS

(1833-1914), Rumanian

statesman

(see 25.1051), died in 1914.

STURGKH, CARL, Count (1859-1916), Austrian prime minister from Nov. 3 1911 to the time of his murder, was born on Oct. 30 1850, of an ancient noble Styrian family, and in 1881 he became an

official of the Statthalterei at Graz, and later of the Ministry of Education. He left the State service in 1891, when he was elected as a representative of the loyal land-holding interest to the Reichs-

rat. He attached himself to the Left of the German party, and came forward as a keen opponent of universal suffrage. He was from Feb. 10 1909 to Nov. 3 1911 Minister of Education, and a zealous advocate of the humanistic education traditional in the

gymnasia. Stürgkh was one of the committee of five ministers who decided on the dispatch of the ultimatum to Serbia and the declaration of war, which brought onthe World War. He was killed on Oct. 21 1916 by a shot fired by the Social Democrat Friedrich Adler, a son of the Social Democrat leader, Viktor Adler, as a protest against Stiirgkh’s government without parliament. (See AUSTRIAN EMPIRE.)

STÜRMER, BORIS VLADIMIROVICH (1849-1017), Russian

politician, was born in 1849, the son of an emigrant—his father being captain of a fire brigade at Tula. He studied at the university of Petrograd, and there made friends with Count Bobrinsky,

a member of one of the leading Russian families, who introduced him into the upper circle of Petrograd society. His affable man-

ners and his ability to win the confidence of important people

It was the first case of a president of the Zemstvo being appointed instead of being elected.

In 1894 Stiirmer was appointed gover-

nor of the Novgorod, and later of the Iaroslav] province. Subsequently he was in charge of a department of the Home Office. In r904 he was created member of the State Council, but he

never took an active part in the legislative work. Meanwhile he won the confidence of the Court, and he was made prime minister in Jan. 1916, at a period when the Emperor,

avoiding strong personalities, wished to secure the fulfilment of his orders by devoted servants. As prime minister Stiirmer’s reactionary attitude provoked a strong apposition in liberal and patriotic circles; rumours accusing him of connexions with Germany were widely spread without real proof. These accusations were finally brought to the tribune of the Duma by M. Milyukov and resulted in Stiirmer’s resignation in November. After Sazonov’s dismissal Stiirmer took the portfolio of Foreign Affairs,

and his activities in this department resulted in the premature declaration of war by Rumania, so disastrous for that country and for Russia. He was arrested after the revolution, and he died in prison of disease in Sept. 1917. STYRIA (see 25.1058), an Austrian territory bordered on the E. by the Southern Slav State and that part of Burgenland which belongs to Austria; on the N. by Lower and Upper Austria; on the W. by Salzburg and Carinthia; and on the S. by the Southern Slav State. The part of Styria included in the Southern Slav State has an area of some 2,366 sq. m. and had, in 1910, a pop. of 433,000, The Austrian territory extends over some 6,304 sq. m.,

of which the greater part is mountainous and almost the whole lies in the Eastern Alps. Styria had formerly three large divisions: —Northern or Upper Styria; Middle Styria; and Southern or Lower Styria. Lower Styria and the southern part of Middle Styria, up to the Posruck range and to the Mur have, however, been taken over by the Southern Slav State, Middle Styria is surrounded on the W. and N. by a semi-circular mountain range which joins the Cetic and a part of the Noric Alps and has recently become known as the “ Steierische Randgebirge.”

The

pass through which flows the river Mur between Bruck and Graz

unites it to Upper Styria. The northern part of Upper Styria is

occupied by the heights of the Nérdlichen Kalkal pen. The eastern part of the Noric Alps, the Bachern together with the Posruck, now belongs to the Southern Slav State. Population. -The pop. of the Styria of to-day was, in 1910, tee in 1920 it had decreased to about 946,720 (151 per sq.m.). t is almost purely German. The proportion of males to females in 1910 was as 1,000 to 983; in 1920 as 1,000 to 1,053. While Styria lost some 75,000 Germans, among whom were 9,000 belonging to the exclusively German-speaking districts, she has now only about 5,000 Slovene inhabitants. In I910 the pop. of the present-day

Styria was as to 97-4% Roman Catholic and 2-1 % Evangelical.

For administrative purposes, Styria is divided into 16 districts

and the autonomous city of Graz, the capital (pop. 157,032 in 1920}. Other important places are:—(pop. figures are taken from the census

of 1920) in the Traun and Enns district of Upper Styria—Bad Aussee (pop. 1,370); Eisenerz (pop. 6,337); Mariazell, the famous resort of pilgrims (pop. 1,881); im the Upper Mur district—Juden-

burg (pop. 5,668); Fohnsdorf (pop. 7,199); Zeltweg (pop, 3,682); Knittelfeld

(pop. 10,672); Leoben

(pop. 11,231}; Donawitz (pop.

6,483) ;—in Middle Styria—Koflach

(pop. 2,655); Voitsberg (pop.

15,087); Vordernberg (pop. 2.352); Bruck an der Mur (pop. 8,490); —in Mirz-fhal—Kappenberg (pop. 12,576); Mürzzuschlag (pop3.283); Eggenberg

bei Graz

(pop. 15,554); Weiz

(pop. 3,620);

Fürstenfeld (pop. 5,649) and the Gleichenberg Spa, Kurort Gleichenberg (pop. 872). i : Education.—Styria has three higher educational establishments, namely the university and the technical college of Graz and the Montanist College in Leoben.

Notwithstanding the great unevenness of the surface, only 8-0% of the present Styria could be reckoned as unproductive in 1900. Of the productive parts, 19°1% was arable; 0-9% gardens; 0-5 %

600

SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY

vineyards; 11-83% meadows; 13:3% grazing lands; 54:4% was, however, forest. This territory is justly called “green Styria.” Cattle-raising has greatly developed and farming is actively carried on on the high lands. Nevertheless, in 1918 there were only 358,108 head of cattle (of which 170,630 were_milch-cows) and

344,188 swine.

A good breed of horses exists in Ennsthal and con-

siderable attention is devoted to poultry-farming in Middle Styria, where the shooting and fishing are good. The forests yield a great variety of timber.

Minerals.—Styria is so rich in iron ore that it has been called the “land of iran" (eiserne Mark). Lignite is also abundant. Of the total output of the mines of present-day Austria (51,000,000 kronen

in 1915) 71% (36,000,000 kronen) is attributed to Styria; its out-

put of iron (1-8 million tons in 1915) is over 94% of the Austrian total. Iron-mining is almost exclusively confned to the Erzberg between Eisenerz and Vordernberg. The manufacture of iron in Austria is now almost entirely confined to Styria (538,753 tons out of a total of 541,004 tons), The most important iron-smelting works are in or near the above-named region and at Hieflau, Trofaiach and especially Donawitz; in the lignite districts, in Zeltweg and Knittelfeld, near the lignite diggings of Fohnsdorf and in Erbiswald; also in Mürz-Thal (Kapfenberg, Mürzzuschlag). The MürzThal is also the centre of the newly created scythe-making industry. The lignite produced, 1-8 million tons or over 74% of the Austrian total, is found in many places. The most important mines are at

Fohnsdorf in Upper Styria; the product of those near Leoben is used by the great metal works of Donawitz and others—and there are smaller mines in Mirz-Thal; in Western Middle Styria in the

Brest. Altogether 20,000 n.m. of ex-German cables were captured during the war, covering practically every one of those: passing through the English Channel. Remarkable indeed were the achievements of submarine telegraph cable- laying and repairing authorities during the war. Despite the active German submarine warfare, a vast number stand to the credit of British ships, largely to meet immediate Strategic requirements. Whilst some of these were effected by cruisers of the Royal Navy provided with the necessary apparatis, and the required length of cable, they were in the most part carried out by specially designed telegraph ships, though accompanied as often as possible (where especially desirable) by a man-of-war as escort. In addition to manufacturing 20,000 m. of trench telephone cable, the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co. made 19,000 m. of submarine cable, and its ships were actively engaged on highly dangcrous work in the way of

laying, repairing and diverting cables.

The “ Telconia ’’—per-

haps the most efficiently designed telegraph ship in existence— made 75 cable repairs and laid 24 new lines around the English and Irish coasts whilst in commission for H.M. Post Office.

The first entirely new cable to be laid during the war was that by the Telegraph Construction Co.’s T.S. “ Colonia ” between

districts of Hdflach and Voitsberg and those of Eibiswald and Wies. Styria also produces salt; 28,000 tons, some 17% of the whole

Montevideo and the Falkland Is. in 1915, under the auspices of the British Admiralty. In the same year, this company also laid, under Post Office supervision, a direct Anglo-Russian cable from

of Weiz are world-famed. Moanufactures—Notable

Arctic Ocean eoast point to Petrograd), In both instances this was the earliest occasion on which a cable had been brought to the farther point. The first line had purely strategic objects in view, but the second was more especially to meet the fact that communication between Britain and Russia had previously been only effected acrosscountriesthat were now to a great extent enemy countries; indeed, the Indo-European Telegraph Co.’s land line system had become practically inoperative ever since the outbreak of the war. This work was a truly remarkablefeat. The cable was laid in the winter and was landed on Russian territory at the time of ycar when the sun does not rise above the horizon in those northern latitudes. In fact, the entire undertaking nhad

Austrian output, was obtained near Aussee in 1915. It yields also almost the entire Austrian output of graphite and some sulphur, lead and zinc ores, clay and building stone. The output of magnesite has become especially important; Styria alone almost supplies the world, chiefly fram the neighbourhood of Veitsch, Trieben, Kraubath, in the Breitenau near Bruck and elsewhere. Water-power.—The plentiful and accessible supply of water-power has caused the installation of great electrical stations of which, however, full advantage has not been taken. The electrical works Styrian

manufacturing

those of the iron works at the places already named, Thal (Rottenmann, Trieben) and at and near Graz.

industries

are

also at PallenThese turn out

a great variety of iron goods; small articles as well as scythes, machinery,

locomotives

(Graz),

bicycles

(Graz)

and

wagons.

Graz makes carriages and automobiles and also holds an important

place in the wide-spread wood industries (including furniture). The manufactures of hgnite and cellulose, pasteboard, paper (GratKorn, near (oraz, and other places), also of beer (Graz), tiles, flour, leather, explosives (Deutsch-Landsberg and other places) are considerable. [ess important are !lour-milling, and the textile, glass, tobacco and chemical industries.

Communications.—Vhe new frontier cuts through the MarburgUnterdrauburg line so that the connexion between Middle Styria

and Carinthta goes a long way round, causing considerable inconvenience. Mariazell is now connected by rail with Vienna.

SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY (see 26.527).—In t1o2xz there were over 298,000 nautical miles of telegraph cable in operation at the sea bottom, made up of some 3,000 separate lengths, of which about 2,540 were administered by the various governments concerned, whilst the remainder were the property of private (mainly British) companies. Of the world’s cables, over 130,000 n.m. are owned by British companies, 71,000 by American companies, and 24,000 by companies of other countries. How much the Allied countrics—especially Britain—were indebted to submarine telegraphy in connexion with the World War will probably never be fully realized. Had British communication with the Dominions been cut off at the outset by the enemy, months would have elapsed before arrangements could have been completed for the despatch of the overseas contingents which rushed to British aid. On the other hand, within four hours of

the declaration of war, Germany was entirely deprived of direct telegraphic communication with the United States. A British

cruiser cffected the required interruption in the English Channel by cutting both the cables running between Emden and New York via the Azores, one being taken in to Penzance (Cornwall). Then in March 1917 they were both cut at points 643 and 610 n.m. respectively from New York, one of them being diverted by a British P.O. telegraph ship into Halifax, Nova Scotia. Since July r917 this has been at any rate temporarily turned to account as a connecting link with the All-British Pacific Cable system.

The other line was handed over to France and taken in to

Peterhead (Aberdeenshire) to Alexandrovsk (about the nearest

to be carried out in darkness, as well as in seas infested with enemy submarines. It was conducted with every possible secrecy, it

being arranged for the ‘‘ Colonia,” in order to mislead the enemy,

to go on a preliminary cruise in an entirely different direction. With land lines at each end and special repeaters, direct telegraphic communication was thus established between the Central Telegraph Office in London and the corresponding building in Petrograd. Moreover, many telegrams from countries S. of Russia—Greece, for instance—passed over this cable in making their circuitous journey from the Levant to various quarters of the globe. This was the first piece of ocean cable work that the British Post Office had ever had to do with. Thus, for its purpose, Post Office engineers and clerks were initiated, at short notice, in the art of deep-sea cable-laying and long distance cable-working at the hands of the contractors, as well as by a staff of the Eastern: Telegraph Co. provided for working the cable.” The other more especially important piece of British cable work was the putting through of one of the Emden-New York cables as the first Imperial Atlantic cable to link wp with the. All-British Pacific line. The path taken by what now constitutes

a completed “All Red” route to Australasia is London, Penzance, Fayal Isle, Azores

(mid-Atlantic),

Halifax, Bamfield

(Van-

couver), Fanning I. (a small, mid-Pacific, coral formation),. Suva (Fiji Is.), Norfotk I., from whence there are two branches,

one to Southport, Queensland (Australia) and the other to Auckland (New Zealand). The Atlantic section of this “ All Red ” cable system was being worked in 1921 by the Post Office. Thus it has come to pass that a Government department, that, conjointly with the great cable

companies, had opposed in turn the scheme for an All-British t Owing to the enemy's submarine activities, the late German.

Atlantic cables could not be attended to for some 14 months. |

? The Post Office Engineering Department’s previous experience of cable work was closely confined to short Channel lines, etc.

SUBMARINE CABLE

TELEGRAPHY

601

Pacific Cable and then later that for an All-British Atlantic Cable,

During the latter part of the war, the American submarine

has been called upon itself to put into practice the latter, and now appears as an exponent of “ All Red” cables generally. The

cables on the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean coasts were taken under control of the United States Government. Inter alia there was a feeling that considerable advantage would attach to the coördination of all the telegraph systems throughout the country. Eventually ( Nov. 2 1918 ) the U.S. Postmaster-General also assumed

department in question did much fine work during the war. At the very outset—on the eve of Aug. 4 1914, indeed—its principal telegraph ship, the ‘‘ Monarch,” set forth forthe N., where many emergency cables were forthwith laid. It was not long, however,

before she met her glorious end, and her “shattered bones” are now lying on the bed of the English Channel—the scene of most of her work. She was one of the very first vessels to be especially

designed for cable-laying and repairing.

Another telegraph ship that met her end over the war was the “ Dacia,” owned by the Silvertown Company. This vessel had accomplished a great deal in her time, and during July rorsFeb. 1916 she effected cable communications between Brest (France) and Casablanca (Morocco), by cutting in at suitable -positions and picking up and relaying part of the Borkum-Teneriffe cable belonging to Germany. Nearly 450 n.m. of cable were picked up and relaid on this occasion, part of it ina depth of 2,000 to 2,500 fathoms. She then proceeded to establish communication between Casablanca (Morocco) and Dakar (W. Africa), by cutting in, picking up and relaying portions of the TeneriffeMonrovia cable belonging to Germany. Eight hundred n.m. of deep-sea cable were on this occasion recovered and relaid in an

average depth of over 2,000 fathoms. We have here a “ record ” in cable work. It was undertaken for the French Administration, and Casablanca had not up to that time been connected to Europe

by submarine cable. The cable facilitated the sending of troops to France by Morocco and Senegal when greatly needed.

Messrs. Siemens Brothers’ unique and highly efficient telegraph ship ‘“‘ Faraday ’’—originally designed by the late Sir Willam Siemens, F.R.S.—also achieved much during the course of the war on behalf of the British Post Office, which had at one time in commission practically every telegraph ship available, including the largest (T. S. ‘‘ Colonia ’’). Even though observing constant vigilance, a telegraph ship, when effecting a repair, being deprived of manceuvring powers by attachment to the cable, is peculiarly vulnerable to anything like a torpedo attack. It is, therefore, something to be able to say that the Post Office kept Britain and the European continent in continuous electrical communication. During the early part of the war telegraph ships went about their business alone and unattended, but with the development of intense submarine warfare naval escorts had to be provided by the Admiralty, Escorts are not, however, a safeguard against submerged mines, and so it was that the old “ Monarch ” met her fate, going down with her flag flying. On one occasion a telegraph ship on repairing work hove up a mine with the cable, but beyond damage to machinery and breakage of crockery, no harm was done. Apart from the disposal of four of the world’s telegraph fleet,! there were only two instances of Germany getting the best of things in the matter of cable communication. Within the first year of the war, a German man-of-war landed a party on the deserted beach of Fanning I., and this party succeeded in cutting the All-British Pacific cable there. The other case was that of the “Eastern” cable landed at Keeling-Cocos. Here again the

attacking party from the “ Emden” succeeded in cutting the cables,’ but an alarm signal which had been got through led to the “ Emden’s” final doom.

In this case great enterprise was

shown by the “ Eastern” Co.’s superintendent, and in neither instance was the interruption very serious or lengthy. Though there were only these two cases of enemy disturbance of the

Allies’ cables, many were rendered dumb from the wear and tear

of four years, during which time it was impossible to effect re-

pairs, for lack of suitable ships and the risk of exposing slowmoving vessels to enemy attack. 1 The total number of such vessels in 1921 was 49, of which some half dozen were owned by contractors for the original laying of ocean cables, the rest being smaller vessels, of the cable working companies, for subsequent repairing operations.

2 The officials in charge had, however, prepared a ruse by utilizing

some spare

cable as a dummy, and this dummy

solemnly cut.

the Germans

administrative control of all cable landing on U.S. territory, after

the necessary negotiations with other countries concerned had been carried through. Control ended on May 2 rgro9. Post-war Developments. —War wastage, the banning of private codes, considerable general increase of traffic? (partly owing to absence of mails) and voluminous Government messages, were all responsible for an appalling cable congestion during the war, the result being several days’—sometimes even weeks’—delay in the transit of messages on most of the more important trunk lines. Though, after the Armistice things became somewhat easier, with the withdrawal of the censorship and the renewal of private

codes, the ultimate delivery of cablegrams was even in 1927 a very slow business. When the Marconi Trans-Atlantic wireless service was re-established some measure of relief was felt. Unfortunately, however, it was only capable of dealing with a small proportion of the ordinary prevailing cable traffic. The hampering of trade, during the war, by the prohibition of most private cable codes, was very considerable.

To take an example, a cer-

tain firm had been in the habit of sending every week some 40 cablegrams at an average of fr each. The cost of the same messages in plain English would have been some £320. Most of the cables requiring repairs after the war had been attended to by 1921, but there was still considerable delay on cablegrams, even though the lines were being worked at their full capacity, day and night. When it is remembered that in the year before the war (1913) 826,000 messages passed through the two Atlantic cables then connecting the United States with Germany,‘ it will be realized what it meant to American commerce alone to be deprived of

these direct cable connexions. In 1921 it was planned to lay a new Atlantic cable between the two countries, and to extend the German cable that had been taken into Brest by the French, as a compromise, to central or northern Europe with a landing

en route off Denmark,

Ever since all of what were formerly British Atlantic cables passed, in rg12, into the administrative hands of the Western Union Telegraph Co. of America, the British Government had been strongly urged—as, indeed, for many years previously—to establish a State Atlantic Cable as a connecting link with the All-British Pacific Cable. The war only served to accentuate this view. Whilst the capture and diversion of the German Atlantic Cable (taken into Penzance and Halifax) went some way to meet requirements, this line had not only been irregular in its

performance but much congested with traffic, largely American. When therefore, in rọrọ, the Western Union Co. brought to an end their lease of the Direct United States Co.’s cable system-—between Ballinskelligs (Ireland), Halifax (Nova Scotia) and Halifax-Rye Beach (United States)—on the ground of

it being so constantly out of operation—the British Government entered into negotiations, towards the end of 1920, for the pur-

chase of the line at a cost of £570,000, or scarcely more than half the value of a new cable. When this is given cffect the line— together with the Imperial Pacific Line—will form a complete and strictly “All Red” route between the Mother Country and Australia. Though the line (originally laid in 1874) is even of more ancient order than the ex-German cables, British Imperial needs will, to a great extent, be met.

The shortcomings will

be further met when a Canadian land line, connecting the AllBritish Atlantic and Pacific Cables, is provided. The All-British Pacific Cable, first laid in 1902, has more than justified itself. During its first year scarcely more than 200,000 3 In the case of the Eastern Co.'s system this was more than doubled by the war. Thus, the annual gross receipts of the company were about £2,000,600 more than previously, and much the same

applies to others in the same group.

‘In actual fact these cables accounted for 32 % of the total traffic of the Commercial Cable Company.

602

SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY

words were sent. Ten years later, the volume of trafic had been increased ten-fold. The war brought this up to some 26,000

ment considered that allowing such a cable to be laid would have lent colour to the British company having sole rights of communi-

words per day, or about 9,500,000 words per annum.

cation between the United States and Brazil,

Notwith-

standing the large capital cost of this line (£2,000,000) it produced a gross profit of £94,000 for the year 1920, whilst its reserve fund stood at nearly £1,107,000. To illustrate the high strategic value of the line, during the war, if the Allies had happencd to be—even temporarily—deprived of naval control, the British Mediterrancan cables would undoubtedly soon have been cut, which would have meant that British inter-impcrial telegraphic communication could only have been secured by means of the All-British Pacific line. It had been felt for a long time that, since the Imperial Pacific cable was laid as far back as 1902, steps must be taken to duplicate it in order to provide against complete breakdown, as well as for dealing with over-congestion, In 1921, however, owing to the necessity for economy and to the high cost of materials, it seemed probable that this duplication would require to be limited, for the present, to the duplication of the long, slow working, scction in very deep water, 7.¢. the 3,458 n.m. between Bamfield (Vancouver) and Fanning I., which runs into a depth of 3,400 fathoms (nearly 3} n.m.), and brings down the resultant speed on the whole line to a low figure. Perhaps nothing contributed more in the past to the leading

commercial position of Britain than her enterprise in the matter of telegraph cables. Fortunately, too, she also recognized that the problem of Empire is largely a problem of communication. Arising out of the war to some extent, there has been a general demand for a great deal more inter-communication, not only between different branches of the British Empire, but also between distant foreign countries. This demand must be met in the first place by a considerable addition to the world’s cable system over and above those that were in operation previous to hostilities. The part of the British Empire which in 1921 was more especially badly served in the matter of telegraphic communication was the West Indies, where, largely owing to the nature of the sea bottom, the existing inter-insular lines (originally laid in 1870) were constantly breaking down.! But for “atmospherics” in these

As a matter of

fact, another American company (All America Cables, Inc., of New York)? was also preparing to lay a cable to the Brazilian Coast, and it was thought by the U.S. Government that by acceding to the application of the Western Union Co., the claims to a monopoly being possibly established thereby might prevent

the other cable being laid—a cable greatly to the interests of American trade with Brazil. The United States had evidently determined to establish its own system of cables throughout the world, partly for high national reasons, but also with a view to developing trade, especially with S. America.

France also has shown a disposition to be increasingly active and enterprising in this matter; likewise Japan, International Cable Conference, 1920-1.—Probably no telegraphic conference has ever been the scene of such acute disagreement on essential points as that which held sittings during parts of 1920 and 1921 at Washington. This was perhaps natural, when we remember (a) that Germany had been relieved of practically all her cables, (b) that the destiny of these cables was of

first-rate importance to all the principal powers. Soon after the confiscation of the German cables an agreement was entered into between Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan,

whereby these ex-German lines were to be severally distributed amongst them. The United States having come into the war some time later, it was proposed at the Conference, that these cables should, asa substituted arrangement, become the joint property of the five Allies. The actual diversion of the German Atlantic cables was completed by Great Britain in July 1917, and by France in Nov. 1917—in both instances after the United States had joined the Allies. The American view was, therefore, that neither of these appropriations of cables between the Azores (Portuguese

possessions) and the United States could be justified, secing that both the United States and Portugal were already allied with England and France in the vigorous prosecution of the

tropical regions, this would be an idcal case for “ wireless.” As it

war.

is, it would seem that an efficient air service would do most to improve prevailing shortcomings—at any rate for mail purposes,

the Pacific touched Japanese soil, but one landed on American territory (Guam), Thusit was argued that it was something of an anomaly that the Japanese should ever have seized the German cable system, to the great detriment of American trade with China and the Philippines—and correspondingly to their own (Japanese) advantage. There were probably few matters that could, in principle, be

the steamer service being also very deficient. From a world standpoint, however, probably the most acute need for additional cable facilities is in the Pacific Ocean, for, while the traffic over the N. Atlantic cables has been practically quadrupled since 1913, Pacific cable traffic has increased nearly nine-fold. The war also aroused the United States to her disadvantage in the matter of cable communication as compared with her trade rivals. Thus, on April 26 1921, the U.S. Senate passed a bill “to

prevent unauthorized cable landings in the United States or any of its possessions.” The bill gives the President sweeping authority also to issue, withhold and revoke licences as to cable landings, as well as for obtaining concessions for the United States in other

parts of the world. Section 2 of the bill enables the President “to withhold or revoke such licence when satisfied such action will assist in obtaining for the landing or operation of cables in foreign countries or in maintaining the rights or interests of the United States.” The President may grant such licence on such terms as will assure just and reasonable rates. The licence is not to give the licencee exclusive rights of landing or of operation, in the United States. The policy appears to be based chiefly upon considerations that shall guard against consolidation or amalgamation with other cable lines, while insisting upon reciprocal accommodation for American corporations and companies in foreign territory. In 1920 the U.S. authorities refused to allow a cable laid for the Western Union Co. to be landed at a point on the coast of Florida on the ground that it was intended for connecting up, via Barbados, with the “ Western Telegraph ” system (at Maranham) of a British company? The American Governt Report of the Royal Commission on Trade between Canada and the West Indies (Cd. 5369, 1910). 2 "The prospects of trade with S. America are, in fact, so attractive

that telegraphic communication therewith has been made a special

Then again, no single section of the ex-German cable in

dealt with so suitably by the League of Nations as those associ-

ated with international telegraphic communication.

But that

could only apply if, and when, the United States joined the League, or, on the other hand, in instances where America was in no way concerned. With ex-German islands and cables, however, it was quite clear that the United States was very much concerned. Further, there was no nation whose interests were

liable to be so much affected by the mandate as regards Yap— more especially in reference to the cable—as the United States. The control of telegraphic communication between that island and China meant much to Japan. On the other hand, such an arrangement was regarded as contrary to American interests. In these circumstances, seeing that the United States was onc of

the ‘principal Allied and Associated Powers,” the question was

raised why such a mandate was ever granted to Japan without

the assent of the United States. However, the Yap difficulty was eventually settled, so as to preserve American rights, at

the Washington

Conference in Dec. 1921 (see JAPAN; also

WASHINGTON CONFERENCE). consideration of recent years both in Britain as well as in the United States. Thus, in order to improve the then existing facilities, a cable was laid in 1910 by the iTelesraph Construction & Maintenance Co. between St. Vincent, Ascension and Buenos Aires, these sections now forming a part of the Western Union Telegraph Co.'s system. In 1920, the same company laid a cable between Maran-

ham and Barbados. * Formerly the Central & S. American Telegraph Co., with lines down the W. coast of the American continent,

SUBMARINE

CABLE

It was perhaps in the nature of things that those countries— such as the United States—which were in a less favourable position in the matter of cable ownership should especially desire the internationalization or neutralization of cables. Certainly, the neutralization and internationalization of cable systems might have one advantage, 7.¢. bring to wrong, that messages concerning scrutinized, tampered with, etc. to keen commercial rivalry, and

an end the suspicions, right or another country were delayed, Such charges were largely due principally—if not entirely—a question of news agencies rather than cable companies. Any foundation they had was probably more or less closely limited to the war, when certainly Canada was very ill-supplied with news from Europe—or indeed, with reference to Imperial matters— whilst over-abundantly informed of trouble in Ireland. Strategic Cables-—Unless the strict neutralization of cables becomes the order of the day, under the League of Nations or otherwise, the best principle would probably be that every country should—partly for strategical reasons—tstablish for itself many more cables on a variety of routes well clear of forcign soil. These should be worked on a low rate basis for the general encouragement of intercommunication, but especially for devcloping commerce and trade. They should be supplemented by wireless, which is already in use as feeders to the cable systems. There can be no question that messages passing through cables touching foreign territory are insecure. If the cable lands

on an encmy’s country, the message is stopped or read off, and if on neutral soil, it runs the chance of also finding its way te the

enemy, if only because a country whichis neutral to-day may be unfriendly to-morrow. A clear distinction must be observed between an international submarine cable and a national cable. An international cable is one which connects the territory of different independent states; a national submarine cable is one which unites the territory or the colonial possessions of a single independent state. The character of the charter or ownership of a submarine cable determines whether it should be deemed foreign or national in respect to a particular state. Apart from their

great strategic value, the Chambers of Commerce of practically every important town in the United Kingdom have, on strictly business grounds, loudly urged for a system of All-British cables worked at comparatively casy rates. The same course has also been taken at various influential congresses of the Chambers

of Commerce of the British Empire, partly with a view to ensuring against enemy interruptions and eavesdropping. Promoters of private enterprise are indisposed to undertake the laying of

cables of a strategic, rather than commercial, order. On the other hand, the cables on the trade routes—through the Mediterrancan,

etc.—are especially lizble to interruption, much more So than those in the open ocean.

Cable Tariff—The ordinary cable rates, though showing ma-

terial reduction from those of the earliest days, were in 1921 still very high from the public standpoint. For financial reasons, they were largely based on the length of cable involved (see accompanying table), whereas it is just in the case of especially

great distances that the cablegram is at an advantage against the

mail boat. Here is a striking case where public (i.e. national) and private interests necessarily clash, and where, of course, national interests should be made supreme. This, it is to be feared, can be done only by adequate state control.

In the final report (Cd. 8462) of the Dominions Royal Com-

mission in 1917 expression was given to the view that “ charges are very high, the scales extremely complicated and their justification difficult to recognize.” The report goes on to say: “ The popularization of the cable service can only come with a simphf-

cation of the charges and their radical reduction; at present out-

side its commercial use cable communication is a luxury.” In 1912 a system of half rates for plain-language cablegrams

deferred in transmission for 24 hours was introduced aftcr many years’ outside pressure. This reform marks something of an epoch in the history of cable telegraphy, and has, in due course,

become universal. Week-end cablegrams at a reduced rate were 1 Some of the more recent reductions may possibly be due in part to the competition—such as it is—of wireless telegraphy.

TELEGRAPHY

603

Principal British, etc., cable route stations, with approximate cable distances from London, and tariff, ordinary rate, therefrom.

Approxi-

Station

Madeira.

St. Vincent. Ascension . St. Helena . Cape Town.

.

.

©

Gibraltar

.

.,. s Bi 6 .

Malta . Alexandria . Port Said Aden . Bombay

buan

Mauritius

Fremantle

1,617

Ga’ ee eee .

.

1,501

o

6,919 7,328 8,735 9,135 9,869

.

>..

.

2 2 2 2

2,618 3,483

;

.

.

Adelaide

f

4

Bathurst Sierra Leone Accra .

soau . e

a Iı I 2 +

oO

2 0 0 0

3

4 oO Oo 0 &

10,657 11,584

I 2 2 2

3 3

8 10 10 10

7,02

2

0

9,210

2

8,145



Ir

2,7 4,519 5,307 7,199

3,036 5,065

Hong-Kong Shanghai

Seychelles

el

>è >» °

Colombo Penang Singapore

anzibar

f

male cable | Ordinary mileage rate so d

2

ò 0

oO 6

à

14,289

3

0

wy

15,834

16,500 16,700

3

3 3

9

3,319 ,785 4,807

2 2 3

6 6 0

Bonny .

5,400

3

°

Newfoundland

2,410

Io

Nova Scotia Halifax Montreal Vancouver.

«wee

2,727 3,150 3,777 ,677

I ırı I I

Fiji (Suva).

.

Melbourne. Tasmania .

Lagos .

Fanning Island.

. .

«ee . «© +

«+.

ce ey S aʻa’ o SE

.

.

à

.

«

-

Norfolk Island

Queenslan Auckland Nelson Sydney

Bermuda

;

œ

Trinidad

.

Pernambuco.

Rio de Janeiro Montevideo

10,358

.

2.

.

eee



«©

‘ʻo

.

3

2

12,401

2

13,383

2

4,000

2

5,894 6,542

2 2

5,264

Jamaica

Colon . Barbados

5,079

14,220 14,101 14,550 15,352

.

.

|

6,621

3 2 2 3

9 9

0

O 4 90 6

6 8

8

0 8 8 0

6

2

6

2

6

8 6

7

4,606

I

5,973 7,13

2 7 2__9

e ee ee e also introduced alittle later, this being further supplemented by reduced tates for press Messages between Rritain and her Dominions. There is also now the “ cable letter” service which offers even more favourable rates.

With practically all the great cable companies, the tariffs were maintained throughout the war at the same normal figure, whilst considerably more business was done than under peace conditions. A great increase in Government messages occurred, and the suspension of private codes added vastly to the length of most business telegrams, not to mention the continuous flow of extensive press “cables” relating to the war. Then, again, an enormous number of messages were sent such as in normal times —free from postal shortcomings—would be limited to ordinary written correspondence or to “deferred” traffic, which was abandoned by most of the cable companies throughout hostilities. The net result was that these organizations, unlike railway companies, not only maintained their reserves, but very materially

added to them during the war. The best explanation here is to be found in the fact that cable repairs to be faced after the long

period of warfare were altogether abnormal, though it must be

remembered most of the companies concerned already had enormous reserves. The principal exception is the case of the Central and South American Telegraph Co., combined with the Mexican

SUBMARINE

604

CABLE TELEGRAPHY

Telegraph Co. (the former operating what are now known as the All-America Cables), which, during the war, made large reductions in their tariff, even though, on the greater part of their route, holding a monopoly. The directors expressed their con-

viction that (a) the cable performs a very special mission during warfare, and (b) it plays a highly important part in the fostering of trade relations.

They were, therefore, determined to aid in

every way possible the efforts to maintain and extend the already large trade between the United States and the countries of Central and S. America, It must not be forgotten that an essential accompaniment to a low telegraph tariff is many more communicating strings; otherwise, the congested condition only becomes worse congested. On the other hand, it is also only by great devclopments—of one sort and another—in our means of communication that an increased, as well as cheaper, telegraphic output can be secured. Nationalization.—One result of the Dominions Royal Commission’s exhaustive inquiry was the following expression of opinion! “ We feel bound, however, to record our opinion that at no

distant date the nationalization of the private cable companies

will become one of the most urgent problems for statesmanship.” Their report states further:—‘ It appears difficult, if not impossible, to attain the desired cheapness of cable communication, as

to the importance of which we hold the strongest views, without interfering with the rights of private companies.” Again:—‘ The urgency of placing cable communication on such a footing that it would be available, not only to the rich, but to all classes, not only to the merchant, but also to the private individual, is mani. fest and imperative.” But it must not be forgotten that the world is indebted, in the first instance, to the enterprise of private companies for the es-

tablishment of submarine cable communication. Some of the companies have certainly been assisted in their enterprise by large Government subsidies?

Moreover, these companies have

met with rich returns over their enterprise. Telegraph Control Board—Whether

State ownership should

fence. Such a control board, or committee, becomes increasingly desirable in these days of wireless development, for a nice sense of impartiality and discrimination may be required for deciding what should be effected by cable and what by wireless.

Working Developments—The development of the art of submarine

telegraphy

was

considerable

during

1907-z1—not

so

much in relation to the cable itself as to the electrical apparatus for working it. These include the introduction of automatic relays (associated more especially with the names of the late Dr. Alexander Muirhead, F.R.S., and Mr, S. G. Brown, F.R.S.) on the Eastern, Western Union, All-British and Commercial-

Pacific cables, as well as other wide-spread cable systems. These have almost entirely superseded manual sion between cable sections,

magnifiers

Secondly,

retransmis-

the introduction

of

(or amplifers, as they are sometimes called), by

rendering the signals more legible, has enabled the carrying capacity of the cables to be cnormously increased, at the same time adding to their reliability in the matter of accuracy. Such devices are based on the published experiments of Charles Curtis in the United States and Edward Raymond-Barker jn England, and emanate in turn from K., C. Cox, T. B. Dixon, Walter Judd, Angus Fraser, E. S. Heurtley and Axel Orling, The Heurtley magnifier has been very widely adopted by the Pacific Cable Board, the Eastern Association Companies, etc. In vastly im-

proving the character of the signals, this type of apparatus achieves the net result of adding to the effective working speed

in the same degree. Indeed, the later results with the Orling magnifier point to a speed increase of as much as 200 per cent.

Thirdly, automatic printing apparatus has been introduced on

the land lines worked in conjunction with cables. This apparatus

is for the most part duc to Mr., F. G. Creed. Then again, Maj.-Gen. G. O. Squier, Chief Signal Officer of the U.S. army, has experimented with alternating current generators for cable telegraphy, and his researches point to results

of a highly advanced—as well as revolutionizing—character. The Imperial Cable section of the “All Red” route is associated

ever be adopted by a country is, of course, a large question, but it seems obvious that in national and imperial interests a measure of State control is desirable in the matter of inter-imperial communications generally. A controlling organization of one sort or

with some of the latest developments in cable telegraphy. The

another appears to be called for, if only for watching and securing

either Morse or cable type of perforation.

public interests, where clashing with private interests, in return for favours granted by the State. In the case of Great Britain there are no less than seven Government departments (in addition to the Treasury) concerned in this matter. Hitherto one of these alone (the Post Office) has been acting for the Government, and all questions regarding other departmental interests had to be submitted to the Post

Office. This was never very satisfactory in the result. A British inter-departmental board to deal with inter-departmental telegraphs of all sorts has been advocated for many years, By this scheme, all the Government departments concerned were

to be represented and to meet periodically to discuss and settle all important matters as they arose.

The war made it clear to the

British Government that something of the sort was necessary; and Jan. rı rọrọ saw the establishment of such a committee, the

whole coming under the aegis of the Committee of Imperial De1 Final Report (Cd. 8462 of 1917). ? These are as fallaws :—

Name of Company

Pater Telegraph} 2.

¢

Eastern & S. Afri-] can Telegraph Co.

matem Extension|

v. |Pireet West India Q.

Amount of Sub-

sidy

4,500 20

transmission both at London and Halifax is effected by what are

known as converter cable transmitters, These are entirely automatic in their working, and, by the use of a switch, will take

tions, t.e. Bamfield-Fanning, 3,458 n.m., is the longest existing

cable length, and has always been a source of great difficulty in the matter of speed as well as from a commercial point of view generally. In the circumstances, the results that have been achieved, by means of recent electrical devices, are very remarkable, It is, indeed, highly creditable that the score of acricket

match can be got through from Melbourne to London within 15 minutes, despite the six intermediate retransmitting points, over so great a total length. A few years earlicr, such retransmissions were always effected manually. Now, however, automatic (machine) repeaters are gradually becoming general for all extensive systems with a number of intervening cable sections, The average duplex working speed on the entire route (controlled by that of the long section) was formerly 18 words per minute? but it has

been very considerably increased by means of the Heurtlcy amplifier or magnifier. Something like a 4o% increase in the simplex working speed (or 20% duplex) is claimed on this apparatus, which

Feriod of

Subsidy

years from pril 24 rg0r.{

Cables for which

Subsidy granted

|Sierra LeoneAscension,

(28,000 }20 years from — |Zanzibar-SeychellesNov. 1893. Mauritius. ,13,500 |20 years from Three S. African Jan. I r900. cables.

4,000 |Indefinite.

8,000 |20 ycars from Feb. 1 1898

Chefoo-Weihaiwei.

|Bermuda-Jamaica.

There are automatic

repeaters at each of the intermediate stations. One of these sec-

converts

the

microscopic

signals associated

with

a

long cable worked at high speed into characters of reasonable size. On the Atlantic sections some of the very latest devices have been introduced for the purposes of cficient and

high speed working, such as had previously

heen adopted

by the Eastern Associated Telegraph Companies. In the main, the plan is that of Morse working in connexion with

the Gulstad Relay, so that the speed of connecting land lines is brought up to that of cable code working.’ The Eastern Compa* Nearly all long cables are now worked on the duplex system. On

the

Indian

Government

(Persian

Gulf)

system

between

Basra and Karachi, the speed for land linę Morse was actually raised from 35 to 75 words per minute.

SUBMARINE nies have further greatly added to the efficiency of their system by means of the Creed Printer, which is also installed on the

Atlantic section of the “Ali Red” route, as well as in connexion with Wheatstone high-speed working on the Pacific cable land line system between Melbourne and Sydacy. A Stock Exchange Telegraph Service of a highly efficient order was established some years ago between London and New York. So efficient is this that messages are got through within ten minutes. Something lke 2,500 such messages are transmitted between the two Stock Exchanges during an afternoon.

CAMPAIGNS regular beats.

605

The sinking of the “ Cressy,” “ Hogue” and

“ Aboukir” off the Dutch coast on Sept. 22 I914 was a much

heavier blow. They had been sent to patrol on the Broad Fourteens, between England and Holland, and were steaming slowly in line abreast two miles apart at 6:30 a.M. when the “ Aboukir,” “ Hogue ” and “ Cressy’ were torpedoed in quick succession.

This was the work of Otto Weddingen in Uo, and the wholesale disappearance of Cruiser Force C within an hour with a loss of over 1,400 men came

as an unpleasant shock, and definitely

Cables and Commerce —In pre-cable days each country was, in large measure, an independent commercial unit. The submarine cable has done much to alter that state of things. Whereas in 1870 the total value of the commerce between the United

established the power of the new weapon. By the end of Sept. submarines were pushing past Dover Straits into the Channel, and on Oct. 16 1914 the fear of the new weapon reached a climax, when on a false alarm of one in Scapa Flow the British Grand flect hastily put to sea at night and proceeded to Lough Swilly

States and Great Britain was about {90,000,000, in the fiscal year ending June 30 1920 it was as much as £525,000,000, Bc-

and was lost.

sides the cnormous inercase in volume of business brought about by the extension of telegraphic service across the oceans, this quickened communication has also brought a complete change in business methods. It has, indeed, introduced an element of stability into international trade such as was seriously lacking when intercourse depended solely on the mail. The World War has tended also to increase cable traffic because of changed business habits. During the early months of the

conflict a rigorous censorship on cable messages was enforced by the Alied Governments. At first codecs of all kinds were prohibited, and although this regulation was subsequently modified to allow the use of ordinary commercial codes, private codes and lighter messages were stopped, Asa result, many business firms discovered that for much of their cable business the time and

labour spent in coding and decoding—as well as the errors which are inevitable in the transmission of unintelligible matter—made messages in plain language only slightly more cxpensive than

code. The result after the war has been a considerable increase in the percentage of plain-language messages. Another factor in the greater trathc has been the increased use of the cables for transactions which were formerly carried on by mail. This has

been due partly to changed conditions which have made speedy communication more than ever necessary, and partly to the fact that the business houses, which were forced to increase their

use of the cables during the war, have continued to do so on discovering the great convenience of cable communication in com-

parison with the mail. BIBLIOGRAPHY.~—Sir Charles Bright; Telegraphy, Aeronautics and War

(1918) and Inter-Impertal Communication through Cable, Wire-

less and Air (Paper to the British Association, Sept. 12 1919); Post Ofice Electrical Engineers’ Journal (1919-20); Telegraph and Telephone Journal (1921), (C. BR.*)

where by a freak of misfortune the “Audacious” ran on a mine

Oct. 20 1914 had seen the sinking of the first

merchant ship, the ss. ‘“ Glitra,”’ off Norway by U17, but it was not until Nov. 23 that Uz8 actually attempted to enter the Flow, The Grand fleet were at sea at the time and Ur18 was rammed by a minesweeper, the “‘ Dorothy Gray,” close to the Hoxa entrance. She went down to r1 fathoms with her hydroplanes damaged, and coming to the surface later was rammed by the destroyer “ Garry ” and forced to surrender, the first and (with the excep-

tion of UB116 in 1918) the last attempt to enter Scapa Flow. Defensive Methods —The war found the British navy almost destitute of defensive methods against the submarine. A com-. mittee had sat on the subject but had evolved nothing but the modified sweep—a somewhat clumsy contrivance consisting of a line of explosive charges towed astern, regulated in depth by a water-kite and fired from inboard. The defence of Scapa had been mooted as early as 1912, and Adml. Jellicoe, then at the Admiralty, had taken animportant part in discussions on the subject, but nothing had been done beyond allocating a small sum for the purpose in 1913, which was diverted to Dover to build a wall on the breakwater, in pursuance of the pre-war tendency to try and fit prospective wars into the existing naval ports. By

the end of 1914 Cromarty had been supplied with Capt. Donald Monro’s boom, but Scapa with all its entrances was not secure till Feb. 1915.

Counter measures at this stage of the war were

confined to an extensive development of the Auxiliary Patrol organization, the tentative supply of defensive armament to merchant shipping, and the equipment of a comparatively small number of vessels with the modified sweep.

The trawlers of the

Auxiliary Patrol played an important part in minesweeping and in escort work, but were too slow and too poorly armed to be

really effective in offensive operations against the submarine.

the beginning of the World

By the end of 1914 the submarine was generally recognized as a new and powerful weapon in naval warfare, though its tremen-

War the submarine was a comparatively new weapon of untried

dous potency as an instrument of the guerre de course had not

SUBMARINE

CAMPAIGNS.—At

possibilities, whose ultimate place in naval warfare it was hard to foresee; and there ensued a period of tentative effort, confined

been fully realized. Germany had lost 7 and with the addition of 11 had 30 now available, with 42 U boats and 127 UB and UC

at first to the North Sea, which lasted from Aug. 1914 to Feb. 1915. Germany started the war with 28 submarines, but the

under construction and on order.

unreliable nature of the Korting engines fitted in the first 18

The early morning of New Year’s Day 1915 saw the old battleship “ Formidable ” (Capt. A. N. Loxley) fall a victim to U24 off Start Point while patrolling up and down with the Channel flcet at. ro knots. The captain went down with the ship. Only 141 were saved out of a crew of over S00, and the incident demolished once and for all the opinion of a certain school of naval thought that the’ submarine could be ignored.

boats (U1—U18) had given her a low opinion of their merits. This was accentuated by the result of the first operation of the war consisting of a sortie by ro boats up the North Sea, in which Urs was rammed by the light cruiser “ Birmingham ” on Aug. 9 1914 and Ur3 disappeared. On the British side some 56 submarines

werc available, the newest boats of the D and E class being attached to the 8th Flotilla (18 boats) employed under Commodore Roger Keyes in guarding the approach to Dover Straits with a couple (E6 and E8) reconnoitring in the Bight.

Early Days of the War.—Submarines did not play a decisive part in the Heligoland Bight action on Aug. 28. The six British submarines present were disconcerted by the unexpected appearance of British light cruisers, and the German submarines were retained off Heligoland guarding the approach to the rivers.

The first British warship to be sunk by submarines was the “ Pathfinder,” a small cruiser torpedoed by Uzr (Otto Hersing),

off the Forth on Sept. 5, an incident which aroused little comment beyond emphasizing the danger of old ships patrolling on

Von Tirpitz, fully alive to

their possibilities, was already building great hopes on them.

They were now going farther afield. Otto Hersing in Uar made his first cruise to the Irish Sea in Jan. 1915, and this month too saw the first instances of a ship being torpedoed without warning in the case of the British s.s. ‘‘ Tokemaru ” and s.s.

“Ikaria” off Havre on Jan. 30 by U20 (Schwieger, who was to earn an unenviable reputation for ruthless warfare). Campaigns of r915.—Feb. 4 1915 saw the close of what may be termed the preliminary phase of submarine warfare. The German naval staff now decided to conduct a general campaign against merchant shipping, and on this date the German Government issued a declaration constituting all waters round Great

Britain and Ireland a war zone (Kriegsgediet), in which from

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SUBMARINE

Feb. 4 all enemy merchant ships would be destroyed without it being always possible to avoid danger to passengers or crew, and where even ncutral vessels would be exposed to danger of attack. This evoked on Feb. 11 a strong protest from the United States denouncing it as an indefensible violation of neutral rights. The date was postponed to Feb. 18 and the order modified to the extent that neutral ships were to be spared, though in adjudging their neutrality all circumstances and not the flag only were to be taken into account. March 18 1915 saw the end of Otto Weddingen in Uz2ọ which was on her way home round Great Britain, about half-way between Kinnaird Head and Norway, when she was rammed by the battleship “‘ Dreadnought ” after attacking the battleship “ Marlborough.” ‘The inauguration of the new campaign was followed in March by the establishment of the Flanders flotilla, which at first consisted of small UB

and UC boats working chiefly round the Thames and east coast, By Oct. r915 it had grown to 16 boats, and was contributing a fair proportion of the ships sunk.

The Flanders flotilla had hardly started its career when it met with a formidable obstacle in Dover Straits,

Experiments had

been proceeding for some months in the use of steel wire nets to indicate and obstruct the passage of submarines, and the admiral at Dover (Rear-Adml. Hon. Horace Hood) now succeeded in

closing the Straits by this means for over four months. The nets used were in lengths of 100 yds. and 60 or 30 ft. deep, shot by drifters, and by Feb. 13 1915 he had some 30 drifters nding to their nets in the Straits. Bad weather took a heavy toll of the

equipment, but the results were surprisingly successful to an extent hardly appreciated at the time. U8 fouled one of these nets on March 8 1915 off the Varne and was forced to come up by the destroyer ‘‘ Ghurka,”” which exploded a modified sweep over her. U37 went down the Channel later in the month and never returned. Early in April U32 got caught in a net, and had so much difficulty in getting clear that she went home north-

about. She drew a formidable picture of the obstruction, and on the strength of her report the Bight flotillas reccived instructions to go northabout, and the Flanders boats following their example also eschewed the Straits for over four months. It was thought at first that in the net a permanent antidote to the submarine had been found, and net bases were established at several ports, particularly at Larne for the North Channel, but technical difficulties (clips and indicator buoys) supervened, and the Germans overcame the lighter form of net by net cutters. The sinking of the liners “ Falaba,” “ Lusitania ” and “ Ara-

bic ” constituted three beacons in the rọr5 campaign.

The

CAMPAIGNS at Cattaro on May 13 with only half a ton of oil fuel left. He reached the Dardanelles on May 25 and instantly made his presence felt. The “Vengeance” was missed by a torpedo that day; the old battleship “ Triumph ” supporting the Anzacs off Gaba Tepe was hit by two torpedoes at 12:30 P.M. and turned turtle in nine minutes with a loss of over 200 lives. Two days later (May 27) the ‘‘ Majestic,” supporting the troops inside the Straits, was hit and capsized with the loss of 49 men. The whole system of naval bombardment received a severe shock, though it was not till Aug. 13, when the “ Royal Edward ” was sunk near

Kos by UBr4, that the transports began to suffer. By this time another counter to the submarine had been found in the decoy ship, whose early type consisted of trawlers or. vessels with submarines in tow. Three submarines were sunk in this way during the summer of 1915 (U40 on June 23 by C24, U23 on July 20 by C27, and U36 on July 24 by the “ Prince Charles’). Aug. 19 1915 saw the destruction in the approach to St. George’s Channel by the decoy ship “ Baralong ” of U27, while she was attacking the “ Nicosian.” Several German sailors had boarded the latter vessel, and the American cattlemen in her, when they saw the submarine disappcar, fell on them and threw them overboard. Germany gave vent to a roar of indigna-

tion, undisturbed by the fact that the very day U27 was sunk U24 (Schneider) met the White Star liner “ Arabic ” outward

bound off the south of Ireland and sank her without warning with the loss of 44 lives. Indignation in America flamed up anew.

Again at great headquarters von Tirpitz wrestled with the Chancellor and again the Chancellor won the day. The use of decoy ships and defensively armed merchantmen, by increasing the danger of coming to the surface, provided the German naval staff with a strong argument for unrestricted warfare, but the imperial decision went in favour of the Chancellor, and orders were issued on Aug. 30 that no liners were to be sunk withoutwarning and duc regard for the safety of passengers. This was a bitter blow to the partisans of submarine warfare, and Admi, Bachmann, the chief of the naval staff, who had not been consulted on the issue, resigned and was succeeded by Adml. von Holtzendorff.

The commander-in-chief of the High Sea fleet,

Adml. von Pohl, also asked to be relieved, but to no purpose. Iie was told he did not understand the political situation. On Sept. 20 1915 further orders were issued to suspend submarine warfare on the west coast and in the Channel.

The campaign

now languished in British waters. From Sept. 1915 to Feb. 1916 activity against merchant shipping practically ceased in the Bight and was transferred to the Mediterranean.

former, an Elder Dempster liner of 4,806 tons on the way to Sierra Leone, was torpedoed with five minutes? warning on

During the year Feb. 1915 to Jan. 1916 a total of 304 Allied and neutral ships had been sunk by submarines with a gross March 27 by U28 off the south of Ireland, and sank in eight tonnage of 1,059,141 tons; of these 225 (760,440 tons) were Britminutes with the loss of over 100 lives, The indignation arising ‘ish, 54 of which had been sunk in the Mediterranean. Some

from this incident had hardly subsided when it was fanned 60 merchant ships had been sunk without warning during the to fever heat by one of the most momentous incidents of the war. year and 17 submarines had been destroyed, an average of one On May 7 1915 Schwieger in U20 was off the Old Head of Kinsale submarine for 23-1 ships. (south of Ireland) when he sighted a great liner homeward bound, The Baltic—Meanwhile British submarines had been active This was the “ Lusitania” going only 18 knots, her decks in the Baltic and the Dardanelles, where’a great field had opened crowded with women and children. At 2:15 P.M. he sent two to British heroism. In the Baltic Eg (Comdr. Max Horton) and torpedoes into her without warning and she went down in 20 Ex (Comdr. N. F, Laurence) were the first to penetrate early in minutes with the loss of 1,198 lives, while Schwieger “ moved 1915, and proved a valuable addition to the Russian (Adml. with mixed feelings” watched the terrific scene. A chorus of Essen’s) force. On July 2 1915, when the Russians sank the applause arose in Germany, but the deed can be seen now as an minelayer ‘ Albatross,” Eg sent two torpedoes into the old error of the first magnitude, which sect on foot the whole train of cruiser “ Prinz Adalbert ” and drove her back to port. On Aug. circumstances which brought America into the war. The con- 4 1915 Ex3 ran ashore on the Danish island of Saltholm while

troversy between the German naval staff and the Chancellor immediately reached a crisis. The latter refused to be responsible for such acts, and on June 5 rọ15 an imperial order was issued forbidding the sinking of large passenger vessels. Von Tirpitz,

the Secretary of State, was furious, and he and Bachmann, the

chief of the naval staff, both sent in their resignations, but were

commanded bluntly to remain at their posts.

Meanwhile Otto Hersing, the pioneer in distant fields, had sailed on April 25 in U21 for the Mediterranean. Arrangements had been made to provide him with oil on the way, probably in the vicinity of Tangiers, but they broke down, and he arrived

passing the Sound.

Before the 24 hours given her by the Danes

to get off had elapsed two German destroyers appeared and,

opening fire on her, killed half the crew, an act which did not pass

unavenged. The Germans at the time were making a determined attempt to force the Gulf of Riga with a view to operating on the Russian flank, and the battle-cruisers of the rst Scouting Group

with the 1st Battle Squadron and a number of light cruisers had been lent for this purpose by the High Sea feet. Er now appeared on the scene, and the very day that Er3 received its deadly hail of fire sent a torpedo into the battle-cruiser ‘“ Moltke” of the Gulf of Riga, driving her back to port.

SUBMARINE Winter did not stop the activity of the British submarines. In the latter part of 1915 E8, Eg and Eig (Comdr. F. A. N.

Cromie) attacked the important iron ore trade from Lulua (Sweden) to Germany, and between Oct. 11 and 23 sank 14 large German steamers engaged in it. The “ Prinz Adalbert ” too was sunk by E8 on Nov. 8, and on Dec. 12 the light cruiser “ Bremen” and destroyer Vrox were sent to the bottom. The Germans now set to work vigorously to devise counter measures. Minefields were laid in the Sound off Drogden, in the Flint-Rinne at the southern end of the passage on the Swedish side and at Falsterbo; an old battleship was stationed to defend them; torpedo flotillas were despatched to patrol the entrance to the Baltic, and convoy flotillas were organized for the Swedish trade with the result that British submarine activity suffered a severe check and the difficulty of entering the Baltic was greatly increased. The work of submarines there was also seriously hampered by the inability of the Russian dockyards to cope with

their demands, an unmistakable indication of the probable failure of any attempt to conduct a big campaign in that sea, The Mediterranean.—In the Mediterranean the ability of submarines to assist the Dardanelles campaign by interfering with Turkish transport in the Sea of Marmora was fully realized, but the passage of the Dardanelles was not an easy proposition. Twenty-seven miles long with a width of only a mile inthe famous Narrows (the 33 m. stretch between Chanak and Nagara) lent itself casily to defence, and could be transformed into a veritable trap for submarines. It is impossible to give the details of every passage where every passage was an heroic venture. Lt.-Comdr. Norman

Holbrook had made the passage on Dec. 11 1914 in

Bir and torpedoed an old battleship, the ‘“‘ Messidiych.”

E15

(Lt.-Comdr. T. S. Brodie} was now the first to go up on April r5, but grounded in Kefez Bay (on the Asiatic side some 10 m. up) and was lost, his ship being torpedoed later by a picket boat under Lt.-Comdr. Eric Robinson, to prevent it falling into the hands of the Turks, Exz4 (Lt.-Comdr. E. C. Boyle) followed, passing Chanak on the surface and running submerged for fortyfour hours. She sank three ships, including the transport ‘ Gul Gemel” with 6,000 troops, bringing her commander a V.C. AE2 (Lt.-Comdr. H. H. G. Stoker) made the passage on April 25, diving under the mincfields, but on the 3oth broke surface suddenly, and coming under fire was forced to the surface and

sunk. On May 1 the French submarine “ Joule ” attempted the passage and succumbed to a mine. Err (Lt.-Comdr. M. E. Nasmith) passed safcly at the end of May, sank ro ships, penetrated into the Bosporus and torpedoed the transport ‘‘ Stamboul ” and an ammunition ship there. Passing Kilid Bahr on his way back, her commander found a large mine perched in the bows which he dropped neatly by dipping and going astern, and won a V.C. in its place. E12 (Lt.-Comdr. Kenneth M., Bruce), E7 (Lt.-Comdr. A. D. Cochrane), E2 (Comdr. David Stocks), E20 (Lt.-Comdr. C. H. Warren) and Hi (Lt. Wilfred Piric) followed, doing the same heroic work in dificult and dangerous waters. E14 was up again in July and sank 22 ships, great and small, including a 5,coo-ton steamer on Aug. 7, and clearing the Sea of Marmora. He was assisted in this task by Err, who sank the old battleship “ Hairredin Barbarossa” the same day and the transports ‘‘ Chios” and ‘“‘Samsoun”’ with the ammunition ships ‘“‘ Espahan ” and “ Tenedos ” a week or so later. By this time a powerful barrage had been laid at Nagara, greatly increasing the risk of the passage. The French submarine “ Marriotte ”’ encountered an enemy submarine and was sunk (July 26) and Ez on her way in got badly entangled in the Nagara obstruction, but managed after 10 minutes’ plunging about to get clear. Ez was not so fortunate. Going up on Aug. 4 she got enmeshed in the nets, and after the explosion of three mines in

her vicinity was forced to the surface and sunk. Er2, who followed in Sept., remained up 40 days with E20 and Hr in her company for a time and sank 37 ships. On the way down she fouled a net in the Narrows and went down to 245 ft., with the hydroplanes jambed and the conning tower flooded; finally che struck the chain moorings at Kilid Bahr which swept away the entangle-

ment, and though she broke surface and came under fire managed

CAMPAIGNS

607

to win through. The French submarine “ Turquoise ” was sunk by gunfire on Oct. 30 1915, and a final toll of British boats was taken in E2o (Lt.,-Comdr. C. H. Warren) which fell a victim to stratagem after passing through the Narrows.

With the help

of an Allied code probably taken from a captured submarine she was inveigled to a rendezvous and torpedoed by UBry on Nov. 6. Err remained up a record period of 48 days in Nov. and Dece., sinking 46 ships of different sizes. The last submarine to make the hazardous passage was E2, which was recalled on Jan. 2, a weck before the final evacuation, and got safely through. For the latter part of the year 1915 two submarines had usually been working in the Sca of Marmora at a time. Altogether some 32 passages had been made or attempted by submarines, and though they had incurred the loss of 7 of their number (Ers,

AE2, E7, E20, “ Joule,” “ Mariotte ” and “ Turquoise,” their efforts had met with a large degree of success. The Sea of Marmora had been made unsafe, the Turks had been forced to send their troops by a roundabout route—by rail to Rodosti and then a three days’ march to Gallipoli. Their tale of losses included two old battleships, one destroyer, 12 sloops and small

craft, 7 transports, and no less than 197 vessels of all sorts and stzcs, steam and sail, of which 36 were over 1,000 tons. This was the end of the Dardanelles submarine campaign, whose record fills a golden page in the annals of the navy. In the autumn of rors, when activity in British waters diminished, five more German submarines were sent to the Mediterranean. With them went Max Valentiner in U38 and Arnauld de la Periére in U35, two of the most distinguished German submarine commanders. The result was immediately evident. Valentiner, on his way from Gibraltar to Cattaro alone sank a round dozen of ships, including the Italian liner ‘‘ Ancona”’ with a loss of over 200 lives, and the sinkings in the Mediterranean in Nov. went up to 23 chiefly off Crete, Malta and Tunis. They were nearly all merchant ships. No more men of war fell to them, and out of 242 transports only three were lost, the “ Royal Edward ” (Aug. 13, loss of life 935), “ Ramazan” (Sept. 19) and the “ Marquette” on Oct. 23. On Dec. 30 rors Valentiner sank the P. & O. liner “ Persia ” (7.974 tons) off Crete without warning with a loss of 334 lives, but Germany refused to admit that it was one of her submarines and tried to transfer the responsibility to Austria. This brought the year 1915 to an end, a year fertile in hope and speculation, begetting vast promises of further success. To all Germany the future of her navy lay beneath the waters, though few could read the riddle as far as the bottom of Scapa Flow. Types of German Submarines.—A short digression may be inserted

here on the general types and charactcristics of German submarines. They comprised four main classes—converted mercantiles (Deutschland class), U boats, UB and UC. The converted mercantile num-

bered a bare half-dozen (U151~U155) and were used chiefly off the Azores and in 1918 off the coast of America, They were about 213

ft. long, large, slow and clumsy, going about nine knots only on the

surface, but capable of remaining out for three to five months. They had a good armament of two 5-9-in. guns, six torpedo tubes (4 bow, 2 beam) and 30 torpedocs, The U boats were the principal type, and were Jarge boats which did most of their work in the Atlantic ape They were 210-225 ft. long, could go 144-17 knots on the surface, and 8-9 knots submerged. They could only maintain this speed submerged for an hour or so, but could continue at a speed of about two knots for as much as 48 hours; then, like all submarines,

they had to come to the surface and recharge their batteries with the help of their Diesel motors. They carried two guns (usually one 4:1 in. and one 22-pounder), with 4 to 6 torpedo tubes and 8 to 12 torpedoes, and remained out generally from 25-30 days. There was also a special class of U minelayers, which originally numbered 10, viz. U71-U8o, carrying 36 mines and 2 torpedoes. They had only a single hull and were slow boats, rarely cruising at more than 5 knots. Though the work on the west coast of Scotland and off the Dutch coast in 1918 was done by these boats they were not as a class very successful, and by 1918 there were only 5 of them left. The UB

boats were originally built for coastal work, and the first 17 were

small boats capable of being sent in sections overland. The earlier boats could remain out from 7-14 days, the later boats from 14-24 days. They carried one gun forward (a 4-1 in. or 22-pounder) and the earlier boats 2 to 6 torpedoes, which were increased to 5 tubes.

(4 bow, I stern) and I0 torpedoes in the later type. The UC boats were essentially minelayers, carrying one 22-pounder forward, 3

tubes with 4 to 6 torpedves, and 18 mines.

They remained out

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SUBMARINE

from 10-20 days in the North Sea, but when working in the Channel from Flanders rarely more than twelve. Submarines cruised nor-

malty on the surface. When attacking they usually proceeded at periscope depth (about 45 ft. for U boats), cruising at 65-85 ft., and going to 190 ft. if attacked. The fact that a periscope was rarely visible, even with glasses, at over a mile, emphasizes the difficulty of

counter-attack, German Submarine Flotillas—The flotillas were distributed in four principal commanids—the North Sea (or High Sea flect) flotillas

working from the Bight and usually termed the North Sea flotillas; the Flanders flotillas working from Zeebrugge; the Mediterranean

based on Pola, Cattaro and Constantinople, and the Baltic (or

Kurland) flotilla working from Baltic ports. The Flanders flotilla consisted wholly of UB and UC boats and was allotted a definite area of operations, which extended on the east coast of Great

Britain as far as Flamborough Head (Yorks), and in the Channel as far as 7° W. (about as far as Waterford) and down to the Gironde,

At the beginning of the year 1916 the strength of the various flotillas was approximately Nerth Sea 16, Baltic 6, Flanders 18, Mediterranean 12. There were 16 boats approaching completion, and 161

boats building and being delivered at the rate of 8 to 10 a month.

Campaign of 1916.—The year 1916 was marked by another long-drawn-out controversy between the German Chancellor and the naval staff. The Chancellor stood out against unrestricted naval warfare (that is sinking at sight); the naval staff fought for it. Nor were their arguments lacking in force. If a submarine

came to the surface at a distance a ship could run away, if it rose close at hand it was exposed to fire from an armed merchant-

man or decoy ship. In Jan. 1916 the German naval staff presented a memorandum claiming that unrestricted warfare would force England to make peace in six months. It stated that from Feb. to Oct. 1915 onc or two steamers, averaging 4,085 tons, had

been sunk daily by cach submarine. This was an exaggerated estimate, for the figures for British ships in 1915 were more nearly one-third of a ship per submarine per day, but on this basis they calculated a loss of 631,000 tons a month, at which rate it was

estimated that England would be reduced to her knees in six months. A definitive audience took place at Great Headquarters on March 6 1916, when it was decided to postpone its execution till April 1 in order to bring all possible means

of

persuasion to bear on the United States in the attempt to reconcile them to the idea. Von Tirpitz, in despair at the continual frustration of his plans, resigned, and his place was taken by Adml. von Capelle.

Five days before the prescribed date UB18 (Steinbrinck) torpedoed the “‘ Sussex ” on March 24 1916 on her way from Folkestone to Dieppe with 25 American citizens on board; and though she remained afloat, the forepart of the vessel was blown up and some 80 passengers were killed and injured. America’s patience now came to an end, and on April 18 President Wilson threatened

to break off diplomatic relations.

The German Government

gave way, and abandoning the idea of ruthless warfare issued an order on April 25 precluding submarines from sinking any merchant ship at sight, and requiring them in their war against trade to act in strict accordance with the methods prescribed by prize law, which entailed stopping a ship, examining her papers and

giving all the crew and passengers an opportunity to leave her before proceeding to any act of destruction. Meanwhile the chief of the naval staff at Berlin had issued an order, which came into force on Feb. 29 1916, that armed merchantmen were to be regarded as warships, and the attention of

German submarine commanders was called to a clause in the

prize regulations under which all merchantmen which might attack a German or neutral ship were to be regarded as pirates. This found its sequel on March 28, when Capt. Fryatt in his ship the “ Brussels ” attacked U33 on her way to Holland, and, being captured with his ship by a German destroyer on June 23, was tried and shot (July 27 1916).

The decision against unrestricted warfare came as a bitter

disappointment to Adml. Scheer, who received the order on his way to carry out the Lowestoft raid on April 25 1916. He immediately recalled all the High Sea fleet submarines and ordered

them to cease operations against merchant shipping. He refused -to have anything to do with what he called the blunt edge of the

weapon, and had decided that if they were not to be used in unrestricted warfare he would use them only in ficet operations.

CAMPAIGNS The Flanders command followed suit with most of its boats, and the Mediterrancan flotillas were left to continue the campaign against commerce alone. Just as Adml. Scheer’s order went out. an extensive barrage was being laid off the Belgian coast (April

24) by the Dover Patrol (Vice-Adml. Sir Reginald Bacon). This was an effort on a large scale to cope with the submarine by a combination of mines and mine-nets. It consisted of some 18 m. of moored nets fitted with net mines, supported by lines of mines, running parallel to and about 12 m. off the Belgian coast. It was completed by May 7 1916 and a patrol was maintained on it by day from May to October. It is difficult to estimate its precise value, for the diminished activity ascribed to it at Dover was undoubtedly due to the cessation of submarine operations on political grounds from May to Sept. 1916. No doubt it made work more difficult for Flanders submarines, but the mines were

poor and notoriously ineffective.

A single boat (UB3) was.

destroyed in its vicinity the day it was laid by a lance bomb thrown froma drifter, the ‘‘ Gleaner of the Sea.””’ Another (UB1o) ran into it and took cight hours to clear with net mines exploding all round her, and though the work entailed in the barrage deserves a generous meed of praise no submarine was actually. destroyed by it in 1916, and it certainly never prevented the entry and exit of the Flanders boats. Steinbrinck, of the Flanders flotilla, was now sent to cruise in

the Channel to report on the feasibility of warfare on the lines of prize Jaw, which involved the stoppage and due warning of ships before destruction. His report was unfavourable, and during the summer the Flanders boats worked only on the E. coast.. Scheer meanwhile used his Bight flotillas (reinforced with Flanders boats) in fleet operations, of which the most important were those of Jutland and Aug. 19, when the “ Nottingham ” and “ Falmouth” were sunk by U52 and U66. It was on this. latter occasion that E23 (Lt.~Comdr. Robert Turner) torpedoed

the German battleship “ Westfalen ” onits way out of the Bight. This was at 5:30 a.M., and on rising to the surface later at 10:10 A.M. he reported the German fleet to the C.-in-C., then some 180 m. off, an incident which first brought into prominence the possibilities of the submarine in fleet reconnaissance work. During the summer the chief of the German naval staff was trying to persuade Scheer to modify his ‘“ harsh professional conception” of submarine warfare, and resume restricted war against commerce in accordance with prize law. The Mediterranean submarines had continued working cn these lines with good results; the Flanders flotilla had recommenced on a small scale in Sept. 1916, and the operations in concert with the fleet had only resulted in the sinking of two light cruisers, The “‘ Deutsch-. land,” under Capt. Paul Konig, tried a trading venture across the Atlantic during the summer, reaching America on July 9 1916. and returning on Aug. 23 with a cargo of rubber, nickel, and tin, but the “ Bremen ” which followed her in Sept. was lost. Usa, under Lt.-Comdr. Hans Rose, a skilful and chivalrous commander, crossed the Atlantic (leaving on Sept. 17 and arriving on Oct. 7) and sunk five merchantmen off Newport News. The ‘“‘ Deutschland ” made a second trip across, arriving in New London on Nov. t and reaching Germany safely on Dec. ro 1916. There her mercantile carcer ended, and she was fitted out as a submarine-of-war and went off to work in the Azores. Archangel too became a sphere of activity for a time, and seven ships were

sunk there in Oct., but the initial success did not continue, and in Nov. Us56 was sunk by Russian patrols. The German naval staff now decided that all flotillas were to resume the campaign against commerce in accordance with prize law, and orders to this effect were issued on Oct. 6 1916. Scheer had underestimated the power of legitimate warfare. The monthly average of all

Allied and neutral merchant ships sunk by submarines had been 76 ships and 153,521 tons (gross) from Feb. to Sept. 1916. From Oct. 1916 to Jan. 1917 the average rose to 173 ships and 346,405

tons, and the campaign was extended with success to the Azores, Canaries and Madcira, where Funchal was bombarded on Dec. 3 by aconverted mercantile. — “Unrestricted”? Warfare, ror7—But during the autumn Scheer and the naval staff found powerful allies for the policy

SUBMARINE of unrestricted warfare in Hindenburg and Ludendorff.

The

topic was again discussed on Sept. 3 1916 at Great Headquarters at Pless in the presence of the Chancellor, Hindenburg, Ludendorff and Adml. von Holtzendorfi, and it was finally decided to

postpone it till an effort had been made to come to terms. Then

CAMPAIGNS

609

return, and by Nov. 1917 the irreducible margin of shipping would probably have been reached. The effects were most severely felt in the Channel, Mediterranean and the routes south of Ireland (called the Fastnet and Scilly approaches), which were strewn with the hulls of sunken ships. The outlook was dark and

followed the note of Dec. 12 1916 calling on the Allies to avoid

perplexing to those who saw the Grand Fleet remaining mistress

further bloodshed, and on Dec: 22 the naval staff presented

of a sea which was becoming a cemetery for British shipping, and had not realized the fact that the battle flects were becoming

another memorandum in which it was hoped to reduce British shipping by 39% in five months, on a basis of 600,000 tons

monthly, an estimate which turned out to be excessive, for by June 1917 British shipping had been reduced only from 18-2 to 16-6 million tons, a reduction of only 9:1%. The offer to negotiate was rejected by the Allies, and it was decided on Jan. 9

to commence unrestricted warfare on Feb, r 1917. All Germany was waiting for the decision. The Reichstag listened to the Chancellor’s announcement in breathless silence, and on Feb. 3 the American ambassador left Berlin. Germany now had 148 submarines, of which 28 were in the Mediterranean and some 20

in Flanders.

She had commenced with 28 and had lost 51. The

repairs incurred at Jutland, the provision of patrol vessels and

the vacillations of policy had reacted on submarine building, and von Capelle had only laid down 90 boats to Tirpitz’s 186, but during 1917 269 more were ordered and it was hoped to keep pace with the demand. The barred zonc announced by Germany on Jan. 3r 1917 in which all shipping was liable to be sunk extended roughly from Terschelling (Holland) to Udsire (Norway),

thence to the Faroe Is. and passing down the meridian of long. 20° W., 350 m. from the coast of Ireland, went on to Finisterre.

It also included the Mediterranean with the exception of its western portion round Majorca and a narrow track 20 m. wide as far as Greece. The area round Archangel was added to it

tisoher, h HP)

ce eeen south eP tort of24"

subsidiary factors in a new form of the guerre de course.

The

efforts to deal with the situation took a threefold form. Firstly, a convoy system (see Convoy) was introduced involving the escort of merchant shipping at sea and the control of all shipping movements; secondly, the naval staff was reorganized so as to insure a duc status for the convoy system, and a planning section and anti-submarine division were added to it (see ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION); thirdly, invention and rescarch were speeded

up in the technical fields of mines, depth charges and hydrophones. These efforts were successful. Gradually the losses of ships went down and the losses of submarines crept up. The cnemy’s operations can only be broadly described; his principal areas were the approaches to the Channel and Irish Sea, the North Sea (particularly off the Yorks. coast), the Chan-

nel and Mediterrancan. The number of submarines operating varied. Asa rule there might be two or three (converted mercantile) operating in the Azores and on the Dakar (W. Africa) coast, & or ọ U boats in the Atlantic approach (from longitude 7° to

12° W.) and on their way there and back, 4 or 5 (including a couple of Flanders UC) in the Channel and its approach, with 5 UB (Flanders) and 2 UC (Flanders) in the North Sea. In the

Mediterranean there were usually 4 to 6 submarines at work, including 1 or 2 on the N. African coast, 1 or 2 round Italy, r perhaps off Salonika, 2 off Egypt, Syria and Crete. This gives a total of some 25-30 submarines at work. The tonnage sunk per submarine varied. Curiously enough the average bag was considerably more in the time of restricted warfare than it was in 1917-8. In the former period it was probably something like 16,000 tons a trip. U49 on her first trip in Nov. 1916 in the Channel and Bay of Biscay sank 40,000 tons, and Forstmann, Arnauld de la Periére and Max Valentiner in the Mediterranean thought little of 20,000 tons a trip in 1916. But in 1917 the average bag was probably not much more than 8,000 tons for a U boat and 3,000 fora UB or UC. In the North Sea in Jan. 1918 a U boat was fairly fortunate to get 4,000 tons, and in the Chan-

=

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H;

B

(300 lb. T.N.T.) entirely superseded type D* (120 lb,), and the output was increased. Destroyers carried five or six instead of one or two; some were equipped with as many as 20 or 30, and the number of submarines sunk by depth charges rose from 8 in 1917 to 15 in r918. Decoys (generally designated Q ships) continued effective in 1917, and five submarines were sunk by them during the year. These were merchant ships manned witha trained crew and armed with guns carefully concealed by special devices. On a submarine opening fire the ship would stop and a portion of the crew called the “ panic party ” took to the boats, lowering them carelessly and hurriedly in the hope that the sub-

MAET, RERA W

I '

i

i

NAVAL

cam-

paign great progress was made in technical devices, and larger depth charges were supplied in greater quantities. Type D charge

if

Str

ayi

ncl 6,000 tons had become a fair bag. Progress of Counter Mceasures.— In the anti-submarine

rf?

SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS GERMAN BARRED ZONES

marine would approach and board the vessel.

If she did the

bulwarks fell and a deadly fire was poured into her at close quarters. Capt. Gordon Campbell was the most successful exponent of this stratagem.

in March 1917, and on Jan. 11 1918 it was extended to the meridian of long. 30° W., 720 m. from the coast of Ireland, and

U38 fell to his ship, the ‘‘ Pargust,”

on Feb. 17 1917 off the southwest of Ireland, and UC 29 was sunk by her on June 7 in the same area, bringing him a V.C. His last

two large areas were added round the Azores and C. Verde Is.

ship, the ‘‘ Dunraven,” sank on Aug. to after a heroic action

The effects of the new campaign were quickly felt. The sys-

with U61, in which the after gun’s crew remained steady at their post with the poop blazing under them and were blown up with

tem under which trafhe approached

Great Britain on routes

patrolled by ships and trawlers with a sprinkling of destroyers proved incapable of meeting the emergency. Losses of Allied

the gun rather than betray the nature of their ship. The “ Prize,”

merchant ships rose from 171 in Jan. to 234 in Feb., 281 in March

Blackwood) were also gallant ships, the former sinking U88 out

and 373 in April.

in the Atlantic on Sept. 57 and both being sunk by submarines. By Sept. 1917 the decoy had lost its efficacy, though four were

This was the black month of the war.

At

this rate one ship in every four that left British shores did not

(Lt. Wm.

Sanders)

and

the “ Stonecrop”

(Comdr.

Morris

610

SUBMARINE

still in use in the early part of 1918. From first to last it achieved the destruction of 13 submarines with the loss of some 20 decoy ships, great and small, some like the “ Prize” and “ Vala” with all hands. Its place was now taken by the seaplane and P boat. The latter were low boats not easily seen in mist or at dawn and were responsible for no less than four submarines in 1917. Aircraft now began to be really effective, and in 1917 six submarines succumbed to the 300-lb. bombs of large HandleyPages in the southern portion of the North Sea. British submarines too were constantly on patrol, and were able to count six submarines to their credit by the end of the year (G13 sank UC43 off the Shetlands March 10; E54 U8rin the Atlantic May 1; D7 U4s north of Ireland Sept. 12; E45 UC79, Oct. 19; E52 UC63 Nov. 1, in the North Sea, and C15 UC65 Nov. 3, in the Channel). The hydrophone, an instrument designed to detect submarines by sound waves under water, also developed greatly, but was more useful as a detector and in controlled minefields than in actual pursuit. The whole system of staff work was overhauled. Direction of convoys became one of the principal functions of the naval staff

and the machinery of Intelligence was adjusted in this light. Intelligence of first-rate importance derived from wireless directionals had hitherto been shrouded in secrecy and locked away in drawers for the edification of the very few. The director of Naval Intelligence (Rear-Adml. Sir W.R. Hall) at last obtained control of it, and spread it abroad and circulated it to every command. The movements of all enemy submarines hitherto

CAMPAIGNS marines destroyed in the Dover area. By Feb. 1918 the Bight boats had ceased to use the Straits, and by May the activity of the Flanders boats in the Channel had been enormously reduced; the blocking of Zeebrugge contributed to this result, and the losses in the Channel were reduced to six a month, the minefields

laid by the Flanders boats falling from 404 in 1917 to 64 in 1918. The year 1918 saw the commencement

of a much more am-

bitious scheme—the Northern Barrage—which aimed at nothing less than mining with 120,000 mines the huge stretch of 240 m.

between the Orkneys and Norway. (See MINESWEEPING AND MINELayinc.) This was really an immense task, complicated by a deep gut some 60 m, wide on the Norwegian side where the depths ran to 150 fathoms. The credit for its conception and execution lies largely with Adml. Sims and the U.S. navy. It was an American enterprise performed by American sailors in American minelayers. As it was only commenced in April and

was barely completed in Oct. its value is difficult to appraise, but the loss of some half-a-dozen boats can be attributed to it in Sept. and Oct. 1918. United States destroyers too were doing invaluable work in escorting convoys, and had been doing it ever since May 1917, during the dark months of 1917 when destroyers were more valuable than battleships. The losses in the Mediterranean had given rise to serious concern, and the First Lord (Sir Eric Geddes) and the director of

Naval Intelligence proceeded there in person to arrange for an extensive reorganization of the commander-in-chief’s staff. Its

In Oct. 1917 this division prepared a large mine-net operation

clear waters, too decp for mines, and its regular tracks had been an ideal hunting ground for submarines. During 1917 only two German submarines had been Jost there, and in the black month of April 1917 the Mediterranean had supplied one-fifth of the

based on careful observation of submarine tracks in September. In spite of bad weather and unfavourable circumstances three large submarines (Us50, U66 and U106) found thcir way into the

summer brought the losses down about 10%, but in Dec. 1917, when vigorous action had greatly reduced the losses at home, the

veiled in secrecy were displayed on a great chart in the Convoy

room, and subjected to careful analysis by the new Plans Scction.

tonnage sunk. The arrival of some 14 Japancse destroyers in the Mediterranean was still contributing 147,000 tons a month or over one-third of the whole. The convoy system was now intro-

minefield and were sunk, causing a scare in the Bight which sent submarines round by the Kattegat for the first time. Plans were prepared too for mining the Bight, but it was not

duced

till Sept. t9o17 that the new mincs were ready in sufficient quan-

lished and reinforced, and in May 1918 no fewer than four sub-

tity. Gradually the whole strength of the High Sea fleet had to

marines were destroyed there. The effect of these measures was soon felt. Our losses in that sea were reduced from 95 ships a month in the last quarter of 1917 to an average of 43 in July, Aug. and Sept. 1918. The U-boat zone had been extended to the Azores in Nov. 1917, and one or two boats had been working regularly there with fair results and comparative immunity till May 11 1918 when Uis4 was torpedoed by E35 about 150 m. west of Cape St. Vincent, an exploit directly due to improved intelligence. Adml. von Capelle had been confident that his submarines would be able to prevent the U.S.A. troops reaching Europe, but actually not a single transport was lost up to Feb. 5 1918, when the “ Tuscania ” was torpedoed with a loss of only 44 lives out

be concentrated on getting submarines tn and out.

An armada

of minesweepers, barrier breakers, escort forces and otpost forces were constantly at work trying to keep a passage open for them along ways which extended as far as 150 m. from Heligoland. Dover still remained a thorn in the ficsh. The cessation of submarine activity in April 1916 had been erroncously attributed there to the Belgian coast barrage, and a similar barrage had accordingly been laid across the Straits in the latter part of 1916.

It was composed of mine-nets 60 ft. deep with a mincficld in support. But the mines were of the old defective design. They dragged into the nets, sank British ships, and had to be swept up in June and July 1917. The barrage entailed enormous labour

in the Mediterranean,

the Otranto barrage was estab-

but did not close the Straits, and from Feb. to Nov. 1917 enemy submarines passed at the rate of at least 24 passages a month.

of 2,404. To stop the ceaseless flow of troops four large submarines were sent across the Atlantic, but though they destroyed

This was a serious matter, forthe Dover passage saveda Flanders boat eight days on the double journey to the Channel approach

over 60 ships they did not get a single loaded transport, and Ur56 was lost in the Northern Barrage on her way home. On July 19 1918 the great lincr “ Justicia,” 32,234 tons, was hit by a

out of its trip of t4 days, and a Bight boat six days out of its trip

of 25 days. In Oct. the whole question became acute, for Flanders boats were responsible for some 22 ships a month in the Channel.

The proper antidote was a strong minefield, and the

vice-admiral at Dover had suggested in July ror7 laying a deep minefield from the Varne to Gris Nez, but the new mines were not ready and could not be supplied to Dover till Nov. It was

partly laid on Nov. 21, but it was not constantly and intensively patrolled so as to make the submarines dive, with the result that between Nov. 21 and Dec. 8 21 submarines made the passage in safety.

This was a severe disappointment, and instructions were

sent to establish a strong patrol equipped with flares and searchlights to force the submarines down. This was done to a limited extent, and on the roth the new minefield took its first toll in

UBs6.

But difficulties arose in the execution of the plans and

the urgency was so acute that before the end of the month RearAdml. Sir Roger Keyes, Director of Plans, was sent to Dover to

assume the command, and the next four months saw nine sub-

torpedo from UB64 at 2:30 p.m. off the Skerryvore (Scotland, W.

coast), and attacked again by U54 and UB124 the next morning. A whole armoury of depth charges was dropped round UB124 by the “ Marne ”’ and other destroyers, forcing her to the surface to surrender. All this time the mining of the Heligoland Bight went steadily on with the help of the gallant zoth Destroyer Flotilla (Capt. Berwick Curtis), and its exits were occasionally entirely closed. The Flanders flotilla felt the full force of the increased activity at Dover and suffered heavily. In Jan. 1918 it numbered 29 boats; it lost no less than 24 during the year and its strength dropped to 13. By the middle of 1918 it had earned the dread name of the “ Drowning Flotilla,” and its boats could

reckon on a life of only three or four trips. The Kattegat still remained open. In April 1918 a deep mineficld was laid there, and had it been possible to keep it patrolled the submarines would have had to face another serious danger. How far this was practicable is-a moot point.

SUBMARINE The reports of destruction in 1918 gradually began to fall into

four categories. Either a mine demolished the boat wholesale, or an aeroplane swooped down on it with 300-lb. bombs, or a volley of depth charges forced it to the surface, or a torpedo

CAMPAIGNS

GII

Allied and Neutral Merchant Ships Sunk, 19017-8.

A.—Allied and neutral merchant ships sunk by submarine. B.—Gross tonnage of merchant shipping sunk by submarines, in 000's. C.—Submarines sunk.

from a British submarine brought its career to a sudden end. Depth charges competed with mines as the principal instrument

came the submarine 8%, with aircraft a bad last.

It is impossible to narrate the long story of destruction, UB81z may be mentioned as an example of the unenviable career of a German submarine. On her way down Channel on Dec. 2 1917

join those who were secking oblivion and death in the oxygen flasks. P32 patrolling in the vicinity saw the bows above water, but in the endeavour to get alongside the wind and waves bumped her against the submarine, which went to the bottom,

leaving only a solitary survivor. Two little drifters contributed their quota to the tale. On April 17 1918 a little drifter, the “ Pitot Me,” whose jolly name was In itself an omen of success, working in the North Channel, suddenly sighted the periscope of UB82, r50ft. off, and turning quickly dropped four depth charges on it. The submarine came up at an angle of 45°, and three other drifters, the “‘ Young Fred,” “ Look Sharp ” and “ Light,” all opened fire on her. She went down and the “ Young Fred ” dropped four depth charges on her, bringing her to a fina] end. Statistics of Submarine Warfare-—The dreary dreadful tale of ships sunk and attacked is too long to give (for dates and names

see Admiralty Return of British Merchant and Fishing Vessels Captured or Destroyed, Aug.

1919, H.C.

199). It includes the

names of nine hospital ships, all, with one exception, large ships whose character was unmistakable (“ Asturias” March 20 1917, Channel, beached, 44 lives lost; “‘ Gloucester Castle’ March 30

1917, Channel, towed in; “ Donegal ” April 17 1917, Channel, sunk, 41 lost; ‘‘ Guildford Castle” April 10 1917, Bristol Channel, hit by dud torpedo; “ Lanfranc ” April 17 1917, off Havre, with 167 wounded Germans, sunk, 34 lost; ‘‘ Dover Castle” May 26 1917, Mediterranean, sunk, 7 lost; “‘ Rewa ” Jan. 4 1918, Bristol Channel, sunk, 4 lost; “ Glenart Castle ” Feb. 26 1918, Bristol

Channel, sunk, 93 lost; “ Llandovery Castle’ June 27 1918, Atlantic). Of these the attack on the “ Llandovery Castle ” by U86 (Patrig) was probably the most flagrant breach of the principles of humanity. She was homeward bound from Canada 116 m, from the Fastnets (S.W. point of Ireland). The cnormous

red cross of a hospital ship was lit on her side, glowing in the twilight like a lustrous jewel, when she was attacked and sunk; of the 258 persons on board, including 14 nurses, all except a boatload of 20 perished. Allied and Neutral Merchant Ships Sunk, 1914~8.

By Surface Craft " s

.

Total.

P

000s)

.

;

;

German Submarines sunk

.

i

1 Also three by aircrait.

? Also one by aircraft.

:

¥ Not including 14 blown up on evacuating Flanders and the Adriatic.

106 OOTU Chun ON{AUD e

2,556

2,027

74

s

In Oct. 1918 Flanders was evacuated and the remains of the flotilla blown up. It was a Flanders boat UB116 (Lt. Emsmann)

which made a last desperate effort to enter Scapa on Oct. 28. It was heard on the hydrophones, and seen for a moment in the search-light beam. Then came the heavy shock of an explosion

and the last of the Flanders flotilla found a fitting end in the very gates of the enemy. When the Armistice was under discussion, Scheer, who was now chief of the German naval staff, recalled all the submarines, intending to make use of them ina last desperate sortie with the fleet, but he found himself suddenly confronted with mutiny, and the flect never

sailed, though the submarines

remained

true.

Meanwhile in the British navy the evolution of the submarine

had followed a different path. Here there was a tendency to produce a type useful in reconnaissance work and able to act in tactical conjunction with the flect. Of E class, which did yeoman service, 49 were built and 27 lost. They were vessels of 180 ft.

long with three to five 18-in. tubes and a speed of 15 knots on the surface and ro submerged. They were followed by G class (10 built in 1916, 4 lost) with better seagoing qualities and double hulls, armed with one 3-in. anti-aircraft gun and 5 tubes (four 8-in. and one 21-in. astern}; their speed was 14 and ro knots.

Of J

class 7 were built in 1916-7 and 1 Jost. They were 270 it. long, carried one 4-in. and six 18-in. tubes and could do 18 knots on the

surface. K class were designed for fleet work, and were completed in 1917-8 (16 built, 3 lost). They were steam-driven on the surface, attaining a speed of 22 knots, 334 ft. long, and carried

one 4-in., one 3-in. A.A. gun and eight 18-in. tubes, L elass carried one 3-in. A.A. and six 21-in. tubes. They were 222 ft. long with a surface speed of 17 knots.

Some 25 were complete in 1918

(2 lost). Of M class only 4 were ordered.

They were about 200

{t. long and carried a single 12-in. 35 calibres gun which could be

fired only in the direction of the bow. The design was “freakish” and displayed a lack of tactical, strategical sense. Only one was

completed. R class, of which 12 were completed (none lost), was specially designed for anti-submarine work. They were short and built for quick diving and rapid manceuvring.

3-in. gun and four 18-in. tubes. lost during the war: — By enemy destroyers

.

-

.

©



:

5



:

eg

.

.

i

Eou

;

;

Wrecked

.

1.

we

Scuttled

.

.

:

3

.

;

They carried one

Of British submarines 54 were

By mines

Accident (collision).

.

186

* (Including losses by surface craft and mines.)

Sunk in error by British craft

Total Tonnage (in

261

240 259 270

66 | 1,035 1.065

By encmy submarines . 2. Unknown {probably by enemy) . Aireraft ce Soe ric e Wo i

Submarines Mines .

299

231

8 9 7

sank to the bottom in go feet. The gauges showed the bows to be out of water, and with the boat lying at an angle of about 60° a torpedo was lowered from the bow tube, and a man rammed up its narrow length. The sea cap was opened cautiously and it

and the strain so great that most of them elected to go back and

6

6

to the surface, but the after-tanks would not blow and her stern

was found that the mouth of the tube was a couple of fect above

315

4 10

began to enter by the stern. An attempt was made to bring her

N

298

4 4 2 4

she struck a mine off the Owers (near Portsmouth) and water

water. Men were rammed carefully up and seven men had dragged themselves painfully out, only to find the cold so bitter

1918 B

O

of destruction (destroyers and patrols 39%, mines 30%); then

i

ew . . Be

.

2.

gw . .

oe N

mp m OP Pe

J

œ** » ©



54 The question arises, How nearly did the German submarine campaign attain its aim? The increase in submarine destruction and the decrease in shipping losses possess little meaning apart

from the figures of output in either case. In spite of strenuous

SUBMARINE

612

British effort the German submarine output more than kept pace at first with their destruction. In 1917 the net gain in submarines was approximately 45, but in 1918 the two exactly balanced (74 added, 74 lost). The shipping position depended

largely on the irreducible margin which would have fulfilled British needs. This may be taken as 124 million tons, and in addition there was always some 600,000 tons of British shipping under repair (from enemy and marine damage}, requiring a total of, say, 13,000,000 tons (gross). By the end of 1918 there were 3,391 British steam vessels of over 1,000 tons, with a gross tonnage of 14,049,000.

The British shipbuilding capacity remained much the same (about 1-2 million tons a year, 1-310 million tons gross for Jan. to Oct. 1918), but net losses had been reduced to about 33,000 tons

gross per er attain German monthly

month, which meant that the submarine could its object within a reasonable time. It is true output of submarines would have increased in tọrọ, but there is every reason to believe

no longthat the 20 or so that the

Allied navies could have dealt with it. The really critical time from Aug. 1917 to Dec. 1917 had passed. The submarine cam-

paign had failed.

On three grey Nov. days they filed along

Germany’s via dolorosa towards Harwich, bringing to a grim and sordid conclusion one of the most tremendous chapters in the

history, not only of naval warfare, but of the world. Final Tale of German Submarines in Nov. 7018.

Surrendered

Building and fitting out

:

.

Inspected . : Blown up . ; Sunk and interned Various

: x .

. ; i

ets

. ;

fe

|

15

tte

Total.

| ti

69

59

53

26

138

12 4 66 —

F 5 68 3

7 5 57 —

26 E4 191 3

169

I5I

121

44r |

See Comdr. A, Gaver, Die deutschen U Boate (1020); Scheer, Germany's iigh Sea Fleet in the War (1920); Archibald Hurd, The Merchant Navy (vol. i, 1921); Comdr. J. G. Bower, Story of our Submarines (1919); Henry Newbolt, Submarine and anti-Submarine (1918); Comdr. Emile Vedel, Quatre années de Guerre Sousmarine (1919). A. C. D.)

SUBMARINE MINES (see 26.1).—It was the Russo-Japanese War 1903-4 which saw the first use of what has been called deepsea mining—that is to say, the application of the submarine mine to strategic and tactical uses quite distinct from its previous

application for coast defence; and that war led to the intensification of development in all maritime countrics. In the World War 1914-8 Great Britain laid a total of 130,389

MINES

Mines, as distinct frem depth charges, accounted for the known loss of 35 German (or Austrian) submarines. The loss of the British mercantile marine due to mines was 673,417 gross tons, besides a loss in fishing vessels of 8,545 gross tons. Classification of Mines—Submarine two general types, controlled

and

mines can be divided into

non-controlled.

These

may

be

again divided, each into two divisions, contact and non-contact,

and these may be further sub-divided into three classes, moored,

drifting and ground. A ground mine is one which is laid actually on the bottom; it is chicfly useful in shallow waters. Drifting mines may be submerged and oscillate between set depths, may float on the surface, or may be suspended below a float; they are especially suitable for employment in river warfare. A moored mine which is the type most frequently used, is a buoyant mine anchored to the bottom by a heavy weight or “ sinker,’ the mine being attached to its“* sinker” by chain or wire rope. The “ sinker may be automatic in its working and, following an adjustment which is capable of being

readily made by the layer, it will take the mine to the desired depth

below the surface. The depth adjustment will be made by the layer in accordance with the dak of the enemy’s ships. Controlled mines are those which have their firing source outside

the mine and directly controllable by human agency. An electric current, provided by a dynamo or battery, is conveyed ta the mines by cables led along the sca bottom from a control station on shore where the current

may

be switched on

or off as desired.

In the

case of contact controlled mines a break in the controlling circuit, inside the mine, is completed when the mine is struck. Sometimes this is arranged by the crushing of a horn or it may be arranged by

mechanism which acts due to the inertia of the blow. In the case of non-contact controlled mines, the firing is accomplished either by the

direct observation of the operator or the mines themselves are made

their own observers. In the first case the observer follows the enemy vessel through a telescope, which works over a prepared chart having metal strips on it corresponding to the positions of the mines; when a

plunger on the training arnt attached to the telescope comes into

contact with one of the metal strips, the circuit is completed to that

particular mine or line of mines and the mines are fired. Where the mines are their own operators, each contains mechanism, such as a

microphone, which will pick up the sound of a ship's propellers and will indicate to the operator the moment when he should fire. The observation current from the mine is conveyed to the operator

by the same cables that are used to fire the mine.

Controlled mines are specially appticable to the defence of har-

bours, where, by nature of their control, passage of friendly ships can be permitted but, at any time if necessary, can be denied. Contact controlled mines are used chiefly in side channels, because, al-

though they can be put to “ safe,” they nevertheless foul the ground and Iriendly ships passing might damage them or tear them from

their moorings; used channels have, therefore, to be mined with non-

contact controlled mines, moored at a depth below the draft of the deepest draft ship using the channel. Controlled mines are very costly to install and maintain and they require a large personnel to tend and operate them. (See PLATE, figs. 6 and 7, for types of non-contact controlled mines.)

non-controlled mines, 1,192 controlled mines and 25,983 of a small special type of net mine; in addition, 809 British non-

Non-controlled mines are those which are automatic when once laid. They carry their own firing source or obtain it from the sea and have no further dependence on any human contro}. Mechanism

controlled mines were laid by a U.S. minelayer.

is usually fitted which renders them safe during laying and for a short time afterwards, or at any time should they break adrift

As showing the

growing intensity of mining as the war developed, British minelayers were engaged on an average number of days in each month

of 2} in 1915, 5; in 1916, rr in 1917, and 20 in 1918. A mine barrage across the Dover Straits contained

9,373 mines.

The

great Northern Barrage from the Orkney Is. to the coast of Norway contained 60,766 mines; of this number American mines and laid by the U.S. minclayers.

56,033 were The British

minelayers, who were chiefly employed elsewhere, laid the remainder. British submarines laid 2,469 mines. (See generally MINELAYING AND MINESWEEPING.)

The chief naval war losses in surface ships due to the action of mines were:—

i

Italy

.

. à

by the crushing of an external horn, intoa valve inside the mine, which acting under the water pressure releases percussion firing

Destroyers and Torpedo

(iv,) Electrical,

which

is usually of the well-known

nal horn which contains within it a bichromate solution in a glass

tube. When the glass of this latter is broken, the solution flows to the plates of an electric battery, previously inert, situated within the mine at the base of the horn. The solution energizes the battery, which is electrically connected to the mine detonator, thus

firing the mine,

This type, though electrical in action, carries the

energy in a chemical form.

;

; p

cussion firing mechanism. (ii.) Mechanical lever, where the contact with a vessel displaces a rod or lever on the outside of the mine which

first cocks and then releases a percussion firing mechanism. (iii.} Hydrostatic, where the contact with a vessel admits water, usually

“ Hertz’ horn type, where contact with a vessel crushes an exter-

In the case of non-contact non-controlled mines, firing can be

United States . Japan i Germany Austria Turkey

no longer required. There are several methods by which contact non-tontroiied mines are fired:—(i,) Inertia, where the momentum of the blow displaces | a weight or pendulum inside the mine, causing the release of a per-

mechanism,

Battleships | Cruisers Great Britain , France ; Russia . È

from their moorings. They may also be fitted with mechanism rendering them safle or disposing of them by explosion after a de termined interval, and unless so fitted they must be swept up when

accomplished by an observing mechanism, as for instance a micro: $

phone, within the mine; as a vessel approaches, the sound of her prope)lers is picked up by the Miera hone and by means of relay ]=#% |=] »j»

mechanism the mine can be made to fire when a pre-determined ‘| intensity of sound has been. reached. .

SUBMARINE

Figs. 1 and

2 show

contact

non-controlled

mines

having

the

MINES

Fig. 5 shows

a special

type

of horned

contact

non-controlled

horn type of firing mechanism and attached to their automatic sinkers as they would appear on board the minelayer when ready for laying. The small wheels on each side of the sinkers at the

mine adapted for discharge out of a torpedo tube of a submarine. Figs. 6 and 7 show types of non-contact controlled mines as they would appear when broken adrift from their moorings and

bottom engage on the rail track laid along the minelayer’s deck. Figs. 3 and 4 show similar types of mines as they would appear

floating on the surface. Fig. 8 shows the explosion of a depth charge fired at a depth of

when broken adrift from their moorings and floating on the surface.

40 feet.

SUDAN The object of such an arrangement is to increase the probability of the mine, but since in this case the mine is fired out of actual contact with the ship's hull, explosive effect is sacrificed for the gain

in probability, a failing common to all types of non-contact mine. (Various types of non-controlied mines are shown in the accompa-

nying Plate, figs. 1-5.)

.

Minefields— Controlled minefields, on account of the complicated nature of material, etc., are applicable only to a limited defence of friendly shores. The mines are usually laid by small special minelayers in short lines or small groups, all the mines of a line or group being fired simultaneously where these are of the non-contact type. Non-controlled minefields on the other hand are required on an extensive scale and in all depths of water, both for offence against the enemy and defence of friendly coasts. They may consist of “ barrages ” to prevent the passage of enemy vessels through definite and particular areas, “‘ independent minefields ’’ to inflict loss on the

enemy

where there

is a reasonable possibility of doing so, and

“mined areas,” which are built up of individual minefields to inflict loss on the enemy in areas which he is obliged to use when his ships put to sea for operations or exercise. Mines are laid in lines

which are either continuous or broken up into groups, but variations of a single line are more often used, especially when several mine-

layers are taking part in the operation together, the more usual variations being two or more parallel lines, single indented or

stepped line and dog’s ley line.

There are also some special forms of mining, such as the laying of

“connected connected

mines’

where two or more

non-controled

together, or where, as an anti-submarine

mines are suspended in nets.

mines are

measure,

the

The object of all such systems js to

increase probability, but the latter is only gained, in these cases, by complication of the material and the laying of it out. Mfinelayers.—Various classes of vessels are employed for laying non-controlled minefelds:—{a) Large minelayers with large carrying capacity for laying “ barrages.” (b) Fast minelayers of moderate

capacity for Jaying ‘‘ mined areas" or “ independent minehelds ” in enemy waters. (¢} Very fast minelayers and submarine minelayers for laying small minefelds close in to vulnerable points. Submarine minelayers require special laying apparatus. Surface minelayers are usually provided with narrow-gauge rails running

613

that the submarine was in its immediate vicinity. The introduction

and rapid development of the depth charge entirely removed this

sense of security, and quite apart from the destruction of 34 sub-

marines actually achieved by this means, it produced a very great moral effect upon hostile submarines, and hampered them in attacks upon surface craft, owing to their perception of the risk of allowing their periscopes to be sighted, and thus drawing down a rain of these depth charges upon them. Though depth charges generally cannot be depended on to vitally damage a submarine outside a range of about 30 ft. (depending on the weight of the charge), the effect on the nerves of a crew of a series of heavy explosions at a greater distance than this fatal limit is very marked, and may be regarded as one of the great uses

of this weapon. In many cases in which British submarines have been subjected to a depth charge attack, the force of the explosion has caused an immense concussion inside the boat. Fig. 8 in the

epcOmpeny ing Plate shows the explosion of a depth charge a 40 eet. À.

SUDAN (sce 26.0).—The countries of the western and central Sudan

are treated under their distinctive

names;

the present

article deals with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which, following official usage, is called the Sudan simply.

The arca administered by the Sudan Government, enlarged during 1910-6 by the addition of the Lado Enclave and Darfur, was oflicially given in 1921 as 1,014,000 sq. miles. In the same year the pop. was estimated at over 4,000,000, which compared with an estimate of 1,853,000 In 1905. Nearly half the people are primitive negroid tribes living in the equatorial belt. Khar-

tum,

including

1921; Omdurman

Economic

Khartum

North,

had

39,036 inhabitants

in

59,429.

and Social Conditions —The

years

1910-2 were

years of prosperity, so much so that in April 1912 Lord Kitchener

declared that “ there is now hardly a poor man in the Sudan.” But in that year the country experienced low floods and poor

along the deck and ending in a discharge “ trap’ at the stern. The t sinkers ” have two pairs of wheels which fit the rail gauge and each

rains, While the 1913 Nile flood was one of the lowest on record. The rains, scanty at the best, failed altogether in some districts.

mine

mines and sinkers are

The result was that 1913 and 1914 were years of acute agricultural

the tiers are gradually hauled aft towards the traps, electrical power being usually employed for this purpose. On nearing the

and trade depression—1914 was described as perhaps the most difficult, from the point of revenue and the economic situation,

rests on

top of

its own

sinker,

The

disposed in long tiers along the rails and as the minelaying proceeds

“trap” each “ unit" is hanled off the face of the tier in succession and pushed into the “ trap ” from whence it is let go by order. The spacing of the mines apart varies according to circumstance, but the least distance at which mines can be spaced apart is limited to the distance at which one mine, if exploded, will not damage or countermine the next adjacent. The spacing on board the minelayer

experienced in the history of the Sudan. Trade shock with the outbreak of the World War. in the autumn and a high Nile happily resulted country with an ample supply of food-stuffs. little better than 1914. War conditions and

let co varies according to the speed at which the vessel is steaming

shipping had caused a much lessened demand for the produce of the country. The cultivators, who form the majority of

is regulated by time; the interval between successive mines being

and the spacing being used. Where a minelayer has more than one set of rails, it is usual to drop mines alternately from each set; this

is for convenience and gives more time for the loading of each “trap.”

(I1. D. B.)

Depth Charges.—A development of submarine mines which came in during the World War is the engine known as a depth charge.

This, a5 its name implies, is a charge of explosive which is detonated on reaching a given depth. The explosive is carried in a mild-steel plate “ charge case,” to which rings are secured at the top and bottom for handling. A primer for detonating the main charge is secured in the centre of the

charge case, round which primer lies the great bulk of the explosive

charge and immediately above the primer is secured the “ pistol.” The pistol is arranged to fire the charge at varying depths.

One principle by which a depth charge may be fired consists of

adimitting water to a chamber containing a hydrostatic diaphragm. The pressure of the sca-water acts on the diaphragm and at the set depth causes a striker to act, thereby exploding the charge. A suit-

able safety arrangement is of course provided, and this consists of a

safety key which cannot be withdrawn until the depth charge has been adjusted! for a depth setting,

Depth charges are carried in the stern of vessels, either in chutes or ona tilting tray, and can be released either hydraulically from the

forebridge, or by hand.

As the depth charge sinks at a rate of 10

ft. per second, it is clear that the laying vessel must maintain a ceriain minimum speed to ensure herself against damage by the depth charge she has dropped. This is to knots.

suffered another Abundant rains in providing the Yet 1915 was the scarcity of

the people, “ while they had enough to eat, were short of ready money ” and hard pressed to pay their taxes. European conditions were indeed closely reproduced in the Sudan so far as commerce and economics were concerned. This was seen in 1916 when a period of comparative prosperity set in, though this was also due in part to abundant rains and a good flood in 1915.

“The influence of the war,” said the official report issued in 1920, “ which had had such a depressing effect on trade in 1914 and rgrs, began to operate in the reverse direction, and a great

impetus was given to the export trade through an unprecedented demand for Sudan products. The presence of a large body of British troops in Egypt requiring grain and live stock, the demand created on the Arabian coast for Sudan millet, and in England and Allied and neutral countries for cotton and gum

enabled all these commodities to be disposed of freely.” The experience of 1916 was repeated in 1917 and 1918 and, although there was a low Nile and poor rains in 1918, the country

suffered no serious setback in 1919. Conditions in 1920 were influenced by the world depression in trade, nevertheless the year (following average rains and a medium flood in 1919) proved

$n addition to the two methods of carrying and dropping depth

one of fair prosperity, In considering the productivity and industry of the country it should be remembered that the Sudan consists of three

chamber is screwed an explosion tube which on firing sets up a pressure which will throw the depth charge a distance of 40 yds.

is only possible in a narrow strip on cither bank of the Nile; a central zone where there are large areas of fertility, including

charges already mentioned, an alternative is provided in some ships in the form of a depth charge thrower. This consists of a steel barrel and an “expansion chamber.” Into the expansion with a time of flight of four seconds.

The introduction of the depth charge was brought about in 1915

owing to the complete immunity enjoyed by a submarine immediate-

ly on submersion, notwithstanding the knowledge of a surface vessel

natural zones, the desert zone in the north, where cultivation

the rainlands of Kassala and of Tokar, the Gezira plain, the

pastures and gum-forests of Kordofan; and a southern

where the soil is richest and the rain tropical.

belt,

But this southern

SUDAN

614

belt up to 1921 yielded very little, for the negroid tribes which inhabit it showed scant inclination to do more than supply their own needs, while the lack of communications over enormous distances and the difficulties of administration rendered development by outside agencies extremely hazardous. Timber was, however, obtained from the forests of the Bahr el Ghazal and Lado and a (diminishing) quantity of ivory.

Apart from the tribes of this southern zone—and even among them progress in civilization was made—the people of the

Sudan, negro and “ Arab,”* showed willingness, in many cases eagerness, to benefit by Western civilization. Their standard of living became more exacting and their desire for education greater. Moreover, the possibilities and advantages of trade, through the World War, had been brought home to a larger

number of the population than before.

“ There has been,”

wrote the governor-gencral, Sir Lee Stack, in April 1920, “an advance in energy and initiative, particularly among those who

make their living by cultivation.” Products and Trade—Gum arahic is perhans the most characteristic product of the Sudan, which provides the bulk of the world's supply. Formerly the only Sudan product in which Germany had a direct interest, the Jargest share of the gum trade is now with Great Britain. In 1913 the export of gum was 336,000 kantars, it fell to 258,000 kantars in 1915 and was 344,000 kantars In 1919 (a kantar equals 99-049 pounds). The value of the gum varied in the period named from £E314,000 to f£&£744,000. The principal crops are durra (millet) and cotton. As the area cultivated depends upon an uncertain rainfall and an equally uncertain Nile flood, the amount produced is liable to great variations. In i915 the total area under cultivation was 2,463,000 feddans, in 1916 it fell to 1,489,000 feddans, was over 2,000,000 in 1917 and but 1,669,000 in igig (a feddan equals Loe acre), Nor in respect to durra does the export correspond to the crop raised. Much of the grain is home-consumed and only the surplus sent abroad. The durra exported tn 1913 Was 2,080 tons; in 1914 only 530 tons. Exports rose to 84,000 tons In 1917

and fell to 1,650 tons in 1919. ‘Phe total export of durra for the five years 1918-9 was 245,300 tons, against 53,500 tons in 1910-4. Great expectations were held as to the development of the area under cotton by irrigation, but the financial situation created by the war rendered any large extension impossible for the time being. The Variation in output was great—g,joo bales (of 400 Ib.) in 1914; 23,900 bales in 1915; 12,300 bales in 1919. The total export of cotton in the 10 years 1910-9 was 161,000 bales. The yearly fluctuation was mainly due to the variation in the crop of flood-grown cotton in the Tokar district, Red Sea province. Only by irrigation works and by the building of railways to afford the cotton districts rapid and cheap means of access to the world’s markets could any great increase of the crop be expected (sce below: Irrigation and Communications). Besides gum, cotton and durra the chief exports were cattle and sheep, hides and skins and sesame. The extent to which the export of live stock was stimulated during the war is shown by the following figures: Total number of cattle exported 1910-4, 64,400; in 1915-9, 129,500. Jn the same periods the number of sheep exported was 459,000 and 648,000 respectively. The export of hide and skins, however, decreased, being 1,928,000 in the hve years 1910and 1,552,000 in 1915-9. The very large number of camels exporte for the use of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force is not included in the trade returns. Supplies of ivory decreased; 2,792 kantars were

Irrigation.—The cultivator in the Sudan depended mainly on the rainfall and only toa less extent on the Nile flood and on artificial

irrigation,

While these conditions continued the area cultivated, in

a year of good rains, could not much exceed 2,500,000 feddans, while

cultivable land, given irrigation, has been estimated as high as a fourth of the total area of the Sudan. The Sudan Goverament elaborated schemes for irrigating a small portion of this uncultivated

land, namely the Gezira plain and the Tokar area. [In addition they embarked in 1909 on a scheme for irrigating in additional 100,000 feddans in the Dongola province by annual flooding on the basin system. In 1917, aS an emergency measure to meet war needs, some 19,000 feddans in Berber and Dongola provinces were put under

cultivation by means of pump irrigation, The

Gezira

scheme

was

of much

importance.

The

Gezira

(=island) is the land lying between the White and Blue Niles.

was Originally proposed to irrigate 100,000 feddans.,

It’

Experiments

undertaken in 1911 at Tayiba, near Wad Medani, on the Blue Nile, having proved conclusively that Egyptian cotton of the best quality

could be grown commercially in that district, irrigation work was started carly in 1914, with funds advanced by the British National

Debt Commissioners. The intention then was to raise in London a loan of £3,000,000 to mect the expense of the work, but owing to the

World War the scheme had to be held in abeyance.

Eventually, in

1919, a Joan of {6,000,000 was authorized by the British Parhament, £4,900,000 to be spent on the Gezira works, Meanwhile it had been. decided to increase the area to be irrigated to 300,000 feddans, The Gezira scheme provided for the erection of a dam on the Blue Nile at Makwar, near Sennar, so as to raise the river to a level sufficient to feed a great canal excavated across the plain. Work on the canal, the levelling survey and the necessary buildings was continued at a snail’s pace (owing to war exigencies) until 1917, when a fresh start was made. In the interval the Egyptian Government had intervened with irrigation projects intended

for the benefit of Egypt, and in

1916 investigations were conducted

in connexion with the water

supply of both the Blue and White Niles. The result was a larger project, for which Sir Murdoch Macdonald, then adviser to the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works, was responsible. In addition to

the Gezira scheme it was decided to build a dam across the White Nile at Gebel Aulia about 24m. south of Khartum, which should be able to hold up nearly double the quantity of water stored by the Aswan dam—this White Nile dam being for the benefit of Egypt. Drawings of the two dams, both engineering works of the first magnitude, were completed in 1917. Cement having been found at a convenient spot near Makwar, a factory was erected there in 1919, and the preliminary work pushed forward oa both dams, some of the. workmen engaged being brought from the Yemen. Sir William Willcocks, the engineer of the Aswan dam, having very severcly criticized the schemes,

eminent

a Nile Projects Commission,

composed

of

engineers unconnected with the Egyptian or Sudan serv-

ices, made a thorough investigation during 1920. The commission reported that both schemes were sound and the last obstacle to the

building of the dams appeared to be overcome. In 1921, however, the Egyptian Government was compelled, owing to the serious financial situation, to order the discontinuance of work on the Gebel Aulia dam; the Gezira operations were continued but at a greatly reduced rate. Up to June 30 1921 some £E3,264,000 had been spent upon the Gezira schemes. Mcanwhile a proposal to increase the Sudan loan to £9,500,000, owing to the increased cost of labour, material and transport, had been rejected. The Tokar. area irrigation works, for which only £140,000 was estimated to be needed, were continued.

Dates, wood,

Communications.—As a corollary to the irrigation schemes at Tokar a railway from that town to the seaport of Suakin was sanctioned in 1919. The distance is about 60 miles. The railway south from Khartum to Sennar and thence, crossing the White

Three-fourths of the total exports go in the first place to Egypt, whence a considerable proportion is rcéxported to Europe. Nearly all the rest of the exports go to Arabia, Abyssinia or Eritrea. Im-

distance of 428 m.—was completed in ig1t. It had the immediate effect of stimulating the trade in gum arabic for which Kordofan is famous. Both railways and steamers are State-owned; in 1918 the

exported in 1913 and only 1,105 kantars in 1919. charcoal, gold and senna were minor exports.

ports consist mainly of textiles and food-stuffs. An indication of the increased purchasing power of the people was the rise in the value of the imports of cotton fabrics, sugar, tea, coffee and spices. Those imports were valued at £E684,000 in 1914 and at £F2,062,000 in 1918. Imports come mainly from Great Britain and Egypt (each

about 30%) and India and Aden (about 15%). South Africa (chiefly coal and sugar) and Abyssinia supply most of the other imports.

The following table shows the value of external trade (excluding specie} in the years named :— Imports

Exports

(including

Total

Reéxports) £E1,348,000 2,109,000 4,024,000 4.805.000

[E 977,000

1,278,000 4,210,000 2,009,000

£E2,325,000

3,387,000

8,234,000 7,814,000

1 Most of the “Arab” tribes in the Sudan are of Hamitic stock.

_? Includes for 1918 Government imports ££988,000, and for 1919

Government imports £E1,804,000.

