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VISUAL
COMMUNICATION
Images with Messages
79
f*t&$£ *«v
•
PAUL
•
•
•
ARTIN
LESTER
Digitized by the Internet Archive in
2014
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Visual
Communication IMAGES WITH MESSAGES
PAUL MARTIN LESTER CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, FUILERTON
Visual
Communication IMAGES WITH MESSAGES
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COPYRIGHT ©
1995 by Wadsworth Publishing
Company
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Thomson
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No
part of this
any form or by any means
—
taping, or information storage
Srai
Lesk
(
;
'a ul
work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used
and
retrieval
systems
— without the written permission of
Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin.
Visual communication
:
images with messages
/
Paul Martin Lester,
cm.
p.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-534- 19530-X 1.
Visual communication.
P93.5.L47
1995
302.23— dc20
in
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
I.
Title.
94-19173
the publisher.
CONTENTS
The Retina
ix
Preface
23 23
Light path to the retina SECTION
HOW WE
1
SEE
1
Regions of the retina
23
Photoreceptors: Rods and cones
CHAPTER
TO
1
PERCEIVE.
SENSE.
TO
TO
SELECT.
3
The
optic nerve
The Brain
The Visual Process
4
The
Visual Communication's Circle Dance
CHAPTER
LIGHT
2
Where Does
What
Is
Light
AND COLOR
Come From?
the Speed of Light?
Particles or
Waves?
6
Color
8
29
cortex
30
The hippocampus
31
WHY WE
SECTION 2
SEE
33
9
WHAT THE BRAIN AND MOVEMENT 35
CHAPTER
10
4
SEES:
COLOR, FORM, DEPTH,
/ 1
Color
12
Sociological Uses of Color
16
36
Describing color
Form Dots
40
Lines
41
Historic Eyes
Shapes
18
to the Soul
20
Physiology of the Eye
21
Depth
The
37
40
CHAPTER 3 THE EYE, THE RETINA, AND THE BRAIN 18 Windows
27
7
Other Forms of Electromagnetic Energy
24
42
44 eight
depth cues
45
V
vi
CONTENTS
Movement Real
A new form
50
movement
50
Persuasion:
Apparent movement
of communication?
A
life
and death
98 99
issue
50
Graphic movement
50
Implied movement
51
CHAPTER
7 IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE
Brain Cells Notice the Difference
MEDIA
51
100
Stereotyping Generally
102
Reinforcing stereotypes with images
CHAPTER
THE SENSUAL AND
5
Media coverage and
PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL
COMMUNICATION
thinking
52
Specific
Communication
53
58
Female stereotypes
59
Gay and
Can We
Perceptual Theories of Visual
Communication Semiotics
Examples of Stereotyping
THE ETHICS OF
WHAT WE
73
SEE
THE MEDIA THROUGH WHICH
WE
75
76
Six Perspectives for Analyzing
The
role of persuasion
The
role
of propaganda
125
Technical Perspective
125 725
Ethical Perspective
CHAPTER
81
Commercial advertising
82
Growth of advertising
126 126
86 88
129
131
89 91
Corporate influence in newsrooms 92
138
Technical Perspective
149
Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective
138
138
Historical Perspective
Ethical Perspective
92
136
Typography and the Six Perspectives Personal Perspective
88
Journalism and public relations
98
129
Analysis of the Gutenberg Bible
Advertising and public relations
Objectivity and journalism
Bible
Gutenberg
Visual Persuasion in Public Relations
Visual Persuasion in Journalism
TYPOGRAPHY
The Curious History of Johannes 83
84
relations
8
The Gutenberg
83
Noncommercial advertising
David Kirby
Historical Perspective
81
Visual Persuasion in Advertising
and public
124
Critical Perspective
80
Any
123
Cultural Perspective
The Fine Line Between Persuasion and Propaganda
123
Personal Perspective
6
The Benetton Advertising Campaign
to
119
67
AND JOURNALISM
Back
116
61
VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS,
Politics
107
112
All Get Along?
Image
CHAPTER
106
lesbian stereotypes
SEE
SECTION 3
106
61
SECTION 4
Cognition
105
African-American stereotypes
Constructivism Ecological
104
Jewish-American stereotypes
53
Gestalt
prejudicial
Irish-American stereotypes
Sensual Theories of Visual
103
156
157 158
Future Directions for Typography
158
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
GRAPHIC DESIGN
9
Ethical Perspective Bass's Contributions to
243
162 Critical Perspective
Movies
241
Graphic Cultural Perspective
Design
238
Technical Perspective
161
244
162
Future Directions for Cartoons
Packaging and logos Analysis of The
Arm
Man
165
CHAPTER
Analysis of
"The Migrant Mother"
Personal Perspective
167
Graphic Design and the Six 167
Perspectives
Personal Perspective
168
253
Technical Perspective
260
Ethical Perspective
168
Cultural Perspective
Technical Perspective
171
Critical Perspective
Ethical Perspective
Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective
CHAPTER
185
188
185
Kane
280
282
Personal Perspective
190
790
USA Today
Analysis of Infographics in
Informational Graphics and the Six
Ethical Perspective
Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective
284
Technical Perspective
306
Ethical Perspective
Critical Perspective
194
Historical Perspective
Technical Perspective
191
1
314
317
Future Directions for Motion Pictures
CHAPTER
199
207
TELEVISION
14
VIDEO
319
Making and
210
The
trial
Television
212
"The Simpsons"
215
Cartoons and the Six Perspectives 217 219
its
aftermath
323
325
Rodney King Video
and Video and the Six
Perspectives
329
Personal Perspective
217
322
Incident
airing the video
and
Analysis of the
CARTOONS
AND
322
The Rodney King
210
210
Historical Perspective
311
94
Future Directions for Informational
Personal Perspective
282
Historical Perspective
Cultural Perspective
194
Personal Perspective
Analysis of
275
Analysis of Citizen
188
Impact of technology
11
274
Orson Welles and the Making of Citizen
Perspectives
Television weather segments
Graphics
272
Motion Pictures and the Six
Newspaper use
Perspectives
271
MOTION PICTURES
13
Kane
Weather Maps
268
177
INFORMATIONAL 187
252
265
Future Directions for Photography
176
Future Directions for Graphic Design
GRAPHICS
249
252
Historical Perspective
Historical Perspective
10
246
Photography and the Six Perspectives
Recent Trends in Motion Picture Visuals
PHOTOGRAPHY
12
with the Golden
166
CHAPTER
244
164
Television
CHAPTER
vii
329
Historical Perspective
331
Technical Perspective
344
Ethical Perspective
348
326
viii
CONTENTS
Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective
Networked
354
CHAPTER
359
402
Technical Perspective
406
Ethical Perspective
Computer-Generated Images
361
Cultural Perspective
407 409 412
Critical Perspective
362
Future Directions for Networked Interactive
Evolution of computer-generated
images
402
Historical Perspective
361
Morphing
402
Personal Perspective
COMPUTERS
15
Multimedia and the
Six Perspectives
358
Future Directions for Television and
Video
Interactive
Multimedia
363
413
Future of computer-generated
imaging
365
Analysis of motion picture computer graphics
366
Computers and the
Pictures
366
Historical Perspective
367
Technical Perspective
379
Ethical Perspective
Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective
16
419
and words communication
Pictures
Light— The Link
GLOSSARY
395
to a Friend
423
BIBLIOGRAPHY 397
INDEX
398
Analysis of Laser Disk Presentations
401
435
in
420
395
NETWORKED
— Like Talking
Living in a Picture-Filled World
Words
394
INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
IM
— Learned Before Words
416
417
Helping Explain Unfamiliar Pictures with
389
Future Directions for Computers
CHAPTER
366
Six Perspectives
Personal Perspective
CHAPTER 17 THE MORE YOU KNOW, THE MORE YOU SEE 415
427
mass
420
PREFACE
^Nhere did
the idea
communicate were
first
thoughts,
come from
that
words
better than pictures? Since they
invented to communicate complex
words
and
pictures
been
have
locked in a struggle for dominance, with
words being the clear-cut
leader.
With the
widespread use of Gutenberg's printing
press,
words became more important than pictures convey complex thought.
to
Images were
mation
all
demand
that
we become more
visually literate.
Visual Communication: Images with Messages explores
several
What
questions.
are
your personal responses toward a particular visual presentation?
you
How
can you
relate
what
medium of What do you know about the
see with the history of the
presentation?
technology that makes possible the presenta-
relegated to an occasional medical diagram, a
tion of the information displayed? Are
"pretty" border decoration, or a sensational
aware of the ethical responsibility that pro-
eye-catching view. Reading and writing be-
ducers of visual messages have in creating
came curriculum requirements, but
visual
literacy wasn't considered a necessary
com-
ponent of an individual's education.
However, the invention of the
computer
— and
the
— dramatically
spread
changed the
How
do
cultural in-
and
played and diverse interpretations of them?
of
This book also explores the simple idea that
desktop publishing and interactive multi-
media
images that are compelling and yet do not stereotype individuals?
fluences determine the type of messages dis-
television
recent
role
of
visual messages that are greatest
power
remembered have the
to inform, educate,
visual messages in
communication. Nowhere
suade an individual and a culture
on Earth can
person avoid being con-
some images
fronted with
a
some
sort of visual message.
Knowledge about the nature of
you
light,
the
are
and per-
— and why
remembered but most
are
forgotten.
An
emphasis on visual messages does not
physiology of the brain, and the technological
mean
gadgets that people invent to present infor-
tant than images.
that
words are considered
less
impor-
The most powerful, meanix
PREFACE
x
and culturally important messages
ingful,
ly
and
first
step toward understanding visual
communication
many ways
the
and consumed
is
we
produced
see
cartoon,
still,
is
modern, media-rich
Typographic,
ety.
of media,
to educate yourself about
that information in a
a
in
live
Bombarded
intensive
visually
informational,
graphic,
moving,
soci-
television,
and com-
we
mediated
Some
words.
images
more than we read
experts warn that
cy and lawlessness.
More
order
new
In this
a direct result of the
is
new
cannot afford
age in communications initiated and promot-
know
ed by computer technology, which
someone
makes
production,
only
to
how
2.
and
interested
who produce
who
are
affected
the images, and those
by what they see in
numbers unequaled
in the history of
mass
communications.
Computers allow
motion
illustrative,
picture,
and
pictures, photo-
relations, television,
know how
to use
and analyze the words and pictures presented in all those ways.
(walls)
The
artificial
boundaries
between the various media imposed
by tradition and older technology are beginning to crumble. This book can help you
professional
and ama-
teur writers and designers to produce typographic,
to
advertising, graphic
in
or visual perception must
links the various types of visual materials,
those
will
new ways
know only how to write or to to make an image. Today,
communications, public easier;
advances
and
presentation,
viewing of visual messages
in
technological age, a person
design, journalism, 1.
illitera-
create innovative educational possibilities.
to complete this first step.
This book also
the trend
optimistic research-
merge words and pictures
critical perspectives in
if
continues, civilization will regress to
ers predict that technological
and
We
are only taught to understand words.
puter images are analyzed within a frame-
cal, cultural,
manner
all
seek to understand pictures, but
work of personal,
historical, technical, ethi-
society.
daily with a steady, unrelenting
stream of visual stimulation from
respectfully.
The
We
are
those that combine words and pictures equal-
photographic,
television
breach those walls and enter the brave (visual)
world on the other
new
side.
motion
images in graphic
Features of the book
designs with ease.
For hundreds of years technology has kept writers
and visual
artists separate
and un-
equal. Before Johannes Gutenberg's invention
of the commercially successful printing press, less
than 30 percent of the people could read.
Visual Communication: Images with Messages
contains the following features. •
An
informal writing style explains de-
tailed information in a thorough, yet easily
Seventy years after his invention, 80 percent
understandable way. Section
of the entire population of Europe could read.
the latest scientific and medical informa-
Seventy years after Louis Daguerre's intro-
tion available about light, the eye,
duction of the
first
practical photographic
pers.
And
after
Three addresses ethical issues related to persuasive images and stereotyping. Each
grammar was developed
for
Gutenberg. People are taught to
read words but pictures.
theoretical
educators never developed a
that a verbal
words
features
approaches to visual perception. Section
a
visual grammar for photographs in the same
way
Two
and the
newspa-
had
at pictures in their local yet,
Section
presents
Kodak camera
process, almost everyone
and looked
brain.
One
are
never taught to read
chapter in Section Four
is
introduced with
a detailed analysis of a significant
example
from the medium being discussed,
fol-
lowed by a general discussion of the medi-
um
from personal,
historical,
technical,
PREFACE
ethical, cultural,
•
and
critical perspectives.
graphic design, journalism, motion picture,
Each chapter ends with a brief predictions
photocommunication, public
section.
television
More than 350 black-and-white and graphics and photographs from
moving image sources addition
In
many examples way
Section
illustrations,
messages in the
exhibits the best that can be
achieved in graphic design
and pictures
when words
are treated with equal
impor-
tance and respect. •
A
A
the part of viewers in order to get the most
from visual messages. The chapters
and physiology of
and forms images
light enters the eye
the brain.
in this
Knowing about
these physical
in
and
mental processes will help the student understand
why some
memorable and
pictures are
others are not.
in
it
Chapter
terms
more than 100 key
glossary contains
To Sense. To Select. To Perceive
1:
This chapter features the philosophy of the
words that are introduced
A
on
sophisticated visual perception techniques
that are used in the text.
