Man-Land Relations in Prehistoric Britain: the Dove-Derwent Interfluve, Derbyshire:: A Study in Human Ecology 9780860540526, 9781407323343

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER 2 A MODEL OF MAN-LAND RELATIONS
CHAPTER 3 METHOD
CHAPTER 4 THE CASE STUDY
CHAPTER 5 THE DOVE-DERWENT INTERFLUVE: PREHISTORIC LAND-USE AND SETTLEMENT
CHAPTER 6 THE MODEL APPLIED
APPENDIX: THE LAND-FACET MAP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

Man-Land Relations in Prehistoric Britain: the Dove-Derwent lnterfluve, Derbyshire A Study in Human Ecology C. F. Havvke-Smith

BAR British Series 64 1 979

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. H ands , B . Sc . , :\I. A. , D. Phi 1. D. R. Walker, :\1. A.

B.A.R. 64, 1979: "Man-Land Relations in Prehistoric Britain" © C. F. Hawke-Smith, 1979

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540526 paperback ISBN 9781407323343 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540526 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

I t may b e t aken a s a x io ma t ic t ha t man a dvances ma ter ial ly a nd i n c iv il isat i on b y b reak ing i n to t he v ast s tored w eal th o f t he g lobe 's e co log ical c l i maxes a nd t he ir b io log ical c ommun i t ies.

Man emerges a s t he g rea t c l i max-break ing

a n ima l , d om ina t ing h is e nv iron men t i ncreas ingly , c hang ing i tb o th p urposely a nd u nconsc iou sly.

H ere i s N ietzsche 's Apo l lon ian man c om ing f orth , o ne who

t ak es o n an ew b urden a nd n ew f ear f or t hose h e h as s hed—now i ti s t he f i ght a ga inst n a ture, t he e ffor t t o d issoc iate h i msel f f rom t he b io t ic c o m mun ity e xc ep t a s e xp lo i ter. F . F raser D arl ing

CONTENTS

Page Chap ter 1

The o b ject ives o f t he s tudy

1 .

Prev ious a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f manland r e la t ions

2 ,

The s ub ject d ef ined i n s pace a nd t ime

Chap ter 2

4

A mode l o f manland r e la t ions

1 .

The ma jor v ar iab les

2 .

L and-use a nd s et t le men t

Chap ter 3

7 2 4

Me thod

1 .

T erra in a na lysis

4 3

2 .

Archaeo log ica l imp l ica t ions

5 1

Chap ter 4

The c ase-study

1 .

The Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve

2 .

S o i ls

5 8

3 ,

C li ma te

6 9

4 .

P lan ts

7 2

5 .

L and-use a nd s e t t le men t i n t he l ast mi l lenn iu m

7 4

Chap ter 5

5 7

The D ove-Derwen t I n terf luve : p reh istor ic l and u se a nd s et t le men t

1 .

Chrono logy

1 11

2 ,

Preh istor ic l and-use a nd s et t le men t

1 19

Chap ter 6

The mode l a pp lied

1 . 2 .

Env iron men ta l c onstra in ts C o lon isa t ion a nd e xpansion

1 75 1 77

3 .

S tabi lisa t ion a nd d ec line

1 81

Append ix :

The l and-face t map

2 00

B ib liography

2 05

I ndex

2 26

i v

L IST OF F IGURES

F igure 2 a

Page Mode l o f t he i n ter-re la t ions o f p opu la t ion , e cono my a nd r esources

3 8

2 b

Popu la t ion s ubsyste m

3 8

2 c

Means b y wh ich t he p roduct iv i ty o f t he a rab le p lo t c an b e s uppor ted b y l i vestock

2 d

3 9

The i n ter-re la t ion o f s o me o f t he ma jor v ar iab les i n a n a gr icu l tura l e cono my

4 0

2 e-g

Mode ls o f mu l t ip le l and-use a nd s et t le men t

4 1

2 h

S uggested s equence o f a gr icu ltura l a nd d e mograph ic d ec l ine i n a 'marg ina l ' e nv iron men t

4 2

3 a

Landscape morpho logy

5 4

3 h

The e f fect o f s lope o f s o i l d eve lop men t

5 5

3 c

D istr ibut ion o f s o i ls o n Ex moor

5 5

3 d

Re la t ionsh ip o f s o i ls, c l i ma te a nd r e l ief

5 6

4 a

L oca t ion o f t he D ove-Derwen t I n terf luve

7 9

4 b

The D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve : ma in s i tes r eferred t o

8 1

4 c

S ol id g eo logy ( s i mp li f ied )

8 3

4 d

D iagra m ma t ic s ect ion e ast-west

8 5

4 e

S oi l p aren t ma ter ia ls

8 7

4 f

Modern s o i l t ypes

8 9

4 g

L and-face t map

9 1

4 h

S o i ls o f t he l imestone : p rof i les a nd v egeta t ion

8 5

4 1

S uggested h istory o f t he l oess s o i ls

8 5

4 j 4 k

Topograph ica l r e la t ionsh ip o f l and-facets S oi ls o f t he g r i tstone : s uggested h istory

9 3 9 3

4 1

S oi l d ra inage c lasses

9 5

4m

Arab le p o ten t ia l

9 7

4 n

Predo m inan t v egeta t ion a nd modern l and-use

9 9

4 o

Vege ta t ion p ostu la ted f or C . 3 000 b ,c .

1 01

4 p

Med ieva l l and-use

1 03

4 q

Bee ley v i l lage i n r e la t ion t o l and-face ts

1 04

4 r

L ivestock move men t c . 1 800 A .D .

1 04

5 a

The Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve :

1 41

5 b

S uggested l and-use :

5 c

Per iod 2 c , 2 200-1700 b .c.

P er iod 1

Per iod 1 c . 3 000-2200 b .c ,

1 43 1 45

F igure 5 d

P age The n or th-east M id lands :

5 e

Two p o l len s equences

5 f

S uggested l and-use :

s tone a xe d istr ibu t ion

1 47 1 48-9

P er iod 2

1 51

5 g

P er iod 3 c . 1 700-1200 b .c .

1 53

5 h

Sw ine S ty e nc losure

1 54

S i

G ar do m s Edge

5 j

S uggested l and-use :

1 55

5 k

P er iod 4 c . 1 200-600 b .c .

1 59

5 1

S uggested— l and-use :

1 61

5m

P er iod 5 c . 6 00-0 b .c .

1 63

5 n

S uggested l and-use :

1 65

6 a

Expans ion a nd i n tensif ica t ion o f l and-use

6 b

O ver lapp ing c o mpound t err i tor ies a nd v ar iabi l i ty o f

P er iod 3 P er iod 4 P er iod 5

b ur ia l c usto m

1 57

1 88 1 88

P la tes I H

A ston-on-Tren t

1 93

H op ton

1 93

H I

The L i mestone P la teau

1 95

I V

C urbar Edge

1 95

V V I

Ma m T or

1 97

H igh P eak

1 97

Maps S urvey Area A

1 98

S urvey Area B

1 99

v i

L IST OF TABLES

Tab le

Page

4 A

C li ma t ic d a ta f or t he Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve

4 B

S o me c o mpara t ive p o l len s pectra

4 C

Modern l and-use d ata

5 A

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve:

5 B

Chrono log ica l s che me

5 C

M il l P ot Cave: f auna

5 D

Wet ton M il l R ock S he lter :

1 05 1 06-8 1 09

1 4

Cd a tes

1 66-7 1 68 1 69

f auna

1 69

5 E

S ites a t tr ibutab le t o Per iod 1

1 70

5 F

S ites a t tr ibutab le t o Per iod 2

1 71

5 G

S ites a t tr ibutab le t o Per iod 3

1 72

5 1 1

S ites a t tr ibu tab le t o P er iod 4

1 73

5 J

S ites a t tr ibutab le t o P er iod 5

1 73

v i i

AC KNOW L EDGE ME NTS

The r esearch o n wh ich t h is work i s b ased w as i nst igated u nder t he g u idance o f t he l a te Er ic H iggs, t o w hose i nv igora t ing t each ing a t C a mbr idge 1 974-6 my d ebt w i l l b e a pparen t t hroughou t .

I tw as c on t inued u nder t he s uperv is ion o f

Dr. J . A lexander , who m It hank f or many s ugges t ions a nd i n p ar t icu lar f or h is c lose a t ten t ion t o t he t ex t. Earl ier v ersions o f t he t ex t h ave a lso b een r ead , i n who le o r p art , b y D r. G . N . Ba i ley , P ro f . G . W. D i mb leby , P ro f . J . Go lson , a nd Mr. A . T . Grove, a l l o f who m h ave made r eco m mendat ions f rom wh ich I h ave b enef it ted .

The work r epresen ts a n e d i ted v ers ion o f my Ph.D. t hes is

wh ich was a ccep ted a t t he Un ivers ity o f C a mbr idge i n F ebruary 1 979.

The f i e ld-

work a nd c osts o f p repara t ion w ere a ssisted b y g ran ts f rom Down ing Co l lege a nd t he D ep t. o f A rchaeo logy , Ca mbr idge. Iw ish t o r ecord my g ra t i tude t o t he f o l low ing : The S hef f ield C i ty Museum a nd The Hun ter A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty f or p erm ission t o make u se o f mater ial f ro m t he J . Rad ley a nd L . H . Bu tcher Co l lect ions i n a dvance o f p ub l icat ion ; P ro f . G . W. D i mbleby a nd Mr. G . L ew is f or p er m ission t o r efer t o u npubl ished p a lyno log ica l d a ta ; Mr. C . F . O 'Br ien a nd t he Tren t Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research Co m m it tee f or mak ing a va i lab le f or my u se a f or thco m ing r ev iew o f t he a rchaeo logy o f S . D erbysh ire ( see O 'Br ien 1 979 ) , a nd f or o ther h elp ; Pro f . J . K . S t J oseph a nd t he Co m m i t tee f or A er ia l P ho tography , Un ivers ity o f Ca mb r idge f or p er m iss ion t o e xa m ine p ho tograph ic r ecords a nd t o r eproduce s ix p ho tographs; D r. S hei la H icks f or p er m ission t o r eproduce i n s i mp l if ied f or m t wo p o l len d iagra ms, a nd f or c orrespondence; a nd Mr. R . G . Hughes a nd t he Derby Coun ty Museu m f or p er m ission t o c onsu l t t he ir r ecords. t he f o l low ing f or v a luable d iscussion s o r c orrespondence :

Ia lso t hank

Dr. G . W. W. Barker ;

Miss P . B esw ick ; Mr. D . B ra mwel l ; Mr. K . M. Ch in ; Mr. A . F le m ing ; Dr. R . G lasscock ; Mr. J . P . Hea thco te; Pro f . S ir J . Hu tch inson ; Dr. R . M. S . P err in ; Dr. J . Raven sda le; Dr. C . S hel l ;

a nd u nnu merable c oun try men i n

v ar ious p arts o f B r i ta in o n whose f i rst-hand k now ledge o f mak ing a l i v ing f ro m t he l and Ih ave r epea ted ly d rawn . Th is work i s d ed ica ted t o my w ife , who h as h elped a t a l l s tages o f i t s p rep ara t ion .

N . B.

A l l d a tes a re q uo ted i n u ncorrec ted f or m ( b .c.) :

S uess c urve a re g iven i n Table 5 A.

v i i i

c a l ibra ted d a tes o n t he

CHAPTER 1 THE OBJECT IVES OF THE S TUDY

1 .

Prev ious a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f p reh istor ic manland r e la t ions T he s tudy o f h u man p opu la t ions i n r e la t ion t o t he ir e nv iron men t h as l ong

b een o f i mpor tance t o t he v ar ious d isc ip l ines c oncerned w ith u nderstand ing h u man s oc iet ies .

T h is i n terest was e xp l ic it i n t he work o f g eographers,

a n thropo log ists a nd a rchaeo log ists o f t he 1 9th c entury , a nd c on t inued t o I rrad ia te t he t hough t o f t he ir s uccessors i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he p resen t c ent ury , s uch a s D ud ley S ta mp , S auer , Dary l l F orde , C raw ford a nd F leure . I n t he a rchaeo log ica l f i e ld t he most i n f luen t ia l work o f t h is p er iod was u nd oub ted ly t ha t o f F ox ( 1922 ;

1 932) , who s ough t t o b r ing o ut t he s ign if icance

o f c l i ma t ic a nd e daph ic f actors f or l a ter h u man p reh istory i n t he Br i t ish I s les . T he workers o f t h is p er iod h ad i n g enera l r e jec ted t he s tr ict c anons o f e nv ironmen ta l d eterm in is m, a s p ropounded b y t he 1 9th c entury 'a n thropo-geographers ' t hey s aw h u man s oc ie t ies, c orrect ly , a s c ond it ioned r a ther t han c on tro l led b y e nv ironmen tal f actors .

T he i n terest i n manland r e la t ions h as p ersisted i n

t he work o f a more r ecen t g enera t ion o f g eographers, p ar t icu lar ly t hose c onc erned w ith h u man s oc ie t ies o f t he r ecen t p ast f or wh ich t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he n ecess it ies o f l i fe c a me f ro m c lose t o h o me .

F or e xamp le, a ma jor t he me

o f The D o mesday G eography , b y Darby a nd h is a ssoc ia tes ( 1952-1977 ) , was t he r e la t ion o f p opu la t ion d ens it ies t o b as ic c o mponen ts o f t he e nv ironmen t , a s r epresen ted b y s o l id a nd d r if t g eo logy , b u t t he s ign if icance o f t hese f ac tors f or t he e cono my was n ot e xp l ic it ly e xa m ined . O ne o utco me o f t h is e ssen t ia l ly g eograph ica l a pproach t o manland r e lat i ons h as b een t he a pp l ica t ion o f e cono m ic t heory t o h u man s oc iet ies o f t he h istor ica l a nd, more r ecen t ly , t he p reh istor ic p er iods.

I mp lic it i n The Do mes-

d ay G eography was t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t t he e cono my p rov ided t he l i nk b e tween e nv iron men t a nd d e mography .

Th is l i nk was e xpressed i n s i mp le c ategor ies

o f l and-use, wh ich were s een b y i mp l ica t ion a s a n a r tefact o f h u man a ct iv i ty , w ork ing w i th in t he l im i ts i mposed b y t he e nv iron men t .

C h isho lm ( 1968 ) h as

emp loyed e cono m ic c oncep ts t o p rov ide a b as is f or a g enera l mode l o f t he d ispers ion o r s pac ing o u t o f a gr icu ltura l c o m mun i t ies a cross t he l andscape a nd t he ir u t i l isa t ion o f r esources . More r ecen t ly , t he p o ten t ia l o f l and-use s tud ies h as b een e xp lored i n s evera l c on tr ibu t ions t o ac o l lect ion o f s tud ies o n med ieva l s e t t le men t ( Sawyer 1 976): T he e ar l iest a pp l ica t ion o f e cono m ic t heory t o p reh istor ic s oc ie t ies was, h owever , d irected t owards t he f or mu lat i on o f g enera l p r inc ip les g overn ing s oc ia l d eve lop men t ( e .g . Ch i lde 1 936) . A lthough a n i n terest i n r esource-ut i l isa t ion i s o f l ong s tand ing i n p reh istor ic s tud ies ( v ide e sp . C lark 1 952) , i ti s o n ly i n t he p resen t d ecade , w ith t he work o f H iggs a nd h is c o-workers ( 1972 ;

1 975) t ha t a n a t te mp t h as b een made t o

e n l ist s i mp le e cono m ic c oncep ts i n t he i nvest iga t ion .

I n t he l ast 2 5 y ears a d if feren t a pproach t o manland r e la t ions, h av ing i t s o r ig ins i n t he b io log ica l s c iences, h as b een d eve loped b y s evera l h u man e co log ists .

Wh i le t he f ocus o f i n terest h as b een o n t he modern ' eco log ica l

c r isis ' ,t h is a pproach was a pp l ied i l lu m ina t ing ly b y Fraser Dar l ing ( 1955a ) t o t he r ecen t h istory o f modern c o m mun i t ies i n t he West H igh lands o f S cot land . T h is work / l ade a n a t te mp t t o r e la te t he e cono my a nd h istor ica l d e mography o f ah u man s oc iety t o t he c ond it ions i nheren t i n ap ar t icu lar h ab i ta t a nd t he c hanges w ith in i t , p ar t icu lar ly t hose b rough t a bou t b y man .

I th ad t he p rac-

t i ca l a im o f i so la t ing t he f unda men ta l f actors l ead ing t o t he modern p rob le m ' o f d e mograph ic a nd e cono m ic d ec l ine .

H igh land

The ma jor a dvance r epre-

s en ted b y t h is work was t he i nsigh t t ha t h u man s oc ie t ies a nd t he ir h ab i ta ts a re s ub jec t t o d yna m ic i n teract ion , a nd t ha t i nc lus ion o f t h is d i mens ion c ons iderab ly e nhances o ur u nderstand ing o f h u man s oc iet ies ,whe ther o f t he p ast o r p resen t . The D o mesday G eography a nd t he West H igh land S urvey a re men t ioned h ere b ecause t hey i l lustra te t wo d ist inc t a pproaches t o manland r e la t ions, wh ich may b e t er med t he ' geograph ica l-econo m ic ' a nd t he 'e co log ica l ' .I n t he g eograph ica l-econo m ic a pproach t he e nv iron men t i s v iewed p r i mar i ly a s at hea tre f or man ' sa ct iv it ies : t he c o mponen ts o f t he e nv ironmen t s e lected a s s ign if ican t a re c l i ma te a nd s o i ls, i .e . a b io t ic f actors .

Changes w i th in

t hese c o mponen ts a re c usto mar i ly r egarded a s i ndependen t o f h u man a ct ion . I n t he e co log ica l a pproach , i n c on trast , t he h u man h ab ita t i s s een a s ap rod uct o f ad yna m ic a nd e ssen t ia l ly u nstab le i n teract ion o f man , t he b io log ica l c o m mun i t ies o n wh ich h e d epends a nd t he b io log ica l , e daph ic a nd c l i ma t ic f ac tors t ha t g overn t hose c om mun i t ies .

A l i i mp l ica t ion o f t he e co log ica l

a pproach i s t ha t i t may b e m is lead ing t o e xa m ine t he h istory o f h u man s oc iet i es a ga inst a n a ssu med s ta t ic e nv iron men ta l b ackground . I n t he l ast d ecade , a f ter a p er iod d ur ing wh ich o ther a pproaches were d om inan t i n a rchaeo logy , t here h as b een a r esurgence o f i n terest i n i nvest ig a t ing p reh istor ic h u man c o m mun i t ies i n t erms o f manland r e la t ions . work o f B u tzer ( 1965 ;

The

1 972) r e la ted t he ma jor e nv ironmen ta l c hanges i n

c l i ma te , s ealevel a nd v ege ta t ion d ur ing t he P le istocene t o t he e xpans ion a nd e cono m ic d eve lop men t o f h u man s oc iet ies o ver t he e n t ire p er iod o f t he ir e x ist ence .

The c hange i n t he s ubt it le o f B utzer ' sw ork b etween t he i st a nd 2 nd

e d i t ions e xpresses t he r ep lace men t o f ag eograph ica l b y a more e co log ica l a pproach .

Th is c hange r ef lects a t rend o ver t he l ast d ecade, wh ich h as b een

e ncouraged b y a dvances o f p a laeobo tan ica l, p a laeozoo log ica l a nd p o l lena na ly t ica l s tud ies, a l low ing a more d eta i led a nd c ogen t r econstruc t ion o f t he b io t ic c on tex t o f p reh istor ic s oc ie t ies . Wi th t hese a dvances n ew a pproaches t owards t he d eve lop men t o f h u man e cono m ies i n v ar ious p ar ts o f t he wor ld b een made , e spec ia l ly i n t he Near East , Mesoa mer ica a nd S .E . A s ia

. h ave

( e .g . F lannery 1 968 ;

1 969 ;

B in ford 1 968 ;

Harr is 1 969 ;

1 977 ) .

The e co lo-

g ica l a pproach i s a lso a pparen t i n t he r e-assess men t o f S tar C arr b y Graha me C lark ( 1972) , a nd Dav id C larke ' s more g enera l r econsidera t ion o f t he Europ ean meso l ith ic ( C larke , 1 976) . I n E urope t he g eograph ica l-econo m ic a pproach , wh ich h as a l ong t rad it i on b eh ind i t , h as b een d eve loped i n t he work o f an u mber o f p reh istor ians o f t he p resen t d ecade ( e .g . S herrat t 1 972 ;

2

S ie l mann 1 972 ;

E l lison a nd Harr is

1 972 ;

D enne l l a nd Web ley 1 975 ;, Barker 1 975a ; b ;

Randsborg 1 975 b ;

B in t l i f f 1 977 ) .

J arman a nd Web ley 1 975 ;

These s tud ies h ave b een ma in ly c oncerned

t o d e monstra te c orre la t ions b e tween s et t le men t l oca t ions o r d istr ibut ions a nd e nv ironmen ta l f ea tures, p ar t icu lar ly t hose o f s o i l .

I n s o me o f t hese works

t he g eograph ica l-econo m ic a pproach h as p roved e spec ia lly f ru i t fu l .

N ever .-

t he less, a c o l lect ive d ef ic iency i s t he f requen t ly u nexa m ined a ssu mp t ion t ha t p resen t c ond it ions, a nd e ven l and-use, a re a n a dequa te g u ide t o t he p reh ist or ic e nv iron men t , t hough i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t D enne l l a nd Web ley ( 1975) , B int l if f ( 1977 ) a nd V i ta-F inz i ( 1978 ) d o d iscuss t he r o le o f ma jor l andscape p rocesses i n a f fect ing l and-use a nd s e t t le men t t hrough t ime . T he a ccu mu la t ing d a ta f ro m p o l len-ana ly t ica l s tud ies a l lows a n amp l if i ca t ion o f t he s tr ict ly g eograph ica l-econo m ic a pproach .

These s tud ies h ave

b een most s uccessfu l i n N .W . E urope where c ondit ions a re f avourab le i n many r eg ions f or t he p reserva t ion o f p o l len-sequences .

Pr ior t o t he d eve lop men t

o f 1 4 C d a t ing p o l len-ana lysts were p r inc ipa l ly c oncerned t o e stab l ish c l i ma t ic z ones, a nd h ence e stab l ish ing a c hrono log ica l f ra mework . I n t he l ast t hree d ecades, h owever , p o l len-ana lyses h ave p rov ided i ncreasing ly d e ta i led r ecords b oth o f r eg iona l a nd l oca l v ar iab i l i ty i n v ege ta t iona l c o m mun i t ies a nd o f t he e f fects o f p ast h u man e cono m ies o n t he v ege ta t ion c over i n av ar iety o f h ab it a ts ( c f . e sp . G odw in 1 960 ; B irks 1 973 ;

T urner 1 964 ;

1 965 ;

B irks, D eacon a nd P eg lar 1 975) .

1 970 ;

Wa lker a nd West 1 970 ;

T he work o f D i mb leby ( 1962)

b rough t p o l len-ana ly t ica l i nvest iga t ions i n to a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he s tudy o f s o i lc hange a nd h ence f orged a l i nk b e tween t he e co log ica l a pproach t o manland r e la t ions a nd t he g eograph ica l-econo m ic , i n wh ich s o i l b een p ro m inen t .

s tud ies h ad a lways

I ti s t rue t o s ay , h owever , t ha t t h is a ccess ion o f an ew c a te-

g ory o f e v idence b ear ing o n manland r e la t ions h as a s y et b een v ery c aut iousl y e xp lo i ted b y p reh istor ians . T he c en tra l i n teres t o f t he p resen t s tudy i s t he i n terac t ion o f l a ter p reh istor ic h u man s oc ie t ies a nd t he b io t ic c o m mun it ies o n wh ich t hey d epended . I ti s t he t hes is o f t h is work t ha t p reh istor ic manland r e la t ions must b e u nders tood a s af unc t ion o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween man a nd t he p lan ts t ha t d irect ly o r i nd irect ly s uppor ted h im . I tb orrows t he b as ic c oncep t f ro m t he p a laeoe cono m ic s choo l t ha t h u man e cono m ies, whe ther we d escr ibe t he m a s a gr ic u ltura l o r n on-agr icu ltura l, h ab itua l ly d epend o n ac o mb ina t ion o f c o mp le ment ary r esources d rawn f ro m t wo o r more e co log ica l c o m mun i t ies, wh ich t oget her c onst itute a n e cono m ic

n iche '

( H iggs a nd V i ta-Finz i 1 972 ) .

Thus i ti s

p red icted t ha t t he d istr ibut ion o f h u man p opu la t ions a t a ny g iven t ime w i l l b e r e la ted t o t he i nc idence o f e cono m ic n iches t ha t c an b e o ccup ied .

A s tr ict ly

g eograph ica l-econo m ic a pproach h as b een r e jected h ere o n t he g rounds t ha t t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t e nv iron men ta l c ond i t ions h ave r e mained more o r l ess s tab le may o bscure f actors t ha t a re i m med ia te ly p er t inen t t o h u man p reh istory . Never the less, t he p re m ise i s a ccep ted t ha t f or t he p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion h ere c er ta in ma jor e nv iron men ta l l im ita t ions o n h u man p opu la t ion s c an b e r egarded a s p ermanen t .

Par t o f t h is work i s c oncerned t o d ist ingu ish p er-

manen t o r o ver-r id ing e nv iron men ta l c onstra in ts f ro m t hose wh ich h ave f l uct uated t hrough t ime a s ar esu lt o f c l i ma t ic, e daph ic o r a n thropogen ic f actors, a ct ing i n i so la t ion o r t oge ther .

Wh i le t he a pproach a dop ted h ere owes much

t o t he g eograph ica l-econo m ic t rad it ion , i ta lso d raws f ree ly o n e co log ica l c oncep ts d eve loped b y F raser Dar ling , t he O du ms, Ph i l lipson a nd o thers,

3

p ar t icu lar ly i n g iv ing emphasis t o t he r ec iproc i ty o f t he r e la t ions b etween h u man s oc iet ies a nd t he b io me . 1 .2 The s ub ject d ef ined i n s pace a nd t ime The a pprox i ma te t ime-span c ons idered i n t he p resen t work i s t he l ast f our m i l lenn ia B .C. The i n ten t ion i n s elect ing t h is p er iod h as b een t o f ocus o n t hose p reh istor ic s oc ie t ies i n t he Br i t ish I s les wh ich were d ependen t o n s o me c o mbina t ion o f f ood-resources i nc lud ing c erea l-gra ins, c at t le , s heep , g oa ts a nd p igs .

The t er m

a gr icu ltura l ' w i l l b e u sed f or c onven ience t o d es-

c r ibe e cono m ies d ependen t o n t h is s pectru m o f f ood-resources .

One a dvan-

t age o f r estr ic t ing t he i nvest iga t ion t o a gr icu l tura l e cono m ies i s t hat much i s k nown o f t he e nv iron men ta l t o lerances a nd r equ ire men ts o f t he p lan t a nd a n i ma l s pec ies o n wh ich i ti s f ounded , b ecause o f t he ir c ont inued impor tance t o t he p resen t d ay . T he e nor mous wea lth o f f arm ing k now ledge t hat h as b een b u i l t u p t hrough h istor ica l e xper ience a nd modern e xper i men t i s ar esource wh ich may b e f u l ly e xp lo ited i n u nderstand ing p reh istor ic a gr icu l tura l s oc iet ies .

T h is d e ta i led k now ledge d oes n o t e x ist i n r e la t ion t o o ther p lan ts a nd

a n i ma ls, wh ich a re k nown t o h ave s uppor ted h u man p opu la t ions a t o ther p er iods . Un t i l ad ecade a go i t was g enera l ly a ssu med t ha t t he emergence o f p reh istor ic e cono m ies b ased o n t hese f ood-resources, wh ich c on t inue t o f orm t he n uc leus o f modern a gr icu lture i n E urope, s igna l led a r evo lu t ionary s tage i n manland r e la t ions:

h ence t he c rude d ist inct ion o f

h un ter-ga therer ' a nd

'f armer ' .D ur ing t he l ast d ecade , h owever , more i n tens ive i nvest iga t ion o f t he e ar ly p ost-g lac ia l n on-agr icu ltura l e cono m ies i n Western A s ia a nd E urope h as s hown t ha t t hey o f ten h ave f ea tures t ha t a re b est e xp la ined b y r esource manage men t p ract ices t ha t a re c lose ly s im i lar t o t hose p ostu la ted f or t he e ar l iest ' far mers ' H iggs 1 977) .

( Jar man 1 972 ;

1 977 ;

Barker 1 975a ;

L egge 1 972 ;

1 976 ;

I n t he l i gh t o f t h is work , i ti s p erhaps most r easonable t o

a ssu me t ha t t hroughou t t he p er iod o f t he ir e x istence h u man s oc ie t ies h ave i n tervened i n t he b iot ic p rocesses a f fec t ing t he ir f ood-resources .

The i mp l i-

c a t ion o f t h is i s t ha t t he 'a n thropogen ic f ac tor ' may h ave b een i nvo lved t o s o me d egree a t a l l s tages o f t he P le istocene i n mod ify ing p lan t a nd a n i ma l c o m mun i t ies, t hough t o wha t e x ten t i t may h ave b een r espons ib le f or t ransl a t ing s pec ies t o n ew , h u man ly- ma in ta ined e nv iron men ts, a s w as c erta in ly t he c ase w ith t he a gr icu ltura l s pec ies l i sted , r e ma ins u nknown . T he a ppearance o f t he a gr icu ltura l c o mp lex c o inc ides i n t he Br it ish I s les w ith t he f i rst a ppearance o f t he 'n eo l ith ic ' c u ltura l a sse mblage.

Th is h as

n orma l ly b een t aken t o i mp ly t ha t t he n ew e cono my was i n troduced b y i mm ig ran ts f ro m t he c on t inen t ( P iggot t 1 954 ; B arker ( 1975b

Case 1 969 ;

1 975 ;

Wh i t t le 1 977 ) .

1 02 ) h as, h owever , made a s trong p lea f or a bandon ing t he

n eo l ith ic-agr icu ltura l e qua t ion a ltoge ther i n t he European c on tex t , a rgu ing t ha t we s hou ld b e e xa m in ing t he e cono my o f i nd iv idua l s et t le men ts w ith in t he ir l oca l e nv iron men ta l s e t t ing , a nd t he r eg iona l a nd c on t inen ta l d ispersa l o f s pec if ic p lan ts a nd a n i ma ls a s c onst ituen t e lemen ts o f v ar iab le e cono m ies . T h is p lea i s as a lu tary r em inder t ha t t he E uropean a gr icu ltura l e cono my d eve loped a s a' broad s pectru m ' s ubsistence s yste m i n e ar ly p ost-g lac ia l t imes, a longs ide c o mparab le s yste ms i n tegra t ing a d if feren t r ange o f f ood -

4

r esources .

T he E uropean

n eo l i th ic ' i s p roper ly s peak ing t herefore a t ran-

s it iona l p er iod d ur ing wh ich v ar ian ts o f t he a gr icu ltura l s ubs istence s yste m g a ined g round a t t he e xpense o f o ther s yste ms . I ti s g enera l ly a ccep ted , h owever , t ha t i n many p ar ts o f Europe t he a dop t ion o f t he a gr icu ltura l e cono my , i n o ne f orm o r a no ther , l ed t o a n u np receden ted g row th a nd e xpans ion o f p opu la t ion , r esu lt ing i nc iden ta l ly i n t he c o lon isa t ion o f p rev ious ly u n inhab ited i s lands .

T he ' neo l ith ic t ransi t ion '

a l most c er ta in ly i nvo lved s i mu ltaneous ly t he e xpans ion o f p opu la t ions o u twards f ro m f avoured l oca l it ies, a s we l l a s t he a dop t ion a nd i n tegra t ion o f t he a gr ic u ltura l s pec ies w ith in e x ist ing b road-based s ubsistence s yste ms .

T he e x-

p ans ion o f p opu la t ion may h ave i nvo lved t he d isp lace men t a nd/or a ssi m i la t ion o f e x ist ing p opu lat ions .

Wh it t le ( 1977 ) h as d iscussed f u l ly t he b eg inn ings o f

t he n eo l ith ic i n Eng land a ga inst t he b ackground o f t he c on te mporary c u ltures o f Western Europe a nd h as c onc luded t ha t t here i s n o g ood r eason t o r e jec t t he h ypothes is t ha t i to r ig ina ted i n t he e xpans ion t o t hese i s lands o f a gr icu lt ura l p opu lat ions f ro m t he c on t inen t .

Th is h ypo thesis i s s uppor ted b y t he

l ack o f e v idence i n Br i ta in , i n c on trast t o many o ther p ar ts o f Europe , f or e le men ts o f c u ltura l c on t inu i ty l i nk ing t he 'meso l ith ic ' a nd ' neo l ith ic ' s oc iet ies .

I t must b e a dm it ted , h owever , t ha t o ur k now ledge o f t he e ar ly s tages

o f t he e stab l ish men t o f t he a gr icu ltura l e cono my i n B r ita in i s b ased o n r e lat ive ly f ew a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a nd v ery l i t t le e cono m ic d a ta .

F ur ther more ,

i tc an n ever b e more t han a mat ter o f o p in ion whe ther a s pec if ied s e t o f d isc on t inu it ies i n ma ter ia l c u lture i s r epresen ta t iv e o f p opu la t ion move men t . Wha tever t he p rocesses b y wh ich a gr icu lture b eca me e stab l ished i n t h is c oun try , t hey a re i m ma ter ia l t o t he o b ject ives o f t he p resen t s tudy .

The o b-

j ect ives o f t h is s tudy a re t o e xp lore t he imp lica t ions o f t he a dop t ion o f t he a gr icu ltura l e cono my f or l and-use a nd s e t t le men t .

O ne i n terest o f t he Br it ish

I sles f ro m a E uropean o r w or ld p erspect ive i s t ha t t hey l i e o n t he e x tre me western marg in o f t he wor ld-zone wh ich h as c o me t o b e d om ina ted b y t he European- W . A s ian e cono my b ased o n t he c erea l g ra ins, c a t t le , c apr ines a nd p igs—a n uc leus o f f ood-resources wh ich h as p ers isted w ith s o me a dd i t ions t o t he p resen t t ime . Approx i ma te ly o ne t h ird o f t he c oun try h as r es isted a gr icu ltura l s et t le men t ( t hough n o t u t i l isa t ion ) t hroughout p reh istor ic a nd h istor ica l t i mes .

Br i ta in , t herefore , p resen ts a n i nstance o f a gr icu ltura l

'marg ina l ity ' . Marg ins o f fer t he s pec ia l o ppor tun i ty o f i so la t ing f ac tors t ha t h ave b een o f l ong o r s hor tterm s ign if icance i n s e t t ing b oundar ies t o h u man s et t le men t , a nd a lso f or e xa m in ing f l uc tua t ions i n t he e x ten t a nd d istr ibu t ion o f s et t le men t a nd r e la t ing t hese c hanges t o e nv iron men ta l a nd e cono m ic f act ors .

These c ons idera t ions h ave g u ided t he s e lect ion a nd c ircu mscr ip t ion

o f t he s tudy-area i n t he p resen t work .

5

CHAPTER 2 A MODEL OF MAN-LAND RELAT IONS

2 .1 T he ma jor v ar iab les Ap r i mary t ask i s t o e rect a g enera l mode l wh ich w i l l i ncorpora te t hose v ar iab les wh ich h ave b een s e lected a s s ign if ican t f or u nderstand ing manland r e la t ions t hrough t ime .

I tw i l l b e a ssumed h ere w ithou t f ur ther d iscuss ion

t ha t s ome r e la t ionsh ip e x ists, a nd a lways h as e x isted , b e tween h u man p opul a t ion n u mbers a nd t he r esources, p ar t icu lar ly f ood-resources wh ich s uppor t t he m .

T h is a ssu mp t ion i s j ust if ied b y t he o vera l l p a t tern o f h u man p opu la t ion

g eography a t t he p resen t d ay ; t he h ighest d ens it ies t end t o c o inc ide w ith t he t e mpera te a nd s ubtrop ica l z ones, where f ood-resources a re r e la t ive ly a bund an t . S tud ies o f o ther a n i ma ls, f ro m p ro tozoa t o b irds, c on f irm t ha t i n g enera l t here i s ap os it ive c orre la t ion b e tween f ood-supp ly a nd p opu la t ion d ens it ies ( e .g . L ack 1 954 ; Wynne Edwards 1 962) .

We a re c oncerned h ere

t o e xp lore t h is r e la t ionsh ip f or p reh istor ic h u man s oc ie t ies a nd t o s pec ify t he v ar iab les w ith in i t . H iggs a nd J ar man ( 1 975) s uggested t ha t t he s tudy o f p alaeoecono my s hou ld f ocus o n t he r e la t ionsh ip t hrough t ime o f p opu la t ion , t echno logy a nd r esources.

T he mode l p ut f orward b y t hese a uthors ( 1975/6 ) i mp l ies t ha t

t he r esource-po ten t ia l c an b e r egarded a s i ndef in i te ly e last ic a nd t ha tt echnol ogy i s a n i ndependen t v ar iab le , t he d eve lop men t o f w h ich h as t he e f fect o f r a is ing ' ex tract ive c apac ity ' s o t ha t ag rea ter p ropor t ion o f t he r esourcep oten t ia l i s r e leased .

B ecause o f t he i nheren t t endency f or h u man ( a s o ther

a n i ma l) p opu la t ions t o i ncrease when r estr ict ions a re r e moved , ar ise i n e xt rac t ive c apac ity i s i nev i tab ly f o l lowed b y p opu la t ion g row th , wh ich w i l l c ont inue u n t i l an ew ' ce i l ing ' i s r eached . a ncestry .

T h is mode l h ad a l ong a nd d ist ingu ished

Av ers ion o f t h is mode l i s i mp l ic i t i n t he work o f C h i lde ( esp . 1 936

1 1-14) a nd r e-appears i n S auvy ' sG enera l T heory o f P opu la t ion ( 1969) . T h is t echno log ica l mode l may b e v a l id i n av ery g enera l way , b u t h ardl y d oes j ust ice t o t he i n ter-re la t ions o f t he n u merous v ar iab les w ith in e ven t he s imp lest h u man e cono my . a re q uest ionab le .

I ta lso makes a n u mber o f a ssu mp t ions t ha t

The d eve lop men ts wh ich c an b e s hown t o h ave r esu lted i n

a n e xpansion o f t he f ood-supp ly i n h istor ica l a nd modern t imes h ave n ot b een s o le ly o r e ven p r i mar i ly d ependen t o nt echno log ica l i nnova t ions .

The Agr i-

c u ltura l Revo lu t ion o f t he 1 7 th a nd 1 8 th c en tur ies A .D . i n Western Europe i nvo lved ma jor c hanges i n l and-ownersh ip a nd manage men t a nd t he i n trod uct ion o f an ew r ange o f f odder c rops; a nd t echno log ica l d eve lop men ts p layed a c o mpara t ive ly m inor r o le ( c f . S l icher v an B a th 1 963 ) .

S im i lar ly,

t he e ar l iest a gr icu ltura l t echno logy i n t he N ear East a nd Europe i s n o t c ons p icuously d if feren t f ro m t ha t o f t he p re-agr icu ltura l s oc ie t ies i n t he s a me r eg ions, e ven t hough i ti s g enera l ly a ssu med t ha t p opu la t ions g rew a t a n u n7

p receden ted r a te a s ar esu lt o f t h is e cono m ic c hange .

New t echno log ies a re

c lear ly o n ly o ne f actor amongst t hose wh ich c an h ave t he e f fec t o f r a ising f ood-supp ly . C hanges i n s chedu l ing p ract ices, r esource- manage men t a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion may a lso b e i nvo lved ( c f . F lannery 1 968 ) . As econd s hor tco m ing o f t he mode l i s t ha t r esource-po ten t ia l i s t aken a s e last ic . T h is i su n just if iab le , s ince f ood-resources may v ary t hrough t ime b oth i ndependen t ly o f t he h u man e cono my a nd d irect ly a s ar esu lt o f u t i l isa t ion . T he q uest ion whe ther l ongterm r esourcei mpover ishmen t c o u ld h ave b een a ma jor d irect ive i n h u man p reh istory , r esu lt ing f or e xa mp le f ro m t he i nadeq uacy o f e ar ly a gr icu ltura l me thods, i s o f f unda men ta l i mpor tance , b ut t h is q uest ion i s n o t o ne f or wh ich t he H iggs-Jarman mode l p rov ides ab asis o f i nqu iry . As econd mode l f or manland r e la t ions, w h ich h as h ad a c ons iderab le i mp act o n p reh istor ic r econstruct ions, was p u t f orward b y Boserup ( 1965) i n c onnec t ion w ith c on te mporary s ubsistence a gr icu lture i n u nder-deve loped c oun tr ies . I n t h is mode l i den t ica l v ar iab les a re s e lected a s i n t he p rev ious mode l , b u t p opu la t ion g row th i s c hosen a s t he i ndependen t v ar iab le . By i mp l ica t ion , r esource-po ten t ia l r e ma ins e last ic .

D e mograph ic p ressure i s

s a id t o h ave t he e f fect o f i mpe l ling s oc ie t ies t o a dop t more p roduc t ive s ubs ist ence e cono m ies a nd t he a ppropr ia te t echno log ies . T h is i nver ted t echno log ica l mode l h as h ad c ons iderab le v ogue i n t he l ast d ecade .

F or e xamp le, i th as

b een s uggested , most r ecen t ly b y C ohen ( 1977 ) ,tha t t he i n it ia l s t imu lus t o a dop t

f ood-produc ing ' e cono m ies i n p lace o f h un t ing a nd g a ther ing a rose

s i mp ly b ecause t here were more mouths t o f eed .

A s ac oro l lary t o t h is

mode l, i t was a rgued b y B oserup t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f f ood-product ion w i l l h ave f o l lowed a p red ic tab le c ourse a s p opu la t ions g rew .

T he e ar l iest

a gr icu ltura l s yste ms w i l l h ave b een b ased o n s h if t ing C u l t iva t ion o r f orestf a l low , s ince t h is t echn ique i s a l leged t o p roduce h igher y ie lds p er man-hour t han o ther t echn iques .

A s p opu la t ion n u mbers g rew , i tw ou ld h ave b een

n ecessary t o make more i n tens ive u se o f t he a va i lab le l and . T hus t he a gr ic u ltura l d eve lop men t c ou ld b e s een , a ccord ing t o B oserup , a s p assing t hrough as er ies o f s tages i n wh ich t he f a l low p er iod w as p rogressive ly s hor tened . C u lt iva t ion o f p ermanen t p lo ts w i th a p lough t echno logy r epresen ts t he f i na l s tage .

B y means o f i n tens i f ica t ion p roduc t iv i ty i ncreased p er u n i t a rea o f

l and , b u t d ecreased p er u n i t o f l abour . I t was a rgued t ha t t he s t imu lus t o a gr icu ltura l d eve lop men t c ou ld ö n ly h ave c o me f ro m p opu la t ion p ressure , s ince n o th ing e lse i s l i ke ly t o h ave i nduced h uman s oc ie t ies t o a dop t as ubs istence s yste m wh ich r equ ired g rea ter e f for t . Sm i th a nd Young ( 1 972 ) h ave a pp l ied t h is mode l t o t he d eve lop men t o f p reh istor ic a gr icu lture i nt he N ear E ast , a nd H igham (i n l ect . 1 978 ) h as a rgued t ha t S .E . A sian r i ce c u lt iva t ion u nderwen t as im i lar p rogress ion , w ith t he wa ter-bu ffa lo b e ing i n troduced a s ad raugh t-an i ma l a s t he r esu lt o f p opu la t ion p ressure .

T he mode l h as a lso

b een a pp l ied i n t he Br it ish I s les ( e .g . F le m ing 1 971; Brad ley 1 978 ) . Bronson ( 1 977 ) h as, h owever , q uest ioned t he v a l id ity o f t h is mode l o n t he g rounds t ha t t here i s n o emp ir ica l e v idence t o s uppor t t he c en tra l p roposit ion t ha t l ongf a l low s yste ms a re n ecessar i ly more l abour-e f f icien t t han o ther s yste ms . T he l im i ted amoun t o f d a ta a na lysed b y B lack ( 1 971) s uggests t he o ppos ite ( c f . D enne l l 1 978 T ab les 1 6, 2 0) . F ur ther ,i n t he l i gh t o f A l lan 's work ( 1 .965) o n t he d ivers ity o f s ubs istence s yste ms i n mo cbrn A fr ica , r ef lect ing t he v ar ia-

8

b i lity o f e daph ic, c l i ma t ic a nd e co log ica l c ond it ions, a s we l l a s t he n eeds o f d if feren t c rops, i t wou ld s ee m v ery u n l ike ly t ha t t he d eve lopmen t o f f oodp roduc ing s yste ms f o l lowed a s im i lar p a th i n a l l r eg ions o f t he wor ld .

En-

v ironmen ta l c ond it ions i n W. A s ia a nd t e mpera te Europe i n t he 8 th-4th m illenn ia B .C . were s o u n l ike t hose o f modern t rop ica l A fr ica a s t o make t he a na log ies r e mo te . Bo th t he H iggs-Jarman a nd t he B oserup mode ls h ave v a lue a s s i mp le e xp lana tory mechan is ms i n s o me s i tua t ions, b ut i n c hoosing t o t rea t manl and r e la t ions i n ar ig id p rescr ip t ive f ramework t hey i gnore t he ir i nheren t c o mp lex i t ies . T hey a lso s uf fer t he l im i tat ion o fb e ing a rchaeo log ica l ly u nt estab le i nt he f orm i n wh ich t hey h ave b een p resen ted . I ti sp roposed h ere t ha t t here i s a n i n teract ive o r r ec iproca l r e la t ionsh ip b etween p opu la t ion n u mbers a nd t he e conom ic s yste m t ha t s uppor ts t he m , a nd b e tween t he e cono m ic s yste m a nd t he f ood-resources u t i l ised .

A r ise

( or f a l l ) i np opu la t ion n u mbers c an s e t o f f c hanges i n t he e cono m ic s yste m a nd v ice v ersa .

The d eve lop men t o f t he e cono m ic s yste m c an r e lease a

g rea ter f ood-supp ly ;

e qua l ly , c hanges i nt he r esource-po ten t ia l, whe ther

b rough t a bout t hrough m is manage men t o r e x terna l ly t hrough i ndependen t f actors, may h ave r epercussions t ha t a re f e l t t hrough t he e n t ire s yste m . Popu la t ion , e cono my a nd r esources c an c onven ien t ly b e t rea ted a s l i nked s ubs yste ms ( f ig. 2 a p . 38 ) . We s hal l b e c oncerned w ith t he i n ter-rela tedness o f s evera l s e lected v ar iab les w ith in e ach o f t hese s ubsystems, a nd o f t he s ubs ystems t he mse lves, a s t hey u ndergo c hanges o ver t ime . Archaeo logy i s c oncerned w iLh p rocesses wh ich h ave b oth a t e mpora l a nd s pa t ia l d imension .

T he t endency f or p opu la t ions t o r ise t hrough t ime may b e

r epresen ted b y s pa t ia l e xpans ion .

I ti s p red icted t ha t p opu la t ions may u lt i-

ma te ly p ress i n to l oca l it ies i n wh ich c ond it ions b eco me i ncreas ing ly p recari ous f or t he c rops o n wh ich t hey d epend .

I ti s i n t hese l oca l it ies t ha t i t migh t

b e a n t ic ipa ted t ha t a bso lu te f ood-shor tage wou ld u l t ima te ly c on tro l p opu la t ion g row th a nd h ence p lace a t erm inus t o i t s s pa t ia l e xpansion . Th is p red icted s equence i s o ne t ha t may b e a na lysed a rchaeo log ica l ly t hrough t he c o mbina t ion o f e v idence f or s e t t le men t a nd l and-use . Popu la t ion : A bso lute p opu la t ion n u mbers c an r are ly b e a ssessed s a t isf actor i ly f or p reh istor ic s oc ie t ies

Th is d oes n o t mean t ha t p reh istor ic

d e mography must r e ma in e n t ire ly u nknown , s ince c er ta in d e mograph ic f unct ions o f t hese s oc ie t ies c an b e measured , w ith in a ccep tab le o rders o f magn itude . Re la t ive d ens i t ies o fp opu la t ion i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f ag iven r eg ion c an f requen t ly b e g auged where c er ta in c ond i t ions r e la t ing t o t he r epresen tat i veness o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta a re f u lf i l led . I ti s a lso f requen t ly p oss ib le t o measure t he g row th a nd c on tract ion o f r e la t ive p opu la t ion n u mbers t hrough t ime . R e lat ive p opu la t ion n u mbers may b e n ear ly a s v a luab le a s a bso lute p opu la t ion n u mbers f or t he p urpose o f a ssess ing t he e f fects o f c hanges i n t he e cono m ic a nd r esource s ubsyste ms o n p opu la t ion . C lear ly t hey w i l l b e p ref erab le t o i nsecure ly b ased e st i ma tes o f a bso lute p opu la t ion n u mbers . Aga in , a n i nd ica t ion o f l oca l g roup s ize a nd i t s r eg iona l a nd c hrono log ica l v ar iab i l ity i s a lso a t ta inab le w i th in c er ta in b racke ts . L oca l g roup s ize a nd r eg iona l p opu la t ion n u mbers may o f c ourse v ary i ndependen t ly o f o ne a nother . I ncrease o r c on trac t ion o f l oca l g roup s ize c an o n ly b e r e lated t o o vera l l d e mograph ic 9

b ehav iour i ft he d ispers ion ' o r s pac ing o u t o f l oca l g roups a cross t he l ands cape , i s t aken i n to s i mu ltaneous c ons idera t ion . T he d ispers ion o f p opu la t ions i s r ecorded i n t he d istr ibut ions o f o ccupa t ion ( and o ther ) s ites b ear ing o n t he p a t tern o f s e t t le men t . V ar iat ions w ith in t he d ispersionary p at tern c an o f ten b e mos t c lear ly a ssessed i n r e la t ion t o b oundar ies .

We c an r egu lar ly i den t ify s tages i n t he

s pa t ia l d istr ibu t ion when b oundar ies t o t he t o ta l s e t t led a rea w ere moved f orward o r r e trea ted .

T h is i n troduces a nother a spect o f d e mograph ic b ehav iour

f or wh ich a rchaeo logy p rov ides e v idence , n ame ly c on t inu i ty a nd d iscon t inu i ty o f o ccupance .

Under c on t inu ity i s r eg istered t he a bso lute o r r e la t ive d ura t ion

o f s e t t le men t i n ag iven l oca l ity .

D iscon t inu i ty i s t aken t o mean t he a bandon-

men t o f ag iven l oca l ity , a nd m igh t b e c onnec ted w ith l and-abandon men t o r a d justmen ts i n l oca l g roup-s ize a nd d ispers ion . Archaeo log ica l d istr ibu t ions o f o ccupa t ion s i tes may t here fore c hange o ver t ime i n r esponse t o an u mber o f f actors a f fec t ing o ne o r more o f t hese v ar ia b les:

r eg iona l p opu la t ion n u mbers ;

l oca l g roup-s ize ; d ispers ion ;

c on t inu i ty

( f ig . 2 b p . 3 8; c f . H assan 1 975 ). I n o rder t o a ssess t he s ign if icance o f c hanges i n d istr ibu t ion s w e n eed a n i dea o f t he s i mu l taneous c hanges i n a l l t hese a spec ts o f d e mograph ic b ehav iour. Withou t t h is k nowledge d istr ibu t ion c hanges may b e e n t irely m islead ing. R esources: I n t h is c on tex t

r esources ' i nc lude ( a ) a b iot ic r esources,

i .e . t hose o f s o i l a nd c l i ma te ; ( b ) p r i mary f ood-resources, w h ich a re d irect ly c ropped f or h u man c onsu mp t ion ; ( c ) s econdary o r i nd irec t f ood-resources , wh ich c o mpr ise c rops s u i tab le f or h un ted a nd d o mest ica ted a n ima ls, whe ther g razed o r g a thered a s f odders , a nd wh ich a re c onverted b y t h is means i n to h u man f ood .

S econdary f ood-resources a lso i nc lude v egetat ion t ha t c an b e

d rawn u pon t o ma in ta in a nd e nhance t he f er t i l ity o f t he a rab le p lo t , e ither d irect ly o r v ia l i vestock . T hese w i l l i nc lude s eaweed , p ea t a nd c erta in w aste p roducts o f t he p r i mary f ood-resources . Pr i mary f ood-resources may b e e n larged b y e cono m ic measures t ha t a f fect e i ther o rb o th s econdary f ood-resources a nd a b iot ic r esources . C l ima te may s e t a bso lu te l im its f or t he e xpans ion o f f ood-supp ly , wh ich c an b e o n ly marg ina l ly mod if ied b y e cono m ic d eve lop men ts.

S o ils may s e t a bso lute a nd

a lso r e la t ive l im i ts o n f ood-supp ly , wh ich may b e o verco me b y av ar ie ty o f t echn iques, e .g . i rr iga t ion w orks ,dra . inage , t errac ing , t i l lage a nd f er t i l isa t ion . We m igh t e xpect t herefore t ha t c l i ma t ic f actors o pera t ing t hrough s o i l a nd p lan ts wou ld b e o f c ruc ia l i mpor tance i n g overn ing t he g ross d istr ibut ions a nd n u mbers o f h u man p opu la t ions a nd t hat c hanges i n t hese v ar iab les o ver t ime m igh tb e r e la ted :(a ) t o i ndependen t c l i ma t ic c hanges, a ct ing e i ther d irec t ly o n t he f ood-resource , o r i nd irec t ly b y a f fect ing s o i l ; ( b ) t o e cono m ic d eve lopmen ts a f fect ing s o i l a nd p r i mary a nd s edondary f ood-resources . C l i ma te : Under t he h ead ing c l i ma te we a re most c oncerned w ith v ar ia t ions i n s o lar r ead ia t ion a nd p rec ip ita t ion/evapora t ion r a t ios, b oth i n tra-reg iona l ly, i n ter-reg iona l ly a nd t hrough t ime .

I ti s t hese t wo a spects o f c l imate t ha t h ave

t he g rea test i n f luence o n t he b io log ica l a nd e cono m ic p roduct iv ity o f a n e nv ironmen t , t hough o ther f actors, s uch a s w ind-speeds a nd s nowl ie a re l oca l ly i mpor tan t .

C l i ma te i s k nown t o h ave u ndergone marked f l uctua t ions i n t he

1 0

l as t 2m i l l ion y ears . a nd t h is makes t he p ro jec t ion o f p resen t c ond i t ions i n to t he p as t h azardous .

H owever , i ti s f a ir t o r egard t he p er iod 4 000-0 b .c . i n

t he B r i t ish I s les a s h av ing a b road ly s im i lar c l i ma t ic r eg i me t o t ha t o f t he p resen t . Max i mum e s t i ma tes f or t he e x ten t o f a verage a nnua l t e mpera ture d ev ia t ion w i th in t he l as t s ix t housand y ears f a l l c20 C ( Lamb 1 977a 3 71-374 ) . Th is i s w i th in t he a nnua l r ange o f v ar iabi l i ty r ecorded i n t he p resen t c en tury . The o vera ll c o mparab i l i ty o f t he modern c l i ma te w i th t he c l i ma te o f t he p er iod we a re c oncerned w i th makes i tp oss ib le t o a ssu me t ha t w i th in e ach r eg ion micro-c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions f o l lowed a s im i lar p a t tern .

We c an t here fore u se

modern o bserva t iona l d a ta w i th p roper c au t ion t o r econs truct t he b road p a t tern o f r eg iona l v ar iabi l i ty . F or c l i ma t ic f luctua t ions a f fect ing t he who le c oun try a f a ir ly d e ta i led r ecord i s n ow a va i lab le d rawn f ro m d a ta c o l lec ted b y av ar iety o f t echn iques f ro m many s ources i n W . E urope a nd B r i ta in .

I ti s , h owever , d e mons trable

t ha t t he e f fec ts o f t he r ecorded f luc tua t ions were f e l t a t s l igh t ly d if feren t t imes a nd w i th v ar ious d egrees o f i n tens i ty i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he Br i t ish I s les .