Nile at Kosti, westward

to El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan—a

steamers department, which controlled the whole of the river traffic on the White and Blue Niles and their tributaries south of Khartum, was incorporated with the railways department, which had taken over the administration of the harbour of Port Sudan in 1914. The chief difficulty of the department during 1914-20 was in maintaining regular services efficiently. Great difficulty was experienced in

keeping the Bahr el Ghazal free from sudd blocks, which caused much delay to steamers. The upkeep of existing roads and the building of new roads entailed heavy labour and expense. In the northern and central

zones wells had to be dug to make many of the tracks usable; in the south there was superabundance of water and dense forests to be

cut through. One of the most important trade roads was that from Rejaf—the southern limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum —westward to the Belgian Congo border. Good work was done on this road in 1916-8. Eighty streams had to be crossed in 125 m.ia single-span steel bridge 193 ft. long was erected over the river Yet. The difficulty of keeping the roads practicable in the equatorial

regions in the long rainy season was great. It was largely on the opening-up of roads, and more roads, that the complete pacification

of the southern provinces depended. From 1916 onward experiments

615

SUDAN were made in the use of motor tractors and cars on the roads, with

spirit had to be suppressed in Sennar, and during 1910-2 minor

laying-out in 1919 of a number of acrodromes and the passage in

expeditions dealt with local disturbances in Kordofan and Mongalla. Others were also undertaken in 1914-8 to dea]

at first but moderate success. Fn 1920 the use nf aeroplanes by otficials for visiting distant posts was first recorded. This followed the

Feb. 1920 of aeroplanes engaged in the first Cairo to Cape flight, This flight led to the discovery, from the air, by Dr. Chalmers

Mitchell, of the volcanic character of a range of hills in the Bayuda

desert (see AFRICA: Exploration). On the conquest of Darfur the telegraph system was extended to

its capital El Fasher.

chief towns. 1913—~at

Telephone exchanges are established in the

The first wireless telegraphic stations were erected in

Port

Sudan,

Malakal,

Nasser

and Gambeila, a chain

extending from the Red Sea to S.W. Abyssinia. In 1916-8 five other wireless stations were erected, three in Darfur, the others in the far

south, at Wau and Mongalla,

oes

,

with turbulent clements in the Nuba Mountains—traditionally obnoxious to authority—and

to keep order in the equatorial

regions, where the Nuer and Dinka tribes gave a good deal of trouble. The most important of these operations was in the Nuba province in r9o17-8. After a number of collisions, in which Capt. R. W. Hutton was killed (April 1917), a considerable force was sent in the autumn of that year and after a somewhat arduous campaign the hill tribes were in Feb. 1918 reduced to submission, In 1918 the Sudanese troops aided in operations

Finance.—The subvention in aid of civil expenditure made to the Sudan by the Egyptian Government, which began in 1899 with an

against the warlike Turkana, a tribe, much given to raiding, living on the Sudan-Uganda border. Unfortunately neither

000, after which it was gradually reduced. In 1912 it stood at £§.163,000. In 1913 it ceased to be paid in accordance with an arrangement by which the Egyptian Government credited the Sudan

the Sudan nor the Uganda Government had forces to spare to station troops permanently in this remote area. An incident at Kassala towards the end of 1918 of no political

allocation of {E.156,000, reached its maximum in 1902 with £E.268,-

with the amount of the customs collected in Egypt on goods entering and issuing from the Sudan, estimated at {E.85,000. The Egyptian Government, however, continued to defray miliary expenditure on account of the Sudan, estimated at {E.172,000. The

insufficient rains and low foods with other external factors exercised

an adverse cffect on the economic situation just when the subvention was withdrawn.

Nevertheless, the Sudan

budgets

of 1913-4-5

closed with a slight surplus. The more prosperous conditions which followed eased the situation and allowed an increase of taxation without impairing trade. Revenue, which in 1911 stoad at fE.1,664,oud, tose in 197g ta £E.2,950,000, with a surplus over expenditure of

£E.267,000. The budget for 1920 was balanced at ££.3,500,000. A traders’ tax was imposed in 1913, the trading community as a class having up to then paid nothing in direct taxation. In 1919 £E.6°% was payable on assessed annual profits exceeding {F.500, In 1917 an excise duty was imposed on sugar, in 1919 the duty on tọbacco was raised; heavy increases were made in railway and steamer

rates both for goods and passengers.

in 191g). The rise ia the price of all commodities was the main cause

of the increase in taxation. The surpluses obtained since 1916 were passed to a reserve fund, the only source available, apart from bor-

rowing, for capital expenditure. On Jan. 1 1920 the reserve fund amounted to {E.426,000 only, the “ reserve ” being almost wholly expended year by year on necessary works. :

Education—The Government schools are all in the northern or half of the Sudan; the only schools among the pagans in

the southern half are those of the missionary societies, In the north there was a considerable increase in the number of boys attending elementary vernacular schools, while the sending of girls to school

became more popular with parents.

There were in 1919 five ele-

mentary girls’ schools, besides higher schools for girls managed by

missionaries,

There was after the war a considerable demand for

boys with a technical or industrial education.

In 1920 over 400 boys

trained in the Gordon College workshops were in employment, as to three-fourths in Government service. (E. R. C.)

Political History.—The political status of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan remained in 1921 as defined by the treaty between Great Britain and Egypt of Jan. 181899. Although the country passed through a period of depression in 1913-5, comparing 1920

with roro there was a distinct advance in the well-being and resources

of the people.

The

recovery from the disastrous

rule of the Mahdi and Khalifa was shown by the large increase in population. The period 1916-20 was also notable for a marked growth of confidence in the Government. The loyalty of the leading chicfs and notables was never in doubt, and throughout the World War the vast majority of the people re-

mained peaceful and contented.

some go fanatics, led by a religious lunatic, suddenly rushed the

guard and inlying picket furnished by the Egyptian unit on the fort and then proceeded to attack the lines of the camel company of the Eastern Arab Corps. No longer aided by the element of surprise,

the band suffered heavily in killed and wounded at the hands of the

latter unit. The leader was amongst the killed and the few that escaped were ultimately accounted for by the camel company and the police.”

Aggressive action by the Aliab section of the Dinkas in Mongalla province led to the despatch of a small force in Tgr9

The railway and steamer - under Maj. R. F. White, which was accompanied by the governor, . Maj. C. H. Stigand. An attack by spearmen in the long grass

services yielded a substantial profit (£F.210,000 in 1915, {E.256,000

Moslem

importance is yet noteworthy as illustrative of the sporadic outbursts of fanaticism to which parts of the Sudan were liable, It was thus officially recorded:-— “Without a word of warning and in the dead of night a band of

The number of minor oper-

led to the death (Dec. 8 to1g) of these two valuable others and other casualtics, entailing a punitive expedition in the following year. The completion of the railway from Khartum to El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, in rọrr enabled the Government better to control Darfur, where ‘Al Dinar ruled as a Sultan

tributary to the Sudan; and, after the French occupation of? Wadai, negotiations were in to12 opened with France for the

determination of boundaries by the inspector-gencral, Sir Rudolf von Slatin, on behalf of Great Britain and Egypt.

In Jan. r912 King George and Queen Mary paid a visit to Port Sudan on their return journey from India, and a revicw was held at Sinkat by the King, at which representatives from almost

every section of the Sudan were present.

‘The scanty rainfall

and abnormally low Nile of 1913 caused famine conditions in

portions of Dongola and the Blue and White Nile provinces. Relief measures and the importation of large quantities of millet from India made a most beneficial impression on the populations affected. In April 1914 an exchange of certain dis-

tricts on the Upper Nile was effected, in the interests of both administrations, with the Uganda Protectorate

(see UGANDA).

On the outbreak of war with Turkey in Nov. 1914 the various provinces of the Sudan, notwithstanding the Moslem character

of the majority, displayed perfect loyalty to the administration. In Darfur, on the other hand, the Sultan ‘Ali Dinar renounced his allegiance, and, instigated by Turkish emissaries working

ations undertaken both before and after the war were mainly

through the Senussi sect, contemplated an invasion of the Sudan.

against primitive tribes in the far south and did not affect the more highly developed provinces.

His communications with the Senussites were cut off by posts of irregulars, and carly in 1916, military operations were undertaken which led to the defeat and subsequent death of ‘Ali

By the annexation of Darfur in 1916 (see below) the area under the control of the Sudan Government was increased to over 1,000,000 sq. miles. This vast region was administered in 1921 by some 110 British officers and officials, assisted by a technical staff. The military establishment included 14,000 men of the Egyptian army, with one British infantry battalion and a detachment of garrison artillery at Khartum. A new unit, the Western Arab Corps, was raised for service in Darfur, The Lado Enclave (see 16.60) Was transferred in 1910 from

the Belgian Congo to the Sudan and added to the province of

Mongalla.

In the same year an outbreak of the old fanatical

Dinar (for the military operations, see SENussI). Darfur was thereafter administered as a province, and an Anglo-French convention, signed at Paris on Sept. 8 roro, at length settled the common frontier of Darfur and Wadai. The occupation of Darfur was followed by an expedition in coöperation with the

French in the region north of Darfur against marauders of

the Guraan tribe, who had given considerable trouble to both administrations, A garrison for Northern Uganda, whence

troops had been withdrawn to meet the menace from German East Africa, was for a brie period provided by the Sudan Govern-

SUDERMANN—SUGAR

616

ment. Except in Darfur, the war did not, externally, touch the Sudan at any point, and its administration continued on normal lines. The Prince of Wales visited the Sudan in 1916 and the Duke of Connaught in the following year. The disturbances which broke out in Egypt in rọrọ interrupted direct communications with Cairo, and the temporary

cessation of Nile traffic caused a certain loss of trade.

The

Sudanese populations were not concerned with the aspirations of Egyptian nationalism, and the large Egyptian oficial community, while by no means indifferent to the development of events in their own country, did not actively display sympathy,

so that this period of crisis passed without incident. Nor did the Armistice and the negotiations which followed the victory of the

Allies occasion

special

comments.

A delegation

of

Sudanese notables proceeded to England to offer congratulations on the successful termination of the war and returned with pleasant impressions of their visit.

The only remaining centre

of unrest In 192t was the Abyssinian border, where raids and hunting parties of chicfs, nominally but not effectively under Abyssinian control, continued to give difficulty. The outstanding event in Sudanese history during the war period was the withdrawal of Sir Reginald Wingate from the

In Feb. 1915 the Turks, who had traversed the Sinai peninsula, attacked the Suez Canal at various points, and it was not until after the battle of Romani in Aug. 1916 that all danger to the canal was ended. Throughout this period traffic was interrupted on two occasions only, and then for very brief periods. During

the World War, under Adm}. Robinson as Director-General of the Egyptian Ports and Lights Administration, r,239 transports and men-of-war, totalling over

8,000,000 tons, were passed in

safety through the canal, and 965 transports, 43 hospital ships,

36 store ships and 307 colliers were dealt with at Port Said. Striking differences in the pre-war and post-war shipping were the

elimination had 13°4% and United before the creased to before the

temporarily after 1914 of German vessels (which in 1911 of the tonnage) and the increasing number of Japanese States ships using the canal. Japanese vessels represented war 1-7 % of the tonnage; in 1920 their tonnage had in91%. QI yo United States vessels, rarely seen in the canal war, in 1920 represented ger% of the tonnage. British ships continued to provide the bulk of the tonnage, the proportion in 1920 being 61-7 % compared with 62-2% in i911. In 1920 three

passages were made by steamers of over 23,000 tons gross, a figure

never before reached, and one vessel had a length of 669 ft., the longest registered in the canal. The quantity of goods passing through the canal in 1920 was 34% below the figures of 1913. There

He succeeded Lord Kitchener

had been some change in the character of the merchandise, foodstuffs diminishing sensibly in volume, though corn from Manchuria and China made its appearance. Imports of coal from S. Africa and Australia were particularly marked in 1919 and 1920.

1899, after an almost continuous service with the Egyptian

existing concession does not expire until 1968—was rejected by

governor-generalship, on his being called to Cairo in Dec. 1916 as high commissioner for Egypt.

as Sirdar of the Egyptian army and governor-general in Dee.

army since 1883.

Under his able and sympathetic adminis-

tration the Sudan had emerged from the chaotic condition to which Mahdist misrule had reduced it, and gradually developed

into a peaceful and contented country. His name will Jong be remembered by the people to whose regeneration he devoted the best years af his fe. Amother historic assockation with the Sudan was terminated by the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, when Sir Rudolf von Slatin, the

inspector-general, whose advice in all native affairs had been most valuable, was inevitably compelled to resign. Mention may also be made of the resignation of Sir Edgar BonhamCarter in rgr7 after 18 years’ service. He had been responsible: for the creation and development of the whole legal and judicial system of the Sudan.

Col. (afterwards Maj.-Gen.

Sir) Lee Stack, civil secretary

to the Sudan-Government, succeeded Sir Reginald Wingate as governor-general and sirdar; Slatin Pasha’s post was not tilled. See the Annual Reports on the finances, administration, etc., of the Sudan, issued annually in London

up to 1913, and the Report

for igt4-9, issued 1920, Which is of special value. The Sudan Almanac and Handbook to the Sudan are also official publications, Murray's Guide to Egypt and the Sudan, and Macmillan’s, Baedeker’s

and Lock's guide-books may be used with profit. See also Y. P, Artin, England in the Soudan (1911); and Sudan Notes and Records, an excellent serial publication begun in 1918. The Survey Depart-

ment, Khartum, issues a map of the Sudan, in many sheets, on the scale of 1:250,000,

(J. R. R.)

SUDERMANN, HERMANN (1857-

}, German dramatist and

novelist (see 26.20). His novels include Das hohe Lied (1909); and Litauische Geschichten (1917); while in 1911 appeared a volume

of short stories, Die indische Lilie. His later plays include Strandhinder (1910); Der Bettler von Syrakus (1911); Der gute Ruf (1913); Die Lobgestinge des Claudian (1914), and Das H öhere Leben (1910). SUESS, EDUARD (1831-1914), Austrian geologist (sce 26.21),

died at Vienna, April 25 1914.

SUEZ CANAL (see 26.22).—The five years 1909-13 witnessed a

considerable increase in the traffic passing through the canal.

The World War greatly restricted the use, particularly in 1917. In the following table the figure for receipts is obtained hy taking

25 francs as equal to £1 sterling except for 1920, when reckoned at 50 francs to the £1 :—

No. of

No. of

vessels | passengers

1909

1913 1917

_1920

1239

5,085 2,353

4.009

213,122

282,225 142,313

500,147)

Net

the rate is

Gross

tonnage {receipts

1§,407,527 {| £4,782,724

20,033,834 8,368,918

4 12,574,657

{5,140,403 2,880,761

_{5,329.213

l This abnormal increase was due to the movement of troops.

A scheme to extend the concession of the Suez Canal Co—the the Egyptian General Assembly in 1910, not on its merits but in an ¢llort to discredit the British administration. The Sucz Canal

Co. codperated

heartily with the British authorities in

Egypt during the war. To meet the increased costs caused by the war the Company in 1916 and 1917 imposed higher tariff charges, wimeh, alter The war, acted in Testraint of trafic andi were not of permanent benefit to the Company. In 1919 the Company asked

to have put into operation at Port Said the free zone regime provided for in an agreement made in 1902 between it and the Egyptian Government. It held that the transit trade would be

stimulated if an area were sct apart in which goods could be handled, or remain, uncontrolled by the customs. An agreement on the subject was drawn up in 1920. It is noteworthy that in r919, and to a much more marked extent in 1920, the Company benefited by the decreased value of the franc. This was made possible as shipping dues were collected in

Egypt and were paid in money less depreciated than the franc, and

profits earned in Egypt were used in the purchase of francs at current rates. In 1920 the benefit from these operations amounted to 101,772,000 franes, or over £2,000,000 at average rates of exchange. The annual reports of the Suez Canal Co., published in Paris, give full statistical information. (F. R. C.)

SUGAR (sce 26.32).—In the year roroi the world’s production of sugar amounted to 16,951,000 tons, of which 8.391,000

tons were produced from cane and 8,560,000 tons from beet, including that grown in America. For 1913-4 the world’s total pro-

duction reached 18,486,000 tons, of which the cane production was 9,577,000 tons—an increase of 1,186,000 tons of cane. The bect

crop for the same period was 8,909,000 tons, of which 655,000 tons were grown in America—an increase of 349,000 tons. These

were the highest figures reached during the decade 1910-20, for after the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the European pro-

duction declined yearly, until in 1919-20 the world’s beet crop reached only a little over 3,200,000 tons, of which 653,000 tons

were American. The world’s crop of sugar for 1920-1 was estimated at about 16,473,000 tons, of which cane was estimated to produce over 11,828,000 tons, and bect 4,647,000 tons, of which 935,000 tons were American. Owing to the British Government recognizing at once the impor-

tance of securing to the nation a supply of sugar sufficient for the wants of the people, sugar was the first commodity to be controlled in the United Kingdom during the war (see Foop SupPLy), and within a few days of its outbreak the Government had bought several thousand

tons of sugar.

In Aug. 1914 a Royal Com-

mission on the Sugar Supply was formed.

It took over the dutics

of buying and selling sugar. These operations were done through the ordinary channels of trade, and everyone was guaranteed a

SUKHOMLINOV,

V.

617

supply on the basis of his trade before the war, the actual quan-

drousht — prices continued to advance to 27s. 6d., but towards the

tities being fixed from time to time in proportion to the sugar held by the Government; and it is not too much to say that the sugar control was the most successful of the many Government controls. It may be noted that in the Final Report of the Commission issued in June rg2r it was stated that: “The wisdom of the Government in at once taking over in z914 responsibility for the sugar supply was, in our opinion, fully proved in the sequel.

was then a steady rise, and in 191.4 cubes were sold at 35s., and granulated at 30s. per cwt.; in 1915 cubes were 50s. and granulated 33s., and then by gradual stages till, for domestic consumption, cubes in 1920 reached 116s. and granulated 112s., but, under the voucher system which was in vogue during control, the prices of

But while we recognize that in the special circumstances State

management was a necessity, our experience docs not lead us to think that State control is a desirable thing in itself in the region of trade in commodities,” The total consumption of sugar sold under control was approximately as follows:— I9Is

Tons

e

.

>

.

.

.

.

*

1916



x

à

s

:

.

:

š

918 TORQ! 1920)

6 sie Ls

ee 28 G6 oe. gt me

TOUT.

es

a

Re

ewe

he

.

b

1,815,458

2

.

1,314,910

eh

a

.

Raigor

a i LIO ‘L59504 a OS 952,403

ite a fe The stocks held by the Commission on March 31 1921 were 390,479 tons of raw and 57,787 tons of white. The Commission had desired to carry out their operations free of cost to the Exchequer.

“ This aspiration cannot now be realized,”

they add, “ but the fault is not ours. From time to time since the middle of 1919 the Commission has on various occasions pleaded for an increase in the selling prices of its sugars, so as to build up a reserve to mect the loss which it foresaw as probable on #he liquidation of its stocks on the conclusion of its operations. But on no occasion has a rise been authorized until wgeks or months after it was recommended, and then not always to the extent recommended. “From a calculation we have made we are able to say that if our recommendations (which were always kept as low as possible in view of the reluctance shown by the Cabinet to an increase in prices) had

been approved at the time they were made our receipts would have

been {16,000,000 more than they have been in fact. Even that sum is less than the deficit which it is probable that the Exchequer will have to meet on our operations, and which we estimate at not less

than £24,500,000. Some may perhaps hold that it is not of material importance to the public whether it has to bear a burden of this kind in its capacity as a taxpayer or in that of a consumer of sugar. But to us it is a matter of regret that we shall not be able to claim

that we discharged the duties imposed upon us without having recourse to the funds of the Exchequer otherwise than for the purpose of the temporary financing of our Operations.

The advances made

to us under this latter head by the Treasury stood on March 31 at

27,281,937. f The Fe of the establishment of the Commission from 1914 to 1922 is given as £103,239. The year 1920 stands out as having the most violent fluctuations the

sugar trade has probably ever experienced. The British Roval Commission on the Sugar Supply and the American Equalization Board acted conjointly in 1919, and by their actions controlled both the American and European markets. Prices were kept between 30s. and 63s. per cwt. for Java 96° F.L., but there was some hesitation in the autumn with regard to the continuation of the operations of the

American Equalization Board, which did not decide on further action until

December.

In the meantime

a good deal of the Cuban

crop

had been sold to Europe and the East on a basis of 64c. per lb., and when the American Equalization Board decided to continue control

it was too late to secure the Cuban crop.

The planters, having sold

a certain quantity of sugar, were independent, and prices were forced

end of 1912 prices declined to 19s. 3d. and with slight fluctuations prices were further reduced at the outbreak of war to 17s. 9d. There

sugar for manufacturing Refined sugar produced

purposes were from 160s. to 164s. per cwt.

by the British refineries from rgto till the outbreak of war averaged about 45% of the total consumption, but after the war the production was about 74%. The British duty from 1910 till 1914 was Is. rod. per cwt., in 1915 gs. tcl. per cwt., in IG16 I4s, per cwt., and in 1918 it was increased to 25s. 8d, per cwt., at which it remained in tg21. This was out of all proportion to the

value of the sugar, and naturally checked consumption.

In ror3 the British Government withdrew from the Brussels Convention, which had been adopted in 1903, after many years’ endeavour on the part of Great Britain to counteract the effect of the system of continental bounties on beet sugar. The adoption of the Convention had undoubtedly saved the British West Indian sugar trade from extinction, and British sugar refiners were able to compete on more equal terms. At the same time there was still strong opposition in England from the Free Trade party, who were anxious to have sugar at any price, whatever injustice might be inflicted on the British colonics and the home refiners. In tort there was a serious falling-olf in the European beet crop, and there was a large deficiency in the world’s supply, so that an inevitable rise in price took place. Russia, however, had large stocks on hand, which, under the Convention, could not be imported into England owing to the fact that prohibition was in force instead of counter-

vailing duties. Had there been countervailing duties the sugar would have been shipped to England and the difference in duty paid. Giving way to pressure from those who were anxious to get cheap sugar irrespective of the reason for the cheapness, Mr. Asquith’s Liberal Government gave notice in Aug. 1912 to withdraw from the Convention.

The curious feature was that, as the

result of this notice, Russia was permitted to send a considerable quantity in excess of the limit Jaid down by the Convention, but the quantity she sent had very little effect in making up the shortage of about 1,700,000 tons of the world’s production.

In 1919 Mr. Lloyd George’s Government (with Mr. Chamberlain as Chancellor of the Exchequer) took a further step in accordance with the views of the British West Indian planters, and agreed to give preferential treatment to sugar produced within the British Empire, in the form of a reduction in its case of one-

sixth off the import duty on sugar. The British preferential duty on raw sugar at 96° polarization is equal to a preference of about

3s. od. per ewt., and on white sugar of a polarization over 98° 48. 3.33d. It was too soon in 1921 to know what permanent etfect this concession would have upon the production of sugar in the British colonies, but it was hoped that it would enable their planters 4o compete with Cuba and other countries where costs are considerably less, and consequently secure a larger share of

the sugar trade of the United Kingdom. Since 1910 serious attempts have been made to grow beetroots in England for the manufacture of sugar. A factory was erected

up to 12c. (equal to 76s. gd. per cwt.) at the end of January. In Feb. there were, however, large offerings on the part of the Cuban plant-

in 1911 in Cantley, in Norfolk, but was worked only one season, and

ers, owing to supplies of sugar coming into the market, and quotations declined to 9c. (equal to 59s. 3d. per cwt.). In March the American refiners began to buy freely, and this increased demand was intensified by two serious reductions in the estimate of the Cuban

diate neighbourhood, but the high price which was given for the roots made it impossible for the purchaser to make a profit an the

crop.

Wild speculations took place, and in May as much as 233c.

(equal to 136s. per cwt.) was paid. Large purchases were also made in Jan. and: May of Manila sugar for shipment during the summer months. The effect of these inflated prices brought its own remedy; consumption decreased rapidly both in England and in America, and by the end of July Cuban prices had fallen to 16c. which was

equal toa fall of 40s. per ewt. This fall continued until, at the end of the year, Cuban sugar was actually sold at 3ic. per lb., or equal to a total fall from the highest point of over 110s. per cwt. The result of these heavy fluctuations caused a financial crisis in the trade.

Enormous

losses were suffered by the American

and Canadian

refiners, who had bought and sold heavily for the autumn

months,

and these forward sale contracts were largely repudiated when the time came for delivery. The British refiners, being still under control, escaped these violent losses. The values of refined sugar in 1910 varied from 17s. 3d. to 235. 6d. per cwt. for Tate’s cubes, and in 1911—the year of exceptional

was closed during the war. It was purchased by a private Liverpool firm in 1920. A fair quantity of beetroots was grown in the imme-

sugar produced. Asa matter of fact a loss of from £60,000 to £70,000 was incurred. A further and more ambitious attempt was in 1921 being made at Kelham, Notts, where a large factory was erected, considerable quantities of beets having been planted in the neighbourhood. The Hritish Government not only subscribed {250,000 of the capital, but also guaranteed interest on the amount of public capital raised at 5°, for 10 years, and took £125,000 of second debentures, See also Foop SUPPLY and RATIONING. (L. A. M.}

SUKHOMLINOV, VLADIMIR (1848}, Russian general ‘and war minister, was born in 1848. He passed through the cavalry school in St. Petersburg, and in 1867 was given a com-

mission in the Guard Ulans.

He graduated from the Academy

of the Gencral Staff in 1874.

He took part in the war with Tur-

key in 1877-8 as an officer of the general staff and was awarded the St. George Cross of the fourth degree. From 1884 to 1886

SUN YAT-SEN-—-SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT

618

he commanded a dragoon regiment and from 1886 to 1897 he was the head of the officers’ cavalry school in St. Petersburg, having meantime in 1890 been promoted to the rank of general. His next appointment

was

as commander

of the roth Cavalry

Division. In 1899, while commanding the troops of the Kiev military district, Gen. Dragomirov appointed him as his chicfof-staff and later as his assistant. His close connexion with Gen. Dragomirov, who enjoyed enormous prestige in the Russian army, ensured Sukhomlinov’s future career. After the death of Dragomirov, he was appointed commander in Kiev. From rg09 to 1916 he was Russian war minister, and it was under him that two Russian orders for mobilization were given at the outbreak of the World War. Self-confident and ambitious Sukhomlinov played a disastrous rôle in the administration of the Russian

army.

Notwithstanding

the discovery,

even

in

Oct. 1914, that there was an insufficiency of shells, rifles and cartridges, he assured the Duma that everything was all nght. It was only in 1916, under strong pressure of public opinion, that the Tsar Nicholas II. dismissed him from ofice. Finally he was brought up for trial on a charge of treason. The court found him guilty of offences in office, and he was sentenced to penal servitude. Later Sukhomlinoy was freed by an amnesty granted by the Bolsheviks and went to Finland. In 1921 he began the publication of his memoirs. (N. N. G.) -SUN YAT-SEN (1867_), Chinese leader of the revolutionary movement which ended in the abdication of the Manchu dynasty in Feb. 1912, was born in Kuangtung province, the son of a native Christian. He studied at the College of Medicine in

yet carry sufficient weight to justify them in attempting to form a national government. Relations between Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shih-k’ai were never cordial, but until the ejection from Peking of the Kuo

Min-tang Radicals by the President Dictator in 1913, they preserved the appearance of goodwill, and towards the end of 1912 Sun accepted a highly paid appointment as Director of

National Railways at Shanghai.

After the failure of the Kuo

Min-tang’s ‘war to punish Yuan,” Sun wandered again in a

wilderness of conspiracies.

Eventually, after the death of the

Dictator (1916) he became one of the Cantonese group of politicians which waged continual warfare against the party in power at Peking. Because of the futility and sordid intrigues

which characterized the independent Military Government at Canton, he, whose reputation in 1912 had stood high at home and abroad, came gradually to be regarded as an irreconcilable conspirator, whose personal ambitions were largely responsible for the continuance of the senseless civil strife between the North and

the South.

By thevehemenceof his rhetoric, by the fervour of his

grandiose schemes for the remaking of China at the time of the revolution, he captured the imagination of considerable sections of the public, especially in the United States; but his subsequent

career failed to justify his own belief in himself as a heaven-sent reformer. In April ro2r, a special session of the Southern

(Canton) Parliament elected him to be President of the Chinese

Republic, his supporters declaring the Canton “ Military Government ” to be the only lawfully constituted government in the country; but the influence,of these Cantonese ‘‘ Constitu-

He practised his profession first at

tionalists ” over the other southern provinces had then become almost insignificant, and the ‘f Military Government,” prohibited

Macao and then at Canton, but from the outset of his career

by the Foreign Powers from interfering with the revenues of the

displayed more interest in politics than in medicine, being by temperament an iconoclast, an organizer of secret societies and a

Maritime Customs, was confronted by financial problems of a kind which threatened not only its reforming activitics but

leader of conspiracies against the established order of things. Inspired by his semi-European training, with bitter resentment against the Manchus, whom he regarded as responsible for China’s humiliation at the hands of Japan, he first raised the standard of rebellion and of Cantonese independence in 1895; but the

its continued existence.

Hong-Kong

medicine

from

1887 to 1892, and there took his degree in

and surgery.

SUPAN, ALEXANDER GEORG (1847-1920), Austrian geogra-

coup failed and Dr. Sun was compelled to seek safety in exile,

pher, was born at Innichen, South Tirol, March 3 1847. He was educated at the Laibach gymnasium, and in 1870 took his doctor’s degree at Graz, afterwards becoming a teacher in the Oberrealschule at Laibach. In 1872 he left Laibach and studied

Henceforward all his energies were directed towards stimulating

geography at Vienna, Dresden and Halle, returning in 1877.

the anti-dynastic movement, first by the collection of funds from

In 188: he was appointed professor of geography at the university of Czernowitz, and in 1884 became editor of Pctermanns

the Chinese communities in the United States, Hawaii and the Straits Settlements, and then by organized propaganda work conducted by secret agents throughout the Empire. He received considerable assistance and encouragement in Japan, where he founded a society known as the Tung Men-hui, which played

a prominent part in Chinese politics after the establishment of the Republic. Although an exile, he was generally regarded by the ‘Western-learning” section of Young China as its leader, especially after the Chinese Government’s attempt to kidnap him in London, in 1896. In r911, when the revolution broke out prematurely at Wuchang, Dr. Sun was in England; but he hurried back to China and arrived at Shanghai on Christmas Eve, in time to be acclaimed as the originator of the Republican programme and elected Provisional President by the delegates to the National Convention assembled at Nanking. On Jan. s, after having taken the oath of office, he issued a Manifesto (countersigned by Wu Ting-fang as Minister for Foreign Affairs) in which the purposes and policy of the Republican Government were proclaimed. On Feb. 12 an Imperial edict announced the abdication of the Emperor; it surrendered

the reins of ‘government to the representatives of the sovereign

people and declared that henceforth the constitution should be Republican; at the same time, the organization of the new form

of government was entrusted, “with full powers,” to Yuan Shih-k’ai. On the r4th, Sun Yat-sen resigned the Presidency and. in the name of the Nanking Assembly invited Yuan to accept the position of Provisional President. His action was applauded by Young China at the time as evidence of patriotic self-abnegation, but events proved that it was chiefly inspired by recognition of the fact that he and the Cantonese group of politicians who

had joined him as leaders of the Republican movement, did not

Mitteilungen, retaining this post until 1909, when he accepted

the chair of geography at Breslau. Under Supan’s editorship Petermanns Mitteilungen was more concerned with reports and accounts of geographical work in every sphere than with original papers and records of discovery, and a feature in which the editor was much interested was the publication of supplements to the Milteilungen, An account of the economic produce of N. America, 1880-5, appeared in this manner in 1886, and Die Bevölkerung der Erde, founded 1872 by Hermann Wagner

and Behm, was continued by Supan as a supplement from 1890 to 1910. In 1889 he became editor of the statistical calendar of the Almanach de Gotha. His original contributions to geographical science are chiefly concerned with climatology and occanography, and his published works include Lehrbuch der Geographie (1873); Statistik der unteren Luftsirémungen (1881); Grumdsiige der physischen Erdkunde (1884); Deutsche Schulgeographie (1895;

latest ed. 1915) and Die territorialische Entwicklung der europdischen Kolouien (1906), besides many papers in Petermanns Mitteilungen. He died at Breslau July 6 1920. SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY (sce 26.113).— During

the World War, the administrative services— i.e. the management of transport, supply, welfare and salvage—became of vastly

increasing importance. The struggle was between groups of nations bending to the task of war the whole of the resources of a highly complex scientific civilization, and using in its prosecution every material and moral factor at their command. Some

note of the working of the administrative machinery (especially at the culminating point of the struggle) is necessary to give a true picture of the war. Attention will be given here in the main to the British organization in 1918—with illustrative references

SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY

619

to other armics and to prior dates. For the feeding of the British

growth of supplies (and therefore in transport) was almost

army, see Foop SUPPLY. When the armies first took the field in 1914, Germany was at a clear advantage in administration. That was to have been

incredible.

expected. It was her war, and she had prepared for it with meticulous care. The equipment of the German soldiers comprised several novel ideas for greater comfort and efficiency. Examining some of the German dead who had fallen in the early reconnaissance affairs in front of Tirlemont on Aug. 14, the writer had the first uneasiness that Germany might win, so strong was the evidence their equipment gave of a patient and thoughtful

preparation.

The impressive sweep of the German host through

Belgium showed, too, that the German railway organization was superb, and the way the guns kept up proved that there had

been a clear thinking out in advance of the new problems of ammunition-supply which the free use of heavy artillery as ficld pieces had brought to the fore. German staff documents published since the war by Gen. Ludendorff indicate that these matters of administration had been studied from 1910 onwards and that the German staff were confident that their inferiority in numbers would be compensated by a superior organization in supply. The French administrative services in 1914 appeared much weaker if examination were confined to plans and matériel. The troops were not as well provided for, the transport organization not so well planned. But if the human factor were taken into consideration much of the handicap was made up. The French showed a genius for improvisation on the actual battle field, and an astonishing faculty for “ getting there ” with inferior means. Their food scales for man and beast (to give an example) spelt scarcity in German or in English eyes; but they

sufficed.

In the battle the French soldier was never inferior in

The British force in 1914-5 suffered from a shell

and gun shortage as compared with its enemy, because it had been trained and equipped for a different type of warfare. It had very little H.E. shell, and what it had was not really “ high

explosive ” owing to poor fuzes.

The patient search for a “ fool-

proof ”? fuze had been so successful that what little H.E. shell they had spluttered off rather than shattered off. The production of high explosive in 1914 was almost negligible. The

whole year’s supply would not keep the guns of 1918 going for a day. In 1015 Britain began to produce high explosive on a large scale. In 1916 she had increased the 1915 amount sevenfold. In 1tor17 she had increased that 1916 amount fourfold. From March 1915 to March ro17 the increase was twentyeight fold. With the increase in the production of high explosive went a Corresponding increase in big guns and in field pieces. The expenditure of ammunition in time reached to huge figures.

The following are the biggest day records in tons:—July 1 1916 (Somme) 12,776; April 9 1917 (Vimy) 24,706; June 3 1917 (Arras) 17,162; June 7 1917 (Messines) 20,638; July 31 1917 (Ypres) 22,193; Sept. 20 and 21 1917 (Polygon Wood) 42,156; Aug. 8 and 9 1918 (general attack) 15,598 and 23,706.

Ordinarily

the British depots in France kept a reserve of 258,000 tons of ammunition,

and the issues in a normal month ran to about

that figure, though it varied a good deal month by month. Thus the average daily expenditure during the last months of 1918 was:—May, 5,478 tons; June, 4,748 tons; July, 5,683 tons; Aug., 9,046 tons; Sept., 8.576 tons; Oct., 4,748 tons; Nov., 3,158 tons. (See also MUNITIONS.) Gas Warfare —The introduction of poison-gas was, after the growth of ammunition expenditure, the chief factor in the

energy and endurance; and the French transport was generally

increasc of supply.

up to time. The national élan overcame material deficiencies; and a genius for quick improvisation showed constantly, never

for the administrative services.

more dramatically than in the mobilization of Gen. Galhéni’s

of which would give immunity, the detection of new gases so as to provide new means of defence. But in time the Allics took the gas offensive, and then their gases were more potent and more plentiful than the enemy’s, and for lack of maternal he could not give his men perfect gas protectors. The last form of

“ Taxi-cab Army ” which moved out to the defence of the capital at a critical juncture. The British administrative services in 1914 were lavish both of supplies and transport. But the British force was a small one, and though its scale of transport was extravagant compared with the French, the total was only 250 motor cars, 950 motor Jorries and 40,000 horses. With Tailway transport it then had no concern: the French managed its railway transport. Indeed the British force in France in 1914 did not completely “ administer ” its own affairs. Though it was a distinct army in command it was dependent on the French organization for essential services of transport. The Trench War—A long period of trench warfare followed the battle of the Marne, and the administrative systems of the three armics were adapted to new conditions, the chief of which were an enormous incrcase of ammunition expendi-

ture, the introduction of poison-gas as a weapon, calling for entirely new supplies of offensive and defensive material, and a simplification of the problems of transport, which in a stabilized warfare could follow almost a civilian routine, disturbed

only by the chanccs of shell fire. The trench war was, of course, punctuated by heavy attacks on both sides, but the shift of ground was never great. Administration, whilst it had to cope

with the enormous progressive increase in the scale and variety

of supplies per division, was thus given ample time as a rule to increase its transport facilities. It could add to its broad-gauge railway tracks, supplement them by light railways and tramways as well as by motor-roads, and develop the canal systems as useful adjuncts. In this period of trench warfare the Germans suffered from a steady deterioration as compared with the French and the British. The war had become a contest of matériel in which

Germany could not keep up. The French werc able to develop their supply on more gencrous lines with the help of British and American

resources.

The

British

transformed

their system

completely. The nation took the view that “ money was no object ” in securing for the troops the best possible chance of

victory and the best possible comfort in the trenches.

The

It was constantly presenting new problems

At first British and French

work was solely defensive—the provision of masks, the wearing

gas warfare was the introduction of mustard-gas, a powerful

corrosive discharged from shells, which infected the ground on which it fell for many hours. The use of mustard-gas by the enemy raised many problems of supply.

The disinfection of

contaminated ground with chloride of lime, a prompt change of clothing and bath treatment for men affected, proved efficacious in dealing with mustard-gas. There was, too, safety in protective

overalls of oilskin. Mustard-gas affected the veterinary service heavily, there being many casualties to horses and mules through passing over ground infected with the gas.

Big-gun ammunition and gas-warfare munitions were, however, only two items of supply. Rifle and machine-gun ammunttion, food for man and beast, trench stores, engineering stores, were other items, all of which had a tendency to grow. In the total during a spell of intense fighting, the British administrative services would carry up to the battle-line 1,934 tons of supplies

of all kinds per day per mile of front.

The intense battle-front

might stretch over ro miles or more, calling for some 20,000 tons of munitions, food and equipment per day for that rọ miles, much of it passing through furious shell fire before reach-

ing its objective, The French administrative services never reached the same scale of supply as the British. They expended less ammunition, issued a ration of less weight to man and beast, and dispensed

with much of the “ comforts’ equipment of the British force. But in facing such a German effort as the Verdun attacks of

1916 they had a tremendous problem of transport, which was met by a motor lorry mobilization, the success of which was one of the great feats of the war. British System Reorganised.—From 1914 up to the date of the first battle of the Somme (July 1916) the British administrative

services had had no very severe test (unless the battle of Loos could be so counted, and the organization then was not good).

620

SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT,

MILITARY

But by the middle of 1916 the British force in France considered

became one of movement.

itself completely organized. In munitions it was better supplied than any other force in the field. It had taken over control of its own railway services, supplementing the French broadgauge railway system, which it had taken over and increased, it had a system of light railways and a greatly increased scale of motor transport. But the Somme battle showed many serious weaknesses. Supply had been increased beyond the scale that transport could cope with. There followed in Nov. 1916

army had 920 m. of light railways in operation; in the summer

a reorganization of the system. One feature of this organization was good. The division of authority, which put the administrative services under two heads, one for the battle area and ene for lines of communication, was done away with. The military railways, which had been hitherto starved, were reor-

ganized, and were generously supplied with staff and material.

But what proved in the result to be a mistake in organization was made: railways were separated from the control of the quartermaster-general (who kept control of other forms of transport), and put under an independent directorate of transportation. Thus the commandcr-in-chief had two separate transport authorities to deal with.

There followed after the battle of the Somme a period when the line was practically stable for a long period; and whilst the almost stationary trench warfare continued, the weakness of this division of authority, and the mistake of allowing any but

the military idea to rule in an essential part of the army organization, were not apparent. When the Germans attacked in the spring of 1918 those errors showed very clearly, and the railways had to be brought again under the control of the quartermastergeneral, after an interval during which they were under a committee of the staff. But the transport situation then was very critical, The German advance had brought the British front lateral line—St. Just-Amiens-St. Pol-Hazebrouck—under shellfire at many points. ‘The Germans, whose strategy under Gen. Ludendorff was dominated largely by transport considerations, sought to paralyze completely the whole railway system by continuous air-attack on the British rear lateral—Eu—Abbeville—

Etaples,—especially at the points where it crossed the rivers Canche and Somme. Whole-hearted work in building “ avoiding ” lines and bridges, and the efforts of the motor transport, just kept the position in hand until a British advance in front of Amiens relieved the front lateral. It was a happy circumstance that a

new quartermaster-general of the British army in France, Lt.Gen. Sir Travers Clarke, had just brought to completion the building up of a G.H.Q. reserve of motor lorries. He thought in the winter of 1917-8 that the battle of Passchendaele had exposed a weakness in light railways—that they had to work along defined tracks which could be intensively shelled by the enemy. The British army therefore decided to trust more to the motor transport. There was effected a complete reorganization of it, with the central idea of doing away as far as possible with the “earmarking” of motor vehicles for particular units or particular tasks, and making its total strength completely mobile and liquid. Vehicles saved by this “ pooling” were formed into a G.H.Q. Motor Reserve. This proved of great strategical benefit in the spring of 1918. The G.H.Q. Motor

Reserve was able then to take up part of the traffic load, and was largely responsible for saving the situation.

There were lorry

drivers who held the wheel for 36 hours at a stretch, and were lifted from their scats fainting or asleep; a few—who carried on until no longer able to see through their bloodshot eyes—ran their cars into trees or walls or ditches. There were many casualtics, but the situation was saved at a time when the railways could not meet the work of supply. Passchendaele, terrible ordeal as it was for the British army, gave valuable hints as to the proper place of light railways in an administrative system. Light railways at one stage of the war were perhaps over-estimated.

There was an inclination to

regard them as all-sufficing. The British administrative services ultimately gave them their proper rélc, recognizing that they

100 m. less.

In the spring of 1918, the British

Its great advance was planned on the principle of

concentrating labour upon pushing forward the broad-gauge railways and the roads forward from them, trusting to motor transport and to horse transport to carry on the load from

broad-gauge raithead. Earher in 1918 controversy on the subject was keen, and the French were inclined to take a differing view. The Germans, of course, were tied to light railways, for they had not the means to extend their motor traction. The position on Nov. 11 1918 seemed to justify the British view.

By the summer of 1918 the British administrative services were so confident of their machine that they were supporting

strongly in favour of trying for a “‘ knock-out blow ” as against the alternative plan of devoting the winter to final preparation for an overwhelming campaign in the spring of 1919. “ Administration ” covered at this stage a wide scope. It arranged the supply, from England, and from its own workshops and local civilian workshops, of all the varicd equipment of the forces, from a tank and a 15-in. howitzer toa tin of dubbin. There came to the ports of France every month for the B.E.F. about

800,000 tons of material.

The men to be fed totalled over

2,000,000 and the animals about 500,000. The transport system in addition to half-a-million horses and mules, had about 20,000 motor lorries running over 9,000,000 motor miles per

month; it carried on its light railways about 544,000 tons a month, and ran every day 250 trains on its broad-gauge lines. It was constantly building new railways and new roads, and developing new harbour facilities. It ran canal and sca barge services, forestry and agricultural services, and repair shops, on a gigantic scale. It supplied the medical stores for wounded and sick, the veterinary services, the laboratories for the defence of men and animals against poison-gas and for the gas counter-offensive. In the last year of the war it produced timber from French forests for four-fifths of its total needs. It grew vegetables and other food and fodder stuffs, and helped as tiller and harvester in the French fields (in 1918 it saved the crops on 18,000 acres, harvesting at night, the soldiers having to work sometimes in gas masks).

It was its tailor, bootmaker, laundryman and even

ragpicker. The soldier on going out of the line had clean underwear waiting for him at his divisional baths; his soiled garments were disinfected, cleaned and repaired for reissue; his socks darned, buttons replaced, rents patched; and the garment beyond repair was shipped away as rags for the shoddy mills of Dewsbury. This administrative army was caterer for men and horses. The civilian world throughout Europe might be suffering from scarcity of food supplies, but to the very last the British soldiers and horses enjoyed good rations. This was only made possible by an organization that climinated every form of waste. As banker this administration dealt with every currency and note-issue of the world. It had savings banks and an investment organization for British troops, and even special savings banks for the Chinese. It insured its civilian labourers against death and accident; it negotiated the payment of octrot to towns where its troops were stationed, and paid compensation of French property owners for the leases of their lands and buildings and the war damage Lo their property. The Complexity of Administration.—This wide range of activ-

ities, though it had to be carried on under conditions which varied from day to day, fell with minor variations into three main categories.

was

comparatively

(1) Maintaining a stabilized position.

easy.

The traffic demand

This

was known.

Wastage of horses and material could be calculated with some

certainty and replaced by a routine process. (2) Preparinga big attack, This made the greatest stra on transport and supply, and the necessary conditions of secrecy added complica-

tions.

In preparing an offensive the traffic tonnage more than

were most valuable when the line of battle was stabilized for

doubled per division. This was duc to the necessity for making new railways and new roads, and the accumulation of defence material to fortify a new line. But the accumulation of ammuni-

some length of time, but tended to be less valuable as the war

tion was also a factor.

On a quiet sector two divisions could be

SUPPLY AND served by three trains daily.

TRANSPORT, MILITARY

For the preparation of a big attack

ten divisions might be concentrated on that sector, and those

divisions in the preparatory stage of the attack would need about 33 supply trains a day, and during the offensive about 27 trains a day. And these trains would carry material only to broad-gauge railhead. After that most of it had to go farther forward by light railway, motor and horse traffic, and in some

cases even by the “ Yukon pack,” 7.e. by man porterage. (3) Resisting a big attack. ‘The difficult element here was its unexpectedness.

The amount of supplies per division necessary to

go up from base would be 25% less than in the case of the preparation of a big offensive. There was always carried a good reserve of ammunition,

food and engineering stores, close behind the

line, and a further reserve of ammunition already loaded on trains at appropriate railway centres, In case of emergency, ammunition could start to move up as soon as a locomotive

could be coupled to a standing train.

The German offensive in

62I

overwhelming force at some particular point, and could best develop, conserve,

and transport its material.

From

1915 to the middle of

1917 it was only necessary for the British army to ask and it re-

ceived.

Later in 1917, and in T918, there came requisitions which

could not be met. Just before the German attack in 1918 (10 give one example) there were desperate calls for barbed wire, to make up an actual shortage of 8,000 tons in the minimum requirements for safety; but it was not available. In food, forage, clothing, timber,

metals, the world-shortage had now become acute.

The adminis-

trative services of all armics sought to better their position, in Europe, by the organization of a department of salvage. As the

British salvage department

explained, “the shortage of. almost

every kind of raw material used for war supplices makes salvage an important administrative service. Without a well-organized and thorough salvage system, the ful! maintenance of our force in the held would be made difhenit, . . . The salvage organizanon is not intended to take the place of, or in any way discourage, a consistent effort on the part of every supply department to recover for repair

and re-issue its own articles and its own empties.

It is intended to

supplement that effort; to collect and put to use what would other-

Forward “dumps” were

wise become derelict ; to insure that nothing utilizable is allowed to go to Waste . There is nothing of the debris of the batuefeld which we cannot put to some use.” Some of the items of salvage values taken from a monthly return show the wide range of the department—swill for pigecries, (600; solder from old tins, £300;

The organization at the front in ro18 to cope with this work in the British army, had at its head the quartermaster-gencral (Lt.-Gen. Sir Travers Clarke) and two deputy quartermaster-

cotton waste, £500; tin-plate (won by unrolling old biscuit tins, etc.}, £2,500; old lead, £400; various by-products {200,000. The old rags collected did a great deal to help the cloth shortage at home. The old bones collected made glycerine for explosives, In Sept. 1918 the British army saved {4,o00,000, and the American army

yo18 showed

that the British carried near the front line too

great reserves, and there were unnecessary losses in food, stores and ammunition, as a consequence. thereafter reduced.

generals (Maj. Gen. Ford and Maj.-Gen.

May).

The head-

quarters staff consisted of about 4o officers, and the detailed

work was divided under the following departments:—Director of Agricultural Production (Brig.-Gen. Earl of Radnor); Director of Army Postal Services (Brig.-Gen. Price); Deputy Controller of Canteens (Cal. E. Benson); Director of Engineering Stores (Brig.-Gen. Sewell}; Director of Forestry (Brig.-Gen. Lord

Lovat); Director of Hirings and Requisitions and President of Claims Commission (Maj -Gen. L. B. Friend); Controller of

Labour (Brig.-Gen. Wace); Director of Ordnance Services (Maj.-

Gen. Sir C, M. Mathew); Paymaster-in-chief (Maj.-Gen. Sir C. A. Bray), Director of Remounts (Brig.-Gen. Sir F. S, Garrett); Controller of Salvage (Brig.-Gen. Alexander Gibb); Director of Supplics (Maj.-Gen. Carter); Director of Motor ‘Transport (Maj.-Gen. Boyce); Director-General of Transportation (Maj.Gen. Crookshank); Director of Veterinary Services (Maj.-Gen.

Moore): Vice-Chairman Imperial War Graves Commission (Maj.-Gen. Fabian Ware); Director of Works (Maj.-Gen. Sir A. M. Stuart). Subsidiary directorates under the DirectorGeneral of Transportation were:—Director of Construction (Brig.-Gen. Stewart); Director of Docks (Brig.-Gen. Wedgewood); Director of Inland Water Transport (Brig.-Gen. Luck); Director of Light Railways (Brig.-Gen. Harrison); Railway Traffic (Brig.-Gen. Murray); Roads (Brig.-Gen. Maybury).

A comparison of this organization with the French administrative services would suggest that the British was over-claborate. But consideration must be given to these important facts: that

the British army was operating in a foreign country, and moreover in the country of an Ally where there must be the least possible friction with the inhabitants; that by custom both men and animals in the British force required a particularly gener-

ous ration; that the British force expended far more ammunition than the French, and in its campaign methods kept up a permanent minor offensive even on quiet sectors, as was not the custom with the French, When in the course of the operations early in 1918, French and British troops were intermixed in the battle line, it was found by experience impracticable to supply British units through the French system, and, except as regards

such items as hay and petrol, which were kept in a common pool, the supply and transport had to be duplicated, 2 British system being set up side by side with a French. Salvage.—An account of the administrative system in the World War would be incomplete without some reference to the salvage

activities of 1917-8. The submarine war began to have its cumulative effect just when there came the most peremptory reminders that supply was going to be the determining factor of the final

struggle.

Munitions, food, equipment, railways, roads, ships—these

had become the most important factors, and victory would incline to the force which could best concentrate the means to maintain an

{3,000,000 by salvage. Lhe Animals of the Force —The administration of the animals of the British forcee—the largest mobilization of animals known to history—calls for a special note. The worst difficulty in their case was mud. From early in autumn until late in spring the mud scason lasted. Off ihe pavé roads all ihe fighting area of Flanders was semiliquid, and the problem at horse-lines was first to secure a solid “ standing,” next to secure a solid road in and out to that standing,

and finally to secure a solid read to and from a solid watering-place. Standings were usually made of bricks, and the army requisitioned all the brick yards in the occupied area. Shell-ruined villages were another source of brick supply. The bricks had to be set properly; rubble was lost in the soil within a week. Losses from enemy action

were not very high among the animals until the last phase.

There

was little cavalry work except at the end of the campaign and at its very beginning. But horses and mules suffered greatly when the enemy began to use mustard-gas (1917-8). The ground where a

mustard-gas shell had fallen was infected for long afterwards.

If

horses were picketed on it, or even passed over it, casualties were high. The irritant poison of the gas attacked their hoofs and their skins wherever the hair was thin and caused sloughing wounds. An effective curative

treatment

was

found

in a dressing,

the chief

ingredient of which was chloride of lime. From the spring of 1918 the animals suffered severe attacks from the air. The enemy devoted

much of his air-force to bombing attacks on horse-lines, with a view

to lessening British transport strength.

serious effects.

At first these attacks had

Then horse-lines were camouflaged; the animals

were separated into small groups; the lines were protected by bomb-

proof traverses of earthwork, which localized the effects of explosions. In the summer of 1918 the wastage of animals by sickness had been cut down to a very low rate (7-7 %), as the result of skilful horse-

mastership. At this time forage difficulties were acute, but there had heen close organization for grading fodder in army and line-of-

communication areas, and the animals always had sufficient rations,

British administration was able to take a considerable part of the burden of horsing the American units which arrived in France in 1918. Nearly 25,000 animals were made available by reductions of

the horse-strength of artillery units. A further 14,000 were saved by giving 6-in. howitzer and some 60-pounder batteries mechanical transport. Another means of economy in horse flesh was the setting up of a “ category B ” for animals which were not quite fit for arduous work with a fighting unit, and were withdrawn to units whose demands on them were less exacting.

Some Comparisons—As

between

the three administrative

machines, the French, the British, and the American in the autumn of 1918, certain points of difference may be noted. Both French and American systems still kept a dividing line as regards administration between the base and the fighting line. The British system had abolished this (together with the post of Inspector-General Lines of Communication) in 1917. The French divided the zone of the armies into the zone of the advance and the zone of supplies (with sometimes an intermediate zone).

In the zone of their advance administration was in

charge of the Aide major-général chargé de la dircction de larriere at G.HI.Q. But his administration had no functions of procurement, only of distribution. In some points of administra-

SURVEYING

622

tion the dividing line between the zone of advance and the zone of supplies was abolished; e.g. all motor transport and all light railways, Wherever operating, were under a D.A, at G.H.Q. The French system of supply and distribution was fashioned for

war in the home-country or near to it, when it was transplanted (for instance, to Salonika) it had to be modificd somewhat on the lines of the British system. The American system put adminisstration in the fighting line under an assistant chief-of-staff (G.4) at G.H.Q.; and on the lines of communication under a general commanding 5.0.5, (corresponding to the former British I.G.C.)..

Under the Amcrican system the chiefs of the

supply services were not at G.H.Q. but at the H.Q. of S.0.S. With both the French and the American systems evacuation

and hospitalization of casualties were purely “Q” in the British

army

they were

under

summer of r918 the British administrative services from the coast line to the trench-line were put under one head, the quartermaster-general, for experience suggested that the commandcr-inchief should have one man to whom he could confide the responsibility of the administrative side of his army’s operations: to divide the responsibility was not to simplify but to complicate the task. (F. F.) SURVEYING (see 26.142*).—The most striking feature to be recorded in connexion with surveying generally is the greatly increased importance which it acquired during 1910-20 from a military standpoint. This was chiefly due to the stationary character of the World War on the western front, but other

factors contributed, notably the introduction of air-photography.

services:

The use of photographs, taken from aeroplanes, to determine the

the adjutant-general

position of enemy trenches and other detail inside the enemy’s lines, made a considerable diflerence in the technique of modern war and reacted upon the methods of peace-time surveys. But not only photographs from the air, but also photographs taken

assisted by the quartermaster-general. Some other differences came from geographical reasons. France itself was really the supply-base for the Americans, whereas the British had the United Kingdom for this purpose; so the Americans held great

stocks in depots—r5 days of supplies in advance depots, 30 days supplies in intermediate depots, 45 days supplies in base depots. The American army naturally relicd more largely on local

on land have been pressed into the service of surveying, and the

applications of photography to surveys of mountainous regions

such as the higher Himalayas have been greatly extended. In exploratory surveying the conditions have been changed

purchases (from the Allied armies and from European civilian

and simplified by the introduction of wireless telegraphy, for

sources) than did the armies with their home bases nearer

the determination of longitude; the accurate fixing of his longitude,

hand.

at

General Pershing founded a general purchasing agency

to control these purchases. In 1018, out of 17,600,000 shiptons used by the American army only 7,600,000 tons came from the United States and 10,000,000 tons were purchased locally,

and to the end of the campaign the American army drew largely

long the explorer’s bugbear, is now no more difficult than taking

a latitude.

In the more regular branches of the subject the

principal matter demanding attention is the development (in which many countries have taken part) of accurate methods

of levelling, particularly of precise or geodetic levelling.

upon British and French supplies.

The British administrative machine in one particular point was inferior to the American machine in 1918. Under the British system the navy had control of all supplies by ship until they left the transport. The navy could put a supply-ship into any port it pleased, and naturally was guided chiefy by shipping consider-

ations. Thus supplices for the southern area might go to a northern port. The American system put the supply ships under army direction when they came within the three-mile coast limit, and they could be directed to the port of supply which was most convenient from the army point of view. The French and the Amcricans used the railway regulating stations as depots; the British used them as sorting stations only. The British used the base-ports for sorting goods to a great extent; the Americans did not. In the autumn of 1918 the Americans found their one great depot, and sorting and regulating station,

at Is-sur-Tille insufficient for the needs of their growing army, and they were proceeding with the organization of another station

when the Armistice came. The general staffs of the various combatant nations were in 1921 still working out the lessons of administration as taught by the World War. One principle seems to be generally accepted, that it is wise to centralize as far as possible all administration under one staff officer over the whole war area, trusting to him

to devolve and coérdinate. That was the final principle of the organization of the administrative services in the British army in 1918. In the first phase of the war the French organization

Surveying in War Geographical

and

topographical

surveys

are

well

known

adjuncts to military operations. The war of 1914-8 showed that all other classes of land surveying, t.e. geodetic triangulation, levelling, and large scale surveying may be called upon to assist in the development of scientific and mechanical warfare. It is not possible to forecast whether future developments may demand an enhanced accuracy of survey, or whether the increasing importance of aviation, amongst other factors, may not pre-

vent arecurrence of the stationary operations which prevailed over the western front for four years. A description of the more

important duties of the Survey battalions on the western front, offers the best record of an intensive large scale military survey. The Trigenometrical Cantral.—The extent of the line, liable to

periods of intense activity throughout its length, and the constant changes of army and corps fronts made it necessary to provide a homogeneous and complete system of triangulation upon which to base the maps and the local surveys called for, A ‘ive separate and distinct triangulations already covered this

area before the outbreak of war, vizi—I. The French main arcs and subsidiary triangulations

of

1800-50,

2.

The new French Paris meridian and Amiens parallel and

§.

The German national triangulation.

their subsidiary orders of 1890-1900. 3. The French Admiralty coastal triangulation. 4. The Belgian national triangulation.

;

All these triangulations were eventually combined into a single coherent system, but not until just before the Armistice and too

did a large portion of the work of transporting the British army and its supplies. As the British force grew in strength, and the problem of its administration grew in complexity, the experiment

late to assist in operations, The surveyors of the various armies kept

was tried of dividing responsibility between the quartermaster-

discrepancies of local triangulations military surveys.

general of the force and the G.O.C. lines of communication. “ Q” tasks were under different control in battle areas and at the base. This did not work satisfactorily, and the next experi-

in the closest touch with each other, but discrepancies arose nevertheless, and time was wasted in fresh observations and recomputa~

tion.

It was realized somewhat late that the adjustment of the is the best preliminary ;

to

Many of the stations of the triangulations enumerated had been destrayed or built over before the war and many were destroyed

ment was to divide responsibility between the quartermaster-

during its progress. Numbers of new stations had, therefore, to be established and the trigonometrical observer was employed in

gencral and the director-general of transportation (the Jatter having control of the broad-gauge railways, the former of all other transport). This arrangement broke down in the spring of

intersection and interpolation, rather than new triangulations.

1918, when the British army was put into serious jeopardy through the transport situation; retirement south of the Somme

basis for all the military surveys of the western front. Provision and Issue of Maps.—The British Expeditionary Force

took the field equipped with the 1/80,000 carte de létat major of France and the British 1/100,000 maps of Belgium. Topographical maps of this sort were accurate enough for mobile operations in which

had to be contemplated, at one stage as probable, and the details

were actually arranged for the destruction of the ports of the Pas-de-Calais so as to deny their use to the Germans, In the

This patched and reconstructed triangulation st

no heavy guns were employed.

then as a

Directly the operations tended to

become stationary first on the Aisne, and then in Flanders, staff,

gunners, and infantrymen demanded a map of such accuracy and

“These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

SURVEYING scale that administrative arrangements, lines of fire, and trench

systems could be shown upon it. Such a map did not exist except in the Belgian area, and elsewhere had to be made. The earlier war surveys were made upon the plane table on a scale of 1/20,000 and were completed up to the British trench lines. The subsequent development of air-photography, and the discovery of the manuscript sheets of the cadastral communal surveys, made it possible to compile reliable maps, not only of territory in British occupation, but of all that portion of north-eastern France occupied by the German armies. The trench zone was mapped on a scale of 1/10,000, and forward and back areas at 1/20,000. In all 6,000 sq. m. were surveyed.

Areliable map of the physical and artificial features of the country is not sufficient in itself. The positions of defensive works of the enemy batteries, of the points of administrative importance, and of many other objects must be shown on frequently recurring editions. From {2 to 20 editions embodying such information on various

scales were kept up for the actual area of operations, whilst during the progress of a battle daily editions were brought out To cope with this volume of printing it was found necessary to provide for the rapid reproduction of trench maps at the Ordnance Survey

Olhice at Southampton

and for small

but complete litho-

graphic establishments in each army and at G.H.Q. Zinc plates were prepared by the Vandyke process or by helio-zincography, and flatbed printing machines, preferably motor-driven, were used for

printing in the field. The French and German armies had well-

equipped printing trains which were used for imcreasing printing facilities in important areas. The French, for example, dispatched a printing train to Italy in 1917. Towards the end the Amcricans employed a well-designed printing plant in lorries. A scale of issue of about two copies per officer engaged, of each important

map,

was maintained,

but experience showed

map, gave very good results but depended for success upon good visibility.

of which about two-thirds were printed by the Ordnance Survey in England and a third in France. For the use of large scale maps in trench warfare a well-thoughtout system of codrdinates, based on a suitable projection, was needed. It must be possible to read off at sight the codrdinates of any desired point from a “ grid” or network of lines printed on the map. All the armies had such systems. Experience proved that for case and accuracy of reference the grid” should be in squares, the sides of which can be divided decimally by eye. The artillery often desire coérdinates of the same accuracy as the surveyor—1.e. on the scale of nature. The system adopted should therefore be based upon the coordinates used by the surveyor, with an easy form of abbreviation to be used by all arms to define map positions. Accuracy of bearing from any one position must be maintained together with as near an

approach tolinear accuracy as possible, whilst the system must allow of extension over the whole area of operations.

The considerations which influence the choice of a reference “orid” have already pointed to the desirability of an orthomorphic projection. For the conduct of surveys constantly in progress it is equally important. Computations must be cut down to the minimum, and this is best secured by working on a projection in which the position on the ground and the position on the map can be

calculated in one process without sensible error.

From the cartographic point of view the question is not so important, and there are many projections which would provide a sensibly accurate map over large areas. lt was decided late in the war to adopt an orthomorphic projection with two standard parallels which had recently been adopted in the French armies, but the decision came too late, and the Bonne projection continued in use in the British army until the Armistice. Surveys for Artillery Purposes —Other things being equal, that artillery will dominate its adversary which has the quickest and most accurate knowledge of hostile battery positions and which can open most quickly an accurate and unexpected fire upon them.

Flash-spotting

units could

survey

the positions of the

bursts of our own shell and were, therefore, also used extensively lor

ranging and for calibration.

(8) Sound-ranging.—A sound, in still uniform air, spreads outwards from its origin with an equal velocity in all directions, and the sound

waves may therefore be likened to the ripples spreading outwards

on a pond from the point at which a stone has fallen into it. If we now imagine a row of surveyed pegs, more or less tangential

to a ripple, projecting from the surface of the water, if we measure the times at which the ripple strikes each peg and know the velocity of the advance of the ripple we shall have all the data necessary for fixing the position of the origin of the disturbance. All armics engaged on the western front had some system for determining

the position of a gun from the sound of its discharge, embodying the

above principle. It is unnecessary here to describe the British system, except in so far as the survey of the sound-recciving stations

Is saaal, A sound-ranging base was generally, though not invariably, laid out on the arc of a circle, the centre of which lay in the zone of the enemy's heavy artillery. There were usually six sound-receiving stations about 1,000 metres apart. The coérdinates of the selected spot for cach station were computed in the office,

and the surveyor had to find and mark the corresponding points on the ground. [Errors of more than one metre in position resulted im

sensible errors in sound-ranging.

Sound-ranging is naturally unaffected by bad visibility, but is

put out of action by a moderate wind blowing from base to gun and is interfered with by any high wind. As in the case of flash spotting,

a good telephone connexion to the artillery headquarters is essential,

Surveying by Air-photography

that this

scale should be increased. During the whole period of operations about 34,000,000 maps were printed for issue to the British troops,

623

Air-photography, or, to be more precise, photography of the

ground from the air, has been recognized as a possible method of survey since the middle of the roth century. Experiments in photographing the ground from balloons had been made by Col. Lausserlat, Major Elsdale and others from 1859 onwards, but air-photographs played no part in any

important survey before the outbreak of war in 1914. During the course of the war the difficulty of producing maps on medium scales was enhanced by the inaccessibility of the most important areas. It was due to this fact, and to the development in 1915 of photography from aeroplancs, that large arcasin many theatres

of war were mapped by the aid of air-photographs.

But no full

examination of the possibilities was made, and for peace surveys the method still remains in the experimental stage. Optical Principles.—Provided that the optical axis of the camera is vertical at the moment of exposure, the resulting photograph of a flat level area will be an accurare plan at a scale determined by the equation cia

wiee

h

is the focal length, # is the height of the camera above the

ground at the moment of exposure, s is the representative fraction of the scale.

Such photographs will be called vertical photographs.

As a

rule, however, the photograph is not exactly vertical, but the axis is tilted ac an angle to the vertical. The photograph then becomes

an inclined perspective view.

(See Fig. 1.)

Negative (uchich shows ground reversed}

The construction and calibration of guns and howitzers, the homo-

geneity of ammunition, and the measurement of those atmospheric

elements which affect ballistics are involved; but accurate survey of the relative positions of gun and target is essential. The positions of British heavy batteries were, therefore, fixed with a theodolite, each battery was supplied with a chart or

“artillery board '' on which the map was pasted down, in sections, upon a zinc or three-ply wood surface, and special “' bearing pickets"

were inserted in numbers in the battery zone.

The bearings from

these pickets to surrounding objects, suitable as reference objects,

were tabulated and distributed.

The positions of hostile batteries were also surveyed with as

Nee eetw Aneel enews 4.ww reee

much dispatch and accuracy as possible by one or other or both of the following methods:—

(a) Intersection of three or more rays observed upon the flash of discharge, the reflection in the sky of this flash, or, upon the smoke puff from the muzzłe. This operation, commonly known as flash spotting, was carried out by units, cach of which manned four survey observation posts, or instrument stations, and one headquarter post

Each section had its own internal telephone system and was in direct communication with an artillery headquarters. Observations were directed by an ingenious controlling exchange

upon hostile guns in succession.

This method, independent of the

If the direction and magnitude of the tilt of the axis were recorded at the moment of exposure it is obvious that the photograph could

be projected optically or photographically on to the plane of the map, although it would remain unfixed in position and orientation, If the direction and magnitude of tilt are unknown then the projection on to the required plane, or ‘ rectification,’ is secured by

comparing the relative positions of four surveyed

points on

the

SURVEYING

624

ground and on the photograph, which is then also fixed in position

and orientation. points common

Where the filt is known, approximately three

to map and photograph will furnish a solution.

‘Two

further points of importance are that (1) straight lines upon a plane remain straight lines upon any perspective view of that plane, (2) at any point on an inclined perspective view the scale is not the same in directions parallel to and perpendicular to the axis of tilt.

In plotting detail from vertical photographs certain errors, due

is not markedly hilly,

The scale on which photographs are taken

may be larger or smaller than that of the map, but it must be suiciently large to allow of clear identification of detail. _ Thearea to þe mapped is photographed from a prearranged height

in strips allowing for an overlap in all directions. Much depends upon the training of the pilot in maintaining his height and his over.

lap. It is usual to arrange for a mechanical control of exposures regulated according to the ground specd of the aeroplane.

to instrumental imperfections, may arise but are seldom of sensible

magnitude.

These are clue to (1) a change in the relative position

b

aon?

of plate lens and area photographed, due to the shutter moving so comparatively slowly that the movement of the aeroplane becomes

Photo —. Pyramid

E

:

Photo

Pyramid

noticeable on the plate, (2) distortion due to optical imperfec-

tions of the lens.

Construction of the Map—TIn order to explair how a map is built up, wholly or partly, from air-photographs it ts advisable to take some

illustrative cases.

a map

The simplest case is where it is desired to produce

of an area in which a sufficient trigonometrical control

already exists and of which there is available a complete collection

of cadastral plans, which are, however, much ont of date. Ground features are low and gently undulating, extreme difference of

altitudes being two or three hundred feet only,

In such a case topography can be brought up to date from air-

photographs taken with the axis as nearly vertical as possible, an

fitted upon the cadastral framework by one or other of the methods

described below.

When this is complete the map is contoured in the

st ae eM ee ee BO SOS ee ee ee

field, names are added and the topography examined for omis-

sions Or mistakes.

The most difficult case arises when the area to be mapped is rugged and mountainous, and the inhabitants hostile: the positions and heights of a few peaks in it, visible from accessible ground, have been fixed trigonometrically, but no reliable map exists. As a preliminary measure oblique photographs are taken from a variety of points of view. The positions of the camera in space are

calculated, and from measurements on each photograph a number of rays are drawn to noteworthy points in the valleys and on the hills.

Positions and heights are thus determined for a subsidiary control.

With the axis vertical a series of photographs of valleys

and

of

watersheds are taken, pasted together, and fitted to the control.

When the map has been thus built up, form-lines are added from the oblique photographs and upon the fixed heights.

In the majority of

surveys difficulties will be of an order intermediate between those of the foregoing two cases.

Applications of Air-photography.—In any particular survey air-

photographs may be used then for any or all of the following processes, viz.:—(1) Air-photo control, (2) Air-photo-topography, (3) Air-photo contouring. In taking vertical photographs for air-photo control, exposures are so regulated as to ensure a substantial overlap, generally amounting to 50% at least. Each successive photograph may therefore be

fitted to its predecessor, and lines or traverses of photographs may

intersected Point

C

FiG. 2.

The plotting of detail from these photographs would be simple if the axis of the camera could be maintained in a vertical position. It would then be necessary only to bring the photograph to the scale of the map.

No means of ensuring this verticality has, as yet, becn

evolved. It often becomes necessary, therefore, to fit photographs individually upon the control points. This can be done graphically,

or optically by the camera lucida, or by the enlarging camera. The graphic method depends upon the principle that as straight lines on one plane remain straight lines on any perspective of that plane the position of a point which lies upon the intersection of two lines common to the ground and to the photograph may be readily determined. Within narrow limits the proportional compass set to the diference of scale between map and photograph at this point may be used to fix additional points. It is more accurate, however, to Maintain the straight line principle and to cover the map

and photograph with a “grid” of corresponding lines, as in fig. 3. y

w

be mounted and scaled between fixed points. Any two or more traverses of different and independent lines may be made to inter-

sect over some topographical object, the position of which may he determined as the simple, or weighted, mean of the individual positions from cach traverse. Traverses may also be made to converge

and end upon some prearranged and hitherto unfixed object. This method has given fairly accurate results in flat country on the scale of 1/40,000, and is dependent upon the ability of the pilot to main-

tain an even keet and a constant height. In broken and hilly country no method can be regarded as trustworthy which does not take into account differences of altitude. We must then be content to limit the use of cach photograph to the

measurement of horizontal and vertical angles and to fix the posi-

tions of new points by intersection from two or more photographs.

Where this principle is decided upon there remains no advantage to be derived from the vertical photograph, and oblique photographs are used in preference as covering larger areas and allowing greater refinement in the measurement of vertical angles.

The first stage of this photo-topography from the air is to interpolate the position of expesure in space from three or more points,

the positions of which on the earth’s surface are known, and which appear on the photograph.

If we consider the pyramids whose

FIG. 3-

The photograph is mounted on a sheet of paper—a, b, ¢, d and A, B, C, D are four points the positions of which are known

and

apices are the lens and the bases of which are the triangles formed by the three fixed points respectively on the ground and on the photographic plate (see fig. 2), we see that (a) the angles at the apex are

are also identifiable on the photograph. Subsidiary common points at o@ are established by drawing the diagonals, and four subsidiary quadrilaterals may then be formed by drawing lines through 00

a function of the lengths ad, ac, be (which can be measured upon the plate), and of the focal length, (6) the inclination of the ground pyramid to its base is determmed by the direction and magnitude of tilt; at the present time there are no means of measuring accurately

which are fixed’ on the ground and identifiable on the photograph.

from vV and wl!’—the intersections of the prolonged sides of the quadrilaterals, ‘The same principle may be applied tọ any palygons formed by joining up any number of points (more than four)

R f Detail may be sketched in by eye. ‘A useful method of plotting, known as the four-point method, is four of ratios cross the that proved be can It 4); (ñg. follows tion; (c) the position of O in space can be calculated and plotted in „as the same upon any perspec-

the tilt of the plate at the moment of exposure, and calculation follows by successive approximations from a preliminary estima-

its correct projection on the plane of A, D, C; (d) angles may be measured upon the plate and rays drawn to additional points from ©). From the nature of the case air-photo control must be limited to the provision of a few supplementary points.

Where the areca to be mapped contains a sufficiently close control

the filling in of topographical detail is more casily done from vertical than from oblique photographs, providing that the area in question

points which lie upon a straight line are tive view of that line, hence we can readily plot the position of a fifth point (S) if we know the positions of four points A.B,C.D.

an Let A, B, C, D be four known points on the photograph be a point on the photoa, b, c, d their positions on the map, and let S be found. graph the position of which on the map 3s to Join À B, A C, A S, and A D, g b, a c, and a d.

SURVEYING

625

Lay a piece of paper with a straight edge, in any position cutting the ines A Bin B’, AC in C’, AS in S inA Din D’ and mark these cutting points on the paper.

Little contouring has as yet been based on air-photographs. It must be recognized at the outset that it is impossible to calculate relative heights from measurements taken from a single photograph;

ab, ac, and ad, so that B’, C’ and D’ tie upon these lines.

for the accurate determination of relative heights we must have at least two photographs taken from different places. An outline of pO ea from the air has already been given and mention

Now

lay the paper strip on the map and fit.it upon the Hines

Mark on the map the position of a point s’ opposite the mark S’ on the paper strip. Joina s’. Then s, the position of point S, upon the map, lies upon the line a s’.

ias been made of interpolation in space, and of the survey of new

points by intersecting rays. A short additional step—the mcasure-

ment of vertical angles on the plate—makes it possible to calculate the height of these new points. Stereo-photogrammetry from the air may develop in the future, . but has not been made use of hitherto. On the other hand much use has been made of the stercoscopic effect visible on two photographs

of the same arca taken from different positions.

Such information is

not of an exact nature but gives a valuable indication of ground forms

and brings out the system of drainage. Until 1920 mapping from air-photographs had been confined almost

entirely to war time, and to areas already covered by a trigonometrical control, hence there had been little opportunity of comparing the cost of this method with that of any other, or of laying down

definitely its possibilities and limitations.

Clearly its greatest value

lies in the mapping of inaccessible country. So far as can be judged, the chicf fields of usefulness open to airphoto-topozraphy are, the surveying of native towns on scales of

about 1/10,000, or 6 in. to I m.; the surveying of deltas and intricate water channels; and the surveying of ancicnt sites, on which the

Fic. 4. Repeat this proceeding from B, C, or D, and another line 3 s’, cs’, or ds’, will be secured, the intersection of which with a s’ will define the position of 5. The camera lucida (see 5.104) has been used extensively for plotting. The upright carrying the prism is mounted on a stand upon which are also mounted two boards roughly at right angles to each other called respectively the map and photograph boards. Movements are added to allow of rotating the photograph in its own plane, of tilting the map (or tracing of control points) around an axis parallel to a marked horizontal line on the photograph board,

and of increasing or decreasing the distance between the prism and

the photo board (fig. 5).

indications of a former civilization become far more evident in the air than on the ground. Topography on ordinary small scales, and

accurate large scale cadastral mapping are, so far, ruled out.

But it

appears that developments may very well be looked for in each of.

these directions.

Photographic Surveying The idea of applying photography to surveying was originally due to Col, Laussedat (2819-1907), who made some experiments in the matter in 1859, and continued during his Jong life to

éxpound and develop the method. Although the system originated in France not much was done in that country in the way of its practical application, and, if we except some minor work by

MM. J. and H. Vallot in the Mont Blanc regionin 1892 and some similar mapping by M. Flusin in 1905, it is to Canada that we

must go for its first use on any considerable scale. In 1895 Mr-E. Deville, surveyor-general of Dominion Lands, published his important work on photographic surveying, which

Mill-headed Screw Octuating pursien fur raising

and towering Photo-carrter

õlide and Rack

Carrying the Prism

Prism

Am

n

oe ee

aee

itso Mili-headed Serem actuating Slide carrying Prigm

The movements peculiar to this inzirement

are indicated by dotted lines and arrows

Copying Board tf iting)

4

Fic. 5. Graphic and optical methods are tedious and lengthy compared with a photographic rectification. The ordinary enlarging camera can be made to answer the purpose with Jittle modification. It must provide, in addition to ils focussing movements, as follows ;—

1.

The negative must be capable of rotation in its own plane

remains a complete exposition of the subject if we exclude some ‘recent departures. Between 1886 and 1892 photographic surveys were confined to the Rocky Mts. in the neighbourhood of the Canadian Pacific railway, but in 1893-4 the method was used

by Mr, W. F. King in the survey of the Canada-Alaska frontier. In 1901-2 Mr. A. O. Wheeler carried out a very successful photographic survey of the Selkirk range, British Columbia, on the scale of 1/60,000; this was published, with an interesting account of the range, in r905. In the U.S. photo-topographic surveys had been made use of on the International Boundary Survey and reports made by Mr. M. A. Flemer of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in: 1897-8. Stereo-photo surveys (see below) were employed in the survey of Tutuila, Samoa, by the U.S. Hydrographic Offce in 1916; and an innovation in the shape of a panoramic camera was first used by Mr. C. W. Wright in Alaska in 1904 and extended by Mr. J. W. Bagley who wrote an important treatise on the subject in 1917 (Washington, Government Printing Office). In 1907-8 Lt. M. Weiss, of the expedition commanded by | Duke Adolphus of Mecklenburg, made a photo-survey of the volcanic Mfumbiro Mts. to the N. of Lake Kivu. Other fragmentary surveys in various parts of the world have been carried out

by the aid of photographic methods; most of them, as well as those mentioned above, were in mountainous country, Outline of the Method.—Assuming that a photograph is a true per- -

around its centre.

spective view, that the plate was vertical when exposed, and that the horizon-line and focal length of the lens are known, it is clearly

movement

points, at known distance apart, we have the means of determining

2. The copying board and negative carrier must be capable of rotation around parallel axes which are at right angles to the optical axis of the lens. 3. The copying board and negative carrier must be capable of along the line axis of the lens.

4. The negative carrier must be capable of a movement bodily at right angles to its axis of rotation.

By means of these movements a coincidence can be obtained between the four control points on the map and on the photograph,

anda rectifed " print may be obtained. XXXil.— II i

possible to point where photograph, represented

determine the horizontal and vertical angles from the the camera was set up to all objects represented in the the horizontal angles being measured from some known, object.

lf two such photographs are taken from two

the distance and height of all points shown on both photographs. It will therefore be necessary in planning a photographic survey, to arrange for a triangulation to fix the relative positions of points at which the camera will be set up, and the first stage in the office

work will consist in the plotting of the triangulation.

A camera

SURVEYING

626

station need nat, however, be a trigonometrical point, provided that its trigonometrical position can be measured from the photograph. To use the photographs for plotting the detail, from each camera

station A draw, at its correct angle, the central line of view, Along

this line draw Ax, equal to the focal length of the lens; through x

draw a line at right angles to A x and plot from x the projections of

the distant points, as measured on the horizon-line of the photograph,

The intersection of rays from A to the points so obtained, with rays to the same objects from other stations, will give their positions.

It is an almost universal rule of photographic surveying from the

ground to maintain the photographic plate in a vertical position,

because any inclination of the perspective plane of the plate adds difficulties to the plotting. . A supplementary order of triangulation is usually added contem-

porancously with the ficld work of photogrammetry, both to fix

tobe reckoned with in the future. Generally with stereo-photography

we are not limited to a country with marked features, as is the case

with norma! photo-topography. Provided that the view is clear, gently undulating or fiat country can be as well surveyed and con-

toured as a mountainous region, The method has some obvious

applications, but it is useless in forest-clad country or in towns and its value largely depends upon good view points. The old, photographic surveying has as its chief field of usefulness a wellmarked mountainous region. The new is not so limited but its rôle has not yet been fully determined. Bibliography of Photographic Surveying —In 1895 Mr. E. Deville was able to quote the titles of 26 works on photographic surveying;

inz91t Dr, Pulfrich in his Stereoskopisches Sehen und Messen men-

tions 276 works, chiefly in German, on stereo-photography alone!

+

he following books may he recommended:

Photographic Survey-

camera positions and to add a few bearings and vertical angles from which the photographic data may be checked. . For many years Cameras specially designed for surveying work

tng, E. Deville, Ottawa, 1895; Hints to Travellers, vol. 1. R.G.S., 1906; The Use of the Panoramic Camera in Topographic Surveying,

should remain constant (for which purpose the sensitized surface of the plate should be pressed firmly against the frame of the camera),

Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy The chief technical difficulty which explorers and surveyors in new countries have hitherto experienced has been in the determination of longitude in regions unprovided with a telegraph system. This applies to almost all the unexplored, or little explored, parts of the world. Since roro, however, the great advance made in the transmission of signals by wireless telegraphy

have been available, a good example being the Bridges-Lee phototheodolite. The essential features of these are, that the focal length

that the position of the optical centre, and of the horizon and principal planes should be deducible from marks on the plate, and that the lens should be free from distortion and aberration. It is also

important to provide levels by means of which to ensure the vertical: ity of the plate. The later photogrammetric cameras are either interchangeable with transit theodolites on the same portable stands, carry eccentric telescopes, or else combine the two instruments by

ames W. Bagley, Washington, 1917; Revue Générale des Sciences, farch 1914, Paris, for stereo-phote-topography,

substituting a telescopic lens for the usual photographic lens, and

has completely done away with this source of difficulty and error.

to select the minimum number of views sufficient to cover try whilst leaving no gaps. Valleys and low-lying arcas the main difficulty. One or two stations per diem are all been occupied by the same party in the photogrammetric

character; so much so, that one mule or one porter can carry the whole apparatus, Frequent practical use is being made of this method of obtaining time signals, as the following instances will show. Inthe year 1912 Comm. Edwards fixed positions during the

by inserting an eyepiece in the back of the camera. The field work demands a high standard of topographic training, for it is not easy

the counconstitute that have surveys of

the Canadian N.W. frontier, whilst a supplementary triangulation was carried on concurrently,

The office work takes two or three times as long as the field work and consists in plotting positions, calculating heights, and drawing

contours from data measured on the developed The

plates.

picture trace will naturally assume the form of the arc of a

circle if a panoramic camera is used such as that employed during i910-6 by Mr, J, W. Bagley in Alaska.

There are several plotting devices on the market, such as the perspectograph, but they have not been largely employed. On the other hand vanishing scales and perspectometers (grids showing

the perspective on a vertical plane of a series of squares on a horizontaland lower plane) can be readily constructed. Stereo-photo Surveying.—The most recent development of photographic surveying consists in the employment of the stereoscopic pnaple The stereoscope as a toy has long been known, but Dr. ulfrich of the firm of Zeiss of Jena, and Col. von Hübl of the Austrian military geographical service, conceived the idea of applying the stereoscopic principle to the service of exact surveying. Other

ioneers in 1907-8 were the late Capt. F. V. Thompson, R.E., and

Tr. Conrady. In 1913 Mr. G. Muller carried out a successful stercophoto survey for part of the proposed Hankow-Ichang railway. In

order to carry out a normal photographic survey successfully it is necessary to arrange for stations far apart and for intersections of some 30 degrees or So. But in stereo-photo surveying two stations

can be occupied on the same hill-top and their distance apart need

only be some 50 to 300 feet,

In the simplest case let two vertical photographic plates be ex-

posed from two points, say 100 ft. apart; let the plates be in the same plane and their centres on the same level. Then if these plates

are put into a stereoscope provided with a system of lenses and pia such that the eyepieces are brought to a convenient distance or seeing, we shall clearly get a very much magnified stereoscopic

effect as compared with what is obtainable with the naked eyes.

In the diaphragm of each eyepiece let there be a similar movable

mark, or line on glass. On looking through the eyepieces the marks in question will appear as a single mark floating in space, and

Wireless “ receiving ” sets are now made of a very portable

Bolivia-Brazil boundary commission by wireless signals from Washington and intermediate stations; in 1913-4 Cav. Dr. Filippo de Filippi in an expedition to the Karakoram used wireless signals from Lahore and from Italy; Major A. J. Woodroffe in 1913-5 determined longitudes on the Pcru-Brazil

boundary commission by wireless signals sent from Senna Madureira, Brazil; in rgt4-7 the French explorer, Lt.-Col. J. Titho, used wireless signals from Paris to determine longitudes in his explorations of Tibesti, Borku, Erdi, and Ennedi; in 1917 Capt. A. J. Bamford determined

the longitudes of Bagdad

and Kermanshah by wireless signals from Fao, which had previously been connected with Basra; in 1919-20 the American traveller, Dr. A. Hamilton Rice, made use of wireless signals fram Annapolis, Washington and Darien, to determine longitudes

during his Amazonas expedition.

Fig. 6 illustrates the wireless

receiving set used by Dr. Hamilton Rice in 1919-20; it was designed by Mr. J. W. Swanson and Mr. P. F. Godley, and was

found quite satisfactory and very portable. It is safe to say that, in future, no properly equipped exploring expedition will be without its wireless receiving set. The designs of these sets will change from time to time and, no doubt, improvements will be made; but the method has proven to be thoroughly practical, and the extra amount of transport required is already

of a negligible character. One of the greatest difficulties of the explorer has thus been removed, Levelling

Since 1910 much progress has been made in the development of a sound system of levelling, especially with regard to precise, or geodetic levelling, 7.e. that Ievelling which provides the

by vertical and horizontal adjustments this mark can be made to

framework on which all national levels depend. The now defunct International Geodetic Assn. laid down some wise rules on the subject of the precision of work of the highest standard, The admirable treatise of M. Ch. Lallemand, Nivellement de kaute

centre of the laborious and

Précision, marked a great advance on previous text-books; and the production of the modern geodetic levelling instruments of

touch any given object in the picture. We have, thus, a means of measuring small parallaxes and vertical angles, and these can be read off graduated micrometer heads. A stereo-comparstor as above described gives angles from the

plate, distances and vertical angles; but the reading is the map has to be constructed point by point.

In 1907 Lieut. von Orel, of the Military Geographical Institute of Vienna, attempted the construction of a machine which should quasi-automatically draw the map, and in 1909 such an instrument was made by Zeiss of Jena. A further model of 1911 permitted the automatic drawing of contours and the outline of detail. The instrument is called the stereo-autograph; several have been made and are in existence in Austria, Germany and France. A stereo-autograph is, of course, an expensive instrument and requires a skilled operator and good plates of even density. But, given these condi-

tions, practical results have been obtained and the method is one

France, the U.S. and Switzerland afforded-the means of greatly increasing the accuracy of observation. To this should be added the introduction, by the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom, of a specially devised kind of permanent bench-mark, which did away with a weak element in the old levelling, the instability of the ground marks.

Levelling Instruments.—As a type of the instruments in use for

levelling of high precision the level designed by Dr. Wildt, and made

SURVEYING

a

ranema.

Set packed for transport.

Receiving Signals.

Receiver and Loop set up ready for use. Fic. 6.—Portable Receiving Set

by the Carl Zeiss optical works of Jena, may be taken. Levels of

this kind are also manufacturcd by Messrs, T. Cooke & Sons of York and Messrs. E. R. Watts & Son of London. The instrument includes the following modern improvements which distinguish it from the levels used for rougher surveys or engineering work; the bubble is read from the eye end of the telescope, so that it js not

necessary to disturb the instrument by walking to its side and bending over to read it; the final levelling of the instrument is effected by means of a sldw-motion screw which slightly tilts the telescope; and the level is provided with a micrometer attachment in the form

of a plate of glass with parallel faces in front of the object glass and

this attachment can be tiked by means of a screw, the amonnt of

the tilt being read on a graduated drum. The use of this micrometer attachment enables readings to be made by the intersection of

graduations on the staff, instead of by estimation.

It is essential in

using this attachment that the sights should be of equal length.

Various patterns of staves have been used by different survey de-

partments.

The Ordnance Survey, for the new geodetic levelling

of England and Wales, used staves manufactured by the Cambridge Mathematical Instrument Company, Jhese staves are 10 ft, long and the graduations are marked on a strip ol invar (an alloy of steel and nickel which has a very low factor of expansion); fixed to cach staff is a circular level, for the staff-nolder to keep it vertical, Ground Marks.—The ground marks to which the observations

are taken in the field are of various kinds and are known in British

surveying as bench marks. The bench marks in use on the Ordnance

Survey are:

first class or fundamental; second class, which consist

of flush brackets made of bronze let into a wall or other vertical surface, and fixed with cement; rivets, let into horizontal surfaces, such as pavements;

and, third class, bench marks cut with a chisel

in brick or stone walls, of broad-arrow shape. The fundamental bench marks are new. It is well known that bench marks of the ordinary type are in general unstable; walls or houses are pulled down, or are subject to settlement, bench marks on isolated stones have been known to be moved and set up in new positions, marks on pavements or kerbs are shifted.

None of the old

types of bench marks is satisfactory as constituting permanent records of height and position. Moreover, in certain localities, such

as mining areas and clay hillsides, the ground itself is unstable, It was therefore decided in planning the geodetic levelling of England

and Wales that fundamental bench marks would be devised which should be of a very stable nature. These are established at intervals of about 25 m. from each other; the sites are carefully chosen and no bench mark of this kind is placed on loose soil or rock liable to local disturbance. In constructing such a mark a pit is dug through the soil, sub-soil and Joose rock, until sound rock, or hard chalk, is found.

The bottom

and sides of the pit are lined with concrete,

and two reference marks are placed in the bottom concrete, one of bronze and one of polished flint; these are covered with removable

caps of metal. When the observations have been finished the pit is ftied with sand or other suitable dry material, The internal marks described are those which are used for departmental purposes; but, for the public, an external mark is also provided. Jt is hoped that these marks will last for many hundreds of years and will, in the

enable the graduations on the staves to be read easily the lencth of a space between the two staves is not in precise work to exceed 160 yds.; to reduce the effect of refraction, no reacling is alowed even

with the lower stadia hairs nearer than 6 in. from the lower end of a

staff; observations are not allowed in bad or windy weather; the

level is to be shielded from the direct rays of the sun. It is on the observance of these and other common sense rules that the accuracy of the work will largely depend, and great attention

must be paid to details, such as keeping the staves truly vertical or not tetting the staff fall heavily on the picket or bench mark, Errors.—The errors to which levelling is subject may be divided into those due to the staff, those due to the level, those due to the staff-holder, those duc to the observer, and those due to the state of the ground, atmospheric conditions and unknown causes. The sys-

tem of observation above described is directed towards eliminating, as far as possible, all errors not purely personal. Ultimately, when everything is done to evolve a sound system, it is the human clement

which tells most in the result, and the observer should possess excellent eyesight, a good stock of patience and be scrupulously honest; for in this, as in all sctentific measurement, there must not be the least bias or wish to obtain a particular result. If the errors were alt

accidental and subject to the ordinary Jaw, the probable error should increase as the square root of the distance levelled. There is, however, in levelling, a factor known as the “ systematic error,” by which the far end of a line constantly tends 1o appear the lower.

this systematic error were quite uniform, then double levelling If

would completely eliminate it; but this is not quite the case, and in the result, we are left with errors mainly accidental, plus an unknown amount of error not strictly subject to the law of accidental

errors.

A careful investigation by the

Ordnance Survey has shown

that the safest course, and that most in accordance with the con-

ditions of the case, ts to treat the accumulating in proportion to the line levelled. This is contrary to error of 1 m. of double Jevelling formula e=0-67 {Xd?/4M), where

whole error as accidental and as square root of the length of the French practice. The probable is usually calculated from the 2d? is the sum of the squares

of the discrepancies between the forward and back levelling from mark to mark, and M the length of the line in miles,

The value of

the probable error so obtained will usually be less than that obtained

from a consideration of the closing errors. In recent Ordnance Survey precise levelling the value of e, from the above formula, ts found to be somewhat less than -003 ft,, whereas the value found from a discussion of the actual errors of closure of the level net-work is -0077. ‘fhe probable error_accumulated in the net-work between Newlyn in Cornwall and Dunbar in Haddingtonshire, two places separated by about 700 m. of levelling, is 0-16 ft., or about 2 in. This gure will serve to give an idea of the accuracy of modern precise levelling.

AUTHORITIES. —See Close & Cox, Text Book of Topographical and Geographical Surveying (H.M. Stationery Office, London, 1913),

Middleton & Chadwick, A Treatise on Surveying (1911), chicfly of

value for engineering

(1920).

surveys;

W. Norman

Thomas,

Surveying

(C. F. Cr., H. S. L. W.)

future, aford valuable information with regard to vertical move-

NAUTICAL SURVEYING

ments of the crust of the earth. Method of Observation —The system of carrying out the observa-

Although the World War restricted hydrographic surveying work, it led to improvements in methods and in instruments. So far as the British Naval Surveying Service was concerned,

tions in the field is based on the following principles. In order to minimize the effect of systematic error the levelling of any line is

once in each direction; the interval of time between suc-

carried out cessive levellings should be as short as possible; to minimize the effect of inclination of the line of sight the distances from the instrument to

the fore and back staves should be as nearly equal as possible; to

it had generally been considered before that a marine survey need not be carried out with the degree of accuracy which is rightly considered necessary in purely land surveys; it being

SUTTNER, BERTHA

628

contended that so long as a marine survey was graphically correct very little attention need be paid to topographical details. Before the war the delineation of topographical details was but a secondary consideration in a hydrographical survey, and it was limited to the accurate fixing of objects conspicuous from seaward; contouring, except in large harbour plans, was generally sketched in by form lines. The experiences in the

World War showed that in localities of possible strategic value accurate topography is of great importance. Where no land surveys are in existence or contemplated, the delineation of the land features miust be included in the hydrographical survey. The lack of information due to the neglect of this important subject was much felt during certain operations of the war, particularly as affecting long range naval bombardments. The necessity for this accurate work on the part of the hydrographic surveyor has resulted in the adoption of new methods and of new instru-

ments and the more general use of the land surveyor’s instruments, all of which undoubtedly tends towards the more accurate charting of the seas. The elaborate methods and rigid accuracy of a triangulation on shore have been recognized by marine surveyors, although the refinement necessary for so-called first-

class triangulation work does not often present itsclf. Instruments. —Theodolites in current use (1921) are 4 in., 5 in. and 6 inch. The majority of these, formerly graduated to one minute, read to 20 sec. by Vernicr, and micrometer theodolites read to 10 seconds. The use of the theodolite for astronomical and tacheometer work largely increased. Sextants for observing, with stand and

artificial

horizon,

continue

in use, but improvements

in the

sextant such as an endless tangent screw and electric light for night work have been adopted. More portable folding stands with slowmotion screws for movement of the sextant in azimuth and altitude are also supplied, and in addition amalgamated troughs, consisting of gold-covered plates on which a thin film of mercury is floated, have superseded the old artificial horizon consisting of a mercury

bath; the new pattern is far less sensitive to earth tremors caused by

surf, traffic, etc.

The Astrolabe 2 Prisme, a very precise instrument for finding posi-

tion, enables altitudes of any stars at the exact altitude of 60° to be observed (see John Ball and H. Knox Shaw, A Handbook of

the Prismatic Astrolabe, published by the Egyptian Government, Cairo Government Press. 1919).

Measuring chains have been almost entircly superseded by 100-ft.

and 500-ft. steel! measuring tapes, which are supplied with standardization certificates. The ‘10-ft. pote” has been supplemented by a‘ 20-[t. pole" operated by two men and consisting of two boards connected by a wire 20 ft. in length and used in conjunction with a sextant. This method of measuring distance is, however, being gradually superseded by the use of tacheomcters and tacheometer staves marked according to the Admiralty pattern, with which dis-

tances up to over 2,000 ft. can be very accurately measured. One-metre base range-finders are useful in measuring short bases for plans of harbours, etc., when time or circumstances do not

permit of a more accurate method. . Of the various forms of heliostat the Galton sum signal has proved

device, the amount of wire out being registered on a dial. tion (always subtractive)

must

be made

for errors.

A correc-

This varies

from 1,000 to 3,000 ft, in a distance of 100 m., and is governed by the contours of the sea bed upon which the wire has been laid. The dial registers §,000 rev. for a mile of 6,080 [t., consequently when plotting in sea miles a second correction, for Jatitude, is necessary. This method of determining distance is specially useful when surveying

out of sight of land, and is used in combination with astronomical

observations and moored beacons.

Fixing Positions of Ships, Buoys, elc., by Subaqueous Soundranging.—This new method of accurately fixing the positions of buoys, etc., is carried out by dropping an explosive charge at the

position it is required to fix. The sound of the explosion travels through the water toa number of hydrophones suitably placed, and the positions of which are accurately known. The differences between the times at which the shock reaches the various hydrophones are recorded photographically by a galvanometer on shore, to which the instruments are connected by cables. From these observations it is possible to calculate a position line for each pair of hydrophones.

Phree or four such lines from hydrophones suitably placed will give

a cut, which is the position of the explosion.

As in all surveying problems, the accurate fixing of a point from two others depends on the length of the base, that is, the distance between

two

known

points, so does the accurate

fixing by sound

through the water depend on the hydrophones, or groups of hydrophones being such a distance apart, commensurate with the distance at which it is required to fix the buoy, etc. Chronemeters.—Surveying ships are now supplied with from 8 to 12 chronometers of the box type, with pocket chronometers for use outside the chronometer room. The chronometers supplied are selected instruments which have successfully passed most exhaustive tests at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. For astronomical work on shore, the portable Lindqvist chronagraph is employed. In this instrument, a chronometer fitted with special contact picces automatically sends an electric current every two seconds through an electro-magnetic coil, and thus, by suitable mechanism records

every alternate second as a perforation on a paper tape, which is kept moving at a uniform rate by means of clockwork. The closing of a switch by the observer operates a second coil, which records

the instant of observation in a similar manner by making an addi-

tional perforation in the tape.

Wireless Telegraphy for accurate time and obtaining meridian distances has been adopted, and in this connexion the wireless

Vernier time signals made by Eiffel Tower may be mentioned.

Amongst minor improvements introduced in surveying appliances

since 1910 may be mentioned the standardization of the markings of leadlines, improved buovs for beacon work, light filters for fitting to the eyepieces of sextant and theodolite telescopes. By 1921, platinised and stainless steel mirrors for sextants and sun signals were under trial; electrical lighting arrangements to sextants and theodolites: eve shiclds for use in observing to assist in perfect orientation of the head; sextant supports to factlitate observations at sea; the arcless sextant which enables angles to be taken and read off (on a drum) without the necessity of removing the eye from the telescope; wireless telegraphy outfits for use of detached parties, and the gyro compass, were all in various stages of experimental development. The Pillsbury current meter was entirely superseded

by the Ekman current meter, and other meters such as the Daisy and Gurley were tn use.

In calculating triangulations considerable time is saved in correct-

a most excellent instrument, and fitted to theodolites it allows of the

ing for false station by use of the station corrector diagram, by which the correction can be obtained very quickly to any accuracy re-

Ship sounding has been greatly improved by the introduction of the Douglas Schäfer sounding gear, which enables ship sounding to be carried out under way in any depth up tọ about 40 fathoms with great speed; other methods of sounding such as the “ Somerville ” gear have also been adopted, and in addition, far greater attention has been paid to sweeping for rocks, shoals, ete., the method used for mine-sweeping having been adapted to this purpose. Other entirely different methods of sounding were also due to experience gained during the war. The most popular method under trial in 1921 was" Acoustic Depth Sounding " which depends on the principle of the acoustic echo, the depth being measured by the time taken for the shock of an explosion or other impulse produced in a ship to reach the bottom and be reflected back as an echo to a receiver on board the ship. By this device it was hoped to obtain either a single indication of the exact depth at any moment or a continuous indication of the depth registered automatically at any selected position. The importance of this method of sounding from a ship under way at any speed, without the necessity of casting the lead, needs no insisting upon. , ‘Taunt wire measuring gear was in 1921 fitted or being fitted to all British surveying ships. This method of measuring distances at sea in comparatively shallow depths had proved most successful and was adopted after having been extensively used in connexion with mine-laying during the war. The ship preserves a steady course and at a constant speed over the distance to be measured and at the same time runs out a thin piano wire from a drum which carries

calculation avoided. The slide rule has come far more into prominence for small rough calculations, As the result of modern inventions, it has been found necessary in recent years to produce

sun's rays being expeditiously and accurately directed to, and kept on, the station desired, whether the latter is visible or not. |

many miles of the wire. It is laid taut by means of a special brake

quired (generally about 5 sec. of arc) and the tedious trigonometrical

special charts for the use of submarines and for other purposes

in

addition to the ordinary navigational chart. Charts for submarines indicate graphically the nature of the sca bottom, so as to indicate where vessels can rest with safety. The introduction of wireless direction-finding stations as an aid to navigation has necessitated the production of charts drawn on the gnomonic projection, by the use of which positions can be more accurately determined. Additional charts are also required for testing range-finders and compass adjusting. Physical charts indicate the direction of prevailing winds and ocean surface currents at different pcriods of the year, localities and time where ice may be

fallen in with, and the direction and force of the stream and drift currents of the oceans. Considerable gain in accuracy has been obtained by printing charts directly on backed paper, whereby the distortion incidental

to the old system of subsequently mounting them is largely eliminated.

SUTTNER, BERTHA,

(H. P. D.)

Baroness von

(1843-1914), Austrian

writer (see 26.171), who in r9tt became a member of the advisory council of the Carnegie Peace Foundation, died at Vienna June 21 1914. See H. v. der Mandere, Bertha Suttner (1909).

SUTTON—SWEDEN SUTTON, SIR HENRY (1845-1920), English judge, was born Jan. 10 1845. He was educated at Rugby and Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1868. He was called to the bar in 1870, in 1890 was made junior counsel to the Treasury, and in 1905 was raised to the King’s Bench division, being knighted in 1906, He retired in 1910, and died in London May 30 1920.

SVENDSEN,

JOHANN

SEVERIN

(1840-10911),

Norwegian

composer (see 26.175), died at Copenhagen June rq rgrt.

SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828-1914), English physicist (see 26.179), died at Warlingham, Surrey, May 28 1914. SWAYTHLING, SAMUEL MONTAGU, 15T Baron (1832-1911), British financier, was born at Liverpool Dec. 21 1832, and came

of a Jewish family named Samuel, but afterwards took by royal licence the name of Montagu. Beginning in early life in a very humble way of business he gradually acquired great wealth by enlarging its scope, and he rose to the head of the most important arbitrage house in London. A strong Liberal in politics, he sat in Parliament for the Tower Hamlets from 1885 to 1900; he was a member of the Gold and Silver commission of 1887-90, being himself a bimetallist. He was created a baronet in 1894, and raised to the peerage in 1907. Throughout his life he was a zealous promoter of Jewish interests, founding the loan fund of the Jewish board of guardians, the Jewish working men’s club

and several synagogues, and for his work on emigration schemes for the persecuted Russian Jews he made many journeys in Europe and America, succeeding Sir Julian Goldsmid as chairman of the Russo-Jewish Committee. He also helped to establish a modern secular school for Jews at Jerusalem in 1875.

He dicd

in London Jan. 12 1911, being succeeded in the title by his eldest son, Louis Samuel Montagu (b. 1869). His second son, Edwin Samucl Montagu (b. 1879), entered politics, and, after having been Under-secretary for India (1910-4), Chancellor of

the Duchy of Lancaster (1915), Financial Secretary to the Treasury (1914-6) and Minister of Munitions (1916), was made Secretary of State for India in 1917. His fourth daughter, Lilian Helen (b. 1873), became a well-known social worker and was appointed J.P. for the County of London in July 1920. SWEDEN (see 26.188).— The Swedish census of 1910 showed an

increase since 1900 of 7:5%, from 5,136,441 to 5,522,403 inhabitants. The pop. on Jan. 1 1920 was 5,847,037 (2,868,395 males and 2,978,642 females), of whom 1,701,249 were living in cities, distributed as follows: Norrland (northern division) 1,018,009, Svealand (central division) 1,879,146 and Gétaland (southern

629

velopment is the increased importance of the industrial section. The census figures for 1920 in this respect were not available in 1921, but this section now represents half the population.

Agriculture. —Cultivated

soil included

3,723,000

hectares

in

1915, 1,715,000 hectares being used for grain, 1,411,000 for fodder stuffs, 26,100 for root crops, 3,000 for other crops, and 333,000 being left fallow. Gardens in 1915 occupied 47,533 hectares. The total value of the harvests in 1914 was estimated at 1,112,000,000 kr. and in 1920 at 2,012,000,000 kronor. The annual consumption of wheat increased from 47:7 kgm. per person in 1891 to 87-8 in 1915. The consumption of rye diminished from 110-6 in 1891 to 98-1 in 1915. The country's own production of corn has not been sufficient, and large supplies have been imported. During the decade previous to the war about 50% of the wheat was imported, and from 10% to

15 % of the rye. The case with which corn could be imported mili-

tated against all attempts to make the country self-supporting in this respect, and efforts came to be concentrated on stock-raising. The number of horses in 1916 was 701,099, of cattle 2,913,159, and of

pigs 1,065,396.

It was the agricultural policy of the country before

the war to import a considerable amount of the corn required and large supplies of maize, oilcakes and other fodder stuffs, and in their place to export live stock, butter and cheese. The balance was not in Sweden’s favour if seen merely from an agricultural standpoint. In 1913 there was an exportation surplus for live stock of 16,500,000 kr. and for butter and cheese of 46,700,000 kr., but there was an importation surplus for other animal products of 25,400,000 kr.; for grain, potatoes and sced corn of 58,600,000 kr.; for fodder stuffs of 22,800,000 kr. and for manure of 14,800,000 kr. The balance showed an importation surplus of 58,300,000 kr. Some decades earlier the country was as good as self-supporting, but the great

industrial population has come into being since then and conditions of life have been radically changed thereby. A more intense cultivation of the soil has been carried out with

great energy. The splitting up of the land for the most part into small holdings has been a disadvantage to a certain extent. The large farms lead the way, and in localities where modern methods of

agriculture sufficiently prevail the small farmers join together in coéperative societies. The scientific study of plant-growing and of

manures is carried on in different parts of the country under the guidance ofa central institute in Stockholm. Seeds have been greatly improved under the influences of the seed society in Svalöv (in Skane), which also exports sceds. The Swedish moss cultivation society, which has its headquarters in Jönköping, has taken the lead in the systematic cultivation of the country’s wealth in bogland. Fishing contributes considerably towards the support of the population. The value of a year's catch may be estimated at between 20,000,000 and 30,000,000 kronor. Export of fish provides a balance of gain to the country of some millions of kronor a year. During the

years of the World War measures were taken to promote the con-

sumption of fish in Sweden itself.

Foresiry.—Out of Sweden's total land area, which amounts to

41,000,000 hectares, 21,400,000, or nearly 52%, constitute forestbearing land, whereof about 4,900,000 hectares, or 23-1 %, are public property. In 1913 the output of sawed or planed timber was estimated at 7,800,000 cub. metres, mechanical wood pulp 326,000 tons, chemical wood pulp 860,000 tons, charcoal 4,300,000 cub. metres, and other products 18,500,000 cub. metres. In the same year the exports of plain sawn and planed wood were valued at 186,900,-

division) 2,949,882. The density of pop. is rather low; in Götaland 34, Svealand 23 and Norrland only 4 inhabitants per square kilometer. The chief towns with a pop. exceeding 20,000 inhabitants (Jan. r 1920) were Stockholm (415,201), Gothenburg (200,577), Malmö (111,931), Norrköping (57,377), Helsingborg (45,805), Gävle (36,092), Orebro (35,096), Eskilstuna (30,103), Västerås (29,530), Jénkoping (28,875), Upsala (28,041), Karlskrona (27,029), Linkdéping (26,300), Boras (23,941) and Lund (22,827). The excess of births over deaths is low: 10-6 per 1,000 in 1910, 6-9 in rors and 5-2 in r919. The birth-rate for 1919 was 19-6 per

pulp at 99,700,000 kr., or 315,200,000 kr. altogether. These exports amounted to 38-6% of the total exports of the country. In certain years the exports of the products of the forests have amounted in value to half the total exports of Sweden. The economic world crisis after the war naturally caused a great diminution in export.

1,000.

respondingly high standard of living.

There were 24,704 emigrants in 1906, 27,816 in 1910,

7,512 in 1915, 10,572 in 1916, 6,440 in 1917, 4,853 in 1918, 7,337

in 1919.

During the war emigration was naturally difficult.

The immigration figures were: 6,357 in 1915, 6,713 in 1916,

§,811 in 1917, 4,932 in 1918, 7,809 in 1919. The United States received the largest contingent of the emigrants, but Norway, Denmark and Canada also received considerable numbers. Swedes resident abroad number between 2,120,000 and 2,245,000, of whom 1,500,000 are in America and 370,000 in Finland. Occupations.—Agriculture, fishing of the pop. with their livelihood in had been 54-4, and in 1890 61-51, the since 1840, when the percentage was

and forestry provided 484% 1910; in 1900 the percentage decline having been progressive 80-9.

Those dependent on employment in industry, mining, trade and

communications represented 45:8% of the pop. in 1910, as against 38-8 % in 1900, 31 % in 1890 and 10-7 %in 1840. Those following the so-called *' free crafts ” (frie yrken) or engaged in the public service (allman itjdnst) represented 5-8% in 1910 (6:8% in 1900, 7:5% in

1890 and

8-4°%

in 1840). The most significant feature in this de-

ooo kr., of partly worked wood at 28,600,000 kr., and of wood-

Industry.—Sweden is also rich in iron ore, and her water-falls make her well equipped for industrial enterprises. But coal is to be found in only one province, Skane, and she is obliged to import large supplies of both coal and coke. The great distances for transport, moreover, entail heavy freight costs. Workmen enjoy a cor-

In 1915 the products of manufactories and mines had a value of something over 3,000,000,000 kronor. The extent to which Swedish - industries had developed may be seen frora the fact that the amount

of horse-power in machinery per 1,000 workers had increased to 1532 in 1915, from 2,844 in I9II and 1,980 in 1906. The most Important wood-sawing industries are found on the coast of Norrland, notably around Sundsvall and Hernésand. The timber is floated down the big rivers from the forests. Paper pulp is one of Sweden's most important exports. Paper is another. The exports of mechanical wood-pulp (dry weight) in 1915 amounted to 150,103 tons, of which 80,783 went to Great Britain. In the same year Sweden exported 721,786 tons (dry weight) of chemical paper-pulp, of which 298,056 went to Great Britain. The iron industry is to

be found within a broad belt of land nearly level with Stockholm and a little farther to the north. The use of charcoal has helped to make practicable the manufacture of Swedish high-quality steel. In 1915 there were 135 iron-works (with 28,868 workmen), of which 78 had in

all 120 furnaces in use, producing 748,928 tons of pig-iron and 11,773

tons of castings. The exports of iron and steel in 1915 had a value of 97,600,000 kr., as compared with imports of 27,800,000

SWEDEN

630

kronor. Foundries and mechanical engineering works in 1915 had an. output of 339,600,000 kr.; exports were valued at 115,600,000 kr., as compared with imports of 41,400,000 kronor. During the war some industries throve exceedingly, as, for instance, those of iron, paper-pulp and paper; others suffered appreciably at times from the lack of raw materials, as, for instance, the textile industry. During the second half of 1920 and in 1921 industry was hit hard by the economic crisis. Commerce.~—Sweden’s foreign trade in 1910-20 presented a

curious picture, inasmuch as the value of her exports during the war period exceeded that of her imports. In 1910 her imports amounted to 669,200,000 kr. and her exports to 592,900,000;

Now more than 60% of Sweden’s wage-earners belong to trade unions; at the beginning of 1921 these had over 400,000

members,

of whom 280,000 combined to constitute the so-called “ Lands Organisationen," which may be translated as “The National Organization,” while simultaneously the political side of the labour movement, Social Democracy, became a force of the first order..

Swedish Social Democracy has relied more and more on parliamentary methods of reform, thereby awakening opposition on the part of the labour extremists, with the result that in 1917 a new Socialist party of the left came into existence, formed for the most part of young men, a large number of whom were strongly influenced by Russian Bolshevism. In the spring of 1921 these latter formed a

the corresponding figures for 1914 were 726,900,000 and 772,400,000.

Communistic

imports

from revolutionary tendencies, thanks to the great extension which has been attained by coöperation. While workmen constitute a typical class party, another class party formed by the- association of farmers and countryfolk, under the title of the ‘' Béndeférbund," dated its origin from 1917.

The figures for the subsequent war years were as follow: 1915, imports 1,142,500,000 kr. and exports 1,316,400,000 kr.; 1916, imports 1,138,600,000 kr. and exports 1,556,400,000 kr.; 1917, 758,600,000 kr. and exports

1,349,600,000 kr.; 1918, im-

ports 1,233,300,000 kr. and exports 1,350,400,000 kr. After the war

the picture changes. In 1919 the figures were: imports 2,534,000,000 kr. and exports 1,575,700,000 kr.; in 1920 imports 3,373,500,000 kr. and exports 2,293,600,000 kr. It will be noted how goods were

regularly drawn out of the country during the war, while the imports were inadequate. The circumstance that home-grown wood

was to a great extent used instead of imported coal also counted. When the war came to an end the country lacked reserve stocks and needed many articles of consumption. Importation increased, in part on speculative lines, from Germany and Russia, and with results which for the most part were unfortunate.

lt may be interesting to give figures illustrating Sweden's commercial relations with the leading belligerent Powers. In 1913 imports into Sweden amounted to 846,500,000 kr.; exports from Sweden to 817,300,000. Her imports from Great Britain amounted to 206,800,000

her exports

kr. and

to Great

those

from

Germany

Britain amounted

to 289,900,000

kr.;

to 237,300,000 kr. and

those to Germany to 179,100,000. Her transactions with Germany were somewhat in excess of those with Great Britain, but the latter

country came first as purchaser of Swedish products. During the war a great reduction came. Imports into Sweden from Great Britain amounted to 183,800,000 kr. in 1914; 213,500,000 kr. in 1915;

164,400,000 kr. in 1916; 65,100,000 kr. in 1917; 148,700,000 kr. in 1918 and 668,900,000 kr. in 1919. Imports trom Germany came to

238,600,000 kr. in 1914; 251,500,000 kr. in 1915; 420,200,000 kr. in 1916; 288,200,000 kr. in 1917; 447,900,000 kr. in 1918 and 269,100,000 kr. in 1919. Exports to Great Britain amounted to 258,300,000 kr. in 1914; 329,600,000 kr. in 1915; 320,100,000 kr. in 1916; 216,100,000 kr. in 1917; 252,600,000 kr. in 1918; 509,900,000 kr. in 1919. Exports to Germany came to 174,800,000 kr. in 1914; 486,400,000 kr. in 1915; 437,500,000 kr. in 1916; 352,100,000 kr. in 1917} 292,800,000 kr, in 1918 and 130,800,000 kr. in 1919. During the war years British coal imports into Sweden declined, and Germany largely made good the deficiency, being naturally anxious to secure imports from Sweden. The figures for the Swedish importation of coal and coke, in thousands of tons, during the ycars 1913-7 were: from England, 4,916; 4,683; 2,816; 1,707 and 604; and from Germany, 431; 335;

2,174; 4,241 and 1,708. Jt will be seen how energetically Germany came forward in Great Britain’s place as exporter to Sweden. Shipping.—The Swedish conimercial fleet in 1910 included

1,214

steamers and motor-boats, of 842,460 total tonnage dead-

weight;

in 1915

1,278 vessels, of 984,799 tonnage;

in 1918

1,238

vessels, of 894,260 tonnage. The figures for sailing vessels were in 1910 1,635, of 204,624 tonnage; in 1915 1,422, of 161,650; and in 1918

1,295, of 141,396. The diminution was due.partly to war-losses. Communications —The

Swedish railway system had in i910 a

length of 13,829 km., and in 1919 of 15,154, whereof 4,418 and 5,496 respectively were State railways. Through the thinly populated

inner region of Norrland there runs a State railway line which has been opened for traffic between Ostersund and Vilhelmina. A singleline railway along the coast of Norrland has been planned out and

Moscow.

party connected

The

with the Third

bulk of Swedish

workmen,

International

however,

hold

in

aloof

In 1913 a law was parcer instituting compulsory old-age and dis-

ablement

insurance

for the entire population.

accident insurance law was passed.

In 1916 a similar

The law passed in 1919 for an

eight-hour day was the most advanced of any in Europe.

The

national administration includes a special social department, as well as a number of boards for dealing with social questions. The communes also, especially the large towns, have instituted important social reforms; for instance, by creating public labour exchanges, which have been State-endowed since 1907 and are under State guidance and control. In common with the State, morcover, the communes contributed to the general pensions insurance. The guardianship of the poor used to rest on the primary communes, but, through a new Poor Law, passed in 1918, this burden is now in certain cases transferred to the provincial assemblies

(Landsting) and the State.