•
more
for
calls
cutline for each illustration identifies
the image and often describes
•
See
section explain the physics
of the reader.
The book
How We
1:
This section of the book
how •
media presentations.
the text's
are described in such a
as to evoke visual
mind
and
contemporary
the
to
and
relations,
color
still
life to
and
references
historical ideas.
give
xi
who wrote
writer Aldous Huxley,
"the more
you know, the more you see" and how that
in the text.
phrase relates to the study, appreciation, and detailed bibliography presents sources of
production of visual messages.
additional information. •
An
instructor's
manual includes
Chapter
in-class
discussion topics and out-of-class assign-
ments, pages that can be used as masters for
overhead projection sheets for each
lecture, test questions
with answers, pre-
dictions from students about the future of visual
communications,
story of
how
may change
virtual
the
way
fictionalized
a
reality
visual
technology
communica-
Light
and Color
This chapter explores the history, physics,
and sociological is
characteristics of light. Light
natural starting point
the
a
for
visual
communication textbook because images ceive ic
life
through
this
re-
form of electromagnet-
energy. Consequently, having an under-
standing of the nature of light
we
the objects
tion courses are taught, an 800- item time
attention
make con-
creation.
line that allows the reader to
2:
—
is
see
and how
vital
— how
it
it
shapes
can direct our
image analysis and
for
nections between the various historical
developments presented in the
text,
suggestions for teaching a visual
and
commu-
Chapter
The
nication course.
many
body
sections that discuss technical
and
cal issues relevant to advertising,
sociologi-
computers,
and
the
basic
and brain responsible
parts
is
The physiology of used as a model for
of the machines that help
world more are divided into four
Eye, the Retina,
are discussed.
these vital
The seventeen chapters
The
parts of the eye
for sight
Organization of the book
3:
Brain
visible.
An
make
the
understanding of the
components of the eye and brain can
lead to
insights
regarding the images that
cameras and computers produce.
PR K FACE
xii
Why We
Section 2:
See
texts
be exaggerated
to
of reality
visions
because their visual claims are intended to Seeing
is
enough
light in a
not simply a function of having
persuade and provoke. However, images used
how
room. This section explores for editorial
the brain processes the individual graph-
conform
purposes also are designed to
to preconceived perceptions.
elements that make up a pictorial scene.
ic
The many
theories of
how
the
mind
puts the
Chapter
individual parts of an image together into
thought are explained and
logical patterns of
discussed.
Chapter
What
and
a current analysis
still,
moving,
Understanding the
effect
has on
a
society
real,
down
into
how
underre-
that stereotyping
whole
is
important.
communicate
to
a
its
society's desire to segregate various groups
simple graphic components. Because of the
based on race, gender, age, physical condi-
functions, these graphic eletion,
make quick
as
may be used
Pictures
or imagined, can be broken
to
of
the Brain Sees: Color,
Every image, whether
ments combine
Media
presented groups are portrayed in the media.
Form, Depth, and Movement
way the brain
Images That Injure: Pictorial
This chapter contains a historical perspective
4:
7:
Stereotypes in the
and many other
Being
characteristics.
sense of what able to identify pictorial stereotyping
the eyes see. Being able to identify and use
step toward securing equality and
first
the
is
justice.
those basic graphic elements helps in the analysis
and production of images.
The Media Through
Section 4: Chapter
5:
Which We See
The Sensual and Perceptual
Theories of Visual Communication Psychologists have theories based
on
come up with
several
either sensual data received
information pro-
in the eye or perceptual
cessed in the brain.
The two types of ap-
proaches are discussed with an emphasis on
how someone can make memorable
use this information to
This
includes
section
medium
of presentation.
chapter
on each
Each chapter
is
introduced with a description of a significant
image or object presented by that medium. Subsequent analysis involves the personal, historical,
technical,
ethical,
cultural,
and
described at the start of
critical perspectives
images.
a
the section. These six perspectives
promote a
thorough understanding of the medium, the
Section 3:
The
Ethics of
What We
See
works produced by
it,
and
its
effects
on the
culture.
Before a discussion of each
medium's
role in
Chapter
8:
Typography
the production and distribution of images, an
understanding of the ethical problems associated with images are used,
lead
and
The chapter introduces the student life
is
necessary. Pictures often
knowingly or unknowingly,
to
mis-
to the
and work of Johannes Gutenberg, who
invented the
first
commercially successful
printing press, on which the Gutenberg Bible distort.
was printed. Chapter tising,
6:
Visual Persuasion in Adver-
Public Relations,
Probably the most is
for advertising
es.
and Journalism
common
and public
use of images
relations purpos-
People expect pictures used in these con-
Chapter
9:
Graphic Design
The graphic larly the
movie
designs of Saul Bass, particutitle
sequence for The
with the Golden Arm, are featured.
Man
PREFACE
Chapter
George
of
design
map
Today full-page weather
USA
the
is
many
influenced
This chapter describes an interactive, mul-
a striking
example of an informational graphic that directly
Chapter 16: Networked Interactive Multimedia
10: Informational Graphics
Rorick's
other newspaper
CD-ROM
timedia
program, From Alice
to
Ocean: Alone Across the Outback, as an example of the best that the
publishers.
xiii
medium
has to offer.
But present-day interactive multimedia pres-
Chapter
11:
entations are nothing
Cartoons
"The Simpsons"
originator of
both comic
in
strip
to the pro-
of the future that will instantly net-
grams
The work of Matt Groening,
compared
work with thousands of databases around the
and world.
animated television productions, begins the Chapter 17: The More You Know, the More You See
discussion in this chapter.
Chapter
A
12:
The book's conclusion
Photography
discussion of Dorothea Lange's famous
portrait of a
mother and her children, "The
ough knowledge of
mediated images, but also will aid
analysis of
describes the major technological and stylis-
in the observation
innovations in
still
photography. Ethical
and interpretation of
di-
among
all
rect visual experiences.
The
issues involved in photojournalism also are
the information contained
part of the discussion.
chapters
Chapter
The
13:
close-up shot of Orson Welles saying
picture Citizen
is
link
in the preceding
discussed.
Glossary
Motion Pictures
the word "Rosebud"
communication
visual
not only will help in the production and
Migrant Mother," begins the chapter that
tic
stresses that a thor-
in his innovative
motion
Kane begins the discussion of
the movie industry.
More than 100 terms to
the
reader
are
that
may
defined
be unfamiliar
briefly
Each word in the glossary
section.
emphasized
in the text
in
this
is
first
by boldface type and
explained there.
Chapter
14: Television
The videotape
and Video
shot by amateur George
Bibliography
Holliday that showed the beating and forceful arrest of
spark
Rodney King, which
the officers involved, introduces the
power of
allows
15:
Most of the resource materials on which
this
book
can
is
obtain
based are
listed so that the reader
additional
information
about each
subject presented in the text.
televised images.
Chapter
The
helped
unrest in Los Angeles and convict
civil
some of
later
Computers
Acknowledgments
technological innovation of morphing
of unusual computer-
the creation
generated forms that can friendly sea creature in terrifying
Day. The
monster full
range from the
The Abyss
in Terminator 2:
to
the
judgment
impact of computer technology
on communication
is
discussed.
Writing a book
marathon what
it
is
is
like
running a 26.2-mile
in the sense that like until
are ever foolish
you do
enough
you never know it
yourself. If
you
to try (either one),
be
sure to get plenty of help. To one degree or
another,
the
following people contributed
PREFACE
xiv
greatly to this effort, helping
me
train, sup-
me with water, running heside me, cheering me along, and congratulating me at plying
Pegie Stark,
Bob
and Mary Sum-
Steele, Paul
Don Sunoo, Winton Sweum, Jennifer Tibbetts, Ed Trotter, Mike Tyler, Kim Walshmitt,
the finish line. In alphabetical order they are:
Childers, Larry Ward, Lorraine Waters, David
and Lucy Adams, Todd Arm-
Weaver, Marsha Woodbury, Fred Zandpour,
Charlie
strong, Cecelia Baldwin, Ralph Barney, Saul
Nancy Benjamin,
Bass,
Paul Bibbo, Jay Black,
Tom and Evie Brislin, Jim and Becky Brown, Tom Burr, Carl and Adjoa Burrowes, Fenton
and
Neil
tians,
Chapman, Ray Chavez,
Colson, Paul Conrad, Carolyn
B.
J.
Cliff Chris-
the waitresses at Jon's Coffee
Huntington Beach who
Thank you of the
text:
Kevin Barnhurst, Syracuse Uni-
Texas;
Crow, Everette Dennis, Craig Denton,
ta;
Ed
Fink, Lin Ford, Dick Foushee, Theresa
Frare,
Cody, Jim, and Nancy Greenwood,
Joanne Gula, Ruth Guzley, Chris Harris, Beth
Rob
Hart,
Heller,
Mclnnes
Peggy
Mark and
Scott Heustis,
Houston,
Terry
Rhonda Jamgotchian, son,
King,
Josh
Hynes,
Jay Jimenez, Jeff John-
Jeff
Kowalchuk,
Debby
Beckman,
Richard
versity;
North Carolina;
Fellow,
J.
B.
Alan John, Wright State University;
Steve
Jones,
Kenney,
Watkins, University of Arkansas. I
consider myself one of the luckiest per-
sons on the face of this planet because
all
Jerrold
Jay
Moore, Anne Moses, Carlene
Nelson, Julie Newton, Coral Ohl, Nora Paul,
Richard
Bob
Pearce-Moses,
Picard,
Nancy
Pullen, Liz Regan,
son,
Pierce,
Michelle
Perlman,
Bill
my
know
fondest wishes
is
I
am
each one of you. that
spend a week together
someday we in
an
old,
weather-beaten, sturdy (and extremely large)
house somewhere along the coast of
England so that
all
of you can get to
New know
each other.
David Pincus, Rick
Tony Rimmer,
Joel
Robin-
Susan Ross, David Shedden, Michael
Shulman,
Carolina;
iann Newton, University of Texas; and Patsy
can
ling,
Keith
Tulsa;
South
of
Charles Lewis, Mankato State University; Jul-
of
Mech-
of
University
University
One
and
University;
State
Jeffrey
Wally MacPhee, Sirish Mani, George ManChris Maron, George and Nancy Mas-
Colson, University of
Tom Hubbard, Ohio
fortunate enough to
ross,
of
University
Lucy Ganje, University of North Dako-
Kramer, Ed Lambeth, Travis Linn, Elaine and
troianni, Irene Matz, Elizabeth
at a table
also to the following reviewers
Counts, Deni and James Cramer, Wendell
Durham, Bob and Ginger Emry, Tony
sit
in
edit this text.
Coogan, Marvin and Maria Cortner, Will
Patti
me
let
Shop
with an endless supply of coffee to write and
Calhoun, Michael Carlebach, Cynthia Carvajal,
all
Smith, Ken Smith, Ted Smythe,
Paul Martin Lester Fullerton, California
How We
Visual communication
that function
all
and
See
relies
both on eyes
a brain that
makes sense of
the sensory information received.
tive,
curious
mind remembers and
An
ac-
uses visual
light,
how
the
eyes
retinas collect light,
esses,
sorts,
and
focus
light,
how
the
and how the brain proc-
stores
light
is
important
because camera and computer construction
messages in thoughtful and innovative ways.
is
based on some of the same principles.
Knowing about
A
knowledge of the physics and physiol-
it
if
the world and the images that
conveys will help you analyze pictures.
you can examine pictures
And
critically,
you
ogy of
light
will
enhance your use of the
technologies of the future and the ability
have a good chance of producing high-quality
to
decipher innovative visual messages.
images that others will remember.
is
light
General
knowledge
of
the
physics
of
life.
that
gives
visual
messages
It
their
CHAPTER
1
To Sense. To Select. To Perceive.
The
greatest thing a
human this
soul ever does in
world
something.
clearly
is
prophecy,
to see
is
.
.
.
To see
poetry,
and
religion, all
in one.
Think
of
all
part of your
the visual messages that are a
life:
a cracked bat given to
you bv
a professional baseball player; your fingers
the handlebars during your
first
on
bicycle ride;
who
doctor
treated your cut leg;
all
the colors
of the plants as you walked along the pictures
on the wall of your
lover's
Actually, the proportion of
trail;
the
bedroom.
remembered
Why
to
the smile from your favorite teacher during
forgotten images
your high school graduation; red blood drip-
chosen few easily recalled while a vast array of
ping from a cut on your
ambiguous memories
small stream
leg;
the sight of a
country; a passionate look from a lover. These visual messages are toire of
all
a part of your reper-
memories. These personal moments
are forever stored in the gray recesses of your brain.
