Durban. a Study in Racial Ecology 9780231881081

Table of contents :
CONTENTS
FIGURES
TABLES
INTRODUCTION
PREFACE
CHAPTER I. RACE CONTACT: CONFLICT OR CO-OPERATION?
CHAPTER II. THE PEOPLES OF DURBAN: ECONOMIC ASPECTS
CHAPTER III. THE PEOPLES OF DURBAN (CONTD): AGE, SEX, MARITAL STATUS, BIRTH AND DEATH RATES, RELIGION, LANGUAGE; VARIATIONS BETWEEN AND WITHIN RACES
CHAPTER IV. RESIDENTIAL ECOLOGY OF THE RACES
CHAPTER V. RESIDENTIAL ECOLOGY OF THE RACES (CONTINUED): INCOME, RELIGION AND LANGUAGE
CHAPTER VI. SEGREGATION, PURE AND APPLIED
CHAPTER VII. GROUP AREAS
CHAPTER VIII. PROSPECT
APPENDIX A. DISTRIBUTION OF INCOMES OF EUROPEANS, COLOUREDS AND INDIANS, AND CALCULATION OF MEAN AND PER CAPITA INCOMES OF AFRICAN POPULATION
APPENDIX B. CENSUS TRACTS
APPENDIX C. MEAN AND PER CAPITA INCOME, BY RACE AND CENSUS TRACT, DURBAN: 1951 CENSUS
INDEX
Map

Citation preview

FIGURE

i:

DURBAN IN RELATION T O THF

RJD,

m.

3 0*5

ESCARPMENT

EDGE

INTENSIVE A R A B L E

AND

P A S T O R A L AREAS SEMI-INTENSIVE ARABLE AND PASTORAL AREAS GOLD

FIELDS

COAL

FIELDS

MAIN H

INDUSTRIAL

AREAS

RAILWAYS

MAIN URBAN CENTRES

1,000,000 500,000 LOQOOO SOIOOO

PERSONS

!2I!

mm

IMPORTS!,,, EXPORTS] I MILLION TONS

DURBAN A STUDY IN RACIAL

ECOLOGY

Also by Leo Kuper LIVING IN TOWNS PASSIVE RESISTANCE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

DURBAN A STUDY IN RACIAL

ECOLOGY

by

LEO KUPER HILSTAN WATTS & RONALD DAVIES with an introduction by ALAN

PATON

1958 London: JONATHAN GAPE, LTD. New York: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS

©

1958 BY

LEO KUPER,

HILSTAN W A T T S

MANUFACTURED

IN G R E A T

AND

RONALD

BRITAIN

DAVIES

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

BY

ALAN

PATON

PREFACE

I

RACE

CONTACT:

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION? II

THE

PEOPLES

ECONOMIC m

OF

DURBAN."

ASPECTS

T H E P E O P L E S O F D U R B A N (CONTD) : AGE,

SEX,

BIRTH

RELIGION, TIONS

MARITAL

AND

STATUS,

DEATH

RATES,

LANGUAGE;

BETWEEN

VARIA-

AND

WITHIN

RACES

IV

RESIDENTIAL

ECOLOGY

OF

ECOLOGY

OF

THE

RACES V

RESIDENTIAL RACES GION

VI

(CONTD): INCOME, AND

SEGREGATION, APPLIED

VII

GROUP

AREAS

LANGUAGE

PURE

AND

THE RELI-

8

FIGURES 15

DISTRIBUTION INCOME I95I

OF

BY

INDIAN

CENSUS

PER

TRACT,

CAPITA

DURBAN:

CENSUS

127

16

RACIAL COMPOSITION BY CENSUS TRACTS,

17

RACIAL COMPOSITION BY CENSUS TRACTS,

EUROPEANS, DURBAN: 1951 CENSUS

137

COLOUREDS, DURBAN: 1951 CENSUS

139

18

RACIAL COMPOSITION BY CENSUS TRACTS,

19

RACIAL COMPOSITION BY CENSUS TRACTS,

INDIANS, DURBAN: 1951 CENSUS

140

AFRICANS, DURBAN: 1951 CENSUS 20

SEGREGATION

CURVE

FOR

141

SEGREGATION

OF INDIANS FROM EUROPEANS, DURBAN, 1951 (CENSUS TRACT BASIS) 21

GROUP

AREAS

PROPOSALS

FOR

153 DURBAN

(TECHNICAL SUB-COMMITTEE, NOVEMBER 1951) 22

189

GROUP AREAS PROPOSALS FOR EUROPEANS (DURBAN

CITY COUNCIL, 5TH

AUGUST

1952) 23

GROUP

J95

AREAS

(DURBAN

PROPOSALS

FOR

INDIANS

CITY COUNCIL, 5TH

AUGUST

1952) 24

197

GROUP AREAS

PROPOSALS FOR

DURBAN,

ALL RACES (DURBAN CITY COUNCIL, 5TH AUGUST I 9 5 2 ) 25

20I

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GROUP AREAS IN DURBAN, MADE BY THE GROUP AREAS BOARD

TO

THE

MINISTER

OF

THE

INTERIOR (JULY 1954) DURBAN: KEY MAP

205

faring

p.

244

TABLES I INDUSTRIAL

DISTRIBUTION

TION, D U R B A N : n

NUMBER

1951

OF T H E

POPULA-

CENSUS

OF FACTORIES IN T H E

UNION

AND

IN CERTAIN INDUSTRIAL A R E A S FOR E A C H INDUSTRIAL ONLY):

IN INDUSTRIAL AND

(PRIVATE

INDUSTRIES

ESTABLISHMENTS,

NET

OUTPUT

PINETOWN I952:

CLASS

1949/50 FOR

METROPOLITAN

INDUSTRIAL

EMPLOYEES

THE

DURBAN-

AREA,

1938-

CENSUS

IV R A C E COMPOSITION OF THE D U R B A N P O P U L A TION:

I95I

CENSUS

V OCCUPATIONAL

DISTRIBUTION

POPULATION OF D U R B A N :

OF

1951

V I P E R C E N T A G E DISTRIBUTION OF

THE

CENSUS

OCCUPATIONS

WITHIN E A C H R A C E , D U R B A N : 1 9 5 1 CENSUS VH P E R C E N T A G E

DISTRIBUTION

OF

OCCUPA-

TIONAL CATEGORIES B E T W E E N T H E RACES, D U R B A N : vm

STATUS

OF

1951

OF

POPULATION,

CENSUS

INCOMES

COLOURED

AND

OF INDIAN

THE

EUROPEAN,

POPULATIONS

D U R B A N : 1 9 5 1 CENSUS ( A p p e n d i x X PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF T H E INCOMES AND

OF

INDIAN

FOUR

CENSUS

EMPLOYMENT

DURBAN: IX A N N U A L

1951

THE

EUROPEAN,

POPULATIONS

1951 CENSUS (Appendix A)

IN

IN

A) ANNUAL

COLOURED DURBAN:

TABLES

IO XI C O M P A R I S O N

OF INCOME

DISTRIBUTION

BETWEEN T H E R A C E S : RATIO (Percentage of

Coloureds or Indians in R e c e i p t

Income/Percentage SELECTED

INCOME

of

Europeans)

CATEGORIES,

of

FOR

DURBAN:

I 9 5 I CENSUS XII MEAN AND DURBAN,

65

PER CAPITA

INCOME

BY

RACE,

1951

66

x r a SEX COMPOSITION OF DURBAN'S POPULATION: 1951 XIV

CENSUS

MEDIAN

AND

68

QUARTILE

RACE, D U R B A N : XV

MARITAL

STATUS,

1951

AGES B Y

SEX

AND

CENSUS

BY

RACE,

69

OF

DURBAN'S

POPULATION, AGED 1 5 YEARS AND O V E R : I95I

CENSUS

X V I FERTILITY 1951,

XVn

RATES,

AND

AFRICA,

71 BY

FOR

RACE,

THE

FOR

UNION

DURBAN,

OF

SOUTH

1946

72

BIRTHPLACE OF DURBAN POPULATION:

1951

CENSUS xvm

82

RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF THE POPULATION OF DURBAN, BY R A C E :

XIX

HOME

LANGUAGES

OF

COLOUREDS, D U R B A N : XX

HOME 1951

XXI HOME I95I xxn

LANGUAGES

1951

OF

CENSUS

EUROPEANS 1951

83 AND

CENSUS

INDIANS,

DURBAN:

CENSUS LANGUAGES

85

86 OF

AFRICANS,

DURBAN:

CENSUS

87

HOME LANGUAGE, ANNUAL MEAN INCOME, DEPENDENCY R A T E AND PER CAPITA DURBAN:

1951

(B) COLOUREDS,

CENSUS:

(A)

(C) INDIANS

INCOME,

EUROPEANS, 89, 90

TABLES

II

XXFFL RELIGION, ANNUAL MEAN INCOME, ENCY

RATE

DURBAN: (b) XXIV

AND

1951

CENSUS:

COLOUREDS,

(c)

CAPITA (a)

DEPENDINCOME,

EUROPEANS,

INDIANS

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF T H E ZONES, DURBAN:

XXV

PER

GI, 92 SOCIOGRAPHIC

1 9 5 1 CENSUS

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF T H E

IOG

SOCIOGRAPHIC

ZONES (EXCLUDING NON-EUROPEAN DOMESTIC SERVANTS IN PRIVATE DURBAN:

1951

XXVI DISTRIBUTION

OF

HOUSEHOLDS),

CENSUS EACH

IIO RACIAL

GROUP

T H E SOCIOGRAPHIC ZONES, DURBAN:

IN

1951

CENSUS

111

XXVII DISTRIBUTION THE

OF

EACH

SOCIOGRAPHIC

NON-EUROPEAN PRIVATE

RACIAL ZONES

DOMESTIC

HOUSEHOLDS),

GROUP

IN

(EXCLUDING SERVANTS

DURBAN:

IN 1951

CENSUS XXVni

112

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RACES IN T H E OLD

BOROUGH

DURBAN:

1951

AND

THE

ADDED

AREAS,

CENSUS

IL8

XXIX SEX RATIOS OF RACES IN T H E OLD BOROUGH AND T H E

ADDED

AREAS,

DURBAN:

1951

CENSUS XXX

IL8

MEAN AND PER CAPITA INCOME OF EUROPEANS, BY SOCIOGRAPHIC

ZONES, AND BY RATIO

OF EUROPEANS T O INDIANS, DURBAN:

1951

CENSUS XXXI

123

MEAN AND PER CAPITA BY SOCIOGRAPHIC CENSUS

INCOME OF

INDIANS,

ZONES, D U R B A N :

1951 I26

TABLES

12

XXXII DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN RELIGIOUS AND LANGUAGE GROUPS IN T H E SOCIOGRAPHIC ZONES, REPRESENTED BY RATIOS, DURBAN: I95I

CENSUS

XXXIII DISTRIBUTION

OF

INDIAN

RELIGIOUS

AND

LANGUAGE GROUPS IN T H E SOCIOGRAPHIC ZONES, REPRESENTED BY RATIOS, DURBAN: I95I XXXIV

CENSUS

DISTRIBUTION OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS GROUPS IN T H E SOCIOGRAPHIC ZONES, REPRESENTED BY RATIOS, DURBAN:

1951

CENSUS

XXXV SEGREGATION OF INDIANS FROM EUROPEANS IN

DURBAN,

TRACTS:

I951

BY

OCCUPANCY

CENSUS

OF

CENSUS

INTRODUCTION is a fascinating city. It lies on the eastern coast of South Africa, and while its vegetation is as luxuriant as any of the sea-ports to the north, it is spared their oppressive heat. The coastal flats rise relatively sharply to that fine line of hills known as the Berea, with seaward-facing slopes densely covered with splendid trees, among which the early settlers built their homes. They also imported brilliant creepers and trees from other countries, notably the blue jacaranda, the scarlet flamboyant, the orange bignonia venuta, and bougainvillias of many hues. T h e character of the city is changing, and its colourful trees are yielding place, on the coastal flats, to tall and modern buildings, on the Berea, to big blocks of apartments. The population, which was 60,000 when I was a boy at school, now exceeds half a million souls, and it is expected to reach the million in the 'seventies. This population is colourful itself; in this year, 1957, it is fairly equally divided amongst the Europeans (whites), Africans (the original natives), and the Indians (most of whom are the descendants of Indians brought here as plantation labourers from i860 onwards). The city also contains a small number of Coloured people, of the group that is so numerous in the Western Province of the Cape. There is no need for me to explain what happens when a multi-racial city of 60,000 people becomes a city of half a million. It is fairly easy, and not unnatural, for the different racial groups in a small city to keep more or less to themselves. But as the city of Durban expanded, growing groups encircled and by-passed other groups that had once URBAN

14

INTRODUCTION

been on the outskirts, while those groups which lived on the coastal flats tended to penetrate into the areas of the Berea. Poor non-white people had already built houses on the relatively less attractive inland slopes behind the Berea, but as the richer group expanded, it encircled and penetrated these non-white areas. Elsewhere such matters might have been left to economic forces to settle, but not in South Africa. Here the majority of the European people wished to reside in separate residential areas set apart by law. The European group in Durban was no exception, and in particular they resented the presence on the Berea of Indian people who had 'penetrated' the area. Though in the main politically opposed to the Afrikaner Nationalist Party Government, they welcomed the Government's policies of residential separation as set out in the Group Areas Act of 1950, for they themselves had tried, first in the 'twenties, and later in the 'forties, to achieve the same; what is more, Professor Kuper shows that more than half a century ago the Durban local authority was gravely concerned about the presence of Indians and Africans in and near white residential areas, and was later to be still more concerned about the growing success of Indian business men in the central portion of the city. There is a strong anti-Indian feeling among the white people of the city. The Group Areas Act aims at the residential zoning of every town and city, so that the goal of complete racial separation can be achieved. The all-white Durban City Council appointed a Technical Sub-Committee to replan the city, and this Sub-Committee took as its guiding axiom the proposition that contact between races in residential areas leads to conflict. It even regarded as 'most objectionable' the large-scale movement of pedestrians of one race through the area of another. It decided to make use of natural boundaries such as 'rivers, steep valleys, cliffs and hill-tops' to effect as complete a racial separation as possible.