F or t h is r eason p o l len-ana ly t ica l d a ta b ear ing o n c l i ma t ic f luctua t ions

i n t he c oun try a s a who le mus t b e marr ied w i th e v idence d rawn f ro m t he r eg ion o f i m med ia te i n teres t . I ti s c ons idered t ha t t he d is tr ibu t ions o f c er ta in p lan ts c an b e a ccepted a s s ens i t ive i nd ica tors o f c l i ma t ic f luc tua t ions ( c .f . I versen 1 944 ; 2 14-216 ) ,

Wes t 1 977

a l though f or t he ma jor i ty o f s pecies marg ins a re s e t b y t he c o m-

b ina t ion o f c l i ma t ic , e daph ic a nd e co log ica l f ac tors .

Aga in , w i th in t he p er iod

s ince 4 000 b .c . h uman i n ter ference w i th v ege ta t iona l c o m mun i t ies c an p erhaps b e r egarded a s t he mus t i mpor tan t s ing le f ac tor a ffec t ing p lan t d is tri bu t ions . For t hese r easons i ti s n ow r ecogn ised t ha t p o l len-ana lyt ica l d a ta mus t b e c o mb ined w i th o ther t ypes o f e v idence , s uch a s c hanges i n t he r ap id i ty o f p ea tg row th , s h i fts i n t he u pward l im i t f or t he g row th o f t rees , a nd t he e xpans ion a nd c on tract ion o f g lac iers , i n o rder t o s ubs tan t ia te a rgu men ts f or c l i ma t ic f luctua t ions . A l leged c l ima t ic c hanges s ugges ted b y p o l len-ana lyt ica l d a ta a lone mus t b e t rea ted w i th c au t ion . S o i l :

Wh i le c l i ma t ic f ac tors may v ary i ndependen t ly o ver t ime , e daph ic

f ac tors may v ary b oth i ndependen t ly a nd i n r esponse t o h u man a c t iv i t ies .

A t

f irs t s igh t t h is m igh t s ee m t o make t he a na lys is o f p resen t d ay s o i ls i rre levan t t o p reh is tor ic s tud ies .

H owever , t he c hanges t ha t c an o ccur i n s o i ls i n s pec i-

f ic t opograph ic , c l i ma t ic a nd g eo log ica l c on tex ts a re n ot u n l im i ted a nd a re t o al arge e x ten t p red ic tab le . I n t he a na lys is o f t erra in , t here fore , t here a re t wo c o mp le men tary p rocesses : t he e xam ina t ion o f t he p resen t r eg iona l a nd l oca l d is tr ibu t ion o f s oi ls i n r e la t ion t o t he ir ' agr icu l tura l p o ten t ia l ' , a nd t he a ssessmen t o f c hanges w i th in t hese s o i ls b o th d ur ing p reh is tor ic t imes a nd s ubsequen t ly , wh ich may h ave a f fec ted t ha t p oten t ia l . T he a na lys is o f t erra in w i l l i nc lude w i th in i t s o b ject ives t he i den ti f ica t ion o f l oca l i t ies i n wh ich l andscape p rocesses l i ke ly t o h ave h ad s ign i f icance f or a gr icu l tura l c o m mun i t ies may h ave o ccurred . t inct p rocesses may b e i nvo lved :

I n t he B r i t ish c on tex t t wo d is-

( a ) wa ter a nd w ind e ros ion ( and d epos i t ion ) ;

p odzo l isa tion , w i th t he a ssoc ia ted p rocesses o f i ron-pann ing , a c idi f ica t ion a nd b lanke t p ea t f or ma t ion . I n t he Med i terranean r eg ion V i ta-F inzi ( 1969 ) h as d e mons tra ted t he e x ten t o f a l luv ia t ion i n t he p os t-C lass ica l p er iod , a nd i ts

1

impor tance f or t he a gr icu l tura l d eve lop men t a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f s e t t le men t h as b egun t o b e e xplored ( Hu tch inson 1 969 ;

B in t l i f f 1 976 ;1977).

S o i l e ros ion

h as c er ta in ly b een more w idespread i n B r i ta in t han h as n or ma l ly b een s upposed , t hough i t s a gr icu l tura l s ign i f icance i s n o t a lways c lear ( c f . D i mbleby 1 977a ). Eros ion w i l l b e s ign i f ican t o n ly i fi tr esu l ts i n t he d ep le t ion o f t he a gr icu l tura l r esource , e i ther b y r educing t he e x ten t o f c u l t ivable l and t hrough l oss o f s o i l wh ich c anno t b e made g ood b y f ur ther wea ther ing , o r b y smother ing c u l t ivab le l and b enea th a l luv iu m ( c .f . D enne l l a nd Web ley 1 975 ) .

E ros ion c an a lso b r ing

p os i t ive b ene f i ts t o a gr icu l ture when e roded s o i ls a re r edepos i ted i n c l i ma t ic a l ly more f avourab le l oca l i t ies . The p oss ib le e f fec ts o f d e fores ta t ion a nd/ or c l i ma t ic d eter iora t ion o n t he f orma t ion o f t he f loodp la in a l luv ia o f t he ma jor r ivers i s e qua l ly i n n eed o f e xa m ina t ion , s ince t hese d epos i ts w ere o f c ruc ia l s ign i f icance f or t he d ev e lop men t o f l i ves tock h usbandry .

A r ecen t s tudy b y S ho t ton ( 1978 ) i n t he

l ower S evern-Avon v a l leys s ugges ts t ha t a ma jor p hase o f a l luv ia t ion o ccurred i n t he mid i s t mi l lenn ium b .c.

C layton ( 1 977) h as p o in ted o u t t ha t many

a l luv ia l d epos i ts i n t he B r i t ish I s les , i nc lud ing t he g rave ls , a re b e ing e x tensi ve ly r eworked a t t he p resen t t ime . B u t t he i den t i f ica t ion o f g eo morpho log ica l p rocesses o f t h is k ind s ince 4 000 b .c . d oe 's n o t i n i t se l f h e lp i n t he a ssessmen t o f t he s ign i f icance o f t hese p rocesses f or h uman p opu la t ions .

I n o rder

t o d o t h is we r equ ire a k now ledge o f t he l and-use s ys te m i n r ela t ion t o t he s oi ls t ha t a re k nown t o h ave b een a f fec ted . The p rocess o f p odzo l isa t ion i s k nown t o h ave b egun b y t he 2 nd mi l lenn ium b .c . o r e ar l ier i n many p arts o f Br i ta in ( D i mb leby 1 962; i n L i mb r ey 1 975 1 52 ).

Va len t ine , q uo ted

The r ecord f or t he f orma t ion o f b lanket p ea t i n d i f fer-

e n t s i tua t ions f ro m C . 6 000 b .c . t o t he p resen t i s r easonab ly we l l k nown . These p rocesses h ave o f ten a f fec ted d i f feren t c a tegor ies o f s oi l f ro m t hose s ub jec t t o e ros ion a nd d epos i t ion , b ecause t hey a re f requen t ly i n d i f feren t t opograph ic a nd m icro-c l i ma t ic s i tua t ions .

S ea led s ur faces b enea th d a tab le

e ar thworks a re o ne o f t he ma jor s ources o f e v idence f or c a l ibrat ing t hese p roc esses .

The work o f D i mb leby ( e .g . 1 962;

1 977a ) u nder l ines t he i mpor tance

o f a rchaeo log ica l monu men ts f or t he p reserva t ion o f f oss i l s oi ls .

F oss i l s o i ls

p rov ide a means o f a ssess ing t he e x ten t o f p rof i le c hange w i th in c o mparable s oi ls s ince t he p er iod t o wh ich t hey b e long . Where t hese c hanges h ave i nv o lved a d ec l ine i n f er t i l i ty , a s w i th p odzo l isa t ion , t hey may b e o f p o ten tia l s ign i f icance f or l and-use a nd s e t t le men t , b u t o n ly i ft hey o ccurred i n s o i ls t ha t were a gr icu l tura l ly impor tan t . An e ssen t ia l p re l im inary t o t he i nves t ig a t ion o f t hese p heno mena a nd t he ir i mpl ica t ions f or h u man e cono m ies mus t b e d eta i led mapping i n ar eg iona l c on tex t o f t he a reas l ike ly t o h ave b een a f fected .

I ti s o n ly i n r e la t ion t o s uch a map t ha t t he a ccumu la t ing d a ta f ro m

g eo morpholog ica l , p edo log ica l a nd p o l len-ana ly t ica l s ources c an b e b rough t i n to c onnec t ion w i th t he d eve lop men t o f l and-use a nd s e t t le men t .

T he c rucia l

r o le o f t he a rchaeo log is t i n i n tegra t ing t hese s ources o f d a ta , many o f wh ich a re n ecessar i ly d er ived f ro m a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion , n eeds n o emphas is , t hough i ti s t rue t o s ay t ha t f ew a rchaeo log ica l r epor ts e ven i n r ecen t y ears a re a dequa te i n t h is r espec t .

P r i mary a nd S econdary F ood-Resources : I ti s k nown t ha t c erea l g ra ins f or med s o me p ar t o f t he p reh is tor ic d ie t i n Br i ta in f ro m c . 4 000 b .c . o nwards , b u t l i t t le i s k nown o f t he r e la t ive impor tance o f t he m i n d i f feren t r eg ions a nd 1 2

i n d i f feren t p er iods .

The r ecord o f t he u se o f o ther p lan t r esources , i nc lud ing

wha t we s hou ld d escr ibe a s ' weeds ' i s v ery f ragmen tary : wha t e v idence t here i s , h owever , d oes s uggest t ha t t he o verwhe lm ing impor tance o f c erea ls may b e ac o mpara t ive ly r ecen t p heno menon ( He lbaek 1 951 ; 1 976) .

Van Z e is t 1 970 ;

Har lan

N ever the less , i n v iew o f t he i mpor tance o f t he was te p roducts o f

c erea l c u l t iva t ion f or s uppor t ing t he l i ves tock c o mponen t o f t he W. E uropean a gr icu l tura l e cono my , i t may b e h ypo thes ized t ha t i rrespect ive o f t he ir q uan ti ta t ive i mpor tance i n t he h u man d ie t , t he c erea l g ra ins h ad a c on tro l l ing o r c r i t ica l i n f luence o n t he d is tr ibu t ions o f a gr icu l tura l p opu la t ions i np reh is tor ic t imes .

T h is h ypo thes is c an b e f a ir ly e as i ly t es ted , s ince t he e nv ironmen ta l

t o lerances o f t hese p lan ts a re r easonab ly we l l k nown . T he ma jor i ty o f p reh is tor ians who h ave c ons idered t he p reh is tor ic a gr icu l tura l e cono my i n B r i ta in h ave d is t ingu ished ' pas tora l is ts ' f ro m c u lt iva tors .

' Pas tora l is m ' i s u nders tood t o b e ah erd ing e cono my i n wh ich th e

h u man d ie t i s c o mposed who l ly o f l i ves tock p roduc ts .

T h is d is t inct ion i s l en t

l im i ted s uppor t f ro m e thno log ica l p ara l le ls w i th c er ta in modern s ocie t ies a t s ubsis tence l eve l , t hough i ti s t o b e n o ted t ha t e xc lus ive d ependence o n l i ves tock p roducts i s a l mos t who l ly u nknown a nd modern p as tora l is ts a nd c u l t iva tors a re n orma l ly i n ter-dependen t ( Crans tone 1 969 ) .

I th as b een a rgued t ha t o ver

much o f t he ' H igh land Z one ' o f B r i ta in e cono m ies were a l mos t e xc lus ive ly p as tora l u n t i l med ieva l t imes ( P iggo t t 1 958 ; Web ley 1 976).

Turner 1 965 ;

C un li f fe 1 974 ;

S evera l c a tegor ies o f e v idence h ave b een a dduced i n s uppor t

o f t h is h ypo thes is :

( a ) t he e x iguousness o f t he d irec t e v idence f or c erea l

c u l t iva t ion i n t he f or m o f c arbon ised g ra in , i mpress ions o n p o t tery a nd c erea l p o l len ;

( b ) t he a bsence o f ' s torage n i ts ' , wh ich a re c o mpara t ive ly n u merous

i n s ou thern Br i ta in i n t he i s t mi l lenn iu m b .c .; ( c ) p resen t d ay l and-use p a t terns , wh ich s how a n o verwhe lm ing c oncen tra t ion o n l i ves tock i n t he H ighl and Z one ; ( d ) t he t es t i mony o f C lass ica l a nd med ieva l wr i ters ; ( e ) t he sma l l n u mbers o f o ccupa t ion s i tes t ha t a re k nown f or many p er iods o f p reh is tory , a l leged t o imp ly t e mporary o ccupa t ion o r n o mad is m . T he p as tora l h ypo thes is t akes more t han o ne f or m .

P iggo t t ( 1 958 ) a nd

C un li f fe ( 1 974 ) f ol low F ox ( 1932 ) i n s ugges t ing , a t l eas t b y imp l ica t ion , t ha t p as tora l is m , c o mb ined p erhaps w i th s h i f t ing c u l t iva t ion , p ers is ted i n t he H igh land Z one b ecause o f c l i ma t ic r es tr ic t ions a nd c u l tura l r e tarda t ion .

N one

o f t hese a u thors c ons iders t he d is tr ibu t ion a nd l oca t ion o f s e t t le men ts i n t he l igh t o f t he p as tora l is t h ypo thes is , n or d o t hey g ive a ny c lues t o t he p oss ible s chedu l ing mechan is m .

Web ley ( 1 976 ) h as p roposed a n a l terna t ive p as tora lis t

h ypothes is i n wh ich u p land a nd l ow lands a re l i nked t hrough t he mechan is m o f t ranshumance . I n t h is h e i s g u ided b y t he p reva lence o f t ranshumance s ys te ms i n many p ar ts o f t he wor ld where u plands a nd l ow lands a re j ux taposed ( Carr ier 1 932;

E vans 1 940 ;

H iggs 1 977) , a nd b y t he h is tor ica l a nd modern p rac t ice o f

l i ves tock move men t i n B r i ta in , s uch a s t he s easona l move men t o f e wes a nd h oggs t o l ower g round i n s o me h igh land a reas ( e .g . C ar ly le 1 972 ).

Never the-

l ess , much s tock move men t a t t he p resen t t ime i s b es t s een a s ar esponse t o t he c ond i t ions o f modern c o m merc ia l a gr icu l ture a nd c anno t t here fore b e u sed a s amode l f or p reh is tor ic s ubs is tence a gr icu l ture . S ince P iggo t t wro te i n 1 958 s evera l e xcava t ions i n H igh land B r i ta in h ave p roduced s ubs tan t ia l e v idence o f c erea l c u l t iva t ion t o a dd t o t ha t k nown a t t ha t t ime ( e .g . S kara B rae , R i tch ie 1 976 ;

H ebr ides , S heppard 1 976 ; 1 3

We lsh

Marches , G u i lber t 1 977 ) .

T he i ncreased f requency w i th wh ich g ra in i s n ow

b eing r ecovered s ugges ts t ha t t he e x iguousness o f t he p rev ious r ecord r esu l ted f ro m t he l ack o f t he a ppropr iate r ecovery t echn iques.

The sma l l n u mber o f

r epor ted g ra in i mpression s o n p o t tery f ro m t he H ighland Zone ( Helbaek 1 952 ) may b e a ccoun ted f or b y t he f ewer e xcava t ion s a nd t he l ess w idespread u se o f p o t tery ( or i t s g rea ter p er ishab il i ty ) i n t h is p ar t o f t he c oun try .

The f ac t t ha t

i ti s b eco m ing i ncreas ingly l ikely t ha t many t ypes o f B r it ish p reh istor ic p o t tery were p ro fess iona l ly made , a nd p erhaps p edd led c ons iderable d is tances ( Renf rew 1 977 ) , i n a ny c ase makes t he e v idence o f p o t-i mpress ions l ess r e l iab le a s ag u ide t o l oca l e cono my ( Denne l l 1 976) . Turner ( 1 964 ) s ugges ted t ha t t he u se o f ap as tora l/arab le i ndex b ased o n t he r e la t ive f requenc ies o f P lan tago a nd c erea l ia + a s e lec t ion o f weeds o f c u l t iva t ion may d is t ingu ish p redom inan t ly a rab le f ro m p redom inan tly p ast ora l d is tr icts .

B y a pp lying t h is i ndex s he c onc luded ( 1 965 3 53 ) ' away f ro m

t he l ow lands o f B r i ta in t he e ssen t ia l ly n o mad ic way o f l i fe t yp ica l o f t he n eol i th ic , c on t inued u na l tered t hroughou t t he Bronze Age , l as t ing u n t i l t he a rr iva l o f I ron Age i nvaders i n t he s ou th a nd u n t i l e i ther t he R o man o r j us t p os t-Ro man p er iod i n t he n or th.

Then t here was e x tensive c learance b u t t he w ay o f l i fe

s ee ms s t il l t o b e p redo m inan t ly p astora l '.

Turner 's a rable s pec tru m was ,

h owever , b ased o n c o mparat ive d a ta d rawn f rom a n i n tensively c u l t iva ted p ar t o f Eas tern Eng land i n modern t imes.

Wh ile i ti s a ccep ted t ha t t he i ndex may

g ive a r ough i nd ica t ion o f t he r ela t ive p roport ion o f l and g iven u p t o a rab le a nd g raz ing i n t he v ic in ity o f t he p o l len-s i te, i ti s i l leg it i mate t o d raw c onclus ions f ro m t h is a s t o t he r elat ive i mpor tance o f c ereals a s p ar t o f t he e cono m ic s yst em .

C erea ls a re k nown t o r elease v ery sma l l q uan t it ies o f p o l len , a nd t he

p ea tbogs f ro m wh ich p o l len s equences a re n ecessar ily e x trac ted a re n or mal ly l oca ted i n a reas wh ich a re b es t s u i ted t o g raz ing , a t ad is tance f ro m t he p ot en t ia l a rab le s oi ls , where ' arab le weeds ' wou ld b e mos t a bundan t .

Bu t e ven

t hough a c o mpara t ive ly sma l l amoun t o f l and may b e d evoted t o c erea l g row ing , t h is c rop c ou ld s t i l l b e ac ruc ia l e le men t i n t he e cono my i n p rov id ing p r i mary a nd s econdary f ood-resources .

T he n o table p o in t i s t ha t c erea l ia a re r ecur-

r en t ly p resen t i np ol len-samp les f ro m t he 4 th m i l lenn ium o nwards t hroughou t t he H igh land Z one , e ven t hough i n sma l l q uan t i t ies .

I fc erea l c u l t iva t ion was

p rac t ised a t a l l ( and i n v ery many l oca l i t ies w e k now t ha t i t was ) i tc an h ard ly h ave b een c asua l o r i n ter m i t ten t , a s a n ' essen t ia l ly n o mad ic way o f l i fe ' w ou ld i mp ly , s ince i ti s o n ly p oss ib le when t he s upp ly o f s eed-corn i s a ssured .

I n

a scr ib ing ' no mad ism ' t o t hese p opu la t ions Turner i s o f c ourse d raw ing o n t he a rchaeo log ica l c onsensus a t t he t ime s he wrote . The a rgumen t b ased o n t he a bsence o f s t orage p i ts i n t he H igh land Z one i s n o t d ec is ive , s ince i ti s o n ly a h ypo thes is t ha t t hese p i ts , wh ich o ccur q u i te w ide ly i n t he L ow land Z one i n t he l as t f our c en tur ies B .C ., were u sed f or s tor ing g ra in , a nd were n o t i n many c ases c ha lk q uarr ies t o p rov ide l ime f or i mprov ing s o i ls .

I n a ny c ase i ti s p robab le t ha t u nderground s torage wou ld

n ot h ave p roved f eas ible o r d es irab le i n many p ar ts o f t he H igh land Z one ( c .f . Brad ley 1 978 C h . 2 .). A n or ma l me thod o f s tor ing g ra in i n Br i ta in u n t i l r ecen t t imes was i n o u tdoor s tacks . The a rgumen t f ro m modern l and-use p a t terns i s p erhaps t he l eas t s a t isf ac tory when l ooked a t c lose ly .

As t he c ase-s tudy p resen ted h ere w i l l s how ,

p resen t-day l and-use i s av ery u nre l iab le g u ide t o e ar l ier l and-use e ven i n t he 1 4

r ecen t p as t .

I ti s a lso c lear f ro m a n e xam ina t ion o f t he modern a nd h is tor ica l

l i ves tock i ndus tr ies t ha t t hey a re h eav i ly d ependen t o n c u l t iva ted f odder c rops , p r inc ipa l ly c erea ls , whe ther impor ted f ro m t he a rab le p ar t o f t he c oun try , a s i n t he p resen t c en tury , o r g rown a t h o me .

Modern l i ves tock f ar m ing i s i n

c o mp le te c on tras t t o t he l oose h erd ing a t tr ibu ted t o p reh is tor ic s ocie t ies i n t ha t i ti s h eav i ly s ubs id ised b y f eed ing c erea ls a nd o ther c rops ( wh ich c ou ld b e d irec t ly c onsu med b y t he h uman p opu la t ions ) t o a n i ma ls f or c onvers ion t o p ro te in .

The c oncen tra t ion o n l i ves tock f ar m ing i n t he H igh land Z one h as

s treng thened o ver t he l as t c en tury a s t he r esu l t o f i mproved t ransporta t ion , e nabl ing e ach d is tr ic t t o s pec ia l ise i n t ha t b ranch o f a gr icu l ture f or wh ich i t i s b es t s u i ted .

I ti s f or t h is r eason t ha t c ereal c u l t iva t ion h as d ecl ined i n t h is

p er iod t hroughou t t he H igh land Z one . T he f act t ha t r e la t ive ly sma l l n umbers o f o ccupa t ion s i tes a re k nown f or many p er iods o f B r i t ish p reh is tory i n b o th t he H igh land a nd L ow land Z one mus t b e a t tr ibu ted t o s ubsequen t l andscape p rocesses a nd l and-use .

S ince i t s ee ms

l ike ly t ha t t he n or m o f s et t le men t f or n ear ly a l l p er iods o f p reh is tory i n Br i ta in was t he i ndiv idua l h o mes tead , t he u sua l d i f f icu l t ies o f d iscover ing s i tes a re e xacerba ted .

Wha t i s n o tab le f ro m t he r eg ion s e lec ted f or d e ta i led s tudy h ere

i s t ha t o ccupa t ion s i tes h ave r epea ted ly b een f ound d ur ing t he i nves t iga t ion o f e ar thworks a nd c rop- marks o f s ubsequen t p er iods .

Th is s ugges ts t ha t many

o ccupa t ion s i tes r e ma in u nd iscovered , a nd p oss ib ly b ur ied b enea th c o l luv ia l a ccumu la t ions .

The p over ty o f t he o ccupa t ion s i tes t ha t h ave b een e xcava ted

i s a lso p robab ly a t tr ibu tab le i n many c ases t o t he d isplace men t o f a rchaeol og ica l l ayers b y s ubsequen t l andscape p rocesses a nd c u l t iva t ion .

T he i n ter-

p re ta t ion o f t hese s i tes t ha t t hey a re t e mporary o r s hor tlived o n ly i s b ased a t b es t o n a n impress ion , a nd n o t o n c o mpar ison w i th o ccupa t ion s i tes o f more r ecen t p er iods , wh ich a re e qua l ly e lus ive a nd f or wh ich t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins a re o f ten s i mi lar ly p oor. I ti s n o t p roposed t o e xam ine t he l i terary e v idence h ere b eyond s aying t ha t t he med ieva l wr i t ings , p art icu lar ly G ira ldus , c an b e a nswered b y d ocumen tary e v idence b ear ing d irec t ly o n l and-use , wh ich c ons is ten t ly i nd ica tes t he c omb ina t ion o f a rab le a nd l i vestock a nd who l ly r efu tes t he c oncep t o f n o mad ic p as tora l is ts , a s J ones h as f u l ly d e mons tra ted ( 1 955 ; 1 972 ), i n t he med ieva l We lsh c on tex t . I t may a lso b e s ugges ted t ha t t he b r ie f n o tes o f C lass ica l a u thors , p ar t icu lar ly C aesar , a re t oo t enuous a nd g eograph ica l ly v ague t o b e d epended u pon . I ta ppears t ha t many e ar ly wr i ters may h ave mist aken t he p ract ice o f s hor t-d is tance t ranshu mance , wh ich h as a lways b een c o mbined w i th a rable c u l t iva t ion i n h is tor ica l B r i ta in , w i th f ree-rang ing p as tora l is m . I th as b een a ccepted h ere t ha t l i ves tock p roduc ts p robab ly d id c ons t i tu te ah igh p ropor t ion o f t he d ie t i np reh is tor ic B r i ta in , t hough t h is i s imposs ible t o d e mons tra te , a nd t ha t a l l b u t sma l l a reas o f f avourable a rable s oi ls w i l l h ave b een d evo ted t o l i ves tock .

B u t i ti s n o t a ccep ted t ha t ah igh p ropor t ion

o f l and d evoted t o l i ves tock e n t i t les o ne t o c lass i fy a n e cono my a s ' pas tora l is t '. Wha t i s i mpor tan t i s whe ther c erea l g row ing c ons t i tu ted a c r i t ica l c o mponen t o f t he e cono my , wh ich g overned i t s work ings a nd t he s e lec t ion o f f oca l a reas o f s et t lemen t .

1 5

The f unda men ta l o b ject ion t o t he p as tora l is t h ypo thes is i s t ha t i t wou ld s ee m t o o f fer n o a dvan tage o ver a n e cono my wh ich s i mp ly c ropped t he w i ld f auna .

An i ncreage i n a n i ma l s tock ing d ens i t ies w i l l n ecessar i ly h ave i nvo lved

t he p rov is ion o f f odder c rops d ur ing p er iods o f s hor tage , i .e . t he e n large men t o f s econdary f ood r esources .

The s i mp les t a nd mos t l abour-e f f ic ien t way o f

d oing t h is i s o f c ourse t o make u se o f t he b y-produc ts o f c erea l c u l tiva t ion . Th is mus t b e t he f ounda t ion o f t he c lose ' man-an i ma l r e la t ionsh ip ' we c a l l d o mes t ica t ion .

I n t h is s ense t here fore c erea l p roduc t ion c an b e r egarded a s

ac r i t ica l c o mponen t o f t he a gr icu l tura l e cono my . The c erea l g rasses a re t o leran t o f aw ide r ange o f c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions : t hey a re e ssen t ia l ly p ioneer s pec ies , l i ke t he o ther g rasses , r ap id ly e xpandi ng u nder f avourab le c ond i t ions a nd c o lon is ing n ew h ab i ta ts .

I n t he w i ld s ta te

c l i ma t ic l im i ts s ee m t o h ave b een much l ess s ign i f ican t t han c o mpe t i t ion w i th o ther p lan ts i n s e t t ing b oundar ies t o t he ir e xpans ion ( Hawkes 1 969 ) .

B r i ta in

d oes , h owever , s tand o n t he c l i ma t ic marg in f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion a nd t h is w i l l h ave b een t rue d ur ing l a ter p reh is tor ic t imes .

The impor tan t l im i t ing

f ac tors a pp l icab le i n t h is c oun try c an b e l i s ted a s f o l lows : i ng s eason ;

s hor tness o f g row-

e xcess ive r a in ( par t icu lar ly i n t he l a te s um mer ) ;

mer t e mpera tures ( Leonard a nd Mar t in 1 964 ) .

a nd l ow s um-

L i t t le i n for ma t ion i s a va i lab le

o n t he e nv ironmen ta l t o lerances o f t he p reh is tor ic v ar ie t ies , b u t i ti s c ons idered t ha t t hey may h ave b een more a daptab le t han modern v ar iet ies b ecause o f t he g ene t ic h e terogene i ty o f a ny g iven p opu la t ion ( Ch in , p ers . c o mm . 1 978 ).

S ince

we a re s t i l l ma in ly d ependen t i n B r i ta in o np o l len-ana lyt ica l e v idence f or c ere a l c u l t iva t ion , i n wh ich d i f feren t s pec ies a re n o t n or ma l ly d ist ingu ished , i t i s n ot p oss ible t o r e la te t he s e lec t ion o f d i f feren t s pecies i n p reh is tor ic t imes t o v ar iab le c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions . Over mos t o f t he B r i t ish I s les c ond i t ions b eco me l ess f avourab le f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion a s a l t i tudes i ncrease . There a re t wo a spec ts t o t h is . On t he o ne h and , y ie lds a re k nown t o d ec l ine o n e qu iva len t s o i ls w i th i ncreased e leva t ion b ecause o f r educed i nso la t ion ( Pr ince 1 976 ) ;

o n t he o ther h and , t he

p robab i l i ty o f c rop f a i lure i s r a ised . F or s ubs is tence a gr icu l tura l is ts p erenn ia l r e l iabi l i ty may h ave b een a more i mpor tan t c ons idera t ion t ha t p roduc t iv i ty . I t wou ld b e e xpected t herefore t ha t t he max i mum h eigh t a t ta ined b y c erea l c u l t iva t ion wou ld f a l l s hor t o f t he h ypo the t ica l a bso lu te l im i t . T he d e f in i t ion o f t heore t ica l a bso lu te l im i ts i s t here fore a n a cade m ic e xercise ;

i ti s more

h e lp fu l t o c oncen tra te o n d ef in ing t he marg in w i th in wh ich c erea l g row ing i s s ub jec t t o p rogress ively s evere r es tr ic t ions u nder t he p resen t c l ima t ic r eg ime . The a ctua l a l t i tude a t ta ined b y c erea l c u l t iva t ion a t t he p resen t t ime a nd i n t he h is tor ica l p er iod mus t s erve a s a n i ndex t o t h is marg in . I ts hou ld b e p ossible t o s how t hat p reh istor ic s et t le men t e v idence e xh ib i ts as ens it iv ity t o a l t i tud ina l p ara meters a nd t ha t t hese c orrespond t o t he max imum h e ight a t ta ined b y c erea l c u l t ivat ion i n t he l ast m il lenn ium.

Ac lose c or-

r espondence wou ld b e c onsisten t w i th t he h ypo thesis t ha t c ereal g ra ins d id c onst i tu te a s tap le o f p reh istor ic a gr icu l ture a nd t hat c l i ma te o pera t ing t hrough t h is f ood r esource r epresen ted o ne o f t he f ac tors c on tro l l ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f p opu la t ions. The p roduc t iv i ty o f a rable l and i s af unc t ion o f i nheren t f er t i l i ty a nd mana ge men t p rac t ice. The s upre me i mpor tance o f t he s econd f ac tor i n modern

1 6

t imes i s i l lus tra ted b y ac o mpar ison o f a gr icu l tura l ly h igh ly p roduct ive l ands a nd s o i ls o f n a tura l ly h igh f er t i l i ty ( Cur t is , Courtney a nd Trudg i l l 1 976 4 7 ). The s o i ls f or med i n t he v ery v ar ied p aren t ma ter ia ls o f B r i ta in a re h owever g enera l ly r ecogn ised t o d i f fer g rea t ly i n i nheren t f er t i l i ty , b u t t h is i s n o t a c harac ter is t ic wh ich i s r eg is tered i n modern l and-use c apabi l i ty maps , s ince i ti s as o i l-proper ty t han c an b e e as i ly a nd i nexpens ive ly c hanged u nder modern c ond i t ions b y t he a pp l ica t ion o f f er t i l isers .

T he r e la t ive c apac i t ies o f d i f feren t

s o i ls t o s us ta in c on t inuous y ie lds o f c erea ls o ver a p er iod o f t ime a re n o t a dequa te ly k nown , s ince t he o n ly l ongter m e xper i men ts a re t hose f ro m Ro tha msted a nd Woburn

( Garner a nd D yke 1 968 ).

I n a ssess ing s oi l f er t i l i ty

t here i s a lso t he p rob le m o f t ak ing i n to a ccoun t s o i l-processes t ha t h ave b een g o ing o n s ince p reh is tor ic t imes :

t hese h ave f requen t ly i nvo lved a d ec l ine i n

f er t i l i ty t hrough t he mobi l isa t ion a nd l each ing o u t o f minera l a nd h um ic ma ter ia l . F or a l l t hese r easons t he a ssess men t o f r e la t ive i nheren t f er t i l i ty i n p reh ist or ic t imes i s ad i f f icu l t t ask .

Know ledge o f t he p aren t- ma ter ia l c an , h owever ,

make i tp oss ib le t o d is t ingu ish b ase-r ich f ro m a cid s o i ls , a nd t h is i s o f ten h e lp fu l s ince pH i s f requen t ly c lose ly r e la ted t o i nheren t f er t i l i ty . T he c erea l g rasses a re h igh n i trogen-de mand ing s pecies a nd t he n i trogenb udge t o f s oi ls c an b e c ons idered t he l im i t ing f ac tor o ny ie lds i n mos t c ases ( Cooke 1 967 ).

T h is n u tr ien t i s s upp l ied p r i mar i ly

t hrough o rgan ic c yc l ing :

i n t he l ong t er m h um ic r es idues i n ac on t inuous ly c u l t iva ted p lo t w i l l b e e xh aus ted , a nd u n less t hey c an b e made u p t hrough t he a dd i t ions o r manures a nd/ o r t he c u l tiva t ion o f n i trogen-f ix ing p lan ts , s uch a s t he p u lses a nd c lover , c erea ls w i l l b e u nab le t o s urv ive .

B eans a nd p eas were p ar t o f t he p reh is tor ic

d ie t a nd may h ave b een r egu lar ly g rown i n r o ta t ion ( C f . D enne l l 1 978 ) , b u t t he ma in means o f r es tor ing n i trogen w i l l a l mos t c er ta in ly h ave b een t hrough a n ima l ( and h uman ) manures .

Th is i s o ne a spec t o f t he i n terdependence o f

l ives tock a nd p lan ts i n t he E uropean- W . As ian a gr icu l tura l c o mp lex , t o wh ich Is ha l l r epea ted ly r e fer . Ag rea t r ange o f o ther p lan ts , b es ides t hose wh ich were c u l t iva ted i n t he c onven t iona l s ense , a re n ecessar i ly d rawn o n i n a n a gr icu l tura l e cono my . As C larke ( 1976 ) emphas ized , t he t e mpera te f ores t o f E urope l i es i n o ne o f t he mos t e co log ica l ly p roduc t ive z ones o f t he wor ld 's v ege ta t ion .

Many o f i t s

p lan ts a re k nown t o h ave b een made u se o f f or h u man c onsumpt ion u n t i l r ecen t t imes i n p er iods o f s carc i ty ( Sayce 1 953 ) :

s o me a re k nown t o h ave b een c u l-

t iva ted l ocal ly a nd p er iod ical ly i n t he h istor ical p ast , t hough n o t n ow c onsidere d d o mest icated s pec ies.

N evertheless , t he p r inc ipa l means o f c onver t ing

t he b iomass i n to h uman f ood i s v ia l i vestock , i .e. a s s econdary f ood-resources. When c ons ider ing s econdary f ood-resources, i n t he s ense d ef ined h ere, c er ta in l ocal it ies may b e d escr ibed a s ' f er t i l i ty-sumps ' b ecause n u tr ien ts d er ived f ro m e x ten s ive a nd o f ten g eo log ical ly v ar ied c a tch men ts c o l lec t w ith in t he m .

These a reas i nclude swa mps , f ens , f lood- meadows a nd e stuar ies. They

a re f requen t ly d ist ingu ished b y v ery h igh l eve ls o f e co log ica l p roduc t iv i ty . n u tr ien ts a re p erenn ia l ly r enewed v ia t he h ydro log ic c ycle . r ange o f t echn iques f or u t i l is ing t hese r esources . b e g a thered a nd s pread o n t he a rab le p lo t ;

S eaweed , p ea t a nd t ur f c an

g rasses , s edges a nd o ther h erbs

c an b e c ropped d irect ly b y a n i ma ls o r g a thered a s b og o r meadow h ay . a ccumu la t ing n u tr ien ts o f t he f er t i l i ty-su mp c an t hen b e b rough t i n to t he 1 7

The

There a re aw ide

T he

e cono m ic c ycle b y p rov id ing f ood f or work ing a n i ma ls , a nd e nhanc ing n u tr ien t r eserves o nt he a rab le b y p rov id ing manure ( f ig .2 c p . 3 9 ). Each o f t he f our l i ves tock s pec ies h as f a ir ly we l l-de fined n u tr i t iona l n eeds , a nd a k now ledge o f t hese mus t f or m t he b as is f or t he u nders tand ing o f l i ves tock h usbandry .

The c l i max v ege ta t ion o f t he B r i t ish I sles i nc luded a

w ide s pec trum o f p lan ts a ssocia ted w i th t he f i e ld , s hrub a nd t ree l ayers o f t he t o ta l v egeta t iona l c o mp lex .

E ach o f t he l i ves tock s pec ies h as a d i f feren t

r ange o f f ood-pre ferences a nd t o t he e x ten t t ha t t hey w i l l c rop d i f feren t f ract i ons o f t he p lan t s pec trum t hey a re c o mp le men tary s pec ies r a ther t han c o mp e t i tors .

A l l t he l i ves tock s pec ies b ene f i t t o ag rea ter o r l esser e x ten t f ro m

a ssoc ia t ion w i th c erea l-cu l t iva tors b ecause t hey c an make u se o f t he was te p roduc ts o f g ra in p roduc t ion , s tubb le , c ha f f a nd s traw .

A t t he s ame t ime t hey

w i l l h ave b een a b le t o make g ood u se o f t he r egenera t ive s tages o f t he e col og ica l s uccess ion o f h erbs , s hrubs a nd t rees f o l lowing wood land c learance . The d is turbed c l i max w i l l h ave p rov ided a s pec trum o f m icro-hab i ta ts wel ls u i ted t o t he m c o l lec t ive ly a nd s peci f ica l ly . S u i tab le h ab i ta ts f or s heep a nd g oa ts i n B r i ta in p r ior t o t he c learance o f wood land wou ld h ave b een r es tr ic ted t o t he g rasslands o f c oasta l marg ins a nd e xposed moun ta inous a reas o f h ea th a nd p ea t- moor a bove t he t reel ine. As f ores t was c leared , s heep a nd g oa ts wou ld t hr ive o n t he weeds , g rass , f orbs a nd s hrubs c o lon is ing c leared p a tches a nd migh t t end t o p reven t r egenera t ion o f wood land .

A l though s heep a nd g oa ts wou ld n a tura l ly s eek d ry l y ing-ou t s o i ls

i n t he w in ter mon ths , t here i s n o r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t i n Br i ta in t hey wou ld move _ grea t d istances b etween s easonal p astures. They a re more l i kely t o h ave made u se o f s easona l ly a va i lab le f orage p lan ts o n t he d i f feren t s oi ls w i th in r es tr ic ted l oca l i t ies , j us t a s h i l l s heep o f n or thern Eng land a nd S co t land ,a t t he p resen t t ime move b e tween h ea ther , g rass a nd p ea t-bog c o m mun it ies i n as easona l p a t tern ( G im ingha m 1 964 : Tho mas 1 945 ) . I n t h is c onnec t ion i ti s wor th men t ion ing t ha t t he g oa t , a l though morpho log ica l ly n o t e as i ly d is t ing u ishable f ro m t he s heep a nd f or t ha t r eason r are ly c ons idered i n i t s o wn r igh t , h as a v a luab le f unc t ion i n i t s a bi l i ty t o c rop p lan t-resources t ha t a re i naccess ible o r i nd iges t ib le b y t he o ther a n i ma ls ( Mackenzie 1 970 ). C a t t le a nd p igs a re n a tura l ly a t h o me i n t he d eciduous f ores t c haracteri s t ic o f much o f l ow land a nd u p land B r i ta in p r ior t o c learance . T hey c an a lso make u se o f e vergreen s hrubs , y oung s hoo ts , h erbs , a nd s eaweed , t he v a lue o f wh ich a s a n a l lthe-year-round r esource i n mar i t i me h abi ta ts , b o th f or c a t t le a nd t he c apr ines , i s i l lus tra ted i n t he modern c ro f t ing e conom ies o f t he n or th a nd wes t c oas ts o f S co t land .

L ike c a t t le , p igs a re n a t ive t o d ec iduous

f ores t a nd t hey a re l ess s uscept ib le t o w in ter s hor tages b ecause o f t he ir a b i l i ty t o r oo t f or n u ts a nd t ubers . The n u tr i t iona l p re ferences o f t he l i ves tock s pecies h ave i mp l ica t ions f or l and-use wh ich may s erve a s ag u ide t o p reh is tor ic a gr icu l tura l p ract ice . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he c l i max d ec iduous f ores t o f L ow land Br i ta in , c ons is t ing o f o ak-e l m-l i me a nd i t s u nders torey o f h aze l a nd o ther s hrubs wou ld h ave b een an atural h ab i tat f or p igs, i n wh ich t hey c ou ld l argely f end f or t he mselves s o l ong a s t he y oung w ere p ro tected f ro m p reda tors.

The v a lues o f r ela t ively u n-

d isturbed d ec iduous wood land a s ar esource f or p ig-k eep ing i s b rought o u t b y t he p ract ice o f t ranshumance i nt he r e ma in ing wooded p ar ts o f l ow land Br ita in

1 8

i n med ieval t imes ( c f . e .g. Ford 1 976 ).

Ca t t le m igh t b e h erded o n t he f r inges

o f t he w ood land i n o pen a reas d el ibera tely c leared b y f i re t o p ro mo te h erbs a nd s hrubs .

They wou ld a lso h ave r e l ished t he r ich g razings o f s easona l ly e x-

p osed a l luvia l a nd mar i t ime f la ts .

S heep a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een p redo m inan t

o n a rab le ' was tes ' , p ea t-bogs a nd h ea ths a nd h igh e xposed u p lands w i th s ha l low d ry s o i ls .

G oa ts w i th t he ir c apaci ty t o r each a nd d iges t p lan ts i naccess ible

t o t he o ther a n i ma ls m igh t b e f ound o ccupying n iches i n a l l s i tua t ions a nd a lso a t t he h ighes t l eve ls o n moun ta inous p eaks a nd l edges . C lear ly a g rasp o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f n a tura l a nd s em i-na tura l v egetat iona l c o m mun i t ies i n r e la t ion t o s o i ls a nd m icro-c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions i s a n e ssen t ia l r equ ire men t f or u nders tand ing p reh is tor ic l and-use , a nd i n p ar t icu lar l ives tock h usbandry .

I n much o f B r i ta in p resen t v ege ta t ion mus t b e r egarded

a s a n a r te fact o f p as t a nd p resen t l and-use . a nd n on-agr icu l tura l l and .

T h is a pp l ies b o th t o a gr icu l tura l

B u t j us t a s modern s o i ls b ear a r ecoverable

r ela t ionsh ip t o t he ir e ar l ier f or ms , s o t he d is tr ibu t ion o f modern v ege ta t iona l a sse mb lages may b e h e lp fu l i n r econs truct ing t he mosaic o f v ege ta t ion i n p reh is tor ic t imes .

F or e xample , p resen t-day v egeta t iona l a ssoc ia t ions may

e f fec t ive ly i nd ica te v ar ia t ions i n s o i l q ua l i ty wh ich a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een r e levan t t o l and-use t hroughou t t he l as t 6 000 y ears , t hough f requen t ly t hese v ar ia t ions may h ave b eco me more p ronounced t hrough d i f feren t ia l l and-use p rac t ices .

The w ork o f T ans ley ( 1 968 ) a nd E yre ( 1 96E0 d e mons tra tes v ery

c lear ly t he c lose r ela t ionsh ip o f s o i l— type t o n a tura l a nd s em i-na tura l v eget a t ion .

T ha t ac lose r e la t ion o f t h is k ind e x is ted i n p reh is tor ic t imes h as b een

s hown b y B irks ( 1 973 ) i n t he c on tex t o f t he v ar ied e daph ic a nd m icro-c l i ma tic c ond i t ions o f t he I s le o f S kye . The ma in s ource o f e v idence f or p reh is tor ic v ege ta t ion mus t d er ive f ro m p ol len-ana lys is .

T h is t echn ique h as b een most e f fec t ive i n t wo f i elds :

i n

d e mons tra t ing r eg iona l t rends i n f ores t c o mpos i t ion ( Bi rks, D eacon a nd Peg lar 1 975 ) , a nd i n i nd ica t ing h uman i n ter ference w i th v egeta t ion a nd i t s p ar t ia l o r t o ta l r ep lace men t b y a gr icu l tura l ly managed o r d is turbed c o m mun i t ies .

I n

b oth f i e lds p ol len-ana ly t ica l t echn iques a re l arge ly r es tr ic ted t o e nv ironmen ts wh ich a re f avourab le f or t he p reserva t ion o f p o l len g ra ins .

T hese e nv ironmen ts

mus t o f ten b e r egarded a s ' specia l ised ' f ro m t he a gr icu l tura l p o in t o f v iew , i .e . t he e v idence w i l l r e la te t o t he s pec ia l a c t iv i t ies a ssocia ted w i th u p land a nd l ow land p ea t-bogs a nd t he ir im med ia te e nv irons . I ti s r are ly p oss ib le t o e x trapo la te f ro m t hese l oca l i t ies t o o ther a reas h av ing d i f feren t a gr icu l tura l p oten t ia ls . R econs truc t ion o f t he i n tra-reg iona l p a t tern o f v ege ta t iona l c o mmun i t ies i s l ess e asy b y p o l len-ana ly t ica l t echn iques a lone b ecause o f t he d i f f icu l t ies o f d is t ingu ish ing p o l len o f l oca l a nd r eg iona l d er iva t ion ( Tauber 1 965 ;

c f . Bar t ley 1 976 ) .

I ti s i n t h is i n tra-reg iona l p a t tern t ha t t he e cono-

m ic p reh is tor ian i s p r i mar i ly i n teres ted .

H owever , b y c o mbin ing p o llen-

a na ly t ica l a nd o bserva t iona l d a ta s o me i ns igh t i n to t he v ar iety o f h abi ta ts c an b e a ch ieved , a nd w i th t he d eve lop men t o f a rchaeo log ica l t echn iques f or t he r ecovery o f macro-bo tan ica l r e ma ins a nother s ource o f i n for ma t ion i s n ow p o ten t ia l ly a va i lab le . T echno logy a nd P ower-Base :

S o i ls , p lan ts a nd l i ves tock c an b e r egarded

a s i n terdependen t c o mponen ts o n t he r esource s ubsys te m , s ub jec t t o t he c ont rol o f c l ima tic f actors . T oge ther t hey g overn t he p o ten t ia l f ood-supply f or h u man p opu la t ions , t o t he g row th o f wh ich t hey s e t t heore t ica l a bso lu te l im i ts . 1 9

T he ma jor f actors g overn ing t he c apac i ty o f h u man s oc iet ies t o make u se o f t he f ood-po ten t ia l c an b e l i sted u nder t echno logy a nd p ower-base . Cu l t iva t ion b reaks i n to t he n u tr ien t c yc le b y u t i l ising r eserves h e ld i nt he s o i l, c o mposed o f r es idues o f p rev ious v ege ta t ion a nd t he p roducts o f s o i l b reakdown a nd p rec ip ita t ion .

I n o rder t o make t hese n utr ien ts a va i lab le t o

c u l t iva ted p lan ts, c o mpe t it ion f ro m o ther p lan ts must b e e xc luded ;

c erea l-

g row ing i nvo lves t he ma in tenance o f f avourab le o pen micro-hab i ta ts .

H awkes

( 1969) h as s tressed t he weedy c harac ter ist ics o f t he c erea l g rasses: b y n at ure t hey a re n o t we l l-adap ted t o s urv iva l i n s tab le c l i max e co log ies .

T hey

a re most s u i ted t o d isturbed s o i ls f ro m wh ich o ther , more v igorous p lan ts a re t e mporar ily e xc luded .

I n e f fect c erea l c u l t iva t ion i nvo lves t he a r t if ic ia l

c rea t ion o f c o mparab le c ond it ions .

A ma jor e xpend iture o f e f for t may b e

c oncen tra ted o n e l im ina t ing t he c l i max o r s ub-c l i max v egeta t ion ( i n it ia l f orest c learance ) a nd h o ld ing b ack t he i nvas ion o f

weeds '

I .e . p ioneers o f

s econdary s uccess ion ( Har lan a nd D e We t 1 965) , a t l east u n t i l t he c rop i s t aken .

T he p rob le m

o f weeds f or a gr icu lture i n t he h igh-ra in fa l l r eg ions o f

t he t rop ics h as o f ten b een s tressed ( Clarke W. C . 1 971 1 64; H u tch inson 1 972 4 3; C lark a nd H aswel l 1 971 4 2) , b u t i ti s n o l ess s evere i n t he h igh r a in fa l l r eg ions o f t he t e mpera te l a t itudes.

P r ior t o t he u se o f c he m ica l w eed-k i l lers,

w eeds c ou ld o n ly b e e l im ina ted b y r epeated t i l lage, p u l l ing o r h oe ing t hrougho u t t he y ear o n t he f al low.

L eonard a nd Mar t in ( 1964 ) q uo te Ro tha msted e xpe-

r i men ts s how ing t hat c on trary t o p opu lar b el ief f al low ing i n B r i ta in h as l i t t le d irec t e f fec t o n s o i l f er t i l i ty a s r ef lec ted i n a nnual y ields, bu t d oes e nab le w eeds t o b e c on tro l led .

The a ssump t ion t ha t s h i f t ing c u l t iva t ion w as p rac t ised

i n t he p ast b ecause o f ar ap id d ecl ine i n f er t i l i ty f o l lcw ing c ropp ing i s n o t c orr obora ted b y t he e xper i men ts a t Ro tha msted a nd Woburn . On t he c lay a nd s andy ba r ns o f t hese d istr ic ts c on s is ten t y ields h ave b een p roduced u s ing mode rn c u l t ivat ion t echn iques f or more t han a c en tury , e ven t hough n o manure o r f er t i l isers h ave b een emp loyed ( Leonard a nd Mar t in 1 964 3 23-324; Garner a nd Dyke 1 968 ).

The y ields t hough v ery l ow b y modern s tandards , c o mpare

f avourably w i th e st i ma ted y ields f or Europe i n t he med ieva l p er iod ( cf . D enn el l 1 978 2 20-222 ).

These d ata s uggest t ha t a t a ny r ate o n s o ils o f modera te i n-

h eren t f er t il i ty c ereal c ropp ing f or l ow y ields i s u n l ikely t o h ave b rough t a bou t impover ish men t o f t he s o il i n t he s hor t t er m.

I n t he B r it ish c on tex t s h if t ing

c u l t iva t ion , i fi t was p rac t ised a t a l l , i s most l ikely t o h ave b een t he r esu l t o f i nadequa te t i l lage methods , i .e. a f unc t ion o f t echno logy a nd p ower b ase. I th as f requen t ly b een s uggested , f o l low ing I versen ( 1949 ) , t ha t s o me f or m o f s w idden c u l t iva t ion was p ract ised i n p reh is tor ic Br ita in . Under t h is s yst em c rops a re g rown w i thou t t i l lage a nd mak ing u se o f t he n utr ien ts r e leased f ro m v ege ta t ion b y b urn ing . v an t .

S oi l q ua l ity a s s uch i s t herefore l arge ly i rre le-

S i tes w i l l h ave b een s e lected f or c rop-growing o n t he b as is o f e x ist ing

t ree s pec ies a nd e ase o fb urn ing ( L innard 1 970) .

Th is s econd f ac tor may

e xc lude c er ta in r egu lar ly wa ter logged a reas a nd p oss ib ly g ive ap reference t o l oca l it ies i n wh ich d ry e daph ic c ond i t ions w ere c o mb ined w i th e xposure t o s trong a nd u n id irect iona l w inds .

S i m mons ( 1 964) a nd A . G . Sm i th ( 1970 )

h ave g iven e v idence t o s uppor t t he v iew t ha t o ak f orest a t a lt itudes o f c .400 m o n Dartmoor a nd e lsewhere was p art ial ly c leared b y f i re i n t he meso l ith ic p er iod . T h is wou ld i mp ly t ha t t he e ar ly a gr icu ltura l ists migh t i ndeed h ave 2 0

c leared d ec iduous f orest a t s im i lar a lt itudes b y b urn ing .

Penn ing ton ( 1969)

h as s hown t ha t f orest a t a l t itudes i n e xcess o f c . 4 00 m i n t he L ake D istr ict was p robab ly c leared b y means o f f ire c . 2 000 B .C .

A t t hese a lt itudes

c learance i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een t o e n large t he g raz ing r esource , r a ther t han f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion .

T h is v iew i s s uppor ted b y t he a bsence o f a rab le

i nd ica tors i n t he p o l len s pectra .

E thnograph ic s tud ies h ave s hown t ha t f ire

i s v ery w ide ly u sed b y h un ter- g a therers t o mod ify t he n a tura l e co logy , a nd i n p ar t icu lar t o p ro mo te t he s hrub a nd h erb l ayers, w i thou t n ecessar i ly a f fect ing mature t rees ( Cooper 1 961;

Me l lars 1 976) .

I th as n ot s o f ar b een

d e monstra ted t ha t f ire w ou ld h ave b een e f fect ive a s t he ma in i nstru men t o f c learance f or c u l t iva t ion p lo ts i n t he c on tex t o f t he o ak-e l mli me wood land wh ich p reva i led i n most p ar ts o f Br i ta in where c ond it ions were c l i mat ica l ly s u i tab le f or c erea ls . T he r a ison d 'e tre o f sw idden c u lt iva t ion i s t ha t when c rop y ields d ecl ine r ap id ly l and c an o n ly b e r e-u t i l ised a f ter v egeta t ion r eg row th h as p rov ided a s tore o f f er t i l ity wh ich c an b e r a ided o nce a ga in .

Sw id-

d en c u l t ivat ion i s t herefore p rac t ised o n h ighly l eached s o i ls, s uch a s t hose o f t he t rop ical a nd c on i ferous f orest-zones where s o ils a re i nheren t ly p oor a nd a h igh p ropor t ion o f n u tr ien ts i s l ocked u p i n t he s tand ing v egeta t ion . I tw ou ld s ee m l i ke ly t ha t t he u se o f f ire b y e ar ly f ar mers i n t he Br it ish e nv ironmen t w i l l h ave b een l arge ly i n c onnect ion w i th a ct iv it ies a ssoc ia ted w ith l i vestock -p erhaps c on t inu ing p re-agr icu ltura l p ract ice - r a ther t han f or s w idden c rop-grow ing ( c f . Sm ith A . G . 1 970 ;

Evans 1 975 1 23 ) .

I n t he

l i gh t o f p ara l le ls i nh istor ica l a nd modern t imes, i t wou ld a ppear t ha t i ft h is t echn ique was u sed a t a l l i t wou ld h ave b een c on f ined t o n utr ien t-poor s o i ls , a s as upp le men tary means o f c erea l p roduct ion ( c f . J ar man a nd Bay-Petersen 1 977 ) .

Thus wh ile i t may b e p oss ib le t ha t sw idden c u l t iva t ion was p ract ised

o n t he N . York Moors ( F le m ing 1 971) a nd p erhaps i n o ther c o mparab le e nv iron men ts, i tw i l l n o t f o l low t ha t sw idden c u lt iva t ion was t he n or m f or o ther s o i ls w i th a g rea ter p oten t ia l f or p ermanen t c u l t iva t ion .

There may

h ave b een ' ca tch-cropp ing ' i m med ia te ly a f ter b urn ing o f f f or t he p r i mary p urpose o f c rea t ing o pen g raz ings, b ut n e ither a rchaeo log ica l n or p o l lena na ly t ica l t echn iques a re r ef ined e nough t o r eg ister c erea l-grow ing i n r est r ic ted p a tches i n af orested e nv ironmen t f or a y ear o f t wo o n ly ( c f . C o les 1 976) . There s ee ms l i t t le p o in t i n p ursu ing h ypo theses wh ich a re i n p r inc ip le i nde monstrab le . W i th in c l i ma t ica l ly s u itab le a reas t he e x ten t o f l and a ppropr ia te f or t i llage , I .e . p er manen t o r s em i-permanen t c u l t iva t ion , may b e r estr icted b y e daph ic f actors .