Pictures weave themselves into your
memory for years.
The
during a quiet walk in the
system, sometimes lying
dormant
You remember and communicate
sorts
that ry.
all
is
quite small.
are a
are lost?
brain deliberately and unconsciously the possible images and selects those
become
a part of your long-term
memo-
That selection process depends largely on
how much you want be remembered,
it
to
know. For an image
must make such
impression that you want to recall
and
again.
Through
repetitive
to
a strong it
again
mental viewing
these mental images because they are highly
over time, the image becomes permanent and
meaningful visual messages.
your brain stores the visual memory. These
Think of
all
the personal visual messages
pictures
become
When you
a part of your visual
you have experienced but may have forgotten:
bank.
the billboard advertisements on the outfield
new
wall during the baseball game; where
viously stored mental pictures.
ended up on your
first
you
bicycle ride; the faces
of your fellow graduates sitting next to you as
you waited
for
your diploma; the face of the
the
associations
new and
back and forth
see
new
images, you
make
and comparisons with pre-
The content of
old images constantly in
image
bounce
your mind so that you learn
from them. Otherwise, you
will forget
them,
3
John Ruskin,
PAINTER
4
TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO PERCEIVE.
as
you do most words and
Hauer
actor Rutger
Runner, "All those
time
pictures.
movie Blade
said in the
moments
As the
be
will
lost in
remembering images: you were you were
activity;
from
for not
distracted by
you were
tired;
keratitis
punctata from the age of
from only 10
letters
glasses.
you did not assign significance
clearly
on
your mind not playing back every possible picture focused by the lenses in your eyes. well in society
if
Huxley
brain stored and recalled everything you saw.
Blind in one eye and nearly
Like a party where the hosts
blind in the other, Huxley
newly purchased video camera, you would be
was forced
to
wear glasses
is
summed up
Nevertheless, the low
camera
+
The of
The
behind the
glasses.
and the nervous system do the
eyes
mind does
through 16 have
memory. is
something more
Any improvement tends
ceiving
improvement
— they
to
power of per-
in the
be accompanied by an
power of sensing and of
in the
that product of sensing
and perceiving which
connections. These images are is
They have helped shape Western
how large numbers of people feel
culture
seeing.
about them-
and medium,
linked by the inescapable elements to all visual messages: get their life
from
only from the
light
They
light.
all
are
common
are objects that
That
life
comes not
of day, but also from the
of revelation, the light of understanding,
and the
light
The
and
Although separate and individual in
their intent, content,
light
the product of accurate
compelling, and easily understood.
strong,
selves.
related to the
is
sensing and correct perceiving.
who have seen them have memorized them. And when they see them make new
the perceiving.
faculty of perceiving
lions of people
again, people learn
seeing."
not the same as perceiving.
Clear seeing visual messages that are so strong that mil-
reveal a strong personality
is
er words, to
his eye
contact with the viewer
+
often reproduced imag-
es that begin Chapters 8
and
for achieving
individual's accumulated experience, in oth-
perspective, dramatic lighting effect
=
perceiving
to live well in the present.
Many famous and
method
his
clearly.
For Huxley:
sensing, the all
that seeing
is
mostly the result of thinking
selecting
your past experiences. You would not be able
with thick lenses.
handicap without the aid of
his
off their
forced instantly to view over and over
away. In his book he
feet
However, his main idea
Sensing
show
and
clear vision with the formula: "sensing
your
Figure 1.1
light perception,
described the physical exercises he used to
overcome
Actually, your well-being depends in part
known as 16. One eye
the other could view an eye chart's 200-foot
you were experiencing some personal tragedy; to the images.
Huxley suffered
a degenerative eye condition
hungry; you were confused by what you saw;
You couldn't function
1.1).
was merely capable of
like tears in the rain."
Think about some of the reasons another
Art of Seeing (Figure
first
stage of clear vision
means
sense, or look, simply light
is
to sense.
letting
To
enough
you can see
enter your eyes so that
objects immediately around you. Sensing also
depends on how well the many parts of the eye work. Obviously, a ly
functioning
eye
damaged or improperwill
Think of the human camera without
film;
hamper
visual
that
sensing.
process as a
is,
little
mental
processing of the image occurs during the
of education.
looking phase of visual perception. For example, a friend calls
The
visual process
"Look over
out to you:
there,"
and you move your head
in the general direction indicated
You
Aldous Huxley, author of the novel Brave
friend.
New
You look
World and other works of futuristic
at
try to take in the
by your
whole scene.
everything, but you see nothing.
vision, detailed his efforts to teach himself
You have no idea why you have been
how
structed to look.
to see
more
clearly in his
1942 work The
in-
THE VISUAL PROCESS
Huxley's next stage
is
the
to select a particular
of vision. To select
mix
5
of genders and races. You see their
and
You
to
clothing.
You
isolate a specific part of a scene within the
see their
body
enormous frame of
conscious mental activity, you see what you
element from a
offers.
field
is
possibilities that sensing
That isolation
is
a result of the
assume
combi-
see their ages gestures.
And
heights.
because of that
the reason for your friend's insis-
is
command. A person
down on
nation of the light gathering and focusing
tent
properties of the eye with the higher level
the sidewalk in the middle of this group of
functions of the brain. Selecting
When
scious, intellectual act.
a con-
is
you
The
Huxley's visual theory
last stage in
engage more fully the objects in the scene to perceive; that
than when you merely look. Selecting starts the process of classification
lying
people.
you
select
is
you must
is,
sense of what you select.
try to
is
make
your mind has any
If
of objects as
chance of storing visual information
for long-
known, unfamiliar, meaningful, or confusing.
To
area
select
and
term
retrieval
base,
you must
to increase
your knowledge
an object within the
to isolate
is
where the sharpest vision takes place in
of what you
meaning
actively consider the
Mystery programs often
see.
the eye: the foveal focus point in the back of
needed
visually reveal all the clues
your
By
eyes.
individual objects
selecting
murder.
Many
to solve a
people miss these visual clues
within a scene, you are doing what the eye's
made
physiology was
mental
activities
do
to
—
because they have been taught to value verbal to focus
your
on
a single, small object that
all
others.
information more than visual. Once the clues are perceived
is
isolated
from
is
About
Huxley wrote
seeing,
more you know; the more you
that
see."
A
and
collated, the solution often
obvious. However, a subsequent viewing
"the never recaptures the feeling of discovery ex-
former perienced during the
baseball player watches
and
game much
from someone who
attends a
differently
game
for the first time.
comer probably
manager, scoreboard ball's flight as
it
details, the
A
details
might notice
details in a city, but
she might get lost in a forest. lives in
curve of the
observed by the
city dweller
and cultural
architectural
amount of curiosity and wonder
Her
friend
who
the country might be able to identify
A man
stimulate your mind, through past experi-
ence
or
chances
knowledge,
you
that
the
will
greater
see
are
the
What
see
— you
start
to
isolate
subjects in the scene.
You
and you
change so that
street.
None
of the
man are
Many
is
He
is
in the center of the
of the people will need to walk in
order to cross the
street.
the mystery here? a higher
of cognition than simply sensing and
means
that
you must concentrate on
the subjects within a intent of finding
field
of view with the
meaning and not simply
as
the
an act of observation, which demands much
crowd of
sharper mental activity. Ask yourself: Does
mentally see a
start to
light to
To process an image mentally on level
direction your friend asks
corner.
concerned for the
all
that be?
around him
selecting
the
street
aware that he's lying on the pavement. But
world: in
busy
a
on the ground. Maybe none of them
more of your
You narrow your gaze and look
down on
passersby look at
group.
busy highway. The more you
is
they can walk across the
might not be able to find his way to the a
for the first time:
simply waiting for the
how can
from
you give
People stand around. They appear to be
every tree and flower along a rural path but
airport
something
that
miss signals from a
speeds from pitcher to batter,
and many other former player.
The new-
standing what you select requires the same
to selecting will
viewing. Under-
first
sees a baseball
all
people standing on a street corner. You see
the image have any significance for your
life?
TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO PERCEIVE.
6
The answer
question
that
to
determines
ing.
Your mind's eye
whether you rememher or
forget a picture.
image
Although you can certainly
isolate a particu-
head.
element with
lar visual
ing
when
it is
a
new
meaning
or surprising occurrence,
for the picture. If the
becomes meaningful,
part of your long-term
Now You
you
is
it
see that he
is
likely to
man who
a
a result:
down.
is
paralyzed and dragging
himself with his gloved hands along the sidewalk. You see his tattered clothing. see his
Visual communication's circle
wooden box
reads,
now
more you
select,
more you
more you
perceive, the
the
sense.
The
select.
The
perceive.
The
more you remember.
The more you remember,
the
The more you
more you know.
The
learn, the
more you
learn.
greatest aid to clear seeing isn't eyes
on the box
that
by looking
craters of the selecting,
moon. The process of
and perceiving takes
sensing,
curious,
a
questioning, and knowledgeable mind. goal of a visual
communicator
isn't
The
simply to
in place.
Your mind can
have an image published or broadcast. The
find meaning. Because
you have taken
goal of a visual
becomes
a powerful visual
good chance of staying You
years to come.
desperate person
and
more you
more you
telescope that brings into sharp focus the
the time to understand the scene fully,
a
the
sense, the
that he carefully
All the clues obtained
and seeing are now
more you
that function with or without glasses or a
hair.
"VIETNAM VETERAN. PLEASE
HELP."
The more you know,
You
drags start-step fashion along with him. You see the hand-lettered sign
DANCE
You
brown, long, and disheveled
see the small
created the picture inside your
image
become
memory. As
really see the
actual sensual
mental process-
little
analyzing a visual message ensures that you will find
— has
— not an
yet
no one
is
in
it
message that has your
memory for man is a
realize that the
who
needs some assistance
willing to
come
to his aid.
messages
can
become
memories through
long-time
mental
direct, cognitive process-
is
to
produce
powerful pictures so that the viewer will
remember if
their content.
the viewer's
mind
Images have no use
doesn't use them. As
future image consumers and producers, you will
want
images that you remember
to see
and make images
The This simple exercise proves that visual
communicator
book
goal of this
method less
that others is
remember. to give
you
of the
medium
of presentation. Without
systematically analyzing an image, you see
a
a
for analyzing visual messages regard-
televised
may
image and not notice the
individual elements within the frame. You
ceive
Figure 1.2
might not consider
•
Aldous Huxley's method for clear seeing
arranged
in
the story and to your
a
The words
circle
and
will
Chapter
relates to
Without consider-
simply be another in a long line of
forgotten images. Analyzing an image
you take a long, careful look
out because of the familiar ( see
life.
it
standing or personal insights. The picture
o
separated with dots stand
shapes
content as
ing the image, you will not gain any under-
makes a strong
visual message.
its
you see 4).
—
at
makes
the pictures
a highly satisfying intellectual act.
Those images become a part of your general
X
knowledge of the world. You discover how
images are linked in ways that you never
1
thought of before. You become a more interesting, curious person (Figure 1.2).
CHAPTER
2
and Color
Light
One of my is
basic feelings
and
that the mind,
the heart alike
.
.
.
must
be dedicated to the glory, the magic,
and
the mystery of light. It's
Sunday morning. You barely open
early
your
You
eyelids.
see that
it
is still
dark and
quickly shut them again.
Moments
pass.
As you
in the
your
lie
somewhere
closed
eyelids
awake and
morning's darkness with
you
between
dark hallway. Not wanting to open your eyes fully just yet,
you use your hands
to feel the
wall along the hall.
When
bathroom, you
yourself for
you reach the the
first
shock of morning. You switch on the
light
steel
and instantly are
helpless:
You
are blinded
your
blinded by the light that
is
surroundings without aid from your visual
morning glow of natural
sunlight, but the
sense
asleep,
— the
feel
start to notice
of recently laundered cotton
sheets, the smell of freshly
brewed coffee from
the kitchen downstairs, the robin's song from a tree outside your
sweet taste in your of
last night's
Moments
window, and the
mouth from
the remnants
chocolate brownie dessert.
This time morning's colored glow on
prism
A
in the
making
its
first light
briefly.
casts a peach-
the white walls in your
gentle spring breeze causes the
open window
to
rainbow-colored
sway
slightly,
lights
dance
along the walls and ceiling.
Enough
rest.
awkwardly
to the
hope
that
doing so
about the time
takes to brush your teeth,
you are able
it
your reflection
stare at
mirror
in the
(Figure 2.1). Literary references
and colloquial expres-
and vision abound because
sions about light
of the importance of seeing. learn the truth, subject." If
we
we
story,
me
state
fact
on
its
say,
When we want
"Throw
on the
we
are not
we complain
in the dark."