The first decade of the 20th century was marked by the creation

and swift growth of employers’ associations (notably that known by the name “ Svenska Arbetsgivare Föreningen,” whose members in 1920 employed nearly 300,000 workmen) and also of associations of landowners; and in several great conflicts, as, for instance, in a five-wecks' general strike in the summer of 1o09, in which 300,000 workmen took part, the victory fell to the employers. For a Jong time the State’s only action in the matter remained the passing of a law in 1906 for the intervention of a Conciliation Court in labour disputes. By reason of the high standing, however, of the tradeunion organizations, and as the result of frequent collective agreements on both sides, certain conventional methods of treaty came into vogue in the field of labour disputes. In 1920 the Riksdag passed a law instituting a central State conciliation and arbitration court, as well as local courts of the same kind, to pronounce judgment in

labour disputes on the basis of their collective agreements. The Liquor Question.—For close on a century past the alcohol question in Sweden has been a subject for the most serious consideration and for constant measures of reform. The unhappy results of the excessive consumption of gin at the beginning of the 19th

century called forth an energetic temperance movement, led by a clergyman named Peter Wicselgren (1800-1877), a * domprost,”

or dean, of the Lutheran Church; and in 1855 a law was passed which abolished the right to manufacture gin for home consumption and which granted concessions to companics, with no financial interest in the traffic, to sell alcoholic drinks under

This ‘‘ Gothenburg System,” as it was designated, considerable

improvements

in many

public control.

brought about

respects, and the great tem-

perance societies, with a total membership of 450,000, have worked in the same direction, It was, however, only by the new law te~ garding the sale of liquor which was passed in 1917, and which came into force in Iy19, that the underlying principle (‘‘ disinterested management "') of the Gothenburg System

into general practice.

was

consistently

put

By this law the selling to individuals of drinks

containing more than 3-6% of alcohol was confined exclusively to

begun with aid from the State. During the war the railways were sometimes quite overloaded, so that locomotives could not be repaired to the extent they needed, and lubricants and good coal ran short. The increased costs drove up passenger and goods rates. During 1909-16 the Trollhatte canal was reconstructed and

the so-called “systembolag” ( system company’), with about 150 branches, over the management of which the State authorities have decisive control and which pays over all its profits to the State Treasury except for 5% interest on the capital invested. The controlling of this “system company” is entrusted to a central institution known as “ Kontrollstvrelsen.” All persons who wish to purchase such liquors for home consumption are registered and receive a pass-book; the total amount of liquor allowed to them being limited to a maximum of four litres a month. The abuse of alcohol

Social Conditions.—Democracy has a strong hold on the Swedish

customer in a restaurant is also strictly limited and confined to meal-times. This system of liquor-dealing, which was set on [oot in Stockholm in 1913 and organized by Dr. Ivan Bratt (coming to be known as the Bratt system), was supplemented by a special measure regarding the treatment of alcoholists. ‘he system had remarkable results, proportionate in large degree to the activity of the leading members of the various companies, The consumption of spirits decreased in many places, for instance in Stockholm, by nearly 50%.

deepened to four metres. The Sodertalje canal was in 1921 in process of reconstruction and of deepening to five metres. Through the former operation navigation was made possible to the great Lake Venner and thus between Gothenburg (Göteborg) and the Western mining district, and through the latter a good waterway was being created to the harbour of Lake Malar.

people, owing to the high degree of education reached by the masses and to their inherited respect for the sanctity of law. Families from an carly date with self-government, Sweden had begun already in the closing decades of the roth century to build up a kind of network of nonconformist religious associations, Anglo-Saxon in their character, temperance unions and friendly societies. When, as the outcome of advances in industrialism, the labour movement began

to take shape, it was able to utilize these habits of organization and thus secure a position of considcrable power comparatively quickly.

is attended by further restrictions or by the absolute withdrawal of the right to purchase,

The amount of liquor which may be sold to a

The number of cases of drunkenness, which was formerly somewhat: high, was reduced throughout the country—in Stockholm and in cer-

SWEDEN ing from alcoholism.

Much opposition from the side of those who

regard the restrictions

introduced

631

Riksdag think it desirable to take the opinion of the people direct by plebiscite on some important question before its decision by the Riksdag. The proposal decided on must be submitted once again after a new Second Chamber election before it becomes binding.

tain other places by 60 °%—and so was the number of persons suffer-

as altogether excessive was

brought to bear against the system; on the other hand, a tendency arose among the temperance associations to believe that total prohibition was the only way towards the solution of the alcohol problem. Smuggling and illegal manufacture of spirits developed to a disquicting degree in the years 1917-8. There were signs, how-

Another constitutional change was involved in the creation of a foreign affairs committee, which the Riksdag shall elect every year,

and with which the Government shall take counsel regarding foreign

affairs. The Riksdag's right to share in decisions regarding agreements with foreign countrics has been extended. Yet another con-

ever, in 1921 of a return to a better state of things. Finance.—In 1910 the state budget amounted to 265,200,000

stitutional novelty is the right given to women to hold office under

kr., in 1915 to 415,400,000, in 1920 to 929,400,000, and in 1921 to

the State where no special hindrance lies in the way.

in 1921 amounted

History.— On the death of King Oscar on Dec. 8 1907 he was succeeded by his eldest son Gustav V. Rear-Adml. Arvid Lindman had been at the head of the Government since May 1906, with Erik Trolle, former Swedish minister at Berlin, as

1,131,100,000. For 1920 and 192r the so-called “ tilläggsstater,” i.e. supplementary military budgets, are included, The tax revenue to 579,200,000 kronor.

The consolidated national

debt amounted at the end of 1920 to 1,280,600,000 kr.; in I910 it had been 543,400,000 kronor. Apart from the national bank, the Riksbank, which alone issues

Minister of Foreign Affairs; Carl Swartz, a manufacturer,

bank-notes, there were in 1910 I7 private and 63 joint-stock banks, which in 1920 had decreased to 11 and 30 by amalgamations. Their total paid-up capital and reserve funds amounted in 1910 to §62,600,-

as

ooo kr. and in 1920 to 1,084,000,000 kronor. At the end of 1920 the

Minister of Finance; Maj.-Gen. Lars Tingsten as chief of the Department of National Defences, and Alfred Petersson i Paboda, a landowner, as Minister of Agriculture. In 1907 this Ministry

joint-stock banks are Skandinaviska Kreditaktiebolaget, Svenska Handelstanken (formerly Stockholms Handelsbank) and Aktisbolaget Göteborgsbanken.

universal suffrage in regard to the Second Chamber and proportional representation in regard to both Chambers; and this measure, in accordance with statute, was confirmed by the Riksdag of r909 after the election of members of the Second Chamber

bank was relieved from its liability to meet notes with gold, and also to receive gold in ingpts (see EXCHANGES, FOREIGN).

in the autumn of 1908. Owing toa divergence of opinion within the Ministry upon an important point bearing upon the extent of the Riksdag’s powers, Trolle, Petersson and one other minister

Riksbank balanced its revenue and expenditure at 1,017,500,000 kr. and the other banks’ balance stood at 7,662,300,000 kronor. The leading private bank is Stockholme Enskilda Bank; the largest

The circulation of paper money in 1910 to 759,900,000 kr. in 1920.

The Swedish savings banks in 1919

amounted

to 1,870,800,000

kr. and

had carried a measure

increased from 206,500,000 kr. During the war years the Riksnumbered 477; their deposits

resigned in r909. The new Foreign Minister was Count Arvid Taube, who had succeeded Trolle as representative of Sweden

their capital to 107,100,000

kronor. The post-office savings bank, a State institution, had deposits amounting to 84,400,000 kr. at the end of 1920.

at Berlin. Some time afterwards Maj.-Gen. Tingsten also resigned. Moderate Conservatism was the note of this Ministry. The ministerialist party in the Riksdag had a majority in the

Constilution.—The Swedish Parliament, the ‘ Riksdag,”” consists

of two elected Chambers, the First Chamber being composed of communal

representatives.

A constitutional

change of a radical

kind took place in 1907 and was confirmed by the Riksdag of 1909.

The communal suffrage was on a scale proportionate to income, the

graduation was now limited so that no person could have more than 40 votes, the bulk of the middle classes thus acquiring

a preponder-

in which they themselves were liable to taxation.

Proportional

ance. Absent voters could delegate their voting rights to others. Women had the communal suffrage in proportion to the degree representation was introduced in the case of both Chambers.

bers of the First Chamber, in common

Mem-

with those of the Second,

were paid. The suffrage in the case of the Second Chamber became universal and remained, as before, equal for all.

By Riksdag resolutions in 1918, 1919 and 1921 the constitution was further develo in a markedly democratic direction, Under these reforms the First Chamber consists of 150 members, elected by proportional representation by the provincial assemblies, t.e. either by “ Landstingen ” or by specially formed bodies of electors, chosen also by proportional representation by those possessing the communal suffrage.

The communal suffrage is universal and equal;

it is no longer graduated and it is personal, When it was graduated

in proportion to income, business companies possessed the com-

munal suffrage. Anyone who fails to pay his taxes for three successive years forfeits his right to vote. Women have the same voting rights as men.

The age at which the voting right is acquired is 23,

but the

age is 27 for the right to vote for the members of the provincial assemblies which elect the First Chamber. The right to vote by

proxy is abolished, but a husband may deliver a wife's vote in a

closed envelope, or a wife a husband's. Similarly, in the case of both the communal elections and the elections to the Second Chamber, soldiers on active service, absent seamen and fishermen, and employees of railways, ports, customs and pilot services may send in their votes by post. The number of the voters in the communes has been more than doubled. After the reform the communes’ lists of voters contained nearly 3,300,000 names, i.e. more than 56 % of the pop., and of these about

1,600,000 were

men and 1,700,000 women.

In March and

April 1919 took place the new communal assembly elections: in two ‘ Landsting ' out of 25, and in 20 towns out of 107 (among them Stockholm), the Social Democrats and Socialists of the Left together won absolute majorities. In ten ‘Landsting' and 38 towns the Social Democrats were the strongest party. The election periods are cight years for the members of the First Chamber, one-eighth of whose number are elected cach year; and four years for the Second Chamber’s 230 members, who are all elected at one time. Women as well as men are eligible as members of both Chambers. The age at which a person becomes eligible for the First Chamber is 35, for the second 23. To be eligible for the First Chamber a person must have a certain specified income or property. If a member can no longer perform his duties, his place is taken by a substitute elected at the same

time as himself. The Riksdag iscalled together every year on Jan. 10 for its ordinary meeting. In 1921 the Riksdag passed an Act to provide that a consultative referendum shall be had recourse to when the Government and the

of constitutional reform, embodying

First Chamber and a minority in the Second. |

The National Defence Question—At this period the problem of national defence was in the forefront of Swedish politics, inasmuch as the foreign affairs of the country were in a condition calculated to arouse anxiety. The union with Norway had been dissolved in 1905 and Sweden now stood alone in respect to foreign politics. Finland, which in 1809 had been taken from Sweden and united to Russia, had been having its autonomy more and more reduced, and Russia’s foreign policy seemed to

show a forward tendency westwards. A great variety of new military measures in Finland seemed to point to something more than a desire on the part of the Russian Government to prevent a German invasion of Southern Finland in the event of a RussoGerman war. Right up to the north of the Gulf of Bothnia a network of railways was being spread out for military purposes, and new strategic lines were constructed of a kind necessitated neither for purposes of defence against Germany nor for purposes of trade. Barracks sprang up at the railway junctions. In Sweden Russian spies were ubiquitous, and a Russian military attaché had to be recalled on the ground of having pushed inquisitiveness beyond all limits. A handbook was produced for the use of the Russian military service containing information about the conditions of life in Sweden, and with Swedish maps in it, as well as a short vocabulary of military terms in Russian and Swedish. Swedes had an uncomfortable feeling that the attention of Russia was being directed altogether too closely upon their inadequately defended country.

A careful enquiry into the question of national defence had been undertaken in 1907. The Liberal members of the committee of investigation which was appointed were dissatisfied with its estimate of the defence expenditure required, and signified their attitude by withdrawing from it im 1910. This militated somewhat against the efforts of the committee, and it proyed to be impossible, as had been intended, to submit a new scheme of national defences to the Riksdag of rorz.

Instead of

this, the Government brought forward a proposal for a new naval programme, and, in theface of opposition from the Liberals and Social Democrats, carried a bill, as a first step, for the construction of a powerful new battle cruiser,

Liberals in Office.—In Sept. 19x1 the general election for the

Second Chamber of the Riksdag, under the reformed methods

which had almost doubled the electorate, resulted in increasing

SWEDEN

632

the strength of the parties of the Left. The Liberals elected numbered ror, the members of the Right numbering 65 and the Social Democrats 64. Admiral Lindman's Ministry resigned, and

in Oct. the King entrusted Karl Staaff, who had been prime minister in 1905-6, with the task of forming a new Government. This Ministry remained in office until Feb. 1914. Count Albert Ehrensvard, previously Swedish minister at Washington, became Minister of Foreign Affairs, and both of the departments of

national defence were placed under civilians, in accordance with the Liberal view that there should be greater civil control. Alfred Petersson, who had gone over tothe Liberals, became once more Minister of Agriculture. The question of national defence

again came up for treatment, but upon different lines and almost exclusively at the hands of the members of the Left. It had not been possible to proceed further with the projected new ironclad

than the making out of the designs. The Government proposed to the Riksdag of r9r2 that the project should be abandoned and the Riksdag agreed. This cancelling of a previous decision of the Riksdag, on account of the new elections having altered the composition of the Second Chamber, evoked strong dissatisfaction. Within a brief space of time a sum of 17,000,000 kr. was raised by voluntary subscription for the building of the ship, and since the Government was unable to decline to use this fund the keel was laid down on Dec. r. The whole country was now stirred up, and further sums were subscribed in the same way ta furnish machine-guns for the Landsturm and to provide aircraft, Towards the end of 1913 things had come to such a point that the prime minister was able in the course of a speech to advance arguments in favour of a forthcoming proposal for a winter

for all members of the State church.

New laws were introduced

as to farmers’ tenancies and the leasing and letting of houses, flats, etc., and the speculative operations of the big companics

dealing in land in Norrland were restricted and placed under control. A new company law was passed by the Riksdag and also a new banking law. A progressive income and property tax, based on the taxpayer’s own statements as to both, was also introduced, together with a progressive inheritance tax. Customhouse duties were remodelled and the sugar-tax modlified. An arrangement was come to with the Gringesberg Co. in regard to its iron-ore business in Lapland, by which the complicated question of proprictorial rights was so settled that the State joined in as part owner, receiving preference shares to the value of 40,000,000 kr., a specified royalty on the proceeds of the mining at Gellivara and Kirunavara and the right of redemption after a specified period. Large grants were made to the electric power stations at Trollhittan and Alvkarleby in central Sweden, as well as to that at Porjus in an uninhabited region of Lapland, and a widening of the Trollhätte canal was put in hand. A new Jaw regarding insurance against illness was passed. Night work in cerlain occupations was forbidden for women, Improvements were

made

in higher technical education.

In 1909

a sharp

conflict arose between employers and workmen, and the latter. organized a general strike in which nearly 300,000 took part. There were, however, no disturbances, thanks both to the disci-

pline maintained and to the wise measures adopted by the Government. Social hfe was not brought to a standstill, as the workmen expected, and after a lapse of two months the conflict was brought to an end.

training for the army, the establishment of reserve forces, the

While the reforms introduced by Adml. Lindman’s Ministry

levying of a higher war-tax on the more well-to-do, the amelioration of the laws governing war, ctc. But in view of the election promises to which the Liberal leaders had committed themselves during the contest of 1911 this programme was not to be submitted all at once; its most important item alone, that of the training of the infantry, would in the first place be submitted by itself on the occasion of the Second Chamber elections of 1914 before being proposed to the Riksdag. The public discussion of the matter

lay mainly in the sphere of economics and industry, the Staatt Ministry devoted its energics more especially towards social questions. A new social department was instituted, as a centre

of the sale of spirits by the communes were allocated to the State,

became

defence

compensation being allowed therefor, the object of this being

programme was in fact submitted to the Riksdag of 1914, violent feelings were aroused and expressed. At last even the small farmers and peasantry, usually anything but enthusiasts for defence measures owing to the heavy personal taxation entailed, were drawn into the movement. On Feb. 6 1914 there was a great meeting in Stockholm of more than 30,000 representatives of this class from all parts of the country, assembled for the purpose of bringing home to King Gustav their anxicty at not seeing the question handled promptly and in its entirety. They were received by the King in the great courtyard of the Royal Palace, and their spokesman declared that the

to free the communes from all economic interest in the liquor trade. After long preliminary planning, an illness and old-age

very lively, and although

no thoroughgoing

for the State’s activities in this direction. The law bearing on the

protection of workmen was extended, and various forms of workmen’s unions were placed under control. A law was passed regulating the methods of dealing with alcoholists. The profits

pensions insurance law was passed, enacting obligatory insurance, with payments in three degrees, for all, except pensioners of the State, between the ages of 16 and 66, the pensions to be given in case of illness, or on the completion of the 67th year. The War

Years, 1914-8, —In the ministry which Herr Ham-

marskjiöld formed in Feb. 1914 Herr K. A. Wallenberg, the banker, was Minister of Foreign Affairs; Herr Dan Brostrém, shipowner, Minister for Naval Defence, and Herr Oscar von Sydow was Minister of the Interior.

The Second Chamber was

Swedish people were willing to bear the burden of whatever

dissolved, and after a very sharp contest the advocates of active

measures of defence were necessitated by the gravity of the time. The King answered that he, too, was of opinion that the

defence measures were returned in increased numbers, but with-

problem called for treatment in its entirety and without delay.

out having secured a majority, polling $6 seats out of 230, while the Liberals numbered 71 and the Social Democrats 73.

The Ministry had had no previous intimation of what the King was going to say, and matters were brought to a head by the

The Riksdag met again in May, and the outbreak of the war brought with it a solution of difficulties, inasmuch as all parties recognized that there must be no disputing as to details of

resignation of Staaff and his colleagues.

defence at a moment

This

demonstration

had important

consequences On Feb.

at once. 17 a new

Ministry was formed, with Hjalmar Hammarskjiöld as its head. Policy of Reform.—In connexion with foreign affairs during this period it may be added that, by arbitration at The Tague, the sea boundary between Sweden and Norway was fixed in accordance with Sweden’s claim, and Sweden became a party to the North Sea and Baltic Agreement of 1908. By dint of close coöperation between the Government and the Riksdag a large number of important reforms were instituted. Among those carried through during Adml. Lindman’s administration may be mentioned (in addition to the franchise measures above noted)

aflame.

when the whole surrounding world was

Universal military service had already been introduced,

but now the training time for infantry was increased to 340 days, of which 250 were to be spent in recruit classes beginning in the

autumn and continuing throughout the winter, followed by the usual training courses during three years. In order to secure noncommissioned officers of the right kind it was judged well to impose a longer training time, extending to 485 days, on students and other young men of similar standing, while for cavalry and artillery the period was fixed at 365 days. Large sums were allotted for the provision of war materials and for the strengthen-

the creation of a supreme administrative Court of Justice (Regerings rätten), together with a legal council, formed of some

ing of the coast defences. A programme was drawn up for adding new vessels to the flect. Simultaneously with these steps towards

members of the Supreme Court, as advisers to the Government

increasing the defences of the country, measures were introduced for modernizing the existing code of punishments for military

in legislative matters.

Civil marriages were made permissible

SWEDEN offences, this being accompanied by the creation of a special official, to be appointed by the Riksdag, whose duty it would be to inquire into al} allegations regarding abuse of power or other derelictions on the part of superior officers in the army or navy— an appointment designed to act as a protection for soldiers and

sailors against injustice. An official declaration of neutrality was published without

633

British seaports.

Black lists caused serious losses to conscien-

tious tradesmen as well as to others.

Both groups of belligerents

sct on foot elaborate systems of trade espionage in neutral countries. In order to regulate the undertakings which the belligerents demanded from merchants, manufacturers and shipowners,

the so-called War Trade Law was passed in 1916 to give legal

value to officially recognized undertakings to foreign Powers, while at the same time it was laid down that undertakings not thus recognized lacked all legal value. A special trades commis-

delay, and all the ministries holding office during the war, with the Riksdag’s expressed approval, aimed at remaining absolutely neutral, Neutrality involved the duty of preventing any of the

sion was created to investigate all questions connected with this

belligerent Powers from using Swedish territory as a basis for

matter.

operations

like an enormous system of compensation, controlled by State officials by means of agreement. Every neutral country had to offer some equivalent in return for its imports. During the first

against enemies.

Throughout

the entire war the

Swedish fleet remained on guard along the coasts of the country and on several occasions it had to take active measures. During the summer of 1916 there were many violations of neutrality in Swedish waters. In order to elude the observation of foreign battleships, trading vessels, flying the flags of belligerent countries, or carrying dangerous freights, sought to get through a channel called Kogrundsrinnan within Swedish waters in Oresund, and

The international goods exchange came to be worked

years of the war it was to the interest of the Allied Powers that

goods shauld go through Sweden to Russia.

The great consign-

ments caused inconvenience to the Swedish railways, but they

made things easicr for Sweden in the matter of imports. Negotiations were set on foot for a commercial agreement be-

apparently frequent attempts were to be expected on the side

tween Sweden and Great Britain and her Allies, but they led to

of belligerent countries at both ends of this channel to seize enemy vessels even at the risk of this occurring within Swedish waters, This channel was closed therefore against all but certain known Swedish vessels. The Allied Powers considered this

this fact was turned to account against him in the political conflict which went on over the internal affairs of the country. After

no result during the time of IJerr Hammarskjiöld’s Ministry, and this Ministry resigned on Mar. x 1917, and Herr Carl Swartz

The stagnation produced by the outbreak of the war as

formed a new Government, the Foreign Minister, Adml. Lindman, brought about a temporary agreement by which the Swedish people were allowed the right to import nearly 92,000 tons of grain and about 40,000 tons of other goods, on the condition that certain vessels belonging to the Allies then confined in the Baltic should be allowed egress through the closed channel of Kogrund. After Herr Eden’s Ministry succeeded to that of Herr Swartz

regards forcign trade and shipping did not last long. Sweden

in the autumn new discussions were entered upon in regard to

in the American trade with Germany, quite in accordance with

come to, enabling Sweden to import about 75,000 tons of maize, feeding-stuffs, raw phosphate, mineral oils and coffee, and in

action incorrect and protested, but the channel remained closed until Dec. 1918. A number of trading vessels belonging to the Allied Powers, which, owing to the closing of the channel, were

confined in the Baltic, were, however, allowed egress on the condition that the Swedish population received a certain measure of necessary supplics from the west.

became for a time, like Holland and Italy, an intermediary- imports, In Feb. 1918 a so-called modus vivendi agreement was

international law as it stood before the war. When, however, the

Allies proceeded to employ more and more stringently their weapon of blockade against the Central Powers this business as intermediary came quickly toa stop. The intensifying of the war at sea brought with it great obstacles in the way of neutral commerce. Its most painful feature was the sinking of neutral

June a more comprehensive agreement was reached, in accord-

vessels by the German submarines, with its accompanying loss

guaranteed to the Allies a certain share in her iron-ore exports, and also undertook. to allow a certain amount of credit for goods bought in Sweden. In this way Sweden’s most essential import was made sure of until the end of the war. In consequence of the universal scarcity the three Scandinavian countries came to an agreement as to the mutual exchange of commodities. The hard conditions which prevailed during the war brought Sweden and Norway closer together again. After the severance between Sweden and Norway in 19035, and the election of a

of lives. The mines which were spread about by other groups of

belligerents also claimed many victims.

The proceedings of the

submarines caled forth much indignation, and protests were made, but without much effect.

The measures of the Allies

were of a different order, but their control over shipping presently became so oppressive that protests against this also were made,

the weightiest protest coming from the three northern kingdoms acting together. Sweden’s geographical position and the commercial conditions which existed before the war necessitated the

maintaining of relations with both sides. Trade transactions with Germany were in 1913 somewhat in excess of those with Great Britain, but Great Britain was the larger purchaser of Swedish products. During the war one great displacement in trade resulted from the diminution of Sweden’s imports of coal from Great Britain and the consequent necessity of making

good this diminution by imports from Germany. Despite all the difficulties to be encountered it proved possible to maintain importation into Sweden from the west of raw materials, grain and other necessaries down to well on in 1916, but from this time onwards there was an increasing scarcity. When the Allies intensified their blockade, and Sweden could not

break off trade relations with Germany, the blockade-line was drawn not between Sweden and the Central Powers but west of Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries. All goods which had to pass the blockade-line in the North Sca on the way to or from Sweden were subjected to sharp control. As regards goods from Sweden certificates of origin and ownership had to be furnished, to make sure that they were not in reality disguised exports from Germany, while in the case of goods for Sweden guarantees were required to the effect that they would not be

forwarded to Germany.

Suspected goods were unloaded in

ance with which it was possible to import larger quantities of grain, feeding-stuffs coal, oils, india-rubber, cotton, wool, hides, etc. In this connexion Sweden placed at the disposal of the

Allies a portion of her commercial fleet. In addition, Sweden

Danish prince as King of Norway, the relations between the Scandinavian countries had been somewhat cold. King Gustav, who at one time had been the Norwegian Crown Prince, himself took the initiative, and in Dee. 1914 invited the Norwegian and

Danish monarchs to a meeting at Malmö, at which the affairs of the three countries as affected by the war came under discussion.

Other such consultations

followed, for instance at

Christiania in Nov. 1917, and the prime ministers and foreign ministers of the three kingdoms also came together, while on some occasions of importance there were meetings at which special delegates were present. In Jan. 1918 Sweden gave her recognition to the new Finnish State. When, shortly afterwards, the Red outbreak occurred in Finland, there was a strong movement in favour of Sweden's joining in on the side of the newly formed Finnish Government,

but when the Russian troops began to take part in the struggle

on the side of the Reds, Russia continuing to be a belligerent Power, the Government and the Riksdag agreed that it would not be wise to intervene.

Swedish volunteers fought on the side

of the Whites, and a couple of Swedish ambulances were sent over. Swedish refugees were brought back from Southern Finland. While the civil war in Finland was still in progress a peti-

tion came from the inhabitants of the Aland Is, for Swedish

634

SWEDEN

protection against aggression on the part of Russian troops which

thorough supervision, and this evoked dissatisfaction and annoy-

were stationed there. Troops were sent from Sweden to maintain order on the islands, and they achieved their purpose. When Germany, however, came to the support of the Whites and landed forces on the Aland Is., the Swedish troops were withdrawn.

ance, especially among the farmers. The system was changed in the food control year of 1918-09, each farmer being called

Economic Measures.—At the very beginning of the war period

the Swedish Government carried through several special administrative measures. The exportation of a number of commodities of great importance was prohibited, partly in order that they might be kept for home consumption, partly in order that they might control the exportation by export licences. This system was gradually developed until at last the export of all important goods was prohibited. An Industrial Commission and an Unemployment Commission were set up to decide on the measures which should be taken to maintain industrial work and to mitigate the serious condition of unemployment which threatened. A Food Commission was appointed to study the development of the market, and a National War Insurance

Commission

was

charged with the task of dealing with insurances against loss of life and property through the war on the seas, as the private insurance companies were unable to undertake all the risks. The Riksdag’s legislative powers were also called into play. A financial Moratorium was instituted at an early date. The Riksbank’s obligation to meet its own notes with gold was suspended,

and new laws were introduced giving the Government new powers, which were employed when necessary, to effect the compulsory purchase of goods from individuals and to fix maximum prices on commodities. Swedish vessels could not be sold to other countries without the Government’s sanction, nor could

upon to supply a certain specified quantity of corn and being

allowed to do more or less as he pleased with what he had left. Rationing ceased at the end of Aug. 1919.

The supply of bread was scantier than in normal times, and it had to be supplemented with other food-stuffs, especially potatoes. The consumption of all these rose enormously and a great scarcity began to be felt, most severely in the late winter and in the spring of the year 1917 and 1918. People had to have recourse to the eating of turnips. In the spring of 1917 there were food riots in various localities. In 1918 the danger of famine became worse, but calm prevailed. In the autumn of that year potatoes also had to be rationed, but this expedient did not work well. In densely inhabited localities milk was so rationed that the needs in the first place of small children, then of pauper children and the old and the sick were supplicd. The exportation of meat, including bacon and pork, ceased altogether in the first half of 1917.

The scarcity of fodder became at times so intense

that moss and heather and even pine-needles had to be employed as Substitutes in the cow-sheds. The selling of bacon and pork was placed under strict control, but only with the result that both disappeared almost altogether from the open market. The rationing of butchers’ meat was considered, but it was not thought safe to take this step. Among other things rationed was coffee. The scarcity of food generally caused the Government to do what it could to intensify production by the putting of new land into cultivation, ete.

they carry freight from one foreign country to another. All this accumulation of legal measures, which presently had added to it the law against unreasonable increases in rent, the law against “ profiteering ’’ and several others, did not come about at once but grew out of the needs which were created by the conditions of the war period. New organs for war-time administration were formed in the Trade Commission (June 1915) and the Food Control Commission (autumn 1916), the former of which had to apply the War Trade Laws and to supervise exports and imports,

The Fuel Question —The fuel question was beset with difficulties although Sweden is so rich in wood. Before the war about 5,000,000 tons of coal and coke were imported, for the most part

while the latter, as the successor of'an earlier Food Commission,

enormous scale, In Nov. 1917 56,000 workmen were in employ-

took in hand the food rationing of the country. Rationing—Before the war Sweden produced about foursevenths of the cereals which she required; the rest had to be imported. On the other hand, she exported live cattle, pork and butter, the production of which was made possible by the importation of feeding-stuffs. The fodder harvest of 1914 was so scanty that it necessitated a reduction of live stock. The importation of cereals was undertaken by the State through the agency of the Food Commission. When there began to be a scarcity in some of the animal foods, and prices suddenly rose, recourse was

ment at wood-cutting.

from England. When, during the war, the importation from England ceased, and Germany was unable to supply as much as England used to do, the country was faced by a very serious scarcity oÍ fuel. This wasat the beginning of 1917. The regulation of the

business of the wood supply was then entrusted to the Fuel Commission, which put wood-cutting operations in hand on an Down to May 1918, when the work

ceased for the most part, 19,400,000 cub. metres of wood had been cut. Forest owners were allowed to make provision for

their own needs. Other households had certain specified quantities allotted to them, according to the number of persons in each, special wood-cards being provided and the price of the wood being fixed at figures which did not quite cover the cost. Those persons who wished to buy more could do so but at higher figures. Factories and railways had to pay higher prices. The result was that fuel was always available in sufficient quantities,

had to the fixing of maximum prices for the first time in Nov.

but that the wood supply involved a loss to the State of over

1915.

100,000,000 kronor.

In the course of the year also the exportation of animal

foods was restricted and producers were obliged, in return for the granting of export licences, to allot a certain proportion of their goods (‘‘ compensation goods ”’ so-called) to the State for sale by the communal authorities at low prices to those who were less well-to-do. In the autumn of 1916 the scarcity of animal foods became so serious that rationing had to be decided on, and, even so, anxiety was occasionally felt lest the supplies should fail. The Situation was aggravated later by the bad harvest of 1917. In Oct. 1916 it was decided that nobody should obtain sugar without presenting a sugar-card. These sugar-cards gave a person the right to purchase 13 kgm. of sugar a year, with an additional amount for preserving purposes to each family. In Jan. r917

bread-cards were introduced. Farmers were allowed to retain a certain quantity of corn but had to sell all the surplus to the State. Allsuch stores, whether bought by the State or imported, were rationed out to the rest of the population, who were given bread-cards providing at first allowances of 250 grammes a day to each person, later only 200 grammes, but again 250 in Nov. 1918. Persons engaged in particularly arduous work were allowed extra rations. The bread-cards were used also on jour-

neys. The carrying out of this work of rationing needed very

Industry during the War.—The importation difficulties reacted also upon industries. There was a great scarcity of lubricants. This was partly met by the use of substitutes. The textiles, rubber and leather industries, as well as several branches of the

chemical industry, suffered from the lack of raw materials. The scarcity of copper and certain other metals and metal alloys had injurious results on the working of electrical machinery and generally throughout the whole sphere of mechanical engineering, but, on the whole, Swedish industries were kept going under

favourable conditions. To deaf with the importation of raw materials, which was controlled by the Allics, import associations were formed by the manufacturers who needed the raw materials in question. These associations furnished the guarantecs re-

quired by the Allies and imposed corresponding guarantees on the delivery of the small quantities thus dealt out. The associations were controlled by the Trade and Industry Commissions. In cases where the supply of certain goods was exceptionally small the State laid claim to the whole, and a system of rationing was sometimes carried out by Raw Material Associations, formed by-

the manufacturers and craftsmen who werc in need of them.

In

1916 steps had to be taken in regard to regulations for the sale of

SWEDEN lubricants, iron pyrites, German iron, and hides, skins and printing paper. The first article to be appropriated by the State was linseed oil, next came hemp and india-rubber. In 1917 hides and skins were appropriated, as well as lubricants, leather shoe-soles,

several metals, rails, paraffin, ete. Tickets for the purchasing of benzine for motor-cars and motor-boats were provided through the agency of the Industry Commission. All fat from the bones of mammals and all offal, etc., were turned to scientific or techni-

cal account. The use of carbide lamps increased swiftly, as carbide is a Swedish product, The Swedish iron-works and factories were constrained to supply iron goods at reduced prices to cultivators of the soil. In April 1918 rationing of wool began, as well as of cotton yarn, woollen or cotton stockings and woollen or

cotton textiles and underclothing of these materials. Purchasing cards were supplicd only where the need of them was genuine and “ controlled.” In Nov. 1918 the rationing ceased. There was actually no very serious unemployment during the war. A great number of men who lost their work in the building and textile industries were employed in wood-cutting, clearance work in the forests, executing orders for supplies of stone for the communes, etc.

High Cost of Living —High prices were the combined result of scarcity and the inflation of paper money. The prices of goods rose higher than in Great Britain, for example. Official investigations show that if a family which had an income of 2,000 kr. in 1914 sought to keep up the same kind of living its expenditure would have been increased to something over 3,000 kr. a year according to the prices which prevailed in May 1917, and to over 4,850 kr. according to those which prevailed in Oct. 1918. Wages had to be raised considerably. The State granted war bonuses which amounted in all to a sum total of 100,000,000 kr. a year. The State and the communes expended large sums also in subsi-

dies. From Dec.*1916 down to the middle of 1920 the sum of 112,500,000 kr. was used for lowering the prices of food, clothes and fucl and, in some exceptional cases, rent, for the poorer classes. Of this amount the State provided 77,000,000 kr. During the first half of 1918 389,000 families, or 1,344,000 persons, benefited by purchasing goods at these lowered prices. The building industry was at a standstill almost entircly. The State took steps to help it but without much success.

635

successful, the Liberal leader, Prof. Nils Eden, undertook the task of forming a Liberal-Social-Democratic Government. The prime minister himself, the Foreign Secretary, Herr J. Hellner, and five other members of the Government were Liberals; Herr

Hjalmar Branting, the leader of the Social-Democratic party, was for a short time Finance Minister; Baron Erik Palmstierna, a former naval officer and a Social-Democratic member of the

Riksdag, was Minister of Marine; there were two other Social-

Democratic members of the Government, which adopted a Liberal-Radical programme. After the War—The

Riksdag of 1918 passed, among their

legislation, anew Poor Law and a new Education Law, reflecting the increased influence of the wage-earners.

The wind of reform

blew more and more strongly in the autumn. An extraordinary meeting of the Riksdag was called and very noteworthy decisions were come to, which were ratified by the Riksdags of 1919 and 1921, involving (see under Constitution, above) an immense democratizing of the administration. The consequences for the First Chamber showed themselves at once, when the Government dissolved it in the autumn of 1919 and the new election

took place. The chamber had been made up of 86 Conservatives, 43 Liberals, 19 Social Democrats and two Socialists of the Left. This was now altered to 38 Conservatives, 40 Liberals, 19 members of the ‘“ Béndeforbund,” 49 Social Democrats and four Socialists of the Left. The greatest novelty lay in the women’s vote and in their eligibility for both chambers of the Riksdag. After the termination of the war in Nov. 1918 the emergency measures were almost entirely abandoned. The regulation of the bacon-and-pork-selling

business

ceased in Jan. ro19 and the

rationing of potatoes in May. In Aug. bread-cards disappeared and the rationing of sugar also stopped on Aug. 1. Most of the industrial regulations came to an end during the first quarter of

1919. The Fuel Commission administration of the rationing of fucl terminated on March 1 of the same year. With the close of May the War Insurance Commission ceased its operation. The

Riksdags of 1920 and 1921 renewed in modified form some of the emergency Jaws, but at the end of the first half of 1920 all that remained of the various Commissions were some small committees of liquidation. When the League of Nations was still in process of formation the Governments of Sweden, Denmark and Norway appointed committees for the purpose of considering together their attitude

Changes of Government.—At the beginning of the war all the burning questions of internal politics were put on one side, and all efforts were concentrated on solving the problems presented by towards it. The Swedish Government laid its proposal to join the League before the Riksdag of 1920. Opinions were divided: the new condition of affairs. In the autumn of 1914 the new the decision was given in favour of accession by 86 votes against elections for the Second Chamber took place. The party of the 47 in the First Chamber and by 152 against 67 in the Second. Right remained unchanged in numbers, 86, the-Liberals numbered 57 and the Social Democrats 87. Dissatisfaction with The Riksdag incorporated in this decision an expression of approval of the basic principles of the League, but formulated also Herr Hammarskjiéld’s Ministry increased gradually, the Governits conviction that the Government should avail itself of every ment—as always happens—being held to blame for the hardships of the times. The Opposition contended that the ministers opportunity for urging that the States not invited at first to join the League should be incorporated in it as soon as possible; that showed a lack of diplomacy in their negotiations with Great Britain and that they had not paid due regard to the opinions a more satisfactory arrangement should be come to for the representation in it of the smaller States; that more definite of the Riksdag—certainly the codpcration between the Government and the Riksdag was not what it might have been. In rules should be framed for the meetings of delegates and for their March 1917 the Ministry resigned. In an address with 600,000 _methods of work; that the standing international tribunal should signatures Herr Hammarskjiold and his colleagues were urged be constituted as soon as possible, and that its procedure in regard to mediation and arbitration should be more clearly defined to continue in office, but they persisted in their desire to withand further elaborated; and also that efforts to bring about a draw. Herr Carl Swartz, who previously had been Financial universal and effective reduction of armaments should be set on Minister, formed the new Government, which was Moderate foot without delay and vigorously pursued. Conservative in character. Sweden was represented at the International Labour ConThe Swartz Ministry, in which Adml. Arvid Lindman was again Foreign Minister, lasted only into the autumn. From the ference in Washington in 1919 and at that in Genoa in 1920, as start it had borne the stamp of a stop-gap Ministry, inasmuch as well as at the League of Nations’ first meeting at Geneva in 1920, when the Swedish delegates acted on the lines indicated in the the new elections were to be held in September, These went Riksdag’s utterance. In May 1921 the question between Sweden against the Right because, among other reasons, the prevailand Finland as to the sovereignty over the Aland Islands was ing hardships and the various measures of State interference were laid to their blame. The Right polled 59, the Liberals 62, settled by the League of Nations in favour of Finland (see the Social Democrats 86, while two new parties, the “ BondeALAND ISLANDS).

förbund ”—a

league of farmers

and countryfolk—and

the

Socialists of the Left came in with 12 and 11 respectively. The Ministry resigned and the King tried to arrange for a Coalition Government representing all partics. This effort proving un-

Sweden did not formally recognize the Soviet Government in

Russia, but at first a Russian representative was allowed to reside in Sweden to maintain the de facto relations between the two

countries. In Jan. 1919 he was obliged to leave (but not until

SWEDEN

636

Swedish residents in Russia had been enabled to return home) because of oppressive conduct in Russia towards Swedes and in regard to Swedish property. All trade relations were for a time broken off, but to an enquiry from the Allied Powers as to

whether Sweden would take part in a blockade of Russia a reply in the negative was given. In 1920 permission was accorded toa Russian trade delegation to visit Stockholm. From the Russian

side large orders for railway engines were placed with Swedish manufacturers, and much Russian gold passed through Sweden, mostly destined for America.

Herman Wrangel quitted the post of Swedish minister in London, in which he was succeeded by Baron Palmstierna, to become Minister of Foreign Affairs. The new Government began at once to

occupy itself seriously with industrial, commercial and financial matters. Among other bills which it put before the Riksdag of 1921 was One for increasing the duty on coffee. On this being rejected Herr Tamm, tue Finance Minister, resigned, and the prime minister, too, then resigned. He was succeeded by Herr Oscar von Sydow, former Minister of the Interior. The Economic Crisis of 1920-1.—During the latter half of

The Eight-Hour Day.—Within the ranks of the Eden Ministry

1920 Sweden had entered on a grave economic crisis—her share

there was from the beginning a fundamental divergence of view between the Liberals and the Social Democrats, but for some time it was possible for them to work together. Moreover, this

of the general economic difficultics which prevailed after the war. The period from the dissolution of the union with Norway in 1905 down to 1914 has been characterized as one of great economic

uine majority, though a very heterogencous one, in the Riks-

development. During and after the war cost of production rose swiftly, not least because the workmen, after the passing of the

dag.

Eight-Hour Day Act, in most cases obtained higher rates of wages

Ministry was the only one for a long time past which had a genThe most important measure introduced in 1919 was for

a legalized eight-hour day, but when first proposed it was rejected by the First Chamber.

The Government dissolved the Chamber,

and after the new clections an extraordinary autumn session was called at which the eight-hour day proposal was accepted, The Right had retained only 38 seats, the Béndeférbund coming back with 19, the Liberals with 41, the Social Democrats with 49, and the Socialists of the Left with three. According to this law, which was to hold good provisionally until the end of 1923, 48 hours in the week constitute work-time in industrial and other businesses in which at least four employees work at an employer’s expense, agricultural work and forestry work excepted. As a general rule over-time must not be instituted to a greater degree than 150 hours in the year. A newly founded institution, the Labour Council, decides questions concerned with the carrying out of the law. A number of flaws were soon discernible in the law, and in the Riksdag of rozo this Council applied to the

Government to effect certain improvements.

A proposal was

laid before the Riksdag of r92r and was in the main accepted.

The modifications Icft the main principles of the law unchanged.

Sweden subsequently declined to ratify the draft of the Washington Convention of the League of Nations on hours of labour, partly because it conflicted with the Swedish measure already passed, and partly because adhesion would be binding for rz years, while the Swedish law held good provisionally fora shorter period. The Social-Democratic Ministry. —It was over the communal taxation question that the Eden Ministry went to picces. This question had for a long period been under discussion, and it was intended to submit some proposal in connexion with it to the

Riksdag of 1920. The Social-Democratic members of the Govern-

ment asked for a definite scttlement, while the Liberals wanted only a provisional solution. The end was that the entire Ministry resigned, and that the King invited the Social-Dcmocratic leader, lerr Branting, to form a new Government.

In March 1920 he

did sọ, Baron E. Palmstierna, formerly Minister of Marine, became Minister of Foreign Affairs. All the ministers were Social Democrats.

The new Government could only count on

minorities in both Chambers as a regular Ministerial party. The discussion of the communal taxation question ended in a victory for the Liberal standpoint, @ provisional arrangement. In the meantime the Ministry awaited the result of the general elections

to the Second Chamber in the autumn of 1920. A comprehen-

sive programme was put forward by means of commissions of inquiry into projects of socialization, industrial democracy, and

the control of trusts and other great combinations. Change of Minisiry.—Dissatisfaction with the eight-hour day

and with the socialistic projects brought a good many electors over to the party of the Right. The strength of the Social-Democratic party in the Second Chamber went down from 86 to 75, and the number of the Liberals was reduced from 62 to 47, while that of the Right went up from so to 70 and of the Béndeférbund from ro to 29. The Socialists of the Left were reduced from 11 to 7, a result of their sympathies with the Russian Communists.

Two members of the Chamber were “ independents.” The more

than usually complex party conditions led the King to invite

Baron Louis de Geer to form a non-political Ministry.

Count

so that they could earn as much as when working longer hours. Compensation had already been allowed them for the increase in prices. As soon as importation possibilities became increased after the war, goods began to be imported to an extravagant

degree, so that the country became flooded with them to the

detriment of home industries. Finally the Swedish exchange, which stood somewhat higher outside than inside the country, facilitated importation but hindered exportation. When the international crisis came, with its swift fall in prices, it became necessary to lower wages again, but this brought the country up

against great difficulties. In April 1g21 about 60,000 industrial workmen were unemployed; in June about 90,000, The Swedish Red Cross.—Some account of the activities of the

Swedish Red Cross must have its place inan outline of Swedish his-

tory during and after the war. King Gustav's brother, Prince Carl, layed a leading role in this connexion, and also the Crown Princess Margaret (daughter of the Duke of Connaught), whose death in 1920

was sincerely mourned. The work of the Swedish Red Cross was directed more particularly to relieving prisoners of war in the various countries, above all in Russia on the one sidc and Germany and

Austria-Hungary on the other.

During 1915-8 a great number of

invalided prisoners, including 3,617 Germans, 22,123 AustroHungarians, 428 Turks and 37,295 Russians, were brought homeward

through Sweden

by means

of the Swedish

Red Cross, specially

equipped trains travelling between the Swedish-Finnish frontier in the north and Tralleborg in the south.

Across Sweden, moreover,

there went a stream of parcels by post, in both directions, for prisoners. The Swedish postal service dealt with 12,700,000 parcels of this kind. The Crown Princess was specially interested in collecting books to despatch to the prisoners’ camps. Important work was also done in the inspecting of the prisoners’ camps in Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Delegates distributed gifts from home ames the prisoners: 1,016 railway wargons packed with sach gifts passed through Petrograd en route eastwards, and from Russia 1,012 travelled into Germany and 304 into Austria-IIungary. The delegates drew attention to various shortcomings in the ‘Gorman

camps and inmost cases this resulted in improvements being effected.

The conditions in Russia and Siberia were found to be much worse, Delegates’ records of what they saw revealed a terrible condition of

things in many camps. the prisoners,

In some there were 30 deaths a day among

Under the guidance of the Swedish delegates new

hospitals were established in many places or old hospitals improved,

kitchens and baking-rooms being constructed, drains put into order,

and large stores ob medicines and bandages, etc., being supplied.

In Jekaterinburg, for instance, the authorities threw all care for the prisoners entirely on the Swedish delegates within a region of 1,200

sq. miles.

Thirty-three hospital buildings were erected in this re-

gion, and at some periods a Swedish Red Cross Kitchen established

there was able to distribute food to 1,200 mena day. This work was

attended with risks. Two delegates were murdered and several died in hospitals for infectious cases.

During the Finnish civil war two

ambulances were sent to Finland in 1920, and one ambulance was

sent to Poland to help in coping with the epidemic there. The grave privations in many countries after the war due to the scarcity of food aroused deep sympathy in Sweden. Among other steps taken to afford help may be mentioned the welcoming of 20,000 children from Germany and Austria (and in some degree from the Baltic Provinces) to stay in Swedish homes with a view to their

regaining health and strength.

The homes of both the well-to-do

and the poor were thrown open for this, The total amount of money

devoted to such acts of helpfulness (including the cost of the chil-

dren's visits) is estimated at more than 25,000,000 kr., of which the State was responsible for 1,500,000 and the rest was collected by private subscriptions.

A detailed report was laid before the Inter-

national Red Cross Conference in Geneva in 1921,

(K. H.*)

SWEET—SWITZERLAND SWEET, HENRY (1845-1912), English philologist, was born in London Sept. 15 1845.

Educated at King’s College, London,

Balliol College, Oxford, and Ieidelberg University, he was a

637

at the hands of their respective towns. The fact that in 1848 the first “ democratic Swiss Constitution ” (still in force so far as

regards the practical details relating to the Central Government)

recognized authority on the subject of phonetics (see 21.460-61;

was avowedly based on that of the American republic is sufficient to disprove the quaint theory that Switzerland jis the (in

him in r90r by the university of Oxford. His published works include an Anglo-Saxon Reader, a Student's Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon; an English Grammar; The History of Language,

any sense) “oldest

9.597), and a readership in phonetics was specially created for

and many editions of Old and Middle English Texts.

He died

Republie in the world.”

of “ republic ” is this theory even approximately accurate. Population.—Asg regards resident population, the results of the

last two Swiss censuses, Dec. 1 1910, and Dec. 1 1920 (only the

at Oxford April 30 1912.

SWETE, HENRY BARCLAY (1835-1017), English theologian,

provisional results, published in Feb. 1921), were as follows:—

was born at Bristol March.14 1835, He was educated at King’s

College, London, and Caius College, Cambridge, and in 1858 was ordained. After some years of work in various country

curacies and livings he became in 1869 theological lecturer and tutor at Caius College. In 1881 he became examining chaplain to the Bishop of St. Albans, and the following year was appointed professor of pastoral theology at King’s College, London. In

1890 he succeeded Westcott as regius professor of divinity at Cambridge, and retained this position until 1915, when he

retired with the title of emeritus professor.

appointed an hon. chaplain to the King.

Swete’s works on

with notes and introduction (2nd ed. 1902) and in 1906 that of

the Apocalypse of St. John (2nd ed. 1907).

He was the editor

of Cambridge Theological Essays (1903) and Cambridge Biblical Essays (1909), and was a contributor to Smith and Wace’s Dictionary of Christian Biography (1882-87) and Hastings’s Dictionary of the Biéle (1899-1900). He also produced many historical and critical works, including The Apostles’ Creed in Relation to Primitive Christianity (1894; 3rd ed. 1899); Church Services

and Service Books before the Reformation (1896); Patriotic Study (1902); The Appearances of Our Lord after the Passion (1907; 2nd ed. 1908), and The Last Discourse and Prayer of Our Lord (1913). Ile died at Hitchin May ro 1917. SWINFEN,

see SPORTS AND GAMES.

CHARLES

SWINFEN

EADY,

ist Baron

(1851-

torg), English lawyer and master of the rolls, was born at Chertsey, Surrey, July 31 1851.

1910

Total

Languages

German French

He was educated privately, and

in 1874 was admitted a solicitor, but in 1879 he was called to the bar, having been during his period as a student a pupil of Cozens-IJardy. In 1893 he became a Q.C., and in 1901 was raised to the bench of the Chancery division and knighted. In

1913 he became a lord justice of appeal, and in 1918 master of the rolls in succession to Lord Cozens-Hardy. Ile retired in roro and was raised to the peerage only a few weeks before he died in London Nov. 15 1919. SWITZERLAND (see 26.238).—Before dealing with the affairs of Switzerland during 1909-21, @ note may be made on a curious

‘theory recently put forth, especially in Romance Switzerland, that the Swiss Confederation is “the oldest republic or democracy inthe world.” Now certainly a“ king ” has never ruled in Switzerland (save in the case of Neuchatel before 1857}, nor since 1648 has any emperor ever had any claim on the allegiance of the

Swiss.

But then we must recollect that till 1798 Switzerland never had a single head, whatever he might be entitled. If we take the term “ republic ” to mean a “ democratic Government,”

it is quite true that there were (and are) “ republics ” of that kind in various regions of Switzerland (e.g. Schwyz), but what is true of a part is not true of the whole. Again, before 1798 there was no Central Government at all in Switzerland, while it was only in 1848 that it first possessed a “‘ President ” (with very limited powers). But there was a president already in 1787 in the United States of America, while the “ free communities ” or “republics ” of Andorra (in the Pyrenees) and of San Marino (Italy) are far older than any such in Switzerland. Naturally the use of the word “ Repuhlik ” hy certain cantons before 1798 (e.¢. the “ Stadt und Republik Zürich ”) referred to the rural districts

of each, and these by no means enjoyed “democratic goverament”

.

.

.

Jtalian Romansch P Other languages

2

3:753:293

3,861,508

2,594,298

s1?

793,264

o,f

a

302,573 40,122 23,031

wa set

Religions

Protestants Roman Catholics

Tle was in rgr1

Biblical texts are of the highest importance. In 1887 he published the first volume of his edition of the Greek text of the Old Testament, completing the series in 1894 (3rd ed. 1901-7), while in 1898 appeared the Greek text of the Gospel of St. Mark,

SWIMMING:

The reverse is

really more nearly the case. In neither of the two ordinary senses

Jews.

; .

2,107,814 1,593,538

2,238,589 1,386,826

18,463

20,955

;

1 Figures not published up to Jan. 1 1922. The decrease in the number of the Roman Catholics is mainly due to the fact that in 1910 the “ Christian Catholics (Old Catholics) were

reckoned

among

them, whereas

in 1920, for the first time,

they were counted separately, the number given, however (56,250),

being greatly exaggerated, since in Tessin (where there is none of this sect) many Roman Catholics described themselves as such under

some error. It is noteworthy that the Jews were in 1850 only 3,145 in number, but in 1910 already 18,463, and in 1920 20,955. In five cantons the population has diminished

(Outer Rhodes of

Appenzell, St. Gall, Tessin, Vaud and Neuchatel). In recent years there has been much fear expressed in Switzerland that the nonSwiss were increasing too rapidly for the welfare of the land. This no doubt was due to the vast immigration of German, French, and

Italian workmen, who asked lower wages than the Swiss, and, when settled down, became exempt from military service in their native

land. During the World War many returned home, and so the figures are not so alarming as was feared at one time, Here is a complete list :—

1860 1870 1880 1888 1900 1910

114,983, of which 150,907. (British 211,035 (British 229,650 (British

383,424

1,202 were British subjects; subjects 2,297 subjects 2,812 subjects 2,577

(British subjects 3,535)

552,011 (British subjects 4,118) 1920 410,983 (British subjects, figures not available), Thus the percentage rose from 57 per thousand in 1860 to 79 in 1888, and to 116 in 1910, the culminating point being reached

in

1900 with 147, so that the 1920 figures of 106 showa distinct decrease, largely due, like the diminution of the Roman Catholics, to the greater number of French citizens who have gone from Geneva back to France. In 1920 the 12 most populous towns in Switzerland (number of residents) were: Ziirich, 205,892 (190,733 in 1910);

Geneva, 138,034 (123,153 in 1910); Basle, 135,134 (132,276 in 1910); Berne, 103,990 (90,937 In 1910); St. Galf, 69,651 (75,482 In 1910); Lausanne, 67,852 (64,446 in 1910); Lucerne, 43,596 (39,339 in 1910); La Chaux de Fonds, 37,591 (37,751 in 1910); Winterthur, enlarged, 49,491 (46,384 in 1910); Bienne, enlarged, 34,414 (32,401 in 1910); Neuchatel, 22,951 (23,741 in 1910); and Fribourg, 20,468 (20,293 in 1910). No other Swiss town has a population attaining 20,000,

though Schaffhausen

is not far eff with 19,930 (18,101 in 1910).

There are also 14 Swiss towns with populations below 20,000, but over 10,000. The increase in the case of Berne is due to its absorption of the suburb Biimpliz, etc., and in the case of Bienne to increased prosperity, while the decrease in the cascs of St. Gall, of La Chaux de Fonds and of Winterthur are to be accounted for by industrial depression, and the departure of many workmen.

As the “ Conseil National ” is elected in the ratio of one member for 20,000 of the total population or fraction surpassing 10,000,

the new census will increase its members by cight, so that henceforth it will have 197 members,

Politics —The

members

of the Swiss Federal Executive

(Bundesrat) were almost all changed in the period 1910-20, so

that in 1921 the seniors were G. Motta (first elected in rgr1), and E. Schulthess (first elected in rg12). The five other actual members had all entered the Council since 1917—-R. Haab in 1918, Karl Scheurer, E. Chuard, and J. Musy, alf in 1919, and H. Haberlin in 1920. E. Chuard was the oldest in years (b. 1857),

while J. Musy was born in 1876. Thus the Council had been

SWITZERLAND

638

greatly rejuvenated. Six members were Radicals, Signor Motta being the only Conservative and Roman Catholic. The recent presidents of the Swiss Confederation (little more

than the chairmen of the Federal Executive) have been A. Deucher (1909); R. Comtesse (1910); M. Ruchet (1911); L. Forrer

(1912); E. Miiller (1913); A. Hoffmann, (1914); G. Motta (1915); C. G. E. R,

Decoppet (1916); E. Schulthess (1917); F. L. Calonder (1918); Ador (1919), and G. Motta (1920); while the president for 1921, Schulthess, would in 1922 be succeeded by the vice-president, Haab, Of late years the Political Department (i.e. the Minis-

try of Foreign Affairs) has become specially important. A resolution of the Federal Executive in 1917 decided that this important department should zpse facto be attributed to the president. But,

as the president changes annually, this plan was soon found very inconvenient, and so in 1920 a return was made to the older system that each councillor should retain the department assigned to him. Hence G. Motta would be Foreign Minister till Jan. r 1923, when the date of fresh clection came round again. The Swiss people adopted by a popular vote the principle of

proportional representation for elections to the “ Conseil Natio-

nal” in Oct. 19rọ. But though it was expected that the Socialists would win many more seats they only won much fewer.

The

Radical majority was reduced from 102 to 60, in the Assembly of 189 members, thus losing its absolute majority over all other parties combined, but remaining the strongest single group. Fortyone Socialists (in 1917 but 19) and as many Conservatives were

Finance.—The finances of the Swiss Confederation were in 1971 (so said M. Musy, the Swiss Finance Minister) in a difficult position. Their backbone, in the matter of receipts, even in the prewar period, was the amount of the customs’ duties. But even at that period these produced less than heretofore. The last year when they showed an increase was in 1912 (£3,500,000). After that time the decline was pretty steady, and the deficits higher and higher. It has been estimated that, while in 1913 they sufficed to defray about 84% of the total expenses of the State, in 1919 the amount met only 28% of these expenses (in 1913 £3,360,000, and in 1919 only £2,520,000). And these expenses steadily increased after the outbreak of the war, though, of course, Switzerland was not one of the belligerent Powers. ‘he deficits since 1914 are as follows:—

I9f4, £901,000; 1915, £862,000; 1916, £665,000; 1917, £2,000,000;

1919, £2,475,000, and 1920, £3,980,000—in 1920 the receipts were 13,740,000, and the expenses £17,720,000. Despite the formal

assurances of neutrality received from the principal combatants, the War Minister of Switzerland thought it essential to guard all its frontiers with a strong military force, and to erect costly new fortifications (as at Morat), so that at the end of 1920 the total “ mobiliza-

tion expenses ” amounted to no less than £47,500,000, while the military expenses in the accounts for 1921 were £2,880,000, and that

only an estimate far inferior to the demands of the mitary authori-

ties. Large loans (nine in number, to the total amount of some £31,200,000) have been contracted, but on these heavy interest has to be paid. Exchequer bills for two to five years at 6°%% were also issued in order to assure the supply of necessaries of life. Special taxes Were imposed, first a war tax (which produced £4,400,000), then a tax on war profits (which produced {£11,120,006), next a

“ renewed ” war tax (to last 16 years), The increased salaries and

wages of the army of federal officials (including the railwaymen) were a further burden, and, naturally, as the cost of living increased,

elected, and the new “ Citizens and Peasants” party (a split

there came a fresh rise of salaries and wages to meet it—a vicious

from the Radical party} obtained 28 scats.

not to speak of the postal charges, so that while formerly a Ictter

Proportional representation was also winning its way in the cantons, Aargau and Fribourg adopting it in 1920, followed in 1921 by Berne and the Valais. Thus 18 of the 22 cantons approved it. Indeed in 1920 the canton of Fribourg, hitherto reckoned one of the most backward as to the recognition of popu-

lar institutions, made a great advance, accepting in one day the facultative referendum, the initiative, the election of the Executive by the people, and that of the Legislature by proportional representation. A number of Federal votes have been taken in recent years.

The constitutional amendments related to infec-

circle.

Even the telegraph and telephone rates had to be raised,

within Switzerland cost only 1d. it cost 2d. in 1921 and a post card Id. in lieu of 4d. The charges on foreign correspondence have also been raised, so far as rerards the transit from Switzerland to the

outer world, for a letter from 23d. to 4d., and for a post card from

Id. to 23d. As Switzerland produces very little in the way of raw materials, such as coal, these had to be bought at high prices, a fact which further raised the cost of travelling, hotel prices, and of all

articles of home consumption.

these raised prices are the in some cases, have even milk, cheese, butter, etc. extraordinary extent, and resulted.

The only persons who have not felt

self-sufficing (or nearly so) peasants, who, made large profits by the sale of their Naturally the towns felt this rise to an great distress and lack of employment

The only cheering symptom,

from the Swiss

point of

tious diseases (1913), the creation of an administrative court (1914), the levy of a war tax (1915), the imposal of a stamp tax on certain business papers (1917), regulations as to waterways (1918), a renewed war tax (1918), entry of Switzerland into the League of Nations (1920), and regulations as to hours of work

customs duties but at Protectionist rates, so that the interests of the consumers are being sacrificed to those of certain trades, as well

(1920). A law (facultative referendum) as to sick insurance was

the customs dutics amounted

also accepted in 1912.

But of the “ Initiatives’ two were re-

jected (proportional representation in 1910—accepted, however, in 1918), anda Federal tax in 1918, but in 1919 the detailed regulations as to the working of proportional representation in the

“Conseil National,” and a law abolishing gaming houses were accepted. Of four later votes, all in 1921, those relating to popular approval of international treaties of a certain length, and new

regulations as to motor-cars and to aviation were accepted, but a fourth relating to military courts of justice was rejected, At the very beginning of the World War (Aug. 3 1914) the Federal Parliament handed over to the Federal Executive certain extraordinary (emergency) powers of acting, and these powers,

excluding all obligatory popular votes

were found to be very

convenient by the Federal Executive.

The entry of Switzerland into the League of Nations was accepted by a popular vote on May 16 1920, the majority in favour (mainly from the French-speaking cantons) being 97,051

votes and by 114 to 103 cantons. But in Feb. 1921 the Federal Executive declined to allow the passage through Switzerland of troops, raised to act as police in the case of the Vilna plebiscite. Some of the members of the former Austrian Empire have sought a nearer connexion with Switzerland,

Liechtenstein was

indeed admitted into the Swiss postal, telegraph, and telephone system. But the Vorarlberg (and for similar reasons the Tirol) had not up to Aug. 1921 succeeded in being admitted as Swiss

cantons, there being great fear felt in Switzcrland of increasing the German-speaking population, and particularly of augmenting

the number of strict Roman Catholics.

view, was that the currency favourable to Switzerland,

exchange was

almost

save as regards American

everywhere

money.

An

attempt has been made (Feb. 1921) to raise provisionally certain as (also provisionally) to limit imports to a certain extent,

In 1912

to 6% of the value of the goods

imported, but in 1920 not even to 3 per cent.

Hence the deficit in the Federal budget for 1921 was put at five or six million pounds, a huge amount for a country with under four

million inhabitants.

If the Federal finances were in this state, the

cantonal and communal finances were no better. It must be borne in mind that the direct taxes are paid by a very small minority of Swiss. In the case of the direct taxes the total amount, from 1914 to 1920, was about {£70,000,000, while the indirect taxes only brought in some £18,000,000. Switzerland is still predominantly an agricultural country, so that the majority of voters are peasants, with very narrow views.

The industrial population is very Much weaker roe

regarded with great disfavour by the Agrarian party, which

and is

desires,

for its own objects, to set up a “ Chinese wall" round Switzerland.

Bat the land must have other manufactures than chocolate, con-

densed milk, cheese, etc., and thus must import much which has to be paid naturally by its exports. Yet the narrow “ Cantonal

spirit” is still widely diffused in Switzerland. , The annual deficits on the Swiss State railways are especially

great.

It was officially reckoned that in 1918 the total Federal

debt had attained a height of about £33 per head of the population, whereas in 1g12 it had only been £17. Army.—Formerly detailed annual accounts as to the Swiss army

(a purely militia force) were published.

But since the outbreak of

the war these accounts have no longer been issued.

But an indiscre-

tion of the semi-official Bernese newspaper, the Bund of Berne (June 23 1920), tells us that in June 1920 the numbers were 337,282, of whom 71,993 formed the ‘‘ second reserve,” the rest falling into the “ Auszug ” or “ Elite ” and the “ Landwehr.” The “Elite ” includes the younger men from 20 to 32, and the “‘ Landwehr "' or first reserve those between 33 and 40, while the ‘‘ Landsturm ” or reserve proper is composed of men between 41 and 48.

At the beginning of the war Col. Ulrich Wille was elected the

“General,” while Col. A. T. L. Sprecher von Bernegg became chief

SWITZERLAND of the staff. It was thought necessary to guard all the Swiss fron-

tiers, a policy which cost £47,500,000, and disorganized industry and agriculture to a very great extent. The German-speaking troops were sent, as far as possible to the Jura or the French-speaking or the Italian-speaking regions, while the French-speaking soldiers looked after the German-speaking districts. The object was to

639

He was already favourably known in Switzerland by reason of his love for that country, and his devotion in the case of prisoners of

war and sick children.

In Feb. 1921, the canton of Berne at last

resumed its full legal responsibility for the reconstituted diocese of Basle, after holding aloof for many years, and thus recognized the

srevent any fraternization with the troops of the belligerents. Much

bishop asspiritual head of the diocese, thus allowing him full liberty of exercising his functions within the canton for an unlimited period

inconvenience was caused by this mobilization. The military organization was tightened up on the lines of the German army, and this

census of 1920 the " Christian Catholics ” (the Swiss “ Old Catho-

greatly bothered the free Swiss citizens. Naturally the military budget increased greatly, amounting in 1921 to £3,000,000, though this represented a reduction

of about

{£250,000 on the demands of the military authorities, This great increase is to be explained in part, at least, by the increased cost of material. In 1910 the annual cost amounted only to £1,680,000. Agriculture, Commerce and Ratlways.—Censuses of cattle have heen frequently made. In 1866 there were 553,205 cows, in 1886 663,102, in 1906 785,950, in I9IT 796,909, in 1916 849,011, but in 1919 738,896 and in 1920 only 729,999. The great fall in the numbers is commonly attributed to the huge purchases of milch cows made during the war by Austrian and Hungarian cattle dealers, for export to Germany. Hence came a milk famine, and milk had to be “rationed.” Potatoes and other such produce were also rationed and each householder had to plant them on his land, however unsuited for this kind of cultivation. in 1920 foot-and-mouth disease raged furiously in all parts of Switzerland, and even intercourse between neighbouring valleys was forbidden in order to try to stop the spread of the infection. During the war certain branches of Swiss commerce flourished” much, for, against the wishes and instructions of the authorities, there was much smuggling of all kinds of goods over the frontier, especially towards Germany and France, which, naturally enough, are Switzerland’s best customers. The imports were often less than the exports. But in 1915 they were nearly cqual in moncy value, the imports being slightly more than the exports. However, in 1916, the reverse was the case, the exports being {£99,000,000, and the imports £93,000,000, but in 1917 the imports had again the best of it. In 1918 the imports amounted to about {96,000,000, and the cxports to about £74,000,000. (Great Britain ranked third in each

case.)

In 1919 the exports amounted to £136,000,000, the highest

figure ever attained, and the imports to £143,000,000. But in 1920 the imports rose to the prodigious figure of {£169,000,000, while the exports dropped to £131,000,000.

As coal is practically non-existent in Switzerland it must be

imported, naturally at considerable cost. Hence the imported supply had to be strictly ‘‘ rationed ” during the war, and the price increased enormously, especially in the case of domestic consumption. Of course, the factories suffered much, and the railways even more. Hence the electrification of the latter was pushed on as quickly as possible. But it was not possible to do this all at once, and so one saw locomotives driven by means of logs of wood. The number of trains was reduced, at one time very much indeed, and the fares pushed up to a great degree, which much hindered communications, even within the country. The first electrically-driven train went through the St. Gotthard tunnel early in 1921. The Létschberg railway was opened in 1914, just before the outbreak of the war, and thus its prosperity was greatly let and hindered, while on the Valais slope, above Brieg, the unstable nature of the ground has caused many landslips, and thus entailed many, costly repairs. But the great scheme for connecting the two stations in Geneva has been indefinitely postponed, owing to its excessive cost. Social.—In 1912 a vast scheme of insurance against sickness and accidents was accepted on a popular vote. But up to 1921 money was lacking to put it into operation, even though unsuccessful attempts had been made to ‘‘ earmark” certain items of the revenue. As everywhere else in Europe the unemployment problem was troublesome in Switzerland. The militia employed in the great mobilization came home, unused to work as before, while work was

scarce owing to the lack of money, the higher cost of living, and the rise in the salaries and wages of nearly all classes. Naturally this want of employment was felt most in and near the great Swiss

towns. And here came in a fresh complication—the lack of dwelling houses and flats. This was, in

part,

try to the towns, and the crisis

became very acute, so that in Berne,

due to the rush from the coun-

at least, all foreigners were ordered out of the town, so as to procure lodgings for Swiss workmen. In the rural districts neither unemployment nor lack of dwelling houses was felt to anything like the same degree, though, no doubt, they existed to a certain extent.

But

these rural regions are inhabited by peasants who do not easily move from their homes, and are occupied in the cultivation of their

small bits of land.

As in Switzerland there are few persons of

means independent of a trade or a profession, the disturbance in social life was very great, while the high taxes and high wages limited the power of employing labour.

Ecclesiastical —There were several welcome symptoms of the

cessation of the “ Kulturkampf,” or religious strife following on the

decrees of the Vatican Council. On Sept. I 1920, a papal nuncio for Switzerland was named, for the first time since 1873, in the person of Monsignor Luigi Maglione, titular archbishop.of Caesarea.

(and no longer for five or 10 years, as heretofore).

lics,” who previously

Again, in the

had been included among the Roman

Catholics} were numbered apart, though by reason of some error in the case of the canton of Tessin their number was put at 56,250; the

real number is believed not to exceed 35,000 to 40,000. On the other hand the Pope laid claim to the direct nomination of the bishop of Sion in the Valais. The new census has put an end to the topsy-turvy fact that in

the canton

of Geneva_the

Roman

Catholics outnumbered

the

Protestants—so many French Roman Catholics have returned to France that the balance has been reversed. Mention may be made of the fact that, in 1910, in the canton of

Basle, the separation of Church and State was carried out, while in the same year women obtained the right of voting in the disestablished Protestant church of Geneva.

In the summer of 1920 reunion conferences were held both at

Beatenberg

and in Geneva,

Protestant denominations.

but almost

wholly between various

The World War Period —During the fateful days immediately before the war broke out in 1914, the uncertainty whether there would really be war or whether commonsense would prevail

kept the whole of Switzerland ina state of feverish anxiety, and when the loaded dice fell, very many persons in Switzerland were seized with panic. A wild assault was made on all provision establishments which supplied the necessarics of life, and these

were bought in mad fashion and in quantities far above what was required. In many families stores of catables were still found after the lapse of two years, and that quite apart from what had been spoilt. The banks and other establishments of a like kind had to withstand a regular siege, for everyone desired to get his property back. This haste had finally to be restrained by orders issued by the Government. As if by enchantment coins of small denominations disappeared from circulation. Not even at the post-offices was it possible to change Swiss banknotes for large sums. It was especially hard on the foreign tourists who were surprised by this sudden war. No one was any longer willing to change their foreign banknotes and cheques, formerly cashed so eagerly. Only the hotel keepers found themselves forced to receive cheques in payment for their accounts, and that despite the danger of incurring great losses by this act of friendship. On the Swiss fronticrs the blocking of all communications took strange forms. A typical case was that of Basle, close to the northern frontier. The tourists rushed in by thousands, and the railway trains were enormously delayed. With the keenest anxiety everyone sought for a carriage, a motor car, or some kind of cart so as to reach the frontier as easily and as quickly as possible. Many, whose cash had disappeared in consequence of the dificulties caused by the exchange, had to set out on foot, burdened with their luggage, to cover the great distance. These carts themselves were heavily laden with luggage, trunks and band boxes, while high up on these artificial mountains were perched travellers of every land, who to-day shared their common hard fate peaceably, but on the morrow were to oppose each other as enemies. Here was a German professor clothed in homespun, there an Englishman in tweeds, near by were some merry Belgian ladies with huge hats and elegant parasols, and, on top of all, countless schoolboys with caps of diverse colours. So was it all day long in the town. All this wild confusion was caused by the sudden interruption of international communications and the closing of the frontiers. Thousands also were deprived at one fell stroke of their daily bread. Such were chiefly Italians, who desired to regain Italy over the St. Gotthard or the Simplon, often with only a little cash, sometimes quite penniless, and who were blockaded in Basle, and in incredible numbers, finally some 40,000 of them. All these unfortunates had to be cared for till it was possible for them to resume their journey. Quarters were found in private villas and other dwelling houses for the sick women and children.

The Codperative Society of Basle sent great carts filled with

SWITZERLAND

640

bread and milk, private benevolence made gifts of tea and other eatables. School houses and gymnasiums gave shelter to these

unhappy, homeless Italians as far as quarters could be found anywhere, but a great number had to camp out inthe open. Only

when the great rush had somewhat abated was it possible to facilitate their return to their own country. Side by side with these arrangements military preparations

military service and of arms in private hands was decreed. A later appeal for well-qualified sharpshooters among Swiss citizens resulted in the volunteering of about 100,000 men, of whom, however, only a small percentage was accepted as being really fit for such military service.

Much bad blood was caused in the Socialist camp, and also among other citizens, by the Swiss Government’s decision that

punishments for certain purely military offences were to be purged in the penal establishments of Witzwil and of Orbe, while order to mobilize was given. The first day for this was Aug. 3, in the case of the officers confinement in the fortresses of St. Maurice and St. Gotthard alone was directed. Complaint was and two days later the mobilization was quite complete. The troops were ordered to the frontiers which till now had been also made of the alleged rigorous treatment of ordinary soldiers, guarded in part by the second reserve (Landsturm), called out | and of the far lighter treatment of officers charged with offences. were carried out in Switzerland.

On July 31r rọr4 the entire

Swiss army was warned to be ready, and as carly as Aug. 1 the

first of all, At the same time (Aug. 3) the Swiss Parliament gave the Swiss executive unlimited powers, even in financial matters.

All this occasioned the promotion of an “ Initiative ” for the total abolition of courts of military justice. Enough signatures

Col. Ulrich Wille was

were obtained for this “ Initiative.” but it was later defeated on

named

as commander-in-chief, and

Col. Sprecher von Bernegg as chief of the general staff. As it was hoped that the war would not last very long, the mobilized troops went off joyfully to the frontiers. The belligerent States solemnly assured Switzerland of their intention of observing its neutrality, a declaration which brought

about a certain amount of relief. When finally the principal operations of war were seen to be taking place far from the

Swiss frontiers, the Swiss people were able to think of recalling the troops, in order to simplify matters, from the service on the frontiers, though some were later summoned to relieve those

actually serving there. But if in Switzerland a sigh of relief arose, the sad fate of Belgium was felt to be a stern warning, and greatly embarrassed the Swiss authorities, military and political, and it was felt to be quite impossible to strip the frontiers of all watching troops. The fact of this monotonous service, and the conviction that the war might possibly last a long time, brought about a certain disinclination for further service of this kind. Besides, such protection of the frontiers threatened to become costly to an appreciable degree.

Therefore much criticism was

exercised, chiefly by the Socialists, who especially blamed what,

from their point of view, were the mainly needless fortifications around Morat, which were regarded as simply a piece of military display and lavishness, and were considered as a partial measure

directed against one only of the belligerents. Thus the Swiss authorities had to order certain alleviations and simplifications in this frontier service. In order to satisfy the agricultural in~ terest the peasant soldiers were called out at a period which caused least disturbance in the cultivation of the land, etc.

Among the military war measures must be counted the aboli-

a popular vote.

It is easy to understand that Switzerland was the special

rendezvous of forcign spics, especially the frontier towns and even the capital, Berne. In this respect all the belligerents did their very best. So even the former director of the Bernese tourist bureau, for taking part in an intelligence service in favour of a foreign Power, was condemned to five months’ imprisonment and a fine of £8.

As early as Nov. 1916, the Swiss executive resolved to recruit

250 volunteers out of the army to serve as army police, and this for the entire duration of the war mobilization. Certain troops, especially those from industrial regions, had to be pacified by the Swiss Parliament by increased pay. This scheme did not find support as late as the end of the year 1916, but was adopted in April 1918, and then it was not mercly the pay which was increased, but also the amount of food rations carried in the knapsacks, and emergency support in case of need

(this in the case of soldiers’ families). The fact, too, must not be overlooked that in cases of discon-

tent with the military service many unfortunate events contributed to this dissatisfaction. One example was the accelerated mobilization of the 3rd Division (May 1917), and the following endurance marches in great heat, in consequence of which many soldiers were made ill, and fell exhausted on the roads. This brought about an exccedingly vehement movement

against all

military service, and was utilized to the utmost by the workmen. In June 1917 the Swiss Government had raised the amounts of the emergency family grants in the big towns to about 2s. a head

tion, from the beginning, of telephonic communications between

per day jor grown-up persons, and to 8d. for children, while in the smaller towns the respective amounts were 1s. 6d. and 6d. Inthe

the different Swiss towns. This caused all the greater rush to the telegraph offices, and yet even these were under the censor, at least so far as regarded foreign countries. The equipment of the Swiss army in new, field grey, uniforms was carried out in 1915-6. The expense of these new uniforms

land with the chiefs of the Swiss army, who seemed to it too

amounted to about £800,000.

Most unpleasant for Switzerland was the “ Affair of the Two

Colonels ” (Jan. 15 1916), Egli and von Wattenwyl. This pair of Swiss officers were in regular communication with the German

and the Austrian military attachés, ostensibly only for supplying such information as affected no Swiss military matters. All the same this “affair ” caused great amazement, especially in French-

speaking Switzerland, and in the breasts of the Socialists, who saw in this action of two officers of the Swiss general staf an unneutral and unfriendly act as regards the Entente, They were court-martialed, but were acquitted of the charge of infringement of their official duties, and were handed over to the Swiss executive for “ disciplinary punishment ” because of their con-

duct against Swiss neutrality. By this they were each sentenced

to 20 days’ strict arrest, and to suspension as leading officials in

the Swiss general staff. Col. Egli demanded his dismissal at once, The Socialists and a delegation of the Government of canton

Vaud required the summoning of the Swiss Parliament in order to discuss the “ Affair of the Two Colonels.” About the same time the war control of the Swiss railways was

abolished, while a census of Swiss who were not liable to do

same year the length of the relicf services was fixed at 2} months for the younger and active men (Auszug), and at six wecks for

the older men of the first reserve or ‘ Landwehr.” Considerable discontent prevailed in French-speaking Switzer“ Germanophile.”” This went so far that, in course of the discussion by the Swiss Parliament of a report on Swiss neutrality (Aug. 1917), a formal vote of want of confidence was proposed, and the compulsory retirement of the general and of the chicf-of-stafl demanded. All such proposals, however, were rejected, but they threw a lurid light on the disagreement between French-Swiss and German-Swiss, In the Assembly, however, the assertion of the supremacy of the civil power over the military power was approved, as was also greater economy in the matter of constructing fortifications, etc. In consequence of the prolongation of the war, and the fre-. quent calling up as reliefs of soldiers without much means, great distress was inflicted on them and on their families, and many could not find work on being released from active service, as their

situations had been filled by Swiss citizens exempt {rom military service and sometimes even by women. In order to alleviate this crying distress a department for the promotion of the welfare of the soldiers was founded by the Swiss executive which gave this department a first contribution of some £18,000 (Aug. 2 1917).

Later on came the “ National Collection ” (a voluntary contribution made throughout Switzerland), which brought in millions

SWITZERLAND of francs. To Stimulate this collection specially large medals of copper, silver, and gold were struck, and also brooches made, all

being sold to the people. The term and the institution ‘‘ For the welfare of the Soldiers ” must be understood to include also other benevolent institutes for the soldiers on active service, such as « Soldiers’ Homes,” some of which were splendid soldiers’ insti-

tutes where refreshments were to be had cheaply, and which afforded opportunities for reading and for writing letters. We must not pass over the arrangements made for the washing

of the soldiers’ garments. Not merely was the soldiers’ bodylinen washed, but their clothes repaired, and in part replaced. It would be most unjust to pass over the very prolonged occupation of the Swiss frontiers if we did not mention the exertions

of the Swiss Red Cross Society. ‘The Swiss Red Cross is managed usually by a board of directors. But at the very beginning of the mobilization (Aug. 2 1914) the Red Cross men were also Called up, and a medica] man placed at their head as chief. At that moment the Red Cross had at its disposal not quite {6,000, Ience it was resolved to organize a national collection, not merely for actual

money, but also for gifts in kind (especially linen and woollen garments), and this idea was eagerly taken up. The money col-

lected amounted to about £84,000, while the gifts in kind flowed jn abundantly. As to the latter the Swiss women displayed great zeal. From all sides poured in shirts, socks, and other things, in huge quantities, including bed-linen and objects for use in hospitals. We must note the quaint fact that, over and above what is commonly used by soldiers on active service, many odd gifts were received, such as chemises for women, articles for female toilcttes, and even children’s toys, If detailed figures were to be given for the useful objects collected from Aug. 1914 to June 1918 by the Swiss Red Cross Society, such

as body-linen, shirts, sheets for beds, etc., the number would run

up to several hundred thousands.

The shirts, and the like, were

specially welcomed by the poorer soldiers, who otherwise would have fallen victims to various diseases arising from the lack of such

things, or in winter-time would have been frozen,

For many, mulitary

gervice was thus rendered far more endurable, One of the chief tasks which fell to the Swiss Red Cross was the

creation of the so-called ‘* Red Cross Squads.” These were composed of men, exempt [rom military service, who placed themselves voluntarily at the disposition of the Red Cross, and were provided by it with uniforms and all things necessary for a regular “health service.” The Red Cross Society itself has a great number of carriages at its disposal, and also sometimes commandeered motor-cars, and prepared them for the transport of the wounded, The troops

on active service, like the Medical Corps, also used such vehicles in

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Fic. 3.—Mark IV. Tank.

brilliant exploits of single

tioned to show that military opinion as to the advisability of proceeding with the new weapon was not unanimously favourable.

of their appearance on the enemy and the great encouragement afforded to the British infantry, clearly showed that the machines

The 1,000 machines were to be of the type known as the Mark IV., which was a much improved Mark I. tank. It was then

were sound in principle, only needing improvement in detail, and

anticipated that this number could be delivered by the end of June. Owing to various difficulties this estimate was not ful-

required more experience in this new

filled, but sufficient machines reached France in time to equip

As a result of its trial it was decided that the new Arm should

two battalions for the attack on Messines in May; and it was the standard British tank during 1917 and 1918.

not only continue, but should be expanded to a force of 1,000

tanks.

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machines which did not break down, the great saving of life for which the tanks as a whole were responsible, and the demoralizing effect

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such complicated machines necessitated very complete organization. On the other hand, many of the commanders at whose disposal tanks were placed had no idea of their capabilities, weaknesses or limitations.

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and tear of certain parts of the machinery, which only experience could have shown should have been of special material and which were, moreover, practically wora out by practice and demonstrations before the action. Failures were also due to the lack of time for the complete training and practice of the crews; to insufficient preparation in the way of reconnaissance and supply services, which for

This is men FROKT TURRET

After the fighting on the Ancre the unit did not again

go into action till April of the following year, which allowed of a

period for expansion, reorganization and training, and the incorporation of improvements to machines.1 The expansion of the Heavy Branch of the Machine-Gun Corps was to be on the follow- |; ing lines: there was to bea fighting headquartersin France and an administrative headquarters in England.? The six original companics were to be expanded to four battalions in France and the

~

two companies at home to five battalions, or nine battalions in all. The unit therefore reverted toits original battalion organization. It waseventually to comprise three brigades, cach of three

battalions, each battalion of three companies and a workshop,

each company consisting of four fighting sections of five tanks

each and a headquarters section of four tanks, or 72 tanks to a battalion. The number of tanks per section was shortly after- | wards reduced to four, making 20 per company or 60 per battaljon. These brigades were formed at the beginning of 1917, and

the organization continued unchanged until June, but though the personnel was being raised and trained as far as possible on this extended scale, the supply of tanks did not keep pace, so much

so that on April 1, when it was decided that the tanks should take part in the battle of Arras, only 60 Mark I. and Mark I. machines could be counted on for action. . In Feb. 1916, when the original Mark J. tank was still in its experimental stage, designs had been got out for a Mark II. machine and a Mark III. machine, both of which were slightly

improved Mark I. tanks. After the Somme battle certain modifications which were found necessary were incorporated, and in 1The most Important improvement was the improvised “ un-

ditching beam "’ which was introduced toassist a tank to extricate itself atch stuck. In the later types a specially designed contrivance

was part of the equipment of the machine. : 2 Lt.-Col. (afterwards Maj.-Gen.) H. J. Elles, R.E., was appointed colonel commanding the unit in France, Brig.-Gen. F. Gore Anley being appointed administrative commander of the tank training centre in England on Nov. 9. In May a Brig.-Gen, Anley was succeeded by Maj.-Gen. Sir J. E. Capper. The training centre was moved to Bovington in Dorset.

Tic. 4.—Mark IV. Tank.

The Mark IV. tank (see figs. 3 and 4).—The first advance from the original weapon was the same in size and general design, with certain

improvements.

There was no tail.

The track rollers were better.

The sponsons could be housed within the tank for rail transport.

The Lewis machine-gun

was installed instead of the Hotchkiss

machine-gun (this was not an improvement and was reversed later), A better radiator was fitted and also a silencer. The width of

the driver’s cab was increased to allow of wider track shoes. The petrol tanks were placed outside the tank at the stern. A short 6pdr. gun was adopted. Detachable spuds were fitted to the tracks,

and unditching gear provided.

accessible.

The entrances and exits were more

During the Verdun offensive early in 1916 it had occurred to those responsible for the production of the fighting tank that one reason why the Germans had been unable to keep up the initial pressure of their attack was their inability to bring up their artillery and ammunition over the shelled and entrenched area so as to keep pace with their advance; and that if they had been in possession of guns mounted on self-propelled carriages, or carriers on caterpillar tracks, it would have assisted them greatly. A design was therefore prepared in July of a “ guncarrying ” tank (see fig. 5), to carry a 60-pdr. gun or 6-in. howitzer which could be fired from the tank if necessary or conveyed by the tank and fired from the ground.

Of these machines,

Fic, §.—Gun-carrying Tank.

hour on the flat, and an average across-country of 5 m. per hour, and its lightness, one-half that of the Mark I. machine.

48 were made, delivery in France commencing in July 1917. They appear to have been employed as much for the conveyance

of ammunition and stores as for the purpose for which they were

‘It was also easier to transport by rail.

designed. In Dec. 1916, also, the design of the “ Whippet,” the Medium Mark A. tank, (see figs. 6 and 7) was commenced. Of this type 200 machines were produced, delivery in France starting at the end of 1917. It was evolved to be complementary to the heavy tanks and to meet the demand for a speedier,

independently by a four-cylinder 45 H.P. Tylor engine. Transmission was by cone clutches to gear boxes of the constant mesh type, giving four speeds forward and one reverse. ‘The design was largely duc to Sir W. Tritton. Thus, at the end of 1916, in

handicr machine

addition to the first type of heavy tank in the ficld, measures

were in hand to supply a much improved pattern of that ma-

which could be produced in large numbers,

chine (Mark IV.) and also a lighter type—-the “ Whippet.”

Its main points were its increased speed, nominally 8 m. per

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6.—Medium Mark A. or “ Whippet” Tank.

685

TANKS In the field, though there was still considerable doubt as to the value of tanks, the next six months, from Oct. 1916, were, as had been said, a period of expansion, organization and training, and preparation for the operations of 1917. The training was always handicapped by the paucity of machines; and it was

found necessary not only to educate the members of the new arm itself but also other arms and the staff. Headquarters, schools and rest camps and the usual organization of a large unit were established. The next action in which the tanks took part was the battle of Arras on April 9, when an attack was carried out by the 1., III. and V. Armies in order ta penetrate the German

line by a sudden blow and allow of an army corps and two divisions of cavalry to break

through.

From

the point of

view of tanks it docs not require much comment. Only 60 machines were available, and they were again not employed in

the infantry advance on Wytschaete the creeping barrage proved so effective that tanks were only necessary at different spots to overcome individual machine-guns. They advanced in two lines, the first of 4o machines, going forward at zero (dawn), and the second, of 34 machines, at 3 P.M. to the Oosttaverne

line, where their help was very valuable. Apart from the debated point whether the third battle of Ypres should ever have been fought or not, the work of the tanks in it needs still less comment

than at Arras or Messines.

In spite of remarkable

feats accomplished by them, especially the capture of the Cockcroft, a nest of strong points, on Aug. 19 with a loss of rs infantry, it was, on the whole so far as they were concerned, a

failure, and a failure which was inevitable and to be expected under the conditions which existed. They had to act in a lowlying arca which had been converted into a potential swamp through the destruction of the drainage system by the artillery of both sides, rendered still worse by the churning up of the

surface into a wilderness of craters, which were filled by heavy

rain just before the battle. The only means of approach across this morass were the causeways, which were naturally kept con-

tinuously under fire by the enemy. Preceded by many days of intense bombardment the attack commenced on July 31, and as it continued the rain made matters worse. That tanks should have been expected to function under such conditions, when, independently of the enemy’s action, even the infantry were unable to move forward, is astonishing. It shows that those responsible for the decision to employ them were ignorant cither of the situation or the limitations of the machines, or both. Tt was not till Nov. 20, when the tanks had been in France

over a year, that they were given an opportunity of showing of what they were capable when employed on a large scale, in a manner calculated to exploit their peculiar attributes, and under favourable conditions. As this was a turning-point in the hisFic. 7.—Medium Maik A. or “ Whippet" Tank,

a mass for a quick penetration but for ‘‘ mopping up” operations

along

the

whole front!

More complete preparations

were made for their coéperation than at the Somme.

The battle

was prepared by a prolonged bombardment, and was also preceded by heavy rain at the last moment, which combined to produce a sea of mud pitted with craters. The Vimy Ridge was captured by a rush of the Canadians which rendered tanks unnecessary, and on other parts of the front they had varying success, but gave valuable assistance. Against Bullecourt on the rith, where they attacked without artillery preparation

in the snow, the attack was a failure, though two tanks penetrated five miles behind the German front line, when they were

captured. Fighting continued till the 22nd. The cavalry were prevented from breaking through by the usual obstacles— barbed wire and machine-guns. It was on the first day of the fight that the first German “tank trap” was discovered consisting of a decp covered-in pit. Again the main lesson learned was that tanks should be used in mass and not dispersed. After this battle an expansion of the Heavy Branch, Machine-Gun Corps, from 9 to 18 battalions (nine of heavy tanks and nine of

medium machines) was decided on.

But at the end of June this

tory of the new weapon it is of importance that it be described in detail. During 1916 and the greater part of 1917 the tanks had been

thrown into the fight in dispersed detachments to assist in overcoming certain points of resistance, and somewhat casually as an aid to the attacking infantry. The conditions, also, had

usually been such as to render success doubtful, sometimes impossible, and in any case of a minor nature. In several instances they had succeeded in achieving their immediate object and had undoubtedly saved many lives. In others they had failed. Asaconsequence it was seriously discussed whether tanks should not be abandoned as useless. But those responsible for the Tank Corps (the name of the unit had been changed to “ Tank Corps” at the end of June) had been concerned in thinking out an operation which would not only be strategically valuable, but would enable the corps definitely to prove its worth and establish a confidence in itself,

which, never very marked on the part of General Headquarters, had recently been much shaken. Broadly, the scheme consisted in launching without any preliminary bombardment a surprise attack on a large scale with as many tanks as possible over ground suitable for their action, i.e. reasonably hard soil which had not been shelled to pieces. The arca chosen was that near

expansion was suspended owing to shortage of man-power, as

Cambrai,

it was apparently not yet realized to what extent the tanks

Ribecourt, Crévecoeur, and Banteux, which consisted of almost unshelled rolling downs of chalk, The attack was originally

reduced casualties.

Before the next action, the battle of Mes-

in the re-entrant

of the Canal

d’Escaut

between

sines, a certain number of the new Mark IV. tanks had been received and several of the old Mark I. and Mark II. machines had been converted into supply tanks for carrying tank stores to the fighting machines, a very great advantage the want of which had previously been much felt. In the attack on the Messines-Wytschaete Ridge, which started on June 7, 76 Mark IV. and 12 supply tanks took part. The operations in this case approximated to the “ assault " in the old form of siege warfare and depended mostly on an intense bombardment, lasting from May 28 to June 7, and the explosion of zo large mines. During

points of the plan were surprise and speed. The project was put forward and approved, and the result was the battle of Cambrai, which took place on Nov. 20.?

1“ Mopping up” consisted of disposing of small bodies of the enemy, especially such as had escaped the bombardment and allowed the first line of the assault to pass them.

2 The action as fought was in almost every detail the execution of the plan put forward officially for the employment of the tanks by Col. Swinton in Feb. 1916, 22 months previously.

intended to be of the nature of a “ raid” (this was not adhered to in its execution) carried out by an advance at dawn of three lines of tanks, the first of which would make straight for the enemy’s guns, previously bombed from the air, to be followed up

by the second and third; artillery coöperation to be confined to counter-battery work and the destruction of communications and depots, etc., behind the German front line. The essential

TANKS

686

Further details of the plan were that the artillery barrage of

statement has been fully appreciated even three years after the

shrapnel and H.E. shell should open on the enemy's outpost at zero hour (6:20 A.M.) and be advanced by stages of 250 yd. just ahead of the tanks and concentrated on special points. The enka were to go forward at zero hour in sections of three machines, sections being altotted to different objectives according to the strength of the latter. Each section was composed of one vanguard tank and two main

on the Germans, was immediate and far-reaching. It almost established the fact, for which the protagonists of the tank had been endeavouring to gain acceptance for many months, that the

two other machines, behind which followed the infantry in parties of

could not be put aside and ignored.

body tanks. The former was to Jead and protect the advance of the

war.

Even so, the effect of this action on the Allies, and also

new Arm, used properly, was a serious factor in warfare which

And yet, though opinion in

varying size, marching in sections in single file. As the Hindenburg

regard to the tanks had changed, even at that period when the

trenches, some 12 ft. wide, would have to be crossed each tank was

to carry a specially made fascine ro ft. long and 4} ft. in diameter to

immense losses sufiered in the attempted offensives of the pre-

drop into the trenches to assist in the crossing. Special machines were fitted with drag grapnels in order to drag aside the wire entanglements which were known to be exceptionally thick and strong,

vious eighteen months had rendered the problem of man-power so acute, the crucial point was still not realized that an actual saving in life and economy in man-power would be gained by the

for the passage of the cavalry. maintain secrecy, upon which careful preparations were made training of the infantry to act machines, and the formation of

Great precautions were taken to so much depended, and extremely in the way of reconnaissance, the with the tanks, the movement of dumps of the necessary stores. For

instance the preliminary movement of the tanks necessitated 36 special trains, and the material collected in dumps included 165,000

gal. of petrol, 55,000 Ib. of grease, 5,000,000 rounds of S.A.A. and

54,000 of 6-pdr. ammunition, Three brigades (nine battalions) of tanks took part in the attack, with two army corps of three divisions of the IIT. Army, a cavalry corps and 1,000 guns. In all there were 378 (Mark IV.) fighting tanks and 98 administrative machines, Fog on the morning of Nov. 20 assisted the attack, which was

carried out as arranged, the tanks following the barrage and the

infantry the tanks. The operation was an amazing success and came

as an absolute surprise to the enemy, most of whose infantry were panic stricken and bolted or surrendered, the garrisons of certain strong points alone offering a determined resistance. Assisted by the

tanks, the infantry by evening had occupied Marcoing,! Bois des Neuf, Premy Chapel, Havrincourt, Graincourt, Aneux, Noyelles. Next day, and on the 23rd. 25th and 27th, further progress was made, but the tank units which had been fighting continuously were disorganized and the crews physically exhausted; and the mistake had been made of not keeping a small proportion of tanks in reserve.

On the 27th the impetus of the attack died out with practically no more ground gained than had been won on the first day, where the tanks, starting from a base of 13.000 yd. Jength, had in 12 hr., and

at a cost of some 4,000 casualties, enabled the enemy's zone to be penctrated to a depth of 12,000 yd. (at the third battle of Ypres an equal extent of penetration had taken three months), and 8.000 prisoners and 100 guns to be captured. And their action had obviated the necessity for a preliminary bombardment

(which would

have cut up the ground and rendered any rapid advance of infantry impossible, and brought a concentration of enemy's reserves), and

also the usual wire cutting artillery fire, which together would have cost many millions of pounds.

(An estimate places the cost of the

preliminary bombardment at the third battle of Ypres at approximately £22,000,000.

A similar bombardment

at Cambrai

would

possibly have cost more, as the German wire was on the reverse

slopes of the rising ground.)

In numbers the personnel of the tank corps emploved in the fight

amounted

to a little over 4,000 of all ranks,

or the strength

o

strong infantry brigade. The fact that there were no larger bodies of infantry ready to reinforce the tired troops and press the advantage.

gained, and that the cavalry did not break through to Cambrai as

was intended, was not owing to any failure on the part of the tanks, which achieved more than had been promised. The absence of any large force to take advantage of the opening made by them tends to show that it was not believed that they could do what they actually did accomplish, and that their complete and extraordinarily speedy success was as much of a surprise to British Headquarters as it was to the Germans. For nearly three years efforts had been made by both sides to force a way through the enemy’s position quickly. At Cambrai a door was suddenly Hung open and there was no force to press through. The success achieved by the surprise counter-

attack by the Germans on the 3oth also had nothing to do with the revious action of the tanks, but its effect was to discount the whole

British victory including their performance.

Against the southern

pores of this German counter-attack a brigade of tanks which were

urriedly collected proved their worth in a defensive rôle, and gave invaluable assistance in stopping the onrush of the enemy.

The success of the tanks at Cambrai on Nov. 20, and all that it implicd, gave as much food for thought as had the first use

of gas by the Germans in 1915, unattended, however, by the horror of the means employed on the first occasion when a surf-

prise penetration was effected by either side. It has been described as the “ Valmy of a new epoch in War, the epoch of the

mechanical engincer.”?

But it is doubtful if the truth of this

1 The information of the capture of this village was sent back by a

wireless signal tank, and was received at Albert ro min. after the troops entered Marcoing,

2 Tanks in the Great War, Col. J. F. C. Fuller, p. 153.

development and whole-hearted employment on a very large

scale of the mechanical Arm.

And steps were not at once taken

for a great expansion. The increase of the Tank Corps previously deferred was agreed to; but a proposed further expansion, based directly on the experiences of Cambrai, was not approved. And later, in April 1918, even the agreed increased establishment was again temporarily suspended after the German offensive in order to meet the demands for infantry reinforce-

ments, and was not completed until after the striking successes gained by the tanks in July and Aug. 1918. After Cambrai all ideas of attempting to prosccute the offensive were abandoned, and there ensued a period of preparation for resistance against the attack which was expected as the result of the reinforcement of the German strength on the west, rendered possible by the defection of Russia. To assist in meeting this, the Tank Corps, now of five brigades, or thirteen battalions, with 320 Mark IV. and so Medium A machines fit

for action, was in Feb, 1928 distributed in detachments over some 60 m. of front. During the second battle of the Somme, from March 21 to the end

of the month, the part played by it was to coOperate in various local counter-attacks, its action being generally useful in assisting to de-

lay the enemy's advance, as the German infantry would not asa rule face tanks until their guns were brought up,

But out of the total,

some 170 machines alone went into action usually and inevitably in hasty, improvised operations carried out during the general retrograde movement. Many machines were lost and their crews employed on foot as Lewis Gun sections. It was during this period that the new “ Whippet machines made their début with great effect. Generally speaking, the tanks were too scattered for full value to be obtained from their action. The corps also took its share in repelling the second German thrust against the British, which started in the Lys area on Apm 9, during which three battal-

ions fought, some of the pee of the lost tanks fighting on foot as a Lewis Gun brigade.

Jt was in this quarter, near Villers Breton-

neaux, that the first duel between tanks—possibly future warfare—took place.

a presage of

The lack of decisive results obtained by the small detachments of tanks acting in improvised counter-attacks in the general defensive seems to have revived the lingering prejudices of those who were hostile to the arm, and who maintained that the mass action of Cambrai could never be repeated. However, in spite of this, progress was made in May and June in preparing for the future offensive, the chief point of note being that the new Mark V. (heavy) tanks, which were a great improvement on previous models, being much handier and also more mobile, were arriving at the rate of 6o machines per week. On July 4

occurred the action which probably finally dispelled the doubts

of the most conservative and reactionary. This was the surprise attack of Hamel, a deliberate offensive and not & defensive counter-attack, in which recently received Mark V. machines

coöperated with the Australians.

This fight was an example of a

perfectly organized action and of the advantage of previous

careful training to act together of tanks and infantry, and was a speedy and complete success, achieved at the low cost of some soo casualties. Qne feature was the special power possessed

by the new and speedier tank of destroying machine-guns,

many of which were rolled over and crushed.

The logic of facts was irresistible, and after this action the

coöperation of the tanks was thenceforward accepted, not only as a useful adjunct but as an absolute necessity, for all offensive operations. On July 17, at the battle of Moreuil, one battalion of tanks codperated with three French divisions in a most suc-

TANKS cessful attack on a similar plan launched after one hour’s preliminary bombardment. July 18, the date of the great French victory of Soissons, marked the turning point of the war. It depended on tanks, and was rendered possible by their proper employment in mass and as a surprise. In fact,as the recent British offensive ona smaller scale had been, it was based on the battle of Cambrai. It was followed by a similar operation, the battle of Amiens on Aug. 8 which opened the British strategic offensive. This battle was also based on the power of the tank arm, and was designed and organized to derive the utmost value from it and to give it every chance to perform its proper, logical function in a general operation. The tactics to be employed by the tanks were an

687

armies contained the following words:—. . Since the opening of our

offensive on August 8th, tanks have been employed on every battieheld, and the importance of the part played by them in breaking u the resistance of the German infantry can scarcely be eac rerata. The whole scheme of the attack of August 8 was dependent upon tanks, and ever since that date on numbcrless occasions the success

of our infantry has been powerfully assisted by their timely arrival. . ..' Jt would not be too much to say, that in spite of any artillery assistance, the series of overwhelming, tmmediate and economical (both in life and treasure) victories won at Amiens and afterwards would have been absolutely impossible without tanks, as would the

whole scheme of the strategic offensive which depended for its execution and cohesion on the prompt and certain success of these attacks.

And this statement, which is tantamount to an expression of opinion that human bodies cannot vie with armoured machines against wire

elaboration of those employed at Cambrai modifed by recent ex-

and machine-guns, is no disparagement of the British infantry. It is

reserve, a cavalry corps and II ank battalions. In regard to the tank battalions they were now better equipped than they had been. Nine were equipped with the new Mark V. machines (36 each), and two with the “ Whippets ’’ (48 each), or in all 420 fighting machines. There were also 42 tanks in reserve, 36 supply tanks, and 22 guncarriers, or 580 machines in all. The“ Whippet ° tanks were to act with the cavalry. There was no artillery bombardment, and the tanks advanced with the barrage at “zero” hour. The heavy guns

After the action of the Somme a few tanks were at the end of 1916 despatched to codperate against the Turks in Palestine, where the situation was somewhat similar to that which had

perience and adapted to the improved machines available. The attack was carried out by three army corps, with three divisions in

were used for counter-battery work and the field artillery moved forward in close support of the infantry. Noise barrages (made by low lying aeroplanes) were used to drown the sound of the tanks’ approach. On the first day the maximum advance of the tanks was 74 m., and they continucd in action for four days till the 11th.

The battle of Amiens was a tremendous blow, both material

and moral, to the Germans, who, besides casualties, lost 22,000 prisoners and 400 guns; and the victory was admittedly very largely due to the tanks. Amongst other lessons learned it was again found that these machines, like other arms, required a reserve to keep up the pressure after the first day of action, and that the limit of endurance. of the heavy machines before overhaul was three days; that they were suited for trench warfare, the medium machines for open warfare; that the heavy supply tanks should be replaced by a light cross-country tractor; that wireless and acroplane communication, as then developed, was not so certain as that by galloper; that it was a mistake to tic

up tanks to cavalry, for, during the approach they could not keep up, and during the fight were kept back by the cavalry, which under hostile machine gun-fire had to retire or move to a flank until the tanks disposed of the machine-guns; and that machines of greater speed and greater radius of action were necessary.

According to one

authority,

if machines

capable

of

moving at ro m. an hour with an endurance of some 100 m. had been available, the German forces south of the Amiens—Roye—

Noyon road might have been cut off and the end of the war greatly accelerated. July 18 and Aug. 8 were not only victories for the French and British over the Germans, they were victories over their opponents for the tank arm in each army. In regard to the British it is sufficient to say that up to Nov. 5, thcir last fight, no attack took place without tanks. They codpcrated in every offensive including such important operations as the battle of Bapaume, and the second battle of Arras, the battles of Epehy, Cambrai-St. Quentin (when the Hindenburg line was broken), the Selle and Maubeuge. Latterly, indeed, during the “ war of movement” which set in after the Hindenburg line had been passed, advanc-

one which would be borne out by the survivors of Neuve Chapelle, Loos and the Somme.

arisen on the western front. It was doubtful, at first, whether the machines, some parts of which wore out very quickly, would . operate in the sandy desert; but it was found that the dry sand was less harmful than the mud of Flanders, and the tanks in fact stood the test well, and covered a surprising number of miles, though they happened to be machines already partly Worn out in training. Only cight tanks were sent out, which was far too small a number to enable any very important result to be obtained in a field where the bold use of tanks in force might have had a decisive effect. The terrain favoured thcir action, and the strength of the defence, doubtless owing to German influence, lay largely in machine-guns. Their entry into action was not a surprise, for the enemy were aware of their arrival in

the country; and they were uscd on two occasions only, at the second and third battles of Gaza, on April 17 and Nov. r 1917, all the machines taking part. Though the tasks set before them at both battles would have been more suitable to a force of machines five times their number, they rendered in each case great assistance and saved much loss of life. As a result of their help, which was greatly appreciated by the infantry, who were, of course, chietly affected, an cflort was made

early in 1918 to obtain a number of * Whippet ” machines for action against the Turkish rear-guard during the further advance. But this demand synchronized with the German offensive on March 21, and no machines could be spared for a theatre peculiarly suited to them.

So far an outline has been given of the main tank operations, and the development and expansion of the unit. The former showed a gradual increase of the scale on which recourse was had to the machines, and an elaboration in the preparations made and the tactics applied. From the 4ọ fighting tanks which were allotted to the attack at Cambrai, the number rose to

580 of all types at Amiens nearly two years later, the latter being the greatest British tank action fought. And, according to the preparations which were being made at the time of the Armistice,

any great offensive in rọrọ would have been conducted with

posts almost invariably halted for tanks to come up and dispose of them before they moved forward.

thousands of British tanks alone, leaving out of consideration the equally large numbers of French and German machines that would have been engaged. By Aug. and Sept. 1918 the type of heavy fighting machine had been improved in design, reliability and speed, and a faster medium tank had been introduced. Measures had also been taken to equip, for cross country work, all the battle services forthe tanks. There were fighting tanks; supply tanks, to carry up ammunition, drinking water and stores; gun-carrier tanks,

_ So far as statistics can show what a part they played, the follow-

used for the same purposé, as well as for conveying artillery

ing infantry when faced by the German rear-guard machine-gun

ing facts speak for themselves:

By the time of the battle of Amiens

much of the personnel of the Tank Corps had been in action 15 or 16 times, and during the 95 days from that time to the Armistice tanks

(to the number of 1,993) were engaged in fighting on 39 days. The casualties, killed, wounded and missing were 598 officers and 2,826

other ranks. These, though heavy in relation to the strength of the

unit, which was under that of an infantry division, were not heavy

for 39 days hard fighting if it be borne in mind that in pre-tank days it was not unusual for an attacking division to suffer 4,000 casualties

in one day often without reaching the objective.

The final despatch of the Commander-in-Chief of the British

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1 Tanks in the Great War, Col. J. F, C. Fuller.

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and trench mortars, both sometimes dragging sledges similarly loaded; wireless signal tanks; salvage tanks; all working on a coordinated system toward the maintenance or pressure on the enemy with the maximum of efficiency. And to assist in doing this there was a complete repair organization, the central workshops, with its advanced stores and salvage companies. For a major operation, the system of attacking with a small number of machines divided up into separate detachments had been abandoned and the proper tactics of mass attack in as large force as possible in definite formations to meet different conditions,

with reserves Lo keep up the advance, had been adopted.

Signal

TANKS

688 units had been formed.

The elementary system of signalling

with flags and with daylight lamps to aeroplanes had been

elaborated, pigeons were used, and wireless signalling had been reintroduced, and wireless telephony with aeroplanes had been tried, but not with much success. Intimate codperation with Jow-flying aeroplanes had been organized, especially in the direction of noise barrages, machine-gunning and bombing the enemy, chiefly of the hostile guns, and dropping information, as also observation for counter-battery work, and smoke-screens were employed. In short the battle was organized to include and harmonize with the new instrument. In regard to the future of the tanks, had the war not ended in 1918, certain proposals for expansion for the 1919 campaign,

made at the Intcr-Allied Tank Committee in Jan. 1918, were again brought up in July, and new establishments for the in-

crease of the Tank Corps to a strength of 34 battalions were sanctioned in Oct.

This strength, together with the number of

some 6,000 machines which it was hoped to produce for 19109, is in itself evidence of the importance attached to the tank arm -at the close of the war.

Its strength in the ficld in Oct. 1918

amounted to 12,355 of all ranks, whilst many thousands more were under training at home. The work of designing and producing the different types of machines which took the field, or were almost ready to do so, necessitated a very large organization. In addition to the Medium Mark A. (Whippet) machines, of which, as has been

stated, delivery began in France at the end of 1917, the following types were evolved.

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designed so as to be made up of parts manufactured in England and the United States, and was to be engined either with the American oo-H.P. Liberty, or the British 300-H.P. Rolls-Royce, engine. ‘he engine-room was separated from the fighting-chamber by a bulkhead and the ventilation was improved. The Mark IX. tank (Infantry tank). The design for this was begun in Sept. 1917.

actually used.

Thirty-five machines were made, but none was

It was a long machine with space in the centre to

carry 50 infantry or 10 tons of stores.

The Medium B (Whippet) tank. The design of this, which differed from that of the Medium A, was commenced in June 1917. The shape was more like that of the heavy tanks, It had a four-cylinder 150-H.P. Ricardo engine, Forty-five machines were made, but none used. In all, 2,636 British tanks were constructed.

The production of the tanks on the first order for 150, which were in action in 1916, six months after the order had been placed, was, as has been said. a remarkable achievement. After that time supply was carried out by the Mechanical Warfare Supply Department of the Ministry of Munitions, working ia

conjunction with the War Office and G.H.Q. in France, The subject was handled by a succession of committees, composed of those concerned, which endeavoured

to obtain coöperation

and the allocation of responsibility as between the army, which demanded machines and changes of design, ete., and those who had to meet these demands. In Aug. ror, control was taken over by a Tank Board, to codrdinate all sides of the question of supply. There were naturally considerable difficulties in administration of the production side of this weaponimprovised during hostilities, at a time when the manufacturing resources of the country were alrcady deeply committed in satisfying the

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Fic. 8.—Mark V. Tank.

The Mark V. tank (see fig. 8and table A).

This was in design and

size the same as Mark IV., but it was superior to it in the following particulars:—The engine, a 6-cylinder Ricardo engine of 150 H.P.,

was more powerful and was expressly designed for the tank. The manceuvring powers were improved by one-man control and an epicyclic gear. The means of observation were improved. The

unditching gear could be worked from inside the machine. Better means of clearing the tracks of mud were provided. The design for this was begun in Oct. 1917 after the experiences of Messines and the third battle of Ypres, and was to mect the requirements as then known, Some of these machines reached France in time for the attack on Hamel on July 4 1918, and this tank was the principal

machine of all the subsequent fighting. In all, 403 were made, The Mark V. Star tank was the same asa Mark V. machine, with 6 ft. added to the middle of its length. It could cross wider trenches (14 ft.) than the Mark V. machine, and could carry about 20 men in addition to the crew. The design was not started till Feb. 1918, 32

machines being made, of which some were delivered in time for the battle of Amiens. The tank was too long to be very handy. The Mark V. Two-Star tank was the same as the Mark V., Star, but with a 225-H.P. Ricardo engine. Design was started in May 1918, onc being made but not delivered before the Armistice.

The Mark VI. tank was intended to be the same size as the Mark IV. with an improved transmission (the Williams-Janny variable speed gear), but did not get beyond the design stage. The Mark VII. tank, This was 3 ft. 6 in. longer than the Mark IV. and Mark V. It had a 150-H.P. Ricardo engine and a variable

speed gear.

Seven were made, but none was used in the field.

The Mark VIII. tank. The design for this machine was commenced in Dec. 1917; seven machines were made, but none was employed

inthe field.

It was larger (34 ft. 2} in.) than any other tank, and was

urgent demand for munitions of other kinds. The Jack of continuity in the demands, also, which fluctuated as the value of the tank varied in the opinion of the army in the field according to its success in action, made continuity of work and accurate forecasts of output almost impossible. There were also questions of obtaining the necessary labour, manufacturing facilities, raw materials, and that of priority amongst so many competing requirements for carrying on the war. The problem was complicated by the multiplicity of special component parts and fittings required, the great wastage of machines from action in the field, and the quite unexpected wastage by wear and tear of certain parts, some of which, as the design of the machines developed, became obsolete before they could be used; and

there were the technical difficulties of ensuring efficiency in details, of which the only test could be use in the field. A great expansion in the sources of supply became necessary as the programmes of construction increased in size, and many enginecring firms were engaged in the manufacture of the tanks in addition to the comparatively small number concerned in 1916 and 1917. Before the Armistice the supply of tanks was considered so important that men were relieved from the army to carry on production, The programme for 1919, including Inter-Allied production, which covered over 6,000 machines, required 193,000 tons of steel, 10,000 6-pdr. guns and 30,000 machine-guns, and an expenditure of £80,000,000. By the end

TANKS of the war, tanks were accepted as being the best and most economical means of arriving at a decision in the ficld, as the ratio of results obtained to material and man-powcr absorbed was greater than from any other means. In England development in design has since continued in the direction of the evolution of tanks possessing greater speed and a greater radius of action than that of the more or less embryonic machines which were evolved during the war, and also in the production of machines which can function cither on land oron water, Success in these directions will endow the machine, originally improvised

with the limited object of assisting the infantry to break through

an entrenched line, with far greater powers. FRENCH TANKS

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Tt js not side by side conditions, them. And

remarkable that allics fighting a common enemy, in the same theatre of war and subjected to similar should have evolved a similar means of meeting it would have been natural had they done this

689

tives of the Renault and Schneider works during Jan., the French Army H.Q. submitted to the Ministry of War a demand ior 400 tanks. These were to be of the design prepared jointly by M. Brillé of the Schneider Creusot Works, and Col. Estienne. For the French, therefore, this was the commencement of the

solution of the problem of mobile protection for the infantry, In regard to the French tanks, the year 1916 can be taken as one of gestation. The year 1917 covered the birth and in-

fancy of the medium (Schneider and St. Chamond) tanks; the first half of 1918 the adolescence and maturity of the medium machines and the birth of the light (Renault) tank; and the last

half of 1918 the adolescence and maturity of the light machine. But the period of gestation before the birth of the new arm, i.e. the appearance in the ficld of the Artillerie d’ Assaut, or “ A.S.,” was, as in the case of the British Tank Corps, somewhat lengthy. Its promoters still had much opposition and many obstacles to overcome, for the question of production was handled by

for the same disease, even suggested in form by the same mechanical prototype, the British tank and the French Cher @’Assaut

more than one department or directorate, a state of things which is usally bound to result in friction and delay, It appears, also, that whilst some officials were impressed with the vital urgency for expedition others were moreconcerned to conduct matters in accordance with the regular routine of peace procedure. , But there was no intervention by an outside department or ministry to save the situation. It is not on record that the French Ministry of Marine collaborated in the creation of the Chars d’ Assaut.

were conceived separately, and for many months developed on

On Feb. 25, after some inter-departmental discussion and trials

simultancously, in a common

effort, or at least with mutual

knowledge from the beginning on the part of each of what the other was doing. Curiously enough, this was not the case with the British and French, the two nations concerned in the creation of the tank.

Forced into being by the same causes, a remedy

independent lines, the British ignorant of French intentions and the French ignorant of what the British were doing. In the case of the latter, as of the former, it was the difficulty experienced in carrying out the pre-war theories of infantry attack against a prepared defensive which finally led to the new machine, though the effect of the I.E. shell of the French field gun may have prevented its necessity being felt so soon. $ The French owed their tank! to the foresight and pertinacity of Col. (later Gen.) J. B. E. Estienne of the artillery, who, during the retreat of 1914, perceived the desirability for having some means of transporting infantry under cover across obstacles and swamps and ploughed land. Later, during the summer of 1915,

of a baby Holt tractor, and without waiting for the construction

of any experimental machine, an order was placed with the

Schneider firm for 400 tanks, then called tracteurs Estienne,

afterwards known as Chars Schneider, to be delivered within six months. This was only two weeks after orders had been placed by the British for the first roo Mark I. tanks. So far the comparative progress in development of the new arm by the two nations had been as follows:—the idea of the tank had occurred at about the same time to both; the matter had been put forward officially by the British in the third month of the war and by the French 14 months later; the first actual order for machines, given by the British 18 months after war began, was

on secing the caterpillar gun tractors in use in the field by the British, hisideas took a more concrete shape in the direction of a cuirassé terrestre (land battleship). This was to be a caterpillar-

followed by that of the French only a few days later. The British machines, however, took the field six months before

propelled machine 4 metres long, 2-60 metres broad, 1-60 metres high, weighing nearly 12 tons, It was to be provided with a petrol engine, totravel at a speed of 6 m. per hour on the flat, to be protected by armour up to 20 mm. in thickness, to carry an armament of two machine-guns and one light Q.F. gun for the attack of machine-guns behind shields, and to be capable of

contract for 400 more machines of a different type was placed with the St. Chamond Works in April, without the knowledge of the commander-in-chief or of Col. Estienne. Not long afterwards steps were taken for the formation and

crossing trenches two metres wide and forcing its way through

barbed wire.

It was also to draw an armoured trailer carrying

20 men and equipment. This was worked out in greater detail, but was in essentials the same as the scheme put forward in England in Oct. s914, except that as projected the currassé was

to be somewhat of a hybrid between a tug to haul a transport filled with men and a fighting machine, and not purely a destroyer which would open out a way for men to advance on their feet. Actually, however, both types were developed as fighting machines. Both, also, were inspired by the Holt tractor, of the existence of which the British originator had knowledge before the war, and of which the French originator first became aware when he saw it at work behind the British lines. Before these machines were introduced by the British in the early part of 1915 for moving beavy artillery, tractors on the caterpillar system were practically unknown in France, Later some brought over from Tunis were employed with the army of the Vosges. After communicating with the commander-in-chief,

Co). Esti-

enne on Dec. t 1915 put forward his ideas in an official letter with a request for an interview. This took place on Dec. 12, which date can be taken as marking the official conception of the French tank.