We may l i st : p ro longed wa terlogg ing ;

s teep g rad ien ts;

s ha l low a nd v ery s tony s o i ls a nd s o i ls w ith f requen t r ocky o u tcrops; u nstab le s o i ls ( mar it i me s ands a nd s crees) .

A l l t hese c ircu mstances make t i l lage

d if f icu l t i fn ot i mposs ib le , t hough i t may b e n o ted t hat s tony s o i ls a re more amenab le t o n on- me ta l l ic t oo ls, a nd s of t s ands a nd s teep s lopes may b e more e as i ly c u lt iva ted w ith h and t oo ls t han w i th d raugh t a n i ma ls o r modern t ractors . Areas u nsui tab le f or t i l lage f or o ne o r more o f t hese r easons a re w idespread i n Br i ta in , b o th i n u p lands a nd l ow lands .

These c ond it ions r esu lt f ro m p er-

manen t f eatures o f r e l ief , t opography a nd d ra inage a nd may b e c ons idered i n many c ases a s u na lterab le .

2 1

T he p o ten t ia l a rab le c onst ituen t o f ag iven r eg ion i s n ega t ive ly d ef ined b y e xc lud ing a reas i n wh ich e daph ic c ond it ions p roh ib it t i l lage o n l and l y ing w ith in t he c l i ma t ica l ly f avourable z one . Wi th in t he p o ten t ia l a rab le t here w i l l n a tura l ly b e many v ar ia t ions i n s o i ls a nd t opography mak ing s o me a reas more s u i table f or c erea l g row ing t han o thers . T hese r estr ict ions may b e d iv ided i n to t hose t ha t make t i l lage d if f icu l t a nd t hose wh ich a f fec t t he p roduc t iv ity o f t he l and . A ma jor r estr ict ion o n workab i l ity i s p oor d ra inage .

S easona l wa ter logg ing

o f s ur face h or izons may l im it t he p er iod d ur ing wh ich s o i ls c an b e c u lt iva ted . I n t hese c ond it ions mo isture-to leran t weeds may b e i mpossib le t o e l im ina te a nd a t i lth u na t ta inab le . Th is r estr ict ion e xc ludes f rom a rab le many a l luv ia l s o i ls a nd s o me a reas i n wh ich d ra inage i s i mpeded b y a n impermeab le s ubs tratu m . P oor d ra inage a lso a f fects p roduct iv ity b y r estr ict ing r oo t ing d ep th . T hese c ircu mstances t ogether make s o me l owly ing a nd u p land p ar ts o f Br ita in u nsu i tab le f or c erea l c u lt iva t ion i n t he a bsence o f a r t if ic ia l d ra inage . As econd r estr ict ion o n w orkab i l ity c an b e p resen ted b y s o i ltexture a nd s tructure . Prob le ms a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese s o i l p roper it ies a re o f ten c lose ly c onnec ted w ith p rob le ms o f d ra inage s o t ha t i t may b e d if f icu lt o ru nnecessary t o s epara te t he m .

T he r estr ict ions a re t hose r ecogn ised i n t he v ar ious a gr i-

c u ltura l l and-c lass if ica t ion s che mes o f Br ita in ( Cur t is, C our tney a nd Trudg i l l 1 976 2 60-268 ) . D esp ite t he p ers istence o f t echno log ica l mode ls i n p reh istor ic s tud ies, r e la t ive ly l i t t le i s k nown o f t he t oo ls u sed b y v ar ious p reh istor ic c o mmun i t ies i n t he b us iness o f f ood-product ion . Wh i le i ts ee ms i ncreasing ly l i ke ly t ha t t he a rd was t he ma in i mp lL men t o f t i l lage i n p reh istor ic Br i tain f ro m t he t ime t ha t a gr icu lture made i t s e ar l iest a ppearance , i t may n o t h ave b een w ide ly u sed b y a l l c o m mun i t ies . Exper i men ts h ave s hown t ha t t he a rd h as l im i ted v a lue a s at i l lage i mp le men t i n t he Western E uropean c on tex t ( Hansen 1 969 ) . T he p r inc ip le o f t he a rd i s q u ite d i f feren t f rom t ha t o f t he p lough , s ince i ti s n o t we l l-su ited t o t urn t he s o i l , b u t s i mp ly t o p u lver ise i ta nd f orm a f urrow f or s ow ing ( S teensberg 1 973 ) . I t wou ld o n ly h ave b een workab le i n s o i ls t ha t were f ree o f r oots . T h is means t ha t i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een u sed b y f orest f armers o n n ew ly c leared l and , b u t o n ly o n l and t ha t h ad b een l ong c leared a nd p erhaps c onver ted t o g rassland .

I t wou ld h ave b een e ssen t ia l t o p are

o f f t he g rass sward w i th a f oo t-p lough o r s pade b efore u sing t he a rd , j ust a s i t was i n r ecen t c en tur ies i n Br i ta in i n p repara t ion o f o ld g rass s ward f or p lough c u lt iva t ion ( Dodgson a nd J ewe l l 1 970 ;

c f . G ade a nd R oss 1 972) .

T he

w idespread a ppearance o f a rd- marks b enea th monu men ts o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn iu m B .C . i n n or th-west E urope ( G lob 1 951;

F ow ler 1 971) h as s o me t imes b een

t aken t o i nd ica te a n i mpor tan t a dvance i n a gr icu ltura l p ract ice .

An a l terna t ive

p oss ib i l ity i s t ha t t he i mp le men t was u sed i n c ircu mstances where l and h ad b een a l lowed t o t u mb le d own ' t o g rass a f ter w ood land c learance a nd a f i rst p hase o f c u l t iva t ion a nd was b e ing b rought b ack i n to t he a rable c yc le.

I ti s

l ikely t o h ave h ad a l im ited a nd s pec ial ised f unc t ion i n c erta in c ond i t ions a nd t o h ave e x isted a longside t he s pade ( a s a t Gw i th ian , Thomas 1 970 ) mat tock a nd d igg ing s t ick . I n t hese c ircumstances t he v a lue o f d raught a n i ma ls may h ave b een l im ited , e xcep t where s o i l c ond it ions made t he a rd a n e f fec t ive t i l l ing i nstrumen t.

2 2

I nv iew o f t he f act t ha tu t i l itar ian i mp lemen ts make a l a te a ppearance i n t he i nven tory o f me ta l t ypes b o th i n c opper/bronze a nd s ubsequen t ly i ron , i ts eems i mprobab le t ha t me ta l lurg ica l d eve lop men ts were d irect ly s t i mu la ted b y t he n eed t o i mprove t he e f f iciency o f f ood-produc t ion . I ndeed t he a rds r ecovered f ro m t he l ast c en tur ies B .C . s how l i t t le s ign o f d eve lop men t o ver t hose o f t he s econd m i l lenn iu m ( G lob 1 951; Hansen 1 969) , t hough i ron s hares a nd p oss ib ly c ou lters a re k nown f ro m t he l a ter p er iod ( Row let t 1 968 ) .

H ow-

e ver , i th as b een a rgued t ha t t he e cono m ic s ign i f icance o f i ron t echno logy was t ha t me ta l e dgedtoo ls n ow b eca me more w ide ly a va i lab le . Th is c ou ld h ave b een o f c ons iderab le i mpor tance i n r educ ing t he h arvest workload , b oth o f a n i ma l f odders a nd t he c orn c rop . B u t i ron t echno logy c ou ld n o t o f i t se lf h ave p roduced a ma jor e n largemen t o f t he f ood-supp ly , wh ich c ou ld o n ly h ave c o me a bou t w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f t he t rue p lough , a b le l i ke t he s pade t o t urn o ver t he mo ist c layb ar ns c haracter ist ic o f t he s o i ls o f W . Europe . By means o f t he t rue p lough a reas c ou ld b e o pened u p f or more i n tens ive u se wh ich h ad h i ther to s ubstan t ia l ly r es isted t i l lage .

Th is i n t urn was d ependen t o n t he

ma in tenance o f work ing t ea ms o f o xen t hrough t he w in ter mon ths .

T h is c ou ld

o n ly b e a ch ieved b y i ncreas ing g ra in p roduct ion t o t he l eve l a t wh ich p ar t o f t he c rop c ou ld s upp ly w in ter k eep , o r b y d raw ing o n f l ood- meadows f or t he ir r esources o f h ay . T he t rue p lough a nd e f f ic ien t h ay-cropp ing t oo ls p robab ly n ecessi ta ted t he e x istence o f i rontechno logy .

A t t he s a me t ime i tw i l l h ave i nvo lved s ubstan t ia l

s h if ts i nt he s chedu ling mechan is m t o a cco mmoda te t he s econd h arvest a nd t he a ssoc ia ted p rocedures o f h ay- mak ing .

A l terna t ive ly , t he p rov is ion o f

p ar t o ft he c erea l c rop t o ma in ta in w ork ing a n i ma ls migh t i nvo lve a t l east i n t he s hor t t erm t he a bandon men t o f s o me o f t he l ess f er t i le a nd c l i ma t ica l ly marg ina l s o ils, wh ich d id n o t h ave t he p oten t ia l f or g rea t ly i ncreased p roduct i on .

T he e ar l ier t i l lage i mp le men ts a nd i t s a ssoc ia ted p at tern o f f arm ing

l i fe m igh t t end t o p ers ist i n c er ta in o f t hese a reas .

A s C lark a nd Haswe l l

( 1970 6 4-67) h ave emphas ized i n c onnect ion w ith s ubsistence a gr icu lture i n u nder-deve loped c oun tr ies t oday , e cono m ic d eve lopmen ts a l most a lways h ave t o b e p a id f or b y i ncreased f ood-product ion . T he i n troduct ion o f t he o xteam a nd h eavy p lough i n p lace o f t he o x-pa ir a nd a rd i s o ne e xa mp le . I tf o l lows t ha t e nv iron men ts i n wh ich t here i s n o s cope f or i ncreasing p roduc t ion may n o t b e a b le t o s hare i n t he b enef its o f t he n ew d eve lopmen ts.

T h is may p ar t ly

a ccoun t f or t he t echno log ica l b ackwardness o f many o f t he l ess a gr icu ltura l ly p roduc t ive p ar ts o f Br i ta in u n t i l r ecen t t imes . I t was n o t t hat t he t echno log ies were n o t k nown ( t hey d e monstrab ly were ) b u t s imp ly t ha t c er ta in n ecessary r esources, s uch a s f l ood- meadow a nd h igh ly p roduc t ive s o i ls, were n ot t here t o s uppor t t he m . I n t he p er iod b efore f oss i l f ue ls b ecame a va i lab le s econdary f ood-resources u t i l ised b y l i vestock p rov ided t he s o le s ource o f e nergy a par t f ro m t ha t o f t he h uman l abour f orce t o s upp ly p ower f or t he e cono my . T he s uccess o f a gr ic u lture w as d ependen t o n c rop- manage men t s yste ms t ha t c hanne l led t h is e nergy a long p a ths wh ich w ere c onduc ive t o t he s uppor t o f s tab le o r g row ing h u man p opu la t ions . An a gr icu lture d ependen t s o le ly o n p lan ts w i l l o n ly b e v iable s o l ong a s e nergy d er ived f ro m t hese p lan ts, h av ing i t s s ource i n s o lar r ad ia t ion , e xceeds t he e nergy n eeded t o c u l t iva te t he m a nd t o ma in ta in p opul a t ion a t a n a dequa te l eve l .

An e cono my t ha t i nc ludes a l i vestock c o mponen t 2 3

h as t he g rea t a dvan tage t ha t c rop-resources t ha t c anno t b e d irect ly c ropped f or h u man f ood c an b e b rough t i n to t he e conom ic c yc le . L ess o bv ious ly , l i ve-stock a ct a s av eh ic le t hrough wh ich t he n utr ien t r eserves o f t hese c ropr esources, o ccupy ing v ast g raz ings a nd f er t i l i ty s u mps, c an b e t ransferred a nd c oncen tra ted o n t he a rab le p lo t .

T here s eems t o b e n o j ust if ica t ion f or

t he b e l ief t ha t t he v a lue o f c at t le a s ap ower-source a nd o f a l l t he l i vestock s pec ies a s s usta iners o f f er t i l ity was n o t r ecogn ised f ro m t he b eg inn ings o f a gr icu lture i n t h is c oun try .

I t may b e s uggested t ha t t he ma in s treng th o f

t he E uropean- W . A sian a gr icu ltura l c o mp lex , c omb in ing c erea ls w i th l i ves tock , l ay i n t he i n terdependence a nd c o mp lemen tar iness o f t he v ar ious p lan t a nd a n i ma l s pec ies, b oth i n s upp ly ing t he p ro te in a nd c arbo-hydra te n eeds o f h u man p opu la t ions a nd i n f orm ing a n i n tegra ted e cono m ic s ystem . F ig . 2d p . 4 0

s hows d iagra m ma t ica l ly s o me o f t he i n ter-re la t ions o f

t he ma jor v ar iables wh ich h ave b een d iscussed i n t h is s ect ion .

T h is mode l

f orms t he b as is f or c onstruct ing f ur ther , a rchaeo log ica l ly t estab le mode ls wh ich w i l l b e c oncerned w ith t he l and-use a nd p opu la t ion d ispers ion , a nd s econd ly w ith t he p red ict ion o f c hange o ver t ime i n t hese p at terns a s ar esu lt o f c hange i n o ne o r more o f t he v ar iab les d iscussed . 2 .2

L and-use a nd S e t t le men t A mu lt ip le l and-use mode l

B efore e xa m in ing t he p oss ib le ways i n wh ich a n a gr icu ltura l l and-use p at tern m igh t d eve lop o ver t ime, l e t u s c ons ider t he h ypothet ica l s i tua t ion o f as tab le p opu la t ion w ith a s ta t ic e cono my b ased o n as ing le p r imary f oodr esource .

T he marg ins f or t he c u lt iva t ion o f t ha t s pec ies wou ld f a ll wherever

c l i ma t ic a nd s o i l c ond it ions c eased t o b e f avourab le f or t he g row th a nd mat ura t ion O f t he p lan t w i th t he t echno logy a nd p ower-source a va i lab le .

I tm igh t

b e a n t ic ipa ted t ha t ap ermanen t ly o ccup ied z one , o r f oca l a rea o f s et t lemen t , migh t a pprox i ma te t o t he a rea i n w h ich c ond i t ions were e n t ire ly f avourab le t o t he s uccess o f t he p lan t , a nd t ha t t he e daph ic a nd c l i mat ic marg ins f or t he p lan t w ou ld c o inc ide w ith a f r inge-zone o f s et t le men t . I ti s w ith in t he f r ingez one t ha t i t wou ld b e a n t ic ipa ted t ha t p opu la t ion n u mbers wou ld b e l i ke ly t o f l uctua te most marked ly i n r esponse t o r ecurren t h azards a f fec t ing t he s uccess o f t he p lan t . Th is e xa mp le s hows t ha t g iven a k now ledge o f t he c ond i t ions r equ ired b y t he p lan t a nd t he t echno logy a nd p ower-source o f t he g roups c u l t iva t ing i t , i t migh t b e p oss ib le t o p red ict t he ma in f eatures o f t he d istr ibut ion o f t he p opu la t ion d ependen t o n i t . T h is e xa mp le i s q u i te h ypo the t ica l , s ince n oh u man e conomy d epends e xc lusive ly o n as ing le p lan t s pec ies, t hough s ome o f t he modern r ice a nd s ago c u l tures c o me c lose t o i t . A lthough a s ing le p lan t may p rov ide t he s tap le , i tw i l l n orma l ly b e c o mb ined w ith o ther c rops h av ing d if feren t r equ ire men ts. Ah u man e cono my must t herefore b e r egarded a s as chedu l ing mechan is m b y wh ich a c o mb ina t ion o f f ood-resources c an b e s a t isfactor i ly i n tegra ted . N everthe less, i ti s r easonab le t o s e lec t o ne c o mponen t o f t he e cono my a s c onst itu t ing t he s tap le amongst t he p r i mary f ood-resources, a nd o n t he b as is o f i t s c l i ma t ic a nd e daph ic t o lerances t o p red ict where t he f oca l a reas a nd f r inge-zones o f s e t t le men t a re l i ke ly t o f a l l . Wh i le t h is c rop r emains t he s tap le , t he f oca l a rea o f s et t le men t i s u n l ike ly t o c hange e xcep t a s ar esu l t

2 4

o f c hanges i n o ne o f t he k ey f ac tors, i .e . c l i ma te , s o i l, t echno logy o r p owers ource . Changes i n t he f r inge-zone o f s et t le men t may b e r esponsive t o m inor c hanges i n t hese v ar iab les a nd a lso c hanges i n t he s chedu l ing s yste m . I ti s i n t he f r inge-zone o f s e t t le men t t ha t l and-use i s l i ke ly t o b e most s ens it ive t o e nv iron men ta l a nd e cono m ic d isturbance . I ti s s uggested t ha t t he c oncep t

o f t he f oca l a rea a nd f r inge-zone i s

n ecessary f or u nderstand ing c hanges i n p opu la t ion d istr ibut ion a nd l and-use o ver t ime . I ti s o n ly i n t he l i gh t o f t h is c oncep t t ha t i ti s p ossib le t o d ist ingu ish minor f ro m f unda men ta l c hanges .

T he u se o f p resen t-day d a ta t o e stab l ish

where marg ins a re l i ke ly t o f a l l i s j ust if ied i n t he c on tex t o f a n i nvest iga t ion o f l and-use i n t he p er iod c . 4 000-0 B .C . ,s ince c ond i t ions a re s uf f ic ien t ly l i ke t hose o f t he p resen t t o make c o mpar isons v a l id . Modern o bserva t iona l d a ta p rov ide a b ase f ro m wh ich d egrees o f c hange c an b e e st i ma ted t hrough t he u se o f p o l len-ana ly t ica l, b ur ied s o i l a nd p reh istor ic l and-use d a ta . S pec ia lised o u t ly ing h ab i ta ts : T he Br i t ish p reh istor ic l andscape w i l l h ave c ons isted o f a mosa ic o f a gr icu ltura l r esources, S o me o f t hese r esources, s uch a s c l i max wood land , p ea t-bogs, a nd a l luv ia l a nd e stuar ine f l a ts may h ave r e ma ined e ssen t ia l ly u nd isturbed , e ven t hough u nder a gr icu ltura l l and-use ; o ther r esources were t he c onsequence o f ar ange o f e co log ica l d isturbances, i n p ar t icu lar t he p ar t ia l o r t ota l e l im ina t ion o f f orest . I n e nv ironmen ts u nd isturbed b y man t he e co log ica l s uccess ion b eg ins w ith t he c o lon isa t ion o f t he r ego l ith b y p ioneer s pec ies a nd p asses t hrough c o m mun i t ies o f h erbs a nd s hrubs t o t he f u l l c l i max o f d ec iduous wood land .

T he a gr icu ltura l l andscape

c ons ists o f ap a t tern i n wh ich a l l t he s tages o f t h is c hrono log ica l s uccess ion a re c on te mporaneously p resen t , b eg inn ing w i th t he b are s o i l o f t he a rab le p lot .

W i th t he i n troduct ion o f a gr icu lture a much g rea ter v ar ie ty o f h ab ita ts

w i l l h ave n ow b een a rt if ic ia l ly a va i lable t o s u it t he n eeds o f t he d i f feren t a gr icu l tura l s pec ies . T he s ubsistence s tra tegy i s l i ke ly t o h ave made u se o f a l l o ft hese h ab ita ts wherever p ossib le . Agr icu lture i mposes a r ig id w ork s chedu le o n t he d ependen t p opu la t ion c onst itu t ing t he work-force . T he ma in t asks t ha t c anno t b e s pread o ver t he y ear , b u t must b e d one a t t he a ppropr ia te s eason a re a nd h arvest ing .

s o i l p repara t ion , s ow ing

F or b oth t hese s easona l t asks c l i ma te may i mpose s tr ic t

t imel im i ts. F or e xa mp le , l and may b e wa terlogged f or much o f t he w in ter a nd e ar ly s pr ing , mak ing t i l lage i mposs ib le ; r a in a nd mists may s evere ly c ur ta i l t he h arvest .

T he t ime-factor may p lace a n a bso lu te l im i t o n t he e x ten t

o f p o ten t ia l a rab le t hat c an i n f ac t b e c ropped .

T hese r estr ict ions c an b e

r educed b y s e lec t ing l oca t ions f or t he a rab le p lo t i n wh ich t he p er t inen t c l i mat i c c onstra in ts a re l east s evere . T hey c an a lso b e c oun tered b y t echno log ica l i nnova t ions t ha t e nab le s easona l t asks t o b e c o mp le ted i n as hor ter s pace o f t ime . The e ssen t ia l a c t iv it ies i nvo lved i n s ubs istence a gr icu lture c an b e d iv ided i n to t hose c oncerned w ith t he t hree t asks o f c erea l c ropp ing , f odder ing a nd g raz ing . More s pec if ica l ly , t he f o l low ing a ct iv i t ies, s uggested b y s i mp le f arm ing i n c o mparab le e nv ironmen ts t oday a nd i n t he r ecen t p ast , a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een p ract ised :

2 5

( a )

c learance o f l and a nd p repara t ion f or s ow ing ( l a te a utu mn/ear ly s pr ing )

( b )

b urn ing o f f o f wood land t o p romo te b rowse a nd g raz ing ( ear ly s pr ing?) ( c ) c o l lect ing a nd s tor ing a v ar ie ty o f s hoo ts, l eaves, b og-hay a nd g rasses f or w in ter k eep ( ear ly s u mmer ) ( d ) p astur ing o f c a t t le a nd s heep o n u p land g raz ings, p ea t-bogs, f ens a nd marshes ( spr ing/ su m mer ) ( e ) h arvest ing , d ry ing a nd s tor ing c erea l c rop ( l a te s u mmer/autumn ) ( f ) p annage o f p igs i n w ood land ( l a te s um mer/w in ter ) . An a gr icu ltura l e conomy i s l i ke ly t o h ave i nc luded s o me o r a l l o f t hese t asks, b ut t he l i st i sb y n o means e xhaust ive a nd t he p rec ise c omb inat ion w i l l h ave v ar ied l oca l ly a nd r eg iona l ly .

O u ts ide t he a gr icu ltura l s chedu le n on-

a gr icu l tura l p ursu its, s uch a s h un t ing , t rapp ing , f i sh ing a nd minera l-quarry ing a nd w ork ing may b e p ract ised . I tc an b e s een t ha t t he v ar iety o f a ct iv it ies i mposes a s tr ict a nnua l r ou t ine o n t he a gr icu ltura l p opu la t ion , o r wou ld o therw ise i nvo lve t he s eg menta t ion o f t he p opu la t ion i n to g roups s pec ia l ising i n o ne o r more t asks . I ta lso i mp l ies t he i n tegra t ion o f ad ivers i ty o f r esources a rab le , g raz ing , wood land , e tc . D if feren t a ct iv i t ies w i l l b e a ssoc ia ted w i th d if feren t r esourceloca l i t ies; c onsequen t ly w e s hou ld e xpect t ha t t hey w ou ld b e a ssoc ia ted w ith f unct iona l ly d ist inct a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a nd f i nds. T he mode l o f r esourcein tegra t ion s uggested b y H iggs ( 1977 1 71) s hows a v ar ie ty o f h ab ita ts l i nked b y 'mob i le ' o r 'mob i le-cu m-seden tary ' e conom ies, o r s i mu ltaneous ly u t i l ised f ro m a s eden tary p osi t ion a t ap oin t o f i n tersect ion b etween t wo o r more e co log ica l z ones.

A lthough t he p r inc ip le o f r esource

i n tegra t ion i su ndoubted ly c orrect , t he mode l a s p u t f orward c an b e c r it ic ised o n t he g rounds t ha t i tg ives t oo l i t t le r ecogn i t ion o f t he c apaci ty o f a gr icu lt ura l ists t o c rea te d e l ibera te ly o ru n in ten t iona l ly a d ivers ity o f h ab ita ts i n a s ing le e co log ica l z one . I t may i ndeed b e s uggested t ha t t he i n tegra t ion o f l a t itud ina l ly a nd a l t itud ina l ly d istan t ly-spaced e co log ica l z ones o n ly b ecame n ecessary when t he v ege ta t ion i n e ach z one w as r educed t o h omogene i ty o ver w ide a reas b y l ong-con t inued a gr icu ltura l p ract ices . many o f t he Med iterranean t ranshu mance s ys tems .

T h is may b e t rue o f A s econd c r i t icis m o f

t he mode l i s t ha t i ti gnores t he c apac ity o f an u mber o f h u man g roups t o f orm l i nked e cono m ic c o mp lexes i n wh ich f ood-products a s we l l a s a r te facts a re c ircu la t ing ( c f . P e terson a nd P e terson 1 977 ; A l len 1 977 ) . O ne a dvan tage o f c erea l g ra ins, a nd more e spec ia l ly o f l i vestock , i s t ha t t hey a re r ead i ly t ranspor tab le ( F lannery 1 969) .

T he s cope f or e xchange o f f ood-products i n

ah un ter-ga therer-f isher e conomy i s much more l im i ted .

Even s o , modern

s tud ies s uggest t ha t k insh ip l i nks p rov ide n etworks t hrough wh ich e ach c ommun i ty i sb uf fered a ga inst s hor tterm e nv ironmen ta l h azards a f fec t ing t he f ood-supp ly ( R . Gou ld , p ers . c omm . 1 977 ) . T he q uan t it ies o f e xchanged minera l p roducts amongst t he p reh istor ic a gr icu ltura l s oc iet ies o f Europe s uggest t ha t l oca l g roups were l i nked u nder c o mparab le a rrangemen ts o ver e x tens ive a reas .

T he mode l o f mobi le p opu la t ions may h ave t o b e r ep laced

b y a more f l ex ib le mode l wh ich r ecogn ises t h is d i mension o f s ubsistence e cono m ies . I n ter-group e xchange , i n p lace o f g roup mob i li ty , h as t he i dent i ca l e f fect o f e nab l ing r esources f rom a w ide v ar ie ty o f e nv ironmen ts t o b e c o mb ined , t hus o f fse t t ing t e mporary s hor tages i n o ne r eg ion b y a bundance i n a nother . 2 6

When c ons ider ing t he r ela t ions o f i nd iv idua l s et t lemen ts t o t he ir i mmed ia te h ab ita t a nd t o o ne a no ther i ti s s uggested t ha t a mu l t ip le l and-use model i s most a ppropr ia te.

B eyond t he f oca l a rea , w h ich i s c ropped f or t he s tap le , t here may

l i e an umber o f s pec ia l ised l oca l i t ies p rov id ing s econdary f ood-resources wh ich c an b e c onver ted i n to h uman f ood b y l i vestock . S ince, a s w e h ave s een , t he f our l i vestock s pec ies o f t he a gr icu l tura l e cono my a re p ar t ia l ly c o mp le men tary f eeders ( t hough e ach a ble t o make u se o f t he waste p roduc ts o f c erea l c u l t ivat ion ) ah uman s e t t le men t m igh t b e l oca ted a t t he c en tre o f an umber o f o ver lapp ing ' r anges ' , e ach o f w h ich c on ta ined t he p referred f ood-resources o f o ne o f t he f our l i vestock s pec ies ( f ig. 2 e p . 4 1

) . S ome o f t hese r anges m igh t b e

d etached f ro m t he f oca l a rea o f s e t t le men t i n o rder t o b r ing i n to u se a p ar t icul ar r esource-loca l i ty . These d etached r anges m igh t b e a ssoc ia ted w ith a d ep enden t s e tt le men t l inked e cono m ica l ly w ith t he ma jor s et t le men t ( f ig. 2 f ) . A ll t he r anges made u se o fb y ag iven c o mmun i ty m igh t b e c a l led c o l lect ively ac o mpound t err i tory . S evera l c o m mun i t ies , t hough n o t n ecessar i ly i n terdep enden t , m igh t n ever theless s hare i n t he u se o f o ne o r more o f t he o u t ly ing r anges ( f ig. 2 g ). T h is mode l a cco m moda tes v ar ious a rrange men ts o f l and-use , w h ich w il l b e a d justed t o t he l oca l a nd r eg iona l d ispos it ion o f a gr icu l tura l r esources. I t r ecogn ises t wo f or ms o f s et t le men t r elat ionsh ip : ( a ) e cono m ic d ependence, a nd ( b ) e cono m ic c on junct ion . Econo m ic d ependence i s e xe mp l if ied i n t he s pec ia l ised l i vestock c o mponen ts o f t he med ieva l e cono my i n much o f Br ita in , whether t hese w ere s easona l ly o ccup ied s h iel ings o r p er manen t s et t le men ts d evoted t o l ivestock r ear ing.

Econo m ic c on junct ion i s e xe mp l if ied i n t he med ie-

v al p ract ice o f ' i n ter-co m mon ing ' —where a s ingle r esource , e .g. wood land p annage f or p igs o r s um mer g razing f or s heep a nd c a t t le , i s s hared b y an umber o f c o mmun it ies. I n a dd i t ion t o t hese t wo r ela t ionsh ips , t here may b e l ongd istance i n terconnec t ions l i nk ing r eg ions s ub jec t t o d iferen t e nv ironmen ta l h azards a nd p erhaps s usta ined b y k insh ip l i nks. T he p rac t ice o f t ranshumance r e ma ins w idespread i n r eg ions o f t he wor ld where s easona l s hor tages r esu l t ing f ro m d rought c an b e o verco me b y move men t t o u p land p astures , w here p rec ip ita t ion l eve ls a re h igher. The i mpor tance o f g row th d i f feren t ia ls i n c on tro l l ing p reh istor ic e cono m ies i n Cen tra l I t a ly h as b een s tressed b y Barker ( 1975a ; c .f . J ar man a nd Webley 1 975 ). I ti s u n l ike ly t ha t s im i lar f ac tors w ere o pera t ive i n p reh istor ic B r i ta in . S ummer s hortages o f p as ture a re o f i n frequen t o ccurrence i n Br i ta in u nder t he p resen t c l i ma t ic r eg i me , t hough t hey d o o ccur i n f reak y ears ( Hurst a nd Sm ith 1 967 ). Transh u mance d oes n o t o f fer a means o f o vercom ing t he ma jor l im i t ing f actor o f Br it ish l i vestock h usbandry , s hor tage o f w in ter k eep .

I ti s p oss ible , h owever ,

t ha t s hor t-range t ranshu mance o f t he k ind p rac t ised i n much o f S co t land a nd Wa les ( e .g. Gr i f f ith , i n Tho mas 1 945; MacSween 1 959 ), a s i n many o ther p arts o f n or th-west Europe i nh istor ica l t imes, was a dop ted i n e qu iva len t h ab i ta ts i n p reh istor ic Br i ta in . Th is k ind o f t ranshumance c an b e a cco mmoda ted i n t he mu l t ip le l and-use model a s a means o f u t il is ing s pec ia l ised o u t ly ing h ab ita ts. Th is w as n o t ac l i ma t ic b u t a n e cono m ic n ecess icy , s ince t he l and a round t he s et t le men t was o ccup ied i n s um mer b y c erea l a nd h ay c rops ( Dav ies 1 941). S tock move men t a way f ro m t he h o me p asture i n t he l a te s ummer c ou ld a lso h elp t o p reserve ' f oggage ' a s as tand ing c rop f or w in ter k eep ( Tho mas 1 945 1 05 ). Emp ty ing t he g razings t hroughou t t he s ummer wou ld , h owever , q u ick ly 2 7

l ead t o t he d eter iora t ion o fh erbage a nd i t s r ep lace men t b y l ess p a la table p lan ts, s uch a s g orse a nd b racken . F or a ny g iven r eg ion i t may b e p oss ible t o c onstruc t a model o f l ike ly a gr icu l tura l l and-use , g iven a k now ledge o f a l l t he v ar iab les c on s idered i n t he p rev ious s ect ion , i .e. c l i ma te , s o i ls , p lan ts , l i vestock , t echno logy a nd p owers ource.

S uch a model may b e d irec t ly t estable a t c er ta in p o in ts , w here t he

a ppropr ia te a rchaeo log ica l a nd e nv ironmen tal d a ta e x ist .

These d a ta may i n-

c lude d irect e v idence f or l and-use i nt he f or m o f f i e ld a nd d i tch s yste ms, s tock e nclosures , r idge-and-furrow , ' ca irn f ields ', t erraces e tc., a nd i nd irect e v id ence d er ived f ro m b ur ied s o ils, f auna l r e ma ins, p lan t r e ma ins , p lan t i mpress ions, p o l len c ores , mo l luscs , e tc. ( c f . A lexander 1 969 ). G iven t he f rag men tary n a ture o f t he e v idence s urv iv ing f rom p ast s oc ie t ies i ti s i mprac t icable t o h ope t ha t s uch a model c ou ld b e t ested a t a l l p o in ts : c ons istency i n t hose p o in ts f or w h ich t ests a re p oss ible i s a l l t ha t may b e h oped f or .

I n t he Br it ish c on tex t , b ecause o f t he r e la t ive s carc i ty o f i den t if ied o c-

c upa t ion s i tes f or many p er iods , i ts ee ms more a ppropr ia te t o u se e v idence o f t h is s or t , b ear ing i m med ia tely o n l and-use , t han t o r esor t t o ' s i teterr itory a na lys is ' o f t he k ind p roposed b y H iggs a nd V i ta-Finz i ( 1972).

I f at o lerab ly

c o mp lete model o f l and-use f or a p ar t icu lar r eg ion c an b e b u ilt , i t may b e p oss ible t o s ee h ow t h is r ela tes t o o ther c a tegor ies o f s i tes w ith n o i mmed iate o r o bv ious r ela t ion t o t he e cono my , i .e. b ur ia ls a nd c ere mon ial monumen ts. A l l a rchaeo log ica l s i tes r epresen t s o me f or m o f l and-use , w hether d irect ly f or f ood-produc t ion o r f or d o mes t ic o r c ere mon ia l p urposes. The r ela t ionsh ip b etween d if feren t r anges o f a ct iv i t ies t ha t f unc t iona l ly-var ied a rchaeo log ica l s i tes r epresen t may n o tb e t ransparen t , b u t s o l ong a s as ingle c ommun ity i s i nvo lved , o r an umber o f d ependen t o r c on jo ined c o mmun i t ies, t here must b e s o me r ela t ion .

On t he a ssump t ion t ha t e ach s oc ie ty h as o ne b as ic l and-use

p at tern , i nclud ing n on-agr icu l tura l u se , t here i s n o j ust if ica t ion f or e xclud ing ac a tegory o f e v idence o n p r inc ip le b ecause i td oes n o t h ave o n o bv ious c onn ec t ion w i th e cono my .

I n f ac t d a ta d er ived f rom b ur ia ls, f or e xamp le , may

h ave v ery i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions f or t he d ispersa l a nd r ela t ive d en s i t ies o f p opu la t ion i n r ela t ion t o r esources. Archaeo log ica l d a ta may o n ly r ef lect s ome r es tr icted r ange o f a ct iv i t ies o f ap reh istor ic o r h istor ica l s oc ie ty , b u t t h is s et o f a c t iv i t ies must h ave f i t ted i n to a nnua l , s easona l a nd d a ily s chedu les. The l i st o f a gr icu l tura l a c t iv i t ies , a l l o r s ome o f w h ich a re n ecessar i ly i nvo lved i n as i mp le f ar m ing e cono my b ased o n t he European s tap les a nd s ubs id iar ies , ind ica tes t ha t ar ange o f d ist inct l and-uses w il l b e s i mu l taneously i n o pera t ion b y e ach i ndependen t c o m mun i ty .

By means o f ac o mb ina t ion o f l and-

u se p rac t ices p rac t ica l ly a l l a reas c ou ld b e b rought i n to a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion , i nc lud ing s tre tches o f u ncleared wood land i n w h ich c a t t le a nd p igs c ou ld b e h erded. We may t herefore d ist ingu ish b e tween i n tensively a nd e x tensively u t i l ised r esources. The f or mer m ight i nc lude r esources e ssen t ia l t o t he p rod uct ion o f t he s tap le , e .g. f avourab le a rable l and a nd—under c er ta in k inds o f d raught a n i ma l e cono m ies —f lood meadows f or h ay-cropp ing.

Amongst t he e x-

t ens ively u t il ised r esources w e m igh t f ind f odder-cropp ing a reas , u ncleared wood land a nd u p land g razings, wh ich f or med o verlap a reas i n wh ich s evera l l oca l o r r eg iona l p opu la t ions s hared.

2 8

3 .

Develop men tal s et t le men t models

C o lon isa t ion , e xpans ion a nd s tab i l isa t ion : At ac it model wh ich h as g u ided much t h ink ing a bou t s e t t le men t i n p reh istor ic a nd l a ter t imes i s t ha t o f e ssen t ia l ly i ndependen t e cono m ic u n i ts o f p opu la t ion , o ccupy ing more o r l ess h o mog eneous a nd e qu iva len t h ab i ta ts. Each e conom ic u n i t i s i den t if ied b y as ingle s et t le men t ( i .e. o ccupa t ion s i te ) l oca ted a t t he c en tre o f ac luster o f mu tual ly s uppor t ive l and-use z ones.

I ti s a ssu med t ha t t he s pac ing o u t o f s et t le men ts

i s l argely c on tro l led b y t he n eed f or s u f f ic ien t l and t o s uppor t a l l t he n eeds o f t he g roup w ith in a n a ccessib le d istance. Around e ach s et t le men t w i th i t s p enumbra o f a gr icu l tura l ly u t i l ised l and may s tretch a g rea ter o r l esser e x ten t o f n ega t ive t erra in o f l i t t le o r n o v a lue t o t he p opu la t ions. An e xp l ic it f or mu la t ion a nd e labora t ion o f t h is model was p resen ted b y C h isho lm ( 1968 )—p la in ly i t owes much t o t he ' I so la ted S ta te ' o f v on Th i lnen . Av ers ion o f t h is mode l was d ev eloped b y H iggs a nd V i ta-Finz i ( 1972 ) s pec if ica l ly f or p reh istor ic s oc iet ies. A c oro l lary o f t h is model i s t ha t t he d evelopmen t o f s e t t le men t o ver t ime c an l og ica l ly b e c ons idered i n t er ms o f c o lon isa t ion a nd d if fus ion p rocesses f rom n uclear a reas ( c f..Hodder 1 977 2 40-277 ). Ag enera l model f or t hese p rocesses h as b een f or mu la ted i n t he c on tex t o f t he modern a gr icu l tu ra l s et t le men t o f t he Amer ican m id- Wes t b y Hudson ( 1969 ).

He s uggested t ha t i nt he s e t t le men t o f al andscape t hree p hases c ou ld

n orma l ly b e d ist ingu ished : ( a ) ap hase o f c o lon isat ion , a s d iscre te a nd e conom ica l ly i ndependen t g roups make t he ir i n it ia l move i n to a r eg ion ;

( b ) ap hase

o f e xpans ion o u twards f ro m t he e ar ly c en tres o f c o lon isa t ion ; ( c ) ap hase o f s tab il isa t ion , w hen t he d istr ibu t ion o f s et t le men ts may s how a t endency t owards r egu lar s pac ing a s c er ta in g roups a re d isp laced i n t he c o mpet it ion f or t he r ema in ing l and. One o r a no ther f or m o f t h is mode l , i nclud ing a t a ny r a te p hases ( a ) a nd ( b ), h as b een r epea ted ly i nvoked i n c onnec t ion w i th t he p reh istoric a nd e ar ly h istor ica l p er iod t o e xp la in s equences o f a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men t f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f a gr icu l ture t o med ieva l t imes.

The h al l mark o f t h is model i s

t he c oncep t o f t he d iscre te a nd more o r l ess e cono m ica l ly s elf-su f f ic ien t p opu la t ion u n it t i ed t o i t s p lo t o f l and a ga inst ab ackground o f n ega t ive t erra in . F or c onven ience t h is mode l m ight b e c a l led t he ' ho mesteaders ' model , s ince i ti s most c learly r epresen ted i nt he h o mesteaders ' c o lon isa t ion o f t he m idWest. The f orego ing a na lys is o f l and-use u nder a gr icu l tura l e cono m ies s uggests ar ad ica l a l terna t ive t o t h is h ypo thes is. I nstead o f c onsider ing s et t le men t p a tt erns i n v acuo , o r a ga inst ag enera l ised e nv ironmen ta l b ackground , w e may s ee t he m i n t he c on tex t o f mu l t ip le l and-use p rac t ices , w h ich h ave i ncluded t he t ota l l andscape f ro m t he f i rst. Wh ile t here may b e s o me n egat ive a reas , w h ich c anno t b e efec t ively i n tegra ted i n to t he a gr icu l tura l e cono my , a ny a reas w h ich o f fered a gr icu l tura l p oten t ia l . a re u n l ikely t o h ave b een w ho l ly i gnored. We may d ist ingu ish n o t b etween s e t t led a nd u nse t t led a reas , b u t b etween a reas u nder i n tens ive a nd e x tens ive l and-use. The f oca l a reas o f s et t le men t , w he ther a ss oc iated w ith a l l-year-round o ccupa t ion s i tes o r n ot , w i l l c o inc ide w ith h ab it a ts h av ing f avourable c ond i t ions f or t he s tap le : o f t he mos t i n ten s ive e conom ic a c t iv it ies.

f or t h is r eason , i ti s t he l ocus

B eyond t h is t here w i l l h ave l a in a

r ange o f l ess i n tensively u t i l ised a gr icu l tura l r esources wh ich c ou ld b e i n tegrat ed i n to t he s yste m , ma in ly t hrough t he v eh ic le o f l i vestock .

2 9

The u t i l isa t ion

o f t hese r esources c ou ld h ave b rought i n to e x istence a n etwork o f r ela t ionsh ips o f e cono m ic d ependence a nd/or c on junct ion l i nk ing i nd iv idual c om mun it ies. Whe ther t he i n troduc t ion o ft he a gr icu l tura l e cono my t o t hese i s lands was a cc o mpan ied b y a n i n f lux o f p opu la t ion o r n o , t he i n i t ia l ' co lon isa t ion ' a ccord ing t o t h is model i s l i kely t o h ave t aken t he f orm o f t he r ap id d ispersa l o f s eg ment ary g roups i n to a v ar iety o f r esource-zones i n q uest o f s ubs id iary r esources, i nclud ing m inera ls t o s uppor t t he n ew t echno logy o f a gr icu l ture.

These s eg-

men tary g roups may r epresen t s easona l o r s pec ia l ised f ac ies o f t he a gr icu l tura l p opu la t ion , w h ich was o therw ise c oncen tra ted i n r estr ic ted a reas s u i table t o t he s tap le. A s p opu la t ion n umbers g rew , s easona l o r s hor t-term o ccupa t ion o f c er ta in l oca l it ies b y s o me s eg men ts o f t he p opu la t ion m igh t b e f o l lowed b y p er manen t s et t le men t , w herever c ond it ions w ere f avourable f or t he e stabl ishmen t o ft he s tap le.

I n o ther words t he emergence o f d iscrete , e cono m ica l ly

i ndependen t u n i ts o f p opu la t ion may b e af unc t ion o ft he d eveloped e conomy r a ther t han c haracter ist ic o f i t s i ncep t ion . N evertheless, l inks w i th o ther g roups a re u n l ike ly t o h ave b een c o mp lete ly s evered a s ar esu l t o f t h is d evelopmen t , s ince t hey w i l l h ave h elped t o s afeguard i nd iv idua l c o mmun it ies a ga inst s hor tt er m e nv ironmen ta l h azards. Th is model h as s ome r ese mblance t o t he model o f t he ' mu l t ip le e sta te', d eveloped b y G lanv il le J ones ( 1971; 1 976 ) i n t he c on tex t o f e ar ly med ieva l Br i ta in . The ' mu l t ip le e sta te ' c onsists o f ag roup o f s e tt le men ts c losely b ound t ogether i n as ingle e cono m ic s truc ture.

I ti s af eature o f t he mu l t ip le e sta te

t ha t i t s c o mponen t s e t t le men ts r egu larly o ccupy a v ar iety o f p ar t ia l ly c omp lemen tary r esource-loca l i t ies. The d evelopmen t o f s e t t le men t t ak es p lace a s a r esu l t o ff i ss ion , a s c o mponent b ecome s epara te e n t i t ies. The n e t r esu l t i s t ha t l arge, i n terna l ly c o mp lex s truc tures , i n w h ich a h ierarchy o f s et t le men ts c an o f ten b e p erce ived , may b e g radua l ly f rag men ted i n to s econdary u n i ts c onsi s t ing o f more o r l ess i ndependen t a nd e qu iva len t s e t tle men ts. The i nd iv idua l s et t le men t s urrounded b y i t s e cono m ic t err i tory , s upp ly ing a l l i t s n eeds, c an b e l ooked o n a s t he e nd-produc t o f t he p rocess a nd n o t i t s o r ig in .

J ones p re-

s en ted d ocu men tary e v idence t o s uppor t h is a rgumen ts t ha t mu l t iple e sta tes were f ound b o th i n Wa les a nd n orth-east Eng land p r ior t o t he Ang l ian im m igra t ion . The mu l t ip le e sta te a s i t emerged i n e ar ly med ieva l t imes i n many p arts o f Br i ta in may b e a n e xa mp le o f ac o mp lex o rgan isa t ion o f r esources t ha t i s c hara c ter ist ic o fh ighly d iversif ied e nv ironmen ts , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t hose i n w h ich c ond i t ions a re marg ina l f or t he s tap le. The mu l t ip le l and-use model o f s e t t le men t d eve lopmen t , o f wh ich J ones' mu l t ip le e sta te m ight b e s een a s a n a dvanced f or m , p red icts t ha t t he t o ta l l andscape w il l b e s ub jec ted t o ar ange o f i n tensive a nd e x tens ive l and-use p ract i ces. The s equence o f d evelop men ts b y wh ich l ocal i t ies s elected i n it ia l ly f or s easona l o r s pec ia l ised f unc t ions a re s ubsequen t ly p er manen t ly s et t led , i .e. i n tens ive l and-use i nvo lv ing c ul t iva t ion o f t he s tap le r ep laces e x tensive l andu se , i s i l lustra ted i n s evera l s tud ies o f;c o lon isat ion p rocesses i n l a te med ieval Europe , p ar t icu lar ly i n C en tra l Sweden ( Enequ ist 1 959 ; A ldskog ius 1 960 ; Bodva l l 1 960 ; c f . S tone 1 962 ).

The map o f t he Br it ish I s les i s r ep lete w i th

e xamp les o f i nd iv idua l f ar ms a nd v il lages w hose n a mes i nd ica te a n o r ig in i n s easona l o r s pec ia l ised l and-use , e .g. i n Wa les T hafod '; i n Eng land ' boo th ' , ' berew ick ' , ' ho lm ' a nd ' s h ieP.

i n S co t land t a ir igh ';

These n a mes may d a te

f rom many d iferen t p er iods when i n p ar t icu lar l oca l i t ies l and w as b e ing

3 0

c hanged f ro m e x tensive t o i n tens ive l and-use.

Ma ther ( 1970 ) h as d ocumen ted

as equence o f l and-use c hanges f ro m h un t ing t hrough s easona l g raz ing t o a rable a ssocia ted w ith t he e xpansion o f s et t le men t o n t he 17 th-1 8 th c en tur ies A .D. i n t he Ca irngor ms. T he a ppropr ia teness o f t h is model i n p reference t o t he ' homesteaders model ' i nt he Br i t ish p reh is tor ic c on tex t c an b e t ested b y l oca l s tud ies i n wh ich t he s equence o f l and-use a s i nd ica ted b y p o l len-ana lysis a nd o ther t echn iques c an b e e xam ined i n p ara l lel w ith t he d evelopmen t o f s et t le men t. Wha tever t he p rocesses b y w h ich a p opu la t ion c o lon ises a nd f i l ls a l ands cape, i ti sg eneral ly a ccep ted t ha t e xpans ion c anno t c on t inue i ndef in i tely. A b oundary w il l b e r eached , a t wh ich t he a va ilable f ood-supp ly c anno t s usta in c on t inued p opu la t ion g row th . When t h is l im it i s r eached t he p opu la t ion may b e s a id t o h ave r eached t he c arry ing c apac ity o f t he e nv ironmen t. Ana log ies f rom a n i ma l e co logy s uggest t ha t i t may b e a t t h is s tage t ha t v ar ious d ensi ty-dependen t f actors c ome i n to o pera t ion f or r egu la t ing p opu la t ion n umbers ( Wynne Edwards 1 962 p ass im , e sp . 1-13; Wilson 1 975 :82 , 2 74-275 ). These a na log ies a re e xp l ic it ly d rawn o nb y Hudson ( 19 69 ) i nh is a rgumen t t ha t i n t he f ina l p hase o f r ura l s et t lemen t t here w il l b e p ressure o n l and l ead ing t o more r egu lar ised s pac ing.

Ren-

f rew ( 1976 ) h as i nvoked t hese a na log ies i n ad iscuss ion o f l and-resources i n p reh is tor ic Brita in . I t mus tb e o bserved , h owever , t ha t t he c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he e nv ironmen t i n r e la t ion t o h uman s oc ie t ies i s ac oncep t o n ly l oose ly a k in t o t ha t o f a n i ma l s oc ie t ies.

Human s oc ie t ies a re a ble t o r a ise t he f ood-po ten t ia l

o f a n e nv iron men tb y e conom ic measures , i nvo lv ing t echno logy , s chedu l ing mechan is ms a nd p ower.

Human c arry ing c apac i ty i s af unc t ion b o th o f e nv iron-

men ta l a nd e cono m ic f actors. For t h is r eason i t may b e i mposs ible t o d e ter m ine t he c arry ing c apac ity o f ag iven r eg ion i n t he s ense t ha t i t may b e p oss ible f or c erta in a n i ma l p opu la t ions w ith s pecia l ised d ie tary a dap ta t ions.

Andrewar tha

a nd B irch ( 1954; c f . Andrewar tha 19 70 :6 7 ) d rew a h elpfu l d ist inc t ion b e tween a bsolu te a nd r ela t ive f ood-shor tage. A bso lu te f ood-shor tage c an n a tura l ly o n ly b e al oca l o r s hor t-ter m p heno menon , i n h uman a s i n a n i ma l p opu la t ions. Many p opu la t ions a re h owever n or ma l ly c on tro l led b y r ela t ive f ood-shor tage , i .e. t he c apaci ty t o c rop t he t heore t ica l ly a va i lable f ood. We may d ist ingu ish i n r espec t o fh u man p opu la t ions b e tween a bso lu te c arry ing c apac ity w i th t he s ense o f t he max i mu m n umber t ha t a n e nv ironmen t c an s uppor t w ithou t s u f feri ng d a mage , a nd r ela t ive c arry ing c apac ity , mean ing t he max i mum n umber t ha t c an b e s uppor ted u nder ag iven e conomy . Re la t ive f ood-shortage c an b e o vercome b y t he d evelopmen t o f p ower a nd t echno logy : a bso lu te f ood-shor tage c anno t b e o verco me , a nd p opu la t ions must s tab il ise o r d ecl ine.

I t may b e p os-

s ible t o a ssess t he r ela t ive c arry ing c apac i ty o f ag iven r eg ion i fc er ta in d eta i ls o f t he e cono m ic s yste m a re k nown , b u t i t wou ld s ee m a rchaeo log ica l ly o u t o f t he q ues t ion t o t est t he p ropos it ion t ha t n umbers w i l l s tab il ise a s t hey r each t h is n o t iona l v a lue, b ecause o f t he d if f ic u l ty o f e stabl ish ing a bso lu te p opu la t ion n u mbers f or a ny p reh istor ic s oc ie ty . There s ee m b et ter g rounds f or h ope t ha t we m ight t est t he p roposi t ion , a dvanced a bove ( p . 2 4) t ha t h uman p opu la t ions w i l l c on t inue t o e xpand u n t i l t hey h ave r eached t he marg in s f or t he ir s tap le c rop , a s d ef ined b y e nv ironmen ta l a nd e conom ic f actors. I th as b een s uggested t ha t t hese marg ins may r egu lar ly c orrespond t o f r inge-zones o f s et t le men t , b eyond w h ich t here may b e s easona l

3 1

a nd i rregu lar s et t le men t a ssoc ia ted w ith e x ten s ive l and-use.

The p o in t a t w h ich

t he c u l t iva t ion o f t he s tap le c rop i s p ushed t o i t s e nv ironmen ta l l im i ts u nder a g iven e cono m ic s yste m m igh t b e e xpected t o c orrespond t o t he s tage a t w h ich c o lon isa t ion a nd e xpan s ive p rocesses h ad b een c omp le ted a nd t he r e la t ive c arr y ing c apac i ty o ft he e nv ironmen t h ad b een a t ta ined. I ti s a t t h is p o in t t ha t p opu la t ion n umbers wou ld n ecessar ily s tab il ise t hrough t he d ispersa l o f s urp lus g roups t o o ther r eg ions o r f ina l ly , a s t hese o u t le ts w ere f i l led ,,b y i n terna l mec han is ms o f r egu la t ion . I fw e c an i den t ify p er iods a t w h ich s et t lemen t p resses i n to f r inge-zones, c orrespond ing t o t he marg in s f or t he s tap le c rop , i t may b e p rof i table t o e xa m ine t he i n terna l s tructure o f s et t le men t i n t he f oca l a rea t o s ee whether c hanges a re s i mu l taneously o ccurr ing t here. I tm ight s ee m u n l ikely a t f i rs t s ight t ha t p reh istor ic p opu la t ions i n B r i ta in c ou ld h ave a t ta ined s uch h igh n umbers , e ven a t t he r eg ional l eve l , t hat t here was n o f ur ther r oo m f or e xpans ion .

I ti s c lear , f or e xa mp le, f rom p o llen-

a na ly t ica l work t ha t c ons iderable a reas o f u ncleared wood land r ema ined i n s ome p ar ts o f Br ita in u n t il t he e nd o f t he p reh istor ic p er iod a nd t hrough t o t he med iev al p er iod.

N evertheless, i fi ti s r eca l led t ha t i ti s t he s tap le c rop t ha t i s o f

c ruc ia l i mpor tance a nd t ha t t h is i s d ependen t o nb o th e nv ironmen ta l a nd e cono m ic f ac tors , t here s ee ms g ood r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he l im i ts f or e xpansion may h ave b een r eached i n many r eg ions. I ti s p robable t ha t e cono m ic f ac tors ( i .e. t echno logy a nd p ower-source ) w il l h ave r estr ic ted p o ten t ia l a rab le l and i n p reh istor ic t imes t o ac ons iderably n arrower r ange o f s o i ls a nd s i tua t ions t han was t he c ase i n s ubsequen t p er iods.

Th is i s c lear ly a t estable p roposit ion i f

i tc an b e s hown t ha t f oca l a reas o f s et t le men t a nd a rable c u l t iva t ion i n p reh ist or ic t imes c oncen tra ted o n s o i ls i n wh ich p rob le ms o f c u l t iva t ion a re l ikely t o h ave b een a t am in i mum . A bso lu te F ood-shor tages : S o f ar w e h ave n o t c on sidered t he p ossible d et r i men ta l e f fec ts o f v ar ious a gr icu l tural p rac t ices o n l and-resources. These o n ly b eco me e cono m ica l ly ( a s o pposed t o e co log ica l ly ) s ign if ican t a tt he p o in t a t w h ich n ew l and i s n o l onger f ree ly a va i lable ( i .e. w hen t he r ela t ive c arry ing c apac ity o ft he e nv ironmen t h as b een r eached ). The p ossible efects o f t he v ar ious t echn iques o f l and-use i nvo lved i n p reh istor ic a gr icul ture w il l h ave v ar ied f ro m o ne e daph ic a nd c l i ma t ic s i tua t ion t o a no ther. The e ar l iest a gr icu l tura l s ys te ms w ere e ssen t ial ly e xp lo i t ive.