Missouri
with, is
and proudly proclaims
car license plates.
to
light
are concerned that
"Show Me"
long,
diurnal creature. In
to face comfortably the 100-watt
"Don't keep
bathroom down the
your transition
to a
getting the full is
will hasten
from a nocturnal
now. You
to rise
You
blink your eyelids several times in the vain
bed and make your way
The time
reluctantly leave your
not the gentle
harsh, incandescent glare of artificiality.
bulb and
pass.
Again you try to open your eyelids
bedroom.
bitter-
Clarence John Laughlin,
the that
Presumably,
7
PHOTOGRAPHER
LIGHT AND COLOR
8
that occurs in
our brains. Without the stimu-
from
lus created
photon on photoreceptors
a
would not be
in the
back of the eye,
visible.
Consequently, having an understand-
ing of the nature of light objects
we
attention
vital
is
— how
and how
see
—
light
can direct our
it
image analysis and
for
Knowing both
creation.
the
and
physical
mental processes involved with
light creations
you understand why some images
will help
memorable and some
are
shapes the
it
knowledge
are
not.
make you
will help to
Such
a successful
producer of visual messages (Figure
2.2).
Where does light come from?
The use of lighting
in this
computer-generated image helps create a sense of depth in this
many
Missourians, as do
Figure 2.1
view of a chapel. The
residents of other
need to see something before they can
states,
believe
"Seeing
it.
is
believing"
is
a
common
phrase that equates truth with visual awareness.
And when
wonderful
is
it
he wants to explain
to see his
how
former lover stand-
The study of
the nature of light excited the
minds of some of the have
ever lived.
One
greatest scientists
of the
who
questions that
first
Where does light The Greek philosopher Empe-
scientists addressed was:
originate?
docles in about 500
and the Greek mathe-
B.C.
lighting effect also
communicates
ing in his Casablanca bar, Rick exclaims,
matician Euclid, 150 years
"Here's looking
light
thought that
later,
religious
meaning.
you, kid."
at
Throughout human
history, people have
been fascinated by
light. Civilizations
Figure 2.2
and celebrated the
start
See color section following
and invented gods
page 210.
gious leaders equate light with the Bible with
of each
new
prayed sunrise
that ruled the sun. Reli-
creation.
its
discovered, most were
life
and begin
When
fire
was
awed by the flames and
To know the physics and physiology of
how
light enters the eye
the brain
we
see
want tion
is
to
is
and forms images
in
much of how of how much we know and
important because
a matter
observe about the world. The connec-
between
brain has as
a
lit
subject, the eyes,
much
nature of the link as
to it
do with the
is
from
Empedocles said that the eyes were lantern" that gave light to
"like a
that could be
seen.
He
tried
unsuccessfully to prove the point by
jumping
also believed that he
Empedocles's day be-
scientists of
lieved that
all
the material in the universe
comprised four basic elements: or earth.
was a god and
into the volcanic crater of Mt. Etna.
He was
the
first
to
fire,
water, air,
assume
that the
four elements combined in various proportions to
make everything
does with our psycho-
was one of the
in the world.
receive
simply a chemical reaction
first scientists
The Greek philosopher most famous
is
all
He how
bones, blood, and flesh formed living things.
form of electromagnetic energy.
light
description,
poetic
a
physical
a natural starting point for a visual
this
But visible
In
world.
also
communication book because images life
the
in
and the
logical response.
Light
traveled outward, illuminating all the objects
Most
the ability to control them.
began in each person's eyes and
rays
thinkers in
Plato,
Western
to ask
one of the civilization,
reasoned that, as vision cannot occur in the dark, sight
between the
must be light
from inside the
a
result
of a mixing
from outside and the eyes.
When
light
the mixed-up
WHAT
were
particles
an
object
the
all
same
size,
IS
THE SPEED OF LIGHT?
9
he reasoned,
was transparent. Different-sized
particles resulted in color vision.
Abu
Mohammed
Ali
alHasan
ibn
Ign
al-Haytham, or simply Alhazen to his English wrote seven books on optics some-
friends,
time around A.D. 1000.
understand that
scientists to
in the
He was one
sun or from
from human
eyes.
fire
of the
first
light originates
and does not emit
Alhazen
largely based his
argument on commonsense observations. He simply thought
impossible for light to emit
it
from the eyes and instantly illuminate objects at great distances.
The German
Christopher Scheiner
Jesuit
proved in 1625 that carries images with
and
light enters the eye it.
He simply
slaughtered
an animal and looked from behind the beast's
He saw
eyeball.
a tiny,
upside-down version
of the scene from behind the eye.
opposite wall. Alhazen cut a small pinhole in
one wall of
his tent
and
from inside the
eclipse
safely
tent.
viewed an
He used
this
principle to study the sun and to prove that light travels in straight lines. Aristotle also
knew and wrote about
What is the speed
of light?
Later,
this
Figure 2.3 This wide-angle, low-perspective computer
image of a room contains three kinds of light
phenomenon. light
from
—
the
the incandescent
Renaissance artists used the camera bulb, light
from
the outside,
obscura to make paintings that were true to
and
Another intriguing question by
scientists curious
was
speed.
its
travel rapidly,
was
difficult.
ing in a
to be
answered
about the nature of light
They knew
must
that light
but pinpointing the exact speed
The
actual speed of light travel-
vacuum measured by modern,
phisticated
equipment
is
so-
186,282.3959 miles
per second or about 670,615,200 miles per hour. In glass, light slows a
little
to a speed of
Alhazen knew that the speed of light infinite but that
it
must be
in
water.
An
is
He when
great.
discovered that the speed slows
moves through
not also
light
important person
the history of optics and photography,
Alhazen was one of the
first scientists to
use a
camera obscura, Latin for "dark chamber," for the
A small hole room— when the
study of solar eclipses.
cut into a wall of a dark optical angles are right
down view
of the
—
projects an upside-
outside
scene and by photographic inventors
who
placed light-sensitive emulsions inside their
homemade
pinhole cameras (Figure 2.3).
Alhazen was an interesting character, to say the
least.
was born
in
An
Arabian mathematician, he
an area near present-day Basra,
Iraq. Later in his career,
he boasted that he
could construct a machine to prevent the
powerful Nile river from flooding and vastly
446,400,000 miles per hour.
scene
on the
light
from a computer
the natural linear perspective of a real-world
aid agriculture in the region.
Word about
Alhazen's boast eventually reached Egypt and the caliph
Hakim, who summoned him
build the device. Alhazen did not to build
to
know how
such a machine. Fearing the caliph's
anger, he pretended to be insane until
Hakim
died in 1021. Alhazen died in Cairo in 1038.
One
invention and one astronomical dis-
covery were needed to permit accurate mea-
surement of the speed of
light.
In 1608
Hans
Lippershey, a Dutch eyeglass maker, invented
monitor that gives birth the image.
to
LIGHT AND COLOR
10
the telescope.
He simply
put lenses inside a
hollow metal tube and noticed that faraway objects appeared to be larger with this device. to the
He immediately
government
ment. Galileo, an
same year
offered his invention
by
for use
its
born
Italian
and made
within 2.5 miles per second of the actual velocity.
1564 (the
in
Particles or waves?
telescope
description. Galileo declined to
its
A
third mystery of light
view advancing armies through the optical
composed of individual
device. Instead, he turned his attention to the
ly
stars in the night sky
and became famous. In
1609 he discovered the planet Jupiter and
moons. Because of
bunked the
his
discoveries,
and
idea that the sun
revolved around the Earth idea originally proposed
by the equally famous Polish laus Copernicus.
Galileo
heretic
a
its
its
years earlier
Nico-
him
for
his
Without knowing
it,
Using Galileo's discovery of
famous work on first
scientific
would not behave
in
1675.
moons
Jupiter,
Roemer noticed
the planet.
some of
that
of Jupiter were visible at varying
times, depending
on how
close Earth
Roemer assumed
was
to
that the twenty-
two-minute time difference between when one of Jupiter's moons was
visible
and when
was hidden was the time required
In
with the speed of
—
less
light as
light
those in water.
must
it
waves
and
his
between
the
Earth
Jupiter.
proposing such an incredible velocity.
can to win
a
Nobel Prize
first
Ameri-
for science, devel-
He set up rapidly rotating mirrors at a known distance from each other and reflected a beam of light from one to the other. Using a much more
oped an accurate measuring
tool.
having no hole. The
a simple
must be
He then
a series
through
a
directed that
second hole in anothit
on
a third
light traveling
board
through
the two small holes caused interference pat-
effect
the exact
a
board and projected
same
and
In 1926 Albert Michelson, the
through
for light
132,000 miles per
know
shaft of light
light
light to travel
small hole in a board.
er
discovered that
Young conducted
He allowed
between the
Nevertheless, most people of his day ridiculed for
that,
must be composed of waves similar to
terns
than the actual measurement
because Roemer did not
him
line,
particles;
Thomas Young
1803
it
He came up
Jupiter to reach the Earth.
distance
He reasoned
called the light particles corpuscles
of waves.
second
light
such a manner. Newton
puted a close approximation of the speed of
from
work on
be composed of individual
experiment to show that
the
gravity, he pro-
because light travels in a straight
Olaus Roemer, a Danish astronomer, com-
light in
Newton was an
water. Sir Isaac
Opticks, published in 1704.
Galileo contributed
more accurate estimate of the speed of
light.
actual-
is
idea the corpuscular theory.
troubles.
to a
is
it
proponent of the particle theory. Be-
duced the
scientist
jailed
early
planets
Religious leaders branded
and
on
ripples
sides his
an
was whether
particles or
a series of waves similar to the effect of
he de-
— supporting
some 50
light to
war depart-
own
his
he measured the speed of
scientists,
as Shakespeare), heard of Lipper-
shey's invention
based on
new
exact timing device than available to previous
light waves.
see this
by standing in shallow water on a
sunny day. Looking down will see
You can
waves of
at
your
light colliding
feet
you
with each
other, creating similar interference patterns
on the bottom. Many
scientists
Young's explanation because observation.
fit
In fact,
Young was
cized so intensely for questioning that his medical
quently, he
scientific
Newton's view
However,
mained dominant.
it
supported
re-
criti-
Newton
practice declined. Conse-
abandoned
his studies of light to
avoid economic disaster. Finally in 1900
Max
Planck theorized that
both the particle and the wave theories de-
OTHER FORMS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
German
scribe light energy. Planck, a
known
cist
work
his
for
physi-
the study of
in
thermodynamics, discovered that energy actually
a discrete package he called quanta.
is
These individual packets photons.
When
photons behaved indepen-
Newton's
dently, they acted like cles.
light parti-
But when they combined to form pack-
ets of energy,
Other
how
this proc-
Prize
showing
for
that
when he moved
the thermometer
beyond the
visible spec-
trum, he found a different temperature.
concluded correctly that
He
must have com-
light
ponents that humans cannot
Conse-
see.
quently, other researchers started to experi-
ment with
and made
his finding
own
their
startling discoveries.
One
worked. In 1905 Albert Einstein
Nobel
the
that
past the red color,
they became energy waves.
scientists explained
ess actually
won
were called
later
was
II
of the greatest scientific discoveries
pertaining to light
came from
Scottish scien-
James Clerk Maxwell. He also
tist
figure
history of photography
the
in
key
a
is
— he
color film process in 1861
Planck's idea of energy was correct. In 1913
invented the
Danish physicist Neils Bohr explained why
(described in Chapter 12). In that
Planck's theory about the nature of light,
he made his most important finding. Until
both as particles and waves, was correct. Bohr
Maxwell's time, scientists had assumed that
showed how photons
the energy forces of magnetism and electrici-
interact with the elec-
make up atoms.
trons that
more than
their
If
they become excited. After this increase,
energy
atoms absorb
normal amount of energy, initial
energy
they drop back to their original
level.
This process of increasing and
first
came from
ty
How
are quite different. pull of
come from
of light energy
excites photons. electric
bulb
than 4,500°
is
F.
(photons).
Heat also
The tungsten metal
coil in
an
heated by electricity to more
Because photons from the
could the curious
magnets on a metal object and
merous atoms eventually produces dles
easy to under-
is
stand because, on the face of it, the two forces
ning during an intense
bun-
year,
separate sources. Widespread
acceptance of such a view
decreasing the atomic energy levels for nutiny
same
electrical
same energy
the
light-
storm ever
Maxwell
force?
proposed that the forces of magnetism and electricity actually
the into
a
were one and the same, for
time unifying two separate forces
first
single
He
theory.
called
new
this
entire range of visible light are excited, the
combination of energy forces electromagne-
filament gives off white
tism.
light.
Through experimentation with mag-
nets and electricity, Maxwell
magnetic
Other forms of
the
electromagnetic energy
tion,
field in a
same speed
vacuum
as light.
he concluded that
showed
that a
travels at
about
From
light
is
this observa-
simply another
form of an electromagnetic wave. There were more mysteries to solve about light.
In
1800 William Herschel discovered
with a thermometer that the
contained
spectrum
light
more than could be
seen.