INTRODUCTION

15

In November 1951 the Technical Sub-Committee produced far-reaching plans for the racial zoning of Durban. These plans required the displacement of 70,000 Indians, 8,500 Coloured people, the majority of the Africans, and 12,000 white people. White areas would have gained 3,000 acres at the expense of Indians, valued at £6,000,000. But white opposition to these plans was too strong. In August 1952 the Durban City Council adopted new plans, whereby only 3,100 white people would be displaced, 55,000 Indians, and 80,000 Africans. This piece of research, Durban: A Study in Racial Ecology, provides a scholar's background to the situation brought about by the application of the Group Areas Act to Durban. It is the joint work of Professor Leo Kuper, Professor of Sociology at the University of Natal, Mr Hilstan Watts, and Mr Ronald Davies. No one is better fitted than Professor Kuper to guide such a study, for he combines the objectivity of the scholar with a warm-hearted feeling for the city and its people. The authors have given a careful description of the city as it is, racially and topographically, and have indicated the lines which the final proclamations will almost certainly follow. Even those who are strangers to Durban and South Africa will be able to grasp the drastic nature of the proposals, and to realize the vast scope and intention of the Group Areas Act. But the authors have also permitted themselves some observations on the new situation that will be brought about. In present-day South Africa there is a strong tendency to regard as 'impartial' only those studies which abstain rigorously from any criticism of our present society. It would be quite impossible for the authors of this study to have consented to any abstention on these grounds; nor have they done so. But at the same time they have tried to make it possible for the reader to form his own opinions. The authors quote in their conclusion the words of

i6

INTRODUCTION

D r Ebcnezer Donges, the Minister of the Interior and architect of the Group Areas Act— ' I also want to say this, that no policy which is not based on justice, has any prospect o f success.' M a y I give my own conclusion that in that case the Group Areas Act has no prospect of any success at all? I t may succeed up to the point in displacing hundreds of thousands of people, and in reducing racial contacts to a minimum. But in driving to its goal the Government appears to be so indifferent to the just claims of persons, so careless of their losses and sufferings, so arrogant in its destruction of their rights, that far from achieving harmony by separation, it is creating the very disharmony that it fears. 'Harmony through separation.' What a fantastic ideal! T h e very words kill each other, and the phrase presupposes a physical means to a spiritual goal. But here in Professor Kuper's book, the reader may study the colossal steps that one city is taking in a journey that will be meaningless tomorrow. ALAN

PATON

PREFACE HIS is a study of the racial zoning of the City of Durban. It deals with the present residential distribution of the races, and the plans for their redistribution under a system of compulsory segregation. It is a study, then, in race relations and in planned ecological change, but limited to the residential field, since the present plans for the racial zoning of Durban relate only to residential living. A further limitation is that the major emphasis is placed on the position of the European and Indian groups. This is not from any desire to minimize the importance of the problems which face the African and Coloured peoples of Durban. But Indians and Europeans are the main competitors for the land of Durban, and the problems of compulsory segregation between them are most acute. We are gready indebted to the Department of Education, Arts and Science (National Council for Social Research) for a subsidy of £1,600, and to the Director of Census for extracting and tabulating data from the 1951 Union Census for our use. We also wish to acknowledge warmly the very valuable help we received from Dr H. C. Brookfield and Mrs A. Tatham during the early stages of the work and particularly in the preparation of our basic map of Durban. Their knowledge of Durban, and the technical skills they applied as geographers, provided a sound basis for the study, and eased our work appreciably. We have received help in this study from many different sources. We would especially like to express our thanks to Dr Hilda Kuper, Professor J. D. Krige, Dr C. J. Jooste, Mr S. E. Cruise, Dr S. Cooppan and Mr C. A. Woods, all of the University of Natal, to Mr Alan Paton and Mr P. M. B

i8

PREFACE

Brown, to Professor Ed. de S. Brunner of Columbia University, and Professor O. D. Duncan of the University of Chicago, and to Mr W. L. Howes, Town Clerk of the City of Durban, for their comments on the manuscript; to Miss Margo Phillips for her invaluable help as a research assistant, and to Miss Beth Meikle for typing the manuscript. We also wish to acknowledge criticism received from the National Council for Social Research, and Professor S. Pauw of the University of South Africa, as well as assistance from officials of the Durban Municipality and from Mr P. R. Pather of the Natal Indian Organization. The manuscript was finally revised at the University of Manchester while Leo Kuper held the position of Honorary Research Fellow, and we would like to express our appreciation to the University. The conclusions reached, and opinions expressed, are our own, and are not to be regarded as those of the Department of Education, Arts and Science. DURBAN-J4UGM.FI 1957.

M A N C H E S T E R - A p r i l 1958.

DURBAN A S T U D Y IN R A C I A L

ECOLOGY

C H A P T E R

I

RACE CONTACT: CONFLICT CO-OPERATION?

OR

w o opposite theories are held in regard to the consequences of contact between races. One theory is that contact breeds friction. The customs of people of different races are considered to be incompatible, and harmonious relations can therefore be secured only by reducing points of contact to the minimum. This was the theory advanced by the Government of South Africa when it introduced legislation to provide machinery for the segregation of the races.1 It is also the basis for the replanning of the City of Durban. The second theory asserts that contact promotes harmony. Common interests are believed to develop from shared experiences and to provide a basis for co-operation. This theory is applied in race relations, more particularly in the United States of America, and generally in Town Planning to build communities and to reduce class antagonisms. So as to increase the range of contact, members of different groups are brought together formally or informally, in contrived situations or in the routine of day-to-day living. Neither of these theories is adequate in the form in which we have stated them. Clearly, sometimes conflict, at other 1 The Minister of the Interior explained, when introducing the second reading of the Group Areas Bill, that 'points of contact inevitably produce friction and friction generates heat which may lead to a conflagration. It is our duty therefore to reduce these points of contact to the absolute minimum which public opinion is prepared to accept. The paramountcy of the white man and of western civilization in South Africa must be ensured in the interests of the material, cultural and spiritual development of all races.' Hansard, Home of Assembly Debates (vols. 70-3, 29th May 1950, p. 7453).

21

22

RACE

CONTACT

times co-operation, develops from the contact of races. The problem is to discover the conditions which produce one or other result. Current research has shown the relevance of such conditions as the level of contact, that is to say, whether the parties meet as equals, or as superiors and inferiors. Reactions will also vary with the type of contact—intimate, as in children's play groups; or relatively impersonal, as in a large-scale business organization. The source of contact, that is to say, the way in which the contact arises—a contrived and possibly self-conscious contact as compared with a spontaneous matter-of-fact contact—may be expected to affect the result. Important, too, is the context or framework of contact—for example, whether there are official policies which govern the contact, and impose or forbid discrimination— and the characteristics of the parties to the contact— their attitudes, embodying interpretations of past experience, their feelings of security or insecurity, the extent to which they share a common purpose, and their material interests, real or fancied.1 Precise statements cannot be made at the present time as to the results of contact under different conditions. Indeed, this may never be possible, because of the complexity of the factors involved. Clearly action cannot wait on research. Both theories of contact are directed towards action, and administrators proceed on the assumption that the theory they apply is, in fact, valid. Belief in the validity of the theory is indeed a further condition shaping the final result. The work carried out by administrators may be regarded as providing raw experimental data for research into the problems of race contact. It is from this point of view that we are approaching the plans of the Corporation of Durban 1 For a full discussion of relevant factors see Robin M. Williams, The Reduction of Intergroup Tensions (New York, Social Science Research Council, pp. 61-77). See also Deutsch and Collins, Interracial Housing (University of Minnesota Press, 19511 pp- 124-9), and Wilner, Walkley and Cook, Human Relations in Interracial Housing (University of Minnesota Press, 1955, pp- 155-61).