After consultation between Gen. Joffre and Col.

Estienne, and discussions between the latter and representa-

‘1 For convenience the word “tank " will be used generally to + describe the French machiness

those of their Allies.

In addition to the 400 Schneider tanks a

training of personnel for the new arm at Marly-le-Roi.

In

June French H.Q. received from British G.H.Q. official intimation of what was being done in England.

Col. Estienne visited

England, and after inspecting the Mark I. tank in the training arca at Elveden reached three conclusions. One was that the two countrics should collaborate in the production and coéperate jn the use of the new weapon in the field. The second was that neither should forestall the other in employing it and so dis-

count its maximum value for the Allics as a whole. On this Col. Estienne was specially insistent, because it was apparent that the British were far ahead in production and would proba-

bly be ready before the French.

The third was that as a comple-

ment to the heavy, somewhat slow, British tanks, capable of negotiating almost any obstacle, the French should specialize in the production of a speedicr and more handy machine, which

would be to the British tank what field artillery is to heavy artillery, Would perform the duty of a swarm of skirmishers in armour armed with a machine-gun, and would be capable of going wherever an infantry soldier could go, The scheme for light tanks did not meet with a favourable official reception, and sanction for the construction of so machines of this type was not given. Nevertheless designs were put in hand by the Renault firm and at the end of Nov. were so far completed that construction could have been started. Though no executive action was taken for some months, except that 150 machines for use as “command” tanks for the units of the Artillerie

E Assaut Were given, this was the genesis of the Renault tank:

TANKS

690

were regulated. This system had great conveniences, for the machine

The French classified tanks in three categories:— Chars legers, machines weighing under to tons. Chars mediums, machines weighing 10 to 30 tons, which could be transported by rail on ordinary trucks.

Chars lourds, machines which would require specially constructed trucks for transport by rail. As the medium tanks were the first constructed and used,

their description will be given first. Both the Schneider and St. Chamond tanks were smaller and lighter than the British Mark E. or any subsequent pattern of heavy machine, and were, according to British nomenclature, males. The great difference between them and the British heavy tanks was that the designers of the former, in taking the caterpillar tractor as a model, had been content to employ tracks somewhat similarly placed under the body of the machine, and not extending all round it as in

the case of the British heavies.

The tracks were also shorter

could be driven from either end without effort, but it had the draw. back of being somewhat complicated and delicate, The petrol feed was by pon and the tanks were two superimposed on the left

side and

one on the right.

The whole body formed a box with a

square sloping front without any beak. It was enclosed in hardened steel plate of 11 mm. thickness in the front shields, and 8-5 mm. at the sides and § mm. on top. On the roof there were three observation

cylindrical capots with sides of rI-mm. steel above the commander's and driver’s ports. The doors were at the sides. The armament con_sisted of one 75-mm. field gun, except in the first 175 machines which had a special gun, firing ahead in front, and four Hotchkiss machineguns, one in front to the right of the gun, one on each side and one on

the rear face. For the gun 106 rounds of H.E. were carried and for the machine-guns 8,488 rounds of S.A.A. The total weight, loaded, was 24 tons, and its uselul speed on the flat 8-5 km. per hour. It could cross trenches up to 2°50 meters in width in good soil. The petrol carried was enough for from 6 to 8 hours, The crew consisted of one officer, one N.C.O., two gunners, four machine-gunners and one mechanic, or nine in all,

During Sept. the first tank of each type arrived at the training centre, where a considerable number of officers and men from different branches of the Service had already collected for preliminary individual instruction. An additional training centre for the formation of units was established at Champlicu, and also a depot for the assembly of matériel at Cercottes, near Orleans.

It was then decided, also to create the new

“Artil-

lerie d’Assaut” and the charter of this organization may be said to date from the goth of that month. Col. Estienne was promoted to the rank of general, and was appointed ‘ Commandant de l’ Artillerie d’ Assaut aux Armées” and representative of the commander-in-chicf

Fic. 9.—French Char Schneider.

than the full length of the body, instead of projecting well

in tank matters with the Ministry of

Munitions, which department had been created and taken over tank production. In Oct., with the arrival of more machines of both types, the Arrillerie d' Assaut started on its career. It seems that the use of the British tanks at Cambrai, which had been deprecated by the French beforchand, and criticized for the reasons already stated, may have stimulated the French to press on with their own service, though what had been looked upon as the supreme factor of surprise had been discounted. _

beyond it, at least at the front, as was the case with the British

Whippets, and the French Renaults, and both tanks had a particularly ‘“ underhung” appearance. It was this arrangement of the tracks which militated against the climbing powers of the machines, whilst their comparative shortness limited the spanning powers across a trench. The Char Schneider (see fig. 9) was 6 metres in length, 2 metres in width and 3:40 metres high. It consisted of an armoured body resting on two horizontal girders with the necessary bracing. The weight was taken by springs on two bogies on each side, which were carried by the track rollers. The track was actuated by a driving sprocket at the rear, there being an idle wheel at the front. The gearbox was at the rear, the radiator in front.

Power was given by a four-

cylinder Schneider engine of 60 horse-power, The petrol feed was by pressure. Steering was effected by driving the tracks at different speeds. The whole body formed a box of somewhat peculiar shape protected by hardened steel plate of 11-4 mm. thickness on the walls and §:4 mm. on the roof. There were various openings with movable shutters for observation, etc., and the door was at the back, In front was a stecl prow, of beak, to prevent the machine dipping too much when descending into a cavity. The armament consisted of one short 75-mm. gun, of a maximum useful range of 600 metres, mounted on the right cheek of the bows of the machine which could from its position fire only on the right side and not directly ahead. There was also one Hotchkiss machine-gun on each side firing through a spherical shield mounting. For the gun 90 rounds of ammunition were carried and for the machine-guns 4,000 rounds. One officer, one N.C.O., and four men, of whom two were machinepungen and one a gunner, formed the crew. The officer drove. he total weight of the machine was 13-5 tons and its useful speed from 2 to 4 km. per hour. It could cross trenches of from 1°50 metres to 1:80 metres in width, and carried petrol for 6 to 8 hours’ work.

The Char St. Chamond (see fig. 10) was a larger and heavier machine. It was 7-91 metres in length, 2-67 metres in width and 2-365 metres or 2-35 high, according to the pattern.

It consisted

of an armoured body in suitable framework suspended on spiral springs on three bogies on each side, which were carried by the track

rollers. The drive was through the rear sprocket. The driving mechanism was petrol-electric and consisted of a four-cylinder Panhard engine of 80-90 H.P. with electric self-starter, a dynamo of 52 K.W.

power and two electromotors, one driving each track. Driving was done by a “tramway” control, by which speed and direction

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Fic. 10.—French Char St. Chamond.

The work of preparation, including training and equipment, continued throughout the winter, in preparation for the offensive to be undertaken in the spring of 19r7.

On March 31 1917,

the organization of the Artillerie d'Assaut} was as follows: The tactical unit, under a captain, was the groupe, which was

divided into four batteries, each consisting of four tanks.

A

groupe, therefore, comprised 16 tanks with a special “ command ” light tank (Renault).

For a Schneider tank groupe the estab-

lishment was 18 officers and 92 other ranks, for a St. Chamond tank groupe 18 officers and 106 other ranks, A groupement consisted normally of four Schneider or three St. Chamond groupes, but was not rigid. For repair work each groupe had its own workshop and a Section de ravitaillement et de reparations 4 Why this arm was ever called "artillery ” is not clear.

Its closer

connexion with, and resemblance to, infantry was recognized later,

and the names of the elements of the organization for the light tanks followed those of the infantry, ¢.2. battalion, company, etc.

TANKS (S.R.R.), of 1 officer, rrr other ranks, was allotted to every to groupes.

There was for the whole unit a Section de pare, ot repair

park, similar to that of the Mechanical Transport Service.

This

was found necessary sasoon as tanks had been delivered in any number, owing to the amount Of tuning-up, minor repair work and even alterations which had to be done, Numerous faults at once developed in these entirely new machines (as had been the experience of the British), but thanks to the time available before they went into action, certain defects were discovered and remedied. The first was that some parts of the machines wore out very quickly, necessitating the maintenance of a very large stock of spares, The thickness of steel plate where vertical was not proof

against the German“ K" bullet, and it was found necessary to add

an outer plate of 5-5 mm. to the vertical armour of the Schneider machines, and 8-5 mm. to that of the St, Chamond machines. On the

whole the defects discovered in the Schneider tanks were not such as to give reason to suppose that they would not be able to go into action in the spring; but those of the St. Chamond were more serious, The design was found clumsy and the machine liable to ditch. In addition to breakdowns in the power system and failure in details, there was a lack of rigidity in the whole machine, and the tracks of the first machines were too narrow.

Delivery of both types was extremely slow, especially of the St. Chamond machines. At the end of March, though personnel for 15 of the latter was ready, there was not one machine serviceable. At this time, on the eve of the great 1917 offensive of which so much was expected, the Artilerie d’Assaut, instead of being in possession of the 800 tanks which were to have been ready by the previous autumn, had reccived not more than 208 Schneider and 48 St. Chamond machines. There were for

this operation, therefore, only 3 fully and 2 partly trained groupes

691

ventilation, and various details of mechanism, and of widening the tracks. On the whole the Schneider machines stood the trial best. In the next tank attack, carried out on May 5 by the VI.

Army, the battle of Laffaux Mill, the three groupes employed advanced with the infantry with marked success, especially in the case of the Schncider machines. The counter-battery work of the French was good and the enemy observation posts were destroyed or masked; and the tanks did not remain too long in advanced positions where the infantry were checked. For nearly six months the tanks did not again go into action. During this period great efforts were made to remedy the defects disclosed, to expedite the delivery of machines, which was much in arrears, and of spare parts, the demand for which (as in England) had been found very greatly to exceed any anticipations, and to augment the establishment of repair units. In preparation for the next operation great care was taken in the training of infantry with the tanks in attack and in tank tactics generally. On Oct. 23 five groupes of tanks took part in the battle of La Malmaison along the Chemin des Dames, Their assistance was most valuable. Owing to previous heavy rain, and the bombardment which had

continued for six days and six nights, the ground was extremely

difficult, and in the centre the tanks were not of so much help in the

first phase of the attack as later. This state of the ground and the lack of surprise again discounted to a great extent the preparatory training undergone by the units of the Artilerie @Assaut. The ractice which had been carried out beforehand with the attacking

infantry, however, proved of great value, as did the work of the

special unditching sections.

The ground had been carefully recon-

pected to be available, and with the example of the result of the

noitred and aerial photographs supplied. The Germans relied on this occasion more on their advanced ficld guns for defence, and had also organized flumerous special machine-gun posts furnished with plentiful supplies of armour-piercing ammunition. But owing to the counter-battery work of the French the tanks were not so much damaged by the German guns asin April, in spite of the fact that the attack was not a surprise. Two days later some St. Chamond

action of the British in the previous Sept. before it, the French High Command had grave doubts whether to make use of tanks in the coming operations or to wait until there should be sufh-

improved medium tank had been realized before April 1917, and

of Schneider and r of St. Chamond tanks, and not 4o groupes as originally coutemplated; and of the 160 Schneider machines

only one had been fitted with the extra bullet-proof protection. In view of the diminution of the tank force from what was ex-

cient to exercise a greater influence.

It was finally decided to

throw all possible weight into the attack. April 16 was the baptism of fire of the French tanks, in Gen. Nivelles unsuccessful attempt to break through the German line along the Chemin des Dames, E. of Craonne. Eight Schneider groupes coðperated with the French V, Army. They were divided into two parts of three and five groupes respectively. One party did not succeed jn crossing the German line, though a few machines reached it, and it suffered severely from the

machines again operated with success.

Apart from the projected light tanks, the necessity for an the subject was under consideration throughout the year. The main directions in which the April offensive showed improvement to be necessary were the desirability of mounting the gun in a turret to give all-round fire, of mounting a 75-mm. field gun in

place of the shortened 75, and of increasing the size of the tracks and the power of the engine. Designs for a new medium machine (C:A.3) were prepared in Aug. 1917, but were abandoned after the battle of La Malmaison because the further im-

enemy's guns posted on the Craonne Plateau. The other party succeeded in crossing the enemy’s second line, but were not followed up by the infantry, owing to the German machine-gun fire. Two

provement then per ton weight, ability to climb already out of

IV. Army for employment on the 17th were not thrown into the fight, as the German artillery observation posts were not first captured by the infantry—a lesson of the action of the 16th. The offen-

machines could be made. At the end of Oct. it was decided to suspend the construction of an improved type of medium tanks

Schneider groupes and one St. Chamond groupe allotted to the French

sive failed; and though the new arm showed the utmost devotion and

gallantry, and its intervention saved many lives, it did not achieve the success that was hoped. But the conditions were almost as unfavourable for the employment of tanks as they could be, and the

tactics employed were not those urged by those responsible for the new arm. The attack was not a surprise, being preceded by a heavy bombardment, which, however, did not succeed in overcoming the German artillery, and was made in broad daylight, without any

smoke-screen, against a position which permitted of direct observed artillery fire against the tanks both when approaching and when they reached

the enemy's

positions.

The plan, also, in which certain

infantry units had been trained to coéperate, was that the tanks were

to attack the German third defensive line after the infantry should have gained the first and second, and were not to advance until after

this had been achieved. The Germans, who were prepared for the attack, therefore, had even additional time before the tanks ap-

peared, and the result was that their guns caught many of the machines in column before they deployed. The machines themselves showed certain faults—they were deficient in speed and climbing capacity, the latter defect being accentuated by the fact that since the Somme the Germans had increased the width of their trenches. They also proved, as was known before would be the case, vulnerable to direct hits of H.E. shell, by which many machines were set on fire. Amongst other

points of design in which modification was found necessary was that of isolating the petrol tanks from the interior of the machine, improving the means of communication, the power of observation, the

found desirable, t.e. the provision of 6 to 7 H.P. a trench-crossing capacity of 3 metres, and an ahead or astern, showed that the designs were date, and would be more so by the time the

and to concentrate on that of the light machines; and: in Dec. the idea was finally dropped. The question of providing heavy

tanks was taken up at the end of 1916 as a result of the operations of the British machines in Sept., and in order to have available a machine which would be complementary to the light tanks it was hoped would be made. A project was put forward for a heavy tank weighing 38 tons to carry a 105-mm. gun, but its execution was postponed in view of the demands that might be made for other machines. Two experimental heavy tanks, one with mechanical and the other with electrical transmission, were tried, and it was decided to investigate in the direction of still heavier machines. In regard to the type which will always be especially associated with the French, the Char leger, or Renault tank, first suggested by Gen. Estienne in July, and for which designs were prepared in Nov. 1916, the commandcr-in-chief in that month expressed

his desire for 1,000 of such machines.

But whereas those respon-

sible for supply had, in the case of the medium tank, pressed forward the construction of one type, the St. Chamond, without

military approval of the design, in the case of the Renault every obstacle seems to have been placed in the way of manufacture of this machine, for which army H.Q. and the Artillerie d’ Assaut

TANKS

692

were pressing throughout the winter, though various trials were made.

In March 1917, the demand of army headquarters was

The organization of the Renault tanks, which were regarded as an infantry arm, was to be by sections, companics, battalions and

increased, being based on the requirements for an offensive on a roo-km. front. This entailed the production of 3,000 light,

later by regiments and brigades.

400 medium (improved Schneiders) and 150 heavy tanks.

(of which one was a wireless signal tank),! or 25 machines in all. A battalion contained three companies of 75 tanks. Changes were made in the administration, and Marly-le-Roi was given

In

May an order was given for 1,000 Renault machines in addition

to 150 which had been ordered in March as “command” tanks. Discussion as to design, armament and manufacturing In Oct. it was settled that in addition to the 1,150 already on order, 2,380 more should be made, or 3,250 in all, the work being dis-

A company comprised three

sections of five tanks each and an échelon de combat of 10 tanks

up as a training centre, two army group-training centres being

facilities and trials continued during the summer of rgrt7.

established at Mailly-Poivres and Martigny, the training facilities and auxiliary services generally were increased and clab-

tributed between four French factories, the whole to be delivered

of War was defined and simplified. All these preparations were carried out with a view to the coöperation of the tanks in the

expected to be ready by March 31 1918, for the contemplated offensive in the spring, and 1,000 were to be manufactured in the

French offensive in the spring.

by the end of July 1918.

Of the total, 1,000 machines were

United States, of standard American parts and cquipped with

Liberty engines.

The decision to-devote so much money as this

entailed and so much of the manufacturing power of the nation at a moment when the demands for munitions of war of other kinds was at its height illustrates the importance now attached to the new arm. The British success at Cambrai seems to have had considerable effect in influencing those who were still sceptical of the value of the tank and of the wisdom of relying on it for future operations. In Jan. 1913 a supplementary order was placed for 470 machines, the final total figure fixed for production in France being 4,000, divided into 1,000 armed with

machine-guns, 1,830 with the 37-mm. gun, 200 signal tanks, and 970 for a reserve armed with the 75-mm. gun. The Renault tank differed greatly from the Schneider and St. Chamond machines. Not only was it considerably smaller, but the tracks were outside the body and not underneath it and extended to a considerable distance in front, Its total length, without the movable tail, was 4°100 metres; its breadth 1-740 metres, and its height

2-140 metres, The body was supported on hollow longitudinal girders by a hinge arrangement at the rear end and suspended on

powerful springs in front so that the front of the frame and body were capable of relative movement. Each girder was carried by springs on four bogies supported by wheels running on the tracks,

The idle track pulley in front was of larger diameter than the

driving-sprocket at the rear and this and the projection of the tracks gave the machine a greater grip in climbing over obstacles. The upper portion of the track ran in spring guide rollers which were arranged to regulate the track tension automatically. The interior of the tank consisted of a driver's compartment in front and the engine-

room behind.

The crew comprised two, one officer or N.C.O., who

was also the gunner, and one man who was the driver: The driver was seated: and also seated, or standing, behind him. was the gunner,

with his head and shoulders in the turret.

The latter revolved on

orated, and the relation of the Artillerie d’Assaut to the Ministry

When the German advance on March 21 1918 wrested the initiative from the Allies, amongst other results it upset all the

plans carefully worked out for the French tanks. Instead of taking part in mass in a great offensive, as intended, whatever tank units existed had now hurriedly to be collected and thrown

into the defence. The factor ruling the speed of the creation of the service had all along been the rate at which the matériel was delivered.

This, for various reasons, was always much behind

the scheduled time arranged. On March 21 the medium tanks in a’ serviceable state fit for immediate use amounted in number to 245 Schneider and 222 St. Chamond, or 467 machines of an obsolescent type, and of the new Renault tank 1 machine ready for action, with the army.

(By the beginning of April over 400

had been turned out by the factories. But these were made up of training machines without armament or armour, pattern machines, machines issued to the Amcrican army for training, and those under test.) Moreover the approach of the Germans necessitated the hurried evacuation of the tank centre and main

park at Champlieu.

And so, not only was the new arm, still

in its early infancy, forced to face an entirely fresh situation with improvised measures, but part of its organization was sud-

denly torn up almost before it had taken root.

Great efforts were

made both to assist in coping with the immediately urgent necessity of checking the enemy’s advance and to prepare for subsequent action. Champlicu was reoccupied in the beginning of April, when the progress of the Germans to the north was

checked; but a central reserve park farther from the front, near Fontainebleau, and three others were established.

Operations during April and till the end of May were confined to the medium tanks, which alone were available and mobilized.

engine, radiator, clutch, transmission gear and petrol tank were in the engine-room, separated by a steel bulk-head pierced by openings closed at will from the driver’s compartment. Power was given by a

ball-bearings which allowed of all-around fire, and was furnished with a lock and a door at its back. The whole of the machinery,

Four groupements of Schneider machines were allotted to the III. and I. Armies, joined later by three of St. Chamond machines.

four-cylinder Renault engine of 35 11.P., with the usua} transmission.

All the actions now undertaken were, as was the case with the British tanks, of the nature of minor counter-attacks, and not such as the tanks were best suited for. They took place, on

Steering and control could be done by one man. Protection consisted

April 5, at Grivésnes; on April 7 at Sénécat; and on April 8 at

of hardened steel plate 16 mm. thick for the vertical portion (proof against the armour-piercing bullet) and 8 mm, for other parts. The armament was either a 37-mm. Puteaux semi-automatic gun, or a Hotchkiss machine-gun; and 240 rounds including 40 rounds of case shot. or 1,820 rounds of S.A.A. were carried. Fully loaded the female weighed under 6} tons and the male just over 6} tons, There were four speeds ahead and astern giving to the tank a maximum speed on the flat of 7-78 kilometres. It could climb slopes up to 45° and span openings up to I-80 metres in width, in which it was assisted by the movable tail. This was the machine upon which the French relied for the operations of 1918. The question of the provision of Renault wireless signal tanks was taken up ìn

May

1917, and a machine

capable of sending and receiving wireless messages was constructed.

In the autumn and winter of 1917 the reorganization and training of the Artillerie d’ Assaut continued with a view to its expansion, In addition to the medium tanks still being delivered, it was expected, by March 31 1918, to receive Soo of the Renault tanks then due.

The establishment of the Artillerie d’ Assaut was

tentatively fixed as follows:—four groupements (16 groupes)

of

Schneider tanks, with four repair sections; four groupements (12 groupes) of St. Chamond tanks, with four repair sections; 36 companies of Renault tanks; one groupe depot for Renault tanks; one salvage groupe; three park sections. The number of

Renault companies was fixed at 30 before the end of the year.

Cantigny, the last being in coöperation with the American troops. The most successful was the last, in which the action of tanks had been legislated for. The artillery bombardment was short and portions of ground were Icft unshelled to allow of the passage of the tanks. Though not actually fighting, the tanks were at this period continually being moved about in

readiness, and to save wear and tear the system was adopted of transporting them by road on special “tugs” drawn by caterpillar tractors.

On May 31 the Renault machines received their baptism of

fire on the E. of the Forest of Retz. Three battalions of these machines now ready were allotted to the VI. Army, and were brought up by train, on lorries and on tugs. Six sections had to be flung into the fight. Without previous reconnaissance or any liaison with the already exhausted Colonial infantry, who had never seen a tank, they had practically to make a cavalry charge in broad daylight, without a smoke-screen, across a mile t Owing to delays in manufacture

and difficulty in technical

training the first wireless signal tanks did not take the field until

July 1918, when after some practice they were found of great value.

‘As has been stated British tanks were fitted with equipment and trained operators ready for the field in July 1916.

TANKS of open plateau under observation of captive balloons and without effective support from their own guns. One condition favoured their action; their attack was a surprise. Though the tanks succeeded in clearing the enemy out of their

positions, their success had no tactical result, for the infantry could not follow up and consolidate the ground gained. But they caused panic, and inspired a nervousness and hesitation amongst the Germans which was invaluable at the moment. This and their subsequent actions carried out during June served to prevent the enemy

from penetrating into the forest. i Meanwhile, four groupements of medium tanks led and greatly

assisted Gen. Mangin’s counter-stroke at Méry-Belloy

against

the flank of the German

Montdidier,

was arrested,

by which

the enemy’s

The tanks

salient between progress

played a great

on June tt

Noyon

and

toward Compiégne

part in this operation

which had such strategic importance, but high-water mark in the career of the medium

this action was the tanks, for they were becoming worn out and were gradually replaced by the new and more efhcient Renault tanks as the latter were produced.

693

established, but this was not completed before the Armistice. Jn Oct., negotiations which had been carried on with the British Government resulted in the promise of some Mark V. and Mark V. Star

tanks.

Of the latter, 77 were handed over in November.

In Aug., at the instance of Gen. Foch, an Inter-Allied tank school was opened in France. It was equipped with a staff of French and

British instructors and various ty pes of British and French machines. ‘This school was for the interchange of views and the establishment of a common basis for tactics and staff work concerned with tanks. The reliance that had come to be placed on the Artillerie d Assaut can be gauged by the fact that in Oct. 1918 its actual strength in the field amounted to 18,023 of all ranks.

Since the war the French have been continuing their development

of cross-country machines. The construction of a very heavy armoured tank was in hand in 1921, while a much lighter machine,

the ‘‘ Kegresse,” of Russtaninvention, had been tried. It consists of the substitution of small rubber tracks for the rear wheels of a motor-

car. It islight, cheap, can travel on the flat at a speed of 15 to 20 m.

per hour, and can cross any country over which cavalry can pass,

An amphibious tank propelled on land by tracks and on the water

By July considerable progress had been made in organizing and equipping fresh units, and the Artillerie d’Assaut was able to codpcrate on a large scale in the battle of Soissons, Gen.

by a screw has also been tried successfully.

Foch’s decisive counter-stroke of July 18 and following days,

results by the time that the Americans came into the war, in April 1917, its military potentialitics were at once appreciated by them, while its mechanical side appealed to their national genius. But hostilities did not continuc long enough for them to bring their vast resources to bear on its development. The

against the German salient formed between Chateau-Thierry and Reims. This was the vindication of the French tank arm.

To the X., V., and VI. Armies were allotted respectively six, onc, and one groupements of medium tanks, and to each three battalions of Renault tanks, or a total for the operations of cight groupements of medium and nine of Renault tanks.

The battle,

which lasted from July 18 to the 23rd and 26th, so far as the

tanks were concerned, formed a turning point in the war.

The

entire operation was based on the action of the tanks; every available machine was thrown into the fight; and they were given a chance of showing what they could do. The tactics emploved were those which had been urged all along by Gen. Estienne and M. Breton, and were a repetition of those initiated at Cambrai. The attack opened with the advance of a mass of tanks without preliminary bombardment, as it happened, in a slight fog, and waS a complete surprise. Similar tactics on a smaller scale were made use of again after the first day, but on the 23rd the tanks suffered severely from the enemy's guns.

Two battalions of

Renaults acted with the VI. Army east of Reims on July 16-17, and coöperated with two medium groupes with the IX. Army on July 18 near the Marne, and some with the British on July 23 near Espilly. In these operations, especially the main attack on July 18,

the tanks achieved what it had been claimed they would if property used. On July 30 the commander-in-chief issued a spectal Order

of the Day to the Artillerie d’Assaut——" Vous avez bien mérité de la

Patrie,” whilst Gen. Estienne was made a commander of the Legion of Honour and promoted gencral-of-division.

The battle of Soissons had a great effect on succeeding operations. It established the value of the tanks beyond all doubt, inspired enthusiasm in all that concerned the arm and expedited

AMERICAN

TANKS

Though the tank had not accomplished much in the way of

Americans lost no time in inquiting into the subject, and at once

requested information as to designs, etc. At this time there was some doubt as to whether the tanks should not be taken up by the American Marines, but the final decision was in favour of the Army. In June the commander-designate of the American

Tank Corps, Col. Rockenbach, arrived in France, and an officer was detailed to inquire into the technical aspect of the tank arm. An Inter-Alied Tank Bureau was also established. In Sept. a scheme for an American Tank Corps, to consist of five battalions of heavy tanks and 20 of light tanks, was approved, and in Oct.

an expert technical officer reached England to consider further the question of development. The question of the provision of machines and spare parts, which had proved such a difficulty with the British and French, was also taken up. Jt was realized that in matters of design, it would be best for the Americans to profit by the experience of the British and French, whilst relying, as far as possible, on their own resources for matériel, and it was decided to adopt a

heavy tank of the British type, and a light tank of the French Renault type. Asa result of consultations between the British and French Ministries of Munitions and the American commander-in-chief as to joint production, an Anglo-American commission Was appointed in Dec. to deal with the question, and in Jan.

1918, an agreement was signed by the two Governments for the

the manufacture of the machines and the training and organization of new units. Without giving even the list of actions in which the tanks took part to the end of the war, it can be said

manufacture of tanks in France.

that the infantry now clamoured for their assistance, in spite of their faults and failings, and they were employed whenever possible. They were asked for by the commander of the VI.

to 1,200 a month, should be erected in France at the expense of

French Army when transferred to Flanders, and on Sept. 30 and several days in Oct. were in action.

Some were also sent to

Salonika. Out of the 120 days between July 15 and Nov. rr they were used on 45 days, and the casualties suffered amounted to 300 officers and 2,300 other ranks. During 1918 3,988 individual engagements were fought: 3,140 by Renault, 473 by Schneider and 375 by St. Chamond tanks. Toward the end their actions amounted to disposing of the enemy rearguard machine-guns which continually held up the infantry. _ By Aug. the machinery of production and training had been so

improved that it was found possible to turn out one battalion of

Renault tanks (75 machines) per week, which implied a vast increase in the whole of the rear organizations, which were now of a capacity for the continuance of the tank effort on a greater scale in 1919. As in England the production of tanks had become an industry. Though the construction of medium tanks had been abandoned, Gen. Estienne's opinion as to the necessity for heavy machines had not changed from the time in Feb. 1918, when he had asked for goo. But the same influences that had in 1917 retarded the introduction of the hight tank were now adverse to the contemplation of heavy

machines.

To provide such machines an Inter-Allied factory was

It contained, amongst others,

the following main provisions:—that a factory capable of producing 300 tanks a month, and of being extended to turn out up

the two Governments; that 1,500 machines, or more if required, should be made during 1918; that, in broad terms, in accordance with national facilities for production all the machinery should be of American and the structure and armament of British manufacture, the armour plate being of American steel, and that the first 600 tanks should be allotted to the Americans, and the remaining output as agreed upon, including sale to the French, The type of machine was to be the “ Liberty ” or “ Allied ”

tank, which was the British Mark VIII, machine equipped with the Liberty acro-engine.! It was decided during the summer that an additional 1,500 of these tanks should be built in the United States, as well as several thousands of Renault machines. The

scale of this programme shows what importance was attached to this arm by the Americans.

The site chosen for the factory was

Neuvy-Pailleux, near Chatcauroux, and work was started there

in the spring. But the building was not completed till Nov., so this scheme of joint production did not actually come to fruition, 1 The first Liberty tank of British structure and American mechan-

ism was assembled and successfully tried in America in Nov. 1918. One machine was constructed in England by the end of 1918.

694

TANKS

and although preparations were made for a vast output of machines in America, by the Armistice the manufacture had only recently reached the stage of production and only twenty odd Amcrican-built Renault machines had reached France, All the tank operations in which

the Americans

took part were

therefore carried out with British or French machines. As to personnel, in Feb. 1918, 500 volunteers from the American army assembled at Bourg in France for instruction, and from the

next month onwards three companies of soldier mechanics assisted at the repair depot at Bourron. The establishment of the American Tank Corps was increased in May to 15 brigades (five per army), cach consisting of one heavy and two light battalions. Owing to the lack of machines in America it was necessary to send the units of the ‘Tank Corps for training with the machines to England and I’rance, a camp being established at Bovington, in Dorset, the British tanktraining centre, for training the heavy tank units, and at Bourg for

that of the light tank units under French supervision. In addition to 25 instructional machines, with accessories and spares, previously supplied, 144 Renault tanks, the complement of two light battalions, were handed over in Aug, to the Americans. Two battalions were at once mobilized and took part in the attack of the St. Mihiel salient ~ by the American I. Army on Sept. 12, The entry into action of these units was somewhat disappointing, The tanks had to travel far from their positions of assembly to the battle, and on the first day they operated over such difficult ground that they did not catch up with the infantry, who were able to move forward rapidly owing to the comparatively feeble resistance of the enemy. On the second day they were unable to obtain petrol, and on the third day they did not have much fighting, but took a number of prisoners. The machines were practically undamaged by the action. Their next operations were with the French in the Argonne,

where

they were of considerable assistance.

From

this

time until the middle of Oct., when they were re-formed into one company, they were continually at the disposal of the infantry

commanders, but did not often take a codperative part in action, though they travelled miles, being used mostly for reconnaissance and for attacks against strong points which had checked the infantry. After that date they accompanied the Amcrican forces in the advance right up to the end. One heavy tank battalion which had been trained in England took the field on Sept. 29 with the American

lI. Corps, in the attack on the Hindenburg line.

On this occasion

ten tanks were destroyed by running into an old British minefield,

and the American infantry here suffered severcly from the German

machine-guns. On Oct. 8, the battalion coiperated most usefully with the American IT. Corps, and again on Oct. 17, when the River

Selle was crossed. Finally they assisted the British on Oct. 23 in the neighbourhood of Le Cateau. This ended the operations of the units of the Tank Corps. The chief characteristics of the action of the Americans in regard to tanks was their quick appreciation of the value of the arm. But ihe extent of the preparations made for a continuance of the struggle in this as well as in some other directions prevented a greater part

first priority of urgency. This was actually not done until the summer of 1918. This lack of interest or apathy on the part of the Germans came as a Surprise to the Allies, for it was antici-

pated that so soon as the secret was out the enemy would use every endeavour to copy and improve on the machine and press on with mass production so as to make up if possible for the start

the Allics had gained. For a long time opinion in Germany remained divided as to the value of the weapon, partly owing to the mechanical imperfections of the original Allied machines and partly owing to the manner in which they were first used, especially during the summer of 1917. Nevertheless, manufacture of a tank, known as type A.7.V., apparently the result of the dcliberations of the commission already referred

to, was commenced

in the spring of ror7..

Only 10 of these machines were ready for the offensive in March 1918, whilst not more than 20 were complcted by the end of the

war.

Designs for a heavier type, also, were started about the

same time, of which the first model was to have been ready in

Dec. of that year, but it was still unfinished at the end of the war. Experimental construction of a small light tank was also commenced, and orders for these machines were placed in the summer of 1918, to be ready by the spring of 1919. This contract, also, was cancelled at the suspension of hostilities. The French attack at La Malmaison in Oct. 1917, and then

the British attack at Cambrai somewhat changed the aspect of affairs. The British tanks captured by the Germans in their counter-attack after the latter action were collected at Charleroi and repaired, and the question of production in quantity of a German tank based on the British type was considered, only to be dropped, owing to the shortage in man-power. In Jan. r018, the first “‘ Sturmpanzerkraftwagenabtcilung” (Tank Section), of five German A.7.V. machines, was formed and brought with its auxiliary transport up to the western front for training.

The

captured tanks, also, were organized in sections of five machines. The personnel establishment was on an extravagant scale, no fewer than 176 of all ranks being allotted to a section of German machines, and 140 to a section of captured British machines, as

against the British establishment for a similar section of 41 of all ranks. In all, three sections, comprising 15 of their own tanks, and six sections comprising 30 captured machines, were used hy the Germans in 1918. Some of the latter were re-armed with s‘7-em. Russian guns.

being played by the American tank forces in the held. Had the war continued it would have come into play with overwhelming ctfect. since the Armistice the Americans have pressed on with the de- | velopment and application of the caterpillar track system for road and cross-country transport generally. Most of their efforts in this direction have been concentrated on the ‘‘ motorization " of artillery traction, and a considerable amount of literature has been published foreshadowing the future ideal as elimination of the horse for military transport purposes. Experiments have been and are being curried out with different types of self-propelled vehicles on the caterpillar track, and combined wheel and track principles. One machine of the latter type recently covered 251 m. in 17 hours. Qf fighting tanks, the Mark VIIL. of 35 tons is still the standard heavy machine, but experiments are being made with modilied Renault and Ford licht tanks, and a water-crossing machine. On

the whole the Americans seem to be greatly impressed with the part that will be played by machines in the warfare of the future and have made great steps in applying track propulsion to military uses. GERMAN

TANKS

In spite of rumours, the first appearance of the British tankscame as a complete surprise to the Germans. In Dec. 1913, and again toward the end of 1914, proposals had been made in Germany for an armoured automobile on caterpillar tracks; and in the

summer of Ig1§ some experiments in this direction had been carried out; but no steps were taken to proceed with the idea. In Oct. 1916, after the appearance of the British tanks, of which

Fic. 11.—German A.7.V. Tank. The description of the A.7.V. machine (see fig. 41) is as follows :— weight, 32 tons; length, 7 metres;

width, 3-2 metres;

height, 3

metres; armament, 6 machine-guns and one 5-7-cm. gun; protection,

armour 30 mm., 20 mm. and 15 mm. thick; crew, I officer, 15 other

they temporarily captured one, the question of constructing stmilar machines was taken in hand by a special commission, and

ranks (mechanics, gunners, machine-gunners): power, two 100-H.P. Daimler engines, cach driving one track; climbing capacity, trenches of 2-5 metres width. The German tank was a clumsy machine and

drawings were prepared. Construction, however, was postponed,

engined and its tracks were carried on spring bogies which enabled

owing to the lack of coal and steel, and to the economic conditions generally. H.Q. appears then to have become doubtful as to the necessity for these weapons, and did not give this service

a bad climber, owing to the underhung tracks.

it to cover 8 m. per hour on the flat.

It was powerfully

The thick armour was proof

against armour-piercing bullets at short range and also against lightfield-gun shells; but the joints between the thick plates rendered

the crew liable to bullet splashes, which was a serious defect.

TANKS The Germans used their tanks on nine occasions in 1918, commencing with their advance on March 21, the most success-

695

they could be concentrated speedily when and where required, In other words, the correct reply to the tank was a type of male

ful action being when they captured Villers-Bretonncaux on

tank capable of rapid movement,

April 24, 12 German

produced this reply in principle, in their own A.7.V. tanks, and by re-arming the male British Mark IV. machines and those of the French Schneider and St. Chamond (gunned) types which they had captured. This took place, however, too late and on

machines coming into action on this occa-

sion. The result of the appearance against the British of hostile tanks, especially on this date and later, on Oct. 8 in the Cambrai sector, when 15 captured British machines were used, was suti-

cient to confirm their great moral effect and the fecling of helplessness engendered in infantry by them. It showed that it was not only the Germans who could not stand up against the attack of these machines, for the British infantry fell back on the report of the appearance of German tanks as did the German troops at each appearance of the Allied machines, when the Allics were pressing forward.

The German tank tactics do not appear to

have been very thoroughly thought out, and consisted mostly of = mopping up.” This is probably due to the smallness of the number possessed by them and the improvised nature of the arm. Moreover, the belicf in their own powers of the members of the tank units must

have been somewhat

shaken

by the

official propaganda campaign which had been carried out for months by the High Command to discount the effect of the British and French machines. According to one authority, the reasons that the Germans did not during 1917 whole-heartedly take up the organization of tanks in large numbers for their great effort in the spring of 1915 were that when they first became aware of their existence it was too late to carry out the successive operations of design, experiment and manufacture in bulk; and that owing to lack of raw material and shortness

of man-power the manufacture of the machines would have entailed

the cutting down of the production of other war matériel.

There

does not seem to be much force in the first argument, if it be remem-

bered that 80 British tanks were ready equipped in the field within 13 months of the receipt of the specitication by the designers, and this without any existing machines to serve as patterns.

All along, the

attitude of the German I1igh Command seems to have been that of the staff and not that of the troops; and great endeavours were made to inspire the latter with the ofhcial views. Though othcial disbelief was scriously shaken by the surprise of Cambrai, the success of the German counter-attack 10 days later was used, illogically enough, to discount the ctfect produced by the previous assault by tanks. There was, however, a general and absolute revulsion of feeling after the great French

success on July 18 1918, and the British actions of

Aug. 8 and 21, which almost amounted to panic at H.Q., and con-

verted both critics and military authorities. There were numerous articles in the German press during Sept. severely censuring the [igh Command for having neglected to provide tanks for the German forces and to undertake measures against the Allics’ machines. Popular opinion became so strong that a stormy debate on the subject took place in the Reichstag in the following month, when the

Minister of War made an apology for the neglect to equip the German troops with this weapon.

There is no doubt as to the opinion

of the German army and the nation on the subject of tanks from

then on to the end of the war. For months after the cessation of hostilities the tank was called “ Deutschland’s Tod” —“ the Death of Germany.”

Trautan TANKS

A great part of the theatre of war in which the Italians were operating for so long was too mountainous for tank oper-

ations, and the question of the organization of a tank arm was not taken up by Italy until 1918. Manufacture of tanks was then started, and by the time the war came to an end one or

more Fiat machines were ready to take the field, but none was actually used. ANTI-TANK DEFENCE

The tanks used by the British and French during the war were designed to be bullet-proof only,. not being strictly speaking “armoured,” and were vulnerable to gunfire. The best active defence against them since they were moving targets, was the direct fire over the sights of as light a Q.F, piece as could insure penetration. Any field gun in use during the war, or light Q.F. guns of the “ Pom-Pom” type, were suficient. But as the tanks were mobile and could attack at any spot, often by surprise, to attempt to meet them with special or stationary guns in position would have entailed the distribution and Jocking up on the mere chance of attack of a prohibitive amount of artillery.

The alternative was the provision of suitable guns themselves

protected and capable of movement across country, so that

The Germans eventually

too small a scale to influence the course of operations. Technically, also, the German machines failed in mobility across entrenched country. In order to effectively attack the German tanks by gunfire armour-piercing shell was required, for they

were protected by hardened armour up to 30 mm. (1-2 in.) in thickness.

As the Germans were forced by circumstances to develop antitank defence, from which duty the Allies were almost entirely spared, the measures they adopted are here reviewed. Their action, which consisted for a long time largely of injunctions to the infantry not to lose their heads in the event of a tank attack, suffered from the continual inability or unwillingness of the High Command to take this weapon seriously, in spite of the lesson of Cambrai of Nov. 1017, till after the French attack on July 18 1918. In Sept. 1916 the Germans of course had no special means

of defence against the tanks, of the existence of which they were ignorant, and these machines had an opportunity on their first appearance never to be repeated. After the Somme battle certain measures of anti-tank defence, scemingly based on a misunderstanding of the nature of the machine, were undertaken, mostly in the direction of obstacles, such as pits, etc., in roads, and indirect artillery fire.

After April 1917, it was discovered

that neither the British nor French tanks were proof against the “K” armour-piercing bullet with which the troops had been equipped for use against loop-hole shields, and considerable reliance was placed on this fact. But this discovery did not help the Germans much, the tanks (Mark IV.) used in the next action by the British having had this to a great degree remedied.

During that year the value of gun defence against tanks was to some extent realized, attention being mostly given to indireet fre which of all kinds is lcast effective against moving targets.

A

certain number of special direct-fire, anti-tank guns often in

concrete shelters, were emplaced along the front. But not much attention was paid to the use of direct fire from field artillery normally in the sector attacked.

This was not so on the occa-

sion of the French attack on the Crayonne Plateau on April 15 1917, when the guns of the defence of all kinds did great execu-

tion among the French machines.

At the battle of Cambrai

again, some of the German field artillery were most effective against the British machines, one well-concealed gun served by

a German major putting 16 tanks out of action. During the period of preparation for the 1918 offensive the antitank rifle, which was a definite step forward, was evolved. This was a heavy, single-loading rifle of 530-mm. calibre, 5} ft. long, weighing 36 Ib., firing armour-piercing pointed bullets. The bullets penetrated the tank plates, though they did not necessarily place a tank out of action; but the weight of the weapon

and its recoil hampered free employment by the infantry, It was after July 18 and Aug. 8 ror, that the German High Command awoke to the danger threatening the German defen-

sive, and indeed issued almost panic instructions, Special antitank defence officers were appointed to the different formations;

guns were brought up to the front line and emplaced for action against tanks alone; and sections of reserve batteries were

allotted to this duty, whilst all batteries (including howitzers) were to take up positions from which they could engage tanks by direct fire. The most efficacious of these precautions was the employment of the mobile guns of reserve batteries which were

not so likely to be knocked out by barrage fire as those in positions closer to the front. Tanks became a bugbear, all sorts of precautions in the way of signals to notify their approach were taken, such as the installation of rockets, syrens, Klaxon horns: and permanent alarm posts were established. The passive form> of defence employed were: obstacles in the roads and entrances tu villages, such as steel palisades, concrete blocks set sufiicientiy

TANKS

696

cluse together to prevent the passage of tanks and of sufficient height to be unclimbable, and mine craters. ln some cases elaborate chevaux-de-frise were erected across stretches of the front; ‘ booby-traps ” such as tank-pits were laid and certain areas in the later stages of the operations were flooded. Mines were

A remarkable feature about the introduction of the British tanks was the fact that they were to a great extent forced on the army by the action of certain enthusiastic individuals, of whom one only was a serving soldicr. Some of those, also, who were

employed to an increasing degree, sometimes in large minefields.

ning formulated the tactics for its employment, which were finally after an inexplicably long period put into practice in the feld. This was the case with the British and the French. The

It does not require a great amount of explosive to damage a tank, and the mines laid by the Germans were usually clectro-contact, or mechanical “tread ” mines, which were fired by the weight of a tank passing over them the charge being a gun or trenchmortar shell. But Jand mines have the drawback of being dangerous to those who use them, and the greatest damage done to tanks by mines during the war was to the British machines manned by Americans in July 1918, by a British minefield prepared during the retreat in March and forgotten.

On the whole,

all these artificial obstacles proved a failure, for they could not be continuous, and could be avoided by a cross-country vehicle.

The Germans finally took the obvious step of producing a large-calibre, high-velocity machine-gun firing heavy armour-

piercing bullets. This weapon, if fairly mobile, would have been an efiective reply to the tank had it been introduced sooner, It was known as the “ Tuf ” (Tank und Flieger), was of 13-mm. calibre and could fire zoo bullets, said to be capable of piercing 30 mm. of hardened steel, a minute. Great efforts were made to

produce it quickly and to keep its manufacture secret.

Six

thousand were to have been ready by April 1919, but by the Armistice none was in the field.

The greatest physical obstacle to the advance of tanks—one form of defence—expericnced during the war was mud, and this

was intensified by the concentrated and prolonged artillery fire which was generally carried out by both sides. In dry weather this rendered the ground almost impossible to negotiate and in wet weather made it absolutely impassable by any machine moving on the surface of the ground. This was well exemplified

during the third battle of Ypres in 1917, when the Germans could not have arranged a better defence against tanks than the

Morass created in the low-lying battlefield by the British guns.

Here the conditions were such as to render futile the employment of tanks which

was attempted.

The best anti-tank defence

bevond this half-natural, half-artificial obstacle, is, as has been said, the fire of suitable, mobile, light Q.F. artillery and carefully

disposed minefields. Inundations are likely to be rendered useless by the tank becoming an amphibious machine. GENERAL

CONCLUSIONS

The tank was the one complete British innovation in the war and a great one. The resurrection of an old weapon, It was

forced into a fresh existence during hostilities by the needs of the war, and created for a special purpose. In essence it amounted to the addition of bullet-proof plate and armament to an exist-

ing agricultural machine which possessed the quality of crosscountry mobility. Its immediate purpose was the destruction of the machine-gun—a weapon which, until the tank appeared, was responsible during the war for the loss of more human life than any other, and upon which the Germans at bay, on the defensive, placed so much reliance. With the machine-gun in this connexion is associated the wire obstacle. The combination of the two was the disease for which the tank proved to be the only cure; but, early as the disease was diagnosed, it had grown

to be the scourge of the Allies on the western front, whenever they attempted to press forward as demanded by the strategic situation, long before the cure was applied. The tank was the great life-saver of the infantry. To it many thousands of the

soldiers of the Allies, principally French and British, owed their lives—infantrymen who but for the tanks would have had to repeat, ona larger scale and possibly abortively, the bloody offensives of 1915, 1916 and the first half of rorz. It took the place of the old stereotyped and expensive artillery preparations, with more certain results, and also reintroduced the surprise factor, which the preliminary bombardment prevented, and which the conditions of trench warfare otherwise rendered impossible without the protection to the infantry afforded by it.

responsible for the creation of the new weapon, from the begin-

British first used tanks in Sept. 1916, and first employed them

correctly on a large scale on Nov. 20 1017, 14 months later. The French first used tanks in April 1917, and first employed them correctly, on a large scale, on July 15 1918, also 14 months later. And in each case this happened in spite of the proper method having been put forward, and its adoption urged. The only explanation of this policy is that it was due to inherent conservatism

and lack of imagination, incredulity concerning

the attributes of the new weapon, failure to understand what they implied, and initially lack of patience. That the tanks achieved their object was shown by the prep-

arations made by Great Britain, France, the United States, Italy and also Germany

for the continuation of the struggle in

1gtg, and by the fact that their manufacture had begun to take up a large proportion of the munition-producing capacity of three at least of the combatants. In regard to results, it is only necessary to recall one major fact, so far as the British were concerned, t.e; that after the era of mechanical warfare, as it has been termed, set in, on Aug. 8 1918, and between that date and the Armistice, 59 British divisions were able to defeat og German

divisions, a reversal of the proportion usually considered between attackers and defenders. The offensive had obtained the superiority; and strength could no longer mated by the counting of heads. During the war the

to hold at last

be estiGerman

infantry confessed itself impotent against tanks, But since the war not only have the infantry soldiers of other nations come to

the same

conclusion, but admit that they are often helpless

without tanks to assist them. In certain circumstances they demand the assistance of these machines; and they are right. In regard to the influence of the new arm on the result of the war amongst a mass of corroborative evidence, one statement includes and covers all others. On Oct. 2 1918, when the end was fast approaching, the report to the heads of the Reichstag partics

made by the representatives of German military headquarters began with the following words!:— “The Chief Army Command has been compelled to take a terribly grave decision and declare that, according to human possibilities, there is no longer any prospect of forcing peace on the enemy.

Above all two facts have been decisive for this issue. Tanks—. . "

First, the

Such an admission, wrung after four years from those who had confidently started the World War, is suficient. In regard to the different ways in which tanks established their military valuc, apart from the actual results achieved, some

instructive statistics have been prepared of their action from the aspect of the “economics” of war.? In fighting man-power a brigade of 144 tanks has a fire-power equivalent to that of 24

light batteries of six guns each, and nearly 200 more machineguns than are carried in a division. An infantry division accompanied by one battalion of tanks can attack three times the frontage that can be attacked by a division unaccompanied by tanks. The fighting infantry in three divisions is 21,000 men, of one tank battalion 300. The saving in man-power is therefore 13,500, or 63%, and with equivalent fire-power the chances of casualties are reduced. As to economy in infantry casualties, the losses on the first day at the battle of Cambrai (a tank battle) were approximately 1,000 per division engaged; at the

battle of the Somme

(an artillery battle)

there were 3,000,

Between July and Nov. 1917, when tanks were uscd on impossible ground 258,000 casualtics were sustained by the British; between July and Nov. 1918, when tanks were used on possible t Report by Col. Bauer, Chief of the Artillery Department. ? The Gold Medal (Military) Prize Essay for 1919 by Brevet-Col. J]. F. C. Fuller (Journal of the Royal United Service Institution,

May 1920). These statistics refer to the experience of the British.

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TANNENBERG—TAUSSIG

698

ground, the Germans lost 284,000 prisoners alone. As to cconomy in artillery personnel, at the third battle of Ypres 121,000 artillery personnel, were used on a front of 17,000 yd., the maximum

penetration attained on July 31 (one day) being 3,300 yards. At Cambrai 4,100 tank personnel carried out the work normally done by the guns on a front of 13,000 yards. The maximum penctration attained in one day was 9,500 yards.

As to economy

The Tank Corps (1919); J. F. C. Fuller, Tanks in the Great War

(1920); D. G. Browne, The Tank in Action (1920); Dutil, Les Chars T Assaut, leur création et leur rôle pendant la guerre, 1915-1918 o M. Schwarte, Die Militärischen lehren des Grossen Krieges 1920).

Figs. 1, 9, 10 and 11 are from Tanks in the Great War by Col.

J. F.C. Fuller, D.S.O., by permission of the author and Mr. John

Murray. Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. and 8, from ‘' British Tanks ” by Sir E. H. Tennyson d'Eyncourt, K.C.B., D.S.O., are reproduced on a

in cavalry personnel, the personnel of all ranks in a cavalry division (without the Royal Horse Artillery) would suffice to

reduced scale by permission of the publishers of Engineering.

man and equip three brigades of Whippet tanks or 540 machines.

TANNENBERG, 2 village of East Prussia, 1o m. S.W. of Hohenstein. It has given its name to two battles of great importance in German history, the battle of July 15 1410, in which the

As to economy in ammunition, at the battle of Arras, on a front of 17,000 yd., 2,007,534 shells, weighing 57,000 tons, were fired; at the third battle of Ypres, on the same frontage, 3,107,363

shells, weighing 93,463 tons, were fired.

Poles and Lithuanians

destroyed the forces of the Teutonic

At Cambrai, on a

Order (see 21.905), and that of Aug. 26-31 1914, in which the

13,000 yd, front, 293,149 shells, weighing 5,524 tons, were ex-

German VIII. Army under Gencral-Oberst von Hindenburg destroyed the Russian I]. Army commanded by General Samsonov. The latter is described in detail under the heading MasuRIA, BaTTLes 1N. For a critical account of the former, the story of which has been overlaid by a mass of Icgends, see Delbrück, Gesch. der Kriegskunst, Vol. iji., book iv., ch. 6.

pended.

It is shown that the use of tanks also leads to economy

in munition manufacturing man-power, in shipping and land transport, in weight carried by the soldier, in labour on the battlefields, in property damaged, in forage or food, in time and in cost of production. In regard to the latter item the cost of projectiles and explosives alone for 1918 was {320,860,344 and for the undeveloped new arm, tanks, £9,587,960.

This inevitably

leads to speculation as to what results might have been had Mr. de Mole’s suggestion made in 1912 been taken up and developed, even at the cost of 12 hours’ conduct of the war in 1918.

The principle of mechanical warfare and the advantage of using power-driven machines instead of human and animal muscle having been established in one particular direction, there is little doubt but that it will be applied in others. In future, there will be larger and smaller fighting tanks developed from tbose born in the World War. They wil be speedier, more powerful and have a far longer range of action. Some will also be amphibious, and all will be less easy to stop than the present somewhat embryonic machines. The principle of track propulsion will be applied to vehicles of all types and not confined to fighting machines, and will to a great extent eliminate the necessity of using roads or railway, and place the movement of armies on a “‘ two-dimensional ” basis instead of being on a onc-dimen-

sional basis as it has in the past.

Future fighting tanks will in

certain theatres be able to replace cavalry and may against a civilized enemy be able to carry out, with acroplanes, those long-

distance raids against H.Q. and important points far behind the fighting-line, which since the advent of the machine-gun cavalry cannot execute, will give greater facility both for the release of gas in large quantities, if gas is used, and also for obtaining protection against gas. The fighting machines will be very largely used in conjunction with action in the air, and the two services will be complementary and mutually helpful. Large

tracts of roadless country which have to be held agzinst an uncivilized enemy, or a hostile population, will provide the first opportunities for the development of this combination, on account of the saving that will be effected in men and animals, the most expensive and delicate parts in an armed force. In killing-power, mobility, and endurance, one cfficient mobile machine with its crew and machine-guns will be able to take the place of many infantry or cavalry soldiers and many horses, and will cost less to maintain and feed. In the United States

TARKINGTON,

[NEWTON]

BOOTH

(1869-

), American

writer, was born in Indianapolis, Ind., July 29 1869. After studying at Phillips Academy, Exeter, Mass., he entered Purdue University, Lafayctte, Ind., but two years later transferred ta

Princeton, where he graduated in 1893. At first he intended to follow a business career, but after a few years devoted his time

to writing. He was elected to the Indiana House of Representatives for the term 1902-3. In 1918 he received the degree of Litt.D. from Princeton. In 1920 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. The same year he was engaged as a writer of photo-plays by the Goldwyn Pictures Corporation. His first story, The Gentleman from Indiana, was published in 1899, having appearcd already as a serialin Af{cClure’s Magazine. In 1900 his reputation was established by Monsieur Beaucaire, which he successfully dramatized (with E. G. Sutherland) in tgot. In 1919 he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize by Columbia

University for his novel, The Magnificent Ambersons (1918). His other stories include

The

Two

Vanrevels

(1902);

Cherry

(1903); The Conquest of Canaan (1905); Guest of Quesnay (1908);

Beauty and the Jacobin: an Interlude of the French Revolution (1912): Penrod (1914): Penrod and Sam (1916); Ramsey Mutholland (1919); Alice Adams (1921). His plays include Cameo Kirby (1907); Your Humble Servant (1908); Mister Antonio (1916); The Country Cousin

(1917, with Julian Street); The Gibson Upright and Up From where (1919, both with Harry Leon Wilson); Clarence (1919).

No-

TATA, SIR RATAN (1871-1918), Parsee financier and philanthropist, was born at Bombay Jan. 20 1871, the son of the famous

Parsee merchant Jamsetji Nasarwanji Tata (see 26.448). He was educated at St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, and afterwards entered his father’s firm. On the death of the elder Tata in 1904, Ratan Tata and his brother Dorabji Jamsetji Tata (b. 1859)

inherited a very large fortune, much of which they devoted to philanthropic works of a practical nature and to the establishment of various industrial enterprises for developing the resources of India. An Indian institute of scientific and medical research was founded at Mysore in 1905, and in 1912 the Tata

Tron and Steel Co. began work at Sachi, in the Central Provinces, with marked success.

The most important of the Tata enter-

the possibility of the “motorization” of all war transnort and of

prises, however, was the storing of the water-power of the

eliminating the horse was in 1921 being fully discussed, and if the

Western Ghats (1915), which provided the city of Bombay with an enormous amount of electrical power, and hence vastly in-

signs are read correctly this will be the general tendency, so that the great wars on land of the future will be practically horseless and conducted by far fewer men in the field and more men in the factory and workshop

than has been the case in the past.

Strength for war will not in the future be estimated by counting heads, for, beyond the minimum necessary, the greater the number of human beings in a force in the field the greater will

be its vulnerability, The introduction of the tank in 1916 upset all the existing values of field defences, and its natural and inevitable evolution will cause a revolution in the methods of war as great as that in tactics causcd by its original appearance. In the compilation of this article reference has been made to the following works:—Clough William-Ellis and A. William-Ellis,

creased the productive capacity of the Bombay industries.

Sir

Ratan Tata, who was knighted in 1916, did not confine his

bencfactions to India. In England, where he hada permanent residence at York House, Twickenham, he founded (1912) the Ratan Tata department of social science and administration at the London School of Economics, and in 1912 established a Ratan Tata fund at the university of London for studying the con-

ditions of the poorer classes.

He died at St. Ives, Cornwall,

Sept. 5 1918. TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM (18597 ), American economist (see 26.456), was during 1917-9 chairman of the U.S.

Tariff Commission, which made a special study of commercial

TEISSERENC

DE BORT—-TELEGRAPH

699

’ treaties and prepared much matcrial for the American Peace t double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, and sextuple duplex have given results in the British Post Office service during a number of Commission in Paris. In March 1grg he was called to Paris to excellent years. The method of driving the mechanism of the Baudor disadvise in the adjustment of commercial treaties, and in Nov., tributors and receivers has been changed from weight driven gear, on invitation of President Wilson, attended the second industrial conference in Washington for promoting peace between capital and labour. He was a strong supporter of the Covenant of the

League of Nations.

He was the author of Principles of Eco-

nomics (1918; 2nd ed. 1915); Some Phases of the Tariff Question

(1915); Investors and Afoney-Makers (1915); and Free

Trade,

the Tariff, and Reciprocity (1919).

TEISSERENC DE BORT, LEON PHILIPPE (1855-1913), French meteorologist, was born in Paris Nov. 5 1855, the son of an engineer. He began his scientific career in 1830, when he entered

the meteorological department of the Bureau Central Metéorologique in Paris under E. E. W. Mascart. In 1883, 1835 and 1887 he made journeys to N. Africa to study geology and terrestrial magnetism, and during this period published some important charts of the distribution of pressure at a height of 4,000 metres,

In 1892 he became chief meteorologist to the Burcau, but re-

signed in 1896 and founded a private meteorological observatory at Trappes, near Versailles, where he carried out investigations on clouds and the problems of the upper air. In 1893 he published an important paper in Complies Rendus detailing his researches by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere. His discovery of the so-called isothermal laycr, or stratosphere as it is now generally called, will always stand out as pne of the

most important events in the study of the upper atmosphere. He also carried out investigations in Sweden and over the Zuider

Zee, the Mediterranean and the tropical region of the Atlantic, and fitted out a special vessel in order to study the currents above

the trade-winds. He waselecteda fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society in 1903, hon. member in 1900, and was awarded the Symons gold medal of the society in 1908. He collaborated

with Hugo Hildebrandsson in Les bases de la météorologie dynamigque (1907). He died at Cannes Jan. 2 1913. TELEGRAPH (see 26.510 *).—Apart from the advances in Wireless Telegraphy (see WIRELESS) and Cable Telegraphy (see

SUBMARINE CABLE TELEGRAPHY), progress since 1910 has been seen in various technical directions. The developments in

to electric motor drive. In the case of the receivers, a smal} series motor with belt drive is used, while the distributors are driven by the La Cour phonic motor. In both cases a considerable saving is

obtained in first cost and maintenance expenses with the advantages

of more satisfactory working and greater facility in changing apparatus when necessary.

The Carpentier method of automatic transmission on Baudot circuits has recently been reintroduced in the British Post Qffice,. but with several important improvements. In offices where a large number of keyboard perforators are used, each having its own particular lay-out, the change from one instrument to another caused serious difficulty from an operating standpoint. This difficulty was much felt with the original Carpentier keyboard, in which, owing to the exigencies of the Baudot code, the keys for the numerals were spread over the keyboard instead of being arranged on the first row of letter keys as in most typewriters. Carpenticr sought to minimize this diffculty by adding an extra row of keys for the numerals, and a

similar arrangement was adopted in the Morse keyboard perforators such as the Gell and the Kleinschmidt.

Messrs. A. C. Booth and A. S. Willmott have now invented a device which enables the keyboard for any type of machine telegraph, whatever the code used, to be arranged exactly as in

a typewriter, thus allowing the numerals to be placed in their standard positions without the extra row of keys. The Booth-Willmott-Baudot keyboard perforator punches the s-unit code transversely on a paper tape which is of the same size as that used in the Murray and Western Electric instrument (see hereafter), enabling the transmitters of either of these in-

stallations to be used in conjunction with it. Switches are provided on the instrument tables so that any particular arm of the multiplex may be worked automatically from a transmitter fed by a Booth-Willmott perforator or by direct-sending from

an ordinary Baudot keyboard sender at will. REFERENCES.—A, C. Booth, “ Telegraph Keyboard Perforators,”

L.P.O.E.E. Journal

(vol. xiv., p. 72}; A. ©. Booth, The

Baudot

Printing Telegraph System (1907), 1.P.0.E.E. paper; H.W. Pendry,

the United Kingdom and in the United States in some respects have differed, and this article therefore considers them in two

The Baudot Printing Telegraph System; A. C. Booth, “ The Baudot Duplexed,” I.P.0.L.E. Journal (vol. iii., p. 336): A. C. Booth,

sections which differentiate not only certain technical and commercial aspects of the subject but also certain distinctive points of view.

324); “ Duplex Baudot Tests,” J.P.0.E.E. Journal (vol. vii., p. 11); E. Montoriol, “ Baudot System in France,” 1.7.0.E.2. Journal (vol. xX, Pp. 25); E. Lakey, “ Progress of Baudot Duplex,” ILPO.E.E, Journal (vol. xii., p. 216); Post Office Technical Pam-

UNITED

Kincpomu

One of the most important developments in type-printing telegraphy is the adaptation of the Baudot for duplex working by A.C. Booth in 1905. This forms the basis of all modern multiplex systems, and has led to a great increase in the output and flexibility of such systems with a consequent considerable extension of their use,

“ Progress of Baudot

System,”

| phlet for Workmen, BO. Murray Mulliplex—The

JI.P.O.E.E.

Journal

(vol. vi., pP

difficulty experienced

by Baudot

operators in manipulating accurately the direct-sending keyboards I

Feed?

foles 3 4 5 Fic. 2.

=JS, Sending Ringt

ve -ENT

i

gf Bist buters

in time with the cadence signal words per minute led Murray to automatic transmission in his features of the Booth-Baudot

at speeds much in excess of 30. adopt the Carpentier method of multiplex system. The main

system are utilized, but the operators perform on perforators which have keyboards similar

to that of an ordinary typewriter and do not have to keep in time with a cadence signal. Each key of the perforator, when depressed, perforates in a paper tape, a particular combination of Fic. 1.

holes in accordance with the arrangement of the five-unit code adopted by Murray. The tape thus prepared has its perforations across the slip and not longitudinally as in the case of the Murray

underlying principle of the Booth-Baudot

automatic system, the use of which has been abandoned, so that a great saving in the cost of paper results.

outgoing signals from the sending Tings of the distributor at the home

Fig. 2 shows a portion of the Murray multiplex transmitting tape perforated to représent the word “ telegraph.” From the perforator,

Booth-Baudot.—The

will be understood by reference to fig. 1. It wi] be seen that the station divide differentially at the fine relay and therefore do not

affect the receiving apparatus which is connected in the local cir- the tape passes directly into an automatic transmitter, which has cuit via the receiving rings of the distributor, Installations of five selecting needles, each controHing a Contact lever resting * These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

700

TELEGRAPH

normally against a bus-bar connected to the spacing pole of the line battery. When a needle passes into a hole in the tape the corresponding contact lever moves over and makes cpntact with a bus-bar connected to the marking pole of the line battery. The positions of the contact levers are therefore determined by the perforations in the tape and as each lever is connected to its own particular segment on the sending ring of the distributor, the signals representing a character are sent out to line, one after the other, as the brushes pass over the segments.

Immediately the brushes have passed over

the last of the segments allocated to a particular transmitter a cur-

rent impulse is sent from another ring of the distributor through a

“ cadence " electromagnet in the transmitter, which when operated

withdraws the selecting needles that have entered perforations and

ropels the tape forward sulticiently to bring the next group of per-

fraton into position above the selecting needles. Provision is made for preventing mutilation of the paper tape when the transmitter overtakes

the perforator,

by arranging

for the tightening of

the tape to actuate a lever situated between the two instruments. When the lever is pulled down the armature of the cadence electromagnet is prevented from moving. As soon as the tape slackens the lever rises and transmission is continued. For the reception of signals Page printers are employed somewhat similar to those which were used in the Murray automatic system, but differing from them in that the five selecting combs, which determine the letter to be

trolling their upward movement and determining the polarity of the ` current impulses sent to line during each revolution of a brush over the five segments of a distributor.

The sending distributor brush arm

is driven by a shunt wound motor whose speed is kept steady by means of a heavy Aywheel mounted on the spindle. Unison with the brush arm of the receiving distributor at the distant station

is maintained by the actual working signals. The receiving and translating arrangements of the receiver are almost entircly elec-

trical, and printing is effected by the discharge of a condenser chrough

an electromagnet, the armature of which

presses momentarily a

paper tape against a revolving type-wheel. This tape is afterwards pasted on ordinary message forms as in the Baudot system. In addition to the printing tape, the incoming signals can also actuate’

a keyboard perforator to provide a perforated tape for retransmission purposes. The system may be worked either simplex or duplex and is capable of giving a maximum speed of 166 words per minute in each direction. REFERENCES.—Herberts Telegraphy (latest ed.}; Post Office Technical Pamphiet for Workmen, B7. ‘ The Siemens Automatic FastSpeed Printing Telegraph,” Electrician (July 11 1913).

The Morkrum Telctype.—This is a single-linc system of printing telegraphy which has been recently developed by the Morkrum

Co. of Chicago, U.S.A.

It may be dupicxed, and is suitable for

printed, are positioned by electromagnets instead of by a perforated tape. The normal speed of working of each arm of the Murray multiplex is 40 words per minute, although speeds in excess of this may be attained. KeFERENCES.—D. Murray, Practical Aspects of Printing Telegraphy, |.E.E. Paper (19tt); latest edition of Herberts Telegraphy; Post Office Technical Pamphlet for Workmen, B7.

short lines over which the traffic is not very heavy. The apparatus comprises two units, a kcyboard transmitter, and a printer, which are mounted on one base to form a very compact combined sending and receiving instrument. The keyboard is arranged as for a standard typewriter, and is a direct-

The Western Electric Multiplex. —This system is also based on the Booth-Baudot duplex and came into use in 1914. The adoption of a method of correction from the actual working

shaft to revolve opening and closing the line circuit according to the 5-unit code. Starting and stopping impulses are sent over the line to start and stop the selecting mechanism of the printer

signals themgelves, instead of utilizing special correcting signals as in the Baudot and Murray systems, results in a saving of line time and therefore gives a greater output on difficult lines. The transmitters and perforators are the modern developments of Carpentier’s but the printer used types the message in page form instead of on a paper tape as in the Baudot system, from a type wheel which rotates from character to character as may be required. This printer has not given entirely satisfactory results, and is being superseded by one in which type bars are used in place of a type drum and the paper is kept central instead of being moved sidewise to and fro. The phonic wheel distributors are driven by electrically vibrated tuning-forks, which possess an advantage over vibrating-reeds in that they may be placed on the instrument table instead of being fixed to a steady support as is required in the case of reeds.

The Kleinschmidt Electric Co. of New York have recently

designed a very compact column printer which may be used on Western Electric multiplex circuits. As in the Murray printer, there are five selecting combs which are operated by clectromagnets, When the combs have been positioned, during the reception of a character, certain slots in the combs are thereby brought into alignment allowing a pull-bar attached to one extremity of the required type-bar lever to fall into them. Directly after the combs have been moved and the type-bar lever selected, a contact is closed mechanically, completing a circuit through a printing magnet which, when it operates, causes the selected

pull-bar to be impelled forward, thus projecting the free end of the corresponding type-bar lever against an ink ribbon and

printing the required character as in a typewriter. REFERENCES.—P, M. Rainey, ‘A New Printing Telegraph System," Electrical World (April 3 1915); The Western Union Multi-

plex System (Pamphlet printed by Telegraph and Telephone Age); A. H. Roberts, ‘‘ A New Type Printing Telegraph System,” I.P.0.E.E. Journal (vol. vin, p. 193); Post Office Technical Pamphlet for Workmen, B7.

The Sicmens Aulomalic System.—The original Siemens automatic system used an 11-unit code actuating a receiver which printed the incoming signals in Roman characters on photographic paper. The preparations required for the received slips, which had to be

developed chemically, impaired its usefulness for actual traffic, and the system was superseded in 1912 by one using a 5-unit code and a revolving type-wheel. The latter is now extensively used in Germany and to a limited extent in other countries. As in the case of the Creed and other automatic systems there are several perforating operators and one transmitting operator at the sending station. The prepared tape from the Keyboard perforators

is passed through the transmitter aver five selecting needles, con-

sending instrument the keys of which when operated allow a cam-

so that from transmission point of view the system has actually

a 7-unit code. A feature of the system is the controlling and selecting mechanism of the printer, which is an ingenious combination of the Hughes and Baudot printers. The received message is printed on tape in exactly the same way as in the Baudot printer and afterwards gummed on ordinary message forms. The maximum speed of operation of the keyboard is limited to 45 words pcr minute and a device is provided which is actuated when this speed is exceeded and prevents the keys being depressed too rapidly. The Creed System——One of the principal drawbacks to the original Creed system was the use of compressed air for working the apparatus, which in a large number of offices necessitated the installation of a special pneumatic plant. Moreover, the pneumatic Creed printer had a maximum spced of only 120 words per minute, so that on lines where the working speed was much in excess of this figure it was necessary to install two printers. in order to deal expeditiously with the traffic. The latest Creed instruments, however, have been designed to work electrically;

they are much simpler in their construction and give speeds up to 200 words pet minute. For the preparation of the transmitting tapes, Gell and Kleinschmidt perforators are generally used, each of which has a keyboard similar to that of an ordinary typewriter. The depression of a key selects, thraugh a system of levers, the punches required to perforate the holes in the tape for the corresponding signal, and closes a circuit through an electromagnet, the armature of which forces the selected punches through the paper tape. As these perforators prepare Wheatstone slip their mechanism is necessarily much more com-

plicated than that of keyboard perforators designed for a 5-unit

code, in which afl letters are of the same length, because in the former

a differential feed varying from two-tenths of an inch to over one inch is required owing to the varying length of the letters. These machines will work as fast as a typewriter, but 80 words per minute is regarded as the limit for practical pur

;

;

i

REFERENCES.—E. Lack, ‘The Creed Telegraph System, I.P.O.E.E. Journal (vol. vi., p. 249); "Description of New Creed Apparatus,” Electrician Gan 21 1921, vol. Ixxxvi., No. 4, p. 105); Post Office Technical Pamphlet for Workmen, B3.

Gulstad Relay—In 1898 Gulstad of Copenhagen invented a modified form of polarized relay, known as a vibrating relay, the use of which has enabled much greater speeds of working to be attained on underground and submarine circuits, and in some cases allowed repeaters to be dispensed with. In general construction it is similar to the British Post Office standard relay, but, in addition to the usual line coils, has two extra windings on the same cores. These windings are connected to a local battery

TELEGRAPH in such a manner that the relay tongue is caused to vibrate between the contact points, when the current through the line coils is insufficient to maintain it on either of the contacts. The principle of the relay may be understood by referring to fig. 3. Jt will be seen that the ends of the local windings are joined to terminals B and C and theircentre to terminal A, which is joined through an adjustable resistance Y to the relay tongue.

This resistance is

701

Tele-photographic Systems.—In 1o09 T. Thorne Baker read a paper before the Royal Institution in London describing his “ telectrograph ” process of transmitting pictures over long

distances.

The method, which was used on a large scale by the

Daily Mirror between London and Paris, is based upon the Bakewell copying telegraph.

for regulating the loca! current and keeping it below the value of the steady current through the Hine coils, Terminal B is connected to earth through a condenser K, while C has a resistance coil X in its earth lead,

Assuming that there is no current in the line coils and that the

rclay tongue has just reached the marking contact, there will then

be a momentary rush of current through the winding AB to charge

the condenser Kk, in a direction to keep the tongue to the marking side, thus preventing any tendency of the tongue to rebound. This current dies away rapidly, however, and directly its strength falls below the steady current flowing through the winding AC, the preponderance of ihe latter causes the tongue to move toward the spacing contact. [Immediately the tongue leaves the marking contact, the condenser K discharges through both windcharging

ings BA and AC in such a direction as to accelerate the movement

of the tongue, so that its transit time from one contact to the other

is thereby lessened.

When the tongue reaches the opposite contact the condenser K

d

is again charged, but this time from the other pole of the battery;

(Tr

*

Wheotstone Receiver

a stmilar cycle of effects therefore takes place on that side and the

Line Coils

Fic. 4, Synchronously rotating metallic drums, driven by clectric motors,

are employed one at each end of the telegraph line over which it is desired to transmit, say, a picture.

A half-tone photograph of the

picture is first printed upon thin sheet lead and subjected toa process which breaks up the photograph into a number of dotted lines printed in fish glue. This record is fixed round the transmitting drum,

which is traversed spirally by an iridium stylus,

The contact of

the latter with the lead is interrupted every time one of the fish glue

dotted lines comes beneath it, for duration depending upon the width of the line. The lead sheet is connected to the line, so that the trans-

mitting instrument sends a series of electric currents whose periods

of duration are determined by the width of the lines composing the

photograph.

At the receiving Station, the rotating drum carries a

piece of absorbent paper

impregnated

with a colourless

solution,

which turns black or brown when decomposed by an electri¢ current. Every brief current through the paper causes a mark to appear,

having a width depending on the duration of the current. ‘fhe arriving currents are therefore arranged to pass through a platinum stylus under which

the receiving drum

rotates,

then through

the

moistened paper resulting in the production of a number of marks

on the paper due to chemical decomposition.

These marks gradually

combine to produce the picture at the transmitting station. REFERENCES.—T, Thorne Baker, ‘‘ Telegraphy of Photographs,

Wireless and by Wire,” Royal Institution Proc. 2908—r0, vol. xix.

FIG, 3.

Foss and Petersen Method.—In this system a high frequency

tongue moves in the reverse direction. In this manner the relay tongue is kept vibrating, at a speed depending on the values given to the condenser and resistance.

In practice the adjustments are

such that the rate of vibration of the tongue under the control of the

local current is approximately equal to the rate at which the transmitter at the distant station sends reversals at Working speed. When this obtains, the signals passing through the line coils merely deter-

mine the length of time that the tongue remains in contact with either stop, its Movement therefrom being effected by the local current through the local windings as soon as the strength of the

line current falls below that of the local current in the cait AC.

It

is this effect combined with the action of the condenser in lessening the time of transit of the tongue, that enables a higher speed of

working to be attained on long and difficult circuits than if ordinary polarized relays were used. In the original Gulstad relay the line coils were not differentially wound; it could be used, therefore, only on bridge duplex or simplex circuits. To utilize the advantages of the Gulstad principal on

differential duplex circuits, the British Post Office has modified the Post Office standard relay, by adding extra windings and terminals. This modified instrument is known as a “G ” relay and is equally suitable for differential or bridge duplex working, The internal and external connexions of this relay are shown in fig. 4, in which the

dotted lines indicate the extra cos, For the correct reception of the incoming signals a Wheatstone receiver is connected to the relay

tongue.

REFERENCES.—E,

Lack, ‘‘ The Gulstad Relay,” J.P.0.E.E. Jour-

nal (vol, vii., p. 183); Electrical Review (June 1898 and Aug. 1902);

Herberts Telegraphy (latest ed.); E. Lack, ‘ Post Office Standard Relay 'G’," 1.P.0.E.L. Journal (vol. x., p. 34)-

generator capable of producing sparks is used at the receiving station. The sparks so produced are capable of puncturing a paper wrapped round a metal drum which rotates in unison with a similar drum at the sending station. The line wire is arranged so that when the sending end is connected

to earth the generator is partly short-circuited, thus suppressing the

sparking. At the sending end the shunting of the generator is effected

by means of a contact pin passing over a cylinder ou which the writ. ing or illustrations are inscribed in insulating ink so that the shunt circuit is cut out each time the pin passes part of the writing (see

Patent Specification No. 105,914, 1917).

(W. No.)

UNITED STATES

Technical developments made after roro practically revolutionized telegraphy as practised in the United States. These include printing-telegraph arrangements applied to telephone as

well as to telegraph circuits, simultaneous telephone and telegraph operation for long small-gauge cable circuits, and the use of alternating currents with resonant circuits in the so-called

carrier systems for multiplexing wire conductors. Radical changes were also made in the arrangements for and the methods of handling telegrams in large offices. Belt. conveyers, typewriters, pneumatic tubes, automatic time-stamps and

other labour-saving devices came to be used to a large extent. About 75% of all tclegrams handled by the Western Union

Telegraph Co. over trunk circuits in 1921 Were transmitted and

TELEGRAPH

702

To Line

Transmitters

Transmitters

Correcting Rings

Sending Rings Printers

Receiving Rings

Printers: Relay

D

-7 ) Tungsten

~ SS

|

Wo

I|

t+

Receiving]

Rings

=

l , Lamp

To Motor

Printin

Tt

Relay

i

Driving Fork

HI

Fic. §.—Simplified Terminal Circuit of Multiplex Printer System.

received by printing-telegraph apparatus.

The introduction of

machine telegraphy took place alter r910.

Progress can be divided into two gencral classes: (1) that relating to terminal equipment, such as printers; and (2) that rclating to the methods of working lines. Printing Telegraphy (a) Multiplex System.—The multiplex system giving double-duplex, triple-duplex and quadruple-cduplex service, as applied in America, was that developed jointly by the Western Electric Co. and the Western Union Telegraph Co. It uses the Baudot code and a system of speed correction for rotating distributors in which correcting impulses are generated from the character signals, thus saving line time.

The fundamental features of one arrangement for quadrupleduplex operation are shown in fie 5. The sending, receiving and correcting rings are parts of a distributor driven by a La Cour or phonic-wheel motor. The common sending ring is connected to the midpoint of a differentially wound line relay and the common "receiving ring to the armature of a printing relay included in the local circuit of the line relay. This local circuit also includes an

impulse relay, so arranged that short-current impulses are sent to the common ring of the set of correcting rings when the line relay armature moves from one contact to the other. These impulses come at intervals determined by the signals transmitted by the distant station. There are twice as many correcting segments as sending segments, and these are alternately connected to the wind-

ings of a correcting relay. One distributor on a circuit sets the speed for the other and if the corrected distributor is running too fast, the operation of the correcting relay causes the driving fork for its motor

to be retarded in its rate of vibration. If, on the other hand, the distributor is running too slowly, the fork is accelerated. It is essential to secure correcting impulses when all printing channels are

idle. This is done by reversing the polarity of the marking signals

of one or more channels. Various types of printer units have been successfully used with this system. Speeds as high as 50 to 6o sixcharacter words per minute per channel are maintained by operators.

The multiplex printer system has thus greatly increased operators’ loads as well as the number of telegraph channels which can be

obtained from cach line circuit, Means have been developed for economically extending the single channels of a multiplex-printer system from the multiplex terminal station to branch offices. (b) Start-Stop Printer Systems.—Successful systems giving single-

channel working, or two-channel working when operated duplex, To Break

Break

Relay

Rel

Key T

kegnet || —

a)

L

cite

2

+

= 6+

is,

Relay

Tape Lever Contact

OLD

Sending

Transmitting

- a “Start Magnet

1| a

PF

j

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|

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To other Stations m

dat

Receiving

{

© \ 4

|

Line

Break ey

7

: feeas

Distributor

Line

Sending Distribute

Transmitter Contacts

A

Station

Fic. 6.—Circuit of Start-Stop Printer System.

B

Receiving Distributor

TELEGRAPH =o

= oO

e

703 of copies and forms holding wax stencil sheets may

ee

e readily inserted into the machine.

Means are

provided for adjusting the strength of the blow of

ay

the type bars so that one to twenty copies can he secured.

(c) Cipher Printing System.—A printing system for rapidly ciphering and deciphering telegraph mes-

sages has been developed. It isthought that cipher messages prepared by this system are absolutely un-

breakable.

It was successfully applied by the U.S.

Army Signal Corps during the war and tests made indicate that messages can be ciphered and deciphered by this means with greater accuracy and

many times faster than by other methods.

This system was developed by the engineers of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Its principles are illustrated in fig. 7. A message prepared in perforated tape form by the ordinary panies perforator passes through transmitter A. his would ordinarily control the selecting magnets of a printer or an automatic perforator. Key

tapes B and C, however, passing through ordinary

tape transmitters, control relays which

interfere

with the normal operation of the selecting magnets

so that the resultant selection for any character of the message may be any one of the characters of

the Baudot code.

The characters of the key tapes

are selected at random and B is one unit less in Jength than C. All tapes are stepped in unison. Repetition in the resultant key will not occur until B as revolved 1, times. The proper starting position of the key tapes B and C for any message

may be indicated by six characters which may be

Fic. 7.—Selecting Circuit of Cipher System, have been developed for intcer-communicating purposes among a group of stations. These systems have been used to a considerable extent with telegraph circuits obtained from tclephone circuits. One

of these systems

employing

motor-driven

distributors at

each station is shown in fig. 6. The sending distributor at one station and the receiving distributor at the other are indicated in detail. The distributor brush arms driven through a friction clutch are normally held stationary by a latch and make one rotation for each character transmitted or received. A start impulse, usually the opening of the line circuit for a brief interval, releases the receiving start latches so that all receiving distributors start rotating. The five impulses of the Baudot code which follow the start impulse are distributed properly to the selecting magnets or elements of a

printer by the receiving distributors if their speeds coincide approx-

imately with that of the sending distributor. Close synchronism is not required since all distributors are stopped and caused to start from the same initial position for each character.

l

;

@—9j==

Ny

SEC ES INES —

Yo

To Telephone

Transmitting Relay

R

Ven Spo"

= =|

Cable Circuit

Cable Receiving Relay

Fic. 8.—Terminal Arrangement for Metallic Telegraph Cable

Circuit.

An important feature is the method by which any receiving station

can interrupt the sending station and obtain control of the circuit. As shown, this is accomplished if the line circuit is interrupted by the break key during the time the sending brush is passing over the sixth segment when a break relay at the sending station will be energized to open the circuit of the magnet controlling the latch. The

release key will then have to be operated to permit further sending.

This printing system has been used to a considerable extent for news distribution, where in many cases a number of sending and

receiving

stations are connected to one circuit and means must be

roided to allow any station to obtain control of the circuit. Key- | oard arrangements which may be used for perforating tape or for sending directly to the line have been developed and found very satisfactory for this kind of service. The Western Electric type-bar printer has been found very satisfactory for news service. This is| provided with a stationary paper platen and a moving type-bar

basket.

Books containing carbon paper for making a large number

y

P) į

Fic. 9.—Poldr Relay for Cable Telegraph System.

TELEGRAPH.

704 ciphered by an additional key.

In deciphering the cipher message

tape is placed in transmitter A and the characters combined with

the proper key to obtain the original message.

Methods of Working Lines (a) Simultaneous Telephone and Telegraph Working.—Considerable

advance has been made in the technical knowledge of simultaneous telephone and telegraph operation of line circuits.

Hand telegraph

systenis and single-channel pon systems usually operate at dot speeds of 10 to 25 per second and it has been found that in order to secure satisfactory service it is necessary to design line systems to transmit a frequency band of abowt 100 cycles per second. Since telephone frequencies range [rom about 250 to about 2,500 cycles per second, it is possible to secure satisfactory telegraph operation from telephone circuits by using frequencies below the lowest telephone frequencies and frequencies above highest telephone fre-

uencies.

More than 600,000 m. of telegraph circuits are obtained

rom telephone circuits in the United States.

Permanent

rents and represents a radical departure in telegraphy. The circuits are of high signal quality, a stable in operation and free from the duplex balance difteulties of direct current systems. This system has

enabled

the following communication

commercially from a single pair of open wires: Twenty I-way carrier channels; four t-way direct current channels; and one and onehalf ee circuits including the phantom. The carrier telegraph circuit is illustrated in fig. 12. The

facilities to be obtained

terminal apparatus for one

2-way channel, which re peats between the carrier circuit and the direct current extension

circuit,

is

mounted upon a vertical panel similar in appearance to that of the metallic telegraph system. The same sensitive relays are used in both systems. (d) Rotary Repeaters.— Success has been obtained

with the use of rotary re-peaters in connexion with -~ telegraph circuits operated by the multiplex printer system. This type of repeater restores distorted line sig-

nals to their original form

and has enabled printer circuits 3,000 m. in length to be operated successfully at

high speeds. (e) Fundamental Telegraph-Transmission Research.—Considcrable attention has been given to the telegraph-transmission poblem and improvements ave been made in the methods and means for measuring distortion of telegraph signals. The fundamental transmission requirements for different classes of service have

Fic. 10.—Diagram of Polar Relay for Cable Telegraph System. (b) Metallic Telegraph System.—The increase in knowledge of the fundamental requirements of simultaneous telephone and telegraph operation has enabled a telegraph system to be developed for opera-

tion over long small-gauge telephone cable circuits. This system is arranged for metallic circuit working using a relay operating with a current of approximately 2 milliampéres. The general circuit arrangements of this system are shown in fig. 8. The cable circuit is divided by a composite set or filter into two branches, one for the telephone and the other for the telegraph, the telegraph branch absorbing frequencies below the telephone interval. All metallic

lines in a single office are supplied from a common battery. The type of polar relay selected for this circuit is shown in fig. 9 and the

magnetic principle illustrated in fig. 10. The relay is provided with a Gulstad vibrating circuit and the armature, a reed, is the cross piece of a magnetic bridge. The line windings surround the armature, and a current in one direction causes the armature to move toward one pole while a current in the opposite direction causes it to

reverse its motion.

Chatter at the contacts is practically prevented

by cushioning contact springs attached to the armature. This system has been designed for cables containing as many as 300 working circuits. A telegraph repeater is shown in fig. 11. The simultaneous operation aftelephone and telegraph circuits has been carefully worked out in connexion with the design of long interurban

cables and the equipment used in connexion with them.

(c) Carrier Current Multiplex System.—One of the most interesting telegraph developments is the so-called Carrier Current System in which multiplex operation is secured by the use of a number of alternating currents of different frequencies and of resonant circuits for selecting them at the line terminals. This system uses vacuum

tubes for generating, amplifying and rectifying the alternating cur-

been

more

carefully

enumerated and advances made in the design of artifcial lines. (f) Interference.—Advances have been made in minimizing interfering currents in telegraph circuits both from high-tension power lines and from neighbouring telegraph circuits. Means have been devised to overcome the effect of differences in ground potentials on

pona

telegraph circuits. hisarrangement introduces a counter-electromotive

force which is automatically adjusted to neutralize the earth-potential difference between any two given

points.

Fic. 11.—Telegraph Repeater for

Cable System. (g) Codes and Sending Machines.—Codes, abbreviations, typewriters and automatic sending machines are now widely

used by operators to increase the capacity of manually-opcrated.

telegraph circuits.

The automatic machine is merely a vibrating

reed mounted in a convenient and portable manner, adjusted ta vibrate at telegraph speeds and provided with contacts for controlling the telegraph circuit. A movement of the controlling lever

in one direction causes the instrument to transmit a succession o dots, the number depending on the length of time the lever ts thus held. A contrary movement sends a dash. This instrument permits higher speeds than are otherwise possible to be maintained. with considerably fess fatigue on the part of the operator. lt may be readily connected with any ordinary telegraph circuit. Codes and abbreviations for shortening messages are used especially in distributing news. The Phillips Code is one that has been. generally adopted and an illustration of its use follows:— Transmitted message :-— . t potus wi ads cgs tsp q pip qsm.

TELEGRAPH

705 To other

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Amplifier

SSiecive

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Subscribers Apparatus

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40

TURKISH through to Erzerum.

The offensive began on Jan. 11 1916, up

the Aras valley, and by the 14th the Turkish positions E. of

Erzerum had been carricd.

It was unfortunate for the Turks

that at this moment Mahmud Kiamil had been called away to

Constantinople, and that his German chief of staff, Col. Guse, was on sick leave alter a severe attack of typhus. The temporary

commander of the III. Army, ‘Abdul Kerim Pasha, was not equal to the situation. The Turkish forces, after losing heavily in a serics of rearguard actions, took up a position on the heights N. and S. of Erzerum which had been hastily fortified. The Russians, who expected to overrun these defences at the first attack of their advanced guards, were checked for the moment; but a second assault, delivered by strong forces against the leit of the Turkish line from Kara Gobck, proved decisive of the fate

of the fortress, which fell into Russian hands on Feb. 15 1916,

the troops of Gen. Yudenich advancing by surprise against the southern front, where no attack was expected. The defenders of Erzcrum had certainly put up a good fight, and the Russian claim to have captured in the fortress 100,000 prisoners, 437 guns in the inner and 374 guns in the outer forts

and 200 field guns was certainly greatly exaggerated. The whole Turkish army, if we deduct the heavy Josses suffered, was barely 50,000 strong, and the whole artillery of the fortress amounted to barely ro% of the figures given by the Russians, The Turks, however, whose communiqués were easily the

most inaccurate ofall those issued by the belligerents, sent home

on Feb. 16 an entirely fanciful account of what had happened: “ On the Caucasus front,” it ran, “in the violent position fight-

ing which has continucd for the last three days despite the cold and snow, the encmy lost 5,000 dead and 60 prisoners.” The loss of Erzerum was not even mentioned, and even the Sultan and his entourage only heard of it some months later; and even when the facts were finally announced to the world the importance of the place was minimized and its evacuation represented as being a voluntary withdrawal on the part of the Turks. The Grand Duke Nicholas, far from resting content with his victory, vigorously followed up the Turks in their disordered retreat, and occupied Mamakhatun, On Feb. 24 the remnant of the beaten army crossed the Euphrates at Kotur.

Mahmud

Kiamil, who had resumed his command, was now replaced by Wahib

805

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Pasha; the greater part of the artillery and material

had been left behind in the retreat, and he only succeeded with

great difficulty in getting his troops across the river, which here flows from N. to S., and into position on the right bank on the heights of Baiburt. The V. Corps, which was arriving in haste and piecemeal from European Turkey, assisted in checking the In the coastal sector the detachment at Russian advance.

The loss of Trebizond finally aroused Enver Pasha toa realization of the full extent of the strategic danger in the E., and in March the IJ. Army was directed to the E, Anatolian front. It

was to deploy on the line Lake Van—Mush-Kigi, and advance against the Russian flank and rear in the general direction of Erzerum; it was to be brought up to a strength of 10 divisions

by the addition of the forces already in the area of operations, and to be reorganized in four corps. The commander, Ahmad ‘Izzet Pasha, had been promoted commander-in-chief of the

Turkish army after the Dec. armistice in the Balkan War. The strategic plan adopted by the Turkish Supreme Command for the II. Army was as usual exccllent in theory but impossible of execution. The idea of throwing a whole army on the flank and rear of the Russians must certainly have seemed seductive to anyone sitting over a map in Constantinople; for it seemed to promise a strategic encirclement, it followed famous precedents, and there was plenty of room for the manceuvre. In practice,

however, the plan paid no attention to the actual conditions of time and space. The II. Army was despatched in the spring by rail from Constantinople to Ulu Kyshla; the line, which was a single one, with enormous intervals between stations, was already serving as the line of communication for the Palestine and Mesopotamia armies, so that any rapid transport of the I. Army was out of the question. The Turkish Supreme Command made a grave miscalculation in assuming that the army would be assembled and ready for the advance in 40 days; the distance from the railhead at Ulu Kyshla to the area of concentration (some 400 m.), Which had to be covered on foot, would itself have taken up all that time. The amateur strategists at Turkish H.Q. took no account of these matters, and were mightily surprised when the event disappointed their expectations. As a matter of fact by July 8 the leading troops of the I. Army (III. Corps 7th and 11th Div.) had barely passed Malatia, and the rest of the army was still on the railway in August.

Meanwhile the situation on the II. Army front was going

from bad to worse, At the end of May it had carried out a few successful minor operations; Mamakhatun and Surmene (E. of

Trebizond) had been occupied, and the army command, which was now at Gumuskhane, misconceiving the general situation, proposed to carry out a powerful offensive S. of Trebizond early in July. For this purpose it suggested that the units of the IL. Army already available should push forward without delay to the area S. of Erzerum—an advance which, with the weak forces

which ‘Izzet Pasha had at his disposal, could only have been

effective as a demonstration or a piece of bluff. But even this could hardly have succeeded, in view of the excellent intelligence as to the Turkish movements which the Russians were known to

assailed by superior forces and compelled to fall back after

have, and ‘Izzct Pasha rightly declined to fallin with the scheme. As a matter of fact the Russians had full information as to these

back once more and occupied Trebizond.

li. Army, and seized their chance to attack the III. Army in July, before the II. Army’s menace to their flank could become effective. This was the best solution of their problem of opera-

Artvin, though reinforced by some units of the V. Corps, was

stubborn fighting. Maj. Hunger, the German commander, succeeded in making a renewed stand 20 m. E. of Trebizond, but by the middle of April the Russian 123rd Div. forced him

The Turkish strategic situation had now become serious. The possession of Trebizond allowed the Russians to open up a much shorter line of communications across the Black Sea from

the Ukrainian and Crimean seaports, and gave them a base

close behind their front. The disadvantage of having this base behind the right wing of thcir army could be compensated for by reinforcing this wing, so as to avoid any possibility of its

being forced away from its line of communications, while the land route to Erzerum from Kars was still in use and would be

available to supply the whole army if necessary. The Turks, therefore, had to expect that in the forthcoming spring the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose forces were continually being reinforced from the Caucasus, would resume the offensive on a large scale. The Turkish Supreme Command was now freed of ‘all anxiety from the side of the Dardanelles, but it still maintained three armies, the I. (Essad Pasha), the I. (Ahmad

‘Izzet Pasha) and the V. (Liman Pasha), massed in the Constantinople-Adrianople area, thousands of miles from the theatres of operations, in Mesopotamia and castern Anatolia,

happenings, and especially the progress of the transport of the

tions on the inner line, and Jt met with complete success. On July

+ the Turkish III. Army was driven from Erzinjan and Baiburt with heavy losses in men, guns and material, and was able to make another stand only on the line Kemach (on the Euphrates 30 m. W. of Erzinjan)-Chadali Pass—Tireboli on the Black Sea.

The most serious result of this defeat was the complete demoralization of the defeated troops; thousands of deserters, plundering and robbing, flooded all the country as far back as Sivas; columns and transport melted away

in panic on the

appearance of the Russian cavalry, who had broken through the Turkish line at two points and suddenly appeared in its rear.

The III. Army reported in Aug. that 13,000 deserters had rejoined their units, but the governor of Sivas estimated that some 30,000 were still at large in his area, The fact that the Mahommedan population in the area evacuated by the Turkish army fied in terror before the advance of the Russians added to the indescribable confusion.

When ‘Izzet Pasha with the IIT. Corps advanced at the end of July into the zone of assembly allotted to the II. Army the

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806

situation was as follows. In the hilly country S. of Bitlis was the sth Div., which had been driven from that town by the Russians, and the 8th Div. was in the hilly country S. of Mush, ‘Izzet formed them into the XVI. Corps. N.W. of them were only a few small detachments, holding the main roads as far as the Elmali vallcy, in which stood the r1th Cav. Bde. as the extreme right wing of the IIT. Army.

‘Izzet Pasha’s intention was to assemble the main body of his If. Army at Diarbekr and the smaller part at Kharput, and only then to advance in the direction of Erzerum and the country to

the E. of it. He knew that in front of him the reinforced IV. Caucasian Corps had taken over the task of guarding the flank of the Russian main army. This plan, however, was not carried out. The Turkish Supreme Command, in view of the disaster to the ITI. Army and the reports of constantly arriving Russian reinforcements, urged ‘Izzet toattack before the assembly of his forces had been finished. “Izzet had no option but to obey, though he was under no illusion as to the result. Ile wished at least to concentrate all his few available forces on the left wing of his area of deployment and to

make a push into the district W. of Erzerum, in order to relieve the pressure on the III. Army. But this also proved beyond his powers. The rst, r4th and 53rd Divs., which had arrived at the end of July and the beginning of Aug., were pushed forward against the Russians, who were still being reinforced on the front opposite the IT. Army; a few local successes were achieved and ‘Izzet Pasha on Aug. 10 decided to renounce a general offensive and to hold and fortify the line Kigi-Ognot heights S. of Mush. Thus ended the geometrical strategy of the Turkish Supreme

Command, which had from the first been based only on wishes and hopes rather than on definite realities. The administrative deficiencies in the II. Army had been, as usual in Turkey, so

great as alone to ruin all hope of success. ‘The army was sent forward into wild and mountainous country, in which only mountain artillery and columns of pack-animals could be moved,

and it was supplied with only 18 mountain guns and with ox-wagons for transport—and far from enough even of these, Figures as to the number of cattle in the deployment area were accepted without verification, and proved to be exaggerated some five fold. Those responsible for the supply services were, as ever in Turkish wars, quite incompetent to make the best of what turned up, and very disposed to steal the little that was available. Under such conditions the best plans are of no avail, for they can never be translated into actual practice. Meanwhile Wahib Pasha was displaying praiseworthy energy in reorganizing the III. Turkish Army, of which the headquarters were at Andria. Divisions were formed out of the old corps, regiments out of divisions, battalions out of regiments.

The army was divided into two ‘ Caucasian Corps,” the I. and IIL., the former comprising the sth, 11th and 37th Caucasian Divisions. But even these combined divisions were very weak. The volunteer formations and other irregular bands proved wholly useless, and were soon broken up. Gerfnan motor transport columns, established in the winter of 1916-7 on the line of

communications of the III. Army between Ulu Kyshla and Sivas, prevented a threatened catastrophe due to starvation. All Wahib Pasha’s efforts, however, could not restore the spirit of the IMI. Army and give back to it that confidence which was essential to the prosecution uf a successful offensive. The II. Army, when its concentration was completed, was

composed of the XVI., H., IV. and II. Corps. Mustafa Kemal (later to become famous as leader of the Nationalise army) was

the army commander.

‘Izzet Pasha was entrusted with the gen-

eral direction of the IT. and III. Armies operating on the Ar-

menian front, and moved his H.Q. to Kharput. The II. Army, which had its H.Q. at Diarbekr, was experiencing even greater difficulties in the matter of its communications than was the IIE. In the winter, however, the strain was eased

by both sides going into winter quarters, as in the old days. Only in the passes small observation detachments stood facing each other. In Nov. most of the troops were moved back into more sheltered districts, so that the Turkish and Russian winter

CAMPAIGNS quarters were some 30 to 40 m. apart, about the equivalent of

five days’ march in this were still short of food. only one-third of their themselves to find what

difheult country. The Turks, however, As early as Nov. the men were getting regular rations, the pack-animals had meagre pasturage they could, and to

find any was soon impossible on account of the deep snow; the cavalry horses were getting only r$} kilogrammes

of oats.

Hundreds of animals died every day. Again and again outposts, patrols and whole detachments of men were found starved or frozen to death in the holes of the rocks. In the terrible cold, which when snowstorms raged might well chill to the bone even the warmest clad men, the majority of the troops had only their summer clothing. The percentage of sick grew higher day by day.

The sanitary arrangements were in the highest degree defective, so that these miserable beings lived and died in boundless wretchedness. In the hospital at Kharput alone the average deaths in the winter of 1916-7 amounted to goo per month.’ Medical requisites were insufficient, and there were no means of

combating the plague lice and the epidemic of typhus which followed it. Of the III. Army 60,000 men perished between July 1916 and the spring of r917, and in the autumn of the latter year

barely 20,000 men remained at the front. The strategic position in Armenia at the beginning of 1917 was

extremcly unfavourable to the Turks. The Russians, who had obtained undisputed control of the Black Sea, had massed such strong forces in front of the II. and ILI. Armies that there could be no idea of a Turkish offensive. At the same time railways were being built from Sarikamish by Hasan Kala to Erzerum and from Trebizond and Gumuschane, on the completion of which the Russians in their turn would be in @ position to resume the offensive without being hampered by transport difficulties. This offensive might be directed cither against the front of one of the two Turkish armies, or from Lake Urmia along the southern shore of Lake Van against the almost unprotected flank of the IIT. Army. In view of the fact that a new English advance against Bagdad

was in preparation,

this latter seemed

very

probable, and Liman von Sanders did rightly in asking the Turkish Supreme Command, in the late autumn of 1916, to hold another army ready at Mosul.

The proposal, however, was re-i

jected by Enver. It would also have been sound policy to have’ placed the IF., IH. and VI. Armies (the latter being at Bagdad). under one command;

for the transference of forces between

Armenian and Bagdad fronts could not be carried out quickly enough from Constantinople, and a junction of the Russian and British fronts by an extension of the former by Urmia and the western frontier of Persia was shortly to be expected, A Russian

offensive from Persia against Mosul would certainly place both: the IIE. and the VI. Turkish Army in a perilous position. The completion of the railway from Igdir by Bayazid to Kara Kilissa: and its continuance by Tutak and Melassgirt seemed to indicate the probability of a Russian offensive against the right of the II. Turkish Army. The offensive against Mosul did not in fact take place; but this omission was a serious error on the part of the Russians and a piece of good fortune for the Turks, on which they had no right to count. However, Liman von Sanders’ request for the establishment of a single command was rejected by the Turkish Supreme Command. The relations between Enver and Liman had in fact gradually become so strained, that Enver made a point of refusing anytHing that Liman wanted.

The Grand Duke Nicholas had, for his part, been making energetic preparations during the winter of 1916-7 for a powerful new offensive. The LIL. Turkish Army was opposed by the V. Caucasian, I, Turkestan, and I. Caucasian Corps; the II. Turkish Army by the VI. and IV. Caucasian Corps as far as Van, Thence to the W. of Lake Urmia came the II. Caucasian Cav, Corps and a number of detachments (fortress regiments from Kars, frontier guard units, Armenian and Assyrian irregulars). The VII. and I. Caucasian Cav. Corps prolonged the

front from Sauj Bulak along the Persian frontier to W. of Kermanshah.

But the Grand Duke’s plans, which in view of the wretched condition of the Turkish armies must have led to a complete

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807

victory and perhaps driven Turkey out of the war in the summer

far they were interested in the retention of the Caucasus by

of 1917, were never carried out. This was in part due to the fact that all available Russian forces were being concentrated for Brussilov’s great offensive in Volhynia, but mainly to the out-

Caucasus, the ‘Turks resolved to conquer it, and obtained Ger-

break of the Russian revolution, which checked all large operations in Asia, When the revolution broke out in April the advance had not begun. In the course of the winter there had been nothing but local skirmishes for the possession of a hill or pass, which, whether they turned out to the advantage of Turks or Russians had no influence on the general strategic situation, The outbreak of the revolution was taken by many of the Russian troops as a signal that the war was at an end, though there were formations which still maintained their cohesion and discipline.

‘The Turks, however, were prevented partly by the

general military situation of Turkey and partly by the peculiar difculties of the II. and IIL Armics, from seizing and exploiting their advantage as they might have been expected to do. The rapid progress of the English towards Bagdad had necessitated the despatch of reinforcements to that theatre, and the maintenance of ihe Palestine front also absorbed large forces, so that there were neither men nor material left over for the Caucasian front. The two armies, barely 40,000 strong in the spring of

Russia.

On their replying that they had no interests in the

many’s consent to their doing so, though at the time they did not disclose to her ali their ulterior designs. The Russians retired at the end of Jan. 1917, and in Feb. the Turks advanced across the line Van-Erzerum-Trebizond. The Turkish armies, which together could muster only the strength of a weak army corps, were in such poor condition that even the

small, unorganized Armenian bands, who opposed them, were able to give them greater trouble. Their communigués at this time were full of stories of great victories which never took place. The forward march was carried out in two columns. The northern one, feeling its way very cautiously along the coast of the Black Sea, reéntered Trebizond on Feb. 24; the other reached Erzinjan on the r4th, and moved thence by Mamakha-

tun on Erzerum. Nothing was seen of the Russians, who, as a matter of fact, had long since recrossed the frontier; only a few desperate Armenians endeavoured to dispute the reoccupation of their country by their hereditary tormentors. The Turks were held up for some time by these bands in front of Erzerum, which they only “ recaptured”? on March

11, and

1917, were now formed into the “Caucasian Army Group ” under

revenged themselves by the usual revolting barbarities on the

‘Izzet Pasha, whose H.Q. were still at Kharput, and who had now been provided with a German chief of staff, Maj. von Falken-

unhappy Christian population. While Erzerum was being taken, the left Turkish column.

hausen.

advancing from Trebizond was approaching the frontier between Chopa and Magriali, and the political problem of the provinces of Kars, Ardahan and Batum, the occupation of which had been the motive of the advance, became acute. Their interest in these provinces caused the Turks to commit their

All this, however, did not in any way make it possible

to resume operations.

Typhus was still raging; in Feb. the IL.

Army lost 42 of its few doctors from this cause.

There was so

little wood that the delousing stations could not be heated. The deportation of the Armenian population had left the fields untilled, and the villages deserted and in ruins, Of the craftsmen who exhibit a multitudinous activity behind the armies on the European fronts there was not a sign, and even the workshops which had been busy in peace-time were deserted. The supply often broke down entirely. A shameless traffic in waggons went on on the single railway from Haidar Pasha to Ulu Kyshla,

which served the Palestine, Mesopotamian and Caucasian fronts. These waggons, which should have been used for military purposes, were privately hired out by officers and officials to contractors and war profiteers at high prices, and on this railway an illicit carrying trade was developed on a gigantic scale. The higher

authorities, who also took their quota of profit, were not inclined to interfere. So for the sake of these brutes thousands of brave Anatolian soldiers perished of cold and. starvation without even knowing the true cause of their miserable death.

The reports of the hopeless military position in 1917, which were sent to Berlin by the Turkish Supreme Command, were from first to last lies, and served only to increase the exaggerated

estimate of themselves which obsessed the minds of the German Supreme Command as well and caused the loss of every opportunity of arriving at peace of understanding. When Bagdad fell to the English on the night of March ro-11, the chance offered itself of a successful Russian offensive on Mosul either westward from Lake Urmia or from the region of Lake Van southwards. Had it been carried out even by one good corps it could not have failed to be successful. During the whole of r917 some 15 infantry and 2} cavalry divisions remained on the Russian front facing the Turks, but nothing important was

undertaken. The front from Trebizond to the Diala near Bagdad, where it connected with the English line in Mesopotamia, measured over 600 m. from flank to flank, and afforded far greater scope for free strategic manceuvres than the narrow

fronts in France, which were actually filled with guns and men. Warlike activity was only resumed in E. Anatolia, however, when Russia at the end of 1917 entered into negotiations with the Central Powers.

The political event which decided the re-

last and decisive strategic blunder, the greatest of which they had been guilty since 1914. The Turkish Government consid-

ered these operations in the Caucasus to be of the first importance, although the true decisive theatre for Turkey in r918 was Palestine. Instead of concentrating in Palestine the few troops it had available, the Supreme Command withdrew troops and war material from that front and despatched them to the “ East Caucasian Group.”? Even the small German contingent,

which formed the backbone of the Palestine army, was also sent to the Caucasus. Liman von Sanders’ words to Count Bernstorff, the German ambassador in Constantinople, written in June r918, were fully justified by events: “ The Turks are sacrificing all Arabia, Palestine and Syria to these boundless

undertakings of theirs in Trans-Caucasia, Germany will some day ‘be burdencd with the responsibility for this.” Enver and the German High Command had, however, succeeded in completcly decciving the German ambassador as to the Turkish objective, for the latter, in reply to Liman von Sanders, wrote on June 21 that the German Jager battalion was being transferred from Palestine to Georgia, ‘* not in response to Turkish wishes, but, on the contrary, for the purpose of restoring order in the Caucasus, so as to allow of the whole Turkish army being transferred thence to Mesopotamia by way of Urmia and Tabriz.” This, of course, could have been done more quickly and easily if the Turkish army had never advanced from Armenia into the Caucasus. The motive of the Caucasus adventure

lay deeper. Enver’s idea of attacking India, childish as it was, had yet proved enticing to the German High Command, and the strategic base for an invasion of India by way of Persia was actually established in the Caucasus in the summer of 1918. And this at a time when the decision of the World War was

ripening on the front in France! Considerations of an economic nature, it is true, carried great weight in the minds of the German Supreme Command at this time. The output of the Rumanian oil wells was insufficient; and it was therefore thought necessary to occupy Baku, and to

sumption of the offensive by the Turks, which took place early in

despatch petroleum thence to the Black Sea by the Tiflis rail-

1918, was the notification by the Turkish plenipotentiarics at Brest Litovsk on Jan. 17 that a Russian retirement from all the

way. It has been necessary to mention these considerations in order to make clear the motives of the Turkish operations in 1918. After the occupation of Erzerum the southern Turkish column

area occupied by them in Asia Minor was an essential preliminary to the conclusion of peace. At the same time the

Ukrainian delegates were asked by the Turkish delegates how

reached Olti, the first objective of the Turks in the winter of 1914-5, on March 26. Meanwhile the coast column was moving

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on Batum. The Georgians, however, who, naturally enough, had little sympathy with the Turkish “restorers of order,” banded themselves together to oppose their further advance. The latter were not even able to keep a firm hand on insurgent Armenia. Behind their backs Armenian bands even succeeded in occupying Erzerum for a time and thereby interrupting all movement on the Turkish line of communications. Meanwhile Georgian bands had occupied Batum. The Turks attacked the town and stormed the advanced positions on April 9; one fort

fell on the roth, two others on the 11th, and on the 14th the town surrendered. The Turkish Supreme Command seized the

opportunity to telegraph to the world at large the most incredi-

ble stories of victory.

Early in April Nuri Pasha, who was now in command of the

“ East Caucasus” Army, pushed a strong column from Lake

Van in the direction of Kars. Vostan, at the S.E. corner, and Arnis, at the N.E. corner of the Jake, were occupied after violent conflicts with Armenian bands, who fought with the utmost fierceness. Van fell on April 7. While this column was advancing on Kars by way of Kara Ki-

lissa, the Erzerum column, which had been brought to a halt after the above-mentioned capture of Erzerum by Armenian bands, pushed forward by Sarikamish, and the two columns thus converged on Kars. As there was no strategically effective enemy to overcome, the operation was successful, despite the late arrival of the Van force. The Erzerum column approached

Kars on April 5, after driving off some Armenian irregulars near Sarikamish; the Van column made slow progress through the revolted province of Bagasia, arriving at Kara Kilissa April 18. On the 26th the Turkish communigué reported the “ storming ” of the fortress of Kars (which was apparently undefended) with the capture of 860 guns. This number was considerably in excess of the truth.

There is no doubt, however, that the

provisions secured in the fortress considerably facilitated the further prosecution of the operations. The column advancing along the coast had meantime pushed on from Batum to KobuIcti and Ozurgeti on the edge of the Caucasus mountains. The Turks now felt themselves to be masters of the situation,

the last vestige of that strategic sobriety which alone could now save Turkey from ruin. Every week 14 coal trains were sent from Germany to Constantinople; of these seven—far more than were necessary—were

kept for the use of the capital itself;

2,500 tons were shipped by way of the Black Sea to the E.

Caucasian Army, and the rest was absorbed by the Anatolian railway—or in other words the war profitcers, who filled whole

trains with their goods and paid out untold sums in bribes to the railway officials to give them priority of passage. The E. Caucasian Army extended itself in Transcaucasia and N. Persia, from Lake Urmia to Arax, during the course of the summer, without troubling themselves in the least about the dangerous English offensive against Mosul, where 4,000-5,000 Turkish soldiers were posted in conditions of the utmost misery, The few events that followed in Transcaucasia were of little military interest, and consisted mainly of a few petty scufiles

without influence on the general situation, and unsuitable for inclusionin a strategic narrative. Even the despatch of a German

division to Georgia in the summer of r918 had no other object than the furtherance of those plans, on the futility of which we have already insisted,

Nuri Pasha, with Bolshevik help, certainly succeeded in expelling from Baku a small British force which had crossed the Caspian and occupied the town on Aug. 12. This incident, however, had no effcct on the strategic position, In Persia Nuri pushed forward to Tabriz. The final conclusions as to the Transcaucasian operations may be summed up as follows. The position of Turkey and of the Central Powers in 1918 was such that a military victory was out of the question. This fact, however, was recognized neither by Ludendorff, who wasted the defensive strength of the German army in a purposeless spring offensive, nor by Enver, who was obsessed by his vast schemes for annexation of territory.

The

despatch of a strong German division to the Caucasus, and the operations of large German forces in the Ukraine in the summer of 1918, when the war was being fost in France, show the kind of

strategic conception then prevalent. In the case of Turkey the theatres of war which had to be supplied with men and material

and their pretensions became so outragcous as to lead to scrious

were too numerous for the resources available.

controversies with the German

which, for the

sians collapsed in rg18 a wise strategy would have considered

first tíme in the war, was compelled to protest energetically against their exorbitant claims. It had, however, only itself to blame for their exaggerated estimates of themselves. In the middle of May the plenipotentiaries of the Govern-

acecpied with gratitude, and would have, as a natural consequence, transferred all the forces thus liberated to the Palestine

Government,

ment of Northern Caucasia addressed a note to all the Powers,

announcing the formation of an independent state, separated from Russia. Transcaucasia, however, remained in a complete state of confusion, though the proclamation of the independence of the country by the assembly which met carly in

June at Baku was

plainly directed against Turkey.

What

exactly was meant by Transcaucasia, however, must have been obscure even to the assembly, for a few days earlier there had

been set up under Turkish auspices three independent states, known as the Georgian, Tartar (Azerbaijan) and Armenian Republics. Necessity had compelled all three to conclude treatics of perpctual amity and alliance with Turkey, who had every intention of annexing these weak states at the carliest possible moment.

Enver did everything to strengthen his political army in the

Caucasus. Accelerated promotion and doubled pay were promised to the officers serving with it, with the result that many officers, who were urgently required in Palestine, got away from that theatre, where they reccived no pay at all. In the summer the Caucasus Army was increased to six complete divisions, which were stronger than they had been

at any time since 1914. numbering 9,000 men rach.

The trans-

port of these troops, and their reserves, material and supplies absorbed all the fuel available, so that no trains could be sent to the Palestine Army, on whose fighting force the ultimate decision

of the war depended. The Pan-Islamic idea, which had been propagated since the beginning of the war, had produced a com-

plete confusion of mind and robbed Enver and his entourage of

When the Rus-

the elimination of one theatre of operations as a relict to be

front. Such a course would of itself have relieved the pressure on the Mesopotamian front, which could no longer be saved by di-

rect means. The underlying idea ought to have been that a tenable military position in Palestine would have been more favourable, in the event of negotiations for peace, than any conquests in the Caucasus, which would have to be given up again in case of military defeat. Enver, and with him a whole serics of Turkish and German military men, had never had that conception of the limits of the possible which is the prime characteristic of every great strategist. They mistook the elaboration of immense and impracticable schemes for genius, whereas true genius Consists of getting the best possible results from the

material available. The events on the E. Anatolian front also serve to prove very clearly that strategy is an art not to be mastered, even with the best will in the world, by a layman such as Enver, and that it is governed almost entirely by the geographical conditions of the theatre of operations. This should have been recognized by the office strategists of Constantinople, who had no clear grasp of the geographical conditions of the country in general or in detail, and failed to realize that strategical manœuvres which seem highly promising on the map may be impossible of execution in practice. In the German schools of strategy, and also in Turkey, so-called military geography was before the war treated with complete contempt, as it was believed that it tended to limit freedom of strategic conception, The campaigns in the East proved that freedom of strategic conception, unless based on accurate geographical knowledge, is not only profitless but a fruitful cause of defeat. Finally, the war in Eastern Anatolia may teach us one valuable psychological

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809

out, synchronized with a marked increase of activity on the part lesson, which was insufficiently appreciated by the Turkish Supreme Command The form of a strategic movement has of of the Turks, for they appeared in some force near Qurna and itself no driving force; the vital factor, in strategic force too, is also seriously threatencd Ahwaz; they were, however, driven off the troops. Now the spirit of the troops depends mainly on their with no great difficulty at both points. Encouraged by these physical condition. An army called on, when insufficiently clad successes, Nixon decided to assume the offensive and to occupy ‘Amara, a town of some importance 60 m. N. of Qurna on the and underfed, to face the snows of winter soon loses its fighting value. If strategy depends on the efficiency of the troops, this Tigris, but considerably farther if following the sinuositics of the stream. This task was entrusted te Townshend, who carried in its turn depends on the efliciency of the supply and transport services, and the administration of the army in general. it out by making free use of water-transport of all kinds for Only when this organization is in good order and working well moving his troops. Aided by a naval flotilla, on May 31, he can the leading strategic conception be, in the truc sense of the signally defeated a hostile force which tried to bar the way; and then, as the result of a bold stroke, on June 3 made himsclf word, free. On this simple truth the strategy of the Turks during the World War always suffered shipwreck, even when they master of ‘Amara, Capturing 17 guns and 1,800 prisoners. This

had better leaders than those who appeared during the war in Armenia.