He
discovered infrared radiation by projecting
conclusion
were
true,
it
If
would
such a explain
Herschel's discovery of energy waves past the visible light
spectrum and might lead
to other
such electromagnetic energy discoveries. Sure enough, in 1888
German
physicist
the colors of the visual spectrum through a
Heinrich Hertz discovered another form of
prism onto a sheet of white paper. Curious to
electromagnetic energy that could travel over
find out
whether each color had
temperature, he
one color
moved
to the next.
its
own
a thermometer from
Each color did possess a
separate temperature, but
more
intriguing
long distances. waves, they
Originally
now are known
called
Hertzian
as radio waves.
By
1895 Guglielmo Marconi was using the newly discovered waves to send radio transmissions
LIGHT AND COLOR
12
The Electromagnetic Spectrum From H
left
Color
to right the wavelength increases
V
O
Cosmic Rays
«
X Rays
V
E
E
t i
O .
cians throughout recorded history have at-
h-
z
O
E
G
Various philosophers, scientists, and physi-
tempted
1
f
was born
totle
Visible
Micro-
AM
Light
waves
Waves
to explain the nature
The
B.C.
in
Macedonia
Ultraviolet
Rays
TV/FM Waves
Infrared
Waves
the
in the year
— he was the Great — thought
that light
names
same
official tutor
different
for the
384
and teacher of
great philosopher
kings
Gamma
of color. Aris-
of Alexander
and color were
visual
phenome-
non. Technically, he would have been correct
had he stopped of
slows
to right the frequency
lieved that
the colors were sim-
all
and white. He
ply mixtures of black
left
man
he continued writing, recording
letters,
that he thought that
From
But being a
at that point.
also be-
something transparent between an
and the eyes caused the sensation of
object color.
Figure 2.4
over a mile. In 1901 he sent a radio broadcast
Electromagnetic spectrum
across
charts in most textbooks are
know
crowded with numerical
full
information that forgotten.
Only
is
quickly
the essential
that
many
now
Ocean. Scientists
the Atlantic
different
waves comprise the
Much
later,
electromagnetic spectrum. In 1895 Wil-
nature of color. Based on his observations of
helm Roentgen discovered electromagnetic
the natural world, he thought that six pri-
energy outside the range of light that humans
mary
colors
green,
and
could
—
rays. the
placement of the
various forms of energy
and
the connection between
see.
These
fields
were
later called
X
For example, red noticeable color.
is
It
the most
makes an
Using the rays to discover hidden views
of the
human body
discovered
gy
levels.
— white, blue —
in length.
and
the
slowest frequency of all other colors.
The
on
tolor stays
photoreceptor
Gamma
AM
riders because
longest wavelength
radio waves can be several miles
waves, but he died before he had a chance to realize the
importance of his finding. Then in
1905 Albert Einstein explained the photocaused by ultraviolet radiation,
red,
He came
existed.
yellow, to this
colors were wholly independent
Da
and unique.
Vinci believed that, by mixing these six
colors in varying degrees,
all
the other colors
capable of being seen by a normal
human
eye
could be created. His interest and theories on the mixing of
came
colors
directly
from
his experience as
one of the great masters of painting. Although be
all
the colors desired by painters can
made by mixing
those six color pigments
together in varying degrees, this property of paints doesn't explain
how
colored lights are
the
for retina longer than
rays are 10 million times
Hertz also discovered ultraviolet
electric effect cells in
different electromag-
black,
conclusion simply by reasoning that the six
smaller than the visible light wavelengths,
whereas
has the
many
netic sources having extremely different ener-
excellent choice for bicycle it
proved to be a major
medical breakthrough. Subsequently, scientists
wavelength and frequency.
more accurate theory of the
proposed a
elements are presented here
Leonardo da Vinci, with no
laboratory experimentation to back his claim,
any
which he won the Nobel
Prize. Fluores-
mixed. Colored pigments and colored
lights
other.
cent lamps use ultraviolet energy to produce their lighting effect.
The lamps
mercury vapor and argon electrical charge, the
are filled with
gas.
Under
a
mercury vapor gives
low off
nonvisible ultraviolet energy that causes an inside coating of
phosphor
radiation strikes
(Figure 2.4).
it
to
glow when
mix
to
form color
in vastly different ways.
Colored pigments absorb some
light
wave-
lengths and reflect others; the eye sees the reflected or rejected color of
an object.
When
colored lights are mixed, their wavelengths
combine tion
is
to create a
new
color. This distinc-
the basis for the terms sidbtractive color
COLOR
and additive
for paints
color for light (dis-
1666
Newton proved where
Sir Isaac
He used one
colored light originates.
rooms of
his
of the
own
Newton
light.
camera obscura when
live-in
he covered the windows of the room except for a small hole that allowed a
He
light to enter.
its
narrow
shaft of
directed this ray of light
onto a glass prism that the sun into
dominant color theory
three-component
the white light of
split
colorful components. That
to explain
how
the eye
physically sees color.
Young and Helmholtz maintained
mother's house for his famous
experiment on the nature of created his
as the
theory or the trichromatic theory, became the
cussed in Chapter 4). In
known
theory, also
13
that
there are three different kinds of photoreceptors
in the eye with each
one
sensitive to a particular color. tion, they reasoned,
is
specifically
Color percep-
a result of
mixing
and blue once the photoreceptors
green,
stimulated.
The mixing of
basis for color
the colors
photography and color
is
red,
are
the
televi-
Young- Helmholtz theory does
prisms could achieve this effect was well
sion, but the
known, but Newton
not explain every aspect of color perception.
tried
He
never been attempted. light
something that had let
a sliver of yellow
pass through a second prism, which
emitted only yellow
light. Later,
he
let all
colors pass through the second prism,
Newton had proved
re-created white light. that colors
from the
came from
the
which
the light
and not
itself
glass object (Figure 2.5).
Newton
energy
level
now know
that the length
see colored light.
wave
is
and
of the electromagnetic wave-
length determine whether the
measured
The wavelength of is
amount of experi-
inspired a large
Scientists
human
eye can
The length of an energy in parts per millimeters.
the visible light spectrum
only about 0.0003 millimeters, or 300
nanometers, wide. The entire electromagnetic
mentation on the mixing of various colors to
spectrum
produce other
the eyes therefore
is
nanometers on the
visible light portion of the
colors. Scientists
ered that three colors
— could be mixed
colors. Nevertheless,
sisted that colors
—
and blue
red, green,
produce
to
soon discov
some
were a
all
the other
scientists
still
result of the
in-
German
poet lohann Wolfgang
von Goethe strongly advocated lian view.
this Aristote-
But without accurate experimental
procedures, Goethe could not support his theories
and they were eventually discounted.
Thomas Young was the first to link color and the human eye. In 1801 he suggested that the eye
must be composed of three
light-sensitive materials so that
perceive color.
German
different
humans could
Hermann von Helmholtz,
physiologist
and
physicist,
a
further
refined Young's ideas.
Helmholtz was the
first scientist
to
mea-
sure the speed of the nerve impulses within the nervous system.
ophthalmoscope to
examine the
—
He
also
a device
eye.
only from 400 to 700
electromagnetic spectrum. Blue shows up on the visible
spectrum
at
about 430 nano-
mixing
of light and dark shades and not from mixing colored lights.
sensitive to the photoreceptors in
invented the
used by doctors
The Young- Helmholtz
Figure 2.5
"Newton Analyzing
the
Ray
of Light." Within a
darkened room of
his
mother's house, Sir Isaac
Newton color
discovered that
comes from sunlight
and not from environment.
objects in
an
— LIGHT AND COLOR
14
more yellow
Figure 2.6
to turn
For those who long for the
yellow the cornea, the
numbers missing from the
green colors will be seen.
chart,
some
are provided
here. Again, this graphic
grasp
at first,
Color
is
there
light,
no
is
color.
an object, Every
color.
atoms that respond
contains
object
difficult to
do not contain
a result of light striking
and without
shows that red has a longer
objects
blue and
less likely
Although the concept may be
electromagnetic spectrum
The more
as they age.
to
a
wavelength than the other
wavelength of
certain colors.
The
thicknesses of the
horizontal columns have no
meaning other than attract attention.
to
Dye pigments
light.
achieve their color by absorbing, or subtractmeters, green has a wavelength that starts at
ing, certain parts of the
spectrum and
reflect-
about 530 nanometers, and red has a wave-
ing, or transmitting, the parts that
length beginning at 560 nanometers (Figure
The
2.6).
of light, however, colors are created by add-
A
highly energetic color
wavelength
how
frequency
— does
not
a high
indicate
quickly the eye will notice the color.
Violet, with
its
high frequency,
is
considered
be the most active color, whereas red, with
to
a
— one with
low frequency,
for the
human
ble color,
and red
Because of
the least active color. Yet,
is
eye, violet
is
the most noticeable color.
is
long wavelength and quick
its
recognition by the eye, red lights, stop signs,
likely to
who
St.
are
Many
atten-
people assume
more
be caught by the police for speeding is
more
recent study by a
noticeable.
Howev-
newspaper reporter
in
Petersburg, Florida, revealed that red cars
no more
susceptible to speed traps than
any other automobile. Nevertheless, bicycle riders
and runners should wear bright red
clothing,
which
is
much more
than, for example, blue outfits. that the eye notices red
more
noticeable
The reason easily
is
not
because there are more red-sensitive cones in the retina.
The reason
is
that the cornea
is
colored yellow to protect the eye from harmful ultraviolet rays.
Yellow absorbs the shorter
wavelengths of blue and green and
lets
the
longer wavelength of red pass through to the retina.
ing, in
Older adults often have trouble seeing
blue and green objects because corneas tend
varying degrees, different amounts of
A
green, and blue light.
red,
remain.
the one seen. In the case
is
red dress
is
perceived as being red because the atoms
within the dye subtract
the other wave-
all
made
lengths and reflect only red. But a dress
up of red-colored
were such a
light (if there
fashion creation) appears to be red because
the red
wavelength interacts directly
light
with the red-sensitive cones in the eye.
When
used for signal
drive red sports cars are
because that color er, a
is
and other warning or
tion-getting purposes. that those
the least noticea-
reflected color
you look
recently polished apple, that the apple
apple
and it
is
all
coating of a
at the red
you naturally think
must be
In reality, the
red.
An
every color except red. other objects
can and
— absorbs
reflects the colors
The photoreceptors rejected color.
wavelengths
amounts, the
cannot absorb.
an object
colors
human
the colors
in the eye pick
When
of
it
all
apple
reflects all
nearly
in
up the
equal
eye perceives that object
as white. If an object absorbs
all
the wave-
lengths in equal proportions, reflecting none, it
is
perceived as black.
The daytime sky
appears blue because the volatile short wavelengths of the color blue are easily scattered
by the few dust and gas molecules
morning or
early afternoon sky. But because
of the relatively clean slower
red
air,
the longer and
wavelengths are not scattered.
Later in the day
when
the sun
is
low on the
horizon, sunlight must travel through
more dust
in the
particles in the air.
many
The longer
COLOR
wavelengths become scattered as the molecules hit is
more pollutants
in the air.
months
effect
many photog-
the golden sunset favored by
raphers. For
The
after the volcanic erup-
Mt. Pinatubo in the Philip-
tion in 1991 of
pines, those living
along the West Coast of
the United States were treated to spectacular
sunsets because of
all
the ash particles in the
air that scattered the long, red
wavelengths.
Color has three characteristics:
and brightness (discussed
value, 4).
Chroma,
color. Scientifically speaking,
Value, or saturation,
the
is
of the
the differ-
amount of
and weak dilutions
of a color have a low value. Brightness
amount ject.
in
and brightness can
value,
of colors.
lions
is
the
of light emitted from a colored ob-
Subtle changes
a
chroma,
color's
yield literally mil-
human
However, the
between
150 and 200 of the millions of
However,
artists,
decorators
name
with colors every day
may know hundreds of names resident of Ireland may have words
150 colors.
house painters, and interior
who work
for colors.
A
more
several
to describe the country's "forty shades
of green" than a resident of Saudi Arabia
where there
names
is
less vegetation.
As
Look
sophisticated
teal blue,
They
and orange.
demand
a marketing ploy, these colors
more
at the
for colors in a child's crayon box.
are not simply blue, red, green,
naming schemes, such
as
wild strawberry, jungle green, and
vivid tangerine.
Naming
colors
is
a
way of
seeing slight differences in the lightness or
brightness of a color. But in
knowing
some
cultures,
the differences in color hues isn't
important.
When
our
lan-
contained words for white and
first
As humans learned
that color differ-
ences could warn of poisonous
they
fruits,
added words that described the colors red and
common
most
yellow, the
plant colors. But
other colors not considered vital for survival Jale in
Guinea have no word that describes the
Nyakundu
color green.
in Swahili
word
means
that
recently
refer to
the color blue, aoi, only
was included
ously, the
can
The Japanese
the colors brown, yellow, or red.
word had
in that language. Previ-
referred to a
wide range
of colors from green to violet. Blue was one of the
last
named because
colors to be
there are
few poisonous blue flowers. Furthermore, people did not see the blue-colored sky as a threat, so
it
did not need to be named.