The a rable

p lo t d rew o nt he a ccu mu la ted r eserves o f f er t i l i ty b u i l t u p u nder t he c l i max v egeta t ion . Av ar iety o f s ub-cl i max e co log ies w il l h ave b een c rea ted t hrough t he s uccess ion o f s econdary c o m mun i t ies f o l low ing d eforesta t ion w h ich c ou ld b e c ropped b y l i vestock a nd c onver ted i n to h uman f ood. The e f fect o f d eforest a t ion a nd b urn ing o f s hrub a nd f i e ld l ayers may h ave b een d etr imen tal u nder c er ta in c ond i t ion s i n %r if le , e nv ironmen ts, b u t e lsewhere r egenera t ion w i l l h ave r estored t he e qu il ibr ium. S o l ong a s p opu la t ion d ens i t ies r ema ined l ow a nd n ew h ab ita ts w ere a va i lable s uch a s yste m c ou ld c on t inue i ndef in i tely . I n c ircu mstances i nw h ich t here was n o f ur ther s cope f or e xpansion i t m igh t b e a n t ic ipa ted t ha t i ncreased p ressure w ou ld h ave b een b rough t t o b ear o n a gr icu l tura l r esources.

I n p recar iously-ba lanced e nv iron men ts i ncreased

p ressure m igh t h ave s e t o f f i rrevers ible c hanges i n t he d irect ion o f r esource i mpover ish men t .

These c hanges may i n i t ia l ly h ave a f fected o n ly v egetat ion :

t hey o n ly b eco me e f fect ively i rreversible when a b io t ic r esources a re d egraded.

3 2

Amongs tt he p ressures t ha t migh t b e i nvo lved a re t hose o f c on t inuous c u l t iv a t ion , l ead ing p oss ib ly t o a cce lera ted e ros ion , a nd i n c er ta in c ases p erhaps t o l ongter m d ec l ine i n f er t i l i ty . I th as b een p ower fu l ly a rgued b y Pos tan ( 1972 6 9-79 ) t ha t t h is l as t f ac tor was o f c ruc ia l s ign i f icance i n med ieva l Br i ta in . Wh i le i ti s a ccep ted t ha t t hese f ac tors may h ave b een i mpor tan t o n c er ta in s o i ls , i ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he more d isas trous e f fects i n t he B r i t ish c on tex t , b o th i n t he s hor t a nd l ong t er m , may h ave b een t hose a f fec t ing t he p as tora l r esource ( c .f . Dar l ing 1 955b ). These may i n t urn h ave r epercuss ions o n t he c on t inued v iabi l i ty o f t he a rab le p lo t , s ince a d ec l ine i n l i ves tock n umbers i s t he e qu iva len t o f ad ec l ine i n t he means o f ma in ta in ing a nd e nhanc ing f er t i l i ty l eve ls o n t he c u l t iva ted l and . S o i l a nd v ege ta t ion s ys te ms a re o f ten d e l ica te ly b a lanced u nder t e mpera te c ondi t ions ( Trudg i l l 1 977 8 7f .) . U nder c l i max v ege ta t ion n u tr ien t r eserves a re r ecyc led t hrough t he b io mass a nd l osses o f n u tr ien ts t hrough l each ing may b e c o mpara t ive ly sma l l .

T he v ege ta t ion c over a lso min im ises e ros ion .

The

e f fect o f d e fores ta t ion , whe ther b rough t a bou t b y d e l ibera te c learance o r b y g razing p ressure , c an b e t o a cce lera te l each ing o f n u tr ien ts w i th t he s ubseq uen t i mpover ish men t o f t he r egenera t ing v ege ta t ion ( D i mb leby 1 962 ; B or mann a nd L ikens 1 970 ) .

1 977;

H owever , t he s ign i f icance o f a cce lera ted l each-

i ng may v ary f ro m o ne s o i l t o a no ther .

I n n u tr ien t-poor u plands s ub jec t t o a

c oo l w e t c l i ma te t he e f fect o f d e fores ta t ion migh t b e t o p ush s o i ls o ver a t hresho ld b eyond wh ich p ea t-for m ing c o m mun i t ies migh t s upersede t he p rev ious v egeta t ion ( G im ingham 1 964 ).

I n n u tr ien t-r ich u p lands , h owever , i ncreased

wea ther ing r esu l t ing f rom d efores ta t ion migh t t end t o o f fse t l each ing l osses . On p oor s o i ls i n l owland s i tua t ions d e fores ta t ion migh t s e t s oi ls i rrevers ib ly i n t he d irect ion o f p odzo l isa t ion .

T his i s mos t c lear ly d e mons tra ted o n t he

Breck land a nd o ther h ea ths o n v ery s andy s o i ls i n s ou thern B r i ta in ( Godwin 1 944 ;

D imb leby 1 962 ).

N u tr ien t-r ich l owlands wou ld t end t o b e t he mos t

s trong ly b u f fered a ga ins t t he e f fec ts o f d e fores ta t ion b ecause o f t he h igh r a tes o f b io log ica l a c t iv i ty .

I n s um mary , t he c apac i ty o f e nv iornmen ts t o r ecover

f ro m t he e f fects o f t he p ar t ia l o r t o ta l r e mova l o f t he o r ig ina l v ege ta t ion i s a f unc t ion o f c l i ma te a nd s oi l .

H ab i ta ts l y ing o n t he b oundary b e tween o ne e n-

v ironmen ta l g roup a nd a no ther w i l l b e e spec ia l ly s ens i t ive t o c l i ma t ic f luctua t ions a nd t he p ressures o f a gr icu l tura l l and-use .

I ti s i n t hese c ircums tances

t ha t t he m is manage men t o f l and-resources may h ave t he mos t s evere c ons equences f or h u man s oc ie t ies . T he i nev i tab le e f fect o f c oncen tra t ing u ngu la tes w i l l b e t o s e lec t i n f avour o f t hose h erb a nd s hrub s pec ies t ha t a re mos t r es is tan t t o g razing p ressure .

S ince t he p as tora l r esource i n t he t e mpera te l a t i tudes o f Wes tern

Europe i s s ub jec t t o ap ronounced s easona l i ty , w i th t he g rowing s eason v aryi ng f ro m 8 -6 mon ths o r l ess , p ressure i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een f e l t i n t he w in ter mon ths w hen d ec iduous w ood land o f fers n o b i te .

I ti s a t t h is t ime o f t he y ear

t ha t t he a va i lab le g razings w i l l h ave c o me u nder t he g rea tes t p ressure f ro m t he u ngu la tes . Un less g razing i s r ig id ly c on tro l led ( wh ich r equ ires t he s upply o f h igh l eve ls o f w in ter s upple men ta t ion ) t he t endency w i l l h ave b een f or t he f ie ld l ayer t o b e o vergrazed i n w in ter , when i th as c eased g row ing a nd i s l eas t a b le t o w i ths tand a t tack , a nd t o b e u nder-grazed i n s um mer when h ard g razing i sb ene f ic ia l i n c urbing t he r eproduc t ive p hase a nd p reven t ing t he s pread o f l ess v a luab le g rasses a nd a ssoc ia ted p lan ts ( c .f . S pedd ing 1 970 ) .

3 3

The c onsequence o f t h is t rea t men t , a s d e mons tra ted b y modern e xper i ment a t ion , i s f or t he p oor q ua l i ty g rasses a nd f orbs t o s pread a t t he e xpense o f t he b et ter q ua l i ty s pecies ( J ones , i n Tho mas 1 945 ;

Moore 1 966

8 -9 ).

Amongs t t he c h ie f o f fenders i n t he B r i t ish c on tex t a re Mo l in ia c aeru lea , Nardus s tr icta a nd D eschamps ia , a l l o f wh ich a re r egarded b y modern g raz iers a s p ract ica l ly v a lue less e xcep t f or a b r ie f p er iod i n t he s um mer . o f c a t t le f or t he c on tro l o f t hese g rasses i s emphas ised .

T he impor tance

These g rasses t end

t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th p ea ty p odzo ls , a nd P igo t t h as a rgued ( 1970 ;

s ee p . 6 1 )

t ha t t here i s ac ausa l l ink b e tween g razing p rac t ice , v ege ta tion c hange a nd s oi l d e ter iora t ion .

On b ase-poor s o i ls Er icaceae may t end t o p reva il , e spe-

c ia l ly w i th t he e ncourage men t o f p er iod ic b urn ing .

F or f ree-range l ives tock

t he h ea thers a re v a luab le w in ter k eep , b u t a re k nown t o p ro mo te s oi l-ac idi f ic a t ion ( Grubb e t a l . 1 969 ).

On b et ter d ra ined a nd d eeper s oi ls b racken

may s pread a nd e l im ina te a l l o ther f i e ld p lan ts b ecause o f i ts d ense s hadow . The i mpor tance o f b racken a s a n i nvader o f p reh is tor ic c learances i s s tressed b y Wa lker ( 1 966 ) .

B racken i s e ven l ess v a lue a s af orage p lan t t han t he p oorer

g rasses , a nd o nce e stabl ished i s a l most i mposs ible t o e l im ina te w ithou t mode rn t echn iques ( Sa l isbury 1 964 1 99-202;

Moore 1 966

7 0 ) .

T he c leares t

d e mons tra t ion o f t he d e ter iora t ion o f t he p as tora l r esource a s t he r esu l t o f m is manage men t i n r ecen t c en tur ies i s p rov ided b y F raser Dar l ing ( 1955a ) i n h is s tudy o f t he h u man e co logy o f t he Wes tern H igh lands .

I n many o f t hese

u pland a reas i ti s o n ly o n t he n u tr ien t-r ich s o i ls o n b as ic f or ma t ions t ha t t he more n u tr i t ive a ssocia t ions h ave p ers is ted , e xcep t where modern p rogrammes o f r ec lama t ion h ave b een u nder taken .

Dar l ing i den t i f ied h igh s heep : ca t t le

r a t ios a s ma in ly r espons ible f or t he i mpover ishmen t o f t he g raz ings b ecause o f t he h igh ly s e lec t ive f eed ing h abi ts o f s heep . The e f fec t o f h uman i n ter ference w i th t he v ege ta t ion b y d e fores ta t ion a nd c er ta in g razing p ract ices may b e t o p ush d e l ica te ly b a lanced v egeta t ion a nd s o i l s ys te ms b eyond t he t hresho ld where r ecovery b y n a tura l r egenerat ive p rocesses i s p oss ib le ( Trudg i l l 1 977

1 27-132 ) .

C hanges i n t he b io ta ,

b rough t a bou t b y m is manage men t , a ppear r egu lar ly t o h ave b een f o l lowed b y c hanges i n t he s oi l s ys te m , n a me ly p odzo l isa t ion a nd p ea t-forma t ion . Tha t t h is h ad a lready t aken p lace i n s o me e nv ironmen ts i n p reh istor ic t imes i s mos t c lear ly d e mons tra ted b y t he s equence o f e ven ts i nd ica ted b y t he b ur ied s oi l f ro m t he n eo l i th ic s i te a t G ood land , C o . An tr im ( Case e t a l . 1 969 ; d iscussed i n D i mb leby 1 977;

c f . a lso S ou lsby 1 976 ) .

Ap os i t ive f eedback

r eact ion h ad s e t i n w i th t he u l t i ma te c onsequence o f t he r educt ion o f b io log ica l p roduc t iv ity t o t he l ow l eve ls t ha t c ou ld b e ma in ta ined b y p urely a t mospher ic i npu ts , a s i n many modern moor land e co log ies ( c f . C r isp 1 966 ) . The c onsequences o f u ncon tro l led g razing i n l ow land e nv ironmen ts a re l ess c lear ly d ocu men ted , s ince w i th f ew e xcep t ions t hese a reas h ave b een u nder i n tens ive modern a gr icu l ture f or s evera l c en tur ies .

I td oes s ee m p ro-

b ab le , h owever , f ro m s ome o f t he r e ma in ing l ow land ' co m mons ' , a nd a lso f ro m t he B oard o f Agr icu l ture a ccoun ts wr i t ten a t t he e nd o f t he e igh teen th c en tury t ha t t he e f fec t o f u ncon tro l led g razing w i l l n ave b een t o p ro mote u np a la tab le weeds a nd s hrubs , s uch a s g orse , b racken , b ramb le a nd t horn , a nd o np oor ly d ra ined s o i ls t o a l low g rasses t o b e r ep laced b y r ushes ( c .f . Tans ley 1 . 968 1 54-164 ). I n t he t h ir t ies o f t he p resen t c en tury , when t he L and o f B r i ta in S urvey was u nder taken , many l ow land p as tures h ad b een a l lowed t o r un d own t hrough l ack o f i n tens ive g razing a nd were w ide ly i n fes ted w i th r ushes ( c .f . 3 4

e sp. R ed ford o n R adnor 1 940 ) .

H owever , i n mos t o f l ow land B r i ta in s oi ls a nd

v ege ta t ion w i l l h ave h ad t he c apaci ty t o r ecover f ro m t he e f fec ts

o f mis man-

a ge men t a nd t he e cono m ic i mpover ish men t i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een p er manen t . An e n t ire ly d i f feren t q ues t ion i s whe ther a p oin t h ad b een r eached i n p reh is tor ic t imes when t he c u mu la t ive e f fects o f e co log ica l impover ishmen t o n t he l i nes s ugges ted were t o impinge o n t he c on t inued p rosper i ty o f t he e conomy .

I t h as b een s ugges ted t ha t t h is may h ave o ccurred i n c er ta in l oca l-

i t ies when t he c onsequences o f e co log ica l d egrada t ion c ou ld n o t b e o verco me s i mp ly b y mov ing t o n ew h ab i t a ts , i .e . r e la t ive c arrying c apac i ty h ad b een a t ta ined . On t he a na logy o f a n i ma l e co logy ( Brown 1 970 1 03-5 ) e cono mic s tress migh t b e r ef lec ted i n as er ies o f s harp f luc tua t ions i np opu la t ion n umbers w i th a n u l t ima te s tab i l isa t ion a t much

l ower n u mbers t han b e fore .

I ti s c lear t ha t

where t he s uccess o f a n e cono my i s l arge ly d ependen t o n t he c lose i n tegra t ion o f c rops a nd l i ves tock , a s Ih ave a rgued i s t he c ase w i th Wes t E uropean a gr icu l ture , ad ec l ine i n o ne c o mponen t w i l l n ecessar i ly i nvo lve t he o ther i n ap os i t ive f eedback r eac t ion .

The f o l low ing i s o ne p oss ib le s equence o f d ec l ine .

L et u s s uppose t ha t u ncon tro l led g raz ing a nd r ecurren t b urn ing h as g radual ly d egraded s econdary f ood-resources f or m ing t he p astora l r esource.

Cu l t iva-

t ed a reas o n n u tr ien t-poor s o ils i n f r inge z ones may h ave t o b e a bandoned b ecause o f t he d ec l ine i n l i ves tock a nd h ence t he manure n ecessary t o s us ta in y ie lds .

Af a l l i n c erea l p roduc t ion i n t urn r educes t he q uan t i ty o f w in ter k eep

a va i lab le f or s tock .

More a nd more l and may r ever t t o e x tens ive l and-use

u nder u ncon trol led g razing w i th t he i nev i tab le c onsequence i n many s i tua t ions o f f ur ther l ongter m b io t ic a nd p oss ib ly p edo log ica l d e ter iora t ion .

Aga ins t

t h is b ackground mechan isms o f e xchange b e tween d i f feren t c o m mun i t ies may p rove i ne f fec tua l :

c o mpe t i t ion f or t he r e ma in ing v a luab le r esources may b e-

c o me more i n tense .

G roups w i l l b eco me i ncreas ing ly d ependen t o n l oca l

p roduce a nd h ence more s uscep t ible t o c l i ma t ic h azards a nd r ecurren t f oods hor tages .

The l ongterm c onsequence o f c u mu la t ive d e mograph ic d ec l ine

wou ld s eem u navoidab le , u n less n ew t echn iques c ou ld b e d eve loped f or o f fs et t ing a c id i f ica t ion , g rass land d ec l ine a nd t he d e ter iora t ion o f a rab le s o i ls ( Fig . 2 h p . 4 2).

T hese t echn iques h ave i n f act o n ly b een d eve loped i n t he

l as t f our c en tur ies a nd e specia l ly i n t he p resen t c en tury ma in ly t hrough a ccess t o an ew s ource o f p ower r epresen ted b y f oss i l f ue ls . An e cono m ic d ecl ine f o l low ing t h is p ro jec ted c ourse migh t b e a rchaeol og ica l ly d e tec tab le b y as er ies o f i n ter-re la ted o ccurrences . Ap oss ib le i ndica tor t ha t t he r e la t ive c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he e nv ironmen t h ad b een a t ta ined

i s t he e x tens ion o f t he a rab le i n to t he f r inge-zone .

A s ubsequen t

d ec l ine m igh t b e i nd ica ted b y t he a brupt a bandonmen t o f a rab le p lo ts a t t he f ur thes t l im i ts o f t he f r inge z one a f ter a r e la t ive ly s hor t p er iod o f u t i l isa t ion . T h is m igh t b e a cco mpan ied b y s igns o f

c onvers ion o f a rable t o g raz ing.

S ub-

s equen t c o mpe t i t ion b e tween g roups w i th in t he r eg ion f or d w ind l ing r esources c ou ld b e marked b y t he a ppearance o f d e fens ive s tructures , p erhaps s paced o u t w i th in n a tura l ly o r a r ti f ic ia l ly d e f ined ' t err i tor ies '.

P o l len-ana ly t ica l

e v idence f or c hanges i n t he p lan t a ssocia t ions t owards h ea th , b racken a nd s edge-dom ina ted c o m mun i t ies may s ubs tan t ia te t he v iew t ha t t he q ua l i ty o f t he p as tora l r esource i s d ecl in ing .

3 5

A l l t hese o ccurrences m igh t a l terna t ive ly b e a ccoun ted f or b y c l i ma t ic d eter iora t ion , r esu l t ing i n s im i lar p ressure o n t he f ood-resources i n t he f r ingez one o f s e t t le men t . However , f or c l i ma t ic d e ter iora t ion t o t urn t he b a lance , p opu la t ion n umbers must a lready h ave a pproached c arry ing c apac ity.

Th is i s

r ea l ly t he c ruc ia l f actor , s ince i ti s w hen p opu la t ions a re u nab le t o r el ieve p ressures b y d ispersing t o u noccup ied l oca l i t ies t ha t t hey b ecome v u lnerable t o c hanges f ro m w i th in a nd o u ts ide t he s yste m .

S ince c l i mat ic v ar iab il i ty ( w i th-

i n c er ta in l im i ts ) h as b een n or mal i n t he l ast 5 000 y ears , a ny l ong-last ing e cono m ic s yste m w il l h ave h ad t o a dap t t o t h is c ircumstance. E cono m ies w il l b eco me v u ln erable t o c l i ma t ic d eter iora t ion o n ly w hen t hey h ave e x tended i n to i nheren t ly p recar ious e nv ironmen ts. The l og ica l c onclus ion o f t h is c a la m i tous t rend m igh t b e t he s tab il isat ion o fp opu la t ion n umbers a t t he d ensi t ies t ha t c ou ld b e ma in ta ined s imp ly b y f reer an g in g l i vestock , s upp le men ted b y n on-agr icu l tura l p ursu its. I ti s i n t hese d espera te c ircumstances t ha t w e may h ave a c on tex t f or ' pastora l is m '.

How

f ar t h is t rend m ight c on t inue wou ld b e d ependen t o n t he r egenera t ive c apac ity o f t he e nv ironmen t a nd o n t he p o ten t ia l f or e cono m ic d evelopmen t b y t echnol og ica l i nnova t ion a nd e n large men t o f t he p ower-base. I nt he a t te mp t t o u nderstand t he c hrono log ica l s equence o f p opula t ion g row th , s tab i l isa t ion a nd p oss ible d ecl ine i n i t s s pa t ia l a spec t , w e h ave t o a ssess t he r ela t ive c apac i ty o f d i f feren t e nv ironmen ts t o s usta in t he c omp lex o f a gr icu l tura l l and-use p ract ices t hrough t ime.

Op t i ma l s i tua t ions f or t he

s hor tter m may b e t hose i n w h ich r ela t ive ly l ow i npu ts o f p ower p roduce h igh r eturns, b u t t hese may b e t hose w h ich a re l east a b le t o s usta in c on t inued u t ili sa t ion .

There i s at ens ion b e tween e co log ica l a nd e cono m ic p roduct iv ity , a s

Tay lor o bserved ( 1967 ). The s tap le c rops o f man a nd h is s tock i n Western European a gr icu l ture t hr ive i n o pen , s ub-cl i max s i tua t ions: t he e co log ica l c l i max must b e b roken a nd h e ld a t ap ioneer s tage ( Dar l ing 1 955b ).

L oca t ions

i n wh ich t he c l i max c an b e most e asi ly b roken a re o f ten t hose w h ich a re most s uscep t ible t o d a mage i n t he l ong-ter m ( D i mb leby 1 977a ).

Agr icu l ture e ssen-

t i a l ly e xp lo its t ransi tory , u nstable s i tua t ions. The d evelop men t

o f a gr icu l ture

i s e qu iva len t t o t he d eve lopmen t o f s k il ls a nd t echno logy a ble t o ma in ta in a s a n or m t he u nstable s i tua t ion i n w h ich t he a nnua l a nd p erenn ia l g rasses, o n w h ich Western European a gr icu l ture i sb as ica l ly d ependen t , c an t hr ive. Modern B r it ish a gr icu l ture w i th i t s s ubs id ies o ff ossil f uels a nd a r t if ic ia l f er t i l isers i s f ar r e moved f rom t he a gr icu l ture e ven o f t he l as t c en tury , w h ich s t il l s hared w i th p reh is tor ic a gr icu lture a f ina l d ependence o n e co log ical p roc esses, h owever t hese may h ave b een c on tro l led . The d i le mma o f t he p reh is tor ic a gr icu l tura l ist—as o fh is h istor ica l e qu iva len t—was t o e n large p r imary f ood-resources a nd y e t ma in ta in t he r egenera t ive c apac i ty o f t he e nv iro nmen t . I n t he Br i t ish I s les t h is p roblem was e xacerba ted b y t he r ela t ive e nv ironmen ta l u n favourab i l ity f or t he s tap le c rop . The mode l p u t f orward h ere s ugges ts t ha t t h is d i le m ma c ou ld o n ly b e r eso lved b y t he d evelopmen t o f l i vestock h usbandry t o s upp ly i ncreased p ower a nd t o ma in ta in f er t il ity . T h is d e manded a n amp l if ica t ion o f s torable s econdary f ood-resources , f i rst w i th h ay-cropp ing a nd s ubsequen t ly w ith t he d el ibera te c u l t ivat ion o ff odder c rops. F a i lure t o r eso lve t h is d i le m ma w il l i nev itab ly h ave b rought d emograph ic c ol lapse .

3 6

2. 4. S um mary I th as b een s uggested t ha t u nder a n a gr icu l tural e cono my t he l andscape w il l c haracter ist ical ly b e s ub jected t o ad ivers ity o f l and-use p rac t ices a d justed t o e nv iron men ta l c ond i t ions.

The f ocal a rea o f s et t le men t w il l c o inc ide w ith

s i tua t ion s f avourable f or t he s tap le c rop , b u t b eyond t h is may l i e av ar iety o f r esource l ocal i t ies, i n tegrated b y means o f s pec ia l ised a ct iv i t ies w ith t he s tap le.

S uch a n ew s yste m may l ast i ndef in itely , b arr ing c l i ma t ic d eter iora t ion ,

s o l ong a s n ew l ocal it ies r e ma in f or c o lon isat ion .

However , t he l ong-ter m

t endency f or p opu la t ion n u mbers t o g row may mean t ha t t he mos t p roduct ive c o mponen t o f t he e cono my , i .e . t he s tap le c rop , may u l t i ma te ly s pread wherever p oss ib le i n to f r inge-zones , where c ond i t ions b eco me i ncreas ing ly marg ina l .

L oca l g roups may n ow b eco me more v u lnerable t o t he e f fec ts o f

c l i ma t ic f luctua t ions a f fec t ing t he s tap le .

I t wou ld b e a n t ic ipa ted t ha t t he

a t ta inmen t o f r e la t ive c arrying c apaci ty wou ld b e a cco mpan ied b y i n terna l a d jus t men ts i n t he s e t t lemen t s truc ture , a f fec t ing l oca l g roup s ize a nd t he d ispers ionary p a t tern , a s f ood-shor tages a re i ncreas ing ly f e l t .

I n p recar-

i ous ly b a lanced e nv ironmen ts mis manage men t o f b io t ic r esources u nder t he s tress o f r ecurren t s hor tages c ou ld l ead t o b io t ic a nd p oss ib ly p edolog ica l d a mage t ha t may b e i mposs ib le t o r e medy w i thou t h igh e nergy i npu ts o f t he k ind t ha t a re f eas ible o n ly i n modern t imes .

T he d e mograph ic c o l lapse t ha t

mus t i nev i tably f o l low w ou ld b e r e f lec ted i n t he w idespread a bandonmen t o f s e tt lemen ts i n e co log ica l ly u ns tab le e nv ironmen ts . T he e ssen t ia l f ea tures o f t he p reh is tor ic a gr icu l tura l s ys te m a s r econs truc ted h ere i s t ha t t here i s ar e la t ive ly l ow l eve l o f r esource i n tegra t ion , l ow p opu la t ion d ens i t ies p er l and-un i t a nd s i mp le t echno log ies .

A bove t h is

we h ave a r ange o f p oss ib le s ys te ms e ach mak ing i ncreased u se o f l i ves tock , b o th a s d raugh t a n i ma ls a nd t o ma in ta in f er t i l i ty l eve ls .

The e f fect o f emp loy

i ng d raugh t a n i ma ls i s t o i ncrease e nergy-inpu t , d irect ly a nd b y r e leas ing man-power f or o ther t asks .

These h igher e nergy e cono m ies w i l l b e d raw ing

o n ad i f feren t r ange o f r esources , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t hose c onnec ted w i th a n i ma l f odders . H igh-nu tr ien t l oca l i t ies , o r ' f er t i l i ty-sumps ' , may b eco me i ncreas ing ly impor tan t . I n o rder t o make u se o f t hese p o ten t ia l s ources o f e nergy n ew t echno log ies f or s o i l p repara t ion a nd c rop a nd f odder h arves t ing may b eco me i ncreas ing ly i mpor tan t .

Thus t he d eve lop men t o f t he e cono my

w i l l b e d ependen t o n t he e x is tence o f c er ta in c o mbina t ions o f a gr icu l tura l a nd minera l r esources , a s w e l l a s t he a ppropr ia te s k i l ls a nd o rgan isa t iona l s tructures t o u t i l ise t he m . I fw e a ssume t ha t t he i nna te c apaci ty f or i ncrease t ends t o b r ing a bou t l ongterm g row th i n p opu la t ion , t here w i l l b e as e lec t ive a dvan tage o f more p roduc t ive o ver l ess p roduc t ive s ys te ms , o r i n t he t er ms a dop ted h ere , o f h igh e nergy o ver l ow e nergy e cono m ies .

B ecause o f t he i n t i ma te a nd i nd is-

s olvable l i nk b e tween t he e nergy q uo t ien t o f a n e cono my a nd t he r esources t ha t s us ta in i t , t he d eve lop men t o f t he e cono my wou ld b e e xpec ted t o c o inc ide w i th t he emergence o f a n i ncreas ing d i f feren t ia l i n p opu la t ion d ens i t ies . L oca l i t ies i n wh ich t he n ecessary r esources t o s us ta in t he d eve lop men ts were l ack ing w ou ld t end t o s tab i l ise a t l ower d ens i t ies t han t hose i n wh ich t hese r esources were p resen t .

Th is e cono m ic f unc t ion wou ld b e e xpec ted t o b e

i nd ica ted i n t he l ong t er m t rend o f r e la t ive p opu la t ion d ens i t ies v arying i n t he i nc idence o f t hose r esources .

The mode l t herefore p rov ides a n e xp lana-

t ion f or t he d iscon form i t ies i n s e t t le men t p a t terns b e tween p reh is tor ic a nd l a ter p er iods . Q7

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The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve: S uggested v egeta t ion c . 3 000 b .c. P eat- moor c o m mun it ies O ak-a lder-hazel-b irch E l m-l i me O ak-el m-l i me A lder hazel

1 00

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F ig. 4 p

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve : Med ieva l l and-use

A rable ( max . e x tens ion c . 1 350 A .D .) Graz ing Meadow Wel l-wooded a reas ( 2 . 1 050 A .D .) r eversed-S e nclosures r idge-and-furrow ( h igh a l t itudes o n ly )

1 02

1 03

l)

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4'

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..

village

farm

• •

ridge and furrow ◊

Fig. 4q

Beeley village: location in relation to land-facets

Fig. 4r

The Dove-Derwent Interfluve: livestock movement£.· 1800 A. D.

104

T ab le 4 A

C l i ma t ic d a ta f or t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve Based o n L . P . Sm ith ( 1976)

North

S ou th

Grow ing s eason

2 09 d ays

2 41 d ays

P oten t ia l t ransp ira t ion

3 68 m m

4 52 m m

G raz ing s eason

1 19 d ays

2 13 d ays

5 55

7 45

Win ter d egree-days b e low 0° C

2 15

1 60

S un h rs/day Aug-Sep t

4 .4 ;

Ra in fa l l p .a .

1 151 m m

7 14 m m

T e mpera ture r ange

1 .7-14 .5 o C

2 .7 -16 . 1 °C

D egree-days a bove 1 0° C May-Oc tober

3 .5

4 .8 ;

3 .8

Table 4B

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve S o me c o mpara t ive p o l len s pec tra

Based o n Pearson , i n Posnansky ( 1956 ); Tal l is , i n Rad ley ( 1966a ); H icks ( 1971); S h i mwe l l , i n Bra mwel l ( 1971); Gre ig , i n Sm i th ( 1977 ). K ey t o s i tes : A

To t ley Moss c . 3 000 b .c. ( pea t b og )

B

To t ley Moss c . 1 700 b .c.

C

H ipper S ick e . 1 700 b .c. ( pea t b og )

D

Fox Ho le Cave ' A ' Hor izon ( cave e ar th )

E

Fox Ho le Cave ' B ' Hor izon ( p it i n c obbled f l oor )

F

S tan ton Moor c . 1 500 b .c. ( bur ied s o i l )

G

Swarkestone J . 1 500 b . c.( bur ied s o i l )

H I

F isherw ick , S taf fs. c . 2 00 b .c. ( d itch? ) H ipper S ick c . 3 00 J .c.

1 500 b .c. ( ? )

N .B . S o me t axa wh ich a re r epresen ted i n v ery sma l l q uan t it ies i n o ne l oca l ity o n ly a re om it ted.

1 06

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e x

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0 1 0 2 0

TABLE ( cont4)

1 08

Tab le 4 C

Modern l and-use d ata f or t he Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve f ro m H arr is ( 1941)

Arab le

P asture

H ea th

Whea t

C lover

Oa ts

To ta l ( acres) 2 0118

A

2 80

1 6081

3 757

5 5

1 00

B

1 008

2 2533

1 307

2 8

3 23

2 51

2 4848

C

1 647

1 4823

1 70

5 28

3 18

2 86

1 6640

A

C ows

A l l C at t le

S heep

P igs

Ho ld ings

3 233

5 912

6 916

4 71

3 53

B

5 535

8 917

4 078

8 30

3 22

C

4 685

7 204

4 400

8 21

2 85

A =l imestone p la teau n or th o f Wye B =l imestone p la teau s ou th o f Wye C = Tr iassic f oo th i l ls

1 09

CHAPTER 5 THE DOVE DER WE NT I NTERFLUVE: PREH ISTORIC LAND-USE AND S ETTLE ME NT

1 .

Chrono logy An e ssen t ial r equ ire men t f or t he r econstruct ion o f p reh istor ic l and-use

i s ac hrono log ical f ra mework . Any c onclus ions t ha t may b e d rawn a bou t t he d evelopmen t o f t he a gr icu l tura l e cono my w il l b e c ond it iona l o n t he s oundness a nd d e ta i l o f t he c hrono logy . Twen ty t hree 1 4 C d a tes a re a t p resen t a va ilable f or t he r eg ion o r j ust o u tside i tf or t he p er iod w e a re c oncerned w i th :

t hese

a re s e t o u t i n Table 5 A. These d ates a re d er ived e i ther f ro m a rchaeo log ica l o r p o l len-ana ly t ica l c on tex ts. They must p rov ide a n o u t l ine c hrono logy , wh ich may b e c onf ir med b y

1 4

Cd a tes d rawn f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he c oun try f or i den-

t i ca l o r c o mparable a sse mblages.

The a ssump t ion w il l b e f o l lowed h ere t ha t

t he a ppearance o f c er ta in d ist inct ive c u l tural a sse mblages w i l l b e a pprox i mately s ynchronous i n t h is r eg ion a nd e lsewhere i n t he c oun try , u n less i ndependen t e v idence s hows t ha t t h is i s n o t t he c ase. Because t he f l in t a nd c her t i ndustr ies o f t he r eg ion c on ta in r ela t ively f ew t ypes t ha t a re c losely d a table, a r tefac ts i n o ther ma ter ia ls, i nclud ing g round s tone a xes p o ttery a nd b ronze , a re n or ma l ly more h elp fu l.

For t nese a r tefac tua l c ategor ies a r easonably s ecure

B r it ish c hrono logy s uppor ted b y 1 4 C d ates wh ich h as n ow b een e stabl ished ( c f . Ren frew 1 974 ). I ng enera l t he c hrono logy wh ich f o l lows h as a vo ided t he d iscuss ion o f i nd iv idua l a r tefac ts.

I ti sb ased o ng roups o f c u l tura l t ra its w h ich t oge ther

c harac ter ise c er ta in p er iods. The o b ject o f t he c hrono logy i s t o p rov ide a s er ies o f p er iods u nder w h ich s pa t ia l d a ta c an b e g rouped a nd p lo t ted. S ince t he p resen t s tudy i s c oncerned w i th d emon stra t ing c on t inu i ty a nd d iscon t inu i ty i n l and-use o ver a c ons iderable s pan o f t ime, t he d iv isions h ave b een d rawn t o f u l f il t h is o b jec t. The m in i mum c onven ien t u n it i s d eter m ined b y t he r a te o f c hange a nd d evelopmen t.

A s w e

h ave s een , as tudy o f t he d eve lopmen t o f l and-use i n t he l ast m il lenn ium may c onstruc t ive ly s elec t p er iods o f 1 00 o r e ven 5 0 y ears a s i t s c hrono log ica l u n i ts. F or t he p resen t work , h owever , i th as b een f e l t i mpract icab le a nd u nnecessary t o w ork w i th p er iods o f l ess t han 5 00 y ears. These u n its, wh ich c an s o met i mes b e d iv ided i n to t wo p hases o f c . 2 50 y ears , c onst i tu te t he c hrono log ica l r efere n t a ga in st w h ich c hange i n s e t t le men t a nd e cono my c an b e s et. I n g enera l a rchaeo log ica l c hrono log ies d o n o t h ave s pec if ic o b jec t ives a nd h ence t he a im h as b een t oward i ncreased r ef inemen t. The f act t ha t ag rea t d ea l o fu nreso lved a rchaeo log ica l c on troversy h as i n t he p ast b een c en tred o n c hrono log ical d eta il s ugges ts, h owever , t ha t t he d a ta a re i nadequa te t o b ear o ver-ref ine men t ( c f . Case 1 977 ). The most t ha t c an b e h oped f or , g iven t he n a ture o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , i s as er ies o fb road c hrono log ica l u n its w ith i mprec ise b oundar ies, t o o ne o r a no ther o f w h ich t he ma jor ity o f s i tes may

11

w i th r easonable c on f idence b e a ss igned. S uch a s che me i s a t a ny r a te p refera ble f or o ur p urpose t han a n o ver-ref ined c hrono logy , i n wh ich a f ew s i tes a re a l leged ly c lose ly d ated b u t t he ma jor i ty o f s i tes a re i gnored. A l though c erta in o f t he p er iods d ef ined i n t h is c ase-study c orrespond t o c onven t iona l a rchaeo log ica l p er iods ( e .g. ' m idd le n eo l ith ic ' ) t he t rad i t iona l n o mencla ture h as b een r e jec ted h ere f or t he f o l low ing r easons: ( a ) t he t erms a re f requen t ly c on fus ing , s ince t hey may s tand b o th f or b locks o f t ime a nd a lso f or c u l tura l a sse mblages, h ence c o mposi te c h imeras s uch a s ' l a te-neo l ith ic/ e ar ly b ronze-age; ( b ) t he p er iods a re o fg rea t ly v ary ing l engths, f ro m 1 000 y ears t o l ess t han a c en tury . There a re o bv iou s s ta t ist ica l p roble ms a bou t c o mp ar ing d istr ibu t ions r epresen ta t ive o f s uch v ary ing l eng ths o f t ime; ( c ) t he t erm ino logy c onveys , i fo n ly b y i mp l ica t ion , ac er ta in s i mp le t echno log ica le cono m ic mode l o f p reh istory , t he v al id ity o f w h ich i s h igh ly q uest ionable. The e arl iest i nd ica t ion o f ap oss ible a gr icu l tura l p resence i n t he r eg ion i s d rawn f ro m p o l len-cores i n East Moor. H icks ( 1971 ) r epor ted a d ecl ine i n U l mus a nd t he a ppearance o fP lan tago l anceo la ta i n t wo o f h er s i tes o n East Moor w i th

1 4

Cd a tes o f 3 040 ± 1 40 b .c. a nd 2 820 ± 1 00 b .c.

The p oss ible i m-

p l ica t ions o f t hese f lor ist ic c hanges w il l b e d iscussed l a ter. The e x is tence o f t h is h or izon i n t he p o l len s equences t aken f ro m t he S ou th P enn ines , j ust n or th o f t he r eg ion , h as n o t b een d e monstra ted ( Tal l is 1 . 964; Ta l l is a nd Sw i tsur 1 973 ). Bu t c orrobora t ive e v idence f or t he p resence o f a gr icu l tura l c o m mun it ies i n a t l east s o me p ar ts o f t he r eg ion b y t he s econd q uar ter o f t he 3 rd m il lenn ium b .c. i s p rov ided b y ad a te o f 2 750 ± 1 50 b .c. f ro m a p i t c on ta in ing g ra in a t A ston-onTren t i nt he e x tre me s ou th o f t he r eg ion ( Reaney 1 968 ). Th is p i t w as p ar t o f a n o ccupa t ion c o mp lex wh ich h ad s ubsequen t ly b een s ea led b enea th a 2 nd m i l lenn ium b .c. b ur ia l mound. The p o t tery r ecovered f ro m t h is s i te i s c ons isten t w ith t he 1 4 C d a te. I ti s q uar tz-gr it ted Gr i mston ware , l ikened b y L ongwor th t o G r i mston p ot tery f ro m t he Yorksh ire Wo lds. l ülha m L ong Barrow o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds lc on ta in ing p o t tery o ' t h is d escr ip t ion , h as g iven a c o mparable d a te o f2 880 + 1 25 b .c. ( Manby 1 976 ). E lsewhere i n t he Dove-Derwen t I n ter fluve Gr i mston ware i s k nown f rom f ive s i tes, i nc lud ing c aves, s urface-sca tters p robab ly d er ived f rom o ccupa t ion s i tes la nd ab ur ia l p lace. These a re l i sted i n Table 5 E. S ince Gr i mston w are i s k nown t o h ave h ad a l i fe i n t h is c oun try e x tend ing f ro m C . 3 750-2200 b .c. ( Sm i th 1 974 ), i t s p resence i s o n ly a v ery g enera l c on f ir m a t ion o f t he d a te o f t he e arl iest p o t tery-users i nt he r eg ion . As econd s ource o f e v idence f or e stabl ish ing t he c hrono logy o f t h is e ar ly p er iod i s p rov ided b y t he i so la ted f inds o f g round s tone a xes. These t oo ls h ave l ong b een r egarded a s o r ig ina t ing w i th t he f i rst a gr icu l tura l ists i n t h is c oun try. A bou t 4 00 g round s tone a xes o r f rag men ts o f a xes h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he r eg ion a nd more t han h a lf o f t h se h ave b een g eo log ica l ly e xa m ined ( Moore a nd Cu m m ins 1 974 ). N one o ft he g roups r egarded a s e ar ly b y Evens e t a l . ( 1962 ) i s r epresen ted . The t wo g roups f ro m i den t if iab le s ources most a bundan t ly r ep resen ted a re G roup V I ( Grea t L angda le ) a nd G roup V I I ( Gra ig Lwyd ) o f wh ich 6 8 a nd 2 3 e xa mp les r espec t ively h ave b een i den t if ied f ro m t he r eg ion .

Cumm ins

a nd Moore ( 1973 ) r egarded Groups V I a nd V I I a s o n ly p ar tly c on te mporary i n t he East Mid lands, w i th Group V I I c om ing i n r ela t ively e arly a nd Group V I s urv iv ing r ela t ively l a te. Th is may a lso b e t rue o f t he Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve. An e ar ly p hase o ft he p roduct ion o f Group V I a xes a t Grea t L angda le h as b een 12

d a ted t o 27 50-2500 B .C. ( Sm ith 1 974 ), b u t p roduct ion i s l ikely t o h ave c on t inu ed a t l east u n t il t he e nd o f t he m i l lenn ium . An a xe f ro m t h is s ource was f ound b en ea th a c a irn o n Ra msley Moor , p robab ly d a t ing t o t he m id 2 nd m il lenn ium b .c.

( Henderson 1 963 ). S uch a d a te f or a n a xe o f t h is p er iod i s l a te i n

c o mpar ison w i th e xa mp les f rom e lsewhere i n t he c oun try.

N evertheless, 1 0

e xa mp les o f Group XV a xes , w ith a s ource i n t he s ou th o f t he L ake D istr ict , a re k nown f ro m t he r eg ion . They a re a ss igned b y Evens e t a l . ( 1962 ) t o t he f i rst h a l f o ft he 2 nd m il lenn ium b .c.

a nd i nd ica te t hat L ake D istr ict s ources

c on t inued t ob e e xp lo ited f or r aw mater ia l u n t il t h is p er iod.

I ts ee ms p robable

t ha t t he Grea t L angda le q uarr ies wou ld h ave c on t inued i n u se wh i le o ther r ocks i n t he s ame r eg ion w ere b eing worked. The r ecord o f g round s tone a xes i s c ons isten t w ith t he v iew t hat t he e ar l ie st a gr icu l tura l p resence i nt he r eg ion i s n o e ar l ier t han t he b eg inn ing o f t he 3 rd m il lenn iu m b .c. Th is d a te i s i n a gree men t w i th t he 1 4 C d a tes b o th f or t he e l m-decl ine a nd t he e ar l iest k nown a gr icu l tura l s i te. An umber o fb ur ial s i tes s i tua ted o nt he l imestone p la teau o r i n t he d a les a re c harac ter ised b y mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion . Th is b ur ia l r i te i s k nown t o h ave b een p reva len t amongst t he e ar l iest a gr icu l tura l c o mmun it ies i n t he Br it ish I s les. I tw as p ar t ia l ly s uperseded b y i nd iv idua l b ur ia l i n many p ar ts o f Br i ta in i n t he p er iod c . 2 000-1700 b .c.

Th is i s ap r i ma f ac ie c ase f or r egard ing t hese

b ur ia l p laces a s b elong ing t o t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b .c. o r a t t he l a test t he f i rst t hree c en tur ies o f t he 2 nd m il lenn ium b .c. These b ur ial p laces b elong t o t wo c a tegor ies :

c aves a nd c a irns.

N one h as b een d a ted b y

1 4

Ch owever , s o t ha t w e

a re d ependen to n t he a r tefac ts r ecovered f rom t he ir e xcava t ion f or a n i nd ica t ion o ft he ir p os it ion i n t he c hrono log ica l s equence. S evera l o f t he c a irns, i nclud ing Green L ow , Minn inglow , F ive Wel ls, R ingham L ow a nd Harborough Rocks, h ave b een a ssigned t o t he ' mega l i th ic t o mb ' s er ies b y s evera l a u thor it ies (Piggo t t 1 954; Manby 1 958; Dan iel 1 950 ). They a ppear t o c ons ist a s ag roup o f l arge wedge-shaped s lab-c ists, s o met i mes l inear ly c onnected i n p a irs, e nc losed i n a n o va l , r ound o r i rregu lar r ubb le c a irn . The o n ly o ne o f t hese t o mbs t o b e e xcava ted i n modern t imes, Green L ow ( Manby 1 965 ) ,h ad a l ow s tone-wa l l f acade a nd a p aved a rea f or m ing a n e n trance t o t he p a ir o f c ists w ith in t he c a irn . I n t he l i ght o f r ecen t work t here s ee ms n o v ir tue i n d raw ing a rch itectura l a na log ies b e tween t hese t o mbs a nd t hose o f o ther r eg ions i n t he h ope o fe stabl ish ing t heir c hrono log ica l p os it ion . The a rch i tecture i s i n f ac t more s a t isfactor i ly d escr ibed i n t er ms o f t he modu lar a na lys is o f l ünnes ( 1975 ) t han t he e ar l ier t axono m ies. Wi thou t s yste ma t ic e xcava t ion a nd d e ta iled s truc tura l a na lys is t here wou ld s ee m n o g ood r eason t o s epara te t h is g roup o f t o mbs, c hrono log ica l ly o r c u lt ura l ly , f rom o ther b ur ia l p laces i n t he r eg ion h av ing mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions i n as lab-c ist b enea th a r ound c a irn . The b est d ocumen ted e xa mp les f rom t he t o mbs o f t h is k ind e xcava ted i n t he l ast c en tury a re S toney L ow a nd L o rg L ow ( Corcoran , i n Fow ler 1 955; Manby 1 958 ). The e ar l iest b u ria ls a t B ee L ow r ound c a irn , e xcava ted b y Marsden ( 1970 ) , c ons isted o f a mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion i n as lab-c ist : t h is w as f o l lowed b y as er ies o f l a ter b ur ia ls , s ome o f wh ich w ere o f s ing le i nd iv idua ls.

N ineteen th c en tury r epor ts s uggest t ha t an umber

o f o ther r ound c a irns may a lso h ave c on ta ined mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions ( s ee Table 5 F ).

13

A t Green L ow t he b lock ing o f t he f orecour t s ealed s herds o f G r i mston ware a nd o ther d o mest ic ma ter ia l , w h ich was a t tr ibu ted t o a n o ccupat ion o f t he s i te p r ior t o t he c onstruc t ion o f t he t o mb ( Manby 1 965 ).

Wi th in t he f u l l

d ep th o f t he c a irn s truc ture b o th G rooved Ware a nd i nde ter m ina te B eaker f rag men ts w ere r ecovered . These f inds w ere t aken a s i nd ica t ing a d a te f or t he t o mb c . 2 000 B .C.

Bu t i fi ti s t rue t ha t t he c onstruct ion o f t he t o mb w as

s pread o ver a c onsiderable p er iod , a s i mp l ied b y o ther t o mbs o f t h is k ind e lsewhere i n t he c oun tty ( Hensha l l 1 974 1 41-143 ), ma ter ial embedded i n t he c a irn w i l l n o t o f c ourse n ecessar ily d a te t he e ar l iest p hase o f t he c onstruct ion a nd u se o f t he t o mb. On ly t wo o ther mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions i n t o mbs w ere a cco mpan ied b y d a table a ssoc ia t ions. A t F ive Wel ls P e terborough p o t tery h as b een r epor ted f ro m t he mater ial a l leged ly r ecovered d ur ing a 1 9 th c en tury e xcava t ion ' f ro m i nside a nd o u ts ide t he b ur ia l c is ts ' ( Piggo tt 1 953 ). A t B ee L ow a n AOC B eaker was a ssoc ia ted w i th t he mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion ( Marsden 1 970 ). A l l o f t hese p o t tery t ypes a re l i kely t o f a l l i n t he c hrono log ica l b racke ts 20 001 700 b .c. The o n ly o ther a r tefacts f ound w i th t hese b ur ials were l eaf-shaped m iss i le p o in ts a nd f l in t f l akes. L ea f-shaped m iss ile p o in ts a re k nown t o p ersist i n t he r eg ion u n t il t he m id-2nd m il lenn ium b .c . ( Green , i n K el ly 1 976 ), b u t t he a bsence o f o ther f l in t t ypes i s c ons isten t w i th a d a te p r ior t o 1 700 b .c . An umber o f c aves i nt he l imestone d a les c on ta in b ur ia ls w h ich may b e long t o t he s a me p er iod a s t he c a irns c on ta in ing mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions ( G ilks 1 973 ). I n o ne i nstance , C a l l ing L ow Da le , t he mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion was a cco mpan ied b y Pe terborough Ware ( P iggo t t 1 953 ). S ke leta l r e ma ins h ave b een r ecovered f ro m 1 0 o ther c aves, a nd s o me o ft hese h ave a lso p roduced Peterborough Ware a nd l ea f-shaped m issi le p o in ts.

Bu t a par t f rom C a l l ing L ow Da le , t he o n ly

w el l-a t tested e xa mp le o fd el ibera te b ur ia ls i s a t Dowel C ave ( Bramwel l 1 959 ) a nd f or t hese t here were n o c losely d a tab le a ssoc ia t ions. We h ave , t here fore, 8 e xa mp les o f mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions i n s lab-c ists b enea th r ubble c a irns a nd o ne e xa mp le o f a mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion i n ac ave t ha t c an b e r easonably c erta in ly p laced b efore 1 700 b .c . There a re a f ur ther 5 e xa mp les o f mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions b enea th c a irns a nd 1 0 i nstances o f p oss ible c ave-bur ia ls, wh ich may b elong t o t he s a me p er iod .

A l l t he c eram ic a ssoc ia-

t i ons a re w i th P eterborough , G rooved ware a nd AOC o r i ndeter m ina te B eakers. Wh ile t he d a te o f t he s tructura l c o mp let ion a nd f i nal u se o f t he t o mbs may g ive n o c lue t o t he ir o r ig ina l c on struct ion , i n t he a bsence o f e v idence t o t he c on trary i ts ee ms most r easonable t o a ssu me a t p resen t t ha t t he c onstruct ion a nd u se o f t he t o mbs f e l l i nt he p er iod 2 200-1700 b .

,w hen e lsewhere i n t he c oun try

Gr i mston w are was n ear ing t he e nd o f i t s l i fe a nd b e ing r ep laced b y P eterborough Ware a nd Grooved Ware , a nd AOC Beakers h ad made a n a ppearance ( Sm i th 1 974 ). A l though t he b ur ia ls c onst i tu te t he most a bundan t c lass o f e v idence f or t h is p er iod , t here i s a ccumu la t ing e v idence f or o ccupa t ion s i tes i nt he r eg ion c on te mporary w i th t he b ur ia ls. S everal c ave a nd s urface -sca t ter s i tes i n t he r eg ion h ave p roduced sma l l q uan t i t ies o f P eterborough a nd Grooved Ware. Apar t f ro m t he b ur ia l a t Bee L ow , h owever , AOC Beaker p o t tery i s o n ly r ec orded f ro m Wet ton M il l Rock S hel ter ( Kel ly 1 976 ).

A t F ox Ho le C ave P e ter-

b orough p o t tery i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th a Group V I a xe , was s tra t if ied b enea th a r ubble f loor o n wh ich w ere f ound i ndeterm ina te Beaker s herds

14

( Bramwel l

1 971 ). Grooved Ware a nd P e terborough Ware h as b een r eported f ro m s evera l l oca t ions o n t he l imes tone p la teau f ro m s urface s ca t ters, l ike ly t o h ave b een d er ived f ro m d o mest ic s i tes.

I n e ach c ase t he a cco mpany ing mater ial

i ncluded f rag men ts o f g round s tone a xes a nd f l in t a nd c her t sma l l t oo ls t ha t a re n o t i n t he mselves c losely d a table. Grooved Ware a nd Beaker f rag men ts w ere a lso r ecovered f ro m a n o ccupa t ion s i te a t Wi l l ing ton o n t he Tren t ( Wheeler 1 972 ). We h ave t herefore a p er iod o f c . 1 300 y ears ( 2 . 3 000-1700 b .c.) d ur ing w h ich , o n p resen t e v idence ,the e ar l iest a gr icu l tura l s e tt le men t o f t he DoveDerwen t I n terf luve was t ak ing p lace.

The e ar l iest r ecord o f a gr icu l tura l ists

i s s o me 7 50 ( rad io-carbon ) y ears a f ter t he ir i n it ia l a ppearance i n t he Br i t ish I s les, b u t i s a pprox i ma tely s ynchronous w ith t he e arl iest r ecord f or a gr icu lt ura l ists i n Yorksh ire , f or w h ich t wo d a tes o f c . 3 000 b .c. h ave b een o b ta ined f ro m L ong Barrows o n t he Wo lds. The p er iod c . 3 000-1700 b .c. c an t en ta t ively b e d iv ided o n t he b asis o f t he p o t tery s equence i n to t wo p hases :

( 1 ) 3 000-2200 b .c. when Gr i mston ware ,

s im ilar t o t ha t o f t he Yorksh ire Wo lds was i nu se ;

( 2 ) 2 200-1700 b .c. when

P e terborough Ware , G rooved Ware a nd AOC Beakers w ere c urren t .

Dur ing

t h is p er iod mu lt ip le i nhu ma t ion i n s lab-c ists u nder r ubble c a irns o r i n c aves w as t he n or ma l b ur ia l p rac t ice.

N one o f t he k nown b ur ia l p laces n eed b e e ar l ier

t han t he s econd p hase , 2 200-1700 b .c., a nd t he f our wh ich p rov ided d a t ing e v id ence a l l s howed a p er iod o f u t i l isa t ion i n t h is p hase. F ive

1 4

C d ates a re r e levan t t o t he p roble m o f t he d ura t ion o f t he v ar ious

r i tes o f i nd iv idua l b ur ia l u nder a b arrow i n t he r eg ion .

Ac a irn a t Har land Edge

g ave a 1 4 C d a te o f 1 750+150 b .c. f or t he e pr l iest b ur ia l i n ar ock-cu t g rave. Th is g rave w as n o t a cco mpan ied b y p o t tery a t tr ibu table t o a ny wel l-def ined c era m ic t rad it ion ( R i ley 1 966 ).

O ther b ur ia ls i n s tra t igraph ica l ly l a ter p os it ions

i nt he s a me c a irn w ere

a cco mpan ied b y Food Vessels, a nd o ne o f t hese g ave

ad a te o f 1 490+150 b .c.

A c re ma t ion bur ia l i n as tra t igraph ical ly l a te p os it ion

i n ab arrow a t Swarkestone g ave a d a te o f 1 395±160 b .c. b y a Co llared U rn ( Posnansky 1 955;

L ew is 1 966 ).

Th is w as a cco mpan ied

Co mparable d a tes o f 1 430

+ 150 b .c. a nd 1 500+150 b .c. h ave b een o bta ined f or c re ma t ions i n c ircular e nc losed c e me ter ies a cco mpan ied b y Co l lared U rns a t Tot ley Moor I V ( Rad ley 1 966a ) a nd B arbrook C irc le I ( Lew is 1 966 ). On t he e v idence o f t he

1 4

Cd a tes, t here fore, i nd iv idual b ur ia l b enea th a

b arrow i s l ikely t o h ave b een p rac t ised i nt he r eg ion f or a t l east 3 50 ( rad ioc arbon ) y ears , b etween c . 1 750 a nd c . 1 400 b .c. A p ar t ia l ly i ndependen t means o f c heck ing t h is e st i ma te i s p rov ided b y s o me o f t he a ssoc ia t ions f ound w i th t he bur ials.

Apart f ro m t he AOC B eaker men t ioned a bove , wh ich was f ound

w ith a mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion , t here a re n o e arly Beakers a cco mpany ing b arrow b ur ia ls i n t he r eg ion .

Three g raves c on ta in Beakers o f C larke 's European

G roup , a nd f or t hese h is e st i ma ted d ate f a l ls c . 1 700-1600 b .c. ( Clarke 1 970 ). Af ur ther 4 0 b ur ia ls ( i .e. a n e st i ma ted 3 .5% o f t he t o ta l ) w ere a cco mpan ied b y Beakers, ma in ly o f C larke 's S ou thern S er ies, f or wh ich h e s uggests d a tes o f 1 650-1475 b .c.