(F.C. E.)

(IL) MESOPOTAMIAN OPERATIONS The Anglo-Indian operations of 1914-8 in Mesopotamia, which endcd in the military occupation of almost the whole of that extensive region, were in their initial stages conceived on com-

paratively modest lines. They were at the outset undertaken merely with the object of (1) protecting the Anglo-Persian oil installations of the Qarun; (2) occupying the greater part of the Basra vilayet, so as to secure possession of the Shatt al ‘Arab and

to maintain control of the districts immediately round the head of the Persian Gulf; and (3) impressing the Arabs and others in this and neighbouring regions and influencing thereby the in-

habitants of the territories intervening between the Ottoman Empire and India. It was foreseen in London and at Simla that the Ottoman Government would be likely, under instigation from Berlin, to send troops in this direction, for the purpose of harassing the Indian executive by stirring up trouble in Persia and Afghanistan; and steps had been taken to deal with the contingency before relations between the Entente Powers and the Porte were actualy broken off. The Poona Bde. of the 6th Indian Div. had been dispatched to an island near the head of the Persian Gulf in the middle of Oct., and on Nov. 7, two days after the British Government declared war on Turkey, these advanced troops appeared in their transports at the mouth of

the Shatt al ‘Arab.’

operation accomplished, Nixon resolved on a blow against. Nasiriya. The heat was now intense; but, in spite of this, por-’ tions of the 12th Div., relying for mobility largely upon water. transport, took possession of the town after some hard fighting on July 25, another 17 guns with 1,000 prisoners being the prize

of victory. The Anglo-Indian army which had descended upon ` this corner of the Ottoman Empire could then fairly claim that it had achieved the object for which the campaign had been: originally undertaken. Its triumph had been all the more creditable secing how! seriously it had suffered from want of transport, and taking the

inadequacy of its administrative branches into consideration.: It must be remembered that the Indian Government had! accepted heavy commitments in other ficlds of military action.: Two divisions had been dispatched to the western front. Large

forces had been furnished for the protection of Egypt. The E.

African campaign also at that stage was an Indian undertaking. The military organization of the great British Asiatic dependency, had not in pre-war days been framed with the idea of prosecuting martial operations on an ambitious scale overseas. Large re-i serves of traincd men did not exist to fill those gaps in the ranks

that contests with well armed antagonists bring about in the present day.

Theavailable departmental services—notably the

medical service—had been starved. The troops now operating at the head of the Persian Gulf were, moreover, faced by quite exceptional difficulties, owing to the insufficiency of that shallow-

a brief bombardment, and the brigade then disembarked and

draught water transport upon which their efforts and their maintenance virtually hinged.

encamped some miles up-stream on the right bank, On learning this the Turks hurried all available forces down from Basra to bar the way to the invader; but, the rest of the 6th Div. under Sir A. Barrett having arrived, they were attacked on the 17th and efiectually overthrown. Basra feil on the 21st. The vanquished Osmantlis for the most part retired to Qurna, at the junction of

combinations of Generals Barrett and Nixon inspired the civil and military authorities at Simla with the desire for a more ambitious programme in Mesopotamia than that which had been contemplated in Oct. 1914, and they readily fell in with Nixon’s proposal that an advance up the Tigris to Kut shouid

The fort guarding the entrance to the estuary was taken after

the Euphrates with the Tigris, the point where the water-way ceases to be navigable for ocean-going vessels proceeding upstream; but Barrett promptly pushed troops to a point higher up, and the place surrendered on Dec. 9.

Considerable Ottoman

Unfortunately, the success which had hitherto attended the

be undertaken. The Home Government agreed. This meant an advance of some 180 m. up-river into the heart of the enemy’s country by troops who had already undergone much hardship,

the maintenance of the force depending upon aflotilla that was

reinforcements had, however, been on the way from Bagdad towards Basra since the arrival of the Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in the Shatt al ‘Arab, and these now began concentrating, partly in the direction of Ahwaz and menacing the oil-fields, and partly about Nasiriya on the Euphrates. Threatened in a meas-

barely adequate for the purpose and that would become entirely

ure on cither flank, and necessarily dispersed owing to having many posts to hold, the 6th Div. was not comfortably situated; but, as the Turkish fighting forces which had come down from

made strong representations with regard to his lack of water

the N, were not as yet organized for active operations nor in an aggressive mood, the invaders were enabled to consolidate thcir

position, and they were little interfered with during the first three months of rors. l The Indian Government was, however, anxious to obtain a stronger hold upon the district already occupied, and so in March it was decided to raise the expeditionary force to the

strength of an army corps.

Early in April Sir J. Nixon took

inadequate were the strength of the force to be increased above that of the division and the cavalry brigade already told off for the undertaking. News had come that a Turkish force was

assembling at Kut under Nured

Din Bey.

Although Nixon

transport, he perhaps hardly made the danger of advancing beyond ‘Amara unless this were substantially increased suffciently clear to authorities far away from the scene of action, Nor perhaps, was the virtual impossibility of rapidly augmenting it realized, Townshend was charged with carrying out the proposed advance and early in Aug. his 6th Div. began gradually to push forward up the Tigris. On Sept. 14 he concentrated his force at Sheikh Sa'‘d.

On the following day he drove an advanced Turkish force in

over command from Gen. Barrett, whe with Hmited means had

disarray out of a fortified position at Abu Rumman on the right bank of the Tigris, about 15 m. from Kut, and he then

conducted the campaign with signal skill and judgment, and

halted for some days to admit of supplies coming up and of

Gen. Townshend at the same time assumed charge of the 6th Division. The last units of the new division (the r2th) had

arrived by the middle of the month. These changes, as it turned

reconnoitring the lines which the enemy had established on both banks of the river about Es Sinn. On the 28th he attacked Nur ed Din in his entrenched position and completely defeated him,

TURKISH

810

CAMPAIGNS

taking 1,650 prisoners, 13 guns and much war material, and the

Turks were dislodged from a fortified position at Laj.

cavalry pursued the flecing Osmanlis as far as ‘Aziziya, halfway

known that the enemy was in strong force at Ctesiphon and had

from Kut to Bagdad.

constructed elaborate entrenchments at that point; news had

The enterprise had in fact been carried

out with a success equal to its audacity,

Kut was a locality of some strategical significance.

Issuing

here from the Tigris, the Shatt al ‘Arab creates a link with the

Euphrates at Nasiriya. The natural route for troops from Bagdad proceeding to the lowest reaches of the Euphrates immediately above Qurna would be by way of the Tigris and the Shatt al Hai. Therefore, installed in his new position at Kut, Townshend in a measure blocked both the routes from Upper Mesopotamia to Basra—that following the Tigris right down to Qurna, and that turning off by the Shatt al Hai. Kut was furthermore the most important place between ‘Amara or Nasiriya and Bagdad, and its capture was calculated to exert a considerable moral influence over the Arabs who dwelt in this region and who were disposed to be troublesome. But almost the whole of the Anglo-Indian troops in the theatre of war, apart from detachments required for garrison duty nearer the Persian Gulf, had now been projected into an isolated situation far within the cnemy’s territory; they were, moreover, depending upon a long line of water communication, not easy to protect against marauding attacks and served by only a restricted number of steamers and smaller craft. But for the severe defeat suffered by the Turks at Es Sinn, the disposition of the invading forces at the beginning of Oct. would have justified some anxiety,

But the idea of pushing on to Bagdad had already taken shape even before the occupation of Kut. The Aug. discomfiture in the Gallipoli Peninsula (see DarpANELLES CAMPAIGN), coupled with a belated realization that the Dardanelles venture would not succeed, had rendered the Home Government cager for some dramatic achievement in Mesopotamia. The Indian Viceroy had advocated an advance to Bagdad when the start up the Tigris from ‘Amara was materializing. Townshend’s gratifying triumph acted as a stimulus to these aspirations, and during the month of Oct. there was much inter-communication between London, Simla and army headquarters in Mesopotamia on the subject of afurther advance. Nixon intimated carly in the month that he was strong enough to open a road to Bagdad under the circumstances then existing, but he did not consider himself able to

hold the city if taken.

The question of even reaching the place,

however, depended in reality upon whether the advance were to take place before the enemy was reinforced. The military authorities who were consulted at home, while admitting the possibility of capture, regarded permanent retention as out of the question with the limited forces available; they declared that, if Bagdad was to be held, the army in Mesopotamia must be reinforced by two divisions. Influenced by political considerations, however, the Home Government became more and more

insistent. The dispatch of the two Indian divisions that were on the western front at the time to the Persian Gulf was under consideration, but it could not be promised at the moment. Although no reinforcements could be sent him, and although had they been sent him they could not have taken part in the operation owing to the time that must elapse in getting them to the theatre of war and owing to the absence of water transport to move them and to feed them when they got there, Nixon was on the 31st informed that he might advance on the city. Townshend had pushed large parts of his force from Kut on to ‘Aziziya while the discussion was proceeding. He found that the Turks were less demoralized by the reverses they had met with than had at first been supposed, and they had been given time to rally and to reorganize. His own troops had been severely tried, and all his units were short of establishment. He entertained serious misgivings as to progressing farther, in view of the isolation of his force, of the length of his communications, and

of the manifest insufficiency of that water transport which was the governing factor in any operations that he might have to undertake.

Even after receiving his orders to advance, he was

unable to move for a fortnight owing to time lost in getting up

supplies to ‘Aziziya and in organizing for the hazardous effort.

On Nov. 11, however, the advance began, and on the 21st the

also come that hostile reinforcements were expected.

It was

A night

march was therefore carried out, and at dawn Townshend at. tacked. The assault was most successful in the first Instance. Two Jines were carried and many prisoners were captured. But strong Ottoman reinforcements arrived on the battlefield while the fight was stil] in progress, and these recovered much of the ground that had been Jost earlier in the day. For three days the two armies remained facing each other at Ctesiphon, the Turks being much superior in numbers and their array gradually swelling as fresh troops arrived from Bagdad. Townshend was in the meantime making all preparations for a retreat and was getting his wounded away—a service of no small difficulty owing to the insufficiency of transport. Then on the night of the 25th he moved off. His losses since quitting ‘Aziziya amounted to 3,s00—nearly one-third of his strength. Except in respect to cavalry, the enemy enjoyed a great advantage in numbers, and as soon as the retreat began the Arabs started harrying the retiring force. Still. thanks to Townshend’s skilful dispositions and to the resolutr marching of his weary troops, no great difficulty was experienced in evading grave molestation during the first four days of the backward march. But, owing to the flotilla of supply transports, barges and fighting craft being delayed by the shoals, and to some of the craft getting aground, a halt had to be called on the 2gth. This enabled the pursuing Ottoman columns to come up, and on Dec. 1 they delivered a resolute attack upon the AngloIndian force, but the assailants were beaten off aftcr a sharp encounter and the retreat was thenresumed. It had been necessary to abandon three steamers, but so great was the effect of the stalwart resistance offered by Townshend’s sorely tried little army that it was little interfered with during its last three days of retreat. It assembled at Kut on Dec. 3, having suffered another 1,000 casualties since quitting Ctesiphon, but bringing in the 1,600 prisoners taken on Nov. 22. So—for

the moment—ended

the Bagdad

adventure.

On

Dec. 3 the first of the reinforcements spoken of six weeks before (when London and Simla were pressing for an advance) had only started a few days on their four weeks’ voyage from France

to the Shatt al ‘Arab. Military authorities had admitted the possibility of a successful dash on the city, but had denied the

possibility of so small a force holding the city unless teinforeed; and even had additional troops been available in the country, the water transport to get them up the river was lacking. When Townshend moved forward the best to be hoped for was

that he might reach his goal and might then escape if he straightway hurried down the Tigris again. Seldom in the history of war has a military force been committed to an undertaking so unwarrantable. But worse, from the British point of view, was to follow.

For,

with the approval of the Home and Indian Governments, Nixon

decided that Townshend should stop where he was, although if he did so he was bound to be invested. They assumed too readily that he would be relieved ere his supplics ran out. So his sick and wounded, his cavalry, most of the flotilla and a proportion of his animals were sent off down Tigris, although the civilian population was unfortunately allowed to remain; preparations for a siege were putin hand; andon the 8th Kut was hemmed inon all sides. Its situation in a deep loop on the left bank of the river rendered the place readily defensible against attack, and the German Field-Marshal von der Goltz, who had just taken supreme command of the Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia, perceived that unless it fell to an early assault the main task of his advanced troops would be to guard against a relief. Nur ed Din had four divisions at his disposal, and on the 10th, r1th and 24th he delivered unavailing onsets upon the narrow front that was hot covered by the river. Then the siege became a blockade, part of the Turkish army moved down the Tigris to Sheikh Sa'd

and ‘Ali Gharbi, and the work of constructing formidable lines at Es Sinn on the right bank of the river, and athwart a defile on

TURKISH the left bank between the channel and the Suwaikiya marshes,

CAMPAIGNS

SII

May 1916 after the fallof Kut.

Its conclusions were to the effect

About the end of the year Khalil Pasha

that much in connexion with the undertaking ofa campaign on

Meanwhile the 7th and 3rd Indian Divs. had begun to arrive

so ambitious 2 scale without adequate forcthought and efficient preparations was worthy of blame, and it animadverted in strong terms on the very unsatisfactory character of the medical ar-

was taken in hand.

assumed command. in the Shatt al ‘Arab in the middle of Dec., and Gen. Aylmer took charge of the troops who were to undertake the relief of Kut. Units as they disembarked were pushed on to ‘Amara and proceeded thence up the Tigris. The urgency of joining hands with Townshend forbade delay. There was no time to organize the force properly, it lacked powerful artillery for dealing with entrenchments, and the shortage of river transport multiplied its difficulties. The Turks were nevertheless driven out of ‘Ali Gharbi and were on Jan. 6 1916 defeated with heavy loss at

Sheikh Sa'd. Three days later Aylmer again defeated them, whereupon they fell back to the lines of Hanna at the entrance

rangements during the early stages of the venture.

No reference has been made hitherto to the Russian forces in Persia. These, based on the Caspian Sea, were actually in occupation of a considerable area of the Shah’s northern terri-

tories. They did not, however, represent a large body of troops, they were operating in a region of wide extent, and the avenues leading from the tracts in their occupation towards the plains of Iraq traversed rugged and unproductive uplands. For military contingents so situated to have afforded any practical help

ing force had hitherto triumphed over every obstacle; but when

to the Anglo-Indian army during the critical months that followed Townshend's advance from Kut, was virtually prohibited by the conditions. Nor did thcir activities furnish indirect assist-

on the 21st it essayed the storming of the Hanna position the effort failed; and so numerous were the casualties, coming on the

of the Turkish forces serving under von der Goltz and Khalil

to the awkward defile on the left bank of the Tigris. The reliev-

top of losses in the previous actions, that Aylmer had to pause in his offensive and to await reinforcements.

About the same

date Sir P. Lake succeeded Sir J. Nixon in chicf command. Lake set himself to rectify organization in so far as means permitted, to place Aylmer’s line of communications on a better footing, to improve the medical arrangements (which had broken down under the stress of Ctesiphon), and to develop the wharves

at Basra and Qurna. Material of all kinds was, however, deficient, and the sands were running out. The Home Government trans-

ance to their alhes by withdrawing any appreciable proportion

Pasha from the theatre of war on the Tigris. . In view of the disaster which British arms had met with—a

disaster directly traceable to those in authority drifting into a comprehensive scheme of warlike operations without providing the necessary means for prosecuting the campaign—rt was

decided that Kut must if possible be reoccupied. The hot season was, however, at hand. The troops had suffered exhausting trials and had met with cruel loss. Water transport, as wch as artillery and war material of almost every kind, remained inadequate.

ferred the 13th Div. from Egypt to Mesopotamia on receipt of the bad news from Hanna; but it was now too late to soexpand the

There could be no question of resuming the offensive on the

water transport as to enable the growing Anglo-Indian army to act with real vigour and independence during the few weeks that

been initiated a year before, and which Gen. Lake had been

Townshend could still hold out. Aylmer attempted no forward movement during Feb.; but on the night of March 7-8, without

waiting for the 13th Div., he advanced from near Sheikh Sa‘d against the Es Sinn position, intending a surprise. This involved a Jong march in the dark hours; when day broke part of the force had not arrived; and although the Turks were at first in no

great strength the attack was delayed. Then when the assailants after a pause of some hours advanced against the reinforced

enemy, they were beaten back, and they had to retire to Sheikh Sa'd, having suffered severely in the combat. The garrison of Kut was already on much reduced rations; but Gen. Gorringe, who had succeeded Gen. Aylmer, could make

no fresh attempt for nearly a month owing to transport and supply problems. However, on April 5 the 13th Div., under Gen. Maude, stormed the Hanna lines and penetrated well into the defile on the left bank of the Tigris; but, when first the 7th Div.,

and then the 13th Div. attacked the Sanna-i-yat farther end, they were in each case repulsed. Kut out only a few days longer, so Gorringe now tried to the right bank. After making some progress on

lines at the could hold to advance the 17th in

spite of almost insuperable difficulties caused by floods, this movement was brought to a standstill. A final effort was made

hand-to-mouth lines on which the advance from ‘Amara had obliged

to continue

when

striving

against

time

to relieve

Townshend; so that a prolonged pause became inevitable. der Goltz had left Mesopotamia and the Turks, as it turned manifested no inclination to advance from the scene of recent trlumph—they withdrew, on the contrary, from Es

Von out, their Sinn and formed an entrenched camp nearly all round Kut, while holding on to Sanna-i-yat—and a period of several months in which no active operations took place set in. Great developments, however, in the meantime took place

on the Anglo-Indian line of communications, as also at Basra and Qurna, thanks to Gen. Lake’s representations and to his powers of organization. A reasonable amount of heavy artillery was gradually accumulated. A narrow-gauge railway was laid down leading from Sheikh Sa'd to Es Sinn. Landing facilities at the ports were much improved. An additional division arrived from India.

Gen. Gorringe was in July succeeded in charge of

the troops at the front by Gen. Maude, who, a few weeks later, replaced Sir P. Lake as army commander, Although much had been effected by the outgoing army commander in respect to organization, Maude realized that there was yet vital work to be done before his forces could act with effect in this peculiarly conditioned theatre of war. A master of administration and endowed with phenomenal energy, he was

against Sanna-i-yat by the 7th Div. on the 22nd, which nearly succeeded. Then on the night of the 24th a steamer loaded ‘with provisions tried to run the blockade but failed, and on the 29th Kut with its garrison of g,ooo British and Indian troops sur-

resolved not to commit his troops to a formidable undertaking until they were furnished with all that was necessary to insure their mobility and their tactical efficiency. From Sept. till the

rendered.

support from the War Office in London, which had definitely taken over charge of the campaign from the Indian authorities. By the begininng of Dec. he had been furnished with enough river craft, his supply arrangements were in a sufficiently forward state, and he had furthermore a sufficiency of war material at

The attempts to relieve it had cost 24,000 casualties.

The tidings of this very grave mishap gave rise to profound dissatisfaction in the United Kingdom, a dissatisfaction that was aggravated by information gradually leaking out with regard to

the sufferings of the sick and wounded after the retirement from Ctesiphon. It was feared that so unmistakable a reverse to British arms in Asia might exert a more untoward influence in the East generally than in the event proved to be the case. As a result of strong feeling in the public mind a commission was, it may be mentioned, set up afew months later by Act of Parlament tọ inquire into the operations that had taken place in Mesopotamia. The commission did not report till nearly a year later, when the military situation in the land of the Two Rivers had come to be very different from that which had prevailed in

close of Nov. he laboured unceasingly at the base, enjoying full

his command, to justify his embarking upon offensive operations

of a far-reaching kind, and on the 13th he struck suddenly and with signal success. Being in occupation of the right bank of the Tigris to a little above Es Sinn, while blocked on the left bank by the fortifications of Sanna-i-yat, the Anglo-Indian army, astride the river,

was by the conditions of the case necessarily disposed in échelon, with its left well pushed forward and its right withdrawn. It was organized in two army corps, the I. under Gen. Cobbe, on

812

TURKISH

CAMPAIGNS

the right on both banks of the water-way, the II., under Gen. Marshall, on the left. Maude’s plan was to start by pushing his left still farther forward, to clear the right bank of the Tigris of the enemy to well above Kut, and, when these dispositions had in due course taken effect, to force the lines of Sanna-i-yat with his right. So long as Sanna-i-yat remained in Ottoman hands his flotilla could not advance above that point; but, with the railway from Skeikh Sa‘d running to Es Sinn, his troops operating on that side of the Tigris could be supplied, provided they did not advance more than a few miles. Marshall, being on the left, opened the attack by forcing the Shatt al Hai, after a night march, and by capturing some of the Turkish defences which formed a bridgehead S. of Kut. During the struggles that ensued, lasting several weeks, Khalil Pasha’s forces offered a stout resistance, and although Maude's operations on the right bank of the great river were uniformly successful, they procecded slowly and by successive stages. It was not till the middle of Feb. that the whole of the Turkish entrenched camp on that

bank was in Anglo-Indian hands and that the Ottoman troops had withdrawn across channel. No sooncr had this part of the programme been accomplished than, on the 17th, Gen. Cobbe attacked Sanna-i-yat. The effort failed for the moment; but five days later the lines were assaulted again, and they were at last carried after a desperate contest in

which the Turks lost very heavily. On the same day Marshall’s _ UL. Corps by a brilliant feat of arms forced a passage across the Tigris at Shumran. There was then no course Icft to the Ottoman commander but to abandon Kut in haste and to withdraw his forces as best he could up the left bank of the river. Maude’s flotilla instantly pushed up to the front past Kut, which fell automatically into his hands, and the Anglo-Indian army in Mesopotamia could then claim to have won a victory that went

far towards wiping out the discomftures of the previous year, Within the space of two months the military situation had been completciy transformed as the result of a happily conceived

and resolutely executed plan of campaign that had been rendcred possible by prescient and comprehensive organization in rear of the fighting front.

But Maude was not the man to tarry after gaining a signal triumph and thereby to give his vanquished opponents breathing space to recover. His supplies guaranteed by the arrival of his water transport, he pushed on along the Ieft bank of the Tigris on the heels of the fugitive Turks, his troops ready for any exertion in their enthusiasm and full of confidence in their leader, The river channel between Kut and ‘Aziziva has many loops and

bends, making it difficult for a naval force and a military force

to act in tactical concert, but on the 26th the British gunboats, steaming up almost ahead of the mounted troops, destroyed or captured practically the entire Ottoman flotilla after a sharp combat. Great prizes in war material as well as many prisoners were also made by the advancing army. Keeping his own counsel, as was his wont, the army commander had from the outset of his active operations contemplated an immediate advancc on Bagdad after expelling the enemy from Kut, and he now requested permission from the Home Government to make the historic city his objective. He received the requisite sanction. But he found himself obliged, in spite of his eagerness to press on, to halt for some days at ‘Aziziya for fear of outrunning his sup-

plies—a check which enabled the rear of his army to close up and which afforded the troops a welcome rest, although the brief relaxation in the pursuit gave the Turks time to occupy defensive positions covering the capital. All being ready, the Anglo-Indian army resumed its advance on March 4, whereupon it was found that the enemy had aban-

doned Ctesiphon and retired behind the Diala. This river repre-

sented a serious military obstacle, and when an attempt was made to force the passage the Turks were discovered to be in

such strength and to be so favourably posted that the effort proved in the first instance unsuccessful. Maude thereupon threw a bridge across the Tigris and passed the cavalry and the I. Corps across the channel. Then, his troops pressing forward

on cither bank, the Diala was forced by Gen. Marshall, opposition

on the other side of the Tigris was gradually overcome, and by the rth the City of the Caliphs was in British hands, the enemy having withħdrawn northwards, unable to stem the resolute advance of the victors. Maude, however, allowed no pause in his offensive operations to take place. Cobbe, pushing up the right bank of the Tigris along which a stretch of railway ran as far as Samarra, heavily defeated a Turkish force which attempted to bar his progress at Mushaida, while Marshall cleared the triangle of country between the Tigris and the Diala in the direction of the Jebel Hamrin. Russian forces in Persia had been penctrating into the mountainous country on the Turko-Persian borders while Maude was advancing from Kut, and it had been hoped that they might codperate effectively with an Anglo Indian column which was pushed into the hills towards Khanivin; but this project did not materialize. Marshall, however, conducted a most successful campaign on the Shatt al Adhaim during the month of April, inflicting a number of severe defeats upon the Turkish XIII and XVIII. Army Corps in that direction, and Cobbe completed the operations on the right bank of the Tigris by the capture of Samarra with many prisoners and much war material.

Then, having secured possession of a wide area of

fertile territory to the N. of Bagdad and driven the enemy in confusion into the deserts and uplands beyond, Maude was at

last enabled to afford his victorious troops rest—just as the hot

weather set in. The virtual conquest of Mesopotamia in a four and a half months’ campaign had been brought about by the resolute execution of a plan of operations based on correct calculation of

requirements. It had been a triumph of forethought and of strategical and tactical skill on the part of a chief who followed up his successes relentlessly and who inspired his subordinate commanders and his troops with his own unconquerable spirit. Neither the stout resistance offered by the Ottoman troops at the outset and which they had maintained even after the tide began to set against them, nor yet the formidable defences which their engineers had claborated around Kut, had in reality proved the greatest stumbling-block to be overcome. The vast extent of the theatre of war, the lack of communications, and the fact that fighting forces advancing from the Shatt al ‘Arab must almost inevitably adhere to the line of the Tigris constituting virtually one long military defile, had interposed even greater obstacles in the path of conquest. But those obstacles had been surmounted as a result of appropriate and cficctual organization consummated during the months which had immediately preceded Maude’s advance; and during the torrid summer of 1917, when little fighting took place, he was busily engaged in perfecting administration in the territory won, improving communications, and preparing for a fresh offensive in the cold weather. A railway was constructed from Kut to Bagdad, as the intervening section of the Tigris channel was shallow and awkward to navigate. Sanitation and policing were secured in the capital. Comfort and recreation were provided for the troops. Steps were taken to tap the supply resources of the fertile districts in occupation of the army. A division that had been in

reserve at Nasiriya was brought up to the front. Great efforts were for a time made to arrange for coéperation with the Russian

forces in Persia; but the influence of the revolution in Petrograd made itself more and more felt in that quarter as the weeks passed, and before Maude started his autumn campaign it had become manifest that little was to be hoped for from that direction. Indeed the situation in Armenia was becoming such as to affect

adversely the prospects of the Anglo-Indian host operating in Mesopotamia, and in the late summer there were indications that under German instigation the Turks were contemplating an

effort to recover Bagdad. This merely made Maude the more anxious to resume the offensive, and on Sept. 28 he struck his first blow by the capture of Ramadi on the Euphrates, with much booty. This victory was followed by successful operations in clearing the Jebel Hamrin and by the capture of Tikrit on ine Tigris at the beginning of Nov. A few days later, however, the army commander was struck down by cholera, and be.died on the roth. He was succeeded by Sir W. Marshall,

TURKISH

CAMPAIGNS

Above Tikrit and extending N. for a long distance, the country traversed by the Tigris is a sterile tract, hilly and broken at some

points; the ordinary route from Bagdad to Mosul does not therefore follow the river but takes a line to the E. through Kifri and

Kirkuk. Maude had intended to conduct his main advance by this line—a plan of operations which would make it possible for the Russians in Persia to codperate should they be prepared to doso. The death of the distinguished general, just at the moment when the project was about to be put in execution, created some delay, but his successor set troops in motion through the Jebel

Hamrin in Dec. and Kifri was occupied in Jan. Having secured that point, Marshall in the middle of Feb. determined on a sudden advance of his extreme left wing up the Euphrates. Hit was captured, and on the 1oth a complete victory was gained over the Turks who had retired up the river from that place; they

813

just when the season was suitable for commencing active operations in the theatre of war farther to the S.—Marshall was

instructed to occupy Mosul, an undertaking for which he had been preparing during the summer,

The best of the Turkisb

divisions in Mesopotamia were at this time assembled astride

of the Tigris at Fatha, where the river breaks through the Jebel Hamrin range of hills. A naturally strong position had been assiduously fortified, and the encmy possessed a second fortified

position a few miles higher up at the confluence of the Lesser Zab and a boat bridge was estublished at that point. Realizing that a frontal attack would be hazardous and that, owing to the extreme ruggedness of the ground in the immediate vicinity of the hostile lines a turning movement of the ordinary kind was out of the question, resolved nevertheless to strike a decisive blow, Marshall determined on a combination of war by which

consisted of the soth Div., which was surrounded and captured, 5,000 prisoncrs and all its guns being taken. Difficulties of transport in the meantime hampered the force moving forward

adequate mobile forces would be thrown right across the Ottoman

beyond Kifri, the distance from railhead being considerable, but

column to advance simultaneously by Kirkuk towards Mosul. The final campaign in Mesopotamia lasted only a single week, the movement beginning on Oct. 23. Two cavalry columns,

on April 29 the Ottoman forces were heavily defeated on the

road to Kirkuk, losing 3,000 prisoners, and a week later that town was occupied, much war material falling into the hands of the Anglo-Indian army. In view of the distance of the place from the railway the army commander however decided to withdraw

communications between Fatha and Mosul.

He entrusted the

conduct of these operations to Gen. Cobbe, and arranged for a

that with the shorter distance to cover being accompanied by some infantry, crossed the Jebel Hamrin many miles E. of Fatha and passed the Lesser Zab a long way above its junction with the

been received from the side of Persia; but Gen. Marshall's first

Tigris. In the meantime the 17th and 18th Divs. advanced against the Ottoman position, the 17th on the right bank and the 15th on the left bank of the Tigris. Finding himself threatened in rear, Isma‘il Hakki Pasha, who commanded the Turks, withdrew from the Fatha position to that higher up, followed by the two Anglo-Indian divisions, while the cavalry columns made for the Tigris many miles above the confluence of the Lesser Zab and

campaign had nevertheless been remarkably successful and his

placed themselves across Isma‘il HWakki's line of retreat.

position to the N. of Bagdad had been effectually consolidated. In the meantime a special British mission, sent off in Jan. under charge of Gen. Dunsterville and originally intended for Tiflis with the object of codrdinating resistance of Armenians,

The aliocation of a considerable amount of motor transport to this latter service had indeed somewhat hampered Marshall’s operations about Kirkuk and the Persian border. Great diff-

18th Div. forced a passage across the Lesser Zab on the 25th, whereupon Isma‘il Hakki withdrew those of his troops that were on the left bank of the Tigris across the river, and pulled up his bridge. On the 26th the 17th Div. was pressing the Turkish main body on the right bank, and that same day the outer one of the cavalry columns forded the river and began moving down that side of the channel. On the 27th and 23th the 17th Div. was heavily engaged, before it finally made itself master of the enemy’s position at the confluence of the Lesser Zab, whereupon Isma'il Hakki retired N. to Sherghat, but on the 29th the last hope of the trapped Ottoman force was destroyed owing to a

culties were placed in Dunsterville’s way by Russian officials who

relieving column from Mosul being defeated by the cavalry.

were tending towards Bolshevism, while open hostility was displayed by certain of the Persian tribesmen. Some Russian

that day Isma‘il Hakki resisted the advance of the Anglo-Indian forces on Sherghat, but on the morning of the 3oth, just as the t7th Div, was about to launch a final attack, the white flag was

his troops from the place after the booty had been evacuated; the troops then fell back to Kifri, and, the hot weather having now sct in, active operations practically ceased for five months.

The collapse of Russian fighting power in Armenia had enabled the Ottoman staff to move

troops from there down to Mosul

and northern Mesopotamia, and scarcely any assistance had

Georgians and Russians to the Turks threatening Transcaucasia,

had been endeavouring to maintain satisfactory relations with the Russians in Persia, and had arranged for supplying food to certain parts of that country which were almost famine-stricken.

troops, however, remained loyal to the Entente and, codperating with these, small bodies of British troops were gradually pushed up to establish a line of communications between the Anglo-

The

All

displayed and the 14th and the bulk of the 2nd Turkish Divs. surrendered,

Eleven thousand prisoners, 51 guns and much war material

Indian army in Mesopotamia and the Caspian Sea at Enzelt, During the early summer resistance to the Turks in Transcaucasia was gradually breaking down, and at the beginning of July the last of the organized Russian fighting forces in Persia proceeded thither by ship. On the Ottoman troops appearing before Baku shortly afterwards, Dunsterville sailed for that city in Aug., followed by a brigade of British infantry. He found a complex and disturbing situation to prevail. The

which they had experienced both extremes of fortune, came at

Armenian garrison was unreliable.

The attitude of the Russian

last to an end, concurrently with the most sweeping tactical

officials was suspicious, Bolshevik armed craft were afloat on the Caspian. The lines constructed for the defence of Baku were of such extent as to require a large force to man them. It soon became apparent that the safety of the city depended entircly

success gained by cither side during the course of the struggle. (C. E. C.)

upon the meagre British force as the Armenian soldiery displayed little stomach for combat. For a very few weeks Dunsterville

and his men did what they could to save the place; but on Sept. 14 the Turks broke through the outer defences, and that night

were taken asa result of Cobbe’s brilliantly successful operations,

Two days later tidings of the signing of the Armistice arrived. The Kirkuk column had, in the meantime, been working its way forward, almost unopposed, toward Mosul. That city was occupied within a week; and so, in a blaze of triumph for the AngloIndian forces, the long-drawn-out campaign in Mesopotamia, in

(IIL) When

Tie SINAI CAMPAIGN, 1916-7

the Dardanelles

expedition

came finally to an end

during the first days of Jan. 1916, the British troops which had been engaged on the Gallipoli Peninsula were dispatched to Egypt, there to refit and reorganize, and to undertake the defence

the British reémbarked and returned to Enzeli, whereupon Baku fell into the enemy’s hands, A somewhat risky venture had

of Egypt against a possible attack by the Turks, who were now freed from any menace on the shores of the Dardanelles. On Jan. 10, the evacuation of Cape Helles having been successfully

of some of the Ottoman troops in Transcaucasia to confront the Anglo-Indian army in N. Mesopotamia.

completed, Gen. Sir Charles Monro handed over his command to `

proved unsuccessful, but it had at least prevented the dispatch

On news ef the fall of Baku reaching London—it occurred

Gen. Sir Archibald Murray and returned to France. Sir Archibald Murray’s instructions were to protect Egypt against attack

TURKISH

814.

CAMPAIGNS

from the E., and to maintain a general strategic reserve of troops for the whole Empire, ready for use wherever required. The reorganization, reéquipping and refitting of the war-worn troops

from the Dardanclles was the first consideration. In measure, as this progressed, the “ general strategic reserve ” was drawn upon to meet the exigencies of other theatres of war; and by the end of June 1916 nine divisions, three infantry brigades, a number of Indian units, and a number of heavy artillery batteries

had left Egypt, most of them for the main theatre in France and Flanders. By July, therefore, Sir Archibald Murray’s force available for the defence of Egypt against attack from the E, had been reduced to four divisions, three dismounted yeomanry brigades, one mounted division, one mounted yeomanry brigade, and a few Indian and garrison battalions.

KainasTracks. [Bets Betsgh

ences,

Const & ‘Romani ) =

WUE ouge,

i really try

possibly be collected, and for a time maintained, within striking distance of the Suez Canal. The organization of camel transport for the troops undertaking this advance was immediately put in hand, and the construction of the railway was begun. By the end of May Sir Archibald Murray had established a strong position near Romani, about 20 m. E. of the Suez Canal at the head of the Bay of Tine. This position was held by the s2nd Div., and from it the Australian and New Zealand Alounted Div. was able to keep under constant observation the whole of the “watered ” district round, and E. of, Katia. More advanced positions, E. of Katia, were in course of preparation. A standard-gauge railway had reached Romani, and water from the Sweetwater Canal had been brought there by pipe-lines. Liceutenant-General Hon. H. A. Lawrence was inimmediate command of this northern portion of the forces in the Sinai Peninsula. Meanwhile the enemy had not permitted this advance to take place entirely undisturbed. Towards the end of April he had made a partially successful raid, which penetrated to some considerable distance W. of Katia and caused the loss of three and a half squadrons of yecomanry besides other casualties, His raiding force was, however, driven off without difficulty, and

for about three months he gave no further sign, By about the middle of July preparations were well in hand for undertaking the advance across the desert to El ‘Arish and the Egyptian frontier. Railhead was some 30 m. E, of ihe

aE

Oe Ae ay +

oH

RG

yy

Sys

E

he yA

ae ra

During this period, the first half of the year 1916, the scheme of defence on the E. of Egypt had undergone very considerable modification. The rapid depletion of Sir Archibald Murray’s force

rendered modification essential, while the Russian victory at Erzerum in the spring, and the fact that no Turkish attack ona great scale was to be apprehended

rendered it also practicable.

during

the hot weather,

In Jan. Sir Archibald Murray had

taken over a scheme, prepared with Lord Kitchener’s personal approval, for the construction of a great defensive system, suit-

able for withstanding an attack with heavy artillery, of which the front line was some 7 or 8 m. of the Suez Canal, and which extended from the head of the Gulf of Suez to the Mediterranean. By Feb. 15, however, Sir Archibald Murray had already written

Suez Canal. The construction of a large filter plant at Qantara, of a scries of storage reservoirs, and of a great new pipe-line had been ordered, with a view to supplying the troops throughout the advance and as far as Fl 'Arish with half-a-million gallons of water a day from the Sweetwater Canal. Large numbers of camels were being collected, and all manner of equipment designed to facilitate the passage of the desert—from “ pedrails” for the wheels of the artillery to wire-netting for roads —~was being procured and tested. Then on July 19 an enemy force was found to be advancing, and to have entcred the eastern part of the area of ‘ wells ” and palm groves which extends about 18 m. E. of Katia. By the 24th this force had come to a standstill within 10 m. of the Romani position on a line on which it entrenched itself. From that day until the end of the month there was little further movement. During this pcriod it became fairly clear that the enemy’s

force consisted of the Turkish 3rd Div., of three regiments, with

recommending an advance across the Sinai Peninsula towards

a number of machine-gun companies, mountain artillery, some batteries of 4-in. and 6-in. howitzers and a body of Arab camelry. It was commanded by the German Col. Kress von Kressenstein. Sir Archibald Murray was in no hurry to force the issue. Iis troops were in a strong position with all their requirements close at hand, while the enemy, if he attacked, would fght with

_ the Egyptian fronticr, with dispositions for an active instead of a

a desert behind him and very far from his base. All that Sir

to the chief of the Imperial general staff pointing out that this

scheme of defence was very wasteful in men and material, and passive defence.

He showed that strategically the true base of

the defensive zone of Egypt against invasion from the E. was not the So odd miles of the Suez Canal, but rather a line less

than half as long near the frontier running S. from El ‘Arish, From El‘Arish it would be possible to oppose any advance

Archibald required was time to complete the provision of camel transport for Gen. Lawrence’s force so as to render its mobility adequate for counter-attack or pursuit, or for attack eventually if the enemy should refuse to take the initiative. General Lawrence was, therefore, reinforced, till he had under his orders the

against Egypt directed along the N. Sinai road; to attack in flank an invader moving on the lines of approach farther to the S.; and to undertake rapid offensive operations against enemy concentrations in S. Palestine. Five divisions and not less than four mounted brigades would be required, but this was a consid-

gznd and 42nd Divs., a brigade of the 53rd Div., two battalions of the 54th Div., a dismounted yeomanry brigade, the Austrahan

and New Zealand Mounted Div. and a yeomanry brigade. By Aug. r over 10,000 transport camels had been provided for this force, An independent mobile column, composed of camel

erably smaller force than would be needed adequately to hold the

corps with a few squadrons of yeomanry and light horse, had

great defensive system prepared from end to end of the Suez

also been organized for coöperation from ihe section of the

Canal. Morcover, the farther the defence was removed from the Nile delta the less would be the unrest and the chances of

Lawrence was responsible,

disturbance in Egypt in the event of attack by the enemy. As a first step Sir Archibald Murray proposed in Feb. an

Canal defences which lay to the S. of that for which Gen. Not until Aug. 3 did the enemy disclose his intention, but on the night of the 3rd-4th he launched an attack against Gen.

fact that round it, and in the district immediately to the E. of it, jt is possible to find or to obtain in shallow “ wells ” a consider-

Lawrence’s southern flank with the aim of outflanking and enveloping the British force. General Lawrence’s prepared defences extended from the sea on the N. southward for some 5 or 6 m., into a region of heavy sand-dunes, with the southern fank refused. The enemy’s blow fell first on the Australian Light

only district in which any considerable force of the enemy could

posted on Gen. Lawrence’s right. These troops were obliged

advance to a suitable position E. of Katia on the N. Sinai road,

and the construction of a railway to that place.

Katia itself is

some 25 m. E. of the Suez Canal, and its importance lay in the

able supply of drinkable though brackish water.

It was the

Horse, the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. being

TURKISH CAMPAIGNS very gradually to give ground, while from daybreak on the 4th the enemy’s attack developed also against the British centre and

left-center, held by troops of the s2nd and 53rd Divisions, The enemy was evidently now fully committed. He appeared, however, to have miscalculated to some extent the direction of his main enveloping attack. -As his captured air-reconnaissance reports subsequently showed, he was probably unprepared to

find the British right flank extended so far S., and consequently failed to direct his enveloping movement sufficiently far to the westward. General Lawrence had the 42nd Div. in reserve at Pelusium station, 5 or 6 m. W. of Romani, and he ordered this division up to his right in order to be ready to attack the encmy’s outer flank. Sir Archibald Murray, meanwhile, ordered the independent mobile column to move out wide round the enemy’s flank against his left rear. Naval coöperation was afforded by monitors, whose fire from the sca helped to keep down the fire of the enemy’s heavy howitzers.

The enemy’s containing attack against the British left and centre was not pressed; his force was insuficient for any such purpose. His main enveloping attack, in a waterless region of soft sand and high dunes, had spent its force by the early afternoon.

The march of the 42nd Div. from Pelusium had been

delayed, but long before its leading troops could come up the mounted troops, with the reserve of the sznd Div., had begun to press back the enemy’s left, and by nightfall had removed any danger on the southern flank. At daybreak on the 5th the southern front was completely cleared, the 42nd Div. advancing on this flank. Farther N. the s2nd Div. moved out in a south-easterly direction against the encmy’s right wing, which assumed the rôlc of rearguard, while the mounted troops on its right pressed on eastward. These converging movements drove the enemy back to Katia in the course of the day.

On the morning of the 6th the enemy was found to have retired from Katia, and the mounted troops took up the pursuit. The Turkish rearguards fought stubbornly against the direct pressure of the mounted troops. The independent mobile column with its camelmen, however, working right round the enemy’s southern flank, fought a very skilful and successful little action on the 7th which no doubt had a grcat effect in

815

and trying for white troops; the difficulties of watering in the desert were very great; and the going in the soft sand of that part of Sinai was so bad that the infantry rate of marching was

reduced to 1} m. a day.

After this action the enemy remained about El ‘Arish on the

Egyptian fronticr, with an advance force at Bir el Mazar, over 40 m. E. of Romani. Apart from a successful reconnaissance

in force against Bir cl Mazar, carried out by the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. ìn the middle of Sept., no further fighting took place for a considerable period. The enemy, made

nervous by the proof of extended radius of action given by the appearance of Gen,

Lawrence’s mounted

troops before Bir el

Mazar, withdrew all his forces to the ncighbourhood of El ‘Arish.

The instructions given to Sir Archibald Murray by the War Cabinet about this time were to the effect that the policy in

Egypt was to be mainly defensive, though all preparations should be made for an advance on Fl ‘Arish. Sir Archibald took occasion to point out that he adhered to his previously expressed opinion that, in order both to occupy El ‘Arish and

to be able effectively to operate from that neighbourhood against an invader on any of the routes crossing Sinai, he required at least five divisions and four mounted brigades. Actually at this

time he had only four divisions available for the defence of Egypt on the E., though he disposed of a sufficiency of mounted troops. Nevertheless, in the situation as it then was, he signified his willingness to defend Egypt and to undertake the advance on El ‘Arish with the troops actually at his disposal.

After the action at Romani, therefore, arrangements were actively pressed forward for the advance across the desert to

El ‘Arish and the Egyptian frontier. In Sept. Gen. Lawrence left to take up a new command elsewhere, and was succeeded by Lt.-Gen. Sir Charles Dobell, to whom Sir Archibald Murray now entrusted the whole of the forces in the Sinai Peninsula and on the Suez Canal. Sir Charles Dobcell’s command was called the “ Eastern Force ” of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. In the great ebb and flow of the war as a whole, the autumn of 1916 marked, almost everywhere, a turning-point. In the main theatre in the W. the great battle of the Somme roared toa conclusion far more momentous than appeared to those who

hastening the retreat; and by the evening of the 8th the enemy

were looking only for a definite breaking of the German line.

was at Bir el ‘Abd, some 20 m. E. of the Romani battlefield. On Aug. 9 the mounted troops made an attempt to envelop the enemy’s position and to cut off his further retreat. This

In the Russian theatre, on the other hand, high-water mark

attempt was unsuccessful, and a direct dismounted attack was launched which also failed to dislodge the Turks, who made several determined counter-attacks.

During the roth and 11th

the situation at this point remained unchanged. But in the meantime the independent mobile column again worked round the enemy’s left and fought a sharp action on the 11th, as a result of which the enemy evacuated Bir el ‘Abd during the night. The pursuit had to be abandoned on the 12th, and the

remnant of the Turkish force retired to El ‘Arish. Out of a force of about 18,000 troops the enemy must have lost about half. Four thousand prisoners, a mountain battery and a number of machine-guns were left in Gen. Lawrence’s hands, besides other booty; but the enemy was able to withdraw his heavy howitzers in spite of the difficulty of moving them through the soft desert sand. It is impossible to say under what pressure Col. Kress von Kressenstein undertook this forlorn hope, nor what real prospects he or his superiors conceived it to offer. It failed completely, with the loss of half the force employed. Yet even $o Kress may perhaps be accounted fortunate. Somewhat earlier and more vigorous handling of the 52nd Div. against the encemy’s right, at the time when his Icft began to give way on Aug. 4-5, might have rendered it very difficult to extricate any considerable portion of the Turkish force. Again, as was indicated by the successes of the miniature independent mobile column during the pursuit, wider envelopment, especially on the southern flank, by the mounted troops might have effected more than the direct pursuit actually undertaken, and might have cut off the retreat of more of the enemy’s troops and guns. It should be said, however, that the weather was exceedingly hot

had been reached

in the summer,

and

Brussilov

had been

checked. In Rumania von Falkenhayn and later von Mackensen swept over the country to the lines of the Sereth. In the Balkans Gen. Sarrail had captured Monastir, but his offensive had failed to bring relicf to the Rumanians. Greece was in a state bordering on chaos. Everywhere in Europe the superficial signs seemed to indicate cither turn of tide or definite ebb. In the eastern theatres affairs seemed somewhat better. The Russian front had been reconstituted in Armenia, though there was little progress anywhither. In Mesopotamia, since the fall of Kut, the hot weather and the necessity for reorganization and prepara-

tion had forced a suspension of active operations. Only in the Sinai desert was any forward movement in progress,—one of the least of all the eddies of the war.

In Arabia, the Grand

Sherif of Mecca had proclaimed independence of Turkey. The new Government in England, pressed by man-power questions after the losses in the Somme battle and increasingly feeling the submarine menace, probably turned its eyes rather naturally to the eastern theatres for something to show in the way of success, when Sir Stanley Maude’s preparations should have been made, the Arabs should be in motion, and Sir Archibald Murray nearing El ‘Arish. In any case it was pointed out to Sir Archibald Murray early in Dec. that the gaining of a military success in his theatre was very desirable. Sir Archibald Murray continued to adhere firmly to his original opinion that a fifth division would be necessary if he was to hold and to operate from F] ‘Arish, and he asked for a sixth division if he should be required to make any further advance. In reply, he was told that the War Cabinet was not prepared to send him additional troops. He was to make the utmost effort during the winter, but his primary mission was the detence of Egypt.

TURKISH

816

In the meantime the movement on El ‘Arish had progressed with such speed as was possible where the pace had to be set by that of the construction of the railway and pipe-line. Early in Dec. Gen. Dobell’s advanced guard, which was called the Desert Column, came under the command of Lt.-Gen, Sir

Philip Chetwode.

‘This force varied in strength from time to

time according to circumstances. On Dec. 10, when railhead was within 20 m. of El ‘Arish, and the final advance was in view, Gen. Chetwode had under his command the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. and the 42nd and 52nd Divs.

The enemy had about 1,600 infantry in Fl ‘Atish with supporting forces at Macdhaba and Abu Aweigila, and he held the only water supplics. The supply of water for the final advance of the Desert Column required the most elaborate arrangements and the establishment of a large reserve of water, rail-borne from Bir el ‘Abd, at railhead. Thus the movement had to be delayed till Dec. 20. Just before the advance of the Desert Column the enemy hurriedly withdrew, and Gen, Chetwode’s mounted troops, surrounding I] ‘Arish after a 20-m, night

march on Dec. 20-21, found the place unoccupied. The nearest Turkish force was at Magdhaba, about 20 m. S. of El ‘Arish, and consisted of some

mountain guns.

1,600 infantry with four

During the night of Dec. 22-23, Gen. Chauvel,

commanding the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div., led a column composed of the majority of his mounted troops and the Imperial Camel Bde. against this forec. The enemy’s

position was reached in the carly hours of the morning.

Some

sharp fighting ensued. The cnemy was practically surrounded by mid-day; but no water having been found for his horses Gen. Chauvel was faced with a situation in which, if he could not

force the enemy’s surrender before nightfall, he would have had to withdraw. By the late afternoon, however, the cnemy’s stout resistance was overborne, and practically the whole of his

force was killed, woundcd or captured. Four guns and 1,282 prisoners were taken, at a cost of under 150 casualties. After this the enemy withdrew the few small posts which he had maintained farther S. within the borders of Sinai, and the only Turkish force remaining in Egyptian territory was a detachment about 2,000 strong near Rafa, the frontier post on the

“road” into Palestine, some 25 m. E. of El ‘Arish.

On the

night of Jan. 8-9, Gen. Chetwode moved out against this force with the greater part of the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div., a mounted brigade (ycomanry) and the Imperial Camel Bde. The iong night march was carried out with remarkable speed and cfūcicncy; the enemy was completely surprised, and found his positicn almost entirely surrounded as day broke. As at Magdhaba, hewever, he offered a very determined resistanee, and again he held the only water obtainable for Gen. Chetwode’s horses. In the middle of the afternoon a small relieving force approached from Shellal, this force was, however, neither in time nor strong enough to effect its purpose. At one time it looked as if the Turks might hold out long enough to

force Gen. Chetwode to relinquish his hold; but by 5:30 P.M. their resistance had been worn down and their position taken. The whole of the Turkish force, with its commander, was accounted for, and Gen. Chetwode returned to El ‘Arish with

over 1,600 unwounded prisoners, four mountain guns and other booty, his own casualties being less than 500. As a result of these two actions—both admirable examples of the tactics of mounted troops relying on fire action—the Sinai province of Egypt was finally freed from the enemy. The defender who holds the country between Gaza and the sca on the W. and Beersheba on the E. commands the access to 5. Palestine from the direction of Egypt. East of Beersheba, a mountainous country, lacking roads and water, opposes a barrier which could only be overcome by preparations so long and arduous as hardly to admit of their inception. At the beginning of 1917 the enemy held Gaza and Beersheba, and, after the actions at Magdhaba and Rafa, began to concentrate his advanced force at Shellal, 2 point on the Wadi Ghuzze nearly equidistant

from Gaza and Beersheba, and some 7 or 8 m. in front (from the Turkish point of view) of the general line between those places.

CAMPAIGNS From Shellal he was in a position to watch the approaches to Gaza and to Beershcba, and to cover his lines of communication

to those places—especially the railway to Beersheba from the north. Behind the advanced position which the enemy began to prepare at Shellal lay the line of ridges which, running almost

direct from Gaza to Beersheba, dominated the open plain to the S.W. and formed a naturally favourable line on which to organize a strong defensive position to bar the way into S. Palestine. Meanwhile, the desert railway having been pushed on through FE] ‘Arish to within a few miles of the Egyptian frontier, Gen. Dobell advanced his headquarters to El ‘Arish before the end of Feb. Sir Archibald Murray, so far from receiving the fifth division which he had always held to be necessary for the further prosecution of the campaign, was now required to send one of his divisions to France—the 42nd. This left available for the eastern force only three divisions, the 52nd, 53rd and 54th, with the nucleus of a fourth—the 74th—to be formed from dismounted

ycomanry; but the satisfactory position of affairs in Egypt and the western desert enabled the available mounted troops to be increased to two mounted divisions. It had by now been made clear to Sir Archibald Murray that the forward policy of Dec. had been altered. The general situation of the Allics, envisaged as a whole, had developed and wore a new aspect. Naturally there could be no ground for

surprise at any alteration or transformation of the policy governing the conduct of operations in one of the very minor theatres.

On Jan. rr 1917, the day on which, in France, the British attack was launched against the Beaumont Hamel spur, Sir Archibald Murray was told that his primary mission was the defence of

Egypt during the summer months and the preparation of an offensive campaign in the autumn. Meanwhile Beaumont Jamel developed into the great German retreat tn the west, Nearer to Egypt, the Rumanian retreat came to an end— Wallachia lost but Moldavia held; and Gen. Maude’s victorious campaign in Mesopotamia carried him from success to success

past the Ul-omened Kut to the capture of Bagdad. Nor were these happenings without effect upon the attitude of the Turks on the confines of Egypt.

Early in March the

enemy evacuated his positions near Shellal before he could be attacked. His general intention appeared to be to avoid battle, trusting to the severe limitations set to the pace of Gen. Dobell’s

advance by the difficulties of overcoming the desert.

Thus he

would conserve his strength, retain his liberty of action in other directions, and choose his ground at Jeisure for an eventual con-

test à outrance in S. Palestine. Archibald Murray’s plans.

Obviously this did not suit Sir

In the early days of March the Turkish dispositions were as

follows: rather less than a division (say 7,000 fighting troops) held Gaza; about a division was in the neighbourhood of Tellesh Sharia, roughly half-way between Gaza and Beersheba and 15 m. distant {from either; and a small garrison occupied Beersheba. In these circumstances, apart from the desirability of foiling the enemy’s Fabian tactics, to which reference has been made, Sir

Archibald Murray was influenced by other considerations of more or less weight. In order to make adequate preparations for a serious autumn offensive, in accordance with the instructions of the War Cabinet, it was necessary to move railhead forward, and for this purpose it was necessary toadvance to within a few milesof Gazaand to scize the lineof the Wadi Ghuzze. Further,

the enemy’s detachment at Gaza was a day’s march distant from any supporting troops; by an operation of the same nature as—~ though on a greater scale than—those at Magdhaba and Rafa it might be disposed of by a coup de main. Finally, such a coup de main, if successful, might result in Gaza passing not only tem-

porarily, but perhaps permanently into British hands. If so, the effect would be to open the gate into S. Palestine and to make it impossible for the Turks to hold the naturally strong GazaBeersheba line as their first line of defence, when the time came for the main effort later in the year. General Dobell commanding the Eastern Force, and Gen. Chetwode commanding the Desert Column under him, agreed that the chances of capturing Gaza by a coup de main were on

TURKISH

CAMPAIGNS

At the end of the day those two hours would in all human probability have made victory complete.

the whole favourable. General Dobell reported accordingly to Sir Archibald Murray, being careful, however, to add that all would depend on whether or not the enemy’s resistance could be broken before nightfall on the day of attack; if the decision

By ro A.M. the battle was joined.

Kut the

Turkish position was very strong, and the ground over which the attackers fought their way forward was absolutely devoid of

would probably interfere, and water difficulties might in any case make it necessary to draw off the attacking force. On the whole Gen. Dobell thought the game worth the candle. Sir Archibald Murray, after hesitation, signified his consent. The problem with which Gen. Dobeli had to deal was no easy one. Surprise and celerity were the two essentials. In order to retain the element of surprise he must strike while yet his advanced base was so far off that the Turks should think themselves securcly beyond his reach. Actually, when the operation from Gaza.

By the early afternoon the

s3rd Div. had fought its way close to its objectives.

should be longer delayed the Turkish force from Tellesh Sharia

was launched, his railhead was full 20 m.

817

cover.

General

Chetwode,

then, ordered

the Australian

and

New Zealand Mounted Div. to attack the town from the N. and

N.E., while the Imperial Mounted Div. and the Camel Bde. were to extend so as to take over the sereen on the N. of Gaza as well as on the E., though the Turkish reinforcements were

already seen to be approaching from N., N.E. and S.E. Before 5 o’clock the s3rd Div., strengthened by a brigade of the 53th, had taken ‘Ali Muntar and had pushed beyond the crest of the line of heights overlooking Gaza. The Australians

This

and New Zealanders were in the north-eastern outskirts of the town, fighting among the cactus hedges. N.E. and E. of the battle, the weakened mounted screen held off the enemy rein-

involved an exceedingly difficult scrics of approach marches to the place of concentration, in a country where water was very scarce, supplies wholly lacking, and concealment by day very hard to secure. A considerable portion of the force had three consecutive marches to make under these conditions in order to reach the scene of action undiscovered. The movement once started, therefore, no alteration or postponement was possible without the practical certainty of its being discovered, and the chance being lost for all. Moreover, in order so far as possible to insure a rapid decision, Gen. Dobell was obliged to employ a

forcements, but was being slowly forced to give ground.

Two more hours of daylight were required.

Gaza lies in,

and is bordered by, an immense labyrinth of great cactus hedges, impossible to fight through and clear by night. The 53rd Div. and part of the s4th were extended on the hills over Gaza on a

line facing nearly N.W. Below among the houses and cactus hedges was the Gaza garrison, still not surrendered. Bearing down on the very point of the exposed nght flank of the s3rd

large force. There were two and a half Turkish divisions— somewhat weak, it is true—at, and within a day’s march of, Gaza. General Dobell employed the Desert Column (two

Div. was a strong Turkish force, now within a few miles. Approaching the back of that same exposed right Nank was another

mounted divisions and the s3rd Div.), the s2nd and 54th Divs.

strong Turkish force, also within a few miles, coming from the

and the Imperial Camel Bde.

direction of Tcllesh Sharia. The thin mounted screen could not long delay these forces; no water had been found for the horses

But even the difficulties of moving

this force in secrecy to a place of concentration 20 m. in advance

all day, and it must in any case be soon withdrawn.

of railhead were less than the difficulties of providing it there with the necessary ammunition, water and supplics, and of maintaining that provision during the action. The whole of the

transport of the Eastern Force had to be pooled and rearranged. The troops had to be deprived of all but the barest minimum. Fifteen “trains,” each carrying once day’s supplies for a mounted division or a division, were improvised in about as many days.

Camel water convoys were prepared. were specially grouped and organized. mule and camel, every available cart and caterpillar tractor, whatever its normal this service. ‘he troops marched with

Part of the

sq4th Div. protected what was now the rear of the 53rd on the Mansura and Sheikh ‘Abbas ridges S. of Gaza. One brigade of the send Div. was available and no more. This was far from sufficient to protect the right of the 53rd Div. in its actual position, and at the same time to join it securely with the sath. The one day’s fighting, for which alone it had been possible to make effective arrangements as regards water supply, was drawing to a close. No water had been found in the Wadi

Ammunition columns Every available horse, waggon, Ford car and use, was pressed jinto the barest essentials.

Ghuzze or clsewhere by the partics detailed to search for it; and the water supply of the troops already engaged was now a matter of some anxicty.

Half an hour before sunset, then, there

were two alternatives. One was to launch the 53rd Div. and the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. down into Gaza

And, as the result—no small feat of organization—iwo mounted

divisions were given a 30-m. radius of action, two and a half divisions a 20-m. radius of action, and the remaining half divi-

in an attempt by night to clear up, or even to drive back into

sion what was required to enable it to protect and assist the line

the Wadi Ghuzze, the disorganized remnants of the garrison, while using the 54th Div, and the Impcrial Mounted Div. as a rearguard during the night. The other was to withdraw the mounted troops while the way between Gaza and the Turkish

of communication from railhead forward. In essence, then, the operation was a raid on a great seale, and,

as has been said, Gen. Dobell made it clear that he considered that success depended on his being able to force the surrender of the Gaza garrison before dusk on the day of attack. He came within an ace of succeeding. The concentration took place successfully and without alarming the Turks by the night of March 25-26. In the early hours

reinforcements was still open, and to form some sort of linc on the

ground won, by advancing the left of the 54th Div. and retiring

the right of the 53rd until the two flanks met ina secure junction. General Dobell thought the former alternative, on a dark night, in unknown and extremely intricate country, with strong enemy reinforcements already on the very outskirts of the battle, too

of March 26 the mounted troops crossed the Wadi Ghuzze to

surround Gaza from the N. to the S.E.; thus they would be in a position to cut off the retreat of the garrison and to prevent or

hazardous.

much delay the arrival of Turkish reinforcements whether from the N. or from the direction of Tellesh Sharia. The s3rd Div., which was to attack the enemy’s position on the heights E. and S.

and Sir Archibald Murray, who had come up in his travelling poste de commandement on the railway to Khan Yunis, within a few miles

of Gaza, of which ‘Ali Muntar was the chief feature, followed the

of the action, was informed

mounted troops, and was in turn followed by the sath Div.,

Gen. Dobell received from Cairo the decipher of an intercepted wireless message sent by the enemy commander in Gaza indicating his intention to surrender. This message had been sent

to support the 53rd and to protect its exposed right flank. The mounted screen was in position, though not without delay, yet in good time. The infantry was late owing to a cause which no one could either have foreseen or prevented. As

dawn broke a dense fog spread over the land from the sea.

The

troops could only grope their way slowly and uncertainly. They were delayed in reaching their position of deployment. No attack could be delivered until the fog had cleared. Nor did the

fog clear until 8 o’clock, when two precious hours had been lost. XXXI.—14

General Chetwode, who was at this time at Gen.

Dobell’s command post, emphatically agreed. The second alternative was, therefore, adopted,

in the early evening. ;‘

accordingly.

Several hours later

Its receipt by Gen. Dobcell was too late.

But even had it reached him earlier it is not casy to see how, with darkness actually falling and the cnemy’s reinforcements at hand, he was to have taken advantage of it. The two hours’ fog on the morning had destroyed his opportunity.

The new dispositions ordered were successfully taken up dur-

ing the night—not without protest from the commander of the

TURKISH

818

CAMPAIGNS

s3rd Div., who had to withdraw his right from ‘Ali Muntar. Early on the 27th his patrols again occupied the hill. But the - Gaza garrison had now been reinforced, and the patrols were driven off again. The point of junction of the sard and s4th

how long a delay would be involved in the preparations necessary for such an undertaking. The whole of the existing organization, and in particular the position of the railway running

close to the sea-coast, restricted the area in which it was immeDivs. was now the apex of an acute salient. The latter divi- diately possible to undertake serious operations on the confines of the desert to within a very strictly limited distance from sion, in order to join the former, had had to leave the Sheikh ‘Abbas ridge, on which the Turks now appeared. The 54th railhead. To prepare for an effective operation farther to the right would involve weeks of preparation and rearrangement. Div. and the Camel Bde. on the S.E. face of this salient were heavily attacked. All attacks were repelled, but the position Sir Archibald Murray decided, therefore, to attack Gaza again, towards the apex of the salient grew more and more precarious. and instructed Gen. Dobel! accordingly. General Dobell, therefore, ordered a further retirement during In any case a vast amount of preparation had to be made. the night of the 27th~28th to a strong position on the W. bank of | The Turks were daily increasing their force on the Gaza-Beerthe Wadi Ghuzze. This movement was successfully carried out sheba line, and it was evident that Gen. Dobell’s troops, specially lightly equipped for the passage of the desert, would have to and the action came to an end. The advance to the Wadi Ghuzze had been effected, covering be organized for the battle on more normal lines. The divithe further progress of the railway. The cnemy had been brought sional artilleries, which had had to be reduced in the desert, had to battle and was now pinned to the Gaza—Beersheba line. to be increased again; heavy guns and howitzers had to be Nearly a thousand of the enemy had been taken prisoner, railed up and heavy artillery groups formed. A few tanks were besides two guns, and he had lost several thousand killed and brought up, and the troops had to be instructed in methods of

The cost of this to Sir Archibald Murray was some

coöperation with this new weapon which they had never before

4,000 casualties. Gaza, however, and its garrison had escaped, though this was owing to climatic conditions against which both

wounded..

seen; they had also to learn the use of gas shell and smokeclouds. New large-scale maps had to be made and issued, including trench maps hastily prepared and incessantly revised from

commander and troops were powerless. In spite of the fact that an unkind fate had snatched away the fruits of complete success just as they were within Gen. Dobell’s grasp, in Sir Archibald Murray’s view the military results of the action had justified his anticipations. The cnemy had been brought to battle, and had been severely mauled, and the advance of the railway to the Wadi Ghuzze was assured. It will be remembered that the instructions under which Sir

Archibald Murray was acting at this time were to defend Egypt during the summer and to prepare for an offensive campaign in the autumn. The railway could now be pushed forward sufhciently to admit of what would be required.

Meanwhile, within three days of the Gaza action, Sir Archibald Murray suddenly received altered instructions. The gencral strategic situation was again changing. In France the great German retreat was slowing to a halt on the Siegfried line; the preparations for the battle of Arras were in hand, and farther S. the second battle of the Aisne was shortly to begin. In Russia the revolution was fairly launched. In Mesopotamia Sir Stanley Maude was driving the Turks far from Bagdad towards Samarra. Sir Archibald Murray was ordered accord-

ingly, on March 30, in view of the altered situation, to make his

objects the defeat of the Turks S. of Jerusalem and the occupation of that city.

Sir Archibald replied that he still required

the five divisions which he had always considered necessary for a further advance—an estimate from which he had never varied; he alsoindicated that the prospects of a rapid advance were to say the Icast doubtful.

In reply, he was instructed to push his

operations with all encrgy, though no additional troops could be sent to him, since it was considered that, in view of the military

situation of the enemy, his present force would suffice. Undoubtedly the latter portion of this instruction was unhappily expressed. The War Cabinet, with the whole strategic situation in its view, was no doubt more competent than Sir Archibald Murray to judge of the advisability of taking certain risks on the Palestine frontier, so there can be no question but that the

alteration in the instructions was justified. But Sir Archibald Murray, on the other hand, was more competent than the War Cabinet to judge of the actual military situation of the enemy opposed to him, and of the probable sufficiency for their task of the forces of which he disposed. However, immediate preparations were begun for a renewed offensive, and on March 30 Gen. Dobell moved forward the Eastern Force headquarters to Deir el Belah, on the coast some 8 or g m. from Gaza. If anything was to be done quickly, as the War Cabinct’s new instructions evidently contemplated, there was nothing for it buta renewed attack on Gaza. Already Gen. Dobell’s thoughts had been turned in the direction of Beersheba; but, in discussing with Sir Archibald Murray the question of operating by his right, he was constrained to say that it was difficult to estimate

acroplane photographs. Aircraft coöperation with the artillery had to be reorganized. The latest methods, in these and a hundred other matters, found advantageous by experience in more important theatres, had to be hurriedly assimilated by an

army which had just painfully emerged from a 15-months’ sojourn in the wilderness, and whose last pitched battle, so to speak, had been fought on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The limited capacity of the communications and transport available made

the organization of the supply of ammunition and engineer stores a matter of great complexity.

Preparations for water

supply were far more difficult and arduous still. Arrangements had to be made for bringing up rail-borne water from pipe-line head at Rafa to Deir el Belah, and for pumping it thence by a

small pipe-line into tanks prepared in the Wadi Ghuzze. Scores of wells were sunk in the wadi. Several hundred thousand gallons storage capacity was prepared at these wells, and by repairing and filling the great underground grain-reservoirs of the natives in the neighbourhood. Scores of prepared crossingplaces over the Wadi Ghuzze had to be made and allocated to the various formations, arms and transport. Between March 30 and April 15, however, all this work was practically completed, and Sir A. Murray brought up his advanced G.H.Q. to Khan Yunus, on the railway about 6 m. S.W. of Deir el Belah.

By this time the enemy had five divisions and a force of cavalry in line, and he had been considerably strengthened in heavy artillery. The Gaza defences were now strong and well wired, and the Turkish trench system extended S.E. irom Gaza for some 7 m. to the Atawine ridge. Farther to the S.E. the defensive system was less continuous, but one division was about Tellesh Sharia (16 m. from Gaza) and between that place and

Atawine. Beersheba was also held, General Dobell disposed of the send, s3rd and s4th Divs., the still incomplete 74th Div. in process of formation from dismounted yeomanry, the two mounted divisions of the Desert Column, and the Imperial Camel Bde. The French battleship

“ Réquin,” and H.M. Monitors 21 and 31 were also to codper-

ate by fire from the sea when the time came. General Dobell had planned his operations in two stages. The first stage was limited to securing the outer defences from the sea to Sheikh ‘Abbas, 2

commanding feature rather over 4 m. S. of Gaza.

The second

included the attack on the ‘Ali Muntar position and Gaza. The first stage began at dawn on April 17, and success was complete. The send and 54th Divs. took all their objectives by 7 AM. with but few casualties. The 53rd Div. on their leit pushed forward reconnaissances along the coast. One mounted division protected the right of the 54th Div.; the other watched and immobilized the enemy’s force about, and W. of, Tellesh Sharia. The ground gained was consolidated, and final prepara-

tions for the second stage completed on the 18th.

TURKISH CAMPAIGNS On the roth the bombardment of the enemy reopened at dawn, the “ Réquin ” and the two monitors now Joining in the battle.

At 7:15 A.M. the 53rd Div. launched its attack along the coast. A quarter of an hour later the s2nd and 54th attacked—the former astride the ridge running S.W. from ‘Ali Muntar, the latter, with the addition of the Imperial Camel Bde., immediately Farther to the right again the Impeonthe right of the send.

rial Mounted Div. made a dismounted attack on Atawine, while

the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. protected the

extreme right flank, and prepared to take advantage of any success gained by the Imperial Mounted Div. The 74th Div. was

in reserve W. of Sheikh ‘Abbas. The 52nd Div. was the first to be checked, after progressing

about half-way to its objective at ‘Ali Muntar.

and against the railway running 5. from that place which was demolished. But the Sinai desert had been conquered and passed, The defence of Egypt was sccure. And room had been gained for the preparation of a great offensive campaign in the autumn,

Thus the mission assigned to Sir Archibald Murray at the beginning of the year had been fulfilled.

wode had now succeeded Sir Charles Dobell, the plans were already in course of preparation which were to become the basis of the great campaign fought in the autumn by Gen. Sir Edmund

Allenby, who succeeded Sir Archibald Murray in the Egyptian command in June, (G.P. D.)

This resulted

The right of the s4th

Div., however, entered the encmy’s works at Khirbet Sihan, just W. of the Atawine ridge, while the containing attack of the Imperial Mounted Div. was successful in occupying the defenders of the Atawine works. But the situation of the s4th Div.

Meanwhile, at the head-

quarters of the Eastern Force, where Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip Chet-

(IV.)

in checking also the progress of the 53rd Div. on its left, and the left of the 54th Div. on its right.

819

by mounted troops and camelry in the direction of Beersheba,

Tse PALESTINE CAMPAIGN

The successful defence of Gaza on April 19 1917, when Gen.

Kress von Kressenstein for the second time in little more than three weeks had beaten ofi formidable British attacks, was fol-

lowed by a prolonged pause while both armies went into “ summer quarters.”

Every effort was made on both sides for a re-

sumption of the struggle in the autumn, and by the beginning of

was far from favourable. Owing to the continued inability of the 53rd to make hcadway its left was cxposed to heavy enfilade fire from ‘Ali Muntar, while its right, with the Camel Bde. thrust far forward, was subjected toa series of determined counterattacks. In this position, reached in the early aftcrnoon, the

Aug. r917 the German staff, realizing that the next British effort was likely to be considerably more formidable than the last, represented to Constantinople that the Gaza—Beersheba line was inherently weak in that its left flank was “in the air,”

battle swayed with little change for the rest of the day.

and that the only remedics were either readjustment, involving

Air

reconnaissance indicated that the enemy’s reserves had not yet been drawn in, and Gen. Dobcil, though moving part of the 74th Div. closer up, would not be the first to launch his last reserve, cspecially in view of the fact that it was the 52nd Div. which was checked and that the reserve brigade of that division

had not vet been employed. Towards evening Gen. Dobell reported the situation to advanced G.IL.Q., when Sir Archibald Murray instructed him by telephone that all ground gained must without fail be held and the attack resumed under cover of an intense artillery bombardment at dawn on the 20th. Gencral Dobcli issued his orders accordingly, and as night fellevery preparation for the

pursuance of the offensive was actively in hand.: Between 10 and rr o'clock at night, however, Gen. Dobelli was in communication with the Desert Column and all his divisional commandets, who by this time had received more detailed and accurate reports of the situation on their respective fronts. These

reports made it clear that the enemy’s resistance nowhere as yet showed any signs of weakening, that the British casualties

amounted to some 7,000, and that the prospects of being able to make

any considerable

further progress

without

a much

longer, more intense, and less hurriedly planned artillery prep-

withdrawal, or reinforcement on a generous scale, Unhappily for the Ottoman cause political ambitions came into conflict with military necessities. The loss of Bagdad on

March rr 1917 had been a blow to the prestige of the Sultan, more severe in that it followed upon that of Mecca, and the Pan-Islamic party in the capital was insistent that steps should be taken to retrieve the loss dnd rehabilitate the Ottoman Khalifates in the eyes of the Moslem world by a triumphant recovery of the city of the Khalifs. In this contention the PanIslamic leaders were supported by Berlin, where the influence of alliterative war cries indicative of future trade domination was strong. “ Berlin to Bagdad ” still reigned in official and public esteem, not yet supplanted by ‘‘ Hamburg to Herat.’ In consequence of this political counter-attraction Constantinople sent men and supplies for the reconquest of Irag (Mesopotamia), until it was persuaded to realize that the Palestine front,

if starved of needed reinforcements, would inevitably give way in a débâcle which might permit an active enemy to advance up the whole length of Syria and establish himself on the Upper Euphrates, thus’ cutting off the whole of the force in Mesopotamia from communication with Constantinople except by

artillery plan, including the divisional arrangements, was ready.

way of the railless and mountainous Armenia and Kurdistan. The Pan-Islamists fought hard for their policy and succeeded in delaying the dispatch of troops to Palestine until the middle of

General Wobell was not satisfied that in the time, and with the

October.

means available, the prospects of success were sufficient to warrant the immediate resumption of the action. Telephonic communication with divisional commanders and their artillery chiefs more than confirmed his doubts. General Chetwode, commanding the Desert Column, was equally clearly of opinion that the prospects were not sufficiently favourable to justify a hurried resumption of the attack. About 4 o’clock in the

As soon as Constantinople had accepted the principle that the presence of a powerful British striking force in front of

aration, were, to say the least, dubious.

morning,

therefore,

Gen.

Dobell

issued

By r A.. the new

orders

to postpone

further operations, with Sir Archibald Murray’s assent, The ground gained was consolidated during April zo and

following days. The enemy made no serious counter-attacks. It became clear that, before Gaza, there was nothing for it but the deliberate methods of trench warfare. The alternative involved long preparation, new communications, and an eventual movement far away in the direction of the British right flank. On April 22 Sir Archibald reported to the War Office that with his present force he could not count on more than a local success; and here the Sinai campaign proper came to an end, There was no further considerable action during the spring or summer. The opposing lines stabilized, and there ensued a period of preparation and training, of trench-raiding, and of enterprises

It was then too late, but this was not realized.

Gaza constituted a menace to the operations destined for the recovery of Bagdad, Marshal von Falkenhayn, in command of

the Yilderim Army Group, then at Aleppo, was directed to drive the British back into the Desert of Sinai. The marshal planned to strike at the British right flank, which, it was thought, had probably been weakened in order to mass troops upon the left for the expected third assault on Gaza. It was proposed to start this Turkish offensive about the middle of Oct., which would forestall the British offensive, calculated by the German staff to be due in the first week of November. Serious difficulties, however, arose Which fatally delayed the completion of these dispositions. In the first place the Turkish transport was poor. The sector of the Turkish lines of communication from Bozanti, the then railhead from Constantinople or, rather, Haidar Pasha on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, to Beersheba, was under the Syrian Western Arabia- command of which Ahmad Jemal Pasha was G.O.C.: unfortunately this Politician was jealous because the command of the Yilderim Group, which since the beginning of July 1917 had included his

820

TURKISH

own army, had been given to a German.

He made trouble and

caused delays in the working of a system which could not really

have been efficient even if worked with perfect goodwill. As the Taurus and Amanus tunnels were not yet open for ordinary trafhec, all stores coming from the W. to Bozanti had

CAMPAIGNS Div. captured the first Turkish position; at r2:rs, the guns having moved up to cut the Turkish wire, the main assault was delivered and all objectives gained by 13:30, whereupon the 230th Bde. (Brig.-Gen. McNeill) of the 74th Div., which had formed the extreme left of the main assault, codperated with

to break bulk there and, reloaded into narrow-gauge trucks, to be

the 160th Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Pearson) of the 53rd Div. against

taken through the tunnel by compressed air engines, or hauled

the Wadi Saba front and rolled up ail the Turkish defences as far as the Beersheba-Tell el Fara road. Meanwhile the cavalry had completed their wide swing round from the E., and after hard fighting the 2nd A.L.H. Bde, (Brig.-Gen. Ryrie), belonging to the Anzac Mounted Div., was astride of the Hebron—Beersheba road by 13:50. At 16:00 the 4th A.L.H. Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Grant), belonging to

by lorry, mule or camel to Dorak, where they were again packed into standard-gauge trucks. The same performance had to be repeated at Baghche for transport across the Amanus to Islamié. Stores could be taken thence in standard-gauge trucks as far as

Rayak, where they had to break bulk for the fifth time to be

restowed in narrow-gauge trucks for Damascus, where, owing to

lack of railway rolling-stock, a portion was scnt to the front by lorry via Jisr Banat Ya‘qub on the Jordan, Nazareth, Nablus and Jerusalem.

Where railway rolling-stock was available fuel

was often scarce, locomotives had to be adapted to burn wood, and instances occurred of this being supplied in unsuitable lengths, so that trains were delayed while the crews cut up the wood afresh before it could be fed to the furnaces. General Allenby, however, having brought his railway right up to the front and constructed a strategic development of his pipe-line in addition, to the considerable improvement of his local water supplies, determined to forestall the impending Turkish offensive. His force was disposed along a front of some 22 m. Írom Gaza to Gamli and beyond to where the Descrt

Mounted Corps had detachments as far inland as Asluj, 38 m. from the coast. On the eve of the British attack the rival forces were disposed as follows,. Facing one another in the strongly fortificd Gaza sector were the Turkish VIII. Army (Gen. Kress von Kressenstein) consisting of the XX. Corps (3rd, 7th and 53rd Divs.—the 7th being in reserve near Herbie, ro m. behind the line) and the XXII. Corps%16th, 26th, Fakhr-ed-Din Bey,

and 54th, Nasuhi Bey, Divs.) Sharia, opposing

aligned out

the British XXI.

Corps

towards Tellesh (Lt.-Gen.

Sir E,.

Bulfin) consisting of the sznd (Lowland), Maj.-Gen. Hill, the 54th (East Anglian) Div., Maj.-Gen. Iare, and the 75th Div., Maj.-Gen. Palin. The British XX. Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir P. Chetwode), consisting of the 53rd Welsh Div, (Maj.-Gen. Mott), the goth London Div. (Maj.-Gen. Sir J. Shea) and the 74th Yeomanry Div. (Maj.-Gen. Girdwood), was whecling into posi-

tion in support of the Desert Mounted Corps (Lt.-Gen. Sir IL. G. Chauvel), consisting of the 4th Cav. Div. (Maj.-Gen. Sir G. Barrow), the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Div. (Maj.-Gen, Sir E. W. C. Chaytor) and the Australian Mounted Div.

(Maj.-Gen.

Hodgson);

this

was

concentrating

near

Khalasa for its swoop upon Beersheba, held by Ahmad Feizi Pasha's VII. Army consisting of the ITZ. Corps (Ismet Bey)—composed of the 24th Div. (Wilmer Bey}, the 27th (Arab) Div. in Beersheba itself, with the 3rd Cav, Div. in front of it, and the

XV. Corps, which was hardly, constituted as yet, its 19th Div. (Sedad Bey} being still in the XX. Corps area behind Gaza on its way to the front, and its 2ọth Div. being still on the lines of communication S, of Aleppo and not destined to arrive even

at Ramich, far in the rear, until Nov. 6. General Allenby further had the support of certain warships, H.M.S. “ Grafton” (a “ blister”), four monitors, 15, 29, 3r and 32, the destroyers

“ Staunch ” and “ Comet ” and the gunboats “ Amphis ” and

“ Ladybird,” which were able to enfilade the Turkish positions near Gaza and destroyed important ammunition dumps. During the night of Oct. 30-31 1917 the British XX. Corps had moved forward to positions of deployment, and at dawn, when the Desert Mounted Corps had got right round to the E. of Beersheba, the 6oth and 74th Divs. were ready to close in from the W., while the 53rd Div. at Abu Irgeig threatened the Turks along the Wadi Saba front in such a position as to break through them and take in flank any reinforcements which might be sent

down to the Turkish III. Corps in Beersheba, At 05:55 (5:55 A.M.) on Oct. 31 a hundred field guns and howitzers opened against a Turkish front of 4,500 yd., while the g6th Bde. R.G.A. was engaged in counter-battery work. At

08:30 the 181st Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Da Costa) of the 60th London

the Australian Mounted Div., which had reached Iswaiwin by 11:00, moved forward against Beersheba itself. It ch-rged over a succession of strong Turkish positions, demoralized ine defence and captured the town at 18:00 with 1,148 prisoners, and was joined at 18:30 by the 7th Mounted Bde. (afterwards rath Cav. Bde.—then commanded by Brig.-Gen. Wigan), which had turned the Turkish defences on Ras Ghannam. Iimmediatcly upon its capture the Royal Engineers, upon whose careful preparatory work in the provision of pipe-Jines and camel-convoys of water the success of the attack had been based, began to develop the wells in hopes of being able to produce enough water for the horses and men, who required 400,000 gal. per day. Fortunately the Turkish evacuation had been so

hurried that the wells were less damaged than had been expected, and two reservoirs were left intact. The discomfort of the thirsty cavalry was much enhanced by the fact that a hot khamsin blew up off the desert, and on the afternoon of Nov. 3 the water situation was most acute, as all stored water had been drunk, and the output was barely adequate for the demand, and at 16:00 a brigade some 2,000 strong rode into Beersheba with a 48 hours’ desert thirst.

Fortunately at 17:00 a new well came

into working, and by midnight the suming some 8,000 gallons. Owing to this water difficulty the had to go into reserve temporarily, Karm for water while preparations

brigade was watered, conAustralian Mounted Div. and actually returned to were made for the next

attack against the positions covering Tellesh Sharia.

The fall

of Beersheba had cost the Turks over 500 killed, 2,000 prisoners and 13 guns, and exposed the left flank of the Gaza position. The next step towards the final attack on Gaza was the capture of Umbrella Hill by the 156th Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Leggett) of the sand Lowland Div., temporarily attached to the 54th Div., at 11:00 on Nov. 1 as a preliminary to the main assault timed for 03:00 on Nov. 2. This attack withits preliminary bombardment caused severe casualties to the Turks and, so far from being able to detach troops from Gaza to strengthen the jeft flank, the Yilderim command had to bring the 7th Div. into the line, The attack, therefore, of the 54th Div. had the required effect of “ pinning ” the Turks in the Gaza sector, and cost them over 1,000 dead in the captured positions, 654 prisoners and 3 guns. Meanwhile, next day Gen. Allenby delivered unother heavy blow with his right when the 53rd Welsh Div., temporarily under

the Desert Mounted Corps, attacked the VII. Army at Khuweilfe on the extreme eastern end of the line, and by its obstinate fighting against great odds did much to persuade the Turks that the British were trying to make a great turning movement from the E., whereas in point of fact the roth, 60th and 74th Divs.

were about to break the line between the VII. and VIIE. Armies in order to make a gap through which the Desert Mounted Corps could pass. After fighting for three days and nights almost continuously against what was left of the 11I. Corps and the roth and 26th Divs. brought across from the coastal sector, the positions were captured by the 158th Bde. (Brig.-Gen. Vernon) and held in spite of counter-attacks on Nov. 6 and 7, and on Nov. 8 the division concentrated in Khuwciule. The Turks being thus fully occupied on the extreme left of their front and “ pinned ” by operations at Gaza, Gen. Allenby at dawn on Nov. 6 broke through the middle of their line with an attack against Kawuka with his roth, 6oth. 74th Divs. and

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TURNER—TYPHUS had incubated for a fortnight, and immediately after the capture of Damascus, officers and men sickened by scores—whole regiments were temporarily out of action, and on top of the malaria came a savage visitation of the so-called “ Spanish ”? influenza, which preyed upon captors and captives alike, particularly the latter, whose resisting power had been greatly impaired by the privations of a fortnight’s disaster and rout. There now remained no formidable Turkish force in southern or central Syria, and all that remained for the victorious general

to do was to occupy the starving lands which he had liberated and move northward in search of a Turkish formation to attack. The 7th (Meerut) Div. was ordered to march up the coast, and made remarkable progress, leaving Haifa on Oct. 1, occupying

Tyre on the 4th, Sidon on the 6th, Beirut on the 8th, and Tripoli (Tarabulus) on the 18th, while the 5th Cav. Div., less affected by malaria and influenza than other cavalry, moved up through the Biqa‘ along the railway to Hama (Oct. 20), engaged

German armoured cars near Khan es Sebil (Oct. 22), and reached Aleppo, which had just been occupied by Arabs, at 10:00 on

Oct, 26.

The division passed through Aleppo, engaged the

Turks on the Alexandretta road, and on the 28th relieved Arab troops at Muslimie junction astride of the Bagdad railway.

During this advance an uncounted numberof Turks were

killed, 200 German and Austrian officers and 3,500 men, while over 72,000 Turkish prisoners, 360 guns, S800 machine-guns,

FEVER

825

and Pauperism (1898), and many papers on Poor Law subjects. She died in London Sept. 25 1912.

TYLOR,

SIR

EDWARD

BURNETT

(1832-1917),

English

anthropologist (see 27.498), died at Wellington, Som., Jan. 2 1917. He was knighted in 1912. TYPHUS FEVER (sce 27.508).—This acute specific fever is

spread by the agency of the body-louse, and is characterized by a sudden onset, 2 maculo-petechial eruption, severe toxaemia,

Jasting some 12 to 15 days, and ending by a rapid lysis. The disease has many synonyms:—Typhus exanthematicus, synochus putrida, spotted fever, gaol fever, famine fever, prison fever, Brill’s disease.

This last term is often applied to denote a

very mild type of the disease occurring in the United States. Hippocrates mentions the word “ typhus,” but he applied it to any stuporous and delirious condition and does not appear to have

been acquainted with the fever in question, The malady was apparently confused with plague until the 16th century, when Fracas-

torius differentiated it from the latter disease and called it petechie.

During the 18th and 19th centuries typhus fever was well known in Europe, but included typhoid and relapsing fever, from the former

of which it was distinguished by a long series of researches beginning with those of Strother, Gilchrist and Huxham in the early 18th century and ending with the classical work of Still in 1837. From relaps-

ing fever typhus was definitely differentiated

by Henderson of

Edinburgh in 1843.

Climatolegy and Epidemiology.—Typhus is mostly a disease

and large quantitics of locomotives and motor transport were- of temperate and cold climates; in tropical countries it occurs only in the hills or during the cool season. In 1921 typhus was captured. (H. P.-G.)

TURNER, SIR GEORGE (1857-1916), Australian politician, was born at Mclbourne Aug. 8 1837 and educated at its Central school, proceeding on to its university. He was called to the

Victorian bar and in 1889 was elected to the Victorian legislature as member for St. Kilda. Two years later he became Minister of Health and later held office as Minister of Customs, Solicitor-General and Minister of Defence. From 1804-9 he was Premier and Treasurer of his colony and again from 1900-2. From 1001-5 he was Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Aus-

tralia, He wasalso president of the Federal Council of Australasia, Which came to an end in 1899.

He represented his colony at

Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee (1897) and was then created G.C.M.G. and sworn of the Privy Council. Ife retired from politics in 1906 and died at Melbourne Aug. 14 1916.

TURNER, SIR WILLIAM (1832-1916), British anatomist, Was born at Lancaster Jan. 7 1832. He was educated at various private schools, and afterwards studied medicine at St. Bartholomew’s hospital, and graduated M.B. at London

University.

In 1854 he became senior demonstrator in anatomy at Edinburgh University, in 1867 professor of anatomy, and in 1903 was elected principal and vice-chancellor of the university. He was from 1898 to 1904 president of the General Medical Council, and in 1900 was president of the British Association. He was knighted in 1886 and made a K.C.B. in roor. Turner was best known as a brain surgeon, and published various valuable Papers on the subject. He died at Edinburgh Feb. 15 1916,

TWINING, LOUISA (1820-1012), English philanthropic worker, was born in London Nov. 16 1820. In early life she was an artist, and published Symbols and Emblems of Mediaeval Chris-

lian Art (1852) and Types and Figures of the Bible (1854).

In

1853, however, she became interested in movements for social

reform, and began the work in connexion with the Poor Law to Which she devoted the rest of her life. In March 186r she helped to establish a home for workhouse girls sent out to service, and in 1864 a Workhouse Visiting Socicty. In 1867 an act was Passed separating infirmaries from workhouses,

and after 12

endemic in many parts of E. and S.E. Europe, Poland, Galicia, many provinces of Russia and certain districts of the Balkans.

It was endemic ulso in some parts of Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, and an endemic area exists in India on the W. of the Indus, stretching from Baluchistan in the S. to Yusafzai, Hazara, and Xashmir in the N., and then passing eastwards along the ranges of the Himalayas, where it is especially prevalent at Kulu, and also passing southwards into the district of Rawal Pindi, It also occurs in Indo-China, in N. China and in Japan

in the province of Iiogo.

It does not occur in Australasia or

Oceania. In America it is endemic in Mexico, in certain districts of Peru and northern Chile. ; Before the World War it was eradicated from most European

countries where hygienic measures for the destruction of vermin were in existence. During the war, extremely severe epidemics raged in the Balkans, Poland and Russia. Epidemics are caused by anything which favours the propagation and dissemination of lice. The principal factors which do so are:—

(1) massing together of people of all classes; (2) retaining these masses under conditions which render personal cleanliness and clean clothing difficult or impossible, typically in times of war or famine; (3) a suitable atmospheric temperature, not too high~.¢c. a temperate zone temperature. “letiology.—The disease is spread by means of the body-louse, Pediculus corporis de Geer (1778). The virus is apparently present in the blood of a patient from the fifth to the twelfth day, bnt in greatest abundance from the fifth to the seventh day. The louse

requires approximately eight days interval before it becomes infec-

tive, and probably remains infective for the rest of its life, but it is

not certain whether it passes the virus on to the next generation or not.

human

being, a

reriod of six days to ten days clapses before symptoms

When an infected louse bites 2 non-immune

appear.

Fhe virus was reported by Nicolle to be filterable, but more recent

investivation has shown this to be doubtful.

The guinea-pie and

the monkey are susceptible. As regards the nature of the virus, innumerable bacteria and protozoa have been described. In 1921 most authorities favoured de Rocha Lima's theory, viz. that the causative agent is an organism which he has called Rickettsia prowaseki, Rocha Lima has given this name to some peculiar, minute,

more years of work Miss Twining in 1879 established the Workgramme-negative, oval bodies oiten showing polar staining when house Infirmary Nursing Association. She was 3 Poor Law | stained by Giemsa’s method, and found in the epithelial cells of the A M enA A Rh

, 5 during 1884-90, and 7 for Tonbridge ; alimentary canal of lice which have fed on the blood of typhus guardian for Kensington patients. Attempts at cultivation have so far failed. Brumpt and Union during 1893-6. She promoted the opening of Lincaln’s others do nut give any etiological importance to these bodies, as,

Inn Fields to the public, helped to start the Metropolitan and

National Association for nursing the poor in their homes, did much

to secure the appointment of police matrons,

President of the Women’s

Local Government

and was

Society.

She

Published Recollections of Life and Work (1893), Workhouse

according ta them, they are found also in lice which have not fed

on typhus patients.

Rocha Lima contends. however, that there are

two foris of the parasite, one non-pathogenic, Rickettsia ped iculi, found only in the lumen of the alimentary canal of lice; and the other, pathogenic, Ricketisia prowaseki, which multiplies in the cells of the insect's alimentary canal.

TYPHUS

826

Platz has described an anaérobic, gramme-positive, bacillus which

he now identifies with Rickettsia prowazeki. carrying by bocdy-lice, see TRENCH FEVER.)

Morbid

Anatomy.—There

(For similar disease-

are no specific anatomical

lesions.

A certain amount of oedema of the lungs and hypostatic pneumonia is often present. The spleen is enlarged, usually of a dark red colour and juicy red pulp. The liver and kidney show cloudy swelling, and

punctate hacmorrhage may be present. In the intestine there are no changes in Peyer's patches, and the mesenteric glands are not enlarged. The heart muscle may show cloudy swelling and fatty

degeneration.

The cerebral spinal fluid may

present a slight

lymphocytosis. Syntptomatology.—Incubation varies from 4 to 21 days, usually about 10 to 12 days. The onset is usually sudden, characterized by severe. headache, pains in various parts body, often rigours, marked rise of the temperature, quick

but is

being

of the pulse,

flushed face and suffused eyes, and. quickened respirations. The patient complains of extreme weakness. The duration of the fever on an average is 14 to 15 days. During the first 2 or 3 days the tem-

perature continues to rise at night, with remission in the morning, to a maximum of 104 to 105 on the second to fourth day. During this time the tongue becomes dry, swollen, and coated with a thick

brown deposit on the dorsum, while the tip and sides of the organ are red. Lhe patient quickly becomes apathetic, drowsy, with dull expression. As the disease progresses, the rapidity of the pulse increases and may reach 140 a minute, and is usually small and of iow tension. The respirations are generally quickened and there

are usually signs of laryngitis and bronchitis and occasionally bronchial pneumonia. Delirium is known, especially at night. Definite preliminary rashes are rare. What one generally sees the first two or three days of the disease is a very marked flushing of the face, neck and upper portion of the chest, with a subcuticular

FEVER showed a great tendency to gangrene of the fect, while those of: Ireland have generally been associated with bronchial and pneumonic complications. On the other hand, in the recent epidemics in’ Poland and Galicia, complications have been comparatively rare.

Diagnosis —The principal data on which to base the diagnosis.

are as follows :—

(a) Incipient Typhus.—(1)

:

The sudden onset, often with head-

ache, rigours, and vomiting. (2) The congested eyes and face and the subcuticular

mottling

of the skin

over

the chest.

(3) The.

mental confusion and stupor, associated with the log-like attitude

of the whole body.

(4) The increased percentage of polymorphonu-

clear in the differential count.

(b) Fully Developed Typhus--(1) The typical rash. (2) The history of the sudden onset, ete. (3} Leucocytosis and increased polymorphonuclear percentage. (4) The Weil-Felix reaction, viz., the blood of typhus patients agglutinates a proteus-like germ, iso-

l

lated from the urine of some cases of typhus by Weil and Felix and

called by them Proteus X19. Prognosis.—The case mortality may be from ro to 50°% and greatly varies in different epidemics. Ht is low in the youn and very

high in the old. The malady is slightly more fatal in males than in

females, while alcchalism and kidney disease are bad prognostics. Treatment.—This is merely palliative. Patients suffering fram typhus should be placed, whenever possible, in airy, well-ventilated wards, and in the summer months tents may be used with advantage. Cleanliness and good nursing are essential.

During the febrile attack

the dict should consist of broths and mifk and soft solids, while plenty of water ts allowed to be drunk. The temperature should be controlled by cool sponging and the nervous symptoms by ice to the

able in many tases of Pappataci fever, The true typhus rash appears

head, hyoscin, bromides or morphine, while the heart is supported by hypodermic injections of strychnine and digitalin. Special atten-. tion should be paid to the mouth and throat. The legs and feet should be kept warm and pressure on the fect, even from the bedclothes, should be avoided, lest it contribute to the production of. gangrene, Prostration is extreme in most typhus cases, and a most striking fact is the occurrence of many deaths after the period of

dant.

To combat this extreme exhaustion, the administration of alcohol in moderate doses is Sometimes useful.

mottling of the skin of the lower part of the chest and abdomen (cutis marmorata). It should be noted at once that this symptom

is far [rom being specific, a similar flushing being very often noticegenerally on the fourth or fifth day in the form of small roscolar spots, indistinguishable from typhoid roseola but often more abun-

According to some of the old authorities, it appears first on

the arms and legs, but, in the writer's experience of Serbian and

Polish epidemics, the rash generally starts on the abdomen and then

spreads to the chest, arms and legs. The spots are at first roseolar and disappear completely on pressure, then some of the spots slowly fade away, while others become of darker hue and do not disappear completely on pressure, becoming petechiae, though it is rare for them to develop the dark blue appearance of petechiae in such eruptions as those of purpura. The rash, in a few cases, may remain purely -roscolar-like, without any of the spots becoming petechial.

ln exceptional cases, the rash may be absent altogether: typhus exanthematicus sine exanthema. The medical man with little experience of typhus

should

be on his guard not to mistake for true

typhus rash a petechial rash, the so-called Balkanic rash, due to þites of innumerable feas, composed of numerous perfectiy circular

dark red petechiac, which is extremely common in the Balkans and

in Galicia in peasants and soldiers. Anyone who has not been to those countries can hardly believe how profuse this rash can be. The whole body, with the exception perhaps of the face, 1s completely covered with it, while the shirt of the sufferer may be abso-

lutely black from the number of living fleas upon it. With a little practice one soon learns to distinguish the two rashes. Each fleabite shows at first a central haemorrhagic spot surrounded by a hyperemic circular zone, which disappears on pressure. This peripheral hyperemic zone fades away spontaneously within a day

or two, while the central haemorrhagic spot remains as a petechial area, which is, asa rule, perfectly circular, not raised, and of a dark red, sometimes copper-like, colour which does not disappear on pressure. In the blood there is often a marked leucocytosis, und a differential count shows a large increase of polymorphonuclears. An interesting feature is the complete absence of cosinophiles in practically every case. Termination—On

or about

the fifteenth day, the temperature

generally falls by crisis, or, much more frequently, by rapid lysis which may extend through three to five days. Convalescence may be slow, and fairly frequently there is danger during this stage, as the general condition may not improve after the cessation of the fever, and death may occur some two to three

weeks after defervescence. In certain cases, while the temperature has become normal, the pulse does not improve, and the patient becomes weaker and weaker until he dies. Complications and Seguelae-—The most usual complications are: parotitis, ending often in suppuration, gangrene of {eet and poly-

arthritis; neuritis, hemiplegia, severe mental depression amounting almost to melancholia (seen during convalescence) may be mentioned, also bubonic swellings; otitis media, abscesses and boils occur, while jaundice, endocarditis, and meningitis are rare, but

myocarditis is fairly common.

It is interesting to note that different epidemics of typhus have been reported as being characterized by special features in regard to complications and sequelae; thus, the Serbian epidemic in 1914-5

defervescence, even when severe complications have not developed. Attempts

at specific

medication

have

been

made

by various

authors, and Nicolle has prepared a serum, by injecting horses with emulsions of spleen and adrenals. of guinea-pigs artificially inoculated, said to have good results, the dosage being 20 c.c, daily. Prophylaxis —This consists in taking every possible measure for the destruction of lice. There is no doubt that heat, whenever it can be emploved, is the most satisfactory means for the destruction

of lice and their cegs in clothes, blankets, bedsheets, etc. When dry

heat is used, 4 temperature of 68° C. for 15 minutes is the safe standard for routine practice. When steam is used, articles should

be submitted to a temperature of roo? C. for 30 minutes to allow the steam to thoroughly penetrate all parts al the clothing. For

disinfestation of rooms, barracks, etc., sulphur fumigation is prob-

ably the most satisfactory routine method.

The rooms, whenever

possible, should be sealed and rendered approximately airtight, and then the sulphur fumieation is carried out, using 5 to 8 Ib. of sulphur per 1,000 cub. ft., the rooms remaining sealed up for a period of not Jess than 12 hours.

With regard to the usual chemical insecticides, their utility is somewhat limited; among the liquid ones, petrol 1s, in practice, probably the best; guaiacol is a powerful licecide but is expensive. Among solid insecticide substances, naphthalene is the most useful and convenient. It is interesting to note that according to Jackson’s and the writer's experiments in Serbia insecticide chemicals do not act equally well on lice, bugs and fleas; for instance, pyrethrum (many patent insecticide powders are merely pyrethrum) acts powerfully

on bugs while its action on lice is very slight; on the other hand,` iodoform, which will kill lice in 10-15 minutes, has no action on bugs and very little on fleas. When an insecticide for general use is required therefore, several chemical substances should be combined, and the following powder has been found fairly efhcacious, viz., naphthalene,

previously

soaked

in guaiacol or creosote

Jij pyre-

thrum 3ij zinc oxide ad. 3. The wearing of undergarments made liceproof by soaking in crude earbolic acid and soft soap, 4s recom-

mended by Bacot and others, has been found useful. . In badly infected districts a large number of bathing and disinfecting stations should be established and a general disinfection of people should he carried out. The following procedure, as adapted

by the American Typhus Commission with most satisfactory results in the Serbian epidemic of 1914-5, is recommended. The infested

erson goes into a room, takes off the clothes, which are steamed or

boiled, passes into another room whére he is bathed, then into a third room where he is sprayed with petrol, and finally into a fourth

room in which he receives clean or sterilized clothes. The sterilization of the clothes may be conducted by boiling, but better still by

making them into lightly packed bundles and placing them in a truck or room into which steam is blown.

Autuoritiés.—Arkwright, Bacot and Duncan, Trans. Sec. Trop. Med. (1919); Borrel, Cantacuzéne, Jonesco and Nasha, C.R. Soe.

Biol. (1919); Cumming, Buchanan, Castellani and Visbecq, Report.

TYRRELL—TYRWHITT of Inter-Allied Med. Comm. to League of Red Cross Societies-(1919); erard, Arch. Inst. Pasteur de Tunis (vol. xi, No. 3, 1920); Jorge, Med. Contemporanea (No. 9, 1918); C. Nicolle, Budl. Path, Exot. Paris (with C. Comte and E. Conseil,

1912); Comptes Rendus de

L'Académie des Sciences (cxlix, 486, 1909 and 1910); C. Comte and E. Conseil, Annales de L'Institut Pasteur (xxv, 13, 1911); Nuttall,

Parasitology (Feb., 1919); Rocha-Lima, Arch. f. Schiffs- u. TropenHyg., (xx, 17, 1916); Rocha-Lima and Prowazek, Berl. klin. Wehnschr. (lili, 567, 1916); Strong, Shattuck, Sellards, Zinsser, Hopkins, Typhus Fever with particular reference to the Serbian epidemic (1921);

Wolbach, Todd and Palfrey, Jnl. Trop. Med. (xxlv, 13, 1921); Weil and Felix, W. ki. W. (1920); Compton, Jnl. Royal Army Med. Corps

(1920).

(A. CI.)

TYRRELL, ROBERT YELVERTON (1844-1914), Irish classical scholar, was born at Ballingarry, co. Tipperary, Jan. 21 1844. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he sub-

827

Commissioner of Education for Ireland and one of the original fellows of the British Academy. Amongst his published works were an edition of Cicero’s Letiers (7 vols., the later vols. with Dr. Purser, 1879-1900); Latin Poetry (1893); Sophocles (1807); Terence (1902), and Essays on Greek Literature (1909). He died in Dublin Sept. tọ 1914. .

TYRWHITT, SIR REGINALD YORKE, 1st Bart. (1870-

_—+);,

British Admiral, was born at Oxford May 10 1870, the youngest son of the Rev. Richard St. John Tyrwhitt. He entered the navy in 1883, was promoted lieutenant (1892), commander (1903), captain (1908), commodore (1914) and rear-admiral (1919). He was in charge of a landing party at Nicaragua in 1894. During the World War he commanded destroyer flotillas

sequently became a fcHow in 1868 and professor of Latin in 1871.

in actions in Heligoland Bight (Aug. and Dec. 1914) and off the Dogger Bank (1915). He was created K.C.B. in 1917,

From 1880 to 1898 he was Regius professor of Greek at Dublin, and from 1900 to 1904 professor of ancient history. He was a

and in 1919 reccived a baronetcy, a grant of {10,000 and the thanks of Parliament.

UGANDA

828

GANDA (see 27.557*).—The

area of the protectorate,

after taking into account an exchange of certain districts with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1914, is some 110,300 sq. m., including 16,000 sq. m. of water (chiefly those parts of lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanzas within its limits),

The pop., given as 2,843,323 at the IgII census, was in 1919 officially estimated at 3,318,190 of whom

and 3,516 Asiatics (mostly Indians). are the Baganda and Banyoro.

$47 were Europeans

The most numerous races

Industries, Trade and Communications —The economic resources of the protectorate greatly increased in the decade 1910-20, This period was marked by the rapid development of cotton-growing—an industry entirely in the hands of the natives—and by the acquisition of numerous plantations by Europeans, who engaged chiefly in the production of coffee and Para rubber. These, with ox-hides, goatskins and ivory formed the chief exports. Sesame seed, red chillies (which grow wild) and ground nuts were fluctuating craps. Cocoa, tea, tobacco and other plantations were started and a beginning was made in the export of timber.

Ghee (clarified butter}, in consider-

able quantities, was sold in Kenya Colony (British E. Africa). At first the cotton produced was mainly ginned in the E. Africa

Protectorate, but by 1919 ginnecries established at Kampala, Entebbe, Jinja and other centres by European companies ginned and

baled all the cotton exported. The value of the cotton exported (most of it taken by Indian merchants for the Bombay market), £165,000 in 1910-1, had increased to £965,000 in 19184). Fhe lastnamed figure was, however, due to the inflation of prices and repre-

sented an export of 4,909 tons; in 1914-5 when 6,866 tons were exported the value was only £351,000. In 19179 a tax of 4 cents per

pound on all cotton exported was imposed, the proceeds to be devoted wholly to the development of the industry. In 1920 the tax was reduced to 3 cents per pound, and was to so continue for three years. Progress made in the rubber plantations was shown in the increase of exports from 9 tons in 1914 to 113 tons in 1919. Coffce exports increased from 13 tons in 1910 to 2,716 tons (valued at £106,000) in 1919.

External trade js almost wholly through Kenya Colony by rait to Mombasa. The value of the imports, chielly textiles and hard-

ware, rose from £347,000 in 1910-1 to £744,000 in 1916-7, exclusive of Government stores, specie and goods in transit. (The transit trade is almost entirely with the north-castern part of Belgian Congo and consists largely in bullion from the lilo gold mines.) In the same pertod the value of exports of domestic produce rose from £306,000 to £637,000. The Customs Depts. of the two protectorates were amalgamated in 1917, and since that date no separate statistics have been kept, except in regard to domestic produce. The value of such produce in 1918-9 was £1,247,000,

The development of trade and the work of administration was

aided by a well-planned system of metalled roads suitable for motor traffic. A railway 61 m. long from Jinja (by the Ripon Falls) to Namasagalt, the first navigable point on the Nile, was begun in 1910 and opened on Jan. 11912. Jt was built entirely by Busoga natives and is called the Busoga Railway. It connects with a line of steamers which serves Lake Kioga and the Bukedi district, where a rich soil and well defined dry season provide excellent conditions for cotton

growing. Besides the Busoga Railway there js a 7-m. railway {opened 1915) connecting Kampala, the capital of Buganda, with It was designed as the first stage In

Port Bell on Victoria Nyanza. a main line to connect

the Victoria

and

Albert

Nyanzas;

that is,

Uganda and the Belgian Congo. Mechanical transport, introduced in 1908, is much developed. In 1919 Jinja became a station on the Cape to Cairo air route, and the first machines to usc its acrodrome arrived in Feb. 1920, coming from Cairo.

The chief towns are Kampala (or Mengo), the capital of Buganda (pop. approx. 40,000); Entebbe, on Victoria Nyanza, the seat of government and 24 m. from Kampala (pop. 12,000); Jinja, chief town of Busoga and headquarters of the cotton industry; Alasindi, capital of Bunyoro; Mjanji, a port at the mouth of the Sio river.

ad valorem duty of 10% on imports and an export dutv on certain

commodities are other sources of revenue. The administration is on the line of a British Crown Colony. An Order in Council passed in 1911 provided, in effect, that the criminal law should be the Indian Penal code, the civil law generally that in

force in England.

Much of the protectorate consists, however, of

native states coverned by chiefs (four of whom bear a title equivalent to king) with the aid of a 7/wktko (council or Parliament). This sys-

tem of local self-government was extended from 1910 onwards as new districts were brought under control.

Education is entirely in the hands of the missionaries, Anglican

and Roman Catholic.

The Native Anglican Church (formed by the

efforts of the Church Missionary Society) had in 1918 some 40,000

scholars.

There are elementary, secondary, high and medical schools

as well as theological colleges.

‘The Mill Hil (R. C.) Mission had

over 18,000 children in its schools the White Fathers Mission nearly 20,000.

Education

majority of whom

is most

advanced

among

(400,000 out of 676,000)

the

Baganda,

the

profess Christianity.

The kings of Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro and Ankole, and their prime ministers, are all Anglicans. History.—The history of the protectorate since 1910 was one of steady development, in which the missionaries continued to

play a leading part. The World War of rorq-8, though it entailed a serious drain on the man-power of the country, only temporarily checked (and that not to a great extent) its progress. In March 1rorz1 Mr. (afterwards Sir) F. J. Jackson became governor, holding that post till April 1917. During his governorship some few hundreds of planters and commercial men were added to the European residents, hitherto almost entirely Government servants and missionaries. but as Uganda is not, and can never be, a ‘ White Man’s Country,” the problems

presented in lands where large numbers of whites and blacks live side by side did not arise. The readjustment of the south-western and western frontiers

in accordance with agreements made in 1ọ10 and rọrr with Belgium and Germany was completed in 1912. The western shores of Albert Nyanza with the adjacent strip of territory were transferred to the Belgian Congo, while to Uganda was added the district of Kigezi (2,056 sq. m.), a highland region (much of it over 6,000 ft.) containing some of the peaks of the Mfumbiro range of active volcanoes. The northern part of Ruanda lies within the district. The formal transfer of the part of Kigezi which had belonged to German E. Africa took place in Jan. 1912. Two years later Kabale was chosen as headquarters of the district. In April ror4 another territorial change was effected when the northernmost part of the protectorate E. of the Nile was transferred to the Sudan Government, whose administration was extended 5. to Nimuli, this giving the Sudan control of the whole of the stretch of the Nile navigable from Khartum. In return the Sudan surrendered to Uganda some 4,000 sq. m. W. of the Nile and N. of Albert Nyanza, an area which had been part of the Lado enclave, leased to Leopold I. of Belgium.

These arrangements tended to make the Uganda Protectorate more compact and manageable. By ro15 effecfive control had been established over the whole protectorate except the district lying W. of Lake Rudolf—an ard region sparsely inhabited by Turkana and other warlike nomads who owned no paramount chief. This remote district was the scene of an extensive gunrunning trade with Abyssinians and Somalis, and of raids on

chief missionary societies, has a number of fine buildings; a new

peaceful tribes, involving punitive measures. The most important of these expeditions was carried out during April-June

pillars, was consecrated in Sept. 1919.

the Sudan.

Kampala, the headquarters of the Buganda Government and of the

Anglican cathedral, a brick-built domed building with massive stone Revenue, Administration and Education.—The revenue in 1909-10

was £165,000 against an expenditure of £240,000, the balance being met by an Imperial grant in aid. In that year a poli tax was substituted for a hut tax, and the revenue thus increased. By 1915-6

the revenue had risen to £287,000, while the expenditure was £285,000. This was the first year in which income exceeded outgoings and in which no grant in aid was needed, In 1918-9 the revenue was £351,000 and the expenditure £323,000. The chief source of income is a poll tax on the natives; since April 1919 a poll tax has also been Jevied on Europeans and other non-natives. An

ror8 by a combined force from British E. Africa, Uganda and

The operations showed the Turkana that though

supported by Abyssinian marauders they could not escape punishment, but they were inconclusive, as neither the Sudan

Government nor that of Uganda was prepared effectively to administer their portions of the disturbed area. The outbreak of the World War found Uganda wholly unprepared. At that time, Aug. rgr4, the protectorate troops (4th Batt. King’s African Rides) were engaged against the

Turkana. For 180 m. W. of Victoria Nyanza * These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.

the Uganda

UHDE—UKRAINE frontier marched with that of German E. Africa, and for some

time it was defended only by a few policemen and mobs of undisciplined spearmen. The Germans, however, let the opportunity pass, and only outpost actions were fought. With

829

density of 62.3 per sq. km.; of these 32,662,000 were classified as Ukrainians, 5,376,S00 Russians, 2,070,500 Poles, 3,975,760 Jews, 871,270 Germans, 435,240 Rumanians and 32,960 Hungarians; or, according to religion, Ukrainian-Orthodox

Church

the launching of the Belgian offensive in April 1916 Uganda ceased to be in the sphere of active operations. The chief

30,653,000, Greek Catholic 6,847,000, Russian Orthodox 4,500,000, Jewish 3,976,000, Roman Catholic 2,000,000 and

service rendered by Uganda in the E. Africa campaign was the

Protestant 800,000.

raising of over 10,000 African soldiers, the formation of a native medical corps—this corps was formed through the efforts of Sir Apollo Kagwa, prime minister of Buganda—the supply of over 60,000 trained carriers and some 100,000 “ jol porters ”’

pop. of the various districts composing the territory, in which, according to the rorg estimate, the Ukrainian-speaking people

(see EAST AFRICA CAMPAIGN). The Baganda, Banyoro, Busoga and other races, throughout,

gave the British authoritics prompt and continuous aid. The Buganda Government at once mobilized every militarily-fit man. This was done by direction of the Kabaka (King) Daudi Chwa (b. 1896), who “came of age” four days after war began.

The accompanying table shows in fuller detai] the areca and are claimed to be in a majority, cither absolutely or relatively.

Country.

by the Nabingi, an anti-white society, which took a sheep as totem, put 2,000 warriors in the field and attacked impartially British, Belgian and German troops. The trouble originated in

rupee and the decision of the Colonial Office in 1920 to fix its exchange at 2s, sterling affected Uganda less perhaps than Kenya Colony, but caused a disturbance of trade, while the

great fall in the price of cotton from the middle of 1920 onward seriously affected the industry,

The introduction by order of the

Colonial Office of the differential treatment of Indians enforced in kenya was another disturbing influence, (Sce Kenya Cotony.) A step forward in the political status of the protectorate was the creation of a Legislative Council, to which various sections of the community nominated members. ‘The first session of the Council was held on March 23, 1921. The Indian community,

in view of the action of the Colonial Office, declined to send a representative to the Council. See H. R. Wallis, The Handbook of Uganda (2nd ed. 1920), an excellent monograph, by a former chicf secretary to the Uganda Government, with bibliography; Maj. E. M. Jack, On the Congo Frontier (1914); Rev. J. Roscoe, The Northern Bantu (1915); R. Kmunke, Quer durch Uganda (1913); R. Lorimer, By the Waters

of Ajrica (1917).

(F, R. C.)

UHDE, FRITZ KARL HERMANN VON (1848-1911), German painter (see 27.563), died at Munich Feb. 26 i911,

UKRAINE (see 27.564).—In its more recent application the name of Ukraine refers to a region of south-eastern Europe, embracing districts of South Russia and former Austria-Hungary which are said to be predominantly Ukrainian-speaking and which should, it is claimed, for this reason form an autonomous State.

The boundary of this territory was in 1921 undefined,

but, broadly speaking, the claim was that it extended from the mouth of the river Dniester in a north-westerly direction to the

neighbourhood of Cracow, thence running roughly N. towards Byclostok, then E. slightly by S. to the Volga, then S.S.W. to near Rostov, S.E. to the Caspian Sea and W. to the Black Sea. The independence of Russian Ukraine, the eastern section of this territory, was proclaimed in Nov. rory7, and that of Austrian (western) Ukraine in Noy, ror18; and in Jan. r919 eastern and western Ukraine united as a “ Republic of the Ukrainian People.” The total pop. of this “ ethnographic

Ukraine,” according

to the census estimate of Jan. 1914, was 46,012,000, giving a

Kuban Taurida Ekaterinoslav Kherson

Rumania AustriaHungary (former)

Bessarabia

1,519,950

45,893 545492

20,861 17,397 53,100

1,196,600 492,500 1,763,800,

speaking,

447,650 "443.370 355,920 2,936,080 3,282,680

3,746,310

2,050,350 3:523,720 2,743,710 440,190 1,150,310 580,970 248,100 1,078,400

35:064

1,763,800

805,900

63.392

3,455,500 3:774,600 747,700

2,366,280 1,977,030 319,210

79,798

54377

5,276

Hungary .

6,347

e.

739,162

Total, Ethnographic Ukraine

&41,800 715,600

10,53 I

50,957

33.334

11,988

Galicia Bukovina.

Population. Ukrainian-| Per-

285,890

715735

42,016

tory of) Stavropol .

Y oeTotal.