You might argue
because cultures
that,
color doesn't exist for them. In a way, that's true: is
A
color that
became
aware of differences in colors, they started to
A
not noticed.
color that
is
not
named
color that
is
is
a color that
overlooked
is
a
not considered by the higher
is
functions of the brain, so the color might as well not exist.
When
there
is
a need to
specific color, as in the case of
name ties
will
an
know
a
artist, a
be supplied. The physical proper-
of the eyes allow a
human
to see
hundreds
of possible colors. Unless the brain processes the color through a
naming system,
a person
does not consciously discriminate the color (although a part of the visual
more known
unnamed
field)
from the
colors. In Huxley's terms, the
color
sensed, but
is
selected or perceived. Luckily,
it
is
never
humans do not
consider every possible color because brain protects
itself
Pity the poor soul
color seen earliest ancestors first
Thus primitive
have no word to describe a specific color, the
most people can distinguish
possible colors but can't
black.
eye
cannot detect the minute differences. Physically,
guages
of day and
New
color concentration. Strong concentrations of a color have a high value,
the darkness of night.
light
Chapter
ence in wavelengths between individual colors.
was between the
split
were not named. The tribespeople of
in
is
it
obvious
The most
chroma,
name
or hue, refers to the
associate words with tint variations.
15
and had
the
from over-stimulation.
who
little
could
room
any other thought. Color,
name
every
in the brain for
therefore,
is
not a
property of the thing being seen. Color
is
a
LIGHT AND COLOR
16
make-up contained
combination oflight being received by the eye
as
and processed
ly killed their
in the brain.
The
wearers.
color purple often
Many
dignity or sadness.
Sociological uses of color
toxic metals that slow-
is
associated with
artistic
people say
that they prefer purple to the other colors.
Egyptians wore a purple necklace to thwart
The most obvious
quality oflight
Most anthropologists agree
is its
color.
that the first pur-
adversity.
Confucius reportedly hated the
pose of color vision in early humans was to
between
distinguish
foods are bright in
purpose of color has become
color. But the
much more. Color
is
complex property of
a
adds immensely to the satisfaction
light that
humans
and harmful
helpful
Many poisonous
plants.
receive
when looking
the world.
at
Color attracts attention to a particular detail like
go
no other
movie, note the
to a
credits
Good
most of the
movie
title
list
Next time you
of tightly packed
the end of previews of
at
attractions.
color
visual attribute.
coming
graphic designers usually text in white
technique makes the
name
Baby boys are dressed color
Such
a
of the film, an
lived.
evil spirits.
Some
same reason
—
ents
to
ward
medical cures, and personality revelations. is
sign of an enthusiastic person.
ence to color personality.
loved
An
indiffer-
a trait of an introspective
is
ancient
In
color that
topped with the
A
considered to be a
Egypt,
women
so
they used green powder
glitter
obtained by crushing
beetles for eye shadow, black paint as lipstick,
red
rouge for their cheeks, blue paint to
outline the veins of their breasts, gold paint to coat their nipples, and a reddish called
henna
to stain their fingers
But Egyptian
women
brown dye and
feet.
did not use color
merely to brighten their complexions. Color
had
social
that the
meaning. Red fingernails signaled
woman
considered herself to be a
member of the highest social class. Unfortunately, many of the paints and powders used
them from
off the evil eye. Par-
once draped blue and
violet
stones
around children's necks because they associated the colors with virtue
hoped
parents
that the
and
their children
and
The
faith.
gods would protect
at the
same time make
them obedient. Green
is
who are An emer-
a favorite color of those
outgoing and have large appetites.
and ingenuity,
ald green connotes versatility
behavior. Green stones
general love for color
color suppos-
adults wear blue for the
off the screen at you.
ors have been associated with magical spells,
The
edly gives boys power and protects
whereas a grayish green
col-
because the
in blue
important marketing feature, appear to jump
Throughout recorded history various
color.
with the color of the
associated
is
sky — where the gods
and make the
a strikingly different color.
However, the Chinese philosopher
worn around
were thought to promote is
signifies
fertility.
deceitful
the neck
Green
also
Many
believed to have a calming effect.
backstage waiting rooms in theaters are called
"greenrooms" because of the color of
their
painted walls. Jaundice has long been considered a condition that can be cured through exposure to sunlight.
For
many
mistakenly thought color
years,
that
however, people the
sun's
yellow
was the curative agent. Consequently, to
combat jaundice yellow
turnips
in
Germany,
patients ate
and wore gold coins and
saffron clothing. Russian physicians
wealthy patients wear necklaces
had
made
their
of gold
beads. In England, victims of the disease were forced to eat yellow spiders rolled in butter.
Red colored objects supposedly
many medical
ailments. In Ireland
relieved
and Russia
red flannel clothing was believed to be a
remedy
for
the scarlet
fever.
Red woolen
SOCIOLOGICAL USES OF COLOR
Cultural heritage, training, and personal
blankets were applied to a sprained ankle in
and
Scotland, to a sore throat in Ireland,
prevent
fever
in
Macedonia.
To
to
prevent
smallpox, the physician to
Edward
II
manded
that the king's entire
room be
paint-
ed
To prevent the
red.
disease, red light
scars caused
was used
in
de-
by the
Denmark. Red
17
experiences give colors special meanings not
An average person red. An anthropologist
shared by everyone.
sees
the color red as
sees
red as a
A
tion.
power symbol
for
an ancient
civiliza-
psychologist sees red as a clue to a
An
patient's personality.
artist sees red as
one
stones were often used to treat any disease.
of a hundred different red-hued solutions to a
Some
painting's composition. Again, the
people
still
believe that an injury such
as a black eye should
be covered immediately
know
with a blood-red, raw steak. The Japanese
color
thought that the color red overcame night-
its
mares.
The Chinese
child's hair to
baby
girls in
claimed that flowers. is
tied a red ribbon to a
promote long
life.
Parents dress
pink because a European legend girls
were born inside
Many people believe
that a
little
pink
room
that
painted pink will calm children, whether
girls
or boys.
the
—
all
more you colors
see.
— but
meaning (Figure
more you
The eye
sees the
the brain interprets Figure 2.7
2.7).
Color as a basic perceptual cue that the brain responds to (along with form, depth,
and movement) and the way color
is
used in
the media are discussed in Chapter 4.
See color section following
page 210.
CHAPTER
A
fool sees not the
tree that a
wise
same
man
3
the Retina, and the Brain The
Eye,
sees.
William Blake,
POET
Historic eyes
tribe taught the
younger ones to watch out
weak or broken
Study your
see?
You
generation after generation of tree-dwelling
see ancient, prehistoric
animals were born and adapted to that envi-
eyes. In fact, the configuration of
two eyes
in the front of the head, protected by a layer of
branches. Eventually,
moment.
eyes in a mirror for a
What do you
tree
for
set
ronment.
heavy
surrounding bone, and sending their
For any species to evolve genetically into a slightly different species takes
about a million
dual images to a brain that fuses the double
years. For
view into a
least
equivalent to 40,000 generations. Within 20
During the Paleocene epoch, about 65
brave creatures decided to climb out of their
single,
coherent picture
is at
50 million years old.
humans,
million years after those
million years ago, our early ancestors grew
earth-bound
tired of being easy prey for faster predators.
es
Some
Why
of them
came up with a great idea:
not climb up into high trees where the
swift, but
earth-bound beasts could not reach
them? As some took followed
to
the trees, others
3.1). Many climbed too and fell to their deaths. Many
(Figure
high, slipped,
a million years
tried the treetops but decided to take their
chances back on the forest floor and were
first
is
creative
habitat, startling genetic
had taken place
roughly
chang-
in their bodies.
Living in trees required that vision play an essential
role in
physical survival. Because
seeing what was to the front was
important than what was to the enlarged and
The
skull
moved
much more
sides, the eyes
to the front of the head.
around the eyes also enlarged
Climbing from branch
to
branch required
sophisticated spatial judging abilities.
newfound
life-style
two
their leafy
kingdom. Older members of
18
to survive in
their
to
protect the sensitive, newly vital organs.
soon eaten. But many others stuck with their
and learned
and
eyes,
slightly
With
apart, yet their separate
images made whole by an increasingly
intelli-
HISTORIC EYES
human
gent brain, this binocular vision gave these
the contemporary
mammals depth
adapted to the requirements of
perception.
After 800,000 generations of living in the
sun-soaked tree limbs, fearing, nocturnal
these
early
night-
mammals changed
to day-
age.
19
nevertheless has its
modern
Such complex and unanticipated evolu-
tionary skills as driving a car or piloting an
way
airplane are possible only because of the
loving, diurnal creatures that were able to
the eye and brain function together to control
distinguish between slight variations in light
the rest of the body.
However,
wavelength frequencies. In other words, they
the
adaptation
greatest
over
could see colors. Although they had no for-
countless millennia, isn't binocular or color
mal way of communicating
vision but the concept of sensual
their color prefer-
many of the
ences, they taught each other that
most poisonous plants were brightly colored, color
that
could
plants were ripe
determine
enough
to
when eat,
edible
and
that
That
cy.
humans can
is,
redundan-
learn about the world
through a variety of senses, so each individual sense does not have to be extremely sensitive.
Because the senses of hearing, smell, touch,
predators and dinner possibilities often were
taste,
brightly colored.
does not have to occupy a huge amount of
Over countless generations, modern hu-
mans
eventually emerged from these tree-
dwelling animals. the
same brain
Our
size,
Ice
Age ancestors had
shape, and functions as
and
sight all
work
The can
tell
skin of a snake
miles away.
evolutionary
time changes, the 50,000-year-old
life
span of
so sensitive that
a degree in heat temperature.
an animal as small as
to
is
it
the difference of three thousandths of
minuscule
comparison
one
brain capacity as in other animals.
the reader of this line of text. Although in
together, each
If
a
Hawks can
mouse from
our senses were that
we would have
little
room
in
see
three
sensitive,
our brain
for
Figure 3.1
Moving from trees
had
where the
it
the
ground
was a
added
to
bit safer
benefit of
improving eyesight after thousands of generations.
THE
20
EYE,
THE RETINA, AND THE BRAIN
We
anything but sensory information. be like the snake and hawk
—
would
able to feel
and
see extraordinarily well but not able to proc-
and
ess
much
store
see well
to
modern
to survive in a complicated,
make
sense of
all.
it
lesson of human physiology
much
is
An
important
that seeing
a function of the brain as
is
it
your eye
If
is
as
is
a func-
tion of the eye.
lamp
the
is
good, your body
eyes are described
down men
like a
searchlight."
Despite the analogies provided by poets, the eye
is
simply an instrument that collects
and focuses
light
the
eye has been compared to for focusing
drawings" on
film.
prising because
of the
to the rear surface
it
eyeball. Since the invention of the
mechanism
Windows to the soul
eye
of light." In a scene from The
full
"eyes that run up and
as,
world and give our brains enough mental activity to
be
will
"The
in the Bible writes,
Women, Joan Crawford's
other information.
Redundant senses allow us
enough
thew
of the body.
camera, simple
its
and capturing
This analogy
"light
sur-
isn't
knowledge of the physical
workings of the eye helped in the camera's
An
understanding of the basic components of
the eye, the retina, and the brain
because these
models
many
for
Figure 3.2
make
See color section following
Cameras
page 210.
compared
still
or motion picture photographic process are
parts are used as
housed within a protective box or carrying
visible
(Figure 3.2).
and video images often
are
Computers
can
to the eyes.
that
case; the eye
the skull.
A
is
protected by an outgrowth of
solution to clean the glass elements of the lens
from dust and smudges; the eye has lens-cleaning system with
an eye often are used to explain the inner
shutter regulates the
human mind.
More than 70 receptors in the
percent of
human body
all
exposed to the sensory
are in the eyes.
Hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching take a backseat, percent.
combining
When lovers engage
for the other
light;
that vision
is
opening that
lets light
pupil performs the In
an
is
same function
in the eye.
and motion picture photography,
as
with the eye, the lens focuses the outside
shut out distracting visual messages the eyes
chamber. In photography,
to concentrate their
is
enter the camera; the
image
They want
The
film
The aperture
ate kisses, they often close their eyelids to
give them.
salty tears.
amount of time
possible.
30
still
its
a built-in
the eyelids open and shut so
all
in long, passion-
drop of
visual artist often uses a
process thousands of commands in a blink of
workings of the
still
important
is
of the machines used to
more
the world for
body
vital
development. The essential parts of the
back of the dark
to a point at the
light-sensitive
a sheet of thin,
emulsion records the picture,
photoreceptors in the back of the eye
sensory receptors on the lover's soft sighs, the
as
aroma of hair and
process the light rays. Photographers process
mouth, and the
feel
the taste of the
skin,
of caresses. As Leonardo
da Vinci once wrote, "The sense which
is
and print
mans
their images in a
nearest to the organ of perception functions
cortex region of the brain.
most quickly, and
ence between the
the leader of
The artists
all
this
is
the eye, the chief,
that of
other senses."
eyes are a source of
wonder
and
are
writers.