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

23

for total residential segregation, or the complete avoidance of contact, as neighbours, between people of different race. These plans are based on the recommendations of a Technical Sub-Committee of the City Council, appointed on the 20th November 1950, and initially provided for a radial pattern of development into segregated residential ribs or spokes, extending, in the shape of a fan, from the industrial and central business belt. Since the population of Durban consists, in almost equal proportions, of Europeans, Indians and Africans,1 and since the present residential distribution of the races is partly concentric, partly radial, and partly mixed, the carrying out of the plans involves a large resettlement of residents. The results of the City Council's race zoning will require study over a long period of years. For this purpose we need information about Durban at a ' zero' point of change, at a time, that is, immediately before the publication of the replanning proposals and the regrouping of the races. The 1951 Union Government Census is a convenient starting point. It gives information as to the racial composition of Durban, the demography of each of the races, aind their spatial distribution.8 The main object of our inquiry is the analysis of this information, to provide a basis for the study of the consequences of Durban's experiment in total segregation as they unfold over the years. A subsidiary object is to trace the implications of the experiment, and to suggest lines of research which may throw light on the conditions under which contact or avoidance of contact between races promotes harmony or conflict. •

1 We have followed the Union Census in our use of the term ' European' for the white population. The 'Asiatic' population in Durban is almost entirely Indian, and we therefore prefer this term, in discussing Durban, to the census description 'Asiatic'. Since many people regard the official designation of 'Native' as derogatory, we have substituted the term 'African' wherever possible. By 'race' we mean any group defined as a racial group in South Africa. ' By special arrangement with the Director of Census, we were given the Census data for Durban on the basis of a breakdown of the City into 36 areas.

24

RACE

CONTACT

The present pattern of residence in Durban is based on the segregation of the races. This was imperfectly achieved in the past, and is now to be perfected under the City's new plans. T h e legislative trend in the Province of Natal has been from voluntary to compulsory segregation. It is linked with developments in Non-European policies throughout the Union of South Africa and must be set in this wider background. The application of a policy of compulsory segregation to the African (Native) population was easily solved. Territorial segregation of Africans has deep historical roots in South Africa. Already during the nineteenth century, separate areas were set aside for them in the four provinces. After the union of the provinces, the Government passed the Natives Land Act, No. 27 of 1913, which was designed to enforce territorial segregation in the rural areas. Similar control was extended to the urban areas by the Natives (Urban Areas) Act, No. 21 of 1923, which provided machinery for segregation in locations and villages within the towns. A n amendment in 1937 virtually debarred Africans from acquiring property from other races in cities and townships, thus 'pegging' the status quo. Later, the Governor-General was given power to declare that all Africans in the urban area should reside in a separate village, location or hostel, domestic servants, among others, being exempted from this provision. 1 The Group Areas Act of 1950, as amended by Act No. 29 of 1956, merely completes the legislative process for compulsory segregation of Africans. The position in relation to the Indians is far more complex. There is a maze of laws, judicial decisions, and commission reports, which gives the impression of a continuous conflict between Europeans and Indians for land and trade, and of European solutions by way of segregation and repatriation. 1 K. Kirkwood, The Group Areas Act (South African Institute of Race Relations, Johannesburg), and E. Hellman, 'Urban Areas', in Handbook on Race Relations in South Africa (Oxford University Press, 1949, pp. 230-8).

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

25

It is an incomplete picture. Commissions are not appointed to investigate the harmonious working of society; historians are more readily attracted to chronicles of conflict than of co-operation. Hence the documentary evidence is largely of conflict, and it is in these terms, too, that Europeans generally define their relations with Indians. Yet cooperation was the dominant factor. The Indian community in South Africa has its origin in the indentured labour which was introduced by the province of Natal between i860 and 1911, mainly for the development of the sugar, tea and wattle plantations, the railways and mines. When immigration ceased for a few years after 1866, the sugar industry suffered so seriously that, on further representations and appeals from Natal, immigration was resumed in 1874 and continued without material interruption until 1911. The sugar planters had become dependent on Indian labour: African labour was unreliable, and practically unobtainable.1 This indentured labour, recruited mainly from the agricultural labouring classes, came in two streams, one from Madras (largely Tamil- and Telugu-speaking) and one from Upper India (mainly Hindi-speaking). The majority settled in Natal on the expiry of their indentures. They were followed by traders, mostly Muslim from the Bombay Presidency, at first to supply the wants of the indentured labourers, but later extending their dealings to other groups and other provinces. Prior to Union, the four provinces reacted in very different ways to Indian immigration. In the Orange Free State Asiatics could neither trade nor own land, in terms of a law of 1891, and they were practically debarred from entry or residence. The Orange Free State may have an Indian 1 Our account of the history of Indian settlement and legislation is based on the Report of the Asiatic Inquiry Commission, U.G. 4/1921; M. Webb, 'Indian Land Legislation' in Handbook on Race Relations in South Africa, previously cited; and G. H. Calpin, Indians in South Africa (Pietermaritzburg, Shuter and Shooter, 1949).

RACE

26

CONTACT

problem, in c o m m o n with the U n i o n as a whole.

I t has

virtually no Indians. I n the T r a n s v a a l the Government immediately responded to the first incursion o f Indians b y passing L a w N o . 3 of 1885, which provided that Asiatics could own fixed property only in streets, wards and locations assigned to them for their residence.

I t sought, unsuccessfully, to extend these

powers for the segregation of ownership and residence, to trading.

The

right

to

mine

minerals

was

reserved

to

Europeans, a n d the G o l d L a w of 1908 provided that, save in N a t i v e Locations, no rights in proclaimed land (i.e. the mining areas), might b e acquired b y a coloured person, whether as owner, lessee or occupier. However, the statutory powers of the G o v e r n m e n t were not rigidly enforced; there were disputes as to their interpretation,

and some

legal

means for the acquisition of property rights. T h e result was that, prior to U n i o n , power to compel segregation of ownership, residence and trade in the Transvaal was not complete, and Indians h a d acquired vested rights to fixed property. I n the C a p e C o l o n y the approach was entirely permissive. T h e r e , Indians enjoyed the parliamentary and municipal franchise, in contrast to the O r a n g e Free State and

the

Transvaal, a n d also unrestricted rights to trade and

own

land. T h i s was the position initially in the Province of N a t a l . Indeed, in N a t a l , inducements were offered to indentured Indians, so as to secure their continued residence in the Colony.

A N a t a l law of 1859, repealed in 1891, provided

that C r o w n lands could be allocated to those immigrants who, on expiry of their indentures, elected to remain in the country, a n d b y

1885, whether b y grants or purchase or

lease, about 2,000 Indians were in occupation of land, as market gardeners or small farmers, within two miles of the boundaries of D u r b a n . 1 W h e n the number of ' f r e e ' Indians began to increase, Europeans in N a t a l became agitated. 1

A l r e a d y , in 1885, the

Webb, 'Indian Land Legislation,' op. cit., p. 206.