Further c on f ir ma t ion o f t he g enera l c orrectness o ft he

c hronology o f t he b arrow b ur ia ls i s p rov ided b y t wo p erfora ted a xeheads a cc o mpany ing i nhu ma t ions a t Carder L ow a nd Parce l ly Hay.

1 15

These a re t he o n ly

k nown e xa mp les o f G roup X I I a xes i n t he r eg ion ( Moore a nd Cu mm ins 1 974) . Axes o f t h is g roup , f ro m a s ource a t Hyssing ton i n Mon tgo merysh ire, h ave av ery r estr icted d istr ibu t ion i n Br i ta in a nd a re b e l ieved t o h ave b een p rod uced d ur ing a c o mpara t ive ly b r ie f p er iod d ur ing t he e ar ly s econd mi l lenn iu m B . C . ( Sho t ton e t a l . 1 951;

Evens e t a l . 1 962 ) .

Apar t f ro m t wo ' r ich ' g raves, a t Green L ow a nd E lton Moor ( t he l at ter o n ly u ncer ta in ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a Beaker ) t he r e ma in ing ' Beaker b ur ia ls ' were o n ly modest ly f urn ished .

B ut a r tefact-types f ound i n t hese b ur ia ls

were a lso f ound , t hough l ess f requen t ly , i n o ther g raves.

I n v iew o f t h is

t here s ee ms l i t t le j ust if ica t ion f or i so la t ing a n u mber o f b ur ia ls, c onst itut ing s o sma l l ap ercen tage o f t he t ota l , a s as pec ia l c a tegory s i mp ly b ecause aB eaker i s p resen t a s o ne o f t he g rave-goods .

R a ther , B eakers s hou ld b e

s een a s o ne a r tefact-type f ro m a n e x tens ive r ange o f g rave-goods, i nc lud ing b arbed-and-tanged missi le p o in ts, f l ake k n ives, b one s patu lae, f l in t d aggers, r ive t ted b ronze d aggers, b ronze aw ls a nd j e t b u t tons, wh ich a re r egu lar ly r epresen ted i n g raves o f t he p er iod .

The r ecorded a ssoc ia t ion o f F ood Vesse ls

a nd C o l lared Urns w ith i t e ms b e long ing t o t h is r eper tory c on f irms t ha t t hese p ot tery t ypes were i n c on te mporary u se i n t he r eg ion w i th Beakers . T he c onstruct ion o f b arrows, a s o pposed t o t he ir c on t inued u t i l isat ion f or b ur ia ls, c annot a t p resen t b e s hown t o h ave p ers isted i n t he r eg ion l a ter t han c . 1 500 b .c .

A l l d a ted b ur ia ls l a ter t han t h is a re i n s tra t igraph ica l ly l a te

p osi t ions w ith in t he b arrows .

The d ates f or t he c re ma t ions a t Barbrook

C irc le a nd T ot ley Moor i nd ica te t ha t c re ma t ion i n c e me ter ies i n a n e ar th o r s tone 'r ingwork ' h ad p robab ly s uperseded b ur ia l b enea th a b arrow b y c . 1 500 b .c ., a t l east i n t he n or th o f t he r eg ion .

The T o t ley Moor b ur ia ls a lso— p ro-

d uced t wo l a ter d a tes o f 1 250 + 1 50 b .c . a nd 1 050 + 1 50 b .c .

These d ates may

p erhaps b e t rea ted w ith c au t ion s ince a l l t he b ur ia ls a ppeared t o t he e xcava tor t o b e c on te mporary : b een c on ta m ina ted .

L ew is ( 1966) h as s uggested t ha t t he s a mp les may h ave The T o t ley Moor a nd B arbrook C irc le c re ma t ions were

a ssoc ia ted w i th C o l lared Urns .

Rad io-Carbon d a tes f ro m e lsewhere i n t he

c oun try s uggest t ha t c re ma t ion i n C o l lared Urns d id n o t c on t inue a f ter 1 200 b .c . a t t he l a test ( Burgess 1 969;

1 974) .

I ti s p robab le t ha t c re ma t ion w ith in a n e nc losed c ircu lar c e me tery d oes n ot r epresen t a n a brup t b reak i n b ur ia l p rac t ice

b u t s i mp ly t he d im inut ion

a nd f ina l e l i mina t ion o f t he c over ing c a irn o r e ar th mound f ro m t he a rch itect ure o f t he b ur ia l p lace . ( Hea thco te 1 930 ;

1 936 ;

The S tan ton Moor c a irns, e xcava ted b y t he Hea thco tes 1 939) r egu lar ly c on ta ined a 'r ingwork ' ,s ubsequen t ly

b ur ied w ith in t he c a irn s tructure .

I t may b e a ssu med t ha t i n many c ases t he

c a irn o r e ar th mound was e rected a s t he f i na l e ven t i n t he h istory o f t he b ur ia l p lace, e qu iva len t t o t he c losure o f ac o l lect ive t o mb ( c f . P e terson 1 972 ) . The e xcava t ion o f Barrow I V a t Swarkestone c lear ly s howed t ha t i th ad b een co nstructed i n t wo s tages ( Green f ie ld 1 960 ) . v iewed , l i ke t he

I ft hese b ur ia l mounds a re

mega l ith ic t o mbs ' a nd L ong B arrows, a s e ssen t ia l ly c o m-

p os i te monu men ts c onstructed o ver a p er iod o f t ime , t he 'r ingworks ' may b e r egarded a s t he p ar t ia l c on t inua t ion o f t he t rad i t ion o f b arrow b ur ia l . Twen ty e igh t

r ingworks ' h ave b een l i sted b y R ad ley ( 1966a) f ro m t he n or th

o f t he r eg ion , f ro m S tan ton Moor , Bra mp ton E ast Moor , Eya m Moor , O f fer ton Moor , Ba m ford Moor , Moscar Moor a nd Broo mhead Moor .

16

These

a re a reas f or wh ich c o mpara t ive ly f ew b ur ia l c a irns a re k nown .

Th is s uggests

t ha t where t hey a lready e x is ted b arrows c on t inued t o b e u sed f or b ur ia ls a f ter c . 1 500 b .c. ,b u t t ha t e lsewhere t hey were r ep laced b y e nc losed c e met er ies, On t he b asis o f t he e v idence a t p resen t a va i lab le f or t he b ur ia ls o f t he p er iod c . 1 700-1200 b .c.

at en ta t ive d iv is ion may b e d rawn c . 1 500 b .c .

I n t he e ar l ier p hase s evera l t ypes o f b arrow b ur ia l a ppear t o h ave b een p ract i sed , i nc lud ing i nhu ma t ion i n ar ock-cu t g rave o r s lab-c ist , c re ma t ion i n a s lab-c ist , a nd i nhu mat ion o r c re ma t ion o n t he g round s ur face:

t he b ur ials

w ere o ccas ional ly a cco mpan ied b y a sse mblages o fg rave-goods wh ich i ncluded ar ange o f d ist inc t ive f l in t , s tone, b on e a nd c opper o r b ronze a r tefacts a s wel l a s B eakers, Food V essels a nd Co l lared U rns.

I n t he s econd p hase t he e rec-

t ion o fb arrows a ppears t o h ave b een d iscon t inued b u t e x ist ing b arrows w ere s t i l l u t i l ised a s bur ial p laces. c losed c e meter ies.

E lsewhere t hey w ere r ep laced b y c ircu lar e n-

Dur ing t h is p hase c re mat ion b ur ial , o f ten o n t he g round

s ur face, b eca me t he n or m :

t he r eper tory o f g rave-goods b eco mes i ncreasingly

i mpover ished a nd B eakers a nd Food V essels a re l ess f requen tly r epresen ted t han Co l lared Urns. There a re c o mpara t ive ly f ew o ccupa t ion s i tes t ha t c an c er ta in ly b e a t tr ib u ted t o t he p er iod c . 1 700-1200 b .c . B eakers a nd F ood Vesse ls o n ly o ccas iona l ly t urn u p i n J on-bur ia l c on tex ts i n t he r eg ion , e .g . i n s o me o f t he l imestone c aves o f t he Man i fo ld Va l ley ( see Table 5 G ,p . 1 72 ) , t he r ock-shel ter a t B unker ' sH i l l ( Rad ley a nd C ooper 1 966) , a nd a n o ccupa t ion s i te a t Swarkestone wh ich a n teda ted t he e rect ion o f t he b arrow a nd was d iscovered t hrough t he b arrow e xcavat ion ( Green f ie ld 1 960 ) .

T he Brown Edge

r ingwork ' a t T o t ley

Moor p roduced a q uan t i ty o f f l in t a nd c her t d ebr is, i nc lud ing b arbed-andt anged m iss i le p o in ts, f lake k n ives a nd q uern f ragmen ts, s uggest ing t ha t i t h ad b een u sed a s a dwe l l ing p lace p r ior t o t he b ur ia ls men t ioned a bove .

S ince

many o f t he sma l l t oo ls o f t h is p er iod c anno t b e d ist inguished f ro m t hose o f t he p reced ing p er iod ( c f . G reen , i n K e l ly 1 976) , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he s urf ace s ca t ters o f a r tefacts men t ioned o n p . 14 i n c onnect ion w i th P eterborough a nd Grooved Ware may r epresen t o ccupa t ion d ebr is p ar t ly o r ig ina t ing i n t h is s ubsequen t p er iod .

Barbed-andtanged missi le p o in ts a nd f l ake k n ives, b o th

o f wh ich a re r epresen ted i n t he g raves o f t h is p er iod , f requen t ly o ccur i n t hese s ur face-sca t ters . T he most impor tan t s et t le men t c o mp lex a t tr ibutab le t o t h is p er iod i s Sw ine S ty , c urren t ly b e ing e xcava ted b y t he H un ter Archaeo log ica l S ocie ty ( Mach in 1 969 ;

1 971;

1 973 ) .

The e xcava t ion o f t h is s i te h as r evea led t he f ounda t ions

o f ac ircu lar s tone h ut a nd a p aved a rea w i th in t he e nc losure . may h ave s ucceeded a t imber h ut marked b y p ost -ho les .

T h is s tone h ut

The s i te i s d a ted

o n ly b y p o t tery f inds wh ich r ese mb le c oarse Beakers a nd Urns ( But ter f ie ld , i n Mach in 1 971) . T he s et t le men t i s p ar t o f a n e x tensive c o mp lex a lso i nc lud ing l ow f i e ld wa l ls a nd n u merous l ow c a irns o r c learance h eaps ( see f ig . 5 h p .

1 54 ).

O ne o f t hese l ow c a irns was e xcava ted a nd f ound t o h ave c on tained

o n t he o r ig ina l g round s ur face a g round s tone a xe o f Group V I ( Henderson 1 963 ) . Add i t iona l s uppor t f or a d a te a round t he mid 2 nd mi l lenn iu m f or t he c o mp lex I s p rov ided b y ad a te o f 1 500 + 1 50 b .c . f or a c re ma t ion w i th in a C o l lared Urn f ro m Barbrook C irc le I , l y ing o n t he marg in o f t he c o mp lex .

1 17

The c lose

a ssocia t ion o f Sw ine S ty w i th a n i rregu lar f i e ld c o mp lex s uggests t ha t s im i lar c o mp lexes i n t he r eg ion may b e long t o t he s a me p er iod .

These a re k nown

I n s o me n u mbers a t h igher a lt itudes o n t he g r itstone a nd a re d iscussed i n g rea ter d e ta i l b e low ( p . 1 30f .). D a tes o f 1 180 + 1 32 b .c . a nd 1 130 + 15 b .c . were o bta ined f ro m c harcoa l d eposits i n to wh ich g u l l ies a nd p ost-ho les w ere c ut f or t wo h u ts o n Ma m T or ( Coo mbs 1 976) .

Cha l lis a nd Hard ing ( 1975

3 2 ) a rgue t ha t t hese d epos its

may b e c ons iderab ly o lder t han s o me p ar ts o f t he s e t t le men t , s uggest ing t ha t t he s i te may h ave r e ma ined i n o ccupa t ion d own t o t he 8 th c en tury b .c .

F or

t h is s uggest ion t hey d raw s uppor t f ro m t he p resence amongst t he s ca t ter o f ma ter ia l o f as ocke ted a xe u sua l ly d a ted t o t he 8 th c en tury b .c . a t t he e ar l iest . I ts ee ms u nw ise, h owever , t o b ase c onc lusions o n as ing le a r tefac t .

Ma m

T or p rov ides t he f u l lest c o l lect ion o f p o t tery f or t he p er iod a round t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn iu m b .c .

D ur ing t h is p er iod u rns were r ep laced b y b ucke t

a nd b arre l-shaped v esse ls o f c oarse , h eavy g r it ted f abr ic w ithou t d ecora t ion . Ma m T or , l i ke s evera l o ther 'h i l lfor ts ' wh ich h ave b een t he s ub ject o f e xcava t ion i n r ecen t d ecades, a ppears t o h ave b een a mu lt i-phase c onstruc t ion . T he e ar l iest s e t t le men t o n t he s i te may h ave h ad a p a l isaded e nc losure .

Th is

was f o l lowed b y t wo f ur ther c onstruct iona l p hases o f d efences c ons ist ing o f s tone-revet ted b ox-ra mpar ts.

These p hases o f c onstruct ion h ave n ot y e t b een

i ndependen t ly d a ted . N one o f t he 5 r e ma in ing d efensive e nc losures i n t he r eg ion h as b een e xcav a ted w i th t he e xcep t ion o f Ba l l Cross, a bove Bakewe l l ( Preston 1 954 ; 1 954) .

S tan ley

Bo th o n t he e v idence o f t he p ot tery r ecovered a nd t he c haracter o f i t s

d efences Ba l l Cross c an r easonab ly b e p laced i n t he s a me p er iod a s Ma m Tor , w ith i t s e x ist ing d efences p erhaps b e long ing t o t he f irst t hree c en tur ies o f t he i st mi l lenn iu m b .c . ( Cha l l is a nd Hard ing 1 976) . The d a te o f t he r est o f t he d efens ive e nc losures must b e c on jectura l, b u t i ts ee ms r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t t hey b e long , l i ke Ma m T or a nd Ba l l Cross, t o ap er iod c . 1 200-600 b .c . Th is i s c onsisten t w ith t he a ccu mu la t ing e v idence f or o ther c o mparab le d ef ens ive e nc losures i n n or thern Eng land ( f or d iscuss ion , S avory 1 976) . Apar t f ro m a sma l l n u mber o f s ing le a rte fac ts, ma in ly f ro m c aves, t here i s a t p resen t a n a pparen t g ap i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord b e tween c . 6 00 a nd 3 50 b .c . T here a re, h owever , a n u mber o f C 14 d a tes f or c learance p hases f ro m t he l a t ter d a te o nwards, f or e xa mp le o n E ast Moor , w ith t he e ar l iest d a te a t 3 40 + 1 00 b .c . ( H icks 1 971) , a nd F ea therbed Moss w ith t he e ar l iest d a te a t 3 05 + 5 0 b .c . ( Ta l l is a nd Sw i tsur 1 973 ) .

These d a tes a re c onsisten t

w ith t he e v idence f or a marked a nd s usta ined r ise i n n ontree p o l len i n many p o l len c ores i n n or thern Eng land i n t he 4 th c en tury b .c . ( e .g . T a l l is a nd Macgu ire 1 972 ;

T urner 1 970 ; Bar t ley 1 975) .

Th is p hase o f wood land d ec l ine

c annot b e c onnected w i th t he p opu la t ions r esponsib le f or t he d efens ive e nc los ures, i ft hese a re p laced a s t he e v idence i mp l ies a t l east 5 00 y ears e ar l ier . Archaeo log ica l e v idence o f s et t le men t i s , h owever , b eg inn ing t o a ccu mu la te i n s o me p ar ts o f t he r eg ion f or t he l ast f our c en tur ies b .c . Aer ia l p hotography , f o l lowed b y ap rogra m me o f e xcavat ion b y t he Tren t Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research C omm it tee , h as i den t i f ied a s er ies o f s ix s ub-rectangu lar d itched e nc losures ,n or ma l ly c on ta in ing a c ircu lar h u t , l ocat ed o nt he Tren t g ravels i nt he e x tre me s ou th-east o f t he r eg ion ( s ee Tab le 5 J 18

p . 1 73 f or r eferences ). Most o f t hese s i tes a re r eported t o h ave p roduced ' s cored p o t tery ' o f t he k ind k nown f ro m Breedon-on-the-Hi l l , af ew m i les s ou th o f t he Tren t , a nd Ancaster , e ast o f t he Tren t i n L incs. ( Kenyon 1 950 ; May 1 976).

As i te o f t h is t ype j u st b eyond t he b oundary o f t he r eg ion a t F isherw ick ,

S taf fs. h as g iven a d a te o f 1 80 ± 1 00 b .c. ( Sm i th 1 977 ).

Th is i s c onsisten t w i th

t he f loru i t o f ' scored ware ' i nt he East Mid lands a s a who le. E lsewhere i n t he r eg ion s et t le men ts o f t he l ast s ix c en tur ies b .c. may b e r epresen ted b y an u mber o f sma l l c ircu lar , o va l o r s ub-rectangu lar b anked o r s ton e-wa l led e nclosures, e .g. Cast le R ing , Har th i l l ; a nd D im insda le , Horsborough.

On ly D im insda le h as b een e xcava ted a nd t h is w as u ncon tro l led

a nd o n ly k nown f ro m v erba l i n for mat ion r ecorded b y Rad ley ( no tebook s , S he ff i eld Museum ). S evera l o ther i rregu lar e nc losures p erhaps b elong ing t o t h is p er iod were r eported b y Bu tcher ( unpubl ished i n for ma t ion , S hef f ie ld Museum ) a nd o thers h ave b een i den t if ied b y a er ia l p ho tography ( Cambr idge Un ivers i ty C o l lect ion ).

These e nclosures c ompare c losely i n s ize a nd f or m w ith t hose o f

t he Tren t V a l ley :

t he s ubst i tu t ion o f t he d i tch b y a n e ar th o r s tone b ank r ef lects

d iferences i n l oca l c ond i t ions. Un t il a t l east a n umber o f t hese a re i nvest igat ed b y e xcava t ion i td oes ,however ,s ee m p re ma ture t o i nc lude t he m i n t he d ist r ibu t ion f or t h is P er iod . The r e-u t i l isa t ion o f l imestone c aves i n t he D erwen t a nd Wye v a l leys d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he i s t m i l lenn ium b .c. i s s ubstan t ia ted b y a bundan t ma ter ia l o ft h is d a te f ro m t hree c aves. There i s a lso r enewed e v idence o f t he u t i l isat ion o f t hree o r p oss ib ly f our c aves i n t he v a l leys t o t he w est o f t he l imes tone p lateau ( see Table 5 Jp . 1 74 ).The ma ter ia l i ncludes i ron a rtefacts, b one w eav ing c ombs a nd aw ls, p robably o f t he l as t t hree c en tur ies b .c. D esp i te t he p a tch iness o ft he a rchaeo log ica l s equence , p ar t icu lar ly f or t he i st m i l lenn ium b .c. i ti s p oss ible t o d iv ide u p t he p er iod 3 000-0 b .c. i n to f i ve Per iods o f 8 00-500 y ears d ura t ion . The b oundar ies b e tween t he P er iods may b e b lurred , b u t e ach i s c harac ter ised b y ad is t inc t ive a sse mblage wh ich s erves a dequa tely t o d ef ine i t . 5 .2

These P er iods a re o u t l ined i n Table 5 B.

Preh istor ic L and-use a nd S e t t le men t

I th as b een a rgued a bove ( p .70 )t ha t t he r ecogn it ion o f e ros ion a nd d eposit i on z ones may a l low a n a ssess men t o f t he e x ten t t o w h ich t he d istr ibu t ion o f k nown a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i s at rue g u ide t o t he o r ig ina l p a t tern , e nab l ing t he i so lat ion o f t hose a reas i nw h ich t he r ecord i s l ikely t o h ave s uf fered t he g rea test d istort ion . I n t he Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve l and-face ts 1 , 3a nd 4 o n t he l imes tone, a nd B , Ca nd E o n t he g r i tstone f or ma t ion c an b e a ssigned t o t he e ros ion z one, i n w h ich l andscape p rocesses w il l h ave t ended t o r e move s o i l a nd e xpose b ur ied r e ma in s. These p rocesses may o f c ourse h ave b een a cce lera ted b y c u l t ivat ion .

Downslope move men t w i l l h ave e l im ina ted p reh istor ic s o i l s urfaces

a nd d isturbed s urface s ca t ters a nd a t t he s a me t ime w i l l h ave e xposed b ur ied ma ter ia l a nd h ence i ncreased t he c hances o f i t s d iscovery . Wi th in t he d epos it i on z one w e may l i st l and-face ts 5 a nd F , r epres2n t ing t he f ootslopes o f t he l imestone a nd g r i tstone f or ma t ions r espec t ively .

I n t hese l and-face ts l andscape

p rocesses w il l h ave t ended t o smo ther t he c a tegor ies o f e v idence men t ioned a nd u n less a gr icu l tural o r o ther a ct iv it ies d isturb t he a ccumu lated d eposi ts a rcha eo log ica l ma ter ia l i s l i kely t o r e ma in u nd iscovered.

19

The l evel o r modera tely s lop ing l and-face ts ( 2 ; A : D : G : I : I : I I ) a re s ub jec t t o more l oca l ised e rosiona l a nd d epos i t iona l p hases r ela ted t o m icrot opography .

S ince s o me o ft hese l and-facets ( e spec ia l ly l and-facets 2 , I a nd

I I ) h ave b een u nder i n ter m it ten t o r r egu lar c u l t iva t ion i n t he l ast a nd p resen t c en tur ies, i t wou ld b e a n t ic ipated t ha t s urface s ca t ters a nd i sola ted f i nds wou ld h ave b een f requen t ly made.

I n t he c ase o f l and-face t Aw e h ave t he s pe-

c ia l c ase o f s i mu l taneous d epos i t ion ( b lanke t p ea t ) a nd e ros ion , e xacerbated b y moorland f i res. I ng enera l t hese c ond i t ions a re f avourable f or t he p reserv a t ion a nd d iscovery o f a rchaeo log ical ma ter ia l, b u t t he d istr ibu t ions w il l b e l argely c on tro l led b y t he i nc idence o f e rosion . L and-face ts a a nd b a lso c onst i tu te a s pec ial c a tegory i nw h ich t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i s most s uscep t ib le t o g eo morpho log ica l d istor t ion .

On t he o ne h and w e h ave p rocesses o f mass ive

e ros ion a ssoc ia ted w i th t he m igra t ions o f t he r iver c ourses, wh ich w il l h ave d es troyed a rchaeo log ica l s i tes wherever e ar l ier g ravels h ave b een c u t away a nd r edepos i ted . On t he o ther h and w e h ave t he c omp le men tary p rocess o f a ggrada t ion , wh ich w il l h ave smo thered s i tes a nd made t he m i nv is ible t o a er ia l p ho tography . Th is i nev i tably means t ha t o n t hese l and-face ts s i tes o f e arl ier p er iods w i l l h ave b een s ub jec t t o ah igher d egree o f d estruc t ion a nd o b l itera t ion t han t hose o f l a ter p er iods. The r ev iew o fh istor ica l l and-use makes i tp oss ible t o d ist ingu ish t hose l and-facets i n wh ich a rchaeo log ica l r e ma in s o f t he more e as ily d estroyed c at egor ies, s uch a s s tone-wa l led p lo ts a nd h u t f ounda t ions, w il l a l mos t i nvar iably h ave p er ished , a nd t hose i nw h ich e ven t hese c a tegor ies o f e v idence w ill h ave b een p reserved . A s we h ave s een ( pp .7 0f .; 7 4 ) p ract ical ly t he w ho le r eg ion h as b een u nder t he p lough a t s o me s tage d ur ing t he l ast m i l lenn ium , w ith t he e xcep t ion o ft he h igher a l t i tude l and-facets o f t he g r itstone f or ma t ion ( A: B :C:D : a nd p ar t o f E ). I ti s w i th in t h is s econd g roup o f l and-facets t ha t t he p reserva t ion o f e v idence o f t h is k ind m igh tb e l ooked f or. S ince t he r ecovery o f s urface s ca t ters a nd i so la ted f inds i s l arge ly d ep enden t o n modern a c t iv i t ies wh ich d isturb t he s o i l t he i nc idence o f c u l t iva t ion i n t he l ast h undred y ears i s ah elp fu l b ackground a ga inst w h ich t o c ons ider t he d istr ibu t ions o f t hese c a tegor ies o f e v idence.

The b ias h ere may b e t owards

t hose l and-face ts i n w h ich s o i ls a re f reely d ra ined a nd l i gh t o r moderately l i gh t i n t ex ture , s ince t hese s o ils h ave b een p referred u nder modern c u l t iva t ion p ract ices ( i .e. l and-face ts 2 , 4 , I , Ia nd 1 2 ). T h is i nev i tably means t ha t t he d is tr ibu t ion o f f i nds o n t he h eav ier s o ils ( 5 :F :G :I I I ) i s l ess r el iab le. I n t he f o l low ing a na lys is t he i n f luence o f t hese f ac tors h as b een t aken i n to a ccoun t , s o t ha t t he i nheren t p ar t ia l ity o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord c an more c lear ly b e p erce ived. P er iod 1 c . 3 000-2200 b .c . There a re f i ve ma in c a tegor ies o f a rchaeo log ical e v idence o n wh ich a r ec onstruc t ion o f l and-use a nd s et t le men t d ur ing t h is p er iod c an b e b ased : ( i ) s urface s ca t ters o f ma ter ial , i nc lud ing p o t tery ; a nd c hert sma l l t oo ls a nd i ndustr ia l waste ; ( i v ) e xcava ted c ave o ccupa t ion s i tes; p os i t ions.

( i ) s ur face s ca t ters o f f l in t

( i i i ) i so la ted f inds o f s tone a xes;

( v ) e xcava ted o ccupa t ion s i tes i n o pen

The most a bundan t e v idence f or t he p er iod i s p rov ided b y t he i so la ted f i nds o f s tone a xes, o f w h ich t hose b elong ing t o Group V I I f ro m Gra ig Lwyd c an 1 20

a l most c er ta in ly b e a t tr ibu ted t o t h is p er iod .

The d istr ibu t ion o f a xes f rom

G roup V I f ro m Grea t L angda le may a lso b e c onsidered h ere , e ven t hough a xes o f t h is Group a re l ikely t o h ave c on t inued i n w idespread u se a t l east u n t il t he e nd o f P er iod 2 .

Group V I I a xes h ave b een r ecorded i nt he g rea test n umbers

o n t he l imestone p la teau ( l andfacets 1 -4 ) a nd a re e n t irely a bsen t f rom t he h igh a l t itudes o f t he g r itstone f or ma t ion ( l and-face ts A -E ). S ince t he l arge n umber o f s i tes a nd f inds o f o ther p er iods ( i nclud ing t he meso l i th ic ) o n t hese l andf ace ts i s i nd ica t ive o f ah igh l evel o f a rchaeo log ica l e xp lora t ion a nd d iscovery , t he l ack o f G roup V I I a nd i n frequency o f Group V I a xes o n t hese l and-facets may b e t aken a s t rue o f t he o r ig ina l d istr ibu t ion .

Th is imp l ies t ha t t he a c t iv i-

t i es a ssoc ia ted w i th t he g round s tone a xes i n Per iod 1were c on f ined t o a l t itudes b elow 4 00 m. The f ac t t ha t p rac t ical ly a l l G roup V I I a xes a nd most G roup V I a xes w ere f ound o n t he l imestone , a nd c lus ter marked ly i n l and-facet 1 , may a lso i mp ly t ha t t hese a c t iv i t ies w ere r estr ic ted t o t he more c a lcareous s o ils. F ew r ecords e x ist o f s urface s ca t ters o f ma ter ia l w ith p o t tery a t tr ibu table t o t h is p er iod . The d istr ibu t ion o f t hese s i tes r ef lects t he a ct iv it ies o f a sma l l n umber o ff i e ldworkers i n r ecen t y ears. S im i larly , a l l t he e xcava ted o pen s i tes h ave b een f ound n o t a s t he r esu l t o f s yste ma t ic f i eldwork , b u t a cc iden ta l ly a s a r esu l t o f e xcava t ing s i tes o f l a ter p er iods.

I ts ee ms l ikely f rom t he c on t inu ing

work o f t he Tren t Va l ley A rchaeo log ical R esearch Com m it tee t ha t t he A ston-onTren t s i te w il l p rove t ob e o ne o f a much l arger n umber o f s i tes b elong ing t o Per iod 1 o n t he a l luv ial-gravels. The d istr ibu t ion o f o ccupa t ion s i tes i n c aves i s most i nstruct ive f or t he e x tre me p auc i ty o f f inds c erta in ly a t tr ibu table t o Per iod 1 , d esp ite t he l arge n umber o f c aves t ha t h ave b een e xa m ined. I n t h is r espect t h is p er iod i s i n c on trast t o t he s ubsequen t p er iods. S ince c aves h ave r egu lar ly b een made u se o f f or a t l east t e mporary o ccupa t ion b y l oca l c om mun it i es t hroughou t p reh istor ic a nd h istor ica l t imes, t he e x iguous r ecord o f c ave f inds f or P er iod 1 s uggests t ha t t he e arl iest a gr icu l tura l p opu la t ions i n t he n or th o f t he r eg ion w ere r e la t ively f ew i n n umbers. Many c asua l f inds o r s ca tters o ff l in t a nd c her t sma l l t oo ls , i nc lud ing l eaf-shaped m issile p o in ts , h ave b een r epor ted f rom t he h igh a l t i tudes o ft he g r itstone f or mat ion ( l and-face ts A , Ba nd E ).

These i nc lude t ypes w h ich may

b elong t o Per iod 1 , a l though i n n o c ase c an t he a t tr ibu t ion b e c onsidered c ert a in ,g iven t he n a ture o f t he ma ter ia l .

On t he a ssump t ion t ha t s ome a t l east

o f t h is ma ter ia l b elongs t o t h is p er iod , i t s d istr ibu t ion i s i nstruc t ive b ecause i to ccurs i n l ocal i t ies f or wh ich e v idence f or t he p er iod o f o ther c a tegor ies i s marked ly a bsen t. The v ar ious p o l len-ana ly t ica l i nvest iga t ions r elevan t t o t h is p er iod w ere a l l n ecessar i l ly made i n p ea t-bogs o nt he g r its tone a t l east 1 0 km f rom t he k nown o ccupa t ion s ites. A s w e h ave s een ( p . 12 ) H icks r ecorded a d ec l ine i n U l mus a nd t he a ppearance o fP lan tago l anceo la ta a t To t ley Moss a nd H ipper S ick w i th d a tes o f 3 040 + 1 40 a nd 2 820 + 1 00 b .c. r espec t ively . These p o l len d iagra ms p roduced v ery l ow c oun ts f or U l mus p r ior t o t he d ecl ine, a nd t he s a me w as t rue o f t he S ou th Penn ine s i tes e xam ined b y Tal l is ( 1964 ). These l ow c oun ts s uggest t ha t e lm f ormed b u t a sma l l c o mponen t o f t he wood land o n t he g r itstone f or ma t ion .

I ti s l i ke ly t ha t a s ah igh n u tr ien t-de mand ing s pec ies,

e lm w i l l h ave b een more p reva len t o n t he b rown c a lcareous s o ils o f t he l imes tone p la teau ( e sp. l and-facets 1 a nd 4 ) t han o n t he g r itstone.

I ts ee ms p oss ible ,

t herefore, t ha t t he p o l len s equences a re r ecord ing c hanges i n t he f orest c o rn1 21

p os i t ion wh ich w ere most s ign if ican t o n t he l imestone p la teau , a t s ome d istance f rom t he p ea t-bogs s a mp led. Th is v iew i s c onsisten t w i th t he d istr ibu t ion o f Group V I I a nd Group V I a xes.

I t may b e s uggested t hat t he d istr ibu t ion o f a xes o f t hese g roups i s a

p ar t ia l r ef lec t ion o f a c t iv it ies c onnec ted w i th t he i n i t ia l s e lect ive i n terference w ith t he w ood land c anopy o n t he more c a lcareous s o ils o f l and-facets 1 a nd 4 . The r educ t ion o f e l m may b e c onnec ted w i th t he u se o f i t s s hoo ts a nd l eaves f or f odder , a s T roe ls-S m i th s uggested ( 1960 ) , o r more p robably w ith t he c rea t ion o f o f g razing a reas o n t he b ase-r ich s o ils i den t if ied b y s tands o f e lm .

Bo th a c-

t iv i t ies a re i ndeed l ike ly t o h ave b een c o mb ined , s ince t hey a re d iferen t a spects o f o ne p rocess :

t he e n large men t o f t he l i vestock ma in tenance r esource.

I n t he

a bsence o f d irect o r i nd irect e v idence f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion i n t h is p ar t o f t he r eg ion , i ts ee ms w isest a t p resen t t o c onclude t ha t t he r educ t ion o f e l m was n o t c onnected w i th c erea l g row ing , t hough t h is p oss ib i l i ty c anno t b e e xc luded. C erea l c ropp ing w as, h owever , p rac t ised i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he Tren t Va l ley ( l andfacets q .a nd b ) i n Per iod 1 . T h is i s p roved b y t he r ecovery o f c erea l g ra ins f ro m a p i t a t A ston-on-Tren t , wh ich g ave a d a te o f 2 750 ± 1 50 b .c. ( Reaney 1 968 ). The p resen t e v idence a l lows t he d ist inc t ion o f t wo a nd p oss ib ly t hree q u i te s epara te l and-use p rac t ices i n Per iod 1 : c erea l c ropp ing o n t he a l luv ia l-gravels ( l and-face ts a a nd b ) i n t he most c l i ma t ica l ly f avourable p art o f t he r eg ion , a nd e lm c ropp ing a nd/or s e lect ive t ree c learance i n t he u p lands, p robably c oncen trat ed o n t he c a lcareous s o i ls o f l and-facets 1 a nd 4 .

I fs ome o f t he s cat ters o f

u nda ted f l in t a nd c hert m issile p o in ts a nd o ther sma l l t oo ls f ro m t he g r i tstone f or ma t ion b elong t o t h is p er iod , w e c an p ostu la te t ha t h un t ing a nd t rapp ing f or w ild g a me may h ave t aken p lace b eyond t i le l im it o f t he a reas t ha t w ere a gr icu lt ura l ly u t i l ised i n t he w ays s uggested . I n v iew o f t he i den t ity o f t he p o t tery a nd f l in t i ndustry i n t he s evera l p ar ts o f t he r eg ion d ur ing t h is p er iod , i t wou ld s ee m u n just if iable t o p ostu la te t he e x istence o f d is t inc t c om mun i t ies f o l low ing d ifere n t e conom ic p rac t ices.

As i mp ler h ypo thes is i s t ha t c om mun it ies , p oss ibly

c oncen tra ted o nt he a l luv ia l-gravels a nd t he ir marg ins , w ere mak ing s easona l o r o ccasiona l u se o f s pec ia l ised r esources o u ts ide t heir ma in a rea o f s e t t le men t. The d istr ibu t ion o f k nown o ccupa t ion s i tes o f t h is p er iod i s c ons isten t w i th t h is v iew , b u t d oes n o t h elp t o e stabl ish t he r e la t ive s izes o f l oca l p opu la t ion g rc ,ups o r t he r ela t ive l eng th o f t ime t ha t s i tes i n d iferen t p ar ts o f t he r eg ion w ere o ccup ied . I ndeed n one o f t he k nown dwel l ing s i tes i n a ny p ar t o f t he r eg ion n eed r epresen t more t han s hor t-ter m o ccupa t ion s. Per iod 2 F or t h is p er iod t he f i ve ma in c a tegor ies o f a rchaeo log ical e v idence l i sted a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he p rev ious s ec t ion a re s t il l a va i lable , b u t t hey a re j o ined b y t wo a dd i t iona l c a tegor ies :

( v i ) b ur ials i n t o mbs , a nd ( v i i ) bur ia ls i n c aves.

S ince t he ma jor ity o fg round s tone a xes, w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he e ar ly G roup V I I a nd a p ropor t ion o f l a te Group X I I a xes, f rom t he Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve p robably b e long t o Per iod 2 , i ti s c onven ien t t o c onsider t he i mp l icat i ons o f t he o vera l l d istr ibu t ion a t t h is p o in t ( f ig. 5 c ).

Th is may b e c o mpared

w i th t he d istr ibu t ion o fg round s tone a xes f or o ther p ar ts o f t he c oun try f or w h ich r ecords e x ist .

1 22

The ma in c oncen tra t ions o f s tone a xes i n P er iod 2 , a s i n Per iod 1 , a re f ound o n t he l imestone p la teau , e spec ial ly l and-face t 1 .

The d istr ibu t ion o n ly

marg ina l ly e x tends t ha t o f t he p rev ious p er iod . I n p ar t icu lar a xes o f Per iod 2a re f ound i n s o me n umbers o n t he u p lands o f t he g r itstone f orma t ions ( l andf acet E ), b u t d o n o t o ccur a t a l t i tudes i n e xcess o f 4 00 m. I ti s h elpfu l t o e xam ine t h is d istr ibu t ion i nt he l i gh t o f d a ta f or t he n e ighbour ing c oun t ies f or w h ich p e tro log ica l s urveys h ave s o f ar b een u nder taken . The a verage d ens ity o f s tone a xes p er 1 00 s q km o ver t he East M id lands a s a who le ( L incs., N ot ts., D erbysh ire a nd L e ics.) h as b een c a lcu lated a t 2 .8. I n s evera l d istr ic ts o f t he l ow lands i nt h is p ar t o f t he c oun try d ens it ies f a l l b e tween 5 a nd 1 0 a xes p er 1 00 s q km , p art icu larly o n t he marg ins o f t he Tren t a nd o n t he L inco lnsh ire Wo lds. Two a reas s tand o u t f or e xcep t iona l ly h igh d en s it ies ( i n e xcess o f 1 0 p er 1 00 s q km ). These a re t he d istr ict N .W . o fS cun thorpe c lose t o t he mou th o f t he Tren t , a nd t he l imestone p la teau i nt he Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve ( f ig. 5 d ). Th is c haracter ist ic o f c luster ing i s af ea ture o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f g round s tone a xes i n Br ita in a s aw ho le.

H igh d ens i t ies o ff inds, c omparable t o t hose

o f t he l imestone p la teau , a re a lso r ecorded f rom t he c ha lk lands o fS .W . Br ita in a nd E. Yorks. These a reas n or ma l ly c o inc ide w i th a reas w h ich a re r ich i n o ther c a tegor ies o f e v idence t ha t c an b e a ss igned t o t he s a me p er iod.

Bu t t here a re

a lso a reas, s uch a s t he d istr ict N .W . o fS cun thorpe , w here r ela t ively l i t t le o ther e v idence a t tr ibu table t o t he s a me p er iod i s k nown : c onverse ly , t here a re a reas f ro m wh ich c o mpara t ively f ew a xes h ave b een r epor ted , e ven t hough o ther e v idence i s a bundan t . F or e xa mp le , i n K in tyre t he ma jor ity aground s tone a xes a re f rom l ow-ly ing a reas we l l a way f rom t he Chambered To mbs ( Sco t t 1 969 ). I ft he a ssump t ion i s ma le t ha t t he v ary ing d ens it ies a re n o t p urely a f unct i on o f d i f feren t ia l f i e ldwork , a n e xp lana t ion i s n eeded t o a ccoun t f or t h is p heno menon . I ft he d istr ibu t ion o fg round s tone a xes, a s mu l t i-purpose t oo ls , i st aken a s mark ing o u t c er ta in a reas i n w h ich a r ange o f a gr icu l tura l a c t iv it ies t ook p lace , e .g. t ree-fel l ing , f odder c ropp ing , wood-work ing a nd p erhaps c u lt i va t ion , t hen we m ight e xpec t t ha t h igh d ens it ies o f a xes wou ld b e r ecorded w here a l l f our o f t hese a ct iv it ies were u ndertaken . Where o n ly o ne o r t wo o f t hese a c t iv i t ies o ccurred , l ower d ens i t ies w ou ld b e e xpec ted.

Areas u sed

e xclus ive ly f or b rowsing , p annage , o r g razing wou ld b e u n l ikely t o p roduce a xes i n s uch h igh n umbers a s t hose u t il ised f or f odder c ropp ing a nd/or c u l t ivat i on .

These a reas m igh t n ever the less b e s e lec ted f or o ccupa t ion o r b ur ia l s i tes.

I n t he Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve , i n c on trast t o s ome p ar ts o f Br ita in , t he h ighest c oncen tra t ions o fg round s tone a xes a re f ound o n t he l imestone p la teau , i .e. i n j u s t t hose l and-face ts i n wh ich t here i s t he g rea test a bundance o f e v id ence o f d i f feren t c ategor ies f or t he P er iod . I ti s w ith in t hese l and-facets t ha t t he 8b ur ia l p laces r el iab ly a t tr ibu table t o P er iod 2 a re b ca ted . These a re l and-face ts f ro m w h ich sma l l q uan t i t ies o f P eterborough Ware, Grooved Ware a nd AOC B eakers f ro m s urface s ca t ters a nd c ave-s ites h ave b een r eported. T hese f i nds, t ogether w ith t he a ssoc ia ted ma ter ia l , i mp ly t ha t t he l imestone p la teau a nd t he d a les p rov ided l oca l i t ies f or o ccupa t ion s i tes o f as easona l , t e mporary o r p er manen t c haracter , a s w el l a s b e ing t he l ocus f or t he e cono m ic a ct iv i t ies i nd ica ted b y t he g round s tone a xes. Ground s tone a xes i nt he Tren t Va l ley f a l l i n t he m idd le r ange o f f req uency ( 5 -10 p er 1 00 s q km ). There a re n o b ur ial p laces k nown f ro m t he s ou th 1 23

o f t he r eg ion , t hough t he monumen ta l c ursus a t F indern e xa m ined b y Whee ler ( 1970 ) a nd a s im ilar s i te a t A ston-on-Tren t p robably b elong t o t h is p er iod o n a na logy w ith c o mparable e ar thwork s f rom e lsewhere i nt he c oun try .

I n a dd i t ion ,

t wo e xcava ted o ccupa t ion s i tes a t Swarkestone ( Green f ie ld 1 960 ) a nd Wil l ing ton ( Whee ler 1 972 ) a t test t he c on t inued o ccupa t ion o f t h is p ar t o f t he r eg ion d ur ing t he p er iod. The f ac t t ha t a sma l l n umber o fg round s tone a xes h ave b een r eported f ro m t he l ower a l t itudes o ft he g r itstone u p lands ( l and-facet E ) s uggests t ha t d ur ing p er iod 2 t h is a rea was b e ing b rough t p ar t ia l ly i n to a gr icu l tura l u se , i n p lace o f e xc lus ive u se f or h un t ing a nd t rapp ing , a s p ostu la ted f or P er iod 1 . H icks ( 1971) r ecords a r ise i n t he NAP :AP r a t io a t s evera l o f h er s i tes o n East Moor a t ah or izon d a ted 2 120 ± 1 00 b .c . Th is p hase i s c ons idered t o r ep resen t n o more t han sma l l-sca le a nd p erhaps t e mporary c learances i n t he f orest , p robab ly o n t he g r i tstone s yste m i t se lf . I ti s n o t a ssocia ted w ith c erea l ia , o r t he w eeds n or ma l ly t aken a s ' arable i nd ica tors '. n o t i den t if iable Ta l l is ( 1964 ).

Th is h or izon i s

i nt he h igh a l t i tude s i tes i n t he S ou th Penn ines e xam ined b y

The l ack o f p osi t ive e v idence f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion a t t h is d a te i s a ccoun ted f or b y t he f ac t t ha t t he h erb s pectru m i s l i kely t o r ef lec t e x tre mely l ocal c ond it i ons. Towards t he e nd o f Per iod 2 c erea l c u l t iva t ion i s c learly a t tested i n t hese l oca l i t ies o n t he g r itstone u p lands. H icks ( 1971) r epor ts c ereal ia f rom S a l ter S i tch a nd H ipper S ick a t ad a te o f 1 790 ± 1 00 b .c.

The f ac t t ha t c erea l ia

o ccur i n v ery sma l l q uan t it ies a nd a re a bsen t a t t h is d a te f ro m t he r e ma in ing s i tes e xa m ined s ugges ts

t ha t o n ly t iny p a tches , a l most c erta in ly o n t he we l l-

d ra ined s andy s o i ls o f l and-face t E , w ere d evo ted t o t h is l and-use.

I ti s w or th

o bserv ing , h owever , t ha t i nh er d octora l t hes is H icks p o in ted o u t t hat c erea l ia a re p robably u nder-represen ted i n t he p o l len c oun ts, s ince c erea l p o l len w as s epara ted f ro m G ra m ineae s o le ly o n t he b as is o f s ize a nd p o l len g ra ins c lose t o t he b order l ine w ere a ss igned t o Gra m ineae ( Ph i l l ips 1 969 ). The East Moor d iagrams s uggest t ha t i n s ome l oca l it ies i tw as p a tches o f b irch a nd h azel t ha t w ere p referen t ia l ly s elec ted f or c learance , s ince t he r i se a nd f a l l o f B e tu la a nd C ory lus t hrough t ime a re n ega t ively c orre la ted w i th t he r ise a nd f a l l o f Gra m ineae a nd P lan tago l anceo la ta , b u t n o s uch c orrela t ion c an b e d e monstra ted f or Quercus o r A lnus ( f ig. 5 e n o. 2 a t H ipper S ick ). I n o ther l oca l i t ies , s uch a s To t ley Moss , A lnus, p resumably o ccupy ing t he p oorly d ra ined s o i ls o f l andfacet D , s ee ms a lso t o h ave b een c leared w i th a c onsequen t marked r ise i n Cyperaceae , a s w ou ld b e e xpec ted o n w a ter-logged s o i ls ( f ig . 5 e n o . 1 ) . On t he e v idence o f t he a ssoc ia ted h erb f am i l ies t he c learan ce o fb o th t ypes o f wood land w i l l h ave b een ma in ly c onnec ted w ith g razing a c t iv i t ies. The d irect e v idence f or l and-use i n o ther p ar ts o f t he r eg ion d ur ing P er iod 2 i s f rag ment ary .

A l though a n umber o f f auna l c oun ts h ave b een p ubl ished f rom c ave d e-

p os its, t hey a re i ng enera l s tat ist ica l ly i nadequa te f or d e monstra t ing c hanges i n f auna l r a t ios o ver t ime a nd s i mp ly c on f ir m t he p resence o f t he d omest ica tes. Boyd Dawk ins ( i n Ward 1 893 ), h owever , p repared a d e ta iled l i st o f t he e xcept i onal ly r ich f auna f rom Ra ins C ave , Brassing ton .

These f auna w ere r epor ted

t o h ave b een r ecovered f ro m a p ar t ly d isturbed l eve l c on ta in ing f l in ts, i nclud ing o ne d escr ibed a s ' al ea f-shaped a rrowhead i n t he c ourse o f manu fac ture ' a nd s ome u nworked c ores. Unstra t if ied f inds f rom t he c ave i ncluded P eterborough

1 24

Ware ( Ward 1 892;

1 893 ).

These f inds make i tp oss ible t ha t t he f auna b e longed

t o Per iod 2 . Percen tages a re n o t r epor ted , b u t Bos l ong ifrons was d escr ibed a s t he most n u merous, f o l lowed b y c apr ines ( bo th s heep a nd g oa t w ere i den t if i ed ); ' s tag ' was f a ir ly we l l r epresen ted , a nd h orse a nd p ig w ere b o th p resen t. The c onst i tuen ts o f t h is a sse mblage , i nclud ing Equus c aba l lus, w ere a lso r ep resen ted i nt he sma l l n umber o f a n i ma l b ones f rom G reen L ow Cha mbered T omb , a lso o f t h is p er iod ( Manby 1 965 ). Mo l lu scan a na lyses a re o n ly a va ilab le i n t he Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve f rom t wo s ites. I nb o th c ases t he s a mp les w ere b iassed i n f avour o f t he l arger s pec ies a nd w ere t herefore l ess i n for ma t ive t han t hey m igh t h ave b een . One was t aken f rom w i th in o ne o f t he c ists a t Green L ow ( Caste1 1 , i n Manby 1 965 ) a nd t he s econd f ro m a h i l l-wash , p robably a t tr ibu table o n t he e v idence o f c on ta ined a r tefacts t oP er iod 2 ( Turk 1 966 ).

Bo th s a mp les i nc luded s pec ies c onsidered

t ob e r epresen ta t ive o f o pen t urf , t hough t he ma jor i ty o f o ther s pec ies w ere i nd ica tors o fs hady , mo ist c ond it ions.

The e v idence i s more c onsisten t w i th

p ar t ia l ly o pen wood land i n t he i m med ia te v ic in ity o f t he s a mp led s i tes, r a ther t han a t o ta l ly d eforested l andscape o f t he k ind s uggested f or p ar ts o f t he Wil ts h ire a nd Y orksh ire c ha lk d ur ing t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he t h ird m il lenn ium b .c. ( Evans 1 972 ; Manby 1 976 ). A t t he p resen t t here i s n o d irect e v idence t ha t c erea l c u l t iva t ion was p ract i sed o n t he l imestone p la teau d ur ing t h is p er iod , b u t s evera l c ons idera t ion s make i th igh ly l ikely t ha t i tw as. The f i rst o f t hese c ons idera t ion s i s t ha t t he d eep l oess s o ils o f l and-face t 2a re amongst t he most s u i table f or t i l lage i n t he B r i t ish I s les ( see a bove p . 6 3 ). By t he e nd o f t he p er iod c erea ls a re k nown t o h ave made a n a ppearance o n t he i nheren t ly much l ess f avourable s o i ls o f t he g r i tstone f ormat ion .

Th is f act i mp l ies t ha t c l i mat ic c onstfa in ts a re u n l ikely

t o h ave p roh ib ited c erea l-grow ing o n t he l imestone u p land d ur ing t h is p er iod , s ince t he a l t i tude o f t he l oca l it ies i n w h ich c erea l ia w ere i den t if ied i s c o mpara ble t o t he p reva il ing h e igh t o f t he l imestone ( i .e. c . 3 00 m ). I ti s i mpossible t ob e l ieve , moreover , t ha t t he s o i ls o ft he g r itstone wou ld h ave b een p referent i a l ly s elec ted f or c u l t iva t ion w h ile t hose o f t he l imes tone were i gnored , s ince t hey were much l ess f avourable ,as we h ave s een . I n a dd it ion , i fw e a re r igh t t o s uggest t ha t t he p hases o f c erea l c ropp ing o n t he g r i tstone f orma t ion were s hor tterm a nd o ccas iona l d ur ing t h is p er iod , a s t he sma l l q uan t it ies o f p o l len i mp ly , t hen w e must p ostu la te t he e x istence o f more s ubstan t ia l a reas o f c erea l c u l t ivat ion f ro m wh ich t he s eed f or t hese t ransi tory v en tures was s upp l ied . By P er iod 2 c om mun i t ies c an b e s hown t o h ave e stabl ished t he mselves i n t he r eg ion i ns uf f ic ien t n umbers t o h ave u nder taken t he e rect ion o f s ubstan t ia l b ur ia l a nd o t her c ere mon ia l monumen ts.

The i mp l ica t ion t ha t p opu la t ion

n umbers h ad i ncreased o ver t hose o f t he p rev ious p er iod i s s uppor ted b y t he l arger n umber o f c aves w h ich s how e v idence o f u se d ur ing P er iod 2 ( f ig. 5 c p .145 ). T he c o mb ina t ion o f s evera l c a tegor ies o f e v idence s uggests t ha t t he f oc i o f s et t lemen t l ay o n t he l imestone a nd i n t he Tren t Va l ley . The a rchaeol og ica l e v idence f or t he e xpans ion o f p opu la t ion c an b e s et a ga inst t he e nv ironmen ta l e v idence f or c hanges i nt he i n tens ity o f l and-use. These c hanges a re k nown t o h ave b rough t a bou t t he p ar t ia l e l im ina t ion o f wood land o n t he l imestone p la teau a nd t e mporary c learances o n t he g r i tstone u p lands. I ti s s uggested t ha t t h is e nv ironmen ta l e v idence i nadequa tely r ef lec ts s ubstan t ia l c hanges i n l andu se , i nvolv ing a bove a l l t he e x tens ion o f c erea l c u l t iva t ion o n to t he d eeper l oess 1 25

s o i ls o f t he l imestone p la teau .

Expans ion o f p opu la t ion w as made p ossible b y

o pen ing u p t he a rable p o ten t ia l o f t hese s o i ls.

Th is mean t t ha t g raz ings w ere

i ncreasing ly s ought o n t he o u tsk ir ts o f t he ma in a rea o f s et tle men t . Per iod 3 c . 1 700-1200 b .c. The s eparat ion o fP er iods 2 a nd 3 i s s omewha t a rb itrary. T here i s n o g ood r eason t o s uppose t ha t i tw as marked b y a ma jor i n f lux o f p opu la t ion f rom e lsewhere. h elpfu l.

The c oncep ts o f ' i nd igenous ' a nd ' imm igran t ' p opu la t ions a re u n-

The c hange i nb ur ia l c usto m f rom mu l t ip le t o i nd iv idua lb urial a nd

t he more w idespread a dop t ion o f Beaker p o t tery a nd ab roader r ange f l in t t oo ls a nd o ther m inera ls, i nc lud ing c opper a nd p erhaps b ron ze , f or g rave g oods , n eed n o tb e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he d isp lace men t o f t he e x ist ing p opu la t ions. I n f act mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion i s o n ly g radua l ly a nd p ar t ia l ly s uperseded b y i nd iv idua l b ur ia l : many o f t he c a irns h ave f ea tures w h ich l ink t he m c losely w i th t he t ombs o f t he p rev ious p er iod ( Fow ler 1 955 ). The c hanges i nt he ma ter ia l a sse mblage a re most e as ily e xp la ined a s r esu l t ing f ro m i ncreased c on tacts w i th o ther r eg ions a s p opu lat ion n umbers g rew.

Wh i le t here s ee m s o me g rounds f or s up-

p os ing t ha t t here w ere c hanges i n t he p hysical morpho logy o f t he p opu lat ion d ur ing t h is p er iod ( c f . F ow ler 1 955 ), t hese c hanges may b e a ccoun ted f or b y t he i n f lux o f marr iage p ar tners f ro m o ther r eg ions. The i n troduc t ion o f c opper a nd p erhaps b ronze d ur ing t h is p er iod may b e t rea ted a s o ne a spec t o f t he e n large men t o f t he r ange o f t oo l-types a nd p ersona l a dornmen ts ,

i nc lud ing n ew f l in t t ypes, s haf t-ho le a xes a nd j et o rna men ts.

An a na lys is o f t he b ur ia l a ssoc ia t ions s hows t ha t me ta l a r tefacts c onst itu ted a m inor c o mponen t o f t h is r epertory a nd t ha t t he ma jor i ty o fb ur ia ls w ere a cco mp an ied b y v ery s i mp le g rave g oods, s uch a s f l in t f l akes. It s eems p ossible t ha t t he d e mand f or t hese p ersona l a dornmen ts may h ave b een l i nked w i th c hanges i n s oc ia l c usto ms, w h ich may b e c onnec ted w i th t he r ep lace men t o f mu l t ip le b y i nd iv idua lb ur ia l . The i n frequency o f me ta l i t e ms i nt he g raves a nd t he f act t ha t a l l t he me ta l o b jec ts k nown h ave n o r ecogn isab le a gr icu l tura l f unct ion makes i tu n l ike ly t ha t meta l lurgy a s s uch h ad a ny impact o n t he e cono my . The d istr ibu t ion o fb arrow b ur ia ls s hows a marked c oncen tra t ion o n t he l imestone p la teau ( l andface ts 1 -4 ), b u t w i th a n ' oversp il l ' o n to t he K euper s andstone ( l and-face t I )a nd o n to t he f r inges o f t he g r itstone ( l and-facet E ). Barrows a re a lso f ound i nt he Tren t Va l ley ( l and-face ts a a nd b ) , i nt wo c ases s ea l ing o ccupa t ion s i tes o ft he p rev ious p er iods. Aer ia l p ho tography h as e xt ended t he d istr ibu t ion o f p robable b arrows i n t he Tren t V a l ley b y t he a dd i t ion o f 8r ing d i tches, c onsidered t o mark t he l oca t ions o f e ar th b arrows ( Hughes 1 961 ).