They
a
for
both
source of
insight about the owner's personality
and
a
source of inspiration for poetic descriptions.
Even though no literature
is filled
light shines
from the
eyes,
with such references. Mat-
when
darkroom; hu-
process their images within the visual
still,
film,
human and
The major
differ-
visual system
televised images
the eyes are open, the picture
is
is
and that
contin-
uous. Moving, mediated images actually are a series of still pictures strung together to give
the illusion of motion.
Humans
with a normal
field
of vision can
comfortably see about 90 degrees to the
left
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE
and 90 degrees
and about 80
to the right
up and 80 degrees down. The eye-
degrees
21
Parts of the
brows and nose obstruct part of the vertical view.
The
field
of vision
divided into three
is
sections: the foveal, the macular, and the
peripheral fields. ble for the
The
most acutely focused
Under normal
eye.
foveal field
responsi-
is
detail in the
conditions,
lighting
it
brings objects into the sharpest focus possible
and analyze
so that the brain can concentrate
the visual image.
The
foveal field, however,
optic nerve
represents only a 2 degree angle of coverage.
Consequently, the object under scrutiny by the foveal field
"e" on
is
about the size of the
letter
Under lower
light-
this printed page.
macular
ing conditions, the eye uses the
approximately actual size
... field, situated
on both
move your
low
in
You must con-
eyes directly off an object
light in order to see
it
when
rooted in nerve
is
is
will cause the eyelids to close immediately.
there
By turning your head
slightly,
you move the image onto the macular
The
eign matter. Each eyelash
for-
however, the next-door macular
does.
field
because the
and other
catchers. Eyelashes filter dust
cells so sensitive that the tiniest piece of dust
foveal field doesn't function little light;
outside edge of the eye
is
field.
the peripheral
The
eyelids also will close reflexively to pro-
tect
the nerve system from a threatening
movement, an object
that
comes too
Figure 3.3
The
gestalt
An
tects the it
is
evolutionary holdover that pro-
body from
possibly harmful actions,
the least developed
field.
does not see colors
field
much
objects with to slight jects.
clarity,
The
well,
but
peripheral
cannot see is
sensitive
movements by other people or ob-
Patients with degenerative peripheral
vision slowly lose the capacity to see in
dim
loud noise.
When
this infographic (see 5).
The gray boxes
top
and bottom
is
a
Each eye
sits
in
an orbit surrounded by seven
of the skull's bones as a plate of armor to further protect
it.
tains fatty tissue
The
orbit or socket
ing
the
eyes
exposes the central
behind the eye that helps to
cushion the eye when
produce
nervous
Humans
human
body can such
Conse-
quently,
many
protective measures are built
into the eye system.
Hairy eyebrows act as sunshades and
—
perhaps our
animals that
The
tears to clear
and moisten
are the only animals
first
live in
the air
their eyes.
who
cry.
layer of the eyeball itself
tough, protective
membrane
About 80 percent of the
is
a
called the sclera.
eyeball
is
composed
of this tissue (Figure 3.3). grit
and
center.
link the
shift the
The cornea
is
As with
a tough, transparent layer
the shape of
the eye, the viewer
is
purposefully led around a circle pattern.
Note the
slight indentation
foveal area.
hit.
blink about once every
Blinking washes the eyes with
toric earth. All
Open-
system directly. Nowhere else in the a condition be created.
con-
when we were amphibious animals swimming in the salty seas of prehis-
parts acting in unison to achieve sight.
at the
viewer's attention to the
of the
The dent means
that this spot, where vision is
most acute, contains no
cells in
link to the time
complex system of various body
Chapter
the eyelids are shut, the soft
soothing, slightly salty tears
The eye
at work in
close to
part of the eyes are waterproof and air tight.
five seconds.
Physiology of the eye
is
the eyes, a blinding flash of light, or a sudden
Humans normally
light.
law of
continuation
headlines field.
i
sides of the foveal field,
to see less detailed objects.
sciously
3^
2
1
be viewed as being more closely
twenty
related than a third person standing
yards from the couple. Similarly, the fact that
®
the two circles seen on the Martian artifact are near each other
the four laws of gestalt
sion that they
would lead
to the conclu-
form some meaningful associa-
tion (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.1
elements or forms into various groups. Dis-
This infographic
crete elements within a scene are
is
itself
a
demonstration of the four gestalt laws
—
the symbols at
the left are separated by the
words at the right because of
combined
and understood by the brain through of four laws of grouping: ty,
a series
The law of similari-
the law of proximity, the law of continua-
tion,
and the law of
common
fate
(Figure
The law of continuation principle, again gists, that
the brain does not prefer sudden or
unusual changes
movement
in the
In other words, the brain seeks as possible
a
of a line.
much
smooth continuation of a
(Figure 5.4).
5.1).
on the
rests
assumed by Gestalt psycholo-
The
line
can be a line
as
line
in the
their similar nature, their
The law of
similarity states that, given a
traditional sense of the word, as in a drawing,
proximity, their linkages,
choice
and
their directions.
by the brain, you
simplest and
most
stable
will
form
select
the
to concentrate
or several objects placed together that form a line.
Objects viewed as belonging to a contin-
be mentally separated from
on. This law stresses the importance of basic
uous
shapes in the form of squares, circles, and
other objects that are not a part of that line.
triangles.
The law of continuation
Imagine yourself as an astronaut exploring
line will
that are partially blocked
the surface of Mars. Suddenly you are con-
object. For example,
fronted by an artifact half-buried in the red
circle
dust.
Assume
bicycle,
that this object
is
a ten-speed
5.5).
Without identifying
A
it
is
a bicycle.
the parts of the object as handle bars, seat,
by
a
foreground
your mind will close the
shape of the Martian
artifact
even
if
a
boulder partially blocks your view (Figure
although for this exercise you have no
idea that
also refers to objects
fourth law of Gestalt psychology
law of
common
fate.
A
viewer
is
the
mentally
SENSUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
/V7ac/f is
Accent
back
—
55
Figure 5.2 (left) sort
of.
Sports/B1.
The law of similarity.
Gazette
Ink spots
Self-rule nears
play an
as
Israel
this
recognizes
PLO
encore
In
newspaper feature page
layout, the top
and middle
illustrations are linked
their
by
wedge shapes.
Testimony ends
^
in Hinckley Twp policeman's tria
r
m
HI
Figure 5.3 (right)
The law of proximity. The story
and photographs from
President Bill Clinton's
appearance are linked on this
front page because of
their proximity.
X
First-time director
3* Veterans' efforts to aid Amish grow out of concern for others
Gibson
i
feels like an expectant father
groups
arrows or
five
i^J
ing to the sky because they
same
An
direction.
hands point-
five raised
point in the
all
arrow or a hand pointed
The law of continuation. reader
is
graphically prodded
in the opposite direction will create tension,
from one apple
because the viewer will not see
next by the implied
the upwardly directed whole. the law of lated to
common
fate are
it
as part of
The elements of more
closely re-
movement of
recipe to the
the curved line
of fruit on the right-hand
time than any of the elements of the side of this feature page.
other laws. Holiday lights that run along the length of a house travel from
left
to right over
a period of time. This light illusion sets
colored bulbs apart from a strand of non-
blinking lights covering a nearby bush (Figure 5.6).
One to
of the
explain
figure
first
the
uses of the gestalt laws was
phenomenon
and ground
spatial patterns (in paint-
ing and photography, called positive space). For figure
is
negative and
and ground
terns the crucial question was:
know what
of reversible
How
in the foreground
pat-
do we
and what
belongs in the background of an image? This
A
56
THE SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
question
is
related directly to the important
need of the brain to far in order to
Figure 5.5
One of the most known
well
optical illusions
is
Two
lines
of equal
length appear to be different
and
ground patterns by drawing an object
that
lengths because of the
and the
— you
effect.
The
Orientation:
(Figure 5.8).
object's shape influences it
a vertical or horizontal shape
We
objects
most
Rubin also outlined the principle of cam-
tion
see
shape,
will
often be a figure.
ouflage in which there
Symmetry:
as a part of the figure
More than any other
or the ground.
background (ground or negative space)
because the outward arrows
continue the horizontal
An
our perception of
in the foreground (figure or positive space) or in the
we view those mean-
of the image.
identify objects within a visual field as being
length of the second line
to famil-
must make a
based on the gestalt laws, that help
brain naturally extends the
pay more attention
than to those we cannot dis-
ingful objects as being in the foreground
vase in the drawing. Rubin identified five
may
We
cern. Consequently,
and factors,
help explain the
Meaning:
conscious decision whether to see a face or a
inward arrows. The gestalt
law of continuation
once
to the total visual field as fig-
iar objects
the retina. However, the brain cannot see at
see shapes that are small in area
ures.
vase images are stimulating photoreceptors in
images
We
compared
could be interpreted as either a face or vase
both addition of outward
Area:
psychologist, experimented with figure
view objects that exhibit
often than to those with inward forms.
1915, Edgar Rubin, a Danish Gestalt
(Figure 5.7). Sensually, both the face
called the Muller-Lyer illusion.
judge their relative importance
or danger. In
We
Convexity:
shapes that curve outward as figures more
label objects as near or
is little
or no separa-
between the foreground and the back-
have a
that
ground.
Understanding and manipulating
balanced or symmetrical orientation as this trait of visual perception led directly to
direction.
foreground objects. military applications of merging the colors of
uniforms and equipment with those of sur-
Figure 5.6
The law of common
fate.
Accent
rounding backgrounds in order
linked graphically by their
upward
direction.
them.
This principle also influenced the work of
Besides their similar shapes, the two cola bottles are
to hide
a C ear |
artists
M.
whom
were influenced by the writings and
C. Escher and Paul Klee, both of
findings of several Gestalt psychologists.
Winner
The
strength of the gestalt theory of visual
perception
is
its
attention to the individual
forms that make up a picture's content. analysis of
trating in
an image should
on those forms
an
all
color, form, depth,
are basic characteristics of
image that the brain
teaches a visual
by concen-
start
that naturally appear
any picture. Recall that
and movement
Any
Gestalt
notices.
communicator
to
combine
With Crystal
Pepsi and Tab
elements
those
basic
whole.
The approach
into
a
meaningful
Cleat as the main participants, the
new
round ol cola wars promises a whole
to
have
different
artist to
also teaches the graphic
focus attention on certain elements
flavor
by playing against the ple, a
gestalt laws.
For exam-
company's logo (or trademark)
will
be
Reinventing the mill wheel
noticed in an advertisement ilar
if it
has a dissim-
shape, size, or location in relation to the
other elements in the layout.
SENSUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
The main that
it
is
sidewalk communicates sadness, not through
account for cultural influences.
an inner storehouse of familiarity with that
criticism of the gestalt theory
fails to
German philosophy believing
of
properties
physiological
has a long tradition of
and
metaphysical
the
in
human data
psychology.
innate
Without
support their work,
to
gestalt theorists nonetheless
concluded that
recognizing good shapes and arrangements
within a composition of the brain.
And
nizes basic forms
is
an evolutionary
although the
and
personal insights and
mind
trait
recog-
patterns, such a func-
tion cannot explain the
way
individuals gain
meaning from mediat-
ed visual messages.
philosophy leads to
meaning
—
gestalt's
most serious
a
visual work.
influences have
little
no
According to
to use
its
who
psychologist Jean
Piaget emphasized the importance of learned
behavior in a child's growth. after the
development of the
Coming
gestalt
long
approach,
his findings suggested that visual perception
must be that
a
combination of the visual elements
make up
a
scene and the symbolic
meaning of those elements. The is
excellent at describing
gestalt the-
the patterns
concerned with visual perception, but
offers
it
no explanations other than innate properties of the brain in describing ties
become meaningful.
how
those proper-
Nevertheless, the
theories that help explain the inner workings
memory of past
stored
images in interpreting an image. For him, a depressed person
The work of educational
bearing on finding the
that visual perception takes place too quickly
mind
movements.
Gestalt psychologists inspired several related
meaning of an image. Wertheimer believed for the
herent in the walk: slumped back and slow
and cultur-
gestalt theorists, past experiences al
German
that a person's culture conveys
for
emotion, but with the graphic elements in-
ory
Ironically, the cultural heritage of
criticism
57
walks along a crowded
of the
human mind
as
The work of gestalt that
the
brain
is
a
it
see
As you concentrate on
the
white area of a variation of the popular Peter
Goblet
and Paul
illusion, the
cup
becomes the foreground figure. Stare at the black
and
shapes
the faces will
appear.
studies an image.
theorists clearly
powerful
classifies visual material
What we
Figure 5.7
shows
organ
that
in discrete groups.
when looking
at a picture is
Figure 5.8
Edgar Rubin used the laws
to
about
gestalt
draw conclusions
how foregrounds and
backgrounds are identified
—
leading to camouflage clothing. In this photograph,
the symmetrical shape, the
curved form, the familiar sidbject,
and
the vertical
orientation help identify the
model and not the shadow as the foreground (or positive) shape.