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

27

Natal Government appointed the Wragg Commission to consider whether the system of indentured Indian immigration should continue. This Commission reported that most white colonists felt that the Indian immigrant must remain under indenture during the whole period of his residence within the Colony; they were strongly opposed to the presence of the free Indian as a rival and competitor, either in agriculture or commerce. Some angrily demanded that the introduction of Indian immigrants should forthwith cease, and that the ' Kaffirs' resident in the Colony be forced to work. Others were prepared to accept the present system, provided the status of the free Indian was reduced to a lower level by a deprivation of rights.1 Already, the attitudes of the English settlers of Natal and of the burghers of the Transvaal were beginning to converge, and, in fact, the Maritzburg Chamber of Commerce petitioned the Legislative Council of Natal to pass a law for the compulsory segregation of Asiatics, similar to that in the Transvaal. There was, however, the fundamental difference that the sugar industry of Natal needed Indian labour. Partly for this reason, and partly because of the influence of the Imperial Government, the attitudes of the English settlers were not fully translated into official policy. Some major steps were, however, taken. T h e Disfranchisement A c t of 1896 abolished the parliamentary vote of Indians, though retaining on the general roll Indians already registered—a category now almost extinct. T o discourage Indian settlement in Natal, a tax was imposed on indentured Indians who elected to remain after expiry of their indentures; and there were restrictions on free, but not indentured, Indian immigration. Control over Indian trade was secured by the appointment of licensing officers, with discretion to issue or refuse licences. T h e position in Natal, therefore, was that, prior to Union, the white settlers could not enforce segregation in ownership or residence, though 1

Report of the Asiatic Inquiry Commission, p. 41.

28

RACE

CONTACT

they could restrict Indian trade indirectly through the discretionary powers of the licensing officers. When the Union was formed the 'hereditas damnosa'1 of the Asiatic question was bequeathed to the Union Government. It immediately sought to limit the Indian population by the restriction of immigration and the encouragement of repatriation. T h e South African Government has never been in a position to accede to the demands of Europeans for compulsory repatriation, and assisted repatriation schemes, under more attractive conditions as the years passed, were not sufficiently effective to reduce materially the Indian population of the Union. 2 During the period of assisted repatriation the Union Government did little to compel segregation. Some of the 'loopholes' in the old Transvaal law of 1885 were closed. In 1924 and again in 1925 the Government proposed legislation conferring powers for compulsory segregation. However, it did not proceed with this legislation, but persevered further with assisted repatriation, in terms of an agreement with the Indian Government, which included an undertaking to ' uplift' the Indian residue which would remain permanently resident in South Africa. 8 When it became clear that the residue would be the bulk of the Indian population, and under continued pressure of' European agitation against the acquisition and occupation of property by Indians in European areas, the Government appointed a number of commissions. It adopted temporary 1 Phrase used by the Asiatic Land Tenure Laws Amendments Committee and the Land Tenure Act Amendments Committee, in Government report U . G . 49/1950, and indicative of the Committee's attitude. * From 1915 to 1919 the number of Indians in Natal w h o made use of assisted repatriation more than counterbalanced the natural increase. Between 1920 and 1927, under a new scheme of repatriation, 11,487 Indians returned to India. With still more attractive repatriation facilities, 17,542 Indians, mostly from Natal, left the U n i o n between the years 1927 to 1940.—Wives and children of South African Indians were allowed to enter the U n i o n and, from 1927 to 1940, 2,212 availed themselves of this concession.-—(Report of the First Indian 'Penetration' Commission, U . G . No. 39/1941, para. 15.) * See Webb, 'Indian Land Legislation', op. cit.; Calpin gives a full account of the history of the legislation in Indians in South Africa.

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

2g

expedients in the way o f ' P e g g i n g ' Acts, designed to maintain the existing distribution of property between Europeans and Indians in the Transvaal and in Din-ban. These were followed, in 1946, by the Asiatic Land Tenure and Indian Representation Act, providing for the demarcation of areas, outside of which no Asiatic might acquire from a Non-Asiatic the ownership or residential occupation of land, save under permit. By way of compensation, Indians were offered limited political representation on a communal basis: this offer they rejected and it was subsequently withdrawn. The Asiatic Land Tenure Act was the first general provision made for compulsory segregation throughout Natal. 1 It did not, however, deprive the Indians of their right to retain fixed property acquired over eighty years of settlement. This final power was assumed under the Group Areas Act and the Group Areas Development Act. There is now no limitation whatever on the powers of the Government to rearrange areas of Indian residence, ownership and trade. Legally, from the point of view of spatial distribution, it is as if the Indians were entering the Union for the first time. In practice, their established settlements seriously impede the establishment of Group Areas. This is especially so in the City of Durban. The unwillingness of the provinces of the Union to share the Indian population, reflected in the legal restrictions against inter-provincial movement, has resulted in the concentration of Indians in the province of Natal. According to the 1951 Census, there are 366,664 Asiatics (mostly Indians) in the Union or 2-9 per cent of the total population. The Orange Free State has 13 Asiatics; the Cape, 17,818 or 0 4 of 1 per cent of the Cape population; the Transvaal, 49,342 or 1 per cent of its total, while Natal has 299,491 Asiatics or 1 2 4 per cent. O f the total Asiatic population, 1 Transvaal Law No. 3 of 1885 applied in the Northern Districts of Natal, but not elsewhere in Natal.

30

RACE

CONTACT

43-8 per cent lives in Durban and suburbs adjacent to the municipal boundaries. This concentration, and the impotence to compel total segregation in the past, explain the role of Natal, and more particularly of the City of Durban, as a driving force behind the legislation which culminated in the Group Areas Act. If the indentured labourers had returned to India on completing their indentures, or even remained to work as labourers in the industries of Natal, there would have been little complaint, but it was a continuous source of conflict that this kind of labour should compete freely with Europeans for the land, trade and wealth of Natal. The main target for European resentment was, however, the more serious competition of the so-called 'passenger' Indians, who arrived, not to labour under indenture, but to trade as free persons. In Durban the early settlement of Africans was not controlled. The Mayor's Minute of 1887 reports a public meeting which discussed assaults and other crimes by Africans and asked that locations be established at a convenient distance from the town. Most Africans lived in shacks and hovels, and were not residentially segregated. The only planned accommodation consisted of barracks for male labourers, and the numbers of these barracks, established by the City Council and by private enterprise, rapidly increased. The general policy was to achieve segregation without compulsion by attracting the population to the segregated facilities. It is only in 1916 that the Mayor refers to the framing of by-laws under which penalties can be enforced against Africans who live in unauthorized places and against the proprietors who allow them to live there. 1 Municipal Housing for African families was a later 1 'Native Location By-Laws for the Borough of Durban,' Natal Provincial Gazette, 15th June 1916, p. 436.