F ur ther d iscover ies h ave r ecen t ly i ncreased t h is n u mber ( O 'Br ien

p ers. c o m m. 1 978 ).

The most o bv ious e xp lana t ion o f t he t o ta l d is tr ibu t ion i s

t ha t t he f oca l a rea o f s et t le men t' u nderwen t a n e xpans ion o u twards f ro m t he a reas o ccup ied i n Per iod 2 .

The s pa t ia l d istr ibu t ion w ou ld a ccord ingly r epre-

s en t a n e xpan s ive p rocess t hrough t ime. The d is tr ibu t ion o f k nown o ccupa t ion s i tes i n c aves o r o pen p osi t ions s uppor ts t he v iew t ha t d istr ibu t ion o fb ur ia l mounds d oes mark o u t t he f oca l a rea o f s e t t le men t ( f ig. 5 g ). The b oundar ies o f t he o vera l l d istr ibu t ion o f s e t t le men t d a ta f or Per iod 3c orrespond f or t he most p ar t t o i den t if iable e nv ironmen ta l p arame ters.

1 26

To

t he n or th a nd west t he o vera l l d istr ibu t ion i s c on tro l led b y t he a l t itud ina lc l imat ic l im i t o f4 00 m , n o ted a bove a s a lso b ound ing t he d istr ibu t ion o fg round s tone a xes. To t he s ou th a nd e ast t he b oundary i s s e t b y p oor ly d ra ined s o ils, a s c an b e s een b y c o mpar ing f i g 5 g a nd f i g. 4 1 p . 9 5 . The d el ibera te s elect ion o fp er meab le s o ils i s e xp la ined o n ly i ft he n eed was f or a rable l and . The imp or tance o f c erea ls i n t he e cono my i s a lso imp l ied b y t he b oundary c orrespondi ng t o t he c l i ma t ic-a l t itud ina l l im it. 7 5 ) ,

Th is c orresponds , a s w e h ave s een ( p .

t o t he max i mum h e igh t a t ta ined b y c erea l g row ing i n t he 1 4th c en tury A .D. The d irect e v idence f or c erea ls d ur ing Per iod 3 i s most s a t isfac tory f or

t he s ou th o ft he r eg ion . Po l len a na lyses o f t wo b ur ied s o ils b enea th t he b arrows a t Swarkestone , e xcava ted b y P osnansky ( 1956 ) a nd Green f ie ld ( 1960 ) , a l low d e ta iled r econstruc t ions o f t he v ege ta t ion o f t he Tren t Va l ley d ur ing t h is p er iod ( s ee Tab le 4 B p . 7 1 c o lumn A ). Bo th Pearson ( i n Posnansky 1 956 ) a nd D imbleby ( i n Green f ield 1 960 ) r epor ted c erea l ia a nd weeds o f c u l t iva t ion a nd o pen p asture , a nd D i mbleby c onsidered t ha t t he s o ils o n wh ich t he b arrow was l oca ted h ad b een c u l t iva ted p r ior t o i t s e rect ion . I n t he n or th o f t he r eg ion d irect e v idence f or c erea ls p robably a t tr ibu table t o t h is p er iod i s p rov ided b y p o l len-ana ly t ica l d a ta f rom t wo h or izons a t Fox Ho le Cave ( Bra mwel l 1 971; s ee Table 4 B p . 1 08 c o lumns D a nd E ). Over a c lay d epos it , r epor ted t o h ave c on ta ined P e terborough ware a nd a r ich f auna i nclud ing c at t le , c apr ines a nd p ig , ac obb led f l oor h ad b een c onstructed i n to w h ich a s ha l low p i t h ad b een c u t. B eaker s herds were r epor ted f rom t he l ayer a bove t h is f l oor. Po l len s a mp les w ere t aken f ro m t h is l ayer ( S a mp le A ) a nd f ro m t he p i t ( Samp le B ). Bo th s amp les w ere d om ina ted b y G ra m ineae a nd o ther a rable a nd p asture i nd ica tors. P ercen tages o f c erea l ia a nd V ic ia were h igh i n t he p i t s a mp le , a nd i t was c ons idered t h at t he p it h ad s erved a s af ood s tore.* C au t ion i s n evertheless p la in ly n ecessary i na ccep t ing t hese d a ta i n v iew o f t he e v idence f or d isturbance i n l a ter p er iods.

Cerea l ia were , h owever , c er ta in ly p resen t i n sma l l q uan t it ies

i n t he p o l len c ores f ro m East Moor e xa m ined b y H icks ( 1971) a t ad a te o f 1 500 ± 10 0b .c. I t was a t t h is h or izon t ha t s he f ound e v idence f or t he most p ronounced p hase o f w ood land r educ t ion i n a l l o fh er s i tes p r ior t o t he 4 th c en tury b .c.

The i n frequency o f a rable i nd ica tors s ugges ts, h owever , t ha t

i nt h is p er iod , a s i nP er iod ,2 , o n t he g r itstone t he ma in s t i mu lus t o c learance w as t he c rea t ion o fg razing a reas. Apar t f ro m t hese p o l len-ana ly t ica l d a ta t he r ema in ing e v idence f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion i n t he r eg ion i n Per iod 3 i s p rov ided b y as ing le g ra in i mpress ion o n a Co l lared U rn f ro m Hungry B en tley. Before l eav ing t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l d ata i ti s wor th e xa m in ing a t t h is p o in t t heev idence t hey p rov ide f or s econdary v ege ta t iona l c o m mun it ies s ucceed ing t o w ood land . T he d a ta f ro m F ox Ho le Cave a nd East Moor c on trast w i th t hose f rom t he Tren t Va l ley i n t he a ppearance o f h ea th a ssoc ia t ions, i nclud ing E r icaceae a nd P ter id iu m ( see Table 4B c o lumn s B , C , D , E a nd G ).

I ti s c lear

t ha t h ea ther was n o t c on f ined t o t he p eat-bogs t he mse lves , b ecause o f i t s h igh r epresen ta t ion i n s pec tra f rom b ur ied S o i ls o f t h is p er iod ( e .g. S tan ton Moor , T a l l is, i nR ad ley 1 966a ; a lso R iley 's Barrow , D i mbleby , u npub. i n for m.) P earson ( i n Posnansky 1 956 ) s pec if ica l ly n otes t he a bsence o f h ea th p lan ts i n h is Tren tV a l ley s i te.

Th is c on trast may b e c onnected w i th c l i ma t ic d iferen-

t i a ls w ith in t he r eg ion . Prec ip i ta t ion i s a t p resen t s o me 4 40 m m h igher i n t he u p lands i n e xcess o f 3 00 m a nd a verage J u ly t e mpera tures a re 1 .6°C l ower ( see T able 4 A p .1 0 5 ) . I ft hese d if feren t ia ls o b ta ined i n t he s econd m i ll enn iu m b .c. i t migh t a ccoun t f or t he p reva lence o f h ea th c o mmun i t ies a s * S ee p . 1 32.

1 27

p ar t o f t he s econdary o r a n thropogen ica l ly i nduced v egeta t ion o nt he h igher a l t itudes. The e v idence f or p odzo l isa t ion b oth o n t he l imestone a nd o n t he g r its tone h as b een n o ted ( pp . 6 2; 6 5 ). Podzo l isa t ion i s f requen t ly a ssoc ia t ed w i th t he s pread o fh ea th c o mmun i t ies ( D i mbleby 1 962 ), t hough i tc an a lso o ccur u nder many o ther k inds o f v egeta t ion , i nc lud ing s ome o f t he g rasses ( see a bove p . 6 1 ). S ince h ea ther s preads a t t he e xpense o f g rass u nder a l and- manage men t s yste m o f l ow-dens i ty g razing ( G im ingha m 1 964 ) a nd i s e nc ouraged b y r epea ted b urn ing o f t he s hrub l ayer t he a ppearance o f Er icaceae may g ive a c lue t o l and-use. I ndeed h ea ther may h ave b een d el iberately e nc ouraged t o p rov ide w in ter k eep , p ar t icu lar ly f or s heep .

The c hang ing e co logy

o ft hese u p lands , i nvo lv ing t he d im inu t ion o f e lm a nd l ime ( twö v a luable f odder r esources ), a nd t he g radua l r ep lace men t o f wood land b y a mosa ic o f g rass a nd h ea th c o m mun i t ies wou ld b e e xpec ted t o b e r ef lected i n t he f auna l a sse mb lages, p erhaps b y t he i ncreased i mpor tance o f s heep i n c o mpar ison w i th c a t tle a nd p igs.

S uch c hanges i n l i vestock r a t ios wou ld , h owever , r epresen t ad im inu t ion

o f l i vestock p roducts a va ilable t o s uppor t t he h uman p opu la t ion . The most v a luable f auna l a sse mb lage , p robably a t tr ibu tab le t o Per iod 3 , c o mes f ro m a n u nsyste ma t ic e xcava t ion o f Mi l l Po t Cave ( Ryder , L ongwor th a nd Gunstone 1 971). The p o t tery f ro m t h is d epos i t was i den t if ied a s d o mest ic ware ' c lear ly o f Bronze Age t rad i t ion '. L ongwor th d rew p ara l le ls b e tween t he d ecora t ion o n o ne o f t he v esse ls t o t ha t o n aF ood V esse l f ro m S tan ton Moor. Because o f t he n a ture o ft he e xcava t ion t he a ssoc ia t ion o ft he a n ima l bones w ith t he p o t tery i s u ncerta in , t hough t he c omp le te a bsence o f f inds o f o ther p er iods makes i tp robable. Th is f auna l a sse mblage i s d ist ingu ished b y i t s s ize, i t s a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he b ones o f t wo h umans , l ack o f e v idence f or c hopp ing a nd t he s carc ity o fb ones o f o ther sma l l a n i ma ls , p ar t icu lar ly v o les , w h ich a re v ery n umerous i n o ther f auna l a sse mblages. Ryder s uggests f ro m t he n a ture o f t he s i te a nd t he a sse mblage t ha t t he r e ma ins may b e t he r esu l t o f ac atastroph ic f l ood ing o f t he c ave. I n t h is c ase t he r e la t ive n umbers a nd a ges o ft he a n ima ls w il l g ive a u n ique i nsigh t i n to t he c o mposit ion o f al i v ing h erd a tt h is t ime. C apr ines a re o verwhe lm ingly p redom inan t i n t he a sse mblage ( Table 5 C ). Th is p redo m inance i s i n c on trast t o t he p a t tern a t Ra ins Cave , a t tr ibu ted t o Per iod 2 , i nw h ich c a t t le w ere most n umerous , a nd i s c onsisten t w i th t he v eget at iona l c hanges n o ted a bove .

A t Mil l Po t c a t t le w ere t he n ex t most a bundan t ly

r epresen ted s pec ies, a nd p ig , d og , r ed d eer a nd h orse were r epresen ted b y a t l east o ne i nd iv idua l . The f act t hat a ma jor ity o f c a t t le a nd c apr ines h ad b een o ver-w in tered a t l east t w ice i mp l ies t ha t a u tumn k i l l ing was n o t p ract ised . Ryder c o mpares t he a ge-d istr ibu t ion , a s i nd ica ted b y t ee th , w i th t ha t o f med ieva l s i tes ( e .g. Ryder 1 961 ). The f act t ha t t wo o f t he c a t tle w ere a t l east 1 0 y ears o ld a t t ime o f d ea th i s u nexp la ined u n less i ti s a ssu med , a s w ith t he med ieva l c a t t le , t ha t t hey w ere ma in ta ined f or d raugh t p urposes. Bra mwel l ( i n K el ly 1 976 ) p resen ted .a d e ta i led a na lysis o f t he f auna f rom ac on tro l led e xcava t ion a t Wet ton Mil l Rock S he l ter , s i tua ted a t as hort d istance f ro m Mil l Po t C ave , c lose t o t he v a l ley f l oor.

L ayer B , s ucceed ing s tra t igra-

p h ica l ly t o a n e ar ly p ost-g lac ia l a sse mblage , i nc luded a r tefac ts d a table t o t he 3 rd t o i st m il lenn ia b .c.

Th is l ayer was c lear ly f or med o ver a l ong p er iod

a nd h ad u ndergone s o me p ost-depos it iona l d isturbance , b u t t he ma jor ity o f f inds, b o th o f p o t tery , f l in t a nd o ther ma ter ia ls , b e long t o Per iod 3 . The p o tt ery i ncluded f rag men ts o f Beakers a nd a Co l lared U rn . The o ther f inds 1 28

i nc luded ag roup o f i t e ms i n f l in t , b one a nd s tone wh ich w ere r egarded b y Green ( i n K el ly 1 976 ) a s al ea ther-worker 's k i t.

Th is g roup o f i t e ms a nd t he r e ma in-

i ng f l in t t ypes were a t tr ibu table i n t he ma in t o Per iod 3 . An otable f ea ture o f t he f auna l a sse mblage was t he d om inance o f p ig , o f w h ich a h igh p ropor t ion w ere i mma ture. P ig i s f o l lowed b y c apr ines, a nd c a t t le a re p oorly r epresen ted . Amongst t he n on-do mest ica tes, r oe-deer , r ed f ox , p ine mar ten , b adger a nd w i ld c a t a re r ecorded .

The r e ma in ing ma mma l a nd a v ian r e ma ins i nclude b o th

w ood land , wa ter-lov ing a nd o pen-coun try s pec ies, i nd ica t ive o f ah igh ly d iverse e co logy a t t he mee t ing p o in t o f s evera l l and-face ts b e tween t he l imestone a nd g r itstone. The p resence o f f i sh-bones p o in ts t o a nother p ro te in r esource o f t he Man ifo ld Va l ley. These f auna l a sse mblages i l lustra te t he h azards o f r econstruc t ing t he l i vestock c o mponen t o f p reh istor ic e cono m ies f ro m a l im i ted n umber o f s i tes, p ar t icu lar ly when t hese s i tes a re c aves ( c f. U erpmann 1 973 ). The Ra ins Cave a sse mb lage , a t tr ibu ted t o Per iod 2 , may we l l b e r epresen ta t ive o f t he a ccumul a ted r e ma ins o f ah uman o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te f or a n i nde ter m ina te p er iod. T h is i s s uggested b y t he f l in t-knapper 's d ebr is a nd t he u nworked c ores. I n t h is c ase t h is a sse mblage may g ive a f a ir ly a ccura te i mpress ion o f t he r e la t ive q uan t i t ies o f t he d o mest ica tes u t il ised f or f ood i n Per iod 2 . The marked d ifere nces i n t he r a t ios o f t he d o mest ica tes i nt he Mi l l Po t a nd Wet ton Mil l a sse mblages , b o th a scr ibed t o P er iod 3 , may b e a ccoun ted f or b y d iferences i nt he way i n w h ich t he a sse mblages w ere f or med. The M il l Po t a sse mblage , a s i mp l ied b y Ryder , may b e r epresen ta t ive o f as ingle m ixed l i vestock h erd a t at ime when i t h ad b een t aken d own t o t he s hel ter o f t he v a l ley f l oor. The Wet ton Mil l a sse mb lage , o nt he o ther h and , i s more l ikely t o h ave b een f ormed o ver a l ong p er iod o ft ime t hrough t he a ct iv i t ies b o th o f o ccas iona l h uman v is itors t o t he s hel ter a nd o f p reda tory a n i ma ls.

The f auna l r e ma ins a t We t ton Mil l may t here fore b e

i n s o me p ar t u nconnected w i th h uman o ccupat ion , b u t i nstead t he c umu la t ive d ebr is o f an umber o f a n i ma l o ccupa t ions. The ma jor p reda tors i n t he r eg ion l i kely t o h ave p reyed o n l i vestock w ere t he wo lf a nd b rown b ear , b o th r ecorded a t Fox Ho le Cave

( Bra mwel l 1 971).

Th is wou ld a ccoun t f or t he e x tre mely

f rag men tary a nd g nawed c ond i t ion o f many o f t he b ones , c o m men ted o nb y K el ly ( 1976 5 ) a nd a lso , p ossibly , f or t he b ias i n t he d istr ibu t ion a ga inst c a t t le a nd i n f avour o f i m ma ture p igs a nd s heep . Records f rom F in land ( Mead 1 953 1 3 ) d a t ing f ro m t he m idd le o f t he l ast c en tury d e monstra te t ha t t he sma l ler d o mest i cates a re much more v u lnerable t o p reda tors t han c a t t le. I n t he l i ght o f t hese c ons idera t ions i ti s p erhaps u n just if iable t o p lace a ny f a i th i n c hanges i n t he r ela t ive p ropor t ions o f t he d omest ica tes b e tween t he a ssemblages o f Per iods 2 a nd 3 .

However , t he a pparen t r ise i n t he impor-

t ance o f s heep i n Per iod 3 i s c ons isten t w ith a n o vera l l t rend r ecogn isable i n many p ar ts o f t he c oun try ( Clark 1 9 4 :7 ). Th is i s d oubt less c onnected w ith t he c rea t ion o f o pen h ab ita ts, i n W h ich l ow-grow ing f i e ld p lan ts more a ppopr iate t o s heep f l our ished.

I t may a lso i mp ly a g reater c on tro l o ver t he l arge p re-

d a tors. The a pparen t l ack o f i mpor tance o f p ig i n t he Ra ins Cave a nd Mil l P o t a sse mblages i s p robably m islead ing , a s t he We t ton Mil l f ind s uggests. F or t he r easons g iven a bove ( p .1 8)p igs a re u n l ikely t o h ave b een h erded t og e ther w i th c at t le , s heep a nd g oa ts o n o pen g rass a nd h ea th :

a more s u i ta t ile

h usband ry p ract ice wou ld h ave b een t o t urn t he m o u t i n to a reas o f o ak woodl and .

B ecause o f t hese d i f ferences i nh usbandry p ract ice h igh a l t itude c ave

1 29

s i tes, s uch a s Ra ins Cave, a re u n l ikely t o h ave b een c en tres f or p ig s laugh ter. The d iferen t m icro-hab ita t o f t he v a l ley f l oors a nd f oo t-slopes, ( l and-face ts 5a nd F ) ,presumably s t il l u nder wood land , wou ld h ave b een much more s u i tab le. Wi th in t he s e t t le men t c o mp lexes a t tr ibu ted t o P er iod 3 ( see f i gs. 5 h ; 5 i ) t hree d ist inct c o mponen ts c an b e r ecogn ised ; ( a ) d wel l ing p laces, r epresen ted b y e ar th ( or e arth a nd s tone ) ' hu t-c ircles ' , s ome t i mes c on ta ined i n as ub-rect a ngu lar e nclosure ( a s a t Sw ine S ty ). s tructure f ro m ' r ingworks '

These h u t c ircles a re i nd ist ingu ishable i n

s urround ing c e me ter ies o f t he p er iod .

( b ) I rregu-

l ar p lo ts, p ar t ia l ly d ef ined b y d iscon t inuous s tone wa l ls, a nd f requen t ly c ont a in ing a n umber o f l ow s tone h eaps.

( c ) Mass ive s tone-bu il t e nclosures,

o ccupy ing p ro mon tory p osit ions a bove a n e scarpmen t , a s a t Gardom 's Edge. The i rregu lar p lo ts w ere a l most c er ta in ly d es igned f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion . I n e very c ase t hey o ccupy p a tches o f s andy s o il ( l and-face t E ) o n t he marg ins o f t he p oor ly-dra ined s o ils f i l l ing t he d epress ions o f t he g r itstone f orma t ion . The s e lect ion o f s o ils w ith t hese q ua l it ies o f l i ght t ex ture a nd f ree d ra inage i s e xp la ined b y t he n eed f or a rable l and . Ac on t inuous r ecord o f c erea l ia was n oted a t S a l ter S itch ( H icks 1 971) —a p o l len s i te w h ich l ay l ess t han 1 000 m l eew ard o f ap lo t o f t h is s or t ( see Map A n o. 5 4 ), w h ich i s c loser t han a ny o f t he o ther s i tes e xa m ined t o ap reserved p lo t .

I ti s a lso p ossib le t ha t t he d ownwash

o f m inera l ma ter ia l i n to t h is b og w as t he r esu l t o f c u l t iva t ion p rac t ices.

An

i nd ica t ion o f t he s hor tage o f l and s u itable f or c u l t iva t ion a t t h is p er iod i s p rov ided b y t he e v idence t ha t v ery t iny p a tches o f s o il o f t h is t ype, a ppear ing w herever r idges o ft he g r i tstone b reak t hrough t he h ead d epos its, a l most i nv ar iably s how s igns o f u t il isa t ion f or f i e lds , u p t o a max i mu m a l t i tude o f c . 4 00 m. Ap uzzl ing f ea ture o f t hese p lots i s t ha t t he e nclos ing wa l ls o n ly i n frequen t ly c o mp letely s urround t he m. Gaps i n t he w a l ls a s t hey e x is t t oday may b e p ar t ly t he r esu l t o f s ubsequen t l andscape p rocesses , b u t i ts eems e qua l ly p robable t ha t s tone wa l l ing o n ly f or med o ne means o f d ef in ing p lo ts. The p o l len-ana ly t ica l r ecord makes i tc lear t ha t t hese s e t t le men t c omp lexes w i l l h ave o ccup ied c leared a reas i n ap ar t ia l ly wooded l andscape. Th is i s c on f irmed b y t he e xcava t ion a t Sw ine S ty . The e x istence o f p ost-ho les, a n teda t ing t he s tone h u t c ircle, a t t h is s i te s hows t ha t t imber m ight b e u sed f or b u i ld ing a s a n a l terna t ive t o s tone s o l ong a s i t was i m med ia tely a va ilab le. I t may b e s uggested t herefore t ha t h edges o r h urd les wou ld h ave f i l led t he g aps i n t he s tone-wa l led p lo ts. The a dvan tage o fh urd les wou ld b e t ha t t he p lo ts c ou ld b e c onver ted i n to f o lds f or g raz ing a n ima ls a f ter t he c rop w as t aken . l eve ls.

Th is wou ld h ave h elped t o ma in ta in f er t il ity

Wi th in t he i rregu lar p lo ts, a nd s ome t i mes e x tend ing s l igh t ly b eyond t hem , a re l ow s tone h eaps d o tted a bou t r ando m ly .

These h eaps c an b e r egarded a s

' c learance c a irns ' , o f t he k ind t ha t a re f ound w ide ly i n a l l p arts o f t he Br i t ish h igh lands where b edrock i s c lose t o t he s urface ( c f . F eache m 1 973 ), a nd wh ich may b elong t o a ny p er iod f ro m p reh istor ic t imes t o t he l ast c en tury. A l though s tone c learance may b e p ro mp ted b y ad es ire t o i mprove g raz ings, i n many c ases t he p resence o f s tone h eaps c an b e r egarded i n i t self a s a n i nd ica t ion o f t i l lage , s ince u nder t he n or ma l p rocesses o f s o i l f or ma t ion , u nder u nd isturbed wood land a nd g rass, t he sma l ler s tones w i l l t end t o b e b ur ied. C learance o f s tones t o i mprove g razing i s u n l ike ly i n t he p resen t c on tex t , s ince t he s tone

1 30

h eaps a re c on f ined t o t iny p lots o f s o il , s e lec ted b ecause o f t he ir s u itab il i ty f or a rable. B eyond t hese p lo ts l i e v ery e x tens ive a reas b e t ter s u ited t o g raz ing. T he c learance o f s tones f rom l and-facet E w il l h ave made a n eg l ig ible c on tr ibut i on t o t he e x tension o f g raz ing . I ts eems p robab le t ha t t he p lo t s yste ms, a s t hey a re p reserved a re t he r esu l t o f t wo c onsecu t ive p hases o f a gr icu l tura l a c t iv ity : ( a ) t he p iece mea l c rea t ion o f sma l l i rregu lar a rable p lo ts i n wood land c learances, p ar t ly d ef ined b y w a l ls o f l arge s tones c o l lec ted f ro m t he s urface ;

( b ) t he f or ma t ion o f s tone

h eaps i n t he c u l t iva ted p lo ts t hrough t he c learance o f s o il o f s tones b rought t o t he s urface a s ar esu lt o f t i l lage. Th is s equence o f e ven ts w ou ld i mp ly a s ubst an t ia l p er iod o f c u l t iva t ion : c er ta in ly i n e xcess o f t he t wo t o t hree y ear p er iod a ppropr iate t o as h if t ing c u l t iva t ion s yste m. A t Gardo m 's Edge a nd B arbrook mass ive s tone-bu i l t e nclosures f or m a p ar t o f t he t o ta l c o mp lex. A t G ardo m 's Edge t h is e nc losure o ccup ies ab lockf i e ld f or med b y p er iglac ia l p rocesses o f w ind e ros ion , a t ah igh p o in t j ust a bove as teep e scarp men t . I nside t he e nc losure t he b locks h ave b een l ef t u ncleared. Ap robab le u se f or t h is e nclosure w il l h ave b een f or t he p ro tect ion a nd s he lter o f s tock . T he f ounda t ion s o f ac ircu lar ' hu t ' l i e j ust o u tside t he e n trance.

The

c ho ice o f t h is s i tua t ion f or a s tock e nclosure may h ave b een d icta ted b y t he n eed f or r ap id ly d ra in ing s o i l , e nsur ing d ry l y ing-ou t 'land i n t he w in ter mon ths. A s im i lar c ons idera t ion s ee ms t o h ave i n f luenced t he p os it ion ing o f t he e nc losure a t Barbrook o n s trongly s lop ing l and j ust a bove a s trea m. The s er ies o f s im ilar s et t le men t c o mp lexes o n t he g r i tstone u p lands a ll ows t he most c o mp lete i ns igh t i n to t he s truc ture o ft he i nd iv idua l f ar m i n Per iod 3 , i fi ti s c orrect t o a ssume t hat t hey a l l b elong t o t h is p er iod .

The e v idence

f or s et tlemen ts o f t h is p er iod o n t he Tren t g rave ls, r epresen ted b y l ines o f p ost h o les, g u l l ies a nd s ca tters o f d o mest ic ma ter ia l , a re l ess e asi ly i n terpre ted b ecause o f t he ir i nco mp le teness, t hough t he f or thcom ing p ubl ica t ion o f t he s i te a tW il l ing ton w il l c onsiderably e x tend o ur k now ledge ( Whee ler 1 970-1972 ).

On

p resen t e v idence i t wou ld a ppear t ha t i n a l l p arts o f t he r eg ion t he i nd iv idua l f arm was c oncerned b o th w i th t he c u l t iva t ion o f c erea ls a nd w ith l i vestock ;

t he

a rrange men t o f t he p lo t s yste ms s uggests t ha t l i vestock w il l h ave p rov ided manure f or t he a rable , a nd o nt he e v idence o f t he M il l Po t f auna c a t t le w il l h ave b een u sed f or t rac t ion . The f act t hat t he s tone h eaps a re s ca t tered a bou t t he p lo ts wou ld i mp ly t ha t t he t i l lage i mp le men t was a l i gh t a rd , wh ich c ou ld b e l if ted r ound t hese o bstacles. C a t t le , s heep a nd g oa ts were p robably h erded i n to e nc losures a t n igh t f or s hel ter a nd p ro tec t ion a ga inst p reda tors.

The d istr ibu-

t i on o f r ingwork c e me ter ies a nd sma l ler s tone c ircles b eyond t he b oundary o f t he s e t tle men t c o mp lexes s uggests t ha t c ons iderable s tretches o f l and b eyond t he c onf ines o f t he i nd iv idua l f ar m were u sed , p robably ma in ly f or g razing b u t a lso p erhaps f or o ccasiona l c erea l c ropp ing. I t may b e c on jec tured t ha t t he p a t tern o f sma l l i nd iv idua l f ar ms teads, mak ing u se o ft he i m med ia tely a va ilable b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls, o f t imber , t urves , e ar th o r s tone , s urrounded b y t he ir ' i n f ield ' o f a rable l and , was t yp ica l o f t he s e t t le men t o f t h is p er iod ( and p erhaps o fP er iods 1 a nd 2 a lso ) b u t t ha t t he p a tt ern h as b een p ar t ia l ly p reserved o n ly i n p ar ts o f t he g r itstone u p lands , f or t he f o l low ing r easons :

( a ) b ecause o f t he u se o f s tone f or h u t f ounda t ions a nd p lo t

b oundar ies ; ( b ) b ecause o ft he s ubsequen t a bandonmen t o f t he a rea f or i n tens ive

1 31

a gr icu l tura l u se.

I ft he d istr ibu t ion o f t hese s e t t le men t c o mp lexes i s i ndeed

d ependen t o n t hese c ond it ions, t he f o l low ing c onc lus ions may b e d rawn a bou t t he r epresen ta t iveness o f t he d a ta.

S ince t imber i s l ikely t o h ave b een t he

most u sua lb u ild ing ma ter ia l i n most p ar ts o f t he r eg ion , wh i le i tr e ma ined f reely a va ilable , most o ccupa t ion s i tes w il l p robably r e ma in u nd iscovered . I th as b een r epea ted ly d e monstra ted t ha t i so la ted t imber s tructures , a s a t Swarkestone , w il l o n ly b e d iscovered when t hey h ave b een a cc iden ta l ly s ea led b enea th e xcava ted e ar thworks o r w hen t hey a re a ssoc ia ted w ith d i tches w h ich c an b e d etected b y a er ia l p ho tography .

The p resen t k nown d istr ibu t ion o f o c-

c upa t ion s i tes c an g ive a n i ns ight i n to t he ma in a reas o f o ccupance o n ly i fi ti s t aken i n c on junct ion w ith e v idence o f d iferen t c a tegor ies, s uch a s b ur ia l mounds a nd c ave s i tes, wh ich a re more u sua l ly p reserved . * S h i mwe l l ( i n Bra mwel l 1 971 ) c onsidered t ha t S a mp le A d a ted f rom t he l a te i st m il lenn ium b .c. b ecause o f i t s f rac t iona l ly h igher p ercen tage o f Ca l luna c ompared w ith S a mp le B . Th is w as l inked b y h im t o c l i ma t ic d eter iora t ion a t t h is p er iod .

The p i t s amp le ( B ) was g iven a d ate i n t he

l a t ter p ar t o f t he 2 nd m il lenn ium b .c. b ecause o f i t s h igher p ercen tage o f F rax inus. I fh owever a l lowance i s made f or t he b iassed n a ture o f t he ' f ood-store ' , i ts ee ms u n l ikely t ha t t he v ar iable p ercen tages a re s ign if ic an t.

I n v iew o f t he f inds o f Beaker p o t tery i n t he l ayer f rom wh ich

S a mp le A was t aken i ti s most r easonab le t o a t tr ibu te b o th s amp les t o P er iod 3 .

A l though s o me Ro man p o t tery w as f ound i n t h is l ayer , n o

a r tefactua l e v idence f or e i ther o f t he t wo p er iods t o wh ich t he p o l len s a mp les w ere a ss igned was f ound .

Th is makes t he a scr ip t ion o f t he

s a mp les t o t hese p er iods d oub tfu l .

P er iod 4 c . 1 200-600 b .c. F or t he p rev ious p er iods i th as b een p oss ible t o d raw o n an umber o f d iferen t c a tegor ies o f e v idence , e .g. o ccupa t ion s i tes, i so lated f inds, b ur ia l p laces , wh ich i n c o mb ina t ion p resen t a more c omp le te g u ide t o t he ma in a reas u t il ised f or v ar ious p urposes b y p reh istor ic c ommun i t ies t han a s ing le c a tegory o f e v idence c an .

F or P er iod 4 , h owever , we a re a l most w ho l ly d ependen t o n

as ing le c a tegory o f e v idence , t he d efensive e nc losures. Moreover , t he d a t ing o f a l l o f t hese t o t he p resen t p er iod , t hough p robable , i s l ess s ecure t han m igh t b e w ished. A l though a n umber o f i so la ted f inds o fb ronze t oo ls p robably a lso o ft h is p er iod h ave b een r epor ted f ro m t he r eg ion ( Bu t terwor th a nd L ew is 1 972 ), t hey a re t oo sma l l i n n umbers f or t he ir d istr ibu t ion t o b e s ign if ican t. N o c ave i n t he r eg ion h as g iven u nequ ivoca l e v idence o f o ccupa t ion d ur ing P er iod 4 . Th is l ack o f e v idence f or u t il isa t ion f or t he l arge n umber o f c aves i nves t iga ted d ur ing t he p ast c en tury p resen ts a c on trast t o t he p rev ious a nd s ubsequen t p er iods. The p resen t p auc i ty o f e v idence f or t h is p er iod w il l u ndoub ted ly b e c hanged w ith t he s yste ma t ic work o ft he Archaeo log ical U n its i nt he r eg ion . The e xcav a t ion a t Wil l ington b y t he Tren t Va l ley Archaeo log ical Research C omm it tee h as p roduced ma ter ia l p robably a t tr ibu table t o t h is p er iod ( Wheeler 1 972 ), a nd t h is s uggests t ha t a t l east i nt he s ou th o f t he r eg ion t he e x iguousness o ft he e v idence i s p ar t ly i l lusory .

1 32

I ft he s e t t le men t c o mp lexes o n t he g r itstone u p lands h ave b een c orrect ly d a ted a s ag roup t o P er iod 3 , t hen a s tr ik ing f ea ture o f Per iod 4 i s t he a bandonmen t o f t hese a reas f or m ixed f arm ing c onducted f rom i nd iv idua l f ar msteads. I ti sb ecause t hese s et t le men ts w ere a bandoned t ha t t hey h ave b een p reserved i n r ela t ive c omp le teness.

The s uppos it ion t ha t t heir a bandon men t d oes d a te

f rom Per iod 4 i s s uppor ted b y t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l e v idence. C erea l ia a re a bsen t d ur ing t h is p er iod f rom a l l t he p o l len s i tes e xam ined b y H ick s ( 1971). Moreover , f or t he ma jor ity o fh er s i tes wood land c learance a ppears t o h ave b een a t as tandst il l t hroughou t t h is p er iod . An e xcep t ion i s p rov ided b y t he s i te a t To t ley Moss, where d eforesta t ion c on t inued a nd may h ave i n tens if ied. I ft he d iagrams f ro m To t ley Moss a nd H ipper S ick a re c ompared ( f ig. 5 e p . 1 48-9 ) i tc an b e s een t ha t t here i s ac onsiderable d if ference i n t he b ehav iour o f s e lected c omponen ts. A t To t ley Moss Gra m ineae , P lan tago , a nd o ther d ry-land , o pen c oun try h erbs c on t inue a nu pward t rend t o t he e nd o f t h is p er iod , a nd t h is i s a cco mpan ied b y ag radua l r i se i n Er icaceae , s uggest ing t he ma in tenance o f g rass a nd sma l l p a tches o fh ea th u nder r e la t ively i n tens ive g raz ing.

A t H ipper

S ick , Gram ineae , P lan tago a nd o ther h erbs f a l l b ack t o a verage l evels c o mpara ble t o t hose 2 000 y ears p rev iously . To b eg in w i th t h is d ecl ine i s a ssoc ia ted w ith a c orrespond ing r ise i nB etu la a nd Cory lus, a s s crub c o lon ised t he c leari ngs. Bu t d ur ing Per iod 4 t here i s as teep r ise f i rst o f Cyperaceae ( probably Er iophorum v ag ina tu rn ) a nd s ubsequen t ly E r icaceae , p erhaps i nd ica t ive o f t he w idespread e stabl ish men t o fh ea th a nd g rass- moor b eyond t he l im i ts o f t he b ogs t hemselves. The d iferences may p oss ib ly b e a ccoun ted f or a s t he r esu l t o f d iferen t ia l l and-use , i .e. t he r e laxa t ion o fg razing p ressure i n t he n e ighbourh ood o f H ipper S ick , b u t c on t inued more i n tens ive g raz ing i n t he To t ley Moss a rea. The p o l len-ana ly t ica l e v idence i s c ons isten t w ith t he v iew t ha t o pen g razings w ere ma in ta ined b y r epea ted b urn ing o f s econdary v egeta t ion . I ti s u ncerta in whether c erea l c u l t iva t ion was a bandoned i n o ther p ar ts o f t he r eg ion a t t h is t ime. The e v idence f or c erea l ia a nd weeds o f c u l t iva t ion a t Fox Ho le Cave h as a lready b een d iscussed a nd a t tr ibu ted t o Per iod 3 ( p . 1 32n ). The o n ly r e ma in ing e v idence f or t he p oss ible u se o f c erea l g ra ins i s p rov ided b y q uern-stones r ecovered f ro m Ba l l Cross ( S tan ley 1 954 ). I ti s wor th n o t ing a lso t ha t a n e x tens ive a rea o f s tone h eaps l i es i mmed ia te ly t o t he s ou th o fC arl Wark : t h is may r epresen t l and-clearance f or a rable a t t he t ime t he e nc losure w as o ccup ied . I t i s n o t k nown whether t he d e fens ive e nclosures c onst i tu ted t he s o le o cc upa t ion s i tes f or t he p opu la t ion o r whether t hey f ormed p ar t o f c omp lexes w h ich i ncluded a s y et u nd iscovered s i tes. I ti s c lear , h owever , f rom t he e xc ava t ion a t Ma m Tor ( Coo mbs 1 976 ) t ha t t he e nclosing e ar thworks c on ta ined a s ubstan t ia l n umber o f c ircu lar t imber h u ts a nd t ha t t hese were o ccup ied a s d we l l ings. R ecen t e xcava t ion s i n o ther p ar ts o f t he c oun try w ith in c omparab le e nc losures h ave p resen ted i nd ispu table e v idence f or t he u se o f t hese e nclosures f or o ccupa t ion s o me t i mes p ers ist ing o ver s evera l c en tur ies ( e .g. S tan ford 1 974; Gu i lber t 1 977 ). The v iew t ha t t he o ccupa t ion o f t hese e nclosures w as t emporary o r s easona l o n ly i sb ased o n t he p re m ise t ha t m icro-cl i ma t ic c ond i t ions w i l lh ave r u led o u t p ermanen t o ccupa t ion . I n f ac t , a s Mitchel l ( 1973 ) s uggests , u p t o ac er ta in a l t i tude h il l-top a nd h il l-s ide l oca t ions h ave a dvant ages i n t he w in ter mon ths o ver v a l leys, b ecause t hey a vo id t he s ever ity o f c o ld r esu l t ing f ro m t he d ra inage o f c o ld a ir i n to l ow-ly ing s i tua t ions. 1 33

The

a dvan tage o f a l l-year r ound d ryness u nder f oo t e xper ienced i n t hese l oca t ions must a lso b e t aken i n to a ccoun t , p ar t icu lar ly i fl i vestock a re i nvo lved . I ti s a ma t ter o f o bserva t ion t ha t modern h i l l-sheep h ab itua l ly s e lec t t he h ighest p o in t w i th in t he ir h o me-range a s an octurna l r est ing-ground .

T he r eason

f or t h is i s p erhaps t he ir p reference f or r ap id ly d ra in ing l and . The

1 4

Cd a tes f or t he o ccupa t ion o f Ma m T or f a l l i n t he 1 2 th c en tury b .c .

O n t he e v idence o f t he p o l len d iagra ms f ro m t he S ou th P enn ines ( p . 7 0 )t h is o ccupa t ion w i l l h ave c oinc ided w i th a r e la t ive ly warm , d ry p hase , f a l ling b e tween t he p ostu la ted wet ter p hase i n t he mid s econd mi l lenn ium b .c . a nd t he we l l -a t tested c l i ma t ic d e ter iora t ion i nt he e ar ly f irst mi l lenn iu m b .c . I ft he s uggested d a tes f or t he d efensive e nc losures a s ag roup a re a ccep tab le , a l l w i l l h ave b een b u i l t a nd o ccup ied p r ior t o t he o nse t o f t he c l ima tic d e ter iora t ion .

I t may n o t b e e n t ire ly f a ir , t herefore , t o e va lua te t he f avourabi l i ty

o ft he l oca t ions o f t he d efens ive e nc losures i nt erms o f p resen t c l i mat ic c ond i t ions.

I t may a lso b e a dded t ha t w ith t he e xcep t ion o f Ma m T or t he d e fen-

s ive e nc losures a re n ot o n a verage a pprec iab ly h igher t han t he ma jor i ty o f k nown o ccupa t ion s i tes i n t he n or th o f t he r eg ion i n P er iod 3 . T he a ppearance o f c lusters o f dwe l l ings, a s a t Ma m T or , w i th in man-made d efences h as n o k nown p receden t i n t he r eg ion . A t Gardo m ' sE dge t he h u tc irc les ' l i e o utside t he e scarp men t e nc losure , wh ich h as a ccord ing ly b een I n terpre ted a s ap en f or s tock .

The i ncorpora t ion o f t he e scarpment a s o ne

b oundary t o t he s tockade may h ave b een f or e cono my o f e f for t : a l ternat ive ly , t he e nc losure may h ave s erved a s a n o ccasiona l r efuge f or t he h uman p opul a t ion i n t imes o f d anger .

I ti s s uggested , t here fore , t ha t t he a ppearance o f

d efens ive e nc losures i n t he r eg ion i s n o t a n i nnova t ion a t t h is t ime : wha t i s n ew , i s t he ir s ca le , s o me o f t he t echn iques o f t he ir c onstruct ion , a nd a bove a l l t he ir u se a s p laces o f o ccupa t ion . F in C op , B urr T or , Ba l l Cross a nd C oo mbs Moss e ach c o mmand a n e xt ens ive h in ter land , n a tura l ly d ef ined b y b reaks i n t he l andscape c orrespond ing t o wa ter-courses. I f Ma m T or a nd C ar l Wark a re i nc luded i n t he d istr ibu t ion , t he who le o f t he l imestone p la teau n or th o f t he Wye a nd p ar ts o f t he a d jacen t u p lands c an b e i nc luded i n t he ir h ypo the t ica l ' terr i tor ies ' . I ti s ac o m mon f eature o f t hese t err i tor ies t ha t e ach i nc ludes a h igh p ropor t ion o f l and i n e xcess o f 2 00 m wh ich i s k nown t o h ave b een s ubstan t ia l ly c leared o f wood land o ver t he p rev ious 2 000 y ears . A lthough t he s ize o f t hese t err itor ies v ar ies c ons iderab ly , t hese v ar ia t ions a re p os it ively c orre la ted w ith t he s ize o f t he a rea i nc luded i n t he a ssoc ia ted d efensive e nc losure . Th is s uggests t ha t a nc i l lary f unct ion o f t he e nc losures was t o p rov ide s he l ter a nd p ro tec t ion f or l i vestock , g razing o n t he o pen g rass land , h ea th a nd s crub c o mmun i t ies o f s econdary s uccess ion . T he a pparen t i nd if ference t o t he n eed f or awa ter s upp ly w i th in t he e nc losure s uggests t ha t t he c apr ines may h ave b een p red om inan t amongst t he l i vestock , b ut t here a re n o f auna l a sse mb lages t o c onf irm t h is . I n t he l i gh t o f t he e v idence f or d if feren t ia l l and-use d ur ing t he p er iod r ef l ec ted i n t he T o t ley Moss a nd H ipper S ick p o l len s equences, i ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t ha t T ot ley Moss, f or wh ich t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l e v idence i nd ica tes c on t inued r e la t ive ly i n tens ive g razing , w i l l h ave l a in w i th in t he h ypo thet ica l t err i tory o f C ar l Wark , wh i le H ipper S ick w i l l h ave l a in b eyond e cono m ic r ange o f a ny o f t he e nc losures . 1 34

I ft he l and-face ts i nc luded i n t he t err itor ies a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s ix d efens ive e nc losures a re e xam ined i tc an b e s een t ha t t here i s n o p redo m inan t l andtype ( f ig . 5k ) .

The t err itor ies a ssigned t o Ma m T or a nd C oombs Moss

I nc lude a c o mbina t ion o f t he s ha l low c a lcareous b rown e ar ths o f l and-facets 1a nd 4 , a nd s ha l low s andy s o i ls ( modern p odzo is) o f l and-face ts E a nd B . T he t err i tor ies o f B urr T or a nd C ar l Wark l i e e xc lus ive ly o n t he g r i tstone a nd s ha les , p reponderan t ly l and-face ts B , Da nd E . T he t err itory o f F in C op i nc ludes s ha l low c a lcareous b rown e ar ths, l oess a nd c o l luv ia l s o i ls o f l and-face ts 1 , 2a nd 5 .

T he t err i tory o f Ba l l Cross i nc ludes h ead s o i ls o f

l and-face t Da nd a ssoc ia ted s o i ls o f t he g r itstone f orma t ion .

C o l lect ive ly ,

t he d efens ive e nc losures a re l oca ted w i th r eference t o ag roup o f l and-face ts t ha t a re c l ima t ica l ly a nd e daph ica l ly amongst t he l east f avourab le i n t he r eg ion f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion . I t wou ld a ppear t ha t ag u id ing p r inc ip le i n t he s e lect ion o ft hese l oca t ions w as a ccess t o a n a bundance o f h igh a l t itude, p rev iously c leared l and , s u i ted t o g raz ing r a ther t han a rable , a nd wh ich migh t b e ma in ta ined a s o pen g rass, h ea th o r s crub b ecause o f i t s e xposure t o t he w ind , h e lped p erhaps b y o ccasiona l b urn ing . We h ave s een t ha t t here i s e v idence t ha t s ubstan t ia l p ar ts o f t he g r itstone u p lands s u f fered a c hange i n l and-use f ro m mixed f arm ing t o f ree-range g razing i mmed ia te ly, b efore o r d ur ing P er iod 4 .

Th is c hange i n l and-use i s

c on te mporary w ith t he w i ther ing away o f t he c usto m o f i nd iv idua l b ur ia l w i th in a n e nclosed c e me tery , a nd t he r ep lace men t o f as e t t le men t p at tern c onsist ing o f sma l l s cat tered f arm ing u n its b y o ne i n wh ich dwe l l ings c luster b eh ind massive d efences .

T he d efens ive e nc losures a re s paced o ut a cross t he n or th

o f t he r eg ion i n s uch a way t ha t e ach i s a ssoc ia ted w ith a l arge , n atura l ly d e f ined s lab o f t erra in , wh ich may r easonab ly b e r egarded a s i t s e cono m ic t err itory .

Wha t i s n o t k nown i s whe ther t he r e ma inder o f t he r eg ion f or wh ich

t here i s e v idence o fu t i l isa t ion a nd s et t le men t i n t he p rev ious p er iods wen t o u t o f o ccupance d ur ing t he p resen t p er iod . Two p oss ib le s yste ms may b e e nv isaged :

( a ) as ystem i n wh ich t he d efensive

e nc losures a re r e la ted t o as pec if ic l and-use , n ame ly f ree-range g raz ing , w h ich f orms p ar t o f a mu lt ip le l and-use s yste m i nc lud ing c erea l c ropp ing o n t he more s u i tab le a rab le s o i ls : ( b ) as yste m i n wh ich c erea l c ropp ing i s who l ly a bandoned a nd s ubsistence i sb ased l arge ly o n l i vestock p roducts . A mu lt ip le l and-use s yste m w ou ld i nvo lve t he p ostu la t ion o f a s y e t u nd iscovered amb le o r mixed f arm ing c o mp lexes i n t hat p ar t o f t he r eg ion n o t i nc luded i n t he g raz ings . Wh i le t h is p ostu la te c anno t b e r u led o u t , t here i s a n a rgu men t a ga inst i tt ha t t he c aves wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted a re k nown t o h ave b een r epea ted ly u t i lised d ur ing P er iods 2 a nd 3 ( and a ga in i n P er iod 5 a nd s ubseq uen t ly )b u t a re a l most who l ly d est itute o f e v idence t ha t c an c on f iden t ly b e a ss igned t o P er iod 4 .

O n t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t a ccessib le c aves w i l l b e made

u se o f f rom t ime t o t ime b y c o m mun i t ies i n t he ir v ic in ity , t h is h ia tus may b e a n i nd ica t ion t ha t d ur ing P er iod 4 p opu la t ion h ad i ndeed d ec lined o ver t he s outhern p art o f t he l imestone p la teau , b ut n o t n ecessar i ly i n t he Tren t Va l ley , f or wh ich o nce a ga in t he W i l l in .g ton S i te g ives s o me e v idence o f c on t inued o ccupa t ion ( Whee ler 1 972 ) .

I t may b e t en ta t ive ly c onc luded t ha t t he a bandon-

men t o f c erea l c u lt iva t ion r ecorded i n t he p o l len-ana lyses f ro m t he g r i tstone u p lands was p art o f ab roader l and-use c hange wh ich may h ave i nvo lved o ther p ar ts o f t he r eg ion , i nclud ing s o me o f t he f avoured l oess s o i ls o f t he l imestone p la teau. 1 35

P er iod 5

c . 6 00-0 b .c.

I nt he d iscussion o f c hrono logy t h is p er iod w as p rov isiona l ly b roken i n to t wo p hases, t he f i rst c . 6 00-300 b .c. f or w h ich t here i s a s y e t v ery l i t tle e v id ence i n t he r eg ion , a nd t he s econd c . 3 00-0 b .c. f or wh ich t he r ecord i s v ery u neven , c ons is t ing p r inc ipa l ly o f as er ies o f p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted s i tes i n t he Tren t Va l ley , w h ich h ave y e t t ob e f u l ly p ubl ished . I nt he s i tes s elec ted f or p o l len-ana ly t ica l e xa m ina t ion b y H ick s ( 1971 ) o n East Moor , t he p rev ious p at tern c on t inues n ear ly u n t il t he c lose o f t he f irst p hase. Bu t a t ah or izon d a ted 3 40 + 1 00 b .c. t h is p a t tern i s d rama t ica lly c hanged a t a l l s i tes b y a marked d ecl ine i n a l l t ree s pec ies. Th is d ecl ine i s a ssoc ia ted w ith a mass ive a nd s usta ined r ise i n Gra m ineae, Cyperaceae, an d Er icaceae , a nd s ubsequen t ly w ith t he r eappearance i n sma l l q uan t i t ies o f c erea l ia. A s w e h ave s een ( p .118 )t h is h or izon i s e v iden t i n al arge n umber o f s i tes t hroughou t t he u p lands o f n or thern Eng land a nd Wa les. The f requencies o f P lan tago l anceo la ta a nd o ther w eeds o f c u l t iva t ion a nd p as ture d o n o t , h owever , s how a c orrespond ing r ise. I n t he East Moor s i tes i ti s n o t u n t i l t he c lose o f Per iod 5 t ha t t he p ercen tages o f c erea l ia s how a s l ight r ise a bove t he l eve ls p rev iously r ecorded. Th is r ise , wh ich i s a ccompan ied b y t he a ppearance o f Cannab is/Hu mu lus , i s a t tr ibu ted t o t he e n largemen t o f t he c u l t iva ted a rea i n t he s urround ing r eg ion a t t he t ime o f t he Roman o ccupat ion . H icks ( 1971) s ugg ests t ha t t hroughou t Per iod 5 b t he i nd ica t ions a re t ha t f o l low ing e x tensive wood land c learance t he r egenera t ion o f t rees w as p reven ted b y g raz ing a n i ma ls; a t t he s a me t ime , t he o pen ing u p o f t he f orest c anopy w i l l h ave e n larged t he a rea f ro m w h ich p o l len w as d er ived a nd h enceforward t he s a mp les b eco me i n c reasing ly r eg iona l i n c harac ter.

I ti s t here fore c onsidered t ha t c ereal c u l-

t i va t ion may h ave b een p rac t ised a t ad istance f rom t he s i tes, w i th p asturage r e ma in ing t he d om inan t l and-use o n t he u p lands t he mse lves.

Th is w il l a lso o f

c ourse b e t rue o f t he r ecords o f c erea l ia i n t he S ou th Penn ine s i tes e xa m ined b y Ta l l is ( 1964 ) a t ah or izon d a ted 3 01 + 5 0 b .c. ( Ta l l is a nd Sw i tsur 1 973 ). I n v iew o ft he f act t ha t t h is h or izon o f wood land d ecl ine c an b e d etected o ver a v ast e x ten t o f u p land Br ita in a t c o mparable d a tes i ts ee ms p ossible t ha t a n e nv ironmen ta l f ac tor may b e i nvo lved , a s Conway ( 1954 ) e ar l ier s uggested . B lanke t p eat h ad b egun t o f or m o n t he h ighest g round i n t he r eg ion ( l and-face t A ) a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he A t lan t ic Per iod ( p . 6 4 ) : Ta l l is ( 1964a ) s uggested t ha tb lanke t p ea t w il l h ave g radual ly s pread d ownwards f rom t ha t t ime o n . T he 4 th c en tury b .c. d ecl ine i n wood land f o l lows a p er iod d ur ing wh ich t he p rec ip it a t ion/evapora t ion r a t io a ppears t o h ave i ncreased marked ly. H icks ( 1971) r ecorded a r ap id p hase o f p ea t g row th i n t he b ogs s he e xam ined a t t h is h or izon , s uggest ing t ha t t here may h ave b een a s hor t p er iod o f i n tensif ied p rec ip ita t ion . I tt here fore s ee ms o pen t o q uest ion w he ther t he s pread o fb lanke t p ea t may n o t h ave b een r espon s ible f or t he e l im ina t ion o f t rees d ur ing t h is p er iod i n u p land s i tua t ion s a bove t he a l t i tude o f C . 3 00 m , e spec ia l ly w here t he t ree-cover h ad a lready b een d isturbed b y h u man a c t iv it ies a nd t he s o ils w ere i nheren tly p oor i n n u tr ien ts. A s we h ave s een t he r egenera t ive c apac ity o f t he s o i ls a round H ipper S ick s ee ms a lready t o h ave d ecl ined d ur ing t he p rev ious p er iod. Th is e xp lana t ion h as t he a dvan tage o f a ccoun t ing f or t he r e la t ive ly l ow q uan t it ies o f a rable a nd p asture i nd ica tors i nt he s pectra a ssoc ia ted w ith t he t ree d ec l ine. N o o ccupa t ion s i tes a t tr ibu table t o t h is p er iod a re k nown f rom t he g r i tstone u p lands e ast o f t he Derwen t a nd t he o n ly f ind w h ich may b elong t o t he p er iod i s 1 36

ab ee-h ive q uern o f m i l lstone g r i t—a r ock wh ich was s ubsequen t ly e x tensive ly q uarr ied f or g r ind ing s tones . S ince t he a rea h as b een t he s cene o f f a ir ly i nt ensive s earches a nd a n u mber o f e xcava t ions, w i th f inds r epor ted f or P er iods 1 -4, a nd h as r e ma ined u nder g razing o r n on-agr icu ltura l u se s ince i t s p reh istor ic o ccupa t ion , t h is l ack o f s i tes a nd f i nds a l most c er ta in ly i nd ica tes t ha t r ese tt le men t o f t he a rea d id n o t o ccur , f o l low ing i t s a bandon men t i n P er iods 3a nd 4 .

T hese d a ta a re a gain c ons isten t w i th a n e nv iron men ta l r a ther t han

a n a nthropogen ic e xp lana t ion f or t he d eforesta t ion i n t he 4 th c en tury . The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or s e t t le men t o n t he l imestone d uring P er iod 5 i s f rag men tary .

R e-excava t ion o f D i mins Da le a nd t he o ther r e-

p or ted e nc losed s i tes i s r equired b efore i tc an b e d e monstra ted t ha t t hey b el ong t o t h is p er iod .

L .H . B u tcher o f t he H un ter Archaeo log ica l S ocie ty made

as er ies o f d eta i led s urveys o f many o f t hese s i tes a nd t he ir a ssoc ia ted f i e ldp lots ( i n format ion f ro m S he f f ie ld Museu m ) , a t tr ibut ing t he ma jor i ty o f t he m t o t he R o man p er iod .

T he e ar ly e xcava t ions a t Ra ins C ave, a nd H arbo r ough

C ave, B rassing ton; t he O ld Wo man ' sH ouse , Taddington a nd Ravenc li f fe C ave p roduced a bundan t ma ter ia l t ha t c an b e a ssigned t o P er iod 5 b,and t h is may b e t aken t o i nd ica te t ha t a t l east p ar t o f t he l imestone p la teau was o ccup ied a t t h is t ime .