409,700 4,189,000 4,057,300 4,792,500 2,234,700 3,792,100 3,416,800 780,250

19,953

: Chernigov . Poltava Kharkov Kursk ; Voronezh . Don (terri-

On Sir F J. Jackson’s retirement after 23 years’ service in E. Africa, Mr. (afterwards Sir) R. T. Corydon was appointed

largely economic and social. The rise in the value, in rgro, of the

13,701

Podolia Kiev

- protectorate,

|

10,455

Volhynia

Ruanda, then under German rule, It was temporarily stopped by the sacred sheep being captured, shot and burnt, but in 1920 the Nabingi, with a new leader and a new sacred sheep, again gave trouble. This society was the only instance of anti-white fecling in Uganda, and affected only a minute part of the

The problems with which Sir R. T. Corydon had to deal were

Area in

sq. kin.

Chelm (holm) Grodno Minsk

Russia

During the war some trouble was caused in the Kigezi district

governor (Nov. 1917). A notable event in 1920 was a visit by the Rev. John Roscoe, the chief authority on Baganda ethnology, to study the lesser known tribes of the protectorate.

Province (Govern: ment).

5,378,650 400,430 569,490

3,415,000

301,150 440,630

46,012,000, 32,662 ,000;7|4 1%

Language.—The Ukrainians claim to have a national language

of their own, distinct from the Russian and Polish languages. Mr.

Ralph

Butler, in his New

Eastern

Europe (1919), says:

“Whether Ukrainian is adialect of Russian or a separate language is a vexed question, But if Ukrainian was a dialect in 19014 it is a separate language now: for whatever may be the ultimate destiny of the two great divisions of the Russian people the events of 1917-8 have carved lines which are beyond effacement in the ethnical development of the Ukrainian race. As written by the Nationalists, Ukrainian differs considerably in appearance from Russian; it discards six of the Russian letters and uses three which Russian has not got. The Nationalists have purposely made the orthography as different from the Russian as possible, They have created a neo-Ukrainian literary language from which

they have excluded as far as possible all Great-Russian technical

terms.”

The people furthermore claim to have a national

culture of their own.

i

l

The Ukrainian Movement.—Briefly the history of the Ukrainian Movement down to 1914 is to all intents and purposes the history of the Ruthenians (sce 23.939), inhabiting the eastern

parts of Galicia, of which province they constituted slightly less than half the population. Though subservient to the Polish

majority in Galicia, the Ruthenians constituted the intelfectuaf centre for the Ukrainian Movement.

The books which were

not allowed to be published in Russia were published in Lemberg and Cernowitz, and castern Galicia became the chief centre of Ukrainian propaganda. By the Treaty of Pereyaslavl,

1654, the Ukraine received independence, but acknowledged the Tsar as protector of the republic. By this treaty the Ukraine retained complete selfgovernment and the right of maintaining its own diplomatic representatives abroad. By degrees, however, its autonomous

UNDERWOOD, O. W.

830

country was described as dotted with a number of miniature

privileges withered, and by 1847 the Ukrainians saw their national existence in danger of being merged, in spite of ethnographic differences between the two races, in the general subjec-

for defence, cach having its own armed force.

tion of the Russians.

was in Warsaw, and M. Mazeppa, his prime minister, with the

A society called the “Cyril-Methodius

Brotherhood ” was started to keep the national tradition alive, having not only the literary object of promoting the Ukrainian language (till then only in oral use among the peasants) but also a far-reaching political programme. A federation of autonomous Slavonic states was aimed at. In rọoo the various Ukrainian political partics began to organize themselves. Of these the most important was that of the National Democrats, founded to fight for equal rights to those of the Poles in Galicia and for the autonomy of the Russian Ukraine as a federated Russian State. In the same year the

first Revolutionary Ukrainian party was organized in Lemberg, and in roo0s assumed the name of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Working-men’s party. Gradually the efforts of these socictics were rewarded by the resurrection of the Ukraine as a result of the break-up of the Russian Empire. The Ukrainians claim that the relation between them and Russia was purely dynastic, inasmuch as the Tsar was, by treaty, Protector of their State, and that when there was no more a Tsar of Russia they declined to permit the Russian people to succeed to the rights and privileges of their deposed sovercign. They therefore resumed their Jong dormant autonomy and founded a provisional Government in the summer of 1917. This Government, supported by the Ukrainian National Congress

and the Central Rada appointed by this body, refused to recognize the Bolshevist regime under which Kerensky was supplanted in Oct. 1917, Accordingly, the independence of the Russian Ukraine was proclaimed on Nov. 21 1917, and accredited representatives from France and Great Britain entered into relations with it in Dec. 1917 and Jan. 1918, Then came the Brest Litovsk meeting and the Treaties of Feb. 9 and rr 1018, between the Central Powers and the “ Ukrainian People’s Republic,” treaties which were interpreted by the Rada as a formal recognition of Ukrainian independence,

but in effect meant annexation by the Germans.

In April 1918

a German coup d'état overthrew the constitutional Government. Skoropadski was appointed nominally as Hetman but in reality Dictator, and, until the collapse of the Germans on the western

front, spared no effort to destroy Ukrainian independence. After the signing of the Armistice the succeeding steps in the evolution (and subsequent disintegration) of a Ukrainian State were as follows: In Nov. 19:5 came the proclamation of the State of the Ukraine of the West (Ruthenian Ukraine), and the conflict of this State with Poland. On Dec. 14 10918 the old

Rada of Russian Ukraine was reorganized into a “ Directory,” with Vinnitchenko and Petlura at its head. On Jan. 3 1919 the union of the Russian and Ruthenian Ukraines was announced, with Hetman Petlura as recognized head of the constitutional Government of the joint republic, having its seat at Kiev. Subsequently the Ukrainians with varying fortunes resisted

in turn or simultaneously the attacks upon their territory made by the Bolshevists on the one hand and by Gen. Denikin’s “ White ” volunteers on the other. In Feb. 1920 the nominal Government of the Ukraine presented a note to the Peace Conference asking for recognition as being

a de facto Administration on the same footing with other states which have arisen amid the ruins of Russia. The note pointed out that the population was firmly opposed to Bolshevistic theorics and intent upon independence. It asked for the moral support of “ Western Civilization” in its task of overthrowing anarchy, and appealed for material assistance to enable it to reorganize its immense resources. Not only did the Ukraine remain unrecognized, but, by the Peace Treaties, large tracts that were claimed as “ Ukrainian” (Galicia, Grodno, Minsk, Volhynia, a part of Podolia, Bukovina, Bessarabia) had been previously

assigned to Poland, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia,

Rumania.

Against the delivery of eastern Galicia, in particular,

or

to Polish rule, the ‘‘ Ukrainian Republic ” made a strong protest

republics consisting of a dozen or so towns and villages fortified

Gen. Petlura

nucleus of the Ukrainian National Government and an army of about 6,000 strong, at Kamenets Podolskiy, and the Government Was proving itself totally incapable of organizing the country. In April understandings were reached with Poland and Rumania, and the Ukrainian army was codperating with the Poles against the Bolshevist

army.

On April 27 the Polish

Government formally recognized the Ukrainc—or what remained of their claim—as an independent State, and accepted the provisional National “ Directory,” with Petlura as head, as the Government of the country. In May it was officially stated by Mr. Bonar Law in the British Parliament that conditions in the Ukraine had not been settled enough to warrant the recognition by the Allied Powers of any government set up

there. Later in the year Petlura’s Ukrainian Government was temporarily housed at Reshoff, W. of Lemberg, and in Oct, Gen.

Wrangel had temporarily become a power in the Ukraine. Oct. 23 Petlura had reëstablished his Government

By

at Kamenets

Podolskiy, and his troops were pushing on towards Kiev,

On

Nov. 4, in a written reply to a question in the House of Commons the Government stated that the Ukraine had not been recognized

either as a de jure or de facto Government.

By the Treaty of

Riga between Soviet Russia and Poland, in Oct. 1920, a further

large part of the Ukrainian claim passed to Poland. Reports of happenings in the Ukraine during xrọ2r were extremely meagre. The defeat and withdrawal of Wrangel’s army had no tranquillizing effect on the region, but was, on the contrary, followed by a crop of serious peasant risings. Petlura and the “ Ukrainian People’s Government ” had their

headquarters in southern Poland, at Tarnow. Resources, Industry and Trade.—The resources of the Russian Ukraine are naturally very great: covering an area nearly equal to that of France, Italy and England combined, this region contains

the best part of the Black Earth zone (the granary of eastern Europe), most of the coal and iron, 80% of the beet, 70°% of the tobacco and one-third of the live stock of pre-war Russia. According to figures available during peacc-time the total national wealth derived from the different branches of industry in this region was over £265,000,000, of which agricultural products amounted to 158, live stock 26-5, metallurgy and mining 37:5, manufactures 30:5, poultry 4-5, forestry 4-5 and other sources § millions of pounds.

Of the land, 65 % is arable, 10% forests, 12 % pasturage, 6% other products and 6% sterile. The grain crop is the main source of agricultural wealth and normally represents 32 % of the total produc-

tion of grain of the whole Russian Empire. The sugar industry occupies second place: in 1910-1 there were 580,000 ac. under sugar-beet cultivation. The manufacture of sugar is by far the chief manufacturing industry and 143 out of the 238 sugar factories in the whole of Russia were situated in Podolia, Volhynia and Kiev. ‘The tobacco industry is also of importance, including the cultivation of Turkish, American and other lower-grade varieties. At the beginning of the war the census of the live stock of the region was as foliows:

and

horses 8,000,000; horned cattle, sheep and goats 27,600,000;

pigs 6,300,000;

and the export

of stock,

meat and

animal

products, mostly through the ports of Odessa and Nikolayev, was approximately :—cattle (horned), 240,000; horses, 15,000; pigs, 130,000; beef, 9,000 tons; pork and dressed poultry, 12,000 tons; eggs, 65,000 tons; hides, 6,500 tons. ae ee

The coal-mining industry is located in the Donets-Basin district, which comprises an area of some 8,000 sq.m. the larger part of which falls within the Ukrainian “claim.” The better kinds of coal (anthracite, steam and coke) are obtained

Ekaterinoslav and Kharkov.

in the governments of

Taking the percentage of production

in 1915, the Don district amounted to 85-6 %, other parts of former Russia 14:4%, and the average production in the years 1913-5 was

20 millions of tons annually. The export is normally carried on at Berdyansk and Mariupol. The output of mercury, found in the district of Ekaterinoslav, increased during the war as follows: 64:5 tons in 1913, II5 tons in 1915, and 100 tons in 1917.

The

total exports

from

nine of the Ukrainian

governments

between 1909 and 1913 averaged £76,000,000 and the total imports

£52,000,000. The exports were, cereals 64% and sugar 22 per cent. Commerce is much facilitated by the navigability of the Ukrainian rivers, that of the Dnieper being 1,250 m., the Desna 537 m. and the Dniester 521 miles. un. W. M.)

UNDERWOOD, OSCAR WILDER (1862-

), American poli-

to the United States in Dec. 1919. At about the same date the | tician, was born at Louisville, Ky., May 6 1862. He studied at

UNEMPLOYMENT the university of Virginia (1881-4), was admitted to the bar in 1884, and practised law thereafter in Birmingham, Ala.

From

1895 to r915 he was a member from Alabama of the National House of Representatives, and during his last two ycars chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, After the Democrats

came into power in 1913 he had a large share in framing the tariff bill passed the same year; but his attempt to establish a House Budget Committee was defeated. In rgr4 he opposed the Panama

Canal Tolls Repeal bill, but supported the resolution authorizing the President to use armed force in Mexico. He was opposed to the woman suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution, holding that the question was a state issue. He also opposed the national prohibition amendment. In 1914 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, and in 1920 reélected. In 1919 he favoured the anti-

831

not be filled by applicants from the immediate locality.

Arrange-

ments are made, therefore, for the prompt circulation of particulars of vacancies which cannot be filled by local applicants, provided that the vacancies are of a character for which it is probable that

applicants from a distance can be obtained. Such vacancies are notified as a rule by telephone to neighbouring exchanges within a

defined ‘‘ Clearing Area,” and should this fail, the particulars are

circulated more widely. Up to 1914 a system of divisional clearing houses was used. Particulars of unfilled vacancies were sent by each exchange to the divisional office to which it was responsible, and a classified list of all the vacancies so received was issued daily by the divisional office to all exchanges in the division. Lists of unflled vacancies were also exchanged each week as between the divisions. In Aug 1914, the system was superseded by the institution of a “ National Clearing House ” in London. While the immediate circulation of particulars within the “ Clearing Areas ” was retained,

the circulation of lists of vacancies by the divisional offices was abandoned in favour of the circulation of a classified list for the

strike clause of the Cummins railway bill. He was a strong supporter of the Peace Treaty of Versailles without changes; but

whole kingdom.

when its ratification had been blocked by the Republicans, he attempted to bring about a compromise. In Dec. 1919 he offered a resolution in the Senate providing that the president of the Senate should appoint a committee of 10 senators to work out some acceptable plan for adopting the Peace Treaty; but this was blocked by Senator Lodge. In April 1920 he was chosen Democratic leader in the Senate. He was one of the four U.S. dele-

printed list of vacancies is issued once a week to all exchanges, and the list is kept up-to-date by the daily issue of a statement of vacancies to be added to the list and of cancellations of vacancics which have appeared upon it and are no longer open, In order to enable workpeople who have, through the exchanges, found employment at a distance of more than 5 m. from their homes, the exchanges are empowered to advance the amount of the travelling expenses. Such advances are as a rule recovered through the employer by small weekly deductions from wages. During the World War, and until the Unemployment Insurance Act (1920) came into operation (Nov. 8 1920), tickets for railway journeys, etc., were issued at less than the normal rates by the exchanges to all workpeople for whom the exchanges had found employment. The

gates at the Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armament which assembled in Nov. 1021. UNEMPLOYMENT (sce 27.578).—Subsequently to 1910 the

provision made in the United Kingdom for the remedy of unemployment was further fortified and extended. The Unemployed Workmen Act, 1905, was included each year after its enactment in the annual Expiring Laws (Continuance) Act. The Act empowers local authorities to form distress committees consisting of their own members, of representatives of boards of guardians and of coipted members possessing special knowledge of problems of distress, Their functions are to maintain a register of unemployed relief works are provided a id. rate.

persons, to assist such persons to obtain wark, to provide and to assist unemployed persons to emigrate. Funds by Government grants, from charitable money and from Ilitherto, Government grants have been made to cover

the difference between the actual value of the relief work done and the cost of doing it. The annual amount of Treasury grants never exceeded £300,000 (1908), and from 1911 was £100,000, which was not in any year fully expended. No grant had been made from 1913 to 1921. It proved impossible to provide relicf work of a kind to which many of the unemployed applicants were accustomed, and consequently workpecople were employed upon work, generally approximating to navvy’s work, for which they were unfitted. A heavy financial loss was incurred in almost every case. It proved impossible to obtain anything like a reasonable standard of work or

output upon relief works, and employment

upon such works was

found to be demoralizing to workpeople of a good type. This method of providing for unemployment is discredited.

Labour Exchanges.—Under the Labour Exchanges Act (1909), 61 labour exchanges were opened in Feb. 1910, and this number was increased to 175 in Feb. rorr and to 272 in Feb. ror2. As the result of the operation of Part IL. of the National Insurance Act of rgrz, the number of exchanges was further increased to 425 in Feb. 1913, and in June 1920 there were 395 exchanges. The organization established by the Board of Trade consisted of a central office in London—the Labour Exchanges Branch— and it divisional offices, to which areas covering the whole of the United Kingdom were attached. The number of the divisional

offices was subsequently reduced to ten and Scotland, Ireland and Wales

cach formed

a division,

Labour exchanges were

opened in practically all towns with a population of 15,000 or more. Responsibility for this service was transferred to the Ministry of Labour upon its creation in Jan. 1917, central control being exercised through the Employment

Department

of the Ministry. The facilities provided by the labour exchanges (whose name was changed to “ Employment Exchanges” jin Oct. 1916) were made available without charge to all employers

and workpeople with the exception of “‘ private” domestic servants over 17 years of age. This exception was suspended during the World War and had not been rcimposed up to 1921. It is an important function of the exchanges to bring together unemployed applicants and suitable vacancies which may exist in different districts, when it has been found that the vacancies can-

direct

The information for this publication is received

at headquarters

from

the various

exchanges;

a complete

cost was borne by exchequer funds. Under the Unemployment Insurance Act (1920), the exchanges are enabled in the case of insured workpeople who have found work through the exchanges to remit {at the cost of the unemployment fund) one halt of the amount

by which railway and other fares exceed 4s. for a single journey. In cases of strikes and lock-outs it was decided not to deny the use of the exchanges to the employers and workpeople concerned. In such cases the officials of the exchanges are bound to accept from an employer the notification of a vacancy created by the dispute and are further bound to bring to the notice of any uncmployed applicant, with the particulars of such a vacancy, the fact that a trade dispute

exists at the establishment of the employer concerned. As a rule formal notification of the existence of a trade dispute is made to the

exchanges either by employers or workpeople and when this occurs the terms of the notification are laid before unemployed applicants. Travelling expenses cannot be advanced to enable workpeople to travel to vacancies caused by a trade dispute, and particulars of such vacancies are rarely, if ever, circulated to other exchanges. The Labour Exchanges Act authorized the formation of advisory committees to assist in the management of the employment ex-

changes. The intention of this provision was to secure the cooperation of representatives of industry in the administration of the exchanges. From 1912 onwards advantage was taken of this provision to form

17 advisory trade committees consisting of repre-

sentative employers and workpeople in equal nymbers; the number of the members of each committee varied from 12 to 36, and the usual number was rather more than 20. The chairman was chosen by the committee itself or, in default of agreement between the two sides of the committee, by the Board of Trade. The areas covered by the advisory trade committees were as a rule large, consisting of as many

as five counties. Board of rade

It was the duty of the committecs to advise the upon matters reterred to them, and the matters so

referred were asa rule questions of policy arising in the administration of the labour exchange service, ¢.g. the attitude which should be adopted by the exchanges towards employers and workpcople concerned in trade disputes and the extent to which “' references " should be taken up by the exchanges in respect of applicants for employment. It was found that the areas assigned to the committee were too wide to permit of any close association with the current work of individual exchanges, and the restriction of the functions of the committees to the consideration ef matters referred to them prevented the development of a sense of responsibility for the conduct of the exchanges. When, therefore, it became evident (in 1917) that upon the conclusion of the World War the exchanges would be faced with tasks of special difficulty in every area, the Minister of Labour, to whom responsibility for the exchanges was transferred upon the creation of that office in Jan. 1917, decided to replace the advisory trade committees by a larger number of local employment committees, associated much more closcly with the work of each exchange. Three hundred and two local employment committecs were formed in connexion with the 395 exchanges. As a rule, therefore, cach committee is associated with a single exchange, and with more than one exchange only in some cases in the provinces where several are situated within a single industrial area. Members of the locat employment committees are appointed by the Minister of Labour, as a rute upon the nomination of local organt-

zations of employers and of workpcople. The chairman of the coma

UNEMPLOYMENT

832

The committces

in the latter ycars of the World War. The figures for 1920 indicate

are responsible for advising the minister upon every phase of the

a return after the exceptional war conditions to a normal scale of work, It appears that the exchanges may anticipate rouchly the receipt each year of 3,000,000 registrations by unemployed workpeople, of notifications by employers of 13 million vacancies and the filling of 1,000,000 cf those vacancies. It should be remembcred that

mittee is chosen and appointed by the minister.

work of the exchanges with which they are associated. They are free to initiate their business and to carry it out through sub-committees. Two hundred and forty-six committces have formed women's departments at the exchanges. Consisting of representatives of every industrial interest of importance in the locality, the committees are in a position to indicate precisely in what ways cach exchange should be adapted to local needs so as to be of most service, and further, the committees have since their formation undertaken

much detailed work on behalf of individual workpeople upon the books of the exchanges.

Exchange Statistics—The scale and character of the work done is shown in Table I.

TaaLe |—Emplowment Exchanges, Year

|

Individ-

4 Reeta;

noe

pu

egisge ae tered | Notified | Filled

tons

1910 | 920,000 | 740,221 | 261,560 | IQII 1,323,162 | 978,218 | 446,035 | 1912 (3,594,236 /1,025,332 | 626,756 | 1913 |2,088,735 |1,207,077 | 714,270 | IQI4 |2,316,042 |1,381,694 | 909,383 | Men 4 1915

Individ-

Vacan- | Vacanans cies

|1,512,335

|1,072,213

219,069 362,670 513,649 566,150 706,458

oun Work

| | | |

268,794 336,341 390,141 507,538

|1,004,970 | 716,816 | 577,206

1916 |1,229,171 | 954,172 | 909,721 | 636,095 | 539,564 1917 1918

|1,167,864 | 938,725 | 906,627 | 623,830 | 539,396 |1,363,590 |I,119,905 | 977,999 | 669,732 | 582,899

1919 [3,601,393 |2,897,333 | 900,970 | 658,836 | 598,658 1920 |2,392,553 |1,699,924 | 581,406 | 454,624 | 393,623

Womèn

I9IO IQtT 19i2 1913 | 19%4

1915 1916 1917

| | | | |

290,000 414.459 518,775 532,060 707-071

| | | | |

232,106 307,641 360,873 351,755 476,926

| | | | |

103,007 178,446 226,276 270,325 312,344

| | | |

81,846 136,409 97,598 168,555 | 118,650 199.395 | 133.424 232,935 | 160,145

[1,232,891 | 920,638 | 493,515 | 385,101 | 306,192 /1,G21,826 {1,501,260 | 846,196 | 695,031 | 615,920 |1,873,706 }1,487,728 | 814,785 | 706,034 | 636,269

1918 1919 1920

|£,815,6901 |1,478,934 | 808,490 | 624,220 | 547,412 1,927,143 |1,568,625 | 731,320 | 408,033 | 341,773 |1,015,113 | 767,037 | 469,068 | 284,451 | 212,895

1910 | 110,000 90,084 62,233 1911 | 185,108 | 138,684 ; 106,920 I9I2 | 200,403 | 146,434 | 130,601

46,728 77,081 83,086

1913 | 186,574 | 137,008 | 143,715

90,387

| 1914 | 211,898 | 157,093 | 357,278 | 103,280

64,752

70,565 745535

85,068

Boys 7 1915 | 194,864 | 150,559 | 161,459 | 106,716 90,237 1916 | 241,314 | 184,443 | 148,091 | 116,900 | 100,053 1917 | 265,068 | 204,283 | 146,103 | 120,525 | 105,547 1918 | 296,673 | 234,285 | 148,158 | 122,054 | 106,429

1919 | 355,547 | 285,603 | 155,978 | 117,166 | 103,237

1920 | 286,003 | 218,365 | 133,662 | 106,938

I9IO 80,000 65,036 IQII | 117,718 88,833 1912 | 151,890 | 110,948 1913} 158,524 | 115,171

I9I4 | 207,441

32,143 57,208 78.941 94,518

26,670 44,450 57,940 65,921

93,356

74,236

38,066 48,153 54,206 61,320

145,010 | 108,609 131,927 | 104,834 132,570 98,706 163,096 | 105,928 127,997 95,095

95,869 93,986 88,003 94,207 84,265

148,310 | 100,019

Girls 4 1915 | 246,047 | 183,393 | 137,702 | 99,506 | 84,701 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920

IQIO

| | | | |

266,378 268,142 263,110 313,570 290,931

/1,400,000

| | | | |

203,909 206,914 212,139 252,225 220,972

| | | | |

{1,127,447 | 458,943 | 374,313

I9IT 1912 1913 1914 Total 4 1915

|2,040,447 2,465,304 12,965,893 13,442,452 {3,186,137

|1,513,309 | 788,609 | 621,410 | 469,210 [1,643,587 |1,062,574 | 828,230 | 573,709 |1,871,671 [1,222,828 | 921,853 | 652,306 [2,164,023 |1,479,024 /1,116,909 | 814,071 [2,326,803 ]1,797,646 |1,308,137 [1,058,336

IQI7

13,575,380

|2,837,650

1919 1920

|6,197,653 (5,003,786 13,984,600 /2,906,298

© | 1916 13,658,689 /2,843,784 |2,049,018 [1,999,442

1918 13,739,064 13,045,263 |2,067,217

11,557,235

{1,555,223

{1,514,712

[1,351,406

[1,375,198

[1,324,743

[1,951,364 |1,289,963 |1,137,875 |1,312,133 | 941,708 | 784,169

During the World War and the period of demobilization (Aug. 1914 to the end of 1919) much work of a special kind (see below) was

undertaken by the exchanges, and in order to judge the extent to

which they are used by employers and workpeople in normal years attention should be directed to the non-war periods. It should be noted that at the end of 1918 the age-limit for ‘' boys and girls was raised from 17 to 18. The table shows that the work

of the exchange system increased steadily and reached its maximum

the latter half of 1920 was a period of industrial decline. Casual Labour.—Schemes intended to lead up to the regularization of employment were devised at the Liverpool docks, the Goole docks,

the South Wales ports (ship repairers), and at Manchester (cloth porters). Of these, the Liverpool dock scheme is the most interesting. Managed by a joint committee of employers and workpeople in the docks, the scheme has led, through a system of tallies issuect to approved dock workers, to some limitation in the number of the

dockers employed in or about the port. The scheme also provides

for a single weekly payment of wages to cach man employed, irrespective of the number of separate employers for whom he may have worked. The wage-paying arrangements at Liverpool have not been copied elsewhere, but the method of controlling dock labour by the issue through a joint committee to dock workers of tallies, has become almost universal in British ports and provides a basis upon which it is possible to build schemes to regularize the employment of dockers. Juvenile Empleyment.—Since 1910 a separate system of com-

mittees for dealing with the employment of juveniles (under 17 years of age to Dec. 1918 and under 18 years of age thereafter) has been in operation (see JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT). These committees are either formed by the Ministry of Labour under the Labour Exchanges Act, or by the local education authorities under the Choice of Employment Act, r910. Their work is, in coöperation with the employment exchanges, to supervise the finding of employment for children; to advise children as to the most promising openings, and

generally to take such local action as is calculated to improve the conditions of juvenile employment.

Unemployment Insurance—On

May 4 totr1, Mr. Asquith’s

Government introduced in the House of Commons, as the second part of the National Insurance Bull, proposals for the compulsory insurance upon a contributive basts of 2} million workpeople. The bill received the royal assent, Dec. 16 1911. This measure, to the extent to which it brought the employed population within the scope of unemployment insurance, completed the policy for dealing with unemployment which had been begun in 1909 by the passage of the Labour Exchanges Act. Part II. of the National Insurance Act also contained provisions intended to encourage voluntary provision for unemployment in the indus-

tries which were not included under the compulsory scheme. All workpeople employed in the “ Jnsured Trades ” as defined by

a schedule to the Act were compelled to be insured against unem-

ployment, Contributions were pavable as from July 15 1912, and benefit was paid from Jan. 81913. The trades concerned were building, construction of works, shipbuilding, engineering, construction of vehicles, ironfounding, together with saw-milling in connexion with,

or of a kind commonly done in connexion with, any of the insured trades. Questions as to the precise limits of the insured trades were settled by an umpire appointed by the Crown to act for the whole kingdom. An unemployment fund was created out of contributions from workpeople employed in the insured trades and from the employers of such workpeople. The rate of contributions was 2}d. each from employer and workman for ench period of empioyment up toa week, with reduced rates for workmen below 18 years of age and for periods of employment of adults for two days or less, viz. a joint contribution of 2d. for a week's employment of a juvenile worker or for the employment of an adult for a period not exceeding two days. ‘To the amount so collected the State contributed an amount equal to one-third of the joint contributions of employers and workpecole. Jt was the duty of an employer to affix to an unemployment book each week, or at the carlicr termination of the employment, a stamp of the value of his own and the workimen’s contributions, the em-

ployer thereafter deducting the amount of the workman’s contribution from wages paid to him. The scheme provided unemployment

benefit at the rate of 7s. a week during unavoidable unemployment

subject to a maximum of 15 wecks’ benefit in any 12 months and to the limitation of payment to one week’s benefit for every five full contributions paid by the workman. Benefit was not payable to persons under 17 years of age and was payable at half the adult rates between the ages of 17 and 18. The principal statutory condli-

tions for the reccipt of benefit were application for benefit in the prescribed manner, namely at a Board of Trade labour exchange or other local office of the unemployment fund; proofs, secured miainiy by daily attendance at the labour exchange, that unemployment had been continuous since the date of application; capacity for work, and inability to obtain suitable employment. Proof that the last condition had been satisfied was obtained mainly by an examination

of the register of vacancies at the labour exchange in order to see whether suitable employment was available and the offer to the applicant of any apparently suitable work. A workman was dis-

UNEMPLOYMENT qualified for benefit if he had lost his employment as the result of

a stoppage of work due to a trade dispute at the premises at which he was employed, and in such a case the disqualification lasted during the continuance of the stoppage or until the workman had obtained fresh employment in an insured trade. Disqualification for six weeks from the date of losing employment was involved in discharge through misconduct or in leaving employment voluntarily without just cause. Claims to unemployment benefit were decided in the first instance by a statutory “ Insurance Officer.” From the decision of this officer the workman had a right of appeal to the court of referees consisting of an employer, a workman and an impartial chairman. Further, the insurance officer had the right to refer the decisions of courts of referees to the umpire for final settlement. Associations of insured workmen were entitled (Section 105, Nat. Ins. Act) to undertake the payment to their own members of unemployment benefit due to them out of the unemployment fund. Such an arrangement involved the payment of the State benefit by the association together with supplementary benefit out of the association's own funds to the value of at least one-third of the amount to be recovered from the State. In order, however, to establish a claim for the repayment of State benefit already paid, the

association was bound to satisfy the Board of Trade that the benefit in question had been paid in circumstances which entitled the individual

member

approximation

to receive

of the procedure

State

benefit.

This

involved

an

upon claims to receive benefit

through an association, to the procedure upon claims to receive benefit direct from a labour exchange,

The insured workman upon becoming unemployed lodges a claim for unemployment benefit at a labour exchange or other local office of the unemployment fund, viz. at one of the 1,048 branch employment offices which have been established in less populous districts for the administration

of the unemployment

insurance

scheme.

In

lodging his claim the workman indicates whether he wishes to receive

833

into an arrangement of this kind they were not charged the higher rate of contribution otherwise appropriate in respect of very short engagements, and as a further inducement to make such arrangements, employers were allowed to hand over to the labour exchanges the work of stamping the health insurance cards as well as the unem-

ployment insurance cards. The imtention of this section was to induce employers to give the labour exchanges an opportunity of regularizing employment by “' dovetailing "a series of casual jobs so as to afford a reasonable livelihood for a limited number of workmen, Up to July 1913, arrangements under the section had been made by 592 employers in respect of 138,500 workpcople; in July 1914 by 899

employers in respect of 162,192 workpeopi!e and in Nov. 1920 by 124 employers in respect of 29,334 workpeuple.

Finally the Act of 1971 contained provisions for reducing the cost

of unemployment insurance in respect of workmen who had experi-

enced little unemployment. Thus (Section 94) employers were entitled to obtain a refund of one-third of their contributions in respect of workmen continuously employed by them for 12 months and (Section 96) a refund of the whole of their contributions ia

respect of periods during which short time was worked. enabled workmen

Section 95

who had paid 500 contributions to recover at the

age of 60 the amount by which the value of their contributions exceeded the value of unemployment benefit received by them. Amending Acts —On Aug. Io 1914, the royal assent was given to an Act amending Part II. of the National Insurance Act upon a number of points, none of them of first-class importance, upon which experience of the administration of the scheme had shown weakness in the principal Act. Thus changes were made in the machinery for the determination of claims to benefit and the arrangements for refunding contributions paid by employers and workmen. The Board of Trade was empowered to exempt workmen upon short time from the payment of unemployment insurance contributions, and associations undertaking the payment of State benefit to their members were

his benefit through an association or direct from the office of the

definitely required to provide from their own funds benefit equal

unemployment fund. His claim is then examined, and when a favourable decision has been given, benefit is paid to him by the association

to one-third more than the amount of the State benefit. The Act of March 16 1915 allowed unemployment insurance contributions to be

or at the office at which he made his claim according to his choice. If the workman has chosen to receive his benefit from an association

paid in respect of workmen

he will sign the ‘‘ Vacant Book,” provided by his association, as a rule each day. Many of the associations concerned have found it convenient to keep their vacant books at the labour exchanges. In July 1913 over 2,000 vacant books of associations having arrangements for the payment

labour exchanges.

of unemployment

benefit were lodged at

At that date arrangements had been made by 105

associations with nearly 540,000 members in the insured trades. In Nov. 1920, immediately before the operation of the Unemployment Insurance Act (1920), when the number of insured workpeople had been increased from 24 million to 32 millions, some 5,180 vacant

books, out of a total of about 8,600 maintained by the trade unions concerned, were lodged at employment exchanges. At that date arrangements had been made by 92 associations with an approximate

membership of 1,341,000. The reduction in the number of associations was due to the amalgamation of certain trade unions, Voluntary Insurance.—Part

IJ. of the National

Insurance Act,

(1911), also contains (in Section 106) a provision intended to encourage voluntary insurance against unemployment, both in the insured trades and in other trades. The arrangement here was based upon the successful experiment made over a number of years at Ghent, and

involved the payment of a subsidy to trade unions or other associa-

tions of workpeople which make a voluntary provision for unemployment. Under Section 106, the Board of Trade was empowered in such cases to repay out of moneys provided by Parliament, an amount not exceeding one-sixth of the sum spent by the association

out of their own funds upon unemployment benefit, with a limit to

the amount so repaid of 2s. per head per week in respect of members who have received benefit from the association. By July 1913, 275 associations with a membership of 1,104,000 had been admitted by the Board of Trade as satisfying the required conditions (as to the methods of proving unemployment, etc.) for receiving the grant. During the 12 months ending tn March 1914, a total sum of £15,167 was paid under the section to 347 associations with a membership of 1,401,000, and during the 12 menths ending March 1920 £1,678 was paid to 397 associations with a membership of 2,608,273. Considerable difficulty was experienced in the administration of the section in obtaining evidence which would satisfy the Government auditors that the payments upon which the associations based their claims for

a grant had been properly made. This difficulty was due solely to the varying standards of clerical competence maintained by the associations in keeping their accounts. The section was allowed to Japse in the revision and general extension of unemployment insurance which was undertaken in 1920. Rates of Contribution —The requirements governing the payment of unemployment

insurance contributions

were devised

so as to

charge a higher rate of contribution for engagements of less than a

week's duration than for engagements for more than a week. At the same time provision was made (Section 99) for an employer, and, subject to the extent to which employers made use of the section, for

workmen, to escape this higher charge by engaging workpeople through the labour exchanges and by handing over to the exchanges

the work of affixing insurance stamps,

When employers entered

engaged upon war work abroad.

Extension of Insurance.—In July 1916, the scope of unemployment insurance was extended to include workmen employed upon munitions work, and particularly in the chemical, metal, rubber, and“ brickmaking industries and in the leather industry. This extension

was made in order to bring substantially the whole working popula-

tion employed in war industries within the scope of insurance, and the operation of the Act was to cease after 5 years or at the end of 3 years after the war, whichever was the later date.

As the result of

this extension the number of workpeople insured against unemployment became approximately 3} millions. In Feb. 1918 the Minister of Labour was empowered by order to exclude from unemployment insurance any branch of trade which

had been brought into insurance by the Act of 1916. Experience proved that the calculations, upon which were based the ratcs of contribution and bencfit contained in the Act of ror,

erred upon the side of caution.

From this cause, but also as the result

of the period ef good trade which followed 1911, of the practical absence of unemployment during almost the whole of the war period, and of the Out-of-work Donation Scheme during 1919, under which unemployed persons were entitled to a much higher rate of weekly payment than they could obtain under the Unemployment Insurance Act, the uncmployment fund stood at £18,030,356 in July 1919. In view of this large reserve fund and of the increasing cost of living, a short Act was passed in Dec. 1919, increasing the weekly rate of unemployment benefit under the Unemployment Insurance Act from 73. to 11s. The requirements as to the amount of benefit to be pro-

vided out of their own funds by associations undertaking to pay State benefit to their members were not affected.

Insurance Act of 1920.—On Dec. 23 19109, Sir Robert Horne, as Minister of Labour, introduced on behalf of Mr. Lloyd George’s Government an Unemployment Insurance bill containing proposals for a general extension of compulsory and contributory unemployment insurance.

These proposals were ap-

proved by Parliament, and the bill received the royal assent on Aug. 9 1920. This Act superseded the previous Unemployment Insurance Acts, but the general character of the scheme of

unemployment insurance remained unaltered. The scope of unemployment insurance was extended to include all persons of the age of 16 and upwards employed under a contract of

service or apprenticeship with the following principal exceptions :— persons employed in agriculture and private domestic service; established servants of the Crown; persons employed otherwise than by way of manual labour at a rate of remuncration exceeding £250 a year; persons casually employed otherwise than for the purpose of the employer's trade or business, and persons employed by public authorities and by corporations whose status approximates to that of a public authority, upon the certificate of the Minister of Labour that the persons in question are not subject to dismissal except for misconduct or unfitness to perform their duties, and that the condi-

tions of their engagement make insurance unnecessary.

UNEMPLOYMENT

834

The rates of joint contributions by employers and employed per-

‘sons were hxed at &d. for men; 63d. for women; 4d. for boys between 16 and 18 years of age; 34d. for girls between 16 and 18 years of age. Out of these amounts the employed person’s contribution is 4d. for men; 3d. for women; 2d. for boys between 16 and 18 years of age and

13d. for girls between 16 and 18 years of age. To the unemployment fund formed by these contributions the State contributes 2d. for each man's contribution; 13d. for each woman's contribution; 14d.

for each boy’s contribution, and 1d. for each girl's contribution. The weekly rate of unemployment benefit was fixed at 15s. for men, 125, for women, 7/6 for boys and 6s. for girls. Payment of benefit is limited to 15 wecks’ benefit in any period of 12 months ending early

in July each vear, and to the payment of one week's benefit in respect

of every 6 weekly contributions paid. In general the conditions for

receiving benefit and the rules governing disqualification for receiv-

ing benefit follow the lines of Part Ll. of the National Insurance Act,

191r. The Act of 1920 requires, however, that the applicant shall have not Jess than 12 contributions standing to his credit, and requires him to show that he has attended an approved course of

instruction if he has been called upon to do so. By a special temporary provision the Act allows all insured persons who have paid 4 contributions to draw up to a maximum of 8 weeks’ benefit during the first 12 months, This temporary arrangement was modified by the Unemployment Insurance (Temporary Provisions Amendments) Act of Dec. 1920 which permitted any person to draw up to a maximum of 8 weeks’ benefit during the first year of the operation of the

Act upon proving that he had been employed during 10 weeks in the course of the year 1920, or during 4 weeks since jey 4 1920 in any employment which ts within the scope of unemployment insurance. Arrangements for deciding disputes follow the scheme of 1911. Special Schemes.—Provision is made in the Act for the management

by separate

industrics of the unemployment

workpeop!e employed therein.

insurance of

Section 18 of the Act enables the

Minister of Labour to approve a ‘ Special Scheme "’ submitted to

him by employers and employees in any industry to which com-

pulsory unemployment insurance applies. The main conditions governing the formation of special schemes are that: (1) The scheme

must cover all persons eniployed in the industry either throughout the country or over some defined area. (2) Tke Benches. which may include payment for short time as well as unemployment benefit, must be, on the whole, not less favourable than those provided under the general scheme. (3) The State contribution to a special scheme will be limited to an amount not exceeding 3/;,0f the contribution the State would have made if the members had remained under the general scheme. (4) The scheme will be administered not by the Ministry of Labour, but by a joint body of employers and employed in the industry specially set up for this purpose. The Act contemplated the formation of such special schemes before July 1921, and provided for the payment to the responsible

body of contributions collected from members of the industry before the scheme is launched. The provisions as to special schemes

went far to meet a body of opinion that industries should bear the burden of their own unemployment. When the Act was passed, the Government actually contemplated the formation of special schemes in respect of rather less than 4 million out of a total of some 12}

million insured workpeople.

The event scemed likely to prove that

this was a generous estimate. Provision was also made (Section 20) for the creation of supplementary schemes of unemployment insurance by any industry which

did not form a special scheme.

Such supplementary schemes might,

out of special contributions, provide additional benefits including provision for short time or for unemployment

not covered by the

general scheme. When approved by the Minister of Labour, supplementary schemes have statutory effect. TABLE

The Act of 1920 (Section 17) reproduces Section 105 of the Act of

Ig1I, which enables associations of insured workpeople to undertake the payment to their members of unemployment benefit due from the State fund. Of the various provisions made in the Act af igtt for

the refund or reduction of contributions in certain circumstances, the

provision for the refund to workmen at the age of 60 of the amount of the value of their contributions over the amount of benefit received is alone reproduced (Section 25). The Minister of Labour is enabled (Section 31) to arrange for keeping and stamping at an employment exchange the insurance contribution cards and books of workpcople engaged through the exchanges. Statistics of Insurance.—Table If. shows the extent to which unemployment benefit was drawn in the industries covered by the unemployment insurance scheme since Jan. 1913, when unemployment benefit was first payable. During the operation of the out-of-work donation scheme for civilians (Nov. 25 1913 to Nov. 24 1919) unemployed workpeople as a rule availed themselves of their rights

under that scheme, and were debarred from drawing unemployment benefit concurrently.

War Work of the Exchanges —With the outbreak of the World War, the character of the work done at the employment exchanges was necessarily altered to meet the exceptional conditions, and it continued to change with the development of events until the restoration of more or less normal conditions

at the end of 1919. Immediately upon the declaration of war, the exchanges were called upon to assist the war departments in mobilization by the supply of large numbers of skilled and unskilled civilian workmen. Up to Aug. 14 rg914, nearly 30,000 workmen were supplied through the exchanges for this purpose. In the earlier months of the war, unemployment upon a large scale was anticipated and was experienced in certain industries, particularly in the textile industries. To mect this situation, the exchanges codperated in the collection of information as to the extent and character of unemployment with the local

representative committees which were formed by local authorities at the suggestion of the Government. The exchanges also assisted in the distribution of special grants in aid of unemployment benefit paid by trade unions, upon the lines of Section 106 of the National Insurance Act, 1911.

From Aug. 1914 to March

1915, the amount of such special grants was £74,926. Unemployment decreased rapidly with the progress of recruiting and the

devclopment of war industries, and from early in 1915 to the end of the war, the employment exchanges were engaged upon a series of schemes to use the man-power of the nation to the best advantage. Enrolment Schemes.—In order to obtain a body of mobile skilled

labour for munitions work, and in order also to make it possible io put pressure upon employers to make full use of the skilled workmen in their establishments, several enrolment schemes were set on foot whereby selected workmen undertook, in return for guaranteed

minimum pay and a subsistence allowance, to work at any place at which they might be required (see LABOUR SUPPLY AND REGULA-

TION). Thus enrolment of volunteers was begun in I916. Priority of Labour.— From 1916 to the end ofthe war, a system of controlling the available supplies of labour for civilian war work of all kinds was developed apart from the enrolment schemes. As carly as April 1915, certain classes of the employers, mainly those engaged

IJ.. Unemployment Benefit.

Number of unemployment books remaining lodged at the end of the month.

=

Year

Month January February March April. May s June . Juy . August. September

. . . eR , . Textile ress. Trades ; : . | 91,696] 10,716) 174,593] 36,558] 47,274} 4°65] 8-38] 7-09 Miscellaneous Trades : and Services . . | 10,868] Total

-o



1278.3041

nA). 3,620]

255,949!

2

Saat 14,488] 0-90] 0-49] 0-74 534,2

4°38

UNITED KINGDOM

OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Studies made by H. Hornell Hart of the Russell Sage Foundation show that while the industrial pop. of the United States increased from approximately 19,500,000 workmen in 1902 to about 30,200,000 in 1917, the demand for labour did not increase

at the same ratio. In 1902 an average of 2,750,000 workers was out of employment at all times during the year; in 1903, 1906, 1907, 1910, 1917, the annual average fell bclow 2,000,000; in the depression of 1908 it was 3,500,000 and in that of rqt4-5 it

was 4,500,000. Throughout the 16 years 1902-17 the unemployed constituted, on the average, a o% of the labour force; but it reached r4 1% in j 1902, 14°8°% in 1908; 15°8°% in ror4 and 2 ye in tgts. On the other hand 4 fell to 5-5% in 1906, 7'1% in ror6and 4°7° in 1917. The other years saw fluctuations between these extremes. In 1903, 1906, 1907, 1910 and 1917 the demand for Jabour was strong; in 1908, 1914 and ro15 it was weak.

In

the other nine years it varied less, with a little more than 2,000,000 out of work all the time. No such percentages have been calculated for the years since 1917. Common experience was that the interruption of commerce with Europe in 1914

caused sudden business depression.

But as the months passed,

and especially after Jan. r915, war contracts called into industry

the “reserve army of the uncmployed,” and led to a labour shortage, acute in some trades, jrom 1917 until the signing of the Armistice. Then, in the late fall of 1918, contracts were cancelled and workers were laid off. The public continued to buy, however, and men laid off from war work were absorbed in other industries. There continued te be a demand for labour

839

According to statistics In the Zudusfrial Employment Suriev Bulletin for Dec. 1921, 1,428 firms, employing cach over 500 persons, located in 65 principal industrial centres of the country, were employing 1,567,374 workers on Noy. 30 1921 as against 1,306,614 on Jan. ¢ 1921, an increase of 60,760, or 3°-7%. Of ae 14 industrial groups recognized by the U.S. Census, 9 reported an increase in employment in Nov. 1921 over Oct. 1921, viz.:

paper and printing; lumber; vehicles for land transportation; tobacco manufactures; iron and steel; chemicals; stone, clay and glass; textiles; and metals and metal products. A decrease was reported by 5, viz.: liquors and beverages; railway repair shops;

food products; leather and its products; and miscellaneous industrics. Of 63 cities, go reported an increase in employment, 24 a decrease, and r no change, since Oct. 31 1921; total net increase reported for the month was 7,219. See: Don D. Lescohier, The Labor Market; and Sumner Slichter, The Turnover of Factory Labor. (J. R. Co.) UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.—

Information as regards earlier years than those here dealt with will be found in 27.598 seg., and as regards England in 9.408 seq.; and similarly in the articles in the earlier volumes on counties and towns in the United Kingdom. See also ENGLISH HISTORY, ENGLISH ĮINANCE, IRELAND, SCOTLAND, BRITISH EMPIRE, COAL, SHIPPING, RAILWAYS, ete.

Jay off men. By the end of the year the volume of employment in the factories of New York State had dropped otf 20% since

Populalion:—A census of the United Kingdom was taken in April rọrr, and onec of Great Britain on June 19 1921. On the latter date no census of Ireland could be taken owing to its disturbed condition, and the census in Great Britain was postponed from the customary month of April owing to the coal dispute and attendant industrial troubles. The postponement

March, in Wisconsin it had dropped off 22-5°% in the same

had certain effects upon the returns, such as enhancing the

until Feb. and March 1920, then industry in general began to

TARLE

England Wales Scotland Irelands.

Isle of Man Channel Islands

{.~Population ror, ro2r. Pop. per sq. E M. e1921

Area

Population

sq.m. 50,890 7434 30,405 32,360

I9TI 1921 34,045,290 | 35,678,530 2,025,202 2,206,712 4,760,904 4,882,288 4,390,219 gs

227 75

52,016 96,899

period, but was 13% greater than in Jan. rots.

60,238 8y.614

In New York

State employment in Dec. 1920 was 9% greater than in Dec. i914, and about equal to that in June,1914. In Jan. 1921 employment in Wisconsin declined 11-3%, the greatest decline in any single month since July 1920, making the total decline

since the first quarter of 1920, 29.5 % and bringing the number employed to the same as in the first quartcr of 1915. The number inereased 1-6 in Feb. to21, the first increase in manu: facture as a whole since July; the number decreased 4-5%

March, making a total decline since July 1920 of 32-4 per ae Metal industries suffered most. The climax of unemployment in New York State came in Jan. 1921, but the increase of employment during that month may have been due to seasonal changes rather than to improvement in business conditions. Between Feb. 1920 and Feb. 1921 the number employed in New

York State factories had decreased 23 per cent, In Jan. 1921 an unemployment survey made by. the U.S. Employment Service for 35 states and the District of Columbia showed 9,402,000 employed in Jan. 1920 and 6,070,648 employed Jan. 1921, and estimated 3,473,446 as unemployed in the country as a whole. The ereatest reduction i employment during this period was that of 82% in Michigan, 50°% in Ohio and Indiana, 44% in Illinois, 4394 in Connecticut, 38% in Massachusetts, 28% in New York, 32% in Wisconsin, 22% in New Jersey. In establishments studied by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the

greatest

decreases

between

Feb.

1920

and Feb. 1921 were 442% in hosiery and underwear, and 41% in automobile manufactures; the smallest decreases were

2% in

bituminous coal-mining and 0-1 °% in cotton manufacturing.

Increase (+)

Lo°% or decreasea (—)

T021 (or +IQII 911)

1901-11

IQlI-21

Males

Females

|

70r 298

+105 +17°7

+ 4:3 +9

16,984,087 1,098, 133

18,694,443 1,108,579

|

160

+ 65

+25

2,318,403

2,533,535

|

(+135)

— 15

265

ds

ie

(+2,192,048) |(+2,198, a

+158

+ 13

=

275321

T

32,917

41.204

apparent population of holiday resorts.

3,350|

Preliminary returns

for England and Wales, with total figures only for Scotland and other parts of the United Kingdom excluding Ireland, were

issued in Aug. 1921 and are utilized in the following tables. Where administrative areas are given, these are for the year 1921, and the population figures for 1911 are adjusted to them. The preliminary figures for r921, for England and Wales, reveal an increase in the decennial period of 4:93%, a figure

proportionately much lower than ever recorded before. The effect of the World War is clearly seen in the analysis, which gives, for the mtercensal period: births registered 8,275,400; deaths registered in England and Wales, 5,266,g00; loss due to excess of outward over inward emigration 1,193,750, of which 560,000 is estimated as representing deaths of non-citizens

outside the United Kingdom; leaving a net intercensal increase of 1,814,750. The increase % in intercensal periods is given thus for major divisions:— Wales

.

Se

eL

gA

Midland counties ; 2 ; Northern counties London and adjacent counties Southern counties = . Eastern counties .

e

dis

A in

; ce Bs f

f

e | :

i ‘ J

IQ0I-II 18-1

IQII-21 9

T1‘2 103 II 9'5 76

5:9 4°9 44 39 3

The urban pop. ofEnglandand Walesiis given as 78-1% of the whole in rọrr and 79-3% in 1921; the rural as 21-90% in torr and 20-7% in 1921. A futtire effect of the World War is seen in the increased preponderance of females over males, which, for England and Wales, was as 1,064 to 1,000 in 1901, 1,068 to 1,000 in rg11, and 1,095 to 1,000 in 1921,

UNITED

840

KINGDOM

TABLE [].—English and Welsh Counties. Area in Statute Acres

Name

England :-— Bedford Berkshire Buckingham

Cambridge. Isle of Ely Cumberland Derbyshire

Kent Lancashire Leicester Lincoln: Holland Kesteven

Lindsey

London . Middlesex Monmouth Norfolk .

tion

I9IL

aa

302,942 4545725 479,300 315,108

194,588] 193,101

.

524,197 263,355 . ‘ .

a

E

206,478 202,533

+11,890 +9.432

597,771 328,098

625,001] 320,559

++27,230 ~ 71539

560,013)

433,162 223,266

584,703|

440,023 228,258

24,690

871,886

943,670,

+71,784

328,964]

329,277

73:778| = “4,026

220,437

+6,916

918,111}

+6,861 +4,992

+60,42

+313

114,269 311,284

113,118 333,236

1,151 +21,952

1,020,965]

4,118,129]

-+97,164

1,699,934

1,746,418

+46,480

55,577

249,331

82,280

107,832 237,843)

4,521,685)

1,126,465}

312,028

54:748

260,332}

— 829

-+I11,001

85,225

+2,9045

108,237 260,294)

+405 22,451

1,253,164]

+126,699

4,483,249]

—38,436

321,721

322,914

358,331]

+46,303

Northants Soke of Peterborough Northumberland :

213,733)

211,507

2,226

44,718

46,954]

+2,236

Nottingham Oxfordshire Rutland .

371,474

344,197}

407,397,

+35,923

130,435

132,500)

— 3,939

.

20,346

Shropshire

Southampton Isle of Wight .

378,476, 18,368

246,307

242,959

404,541 88,18

410,223 94,697

388,836)

Somerset

ncrease

397,034)

+1,193

+34.279 —1,978

— 3,348

+8,19%

+5,682 +6,511 -+40,623

Name of Towns

. .

.

7,420 5,189

133,05 60,746



.

15,280

180,851

Bootle ; Bournemouth . Bradford Brighton . Bristol š Burnley . Burton-uponTrent, Bury... Canterbury MCarlisle . Chester Coventry . Croydon, š 1Darlington . ` Derby (Me ‘Dewsbury ,.

Dudley

.

1Fastbourne. East Ham . Exeter Gateshead .

Grimsby

.

.

Hull

`

.

Halifax . Hastings . Huddersfield .

Ipswich

Leeds.

+8,{00 —7:923

676,02

739,500)

+63,473

195,795!

+19,487

Plymouth

+2,165

Preston Reading Rochdale

Anglesey Brecknock

+5,391 +13,064

173,704

+18,936

Rotherham St. Helen’s Salford :

1,415,248]

1,508,610

+93,362

Shetheld

50,928]

51,695

65,74

325,200,

61,257 61,292

36,700,304]

+767

+1,970 +1,413

45.450

-115

51,317

— 1,829

92,05 23,528

+2,096 +938

25,302,076! +1,152,132

Barrow-in-

Birkenhead. Birmingham

:

+13,761 +101,053

9,960 22,590

173 130,794 840,202

.

-t 10,064

53,146

63,770

.

Stockport

106,466] 814,717|

92,705 713,66

+5,991

TABLE II[.—English and Welsh County Boroughs, 82 County Boroughs 640,034_ JE tO 00 12,583,166} _663,666 ‘Barnsley. +3,056 50,614 2,385 53,670 11,002 5,152 3,909 43,601

Southport

154,847}

144,783

24,150,992]

Smethwick s Southampton. ‘Southend-on-Sea

Stoke-on-Trent .

131,034

74,254) 145,592] I

BI

+10,484

— 525 +14.798 +79,236

Sunderland

Tynemouth Wakefheld . Wallasey . Walsal . Warrington West Bromwich

West Ham

.

+661

—2,614 —888 +375 +1,766 +21,856

65,866) 129,836] 54,165

+21,326 +8,538 -+6,426 +814

52,542 133,487 59,092 116,917

2,030] 143,304) 59,608 124,514!

-+9,488 +9,817 +516 -+7,597

2,318 3,598

50,035 55,905

51,330 60,710}

+1,295 +4,805

13,984 4,496 11,875

101,553 61,145 107,821

99,129) 66,496 110,12

~—2,424 +5,351 + 2,299

9,042

277,991

287,013,

+9,022

28,090

454,155}

458,320)

+4,165

3,546

8,112

51,079

74,659

73,932

227,222 61,346 753,353 714,385} 119,910

266,603 83,691 90,064 121,490 250,901

55,908]

82,329}

79,383]

++-4,829

+7,670

+5451

234,190) 66,020) 803,118} 730,551} 131,103)

+6,968 +4,674 +49,765

+16,166 +11,193

274,955, 92,369, 90,92 120,653 262,655)

+8,352 +8,678 +859 — 837 +2.757

4,735

147,483

145,001,

—2,482

5,711

207,449

209,857}

+2,408

7,964

233,57.

247,343]

113,770

62,483 96,551 231,357

68,045] 102,675) 234,150]

460,183

490,724}

24,930

1,929 9,192 7,082

9,728

53,048

117,088 87,693 91,428

70,094 145,096 70,67 69,643

57:052)

117,426 92,274} 90,807

+4,004

+338 +4,581 —621 -+5,502 +6,124 +2,793

+30,541

757571 160,997} 106,021)

+5003 +15,90i +35,345

76,644}

+7.01

108,647

116,667,

7,003

119,87

123,315}

+3.445

11,142

234.534

240,440,

+5,906

. . .

4,372 4,060 3,324

58,816 51,511 78,504

63,786 52,892] 00,721]

5

4,683

+4,970 +1,381 432,217 +4,849 +4,645 +5,429

i

. F

Wales

Cardiff Se Merthyr Tydfil . .

474 3:32 4,705 3,132

56,426] 23,738 52,600 40,794, 128,205} 190,877}

+6,632 +12,587 —2,479 +11,190 +19,947 —3,590

2,399

West Hartlepool Wigan Se Wolverhampton Worcester . . York 2 os 4

wansea

169,551 57,328 123,41 53,351

3,964 9,105 6,446 5,957 7,284 5,202

. .

59,040 24,626 52,225 39,028 106,349

9,012 4,614 §,272 6,720

4,719

South Shields

125,043

45,565

£25,573

48,927

5,92 3,975 4,488 2,863 4,147

7,398 10,935

-+-14,633

160,406, = 175,064]

Montgomery . Pembroke Radnorshire . Total for 62 counties., ..

292,213 301,120)

59,287 59,87

Flintshire Glamorgan Merioneth

41,582

Portsmouth

48,266

8,452 4,504

.

= 342.449)

154,768)

Cardigan i Carmarthen . Carnarvon Denbighshire

Oxford

286,822 287,456

299,636

:

+19,107

103,175]

4,203

3,469

Norwich Nottingham

—2,173

69,876 79,183 288,458 131,237 357,114 106,7

8,582 6,128 21,242 21,640 4,159

Oidham

390,867,

63,575

.

.

Northampton

Surrey ; Sussex, East .

N. Riding . W. Riding . Wales:

.

.

—6,422 +38,894

1,947 6,545 22,881 2,545 18,436 4,020

2,868

Leicester . Lincoln Liverpool . Manchester Middlesbrough . Newcastle-uponTyne... Newport (Mon.)

711,003]

E. Riding

.

Gloucester . Great Yarmouth

211,623 108,982

261,253}

(—) be-

tween IQHI and 1921

Bolton

203,223 116,905

176,308

Statute

Blackburn Blackpool

670,38

242,146

decrease

Acres

Stafford . è Sufolk, East , Suffolk, West Sussex, West . Warwick Westmorland Wiltshire Worcester Yorkshire:

(+) or

Area in

between IQII and

+ 16,658 +1,272

857,688

g

_

1921

236,2 129,594

213,521

.

tion

219,551 128,322

69,752

~.+è8a

Devonshire Dorsetshire Durham . Essex. ; Gloucester.

Hereford Hertford Huntingdon

(+) or Popula- | Popula- | decrease

TSEN e

Cheshire

TABLE IJI.—~( Continued). Increase

(Land and Inland Water)

Cornwall

|

i

3,357

7,483 3,057 5,859

151,159

92,115 72,166 68,332

159,100)

96,964, 76,811) 73,761)

+8,020 +7,941

289,03

300,905)

+11,875

6,489 17,760

182.259 $0,990

200,262! 80,161

+18,003

21,600

143,997

157,561

2,684 5,083 3,525 3,662 31730

63,923 89,152 95,328 49,153 82,282

1 County boroughs created since 191I.

68,689] 89,447 102,373) 48,848 84,052]

+4,766 +295 +7,045 —305 +1,770

UNITED

KINGDOM

841

TABLE IV.—Chief Municipal Boroughs and Urban Districts (England and Wales).

Aberdare z Accrington Ashton-underLyne * Barry . 3 Bedford

Populatton 1921

15,184

50,830

:

+4,180

31427

45,029

55,010 43,610

os

1,345 3,726

45,172

43,333

—1,839

5:457

59,202

4:356

55,512 42,250

4,726

48,942

8,474

551309

2,22 '

Cambridge

Chatham . Cheltenham

i M

Chesterfield Colchester Crewe. Darwen Doncaster Dover Eccles . Enfield

, ‘ . . z : :

Finchley . Gillingham Hendon . Heston and Isleworth

Hornsey

Have , liford . Keighley

; $

Lancaster

.

Llanelly

Leigh . Leyton Lowestoft Luton .

.

Peterborough Poole . Rhondda

Scarborough

.

Stockton-onTees Stratford Swindon .

Torquay Tottenham Wallsend

Walthamstow Watford Wimbledon Willesden Wood Green

y

33,763 39,183

38,927 40,247

2,065

48,444 61,236

38,806

56,014

+17,208

46,729

43,416

4,988 8,352 6,851

56,338 §2,252

43,313

84,592

2,875 1,543

42,173

3.902

43,487

2,069 6,359

41,410 32,071 44:103 124,735

8,496

3,482

2,594 31327 3,132

1,873

7,964

78,188

37,886

49,978

33:574

33,585

23,886 2,727

152,78I 37:224

5,465

58,521

3:240

4.265

3.906

42,496 59,751 38.771

54.033

87,691 46,519 85,191 41,942 40,226 36,504 45,545

128,432

44,326

57:977 35533 43,061 162,729 46,192 64,150 49,535

54,920 *

39,432

.

Bute . : Caithness Clackmannon Dumbarton Dumfries East Lothian

(Haddington) Fife . . .,; Forfar g Inverness . Kincardine Kinross i

Kirkudbrigh

Lanark . Midlothian (Edinburgh

Á

(Elçi

+ 2,293

+4,405 +7,300 +1,786

+7,099 “E1959

+5,629

154,214 49.369

i4

80,161 31,998

(+) or

Decrease

Paisley

Greenock i Motherwell and

161,726 17,800

—6,574 2,203 —1,995 —2,391 +735 —2,379

83,966

+3,805

44,989 22,606

25,520

1921

Increase (+) or Decrease (—)

784455

1,034,069

+249,614

163,034 84,477

158.969 84,837

75,140

65,895

Coatbridge Dunfermline

Kirkcaldy

Avr.

35.8517

m4 115

+440

68,869

+2,974

35,741

33.569

+3,211

+5,980

32,985

Perth

+99,906

81,120

46,515 43,909 39,886 39,591 39,420

34.729

.

420,281 168,217

37:547 43,287 29,213 39,600 38,044

.

+8,968 +622

+10,673 ?

-+77

35,756 33,312

33,208

2 Boundary altered Ig11. TABLE Provinces and Counties (including County Boroughs)

Connaught: Galway Leitrim

VII.—Jrish Provinces and Counties.

Inc. or | Provinces and Popula-

Dec.

Counties

(including

tion

County

Boroughs) Munster: 181,686

Clare Cork, E. R. Cork, W.R. Kerry

63.557

191,909 93,904

Limerick . Tipperary, N.R. » Tipperary,

73,850

Total Province ,

SR

+1,422

75:365

47,487

170,971

322,844

292,902

559,037 2,695,094

270,950

82,446

244,482

41,779 7:963 37,156 1,539,307

52,410 575,832 562,821

507,666

43,42

506,378 41,561

+14,635

+2,540

Leinster:

Carlow Dublin

+64

t46 -E5 -5'7 —6-2 =o.

+4,233

+25,169

—10,467 —4,826 +771

+436

—1,2I1 +53,189

—1,288

—3°8

Q i Westmeath Wexford .

=—5'S

.

Armagh

.

Cavan

.

UT, 160,328

.

Down

Fermanagh es erry

Monaghan

Wicklow . Total Prov-

ince .

Total Province . Lister: Antrim .

Donegal

142,846

63,958 87,993

Waterford

34:927

9

+1,027

1 Motherwell and Wishaw were united in 1920.

Roscommon Sligo

157,433 686,302

+19,821

1911 320,315 165,000

Mayo

433,833

04,931

=6,561 311,984

.

+1347

1,261,521 1,990,472 724,523 493,053 292,535 139,658

234,325

Edinburgh

+1E,455

nerede

Population 1921

1,297,914

47,192 24,601 27,911 160,991 20,179

Population

Falkirk .

+661

V — Scottish Counties.

Population IQII

70,790

Burgh

Hamilton Kilmarnock

1,552 +2,861

1.626

77364

882,288

+4,039 +4,169

+9,277

4,221

1,977,248 426,028 179,793 352.319

Wishaw

43,013 127,441 45,910 61,451 165,669 50,716

4,385

125.515 298,887

Clydebank

146,695

40,946 54,906

79,006

TaBLE VI.— Scottish Burghs, over 30,000 inhabitants,

Dundee , Aberdeen

41,461

2,238

West Lothian (Linlithgow) . Wigtown

Glasgow

+6,440

153,332

288,842

Sutherland

-1,184

137,418 124,580

Roxburgh .

+1,442 +3,097

T4433

31420

4.343

marty.

oo

1,545

tion

1,595,802

—2,419 Selkirk +5,597 | |. Shetland —3,6 Stirling

3,014

of Inland Water, Tidal Water and Foreshore)

Banff

Peebles Perth . Renfrew Ross and Cro-

39,419

12,602

(exclusive

Berwick

Orkney

31504

1,948

Area in Statute Acres

Argyll . Ayr.

+ 1,064

-+3,450 +415 —498 +5,927 +1,517

Increase +) or Decrease

Popula-

tion

IQI

and

Nairn .

—75

Popula-

Foreshore) 104,252 240,847 222,240

ma

+5164

2,057

2,184 5:959 4,531

(exclusive of Inland Water, TidalWater

—1,419

43:377 40,477 37,913 54,052 39,985 44,237 60,743 46,719

TABLE

Aberdeen

(+) or Decrease |

43.452 44.960 40,332 48,455 43,645 41,944

11,333

Area in Statute Acres

Increase

Population IQII

Area in Statute Acres

Name

TABLE V.—(Continucd).

.

Total Province .

1,033,085 478,603 119,625 91,071 168,420 304,559 61,811

140,621 71,395 142,437

1.578.572

UNITED

842

KINGDOM

TABLE VITI.—Largest Irish Towns.

aan~

ete onl.

Tee |e cent

(cent

1901

1901

| Rate per

IQII

TARLE

gar

38,190

+ IF-I

Pembroke

29,260 | +13°4

Blackrock

Q,O8ST | +4-2

Kingstown | 17,227 | —0o-9

———

Total

Professional

Domestic . Commercial

17,956 | —3:6 11,727 ] +16-2 11,455 | +26 11.376 |) +455

.

ing Po ori Industrial Unoceupied and Un-

| +104 | +07

specified

| +23 | +07 +25

13,249

—1:3

13,128 | +04

Lisburn. | 12,172;

Sligo Kilkenny Clonmel . |

11,163 | +27 10,513 | 09 10,277 .

r914

1916

23:8

20:8

177

18-5

20-2

26-1

22-8

202

Ireland — ,

217

29-6

20:9

109

200

I

22-6

|

TABLE

1918

England and | Wales

Total TOIO | 267,721

per

looo]

| ror

per

per

1000

„g

| per

1453

[15:6 | 32,506 | 13-7 | 23,283 | 10-6 | 339,623]

14-9

[15°9 | 35,028 | 14-8 | 23,695 | 10-8 1 353,124) |14°9 |}31,483 | 13-1 | 22,245 | 10-2 | 333,574]

15°3 14°2

119-7 | 44.137

*2 | 22.570 | TO-3 | 344,327

27,193 | 12-2

Emigration—Table XII. shows the number of emigrants, distinguishing English and Welsh, Scottish, and Trish, who left the United Kingdom in 1910 and 1913. During the war emigration decreased, and full particulars for years during and since the war were not available in 1921. TABLE XII.—Emigration. Year 1910

English and

264,292

12,234,914

LOST 434

|

2,404,058

388,917

|

Lamatics & bs

Casuals

108,509.

Total 2 961.7 FS

1915

258,962

394,843

108,255.

762,060

IQ16

226,466

354,325

103,758

654,549

IQI7

215,283

321,813

100,231

637,327

1920

56.273

305,422

84.323

570.418

198,493 183,110

296,104 ` 287,244

92,183 84,263

586,785 554,017

elgricullure.—(See also the article AGRICULTURE).

The depres-

sion in British agriculture, which set in in 1879 and culminated in 1894, continued to show some abatement down to 1914, al-

At the out-

England

Wales

Scotland

June 4th

ACTES

ACTES

acres

acres

1912

10,596,843

738.433

3,325,027

4.988.420

1913 1914 1915

10,361,849 10,306,467 10,272,673

696,384 691,757 693,034

3,301,954 3,295,487 3,289,902

I19F7

10,454,149

791,937

3,360,562

1918

11,463,679 11,412,353

034.961 890,523

1916 | 10,302,153

11,180,322

Welsh

Scottish

Irish

Total

78,040

50,810

370,017

|

1913 285,899 59,047 44,662 389,608 In 1915, 104.919 British subjects left for places outside Europe.

Occu pations—Table XII. shows the occupations of the people (excluding children under ten years old), as distinguished in

six great groups, or unoccupied and unspecified, according to

748,948

839,42

3,303,741

3,453,495 3,408,479 3,380,2

Ircland

4,978,580 5,027,082 4,998,903

5,050,234 5,046,008

5,271,830 .

TABLE XVI..—Permaneni Grass, a

241,767

the census of rg1I.

876,062 639,413

tilage in Great Britain in 1917-8. Tables XV. and XVI. show the total area of arable land and of permanent grass in the four divisions of the United Kingdom for each year 1912-20, TABLE XV.—Arable Land.

Total i ooo

1912 | 283,834

369,411

227,III 1,226,242

tion of cereals and towards the raising of stock,

United

|15°O | 30,902 | 13:0 | 22,112 | 10-1 | 320,735]

[15°3 | 34,594

1,260,476 9,468,138

break of the World War, therefore, Britain, as a country importing the vastly greater proportion of its food-stuffs, was faced with the possibility of a shortage and of an adverse effect upon exchanges owing to compulsory importation, at enhanced prices, while countervailing exports necessarily diminished. The researches of various Royal Commissions, the efforts of the Government and public bodies, and the effect of high prices,-

Kingdom

1914 | 294,408 1916 | 279,846

287,163

219,418 97,559

resulted, from the early part of 1917, in a large extension of arable cultivation, 1,497,293 ac. being added to the area under

Ireland

|; ooo | Total

201,066 283,465

| quarters. British agriculture had turned away from the cultiva-

XI. Marriage-rate.

Total

131,035

though in that year arable land in the United Kingdom amounted only to 19,414,166 ac. against 24,002,075 ac. in 1870, and wheat production only to 7,804,042 Quarters against 13,410.406

X.—Death-rate.

Scotland

S

81,675

68,864; 1917, 67,522

England Scotland Ireland

Year

47,408

In Scotland, on May 15 1916, the figures for paupers were 93,557, and on the same day in 1917, 89,779. Figures for Ireland, on Mar. 31 In each year, were: 1914, 76,093; 1915, 73,508; 1916,

gn

TABLE

1914

1918 1919

1X.-—Birth-rate.

25:1

Ireland

2,121,717 2,214,031

|

+6-2

|l toro A

\

714,621

Jan. 1st | Institutional | Domiciliary

deaths and presumed total number of civilians.

England

{pe

Scotland

TABLE NIV.—FPaupertsm.

12,145 | —3:0

sand, for 1916 and following years, are bascd upon estimates of the population in which allowance is made for conditions of military service, and, in the case of the death-rate, upon the

Scotland

,

Wales ne

Pauperism-—Table XIV. gives particulars in regard to the number of persons receiving poor relief in England and Wales on Jan, £ in each year.

Vilul Statistics—In the separate section below (Medical Examination of the Nation) the resùlts of the physical census held during the war are discussed. The birth-rate, death-rate, and marriage-rate for the United Kingdom are given in Table IX. for various years down to 1919. The figures per thou-

TABLE

. gen. Se

12,425 | —-2-6

Lurgan

|——;_

Portadown | Wexford . Ballymena

è

Dundalk

Drogheda

403,030 | +7-4

Newry

Galway

So r

Agricultural and Fish-

| cent

Belfast 385.492 Cork 76,032 Londonderry 40799 Limerick . | 38,403 \Wateriord | 27,430]

309,272 | +64

a

Government Defence

on

|Rate per

IQIE

cent

Dublin and Suburbs: Dublin City Rathmines & Rath-

NIT].—Occupations. Encland & :

Inc. or Dec.

Wales

June 4th

England acres

acres

1912 1913 I9I4 1915 1916 1917 TQIS 1919

13,817,650

2,021,764 2,058,203 2,054,708 2,049,322 2,007,143

1920

14,012,946

14,061,042 1.4.038,071 14,015,840 13,868,721

12,798,361 172,667,10

Scotland acres

Ireland

1,496,307

9,685,358 9,712,567

1,495,965

1,490,694

1,782,132

1,491,495 1,471,765 1,415,761 1,307,606 1,342,996

1,820,162

1,358.8

1,966,054 1,790,511

acres

9,715,084 9,664,043 9,720,785

9,308,546. 9,121,145

UNITED

KINGDOM

Table XVII. shows the production, for the United Kingdom,

TABLE

XXI.—Jron Ore Production.

of certain principal crops. TABLE XVIL— Principal Crops. June

Wheat

Barley

Oats

1912 | 7,175,288 IQlg | 7,804,041

i , I915 | 9,239,355 , 1916 | 7,471,554 |

enop: J

Tons

Cee

Cumberland

)

5,862,244 | 22,308,395 | 7,540,240 | 254,609 6,612,550 | 21,333,782 | 5,408,881 | 307.856

1917 | $,040,352 | 7.184.843 | 26,020,909 | $603,820

220,719

1918 [11,643,000 | 7.760,000 | 31,196,000 | 9,223,000 | 130,000 1919 | 8,665,000 | 7,213,000 ) 25,495,000 | 6,312,000 | 10,000 | 22,609,000

IQI Ton

1,334,751 | 1,323,408

Lancashire .

408,090

Leicester

Lincoln . Northampton Stafford York . England (including counties)

71275900 20,600,079 | 5.726.342 | 373,438 8,065,678 | 20,003,537 | 7.476.458 | 507,258

1920 | 7,104,000 | 8,211,000

10915 Tons

England

Potatoes

4th’ | Quarters | Quarters | Quarters

IQIO Tons

:

other

14,471,108

|13,729,146

ALR 645,415

[11,863,597

91,299 375,241

65,037

435,974 308,721

39.326

15.003

Ireland

Fisherics.—The war had a profound effect upon British fsh-

231,33

2,128,161 | 2,806,989 | 2,787,322 2,649,339 2,517,150 | 2,202,177] 913,006 703,231 794.370) 6,198,411 | 4,821,465 | 3,732,476

Wales Scotland |

6,374,000 | 287,000

982,143

338,086

560.410 | 685,137 | 534,545

The home production of tin ore (almost exclusively in the

They were restricted not merely by military operations,

S.W. of England) is shown in Table XXII. to have had some

but also by the diversion of so many fishermen and vessels to naval service, The figures in Table XVIII. illustrate the limitation of production and the increase of prices.

and about 1912, and a further increase during the war, followed by a decrease at its close.

eries.

revival in rgro-14, with a marked

TABLE

Tarte XVIIL Fisheries.

Wet Fish Landed Y

|

ear

(Eng. & W.|Scotland| Cwr.

Se

a,

Cwt.

elo

x

=

W

Cwr,

Cwi.

ae

Fi h

£

{

|13, 117,681 /8,7:09, 655/1,041,351/22,865, 687|11,352,740 357,414

|10,124,809)7,440,321)

1918

68 1,000] 3,313,225]

676.392]24,657 THOT 4,229,311 403,642

589,996)158,155,126)11,228,829 401,812

550,194)

566,137] 662,755) 760,956

8,054,817

9,776,720,380,1174

Riese 274) 21,132,024 590,211]

the inflation of prices during and since the war. The figures for 1917 also indicate the effect of the war upon output, but at the that coal production,

:

;

1912

;

;

;

7.572

655,871

8,166

1,012,290

$8,055

661,865

1916

7,893

1917

6,573

1919

5,156

12,142

784.493 |

G8R823

of raw cotton imported, cxare given in Table NNIIL. years. The restriction of is most clearly illustrated

by the figure for 1918. The figures for wool are given in ‘Table XXIV. on the following page.

United Kingdom in roto, 1914, 1917 and 1910, and illustrate

time demonstraté

.

Pextile Industries —The quantities ported and retained for consumption for 1910, 1912, 1914 and subsequent export imposed by war conditions

5,222 348/19 $15,560'137,804 7,79.4.130,13,.442.6054 453,984

Minerals and Mining.—Tables XIX. and XX. show the output and value of minerals raised and metals manufactured in the

same

1910 IQI4:

eee

1910

1915 | 5785,233|2.319:390]

‘Value

of Shell

ettash | Fish

1914

IQIO } 4,244,.181/3,412,030| 1917 | 4,051,613/3,079,768)

Ore Production.

| Value of | Value |

Ireland | U.K.

lee] oy hee a

1913 [16,152,374)7,828,350|

NNIT—Tin

increase in world prices in

Tant

Voar

|

Exported

fb.

lh,

I9IO 1912 1914

1,972,741,120 2,805,817,800 1,864,133,300

256,100,768 323,801,100 216,263,500

1,716,640,352 2,482,016,700 1,647, 869,500

1915

2,047,616,100

in spite of all

difficulties, was not permitted to decline to the extent that is seen in other cases. For coal production and statistics see Coat. Iron ore raised in the various counties of the United Kingdom and in the most productive counties in England is shown in Table XXI. jn tons for the years 1910, 1915, and 1919.

XN HI.. Catton.

Imported

TQ16 1IQIB

J919

|

Retained lb.

2,171,002,200 1430. 083,000

237,472,800 352,000

343,635,000

2,303,978, 100

OQ 58,286,700

T21T,132,600

1,537,155,100

1,933,529,400 1.453.731 ,000

TABLE XIX.— Mining Production, 1917

Description of Metal Coal iron Ore . Clay and Shale Sandstone . s

Value £

Tons

264,433,028 108,3777:567 15,226,015 |: 4,022,269 14,090,320 1,761,410 4,396,251 1,300,705 416,324 4,063,994

Slate.. Limestone {not chalk) Igneous Rocks . Oil Shale .

F

Tin Ore (dressed)

;

Salt.

;

265,664,393 14,867,582

Value i

Value E

132,596, $533

248,499,240

|207,786,894

14,945,734

6,429,620

1,613,379 121,524 19,454,717

563,119 366,124 1,722,199

95537495

314,173,160 7 428,366 2,358,522 971,329 844,394 2,431,027

7,369,242 | 4,239,405 837,249 | 3,117,058 661,865 6,576

1,049,121 1,280,007

6,608,705

1,263,410

711351243 3:268,666 8,085 2,069,989

860 ae

4,387,703 2,763,875

2,050,630

1,731,779

1,057,096

$06,196

318,912

12,158,441

7:572

3,921,683

3,464,528

1,296,169

3,130,280

Tons

13,124,361

12,512,736

1919

vere

Tons

1,295,512

5,842,675 | 1,393,858

2,073,358

I,

784.493

1,720,932

1,567,050

5,156 1.908 080

678,823 2,079,011

TABLE XX.—Output of Metals. ii

1910

SEEREN i

i

Tons

`X

Tron

Pin o. Lead . ; ZING: of. cu: Copper . Cold Bar. Silver

. eo ; ; +R. Cet. oo... .

r oe

1914

Value Ta

=

4.975.735

[17,008,512

4,797 21,522 4,168 449 2,427 VZ.

738,025 283,194 99,823 27,570 8,088

136,065 oz.

14.058

Calculated on thevalue of pig iron exported.

Tons

IQI7

l asi

4,756,090 | 17,953,057

5,056 19,378 5,208 341 99 oz. |I46,444

OZ

800,547 371,977 121,585 22,777 333 15,4:

Tons

1919

y=

4,688,063 | 43,271,614')

3.936 11,250 2,735 137 as 1472 OZ.

933,407 337,500 142,699 25,141 af 12,8

Tons

5 S a

h

3,808,095 | 51,511 p

3,272 10,277 2,436 144 oe 63,404

02.

842,485 ` 289,769 102,951 14,176 Si 16,266

UNITED Taste Imports

| me

Retained

ports—Ib.

b.

803,295,083 810,494,562

335,222,545 337,941,504

468,072,538 472.553.3583

II. ForEIGN COUNTRIES (Continued) :—

717,122,5

295,487,373

421,635,102

Imports Exports Other Countriesin Asia Imports

4,029,389 4,075,825

Exports

1,312,710

934,495,242 624,823,286 420,559,105

_ 1919

TABLE NXV.—(Continued).

Exports of Im-

lb.

1918

KINGDOM

NXIV.—TVool.

122,990,049 45,351,652 20,500,264

1,046,704,166

Netherlands India

$11,505,193 579,441,034 400,055,541

169.47 4.718

877,229,448

1,238,856

Commerce.— Table XXV. shows the value of imports from other countries to the United Kingdom, and of exports to other countries from the United Kingdom, in ro1o, Tors and

Feypt

. [Imports {| 21,004,468 Exports 8,717,330

U.S.A,

. Imports | 117,607,435

1919; and Tables XXVI.and

Mexico and

XXVII.

(p. 845) show the chief

imports into, and exports from, the United Kingdom. 1910 í

m E, w.

I BRITISH POSSESSIONS;—

India and Ceylon

, Imports Exports Straits Settle-

TS.4TT,O31

48,751,021 48,320,012

Exports . Imports Exports Canada and Newfoundland . . Imports .

West Indies,

Exports

13,692,22 8,190,185 16,186,605

30,665,036

|

6,350,435

11,076,007

j

48,325,974

115,648, 393

20,925, 3 55

26,566,133

34,540,031

26,238,649 20,606,889

42,206,548 13,636,594

“Xports

31232433 4,265,706

5,707,326

. Imports Exports New Zealand Imports

Australia

35,584,370

45,190,148

Other

2,773,380

27,052,367 20,943,142 8,652,716

28,905,098

147,843,141 16,521,681

30,407,581

9,373,543

. Imports

Exports

Denmark, Facroc, Iceland, Greenland... Imports Exports Imports Norway Sweden

Exports . Imports Exports

Austria-Hungary . _. Imports Exports Rumania Imports Exports . Imports Greece . Exports Italy Imports Exports Spain . . Imports Exports Imports Portugal Exports Russia . Imports Exports Imports Turkey . Exports . Imports Japan . Exports China

Jmports Exports

4,051,204

4,888,460

52,259,323 155,593,530 3:202,516

eee

2,931,025?

624,207

23.418,757 18,036,837

Ta 905 2,095,074

19,671,884

22,894,308

5,580,865

8,008 689 13,690,481

6,630,746 4,033,195

7286, 9 35

19,801 ,659

11,825,079

6,697,967

zee

7,531,865 4,001,053 ZILA

48,531 5,276

1,826,052

492,378

2,286,871

1,545,863 6,458,736 12,530,583 15,351,086

p 644,648 2,252,556

a 668,076

8,636,066 4.327.299 10,121,919

g.171,672

|

17,057 .379

27,437,072

351583,508 24,483,000 505,813 1,459,448

14,635,183

7,034,852 8,545.50!

5151,470

10,741,037

$1,730,319 21,217,210

9,585,247

1,413,642 1,747,570 9,131,443 7,200,096

7344655

1,791,131 1,974,844

4:779,253 3.5%1,519

11,247,707

25,874,754

27,541,750 7,998,130 |

39,804,960

5.479.550

1,999,297

6,063,998

$481,388

17,038,558 9,330,539

9,550,62

17 +f738, 366

Exports | 147,302.942

825,227 ia 419.084

582,570,639 205,620,314

,

. Imports | 507,806,758 Exports | 283,081,830

‘st 80,068,123) 12330.448.764

7,043.5585,573 593,015,062

Grand Total

851,803, 350 1 626,156,062

Imports | 678,257,024

i

384.868.4418

Exports | 430.384.772

| 1.798,635,376

1 From German possessions in W, Africa. 2 Includes Belgian Congo after 1914,

3 To territory formerly Turkish, now occupied by other Powers. 4 Included under British possessions from 1915.

The proportion of imports and exports per head of population of the United Kingdom was approximately as follows:— Imports

£

I9I2 IQI} 1013-1010 Average

16

i5

25

Exports fos. d.

d. o

15

1910

p

911 8 IO I4 2 9 611 1I i5 0

4

3

0

the People Act, 1018, there was a complete redistribution of seats.

Tables XXVIII to XXXV. show the new Parliamentary

arrangements for England, Wales and Scotland. TABLE

XXVI. —London

Name of Borough

2,742

5,585,085

2.467 4.39 ;1.258.452 3:929,053

4,876,655

10,821,100

Parliamentary Representation —Under the Representation of 9,791,098

34,972,425

10,440,500

7,261,540 5,318,000 4,793,533 21,424,998 13,432,172 1,303,348 433,087 ° 9,379,432

2,313,059

8,256,879 63,870,814 11,516, 158

5,181,737

549.575

49,202,523 23,658,430 343151945

8,641,032

771.452

19,097,935

10,110,373?

3,934,622

207 64,004

6,231,797 3-470, 873 6,328,622

5,529,530

9,593,753

15,527,859 10,503,277

33,913,239

4,520,801

‘Votal for Forcign Coun-

3,100,563

26,306,421 52,703,816

3411910

26,167,551

13,486,2 I5

111,403,971

3,113,541

‘Votal tor British Possessions . Imports | 170,450,266 |2

54281,137

tries

2,821,823 . Imports Exports 4,048,929 Il. Fortrgn Countries :— . Imports France . 46,692,355 Exports PRT Germany , Imports 2,094,634 Exports 37,432,003} Belgium ‘ Imports 19,195,974 Exporis 10,886,704

Holland

.

Exports

Exports

Exports

Bermudas,

Honduras and Guiana Imports

Exports

. Imports Exports South Americalmports Exports Other Countries . . Imports

ments, Ma-

Hong-Kong Imports

. Imports

,

Africa

47,500,250

laysia and Africa

. Imports | 29,009,738

Chile

9,029,752

2,562,891

237,773,576 | 541,553,171

Exports | 31,446,730

Argentina

6,102,284

1,757576

Central American ' States . Imports 3,582,859 [exports 3,342,446 Brazil , -. Imports | 17,496,568 Exports 16,426,955

TABLE XXV.—In ports and Exports.



14.474398 | 22,394,183

6,914,713

27,750,885 39,010,162

12,068,021

13,879,719 16,370,377 12,993,681

9,284,659

22,160,1 385 23,871,012 12,913 373 23,952,935

20,960,728

Ao Q leni

Parliamentary Boroughs.

No. T Name of Borough

of Mem-

bers

Jermondsev Bethnal Green Camberwell Chelsea

City of London Leet insbury Fulham Greenwich Hackney. Hammersmith Hampstead Holborn

bers

2 | Lambcth

Battersea

.

Islington . Kensington

2

2

Lewisham

{Paddington

.

.

4 |Poplar . I St. M arylebone 2 |St. Pancras. I Shoreditch I | Southwark 2 | Stepney

t

4

3

%

2

; ‘ . s e :

í š

2 I 3 I 3 3

.

3. | Wandsworth

¥

{Stoke Newington

ce

2 I

Westminster Woolwich .

à :

J

4 2

Total.

.

.

.

k A .

2

I

5 `

2 2

UNITED

KINGDOM

Taste XXVI.—Imports into the United Kingdom.

Imports
a

.

1,698,356

Fe

.

1,964,200

71,711,908

.

evi

80,238,960

37,332,470 37,548,960

OAS

26,207,329

28,357,158

34,246,722 41,332,056

12,803,327 12,882,326 8,970,272 6,261,471

SIN

3,908,393

6,468,719

25,343,111

39,730,6 63,356,7728

40,163,994

104,753,205 130,994,512

18,578,100 13,690,265 9,059,505 6,219,050

15,367,670 12,727,066 91533;465 5,487,344

23,840,128 13,784,590 13,679,870 12,136,066

28,818,186 20,508,074 12,343,018 11,983,27

36,798,326 31,976,823 17,711,627 20,799,861

32,049,602 24,699,194

44,870,344 31,197,428

37.767 ,686 29,604,332

33,584,048 39,048,339

45,029,820 35,215,276

87,562,067 39,221,892

11,824,741 11,259,685

9,086,214

14,342,926 12,545,758

12,961,991

13,478,148 12,064, 430

16,188,901 28,622,052

37,362,572 23,068,847

19,715,078 35,315,326

6,413,7 I8

7,234437 6.820,683

6,712.499

6,791,191

27,405 988.0 9

13,014,623

15,066,659

30,252,181 19,961,401

`

TABLE 1910 £ 105,871,208 42,976,671 37,516,397

ys

2,211,245

55,350,626

36,507,818 37,418,767

A

.

2,434,751

10,877,249

me

37,813,360

2,202,128

32,676,013 29,502,610

63,457,987 40,729,760

45,037,326

7,562,933

48,887,862

1,047,334

2,328,331

2,306,267

16,941,093

8,770.20

6.932.55

1,200,585

Ships

1920} i 401,682,535 128,942,618 134,969,462

21,253,385

12,720,016

14,531,074

4,685,015

191 %f 240,977,605 63,484,265 98,431,697

11,818,335

10,283,283

4,686,485

29,005,826

11,126,189

10,352,354 12,717.587

ae leather goods

11,309,908

15,817,943

Metal manufactures (not iron)

Clothing

12,982,261

82,164,620

52,416,330

20,217,598 27,565,087

13,481,198

93,957,397 151,905,135

72,300,469

50,670,604

31,363,093 19,508,061

Textiles (not cotton or wool)

097

XXVIJI.—Exports of Home Produce. 1914 1916 1918 £ £ % 103,266,538 118,307,992 118,307,992 41,667,830 56,673,705 36,843,078 31,499,885 46,905,649 49,865,041

29,271,380 18,568,136

Leather

173,861,571

k

.

4,470,898

,

3,630,313

ee

231,712,529

.

Cotton yarn and manufactures Iron and steel manufactures Woollen yarn and manufactures Machinery Chemicals

4,287,426

18,964,002

|

154,801,757

.

Iron and steel (not ‘machinery)

Coal

24,014,276

|

nn a

63,215,056

Leather Chemicals

.

|Ar

49,079,559

Wood and timber | Textile materials, excluding cotton and wool g Hides and skins . Metallic ores, excludingi iron Iron ore, ete. $ : Manufactured articles: Yarns and textile fabrics. Metal, excluding iron zagsteel

Paper Machine

yr

48,878,947

a a

Fish (preserved) a Cocoa and chocolate Principal fruits:

|

133,253,132

i

.

a|

79,636,269

.

Sugar

Macaa

88,496,284

Other principal articles of food and rin

r

77,298,383

16,120,463 22,663,148

9,003,158

4,897,503

1,551,378

92,297,685

99,627,146

15,337,212

25,867,965

7,360,317

11,672,599

1From preliminary neurns:

TABLE XXIX.— Provincial English Parliamentary Boroughs.

Name of Borough Accrington.

No. of

|Mem-| _bers_

Name of Borough | MemMS

1

{Dudley

Ashton-under-Ly ne

I

Ealin

Barnsley .

1 | East

x

TABLE XXIX.—(Continued).

No. of

.

Name of Borough act

I

Ham

Manchester

,

No. of

Mem-| ES

;

Name of Borough

10 | Smethwick

I

I

Middlesbrough

2

;

2

2

Morpeth

I | Southend-on-Sea ..

I

.

Southampton

Barrow-in-Furness

rt | Eccles

I

Nelson and Colne

1 | Southport

Dalay and Morley

I

I

Newcastle-upon-Tyne

4 | Stockport

2

Norwich

2 | Stoke-on-Trent

3

1}

I

Bath

Birkenhead

.

Birmingham Blackburn Blackpool

Bolton”

1 | Edmonton

2

Sxeter

|!Gateshead

I

2 | Great Yarmouth 1 |Grimsby.

|Halifax

1 I

.

I

1 | Hartlepools, The . .

1 | Hastings. 4 | Hornsey .

Brighton . Bristol . Bromley .

2 |Huddersheld | | ` 5 | Hull Kingston--uponI Hull) . . . .

Burnley Bury

1 | Hythe 1 | Jiferd

.

1 | Kingston- upon-Thames I Iı |Leeds . Jd G

Croydon

f

Reading Richmond (Surrey) Rochdale ‘

4 I I

2 | Leigh 1

2

}|Leyton

{Lincoln

1 I Liverpool

.

.

3

I

:

,

2

1

tI

.

|j

Rotherham

.

à.

Salford

i

E

jot. Helens

Sheffield

.

.

I

2 2

Tynemouth .

I

.

I I

1 | Walsall. . 1 | Walthamstow 1 | Warrington , 2

Rossendale (incl. Bacup, Haslingden and Raw-

tenstall)

I

3 | Wallasey . 2 | Wallsend.

Gillingham)

|l

I

1 | Stockton-on-Tees

Rochester (with Chatham and

I

.

3. | Wakefieid

I

Carlisle Cheltenham

Darlington

Oxford .

Plymouth

1 | South Shields

4 | Sunderland 2 | Tottenham

Portsmouth Preston .

I

I | Leicester.

||| Nottingham . Oldham

I I

Canoni

Coventry

Ipsw ich

Northampton

I

Bournemouth Bradford. .

,

Newcastle-under-Lyme

I

12 | Gloucester

2

Bootle

I

Wednesbury . West Bromwich

i .

I 2 1 1 I

West

'

4

f

I 2 i

Ham,

Wigan . Willesden

tr | Wimbledon

I | Wolverhampton

1 | Worcester

.

3 I

3 | York

7

Total .

I

I

UNITED

846

KINGDOM TABLE XXXIV.—Scottish County Divisions.

TABLE XXX.—Welsh Parliamentary Boroughs. No. of Members

Name of Borough

Cardif

.

3

Carnarvon District (Ban-

gor,

Carnarvon,

Name of Borough

Name of County

Newport

Rhondda Swansea

Con-

way, Pwllheli, Criccieth,

Llandudno, Llanfairfechan, Penmaenmawr, Nevin} i f

Argyll

drossan, Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, Troon) Dumbarton District (Dumbarton, ee bank)© . a Dundee . F Dunfermline District (Dunfermline, Cowdenbeath, Inverkeithing, Lochgelly) .

Edinburgh

.

Glasgow

.

Greenock

.

Name of Borough

Oxford

Hertford

Name of County

Isie of Ely

.

Isle of Wight. Kent Parts of “Kesteven Pineot nenate) and Rutland f Lancaster

.

LISH HISTORY. Local Government —Some important changes were made in the municipal status of towns in England and Wales in the years preceding 1920. Barnsley, Carlisle, Darlington, Dewsbury, Eastbourne, East Ham, Southend-on-Sea, Stoke-onTrent, Wakefield and Wallasey became county boroughs. Aylesbury, Buxton, Devonport, Fowey, Llanelly and Stourbridge became municipal boroughs. The following were created urban districts:—Ardwick-le-Street, Axminster, Beddington and Wallington, Bedwas and Machen, Bentley with Arksey, Bletchley, Bungay, Chorleywood, Coulsdon and Purley, Cwmamman, Haslemere, Letchworth, Leyland, Long Benton, Market Drayton, Mitcham, Oadby, Prudhoe, Seaton Delavel,

;

Spenborough,

Carmarthen Carnarvon

Denbigh. Flint

Wolverton,

Tilbury,

Yiewsley.

Preesall with Hackensall to Preesall, Hunstanton to New Hunstanton, Hucknall Torkard to Hucknall, Newbold and Dunstan Whittington to Whittington and Newbold. The

noe KUUA PhO RENTA NEN nA

Total .

Name of County Anglesey . Brecon and Radnor Cardigan .

and

haiarn to Portmadoc, Ystradyfodwg to Rhondda, Merton to Merton and Morden, New Shorcham to Shoreham-by-Sea,

Wilts Worcester

York, East Riding York, North Riding York, West Riding

Stratford

The following urban districts changed their names:—Ynscyn-

Westmorland

m e p =

On the ex-

tension and revision of the franchise under the Act, see ENc-

Oxford . : Salop Somerset Stafford : Suffolk, East Suffolk, West N niwi TAO Ome CA UIN Surrey Sussex, East . Sussex, West Warwick g

r

St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh

(the Act did not cover Irish redistribution), 105.

Nottingham .

i

2

2 I I

Bristot.

Northumberland

4

.

.

Commons totalled 707:—England 492 (an addition of 31), Wales 36 (addition of 2), Scotland 74 (addition of 2), Ircland

Nort hampton (with Soke of Peterborough)

i

*

.

fictd, Birmingham,

Norfolk

.

.

Liverpool, Leeds, Shef-

colnshire) Middlesex

Hereford .

a

London . . è Wales z Durham, Manchester,

.

Holland with Boston (Lincolnshire) Huntingdon

7

Cambridge

Leicester ; Parts of Lindsey (Lin-

Cumberland Derby

Name of County

and Members

.

Devon Dorset Durham . Essex Gloucester Hants

Divs.

verbervie)

Chester Cornwall

Total .

et

No, of

Paisley . Stirling and Falkirk (with Grangemouth)

Cambridge

nan

et ete eee mee

Brechin, Forfar, In-

Berks

Bucks

Renfrew

Stirling and Clackman-

Name of County

TABLE XXXII.—English County Divisions.

Bedford

Perth and Kinross

TABLE XXXV.—University Constituencies.

Total .

Name of County

.

Roxburgh and Selkirk.

Inverness and Ross and Cromarty :

(Montrose, Arbroath,

No. of Divs. and Mem_bers_

.

Moray and Nairn, Orkney and Shetland,

Forfar. Galloway

Kirkcaldy District (Kirkcaldy, Buckhaven, Methil, lnnerleven, Burntistand, Dysart, Kinghorn} . Leith . ; Montrose District

Aberdeen . Ayr District (Ayr, Ar-

Peebles

Banff an Berwick & Haddington . Caithness & Sunderland Dumbarton Dunifries ‘ $ File .

TaBLe XXXI.—Scottish Parliamentary Boroughs. Name of Borough

Lanark, Linlithgow f Midlothian and

.

Ayr and Bute.

Total .

No. of Members

Name of County

Merthyr Tydfil

Greater Birmingham scheme, which came into operation Nov. 9 1911, included in the city of Birmingham the former borough of Aston Manor and certain urban districts. (O. J. R. H). MEDICAL EXAMINATION

Glamorgan Merioneth Monmouth Montgomery Pembroke Total .

OF THE NATION

In order to appreciate the nature and scope of the physical census of men of military age carried out in the United Kingdom

by the Ministry of National Service during the last years of the World War, it is necessary to recapitulate briefly the phases through which the recruiting arrangement for the British army passed during the earlier stages of the war. Before the war the British army was a voluntary army, and

only men between 18 and 30 years of age of good physique and free from any physical defect were accepted for enlistment. Jt was laid down that the height and chest measurements of each recruit should accord with each other and with his age in conboroughs were abolished); the counties lost 5 members; the universities gained 6 members, the newer universities being -formity with the official table of standards. Each recruit whose represented for the first time. Membership of the House of physical condition did not conform to these-standards was reAs compared with the former distribution of seats, London boroughs, in the Act of 1918, gained 3 members; other boroughs gained 33 (31 new boroughs were created and 44 old

UNITED garded as unfit and not accepted. In short, the army accepted for service only the best human material. At the outbreak of war in Aug. 1914, there was a tremendous

rush of recruits to the colours, and perforce attempts were made to deal, on the same simple plan, with the tens of thousands of men who besieged the recruiting offices. The need for soldiers was clamant, irresistible, and there was no time to devise another method. The result was inevitable—the army was flooded with men who after a few weeks or months of service broke down and proved useless. The authorities then saw that in this war they were confronted with a new problem—men had to be provided on a scale never before contemplated and the manpowcr resources of the country were to be strained to the utmost. The army needed would have to employ men of different degrees of physical fitness, since the available number of perfectly fit men would not be adequate for all the needs of the country, It was therefore necessary to classify recruits according to their fitness for the very varied duties for which the army required men—the old simple division into “ fit ” and “unfit ”

was no longer sufficient: recruits must be classified or graded so

that as far as possible every man called up for service should be’

allotted to the particular occupation in the army for which he was fitted by his training and degree of physical fitness. Accordingly, a system

of categories

was

introduced whereby

recruits were classified by medical boards as being fit for general service, field service at home, garrison service, labour or seden-

tary work; as experience of this system accumulated various modifications and sub-divisions of these categories were subsequently introduced to meet the difficulties which arose in their application in practice. Meantime, on Jan. 27 1916, the first Military Service Act,

which provided for the compulsory service of unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 41, came into operation, and on May

26, a like obligation was imposed on the married between those ages. By this time, the difficulty of categorization was becoming painfully evident; it consisted essentially of the fact that the category, was not a purely medical classification but rather a kind of administrative shorthand founded upon medical information.

In other words, medical boards were required to perform

the functions of a posting board, as well as their proper medical function of assessing the degree of physical fitness of the men

examined. ‘The attempt to combine these functions failed, as in the light of experience we can see it was bound to fail, and was in fact the cause of the growing volume of dissatisfaction which

KINGDOM

847

the increasing work. In April 1918 285,631 men were examined, in May 456,999, and in June 475,416; by this time the number of boards was 209. After this the pressure relaxed somewhat, and the numbers in succeeding months were July 371,923, Aug. 158,544, Sept. 97,694, Oct. 110,255.

From the outset instructions were issued to boards that they were to grade all men brought before them according to their

physical fitness at the time of examination in conformily with the following standards:— . Grade [,—Those who attain the full normal standard of health and strength and are capable of enduring physical exertion

suitable to their age. Such men must not suffer from progressive organic disease, nor have any serious disability or deformity. Minor defects which can be remedied or adequately compensated by artificial means will not be regarded as disqualifications.

Grade II.—Those who for various causes, such as being subject to partial disabilities, do not reach the standard of Grade I. They must not suffer from progressive organic disease. They must have fair hearing and vision, be of moderate muscular development, and be able to undergo a considerable degree of physical exertion of a nature not involving severe strain. Grade III.—Those who present marked physical disabilities or such evidence of past disease that they are not considered fit

to undergo the degree of physical exertion required for the higher grades, Examples of men suitable for this grade are those with badly deformed toes, severe flat-foot, and some cases of hernia and of varicose veins (others are indicated later under the

headings of the various diseases and disabilities}.

The third

grade will also include those who are fit only for clerical and other

sedentary occupations, such as tailoring and boatmaking. Grade IV.—AIl those who are totally and permanently unfit for any form of military service.

In order to assist the boards in their task of grading, and to insure uniformity as far as possible through the country, instructions were also issued to them indicating the effect of some 60

common disabilities and diseases upon the grading. Thus, in the Ministry of National Service, a department was created with the administrative machinery requisite not only to supply the armed forces with recruits, but also to survey the physical fitness of

the male population of military age and so provide a physical census of the human material at the disposal of the country for all its needs.

It is evident that, until categorization with its

administrative factors was abandoned and grading by physical considerations alone introduced, truce inferences as to the health

became steadily more general and more emphatic during the

and fitness of the male population could not be drawn from the

latter half of 1916 and the carly months of 1917. Fhe examination of men called up under the Review of Exceptions Act in April r917 caused a storm of hostile criticism; this led to the appointment of the Shortt Committee, which, in Aug. 1917, recommended to the House of Commons that the whole organization and administration of examination should be transferred from

statistical returns of recruiting.

the War Office to civilian control.

Accordingly, the Ministry of

National Service—the Department entrusted with this work— assumed these duties as from midnight Oct. 31 1917.

The immediate medical duties of the Department were: (1) To introduce a new system of grading—the grade of each man to be determined by physical considerations alone—to replace

the system of categorization in which administrative as well as medical considerations were taken into account; (2) to lay down definite standards of physical efficiency for the guidance of members of examining boards; (3) to establish National Service

Medical Boards for the examination of men of military age. As regards the personnel of the boards, great care was taken to select suitable chairmen who were generally whole-time

medical officers. Members of the boards (1 chairman and 4 members constituted a board) were drawn from a panel of local civilian doctors of good standing—a system which made for

cfficient work, economized the medical man-power of the country and was at the same time elastic. These boards were established at convenient centres all over Great Britain. At first they

numbered 97 and were soon examining some $0,000 men per month. The number of boards steadily increased to cope with

With the introduction of the

new system on Nov. 1 1917, the statistical returns at once became of great value, and provided for the first time a physical census of part at least of the population. The number of examinations completed during this last year | of the war with the numbers placed in each grade is shown in the accompanying table:— Medical Examinations (Period Nov. 1 1917 to Oct. 31 1978). No. of Examinations and Reéxaminations.

Grade I.

Grade I.

.

|..

Grade lll... Grade TV.» -» ùoè>>» ©ùa

Ruthenian Scandinavian Scotch Spanish

10,463,131

420,574 105,710,620

1910 Per cent of total

Number 39,502 13,012

58,366

Irish , ae Jtalian, North Itahan, South Lithuanian, Magyar .

Mexican Polish

13,712,754

ine Number

Croatian and Slovenian Dutch and Flemish .

German

Nativity of Whites, 1020.

TABLE 2.

>+» >>»©k&= +» >ù>èpe©>.#¢

Beginning with 1915 there was a marked decline in immigration, due to the World War. In the five years 1910-4, the total number of immigrants was 5,174,000, and in the succeeding five years ending in 1919, only 1,173,000. Immigrants may be classified (1) as to race or people and (2) as to country of last residence. The first is of importance as an index of the contribution of ethnic traits and characteristics; and the second

The following figures show the total number of foreign-born whites in certain states, with the foreign country which had fur-

1910

nished the largest number in that state: California, 681,662 (Italy, 88,502);

Illinois,

1,204,403

(Germany,

205,491);

Massachusetts,

1,077,534 (Ireland, 183,171); Michigan, 726,635 (Canada, 164,502); Minnesota, 486,164 (Sweden, 112,117); New Jersey, 738,613 (Italy,

157,285); New York, 2,786,112 (Italv, 545.713); Ohio, 678,697 (Germany, 111,893); Pennsylvania, 1,387,350 (Italy, 222,764); Texas, $60,519 (Mexico, 249,652); Wisconsin, 460,128 (Germany, 151,250). In connexion with the problems of Americanization the statistics of citizenship of the foreign-born whites are of interest. In 1920 12,498,334, or 94% of this element, were 21 years of age and over; 6,928,027 were men and 5,570,307 were women. Table 3 shows the number in 1920 naturalized, those who had taken out first papers,

aliens and those for whom no reports were obtained. TABLE 3. Naturalisations, 1920. Men Women

Naturalized

,.

First papers . Alien. a} No reports.

Number | Percent | Number | Percent

. | 3,314577 | 47°8 | 2,893,785 | 52-0 . | 1,116,698 16°1 2,138,205 | 309 358.547 5:2

77,558 1-4 2,226,690 | 40-0 3.27 6-

In 1910, 45°61% of the men were naturalized as compared with 47°8° in 1920, and only 8-6% had taken out first papers, as compared with 16-1% in 1920. Statistics of immigration are often inaccurately used, no allowance heing made for departures. Increasing facilities in ocean transportation, and the higher wages received by immigrants, enabling them to travel, led to a constant stream of departures in the decade

1910-20, In order to determine the net increase of pop. by immigration, it is necessary, therefore, to determine both arrivals and

departures.

Table 4 compiled by the Bureau of Immigration, shows

the changes for the II years 1910-20.

ne Ka wpn Dup n ne |va

Number

Per cent Per cent of total Number of total

Austria, Hungary . Germany . Greece “

Italy Russia

; i

Ireland Norway

+

England

ha

135,793 122,944 31,283 25,888 215,537 186,792

13 I2

46,706 29,855 17,538

8,229

Portugal Sweden

è>»+©»ùu4.

r

23,745

Turkey in Europe . Turkey in Asia ; British North America

l luennolla | 18,405

Mexico

N t=om

15,212 56,555 18,601

Oo eR WR Non

It will be observed that in 1920 there was a change in the racial composition of immigration as compared with 1910. The proportion of Italians was about the same, but immigration from eastern

European

stocks fell off.

Immigration

from Austria, Hungary,

Germany and Russia practically stopped after 1917.

Immigration

from the northern border, of both English and French Canadians, and from the southern part of Mexico, had greatly increased. Until

the World War, Europe was the chief source of immigration to the United States, furnishing go°% of the total. The percentage coming from Europe fell, however, to 60°% in 1915, 50°, in 1916, 45 % in 1917, 28% in 1918 and 17°%% in 1919. In 1920 it rose to 57%.

After the war the return movement 1920 emigration

to that continent

to Europe increased, and in

was

in excess of immigration

from it. This excess was due to emigration to south-eastern Europe ' rather than to the northern and western sections. The proportion

UNITED

854

STATES

of females among the immigrant aliens in 1920 was 42-4 %, as com-

TABLE 7.—(Continued).

pared with 33:4 %4 in the years rg1o-4. For Greeks the female percentage increased from 9 to 20, and for Italians {rom 5 to 48. This

suggests that the immigration of these peoples might prove to be

more permanent than in the past In 1917 a literacy test was imposed upon immigrants, exemptions being made in certain cases, as for example, to those who came to the United States to join relatives or who would have been subject to religious persecution at home. As a result only 15,094 iJliterate immigrants 16 years of age and over, or 4-4%, were admitted in 1920. During the years 1908-17, 1,617,000 illiterate immigrants 14 years of age and over were admitted. Undoubtedly the new restriction should show in the course of the decade 1920-30 a marked effect upon the degree of illiteracy in the United States. By the Immigration Act passed in 1921 the number of immigrants admitted from any one country in the year july I 1921 to June 20 1932, was

Hartford, Conn, Scranton, Pa.

Paterson, N. J.

2 | Chicago, 1. . x 3 | Philadelphia, Pa... 4 | Detroit, Mich.. .

5 | Cleveland, O.

.

6 | St. Louis, Mo.

4,766,883]

2,701,705 | 2,185,283 1,823,779 | 1,549,008 993,678] 465,766]

796,841]

560,063]

crease 179 236 17:7 113-3

42-1

572.897 | 687,029

12:5

7 | Boston, Mass. . ‘ 8 | Baltimore, Md. 9 | Pittsburgh, Pa...

r ‘

-38,000] 733,0201 588.3431

II31-4 10-2

2. |) 576,073]

319,198]

80-7

. 506.773! . | 506,676] 457.147]

423,715 416,912) 373.857

19:6 21-5 22:3

414.524]

347,469

19°3

. | 401,247]

363,591

10°74

r

339,075 301,408 248,381

T42 206:3 30-6

it | Buffalo, N.Y... 12 | 5an Francisco, Cal.. 13 | Milwaukee, Wis.

14 | Washington, D. C..

a. | 4375711

15 | Newark, N.J...

16 | Cincinnati,O.

.

«

17 | New Orleans, La. . 18 | Minneapolis, Minn, Ig | Kansas City, Mo.

20 | Seattle, Wash. .

i

387,219] 380,582} 324,410]

a

. f 315,312|

21 | Indianapolis, Ind. .

314,194|

22 | Jersey City, N. J.

298,103|

23 | Rochester, N.Y. 24 | Portland, Ore.

25 | Denver, Col

A

:

24-6

31 | Oakland, Cal. 2 | Akron, 0. .

. Jo

. i

33 | Atlanta, Gè. 34 | Omaha, Neb.

.

. :

37 38 39 40

| | | |

Syracuse, N. Y. Richmond, Va. New Haven, Conn. Memphis, Tenn.

41 | San Antonio, Tex. 42 | Dallas, Tex.

.

243,164) 237,505| 237,031 | 234,891] 234,698}

213,381}

168,497] 224,326 IBI,5II 223,928 214,744

202

443 5:9 30-6 4°9 9-3

216,261 | 150,174] 440 208,435 69,067 | 201:8 š :

.

200,616] 191,601}

179,754]

. | 178,806]

ea os . . f .

. . oan”

43 | Dayton, O. ek 44 | Bridgeport, Conn. . 45 | Houston, Tex.. l

11-3

207,214

«| .

36 | Birmingham, Ala.

34-5

258,288;

6 . 4 . `

.

267,779

356

Toledo, O. © Providence, R.L Columbus, O. . Louisville, Ky.. 30 | St. Paul, Minn.

35 | Worcester, Mass.

233,650}

29

218,149

a | 256,491]

| | | |

237,194

322

295,730!

.

26 27 28 29

.

.

.

331,069|

A

154,839 124,096

145,986| 132,685]

171,717 | 137,249] 171,667! 127,628 162,537 | 133,605 162,351| 131,105)

209-6 54-4

231

34-8

251 345 21-7 23-8

161,379 158,976

96,614] 92,104]

67-0 72-6

152,559) 143.555] 138,276

116,577 302,054] 78,800!

30-9 407 755

we

x wt

72 27:3 230

112,759

106,294

109,694

104,839

106,482

98,917

96,965 95,783 94.270

a

93,372

Somerville, Mass.

.

Jacksonville, Fla,

`.

93,091 91.599 91,558

p -

91,715 91,295

Schenectady, N. Y.. Z

Fort Wayne, Ind. Evansville, Ind. Savannah, Ga..

`

. Š 3

Manchester, N. H. . St. Joseph, Mo. Knoxville, Tenn. El Paso, Tex. ,

Bayonne, N. J.

CT END Torro «Mw

96,071 73:312

12:2 45°2

82,331

22-9 25°5 I1l-o 26+]

83,743 73409

30:5

79.503

85,892

94.156

265

77:236

205 137-6

72,826 50,217

88,723 87,091 86,549 85.264 83,252

79.754

70,063 77,403 36,346 39.279 55,545

II4I 97'5 38.2

3

76,121

75,917 74,683 73,833 73,502

64,186

72,217 72,075 72,013 71,227 70,983

52,450 18,182 76,813 47,828 53,084

69,272

58,571 70,324 58,833

96 97

99

Wichita, Kan, . Tulsa, Okla... Troy, N.Y. . Sioux City, Ia..

100

South Bend, Ind.

10I 102 103 104 105

Portland, Me.

Hoboken, N. J.

: , *

,

.

Charleston, S. C, Johnstown, Pa. Binghamton, N. Y.

a4+ s»

68,166 67,957 67,327 66,800

66,767

109 110

East St. Louis, Ill, , Brockton, Mass. Terre Haute, Lad. Sacramento, Cal. Rockford, Hl. .

ITT

Little Rock, Ark.

65,142 64,248 63,541 61,903

106 107 tas

112 113 114 115

es `+*

Pawtucket, R.L. Passaic, N. J. . Saginaw, Mich... springfield, O.. ,

66,950 39,578

10-0

41-6

55,482

48,443

37°7

296-4 —6-2

48-9 32:2

18:3 -7I

15:5 21:3 37'9

44,696

14:0 16'5 134 47°5

45,94!

41:8

58,547

56,878

58,157

60,840

13°7

18-3 88-7

67,105

66,081,

65,651

11:9

51,913

66,254 65,908

58:7 254 42:2

65,064

IJarrisburg, Pa.

y8

|"

404

21°8 734 354 224 28-0

65.933 69,647

78,384 77:939

15-8

74,419 66,525

38,550 57,099 73,141 64,205

77,560

*a=>s

4°6

89,336 78,406

San Diego, Cal. Wilkesbarre, Pa. Allentown, Pa. ,

95

6I 260

93

Peoria, It.

Iz1

87,411

92

tes pat

71:6

104,402

77,818 =aè+

1:0

110,364 92.777 94.538 67,452 100,233

rr8,110

. è .

Canton, O.

46-4 25:4

116,309 115,777 113,344

ta&

Flint, Mich.

67-4 45°8 232

99,148

Waterbury, Conn. Oklahoma City, Okl

79,066

88,926

G1

8-2

96,815

100,176

D Main nN h Gu os

39-6

22°3

119,295

118.342

©2+>u+

Fercentage increase

129,867 112,571 125,600

86,368 96,652

104,437 101,177

Duluth, Minn. ,

2=

95,915

107,784 .»-

Tacoma, Wash, Elizabeth, N. J. Lawrence, Mass, Utica, N.Y. Erie, Pa. . 5 ararsa

© m~i sr

1910

110,168

Kansas City, Kan. Yonkers, N. Y. Lynn, Mass. .

| Percentage in-

,

670,585 555,455 533.905

Nashville, Tenn. . Salt Lake City, Utah Camden, N. 1: ae Norfolk, Va. , k Albany, N. Y.. .

Spokane, Wash.

e

10 | Los Angeles, Cal.

-

[5,620,048

Des Moines, Ja. ; New Bedford, Mass. Fall River, Mass. Trenton, N. J.. s

129,614 126,468 121,217 120,335 119,289

Fort Worth, Tex.

TABLE 7, Cities with 50,000 Inhabitants or More.

a

i

135,875 132,358

Cambridge, Mass. Reading, Pa. .

as defined by the Census Bureau. Table 7 shows the pop. of cities having 50,000 inhabitants or

.

1375783 137,034

Lowell, Mass. . Wilmington, Del.

more in 1920 with comparison for 1910.

1 | New York, N. Y.

138,036

2

s

Youngstown, QO.

of that size in Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island) was 46-3 per cent. In 1920 the percentage was 51:4, showing that more than one-half of the pop. was then living jn urban territory

1910

i

Springfield, Mass,

be eligible for admittance during the year 1921-2. The United Kingdom was limited to 77,200; Germany to 68,000; Italy to 42,000; Russia to 34,200 and Poland to 25,800. Urban and Rural Population.—The tendency of the population to concentrate in towns and cities continued unabated. In 1910 the percentage of the pop. living in urban territory (that is, in cities and other incorporated places ot 2,500 inhabitants or more, and in towns

1920

.

Grand Rapids, Mich.

restricted to 3°% of the persons of that nationality resident in the United States in 1910. Only 358,000 immigrants, therefore, could

Rank

1920

Rank

45.401

51,622 545773 50,510 46.021

44°6 16:6 22-6 29:

UNITED STATES Percentage increase 116 | Mobile, Ala.

.

«|

118 | Holyoke, Mass.

:

;

120 | Springfield, IIL.

.

r7 | Altoona, Pa.

.

.

a’

r19 | New Britain, Conn,

>

121 | Racine, Wis. 122 | Chester, Pa.

. .

126 | Davenport, Ta. 127 | Wheeling, W. Va. 128 | Berkeley, Cal. .

. .

129 | Long Beach, Cal.

.

131 | Lincoln, Neb,

2...

130 | Gary, Ind.

eas

136 | Augusta, Ga

.

“s

137 | Tampa, Fla.

.,.

.

138 | Roanoke, Vas

.

59,316

43,916

59,183

51,678

58,593 | 58,030 |

38,002 33,537

36,727 56,20 56,036

43,028 41,641 40,434]

52,548

.