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

31

development. In 1912, the Mayor's Minute mentions the opening of a Women's Hostel, and in 1927, for the first time, the development of a village or location. From then onwards the City Council went ahead with the building of family homes in segregated areas. This development has not kept pace with rapid urbanization, and most African families are settled in shack dwellings, segregated from the European population.1 The present general pattern of African residential living is thus, for male labourers, compounds or barracks in the commercial and industrial areas; for families, municipal locations and shack settlements (authorized and unauthorized) on the outskirts of the city; and for domestic workers, men and women, the back-yards of European, and to a small extent Indian, homes. Ownership by Africans of immovable property in Durban is negligible. According to an estimate by the Technical Sub-Committee on Race Zoning,* Africans owned property to a value of £112,180 covering 105 acres (less than o-1 of 1 per cent of the value of property in Durban and about 0-25 of 1 per cent of its area). Clearly the Group Areas Act may affect the distribution of the African population: segregation from Europeans both in terms of ownership and occupation—apart from domestic servants—is however relatively complete at the present time. The Coloureds are a small proportion of the population of Durban (under 4 per cent). They still enjoy the municipal franchise and a restricted parliamentary franchise. The Group Areas Act extends to the Coloureds the principle of compulsory segregation. Prior to that date, Coloureds were free to own and occupy property where they pleased, save in areas specifically reserved to Europeans, and their segregation was not a local issue. In the case of the Indians, however, the City Council 1 For a detailed account of African Housing in Durban, sec The Durban Housing Survey (University of Natal Press, 1952), chapter XI. • Race Zoning Proposals, Part I I I of First Report, dated 26th November 1951, P- '73-

32

RACE

CONTACT

was preoccupied with the problem of their segregation from the earliest days. In 1871, the Mayor in his Minute reports complaints about the building of ' Coolie dwelling houses' in the town. T w o years later he comments on the probably disastrous effects of selling or leasing properties in the town to Indians, and refers to the appointment of a committee to select suitable sites for their location. The following year he mentions 'the further erection and habitation of Coolie shops in our very midst, with their belongings of dirt and other objectionable things, which to be realized, can be seen at present at the West End and other parts of the town'. In 1875, he begins to feel that 'legislation will doubtless have to be resorted to, to prevent these people thus locating themselves in our very midst, their habits and customs being, as is well known, so totally at variance with and repugnant to those of Europeans'. The Superintendent of the Borough Police, in 1889, reports on the increasing number of Indian retail stores in the town, and recommends that no licences be given to Indians for any building in the three main streets. In 1897, the Council acquires the power to refuse licences to applicants, and in 1903 the Mayor urges that prompt steps be taken to introduce legislation for the registration of Asiatics in Durban and for the laying out of bazaars or locations, and that no new licences of any description should be issued to Asiatics except for premises in such locations. It was to be almost fifty years before the Government made the requested legislative provision. Lacking the necessary powers, the City Council tried to bring about segregation by means short of compulsion. Control over trading licences was sufficiently effective to ensure that Indian trading areas today are largely separate from European. As for residential segregation, whatever barrack accommodation and housing the Council provided was on a segregated basis. It could not control private housing in this way. However, an Ordinance in 1922 (No. 14) gave the Council power, when selling or leasing

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

33

land, to reserve occupation or ownership for a particular racial group. This power was invariably used to establish racially exclusive suburbs for Europeans, but not for Indians, who persistently refused to accept segregatory restrictions.1 Since at about the same time Indians lost the municipal franchise, they were little able to influence Council policies away from segregation. The provision of municipal housing for Indians was a relatively late development, and inadequate for their needs. 1 One can only speculate what the pattern of Indian settlement might have been if the Council had assumed fuller responsibility at an earlier date, and if it had been prepared to develop Indian areas as adequately as European areas. As it was, Indians had to rely largely on their own resources. They settled in the low-lying areas of the city, the relatively swampy areas, and outside the boundaries. Most of their housing, of low standard, was in the periurban areas. When, in 1932, these were incorporated into the Borough, the Indian population of the city was more than trebled, and the housing problem greatly magnified. In the process of establishing themselves, Indians acquired considerable holdings of immovable property in the city. The Technical Sub-Committee on Race Zoning estimated the value of property owned by them in 1950-1 as £24,541,060, and its extent as 10,323 acres 3 (or 13-7 per cent of the total value of property in the city, and 26-0 per cent of its acreage). Most of this land is in the predominantly 1 Report of the First Indian 'Penetration' Commission, op. cit., para 23. Some private townships also had conditions in the title deeds, restricting ownership and occupation to Europeans. 2 Early provision of accommodation for Indians was of very low standard. The Protector of Indian Immigrants, in 1884, described the municipal barracks as 'neither huts nor houses but dens quite unfit for humanity to live in', and accommodation provided by other European employers as 'very inferior ... the huts being contracted in size and immensely overcrowded'. The first Indian housing scheme was only established in 1939. (The Durban Housing Survey, op. cit., pp. 296-8. Chapter X gives an account of Indian housing.) * Ibid., p. 173. These estimates are approximate. The race of owner was established by the name, which is sometimes misleading. C

34

RACE

CONTACT

Indian areas, incorporated into the City in 1932. It was only at a late stage of the history of Durban that Indians began to acquire properties in the more desirable European areas of the Old Borough. This immediately led to European agitation, the appointment of the ' penetration' commissions and interim 'pegging' legislation.1 During the Second World War and immediately after, the City Council proceeded with plans for racial zoning, and made vigorous representations to the Government for a four-point control, that is control of both residential and trade premises in respect of both ownership and occupation. In November 1950, some five months after the passing of the Group Areas Act, the Council appointed a Technical Sub-Committee which completed its task most expeditiously. O f all the major cities in the Union, Durban, through its City Council, has shown the greatest enthusiasm for compulsory segregation, and has indeed contributed to the planning of Group Areas legislation for the country as a whole. The plans of the Technical Sub-Committee rest on the basic proposition that contact between the races in residential areas breeds conflict. This proposition was implicit in the mandate to plan residential Group Areas, but the Technical Sub-Committee did not accept it without some examination. However, the 'proof' offered in the following paragraphs2 is clearly anecdotal illustration, though presumably based 011 observations and conclusions not recorded in this report. In any event, it carries the problem no farther. 7. Residential segregation arises primarily from the desire of persons of the same group to live in the same See Chapter VI. * First Report of the Technical Sub-Committee on Race porting, dated 22nd June >95«. PP- 5-61

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

35

neighbourhood. Sometimes it occurs voluntarily, but where development has not been strictly controlled or has been piecemeal and ad hoc, a mixture of races occurs. Mixture may take the form: O f sharing individual dwellings, e.g. poor Europeans hire rooms in Indian houses; O f two or more races occupying separate but contiguous dwellings, e.g. Indians occupy a large number of houses in certain European areas such as Block A L ; or O f an island of one race in the area of one or more other races, e.g. Chesterville is a Native island surrounded by European and Indian properties. 8. The juxtaposition of races of different cultures has tended to produce conflict—not necessarily overt or manifesting itself at its geographic source, but often ultimately producing diffused inter-racial antipathy. 1 9. Race differences may cause one group quite unwittingly to offend another. Europeans tend to dislike the very sight of a large number of people inhabiting a single house, however inoffensive the people are, and consequently react unfavourably to Indian neighbours whose communal family system involves the presence of many people in one house. Both Europeans and Indians are annoyed by the noise which appears to be inseparable from even small groups of Natives enjoying themselves or having ordinary conversations. When perfectly innocent traits of one race prove so annoying to other races, it 1 This paragraph is of some interest since it removes the problem of the effects of race contact from the field of scientific study. If the conflict which arises from contact is not necessarily overt, and does not necessarily manifest itself at the point of contact, but may be covert and diffused, there is almost certain to be some inter-racial antipathy somewhere which may be produced as evidence to discount apparent harmony between neighbours of different races in a particular locality. This is especially so in South Africa where there is widespread inter-racial antipathy.