Fro m n one o f t hese s i tes a re t he e cono m ic d ata a s r epor ted i n-

f or mat ive , t hough i ti s n otewor thy t ha t t he f auna l a sse mb lage a t Ravenc li f fe C ave, p robably f or med main ly d ur ing t h is p er iod , was o verwhe lm ing ly d om in a ted b y c apr ines, s uggest ing t he c on t inua t ion a nd p erhaps amp li f icat ion o f t he emphasis o n s heep n o ted i n P er iod 3 . The e xcava ted s i tes o f t h is p er iod o n t he a l luv ia l-grave ls o f t he Tren t V a l ley ( l and-face ts A a nd b ) w i l l o f fer , when f u l ly p ub l ished , t he most c o mp le te e cono m ic a ssess men t f or a ny o f t he p reh istor ic s i tes i n t he r eg ion , t hough c ond i t ions a re n o t f avourab le f or t he p reserva t ion o f a n i ma l b ones. C hr istopher Sm i th ( 1977 ) h as p resen ted a d e ta i led a ccoun t o f as i te a t F isherw ick , S ta f fs, l y ing j ust o u ts ide t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve, b u t wh ich may b e t aken a s r epresen ta t ive o f t he o ther s i tes o n t hese l and-face ts .

Af ea ture

o f t hese s i tes, a s r evea led b y a er ia l p ho tography , i s t he a ssoc ia t ion o f as ubr ectangu lar d itched e nc losure , c on ta in ing a n i n terrup ted c ircu lar d i tch r ep resen t ing a dwe l ling , w i th a c o mp lex o fp lo ts d ef ined b y g u l l ies .

Sm i th s ug-

g ests t ha t t hese p lo ts, l y ing o n t he ' up lands ' a nd c rest-s lopes o f t he f l oodp la in t erraces, r epresen t a rab le f i e lds a nd l i vestock p addocks a nd t ha t g raz ing w i l l h ave b een p rov ided b y f l ood- meadow o n a d jacen t a l luv ia l s o i ls . A p o l len-ana lys is f ro m t h is s i te ( Gre ig , i n Sm i th 1 977 ) i mp l ies t ha t t he i m med ia te e nv iron men t o f t he s i te was o pen g rass land ( see f ig . 4 B p . 8 0 c o lu mn H ) .

Cerea l c u lt iva t ion i s a t tested b o th b y t he p resence o f c erea l ia

i n t he p o l len s pectru m a nd b y g ra in i mpressions i n d aub. I ti s i nstruc t ive t o c o mpare t he p o l len s pectru m f ro m t h is s i te w i th t he o ne p resen ted b y P earson ( i n P osnansky 1 956) f or t he m id 2 nd mi l len iu m b .c . I n ac o mparab le e nv ironmen t o n t he Tren t f l oodp la in a t Swarkestone ( Tab le 4 B p .107 c o lu mn G ) .

The most marked d if ferences a re i n t he l ower v a lues

f or Cory lus a nd A lnus a nd t he h igher v a lues f or Gra m ineae a t t he l a ter s i te . N ever the less, t he r a t io o f a rborea l p o l len ( exc luding C ory lus) t o t o ta l p o l len i s c lose ly s i mi lar i n t he t wo s a mp les ( 26 :100 a t Swarkestone a nd 2 8 :100 a t F isherw ick ) .

Th is c o mpar ison s uggests t ha t a par t f ro m t he c learance o f 1 37

a lder a nd h aze l t h icke ts t he h abi ta t o f t he f l oodp la in was s ubstan t ia l ly s im i lar t o c ond i t ions p reva i l ing o ver a mi l len iu m b e fore . As econd p o in t o f d if ference b e tween t he Swarkestone a nd F isherw ick s pec tra i s t he p resence o f Er icaceae a t t he l a ter s i te :

h eath a ssociat ions

w ere s pec if ica l ly e xc luded b y P earson i n h is i n terpre ta t ion o f t he Swarkes tone s a mp le . T he i mp l ica t ion may b e t ha t b y t he e nd o f t he i st mi l len ium b .c . s o me o f t he n utr ien t -poor s o i ls o n t he g rave l t erraces, a f ter t he ir i n i t ia l c learance , h ad d e ter iora ted t o h ea th lands . I n s um , t he l ast t wo o r t hree c en tur ies b .c . s aw t he a ppearance i nt he r iver ine e nv ironmen t o f t he T ren t V a l ley o f m ixed f arm ing u n i ts, c o mbin ing t he a rab le p oten t ia l o f t he f ree ly d ra ined g rave ls w ith t he r ich g razings o ft he f l ood- meadow . I n s ize a nd l ayout t hese u n its a re n ot d issi m i lar t o t he m ixed f arm ing u n i ts p reserved i n t he u p land e nv ironmen t o f t he g r itstone b e long ing t o t he p rev ious m i l len iu m .

T he r ep lacemen t o f s tone wa l ls b y d i tches i nt he

T ren t Va l ley s i tes i s a n a d just men t t o l oca l c ond it ions . The p o l len-ana ly t ica l r ecord a t tests t he c u lt iva t ion o f c erea ls d ur ing t he l ate i st mi l len iu m b .C . i n t he n or th o f t he r eg ion , a nd t h is w i l l a l most c erta in ly h ave c oncen trated o n t he l imestone ( l and-face t 2 ) r a ther t han t he g r i tstone . Those p ar ts o f t he g r i tstone u p land wh ich a re k nown t o h ave b een o ccup ied i n t he 2 nd mi l len iu m b .c . s eem n ot t o h ave b een r ese t t led , b u t p oss ib ly t o h ave b een i n tegra ted a s s pec ia l ised o ut ly ing h ab i tats l i nked t o mixed f ar m ing u n i ts o n t he l imestone . There i s t herefore r eason t o b el ieve t ha t i n t he l ast t wo o r t hree c en tur ies b .c. m ixed f ar m ing u n its w ere o nce a ga in e stabl ished i n s o me o f t he s ame a reas wh ich h ad p rev iously b een s et t led , i nclud ing t he l imestone p la teau , bu t n o t e x tend ing b eyond i t . Th is r ev iva l c an p erhaps b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he ame l iora t ion o f c l i ma te a t t h is t ime ( see p . 6 9 ), t ogether w i th t he n ew i ron t echno logy ,p erh aps mak ing p oss ib le more e f fect ive c u lt iva t ion o n p odzo l ised s o i ls. T here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t ha t s et t le men t h ad e x tended a t t h is t ime o n to t he K euper Mar l a nd G r i tstone F oo th i l ls ( l and-facets F , G a nd I I ) . I n t he a bsence o f p o l len-ana ly t ica l e v idence f or t hese l and-face ts we c an o n ly g uess t ha t t hey were s t i l l h eav i ly wooded a nd u t i l ised f or p annage a nd c a t t le . T h is v iew i s s uppor ted b y t he e v idence o f p lace-names a nd t he D omesday a ssess men t t ha t c ons iderab le s tre tches o f o ak w ood land s urv ived i n t hese a reas u n t i l t he m idd le a nd l a te i st m i l len iu m A .D . ( s ee f i g 4 p 1 3 . 1 03 ).

1 38

F ig. 5 a

The Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve: P er iod 1 c . 3 000-2200 b .c.

Ground s tone a xes ( based o n Moore a nd Cu m m ins 1 974 ) Group V I

r >

Group V I I

>

Excava ted o pen o ccupa t ion s i tes

• e o

Excava ted c ave s i tes

Probable o ccupa t ion s ites

S ur face s ca t ters o f f l in t a nd c her t sma l l t oo ls, p ossibly o f t h is p er iod

For n umbered s i tes s ee Table 5 E For k ey t o l and-facets s ee F ig. 4 g

1 40

•

1 41

F ig. 5 b The Dove TDerwen t I n ter f luve : S uggested l and-use :

P er iod 1

P ea t moor c om mun it ies Y

O ak-a lder-hazel-b irch wood land : h un t ing

A X X

V O ak (-elml i me ) w ood land ( pannage ? )

N . /

V V

V V

;• : . . . .v . . . .* :: : 7.

' . N . • : : : •i : :: . ' " . • : : : :S i i . : . :.: •:. E lm-l i me wood land : g razing/ fodder ing ; • . : : :• : : : . . , : . : 3 1 .. . . . : ; A lder-hazel f l oodp la in h ab i ta t :

_00, . ,00 000. ) 00 000 ° 0%g 0 0 00 ,0 r . 0 0

g razing

0 0

A rable

1 42

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F ig. 5 d

The N or th-east Mid lands : g round s tone a xe d istr ibu t ion ( by 1 0 2km ), b ased o n Cum m ins a nd Moore 1 973; Moore a nd Cu m m ins 1 974. The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve i s e nclosed i n ad ashed l ine. N .B . t he d a ta f or t he e x tre me s ou th e ast o f t he r eg ion a re n ot c omp le te, s ince t he p e tro log ica l e xa m ina t ion o f s tone a xes i nS ta f fs. h as n o t y e t b een p ub l ished. 1 0 p er 1 00 km 2

. 2 :

5 -10 p er 1 00 km 2 1 -5 p er 1 00 km 2

1 47

5 e t 4 l G I a m i n e 4 t .

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1 48

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149

g L i

F ig. 5 f

The Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve S uggested l and-use :

P er iod 2 . Jk

j L . J ,

P ea t moor c o m mun it ies

, 1 .

A . 3 t

O ak-a lder-hazel-b irch wood land h un t ing

x

X

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Open g rassland a nd s crub : g razing

0

0

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s o

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°0 0 z • • •Y i • * .b : : ;p ; : . v :• i ö • 6 :9 : 1 . :• • 59 . 4 . : .

Arable a nd g raz ing

1 50

1 51

F ig. 5 g The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve P er iod 3_ C . 1 700-1200 b .c.

Excava ted o pen o ccupa t ion s i tes

Probable o ccupa t ion s i tes

Excava ted o ccupat ion s i tes i n c aves

Bur ia l s tructures u sed i n t h is p er iod : K nown o r p robab le r ound b arrow o r c a irn

•

Probable s i te o f r ound b arrow ( ' r ing-d itch ' )

0

Probable c e metery ( ' r ingwor le )

0

I rregu lar c leared p lo ts

D

N .B. t he r ecorded d istr ibu t ion o fb arrows u ndoubted ly u nder-represen ts t he n u mbers p reserved i n r ecogn isable f or m t o t he p resen t d ay. The f i gure o n ly a t te mp ts t o p resen t t he o vera l l d istr ibu t ion . For n umbered s i tes s ee Tab le 5 G F or k ey t o l and-facets s ee F ig. 4 g

1 52

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F ig. 5 h

1

Sw ine S ty Enclosure a nd a ssoc ia ted c leared p lo ts b ased o n a s urvey b y L . H . Bu tcher , b y c our tesy o f t he Hun ter Archaeo log ical S oc ie ty.

1 54

F ig. 5 i

G ardo m 's Edge Enclosure a nd a ssoc ia ted c leared p lots b ased o n as urvey b y L . H . Bu tcher , b y c our tesy o f t he Hun ter A rchaeo log ical S oc iety.

1 55

F ig. 5 j

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve S uggested l and-use : P er iod 3

peat moor c o m mun it ies

O ak-a lder-hazel-b irch wood land V

O ak ( -el m-l i me ) wood land ( pann2ge? )

• :

O pen g rassland a nd h azel-b irch s crub g razing

Z . :• :

: • • • • • • • • * . •

' • • ' • - •' • . -

• . 11 — * t .1

• 3 b.• . 4 : t i t t• ••: . e i : ? •. 1 .4 .95 : •. 0: 4 • •p • ;2 0 • 4 5 . . •

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)

0

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0

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•

1 56

0

o

0

°

0

0

0

,

0

0

_

1 57

Fig. 5k

The Dove-Derwent Interfluve Period 4 c. 1200-600 b. c.

0

Defensive enclosures Excavated open occupation site probably of this period

Thick broken line indicates boundaries of suggested 'territories' where these are not defined by steeply

o - -

sloping land under land-facets 3 and C, but by river-courses

For numbered sites see Table 5H For key to land-facets see Fig. 4g

158

1 59

F ig. 5 1

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve S uggested l and-use :

P er iod 4

J Pea t moor c ommun it ies

t u , 1

O ak-a lder-hazel-b irch wood land V

Oak ( -e l m-l i me ) w ood land ( pannage? )

V V

Comp lex o f o pen g rassland , h ea th , s crub a nd wood land o n p odzo l ic ( or r egenera t ing ) s o ils

; i•: • : . • : ; • : : : z

Grazing

1 60

i

i

-

I6 1

F ig. 5m

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve Per iod 5 c . 6 00-0 b .c.

D itched e nclosures

Banked e nclosures

Excava ted o ccupa t ion s i tes i n c aves

o * o

For n umbered s i tes s ee Tab le 5 J For k ey t o l and-facets s ee F ig. 4 g

1 62

I6 3

F ig. 5 n

The Dove-Derwen t I n terf luve S uggested l and-use Per iod 5

. _ . j j_ i ll 1 ) ,

Pea t moor c o m mun it ies

‚I I

_ I - - ^ - -

O ak-a lder-hazel-b irch wood land

Oak ( -el m-l i me ) wood land ( pannage? )

Co mp lex o f o pen g rassland , h ea th , s crub a nd wood land o n p odzo l ic ( or r egenera t ing ) s o ils

Grazing )

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s u r f a c e s c a t e r s

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s z

i n d i v d u a l i n h u m a t i o n

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? m u l t i p l e i n h u m a t i o n

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168

Tab le 5 C

M i l l Po t Cave :

f auna .

m in i mu m n u mber

%f or m in i mum n u mber

o f i nd iv idua ls

o f i nd iv idua ls

%t o ta l

Horse

Based o n Ryder , L ongwor th & Gunstone ( 1971)

O x

2 0

S heep/goa t

5 9

P ig

4

Red d eer

1 3

3

6 7

1 6

4

1

1 1

Dog

4

1

. 5

5 .5

1

8

1

4

F ield v o le, w a ter v o le a nd r abb i t ( poss ibly ) a lso p resen t + 1 mar ine s hel l A ge f ro m t eeth Under 2 Ox 7

S heep/goa t

Tab le 5D

2

2 -5

a t l east 5

2

3

1

1 3

a t l east 1 0 2

1 0

Wet ton Mi l l Rock S he l ter :

f auna.

Based o n Bra mwe l l , i n K e l ly ( 1976 )

I den t if ied p ieces o fb one

e st i ma ted n umber

%

1

Horse

4 .5

1 3

O x S heep/goa t

1 15

3 8

P ig

1 68

5 6

4

R ed d eer

3a du l ts;

1 im ma ture

2a du l ts;

1 im ma ture;

1n ewborn

2a du l ts; 4 o r 5i m ma ture

1 .5

2a du l ts, 2 i m ma ture

O ther s pec ies ( w ith n umber o f i den t if ied p ieces o fb one ) Wi ld c a t

Wa ter v o le

1 8

1 20

Buzzard

1

B lack g rouse

P ine marten 3 9

Vo le s p .

Po leca t 2

Vo le o r mouse

S toa t

Wood mouse 4

Rob in

F ield v o le

8

Redstar t

Brown r a t

1

Thrush s p .

1

B adger O t ter

3 2

1 3

1 0 8

Tawny ow l

L esser h orseshoe b a t 2

2

1

7 1 8

Red f ox 5 5 Wo l f 1

Mo le

Roe d eer 4 6

Hedgehog 3

Tree c reeper

Rabb i t

F rog a nd t oad ( nu merous )

Bun t ing s p .

3 5

B rown h are

7

Red s qu irre l 3

1

Grea t t i t

F ish , i nde ter m ina te Goose

S po t ted f lyca tcher 2

1

2 4

1

Chaf f inch

1

2

1

S tar l ing 4 Rook o r c row

1 69

1

Tab le 5 E

S ites a t tr ibu table t o Per iod 1 c . 3 000-2200 b .c.

S i te

Ref .

Gr id r ef .

N o. ( see F ig. 4 b )

Excava ted o pen o ccupa t ion s i tes A ston-on-Tren t

SK 4 22291

Swarkestone

Reaney 1 968

3

3 66295

Green f ield 1 960

Chesh ire Wood

1 16536

Emery 1 962

1 8

We t ton Mi l l S he l ter

0 96563

K e l ly 1 976

6 6

2 03586 2 32580

May 1 971

5 9

Excava ted c ave s i tes

Probable o ccupa t ion s i tes A stonh il l Green L ow Table 5 F

Manby 1 965

2 3 3

S i tes a t tr ibu table t o P er iod 2 c . 2 200-1700 b .c .

Swarkestone

SK 3 66295

Green f ield 1 960

5 9

2 96288

Wheeler 1 970-2

6 7

2 03586

May 1 971

Wi l l ing ton Probable o ccupa t ion s ites A stonh i l l

2

Ca l ton H il l

1 18714

Rad ley a nd P lan t 1 967

1 4

E l ton Moor

2 159 a rea

Had ley a nd Cooper 1 968

2 4

Moor Grange F ar m

1 32 7 06

Rad ley a1d P lan t 1 967

4 4

Wor mh i l l

1 24 7 44

Har t 1 976

6 8

Excava ted o ccupa t ion s i tes i n c aves F oxho le Cave

0 98664

Bra mwel l 1 971

3 0

Ra ins Cave

17 3657

Ward 1 893-4

4 9

We t ton Mil l S he l ter

0 96563

K el ly 1 976

6 6

Caves p robab ly u t il ised f or o ccupa t ion a nd/or b ur ia l Ca l l ing L ow Da le

1 83654

Harr is 1 938; P iggo t t 19 53

1 3

Dar fur R idge

0 97558

G ilks 1 973

n o t s hown

Dowel Cave

1 75676

Bra mwel l 1 959

2 2

Fa lcon L ow Cave

1 05532

Emery 1 962

2 6

Harborough Cave

2 42552

S torrs F ox 1 909

3 4

Har t le Da le Caves

1 65803

G i lk s 1 973

n o t s hown

One A sh Cave

1 73657

G i lks 1 973

n o t s hown

Ravencl if fe C ave

1 74735.

S torrs F ox 1 910

5 1

Bur ia l s truc tures u t i l ised i n t h is p er iod Bee L ow

1 93647

* Browns L ow

1 2

Ba te man 1 861, 1 68

1 0

F ive Wel ls

1 24711

P iggo t t 1 953; Manby 19 58

2 9

Green L ow

2 32580

Manby 1 965

3 3

Harborough Rocks

2 43554

Manby 1 958

3 5

5 2

Marsden 1 970

8

( Co n td . ) 1 70

Table 5F (contd.) Site

Grid ref.

*Hay Top Long Low l''!inninglow Ringham Low *Rolley Low Stoney Low *Smerril Moor Low *Top Low

175725 122539 209572 169664 184736 218578 191623 13 48

Ref. Fowler 1955 Fowler 1955 Manby 1958 Manby 1958 Fowler 1955 J\I anby 1 958 Fowler 1 955 Bateman 1861 � t34

No. 37 40 43 ....

�) ,)

53 57 38 62

* uncertain examples Henge monuments Arhor Lo�, Do re Holes

161635 078783

1 .... 1 ')'

Parallel ditch alignments (rursus) Aston--on-Trent .f �nde1 n

412422 nc 31 t:..u

O'Brien 1979 Wheeler .._ 970

1 71

not shown .1. ot s h O\\";l

Table 5G

S ites a t tr ibu table t o Per iod 3 c . 1 700-1200 b .c.

S ite

Gr id r ef.

No.

Ref .

Excava ted o pen o ccupa t ion s i tes Swarkestone

3 66295

Green f ield 1 960

5 9

Sw ine S ty

SK

2 71750

Mach in 1 971;

6 0

Wil l ington

2 96288

Wheeler 1 972

Brown Edge

2 88791

Rad ley 1 966a

Gardo m 's Edge

2 7 7 3 a rea

1 973

6 7

Probable o ccupat ion s ites 9 3 1

Excava ted o ccupa t ion s i tes i n c aves Bunker 's H il l

6 90284

Rad ley a nd Cooper 19 66

1 1

E lder Bush Cave

0 9854 9

Bra mwel l 1 964

2 3

Fa lcon L ow Cave

1 04532

Emery 1 962

2 6

Fox Hole Cave

0 98664

Bra mwel l 1 971

3 0

Mil l Po t

0 96609

Ryder , L o rgwor th a nd

Wetton Mil l S hel ter

0 95563

K el ly 1 976

Gunstone 1 971

4 2 6 6

Bur ia l s truc tures u t il ised i n t h is p er iod ( modern e xcavat ions ) Aston-on-Tren t

4 22291

Barbrook C ircle I Bee L ow

Reaney 1 968

3

2 78756

L ew is 1 966

6

1 9364 7

Marsden 1 970

8

Chel morton L ow

1 13 7 06

Forde-Johnston 1 962

1 7

G lebe L ow

2 04 7 32

Rad ley 1 966b

3 2

Green L ow , A lsop Moor

1 51554

Marsden 19 63

n o t s hown

Haddon Grove

17 7658

Marsden 19 64

n ot s hown

Har land Edge

2 90687

R iley 1 966

S tan ton Moor

2 4 6 3 a rea

Hea thco te 1 930 ;

Swarkestone

3 66295

Posnansky 1 955;

3 6 1 936; 1 939 6 6 1 956;

Green f ield 1 960 ; L ew is 1 966

5 9

* Tideslow

7 79151

Rad ley a nd P lan t 19 71

To t ley Moor I V

2 88795

Rad ley 1 966

2 81668

Rad ley 1 969

n ot s hown

4 11285

Reaney 1 968

n o t s hown

n ot s hown 9

Tr ip le Ca irn , Bee ley Moor Weston-on-Tren t

Ear l ier e xcava t ions a re d escr ibed i n Ba te man 1 848; 1 862-3; Bagshawe 1 862-2;

L ucas 1 864-5;

1 861;

Lucas a nd J ew it t

Carr ington 1 864-5;

L ucas 1 867-8.

For ' r ing d itches ' b el ieved t o b e r epresen ta t ive o f bur ia l s tructures Hughes 1 961;

O 'Br ien 1 979.

For u nexcava ted T r ingworks ' Rad ley 1 966a.

( Con td.)

1 72

Table 5G ( c on td.) I rregular c leared p lo ts The ma jor ity o f t hese were f i rst s urveyed b y L . H . Butcher ( notes h eld i n S hef f ield Museu m ). SK

Barbrook Beeley Moor

2 78754 2 80684

B irchen Edge

2 80728

Brown Edge

2 85790

Car l Wark

2 59813

Curbar Edge

2 53 7 58

Gardo m 's Edge

2 73 7 33

S heepwash Bank

2 28841

S heff ield P lan ta t ion

2 56792

S toke F la t

2 53766

Sw ine S ty

27 37 54

Table 5H

S ites a t tr ibu table t o Per iod 4 c . 1 200-600 b. c.

S ite

Gr id r ef.

Ref .

N o.

Defensive e nclosures Ba l l Cross

SK 2 28693

Preston 1 954;

Cha l l is

a nd Hard ing 19 75

4

* Burr Tor

1 80784

Preston 19 54

1 2

* Carl Wark

2 60814

Preston 19 54

1 5

Coo mbs Moss

1 54 7 84

Preston 19 54

1 9

* F in Cop

1 74 7 09

Preston 19 54

2 7

Ma m Tor

1 27834

Coo mbs 1 975

4 1

* d ate u ncerta in Excava ted o pen o ccupa t ion s ite p robably o f t h is d a te Wi l l ington

2 96288

Wheeler 1 972

6 7

Table 5 J S i tes a t tr ibu table t o Per iod 5 C . 6 00-0 b .c . D itched e nc losures ( Sm ith 1 977 ) A ston-on-Tren t

4 22291

May 1 970

Swarkestone

3 66295

Hughes 19 61

Twyford

3 182 9 1

Hughes 1 961

n o t s hown

Weston-on-Tren t

4 11285

May 1 964

6 5

Wi l l ington

3 96288

'Wheeler 1 970-2

3 5 9

6 7

Banked e nc losures ( da te u ncerta in ) Cast le R ing

2 21628

D im insda le

1 68703

Rad ley n o tebooks

1 6 2 0 ( con td .)

1 73

Table 5 J ( con td. ) S ite

Gr id r ef .

Ref.

N o.

Excava ted o ccupa t ion s i tes i n c aves Dowel Cave ( uncer ta in )

1 75676

Bra mwel l 1 959

2 2

E lder Bush Cave

0 98549

Bra mwel l 1 964

2 3

Harborough Cave

2 42552

S torrs Fox 1 909 ; Ar mstrong 19 23

3 4 4 9

O ld Wo man 's House

1 6 7 1

S torrs Fox 19 11

Ravencl if fe Cave

1 74735

S torrs Fox 1 910 ;

Thor 's Cave

0 98549

63 6 1 Tho mas a nd Gunstone 19

Wetton Mil l Rock S helter

0 96563

K el ly 1 976

Read 1 910

1 74

5 1 6 6

CHAPTER 6 THE MODEL APPL IED

1 .

Env iron men ta l c onstra in ts A ccord ing t o t he mode l p roposed h ere h u man p opu la t ions w i l l g row u n t i l

t hey h ave e xpanded i n to t he marg ins f or t he p lan ts o n wh ich t hey a re d irect ly o r i nd irec t ly d ependen t .

I th as b een a rgued t ha t c l i ma te a nd s o i ls may s et

more o r l ess p er manen t l im i ts t o c er ta in t ypes o f l and-use a nd h ence t o t he e xpans ion o f p opu la t ions u nder a g iven e cono m ic s yste m .

I th as b een h ypo-

t hesized t ha t b ecause o f t he ir c en tra l i mpor tance i n t he a gr icu ltura l c o mp lex t he e nv iron men ta l t o lerances o f t he c erea l g ra ins w i l l b e t he k ey t o t hese l i m its f or a gr icu ltura l s oc ie t ies.

I ti s t he p urpose o f t h is s ect ion t o s ee whe ther

w i th in t he r eg ion s e lected f or s tudy b oundar ies f or h u man s e t t le men t c an b e i den t if ied , a nd i fs o whe ther t hese c orrespond t o t he p red icted l im i ts f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion . T opograph ica l ly c on tro l led micro-c l i ma t ic d i f feren t ia ls c an b e q uan t if i ed f or t he r eg ion a t t he p resen t d ay , a nd t he r ev iew o f t he n ature o f t he v eg e ta t ion a t c . 3 000 b .c . c on f ir med t ha t t hese d if feren t ia ls o bta ined a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he p er iod u nder c onsidera t ion h ere .

These d if feren t ia ls were a lso

s hown t o h ave b een c orre la ted w i th t he p a t tern o f l and-use a nd s econdary v eg eta t ion i n t he l ast mi l len iu m .

I ti s t herefore j usti f iab le t o s uppose t ha t t hey

w i l l h ave p ersisted t hroughou t t he l ast t hree mi l len ia b .c .

There i s n o i nd i-

c at ion i n t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l r ecord t ha t d ur ing t h is p er iod o vera l l c l i ma t ic c ond it ions w i l l h ave b een marked ly d if feren t , a nd t he t opograph ica l ly c on tro l led d if feren t ia ls w i l l h ave t ended t o o ver-r ide macro-c l i r ra t i c f luc tua t ions. T he 'marg ina l ity ' o f t he r eg ion i s e xpressed i n s evera l ways .

I th as

b een s hown t ha t t he p a t tern o f s o i ls, a l though d istor ted b y modern a gr icu ltura l i mprovemen t , r ef lects t he c l i ma t ic g rad ien t o f i ncreased p rec ip i ta t ion a nd l ower t emperatures a s a l t i tudes i ncrease.

T o t he n or th a nd west o f t he r e-

g ion , i rrespect ive o f g eo logy a nd u nder ly ing ma ter ia l, p ea ty a nd p odzo l ic s o i ls p redo m ina te .

Brown e ar ths p reva i l i n t he more f avourab le c l i ma t ic c ond it ions

o f t he s ou th-east o f t he r eg ion .

The f act t ha t ah igher p ropor t ion o f l and i n t he

s ou th-east i s d evo ted t o i n tensive a gr icu ltura l u se a t t he p resen t d ay a lso r ef l ects t h is d i f feren t ia l .

P opu la t ion d ens it ies f ro m t he 1 1th c en tury A .D . o n-

w ards h ave c orrespond ing ly f a l len o f f marked ly a s o ne p roceeds n or th a nd w est t hrough t he r eg ion .

T h is h as b een s hown t o r e la te t o t he r e la t ive a bundance

o f a rab le a nd meadow l and . The r ev iew o f t he h istor ica l , p reh istor ic a nd modern e v idence f or c erea l c u lt iva t ion s howed t ha t a t n o p er iod c an a ny o f t he c erea ls b e d e monstra ted t o h ave b een g rown a t a l t itudes i n e xcess o f 4 00 m .

Exper i men ta l b ar ley t r ia ls

c onf ir med t ha t r e la t ive ly g ood y ie lds were o bta inab le o n t he l imestone p la teau a t 3 80 m, t hough t hese were c ons idered u necono m ic b y t he v ery h igh s tandards 1 75

f or c er a l p roduct ion i n Eng land a t t he p resen t d ay .

D ocu men tary a nd f i e ld

e v idence s hows t ha t c erea ls were c u lt iva ted a t t hese a l t itudes i nt he DoveD erwen t L n ter f luve i n t he 1 3 th-14th c en tur ies A .D .

The f act t ha t b ar ley h as

b een s uccessfu l ly g rown a t 4 95 m i n a n e xper imen t i n L ancs, s uggests, h owe ver , t ha t t he u pward l im i t f or c erea l c rops i sn ot c on tro lled s o le ly b y c l ima t ic f actors, b ut i s af unction o f an umber o f e cono m ic a nd e nv iron men ta l f actors. Amongst t he e nv ironmen ta l f actors s o i l a c id i ty , wh ich i s i t se lf r el a ted t o c l i ma te , i s p erhaps o f ma jor s ign if icance . I n v iew o f t he h istor ica l a nd modern r ecord i ts ee ms r easonab le t o p lace t he p ract ica l l im i t f or c erea l c u lt iva t ion i n t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve a t C . 4 00 m .

T h is l im i t w i l l e xc lude f ro m c u lt iva t ion p ract ica l ly n o p ar t o f t he

l imestone , b u t i tw i l l e xc lude s ubstan t ia l p ar ts o f t he g r itstone f ormat ion . A lthough t he 4 00 m p ara me ter may b e r egarded a s t he e f fec t ive u pward l im i t , i n t he u pper marg ins b e low t h is l im i t c ond i t ions b eco me i ncreasing ly p recar ious f or s uccessfu l c erea l c ropp ing . I th as b een s uggested t hat t he 2 00 m p ara me ter may b e a n a ppropr ia te g u ide t o t he a l t itude a t w h ich c erea l c u lt iva t ion b eco mes i nheren t ly u nre l iab le u nder t he p resen t c l ima t ic r eg ime . Ah igh p roport ion o f l and i n t he r eg ion f a l ls i nt h is a t t itud ina l b racke t, i nc ludi ng t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he l imestone p la teau . As econd c a tegory o f e nv iron men ta l c onstra in ts o n c erea l c u lt iva t ion a re t hose p resen ted b y e daph ic c ond i t ions .

E daph ic l imi ts a re s e ldo m p erma-

n en t i n t he s a me s ense a s c l i ma t ic l im i ts .

I ti s o n ly t he s teep ly s lop ing l and-

f ace ts ( 3a nd C ) t ha t c an b e i mmed ia te ly e xc luded f ro m c u lt iva t ion o n t hese g rounds . Amongst t he r e ma in ing l and-facets e daph ic c onstra in ts c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o o ne o f s evera l t ypes o f r estr ict ion : t he efect o f t hese r estr ic t ions i n e xc lud ing a l andtype f ro m c u lt iva t ion w i l l o f c ourse b e d ependen t o n t he t echno logy a nd p ower-source a va i lab le . T he e daph ic r estr ict ion wh ich a f fec ts t he s u itab i l i ty f or c erea ls o f t he g rea test e x ten t o f l and i n t he r eg ion i s t ha t o f p oor d ra inage.

T h is c harac ter-

i s t ic b e longs t o many o f t he d r if t a nd h eavy c lay s o i ls, p art icu lar ly i n t he l owl ands o f t he r eg ion .

Ad if feren t t ype o f r estr ict ion i s p resen ted b y t he s o i ls

o f t he g r i tstone ( l and-face t E ) where d r i f t f orms a n eg l ig ib le c onst i tuen t o f s o i l p aren t-ma ter ial . The r ev iew o f t he h istory o f t hese s o i ls s uggested t ha t t he ir p resen t c ond it ion a s s ha l low s tony s o i ls w ith p odzo l ic p ro f i les a nd i r on/ h u mus p ann ing i s p ar t ly a t tr ibu tab le t o l and-use o ver t he p ast 6 000 y ears . Pr ior t o t he o nse t o f wood land c learance t hese s o ils s uppor ted o ak-a lder-haze l wood land a nd c an b e a ssu med t o h ave b een b rown e ar ths o r b rown p odzo l ic s o i ls . D e foresta t ion a nd r ecurren tb urn ing o f f o f v ege ta t ion h ave r educed t he ir h um ic b udge t , e ncouraged e ros ion a nd a l lowed t he s pread o f b lanke t p ea t . C er ta in o f t he s o i ls o f t h is l and-face t h ave b een r ec la i med b y modern t echn iques a nd h ave b een r estored t o t he s tatus o fb rown e ar ths. Bu t e ven i nt he ir e arl i er , u ndegraded c ond i t ion t hese s o i ls w i l l h ave b een amongst t he l east f avoura b le f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion b ecause o f t he ir p a tch iness, s ha l lowness, s ton iness a nd t he p overty o f t he ir p aren t ma ter ia l i n n utr ien ts.

S im i lar r estr ict ions,

t hough t o al esser d egree , a f fect t he s o i ls o f t he Tr iassic f or ma t ion a nd t he c ha l lower z 3 1 1s o f t he l imestone p la teau .

1 76

A s ar esu lt o f c l i ma t ic a nd/or e daph ic r estr ict ions most o f t he r eg ion c an b e r egarded a s marg ina l f or c erea l c u l t iva t ion .

I ti s o n ly o n c er ta in o f

t he t erraces o f t he Tren t a nd D ove t ha t c ond i t ions c an b e c onsidered who l ly f avourab le . Bu t t hese a reas a re p rec ise ly _those i n wh ich t here i s r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t g eo morpho log ica l c hanges i n t he l ast 6 000 y ears may h ave b een most s ign if ican t , a nd f or t h is r eason t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord may b e l east s a t isfac tory . I ft he mode l d escr ibed a bove ( p . 2 4 ) i s a pp l ied t o t he r eg ion a f oca l a rea o f s et t lemen t , c o inc id ing w i th t he a rea i n wh ich e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions a re f avourab le f or t he s tap le , may b e d rawn i n o n t he v a l ley g rave ls o f t he Tren t a nd i t s t r ibutar ies . T he r ema inder o f t he r eg ion , u p t o 4 00 m , must f a l l i n a f r inge-zone , s ince c ond i t ions a re i n s o me r espect u n favourab le f or c erea ls . The 4 00 m c on tour wou ld b e e xpected t o f orm a p ermanen t b oundary f or a gr ic u ltura l s e t t le men t . The q uest ion we h ave t o a nswer i s whether t he s equence o f l and-use a nd s et t le men t , a s r econstructed i n t he f oregoing s ect ion , e xh ib its t he t rends e xpected o f a marg ina l z one ( see p . 6 .2

3 2-6 ).

Co lon isat ion a nd Expan s ion D ur ing t he p er iod 3 000-2200 b .c . t here i s e v idence f or t he c u l t ivat ion

o f c erea ls o n t he a l luv ia l g rave ls o f t he Tren t Va l ley a nd t h is l and-use i s l i ke ly t o h ave e x tended o n to t he c o mparab le s o i ls o f t he D ove a nd D erwen t Va l leys .

D ur ing t h is p er iod t here a re s igns o f i n ter ference w ith t he w ood land

i n t he u p lands, n ame ly t wo p hases o f e lm d ec l ine f o l lowed b y l ess s e lect ive c learance o f t rees a t t he c lose o f t he p er iod . I ti s s uggested t ha t i n i t ia l ly t he l imestone p la teau c onst itu ted a s pec ia l ised o ut ly ing h ahl ta t o f fer ing v a luab le r esources o f g razing o n t he b ase-r ich s o i ls a nd p erhaps e lm l eaves a nd s hoots a s f ood f or s tock . Th is i n term i t ten t u t i l isa t ion i s r ecorded i n t he p o l len d iagr a ms o f t he a d jacen t g r i tstone u p lands .

S o me o f t he s tone a xes o f t he e ar l ier

g roups, f ound i n l arge n umbers o n t he l imestone p la teau, may h ave b een c onn ected w i th t reelopp ing . T he v ery l im i ted e v idence f or o ccupa t ion s i tes i n t h is p er iod i n t he n u merous l imestone c aves s uggests t ha t s easona l o r o ccas iona l u se o n ly was made o f t hese u p lands .

I t may b e t en ta t ive ly c onc luded

t ha t t he f oca l a rea o f s et t le men t l ay o n t he a l luv ia l-grave ls i n t he c l ima t ica l ly most f avourab le p ar t o f t he r eg ion . B eyond t he e nv ironmen ta l l im i ts f or c erea ls o n t he g r itstone u p lands, a nd s omet i mes a bove t he 4 00 m p arameter , where w ood land was i n terrup ted b y b lanke t p ea t a nd p erhaps b y c learances o f p re-agr icu ltura l c o m mun i t ies, t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t h un t ing may h ave b een p rac t ised d ur ing t h is p er iod . The c omp lete e cono m ic s yste m may , t heref ore, h ave i nc luded t hree l i nked c o mponen ts: t he a rab le r esource o n t he a l luv ia l-grave ls; t he l i vestock main tenance r esource o n t he l imestone u p lands a nd t he s upp le men tary r esource o f p ro te in p rov ided b y h un ted a n i ma ls o n t he u pward ma rg ins o f t he f orest . I ta lso , s ee ms h igh ly l i ke ly t ha t t he f l oodp la in a d jacen t t o t he a rab le , a nd t he v ast s tre tches o f r e la t ive ly u nd isturbed d ec iduo us wood land wou ld h ave b een u t i l ised f or c at t le a nd p igs, t hough t h is u se w ou ld o f c ourse l eave n o a rchaeo log ica l t race . D ur ing t h is p er iod a s er ies o f s econdary f ood-resources, wh ich c ou ld b e c onver ted i n to h uman f ood b y av ar ie ty o f a n i ma ls, were b e ing s e lect ive ly i n tegra ted w ith t he p r i mary f ood-resources o f c erea ls a nd p erhaps o ther

1 77

p lan ts . T h is s yste m d rew i n to a ssoc ia t ion a n u mber o f d ist inc t e co log ica l c o m mun i t ies, o f fer ing a v ar ie ty o f c o mp le men tary 3 sources w h ich c ou ld b e c o mbined t hrough t he v eh ic le o f l i vestock . I n t he a bsence o f f auna l a ssemb lag es f or t he p er iod i tc anno t b e e st i mated t o w ha t e x ten t s ources o fp rote in r epresen ted b y t he i nd igenous f auna o f t he d ec iduous wood land w ere s upers eded b y t he

d o mest ica tes ' ,n or i s s pecu la t ion a bout t he r ange o f h usbandry

p rac t ices wh ich may h ave b een i nvo lved p rof i tab le . A lthough t he t o ta l e v idence f or t h is p er iod o f 8 00 y ears i s e x iguous c o mp ared w i th t he q uan t i ty o f ma ter ia l a t tr ibu tab le t o t he s ubsequen t p er iods, i t s d istr ibut ion d oes d e monstra te t he e f fect o f t he b eg inn ings o f a gr icu lture i nt he r eg ion f or t he e x tens ion o f r esource u t i l isa t ion .

Areas, s uch a s t he l imestone

p la teau , f or wh ich t here i s c o mpara t ive ly l i t t le e v idence o f u se i nt he p re-agr ic u ltura l p er iod , were n ow s ough t o u t f or s econdary f ood-resources t o s upp lemen t t he e x ist ing g raz ing p oten t ia l, e nab l ing h igher s tock ing d ensi t ies t o b e ma in ta ined . H owever , t he most s ign if ican t c hange was u ndoub ted ly t he i n trod uct ion o f c erea ls . T hese may h ave t aken t he p lace o f ar ange o f i nd igenous h erbs a nd ' weedy ' s pecies, o ccupy ing t he s pec ia l ised h ab itat o f t he u nstab le a l luv ia l g rave ls a nd s i lts, p ossib ly g a thered b y t he p re-agr icu l tura l c o mmun it i es . T he e ar l iest a gr icu ltura l e cono my , s o f ar a s i tc an b e r econstructed , d id n ot i nvo lve a massive o ns laugh t o n t he f orest , b ut r a ther t he c o mb ina t ion o f s e lected f orest r esources w ith t hose o f t he s pec ia l ised h ab ita t o f t he v a l leys . T he n ex t 5 00 y ears s aw t he e xpansion o f o ccupance o n t he l imestone p la teau a nd s ubsequen t ly o n to t he f r inges o f t he g r i tstone u p land . Th is e xpans ion , wh ich must b e i nd ica t ive o f c onsiderab le p opu la t ion g row th , i s a ssoc iat ed w ith t he a ppearance o f c erea ls i n t hese a reas . I th as b een a rgued t ha t wh i le t he i n it ia l a t trac t ion o f t he l imestone was f or i t s g razing a nd f odder r es purces o n t he c a lcareous b rown e ar ths, t he e stab lishmen t o f more s ubstan t ia l p opu la t ions, a s i nd ica ted b y t he b ur ia l monu men ts, c ave a nd s ur face-sca t ter s i tes, was d ependen t o n t he d eep l oess s o i ls, wh ich were eminen t ly s uitab le f or c u l t iva t ion . I n o ther words, p r i mary f ood r esources h ad n ow r ep laced s econdary f ood-resources a s t he b as is f or t he s e t t le men t o f t he a rea, a n e xamp le o f a gr icu l tura l i n tens if ica t ion .

T he c u l t iva t ion p lo ts w i l l h ave b een

e stab l ished i n wood land wh ich h ad a lready b een p ar t ia l ly r educed t o s crub a nd o pen g rass land t hrough e x tens ive g raz ing a nd s e lect ive t reelopp ing f or a n ima l f odders .

Dur ing t h is p er iod t he l and-use c hanges o n t he g r itstone u p lands a re

c learer t han t hose e lsewhere b ecause o f t he d e ta i led p o l len-ana ly t ica l r ecord . T he p robable u se o f t h is a rea a s ah un t ing g round was n ow s upp lemen ted b y i t s r ecurren t u t i l isa t ion f or g razin .gs . Th is p hase o f u t i lisa t ion i s marked t owards t he e nd o f t h is p er iod b y t he a ppearance o fb ur ia l mounds.

I t wou ld a ppear

t ha t f o l low ing t he e x tens ive c onvers ion o f t he l imestone p la teau t o a rable , o pen g raz ings were b e ing i ncreas ing ly s ough t o n t he p oorer s o i ls o f t he g r itstone . A lthough i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he p reva i l ing c l ima t ic c ond it ions were s l igh t ly more f avourab le i n t he e ar ly s econd m i l len iu m b .c . t he s e t t le men t o f t he l imestone u p land , p ract ica lly a l l o f wh ich l i es i n t he b racke t 2 00-400 m , w i l l h ave mean t t he e xpansion o f p opu la t ion i n to a c l i ma t ica lly l ess f avourab le z one t han t ha t t o wh ich t he Tren t Va l ley b e longed .

There i s n o e v idence f or

t he i ncreased u t i l isa t ion o r s e t t lemen t o f t he g r itstone a nd s ha le f oo th il ls a t t h is t ime .

T h is s uggests t hat t he c l i ma t ic r es tr ict ions e xper ienced o n t he 1 78

l imestone p lateau p resen ted l ess s evere p rob le ms t o t he p reh istor ic c u lt iva tor t han t he d i f f icu lt ies o f h eavy , p oor ly d ra ined s o i ls . The i nd ica t ions a re t ha t t he s et t lemen t o f t he r eg ion d id n o t p roceed b y s i mp le e xpans ion o utwards a round t he p er iphery o f t he f oca l a rea o f s e t t le men t , b ut b y ' leap ing a cross ' l ess workab le s o i ls i n o rder t o e xp lo it t he p o ten t ia l o f t he l oess o n t he l imes tone p la teau. Casua l o r e x tensive l and-use was f o l lowed b y i n tensive l andu se i n t he manner d ocu men ted i n h istor ica l t imes i n many r eg ions o f n or thw est Europe ( see a tove p . 3 0 ). I ti sd ur ing t h is p er iod t ha t we h ave t he f i rst c lear s igns b o th i n t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l a nd mo l luscan a na lyses t ha t t he f orest c anopy i n t he u p lands w as b e ing marked ly r educed . T he l arge n u mber o f g round s tone a xes f ound i n t hese a reas a nd a t tr ibutab le t o t h is p er iod a re u ndoubted ly c onnected w i th t h is p hase o f a c t iv ity . These i nd icat ions a re c onsisten t w i th t he v iew t ha t t he e xp ansion o f s et t le men t was c onnected w ith t he e n large men t o f t he a rab le . The f act t ha tb y c .1 7 50 b .c . c erea l p o l len makes a n a ppearance i n t he g r i tstone u p lands may Imp ly t ha t b y t h is t ime t he s upp ly o f more s u itab le a rab le s o i ls o n t he l imestone was b eg inn ing t o r un o ut . Throughou t t h is p er iod t he e v id ence f or s et t le men t c lusters o n t hose s o i ls wh ich w i l l h ave o f fered t he l east d i f f icu lt ies f or c u lt iva t ion , b ecause o f f ree d ra inage , modera te t o l i gh t t ex ture , a nd f reedom f ro m s tones .

T h is s uggests t ha t wha tever t he r e la t ive i mpor tance

o f c erea ls i nt he d iet , t hey p layed a c r it ica l r o le i n t he e cono my .

T h is d oes

n o t o f c ourse mean t ha t t he r e ma in ing a reas, whe ther c leared o f t rees o r s t i l l u nder f orest , were a gr icu ltura l ly n ega t ive . The l im i ted f auna l e v idence s ugg ests o n t he c on trary t ha t t he d iversi ty o f s econdary f ood-resources r epres en ted b y t he c l i max wood land a nd t he s econdary s uccession f o l low ing c learance w as f u l ly u t i l ised b y t he v ar ious l i vestock s pecies . The 1 300 y ears c . 3 000-1700 b .c . c an b e r egarded a s c over ing t he c o lon isa t ion a nd e xpansion p hases o f d e mograph ic g row th , d ur ing wh ich t he n ew e conomy was e stab lished a nd p opu la t ion p ressed i n to f r inge z ones, i n w h ich c ond i t ions were l ess f avourab le f or t he s tap le . S o f ar a s t he p rocesses o f c o lon isa t ion a nd e xpans ion c an b e r ecovered t hey a re more e asi ly a cco m mod a ted i n t he mu lt ip le l and-use mode l t han t he h o mesteader 's mode l ( s ee p . 2 9 f .). T he e v idence c lear ly i mp l ies t ha t i n t he e ar l iest s tages a gr icu ltura l c o mmun it i es were u t i l is ing a r ange o f r esources l oca ted i n s evera l p ar ts o f t he r eg ion , t hough w he ther t h is w i l l h ave i nvo lved s pec ia l ised g roups o r s easona l f ad es o f as ing le p opu la t ion i s n o t k nown . S ubsequen t ly w e s ee t he r ep lacemen t o f c asua l u t i l isa t ion o f as pec ia l ised o u t ly ing h ab ita t b y s et t le men t b ased o n t he s tap le c rop . Th is p rogress ion i s p red icted b y t he mu lt ip le l and-use mode l . I ti s a ccompan ied b y c hanges i n l and-use i n t he p er iphera l a reas f rom h un t ing t o g raz ing a nd f i nal ly c erea l c ropp ing .

The e xpansion o f t he s et t led a rea

t hrough t ime i s t hus a ssoc ia ted w ith a s equence o f i n tens if ica t ion o f l and-use , r epresen ted d iagra m ma t ica l ly i n f i g . 6 a . C ompound t err itor ies a nd B ur ia l Monu men ts:

T he r e la t ionsh ip o f b ur ia l

monu men ts t o s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion h as b een a t op ic o f c onsidera b le d iscuss ion i n r ecen t y ears . I n p ar t icu lar F le ming ( 1 973 ) a nd R en frew ( 1 976) h ave a rgued t ha t 'mega li th ic t o mbs ' c usto mar i ly mark t err itor ies . T he c oncep t o f t err i tory a s emp loyed b y t hese wr i ters i mp l ies t ha t ar eg iona l p opu lat ion i sd iv ided u p i n to d iscre te g roups, wh ich ma in ta in t he ir i den t i ty

1 79

t hrough t ime , a nd t ha t t hese g roups a re a t tached t o c lear ly d e marca ted s tre tches o f c oun try .

I ti s n orma l ly a ssu med t ha t t he t err i tory t o wh ich a

g roup i s a t tached i s e qu iva len t t o t he a rea h ab itua l ly u t i l ised e cono mica l ly . Th is c oncep t o f t err itor ia li ty i s b orrowed f ro m a n i ma l e co logy ( c f . K lu i jer a nd T inbergen , 1 953 ) b u t i s u sed i n ad iferen t s ense, s ince a n i mal t err i tor ies a nd n or mal ly i nd iv idua l , f lu id , d efens ive , a nd b y n o means i nvar iably c oex tensi ve w i th t he a rea f ro m wh ich f ood i s d er ived .

T err itor ial ity m ight b e i nd icated

i fi tc ou ld b e s hown ( a ) t ha t c er ta in t o mbs w ere i n u se c on te mporaneously , a nd ( b ) t ha t t hese t o mbs were s paced o u t a cross t he l andscape i n s uch a way t ha t e ach l ay a t t he c en tre o f e cono m ical ly e qu iva len t l and-resources , i nc lud ing a c o mp le men t o f a rable, g raz ing a nd f odder-crops. A l though i th as b een c onc luded a bove ( p . 14 ) t ha t t he f ive ' megal ith ic ' t o mbs i n t he Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve a re l ik ely t o h ave b een c onstruc ted i n t he p er iod 2 200-1700 b .c. i ti s i mposs ible t o d e monstra te c on te mporane i ty o f u se.

Even i ft ha t w ere a ssumed , t he s pac ing o u t o f t he t o mbs i n r elat ion t o

l and-resource i s n o t s at isfac tori ly e xp la ined i n t er ms o f t he s i mp le t err i tor ial h ypo thes is.

The p ro jec t ion o f Th iessen p o lygon s wou ld l eave e ach t o mb w i th

t err itor ies o f v ast ly d i f fer ing s izes, wh ich w ere b y n o means e cono m ica l ly e qu iva len t t o o ne a nother.

Wh ile t here s ee ms n o r eason a t p resen t t o d eny

t ha t b ur ia l mounds a nd o ther monumen ts may h ave h ad a t err i tor ial s ign if icance i n s o me p ar ts o f Br i ta in i n t he t h ird m il lenn ium b .c. , i tc anno t b e d e mon strat ed i nt he Dove-Derwen t I n ter f luve T he f act , h owever , t ha t a l l b ur ia l mounds a t tr ibu table t o t h is p er iod a re l oca ted o n t he l imestone p la teau a nd i n most c ases o n s ha l low c a lcareous b rown e ar ths ( l and-face ts 1 a nd 4 ) s uggests t ha t s i tes f or t hese monu men ts may h ave b een s e lected b ecause o f t he ir a ssoc ia t ion w i th a p ar t icu lar l and-use . I ti s p erhaps l eg it i ma te t o c on jecture wha t may h ave b een t he r e la t ion o f t hese monu men ts t o t he t o ta l p at tern o f l and-use a t t h is t ime . Ev idence f or a p oss ib le l i nkage b e tween t he l oca t ion o f t he t o mbs a nd t he e cono my c an o n ly b e e stab l ished t hrough t he i den t if ica t ion o f l and-use p rac t ices i n t he v ic in ity o f t he monu men ts.

T he d a ta f ro m e xcavat ions o f L ong Barrows

i n Br i ta in s uggest t ha t t o mbs were n orma l ly l oca ted i n a reas c leared o f w oodl and a nd t ha t t he l and-use i m med ia te ly p reced ing t he e rect ion o f t he t o mb w as g raz ing ( Evans 1 972 ;

Manby 1 976) .

I n t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve t here i s

n o d irect e v idence f or t he l and-use i n t he i m med ia te v ic in ity o f t he t o mbs, b u t we d o k now t ha t t he f orest c anopy h ad b een a t l east p ar t ia l ly o pened u p .

T he

f act t ha t t he ma jor ity o f t o mbs a re s i ted o n e x tre me ly s ha llow s o i ls ( no more t han a f ew c en t i me tres d eep a t Green L ow ) makes i tu n l ike ly t ha t c erea l c u lt iva t ion was p ract ised i n t he ir i m med ia te n e ighbourhood .

Thus t he e v idence

i s c ons isten t w i th t he d a ta f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he c oun try t hat t he t o mbs w ere r egu lar ly p laced o n g raz ing l and . T he s e lect ion o f g raz ing a reas a d jacen t t o t he a rab le f or t he e rect ion o f b ur ia l mounds, a s f or t he h enge monu men ts, may i mp ly a n o rgan isat ion o f r es ources i n wh ich c er ta in g raz ings were h e ld i n c o m mon .

I th as g enera l ly b een

s upposed t ha t t he t o mbs w i l l h ave r equ ired a c o l lect ive e f for t f or t he ir c ons truct ion .

The most l i ke ly t ime f or a c o l lect ive e f for t wou ld b e w hen t he

e cono m ic s chedu le b rough t t ogether g roups f ro m s evera l l oca l i t ies .

S uch a

p er iod may h ave o ccurred i n t he s u m mer mon ths when t he d e mands o f t he 1 80

c orn c rop were l east f e lt .

I n tens if ica t ion o f g raz ing i n t he s u m mer mon ths

u p t o ac er ta in a bso lute l im i t w i l l h ave h ad t he e f fec t o f e ncourag ing t he more v a luab le g rasses, a nd w i l l t herefore h ave b een b ene f ic ia l r a ther t han d a mag ing t o t h is p astora l r esource . T he e cono m ic r econstruct ion f or t he p er iod 2 200-1700 b .c . c arr ied w ith i tt he i mp l ica t ion t ha t e ach u n it o f p opu la t ion w i l l h ave o ccup ied a n e con om ic n iche wh ich i nc luded a n u mber o f d if feren t l andtypes a ppropr ia te t o t he v ar ious n eeds o f t he s evera l a gr icu ltura l s pec ies . a dvanced a bove ( p . 2 7 )

I n t erms o f t he mode l

e ach g roup w i l l h ave h e ld a c o mpound t err i tory

i nc lud ing a rab le l and , g razings, b rowse , p annage a nd h un t ing g rounds .

Each

c o mpound t err itory w i l l h ave s tre tched a cross a r ange o f l andtypes, s o a s t o i nc lude s evera l c o mp le men tary r esources, e .g . t he a l luv ia l-grave ls o r t he l oess s o i ls f or c u lt iva t ion , wood land c learances o n t he c a lcareous s o i ls f or o pen g raz ings, u nd isturbed wood land f or b rowse a nd p annage e tc .

The

l ocat ion o f t he monu men ta l t o mbs o n t he s o i ls wh ich a re most s u i ted t o o pen g raz ings, e spec ia l ly f or s heep a nd g oa ts, migh t b e t aken t o i nd ica te t ha t t he c o mpound t err itor ies o f s evera l g roups o ver lapped i n t hese a reas.

T he t o mbs

may t here fore h ave r epresen ted t he c o l lect ive i den t ity o f s evera l e cono m ica l ly a nd s oc ia l ly c on jo ined g roups. 6 ,3.