.

age-group engaged in gainful occupation in 1910:—I9 to 13 years,

males 16-69% and females 8-09; 14 to 15, 41-4.% and 19-8 %; 16 to

41-8 35-0 38:6

250

33,190| 44,115] 47,227

639 22+1 12:

40,605]

303

41,040|

280

34874]

458

34371)

475

51,608 |

37,782] 30,445]

50,710

Nearly one-third of all the workers were engaged in agricultural and

in tool industries. If we divide the pop. of the United States into groups according to age, the following were the percentages of each

16,802 | 229°6

50,760|

50,842

wealth or in services which might be valued in economic terms..

43.973]

52,995]

366 667

141 | Atlantic City, N. J. 142 | Bethlehem, Pa. . r43 | Huntington, W. Va.

50,707 50,358 50,177

46,150 99 12,837 | 292-3 3LIGI| 61-0

144 | Topeka, Kan.

50,022

43.684

11:5

The cities with increases of over 100° were Detroit, Mich., due to the development of the automobile industry; Akron, O., the home of several large rubber factories which manufacture tires for

automobiles; Flint, Mich., also an automobile city; Tulsa, Okla., a centre of oil activity; Gary, Ind., a city recently built up by the U.S.

Steel Corp.; Bethlehem,

and Long Beach, Cal,

Pa., also a steel city; Knoxville,

Tenn.;

With the exception of Bethlehem, no one of

these cities is in the cast.

oa

Nearly one-fourth of ihe gain in the total pop. was due to the growth of the 12 largest cities, which in 1920 all had more than

500,000 inhabitants each. In 1919 there were only cight cities with a pop. of 500,000 or over. In the earlier year 12-5 %, or one-eighth of the total pop.» lived in cities of this size; in 1920 the proportion was 155%, In 1910 there were 42 cities with a pop. between 100,000 and 500,000; in 1920 there were 56.

.

,

Occupations.—The proportion of the pop. engaged in gainful occutions increased from 38-3% of the total pop. in 1900 to 41-5 %

in 1910. This was largely due to the greater number of females receiving wages. In 1900 the percentage of females 10 years of age and over in gainful occupations was 18-8; in I1910, 23-4, a gain of 4°6 per cent. The percentages for males for the two dates respectively were 80 and 81-3, a gain of only 1-3 per cent. Table 8

classifies those engaged in industry according to the principal divisions of occupations. TABLE 8. Industrial Occupations. Occupation

Number

Males:— , Agricultural pursuits Professional service . Domestic and personal service . .

1900

10,760,875| 1,151,709

9,404,429! 827,941

2,740,176) Trade and transportation | 6,403,378! Manufacturing and me-

chanical pursuits .

` All occupations (male)

, | 9,035,426]

1910 | 1900 358 3°8

I,772,095|

20, 79°2% and 39-9%: 21 to 44, 96°7 % and 263%; 45 years and over, 85°9% and 157%; Io years and over, 81-3% and 23-4 %. There was a slight decrease between 1900 and Ig10 in the two lower age-greups for males anc a slight increase for females. More than 8 out of 10 of the gainful workers in the United States as a whole

in E910 Were 21 years of age and over, and about 95 out of 100 were 16 years of age and over. Education.-In 1918 there were 20,853,516 children enrolled in the public schools, constituting 70% of the pop. from § to 18 years of age, There were 650,709 tcachers in the public schools, or one

to every 32 pupils.

Of the teachers 16% were males.

The total

expenditure for public schools was $763,678,089 or about 537 per pupil.

The above enrolment of pupils includes 1,735,619 attending

public high schools.

In addition there were 158,745 pupils in pri-

vate high schools and academics.

‘There were over 300 public and

private normal schools with an enrolment of nearly 140,000. Universities, colleges and schools of technology numbered 672 in 1918, having 44,600 students of preparatory grade, 239,707 students of coltegiate grade, and 14,406 graduate students. Nearly one-half of the students of collegiate grade were female. Professional schools in 1918 numbered 424, as follows: theology I41, with 9,354 students; law rof, with 11,820 students; medicine 72, with 13,802 students;

dentistry 37, with 8.314 students; pharmacy 54, with 4,053 students; and veterinary medicine 19, with 1,250 students.

CATION, Section United States.)

(See Epu-

The statistics of illiteracy for 1920 showed a diminution com-

pared with those for 1910. The Census Bureau classifies as Miterate any person 10 years of age or over who is unable to write in any language, regardless of ability to read. [literates in 1920 numbered 4.931.905, or 6%, of the pop. at least 10 years of age, as compared with 7-796 in 1910. The proportion of illiteracy for the

individual states in 19z0 ranged from t-1°%) in Jowa to 21-9°%

for Louisiana. literacy is very marked in those states in which the colored pop. or the foreign-born pop. isrelatively large. Inigio nearly one-third (30-4 %4) of the necroes were recorded as illiterate, but this showed a marked decrease from 44:5°% in 1900. Of the native whites of native parentage only 3-7 % in 1910 were illiterate, but in six of the southern states the percentage ran over 10°%, Vital Statistics—In 1915 the Census Bureau began the annual

analysis and publication of birth statistics based upon data obtained from state registration records. In 1919 the birth registration area

covered nearly three-fifths (58-6°) of the total population. The birth-rate varted in the five-year period 1915-9 from 25-1 per 1,000

in 1915 to 22-3 per 1,000 in Ig1g. The ratio of male births was 1,057 to 1,000 female births. The fecundity of forcign-born mothers was. much greater than that of native mothers. For example, in Connecticut, although the white married women of foreign birth, age 15 to 42, constituted only 46% of the total pop. of while married women of that age group, they gave birth to 57% of the children. tn

Massachusetts 49° of foreign-born mothers gave birth to 53% of

the children; and in New York 43°% of foreign-born mothers gave birth to 49% of the children. The first and second children formed 50% of all children born to native white mothers, while only 34% born to foreign-born mothers were first and second children.

The registration area for mortality statistics covers more than three-fourths oi the population. Between 1900 and 1921 the death-

rate varied from a minimum of 13-5 per 1,000 in 1915 to 18 per

1,000 in 1918. This latter high rate was due largely to the great influenza pandemic. The rate of infant mortality (the number of

deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 born alive) for the

3,485,208 QI 4,263,617 | 213

registration area in 1913 was 83 for the white pop.; far negro pop.,.

5,772,641]

divorce was made by the Bureau of Census, covering the vear 1916. There were 1,040,778 marriages, or 10°5 per 1,000 of the population. In some of the southern states the rate ran as high as 11-9 per 1,000. There were 112,036 divorces. ‘(he statistics were not

30-0

. | 30,091,564 | 23,753,836 | 100-0 | 100°

Females:— f Agricultural pursuits 1,807,050 © Professional service . 673,418 Domestic and personal service ©.. | 2,620,857] Trade and transportation | 1,202,352 Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits

Per cent.

1910

recorded as engaged in gainful occupations, but in reality they contribute to the household economy. If these be included, approxi-

allied industries, and a little over one-fourth in manufacturing and

17,809 | 212+2

54,387 53,884 53,150

ices. Many children and wives work for their parents or husbands; technically they do not receive wages and consequently are not

mately two-thirds of the pop. was engaged in some degree of creating

44,004 31,229 53,270

54,948}

;

140 | East Orange, N.J..

57.730

52,127

55:37

.

139 | Niagara Falls, N.Y,

60,203

55,593

.

,

51,521

57.895 57,327 57,12!

132 | Portsmouth, Va. .. 133 | Haverhill, Mass. . à. 134 | Lancaster, Pa...

135 | Macon, Ga.

60777

60,331

123, | Chattanooga, Tenn, 124 | Lansing, Mich, BL ie 125 | Covington, Ky. ee i

855

Table 8 does not ìnclude al] those engaged in economic serv-

. Taare 7-—(Continued).

977,336| 22:4 430,597 | 83 2,005,449] 32°5 503,347 | 149 1,312,668!

21-9

131; and for the total pop., 87. A third nation-wide compilation of statistics of marriage and

analyzed to show ratios of divorce to marriage, but only the ratios

to population.

For the whole country the ratio of divorce was 112

per 100,000 population.

In New England the ratio was $0, Middle

Atlantic states 43, Southern states 59, and Pacific states 210. Of the divorces 31-14% were granted to the husband and 08:9% to the wife. Religious Bodies —For statistics of Christian churches, see the article CHURCH HIsToRY: section Unifed States. Statistics of mem-: bership in Jewish churches are unsatisfactory for purpose of com-

parison with other denominations, for they are restricted to heads.

UNITED

856

STATES TABLE 9. Annual Crops; in millions.

of families. In 1920, according to returns published in the Year Book of Churches by the Federal Council of Churches, there were

2,960 Jewish congregations with a membership of 260,000; 78: Sunday-schools woth membership of 108,534. These figures ae be compared with the report of the Bureau of Census which gives 1,901 congregations and 357,135 members for the year 1916. According to the American Jewish Year Book for 1920 there were in 1918 3,390,300 Jews as against 1,777,185 in 1907. According to the same authority nearly one-half, or 48-6 %, of the Jews resided in the state of New York in 1918, and 45% in New York City. It is estimated that 26% of the total pop. of New York City js Jewish. Between 1907 and 1918 the Jewish pop. of New York state increased from ince to 1,603,923; Pennsylvania, from 150,000 to 322,406; and llinois, from 110,000 to 246,637. It was also estimated that the Jewish pop. constituted about 3-2 % of the total pop. of the United States; in New York it was 15%; in Connecticut and Massachusetts 5% and in Maryland 4-5%. Jewish immigration 1899-1919 num-

bered 1,551,315, or 10-4% of the total number of immigrants.

A gricuiture.—During the decade 1910-20, the number of farms

showed a slight gain, 1-4%. In 1920 there were 6,448,343 a5 compared with 6,361,502 in 1910. A comparison of these numbers with the total pop. shows that in 1910 there was one farm for every 14 of the pop., and in 1920 one farm for every 16. The decrease in the number of farms was particularly marked in states east of the Mis-

sissippi; for example, in Connecticut 15-5 %; Massachusetts 13-4 %; New York 10:5 %; Ohio 5:6 %; and Ilinois 58%, In New England the number of farms decreased by 32,238, giving in 1920 one farm for every 47 persons. The total farm acreage increased somewhat more rapidly than the number of farms, from 878,798,325

955,883,715 ac., nearly 8-8%.

Pacific states. During the decade 1910-20 native white farmers increased from 4,721,063 to 4,917,386; foreign-born white farmers decreased from 669,556 to 581,068; coloured farmers increased

88), Austria (30,172), England (26,614), Denmark (25,565), Italy tig s6 ), Poland (17,352), Ireland (16,562), Holland (15,589), Finland (14,988), Switzerland (13,051), Mexico (12,142), Scotland (7,605), Hungary (7,122), France (6,119). he United States is an agricultural country, but the question is frequently asked whether agriculture is keeping pace with the growth

Average 1917-9

}Oats_

so

|

Average 1907-9

bushels

bushels

2,828,000,000 833,000,000

2,678,000,000 679,000,000

459,000,000

|

The annual production of cotton did not greatly change in the 10 years 1910-9, running about 11,000,000 bales (500 Ib.).. Domestic

consumption, however, slowly increased, leaving a smaller amount for export. During the five-year period, 1910-4, the average annual export was 8,811,000 bales, and in the five years 1915—), 6,310,000 bales, a decline of 28 per cent. The production of wool also remained fairly constant, approximating 300,000,000 Ib. annually. Imports in the years 1915-9 were greater than ever before and the total consumption therefore larger, as exports were insignificant. The average annual consumption, domestic and foreign, 1910-4, was 509,000,000 Ib., and 1915-9 690,000,000 Ib. Since 1914 the United

In 1916 the average farm value per bus for the first time

possessions

of the

Umited

States

Rye Barley

Rice

m s `

TE .

.

Po à ©

sw :

>

The outlying

Hawaii

and

The number of cattle on farms in 1920 Was 66,652,559, a8 com-

pared with 61,803,866 in 1910, This increase did not keep pace with the growth in population. The number of swine was 59,346,409 as compared with 58,185,676 in 1910, and again the increase was not in proportion to population. The number of sheep as cstimated by the Department of Agriculture in 1920 was 48,615,000 as

In 1919 the

| 15,076,000 Ib.

The Department of Agriculture in its Year Book of 1918 esti-

mates that 350,000,000 ac., or Nearly one-fifth of the land area of the United States, is too rough or hilly for the successful cultivation of crops. It may, however, be adapted to the growth of forests or used for prazing purposes.

Nearly one-third of the land area, or 600,000,-

000 ac., receives insufficient rainfall for the profitable production of 1910

Farm Value

Amount

Farm Value

91,326,000

$1,839,967 ,000

60,978,000

$747,769,000

88,478,000 165,719,000

119,041,000 200,419,000

34,897,000 173,832,000

24,953,000 100,426,000

78,091,000 41,059,000

the

seen in Table I0, ; In 1919 the production of apples was 26,174,000 bar., of which one state, Washington, yielded one-fourth (6,440,000 bar.). The ‘peach crop amounted to 50,690,000 bus. valued at a little over $100,000,000, In 1918 1,525,792 ac. were devoted to truck crops.

TABLE Io. Say and other Crops. 1919 Sweet potatoes (bus.)

Rico,

product of Wyoming was 33,415,000 lb.; Idaho, 22,145,000 lb.; Montana, 17,750,000 1lb.; Utah, 15,800,000 lb.; New Mexico,

_ Table 9 shows the estimated annual crop of some of the most important agricultural staples for each of the 10 years, 1910-9,

Hay (short tons)

(Porto

Philippine Is.) provide an amount of sugar approximately equal to that produced at home. This, however, does not meet the demands of domestic consumption, and the United States is still dependent upon foreign countries for half its needs. The annual per capita production of sugar was approximately 80 lb. in 1920 as compared

000 jb. as compared with 321,363,000 tb. in 1910.

856,000,000

Amount

In the years 1910-4

the average annual export was 125,000,000 bus., and in 1915-9, 240,000,000 bushels. The domestic beet-sugar industry during the 10 years 1910-9 became firmly established. Until 1907 the volume of beet-sugar roduction was less than that of cane sugar; in later years it has en far in excess, The production, in millions of pounds, was 1,775 in 1910 (cane 750, beet 1,025); 1,937 in 1915 (cane 493, beet

against 52,447,861 in 1910, The wool product in 1919 was 307,459,-

A comparison of these figures with the population at the respective dates shows that the per capita product of corn is slightly less, that of wheat and oats greater.

954 | 296 1,035] 290 1,062 | 286 1,153 | 288 1,249 1,439 1,372

with 7o Ib. in 1900. , The crops of hay, sweet potatoes, rye, barley, and rice, as cstimated by the Department of Agriculture for 1910 and 1919, are

The countries furnishing the greater

number of foreign-born farmers were, in 1920, Germany (140,667),

_

| | | | | |

1,444); and 2,091 in 1919 (cane 569, beet 1,522).

tenancy but there was a marked increase in the Mountain and

and oats gives the following :—

14°72 | 332 I©Ir | 410 | 11-2 | 360 | 1-4 ] 287 | 103 1 442 12:0 | 412 | 11:3 | 290

this provided bread for 25,000,000 people.

owned by their cultivators and in 1920 60-9%. In New England, New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania, there was a decline in

A comparison of the annual crop for the three-

(lb.)

11:6 | 349 | 1,103] 321 15°77 | 293 995 | 319 13°7 | 421 963 | 304

bushels. The average annual production for the five years 1910-4 was 697,000,000 bus., and in the succeeding five years 1915-9, 22,000,000, giving an average annual increase of 125,000,000; on the basis of an annual per capifa consumption of five bus.

I9IO to $66,000,000,000 in 1920, or 90%. This increase, however, was due largely to the abnormally high prices prevailing in 1920, rather than to new investments and improvement of property. For the same reason the average value of land and buildings per farm for the United States as a whole greatly increased, rising from $5,471 in 1910 to $10,284 in 1920. In 1910 62-1 % of farms were

year period 1907-9 with that for the period 1917-9 for corn, wheat,

1.122] T4] 1,549 1,252 11,593 1538] 1.088

Wool

lb.)

since the decade following the Civil War, was above $1. A record crop was produced in 1915, amounting to over a thousand million

increase in the number of farms, and of acreage in farms, the value

of the population.

1 2.447} 703] . 2,673] BOL] . | 2,995 | 1,026 | . {2,567| 636) . § 3,065] 637 - $2,503} 926] - 12,346] 945 |

635| 186| 621 22) 730 | 1.418]

. Ean

Strenuous efforts were made during the World War period, even before the entry of the United States, to increase the production of

Nearly one-third of the farm area and nearly

to 949,889.

IQI} 1914 I9Iš I9QI6 I9I7 1918 1919

wheat.

of all farms, lands and buildings increased from $35,000,000,000 in

920,883

. | 2,886} . | 2,531 a [3125

,tO8S IS a

one-half its wool consumption as compared with two-fifths, or even

one-sixth of the total land area is used for the growing of these five products. The average size of farms slightly increased between 1910-20, from 138-1 ac. to 148-2 acres. Notwithstanding the small

from

‘ot. | irish e pota-

only one-third in the earlier years of the century.

ooo ac. included in farms, 88,000,000 in 1919 was devoted to corn: 73,000,000 to wheat; 73,000,000 to hay; 38,000,000 to oats: and

Sweden (60,461), Norway (51,999), Canada (48,688), Russia (32,-

I9IO . IQI ., IQI? .

. . . . .

Oats

States has been dependent upon foreign countries for more than

ac. to

The greater portion of this increase

was due to the use of land for dry farming in the arid states of the Rocky Mountain section and also to the enclosure of large areas for grazing. In 1919 there were 507,000,000 ac. under cultivation. One half of the total land area of the United States was in 1920 included in farms, as compared with 46 2% in 1910. Of the 956,000,33,000,000 to cotton.

; Corn | Wheat}

(bus.) | (bus.) | (bus.) (bales}{ aa hea ea a

124,844,000 109,613,000

59,938,000 24,510,000

40,216,000 16,624,000

UNITED

STATES

that in farms, could be used for crops after clearing. This, if divided into farms averaging 160 ac., would provide 1,250,000 farms, or an addition of about 20% to the number of farms in the country. Moreover, 60,000,000 ac. of swamp land can be drained, and 30,000,-

000 ac. of potentially irrigable land can be converted into farms if available sources of water supply arc fully utilized. In all there are about 850,000,000 ac. of land at present in crops and potentially available. A little over 1,000,000,000 ac. of non-arable land consist of 360,000,000 ac. of absolute forest land, 615,000,000 ac. of grazing land, 40,000,000 ac. desert land and 40,000,000 ac. in cities,

toads and railway rights of way.

It is also estimated that 360,000,-

ooo ac. of forests will not be sufficient to supply a population of

150,000,000, bur that 450,000,000 ac. will be needed for that number. To provide food, therefore, more intensive methods of farm-

ing will be required. For corn the average yield per ac. in the five

years 1900-4 was 24:2 bus., and in 1915-9, 26:3 bushels. The yields for wheat were 13-4 and 14:3 bus.; for oats 31 and 33-7 bus.; and for barley 25-7 and 25-6 bus., respectively, for the two periods, (See also the section Agriculture.)

Manufactures —A census of manufactures was taken for 1914 and another for 1919. The results of the latter had not been fully pub-

lished by Jan. 1922. The manufacturing industries as a whole did Not increase so rapidly in the five-year period 1909-14 as in the previous five years, but showed great increase in the next five, ending in 1919 (preliminary figures). This is seen frorn Table II. TABLE 1%.

Manufactures,

Estab- | Wage-

lishments|

Value of

earners

products

6,615,046

5,408,383

$14,793,903,000 20,672,052,000 | 8,529,261,000

7:036,337 9,103,200

24,246,435,000 | 9,873,346,000

1919

275,791 288,376

24-0%

21-0% 6-4 %0

19049

1909-14

28%

U9

35:53%

.

atk

.

17,498,664

factures.

.

products.

:

.

Leather and its finished

o

ae

Paper and printing . Liquors and beverages Chemicals . and allied products.

Stone,

clay

;

and

products.

ucts

other

and steel

1,026,553]

4,282]

3,579

833,529|

911,593}

1,723]

1,570

307,060]

309,766

743

All industries

.

415,990/ 77,827)

1,433 1,016

1,134 74

267,261 | 3,034]

2,167

.

262,154]

249,607]

1,014

867

178,872}

166,810

304

246

à

.

659

452,900] 38,152

334,702 | 342,827

987

858

>

263,076]

.

594,465]

. f 365,902/

202,719

304,592

803

52I

418

277

036,337 | 6,615.0 6 | 22.791

18,428

489,480]

2,048 | 1,490

The industrial group having the largest number of wage-earners

in 1914 was the textile, but the iron and steel was first in capital invested; although. the chemicals and allied products group had only 4% of the wage-earners, it was credited with 13 % of the total

‘capital; leather and its finished products, which employed 4% of the wage-earners, had less than 4% of the capital. Table 13 shows the distribution of manufactures in t909 and 1914

by the three

16-2 20°8 24'7

In 1914 the North manufactured 81-2 % of the product according to value; the South,

12-38%; and the West, 59%.

New

York

retained in 1914 frst place among the states in manufactures, pro-

ducing 15:7 % of the total value of the

second with 11-7 %, followed by Ohio and

product; Pennsylvania was

Massachusetts.

Manufac-

turing establishments as a rule are in large cities. In 1914 cities with a pop. of 100,000 and over, having 24% of the total pop., had 40%

of the wagc-earners who manufactured 43 % of the value of the total

production. Ten cities, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, st. Louis, Cleveland, Boston, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Milwaukee, with a combined pop. of approximately 13,473,000, or nearly 14% of the total pop., manufactured 25% of the total product value. Districts outside cities having a pop. of 10,000 or over and having

factured only 30% of the total production.

Some manufacturing

industries tend toward local concentration: for example in 1914,

products of the automobile industry in the United States; Massachusetts 43 % of the boot and shoe industry; Connecticut 43% of brass,

product an increase of nearly 160% over 1914. This remarkable gain 1s far in excess of that of any previous five-year or even that of

any 10-year period. Table 14 shows the specife industries, which in 1919 manufactured a product valued at more than $500,000,000. Complete data were not yet available in Jan. 1922 to show how

how far due to greater volume of production. To illustrate this distinction the following figures are taken from the preliminary bulletins of the Bureau of Census, to show quantity production in 1914 and 1919 with respective values at each date. In the silk industry there was manufactured in 1914 242,000,000 yd. of broad silk, and in 1919, 307,000,000 yd.; the value more than trebled in the period,

from $137,720,000 to $435,935,000.

Pig-iron production increased

in quantity from 23,269,000 tons to 30,543,000 tons, or 31%, and

in value 151%; coke from 22,788,000 tons to 30,097,000 tons and

in value more than doubled, from $304,234,000 to $770,101,000;

window glass decreased in quantity from 401,000,000 sq.ft. to 369,000,000 sq.ft., but the value more than doubled, increasing

from $17,496,000 _to $41,106,000. Qil-cloth and linoleum also decreased in quantity from 127,038,000 sq.yd. to 125,448,000 sq.yd., but increased in value from $25,598,000 to $68,110,000. Fertilizers decreased in quantity from 8,432,000 tons to 8,291,000 tons, but gained in value from $153,000,000 to $280,000,000. In quantity, sole leather increased from 18,075,500 sides to 19,715,800 sides,

and in value from $116,188 00 to $218,830,000.

In foad products

lard increased in quantity from 1,119,189,000 Ib. to 1,372,550,000

Ib., and in value more than trebled, $120,414,000 to $415,817,000;

condensed and evaporated milk increased from 884,647,000 lb. to

Vehicles for land trans- portation

1,697

2,811 | 2,488

299,569]

.

Railway repair shops

1909

2,174}

Se

Tobacco manufactures

Miscellancous

1914

.

than iron

.

1909 413,575}

;

Metals and metal prod-

2,637 1,208!

far the increases shown in Table 14 were due to higher prices and Capital in mil-

: lions of dollars

be?

glass

.

3,186} 1,505]

Preliminary figures for the census of 1919 showed for value of

11,438,446)

tron and steel and their products. . . . | 1,061,058] Lumber and its remanu-

2,502| 1,197/

and 59% of leather gloves and mittens,

15:8%

TABLE 12. Groups of Industries.

ucts.

3,046] 1,623)

California 25% of canning and preserving products; Illinois 40%

wage-earncrs and capital invested.

Textiles and their prod-

1,161 ,660|1,129,307| 316,628; 288,601)

clothing, 73% of women’s clothing, 96% of men’s collars and cuffs,

classification of the Bureau of Census, Table 12 shows numbers of

1914

- |5,558,049]/5,197,138]18,122/14,278]19,555/16,827

Increase

39-7 vo 17:3%

Food and kindred products | 496,234!

1914 | 1909

bronze and copper products, and 62 % of fire-arms and ammunition;

Arranged by the 14 general groups of industries according to the

Group

1914 | 1909 | 1914 | 1909

Per cent ins crease

of the agricultural implement industry; New York 43% of men's

159-0 A

JageWage-carners

of dollars)

vin

62,910,202,000

50% | 294%%

of dollars)

Section

North South West

Value of roduct millions

measured by value of product, Michigan produced 62-9% of all the

268,491

Increase

(millions

61 % of the total pop., had only 33 % of the wage-earners, and manu-

216,180

Increase

Capital

earners

ture $6,293,695,000

by manufac-

1909

Increase

No. of wage-

Value added

1904 I9I4

857 TABLE 13. Geography of Industries.

crops at normal prices and affords no possibility of irrigation. A total of 40,000,000 ac. is absolute desert. Jt is estimated that 200,000,000 ac. of forest, “cut-over” land, and woodland including

geographic

divisions—North

(New England,

Middle Atlantic, and East and West North Central states), South (South Atlantic, and East and West South Central states), and

West (Mountain and Pacific states),

2,096,973,000 ]b., and in value from $59,375,000 to $293,569,000; beet sugar decreased in quantity from 1,4%6,948,000 tb. to 1,426,890,000 Ib., but increased in value from $58,590,000 to $138,100,900; cleaned rice increased in quantity from 674,872,000 lb. to 1,062,813,000 Ib. and in value from $21,655,000 to $83,462,000; wheat flour increased from 116,403,770 bar. to 132,478,513 bar. and in value from $543,840,000 to $1,436,589,000. The growing demand for automobiles greatly expanded not only their manufacture but also the reGning of petroleum, and the mbber industry. The number of passenger cars manufactured in 1919 was 1,657,000 as compared with 569,000 in 1914 for alt motor vehicles. The petroleum refining industry showed a phenomenal development. The out-

put of gasoline increased in five years from 1,195,000,000 gal. to 3,637,000,000 gallons. The increase in quantity was 204% and in value 540%. In 1919 the refineries used 358,000,000 bar. of crude petroleum of which 38,000,000 was of foreign origin and 320,000,000 domestic. The manufacture of rubber goods greatly expanded, Two-thirds of the value in 1919 was represented by tires. The maximum production of lumber was reached in 1908, 42,000,000,000

ft.; in 1918 i¢ was 32,000,000,000 [t., the decline being due to the

UNITED

858

TABLE 14. Individual Industries; dollars in millions.

191g | 1914 Automobile bodies and parts Automobiles w a Boots and shoes . 3.22.0

ao A,

i ot

Bread and other bakery products

Butter

.

z

S

jpa

Be a

,

74

418

593 502

373

Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam railway companies. ars, steam railway, not including

ae .

Clothing, women's .

Set .

is «

+

.

Confectionery and ice cream. Cotton goods . . . .«.

Electrical machinery, supplies.

apparatus

;

-

S

E

.

.

129

186

140 149

operations of railway companies

Chemicals. el Clothing, men’s

(128 in Toro). Lead increased in value from $30,855,000 in 19!0

Per cent. increase

130

492

176 242

.

.

gd. -

»

*

,

and

.

`

about one-sixth for heating homes and other buildings, (See Coat.) The mining of copper does not follow a regular ascending curve of production, It reached the high point in 1906, 400,735 long tons; declined in 1907; rose to 487,925 tons in 1909; again declined in 1910; rose to 555,031 tons in 1912; fell to 513,454 in 1914; and, again advanced to 860,648 tons in 1916. In 1916 more than onethird was produced in Arizona, which has become the principal producing state. In the same year it was estimated by The Mineral

X

industry

Rubber goods, not elsewhere specified.

ose

te

WE

wt ”

.

.

Worsted goods.

2

a

During

1,434 44 289 315 276

average production was 33,000,000 bar.; in 1916 it reached 95,000,-

The production of tin plates, terne plates, and taggers

tin showed a steady development; in rọ1o the production amounted

to 1,370,788,000 Ib. and in 1919 to 3,301,624,000 lb. An export trade was developed, the export of domestic product rising from 26,168,000 Ib. to 527,462,000 1b.; import of this product has practically disappeared.

The cost of new buildings in the principal cities is estimated by

the U.S. Geological Survey as follows:— 1910, $726,437,0003 1911,

$687,507,000; 1912, $738,990,000; 1913, $673,221,000; 1914, $619,752,000; 1915, $700,413,000; 1916, $839,706,000; 1917, $569,011,000; 1919, $1,019,491,000.

production

was

1,373,200

long tons.

1908-19 the production in California more than doubled;

new oil-ficlds were opened. The total production in 1920 was 443 million barrels, as against 281 millions in 1915 and 179 millions in

sible. Portland cement is manufactured in larger amounts and has a wide use in the building industry. During the years 1900-9 the

1918, $344,622,000;

the world’s

in Texas trebled; in Oklahoma more than doubled; in Wyoming

fact that readily available timber was becoming Jess and less acces-

ooo barrels.

that

After 1916 there was a marked decline in production. (See COPPER.) The increased demand for gasoline for automobiles raised the price and led to vigorous efforts to discover new supplies of petroleum.

Shipbuilding, steel. . . . Silk goods. ae a slauphterng and meat-packing, whole-

Aden

tons cent. short esti-

employed industrially, as coke, gas, and coal-tar products; and

a

Sugar, refining, not including beet SURAK ore i ao aes Seton my: Da Tobacco, cigars and cigarcttes . .

profitable ore deposits might be

for no increase in annual rate of

The ore deposits being worked in 1921 were for the

mate of the Geological Survey), a gain of 52 per cent. About two-

Paper and wood pulp . . a Petroleum rehning. . . . . Printing and publishing, book and job. Printing and publishing, newspapers and periodicals a” ar , ate, 28

sale

According to this estimate the

thirds of the coal consumed goes into the production of power; about equally divided between the industries and transportation; about one-sixth is used as a raw material, for making products

Lumber, planing-mil! products, not including planing-mills connected with

Smelting and refining, copper

this was manufactured into 39,054,644 tons of pig-iron. More than half of the iron ore produced is mined in Minnesota amounting to 43,263,240 tons, followed by Michigan 17,587,416 tons; Alabama mined 6,121,087 tons. Jn 1912 the National Conservation Commission estimated the total supply of iron ore profitable to mine at 4,784,939,000 long tons, and 75,000,000,000 tons not worth mining.

IRON AND STEEL.) The production of anthracite coal in 1910 was 75,433,246 (of 2,240 Ib.); in 1919 78,653,751 tons, an increase of 4 per The bituminous coal production in I910 was 417,111,142 tons as compared with 459,971,070 tons in 1919 (preliminary

.

Leather, tanned, curried and finished . Lumber and timber products : .

..

The production of iron ore increased from 56,889,744 long tons in igio to a maximum record of 77,870,553 tons in 1916. In 1918 the production was slightly less, 72,021,202 tons. In the latter year

most part on the surface in the region of the Great Lakes. (See

a;

. . . . ; blast furnaces er steel works and rolling: ae aaa “e 8 a 0 e a a

v

Platinum had a remarkable development, the product increasing from 8,665 oz., valued at $478,688, in 1915 to 59.753 02, valued at 56,417,980, in 1918.

production.

Foundry and machine-shop products .

saw-mills . . . Oil and cake, cottonseed

to $76,667,000 in 1918; zinc from $27,268,000 to $89,618,000; aluminum from $8,956,000 to $41,159,000; natural gas from $70,756,000 to $157,000,000; and cement from $68,752,000 to $11 3,555,000,

exhausted in 60 years, allowing

.

Flour-mill and grist-mill products Food preparations not elsewhere speciFurniture. Iron and steel, Iron and steel, mills . Knit goods

STATES

The figures show that,

1908. For details see PETROLEUM. The Director of the U.S. Geological Survey estimated in 1920 that the country's oil resources

were over 40% exhausted, and that the supply at the existing rate of consumption would be exhausted within 20 years (see FUEL). Between 1908 and 1916, when active exploration was carried on, the reserve was enlarged by only 1,200 million barrels. Attention has been turned to the possibility of extracting petroleum from the

_ oil shales of Utah, Colorado and Wyoming. The volume of natural gas produced has risen steadily since the beginning of the century. In 1910 the production was 509,000 million cub. ft., and in 1919, 3,726,000 million cubic feet. Natural gas is found in 23 states, but chiefly in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Oklahoma, and California. Some 2,100 cities and towns are supplied. One-third is used for domestic purposes and two-thirds

for industrial plants. The production in 1910 and 1918 is shown in Table 15. The average value in 1910 was 13-9 cents per 1,000 {t. giving a total value of the product, $70,800,000; in 1918, 21-3 cents per 1,000 ft. and $154,000,000 total value. About 15,444,000

ac, of land were controlled by natural gas producers in 1917,

Tape 15. Natural Gas Production; in million cub. ft.

although the war checked building, the total value of the buildings

constructed in 1919 was much greater than in any preceding year: the cost for 1919 was swollen by high prices and does not accurately represent the volume of new building, measured by physical units. After 1909 there was but a slight increase in the number of manu-

facturing establishments, notwithstanding the gain in the number of wage-earners and value of product. In 1914 there were 275,791

establishments, with 7,036,337 wage-earners, and products valued at $24,246,000,000, or $87,916 per establishment; in 1919, 288,376 | establishments with $62,588,000,000, or $217,000 per establishment. In 1914, 2,476,006 wage-earners, or more than one-third

(35:2 %), were in 3,819 establishments, an average of nearly 650

West Virginia . 4. Pennsylvania... New York . : Ohio . . sng A Louisiana and Texas . Illinois. . Oklahoma . Kansas , w California Other states

% .

‘a .

E

'

.

workers per establishment; nearly one-half (48-6°) of the. value

of the product was manufactured in tbis small group of establishments.

Of the 8,263,153 persons engaged in manufactures in 1914,

6,613,466, or 80%, were males, and 1,649,687, or 20°, were females,

Minerals.—The value of mineral products, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey, increased from $1,992,406,000 in IgTO to $5,543.456,000 in 1918. Nearly three-fourths was represented in 1918 by five products, as follows (in millions of dollars) :—pig-iron 1,181 (412 in 1910); bituminous coal 1.492 (469 in 1910); anthra' cite 330 (160 in 1910); copper 471 (137 in 1910); petroleum 704

The production of gold reached its maximum in 1915, valued at

$101,035,700; during the war it declined owing to advancing prices of materials and labour and the decreased purchasing power of gold (see GOLD). In 1919 the production was valued at $58,488,800, less than in any year since 1897. California furnished $17,398,000;

Colorado $9,736,400; Alaska $9,036,000. Silver likewise reached its maximum in I915, amounting to 74,961,075 fine Troy oz.,

valued at $37,397,300.

In 1919 the bullion produced was less,

850

UNITED STATES 55,285,196 oz., but owing to the high price the production was Montana and Utah seemed to be forging worth $61,966,412. ahead as the great silver-producing states, Nevada remaining stationary. Pheri ceeding, to an estimate made by the Bureau ofFisheries the annual s fishery product during the decade 1910-9 amounted to 2,500,000,000 lb., for which about $80,000,000 was paid to the fishermen. The industry employs about 200,000 persons. The total quantity of fish landed at Boston and Gloucester, Mass., and Portland, Me., the three principal fishing ports in New England, amounted in 1919 to 196,481,000 lb, having a value to the fishermen of $7,548,000. Cod represented $2,332,000 and haddock $2,788,000. The product of the fisheries of the Great Lakes in 1917 was 104,269,000 lb., valued at $6,295,000. One-half of the product, 53,529,000 !b., was ciscoes (whitefish). The product of the fisheries of the Gulf states in 1918 was 130,924,000 lb., valued at $6,510,000. The principal preducts were: mullet, 28,641,000 lb.; shrimp, 27,143,-

ooo lb.; and oysters, 23,754,000 Ib. At Seattle, Wash., the fishing fleet landed in 1919 13,631,000 lb., valued at $1,530,000. The principal product was halibut. The total catch of salmon and steelhead trout on the Pacific coast in 1919 including Alaska was 767,000,000 pounds. It is estimated that the annual yield of oysters for the whole United States is about 30,000,000 bus. giving a return to the fishermen of nearly $15,000,000. About one-sixth, 5,942,000 bus., come from the New England coast, and over one-half, 18,906,000 bus., from the coast of the Middle Atlantic states.

Preduction.—Professor Edmund E. Day of Harvard has made an ingenious statistical study of the physical volume of production in

the

United

States

for the period

1888-1919,

published

in

The

Review of Economic Statistics (Harvard University, Sept. 1920Jan. 1921}. His conclusions are shown in Table 16, With 1899 as the base (100) index numbers for subsequent years were calculated for agriculture, representing 12 important crops; for mining, representing 10 minerals; and for manufacturing, representing 12 groups,

covering 34 branches of manufacture. The indices for pop. are added in order to compare the growth of production.

TABLE 16, Index Numbers of Production. Population

Agriculture | Mining

TABLE 17. Foreign Trade; in millions of dollars. Exports

Imports 1,557 1,527 1,653

1,745 2,049 2,204 2,466

1,813 1,894

2,305

1,674

2,769

2,198 2,659 2,945 3 :

4,333

6,290 51920 7:920 8,228

|

Excess 188 522 55E 653 471 1,094 2,136 3,631 2,974

-adverse balances ranging from $121,000,000 in 1911 to $408,000,000 in 1918.

The figures given here relate tọ values of exports and`

imports, and do not, even approximately, reflect the changes in the physical volume of foreign commerce. For some of the commodities recorded in official statistics of exports and imports it is possible to

give quantities as well as values; for others only values. In order to illustrate the influence of prices on abnormal valucs of commodities entering into foreign trade, quantities are given in Table 18 of exports for five commodities: wheat, cotton, bacon, mineral oil and tobacco; for other principal commodities only values are stated.

It will be observed from Table’ 18 that the quantity of wheat

increased six times, while the value increased nearly fifteen times,

and the quantity of cotton was less in 1919 than in 1910, but its value more than doubled. High prices also influenced imports, as scen in Table 19. The quantity of coffee imported increased a little over 50%, while the value more than trebled; and the quantity of sugar 67%, but its value 245 %.

The enormous excess of exports of merchandise over imports, which began to be so marked in 1915, resulted in unprecedented gold transfers to the United States. In 1916 the import of gold exceeded the export by $403,760,000, and in Ig19 by $685,255,000. Thus in two years the gold holdings were increased by $1,089,000,000.

In the years 1918-9 $366,000,000 of this gold was exported, leaving

a net additional balance of $723,000,000.

Manufac-

This was in large part

reflected in the increase of gold money in circulation, which rose from $590,000,000 in 1915 to $1,112,000,000 in 1919. Railways and Canals.—There was but little new railway construction in the years 1910—21, In the five years 1915-9 less than 5,000 m. of new railway was built, not as much as was constructed in one year in the period 1902-7. In 1919 the miles of track in opera-

tion were 253,350 as compared with 242,107 in Ig10, a gain of less than 5 per cent. The railways, however, did more work. Passenger-miles increased from 32,338 millions in I910 to 39,477 millions in 1917, of 22%, and freight-ton-miles from 255,017 muillions in 1910 to 394,465 millions in 1917, or 54 per cent, The average tons per freight train increased from 380 to 597. In 1917 1,264 million tons of freight (excluding duplications) were moved by the railways as against 068 millionsin 1910. More than one-half of the

tonnage carried was the products largest item. The average number rose from 56 to 65. The number of slightly, from 1,699,420 in 1910 to

of mines, coal being by far the of passengers carried per train railway employees increased but 1,833,732 in 1917. Electric rail-

ways, mostly used for passenger service, have been extended more

rapidiy than steam railways. In 1907 there were 25,547 m. of electric line and in 1917, 32,548. The number of employees rose from

Table 16 shows that the physical volume of agricultural production has closely followed the growth of population. As Prof. Day points out, “ Mining output, on the other hand, completely outdistanced population growth. Since 1897 the development of min-

ing has been phenomenal... . Crops are an annual harvest from a soil the fertility of which scientific cultivation carefully preserves; mineral production is a continuing exhaustion of irreplaceable natural deposit. Mining typically lives upon its capital; agriculture upon its income. The rate of production in mining is consequently open to an acceleration which in agriculture is altogcther impossible. . . .The fluctuations of manufacturing output appear to be much more cyclical than the variations in agricultural

production.

In general the fluctuations of production in manufac-

ture resemble closely those in mining.” Commerce,

Foreign and Domestic.—Extraordinary

movements

in

foreign commerce, due to the World War, began with 1915. During the years 1900-9, inclusive, the excess of exports over imports of merchandise varied in value from a maximum of $666,000,000 in 1908 to a minimum of $351,000,000 in 1909. Beginning with 1915 the annual excess was over a thousand million dollars, reaching in 1919, $4,016,000,000. Table 17 shows the movement by years, and the excess of exports over imports in each year. The excess of

exports over imports in trade with European countries was even greater than the balance from total trade with all countries, amount-

Ing in I919 to $4,437,000,000. Trade with South America uniformly showed an excess of imports over exports, ranging from $66,000,000 in I91I to $308,000,000 in 1918; and trade with Asia also gave

221,429 to 294,826 and the number of revenue passengers from 7,441 millions to 11,305 millions. (Sec RAILWAYS.) n 1916 the Bureau of Census made a study of transportation by water. According to this report the tonnage employed on the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence river in I916 was 2,737,491 tons as compared with 2,392,863 tons in 1906, a gain of 14-4 per cent. The freight carried was 125,384,000 tons as against 75,610,000

tons in 1906, a gain of 65:8 per cent. Of this, 73,000,000 tons was iron ore, 30,000,000 tons coal, and 6,000,000 tons grain. The freight handled by the Lakes ficet represented nearly one-half, 48-6%,- of the water-borne freight shipments reported for the United States as a whole in 1916 as against 42-6 °% in 1906. Tonnage on the Mississippi river and tributaries declined greatly, from 4,412,000 tons in 1906 to 1,621,000 tons in 1916. Vessels operating on canals declined both in number and in tonnage. In 1906 the number of such vessels was 2,140 with a tonnage of 259,491; in 196 the number was 2,049 with a tonnage of 196,426. The decline

was on the canals of New York state, where the tonnage dropped from 209,152 tons in 1906 to 115,290 in 1916, showing that the efforts to develop canal transportation in that state had not been

successful. The freight carried on the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, connecting lakes Superior and Huron, fluctuated during the decade 1910-9, between 53,477,000 tons in I91I and 91,888,000 tons in 1915; in 1919 it was 68,236,000 tons.

Mails, Telephone and Telegraph.—Postal statistics show a slight extension of post routes, exclusive of rural delivery routes, from 435,488 m. in 1910 to 455,498 m. in 1919; the number of city carriers from 29,168 to 35,024; the mileage of rural delivery service from 993,068 to 1,143,467; and the number employed in railway

mail service from 16,795 to 19,683.

The telephone was rapidly

UNITED STATES

860

TABLE 18, Exports of Principal Commodilies, 1910-9.

Ing

factured

Mineral Oil

manuf Wheat Flour

Tobacco, unmanu-

steel and Cotton manuf, Iron Automobiles and and engines includin parts, nottires

of manuf. Leather, and

Dol- | Gal-

DolJars

lons (mil.)

1,769 1,883 2,137 2,240 2,329 2,607 2,651

123-1 316-0

2,715 2,493

“ti

T

Sn nS

& wh

mu on

of oils pressed Wood, andmanuf. Vegetable ex-

-_

——

Uf} vr

30°6 44°5 50:7 491

44°8

se wow CA T3 COC ae > fj NRO D4

65°5 95:8 1144 81-8

extended. In 1917 there were 78,827,000 m. of single wire in this service as compared with 12,999,000 in 1907. ‘The number of employees nearly doubled during this period, increasing from

mJ Sw on DE

oO ts Oh hk t d "i

A notable change has taken place in the nationality of shipping entering and clearing from American seaports.

Until 1916 the ton-

graph systems made but little extension between 1907 and 1917. in the former year there were 239,646 m. of pole line and in the latter year 241,012. The number of messages sent increased over

nage of vessels sailing under foreign flags for many years Was approximatcly three times as great as that under U.S. registry; in 1920 U.S. tonnage (26,242,332) equalled foreign tonnage (26,178,328). The total tonnage of vessels entering at all ports from foreign countries increased from 40,235,800 tons in I910 to 52,420,600 tons in 1920, and the tonnage cleared from 39,705,900 tons to 56,072,300 tons, The tonnage of British shipping entering at seaports of the United States fell from a maximum of 20,416,000 tons in 1914 to 11,237,000 tons in 1919. German tonnage entering in 1915 was 5,035,000 tons, and in the years 1916-9 was practically nil. National Wealth.—I\n 1912 the Bureau of Census made an estimate of the wealth of the United States shown in Table 20, amount-

in the Jatter year 9,211,295.

ing to $187,700,000,000., This gave an average of $1,965 for each person as compared with $1,165 in 1900. More than one-half the wealth consisted of real

144,000 to 244,000. The Rell telephone system operated in 1919 23,281,000 m. of wire, of which 3,334,000 was for long-distance toll service. The number of daily exchange messages of this system

alone was 30 millions and of toll messages one million.

The tele-

50%, from 101 millions to 155 millions; and the number of employees from 26,827 to 49,608. (See TELEGRAPH and TELEPHONE.) The automobile became an important factor in terminal transportation. Motor-car registration increased nine times between 1912 and 1920, numbering (not allowing for duplicate registration)

This represents a motor car for approxi-

mately every 11 of the population. (See Motor VEHICLES.) Shipping —Owing to the great activity in shipbuilding during the World War the tonnage of the American merchant marine showed a marked increase between 1910 and 1919, rising fron’ 7,508,100 tons in 1910 to 16,324,000 tons in 1920. Nearly onefifth, or 3,138,700 tons, was employed on the Great Lakes. The

tonnage on the western rivers continued to decline, being only 120,230 tons in 1920. Sailing vessels decreased both in number and tonnage, and steam vessels declined in number from 12,452 to 8,103,

but increased in size,

The average tonnage of a steam vessel in

1910 was 394 tons, and in 1919, 1,359 tons. During the five years, 1910-4, the tonnage of new steam vessels built was 1,106,000 tons; and in the next five years ending in 1919, 4,948,400 tons, or more than four times as much. In 1920 new construction amounted to

880,639

tons.

American

ranches of trade: coastwise

shipping is engaged trade between

in two

domestic

distinct

points, and

foreign trade. The tonnage in foreign trade increased from 1,076,152 tons in 1914 to 9,928,595 tons in 1920. Coasting tonnage remained about the same. It is estimated that the new tonnage, constructed under the emergency of the war, represented an expenditure of $3,000,000,000,

a sum

world’s merchant

(See SHIPPING.)

greater

than

the

book

value

of all the

shipping in 1914, aggregating 49,000,000

tons.

estate and improvement, largely due to the increase in value of urban real estate. In 1916 the value of taxable real estate in New York City alone was nearly $8,000,000,a00. Unofficial estimates of the national wealth have been made by statistical experts for dates later than 1912. That of W. R. Ingalls,

of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, published in the Annalist, Sept. 13 1920, gives $216,600,000,000 for the year 1916. Other estimates runas high as $400,000,000,000. These figures, however, have little significance as evidence of domestic welfare. High prices increased appraised valuation; and high valuation, e.g. of real estate, may be a burden upon the productive efforts of the community.

The income-tax

Internal

Revenue

statistics published

throw

by the Commissioner

light upon the distribution

of

of wealth,

In 1918 the number of personal income-tax returns was 4,425,114.

The net income reported was $15,924,639,000; the tax collected on this income was $1,127,722,000; 34-3°% of those making returns reported an income of irom $1,000 to $2,000; 33-8% an income of $2,000 to $3,000; 21-1 °% an income from $3,000 to $5,000; and 7:2% an income of from $5,000 to $10,000. Incomes of $1,000,000 or more were reported by. 67 persons. Of the total tax, New York state paid $354,000,000, or 31'4%; Pennsylvania, $138,000,000, or

12-2%; Illinois, $85,000,000, or 7°5%; and

Massachusetts paid

UNITED

STATES

861

cities over 30,000 $1,202,324,000.

TABLE 20. National Wealth, 1012.

Of the $635,000,000 representing

the cost of state Governments, 543,000,000 was devoted to current

expenses of the general departments, the balance representing pay-

Items of Wealth

Total Per of cent

dollars) oí lions Total Value (inthousands milof Real property and improvenients . Live stock gas e es a Farm implements and machinery, etc...

a9No

-_ Lan

machinery, tools and implements . . Gold and silver coin and bullion Railway and equipment including

Telegraphs

>

Telephones. Boim Shipping and canals,

Irrigation enterprises

ie

0.

>”

a

Y

G

Lå .

$81,000,000, or 7:2°%.

ments; 238 millions was expended for schools, 72 millions for highways; 61 millions for sanitation, 65 millions for fire departments,

t

81 millions for police departments,

NDA RA Pi a

fe CNet SE iy m O a OR UEGo GN

Ean

Lan]

ew OK ~I

»

008] 63 un 19

a xe

Total

Of the total governmental-cost payments for cities having a pop. of over 30,000, 754 millions was for current expenses of general depart-

An

Privately owned waterworks . ; Privately owned electric light anc

power stations a a ee Agricultural products . . .Manufactured products . ; Imported products . . à à% Mining products . . . . Clothing and personal adornments. Furniture., carriages, etc..

Federal Government amounting to $24,331,000,000, or $232.95 per capita, and for cities having a pop. of over 30,000, $2,698,000,000.



Manufacturing

Pullman and private cars Street railways...

ments for outlays and interest on state debts. Of the $543,000,000 for general departmental services, $183,000,00@ was expended for schools, $134,000,000 for charities, hospitals and corrections, and $62,000,000 for highways. The revenue receipts of states were Amount $675,000,000, of which $237,000,000 came from the gencral propPer Capita erty tax; $104,000,000 from special property taxes, as $46,000,000 inheritance tax, and $43,000,000 corporation stock taxes; $123,000,000 was derived from business taxes; and $48,000,000 from licences other than business, for the most part Irom the use of motor vehicles, eH r oun The net indebtedness of states in I919 was $320,000,000 or 84.95 or © per capita, With this may be compared the net indebtedness of the

AARE N S

Of the personal income, 73% was from per-

sonal service and 27% from property.

Corporations reported a net

income of $8,362,000,000, of which those connected with metals and

metal products returned $2,053,000,000 and those connected with transportation and other public utilities $1,054,000,000. The income, war profits and excess-profits taxes from corporations amounted to $3,159,000,000 of which those connected with metals

and metal products paid 31°76 %, or $1,003,000,000. (See INCOME Tax and Excess Prorits Tax.) Public Finance.—The two main sources of Federal revenue are customs duties and internal revcnue dutics, Revenue from customs although nearly as large in 1920 as in 1910 was relatively unimportant; in 1910 it yielded $333,683,000 as compared with $289,934,000 from internal revenue. After that year internal revenue was the larger. Receipts were as follows :—

.

Customs

Internal Revenue

8333,683,000

$ 289,934,000

a

314,497,000 311,322, 318,891,000

.

292,320,000

* a

. . . . ,

386,875,000

380,456,000

405,120,000

209,787,000

442,350,000 415,670,000

182,759,000

3,696,043,000

213,186,000 225,962,000

183,429,000

323

000

512,702,000 809,366,000

3,840,23 1,000

tax was increased, and excess-profits tax added. The income from these two sources was, in 1918, $2,839,028,000; in 1919, $2,600,784,000; and in 1920, $3,958,000,000. Transportation taxes in 1919

yielded $238,000,000. Tobacco duties yielded in 1910 $58,118,000 and in 1919 §206,003,000; spirits and fermented liquors in 1910, $209,000,000 and in 1918, $483,000,000,

Army.—On June 30 1920 the enlisted strength of the army was

composed of 15,45k officers and 184,904 men, making a total of 200,355. Of the total 149,869 were on duty in the United States, 19,319 in the Philippine Department, 4,519 in Hawaii, and the remainder were scattered in China, Panama, Alaska, Porto Rico,

and Siberia, with the U.S. army in Europe, and at sea.

The total ordinary receipts

in I910 were $675,512,000, or 87.48 per capita, and in 1919 $4,647,604,000, or $43.79 per capita. Total ordinary expenditures increased from $660,000,000 in 1910 to $15,365,000,000 in 1919, a per capita increase from $7.30 to $144.77. Expenditures for the War Department increased from $158,000,000 in 1910 to $9,273,000,000 in 1919;

for the Navy Department from $124,000,000 to $2,019,000,000. The interest on the public debt increased from $24,742,000 in 1917

to $1,024,024,000 in 1920. Until 1917 the net public debt remained fairly stationary for many years. In 1916 it was about $1,000,000,000; in 1917 it rose to $1,909,000,000; in 1918 §10,924,000,000, and in 1919 $24,331,000,000. For the Fourth Liberty Loan, the subscriptions were $6,959,000,000 from 22,777,680 subscribers, or 21-9 %

of the total population. Of the subscriptions 53% were for $50, the total in this class making 10% of the total amount subscribed. The net cost of government, distinguishing between the United States, states, and cities having a pep. of over 30,000, as tabulated by the Bureau of Census for 1919, was:—United States, $15,740,133,000 ($149.78 per capita); states, $635,370,000 ($6.05 per capita);

By branches

of service the army was composed of Infantry, 52,560; Cavalry, 16,777; Coast Artillery, 16,145; Field Artillery, 15,757; Air Service, 9,358; Corps of Engineers, 4,877; Signal Corps, 4,948; Statf Corps

and Departments, 47,165; General Officers and aids, 195; Philippine Scouts, 7,149; and miscellaneous, 25,368. Asa result of service in the World War it was estimated by the Chicf of Staff of the War Department in ig19 that there were nearly 4,000,000 men and 200,000 officers fit and trained for war. (See ARMY.)

Navy. Owing to the war with Germany, the navy, both in vessels and men, was greatly increased. In 1912 there were 323 vesscls fit for service, and 42 under construction;

in 1920 the respective

numbers were 795 and 165. The principal classes of vesscls in 1920, fit for service, were:——battleships 37, armoured cruisers 8, cruisers 26, destroyers 249, submarines 98.

In addition there were under

construction, 11 battleships, 24 cruisers, 70 destroyers and 50 submarines. In 1910 the number of officers in the regular service was 2,645 and enlisted men 45,076; in 1920 the respective numbers were 8,765 and 116,760. In addition the marine corps contained in 1910 9,659 and in 1920 19,685. (See SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING.) BisLioGRaPHy.—Relating to the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910 are the following volumes: I. Population, General

Report and Analysts (1913); I-III]. Population, Reports by States (1913); 1V. Occupation Statistics (1914); V. Agriculture, General Report and Analysis (1913); VIEVII. Agriculture, Reports by States (1913); VILL. Manufactures, General Report and Analysis (1913);

On account of the war new taxes were levied, the personal income

and 65 millions for charities,

hospitals and corrections. In addition 67 millions was expended for pubhe service enterprises, two-thirds of which was for water-supply systems; 157 millions for mterest on debt; and 256 millions for out~lays; representing costs of new property and equipment. The governmental-cost payments of 10 large cities for 1919 were as follows :— New York, 5232,061,926 (per capila, $42.28); Chicago, $93,515,758 (p.c., $35.66); Philadelphia, $67,027,257 (p.c., $37.64); Detroit, 834,738,091 (p.c., $36.86); Cleveland, $29,617,643 (f.c., 838.84); St. Louis, $24,188,963 (p.c., $31.75); Boston, $37,042,131 (p.c., $50.13); Baltimore, $16,372,941 (~.c., $25.12); Pittsburgh, $25,527,430 (p.c., $44.09); Los Angeles, $24,716,666 (p.c., $44.81). (See also the section Finance.)

1X. Manufactures,

Reports

by States

(1912);

factures, Reports for Principal Industries (1913);

X., Manue

XI. Mines and

Quarries, 1909 (1913).

Much of the material in these volumes is

fions (1919);

and Feedle-Minded_in

summarized in the Abstract (1913), and is graphically represented in the Statistical Atlas of the U.S., 1914. The Census of Manufactures, 19174, appeared in 2 vols. in 1918-9. Important volumes on special topics have been recently published by the Bureau of the Census: Negro Population 179019135 (1918); Indian Population in the United States and Alaska, roro (1915); Religious Bodies, 1916: part I, Summary and General Tables (1919), part II, Separate Denomina-

Lnsane

Institutions,

72970

(1914); Benevolent Institutions, 1910 (1913); Deaf Mutes in the United

States, 1910 (1918); Paupers in Almshouses,

1910 (1915); Prison-

ers and Juvenile Delinquents, 1910 (1918); Statistical Directory of State Institutions for Defective, Dependent and Delinguent Classes (1919);

Wealth,

Debt and

Taxation, 1913

(3 vols.

1915);

Central

Electric Light and Power Stations and Street and Electric Railways

ror2 (1915); Telephones and Telegraphs, 1912 (1915);

Transporta~

tion by Water, 1916 (1920). The Bureau of the Census has also published a series of volumes on Financial Statistics of Cities and on

Financial Statistics of States and continues the annual compilation

on Mortality Statistics, begun in 1goo. As the registration area 1s constantly enlarged, these latter statistics are of increasing value.

The Federal Department of Agriculture issues many statistical bulletins relating to crops, supplies and stocks of staple commodities.

862

UNITED

The most important of these are summarized in the Year Book of

the Department of Agriculture, Department

The U.S. Geological Survey of the

of the Interior issues frequent bulletins on mineral

products and stocks which are annually gathered together in the

volume Afineral Resources of the Uniled Slates,

Statistics of com-

merce are compiled by the Department of Commerce and published

in an annual volume, Foreign Commerce and Navigation, The U.S. Tariff Commission has also published several volumes in which commercial statistics are rearranged for use in tariff discussion, as The Weoel-Growing Industry. Price statistics both for retail and wholesale trade are gathered and published by the Federal Bureau of Labor Statistics. A valuable series of studies on price statistics of different groups of commodities during the World War was published under the editorship of W. C. Mitchell by the War Industries Board, under the titles History of Prices during the War and Government Control over Prices. The Bureau of Labor Statistics also issues frequent bulletins showing wages in different trades in different parts of the country. The Interstate Commerce Commission issues an annual report, Stalistics of Railways. Shipping statistics are published in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Navigation, Immigration statistics are published in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Immigration. Statistical tables in regard to the Federal finances are to be found in the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, sometimes known as the Finance Report. This contains abstracts of the reports of the Comptroller, Treasurer,

Commissioner of Internal Revenue and Director of the Mint. Of especial value for recent years are the annual reports and the monthly bulletins of the Federal Reserve Board. The bulletins contain a great varicty of commercial and trade statisties collected by the 12 different reserve banks. More detailed statistical data may be found in the monthly bulletins issued by the several district banks. The

most

serviceable

single source-book

is the annual

volume,

Statistical Abstract of the United States, first issued in 18738, published by the Department of Commerce. This assembles data on area and

population, including census returns, immigration, and vital statistics; education and school statistics; agriculture, forestry and fisheries; manufactures and mines; occupations, labour, and wages;

internal communication and transportation; merchant

marine and

shipping; foreign commerce; consumption estimates; prices; money, banking, and insurance; public fnance and national wealth; army, navy, civil service, pensions, and election statistics. Most of the statistics are derived from official publications, but when they are

wanting, reliance is placed upon private statistical agencies,

A useful statistical handbook relating to finance, crops, railways, trade and commerce is The Financial Review, an annual published by the Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York). In addition to Government statistics the following volumes should

be noted: W. I. King, The Wealth and Income of the People of the United States (1917), a scholarly analysis and interpretation of official statistics; Raymond Pearl, The Nation's Food (1920), a volume growing out of the author's work as chief of the Statistical Division of the U.S. Food Commission

during the war.

mittee on Economic Research of Harvard University has

The Com-

published

an important work, Indices of General Business Conditions, by wW. M,

Persons (1919).

(D. R. D.)

II.

AGRICULTURE

For the conditions of agriculture in the United States before TOTO see 1.414; for recent statistics see the section Statistics of the present article; for general progress since 1909 in biological, chemical and bacteriological research see article AGRICULTURE 30.71; for development in any one state sce the article on that state.

For various aspects of progress sce also, in vol. 32, the

index-heading AGRIcuLTURE and the other index-headings naming the various crops, products, processes, machines, etc. The main characteristics—economic rather than technical—of agricultural activities in the United States during 1910-20 were the

result of significant changes which must be traced through a period of more than one decade. The ten years ending with 1920 witnessed the close of an important epoch and the opening of a new epoch in the agricultural history of the United States. The closing cpoch might well be called the pioneer epoch, that of agricultural expansion, or of agricultural exploitation. The new epoch might be called that of agricultural readjustment, development, or utiliza-

tion. The names by which these two epochs are known are of little importance, but it is of great importance that all who are interested

in the development of American agriculture get clearly in mind the fact to which all other facts in this connexion are subsidiary,

namely, that ever since the beginning of American agriculture and

down to the decade 1910-20 there was ample and fertile field in the West for the expansion of agriculture, but that during 1910-20 vir-

tually the last of the arable part of the public domatn passed into

private ownership. There was no longer land available for homes for the surplus population from the older portions of the country.

The western agricultural migration, which began almost with the

first settlements on the Atlantic coast, was, owing to natural bar-

tiers and the absence of adequate transportation systems and other causes, more or less sporadic and irregular until about 1860.

The Agricultural Frontier in 1859.—In 1859 the frontier of agricultural development as determined by density of population of 6. or more to the sq. m., or the production of 100.000 bus. of wheat

per county per annum had been pushed westward to include portions, varying in size, of the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas.

For the next 50 years there was a steady western and northern agri-.cultural movement, until in 1910 virtually the only agriculturally unoccupied

territory in the great plains was

in Montana,

Wyo-

ming, western South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, southwestern :

Kansas, New Mexico and western Texas.

During the following,

decade 1910-20 virtually all the agricultural land that remained in

the above described regions went into private ownership.

By 1921

all the public domain stited to agriculture without irrigation, east of the Rocky Mountains, had ceased to be open to homestead claims and was undergoing agricultural development The Agricuitural Frontier în 1020.—The

§,000-ft. contour on the

eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains is generally considered the . western boundary of the great plains, but to simplify computation the great plains may be regarded as including four-fifths of the area of Montana, one-third of Wyoming, one-half of Colorado, one-half of New Mexico, and all of Texas. Fhe tract which came into agri-

cultural production during 1860~1920 includes four-fifths of Montana; one-third of Wyoming; one-half each of Colorado and New Mexico; all of North

and

South

Dakota,

and

Oklahoma;

about

seven-eizhths of Minnesota; over one-half of Wisconsin: over twothirds of Michigan; nearly one-half of Iowa; all but six counties

(2,494 sq. m.) of Nebraska; all but 10 counties (4,684 sq. m.) of Kansas; all but 25 counties (19,356 sq. m.) of Texas; 14 counties (10,607 sq. m.) in Missouri; 28 counties (20,939 sq. m.) in Arkansas, and all but 27 counties (16,212 sq.m.) of Louisiana; the entire arca amounting to no less than 1,096,607 sq. m., Or 7O1,828.480 acres,

Not all of this is arable Jand, but a higher percentage of it is arable than that of any other equal area on the North American contin-

ent, and contains at least 250,000 sq.m. of the richest agricultural land on the continent. More than half the total wheat crop of the United States for 1920 was grown in this area.

Coincident with the settlement of this plains region east of the Rocky Mountains was that of the inter-mountain and basin region and of much of the Pacific slope. The percentage of arable land west of the Rocky Mountains is much less than in the plains of the Mississippi Valley and the J.ake region, but in the aggregate an immense area of hind was brought into cultivation west of the Rockies during 1860-1920. ‘There, as in the plains, practically all the land suitable for agriculture was appropriated and developed. There remained only small valleys and isolated areas and some Indian reservations that were to be soon thrown open to settlement. New reclamation projects were expected to develop, but if all the potentially

agricultural land west of the Rocky Mountains were to be developed durmg 1020-30 the area would be small in comparison with that developed in each decade during 1860-1920. And it is probable that

during 1920-30 as much land classed as farm land may be found. unfit for that purpose and be devoted to other purposes, such as grazing and forestry, as will be brought into cultivation.

A

The significance of these facts does not seem to impress as it

should either the public or the farmers.

The habit of western migra-

tion, bred into the American people, during three centuries of practice is about to be broken.

The exhaustion of the public domain means that there is no longer

available each year, as there was during 1860-1920, an area of virgin

land in the Mississippi Valley, averaging 18,277 sq. m., or 11,697,250 ac., that is to say an arca equal to one-third of the state of Lowa. It means that increased agricultural production by the simple proc-

ess of breaking up virgin prairie is virtually at an end, so that

future increases in food production must be attained by a more effective utilization of the land already occupied as farms. The Increase of Agricultural Production and of Population for 60 Years.—The accompanying tables have been prepared from data contained in the 1920 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture and the 1920 Census Reports. The yields of grain stated in these tables are not those of the Census Reports, but are the averages of the yields given in the Yearbook for each of the 1o years in each decade, except those for 1860 which represent the single year 1859, and for 1870 which represents the avcrage for four years, 1866-9

inclusive. It is believed that this gives a better expression of the facts than using for cach decade a single year's yield, such as is given in the Census Reports. . l The two crops, wheat and corn, are chosen as an index of the general agricultural production for each decade since 1860. It is believed that they will serve the purposes of this discussion as well as or better than the more complex indexes used for more detailed investigation.

It will be seen that the proportionate increase by decades in popu-

lation has been declining, havin been 26-6% for 1860 and 14-9 % for 4920, the greatest decrease in any decade having been between 1910 and 1920. There has been no such progressive decrease in production of either wheat or corn. The highest proportionate increase in the production of wheat was in 1880, when it was 49°3%0 over

that of 1870. The highest proportionate increase in the yield of corn was also in 1880, when there was an increase of 41-9 '% over

UNITED 1870. The percentages of increase of both wheat and corn for 1870 are not very trustworthy, because, as has been said, the yields used

in.the census of 1860 were the yields of the single year 1859 and ‘those for the year 1870 were the averages of four years—1866-9 inclusive. From 1880 to 1920 there was a general decline in the average increase in production of wheat. In the case of corn its

STATES

the future, the conclusion is that if the general agricultural produc-

tion of the country can be increased at the rate of 2° per annum for the future, the per capita production of wheat and corn, and

robably of most other staple agricultural products, can at least

regularity was broken by reason of the very low rates of increase

for the decade reported in the census of 1900,

This was duc to a

succession of crop years with unfavourable weather conditions and

to a general business depression. ‘The production in bushels per capita of both wheat and corn has been quite constant. There has, thercfore, been a regular increase in the bushels per capita of wheat from 5-5 bus. in 1870 to 7-4 bus. in 1920, and an increase in corn

from 22-2 bus. in 1870 to 26-2 bus. in 1920. Dividing the percentages of increases for decades by I0 to give the annual percent-

ave of increase shows that the average annual increase in the production of wheat in the United States for a period of 60 years (fram 1860-1920) is to the annual increase in population as 2-91 is to 2-25 and that of corn for the same period is as 2-28 is to 2-25. Both pepulation and production have been increasing at a lessening rate. The retardation in the increase in population has been

863

increase tn population as indicated by the figures given in the accompanying tables, is a safe index of the agricultural requirements for

e maintained at the ratio ol the decade 1910-19,

The Agricultural Problem of the Future—Had

conditions in all

parts of the world remained substantially as they were in 1914, the chief problem in 1921 would have been how to maintain in later years an increase of 2°94 per annum in the agricultural production of the United States, notwithstanding that virgin land could no longer be counted upon. This is a problem that prior to the World War would have engaged the most earnest etfort of American farmers and the various agricultural agencies and organizations, both Federal and state. It would have presented difficulties of adaptation, adjustment, and development. The question of actual ficld production would have been a minor one as compared with such questions as transportation and distribution, the securing of efficient farm labourers at reasonable wages, and the opportunity

somewhat greater than that of production, as is indicated by the increase in the per capita production of wheat from §°5 bus. to 7-4 bus. and of corn from 22-2 to 26-2 bus. | i The proportionate rate of increase in production of wheat for

for the farmers to purchase at prices comparable with the prices of farm products the things that a farmer fas to buy tọ conduct his business and to live in comfort. Given condHions favourable in these respects, agricultural production undoubtedly could have been increased for many years after 1921 at a rate of 2% per annum. There are many ways in which this increased production could have

for population 14°9 %%.

been brought about: by clearing and bringing into cultivation waste

the decade ending with 1920 was 13:92% and for corn 11-2 %, and Tasie

land already included in farms; by draining swamps, and by developing water to enlarge existing irrigation projects; probably most of all by more intensive methods of agriculture. The agriculture of

I.—Theat Production and Population.

ge

the United States had been and in 1921 still was an extensive, rather

Dus.

Percentage Increase of Production. Increase jn Production Population.

Population.

i

1860} _31,443,321| 173.105.000 | 1866

38,558,371

Peoro]

the World War brought with it a new set of problems that engaged the attention of the farmers as well as other citizens, Prices of Farmer's Products and of Commodities He Buys —The most pressing problem in 1921 was the disproportion between the prices of those things the farmer has to buy and those he has to sell.

39,051,000

| 316,820,000| 104,664,000

E

than an intensive, agriculture, and properly so. So long as land was plentiful and men were scarce the extensive system was to be encouraged. But as land began to become scarce and men plentiful there came almost unlimited opportunities for the intensifying of agriculture. While this need for closer farming was being discussed

This difficulty was as great when he paid for labour as when he

a

127,258,000

bought commodities, Wages of Farm Labour.—The Bureau of Crop Estimates of the Department of Agriculture published in the Yearbook for 1920 a table giving the wages paid farm labourers from 1866 to 1920. Arranging these figures for the different classes of farm labourers

556,674,000 | 112,596,000

as index numbers, and calling the wages of 1913 100 as a base, gives

Tes

|

the following results:

Wages—A gricullural Labour. oun fas

Index

No.

1913 | 1920 | 1921 |ozoio

779,560,000]

A B

95,126,000

C D

E ntage of ase

in ase

Bus. Incre Perce Production Production. Production. Enere.

F

Bushels |

Per Capita.

838,793,000

By the month with board$21.38 | $46.89 | $29.48 | 219 | 135 By the month without board . i : . | 30.31 | 64.951 42.65] 214 | I4I Day labourer at harvest, with board : i 1.57 3.60 2.12 | 229 | 135 Day labourer at harvest, without board . Day labourer, not harvest, with board Day labourer, not harvest, without board,

4.30

|

2,80 | 225 | 144

1.16

2.86

1.60 | 247 | 138

1.50

3.5901

2.17 1 240 1 145 |

Farm wages declined during 1921.

The best information avail-

able, Nov. 201921, was that wages were about as follows (A) $29.48,

$54,278,000]

15,485,250

(B) $42.65, (C) $2.12, (D) $2.80, (E) $1.60, (F) $2.17. These figures would give an index number about 145, or an increase of about 45 °% for 1921 over the wages of 1913. In the diagram, fg. 1, the figures for ** Day labour,

50,155,783 |1,212,0% 3,000} 357,735,000 4

62,947,714 |1,692,019,000] 480,006,000 75,994,575

1.94

|1,995,190,000| 303,171,000

91,972,266 |2,486,274,000] 491,084,000

not harvest, without

board”

have

been used as they are considered the most trustworthy. Men of this class are usually married men who either own their own homes or rent them from their employers. They are less inclined to drift than those who are boarded by their employers, and who are usually single and “footloose.” The married man who works by the

month and boards himself frequently has house, garden, firewood and sometimes milk and pork provided by his employer. This

is probably the most stable class of farm labour. Jt does not, however, yicld a conclusive index of the changes in wages because

changes in the value of the perquisites above mentioned tend to complicate the calculation. The index number for the wages of day labourers, not for harvest,

without board were as follows:

Year. , Index No.. It becomes

evident

that the record of the annual production of

wheat and corn through a period of 60 years, and its relation to the

. IQI} I9I4 1915 IQI6 IQI7 IQI 1919 1920 1921 . IOO 97 98 108 #135 175 208 240 145

Discussion of Diagram.—Fig. 1 (p. 864) shows the index numbers of farm crops, live stock, commodities and farm labour for each year from 1913 to 1921, inclusive.

UNITED

STATES TABLE V.—Index Numbers of Commodity Prices, Excluding Farm

1920

INDEX NUMUERS

1921

and Food Products. Based upon the Bureau of Labor index numbers of wholesale prices of all commodities from which were deducted the commodities representing the foods, and farm products group. (Base roo= average for 1913.)

4 2 ‘ 5 2

ainn

2+ > z

> 2 i 2 22 2 7~ >

ty

"y

Average

IQI 192 186 154

175

179

153 152 160

109 112 II5

182

162

I18

184

17a

158 192 193 196 195

178

196

118 120 118 119 124 120 140 145

TSS

122

173

195

See et Ge ta he MN

2? IN GON Ga alta a -2

152 177

98 97

A study of the diagram (fig. 1) confirms the evidence from many other sources that farmers engaged primarily in crop production were reasonably prospcrous from: 1913 to 1916 inclusive, and that during 1917, 1918 and 1919 they enjoyed unprecedented prosperity

-

followed by two years of heavy losses; the high prices of the early months of 1920 having broken before the products could be marketed and the cost of ‘commodities and farm wages remaining high. It also shows that the live stock grower was only just able to keep pace with the increasing cost of necessary commodities, and but

CEE

Shakes

little ahead of the steadily rising farm wages that he had to pay.

The conditions of agriculture on Dec. 1 1921, as shawn by Tables L IL, HI. and V., and fir. 1, indicate that never

before in the his-

tory of American agriculture had the farmers been confronted with so serious a situation. Unless the prices of what the farmer must

Fic.

1.

Index Numbers of Farm Crops, Live Stock, Commodities and Farm Lubour Each Year from 1913 to 1921 Inclusive.

The two outstanding facts are that in every year from 1913 to

1919 the farm crops index stood higher than any of the others, and that from 1913 to 1918 the farm wage index stood as low as or lower than any other.

Tables HI., IV., and V. are based upon data prepared by the

Bureau of Crop Estimates, and published by authority of the Secre-

tary of Agriculture. Table IIl.—Index Numbers of Farm Prices of Crops.

The index numbers of average prices to farmers of the United States of 10 leading crops (wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye, buck-

wheat, potatoes, hay, cotton, and flax) vepresent about fourfifths of the value of all crops and may be regarded as representing

the trend of all crop prices. 1913.) jan. I Feb. 1 Mar. 1 Apr. I 113 Alay 1. | 104 June 1 . | 109 July i . | 196 Aug. I. | 109 Sept. 1 . | 109 Oct re | = INov. I, [Dec r. | — | Average | 112

| 4 | | | |

275 294 309 304 268 23¢ ]|2

|I | 244

(Base 100=average for 12 months of

1.49 220 | 159 | 114 234 | 108 | 112 : 114 $ 116 1 | 236 ] 118 2 | 235 | I18 8 | 250 | 120 8 | 227 | 13% 5 | 225 | 133 g | 212 |] 145 5 | 205 | 152 | 235 | 226 | 206

90 QI 2 2 94 93 100 102 III 113 109 TON 100

TABLE 1V.—Index Numbers of Farm Prices for Live Stock. Index numbers of average prices to farmers of the United States, for live stock. (Base 100 =avcrage for 12 months of 1913.) Jan.

15 .|

Feb. Mar. Apr. May fune 'fuly jAug.

15 I5 15 15 35 15 15

.| .| .| .| .| .| .|

| 1921 | 1920 E20 | 173

1910 92

sept. I5 .| — | 174 Oct. 15 .|. — | 166

300 107 112 114 114 114 114 119 114

Dec, 15.| — | 121 Average | 113 | 168

116] fai

Nov. 15 .|

117 | 123 | II2 | 109 | 104 | 109 | 113 |

177 17 I8í 177 175 176 172

— | 147

115

7

2

4

94 | 100

| 92 | 2| | 94 | | 97 | | 98 | | 97 | | 96 |

103 105 105 104 103 195 109

90 | 108 | 99 | 102

2|

89|

97

94 103 | 100

sell could be brought into proper relation with prices of what he must buy—commoditics and Jabour—agricultural production

would necessarily be so greatly reduced as to bring about a serious shortaye of food and textile products, for farmers cannot

continue to produce crops at a loss not only of their time, but also of their money. When, however, the agricultural situation is more closely studied it becomes apparent that even though a proper relation could be restored between the prices of farm products, farm labour, and the commodities the farmer has to buy, many of the farmers would be still unable to operate their farms profitably. During the decade 1910-20, throughout the first half of which the farmers enjoyed normal prosperity and throughout the latter half of which their prosperity was the greatest ever enjoyed hy American farmers, the rural population increased only 5-4.° while the weban population increased at the rate of 25°7 °%. That 15 to say urban population increased nearly five times as rapidly as the rural population, increased movement to centres showing that farm life and farming had come to be disliked, notwithstanding their new advantages:

improved

automobiles,

farm electric lighting plants and modern water and

roads, rural free mail delivery,

telephones,

heating systems, all developed rapidly during the ten years in question.

Although there were 86,864 or 1-4°% more farms in the United States in 1920 than in 1910, there were 23,627 or -6°% fewer farm

owners. Of the 3,925,090 farms operated by their owners in 1920, 41-3°% were mortgaged as against only 33°6% in 1910. The value of the land and buildings of mortgaged farms was $6,330,236,951 in 1910, and in 1920 $13,772,729,610, an increase of 117-6°%. In1g9 tothe mortgaged indebtedness was $1,726,172,851;in 1920 $4,012,711,213, an increase of 132-5 %. The increase in value ranged from 21% in New Jersey to 480% in Arizona. The increase in mortgaged indebtedness ranged from 10-2% in Rhode Island to 625-7, in Montana. The increase per cent in mortgaged indebt-

edness by geographical divisions was as follows: New England 56-3; Middle Atlantic 45-5; East North Central 101-0; West North Central 136-3; South Atlantic 161-8; East South Central 194-6; West South Central 154-0; Mountain 379-4; Pacific 215-6. The average value of land ane buildings on all mortgaged farms in 1910 was $6,289, and in 1920 it was $11,536, an increase of 117-6%. ‘The average debt per farm was $1,715 in 1910 and $3,361 in 1920, an increase of 132°5%. The debt per cent value was 27-3 in 1910 and 29-1 in 1920, the figures being based on 1919 values. These declined and debts increased during 1920 and 1921, and at the end of 1921 it was believed that chanyes would continue in the same direction, until a shortage of food should increase prices. There was difference of opinion as to the significance of the heavy increase in mortgaged indebtedness, The published reports of the Bureau of Census de not indicate at what time during the decade this increase took place, nor the purposes for which the money represented by the mortgages was used: whether as purchase money for the land upon which it was placed, for buildings, or other improve

ments upon the land, for farm equipment, or for the purchase,

UNITED operation, and the incidental expenses pertaining to the ownership of an automobile. . onditions during 1910-5, unforeseen in the beginning of that period, favoured investors in agricultural land and in farm improvements. Values doubled and in some instances quadrupled during 1910-20. And many of those who borrowed to make such investments were enabled during 1915-20 to repay in what were called “ thirty

cent

dollars,”

because

inflated

prices

made

currency

redeemable in pold seem worth less than before, Indeed many farmers thus repaid not only the capital they had borrowed, but also their small floating debts, so that when deflation began in the summer of 1920 they could face without fear the inevitable hard times, in which economic readjustments must be made. Unfortunately not all farmers were safe. Some, because of local

crop

failures

or other

unavoidable circumstances—and

others,

more numerous, because they had yielded to the spending craze that swept the country in 1918 and 1919—found themselves in the

summer of 1920 possessed of much property, both real and personal,

some of which had been acquired at war-time prices, but heavily indebted and with credit exhausted. It was largely owing to their

difficulties that during the decade the mortgaged indebtedness of farmers so largely increased. The Internal-Combustion Engine as an Agricultural Factor—In the decade ending with 1919 there was a great development of the

internal-combustion engine and adaptation of it not only to the labour, but also to the health, comfort and enjoyment of the American farmer. (See articles: INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES; TRAC-

TORS; and MOTOR Veunicies.)

It came to be used directly in the

automobile, truck, tractor, pumping plant, electric lighting plant;

for cutting silage, grinding feed, shelling corn, threshing grain, sawing wood, operating spraying machines and fruit-grading machines; and for many other power purposes. The internal-combustion

engine,

generating

current,

also indirectly

operates

the

washing machine, the electric iron, electric fans, the vacuum cleaner,

electric heating pads, and (through small portable motors) serves for separating milk, churning, meat grinding and many other household purposes. i

A general farm of 150 to 200 ac. growing fruit, a small dairy herd,

some truck and general farm crops, was no longer considered well

equipped unless jt had all fhe facilities above mentioned and perhaps a milking machine also, if the dairy herd was large. Seven separate internal-combustion engines and an equal number of small electric motors probably would be needed for all these purposes, Such a plant undoubtedly would be a good investment if it were

judiciously selected and bought at a fair price, provided always

that (1) the farm and the system of farming were adapted to the use of a tractor, (2) that the farmer or some member of his family had the necessary mechanical skill to see that this equipment were

properly operated and kept in repair, (3) that the capital of the

farmer was sufficient to provide such a plant, and (4) that the income of the farm was sufficient to support such a plant without

seriously interfering with the other requirements of the family and the farm business. Seldom, if ever, are all the above-mentioned conditions fulfilled, but the measure in which they can be approximated will determine the advisability of the purchase of all the above-mentioned equip-

ment, except the automobile. This must be considered apart, for, although any part of a full farm equipment may be misused, the

extent to which the privileges conferred by the automobile may be

abused is almost without jimit. The choice of the make of automobile is a simple matter, so far as mechanical construction is con-

cerned. The buyer gets about what he pays for in any standard make, It is the use to which the car is put rather than its quality which makcs it advantageous or harmful. Whether it will contribute

to the efficient handling of the farm is not the only question. If the car is used chiefly to take the family away from home and to encourage waste of time and money, then it is a poor investment. Automotive Statistics, for 1921, published by the Motor List Company of Des Moines, fowa, states that 3,243,051 automobiles are

owned by farmers in the United States. As already mentioned, the

increase in the mortgaged indebtedness of the farmer-owned farms of the United States from 1910 to 1920 was $2,286,538,362. If those 3,243,051 automobiles cost $705.06 each, which is a fair estimate,

they would nearly equal in value the amount of the increase in mortgaged indebtedness between 1910 and 1920. This correlation is accidental; no one believes that those 3,243,051 automobiles were bought with money secured by executing mortgages aguregating $2,286,538,362 upon farm property. It is nevertheless probable that some of the purchase money would have been better used to pay off mortgages. Farm Labour.—Mention has been made of the changes in farm wages during and since the World War. The changes in the price paid per day or per month, or in the index numbers, ought to, but do not, fully represent the changes in the costs of units of labour performed. Before the war most farm labourers were willing to give 10 hours of faithful work for a day's pay. The migration of labour during and after the war, by reason BUculisanent or employment in cities or in large manufacturing plants, brought many farm labourers

into contact with men who preach inadequate work asa duty. Many of the farm labourers were demoralized, and near large cities it

STATES

865

became almost impossible to get an honest day's work at any price.

For this reason although the figures in the present article indicate that the price of labour is about 50% more than before the war,

the actual cost of labour is from two to three times as much as it

was, This the cost of Farmers outlook in production

is a factor of great importance in all readjustments of farm products. and Consumers.—There was little in the agricultural Dec, 1921 to encourage the farmers to plan even normal in 1922, for corn was then selling at from 19 to 28 cents

on the farms of North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska, Iowa, and Kansas; much of the 1920 crop remained unsold; and nearly all farm products were selling at much lower prices than in 1913, although both labour and the commodities the farmer had to buy were much higher. It was evident that farmers must retrench in every practicable way, hiring as little labour as possible; reducing the scale of farm operations as nearly as possible to the point where

the farmer and his family could do all the work.

They must burn

corn of any other agricultural product for fuel, whenever the farm price of that product fell below the cost of equivalent coal, wood,

gas, or oil—after adding to the price of such fuel, at the railway

station or waterside, the cost of hauling the fuel to the farm and

the agricultural products from the farm.

Much could be done toward reducing cash outlay by making each farm produce as much as possible of the food for the family. Much, also, might be accomplished by a system of community exchange. With good roads, automobiles and trucks every farm family should

be provided with virtually all necessary food products without expenditure for products, freight or middleman’s profit. In respect of food this generation by reason of the ease and rapidity of communications and country road transportation is better able to develop community self-sufficiency than any previous generation. If there were a demand for home spinning and weaving machinery on a large scale, as there is on a small scale, for home

knitting

machines

throughout

the country,

homespun.

clothing

again would take its płace on the farm. As has been said already, good roads, rural mail delivery, the telephone and the internalcombustion engine have removed practically all but one of the objectionable features which drove many from farm life. That objection is that farming does not yield as Jarge a revenue in propor-

tion to the capital invested and the intelligence, business ability,

and enterprise possessed by the farmer, as do other business or pro-

fessional careers.

This must cease to be the case, or American farm-

ers will not continue to produce food and clothing for the rest of the population, There has been and will continue to be much discussion and agi-

tation of this subject in the public press and on the floors of Congress. Some legislation had already been enacted by 1922 for the purpose

of helping the farmer, and further

measures were in prospect. It is doubtful whether any real headway can be made in solving the producers’ problem until there is an actual and very severe shortage of food in the country. When this occurs, the farmers will obtain fair priccs for their products, and may then be able to resume the operation of their farms at full capacity, and to take up the

great agricultural problem of the future, which is the adaptation, adjustment and development of the fixed agricultural arca of the United States, so that it may continue indefinitely to meet the constantly increasing demands of an increasing population. (E. C. C.) III.

FINANCE

The movement of public expenditures and receipts in the United States during the decade 1910-20 presents as its most important aspect an instructive contrast between conditions of peace and those of war and readjustment. When the decade opened, cducation was the largest expenditure, taking all divisions of Government into account; and the financial operations of the state and local Governments were twice as large as those

of the national Government.

Expenditures, taxes and public

debt, it is true, had.all been increasing for some time both in the aggregate and per capita; but the wealth (expressed in money) of

the country had more than doubled between roo and 1912, the average rate of the general property tax had decreased between 1902 and 1912, the Federal debt per capita was decreasing, and

Federal expenditures per capita were lower between 1910 and 1914 than in 1908 and 190g.

There was, of course, constant

protest against rising taxes and ‘‘ extravagant public expendi-

tures,” but the total tax burden was probably increasing less rapidly than wealth or income, and this was certainly true of Federal taxes. War changed all this. Education and the developmental functions yielded first place to military activities; Federal finance threw into the background state and city finance; reduction of the aggregate debt ceased and in less than two years of war the interest charge of the Federal Government alone had

become greater than the entire cost of running the Federal

UNITED

866 Government before the war.

STATES

The Federal Government's ex- Rosa, in his authoritative analysis, Expenditures and Revenues of

penditures and revenues in peace, war and reconstruction are

the Federal Government, makes a more careful estimate, for the four years 1917-20, of the “ excess of expenditures over the

presented in Table I., in which it should be noted that the figures represent net expenditures and net revenues, the expenditures of each department being credited with the earnings

estimated normal expenditures on a pre-war basis,” and reaches a figure of $35,427,730,074, against which he places an estimate of the special war revenue, i.e. “ the excess of revenue over the

of that department and the tax receipts being similarly reduced by the refunds allowed during the same period. From roro to 1916, inclusive, the net expenditures of the Federal Government showed no striking tendency to increase, being only $35,000,000 greater in 1916 ihan in ro10. The net expenditures

for the army

and navy

were

estimated cost of government on pre-war basis,” $11,818,699,300. Mr. Rosa’s estimate agrees with that of the Secretary of the Treasury in indicating that one-third of the special war costs were paid from special war revenues. In both cases loans to

foreign Governments, $9,500,000,000 in round figures, are in-

only $23,000,000

greater in the fiscal year 1916 than in the fiscal year 1914, which

cluded in the war costs.

closed so far as Americans knew to the contrary amid conditions of secure peace—a striking commentary upon the attitude of the Administration in power toward preparedness. Between 1917

Federal revenues during the decade were revolutionized. At its beginning in 1q1a, customs supplied more than one-half the total receipts; and customs together with the duties on distilled spirits, beverages and tobacco produced more than 05% of the total net revenues. The income tax (special corporation excise

and 1919, however, the net expenditures of the army and navy rose from $668,852,948 to $11,192,817,468.

It is needless to add

that this expansion checked the development of the civil functions, Even before the World War, expenditures for the army, navy, pensions and interest upon old war debt absorbed about two-

tax) was then in the first year of its collection and yielded less than 4% of the total. By the end of the decade, customs and the old duties on alcoholic beverages were subordinate.

thirds of the Federal expenditures, leaving less than one-third for

In the

year 1920 customs yielded less than 6%, and the combined duties

the civil functions. But in 1920, at the close of the decade, the expenditures chargeable to war consumed three-fourths of the very much greater aggregate. The total expenditures for primary governmental functions, research, education and development, and for public works, representing the civil functions, were actually less per capiiain rorg ($2.21) than in rgro ($2.24), the principal reductions coming in the expenditures for public works which

on imports, distilled sptrits, beverages and tobacco yielded only 14% of the total tax revenue; while the income and profits taxes

amounted to $54,332,139 in 1919 as contrasted with $79,503,701 in 1910. In 1920, after the war, the expenditures for civil pur-

the introduction in 1916 of the Federal estate or inheritance tax, the development of the exccess-profits tax, the loss of one of the most important of the older taxes through the adoption of Federal prohibition, and the reéstablishment of the Tariff Commission. The most significant change, however, was the revolutionary readjustment of taxes by which a system of taxation, predominantly indirect and regressive, gave way to a system predominantly direct and progressive. Public credit supplied during the war two-thirds of the revenue or receipts. Details concerning the management and yield of the huge war loans are given in the article Ligerty Loan Pusticity CampaiGns. Here the subject can only be briefly treated in its connexion with the plan of the Government for the financial |

produced $3,056,036,003 or nearly 70% of the total net tax

revenue, which was large enough in this year of readjustment to meet the entire current cost of the Government and to create a

surplus of more than $1,000,000,000.

Other noteworthy develop-

ments of this decade from the viewpoint of revenue are found in

poses rose materially; but considering the fall in the purchasing power of money, even the later and higher figures suggest decrease in the equipment, personnel and efficiency of the civil branches of the Government. The cost of the war may be estimated with rough accuracy, defining such cost as the excess of the expenditures which actually

occurred over the amounts which probably would have been expended had the war not taken place. The Secretary of the Treasury (Annual Report, 1920, p.105), assuming that expendi-

tures on a peace basis during the three fiscal years 1917-9, would have been $1,000,000,000 a year and during the following fiscal year $1,500,000,000, estimated the net war expenditure to June 30 1920 at $33,455,000,000, and the net war-tax receipts, i.e. the peace-times, at $10,703,000,000. On this basis, 32 per cent of the

management of the war, That plan was based upon the policy of sedulously avoiding the use of Government paper money; of raising at Icast one-third (and, if possible, one-half) of the necessary revenue by taxation; of keeping the inflation which inev-

special war expense was paid from special war taxes.

itably accompanies war to a minimum, by restricting ‘‘ non-es-

excess of the annual tax revenue over the normal tax revenue of

Mr. E. B.

TABLE I. Average Annual Net Expenditures and Revenues of U.S. Government for 7 Pre-War Years,

3 War Years, and in 1920.

EXPENDITURES (net) Primary governmental functions : Research, education and development Public works , ey oe tas uote.

7 , oy

.

.

*

.

Ld ..e..

es©4a#‘’

ayey ©a‘n

Total expenditures (net) REVENUE (net) Customs oe ae ee

a

«2.

«©

©



«©

à

à

Tax on bank circulation Post-office war revenue

. .

59,857,380

23,605,213

'»..*.

«©

aa @ta8p>&

65414731074

273,486,931 368,324,751

3,690,489

ek ea

b f

Total revenue (net) . . 2... Pusiic Dest, Loans AND Trust Funps Public debt transactions (c) Loans and trusts (d) . ;

$ 124,509,073

85,408,910

165,439,944

.

.

.

$ 97,718,290 256,971,389

.

Internal revenue

>

Average 1917—09

25,329,328

Army and navy . . . . . Pensions and care of soldiers . . , Obligations arising from World War (8) . Interest

(a)

Average 1010-6

ge X;

cha? .

esèet

FR

e¢èt

te%a

£# a@4@

*@©a

>

=

-

+

645,502,171

,

-

8

œ

— 11,401,317

33,092,610

$ 224,110,594 57:308,774

85,071,042

6,302,322,105

1,348,892,747

1,205,255,174

1,634,095,094

8,078,306,564

4,599:531,125

236,816,982

115,853,240

181,403,815

2,774,804,615

4,036,586

55,489,500 (e) _

+

— 4,982,411

1929

2,997,238,016 (e)

~8,085,631,219

3.210,794,518

329,261,746 920,131,128

296,274,230

5:379:353,020

7:172,598

4,913,000 5,687,712,848

1,184,098, 321

513,885,254

(a) Table adapted from E. B. Rosa, Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal Government, Table 14(o} Expenses of Railroad and Administration, Shipping Board and other special war activities.

(c) The minus sign indicates an excess of public debt receipts over public debt disbursements.

(d) Consists principally of seignorage in 1910-6; and of loans to European Governments in 1917-9 and in 1920. {¢) Post-olfice war revenue given as annual average for the two years collected, but averaged over three years, 1917-9, in computing the total

UNITED sential” commercial credit, encouraging

subscribers

STATES

867

to the

the World War. One set of critics urged much greater reliance

Liberty and Victory loans to pay for them from current savings;

upon short-time debt. Another set urged long-time bonds, “sold over the counter,” at interest rates high enough to keep the bonds at par when the inevitable post-war reaction set in. The Government took the intermediate course, utilizing but not

and (in minor degree) by repressing unnecessary consumption through the adequate taxation of personal incomes and the use of luxury taxes. Financial preparation for a long war, perhaps

of three years, was made, with due appreciation ofthe fact that

man guided the credit operations of the Government during the war:—

abusing the patriotism of the people on the sound assumption that no rate of interest could have been sufficiently high to float these huge issues on a commercial basis alone. And its use of anticipatory short-time certificates was designed not only to prevent money stringency during the war, but to keep some pressing war debt current for extinguishment in the prosperous time which usually follows the termination of a great

“The Treasury's war problem was to meet the financial requirements of the Governments of the United States and the Allies promptly and without stint, and to meet them so far as possible from the saved incomes of the people, avoiding avoidable inflation. These objectives must be pursued in such ways as would not interfere with, but on the contrary facilitate, the mobilization of the Nation for war purposes and the production and transportation of

war. “ No administration could have resisted the pressure for reduction of taxes and increase of expenditures if the war debt at its maximum of $25,300,000,000 had been funded, and it had subsequently appeared that taxes and salvage would more than meet current expenditures. The time to pay down a war debt is immediately after the war” (Leflingwell). With the

As the principal credit instrument with which to achieve these

successfully the device of selling notes running from three to five years along with the more temporary Treasury certificates.

in the early months

the most

effective contribution

of the

United States would take the form of generous supplies of goods and credit to the Allies. As stated by R. C. Leffingwell, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, who more than any other one

munitions.

depression that set in in 1921, the Government

ends, the Government used, for the most part, terminable bonds with moderate-but adjustable maturities (in no case exceeding 30 years), partially subject to taxation, issued every six months

from the beginning of the war to May 1919, at interest rates which because of the conversion privilege varied with the changing credit

conditions but were always high enough to stimulate the instinct of saving, yet low enough to utilize fully the patriotic fervour

of the people. In order to avoid credit strain, with its demoralizing effects upon interest rates and business, the huge bond issues were preceded by practically monthly issues of short-dated tax and loan certificates, to be taken up by the payments for taxes or by the subscriptions to Liberty Bonds, When the war debt was at its peak, at the close of Aug. rọrọ, the gross debt amounted

to $26,596,701,648 (or to $25,478,592,113, deducting the net balance in the general fund); of which short-time Treasury certificates constituted $4,201,139,050. As an essential part of the credit machinery, the Treasury adopted as particularly suited to the decentralized character of the country’s banking system, upon which the burden of distributing the war loans icll, the device of ‘‘ payment by credit,” by which banks subscribing

for Government loans held their subscriptions as a credit to the account of the Government until the Government called for the

funds.

This reduced the credit strain by preventing the con-

centration of funds in the Government coffers, and “ developed

the further advantage that in the difference between the rate

borne by the securities and the rate charged on the deposit, banks found some compensation for their time, trouble and the loss of deposits, resulting from the sale of securities to investors ””

(Lefiingwell). criticized

This method of payment

by credit has been

both as paying huge sums to the banks for creating

credit which could have been as easily manufactured by the Government itself; and also as productive of inflation.

Neither

charge will bear analysis. The banks lost rather than gained by the Government’s absorption of the investment resources of the people and by the repression of “‘ non-essential industry ’’; and

the device checked rather than stimulated inflation.” If the Treasury had actually drawn into the reserve banks and its own offices the proceeds of these great loans, not only would it have de-

moralized the money market and increased money rates, but after a period of agitation—perhaps panic—there would have been heavy calls for discounts upon the reserve banks and “upon the re-deposit of the proceeds of certificates, depositary banks would be put in possession of loanable funds. . . . It was better

to make one bite of the cherry and to avoid the money strain and inflation which would have been inevitable if the money had been first drawn out of the banks and then re-deposited with them ” (Leffingwell). In its decision of the momentous credit questions arising during the war, the Government steered a middle course, avoiding the mistakes which characterized the Civil War financing

in the United States and much of the European financing during

introduced

And the same middle course was taken, with the results already stated, between the proposals to exempt Government obligations entirely from taxation and to subject them to all Federal! taxes at full rates; between those who counselled ‘conscription of wealth ” and those who would have paid practically the whole cost of the war with credit devices of one kind or another. One mistake,

the issue of Government

paper money,

was wholly

avoided, and bank credit utilized in its place. But every effort was employed to draw the borrowings from actual savings and to get Government securities as rapidly as possible out of the

banks into the hands of investors. These efforts succeeded; on June 1 1921 (according to reports from banks transacting over 40% of the commercial banking business of the country), less than $600,000,000 of the long-time debt of $15.271,000,000 outstanding, only $186,412,000 Victory notes (out of $4,022,000,ooo outstanding) and $184,086,000 Treasury certificates (out of $2,572,000,000 outstanding) were pledged with these banks as

security for loans and discounts. The management of the credit operations of the war was not without its shortcomings. The preferential discount rate for loans secured by Government obligations may have been a mistake; perhaps, too, much use may have been made of bank

credit and not enough use of taxation—particularly of taxes on the consumption of luxuries and on incomes of the moderately rich; and it seems unquestionable that, owing to inability to gauge the exact time and amount in which the subscriptions to the Liberty loans would be paid, there was an overlapping of Treasury certificates and of bond subscriptions, with the result that ihe Treasury balance throughout the war was unnecessarily large. But these errors and defects were of secondary importance. The smoothness and efficiency with which the credit

machinery

worked

during the World

War—particularly

in

contrast with its inefficient management during the Civil War— indicate that in essentials the credit policy of the Government

was sound and its administration remarkably efficient. The response of the people to the call for bond subscriptions, the cheerfulness with which the heavy war taxes were borne, and the

absence of even a temporary breakdown in the credit mechanism with which the war was financed, were all admirable. State and local finance were affected in unexpected ways by the war. At the beginning of the decade under review, state Government in particular was undergoing an unusually rapid expansion; and both state and municipal expenditures were increasing nearly twice as rapidly as those af the Federal Government. The tax burden, in the case of the state and local Governments, was increasing but not so rapidly as expenditures; increasing deficits were the rule; and the public debt both in total amount and per capita was increasing. The situation at the beginning of the decade and the principal financial movements throughout the decade are suggested in Tables HH. and III. It should be noted that the Federal expenses or cost payments in Table If. do not include puyments made for the purchase of obligations of foreign Governments; and that the per capita

statistics quoted

in Table

III. represent

net expenditures and

revenues alter deduction of working credits and tax refunds.

UNITED TABLE States

Year

1919

.

I9I7

>» àù

19138,

1916.

STATES

II. Governmental

Cost Payments

Cities having a pop. of over 30,000

United States

Total

Per capita

Total ?

$635,379,153

$6.05

$15,740,132,791

513,063,487

5-04

2,405,932,009

501,000,035

5-42

505,399,448

9,312,169,079

5-05

1,048,225,180

IQI5 _ . 0.707,82 4-99 1,047,834.96 1 Bureau of Census, Financial Statistics of States, 1919, p. 30.

Per capita

Total

Per capita

$149.78

$1,202,323,639

$34.67

23-40

1,081,865,673

32.53

1,057,125,696

33.92

89.16

10.36 10.

1,144,629,589

1,043,594,297

33-35

32.34

? Amounts for the United States represent the total payments of the United States less payments for investments (consisting principally

of obligations of foreign Governments), payments for reduction of the public debt, and the excess of national bank-notes retired over deposits for their retirement TABLE III. Net Expense and Tax Revenue, Per Capita, for All State Governments and for Municipalities Having a Population of over 30,009: IQIO-Ọ.!

Municipalitics having a pop. of over 30,000 Per capita | Per capita | Per capita) Per capita States

Year

net expense | tax revenue

1910 IQII I912 1913 IQT4 1915 1916 1917 1918

|net expense! tax revenue

ean 2

$25.13 26.04 26.06 26.5

2 $ $4.1 I

26.12 26.10

revived

26.55

l| From E, B. Rosa, Expenditures Government. Tables 18, 19.

and Revenues

of the Federal

2 Data not available. 3 Computed and inserted by the writer of this article. It is evident from the tables that the financial operations of the

state and local Governments were affected by the events of the war. That the expansion of thcir activities would be checked, was to be

expected; but that the state and local Governments in the face of the heavy Federal war taxes should seize the occasion to adopt or approach the policy of “ pay as you go”’ was, perhaps, not to be expected. Nevertheless this has taken place. City expenditures per ca pita were not only lessin 1919 than in 1915, but the tax revenue

which was seriously deficient year increased almost to the And beginning with 1917, the a whole have exceeded their

in the earlier year had in the later point of meeting governmental costs. receipts of the state Governments as expenses. In 1919, for instance, 31

states ‘ realized enough from revenue to meet all their payments for expenses, interest and outlays and to have a balance of $50,192,314

for paying debt ’ (U.S. Census Bureau, Financial Statistics of States 1919, p. 30). In 57 states there was a deficit aggregating $15,378,246. Much of the economy has been achieved by discontinuing public works or improvements or refraining from those contemplated, and the cost of those public works which have been undertaken has in increasing degree been met from tax revenue rather than the proceeds of loans. Jn 146 of the principal cities, for instance, the percapita payment for capital outlavs in 1918 was only $7.51 as contrasted with $10.18 in 1909. Despite opinion to the contrary, Government ownership by states and cities has not expanded during recent years. Public-utility enterprises have developed less rapidly than other branches of the Government and far less rapidly than private business. According to official statistics, these public enterprises yield a substantial profit over the costs incurred, more than three-fourths of the net earnings from these sources being credited to the water departments owned by municipal Governments. Looking to the revenues of the state and local Governments, the general property tax was still preéminent in r921. Nearly one-half of the total tax receipts of the states and nearly nine-tenths of those of the cities, were derived from this source.

The work of the property assessors had noticeably improved in recent years, particularly in the cities.’ In a majority of the states, some more or less effective budgetary system had been introduced; and in an increasing number of commonwealths the

county and local divisions were being required to follow a prescribed budgetary procedure. Tax limit laws, designed to check local expenditures, had in several states been adopted or

2

27.63

4.10 4.00 4-25

had in many states given way to central tax commissions charged with the power and duty not only of securing greater equality in the distribution of the tax burden but of supervising the work of local assessors, administering the more important corporation taxes and usually also the state inheritance taxes.

Among the states, the

relative importance of the property tax was slowly declining; but among the cittes, in recent years it had slightly increased. Among the state Governments, taxes on business had been rapidly increas-

in improved form; and their effectiveness was being

studied with great interest by those interested in governmental economy and efficiency. In the state Governments administrative progress had temporarily taken the path of centralization, and the events of the war had greatly centralized the fiscal machinery of the Federal Government. So far as the tax machinery of the Federal Government is concerned, it is apparent that despite heroic efforts the burden of the war taxes had been

too heavy to permit its werk to be kept current; and here, at least, it was generally conceded that the path of improvement lay in decentralization. The crowning administrative events of

recent years had been the self-denying ordinance adopted by the House of Representatives, by which in the future the old appro-

priation committees would be combined in a single committee on appropriations, and the introduction of a national budget system, by the passage of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921. BIBLIOGRA PHY.~—Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances, particularly those for 1919 and 1920; Taxation and Public Expenditures, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, voi. xev. (particularly noteworthy as containing E. B. Rosa’s Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal Government); Financial Statistics of Cities and Financial Statistics of States, published annually by the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce; R. C. Lefingwell, The Treasury's War Problem (Senate Document No. 301, 66th Congress 2nd Session); E. L. Bogart, Direct end Indirect Costs of the Great World War (Pub. of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace); E. R. A. Seligman, ‘ The Cost of the War and How It Was Met” (Amer. Econ. Review, vol. ix., No. 4). (T. S. A.) IV. TAXATION

The movement by which taxation has supplied, with the passage of time, an increasing share of the public revenue of the United States, was accelerated by the events of the decade 1g10-20. At its beginning, according to the general financial survey of the national, state and local governments made by the Bureau of the Census for the year 1912-3, public expenditures

were met to the extent of approximately 5° from loans, 70% from taxes, 4% from special assessments, and 21% from intercst, rentals, departmental or commercial carnings, end miscellaneous

ing and yicided more than half as much as the property tax itself.

sources.

With the repression of public improvements, due to the war, both

probably not more than one-half of the ageregate public expenditure was met by taxes. Butin the fiscal year 1920, the Federal Government began actively to reduce its short-dated debt; and in that year Federal, state and local revenues were larger than expenditures. Of these revenues (despite the large amounts realized by the Federal Government from salvage and other non-tax sources) taxes supplied over 80% of the total. From the financial standpoint—as a source of revenue compared with

the absolute and relative yield of special assessments had fallen off. In general, the drain upon the national income created by Federal taxes and loans had forced upon the state and local Governments

measures not only of economy but of parsimony, and it is probable that their efficiency had correspondingly suffered.

Budget Procedure—Methods of financial administration made substantial progress during the decade under review. The old and generally inefficient “‘ state boards of equalization ”

During the World War, borrowing took first place, and

UNITED

STATES

(From E. B. Rosa, Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal Government,)

1920 Income and excess profits.

Inthe past it has been customary income and inheritance taxes, main where first imposed, with

It will) be noted that in rg10

yielded over 95% of the total tax revenue; while in 1920 the same on

* luxuries,”

attendance

at

amusements, and transportation and insurance, produced only 25%

of the total.

Progressive income, profits and inheritance or estate

taxes produced over 70% of the total in 1920. It is obvious that the war revolutionized the character of the Federal tax system in the direction of what has been called “ liberal democratic fnance.” However, in July 1921 the income and profits taxes were falling off more rapidly than the indirect taxes on consumption, owing to business depression; there was a recrudescence of protectionism, and a strong movement to introduce a general sales tax, It seemed probable, at that time, that for the fiscal year ending June 39 1922 indirect taxes would supply from 30% to 40% of the total tax collections,

The “consumer national tax bill.

net revenue receipts of all states for the year 1919 amounted to $670,183,918, and the net governmental-cost payments to $635,370,153, from which figures the general meaning of the percentages given in the table may be inferred. Jn arriving at the “ net revenue

receipts,” there have been excluded the proceeds of bond issues and

or supplies, refunds returned by reason of

error or otherwise, and bookkeeping items representing transfers between governmental departments. The term "net governmentalcost payments ” is applied to actual payments for expenses, interest

.

103,635,503 95,141,732 81,259,365

89,710,525 9,01 4,094 $5,407,580,251

296,274,230 |

323,519,307

75172,598

3,333,011

4,913,000

fers,

By “ outlays’ Is meant capital outlays for permanent prop-

erty,

With these explanations, the more important developments

in importance, while business and other Jicence taxes were increasing. Earnings of public enterprises, together with rents, interest

and charges for highway privileges—commercial earnings in their general character—were comparatively speaking stationary. For the three years 1917-9 state receipts exceeded state expenses by a substantial margin. City faxes and the relative importance of other classes of municipal receipts are analyzed in Table III., which is based upon the revenue receipts of 146 of the Jarger cities of the United States for which comparative statistics are available for a period of 17 years. The net revenue receipts of these cities increased from $439,126,723

In 1903 to $1,103,065,750 in 1919; and the net governmental cost payments increased from $514,189,206 to $13,113,599,879 in the same interval, The net revenue receipts thus increased 151% while

the cost payments increased less than 117%.

In 1903 the receipts

constituted only 85-4 % of the expenditures, but in 1919 the receipts amounted to more than 99 % of the expenditures. There is thus no foundation for the current statement that because they may issue

bonds “ free from taxation,” American citics have becn led in recent

years to borrow unduly. Table Ill. describes in figures the more significant movements among city taxes and receipts during recent years; the material increase in the relative importance of the general property tax, the decline of the liquor taxes, the shrinkage in the use of the special assessment since the outbreak of the war, and the slight decrease

in the importance of earnings of public service enterprises. Expressed

in absolute figures, the total net revenue receipts rose from $21.14 per capila in 1903 to $35.26 in 1919; receipts from the general prop-

payments and receipts, refunds

received on account of error or otherwise, and departmental trans-

TABLE

.

ear

270,971,064

Total internal revenue . Customs—net revenue after refunds, ete. 2 . : ` Tax on national bank circulation, net . i $ Postal war revenue

State taxes and other receipts during the period 1915-9 for which general statistics could be obtained are analyzed in Table II. The

and outlays, less counterbalancing

T

Miscellaneous

would be thus paying no small share of the .

of sale of investments

.

es

in the ficld of state taxation and finance during the latter half of the decade may be inferred from Table II. Taxes increased in the aggregate from $364,543,797 in 1915 to $527,819,167 in 1919, but the relative importance of taxes among the total receipts decreased slightly, As a source of state revenue, property taxes were declining

customs, liquor and tobacco taxes—regressive taxes on consumers by similar taxes

brokers, ete.

58,118,457

Total tax revenue . 15,940,080 $616,809,538 (a) Corporations only—excess tax measured by net income,

however collected in the first instance, are supposed to be paid eventually by the producer or consumer, Interpreted with reserva-

augmented

et

208,601,600

295,809,355

Stamps on legal documents Admissions to amusements

the introduction of the Federal multiplication of internal taxes

‘indirect taxes" such as those on tobacco and beverages, which,

taxes

.

197,332,105 |

$20,959,958(a)

307,760,841

Estate or inheritance. ; Capital stock of corporations,

Federal taxes at the beginning and end of the decade 1910-20 are contrasted in Table I. which portrays statistically the supersession of customs duties by the income and profits taxes; the beginning of the decline of the tax on alcoholic beverages caused by prohibition legistation—a decline which is disguised in the table by the inclusion of new taxes on non-alcoholic beverages, introduced since

tions, the distinction is serviccable.

furs, etc. .

1910

$3,956,936,003

Distilled spirits and beverages. Tobacco os 4 we Transportation, insurance, etc. Luxuries, automobiles, candy,

the war were of smaller amount than city taxes, became after it larger than all state and local taxes combined; and the leading Fedcral tax, the income tax, displaced the property tax from its old position at the top of American public receipts. In the fiscal year 1913, property taxes supplied over one-half of the revenue receipts of all divisions of Government, while the yield of income taxes was comparatively insignificant. In the fiscal year 1920 property taxes produced less than one-sixth, while income and profits taxes produced at least one-third and possibly as much as 40% of the total taxes collected in the United States.

the beginning of the World War; estate or inheritance tax; and the onarticlesofcommonconsumption. to contrast ‘ direct taxes ” such as which are supposed to rest in the

869

TABLE I.—Tax revenues of Federal Government: 1920 and 1910,

taxation——Government ownership is not gaining in importance. In the states and cities, the earnings of public service enterprises shrank in relative, though not in absolute, importance during the decade; and in the national budget, postal earnings, Panama Canal tolls and similar receipts have been dwarfed by the huge tax levies necessitated by the war. Federal taxes, which before

I].—Relative importance (percentage distribution) of net revenue receipts and net governmental cost payments of all states:

1915-9.

(From Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics of States, 1919, P- 33-)

Per cent. of net governmental Net revenue receipts

cost payments repre-

sented by :—

- d from from:— Perer cent. cent. ob obtained ax Taxes.

to be

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UNITED STATES

870

erty tax increased from $12.98 per capita in 1903 to $23.29 in 1919; and the earnings of public service enterprises rose from $2.42 per

capita in 1903 to $3.61 per capita in 1919. As stated above, the relative importance of the last class of receipts declined slightly during the period under review.

TABLE III. Relative importance (percentage distribution) of net revenue receipts of 140 cities for specific years: 1903-19. (From Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics of Cities, 1919, p. 55-) '

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5:3

V. SocuaL Aanb WELFARE WORK The 20th century has seen an extraordinary development in the field of social-welfare work in the United States. The

‘6

48 4'7

i

`

5:8

58 50

a

decade 1910-20 are those connected with the rates and the aggregate burden of taxation. Direct taxes were pushed to a height

thought to be impossible before the war.

The maximum rate under

the Federal income tax is 73%, and this is supplemented in some places by a state income tax which, in Wisconsin for instance, exceeds

at the maximum 13 per cent. Corporations have been subject tọ equally drastic taxes. The war profits tax for 1918 was 80% on profits in excess of a deduction which in the average case only slightly exceeded 10% of the invested capital; and corporations paid in addition a 12% income tax, a capital stock tax, and state or local taxes which frequently exceeded (in theory, at least) 2% of the capital value of the property of the corporation. In addition there were misccllancous Federal taxes important enough to have produced over fifteen hundred millions of dollars

taxation placed upon busicomplexity of law and proStates, and threw upon the enough to cause grave con-

gestion and delay. In July 1921 there was a systematic effort, particularly among business men, to replace the direct taxes in large part by a flat tax at a low rate (1% was usually recommended) upon all sales of goods, wares and merchandise. It was urged primarily in order to ‘‘ simplify ” the tax system, to take the place of the excess profits tax and reduce the rates of the income tax. lts opponents attacked it as an attempt to shift the burden of taxation from those who had income or profits, and were thus ‘able to pay,” to the general class of consumers; and asserted that it would discriminate in favour of the ‘‘ combination ’’ and against the inde-

pendent or single-process business. In the United States this controversy assumed an importance worthy of historical record. It marked a reaction from the high tide of direct taxation which during the war supplicd more than three-quarters of the entire tax revenue. It was also worthy of record that in the midst of the industrial depression prevailing in 1921 there was no discernible movement in

favour of mecting the expenses of Government by the issue of paper moncy or by borrowing. In state and local taxation real progress toward the solution of the

more important

in Taxation; Bureau of the Census, Wealth, Debt and Taxation (1913); and the annual publications Financial Statistics of States and Financial Statistics of Cities. For state and local taxation, see in particu-

lar the annual Proceedings and the monthly Bulletin of the National Tax Association. (T. 5. A.)

46

The most important aspects of American taxation during the

in the year 1920. This unprecedented hess a serious burden, brought about a cedure hitherto unknown in the United administrative machinery tasks difficult

supervision of the work of the county or local assessors. It is worthy of note that in recent years the movement for the segregation or separation of state and local taxes has abated. In 1921 there was a marked tendency towards centralization of administration and the collections by state officials or under state supervision of taxes which are later returned in part to the local divisions of government. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See H. C. Adams, Science of Finance; C. C. Plehn, Introduction to Public Finance; E. R. A. Seligman, Essays

100 | 69 9-9 | 66

82 7'9

I:

OG

tions, the administration of the income tax where such a tax is in force, the equalization of assessments among local districts, and the

4°2 45

8-5 8-2

í

Jace!

4

ad | se | 46}

and Federal laws could be made both uniform and consistent. Automobile and hunting licence taxes were rapidly increasing in importance, and together yielded approximately as much as the state inheritance taxes (about fifty million dollars a year), In recent years there has been a marked improvement in the administration of state and local taxes, particularly in the work of assessment. Much of this is attributable to the development of state tax commissions charged usually with the assessment of state-wide corpora-

problems was made during the decade. The gradual

abrogation of the old ‘iron rule of constitutional uniformity ” (taxation of alf classes of property at the same rate) continued. Gradually, but without material setback, law and practice were being modified so as to adapt the general property tax to the peculiar needs of the different classes of property or business, such as forest land, the mining industry, and public service enterprises.