36

RACE

CONTACT

is not surprising that less innocent aspects such as traffic in illicit liquor, sexual relations between the races, or commercial competition between an emergent group such as Natives and a vested trading group such as Indians should produce deep-seated antagonisms. 10. However harmoniously an individual may get on with his neighbours of another race, and however free he and his particular property may be from those features which other races dislike, the sheer fact of his being of that race may, in a society where race feeling often runs high, be sufficient to make his presence distasteful to his neighbours. 11. It follows from these circumstances that residential neighbourhoods should not only be clearly defined, but should be such as to reduce the possibility of one group's spilling over into another's area, or of casually crossing the border. 1 Having laid down that residential contact causes friction, the officials proceed to distinguish other types of contact. Friction, according to their view, arises not only from living together as neighbours or from loose residential contiguity, but even from the passage of members of one race through the living area of another. The degree of undesirability is said to vary with mode of travel. Most objectionable is the large-scale pedestrian movement of one race through the area of another, though vehicular traffic may be equally resented. Railway travel, being more or less sealed off, and 1 T h e approach of the Technical Sub-Committee to the basic proposition that residential contact promotes conflict, contrasts sharply with the expert efficiency shown in the report as a whole. Sometimes, advocates of racial segregation cite the Durban riots of Africans against Indians in 1949 as an example of the dangers of residential contact. Others assert that the cause of the riots was not to be found in residential contact, that the rioters came largely from compounds and invaded the residential areas; and they cite examples of African residents who, at great personal risk, protected their Indian neighbours from assault.

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

37

roads, which serve as common highways segregated from the neighbouring areas, are relatively unobjectionable. Inter-racial contact in industrial and commercial zones is differentiated from inter-racial contact in residential areas. The members of the Technical Sub-Committee consider the passage of one race through an industrial or central commercial area, operated by another race, as not open to the same objections, since business areas may be regarded as 'common', whether or not racially zoned. Indeed, they did not favour the immediate zoning of racially segregated business districts, being supported in this view by the Natal Employers' Association, the Natal Chamber of Industries and the Durban Chamber of Commerce on grounds of inconvenience, expense, unsuitable siting of factories, transport complications, and retardation of development. The Technical Sub-Committee suggested instead that an area might be given an orientation towards development by a particular racial group, but that the greatest flexibility should be retained. The formulation of rigid rules would be unwise at this stage. Clearly, not only the type of contact but also the level of contact is involved in the distinction between residential and business areas. In residential areas, neighbours meet as equals in a relatively intimate sector of living. The equality is the crucial factor, not the racial intermingling, since the presence of domestic servants of a different race is not regarded as objectionable. In industrial areas, the relationship is usually on an unequal basis (namely between white employers and managers on the one hand, and nonwhite artisans and labourers on the other), and in both commercial and industrial areas the contact is fairly impersonal. In any event, economic factors have a way of over-riding other considerations. The Technical Sub-Committee's description of the central commercial and industrial areas as 'common' is reminiscent of the principle applied in Indian caste society to allow for the employment of workers

3»

RACE

CONTACT

of different castes in the same organization. Both the artisan in his occupation, and the workshop itself, are ritually clean hence contact between workers of higher and lower castes in industrial employment is not polluting. The principle is clearly a rationalization of an economic compulsion over-riding the sentiments of caste pollution. So, too, the conclusions of the Sub-Committee reflect economic need. Indeed, the officials stress the economic interdependence of the races. European industry employs a predominance of Non-Europeans; some European shops, even in the most fashionable West Street, make special efforts to attract Non-European customers; conversely, Indian shops have no lack of European patrons, and some stalls at the Native Market rely very largely on a curio trade with Europeans. 'The economic interdependence of the races is thus such that in the central business area and in the industrial areas the streets will present a mixed racial picture, regardless of the race of the trader or industrialist.'1 The plans of the Technical Sub-Committee for racial segregation apply therefore to the residential areas. They are based on the propositions that residential segregation must be sufficiently effective to avoid contact between the races not only within each racial zone but also on the borders between them, and that the racial zones must be so designed as to discourage the movement of people of one race into the area of another. The plans are largely determined by the acceptance of these propositions. Since 'effective segregation demands effective boundaries', the Sub-Committee favours such natural boundaries as the ' rivers, steep valleys, cliffs and hill tops', with which Durban abounds. Artificial barriers are considered less desirable, the most effective of these being a belt of industrial or commercial development, though railway lines are also useful. Narrow vacant green belts are regarded as unsatis1

Gerth and Mills, From Max Weber (Oxford University Press, 1946), p. 41a. * First Report of the Technical Sub-Committee on Race Zoning, pp. 1&-19.

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

39

factory, since they tend to become communal parks and thus encourage contact, but used open spaces reserved for one race, and large open spaces, are effective. A road may serve to separate groups, if it is zoned for non-residential purposes. Under no circumstances should people of different races face each other across a road: it is preferable to make the dividing line at the back-yards. The general principle that one race should not be routed through the residential area of another profoundly affects the town plan. Each race needs access to place of work without traversing the residential areas of other races. Racial islands or pockets must therefore be avoided. 1 However, since the commercial and industrial districts may be deemed 'common', it is not necessary that residents should be able to move direcdy from their racial zones to their places of work. All they require is access to any point in the business area. Hence, the Technical Sub-Committee recommends a narrow ribbon-like elongation of industrial areas, a solution compatible with the topography of the city. Racial zones would then radiate from the commercial and industrial belt, and workers could move direcdy from their own zones into racially neutral areas. If this radial plan is to succeed, then the racial zones, according to the view of the Technical Sub-Committee, must allow for expansion of the group into the hinterland, otherwise the careful arrangement of racial areas might be shattered by pressure of population. Racial zones should be large, partly because it is easier for the Police and Defence to protect and control them, but also because a measure of local self-government by Non-Europeans may be exercised more effectively. However, there is a limit placed on the size of the racial zone, namely that the extension into the hinterland cannot be carried to a point where the journey 1 Alternatively, an underground railway or a helicopter service would provide a ready solution, since residents living in a racial island could then get to work without crossing other residential areas. A suggestion that a tunnel be constructed was not very seriously considered.

4°

RACE

CONTACT

to work becomes excessive. This point will vary for the different racial groups, the more wealthy Europeans being in a better position to live at a long distance from place of work, or remote from public transport. Where the optimum point is likely to be exceeded, and the difficulties cannot be met by low-cost, efficient transport, the Sub-Committee recommends the establishment of additional zones, rather than the extension of a single zone. These then are the principles which form the basis of the Durban town plan. They are summarized by the SubCommittee as follows: 1. A residential race zone should: (а) have boundaries which should as far as possible constitute barriers of a kind preventing or discouraging contact between races in neighbouring residential zones; (б) have direct access to working areas and to such amenities as are used by all races, so that its residents do not have to traverse the residential areas of another race, or do so only by rail or by way of a common highway segregated from the residential areas abutting it; (c) be large enough to develop into an area of full or partial self-government or be substantially contiguous to such an area; (d) provide appropriate land for all economic and social classes which are present in the race group concerned, or may be expected to emerge in the course of time; and for group institutions, suburban shopping, minor industry and recreation; (e) be so sited that the means of transport most suitable for the group concerned is or can be made available. 2. The number of race zones not contiguous to zones occupied by the same race must be kept as low as

CONFLICT

OR

CO-OPERATION?