S tab i l isa t ion a nd D ec l ine F or t he p er iod 17 00-1200 b .c . we a re f or tuna te i n p ossessing r e la t ive-

l y a bundan t d a ta f ro m a r ange o f d if feren t c a tegor ies o f e v idence o n wh ich t o b ase r econstruct ions o f l and-use a nd s e t t le men t .

T he u n i t o f s et t le men t

a ppears t o h ave b een t he i nd iv idua l h o mestead a t t he c en tre o f ac luster o f a rab le f i e lds a nd h av ing a ccess t o t he e x tens ive g raz ing l ands b eyond .

Th is

f or m o f s e t t le men t -c harac ter ist ic o f much o f Br i ta in i n s ubsequen t p er iods t oo - may we l l h ave b een t yp ica l o f t he e ar l ier p er iod , b ut e xa mp les h ave o n ly s urv ived f ro m t he mid 2 nd m i l lenn iu m b ecause o f t he e xpans ion o f s et t le men t a t t h is t ime o n to l ands wh ich h ave r e ma ined u nd isturbed b y a gr icu lture e ver s ince .

I th as b een a rgued t ha t t hese s e t t le men t c o mp lexes a re n ot r epresen-

t a t ive o f s h if t ing c u lt iva t ion b u t o f p er manen t c u lt iva t ion , p robab ly s usta ined b y a n i ma l ( and h u man ) manures. h ave b een u sed f or d raugh t .

There i s s o me e v idence t ha t c a t t le may

Beyond t he i m med ia te e nv irons o f t he i nd iv idua l

s et t le men t l ay a r ange o f r esources wh ich were u t i l ised i n v ary ing ways b y l i vestock . I nd ica t ions t ha t p ressure o n a rab le r esources h ad a lready b een f el t b y t he b eg inn ing o f t h is p er iod h ave a lready b een n o ted . e x tension o f c u lt iva t ion o n to t he g r itstone u p lands .

T hey t ake t he f orm o f t he T he e xpans ion i s most

c lear ly a t tested i n t he s e t t le men t c o mp lexes o n t he g r itstone i n t he p resen t p er iod .

As i mu ltaneous e xpans ion o n to t he l i gh ter s o i ls, b u t n o t t he e x tre me ly

s andy s o i ls, o f t he Tr iass ic s yste m i s a lso i nd ica ted b y t he a ppearance o f b ur ia l mounds o f t h is p er iod h ere .

The f irst p hase o f t h is p er iod , t herefore,

s ees t he c on t inued e xpans ion o f p opu la t ion , a ga inst a b ackground o f d im in ish ing a rab le r esources .

T h is e xpans ion , t hough c lose ly l i nked t o as pec if ic r ange

o f c u lt ivab le s o i ls, p roceeded b y p er iphera l e n large men t o f t he f oca l a rea o f s et t le men t .

Arab le l and was s ough t a t i ncreas ing ly h igh a lt itudes a nd o n

p rogress ive ly sma l ler p a tches o f l and o n t he l i gh t s o i ls o f t he g r itstone f or-

1 81

ma t ion .

T he p lo t s yste m a t T o t ley Moor a pproached t he 4 00 m p ara me ter ,

c orrespond ing t o t he p ract ica l l im it f or c erea l c u lt iva t ion u nder t he p resen t c l i ma t ic r eg i me .

T here s t i l l r e ma ined , h owever , v ery c ons iderable a reas

i n c l i ma t ica l ly more f avourab le p ar ts o f t he r eg ion wh ich s how n o s ign o f I n take f or a rab le a t t h is p er iod .

I t migh t h ave b een e xpected t ha t c learance

o f wood land a t l ower a l t itudes wou ld h ave o ccurred s i mu ltaneous ly w ith t he e xt ension o f c u lt iva t ion t o h igher a l t itudes .

T he f act t ha t t here i sn o e v idence

f or t h is may b e a ccoun ted f or b y t he l im ita t ions o f t echno logy a nd p ower-base; t he a rd w ith i t s p a ir o f o xen was i ncapab le o f c op ing w i th t he h eav ier , p oor lyd ra ined s o i ls, e spec ia l ly i n t he b io log ica l ly more p roduct ive p ar ts o f t he r eg ion where t he p rob le m o f weeds w i l l h ave b een more s evere . I n a ccordance w ith t he d e mograph ic mode l p roposed a bove ( p . 2 9f .) t he p er iod 1 700-1200 b .c . w i l l c orrespond t o as tab i l isa t ion p hase w hen p opu la t ion n u mbers h ad a t ta ined r e la t ive c arry ing c apac ity .

O n t he b as is o f wha t i s k nown

o f t he e cono m ic s yste m i t wou ld s ee m l eg i t i ma te t o e st i mate wha t t he a bso lute p opu la t ion n u mbers may h ave b een f or t h is p er iod i n t he r eg ion . I fi ti s a ssu med t ha t a l l t he p oten t ia l a rab le ( i .e . l andface ts 2 , E , I . a a nd p ar t o fb ) was b rough t u nder c u lt iva t ion , a nd t ha t a n a lterna te f a l low s yste m was p ract ised , s o me 9 000 h a . c ou ld h ave b een p roduct ive i n a ny o ne y ear . I f we a ccep t t ha t p reh istor ic y ie lds may h ave b een n o more t han 4 00 k g/ha ( c f . Denne l l a nd Web ley 1 975) a nd t ha t

1 /3

o f t he y ie ld wou ld h ave t o b e k ep t

b ack f or s eed , t he p roduce o f t he a rab le a lone c ou ld h ave s uppor ted a t heoret i ca l p opu la t ion o f c . 6 000 ( a l low ing 4 00 k g p er y ear p er p erson , wh ich t akes a ccoun t o f t he l arger c a lor ie r equ ire men t n eeded i n t he t e mpera te l at itudes t han i n t he s ubtrop ics, f or wh ich C lark a nd Haswe l l ( 1970) e st i mated a r eq u ire men t o f o n ly 2 10 k g p er y ear ) .

A lthough t h is f igure d oes n o t t ake i n to

a ccoun t t he c on tr ibu t ion o f l i vestock t o t he d ie t ,i ti s p erhaps r easonab le t o a ccep t i ta s t he max i mu m p opu la t ion t ha t c ou ld h ave b een s uppor ted, s ince i n t h is c l i mat ica l ly marg ina l e nv iron men t c rop f a i lures may h ave b een r ecurren t , s o t ha t o ne y ear ' sh arvest migh t h ave t o l ast f or t wo o r more y ears. Ap opu la t ion o f t h is o rder o f magn itude f or t he r eg ion wou ld o f c ourse i mp ly t ha t o n ly a sma l l p ercen tage o f t he p opu la t ion were e n t it led t o b arrow b ur ia l, o rb ur ia l i n a n e nc losed c e me tery . r ecorded i n t he r eg ion :

About 2 80 b ur ia l p laces a re a t p resen t

a verage n u mber o f b ur ia ls p er b ur ia l p lace ( based o n

t he c o mp le te ly e xcava ted S tan ton Moor b arrows) works o u t a t 3 .5 . t herefore c lose o n 1 000 b ur ia ls f or a p er iod o f s o me 5 00 y ears .

We h ave

A ssu m ing a n

a verage a ge a t d ea th o f 3 0 y ears, t h is w ou ld g ive a n a verage m in i mu m p opul a t ion t hroughou t t he r eg ion o f a bout 6 0 i nd iv idua ls .

Th is wou ld mean , i ft he

e st i ma ted p opu la t ion o f 6 000 i s c orrect , t ha t 1% o f t he p opu la t ion were e n t i t led t o c ere mon ia l b ur ia l . I ti s i n terest ing t o c o mpare t h is e st i ma te w i th t ha t o f t he 1 1th c entury A .D . p opu la t ion f or t he r eg ion , b ased o n D o mesday e n tr ies.

Popu la t ion d ensi t ies

a t t h is t ime , a lthough v ary ing marked ly f ro m o ne p ar t o f t he r eg ion t o a no ther ( see p .

7 4 ) a verage o ut a t C . 2 .5 p er s q m i le , g iv ing a t ota l a bso lute p opu-

l a t ion o f a bou t 1 0,000 .

The c o mpar ison o f t he t wo f igures i s n o t , h owever ,

a l toge ther v a l id s ince i n t he 1 1th c entury A .D . ,a s we h ave s een , t he a rab le was c oncen trated o n ad if feren t r ange o f s o i ls, a nd t he g reater p ar t o f t he l oess o n t he l imestone h ad d ec l ined t o g raz ings . 1 82

T he i ncrease i n p opu la t ion u n-

d oubted ly s te m med f ro m t he d eve lopmen t o f a n a gr icu ltura l s ystem wh ich c ou ld make f u l l u se o f t he K euper Mar l l ow lands a s a rab le . The p roposa l o f ap opu la t ion o f s evera l t housands, c oncen trated o n t he T ren t V a l ley a nd e spec ia l ly t he l imestone p la teau , i n t he s econd m i l lenn iu m b .c . s uppor ted b y p ermanen t c erea l c u l t iva t ion i s a t v ar iance w ith t he p rev a i l ing v iew o f t he p er iod a s o ne i n wh ich p astora l is m a nd s h if t ing c u lt iva t ion s uppor ted c orrespond ing ly l ow p opu la t ion d ensi t ies .

T heore t ica l o b ject ions

t o t he a ssu mp t ions o n wh ich t he p reva i ling v iew i sb ased h ave a lready b een g iven , a nd t he e v idence f or c u lt iva t ion i n p ermanen t p lo ts h as b een d escr ibed . B ut t he p roposa l t ha t we a re n o t d ea l ing w i th f l ee t ing a nd u nstab le p opu la t ions i s s uppor ted b y t he e v idence o f t he b ur ia ls. T he a bso lu te d a tes f or b ur ia ls I n i nd iv idua l b arrows s how t ha t s o me a t l east were u sed r ecurren t ly o ver p er iods o f n ot l ess t han 3 00 y ears . Pro longed u sage i s a lso i mp l ied b y t he s uccession o fb ur ia ls a cco mpan ied b y B eakers o f C larke ' s A0C-S4 G roups a t Bee L ow ( Marsden 1 970 ) . Ana lysis o f t he t ypes o fb ur ia l f ound b enea th t he b arrows s hows t ha t a p ropor t ion c on for m t o al im ited r ange o f s tandard ised p ract ices, e .g . c on tract ed i nhu ma t ion i n ar ock-cu t g rave ; c re ma t ion i n aC o l lared Urn . Moreover , c er ta in t ypes o fb ur ia l p erdo m ina te i n r estr icted l oca l i t ies .

T he b est e xa mp le

o f t h is a re t he c re ma t ions i n C o l lared Urns wh ich a re f ound a l most t o t he e xc lusion o f o ther t ypes o fb ur ia l i n t he c a irns o n S tan ton Moor . T h is f act s uggests t ha t s o me l oca l g roups a dhered t o as tandard b ur ia l t rad it ion . But t he f act t ha tb ur ia ls o f av ar ie ty o f t ypes a re a lso f ound b enea th o ne b arrow i mp l ies t ha t l oca l g roups were f l uctua t ing i n t he ir c o mpos it ion , o r t ha t b arr ows were s hared b y s evera l g roups h av ing d i f feren t b ur ia l t rad i t ions .

Un-

f or tuna te ly , b ecause o f t he i nadequacy o f t he 1 9 th c entury e xcava t ions t he c omp lex s tructure o f s oc ia l r e la t ions b e tween g roups o ccupy ing t he r eg ion w i th o ne a no ther a nd w i th e qu iva len t g roups o u tside t he r eg ion may n o t b e r ecoverab le .

I t may b e s uggested , h owever , t ha t u nder ly ing t he d iversity o f

b ur ia l p ract ice t here may b e al and-organ isa t ion s yste m wh ich c on t inues t he o ne p roposed f or t he p rev ious p er iod , i .e . o ver lapp ing c ompound t err itor ies l i nk ing g roups i n e cono m ic c on junct ion . L et u s s uppose t ha t e ach u n it o f p opu la t ion c o mmands a q uotu m o f a rab le a nd g raz ing l and a nd t ha t s o me o f t he g raz ings a re s hared b y s evera l g roups, a s s uggested f or t he p rev ious p er iod . I fi t was c usto mary , a s t he e v idence s uggests, f or b ur ia l p laces t o b e l oca ted o n g raz ing l and , t hen s o me o f t hese a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een s hared a lso . T he g roups s har ing t he g raz ings may h ave h ad d i f feren t b ur ia l c usto ms . C onsequen t ly , wh i le s o me b arrows may s how c on form ity t o as tandard b ur ia l p ract ice ma in ta ined o ver l ong p er iods, a s a t Bee L ow a nd S tan ton Moor , o thers may c on tain b ur ia ls o f v ar ious t rad it ions ( f ig . 6 b) . T h is h ypo thes is i s p u t f orward a s as uggest ion o n ly : i tw ou ld r equ ire t est ing b y me thods wh ich a re b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resen t w ork .

T he p rob le ms o f a na lys is a reco mpoundedby t he f acts t ha t t here wou ld

a ppear t o b e s oc ia l r ank ing amongst t he p ropor t ion o f t he p opu la t ion e n t i t led t o b ur ia l -a p ropor t ion wh ich may o f c ourse h ave v ar ied o ver t he p er iod a nd t hat b ur ia l c usto ms w ere p robab ly c hang ing t hrough t ime . T he o vera l l i mpression o f s et t le men t i n t he r eg ion i n t he m id 2 nd m i l lenn iu m b . c . i s o ne o f ah igh ly d i f feren t ia ted s tructure , i n w h ich s epara te g roups 1 83

were c lose ly l i nked w i th o ne a nother i n e cono m ic c on junct ion a nd p oss ib ly d ependence . I t may b e c on jectured t ha t t he s urv iva l o f g roups o n , f or e xa mp le , s o p recar ious a r esource-base a s t he h igh a l t itude g r itstone was made s ecure t hrough t he ma in tenance o f e cono m ic l i nks w i th g roups o ccupy ing o ther p ar ts o f t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve a nd o ther r eg ions.

The e x istence o f a n i n-

d ustry a t Sw ine S ty s pec ia l is ing i n s ha le o rnamen ts s uggests t ha t l oca l m inera l p roducts may h ave b een i mpor tan t i n ma in ta in ing t hese l i nks . C lear ly t he c on t inued i mpor ta t ion o f s tone i mp le men ts f rom r eg ions s uch a s t he L ake D istr ic t a nd t he We lsh B orders i nd ica tes c onnect ions o f s o me k ind w i th c o mmun it ies a t c ons iderab le d istances . Aga inst t h is b ackground t he p resence o f p o t tery t ypes wh ich a re p ar t o ft he s hared r eper tory o f n or thern Eng land n eeds n o s pec ia l e xp lana t ion .

By means o f t hese l i nks g roups c ou ld b e

b uf fered a ga inst s hor tterm e nv ironmen ta l h azards. From c . 1 500 b .c . b arrow-bu i ld ing s eems t o h ave d iscon t inued , t hough b arrows w ere s t il l u sed f or b ur ials i n s econdary p osi t ions. The e xpans ion o f a gr icu ltura l u t i l isa t ion o n t he g r i tstone u p land was a ssoc ia ted w ith b ur ia ls i n e nc losed c e me ter ies, wh ich p robab ly b e long a s ag roup b efore 1 200 b .c . By t h is d a te t he l im i ts o f a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men t h ad b een r eached , a nd t he u pward b oundary h as n ot b een s ubsequen t ly c rossed .

T here i s n o f ur ther e v idence

f ro m a ny p ar t o ft he r eg ion t ha t t he s et t led a rea o f t he r eg ion was e n larged d ur ing t he r e ma in ing 1 200 y ears u nder c ons idera t ion h ere . S ince t here i sn o e v idence f ro m t h is r eg ion t ha t s ubsequen t a gr icu ltura l i nnova t ions w i l l h ave i ncreased t he f ood-supp ly d ur ing t hese y ears t he c onc lusion t hat p opu la t ions h ad a t ta ined t he ir p reh istor ic max i mu m s eems i nescapab le . A t a nu nde term ined d a te c . 1 200 b .c . t here i s r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t he I nd iv idua l f armsteads wh ich h ad b een e stab l ished o n t he s ha l low s o ils o f t he g r itstone a t t he l im i ts o ft he f r inge-zone o f s et t le men t w ere a bandoned . The a bandonmen t o f t hese s i tes c anno t s i mp ly b e a scr ibed t o c l i ma t ic d eter iorat ion , s ince -wha tever may h ave b een t he t rend i n o ther p ar ts o f t he c oun try -i n t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve c ond it ions were i fa ny th ing warmer a nd d r ier t han b efore .

T he c l i ma t ic h ypo thesis i n a ny c ase l oses f orce when i t i s r e-

c a l led t ha t t he u pward l im i t f or c erea l c u lt iva t ion a t t he p resen t d ay, a s d ur ing t he l ast m i l lenn iu m , a pprox i mates c lose ly t o t he max i mu m a lt i tude a t ta ined b y t he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m b .c . f armsteads .

F or t he f u l l e xp lana t ion o f t he a ban-

d on men t o f t hese s e t t le men ts we must s ee t hem i n t he c on tex t o f r esourceimpover ish men t i n a n e nv iron men t wh ich o f fered a tb est a p recar ious l i v ing f or a gr icu ltura l ists . S o me o f t he e co log ica l a nd p edo log ica l e f fects o f n ear ly 2 000 y ears o f a gr ic u ltura l u t i l isa t ion h ave b een d escr ibed . S o i l e rosion may c er ta in ly h ave b een a n i mpor tan t f actor o n t he . s ha l low s andy s o i ls o f l and-face t 5 , wh ich were d e l ibera te ly s e lected f or c u l t iva t ion : t he e v idence f or e rosion c omes b o th f ro m t he f act o f s tone c learance a nd t he d ownwash ing o f minera l ma ter ia l i n to a d jacen t d epress ions .

I ti s c lear a lso f rom t he sma l l n u mber o fb ur ied s o i ls

o f t he m id 2 nd mi l lenn iu m b .c . wh ich h ave b een e xa m ined t ha t p odzol isa t ion , i nc lud ing t he f orma t ion o f i ron p ans, h ad s e t i nb y t h is d a te . The s oi ls a f fected i nc luded t he f ree ly d ra ined s o i ls o f t he l imestone a nd g r itstone u p lands a nd a lso p erhaps s o me o ft he g rave l t errace s o i ls i nt he Tren t Va l ley . I th as b een a rgued f ro m modern l and-use a nd p edo log ica l s tud ies t ha t t he p odzo l isa t ion o f

1 84

t hese s o i ls r esu lted f ro m a s equence o f l and-use wh ich i nvo lved d eforestat ion a nd u lt i ma te ly c onvers ion t o g raz ing . The s o i ls wh ich were a f fected i nc lude s o me wh ich a re k nown o r wh ich a re i nheren t ly l i ke ly t o h ave b een c u lt iva ted . O nce i ron p ans h ad f ormed , h owever , t hese s o i ls w i l l h ave b een e x tre me ly d i f f icu lt t o r ec la im f or a rab le . I ndeed many r ema ined u nder n on-agr icu ltura l u se u n t i l t he p resen t c en tury . Podzo l isa t ion h as b een s hown t o r esu lt f ro m c er ta in v egeta t ion c hanges i n s pec if ic e nv iron men ta l c ircumstances i n wh ich l each ing i s e ncouraged . I ti s as y mp tom o f e co log ica l i mpover ish men t wh ich may h ave r epercussions f or s i mp le a gr icu ltura l ists t hrough t he a c id if ica t ion o f a rab le l and a nd t he d eg radat ion o ft he p astora l r esource . T h is s econd f actor w i l l i n t urn h ave s er ious c onsequences f or a n a rab le s yste m , i fa s Ih ave a rgued , i t was p ar t ly d epend en t o n a n i ma l manures . Un for tunate ly , t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l r ecord g ives n o i ns igh t i n to t he p oss ib le c hanges i n g rass s pec ies, t hough f ro m wha t i s k nown o f modern r ough p asture i ti s p robab le t ha t u nder u ncon tro l led g razing i n fer ior g rasses a nd f orbs w i l l h ave s pread a t t he e xpense o f t hose o f more v a lue . A t a ny r ate h ea th a ssoc ia t ions were we l l r epresen ted i n t he s econdary c o m mun i t ies s ucceed ing t o f orest i n p arts o f t he u p lands, a nd t hey c on t inued t o s pread t hroughou t t he s ubsequen t 1 000 y ears, e ven a ppear ing i n t he l ow land e nv ironmen t o f t he Tren t Va l ley a t t he c lose o f t he i st m i l lenn iu m b .c .

Th is

e xpansion o f h ea th w i l l a l most c er ta in ly h ave b een c lose ly l i nked w ith p odzol i sa t ion .

E ven o n t he l imestone t he d eeper l oess s o ils may r ap id ly h ave b e-

c o me a c id o nce t he c l i max v egeta t ion was r e moved a nd t he n utr ien t-cyc le b roken , a s i s s hown b y t he r ema in ing a reas o f u nrec la i med s o i ls . I ts eems p robab le, t herefore , t ha t t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve i nc ludes p recar ious ly b a lanced s o i l a nd v egeta t ion s yste ms, wh ich o nce d isturbed b y v ar ious a gr icu ltura l p ract ices c ou ld n ot b e ma in ta ined i n ap roduct ive s ta te . T he c onsequences o f d eforesta t ion a nd u ncon tro l led g raz ing were t o d egrade t he b iot ic c o m mun i t ies a nd h ence s e t o f f p edo log ica l c hanges i n s ubstan t ia l p ar ts o ft he r eg ion . These c onsequences w i l l h ave b een f e lt most i n tense ly i nt hose p ar ts o f t he r eg ion i n wh ich c l i ma t ic c ond it ions were most s evere . T he a gr icu ltura l i mpover ishmen t o f t hese p ar ts p ersisted i n many c ases u n t i l t echn iques o f r ec la ma t ion w ere b rough t i n to a ct ion i n t he 1 9th a nd 2 0 th c en tur ies A .D . The c umu lat ive e f fect o f r esourcei mpover ishmen t c an h ave b een l i t t le s hor t o f c a tastroph ic f or a s oc iety wh ich was p ress ing , a s we h ave s een , s o c lose ly o n t he e nv iron men ta l l im i ts f or i t s s tap le c rop .

The a bandonmen t o f

m ixed f arm ing u n i ts o n t he g r itstone u p lands c an b e a t tr ibuted t o f ood-shor tages a s p opu la t ion a t ta ined a bso lu te c arry ing c apac ity a nd may r ef lect c hanges wh ich were more w ide ly e xper ienced i n t he r eg ion .

These c hanges a re a sso-

c ia ted w i th t he c o l lapse o f t he v ar ious b ur ia l t rad i t ions wh ich h ad p reva i led t hroughou t t he midd le c en tur ies o f t he 2 nd mi l len iu m b .c . T h is p resu mab ly I mp l ies t he b reakdown o ft he s oc ia l s tructure wh ich s uppor ted t he b ur ia l t rad it ions .

The n ew p a t tern o f s et t le men t i n t he n orth o f t he r eg ion c onsisted

o f as er ies o f d efens ive e nc losures l oca ted a t ah igh p o in t w i th in a n atura l ly d ef ined t err itory ' . C o l lect ive ly t hese t err itor ies i nc lude t he e n t ire e xpanse o ft he l imestone p la teau n or th o ft he Wye a nd t he marg ins o f t he a d jacen t g r i ts tone .

T he l oca t ion o f t he d e fens ive e nc losures i s i n k eep ing w i th t he v iew

1 85

t ha t t hey s erved p r i mar i ly a s c en tres f or l i vestock h usbandry b ased o n f reer ange g raz ing , i n wh ich s heep were p redom inan t . T he c hange i n s et t le men t s tructure a nd t he a ssoc ia ted c hanges i n l and-use wh ich h ave b een i den t if ied i n t he l ast t wo c entur ies o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn iu m b .c . a re i n te l l ig ib le a ga inst t he b ackground we h ave s ke tched ( c f . F ig. 2 h p . 4 2 ). T here i s n o n eed t o i nvoke i mm igra t ion t o a ccoun t f or t hese c hanges a t t h is d a te, n e ither d oes t he a rtefac tual e v idence s uppor t t h is h ypo thesis. T he c luster ing o f p opu la t ions i n l arger a ggrega tes b eh ind massive d e fences must s ure ly b e l i nked w i th c o mpe t it ion f or l im i ted r esources .

Th is i st he f irst

s ign i n t he r eg ion t hat h u man g roups were d efend ing t he mse lves ( and t he ir s tock ) a ga inst o ne a no ther a s a mat ter o f n ecess i ty .

I ti s n atura l t o s uppose

t ha t t hese d eve lop men ts a re i n s o me s ense a r esponse t od e mograph ic p ress ures a s a bso lu te f ood-shor tages were i ncreas ing ly f e lt . T here i s i nsu f f ic ien t d a ta f or a r econstruc t ion o f r eg iona l l and-use a t t h is t ime .

B ut b o th t he l oca t ion o f t he d efens ive e nc losures a nd t he p o l len-

a na ly t ica l e v idence s uggest t ha t c erea l c u lt iva t ion may h ave b een o f r educed i mpor tance , a nd p ossib ly e ven a bandoned a t l east i n t he n or th o ft he r eg ion . I f' pastora l is m ' d id i ndeed p reva i l, a s o ther wr iters h ave a rgued ( Piggo t t 1 958 ;

T urner 1 965:

C un li f fe 1 974) , i tw i l l n o t h ave b een a s as urv iva l o f a n

e ssen t ia l ly p r im it ive e cono my i n ac u ltura l b ackwa ter a s imp l ied b y t hese a u thors, b ut a s ar esponse t o as pec if ic e co log ica l s i tuat ion b rough t a bou t b y at housand y ears o r more o f i n tens ive a gr icu ltura l l and-use . T he a dop t ion o fp astora l is m i n p lace o f m ixed a gr icu l ture w i l l n ecessar i ly h ave l ed t o a r educt ion i n t he f ood a va i lab le p er u n it o f l and a nd i n t he l onger t er m t o t he I ncreased f requency o f f ood-shor tages . T h is s tep i s h ard ly l i ke ly t o h ave b een t aken e xcep t u nder e x tre me d uress . S uch d uress c ou ld w e l l h ave b een p rov ided t hrough t he c o mpe t it ion o f o ne h u man g roup w i th a no ther u nder t he p ressure o f e cono m ic d ec l ine . The emergence o f t he s et t le men t s tructure r epresen ted b y t he d efens ive e nc losures may c onsequen t ly b e s een a s s ymp to ma t ic o f e conom ic f a i lure . T he expans ive p rocess wh ich h as b een t raced o ver t he p rev ious 2 000 y ears was b rough t t o ah a lt , e ven t hough v ery c ons iderab le p ar ts o f t he r eg ion s t i l l a pparen t ly r ema ined u nder more o r l ess u nd isturbed wood land .

T he p oss i-

b i li ty o f c on t inu ing e xpans ion , n ow t ha t t he u pward e nv iron men ta l l im i t h ad b een r eached , t hrough t he c onversion o f t h is wood land t o i n tens ive a gr icu lt ura l u se, was n ot f o l lowed . T he r easons f or t h is must b e s ough t i n t he l im it a t ions o ft he a gr icu ltura l s yste m .

The n ew me ta l lurgy d id n o t h e lp t o o ver-

c o me t hese , s ince t hey were e ssen t ia l ly l im i ta t ions o f p ower .

Wha t was

n eeded was t he d eve lop men t o f l i vestock h usbandry t o p rov ide t he h eavy p lought ea ms n ecessary f or work ing t he r e ma in ing s o i ls . Ih ave a rgued t hat t h is w i l l h ave i nvo lved t he a dvance men t o f t echn iques o f f odder-ut i l isa t ion t o p rov ide a work ing d ie t . I t was t hese d eve lopmen ts wh ich a re k nown t o h ave t aken p lace b y t he l a ter p ar t o f t he i st m i l lenn iu m A .D . wh ich e nab led t hese r ema ini ng a reas t o b e b rough t i n to p roduct ive u se a nd s et t le men t . There i s a s y e t , h owever , n o e v idence t ha t t hese d eve lopmen ts h ad a b eg inn ing i nt he p reh is tor ic p er iod i n t h is r eg ion . B ecause o f t he i nco mp le teness o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e xp lora t ion o f t he f i rst mi l lenn iu m b .c . l i t t le c an b e s a id w ith c on f idence a bou t t he s equence o f e ven ts 1 86

during this period. There ls, however, reason to believe that population numbers in the north of the region declined rather than grew. This is indicated by the lack of evidence for the continued occupation of the defensive enclosures after the 6th century b. c. at the latest, an4 the exiguousness of the traces of cave-occupation. Climatic deterioration, which ls well-attested in the region in the 2nd quarter of the 1st millennium b. c. may have had the effect of diminishing a population which was already dwindling because of economic impoverishment. The pollen-analytical evidence clearly implies that the trends towards vegetational impoverishment and soU:-acidification intensified during this period, probably exacerbated by repeated 'burning off' in an attempt to maintain grazing productivity. It has been tentatively proposed that the ecological decline of this millennium culminated in a marked expansion of blanket peat and a consequent reduction of tree-cover ln the highlands of the region in the 4th-3rd centuries b. c., though the maximum extent of 'moorland' was not attained untU some 1500 years later. In the more favourable environment of the Trent Valley populations may possibly have been spared the vicissitudes to which those in the north of the region were subjected. It seems probable that the well-established pattern of mixed farming units persisted through the 1st millennium b. c. At any rate by £. 200 b. c. there is evidence of a settlement pattern of individual farmsteads, scattered about the floodplain and able to utilise both the arable and grazing potential of the riverine environment. The limited economic evidence for the limestone plateau suggests that it may have been predominantly devoted to sheep grazing, i. e. as a specialised outlying habitat linked with settlements on the more robust soils elsewhere in the region. The hypothesis t at there was a dynamic interaction between prehistoric human societies and the biotic communities on which they were dependent is bome,out by the case-study. The concepts of the focal area and the fringe­ zon� of settlement appear to be fully justified. The margins for agricultural settlement have been shown to correspond to the environmental limits for ce­ real cultivation. The altitudl nal-climattc limit has remained remarkably stable throughout the last 5000-6000 years. Cereal cultivation has been shown to have pressed up close to this limit in the mid 2nd millennium b. c. (as again in the 14th century A. D.) and subsequently to have retreated. This retreat was associated with marked changes in settlement structure and probably demographic decline. These changes, springing from a demographic crisis as population attained absolute carrying capacity, must be seen as a function of the marginality of the environment - a concept which has been revealed as one of some complexity. Agri.culture seems to have failed in the long term in the north of the region because of the cumulative effect of various agricul­ tural practices in an enviro�ent which was both hazardous for the staple crop and liable to ecological and pedologic�l deterioration once the climax vegeta­ tion was disturbed. The secondary ecological communities that succeeded to the climax vegetation in these precariously balanced environments represented an impoverishment of the pastoral resource on which the continued functioning of the economy was dependent. It has been shown that the dispersion and abun­ dance of population in the region reflected this long-term ecological trend.

187

aJI uvial gravel.$ 3000

gritstone uplands

l:,.e.

2200 b.c. C e.Tul cn,�pir,i

':l

ce,.eoL

cer�o.L cropt3i"'j/ 9TG\ ,z.in�

9Ta.z1 nj

TQ

.z.inj/ hu,.,trnj

17001:,.c. cropp1-n9

1100 b.c.

bOO b.C.

c er�ol t:fOJ:>f>,;,�

Fig. 6a

certal crop�in9? 9Ta.zinj

Expansion and intensification of land-use in the Dove-Derwent Interfluve

A):!>,C : population �Toups with d.i.stinc.t b "'Ti a. l c.1.1stoms (x 1 y,z). \vhe.T� t�TTitoTies ovey la.p f��Te rnc:..y b42 buTia.l­ places with two h4ditions

Fig. 6b

Overlapping compound territories and variability of burial custom.

188

64.

Envoy

The f orego ing r econstruct ion i s n ecessar i ly b ased o n d a ta o f v ary ing d egrees o f r e l iab i li ty , a nd many d e ta i ls c annot b e r egarded a s o ther t han p rov isiona l . I n p ar t icu lar t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta were g a thered o ver a l ong p er iod , f or t he mos t p ar t h aphazard ly a nd r are ly w ith a ny o ther p urpose t han t he r ecovery o f a r tefac ts .

I ti s p erhaps wor thwh i le b r ief ly t o e nu mera te t hose a reas i n

wh ich f u ture r esearch may make g ood d ef ic iencies. One ma jor d es idera tum i st he r ecovery f ro m f irm s tra t igraph ic c on tex ts o f f ood-refuse , e spec ia l ly v ege tab le r e mains, t o s treng then t he e v idence t ha t t he ma in p hase o fp reh istor ic s et t le men t i n t he u p lands was b ased e ssen t ia l ly o n c erea ls . Cave s i tes may y e t p rov ide l eve ls s u itab le f or t h is p urpose , t hough f ew o f t he m r e ma in u nd isturbed b y p rev ious d igg ings. A s econd ma jor n eed i sf or a n i n tegra ted g eo morpho log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ion o f t he p ost-P le istocene d epos it iona l a nd e ros iona l p hases o f t he u nstab le r iver ine e nv ironmen ts, wh ich h ave b een s hown t o h ave b een o f c en tra l import ance t o p reh istor ic a nd l a ter a gr icu ltura l e cono m ies.

L i t t le p rogress c an

b e made u n t il i ti s k nown h ow f ar t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord h as b een d istor ted b y t hese i nc iden ts . F ur thermore, i n t he l i gh t o f t he c r it ica l i mpor tance o f f loodmeadow f or t he d evelopmen t o f Med ieval a gr icu l ture, i t wou ld b e o f t he g reates t i n teres t t o k now wh ich d eposi ts w ere i n s i tu i n p reh istor ic t imes. The p oss ib il ity r e ma ins t ha t t he d evelopmen t o f f l oodmeadow was a c onseq uence o fd eforesta t ion a nd s i l ta t ion i n t he e arly h istor ic p er iod . At h ird n eed i s f or t he s yste ma t ic g ather ing o f ' env ironmen tal d ata ' f ro m a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts . The e xa m ina t ion o fb ur ied s o i ls a nd c ave d epos its i n r e lat ion t o t opography a nd s i te-ca tchmen t ' a re t wo f i e lds wh ich much more i n format ion a bou t t he p rocesses o f e ros ion a nd p odzo l isa t ion may b e g a ined t o s upp le men t t he p resen t f ragmen tary r ecord .

T he c ase-study h as s hown t ha t t hese p hen-

omena a re n ot o f mere ly a cade m ic i n terest , b u t t ha t t hey h ave a b ear ing o n o ur u nderstand ing o f t he ma jor d irect ives i n p reh istory .

Af our th n eed i s f or

s yste ma t ic s urvey o f t he o u tstand ing ' nega t ive a reas ' ,s uch a s t he K euper Mar l L ow lands, c o mb ined i fp oss ib le w ith p o l len-ana ly t ica l i nvest iga t ions, t o c on f irm ( or r efute ) t he v iew t ha t t hey l arge ly r es isted u t i lisa t ion f or a rab le t hroughou t t he p reh istor ic p er iod .

F if th ly , t he a t ten t ion o f e xcava tors migh t

b e c oncen trated o n t he s e t t le men ts a t tr ibu ted t o t he I st m i l lenn iu m b .c . t o s ee whe ther t he p ostu la ted d ec line i n p opu la t ion i n t he n or th o f t he r eg ion h o lds u p .

I nv iew o f t he p o l len-ana ly t ica l e v idence f or wood land d ec l ine i n t he l ast

t hree c en tur ies b .c . a t ten t ion migh tb e d irected t owards p robab le s i tes o f t h is p er iod . The p roposi t ion , p rov is iona l ly r e jected h ere , t ha t t h is was a nt hropogen ic n eeds f ur ther e xam ina t ion . The D ove-Derwe t i t L n ter f luve c anno t o f c ourse b e c ons idered i n i so la t ion f ro m t he r est o f Br ita in ( or W . E urope) . The c o lon isa t ion a nd e xpans ion o f p opu la t ion i n t he r eg ion mus t h ave b een p ar t o f a more g enera l p rocess . I t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o s ee t o wha t e x ten t t he mode l p roposed i n t h is work c ou ld b e s hown t o a pp ly t o o ther r eg ions. O n ly a t erra in-ana ly t ica l f ra mework o f t he k ind d eve loped h ere c an make c o mpar isons v a l id . J udge men ts b ased o n as uper f ic ia l c ons idera t ion o f ar eg iona l e nv ironmen t a re a p t t o b e h igh ly m is lead ing .

Never the less, i ti s wor th o bserv ing t ha t t he mu lt ip le l and-use

mode l c an a cco m moda te Brad ley ' sr econstruct ion ( 1972 ) o f 3 rd/2nd mi l lenn iu m

1 89

b .c . r esourcein tegra t ion i n t he L ake D istr ic t , a nd o f fers a n a pproach t o l and-use i n l ow land- marg ina l e nv ironmen ts ' s uch a s t he Fens a nd S omerset L eve ls ( c f . C o les 1 978 ) . F or t he n earest a na logue t o t he Dove-Derwen t L n ter f luve we may l ook t o E . Yorks, i n wh ich _we h ave a c o mparable r ange o f h ab ita ts r e la ted t o a l t itud ina l-c l i ma t ic t rends . The w ork o f S pra t t a nd S im mons ( 1976) f o l low ing t ha t o f D i mbleby ( 1962 ) s uggests t ha t t here may b e c lose p aral lels i n t he s equence o f c o lon isa t ion a nd e xpansion f ro m t he more f avoura b le e nv ironmen t o f t he C ha lk Wo lds a nd O o l i t ic l imestone o n to t he p resen t moors t o t ha t wh ich h as b een t raced i n t he D ove-Derwen t I n ter f luve . The d e mograph ic c r is is ' wh ich h as b een p ostu lated f or t he l a te 2 nd/ear ly i st mi l lenn iu m b .c . o n ly makes s ense i fp opu la t ion n u mbers h ad a t tained r e la t ive c arry ing c apac ity o ver a c ons iderab le p ar t o f t he c oun try . Tha t t h is was i ndeed t he c ase i s s upported b y t he f ac ts t ha t h igh a l t itude f i e ld-comp lexes p utat ive ly b e long ing t o t he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m b .c . a re f ound i n many p ar ts o f t he c oun try ( c f . B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 ) o f ten o n s o i ls, l i ke t hose o f E ast Moor , wh ich c an h ave o f fered o n ly a p recar ious l i ve l ihood . S evera l 'h i l lfor ts ' h ave b een s hown b y

1 4

Cd a t ing t o h ave o r ig ina ted i n t h is p er iod , l i ke Mam T or ;

i n e ach c ase t he h i l lfor ts l i e c lose t o t he e nv iron men ta l l im i ts f or c erea l c u lt iva t ion . I ti s t e mp t ing t o s pecu la te t ha t a na logous f actors may h ave c on tr ibuted t o t he ir emergence , b u t o n ly d eta i led r eg iona l s tud ies o n t he l i nes a t temp ted h ere c an v a l ida te t h is v iew . I t wou ld a lso b e p re mature t o e n ter i n to t he l arger i ssue o f whe ther t he d efens ive e nc losures, wh ich a ppeared i n many p ar ts o f Br i ta in ( a s i n C en tra l a nd Western Europe ) i nu p land s i tuat ions i nt he i st mi l len iu m B .C . may a lso r ef lect d emograph ic p ressures i n a n i n creasing ly i mpover ished e nv iron men t . The c ase-study h as s hown t ha t t he e co log ica l c hanges r ef lec ted i n t he p o l len-sequences f or t he 3 000 y ears c ons idered h ere were l arge ly a r esponse t o t he d irect a nd i nd irect i nf luence o fa gr icu l tural s oc ie t ies .

T he d irec t

i n f luence was e v iden t i n t he a ppearance o f p lan ts a nd p lan t-assoc ia t ions w h ich were d irect ly u t i l ised b y t he e ar ly f armers o r t he ir l i vestock . T hese a lso i nc lude ' weeds ' o f c u lt iva t ion a nd p asture, a b le t o c o lon ise t he d isturbed e nv ironmen ts c rea ted b y f orest c learance .

T he i nd irect i n f luence o f a gr icu l-

t ura l p opu la t ions o n t he v egeta t ion c an b e d e tected i n t he g radua l r ep lacemen t o f t he c l i max wood land b y ad ivers ity o f c ommun it ies o f s econdary s uccess ion f o l low ing o n f ro m h u man i n ter ference, e .g . s crub, g rass-hea th , P ter id ie ta , a nd b lanke t-bog c o m mun i t ies . Many o f t hese p lan t-associa t ions a re a dap ted t o man i n t he s ense t ha t t hey a re r esistan t t o t he d epreda t ions o f l i vestock a nd d estruct ion b y f i re . The ir e cono m ic v a lue i s of ten v ery l im i ted : p erhaps i ti s f or t h is r eason t ha t o nce e stab l ished t hey h ave f requen t ly b een s ub jec ted t o e xp lo it ive p ressures wh ich h ave a cce lera ted t he ir d ec l ine .

C onsequen t ly ,

t he p oss ib i l i ty o f r estor ing l and t o i t s p rev ious v a lue a ppears o f ten t o h ave b een p reven ted b y c on t inuing l owleve l e xp lo ita t ion .

The e co log ica l c onse-

q uences o f c er ta in l and-use p ract ices h ave b een b r ief ly d iscussed i n t he p res en t work , b u t c lear ly much f ur ther c o mpara t ive s tudy o f modern l and-use a nd i t s e f fect o n v ar ious k inds o f v ege ta t ion i s n eeded i n o rder t o g ive p rec is ion t o t he e va lua t ion o f d e tectab le v egeta t iona l c hanges i n p reh istory . I t i s t o b e h oped t ha t t he c loser i n tegra t ion o f p a laeo-eco log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l s tud ies o n t he l i nes a t te mp ted h ere may u lt i ma te ly t hrow s o me l i gh t o n t he p resen t s ta tus o f man a nd h is f ood-produc ing e cono m ies i n r e la t ion t o t he e co-syste m . 1 90

The c ase-study h as s hown t he v a lue o f t he c onsecut ive s tudy o f h u man s oc ie t ies o ver l ong p er iods o f t ime . C lear ly t he p opu la t ions o ccupy ing t he D ove-Derwen t I n terf luve a t t he e nd o f t he i st mi l lenn iu m b .c . s hared w ith t he ir p redecessors o f t hree m i l lenn ia b efore a n e nv ironmen t wh ich was g eol og ica l ly a nd c l i ma t ica l ly n o t d issi m i lar ; 1 : ; u t i n t hose c haracter ist ics wh ich a re most s ign if ican t f or a gr icu ltura l e cono m ies, s o i l a nd v ege ta t ion , t he e nv ironmen t was marked ly d i f feren t . T he v ast s tore o f f er t i li ty r epresen ted b y t he c l imax f orest s o i ls h ad b een v ery c ons iderab ly d im in ished ; o ver e xt ens ive p ar ts o f t he r eg ion t hey h ad b een r ep laced b y i mpover ished s o i ls s upport ing g rass-heath o r p ea t- moor , wh ich were e f fect ive ly e xc luded f ro m c u lt iva t ion a nd c ou ld o n ly b e u t i l ised b y l ow d ensi t ies o f s heep a nd c a t t le . T h is t ransfor ma t ion o f t he e nv iron men t , t o wh ich l a ter p reh istor ic c o m mun it i es h ad n ecessar i ly t o a dap t , was a d irect c onsequence o f 3 000 y ears o f a gr ic u ltura l l and-use .

I n t he p resen t work i th as n o t b een p oss ib le t o r econstruct

t he s equence o f l and-use a nd s e t t le men t i n t he I st m i l lenn iu m A .D . a nd t hus p resen t ac on t inuous n arra t ive t hrough t o t he p resen t d ay .

Bu t t he Ro man

a nd Ang l ian s et t lers were e n ter ing a l andscape a nd e co logy wh ich w ere a lready l arge ly p roducts o f h u man a ct iv ity , a nd v ery f ar r e moved f rom t heir ' natural ' s ta te .

C lear ly a n u nderstand ing o f t he a gr icu ltura l p reh istory o f ar eg ion i s

e ssen t ia l f or g rasp ing t he f actors c on tro l l ing i t s h istor ica l s et t le men t p at tern . T he i nves t igat ion a ga inst t h is b ackground o f t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd d ocu men tary e v idence f or t he i st m il lenn iu m A .D . c onst itu tes a f ur ther a rea o f r esearch . The c ase-study h as s hown t ha t p reh istor ic manland r e la t ions were o rder ly a nd s equen t ia l, a nd t here fore s uscep t ib le t o s yste mat ic s tudy .

A lthough many

d e ta i ls o ft he r econstruc t ion p roposed h ere w i l l u ndoubted ly b e mod if ied b y f ur ther w ork , t he p r inc ipa l c on ten t ion , t hat t he a bundance a nd d istr ibut ion o f p reh istor ic p opu la t ions were main ly c on tro l led b y t he n eeds o f t he e cono my h as b een u phe ld .

I th as a lso s hown t ha t ' eco-de mograph ic ' mode ls may

p rov ide v a l id a lterna t ives t o t echno log ica l, c u ltura l a nd s oc ia l-evo lu t ionary mode ls f or a n u nderstand ing o f t he ma jor d irect ives i n h u man p reh istory .

1 91

0.

R .T r ent

a .

6

P la te I A ston-on-Tren t ( June 1 960 ) L ook ing S .W . f ro m a p o in t j ust s ou th o f t he modern v i l lage. T he meander ing c ourse o f t he R iver Tren t c an b e s een i nt he f ar d istance, a nd t he Tren t a nd Mersey Cana l i nt he m idd le d istance. Th is c ana l f or ms a n a pprox i ma te b oundary b etween t he a l luv ia l f l oodp la in ( l and-facet a ) a nd t he a d jacen t g ravel t errace ( l and-facet 1 2 ).

Modern

l and-use h ere r ef lects s o i l c haracter ist ics w i th p ermanen t p asture p redo m inan t o nt he p oor ly d ra ined a l luv ium , a nd c erea l c u l t iva t ion o f t he g ravels. Par t o f t he A ston-on-Tren t c ursus c an b e s een i n t he f oreground a nd w ith in i t al arge a nd sma l l r ing d i tch . The e ar ly a gr icu l tura l s i te d a ted c . 2 750 b .c. was l oca ted w ith in t he c ursus. ( Cambr idge Un iversity C o l lect ion : c opyr igh t r eserved )

P la te I Hop ton ( Dec. 1 975 ) L ook ing S .S.E. f ro m a p o in t C . 1 .5 km n or th o f t he v i l lage o n t he j unc t ion b etween t he l imesto n e — . p lateau a nd t he g r itstone/shale f oo th i l ls. The u nderly ing g eo logy i s c losely r ef lected i nt he f i eldb oundar ies w i th d rystone wa l ls o n t he l imestone f oo ts lopes ( l andf acet 5 ) a nd h edgerows o n t he s ha les ( l and-facet F ). T he f ield s yste m a ssoc iated w ith t he med ieva l v i l lage i s p ar t ia l ly p reserved i n r idge-and-furrow.

On t he l imestone p la teau ( l and-facet 2 ) a l l

f i elds a re u nder c u l t iva t ion .

A t t he c en tre m id-d istance a re

v est iges o f l ead- m in ing p erhaps o f t he 1 7 th-18th c en tur ies A .D . ( Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity C o l lect ion :

1 92

c opyr igh t r eserved )

2 .

P la te I I

The L i mestone P la teau ( Oc t. 1 968 ) L ook ing S .W . f ro m a p o in t C . 2 km S .W . o fT ideswel l v i l lage , w i th Mil ler 's Da le i n t he m idd le d istance a nd t he Wye Va l ley a nd C hee Tor b eyond . The l evel ' up land ' r epresen ts l and-face t 2a nd t he s teep wooded d a les l and-facet 3 . The f i e lds , e nclosed b y d ry s tone w a l ls o f t he 1 8th-19 th c en tur ies A .D . a re ma in ly u nder a rab le ( sown g rasses ), a nd c a t t le p onds a re n ecessar ily p rov ided . S ha l lower s o i ls i nt he e x tre me f oreground , r epresen t ing l and-face t 1 , r e ma in u nder r ough g razing. The l ong n arrow c urv ing f i eld i nt he f oreg round may r ef lect t he c urv ing p lough s tr ip o f med ieva l t imes. ( Cambr idge Un iversi ty C o l lect ion : c opyr igh t r eserved )

P la te I V

Curbar Edge ( Dec. 1 975 ) L ook ing S .S.E. f ro m a p o in t j ust a bove t he v i l lage o f F rogga t t t owards Curbar v i l lage. The p reh is tor ic s ite o f Sw in e S ty i s l oca ted i nt he c en tre f ar d istance. L and-face t C i s r epresen ted b y t he s teep e rod ing g r i tstone e dge; l and-facet D b y t he ' up land ' i nt he f ar d istance; l and-facet E b y t he h ea ther a nd b racken c overed c rest-slopes o f t he g r i tston e. The modern v i l lages a re l oca ted a t t he b ase o f t he , f oo t-slopes ( l and-facet F ). ( Ca mbr idge U n iversi ty C o l lect ion : c opyr igh t r eserved )

1 94

P la te V

Mam Tor ( Dec . 1 967 ) L ook ing W.S. W . f ro m a p o in t a bove t he d efensive e nc losure t owards t he l imestone p la teau . The l ow-ly ing a rea i nt he m idd le d istance r epresen ts t he j unct ion b e tween .t he l imeston e a nd g r i ts tone s yste ms ( l and-facet 5 ) . N o te t he c on t inu ing e ros ion o f t he e scarpmen t ( t o t he l e f t o f t he p ho tograph ) wh ich h as e aten t hrough t he p reh istor ic r a mpar t . The r ugged l and t o t he n or th o f t he e nclosure i l lustra tes t he b roken t erra in , a ssoc ia ted w i th l and-facet F . ( Ca mbr idge U n iversi ty C o l lec t ion : c opyr igh t r eserved )

P la te V I

H igh P eak An a ir p ho tograph t aken a f ew k i lometres t o t he n or th o f t he r eg ion s tud ied h ere ( SK 1 79955 ) b u t s how ing t he c haracterist ic t opography a nd v egeta t ion o f l and-facets A a nd B .

I nt he midd le

d istance c an b e s een a n e xpanse o fb lanket-bog o ccupy ing t he l evel u p land ( and n ow b e ing r ap id ly e roded ).

Grass moor ,

b racken a nd h ea ther c ommun i t ies p reva il o n t he b e t ter d ra in ed s lopes i n t he f oreground. Modern a foresta t ion h as t aken p lace o n s o me o f t he more s hel tered v a l ley s lopes. ( Cambr idge U n iversi ty C o l lect ion : c opyr igh t r eserved )

1 96

1 98

THE DOVE-DER WENT I NTERFLUVE AREA B

Defens ive e nclosure

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C leared a nd wal led p lo t

k nown o r p robab le b arrow

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Enclosure

' I lingwork '

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' hu t c ircle '

For n umbered s i tes s ee F ig 4 b

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APPEND IX : THE LAND-FACET MAP T he s urvey was u ndertaken d ur ing March 1 977 o ver a p er iod o f 1 8 d ays a f ter t wo p re l im inary i nvest iga t ions o f t he r eg ion i n A pr i l a nd S epte mber 1 976 . S a mp le a reas f or s urvey were s e lected t o i nc lude l and-facets r epresen ta t ive s o f ar a s p oss ib le o f t he who le r eg ion , b ut o f a n e x ten t sma l l e nough t o c over I n t he t ime a va i lab le . T h is o b jec t ive was e nsured b y t he u se o f as i mp le l andc lassif ica t ion i n wh ich f our a d h oc c a tegor ies were r ecogn ised : ( a ) moor land , ( b ) we l l-dra ined u p lands ; ( c ) c lay l ow lands; ( d ) marsh a nd a l luv iu m .

T he d is-

t r ibut ion o f t hese l and c a tegor ies w i th in t he r eg ion was e stab l ished b y r ap id r econna issance a nd t he u se o f e x ist ing g eo log ica l a nd s o i l maps . The c lass if i ca t ion p roved a dequa te f or t he s e lect ion o f s amp le a reas. S ince t he t wo s a mp le a reas d o n o t c over f u l ly t he who le e x ten t o f a l l t hree t oposequences i den t if ied i n t he r eg ion , f ur ther l and-face ts h ad t o b e a dded t o c o mp le te t he r eg iona l s urvey .

An a l terna t ive , a nd s imp ler me thod ,

migh t h ave b een t o s urvey s e lected s ect ions t hrough t he v ar ious f or ma t ions . T he f o l low ing p rocedure was a dop ted i nt he f i e ld .

Ma jor t opograph ica l ly

d ef ined a reas w i th u n iform o vera l l g rad ien t w ere p rov is iona l ly marked i n , u s ing 1 :25000 0 .S . maps . M icro topography , v ege ta t ion a nd l and-use w ere n oted f ro m o bserva t ions made o n f oot o rb icyc le i n s e lect ive e xcursions t hrough t hese p rov is iona l ly d ef ined a reas .

T he r ou te f o l lowed a nd t he t horough-

n ess o ft he c over w as d ec ided b y t he i nc idence o f v an tage p o in ts a nd v ar iab il i ty o f t opography . D ur ing t hese e xcursions g eo logy was n oted f ro m q uarr ies, o utcrops, wa l ls, a nd b u i ld ings, a nd s o i l p rof i les were e xa m ined t hrough a uger b or ings a nd e xposed s ect ions . T h is s o i l a nd g eo log ica l i n forma t ion was s ubs equen t ly c o mpared w ith p ub l ished d ata f or t hose p ar ts o f t he r eg ion f or w h ich s urveys e x ist . T he p rov isiona l, t opograph ica l ly d ef ined l and-un i ts were a dj usted d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he f i e ldwork , b u t w ere f ound n orma l ly t o p rov ide a n a dequa te p re l im inary b as is .

Where t opography i s l ess we l l marked , a s

i n S urvey Area B , t he b oundar ies b e tween t he l and-un i ts a re n ecessar i ly l ess r e l iab le . a bove ( p .

T he t erms u sed i n d efin ing t he l andface ts h ave b een d escr ibed 4 7-51).

S urvey Area A c o mpr ises p ar t o f t he w a tershed o f t he M idd le Derwen t Va l ley , e x tend ing f ro m N ether P ad ley i n t he n or th t o Ma t lock i nt he s outh ( OS . 1 :25000 S hee ts SK 2 6, 2 7 ) at ota l a rea o f 2 00 s q . km .

S urvey Area B

c o mpr ises t he M idd le D ove Va l ley i n t he n e ighbourhood o f A shbourne ( OS . 1 :25000 S hee t SK 1 4) , at ota l a rea o f 1 00 s q . km . I n a dd it ion t o t he S urvey Areas, t he e n t ire e x ten t o f t he r eg ion was c overed s e lect ive ly a nd w i th s pec ia l r e ference t o k nown p reh istor ic r ema ins . K now ledge o ft he t erra in g a thered i n t h is way h e lped i n t he e x-t ens ion o f t he l and-face ts t o o ther p ar ts o f t he r eg ion . I ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t t he l and-face t d escr ip t ions a re o n ly i n tended t o s u mmar ise t he ma in f eatures o f t he r eg ion a t t he p resen t d ay , a s t h is must

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b e t he s tar t ing-po in t f or u nderstand ing t he c hanges t ha t h ave b rough t a bout i t s p resen t s ta te , a nd h ence t he r econstruc t ion o f t he p reh istor ic e nv ironmen t .

T hese d escr ip t ions a l low a n i ndependen t a ssess men t o f t he l and-

p oten t ia l . LAND FACET 1 R ange o f a l t itude :

2 50-400 m

O vera l l g rad ien t : modera te ly s lop ing M icrotopography :

smoo th o rb roken

G eo logy : C arbon iferous l imestone S o il :

s ha l low (