Low rates were in a constantly increasing number of jurisdictions applied to money and securities, which go into hiding if an attempt

is made to tax them at the rate applicable to real estate and tangible property; or this class of intangible property was exempted from

Lhe property tax and subjected to special taxes such as the mortgage registry tax, or the income tax. With three exceptions all American states employ some form of the inheritance tax. With the Federal

Government imposing an estate tax which rises to 25% where the net estate exceeds $10,000,000; and the state Governments employ-

number

of persons interested—whether as volunteers, serving

on boards and committees, or as contributors of financial support, or as salaried employees—has multiplied manyfold. Appropriations from taxes, annual contributions for the current work of privately supportéd organizations, and endowments by men

and women of wealth, have increased enormously. New forms of social work have come into existence, and the older forms have improved their methods, as well as extended their scope. Principles have been formulated; standards have been set up; training courses have been established; general instruction has been introduced into the colleges and universities, and even to some extent into the. secondary schools; a technical literature has been produced; intelligent discussion of social problems in the popular periodicals and the daily press has become common. Social work in the United States displays certain marked characteristics which distinguish it from corresponding activi-

ties in other countries. (x) There is greater variety. In the field of private charity individual initiative has had free play, little hampcred by legislative restrictions or by precedents, and comparatively little by the control of church authorities. The administration of public charitable and correctional institutions and welfare legislation are not, as in England or France, national undertakings, but for the most part fall under the jurisdiction of the states, and even within the states the bulk of responsibility lies with local authorities of city, town or county. This situation has favoured experimentation. (2) The relative amount of social work undertaken on private initiative, as compared with that done by the State, is far greater than elsewhere. (3) In private philanthropy, the relative amount carried on under religious auspices is far less. (4) Throughout

the whole system of charity and correction, both public and private, there is more hope.

In comparison with older countries,

there has been little poverty and degeneracy in America at any period,

Even in the oldest cities there is no pauper class.

(5)

In the United States public and private relief, charity and correction, the care of sick, criminal or indigent individuals, and

the efforts to improve housing, to provide facilities for recreation, and so on, are coming to be regarded as component parts of a complicated system, not as separate and distinct departments in the economy of the nation. (6) Finally, there is in American social work something of the readiness to “ scrap” machinery, processes and plants, which is characteristic of American industry. Indeed, the ultimate object of all social work, from the American

point of view, is to make social work unnecessary;

dents and the transfer of all corporate shares in domestic corpora-

and every social agency which js efficiently accomplishing its immediate purpose is more or less consciously working for its own extinction. Social work, therefore, is constantly changing.

unbearable situation promised to arise unless in some manner state

rests ordinarily upon their immediate relatives.

ing several mutually inconsistent

bases of taxation, for example,

taxing the transfer of all corporate shares owned by resident dece-

tions owned by non-resident decedents, problems cf double or multiple taxation were becoming particularly serious; and an almost

Legally, the responsibility for the relief of the poor in America Children and

UNITED

STATES

parents, even brothers and sisters, may be compelled by law to

the functions of the pioneer Children’s Aid Society of New

furnish, if able, the necessaries of life to the indigent. The laws in American states do not uniformly recognize what in England is called the “ right to relief.” In New York, for example, an

York—to find homes in families for homeless children, to con-

duct lodging-houses and reading-rooms for newsboys, and in other ways to promote the welfare of city “ waifs.” “ Fresh-air societies ’’ existed to provide outings for city children. “ Visiting nursing associations ’’ had demonstrated the value of such service, and some 4o to 50 had been organized, with an aggregate force of not more than 140 nurses for the entire country. In the larger cities and industrial centres day nurseries had been

able-bodied: man who has no visible means of support and no regular o¢cupation is not, under the law, a “ poor person,” but is a “ vagrant.” On his own confession before,a magistrate he may be accepted as a public charge, but technically he

is

punished, not “ supported.” Harsh as the law sounds when thus stated, it corresponds to the fact that for able-bodied adults in America there is always practically some alternative to starva-

tion besides vagrancy. Public Relief —Although a legal right to relief is not formally recognized, there is a tacit assumption that any kind of misfortune which threatens life or physical well-being should be provided for; and that if relatives, friends, or voluntary agencies do not make such provision, the State must, or at least should,

do so in some way (see PUBLIC ASSISTANCE: section United States), By the end of the roth century public opinion had recognized that the almshouse was not a suitable place for tramps, vagrants,

and disorderly persons; for children; for the insane, feebleminded, epileptic, blind, and deaf; for confinement cases; cases of acute illness and contagious discase; but that these should be provided for in special institutions. These theoretical conclusions, however, were by no means completely or uniformly embodied in practice. In many of the newer states, with no correctional institutions except gaols and State prisons, the courts still habitually committed certain minor offenders to the almshouse. Seventeen states in rooo still maintained their dependent children in almshouses. The greatest progress towards specialized care had been made in the case of the insane, but in most of the states institutions for them were overcrowded, while in many a certain number of insane were still to be found in the county poorhouses or even in the gaols; and the horsewhip was still advocated by some of their official guardians for quieting the violent. State schools for blind and deaf children had been generally established, but there was practically no provision for the instruction of persons who became blind, or deaf, or otherwise

disabled in adult life. There were only 26 public institutions for the feeble-minded in the country, and special provision for epileptics was rare. Even in so advanced a state as New York there were about as many “ idiots,” feeble-minded, and epileptic in the almshouses as in the special institutions for their care.

There were still many large cities and towns which had no general public hospitals; confinement cases were generally admitted to the almshouse, and as there was almost no public provision, and little under private auspices, for the care of consumptives, many of these also were found in the almshouses. Except in certain northern cities and in some of the southern states, outdoor relief

was gencrally given by local public officials in the form of groceries, fuel, clothing, and sometimes in money. This and the undifferentiated almshouse were still the public provision available for the majority of dependents. Private Philanthropy.—FParallel with the various public agen-

cies were many which had been established, and were conducted, under church auspices, or by incorporated societies or

less formal associations of private individuals. The private institutions which existed in 1900 were chiefly orphan asylums, hospitals, and homes for the aged.

Most churches gave charit-

able assistance on occasion to their own members, and the larger

ones had a Ladies’ Aid Socicty, or a St. Vincent de Paul Society, or some other agency for the purpose. In the cities there were “bread lines’ and ‘soup kitchens”? and temporary shelters for the homeless. In many places there were non-sectarian general relief societies, such as the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, and in about roo cities there was a Charity Organization Society, or Associated Charities, or United Charitics. There were also many societies for

871

ties for the protection of children from cruelty and neglect; and a considerable number of societies performing onc or more of

in some states grandchildren, parents and in some states grand-

established for the convenience of wage-earning mothers and to

reduce the number of children who were candidates for institu-. tional care.

|

Treatment of Criminals—Reformatory schools for juvenile delinquents, which had naturally come into extstence much earlier than reformatories for adults, were to be found by 1900 in four-fifths of the states—more of them for boys than for girls, even in proportion to their numbers as delinquents. Juvenile courts were at the beginning of their development. Probation also was only beginning to receive attention. Growing out of the privilege of the court to suspend sentence after conviction,

it had been the practice in connexion with adult offenders throughout Massachusetts for 20 years, and was established by’ statute in New Jersey in 1899, but had not spread farther. As applied to children, it had not yet been tried. Probation,

indeterminate sentence, reformatory institutions, special courts for children, and even specialized treatment for women and children offenders, were still novelties. Fixed sentences, determined by the nature of the offence, without reference to the needs of the offender, were the rule; and they were served for the most’ part under conditions dictated by the theory of retribution rather than of reformation. As the characteristic charitable institution of America is the town or county almshouse, so the

characteristic correctional institution was and Js the county gaol and town “lock-up.” Generally small, with poor sanitation, frequently “ fire-traps,” they are described by a committce of the National Conference of Charities and Correction in 1900 as “ foul dens, infested with vermin, recking with dirt and filth.”

Boys and girls arrested for a trivial first offence, professional criminals, prostitutes and innocent persons awaiting trial were “herded together ” in idleness, dirt, and bad aur. State Supervision.—To insure a certain standard in the con-. duct of public charitable and correctional institutions, state boards had been established in over half the states. These were

of two main types: (1) advisory boards, with authority inspect, report, and make recommendations,

to

relying for their

influence chiefly on the power of publicity; and (2) boards of control, with full executive powers and executive responsibility. The former type was considerably in the majority. Preventive Philanthropy —Ot “ preventive philanthropy ”’ or. “ constructive social work ” there was very little at the beginning of the 20th century. Interest in providing playgrounds and small parks in congested districts and public baths had been growing for several years. The New York Tenement House Committee had begun work in 1899, and was laying the foundations of the modern housing movement. The Consumers’ League had exposed the horrors of sweat-shop work, and was

preparing the way for a general concern about industrial conditions. But the conspicuous educational agency at this period was the social settlement. Beginning with the Neighborhood: Guild on the lower east side of New York City, the number of settlements had increased to over one hundred. Twentieth-Century Developments.—One of the ideas which became dominant among social workers early in the 2oth century was that “ prevention is better than relief.” A second, in the picturesque phrase of Jacob A. Riis, was that ‘a man cannot live like a pig and act and vote like a man.” Both these ideas grew out of the experiences of men and women who were engaged

assisting certain classes in their own homes—widows, for exam-

in work for the relief or the reformation of individuals, or who

ple, or members of a particular nationality; or for giving some particular kind of help, such as legal aid. There were 161 socie-

were living among the poor in social settlements. Out of these ideas naturally developed the organized social movements

UNITED

872 which are characteristic

of contemporary

American

philan-

STATES relief of the poor found their task growing more complex.

In

thropy. Conspicuous among them are the movements for the prevention of tuberculosis, for the diminution of infant mortality,

particular, they found themselves obliged by the logic of their

to promote the health of children, for the control of cancer, for the reduction of venereal disease, for the prevention of blindness, to abolish extortionate charges for loans secured by salarics and pawnable property, to promote wholesome recreation, to diminish child labour, to further industrial education, to advance the interests of the negro, to reform criminal law and procedure, to prevent insanity, to improve housing conditions, to improve and standardize labour legislation.

the family, to sce that physical defects in children were corrected, that the family diet was suitable and sufficient, that the home was decently sanitary, that incipient physical and mental troubles were properly treated; to make it possible for children

Each of these movements is represented by a national organi-

zation—some of them by several—and in most of the cases a large number of local societies or committees also exist, more or less closely affiliated with the national body.

Their central

feature is educational propaganda, based on the study of facts. Millions of dollars were spent to this end in the two decades, 1900-20, and remarkable ingenuity was uscd in devising effective methods, Simple “literature,” presenting clearly the essential facts (about the nature of tuberculosis, for example, and the precautions which should be taken), printed in alluring style and translated into many languages, photographs, lantern slides, posters, motion pictures, standardized exhibits;

monologues by clowns, plays, lectures to use on the phonograph; Christmas seals; a press service supplying material to news-

papers all over the country; a “ tuberculosis day ” or a “ child

labour day” in the churches and in the schools; lectures and motion pictures at county fairs; travelling exhibits touring the countryside—such are some of the methods in use.

new knowledge to examine into the health of each member of

to stay in school at Icast as fong as the law required, and preferably beyond that age; for mothers and fathers who were ill

to have adequate medical treatment and convalescent care; and to supplement the income, if necessary, sufficiently to secure

these essential conditions. Hospitals and dispensaries came to see the connexion of their institutions with the homes of their patients, and ‘“ hospital social service ” was devised. Provision for the insane, for the tuberculous, for delinquent children and adults, was extended in both directions—to reach them at an earlier stage of their difficulties and to watch over them after

discharge. Prevention of infant mortality Ied back to prenatal care and instruction of mothers. Rehabilitation became the conscious goal in philanthropy and correction.

Training Schools —The Summer School of Philanthropy, begun in 1898 by the Charity Organization Society of New York, was expanded in 1903-4 into a two-year course of special

training for graduate students and persons who had had the

equivalent of a college course, with instruction which included both study of principles and practice and which was recognized by Columbia University as of graduate standard. Within a few years similar schools, affiliated more or less closely with educational institutions, but, like the New York school, owing

Research and Surveys Another result of the interest in prevention and in underlying causes was to stimulate research into

their existence to social workers, were established in Boston,

social conditions. ‘The new organizations which have just been mentioned were obliged to begin operations by collecting data. Charity organization socicties, settlements, and others among the older philanthropic agencies, began to delve into their

tion on the same general plan was introduced in a considerable number of colleges and universities. By 1920 such training was

records, or into their unrecorded experiences, for knowledge about social conditions, Several heavily endowed “ Foundations ”

were established—notably the Russell Sage, the Rockefeller, and the Carnegic—with research as one, if not the primary, object. For about a decade, beginning about 1902-4, many studies were made. In 1907 the ‘“ Pittsburgh Survey’ was undertaken by the committee in charge of the publication then

known as Charities and the Commons (now The Survey), with financial support from the Russell Sage coöperation from many of the social and the country and from many citizens and burgh. It was an attempt to present a conditions in an industrial wage-earning

Foundation, and with sanitary movements of organizations of Pittsbird’s-cye view of the centre. This survey,

published later in six volumes, had immediate practical results in Pittsburgh itself,

It had a wider influence—because of the

dramatic prominence assumed in it by industrial accidents, the

twelve-hour day and the seven-day weck—in impressing on America the evils of overwork and of the outworn theory of employers’ liability. It also established the “ social survey ” as a method of research. There have been only one or two other surveys equally ambitious, notably one of Springfield, IU., conducted by the Russell Sage Foundation’s Department of Surveys and Exhibits; but less comprehensive surveys have been made under various auspices in many cities, and although this method has at times been absurdly applied, it has done a great

deal to establish the sound principle that plans for improvement should be based on an understanding of actual conditions.

Reaction on Relief and Correction.—The New York Charity Organization Society enlarged its activities (1897-1905) by establishing a Tenement House Committee, a committee on the

prevention of tuberculosis, a committee on criminal courts, a school for the training of social workers, and the weekly journal already mentioned, Fhe Survey. Other societies created similar committees, or undertook other educational work as an adjunct to their original function. All these new activities, In turn, had a reflex influence on the older forms of social work. As the idea of prevention gained ground, those who were engaged in the

Chicago, St. Louis, Philadelphia, and Richmond, while instruc-

offered by most of the leading educational institutions of the country, cither as graduate or undergraduate work in the departments of the social sciences. No new independent schools have been established for a decade or more, and one of the most important of them (the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy) has recently (1920) been discontinued on the creation of a Graduate School of Social Service Administration in the university of Chicago. Whether or not social work has become a “ profession * is a question of merely academic interest, but it

has become a recognized occupation, engaging large numbers of men and women with high qualifications, and offering salaries which compare favourably with those available in the teaching profession and the ministry.

Formulation of Standards—From

their study of methods

social workers were led to formulate standards, and this has been done with special success in matters of legislation. The Uniform Child Labor law, prepared by the Commissioners on Uniform State laws of the American Bar Association and adopted by the National Child Labor Committee, and the essential features of

a Workmen’s Compensation law as advocated by the American Association for Labor Legislation, are conspicuous examples, to the influence of which the statute books of most of the states bear witness. National leagues of societies engaged in similar work have been organized and have promoted uniformity of methods in their several fields. Aside from those which are purely legislative, the standards which have had the greatest

influence are these formulated by the White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children, held by invitation of President Roosevelt Jan. 25-6 1909, and by the Conference on Child Welfare Standards, held under the auspices of the Federal

Children’s Bureau 10 years later. The unanimous recommendations of the White House Conference were adopted as a quest creed or constitution by the child-welfare workers of the country. The Children’s Bureau Conference, held in roro, at the close

of the “ Children’s Year,” had a far wider scope.

It considered the essentials to child-welfare from every point of view, and drew up minimum standards for children entering employment; for the protection of the health of children and mothers and for the protection of ‘ children in need of special care.”

UNITED Coérdination.—In recent years social workers have developed a new sense of the interrelations of social agencies.

As affecting

case-work, this has showed in an increased appreciation of the

STATES

873

they increase the public interest in the social work of the community, and provide a channel through which the public may register its judgments of the social agencies and share in direct-

idea of registration which had been one of the cardinal principles of the charity organization movement. Under the new name of

ing their development. Increased Reliance on Governntcnt—Even before the war there

“ confidential exchange ” or ‘social service exchange,” there

was a noticeable tendency away fram the ald American individ-

has been established in the leading cities a central record of the families known to the various social agencies, so that each society may learn which other agencies may be, or have been, interested in any particular family and may consult with them.

ualism and distrust of government. Supervision over private social work has been extended, and there has even been a tendency towards some degree of public control. Recourse has been

Furthermore, social workers began to think of particular agen-

had to legistation to establish minimum standards of housing, of working conditions, even of wages, to protect women and chil-

cies and particular methods as clements in the community’s

dren in industry, and otherwise to promote social welfare; and

equipment, to consider what place each one should occupy, what its appropriate function was, and what was needed to supplement it, In other words, they began to make “ programmes ”: for a comprehensive campaign against tuberculosis; for a charity organization society in a small town; for an adequate system of care for the insane; for State legislation on behalf of children— children’s codes,” as they are called, presenting a harmonized plan of desirable laws; and so on. The national associations in the different educational movements not only outlined in a general way the elements in a “ campaign ” against the particular evil of their concern, but also suggested concrete

such legislation has been increasingly sustained by the courts. The great cost of adequate provision for the sick and adequate hygienic education of the well, together with the growing recognition that, to be adequate, such measures must reach all citizens, have made it inevitable that they should be undertaken largely by public authorities. Boards of health have accardingly extended their control over infectious diseases, established sanatoria and all sorts of clinics, distributed much information, and maintained nurses and physicians to visit the poor in their

programmes for local organizations. Councils of social agencies have been organized in some cities to promote mutual under-

ers ” to their staffs, have offered evening classes and vocation

standing and the development

munity centres,” as well as admitted into the curriculum new

of a community

programme,

while the financial federaiions which have been developed for joint raising of funds have, as an incident to their main purpose, perhaps been the strongest influence of all in this direction. Since the World War it has become obvious that there is need for covrdinating the work of the national agencies also. Financial Federations —The financial federations bid fair to establish themselves as an integral feature of social work in America. Before the end of the roth century bureaux of advice and information had been created by the charity organiza-

tion socictics in several of the large cities, supplying information about organizations and Individuals and appealing for contributions. Beginning with Cleveland about 1900, the chamber of commerce in various cities had established a “‘ charity endorsement committee,’ which made up a list of approved agencies for the convenience of its members, who, with their families, constituted a large part of the giving public. As social agencies mulliplicd, competition became so intense that protests from harassed contributors led to the idea of financial federation,

viz. that all the agencies in a community which depended on voluntary contributions for their support should form an association, agree on a joint budget for the next ycar, throw into a common pool their contributors’ lists and other information about sources of income, present their united needs to the public

in a single campaign, and share in the results in proportion to their budgets. Jewish charities were the first to do this successfully, but by 1917 there were general federations in several cities. When the war brought demands from a host of new and ald organizations, in sums that had never before even been imagined, adevelopment of the fundamental idea in federations was forced. “ War chests ” were sct up in some 300 cities by the summer of 1918, to raise the money asked for by the American Red Cross, the ¥Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A., the War Camp Com-

munity Service, and other ‘‘ war work ” agencies, and in some places the local charities also were included in the chest. The gencral satisfaction felt with the experiment Ied a number of the cities to convert their war chests into “ peace chests” or “community funds,” and by March 1921 at least 30 important cities had adopted this method of raising theirfunds. Agreat deal more money is secured in this way than by separate competitive appeals; a much larger proportion of the population contributes (20-30% instead of an estimated 2-10%); less expense is involved and less annoyance to contributors. The strongest argument in favour of financial federations, however, is that through joint budget-making, joint study of community needs, joint planning for community welfare, they tend to dissipate the narrow institutionalism of the agencics concerned, while, on the other hand,

homes and give them oral instruction. Public schools have added physicians, nurses, psychiatrists, dentists and “ visiting teachschools and public lectures and opened their buildings as ‘‘ comsubjects. ‘Three-fourths of the states have established burcaux of child welfare or child hygiene. There has even been an extension of public out-door relief, which had fallen into disrepute during the rath century. Partly as a result of the new conviction that children were better off with their mothers than in institutions or in foster homes, partly from a sudden appreciation of the service performed to the State in the bearing of children and a determination that the State should recognize this service, most of the states of the Union (beginning with Missouri in 1911) made special provision for payments of “ widows’ pensions ” or ‘‘ mothers’ allowances,” ‘“‘ mothers’ aid,” “funds to parents,” or ‘ mothers’ compensation,” to mothers who without this assistance might be obliged to place their children in institutions. Reliance on the State has gone so far as to demand assistance

in promoting social welfare from the Federal Government.

Its

taxing power has been invoked to discourage the employment of children in factories, mines and quarries, in order to extend some protection to the children in the more backward states. Financial aid for vocational education and (by a measure passed in 1920) for the reéducation of industrial cripples, has been granted by the Federal Government to the states in proportion to their population and their own appropriations. The Department of Agricultare has done social work on a substantial scale in rural districts. The Bureau of Labor has been erected into a separate

departiment, with corresponding increase in impor-

tance. A children’s bureau, placed almost by chance in the Department of Labor, was created in 1912, at the instance of the social workers of the country. The Werld War end Social Work.—The first effect of the war on social work in America, while the United States was still neutral, was to strengthen and improve it. Sympathy for suiferings in Europe quickened sensitiveness to social problems at home. A little later the appeals for war relief tended to drown those of the familiar everyday agencies at home. This was not an unmixed evil, for it compelled scrutiny of plans within cach organization to determine what could be spared with least disadvantage. When the United States entered the war, in April 1917, social work leaped into unprecedented prominence. Many of the wonted social problems were intensified and some new ones created, especially by the operation of the draft and the

establishment of training camps; while a new demand for persons with experience in human problems sprang up in government departments and war industries. A fervour developed for service, especially for service to American soldiers and sailors

and to the civilian sufferers in the Allied countries.

The Red

UNITED

874

STATES

Cross organized its Home Service Sections to minister to the

tinued in many small towns and rural communities after the

needs of the families of men in service; its Bureau of Refugees

World War, supply something corresponding to the general relief society or family society in the cities. Public relief has been extended by the all-but-universal provision of ‘“ mothers’ allowances,” which, however, are generally inadequate in amount or incompetently supervised. An organized system for assuring

and Relief in France and other activities on behalf of the civilian populations in European countries. With official encouragement, the seven “ moral-making agencies,” as they were called —Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., Knights of Columbus, Jewish Welfare Board,

Salvation Army,

American

Library Association,

War

Camp Community Service—undertook to occupy the leisure of the soldiers and sailors, in training at home or on duty abroad. They provided physical, social, and spiritual comforts, mental diversion and entertainment.

The Federal Government, through the system it adopted of allotments

and allowances to the families of men

in service,

compensation for death and disability, reéducation of the disabled, and war-risk insurance; through the Housing Corporation; the Federal Employment Service; the Division of Venereal

Disease in the Public Health Service; the thrift campaign of the Treasury Department; the educational work of the Food Administration; and other undertakings, plunged into social work on a gigantic scale. Much of it, unfortunately, though wiscly con-

ceived, was badly executed, but it strengthened the demand that the Federal Government should in the future make more substantial direct contributions to social welfare. The established forms of social work fared badly under the competition of these new activities. Financial support was dificult to secure, and—what was more serious—many agencies

saw their staffs sadly depleted by the superior appeal of war work,

Young, inexperienced persons were frequently the only

ones available for positions of responsibility. On the other hand, many capable men and women who would not otherwise have been attracted to social work have entered it permanently, and many more have had experiences which cannot fail to be of advantage to social work jn the future because of the interest and knowledge acquired. Aside from this increase in the popularity of social work and in the general understanding of social probJems, a conspicuous effect of the war was to hasten the process

of nationalization which had been going on for half a century, This is shown not only in the disposition to expect more active participation by the Fedcral Government, but in a consciousness of the national character of the problems of education, health, and adequate income; ina prominence accorded to certain elcments of the national life, hitherto comparatively neglected,

such

as the rural population,

the negro,

the

foreign-born.

Topics in which interest has been intensified are education, recreation, physical efticiency, venereal disease, mental defects, “community organization,’ retraining ofcripples and other

handicapped adults and their restoration to a place of usefulness and self{-support in the community. In general, the effect of the war has been to confirm the principles of soctal work and to commend them to a larger public. In the treatment of criminals, however, it has been the opposite. For the moment, at least, it seems that much of the progress painfully made in the course of the roth century has been brushed away. There has been a reversion to the principles of vengeance and retribution in dealing with civilian lawbreakers. Arcactionin favour-of the death penalty and of severe and even brutal sentences has displaced the sentiment that certainty of

punishment is more efficacious as a deterrent than severity. Practical Advance.—In these 20 years of the 2oth century, ideas have far outstripped practice. Both ideals and practice

prompt relief in any community visited by a disaster has existed since 1906 under the auspices of the Red Cross. In theory rchabilitation isaccepted as the object of the social agencies which have to do with children or with family groups or individuals capable of ultimate self-support, including the public departments which administer outdoor relief. Available resources for recreation and education, for physical and mental examination and treatment, are utilized more fully. Moncey is spent more freely, especially to ensure adequate food, sanitary homes, the

recovery or preservation of health, to keep families together, and to keep children in school. In public institutions diet has improved, and in general the physical conditions are better. Here and there the almshouse has been transformed in accordance with the theories of the zoth century, and through the

continued growth of specialized institutions its population is gradually decreasing and it is losing its place of preëminence among the social agencies of the country. It is still, however, much the same institution that it was 20 years ago, and it still affects far too many persons to justify the indifference still shown

it. In other respects, too, there has been little advance in provision for those who reach old age without resources and without relatives who can take care of them: accommodations in private homes for the aged have not increased substantially; the plan of placing them in families under supervision has nowhere had much attention; and thus far there has not been much sentiment in any state in favour of old-age pensions, nor much evidence brought forward that they are needed. Children (the other class of natural dependents), in their character as the most responsive subjects for both preventive and constructive efforts, have aroused a new and scientific interest. The case of the child who must be supported wholly or in part by other than his parents or near relatives has improved more than that of the aged. There are more chances than there

were 20 years ago that arrangements will be made for him to stay with his own mother or that he will be placed in some family where he will at least have the training of family life; if the latter, that the home will be chosen with reference to his particular requirements, and that in case of mistake it will be discovered

before his future is jeopardized. Jf he goes to an institution, it is more likely to be one in which he is regarded as an individual, and in which the life is organized for the benefit of the children

rather than primarily for ease and economy of administration. The capital invested in old-style congregate institutions and the initial cost of replacing them by a plant on the cottage plan retards the tendency in this direction.

Few institutions of the

old type have been constructed in recent years, and some old institutions have moved out from the city into a colony of small home-like buildings, permitting better classification of the children and a more nearly normal life, but the process of dis-

placement is slow, the roth-century city institution still predominates,

While in the best institutions, and the best placing-

out agencies, physical and mental examinations are given to the children and more careful attention is paid to the correction of defects than in the average family, such skilled professional care is still the exception rather than the rule.

have made great strides in advance, but the gap between generally accepted theories and actual provision is as wide as it was in 1900. By way of summary: what difference have the 20 years made to the individuals whose welfare is at stake? The task of helping those who are in economic difficulty is

In provision for the cure and prevention of disease and for the promotion of health these 20 years have seen the most marked advance. Ill health as a cause of individual inefficiency, poverty,

done more thoroughly.

A larger proportion of those who need

welfare and happiness; preventable disease as one of the greatest

assistance receive it; a larger proportion receive a kind and an

and least excusable social evils; physical efficiency as 4 national ideal—these ideas have created a large proportion of our current social work, and materially modificd most of the rest. General hospital accommodations and dispensary service have increased at a rapid rate, considering the investment required. Although there is not yet suitable provision for more than 20% of the

amount adapted to their needs; individual and family situations likely to produce dependence later are more frequently recognized and corrected. There were in 1920 over 309 “ family social work societies,” as compared with roo-at the beginning of the century. The home service sections of the Red Cross, con-

and even crime; good health as the foundation

of individual

UNITED tuberculous in need of institutional! care, still nearly all of the 60.000 beds in the 689 sanatoria

and special hospitals, day

camps and preventoria (Jan. 1 1921) have been provided since tooo. This is true also of most of the convalescent homes, the many specialized clinics—prenatal, “ baby,” dental, venereal disease, psychiatric, etc.—the medical examination of school children, the nursing service of schools and health departments. The level of knowledge about tuberculosis and other preventable diseases and about personal hygiene has risen perceptibly. A new type of agency is now becoming prominent—“ health

STATES

875

and more of them are than formerly. There is increased attention to physical conditions and needs, better ventilation, improved sanitation, more physical exercise, and in the reformatories

some

use is made of psychological tests and some

attention paid to the correction of physical defects. The value of academic instruction and of productive occupation js more generally realized in the state prisons, and the reformatories also provide Vocational training, The old perplexity of how to prevent prison labour from competing with free labour has ceased to be a practical problem, with the general acquiescence

centres?” and “ well-baby clinics,” for example—directed towards the preservation of the health of those who are well. Provision for the treatment of mental disease also has con-

of organized labour on the “state use” system. Contract labour, however, is still found in many state prisons, and there has been little progress in making the work of the man in prison

tinued to increase, until in 1920 there were 232,680 patients in

contribute to the support of his family at home. The convict lease system in the South has almost disappeared. A few

institutions; and the tendency already well established in the roth century towards public care, by the state rather than by local units, has progressed until, in all but 8 states, all insane who are public charges are in state hospitals (i.e. not in almshouses or other county or city institutions). In 12 states there were, in 1921, psychiatric hospitals, psychiatric wards in general hospitals, detention hospitals, or other provision for the temporary care of mental cases. The corollary, however, is that in 36 states there is no such provision and in these 12 only a fraction

of the population is thus served. The hospitals in most states are sadly overcrowded. Notwithstanding this pressure, the Scotch plan of boarding out selected cases of certain types, which has long been followed with success in Massachusetts, has not been adopted elsewhere. National prohibition, however, has already cut down the number of admissions to the alcoholic wards, and it may be that this influence will enable the states

within the next few years to match accommodation with applications. A few institutions undertake to keep watch over the

county gaols have been remodelled, and a few others have been

replaced by farm colonies. The use of probation for adult offenders has increased, though less rapidly for juvenile delinquents. Private enterprise in the field of correction has concerned itself chiefly with furthering the movement for juvenile courts

and probation; promoting specialized provision for women offenders, including policewomen and separate detention houses; developing protective work, especially for girls; securing the establishment of night courts and special courts for cases involving family desertion and other domestic relations; and in a few places, intermittent efforts to secure a rational treatment of beggars, drunkards, and other misdemeanants. Interest in 1921 seemed to centre round protective work for young offenders; the need of separating the feeble-minded from those of normal mental powers in reformatories and of distinguishing between them throughout the correctional system; problems of court

organization and procedure, including the proposal for merging

patients discharged as cured or improved, and a few private organizations supplement the work of the public institutions in

juvenile courts and the so-called domestic relations courts into

this way, and also try to avert the development of insanity in

While it would be out of the question to review in this place the progress which has been made during the 20th century in the

incipient or suspected cases brought to their attention. In New York a state system of clinics has been organized under the joint auspices of the state hospitals, the state Department of Health, and the Committee on Mental Hygiene. In gencral, however, the prevention of mental disease and the promotion of mental hygiene are comparatively rare.

For mental defectives provision has increased rapidly as compared with that at the beginning of the century, but slowly as compared with the need. There were about 40,000 feeble-minded in institutions in 1920, which was twice aS many as in Iọ91ọ, but not more than 6% of the estimated total in the country.

There were still, in 1921, 14 states which had no separate institution for such patients. In the conduct of the institutions the tendency is towards making them less custodial in their atmosphere, more medical and educational, less like 2 poorhouse, more like a combination of hospital and school. Special classes for backward children were maintained in 1921 in over a hundred cities, but the aggregate enrolment of over 20,000 represents

only a small portion of such children even in these cities. In connexion with crime the greatest advance has been made in the case of juvenile delinquents, who are now treated rather like neglected children than like criminals. Nearly three-fourths now come before courts intended especially for children’s cases, the best of which have facilities for thorough physical and mental examinations and social investigation, and before judges who are expert in this work. All the states except Wyoming had made by 1919 some provision for probation for juvenile offenders,

and about half the juvenile courts had a probation service in operation. Children in small villages and the country are hardly touched by these new methods. The proportion of juvenile delinquents sent to institutions is smaller than 20 years ago, and these institutions have become in some instances excellent schools.

They have made more progress than those for dependent children in transforming their plants and their methods to correspond with current theories. The interests of adult criminals have not advanced so much. It is more generally admitted, however, that every correctional institution should be a “ reformatory,”

‘“‘ family courts,” to deal with all cases involving family life. general standard of living and the conditions under which the mass of Americans live and work, still so large a part of the social work of these 20 years has been consciously directed towards this object that it would be equally impossible to omit all reference to it. The contribution of organized social work cannot be definitely disentangled from that of any of the other factors which have been influential in bringing about these improvements, but it is patent to any student of the period that it has been an important factor. The educational social movements,

through their research, their programmes, their publicity and their propaganda, have to a large extent enlisted the interest of the other factors, determining which questions should have precedence, and how they should be presented to the public. “ Welfare work ” in mercantile and industrial establishments has an obvious historical association with those kinds of social work which deal with health, housing, recreation, and the stand-

ard of living. In America, however, it is now generally conceived, not as an expression of altruistic interest on the part of the employer, but rather as a subdivision of personnel administration. Scientific management, industrial medicine, vocational guidance and other factors have influenced its development. In many instances welfare activities have begun with a restroom, a lunch-room, first-aid appliances. From these modest

beginnings they have expanded to include everything which might directly or indirectly increase the efficiency of the workers. Their home life, savings, investments, education of children, and social opportunities have been included. Industrial goodwill between the management and the workers has ccme to be looked upon as an asset to be cultivated. The Y.M.C.A., and other agencies which prefer to avoid industria! controversies and to operate within the ‘“ zone of agreement,” have found here a useful and congenial field. (L. Bx., E. T. D.) VI. THE AMERICAN LABOUR MOVEMENT The labour movement in the United States Las been distinguished from that in other countries by being leta class-conscious,

UNITED

876

more individualistic and opportunist. Although there are Socialist factions, and some leaders favour industrial unionism, the majority of organized labour clings to the tactics of federated crafts, and does not aim further than to increase wages, decrease

hours and improve the conditions of employment through agreement with the employer. The American labour movement has not been led by “intellectuals.” The leaders have come from the ranks—one explanation of the characteristic opportunism and lack ofasocial philosophy. The great majority of American working men do not want a Labour party in politics; they do not consider themselves a separate class in the body politic. The American political parties antedate the formation of modern economic classes.

Class parties are discountenanced as ‘ un-

American.” A politician in any party may present himself as a “ fricnd of labour.””? Moreover, the system of checks and balances of the Government offers resistance to change, and the division

of sovereignty between state and Federal Government makes legislative reform measurcs difficult of passage. More can be accomplished with equal effort by trade-union methods.

What

part the American Federation of Labor has taken in politics has been to advise the working men to reward their friends and punish their enemies at the polls. During the World War an attempt was made, without success, by the machinists of Connecticut to form a Labor party. In Nov. 1918 leaders of the Chicago Federation of Labor proposed

a Labor party, and suggested 14 planks for the platform, which ranged from the right of labour to organize and bargain collectively to representation of labour as such in all Government departments, Eleven of the planks closely resembled the reconstruction programme of the American Federation of Labor. In Jan. 1919 the Labor party of Cook county (Chicago) was formed, with an official organ The New Majority. In April an linois state Labor party was formed at the convention of the state Federation of Labor. It elected several mayors and other officials. Thesameyear there sprang up also a Pennsylvania state Labor party, the American Labor party of Greater New York and the Working People’s Non-Partisan Political League of Minnesota, which last had the object of codperating with the far-

mers’ Non-Partisan League. In Nov. a national Farmer-Labor party was organized in Chicago, which aimed to draw together the working man and the farmer. This party nominated a president for the national election; 272.514 votes were polled for him, or 1% of the total votes cast. Other political parties, having as

their aim better conditions of labour, are the Socialist party, the Communist party and the Communist Labor party, both of which latter split off from ihe Socialist party in Aug. 1910, and the Socialist Labor party (organs, The Socialist, the Weekly People), In the spring of 1920 the Michigan branch of the Communist party became the Proletarian party. Labour and the World War—In 1916 when President Wilson

STATES regardless of sex, the representation of organized labour on all committees which fixed policies for war work, and provision that special exertion of workers in war emergencies should not benefit chiefly the employers by increased profits. On April 17, at a meeting of the Council of National Defense and its Advisory Committee, Gompers gave his pledge that organized labour would support the Government to win the war. In the summer of 1917 the American Alliance for Labor and Democracy was formed by trade unionists, social reformers and non-pacifist socialists to counteract the pacifist propaganda of the People’s Council of America. But some members of the trade unions opposed the pro-war stand of the leaders, and formed the Work-

men’s Council for Maintenance of Labor’s Rights; this died out during the next year. In Nov. the national convention of the American Federation of Labor passed a resolution that the United States was in the war for democracy against autocracy. The convention urged that organized labour be represented at the Peace Conference; that there be no reprisals against conquered nations; the independence of all nationalities; a league of free nations to maintain

peace; certain labour standards to be accepted by international agreement as a part of the Peace Treaty and a plan for controlling employment during demobilization. In Feb. 1938 the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor issued a statement that “ this is labor’s war.” Early in 1918 the War Labor Policies Board was created, to administer the relations with labour of the Fedcral Government in its capacity as employer. It aimed to secure uniformity of conditions in all Government work and to stabilize the working force. It took a stand for prohibition of child labour and prison labour, in favour of the right of labourers to organize, a living

wage, equal pay for equal work, the basic eight-hour day, some definite system of settling labour disputes. To meet grievances of employees on Government work, the National Labor Board was established in April 1918 to serve as a

and the War final

court of voluntary arbitration. The American Federation of Labor was given representation on the Emergency Construction Board, on the Fucl Administration Board (the president of the United Mine Workers was assistant to the Fuel Administrator),

on the Woman’s Board, on the Food Administration Board, and on the War Industries Board. In connexion with the administration of the Military Conscription Law organizcd labour was given representation on each District Exemption Board. Trade unionists were sent to Russia on the Commission of Investigation in the spring of 1917. The Mooney Case-—Thomas Mooney, a labour organizer, was accused of having placed the bomb which exploded in the street of San Francisco during the “‘ Preparedness Day ” parade, July 22 1916, killing six persons instantly, mortally wounding four more, and injuring 40 others. Mooney pleaded not guilty, but

established the Council of National Defense he appointed Samuel

he was sentenced to death. Many organizations of labour pro-

Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, one of ihe seven members composing the advisory commission, to þe in charge of all policics affecting labour. As chairman of a labour

several times. It then appeared that much of the testimony on which he had been convicted was perjured. This was substan-

committee

Gompcrs

appointed about 350 persons, representa-

tives of capital and labour, Government officials and others with technical qualifications, who eficcted a permanent organization as the full Committee on Labor of the Council of National Defense, April 2 1917, This committee early urged that legislation protecting Jabourcrs be not weakened during the war. Such was the sentiment also of labour organizations and civic associations

generally. When, in the carly spring of 1917, it appeared that the United States would enter the war, Gompers called a conference of the Executive Council of the American Federation of

Labor with the presidents of international and national unions, heads of industrial departments and representatives of the railway brotherhoods. Those present at this conference, March 12, offered their services to the country in the event of war, and

issued a call to members of their organizations to follow this lead.

In order to secure the constant support of the Government by American wWage-earners, the conference urged the adoption of tradc-union standards for all war work, equal pay for equal work

tested that the trial was not a fair one. Execution was postponed

tiated by the report of the investigation of the U.S. Department of Labor in July rọrọ, which condemned the conduct of the trial. Request for retrial, however, was refused, as not provided for by the constitution of California. Radical labour urged a general strike May r1 1918, to protest against letting the verdict stand. At Mooncy’s request the plan was dropped. In Nov. the

governor of California commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. A plan for a general strike July 4 1919, to demand a new trial, was not taken up by the conservative unions. International

Relations —During the war

American

labour

awoke to an interest in international affairs. The American trade unions sent no delegate to the Inter-Allied Labour Conference in London in 1918, but that year the American Federa-

tion of Labor sent three small groups to Europe to confer unofficially with trade unionists in the Allied countries, The American

Federation of Labor refused to be represented at the international labour conference in Berne held after the signing of the Armistice, on the ground that the conference would not express

UNITED fairly the opinion of labour in the Allied countrics. The proposal

STATES

877

majority endorsed the labour clauses in the Teace Treaty. The

ment service. The majority of American working men and women have as their aim the attainment of these standards: not ownership or control of business. The labour movement js a struggle for power to gain control of the “ job not the business—adequate wages, short hours, security of employment, and sufficient responsibility to command respect and sustain interest in the work to be done. Education in the Labour Movement—In recent years there has been developed in the United States a movement on the part of working people to further their education, with a double aim: to give to working people a share in the culture which has becn largely the possession of the properticd classes, and to fit them to understand and meet the problems of the modern industrial

Convention also passed resolutions asking that immigration be

order. The leaders are trade unionists and socialists who resent

of American labour for an inter-Allied labour conference at Paris was not accepted.

In July ro19, American delegates were present

at the International ‘Trade Union Conference in Amsterdam, at which they took issue with the German delegates, and opposed the resolutions passed for the lifting of the Allied blockade of Germany and Russia and those criticizing the labour sections of the League of Nations. Since the United States had not ratified the Peace Treaty, American labour could not be officially represented at the meeting of the Labour Department of the League of Nations held in Washington in the autumn of rọrọ. The American Federation of Labor Convention of 1919 by a large

stopped for two years, to prevent the underbidding of American labour in the home market. In r918 the American Federation of Labor took steps to establish friendly relations with organized labour in Mexico. A conference of trade unionists of the two countries in June urged a conference on the question of the Mexican frontier and a federation of the labour movements of both countrics for the

protection of workers employed across the border from their homes. In Nov. the conference was held at Laredo, Tex.; r50 delegates were present, representing the United States, Mexico,

Central America and Colombia. The U.S. Secretary of Labor was present. A permanent organization was launched. A second conference was hekl the next year in July in New York. Reconstruction Programmes.—In July 1910, the national con-

vention of the American Federation of Labor endorsed a programme for reconstruction which advocated first ‘ democracy in industry,” that is, workers to have a voice in determining the conditions under which they work “equivalent to the voice which

they have as citizens in determining the legislative enactments which shall govern them.” The corollary is seen as the right to organize in trade unions,

The programme urged better wages to

prevent “underconsumption ” and consequent unemployment, and to make possible the maintenance and improvement of the American standard of life; the 8-hour day and the 44-hour week;

equal pay for equal work regardless of sex; special protection of the health of women; prohibition of labour by children under 16, and compulsory part-time school attendance until the age of 18; the climination of the middleman; curtailment of the power of the U.S. Supreme Court; Federal supervision and control of cor-

porations; Government ownership or regulation of publie utilities; development of waterways and waterpower; a graduated land tax; a special tax on idle lands; progressive taxes on incomes

and inheritances; assistance to farmers; the development of Government experiment farms; municipal aid to home-building; workmen’s compensation with state insurance: better educational

advantages for children and aduits; establishment of public employment agencies controlled jointly by capital and labour;

and the regulation of immigration so as to facilitate Americanization and to prevent flooding of the Jabour market in periods of unemployment.

The Federation reaffirmed its non-partizan po-

litical policy, urged the restoration of freedom of speech and assembly and went on record as opposed to a standing army.

At

the roro convention the Federation voted its support to the “Plumb plan ” for Government ownership of the railways and their operation by a board representing equally the executives, the other employees, and the public. The United Mine Workers at their convention in 1919 passed a resolution favouring public ownership of the mines. Since 1917 the gencral public has had, as never before, a definite conception of “ American” labour standards, endorsed by such Government agencies as the wartime labour boards, the

Council of National Defense, and by the consensus of opinion of certain groups in the industrial relations conferences, and of leaders in the national life. These standards include, in general, safety and sanitation in the shop and the home, accident and health insurance, special protection of women and children, abolition of “ home work,” the eight-hour day and the six-day week, the “ living wage,” industrial training and a public employ-

the control of education by the class that also controls industry, and who wish to teach their own view of society; also impartial educators, idcalists, eager to bring to the many the culture of the

few,and to extend to adults educational advantages now provided generally for children, The Rand School of Social Science in New York City, established in 1906 by private gifts, is owned by the American Socialist Society. In 1918-9 the enrolment, including correspondence students, was over 5,000, The school has some five or six regularly appointed instructors. Courses are also given by teachers from colleges near by and by tradeunion leaders. The Workers’ Training Course, from Nov. to

May, prepares leaders for the socialist and labour movements. The Department of Labor Rescarch publishes the American Labor Year Book. The school maintains also a reference library and reading rooms and a book store. In 1914 the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union took up educational work for

ifs members, in coöperation with the Rand School. About 150 members attended classes at the school. Later classes were held in public-school buildings under the auspices of the union. More advanced classes were given under the name of the Workers’ University of the LL.G.W., especially for business agents and union officials. In 1918 under the leadership of the United Cloth Hat and Cap Makers the United Labor ;:ducation Committee was organized in New York City by six labour organizations for the promotion of education among their members, about 200,000 in that city. This committee has conducted weckly courses, in different parts of the city, in art, labour, history, science and

elementary English and physical training, and has also provided concerts and motion pictures. Jt has introduced lectures and musical programmes Jn connexion with the trade-union shop meetings. The committee planned a workmen’s theatre where fer popular prices a higher class drama will be presented than can

be found in the majority of the theatres of the city. In April 1919 the Trade Union College organized by the Boston Central Labor Union opened with 160 students. Courses, open to all members of the American Federation of Labor and their families, are given in the evening in one of the public schools by members of the faculty of Harvard University and other institutions. Other labour colleges, under the control of local trade or industrial unions or local federations of unions, are: The Workers’ Insti-

tute, Chicago; The Workpeople’s College, Duluth; The Workers’ University, Philadelphia; The People’s Lyceum, Philadelphia; Trade

Union

College,

Washington,

D.C.;

The

Women's

Trade

Union College, Chicago; Hobo College, Chicago; Trade Union Collece, Minneapolis; Pcople’s College, Fort Scott, Kan.; The People’s Institute, San Francisco; The Proletarian University, Detroit and other cities; Workers’ College, Seattle, Wash,; ‘The Amalgamated ‘Textile Workers’ School, Paterson, N.J.; Labor College, Tacoma, Wash. The ‘Trade Union College of Pittsburgh has been organized. The Clothing Workers of Rochester maintain an educational director. The Labor Temple at Los Angeles is under the control of the

school-board, and the Community School, Baltimore, has a private management,

Ail these colleges are financed by small tuition fees, by contribu-

tions and by guarantee funds. As a rule the teaching force is not permanent, but the courses depend on volunteers from neighbouring colleges or from the labour movement. Classes are usually in the evening, one hour of lecture followed by one of discussion. The subjects taught are various phases of economics:

history,

English,

hygiene, art, music,

law, civics,

public speaking, psychology, sociology, biology,

pictures are shown.

In connexion with the colleges plays and motion

The Waistmakers’ Union of New York City

878

UNITED

has purchased a summer camp near the Delaware Water Gap

where members may spend their vacations.

built a vacation house on Cape Cod.

a two

months’

summer

school

The Boston local has

Bryn Mawr College held

for wage-carning

women,

which

opened in June 1921. Students are supported on scholarships raised by trade unions and other groups of industrial women. It is probable that the education of working men and women will be carried on through codperation with the extension work of the state universities. Teachers are now sent out from the universities to

conduct classes where they have been organized in a community, Correspondence courses offer advantages to isolated students.

There has teen some public opposition to the labour colleges, where these have been suspected of radical propaganda. In 1918 the Department of Justice conducted raids on the Rand School and on the Proletarian University of Detroit, ' The reconstruction programme of the American Federation of

Labor included actual universal education, for all ages, in all communities, for which public schools and universities were to be developed. The programme stated: “ It is also important that the industrial education which is being fostered and developed should have for its purpose not so much training for efficiency in industry as training for life in an industrial society.” The American Labour Press. —The growth of the American labour press has been rapid. Each international and national union has its official organ, and the trade unions of most large cities publish their local labour papers. Well known are the Cleveland Citizen,

the Denver Laber Bulletin and the Seattle Union Record. Some state federations of labour publish bulletins. The monthly American Federationist of the American Federation of Labor had a circulation (1920) of 100,000, Among the more important trade union papers ure: The Bricklayer, Mason and Plasterer; Carpenter; Cigarmakers’ Journal; Justice (Ladics’ Garment Workers); Garment Worker, Machinists Journal; Miners Magasine; International Molders’ Journal; Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters’ Journal; Seamen’s Journal; Shoe Workers’ Journal; Textile Worker; Federal Employee, and the periodicals of the railway brotherhoods. The

Chicago Federation of Labor publishes the New Majority (cireulation 15,000), as national official organ of the Farmer-Labor party. Jewish workers have the Freie Arbeiter Stimme, New York, and Vorwaerts,

of New

York,

daily circulation

about

158,000.

The

Chicagoer Arbetterseifung is a German sociahst paper. Zukunft, a Jewish socialist monthly paper, New York, has a circulation of 63,000. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers publish weekly papers in six languages: English, Yiddish, Italian, Polish, Bohemian

and Lithuanian. One Big both of and the Seattle 21,800.

The Industria! Workers of the World publish the

Union Monthly, and New Solidarity (circulation 10,000), Chicago. The Socialist Labor party publishes Zhe Socialist Ieekiy People, New York, and the Industrial Worker, The New York Call, a socialist daily, has a circulation of Radical labour and socialist groups have published many

short-lived periodicals of small circulation. During the war the Post Office Department revoked the second-class mail privileges of 25 papers, and heid up one or more editions of a number of others. REFERENCES.—J. R. Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems (Second Series, 1921); S. Gompers, Labor in Europe and America (1910); U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Moniiiy Labor Review; American Labor Year Book (Rand School); Government Reports, especially that of Industrial Relations ek ee:

i ee CG)

VIIL

MILITARY

Law

The U.S. army is subject to a system of military law which had its origin in, and was at first the same as that of, Great Britain, In the French and Indian Wars the colonists had fought side by side with British regulars and under the same rules and regulations. When they revolted they continued the system of military law with which they were already familiar. So little necessity for change existed that even the antiquated language of the British Articles of War was retained and some of it is still found in the American code.

Passing over the earlier enactments

of separate American colonies for the government of their respective contingents, such as those adopted in 1775 by the local Legislative Assemblies of Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Hampshire, we find that the Second Continental Congress in 1775 adopted practically the whole British

Code of 1774 and

furnished

the foundation

for the

Articles of War as they have been known since then in the United States. Reénacted, with enlargements and modifications, in 1776 and amended in 1786, this code survived the adoption of the Federal Constitution and was continued in force by successive enactments until 1806. In the United States, under the Constitution, the power of establishing military Jaw rests with Congress. It was not, however, until 1806 that Congress concerned itself much with the

STATES military code, the Articles of War. In that year the Articles’ were redraited and reénacted though there were no material changes from the Articles as they had existed during the Revolution. Nor did the next large redraft in 1874 include any great changes. Occasionally an Act of Congress would make some change, sometimes, but more frequently not, specifically amending an Article of War. If the effect was that of an amendment the Article was considered as changed. Such Acts were those of 18go and 18908 establishing the summary court and abolishing the field-officers court; and finally the summary court supplanted

the two remaining inferior courts, the garrison court and the regimental court. In 1910 the Judge-Advocate-General undertook the systematic and logical arrangement of the Articles of War. In 1916 he presented his project to Congress and it became a law. This draft presented no fundamental changes; it was rather a compilation made with the idea of bringing the code to date by incorporating

late statutes, by deleting obsolete material and dropping quaint phrascology, and by systematizing the presentation. In short it was a logical up-to-date statement of the greater part of the military law of the nation, rendering it quickly accessible. Not all the statutes, customs or regulations governing rights and procedure were placed in the new code, but by it the President was authorized to prescribe by. regulations the procedure, in-

cluding modes of proof, in cases before military tribunals, so long as such regulations were not inconsistent with the new Articles;

and all such prescribed regulations were required to be laid annually before Congress.

Under this authority a new manual

for courts martial was published by the authority of the President, and in this was embodied so much of custom and regulation that

it became a complete exposition of the military laws. This was the code in effect when the United States entered the World War, and by it its armies were governed during that conflict. Only one important addition was made before the Armistice, and that was by an executive order establishing in

fuller detail the power of review of the records and proceedings of gencral courts martial. Shortly after the Armistice a bill was introduced in the Senate (Sen. 64, 66th Congress, 1st Sess.) which,

if enacted, would have made many and vital changes in the administration of military law. Chief among the radical changes proposed were those of making enlisted men members of general courts martial; of establishing a civilian court of military appeals;

and of injecting into the principal courts martiala new functionary with powers so extensive and of such a kind as to constitute him

the administrator of discipline. At the time the Senate was considering this bill a board of officers was convened by the War Department to recommend any changes it believed to be neces-

sary in the Articles of War and in the methods of procedure which then obtained in the administration of military justice. After considering numerous recommendations from the army at large the board submitted a detailed report accompanied by a redraft of the Articles of War. At the same time General

Crowder, the Judge-AdvocateGeneral, redrafted the Articles of War upon lines that he thought advisable in view of the experience gained during the war. The draft prepared by him was accepted by Congress with little change and became a law June 4 1920, though most of its provisions did not go into effect until six months later. The radical

views as expressed in the Senate bill were rejected and the administration of military discipline was left to the military authorities. This new code contains 122 Articles. In 85 Articles there are

no changes except the formal variations made necessary by the

création of grades before unknown, such as warrant officers and nurses, and other analogous alterations. This leaves 37 Articles, a little more than one-fourth, in which there have been substantial changes. Many of these, however, are only statutory enactments

of rules already established by administrative interpretation, orders, or customs of the service. Only about 20 Articles contain really new matter and of these it will be necessary to consider here only the more important. Probably the most important of the changes is that effected

by Article 50} which creates a Board of Review in the office of

UNITED the Judge-Advocate-General.

Until Jan. 1918 the reviewing

authority acted upon a court-martial sentence and immediately

ordered it executed if he did not disapprove. By an order of Jan. 1915, it was directed that no sentence of death or of dismissal or dishonourable discharge not suspended should be executed until the record of proceedings of trial had been reviewed in the office of the Judge-Advocate-General or branch thereof. The effect of the new article was to establish by statute much the same

STATES

879

Another innovation is that of peremptory challenges, cach side being allowed one, except that the law member can be challenged only for cause; and the trial judge-advocate’s right to challenge is made statutory. The punishing power af summary courts is reduced. The disciplinary powers of commanding oihfcers to handle offences without trial has been somewhat extended, but yet not made so extensive as to lead to unreasonable | punishment; ancl this power extends to junior officers in time of

war, bul no officer shall be subjected to a forfeiture of more than procedure. The Board of Review consists of three or more one-half of one month’s pay. officers in the office of the Judge-Advocate-General, and func- |

tions in the following classes of cases: (a) Where the President is reviewing or confirming authority

Under the new cede there are three classes of courts—the

summary, special and the gencral courts.

The summary court

|consists of one officer and the limits of punishment are one (6) Where the sentence does not require approval or con- month’s confinement and forfeiture of two-thirds of one month’s firmation by the President, but involves death, dismissal or pay. The limits of punishment of the special court are six months’ dishonourable discharge not suspended or confinement in a confinement and forfeiture of two-thirds pay per month for six penitentiary, unless, in the two latter cases, the sentence is based months. The limits of punishment of the general court are established by the President under his statutory power to fix such upon a plea of guilty. All other general court-martial records are examined in the limits both in peace and war, except where a specific punishment is made mandatory by the particular Article of War, as is office of the Judge-Advocate-General, but do not go to the Board of Review unless found insufficient to sustain the findings and dismissal under the osth Article. In 1913 the Judge-Advocate-General succeeded in establishing sentence, in which case the record is submitted to the Board of Review. When the Board of Review has acted, its action is a method of restoration to the colours of men who had been submitted to the Judge-Advocate-General. 1f there be an agree- sentenced to severe punishment. This included the establishment of detention barracks, called disciplinary barracks, and a ment between the Board of Review and the Judge-AdvocateGeneral that the record is legally sufficient to sustain the finding system of drills and vocational training, by means of which a prisoner could carn honourable restoration to his position lost by and sentence, the reviewing authority is notified and the sentence his offence and sentence therefor. ‘This procedure received Conis forthwith ordered executed. Ifthe Board and Judge-AdvocateGeneral agree that the record is not sufficient to sustain the gressional sanction in rgr3 and the process of reclaiming those findings and sentence, the findings and sentence are by virtue of who have made mistakes is probably the most enlightened of all the statute vacated and the record is returned to the reviewing systems of modern penology. In addition to the foregoing there are many Jaws, statutory in authority for action. In case of disagreement between the Board and the Judge-Advocate-General the record is transmitted to the character as well as those of regulation and custom, that could be properly classed as military laws. But as these ure mostly adSecretary of War for the action of the President. Provision is ministrative in character they are not usually considered in a made for more than one Board of Review if business requires such and for a branch of the Judge-Advocate-General’s office like that brief account of military laws. Among these are the Acts of Congress reorganizing the army, establishing the pay of grades, in France during the World War. Another change is that in connexion with a rehearing of a case. and making appropriations for the expenses of the army. These In civil cases the defendant asks for a new trial and by so doing laws are administrative and only incidentally affect military is held to waive the guarantee against repeated jeopardy. In the justice, but the organization of the army in 1921 was toa great military procedure, if on examining a record prejudicial error be extent covered by the Act of June 4 1920, the Act which also contains the Articles of War already described. (H. A. W.*) found, the accused receives the benefit of it without any affirmative act on his part. In other words, the appellate review is VIII. Uistory automatic. This requires some modification of the rules governConditions in 1908.—The year 1908 seemed one of the quictest ing new trials before civil courts, It is accordingly provided that no proceedings shall be deemed a trial until final action by the in recent American history. The seven previous years of Presireviewing authority, When a hearing is ordered it is to take place dent Roosevelt’s administration had been marked by lively conbefere a different court and the accused cannot be tried for any tests between the executive and Congress, and also between the Government as a whole and the railways and other strong finanoffence of which he was found not guilty by the first court nor can cial and industrial organizations; but the President possessed the a sentence be imposed more severe than that of the first court. Still another change is that which forbids the reviewing fullest authority and influence. He had established a supremacy in many legislative matters, had carried out a vigorous forcign authority to return a record to the court for increase of sentence policy, and might have gone on to a third term had he wished. or reconsideration of an acquittal. And the reviewing authority is not permitted to act upon a record until he has referred it to Instead, he chose to put forward William H. Taft, Secretary of War in his Cabinet, and previously head of the Government of his staff judge-advocate, but this reference was always customary. The prohibition against cruel and unusual punishments is the Philippine Is., as his choice for the Republican candidate in the impending presidential election. With that powerful backing broadened but not more than the customs of the service have already broadened it, and the President is authorized to sct Taft was nominated, and in the election of Nov. 1908 easily limits of punishment in time of war as well as in time of peace. defeated William J. Bryan, for the third time the Democratic’ candidate. The Republican party cast 7,700,000 votes against Under the new code voting upon challenges and upon the findings the Democrats’ 6,400,000 and secured 321 of the 483 electoral and sentence is by secret ballot, and the majority ballot has been

or where he has ordered a rehearing,

extended, so that a death sentence must be by unanimous vote, sentence to imprisonment for life or over ro years by threequarters vote and all other sentences by two-thirds vote. The new Articles provide for the appointment on cach general court martial of a Jaw member who rules upon all objections to the admissibility of evidence and, subject to reversal by the court, rules upon other interlocutory matters except challenges. The investigation of charges before reference to trial has been extended and possibly to an extent such that resulting delay prevents the swift application of justice. But a large part of this procedure is

votes. The Republicans also had a clear majority in both Houses

of Congress. The country was prosperous, contented, and aroused by the positive and constructive policies of President | Roosevelt and of several state governors, who had furnished the ` country an example of the possibility of personal leadership by |state and national executives, as against the leadership of self| constituted groups which had been usual in both state and , national Legislatures. | The people of the United States were much more conscious of | themselves in 1908 than In recent periods, because’they had come ruled by regulation and can be changed when found necessary. | to recognize the variety of their make-up. The total pop. in 1910

UNITED

880

in the continental United States was 92,000,000. Of these, only 50,000,000 were native whites of native parentage; while 13,000,coo were foreign-born and 19,000,000 others were of foreign-born or mixed parentage. ‘The acgroes and Indians were 10,000,000. This meant that out of the white pop., three-cighths were substantially foreign, and nearly one-half went back to a foreign

ancestor not more than two generations behind them. Nearly one-half of this half came [rom S. or E. Europe. The urban pop. (in places having more than 2,500 inhabitants) was 43,000,000, or 46% of the whole. Here were elements of greatness and also of dissension and bitterness. Race riots, except where the negro was concerned, were very infrequent, because the non-English-

speaking groups tended to establish “ islands ” of population in the great cities and manufacturing towns and live by themselves. Their children, however, went to public schools, Ilearned English, and began to consider themselves Americans. ; Americans were of various kinds. Everybody in the United States except the American Indian is an immigrant from other country or a descendant of an immigrant. The main groups were, first, the descendants of the colonists, who mainly Anglo-Saxons with some Germans antl Scotch-Irish

some race were and

mostlyin the South. Descendants of forced immigrants, they had no culture and no traditions but those of the United States. The results of their former servitude still clung about them; they were shut out from their constitutional suilrage in some of the southern states. Legally equals of the whites, they were subject to humiliating discriminations, and both in N. and S. were held

in an inferior social position from which there was no escape,

Defects in Government.—The units of American society were held together by a complicated, but strong, democratic Government, well fitted to rule a diverse population. The political forms were familiar to every schoolboy—a group of (in 1908) 46 states,

each with its own government, rigidly cast by the traditional

principle of “‘ checks and balances’ into three departments; legislative, executive, and judicial. A national Government, also balanced, had under the Federal Constitution large powers in national affairs. A widely distributed franchise was almost equivalent to universal suffrage for adult males. There was a

Revolutionary population naturally thought of themselves as the

belicf that the courts were the highest authority, not only as to questions of personal rights and duties, but as to the validity of the laws and acts of the other two departments. In addition a third type of government in the city, town and county, set up

preéminently American-born Americans. Next in the account were descendants of the foreigners who began to come over in great numbers about 1820. Lastly came the large number of recent immigrants and their children. In 1910 there were in the

by the states, was considered to be an essential part of the system. This combination of governments governed reasonably well. It was expensive, it was not highly skilled, but it performed its tasks to the general satisfaction of most of the people.

United States, 2,266,535 unnaturalized aliens, many of whom expected to return to their native country; or if they remained, to cleave to their own kind, use their native language and keep

It was supported by the conviction of a Jarge part of the population that it was the “‘ best Government on earth.” The boast of the United States was its equal opportunity;

up their own schools, language press, and home connexions.

the pride of the United States was its popular government, in which the will of the people was the only ultimate force. Asa

small elements of other races,

The descendants of that ante-

The country was not yet aroused to the dangers arising from this mixture of unassimilated races. The theory, was that in the

zoth century, asin the 18th and roth, all comers would find the United States the great “ melting pot.”” The process was one in

nation, Americans belicved that they had, more than any other country in the world, the blessings of personal liberty, of free public education, of sharing in their government, of impartial

judges. Everybody was supposed to have a fair chance in Hie. Few Americans could bring themselves to realize that equal

which the public schools were supposed to play, and did play, an important part. Few voices were raiscd against admitting not only western Europeans, whose languages and customs were much like those of the United States, but men and women from E. and $.E. Europe anc from W, Asia—Russians, Poles, Jews, Bulgarians, Greeks, Turks, Serbians and many other races. The only bar to immigration based on race in 1908 was the prohibi-

opportunity was denied to those who chanced to be outside the advantages of education and of contact with their fellows; that the personal Liberty of workers in mills, mines, or cotton-fickls was much restricted; that some 10,000,000 negroes were subject to legal and social discrimination; that the public schools failed

tion of Chinese immigration and the practical exclusion of Jap-

to reach at least one-fourth of the children who needed enlight-

anese labourers by a ‘‘ gentlemen's agreement”

enment and instruction; that the actual government of the country was in many communities carried on by a self-selected, group of men who dictated nominations, controlled legislation and decided policies; that in matters of property or even personal rights, court proceedings were long, expensive and un-

with the Japa-

nese Government (1907), which undertook to refuse passports to Japanese labourers intending to come to the United States.

.

STATES still a race group. The negroes, about 10,000,000 in number, were unorganized as a race, and were scattered over a large arca,

There was as yct no organization, public or private, to aid the in-comer in acquiring the language and knowledge of the Government of his adopted country. ‘There was no intelligence qualification, no provision that a man who sought naturalization should be able to read, write, or understand the language of the nation he wished to join. Some of the states permitted an alien to vote if he had filed a declaration of intention to become a citizen, without even troubling themsclves to sce that he carried out that intention. The undigested load was becoming heavy. ‘The immigrants were not the only burden on the State. Millions of American-born, many of them descended from the old colonial stock, were poor and ignorant and criminal. The southern mountaineers, the frontier farmers, the loggers and the miners, included a host of men and families who lived a rough

life. Parts of the rich United States were infested by tramps and

certain.

In the organization and conditions of business could be traced another startling contradiction between the word and the fact. Nominally all kinds of business not prohibited by law were open to all comers in free and honourable competition. In reality, by 1908 a great number of both employers and employees were engaged in a combat outside the Jaws, constant and conscience-

less. Although the country grew wealthy fast, and commercial transactions increased, the small dealer or manufacturer or miner found himself shut in by a thick growth of corporations which had the great advantage of limited liability and the privilege of

operating through the country under the legal fiction that a corporation was a “ citizen ” in the constitutional sense of the word.

In the wealthiest cities there was grinding poverty

It was hard for individuals and firms to compete with corpora-

and degradation in the slums. The situation was saved by general prosperity and the American spirit of cheerfulness, and of con-

tions, and hard for small corporations to compete with large

vagabonds.

fident waiting for things to come right. Furthermore, out of the most unpromising conditions arose some of the strongest figures

in American history. Presidents Jackson, Lincoln, Johnson and Grant were all children of the rude frontier. Two other race problems complicated the social and political life of the country. The American Indians were a small group of only about 250,000, most of ther? living in tribes on Government reservations.

The

problem was to make them individuals; but in 1908 they were

ones In the same line of business. For many years the steady accumulation of capital tended to flow into these expanding

units, a process veiled by the use of parallel and “ holding ” corporations. The railways were among the most conspicuous of the large corporations, because everybody used them and because they, too, tended to combine into larger and more powerful units. The whole system was under suspicion, because railways and some other large corporations made it their business to get control of majorities in city and state Legislatures, and of party

UNITED management.

For example, the governors of California were in

efect designated by the heads of a railway company.

The states

could not deal adequately with these powerful bodies because

most of the railways and many of the other corporations operated from state to state, and could not be controlled at cither end by anything short of Federal power. The appeal to Congress for action, first against railways and then against other corporations, had led to the Interstate Com-

merce Act of 1887 and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. It

was a centralizing process; the more Congress did, the more eager became the desire to push Congress to restrict, and then to make restrictions still closer.

The U.S. Supreme Court fell

STATES

88I

and became a lawyer and a state judge in Ohio.

In 1890 he was

made solicitor-gencral of the United States and thu: introduced into the Federal service. He was then selected as a Federal circuit

judge and his decisions were valucd. In 1891 he was appointed

chairman of the Philippine Commission and was the first civil

governor of the Islands.

From 1904 to 1909 he was Secretary of

War in Roosevelt’s Cabinet, and proved himself an excellent executive. He made few enemies and had a most powerful friend

in the President, who sclected him as his successor. Throughout his carcer, including the presidency, he was an easy and popular

speaker, a head of the Government who worked well with his

associates and subordinates.

Nevertheless, from the beginning

in with this. process more readily than could have been expected

of his term he found obstacles in his way. As an avowed succes-

of a body so conservative and so withdrawn from the arena of

sor to Roosevelt’s policies he drew upon himself the opposition

dubious business methods. Yet, notwithstanding a few decisions against railways and “ trusts,’ the powerful corporations prospered and increased. They were bound to live, because they were economically effective; they found means of carrying on immense

of Roosevelt’s enemies,

lines of business in an orderly manner; they supplied the demand.

temperament, allied with the “ stand pat ” element of the Republican party; Secretary of the Treasury, Franklin MacVcagh, of Ilinois, a business man of large experience; Secretary of War,

Their profits were large, but they gave employment to multitudes of every degree of skill. Political organizations were on nearly the same basis as business companics—they also grew bigger and more powerful and gathered into fewer groups. Nominally, parties are simply associations of voters for common ends. Actually, they are armies acting under commanding leaders who in many cases hold no offices. The evils of this “ invisible government ” were apparent. Many states and cities were badly governed by unscrupulous men

who were tools of the leaders, or by too competent men who plundered their fellow citizens, The average voter was honest, but stood by his party. Committees of voters, non-partisan leagues and citizens’ parties tried to organize the voters for

reform, but no permanent improvement was made. The political philosophy of the Americans was based on the belief that man-

kind was steadily growing better. Hence a tendency to look to laws and political devices to correct the ills of popular government. Millions of voters believed that if they could only get laws

At the same time it soon became appar-

ent that he was not relying on Roosevelt’s friends. President Taít’s Cabinet was as follows: Secretary of State,

Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania, a man by experience and

Jacob M. Dickinson

of Tennessee,

succeeded

in 1911

by

Henry L. Stimson of New York; Attorney-Gencral, George W.

Wickersham

of New

York;

Tlitchcock of Massachusetts;

Postmaster-General,

Frank

H,

Secretary of the Navy, George

von Lengerke Meyer of Massachusetts; Secretary of the Interior, Richard A. Ballinger of the state of Washington; Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson of Iowa, remaining from the time of McKinley; Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Charles Nagel of Missouri. In the building of the Panama Canal Colonel Goethals continued as chicf engineer. Maj.-Gen. Leonard Wood, as chief of the general staff, urged reform in the organization of the army, and the training of additional officers. Ballinger very soon involved himself in a bitter controversy with Pinchot, a warm personal friend of Roosevelt, over alleged irregularities in the disposal of public lands in Alaska. Ballinger was sustained by the President and a committee of Congress; but

cnough, they could break the power of the “ bosses ” and chain

public pressure was such that he was obliged to resign, March 6

the corporations. They overlooked the fact that the real evil was the party managed by men who made politics a business, who were responsible for “ getting out the vote,” and always got

1911, and was succeeded by Walter L., Fisher of Illinois, Taft’s appointments were in the main good, including the elevation of Justice White to the chief justiceship of the Supreme

out the votes of their friends, who knew from long experience

Court, and the appointment as a justice of Charles E. Hughes, previously governor of New York. Nevertheless, a few months after the President’s inauguration, his influence on Congress declined and he lost his hold on twọ powerful elements in his own party. The important business men—capitalists, bankers,

that the weary and listless voter at last would cease to protest. On the other hand, the pressure of the trusts on small corpora-

tions and individuals was felt by masses of voters who protested against the corporations that felt strong enough to break the law and defy the voters. There was a glacier-like force of public opinion that could break down all opposition. What was most necded was the leadership of bold and far-seeing men. Roosevelt, a man of the type needed, retired to private life when President

Taft was inaugurated, March 4 1909. Political Reform —When Roosevelt left the presidency the

managers of corporations, commonly called the “interests ”—.

thought him disposed to interfere with them; while he found himself out of accord with the rising spirit of reform which aimed to

give better expression to the will of the voters as a whole as against party leaders and political organizations.

Here was a critical point in popular government; for in prac: position of President was at the highest point of authority that it tice it was almost impossible to elect a candidate unless he was had ever known. Most Presidents are obliged to strive with Con- ‘on some party ticket. A small group of men, politely called the gress in behalf of their policies, inasmuch as their only means of “ organization,’ or more harshly the “ bosses,” in many states

officially proposing legislation is through public messages, and their heads of departments work directly only through Congressional committee hearings; American tradition is against the framing of bills by the executive, and the President’s initiative is

limited. Most Presidents have found their principal legislative influence in the veto, by which they have the weight of one-sixth of both Houses. President Roosevelt followed the McKinley method of emphasizing his wishes by personal discussion with members of Congress.

He did more; he revived the Jacksonian

method of announcing a legislative plan, and if Congressmen hung back, of appealing over their heads to the country at large. This policy was adopted by President Taft, who was not afraid of a fight and who saw the advantage of assuming that the President was the natural party leader. William H. Taft had many of the qualities of leadership. He was large, happy, genial, fond of his many friends; a cheerful, balanced man. He was also experienced in the public service. Born in 1857, he graduated at Yale,

and citics had control of the machinery of the nominating conventions, Where they could not dictate a candidate, they could usually defeat the selection of any man whom they disliked or distrusted. Their power extended to national nominating conventions, particularly in the Republican party, because the Republican delegates from southern states, which almost always voted Democratic, were elected to national conventions by a

handful of Federal office-holders and other professional politicians. Complaints were abundant everywhere of “ hand-picked conventions,” of delegates who sat silently in their seats until informed by their ‘‘ organization ”.for what men they must vote, The solidifying principle was that the bosses’ candidate could usually count upon the steady, regular members of the party.

A method of selecting candidates long practised in some parts of the country now spread rapidly through the Union; this was the primary, under which candidates were selected for each party

by the ballots of the members of the party. The primary under-

UNITED

882 mined the convention system, which in some prohibited. From nominations for local officers to state officers In two-thirds of the states; and to be applied to the choice of delegates to the

states was even it spread by 1911 after roro began national conven-

tions. For a time the system seemed a great success; it opened opportunities to enter public life, and killed off unpopular leaders. An unforeseen effect was that the official ballots were made upon the basis of party nominations, with an opportunity for independent voting. The primary was therefore a public and effective election, which practically brought the party system into the domain of public law, as a part of the Government. The distrust of conventions and controlled elections extended

to the numerous and powerful bosses in city and state Legislatures. Three new devices were set at work to curb them and to interest the electors in public measures. The first of these, the referendum, was by 1909 spreading rapidly through the western states.

It was a means of checking legislative action contrary to

public sentiment,

The system, both in local and state govern-

ment, can be traced from colonial times; and most 19th century

state constitutions were submitted to a popular vote, and also many statutes, if the Legislatures so directed. The referendum system furnished a mechanism, usualy imbedded in state con-

STATES these measures was to make it difficult for men to purchase their way into the Senate. On July 13 1912 Senator Lorimer of Ili-

nois was practically expelled from the U.S. Senate for buying Iegislative votes. Experience has shown that the load of responsibility placed upon the voters by these new measures was sometimes more than they were willing to bear.

The scanty primary votes, and the

inattention to some of the referendum and initiative questions put on the ballots, were seized upon as showing that the voter

was interested only in men. On the other hand, the ballots of most citics, towns and states were loaded down with long lisis of officers to be chosen at each election, so that the “ vote for men” was in many cases avote in the dark. The result was an agitation for the reform commonly known as the “ short ballot,” by reducing the number of elective officers and increasing the officers to be appointed by the few elective officials, Working difficultics were found in many of these reforms, and it was hard to keep the public keyed up to the necessary pitch of thought and attention at every election, It was evident, however, that the American people intended to free themselves from the shackles of what Elihu Root styled “ invisible government.” Social Questtons.-The spirit of discontent extended to many

stitutions, by which a statute on the demand of a suficient num-

questions outside of politics. Throughout Taft’s administration

ber of voters could be held back from effect until submitted to a vote of the electors. The state of Oregon was one of the earliest

there was an increasing pressure for “‘ equal suffrage ’—that is, woman sufirage—which was introduced in the territory of Wyoming in 1869, gradually spread among the far western states, and

and most thorough-going in this reform. What was to be done if the Legislature refused to enact a Statute demanded by the people? How could this negative force be overcome? By the initiative, through which a designated number of voters could unite on a measure, which must then be submitted to the electors for their suffrages. Both the initiative and referendum were attacked on the ground that they were contrary

to republican government, inasmuch as they substi-

tuted direct action for representation. The referendum had been so long and widely used that it was hard to make out a case against it. The initiative was based on the general principle that

the ultimate source of authority is not the Legislature or any public officer, but the people at large. In atest case (Feb. 1912) the Federal Supreme Court declined to rule that the initiative

and referendum were contrary to a “ republican form of government’; and no further attempts were made to upset them on constitutional grounds. A third branch of this system of appeal to the people was the recall, under which a public officer chosen by popular vote, and in a few cases those who were appointed in some other way, could

be subjected to an election; and, if the majority decided against them, they would be thereby removed from office. The system began in the far western states and never spread so widely as the other two methods mentioned.

In r911-2 the recall came before

Congress in connexion with the proposed constitution of the new state of Arizona, which included a provision for the recall of judges. President Taft vetoed the Act of admission because of this provision. ‘The state therefore withdrew the clause, was duly admitted in r9r2, and thereupon proceeded to reinsert the recall. In practice, recalls proved to be few, and recalls of judges

very few. A still wider application of the principle of responsibility of functionaries to the voters was the recall of judicial decisions, which was advocated by Roosevelt in 1912 and was applied in one state, Colorado. Popular elections were applied to the choice of Federal senators, first by an indirect method of pledging members of the Leg-

islature, invented in the state of Oregon. The Senate contained some members who could never have passed the ordeal of popular election, yet were frequently re-elected by the Legislature.

The result was the 17th Amendment, submitted by Congress June 12 1912, and added to the Constitution May 31 1913, under which all elections to the Senate from that time were to be made by direct popular vote. Another evidence of a rising feeling of responsibility in Congress was a statute (Aug. 7 1911) requiring

candidates for the House and Senate to submit statements of the money raised and expended in their behalf and limiting the amount that they might themselves spend. One purpose of both

then worked its way eastward, Inasmuch as the voters for the more numerous branch of the state Legislature are also voters for members of Congress and for presidential electors, women began to take part in national affairs, and one of them was a

delegate in the Republican National Convention of 1908. As the number of suffrage statcs increased, it was natural to look forward to a constitutional amendment which would abolish sex distinction for voting and indirectly for office-holding. Both state and national Governments were compelled to deal with the question of alcoholic beverages. From the earliest times there had been some restriction on liquor selling and liquor sellers as well as punishment fér unduc use of intoxicants, By 1900 in almost all states there was some form of general Icgal restriction: prohibition or local option or high licence ot a state dispensary

system. These laws were enforced more or less strictly within the state or communities to which they applied. The question became national, however, because the liquor trade transported its wares from one state to another; and that brought it within the Interstate Commerce clause of the Constitution and the Interstate Commerce Act. There was a long, running fight between the opponents of the liquor trade, Congress, the state Legisia-

tures, and the Federal courts, which finally passed upon the validity of various Acts passed by the Federal Government regulating transportation. Eventually Congress adopted the policy, by the Original Package Act of 1890, of prohibiting ship-

ments of liquor into prohibition states; and this law sustained the test of the U.S. Supreme Court. Pure food laws in force before 1909 were supplemented by the Drug Label Act (Aug. 23 1912), which greatly aided in preventing the adulteration of drugs.

l

Many questions arose out of immigration,

l

The laws forbade

the entry of labourers under a contract to work in the United States, of convicts, insane persons, and (after 1907) diseased per-

sons; but the execution of such laws was slack. The frst statute looking toward decided control of immigration was that of Feb. 1907, which increased the grounds of exclusion, and at the same time provided a plan to help the immigrants to find work. It also created an Immigration Commission, which in 1910 made a report in 41 volumes, strongly recommending the sifting of immigrants by testing their ability to read and write some language; but bills to that effect were twice vetoed by President Taft. Meanwhile, the number of immigrants rose in the decade rgo1-I1o to an average of a million a year. New machinery for registering departures brought out the fact that from 300,000 to 500,000 annually returned to their old homes, so that the rate of increase of population by immigration was no larger than it

UNITED had tion and and and

been for so years. The alarming fact was that the immigrafrom W. Europe fell off, while great numbers of ignorant unskilled people crowded in from Russia, Austria-Hungary, other parts of E. Europe. Still, the newcomers found work their employers found a profit in employing them.

Finances and the Tariff, 1908-13.—Every growing unit in the country—from a small school district to New York State-—-was harassed by questions of taxation and expenditure. The U.S. Government also searched for new resources, and found them in

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the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. Upon these and the amendments to the Interstate Commerce Act was built a structure of decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court, somctimes annulling provisions of the statutes, more often altering decisions by the Interstate Commerce Commission.

Partly to carry out and partly to

avoid these decisions, the Mann-Elkins Act of June 18 1910 widely extended the Interstate Commerce Acts by including telephones, telegraphs, express and sleeping-car companies, and setting up a Commerce Court which was to hasten decisions on

the income-tax, a method familiar in European countries and

transportation questions.

levied by Congress during the Civil War, and again in 1884, when it was set aside by the odd decision of the U.S. Supreme Court that it was a direct tax which could be levicd among the states

Commission reduced some freight rates and raised others. December 2 1910, the Supreme Court dissolved the combination of the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railways as contrary to the laws against mergers. The Commerce Court proved afailure;

open to the individual American states. An income-tax had been

only in proportion to their representation in Congress.

Success-

ful agitation brought about, July 13 1909, the submission of a 16th Amendment, to remove the restriction, and it was declared

adopted by the necessary three-fourths majority of states, Feb. 25 1913.

;

June 25 1910 a postal deposit Act was passed which created a

vast savings bank, of which many post-offices were the branches. The new form of savings attracted foreigners were accustomed to a similar system in their own countnes; in 1920 the deposits had risen to $157,276,322. Another

local who and new

resource of the Federal Government was a tax upon corporations levied on net income (Aug. 5 1g09). The immediate proceeds were small—only about $30,000,000 a year; but corporations were obliged to file accounts which showed their net income, and thus to give access to facts about their profits and methods. The more important question of reorganizing the national banking system so as to furnish a strong national institution was debated from 1908 to 1912, and was the subject of an elaborate report by a National Monctary Commission; but no action was taken at that time. The net Federal debt was $1,000,000,000, which was only about $11 per head of the population,

A financial resource as to which Congress had sole authority was the tariff. Under strong pressure from members of the party

to carry out the promiscs of the Republican Convention of 1908, President Taft, a few days after his inauguration, summoned Congress to mect in special session, for a “ revision.” As usual there was a long controversy which resulted, Aug. 5 1909, in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. The administrative features were good. The act created a permanent court of customs appeals, with power to determine finally all questions as to the value of imports; and also a Tariff Board, expected to make investigations and recommend specific measures which Congress would adopt.

As to rates, the Act was not very different from its predecessor, except for a decided increase of dutics on cotton and silk manu-

factures. There was a loud outcry that the “‘ revision” called for by the party platform was plainly a revision downward and not upward. President Taft argued against the textile schedules, but signed the bill and in a speech at Winona, Minn., Sept. 17

1909, surprised the country by declaring that it was the “ best tarif bill that the Republican party has ever passed.” When in the next Congress the Democrats had a majority of the House, they passed a series of bills, covering a farmers’ free list, woollens and cottons, which were carricd also in the Senate by the aid of

low-tariff Republicans; all these were vetoed by President Taft. In the campaign of 1912 the tariff played very little part. It was accepted that a considerable revenue must be raised by import duties; and the large import trade showed that the existing tariff was not prohibitive. Trusts and Transportation —During the 20 years ending with 1910 it had become clear that the most difficult question before the U.S. Government was the regulation of the vast aggregates of capital, commonly called trusts, which were combined into corporations and aimed at the control of particular lines of busi-

Armed with these new powers the

its decisions were received by the public as an unreasonable attempt to control the Commission; and in 1914 Congress refused

appropriations, and the President was obliged to abandon it. Federal control of railways on the whole worked well. It secured uniform appliances and a system of rates based on successive decisions of the Interstate Commerce Commission. This Commission was a striking example of disregard of the great principle of separation of powers inasmuch as it was a rule-mak-

ing body, an executive body, and a court which interpreted its own rules, subject as to some questions to appeal to the Federal Courts. The great problem of the trusts was much farther from a solution than that of the railways, because the large corporations

were linked together through the holding and manipulation of stocks by capitalists and banks, and through the so-called “ inter-

locking of interests.” Furthermore, except for Treasury processes for collecting taxes, there was no public agency other than the Department of Justice to call into action the anti-trust laws in specific cases and exact penalties for their violation. The process of forming new and powerful corporations, frequently by the union of previous companies or firms, grew more active from year to year. Capital was abundant, vast riches lay in the development of mines and oil-wells and in manufactures and trade. The constant tendency was to combine and systematize so that such large lines of business as the production and manufacture of oil, (he mining of iron ore and the manufacture of stccl, the weaving of cotton, woollen and other textiles, the manufacture of tobacco, packing of meat, making of cordage, were rolling up into larger and Jarger corporate units. Above all, the railways which stretched throughout the country and were indispensable to business of every kind had consolidated into great systems which destroyed competition. The only effective way of dealing with large corporations whose activities extended from state to state was to bring suit against them for monopolizing or conspiring to monopolize in their lines of trade. These were difficult matters to prove against corporations of great resources. Hence it. was considered a tri-

umph when, May 9 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court rendered decisions against two of the most powerful trusts, the Standard Oil Co. and the American Tobacco Co., the latter on an issue which had been pending since 1906. The minds of a majority of

the Court worked in a roundabout way. It held that the antitrust legislation must be interpreted by the “standard of reason” namely, that a combination was not unlawful or against the

public interest unless it actually caused a restraint of trade and commerce

among

the Federal states or with foreign nations.

Having thus set up a “rule of reason”? which Congress had

refused to enact, and created an example of judicial legislation, the Court proceeded in both the pending cases to hold that the companies were guilty of attempts to monopolize their lines of trade, and had tried to cloak their monopoly by setting up a variety of intertwined companies, thus concealing their transactions. The Court, therefore, upheld the justice and constitutionality of the Sherman Act, but as to penalties, the Court contented

ness, and also of the railways, which, as general transportation agencies, were of great importance in connexion with every kind of industry and trade. For many years Congress had been strugElng with this question, and the result was two lines of restrictive

itself with ordering the offenders to disintegrate. The companies reluctantly and slowly went through the process of reorganiza-

statutes, headed by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and

had been expected. Thenceforth the “ rule of reason ” required

tion, but their stocks immediately rose on the market—a sufhcient proof that the court decisions were more favourable than

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that positive proof must be-adduced that a great combination was doing harm before it could be touched; the general danger of vast aggregations of capital was left out of account. Another form of unlawful behaviour by trusts was their misuse of the patent laws. The question arose whether the maker of a

patented device could insist that the purchaser must use also the seller’s unpatented appliances in connexion with the materials

employed. On this point the Supreme Court went through various stages of opinion. In the Dick case (March 1912) it held that

such restrictions on the purchaser were legal. About two months later it held, in the “ Bathtub Trust ” case, that there could not be a monopoly of the product of patented machinery. Labour Questions.—A long time was needed to make the discovery that closely connected with the railway question and the trust question was the legal and economic status of those who Jabour. Beginning in the 18th century with the English legal principle that a combination of labourers to raise their wages was unlawful, the United States changed its position and early accepted and for many years acted on the counter principle that

strikes were lawful. No legal obstacle was put in the way of the organization, first, of local trade unions, then of nation-wide unions for single trades, and finally of national unions combining many trades. To this was slowly added by the unions the prin-

ciple of the “right to labour,” which means both that it is the

duty of the community to see that the worker has a job, and also

that at least the skilled workers have a kind of title in their em-

ployment, so that it is contrary to good morals for a “ scab” to take the place of a striker.

When the railways came under

Federal supervision and control, the railway employees, espe-

cially the skilled workers, began to fcel that they, as well as the shipping and travelling public, were entitled to protection by the Government. When, during Roosevelt’s administration, the President designated an informal commission to negotiate a settlement of a wage dispute in the anthracite coal-mincs in Pennsylvania, he made almost the first acknowledgment that such industries as fucl production and steel-making were national

in their character and required national regulation. The legal position of labour unions in these controversies was brought to a head by suits of national importance against unions. The first test case was that of the Buck Stove and Range Co. against the American Federation of Labor, which was really a suit between 4 national labour union and a national organization of manufacturers. The charge was that the Federation, by posting

the Company in its publications as ‘‘ unfair’? to labour, was boycotting and’ thus infringing legal rights. In its evolution the case turned into long-drawn-out

proceedings

against Samuel

Gompers, president of the Federation, for contempt of court, on the ground that he had refused to obey a court order to abandon the boycott. After seven years of shifting of the case from one court to another, Gompers escaped the 12 months’ imprisonment to which he had been sentenced. In roro a suit was decided

against a union of the Danbury (Conn.) hatters, who had attempted to boycott the products of a local hat manufacturer. The jury found a verdict of $74,000 damages, part of which was eventually collected from members of the local union who had

property, and refunded by the general trades union. These court trials accented the labour controversy and led to

violent strikes. In the midst of them sprang up a new labour organization, the Industrial Workers of the World (I.W.W.), which was an attempt on a Jarge scale to organize the unskilled labourers, and also to reach the goal of one big union for all trades. The movement was unwelcome to the unions of skilled labour, because the unskilled were so much more numerous that they could always outvote the skilled, and were sure to insist on

an equalization of wages, which would reduce the rates of the highly paid. For several years, strikes were frequent and often accompanied by acts of violence. In several instances labour unions supported their leaders in arson and murder. One such case was the blowing up of the Los Angeles Times building in Oct. 1910, for which two brothers named McNamara, one of them secretary of the International Association of Bridge and Con-

structional Iron Workers, were convicted and sentenced.

STATES Another phase of the labour situation was the spread of employers’ liability laws through various states, and an Act of Congress of April 22 1908 for the protection of employees of interstate railways, Minimum Wage Acts also were passed in a few states with the purpose of protecting the employees in industries that required chiefly unskilled or slightly skilled women. In June 1912 Congress added to its previous enactment of an cighthour maximum regular day for public employees, by providing

that all contract work for the Federal Government must also be on the eight-hour basis. The effect of these movements was that labour came to be recognized as one of the elements of production that must be considered; as most of the labourers were voters they brought to bear powerful influences on state Legislatures and Congress in favour of labour. On the other hand, the courts,

particularly those of the states, were slow to recognize the changes in industrial conditions which made protection of wage earners necessary, and many statutes intended for the betterment of labour conditions were held invalid.

In addition, the courts began to use a system of labour injunctions; workmen, labour unions and members were forbidden to perform acts, which if performed would presumably be a violation of a statute and would therefore lead to prosecution, in which the question of guilt or innocence would be settled by a jury. If the offense were transformed by the injunction into a defiance of the Court, then the Court itself would decide on the responsibility and affix a penalty not specifically laid down in any statute. Labour was opposed to unlimited immigration, and nearly all the measures for restricting immigration were originally proposed by labour unions, particularly the convict and contract labour Acts. For many years there was a Labor or Socialist Labor national party, which regularly nominated a candidate for the presidency and cast a small popular vote. It did not succeed

because there was a standing Socialist party which cast from half a million to a million votes and absorbed the Socialist vote; while the labour leaders saw that if they withdrew from the main political parties they would set the farmers and traders and professional men against them. Hence, in all the shifts of politics

very few avowed Labour candidates were elected to the state Legislatures or Congress. Labour agents and agitators failed therefore, to influence the public at large—their speeches and literature were little regarded outside their own constituencies. Furthermore, the members of the labour unions, about 5,000,000 all told, were not more than one-eighth of those men and women

in the United States who worked with their hands. Foreign Relations, r907-13.—In the pressure for action on social and political matters, foreign affairs received even less than the usual meagre attention given them by the American people. The tradition of isolation was a strong force in the public mind, notwithstanding the rapidly growing forcign trade and the influence of the great number of immigrants. The thing that brought the United States closest to European complications was the possession of the Philippine Is., which made the United States an Asiatic power, and compelled it to be interested in the fiscal and territorial conditions of China on the basis of the “ opcn door ”’ system Proposed by Secretary Hay in rgor. In the western hemisphere the Americans upheld the Monroe Doctrine as applied by Roosevelt to prevent the use of force by European

countries to collect debts and claims from delinquent American powers. Three steps had already been taken in pursuit of the Caribbean policy: the protectorate of Cuba, the Panama Canal undertaking, and the lodgment in San Domingo.

In the Hague conference of 1907 the U.S, delegates urged arbi-

tration; and in accordance with the general principles put forth at that conference, Secretary Root in 1908 secured 25 arbitration treaties with as many countries. The United States and Great Britain arranged (Jan. 27 1909) to refer to the Hague

tribunal their long-standing dispute on the Newfoundland fisheries, the first really important case brought before the tribunal. The result was a decision (Sept. 7 1910), which brought to a satisfactory termination the difficulty. President Taft, through Secretary Knox, secured in rgrr arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France. The Senate insisted on inserting in these

UNITED documents a reservation of all questions involving what Roosevelt called the “ vital interest, the independence or honour of the nation,” and in rg12 it refused to approve them. A long-standing difficulty with Russia caused by the refusal of the Russian Government io recognize passports issued to Jews and some other

people, was suddenly accentuated when, on Dec. 18 rrr, the commercial treaty with Russia was abrogated. Trade relations went on for the time, however, without a treaty.

In 1911 the Republican majority under President Taft’s leadership proceeded to a policy of commercial reciprocity with Canada, thus reviving the principle of the treaty of 1854 which went

out of effect in 1865. An agreement was made with the Canadian Government by which each side should reduce or abolish duties on certain raw products and manufactures. For the first time in

American history such an international arrangement was to be brought about by legislation on both sides, instead of by a formal treaty. With great difficulty the necessary bill was pushed through Congress (July r911); but two months later the Canadian electors refused to support the Liberal Government which had negotiated the reciprocity agreement, and the plan broke

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elaborate courtesy by a welcoming Japanese squadron exactly equal in number, ship for ship. In the Root-Takahira reciprocal nate of Dec. 1 1908 (which was never submitted to the Senate), the United States practically admitted Japan's special interest in Asiatic affairs. In Dec. 1909, Secretary Knox suggested the nationalization of the Manchurian

railways by China, which

proved to be unacceptable both to Japan and Russia. The Japanese were evidently acquiring a sense of their special and almost exclusive rights to influence on the Asiatic mainland. The question of immigration was scttled for the time being by renewal of the commercial treaty, July 24 1911; the previous “ gentlemen’s agreement”? was continued, according to which, while not yielding its claim to a right of immigration into the United States, the Japanese Government pledged itself not to issue

passports to labourers.

There still seemed to be a fecling in the

United States that the Japanese had in mind an impcrial policy, and when in 1912 it was rumoured that they were trying to get possession of Magdalena Bay in Mexico, the Senate adopted the Lodge resolution against forcign occupation of territory near

President Taft continued the occupation of San Dominga, the

by which might be a point of vantage against the United States. Politics, r909-12.—In the action of Congress on many important issues as above described no party lines were drawn; though such measures as the tariff and the new taxes were distinctly Republican. As often happens when a party is firmly seated in power, the Republicans began to divide. On the tariff, some members from middle western states, particularly Minnesota, voted against the Payne-Aldrich measure because their constituents could sce in it no advantage to themselves. Another influence which tended to divide the Republican party was resentment against the Speaker of the House, Cannon of Illinois, who exercised the powers that had been accumulating in the

consent of the Senate to a treaty to that effect having been obtained in 1907. In ro1r he secured a convention by which Nicaragua ceded certain small islands on its Atlantic and Pacific coasts and gave exclusive canal privileges to the United States. Although the Senate did not ratify the treaty, President Taft

hands of Speakers for a hundred years. By his control of the proceedings of the House, by his appointments of committees, and by his power to refuse recognition of members who desired to take part in debate or submit proposals, he was practically the legislative premier. Through the combining of these powers

practically took possession of Nicaragua and this occupation continued throughout his term. Another foreign question arose out of the possession of the Panama Canal. As the Canal approached

the Speaker virtually had a veto on any measure ar proceeding which he did not like. This concentration of authority in the

down with the refusal of Canada. Conditions in the Latin-American states did not remain harmonious. The United States ever since the Spanish war had been gaining territory and power to the southward. The arrangements of 1902 made Cuba practically a dependency; and from 1906 to 1909 it was found necessary to resort to those treaty rights and

sect up a provisional Government, supported by American troops. The Panama Canal was now approaching completion and the little republic of Panama, which it bisected, nominally an inde-

pendent state, was in fact under complete American control.

completion, an Act of Congress was passed Aug. 27 1912 for laying tolls on shipping, from which American ships engaged in coastwise trade were to be relicved. The British Government

lodged a protest (Dec. 9) on the ground that by its treaty with the United States the Canal was to be opened on equal terms to the ships of “all nations”; President Taft, however, stood by the Act, and the question was passed on to the next Administration (see PANAMA CANAL).

Still more serious were the relations with Mexico, where, in Igo, a revolution headed by Madero, assailed the presumedly solid Government of Dictator Diaz and drove the latter after a few months out of the country. Mexico was thrown into confu-

sion, and President Taft found it necessary to place troops on the border; in 1912 he proclaimed an embargo on the export of arms or military supplies to Mexico. Meanwhile the concessions and property of Americans in Mexico were threatened or destroyed, and there were many cases of robbery, forced loans and murder.

The Americans who had interests in Mexico began a steady pressure for intervention by the United States.

The nationals of

other countries were suffering from the same disorder and vio-

lence; but the temper of the United States was strongly against any show of force by other Governments, because it might be a direct or indirect violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Across the Pacific, clouds rose on the diplomatic horizon. Chinese immigration had long been prohibited, but the commercial treaties with Japan allowed a reciprocal freedom of residence and trade to the nationals of the two countries. The immigration of Japanese was very distasteful to the people of California, who

undertook to restrict Japanese children to separate schools. Behind this difficulty was the rising power of the Japanese and their national spirit, greatly enhanced by their victory over the Russians in 1905. In 1908 Roosevelt sent around the world a

powerful naval fleet which visited Japan and was received with

Speaker, and a few chairmen of committees whom he designated, in many ways tended to unity and responsibility in legislation; but Cannon kept too tight a hand; hence, March 19 1910, a group of Republican “ insurgents ” Joined hands with the Democrats of the House to reduce his power. By these and later changes in the rules, the power to appoint committees and to

direct legislation was taken from the Speaker and never restored. The Speaker became simply a partisan moderator.

A new issue upon which both parties were divided was covered by the general term “ conservation.”

The United States, though

most of the arable land had passed out of its possession, was still,

as owner of a vast area of public lands, the possessor of great tracts of forest, of mineral lands, and of water power. President Roosevelt became interested in stopping the waste of timber and minerals, in preserving part of the gifts of nature for future generations, and in retaining public ownership of the utilities of the country, particularly the forests and streams. The policy of conservation had hardly gone further than the reservation of large areas of forest land until 1910, when statutes provided for a new Classification of land and for the reservation of coal by the Government. Congress in 1902 had provided for a system of

irrigation, the cost to be advanced by the Government and repaid in instalments by the users of the water.

This statute

underwent various amendments so as to give greater encourage-

ment to settlers. In 1910 large areas, previously held as forest lands, were thrown open to settlement. Under a statute of March

1911, considerable areas of mountain land were purchased in the Appalachians on the theory that their control would protect the watersheds of navigable rivers. Congress also reserved forever several scenic areas, particularly Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado, Glacier Park in Montana, and later the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. The Progressive Movemen!—In the confusion of statutes, executive orders, proceedings of the Interstate Commerce Commis-

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sion and Supreme Court decisions, it was difficult to see how far the country was really advancing in its attempt to control capital and satisfy labour. The only clear result was that the Republican party was weakening, and that President Taft’s popularity and influence were lessening.

The diminution of power vested in the

Speaker was an evidence both of discontent and of willingness to disregard party lines; and the State and Congressional elections of rọrọ werc unfavourable to the Republicans.

The insurgents,

who soon came to be called Progressives, gained most of the

STATES vour of Roosevelt were Garfield of Ohio, Pinchot of Pennsylvania and a strong body of Republican governors,

Roosevelt himseli

had come to Chicago, established headquarters there, and thrown his immense energy and enthusiasm into the campaign. The convention was a scenc of unusual excitement. Out of the 1,076 delegates something near 400 were pledged to Roosevelt, and there seemed a good chance of gaining for him some of the south-

ern delegates, of whom a large number were negroes who recognized Roosevelt as favourable to their race. The decision was

Republican districts in the west; and the Democrats gained about

not made in open convention, but in the preliminary meetings of

zo seats in Congress, which transferred to them the control of the

the national committee (chosen in 1908), which was strongly “stand-pat ”; for that committee had to decide upon the right of claimants to be inscribed in the preliminary roll of delegates. The Roosevelt managers centered contests for many seats and

House; while in the Senate they had 41 of the 92 members. The dissatisfied Republicans began to look forward to the

presidential election of 1912, and a group of them gathered about Senator La Follette of Wisconsin as a leader and presumptive candidate, Meanwhile the state Legislatures were passing primary laws some of which included the choice of delegates to na-

tional nominating conventions.

La Follette had broken into the

Republican party organization in his own state, secured the governorship, and entered the U.S. Senate, where he violated the traditions of that conservative body by making speeches without

waiting the usual length of time. Tait’s friends and supporters naturally expected that the President would be renominated.

had an especially strong case as to Missouri, Washington and

two seats for California. In the end, every contest except that of Missouri was settled in favour of the Taft claimants. Even then the combination was almost broken. Notwithstanding the fact that the temporary organization was in the hands of Roosevelt’s enemies, among them Elihu Root, his former Secretary of State, a test vote for temporary chairman showed 558 votes for Root

against 502 for the anti-Taft forces. The shifting of 30 delegates

in the country, Theodore Roosevelt. A few weeks after leaving

from one side to the other in all probability would have brought about a “ stampede ” to Roosevelt; and those delegates Roosevelt would have had if he had thrown his “ hat into the ring ”

the White House (1909) he undertook an expedition to Central

two months earlier.

All these calculations were upset by the greatest personality

Africa, and before returning made a series of visits to the coun-

tries of W. Europe.

He was received as the ex-President of the

most important of republics and as a commanding personage;

immense crowds greeted him as a world celebrity. He returned to the United States June 18 rọro to find political conditions little to his liking. Most of his friends had disappeared from the Administration; his policies, particularly as to conservation and the more rigorous control of the trusts, seemed to him to have been slighted. Without any open breach of personal friendship

The conservative Republicans being thus in control, there was nothing for the Roosevelt men to do but to protest to the last.

Roosevelt advised his delegates to take no further part in the proceedings. At the final roll-call, June 22, there were 561 votes for Taft, 58 scattering, and 107 for Roosevelt, besides 344 Roosenot voting. In the last issue, therefore, Taft had a

velt men

majority of so votes out of 1,070. Fairbanks of Indiana was nominated for Vice-President. In the minds of the conservative Republicans Roosevelt was extinct. He had cntered the con-

Taft did not satisfy the ex-President, and the two drifted apart.

vention, been defeated, and he must bow to the will of the

On the other hand, the insurgent Republicans included some of

majority. In the minds of Roosevelt and most of his followers the nomination was a violation of the principles of popular gov-

Roosevelt’s warm friends.

It was impossible for him to remain

silent, for he was called upon to speak in all parts of the country.

ernment.

Aug. 31 1910 at Osawatomie, Kan., he set forth a programme which he called ‘“‘ the new Nationalism,” favouring publicity of the accounts and proceedings of trusts, a tariff commission, a

openly advised a bolt. This was duly accomplished by a formal Progressive Convention which met in Chicago in Aug. and nominated Roosevelt for president and Hiram Johnson, of Califorma,

graduated income-tax, a proper army and navy, conservation, protection of labour, and the direct primary with the recall of elective officers, This was a programme which could not be accepted by the conservative or “‘ stand-pat ”’ Republicans, with

for vice-president.

whom, by this time, President Taft, was included.

Nevertheless, throughout rorr Roosevelt made no direct movement towards standing for the presidency. He publicly

At a great mecting held the same night Roosevelt

Meanwhile the Democratic Convention at Baltimore met under the guidance of William J. Bryan, who had no hope of being the candidate himself but proved to be in a position to dictate the choice. He declared open war upon the capitalistic delegates, one of whom was sitting on the platform. The apparently sure candidate was Speaker Champ Clark of Missouri, who

attacked Taft's position on the trusts in the columns of The Out-

received a majority of the votes, but under the rules of the Dem-

look of which he had become an editor, and openly classed himself as a Progressive. Meanwhile several of the western states, par-

ocratic Convention requiring a two-thirds majority, he was finally defeated by Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey,

ticularly California under the guidance of Gov. Hiram Johnson, had accepted a radical programme of political and social reform.

A formal breach with Taft and the open candidacy of Roosevelt seemed inevitable. The crisis came when, Feb. 2 tor, Ia Follette suffercd a physical and mental collapse which put him out of consideration; and on Feb. 12 President Taft in a speech alluded to the Progressives (evidently having Roosevelt in mind) as ‘‘ Extremists—not Progressives; they are political emotion-

owing to the vigorous support of Bryan. Gov. Marshall of Indiana was nominated for vice-president. The platforms of the

two old parties were of an usual type. The Republicans as usual declared for protective duties. The Democrats stood by their platform of a tariff for revenue only, additional regulation

aries, or neurotics.”” This was taken asa challenge and a few days

of the railways and presidential preference primaries. The Progressive platform was a general programme of political reform and “an enlarged measure of social and industrial justice.” It was not the platform, however, but men that appealed to

later Roosevelt openly declared himsclf a candidate, adding, ““ My hat is in the ring.” Primarics or conventions had already been held in several states which would have instructed their delegations to support Roosevelt if they had known his purposes; in another large group of states, and those for the most part states that formed the backbone of the party, there was still time to organize and select delegates favouring Roosevelt. Election of 1912.—As the convention held at Chicago approached, the lines of battle were developed. Behind Taft were Barnes of New York, Penrose of Pennsylvania, Crane of Massachusetts, and other “ stand-pat ” leaders. Among those in fa-

the voters. The issue was really Roosevelt, Taft, or Wilson. Not for so years had there been so stirring a campaign. All three candidates took the field; and for the first time in presidential campaigns “ soap-box ” speakers appeared in large numbers on the streets of the citics. From the first it was clear that the real fight was between Roosevelt and Wilson, since Taft had to bear the unpopularity of the Republican party and also the Progressive charge that the Chicago Convention had given him a stolen nomination. The Progressives were well organized and their convention and campaign included many women. The final question was whether Roosevelt could draw to himself a

UNITED sufficient number of Democrats to reduce the Democratic vote below the winning point. He was hopefu! as to some of the south-

ern states in which he had many warm friends and supporters. The result in Nov. showed that the voters in the main stood by their regular candidates, The total popular Democratic vote, more than six and a quarter million, was only about 120,000 less than in 1908. The total Taft and Roosevelt vote combined was

almost exactly the same as that of the Republicans in Igoo.

Roosevelt polled about four million popular votes to two and one half millions for Taft; but he carried only six states with 88 electoral votes against 40 states and 435 votes for Wilson. The only Taft states were Utah and Vermont with a total of cight electoral votes, Notwithstanding the ignominious defeat of their candidate, the Republican party was still intact with its “ stand-pat ” leaders, its “ organization,” and its control of state and local politics. On the other hand, Roosevelt had built up what seemed

to be a new national party controlling four million votes, and he hoped for a continuation of that party as a power in the individual states and in national politics. Woedrow

Wilson.—The

centre and soul of the Progressive

movement was Theodore Roosevelt of mind; he felt intensely; he spoke deep conviction; he was accused by Ten Commandments ”’; he was not

because of his ardent habit with tremendous energy and his critics of “ inventing the only the head of a party, he

was the head of a political cult (see ROOSEVELT, THEODORE).

In

that respect he was closely paralleled by Woodrow Wilson, who, on March 4 1913, was inaugurated as President. Wilson’s life had been much less adventurous and varied than that of Roosevelt.

Born in Staunton, Va., in 1856, of Scotch Presbyterian

ancestry, son of a minister, he graduated from Princeton in 1879, essayed the practice of law in which he made no success, then studied political science and was a professor in several colleges, finally returning to Princeton. From 1902 to 1910, he was president of that university. In 1885 he published his first and most remarkable book, Congressional Government, which was a search-

ing criticism of the weaknesses of the American legislative commiltee system and the separation of executive officials from legislation. He was an easy and attractive speaker, and had a remarkable literary style shown in several books on government and jn

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up of the fundamentals of American government. He protests against the political conditions and methods of the time, finds economic conditions even worse, and points out the baleful influence of corporations and trusts on parties and Governments. The book advocates publicity and action by popular vote as the

remedy for the ills which the writer so clearly sees. On entering office the first duty of the President was to select his Cabinet. It was only reasonable that Bryan, the most prominent man in the party, who had been three times its candidate for presidency, should enter it; but not that he should be made

Secretary of State, an office for which he had little training and as little adaptation. A new Cabinet office had just been created by Congress, the secretaryship of the Department of Labor, to which was appointed W.B. Wilson, a former member of Congress and a strict labour organization man. Jaindley M. Garrison, Secretary of War, and Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior, were strong men.

Albert S. Burleson, Postmaster-General,

and Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy, had no adequate training for their duties. David F. Houston of Missouri was made Secretary of Agriculture, William G. McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury, and James C. McReynolds, Attorney-General. Most of the members of the Cabinet were men who could be trusted to follow the President’s lead. Oue remarkable figure, not included in this list, was Col. E. M. House of Texas, who for six years was the President’s most trusted counsellor and political friend without holding any political office. The President’s judicial appointments were good, including one man, Louis D.

Brandeis, as justice of the Supreme Court, against whom a propaganda was raiscd because he was supposed to be unduly radical and favourable to labour. In the minor civil service Wilson carried out his principles by enlarging the classitied list of posts which could be entered only by competitive examinations. Although a genial man, who could be a delightful companion, full of experience and of Scotch Presbyterian humour, President Wilson from his first day in the White ITouse cut himself off from most of his counirymen. There were none of those receptions open to all, which had delighted President Roosevelt; none of those sessions with newspaper correspondents that Taft had

thought not beneath his dignity.

The President’s theory was

an elaborate history of the United States. He moved much about

that he must husband his time so as to consider his views upon

the world, and mixed freely with people in and out of his profession, in which he was a lcading figure. As administrator of a

public questions; nor did he expect the members of his Cabinet

great university he chafed against the conservatism of his col-

leagues, and found he could not bring himself to share the responsibilities of direction with others (see WiLson, Woonrow).

to act as antennx for him, to test the currents of public sentiment. He gauged the public mind for himself. He had a powerful mind, an amazing skill of expression, and an intense belief in

In 1910, 2 favourable year for the Democratic party, of which he

the power of ideals to arouse and inspire a people. Furthermore, he stood by the political programme indicated in his book Ie

had always been a member, he was put forward for the governor-

New Freedom.

ship of New Jersey by fricnds who looked farther than that office, particularly the journalist, George Harvey. New Jersey went Democratic, and during r911 and rọr2 Gov. Wilson had opportunity to show his skill as a party leader and his interest in reform. He made himself responsible for the ‘‘ seven sisters,” a group of measures dealing with direct primaries, corrupt prac-

ing the public pulse, of mixing with members of Congress and party leaders, of personally greeting the average voter who so much appreciates a word from the President. Finance and Tariff —The election of 1912 carried with it a safe Democratic majority in the Senate and a two-to-one majority in the House, so that the responsibility for legislation was clear.

Ile thought he had no need of conferences, of feel-

tices, workmen’s protection and control of trusts, and especially

Champ Clark again had the empty honour of the Speakership.

public service corporations, somewhat on the plan of the Federal

April 8 1913, the President created a surprise by appearing in person to address the two Houses of Congress jointly at the opening of a special session, instead of sending the written message which had been invariable since 1800. This practice he followed throughout his administration, with great effect. It was part of his conception of the presidency. He was not only chicf magistrate of the nation, but head of the Democratic party, and prac-

Interstate Commerce Commission. In 1912 when the Democratic party was looking for a candidate, Woodrow Wilson was put forward against Champ Clark, the experienced political chieftain. He was taken up by Bryan who saw in him frst of all, an exponent of the political principles for which Bryan had stood for many years. He was wise enough to

see that the party needed a leader and a President who could meet the Progressives on their own ground. He persuaded the Democratic Convention to nominate Wilson, who had a special

advantage in his southern birth but was little known among the ranks of the party. Bryan also aided him by drafting a platform hardly less progressive than that of the Progressive party.

The

split in the Republican party rendered Wilson’s election inevitable. On the eve of his inauguration he published a collection of his specches, chiefly delivered in the preceding campaign, under the title of The New Frecdom. It was in effect a confession of political faith, a forecast of what the President intended, a summing

tically the premier of the Government from whom ought to pro-

ceed plans for important legislation. May 26 1913 he publicly denounced the lobbyists in Congress who he declared, were endeavouring to control tariff Jegislation; and Congress accepted the rebuke He disdained the arts of Jefferson or McKinley in soothing individual congressmen; he revived and enlarged Roosevelt’s practice of telling the country what Congress ought to do. Furthermore, he had in his mind a sheaf of statutes which he

believed the country needed.

The special session was called particularly to frame a tariff Act

the outline of which was contained in his first address.

Repre-

UNITED

888

sentative Underwood, chairman of the Committee of Ways and

STATES

The purpose of the statute was to enlarge the free list of raw

of the new international waterway since its completion. The success of the Panama Canal called attention to the possibilities of water transportation. A canal across Cape Cod, constructed

materials, foodstufis, and some manufactures, to make a modcr-

by private capital, was opened July 29 rọr4.

ate reduction of the protective duties, and to correct some of the things which made the Payne-Aldrich Act unpopular. It was

York spent a hundred million dollars in enlarging the Erie Canal which was then allowed to remain almost unused. Various plans were urged for an artificial waterway from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, ignoring the fact that the Ohio and Mississippi rivers had

Means, gave to the new measure his name and large experience.

with but one exception

the first measure

for tariff reduction

enacted since the Civil War. Included in the statute was an income-tax, at last made possible by the adoption of the 16th Amendment (Feb. 25 1913), which was expected to supply any revenue which might be lost by the reduction of duties (see IncoME Tax, United States). The tax was low: 1% on incomes from $3,000 to $20,000 a year, and a sliding scale on larger

incomes, with 6% as a maximum. A Tariff Commission was created to make researches into the workings of the Act and try to find out what was the actual difference between the cost of labour in the United States and in foreign countries. The Republicans naturally fought the bill throughout, but it became a law, Oct. 3 19173.

The powerful influence of the President was again exerted to secure a systematic banking system, with the result that (Dec. 23 1913) the Owen-Glass Federal Reserve Bank Act was added to the statutes (see FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING System). The

principle was no longer to rcly on separate national banks, each chartered as a separate entity and having no official connexion with other banks, but to create a national institution, which was to be divided into 12 regional banks, in each of which was a body

of directors, besides the central organization in Washington.

In

these 12 subdivisions clustered such banks, whether national or state-chartered, as chose to accept; but pressure was put upon

national banks to go into the new system. The Federal Reserve banks were authorized and expected to rediscount commercial paper discounted by the local banks. The new institution was also to issue a new form of paper money.

Federal Reserve banks

were authorized to act as depositories and fiscal agents for the Government. It was about a year before the system could be put into operation, but it was from the start recognized as a great improvement and a large national asset. At the same time a

Rural Credits Act was passed (July 17 1916), which created a special group of banks to lend money to farmers on the security of their farms. Both banking systems worked smoothly. The Federal Reserve banks greatly increased the elasticity of the currency; the effect of their operations up to 1920 was virtually to add an immense sum io the circulating medium of the country. Transportation, 1914-6.—Expcrience showed that it was much

easier to secure regulation of the railways than of other corporations. In 1914 the Interstate Commerce Commission began for the first time to sanction small increases in rates. Under a statute of March t 1913 the Commission was authorized to enter on

an elaborate valuation of the railway property throughout the country as the basis of a judgment as to what was a reasonable profit (sce Rattways: United States). The Supreme Court supported recent legislation by compelling the pipe-lincs to accept the status of common carriers, and by breaking up some of the

railway combinations, particularly that of the New York, New Haven and Hartford, which had tried to monopolize the steam, trolley, and steamship lines in southern New England. Down to the middle of 1916 the railways were doing well on the prevailing

low rates for passengers and freight. A new transportation problem developed as the Panama Canal approached completion; for this was the first great agency of transportation which was owned and managed by the US. Government. President Wilson undid the work of the previous Congress so far as it gave special privileges in the canal to American vessels. He used to the utmost his personal influence in supporting a bill repealing the discrimination in favour of Americanowned vessels, of which the British Government had complained; it became an Act, June 15 ro14. On Aug. 15 the first steamer passed through the Canal from sea to sea and in a few months the Canal was paying its own way. Temporary slides closed it for a few months; but in 1916 traffic was resumed and by the

close of the fiscal year 7,046,407 tons of shipping had made use

The state of New

almost ceased to be used for traffic. Internal canals were all sub-

ject to the difficulty that they could not compete with the railways which received freight at any place in the United States for delivery at any other place; while in the northern part of the country ice prevented winter trafhe on canals.

A new question of transportation was arising through the rapid development of motor vehicles. At first a plaything, then a luxury, by 1908 they were spreading throughout the country, for pleasure, for convenience, for professional work; then, as the motor-truck developed, for general transportation. These machines could not well be operated on the ordinary country roads or on some of the city streets; and the attention of the whole

country was called to the absolute necessity of good roads. The old system of privately owned toll roads and bridges had almost disappeared, and the only way to accommodate this new traffic was to build roads at the public expense. Some of the states had for years been aiding the rural localities in this process. As soon as good roads were built, however, the public discovered to its consternation that they would soon wear out unless kept in order at great expense. In 1916 Congress passed an Act appropriating

approximately $85,000,000 to be paid in about five years to such states as would contribute equal sums for good roads. The Trusts, 19014.—Just before President Wilson took office, an investigation was begun of the so-called shipping trust, composed of some American and various forcign companies, which was

charged with a monopoly of a large part of the business of marine transportation by steamers. A few hours before the end of President Taft’s term a congressional committee reported against the “great and rapidly growing concentration of the money control

and credit in the hands of a few men.” The Supreme Court in its decisions followed this spirit of opposition to the growth of combinations. President Wilson urged successfully a radical amendment of the Sherman Act and the result was the Clayton Anti-Trust Act (Oct. 15 1914) against discriminating freight agreements, interlocking directorates and holding corporations. The field of governmental action was thereby very much enlarged.

In June 1914 in a suit involving the International Harvester Company, one of the largest of the manufacturing corporations, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld state anti-trust laws. The ring of law and justice seemed to be drawing closer round the great

offenders; yct these offenders still flourished, and huge corporations, such as the U.S. Steel Corp., paid dividends on thousands of millions in stock and bonds. Another branch of the same attack on