41

possible; accordingly large areas offering scope for urban expansion not too remote from the group's places of employment are to be preferred to areas that cannot be expanded. 3. In order to give the maximum length of common boundary between working areas and residential zones, and thus reduce transport costs and difficulties, dispersal of industry in ribbon formation where practicable is preferable to the massing of industry in great blocks. 4. In planning areas for each race group, the present and future requirements of the group, in relation to other groups, must be determining factors; the extent of situation of land presently owned, occupied or otherwise allocated to that group is not a material consideration. 5. Settled racially homogeneous communities should not be disturbed except in so far as it is necessary to give effect to the postulates set out above, but it is occupation and not mere ownership that constitutes settlement. 6. Different race groups may have differing needs in respect of building and site development. In allocating zones to each race, due account must be taken of the topographical suitability of the land and of the extent to which the race group concerned can effectively utilize existing sites and building development. 7. The central business area and the existing or potential industrial areas should not, in the initial stages, be earmarked for the exclusive use of any race, but should be so controlled as to permit orientation of different portions towards the appropriate groups. 1 Analysis of these principles against the background of general Town Planning theory emphasizes the relatively 1

First Report of the Technical Sub-Committee on Race Zoning, p p . 2 3 - 5 .

RACE CONTACT 42 unique character of the experiment in Durban. Town Planners generally work on the assumption that contact between residents promotes co-operation and community development. The size of a residential neighbourhood is often determined by two main considerations—that the neighbourhood should be large enough for a socially balanced population able to support an adequate provision of facilities, but not so large that residents do not have the opportunity for contact. Barriers may be used to increase contact within a geographically defined area, perceived as such by the residents. The assumption is that residents can more readily perceive their suburbs as a whole, if the areas are clearly defined, and that community sentiment is promoted by the definition of the area of living; hence, the barriers may be largely symbolic. The emphasis throughout is placed on community development. In Durban the Technical Sub-Committee did not ignore community development. It was clearly thinking along the lines of the urban neighbourhood centre when it referred to the development of adequate shopping facilities as essential for providing opportunity, self-sufficiency and a high degree of community life. The desire to give a measure of local autonomy in the Non-European racial zones was also an important consideration. But the emphasis is on racial separation—inevitably, since this was the Sub-Committee's task—and the town plan is determined by the basic principle of compulsory racial separation. The function of barriers is not to stimulate community sentiment in a defined area, but effectively to prevent contact between the races. It is for this reason that the barriers must be real and formidable—rivers, steep valleys, cliffs and hilltops.

CHAPTER

T H E

PEOPLES

E C O N O M I C

OF

II

D U R B A N :

A S P E C T S

The opening section of this chapter, dealing very briefly with the sectors of the economy, is based on an analysis specially prepared for us by Leo Katzen, Lecturer in Economics at the University of Natal. T. J. D. Fair, in The Distribution of Population in Natal (Oxford University Press, 1955), discusses the industrial population in Chapter V and the urban population in Chapter VI. These chapters give the regional background to the present analysis.

D

u r b a n attracts to its beaches, and to the many hotels I along the sea front and in the city, some 200,000 tourists a year. T h e presence of so many visitors seeking recreation, the broad main streets lined with solid buildings, the boulevards with their coloured lights, and above all the leisured pace of life, give Durban the atmosphere of a prosperous seaside resort. T h e port itself has great beauty. T w o ribs of land, the steeply shelving Bluff and the Point, enclose a wide expanse of sea. Ocean liners are always anchored there, and colourful small craft, whalers, tankers, and yachts. A centre for fishing and boating, and a link with the outside world, the port has also played a major part in the growth of the city and continues to be an important factor in its economy. Durban handles today, as it did forty years ago, more cargo than all the other Union ports taken together. 1 T h e growth of the port was conditioned by the fact that Port Natal handled 3,051,346 tons of cargo in 1910 (59-68 per cent of the total Union tonnage) and an average of 5,904,195 tons during the period 1946-52 (51-96 per cent of the Union total). See Reports of the General Manager of the South African Railways and Harbours, 1946-53. 1

43

44

THE

PEOPLES

OF

DURBAN

Durban has a large natural harbour which lies roughly midway between East London and Louren£o Marques. It is also the Union port nearest to South Africa's main industrial centre in the Witwatersrand and hence the most economic port for the handling of goods to and from this area, while proximity to the coal fields of Natal has favoured its development as the main coal-bunkering port in the Union. Apart from the services normally associated with a port, such as stevedoring, storage and warehousing, forwarding agencies, brokerage, travel and tourist agencies, and railways, there are a number of industries whose growth has been stimulated directly by the existence of a large port. Durban is the home of the Union's most important ship-repairing industry, handling about 60 per cent of the ships that call for repairs at Union ports and employing between 1,500 and 1,800 men. With the selection of Durban as a port for ship repairs by three of the world's largest tank fleet companies, the industry is likely to expand rapidly. This selection, again, is linked with the establishment of the new oil refinery, a second major industry closely connected with the port, and other industries will probably develop to use the by-products resulting from the refining of crude oils. Finally, a large fertilizer industry, based on imported raw materials, has grown up in Durban, and six of the Union's thirteen fertilizer factories are located there. Durban today is the third largest city in South Africa, 1 and a centre for many economic activities either unconnected or only indirecdy connected with the port. A broad picture of these activities is given in Table I showing the industrial distribution of the population. Services occupy the largest group of the city's working population, then industry, 1 The 1951 Union Population Census, U.G. 42/1955, gives the population of Johannesburg as 6 3 1 , 9 1 1 , of Cape Town as 441,209, and of Durban as 432,670. The figure for Durban exceeds the total population shown in the special Census tabulations prepared for us by the Director of Census. Our own figures exclude harbour and shipping personnel, and a small, relatively undeveloped, portion of Durban. Unless otherwise stated, our calculations are based on the data we received from the Director of Census.

¡3 PH

O

Total 1 E

1 .3

M H ti o

Z O HH

H P «

I—I

Pi

H a>

ti
f m TtCT)0 co— to inCO r^ rt- co co in 1nCT)co - 0 to^ ai o^ 'Çt^ • CO

oco-co WMN« 0 cô

co 0

t^.

eo m 05 t-» - (j > o o s Zv a

& a-s •a « §>u

s-s-gg. « ä3 J71j Ss «3 «- aci •ts Q. C o Ü fi B-h

2-sìlì

.3 fig.8! 1 | Ì s o ? .a o « "S J ? * I 8

m i t > o o rt e 3 È, js-B.8 g s

•a CO to

CT) OCOCT)"*" "f '»f O « CO O M — tJ> — ic in toc« CT) to m co -^to to ctì co in —' in NrC ci cô IM to Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction . Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services Commerce Transport, storage and communication Services . Activities not adequately described . Non-economic activities

z ti ü

Percentage of Economically Active Population

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