1
THE SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
58
ly give
meaning
several
Gestalt
to
an image. Consequently, attempted
psychologists
to
develop theories that helped explain the im-
own
portance of the viewer's
mental
state
during active viewing. 1970, Julian Hochberg, a professor of
In
psychology the
that
quick the
they scan an image. These
as
fixations
focal
combine within
all
memory
short-term
viewer's
build a mental picture of a scene.
constructs fixations
whole
found
University,
of observers are constantly
eyes
motion
in
Columbia
at
the scene with the
that
help
to
The viewer
short-lived
mind combines
eye
into
a
picture.
Hochberg
had
use
subjects
his
eye-
tracking machines in his visual perception
experiments. These devices can chart the way Figure 5.9
The
approach
gestalt
maintains that the "whole different
from
the
modified by what we have seen in the past
a
and what we want
region of the eye
to see (Figure 5.9).
sum of its
(Chapter
Constructivism
an image. Because the foveal
The
gestalt
describing
approach had been criticized for perceptions
than
rather
a
is
tiny area,
in order to
the eye
maintain focus
Eye- tracking machines simply
3).
made obvious
parts." This advertising
montage
at
constantly moves
is
photograph, which uses a
viewer looks
the
eyes'
frenetic
journey
across a direct or mediated image.
Look magazine editors used eye-camera
giving
effect to create
explanations of how these perceptions actual-
studies to determine
how
readers looked at
excitement in the viewer's stories
mind about
the motorcycle,
EYE-TRAC Cables conflea
A
such study, 100
women
In
one
were connected to an
RESEARCH
demonstrates that philosophy.
and individual photographs.
image
single
camera
cs
eye-camera machine that registered where
TESTING
1
'
electron'
lo tr>e
and
Eye
for
how
long the eyes focused on a
V«v» Monitor
would be viewer
difficult
for a
to interpret,
contsol unil (not
»|
-
1
but
man's
is
More
clear.
at
the
face 31.65 percent of the time; the least
noticed feature was the man's
taken as a whole, the
meaning
man. The women looked
picture of a
Pupil monitor
;
recently, Dr.
left
hand.
Mario Garcia and Dr.
Pegie Stark of the Poynter Institute for Media
Studies in
Figure 5.10 In this
modern
Hochberg
* 1
Julian
setup, researchers
The leadei sat
urt\
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ear-
VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS,
94
Figure 6.10
complained
The epitome of sensational
in
journalism practices
famous
1920s
is
Daily
this
in the
secretly
Hearst replied with the
to draw,
line,
"You furnish the
pictures;
When
made
the
of sensational journalism to
practice
of excess.
levels
new
The New York Daily Graphic
and Daily News used
I'll
graphic photo-
large,
graphs and screaming headlines to interest
furnish the war."
News
front page. Photographer
Tom Howard
Cuba
was no war
to Hearst that there
AND JOURNALISM
American
battleship
Maine
customers standing before newsstands. Vio-
ex-
ploded in Havana harbor in 1897, the news-
lence, sex,
papers aroused public opinion against Spain,
game.
and crime confessions were
When
all fair
photographs could not be taken
three, slightly blurred
despite evidence that
members of
exposures during the
accidentally set off the explosion. execution of Ruth Snyder.
The heavily retouched image all the
is
its
more shocking by
large size
and
— an
\
'I
!l.
1 .357.556 1,193.297
reenactment of crimes or
N'.i.
17:1
*
for
information about the
.';
trials.
graph of Ruth Snyder on the
through propagandized newspaper ac-
This period
electric chair
"DEAD!" Tom How-
counts, turned against the Spanish govern-
with the large headline,
ment, making war in Cuba inevitable.
ard strapped a camera to his leg and secretly
made
NEW YORK'S
'
Y..H..
J^PiCrURE NEWSPAPER
Kn.l..
~
-
EDITION
the
picture
at
moment
the
of her
execution for the killing of her husband.
DAILYJ NEWS extra /•
office
culminated in the shocking full-page photo-
Tabloid newspapers in the 1920s raised the
-
personnel to stage manage the
monetary rewards
exclamation mark.
Sundjf.
composograph was used along with models
and
ion,
headline with a seldom used
Ojily.
The news-
papers used emotional headlines and large
incident to incite their readers. Public opin-
boldface
typographic symbol
of the actual subjects of a news story, the
the crew
The
newspaper sold 250,000 copies and then sold
an additional 750,000 copies from
j
I41
DEAD/
a subse-
quent press run (Figure 6.10).
Emergence of Objective Reporting
The New
York Times demonstrated a better
war
of Spanish-American
side
1896 by Adolph
reporting.
Ochs, a former
Bought
in
printer
from Tennessee, the paper was de-
S.
signed for well-educated readers tired of the tactics
used by the yellow journalists. Ochs
directed his reporters
and
illustrators to pro-
duce credible and balanced
stories
and
pic-
tures.
Embryonic objective reporting survived the onslaught of sensationalism. Investigative journalists such as Ida Steffens, the
and
Tarbell
and Lincoln
"muckrakers," used undercover
other investigative techniques to report
objectively business tion.
M.
and government corrup-
But not until the depression in the
1930s did objectivity in reporting become
common. By the 1930s and 1940s, E
UQ
ing,
with
its
objective report-
emphasis on the inverted pyra-
mid writing formula (who, what, why, where, when, and how), became important
in the
coverage of spot news and political, economic,
and foreign
affairs.
The
inverted pyramid
VISUAL PERSUASION IN IOURNALISM
style
95
of reporting, in which the important
photographic projects, particularly those of
the beginning of a story
the Farm Security Administration (FSA), high-
covered
facts are
actually
at
was invented shortly
after the tele-
lighted the use of
still
and moving images. the Great
graph came into widespread use. Reporters
They were used
who used
Depression was a dire economic time for
the "lightning lines" were afraid
that their transmissions
might suddenly be
disconnected, so they loaded the start of their stories
with
way of
Objective reporting was viewed as a
maintaining credibility by providing a buffer
between readers and the public relations
government and corporate
forts of
The
to be enacted. Life
effective use of
and Look magazines
replaced by television (see Chapter 12).
ef-
Television's Contribution
interests
and
techniques. Opinion pieces by editors
that controversial legis-
during the 1930s and 1940s would soon be
The new medium of
with their hidden motives and persuasive
columnists started to appear on
had
photojournalism in
the essential facts.
all
many Americans and lation
prove that
to
separate
first test
as a reliable
during the search
television failed
news source
for
in the 1950s
communists
pages away from news stories so that readers
ca.
was virtually unknown beyond
policy pronouncements and interpretations. Editorial
and
pictures.
On
broadcast on television and reported in news-
the one hand, editors and
His unsubstantiated reports about
papers.
was
increasing newspaper credibility and
overcoming negative reactions
to yellow jour-
the other hand, publishers saw
way of playing
it
safe
and not
officials
McCarthy showed
Murrow
one reporter remarked, "reporters with
as
their
disgust
in
first
—
brains knocked out." To help overcome that
objectivity
preexisting
degree in photojournalism in
might have
first
the country.
In
1945,
the National
Press
Photographers Association was formed to increase professionalism
among
its
and
ethical concerns
members.
it
man when new
he stated his His honest
era in reporting. For
time, the notion of complete reporter
stereotype, in 1942 the University of Missouri offered the
easily
CBS journalist Edward
broadcast report.
a
outburst marked a the
how
put an end to the wild ranting of
that mean-spirited
Most had been viewed,
the media
could be manipulated.
rated stories.
professional.
ties
of the American public of the "Red menace."
R.
Photographers also attempted to become
with communist
a fascinating story, illuminating the fear
upsetting advertisers with emotional, exagge-
more
fact that
wanting objective words
way of
objectivity as a
home
an unsuspecting public believed whatever was
government
On
his
he discovered the simple
state until
reporters advocated objective reporting as a
nalism.
Ameri-
dif-
and corporate personnel had
ferent reasons for
in
Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin
would not confuse
objective reporting with
its
a
frame of mind that ignored
beliefs
and
— was shown
biases to
a
all
journalist
be unrealistic and
dishonest.
Consequently, liberally educated and socially
conscious reporters became freer to
question government policies and actions.
Nevertheless, as a reaction to the photo-
During the Vietnam War and the Watergate
and
on
graphic sensationalism of yellow journalism,
scandal,
pictures began to have less significance in
CBS's "Sixty Minutes," reporters entered a
newspapers. Space reserved for images be-
new phase
came smaller and based on
Repro-
fenders of the public and not concerned with
duction of the images, rarely a top priority for
the economic consequences of their reports.
publishers, didn't improve. pression,
however,
set sizes.
During the de-
government-sponsored
in the investigative reports
in journalism:
Investigative reporting
They became
de-
teams sprang up in
newspapers and television around the coun-
1
96
Figure 6.
Two
try
1
different images
Left:
of war:
Eddie Adams's Pulitzer
Prize image
is
the type of
and corporate at
would rather the public not
on abuses by government
report
to
students
stories
were crowded
who wanted
and for
Media departments
officials.
universities
stein
picture military officials
see.
VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS, AND JOURNALISM
Bob the
to
emulate Carl Bern-
Woodward's Washington
Adams and Huynh Cong
Many media
critics
young
with
Watergate
reporters
do not come from
tradition.
There
its
products are simply
cogs in the wheel of advertising to help drive the economy.
Impact of Advertising
powerful
and
By 1900, newspapers had become enor-
have said
muckraking
on
"Sixty
Minutes"
(Figure
that the photograph helped
Vietnam War. Right:
mously successful business operations. Chain ownership further strengthened the financial
6.11). turn public opinion against the
growing sense that mass
a
communication and
images from Vietnam, and Mike Wallace's social historians
journalism
Eddie
Post,
Ut's
is
a
But
it
was a short-lived phase. The public
turned conservative and the country encoun-
powerful
of
base
publishers.
viewed newspapers as a powerful
Advertisers
medium
"Air force footage of first
tered economically uncertain times.
bombing of Iraqi
concerned that a media report might cause
for advertising in
the closing of a plant or layoffs has
$300 million. By 1909, they had jumped
headquarters.
''
air force
For the
first
time in the history of warfare, viewers at
could watch
home
live television
pictures of air strikes against
enemy forces during
sympathy
for a reporter's claim of
war against
little
freedom of
individual
sales
sales of advertising increased. Publishers
quo. Government and corporate public
beginning to
tions
rela-
personnel have largely succeeded in
newspapers should
realize that
serve advertisers
were
and not the
public.
the
management. Media
In
the
1920s,
advertisers
began to be
Iraq.
salaries
nose-mounted video cameras broadcast images of targeted
until the screens
and
to $1
partners in the continuation of the status
school enrollments have declined along with
home
Subscription
billion.
U.S. newspapers was
all
were slowly diminishing in importance as
"Smart bombs" with
buildings to
selling their products. In 1890, expenditures
the press. Today, the media are seen as useful
their attempts at press allied
A person
for
viewers
went blank
editors
and career opportunities. Managing
now
hire business school graduates as
reporters for their specialized
knowledge of
corporate and economic issues and part-time writers
and
illustrators to avoid
paying ex-
after the explosion of the
pensive health and retirement benefits. Ethi-
missile.
cal considerations often take a
back seat
if
concerned about the tabloid's excessive sensationalism.
the
They
lowest
generally believed that only
members of
much buying power stories.
— were
Consequently,
moving away from
— without
attracted by such
publishers
started
sensational reporting to
follow the lead of the
hoped
society
New
York Times.
that wealthier individuals
They
would read
VISUAL PERSUASION IN PUBLIC RELATIONS
the papers
and make the publications more
In the 1940s, advertising occupied about
55 percent of the space in newspapers. Today
and
represents 65 percent
creased advertising editorial space.
means
And
news story and
less
that remaining space
when
driven information
considered.
is
national newspaper
cerned with their
Television
is
public-relations
images and limit
clients'
them.
journalists' access to
growing. In-
is
even more precious
The
has exploded. Consequently, public relations
personnel for celebrities are particularly con-
attractive to advertisers.
it
97
program
directors are pressured
moments
to put dramatic
at
the end of an
segment so that the viewer
editorial
watching when
commercial
the
will be
appears.
Long, complicated stories don't work well on
USA Today was
because a viewer might change
television
introduced in 1982 to great fanfare. Part of
channels. Similarly, images should be dra-
the media's attention to the newspaper was
matic and emotional to rivet the viewer to the
map
colorful weather
its large,
whole page
(see
Chapter
10). Its color repro-
duction generally was ahead of
and
nically
time tech-
its
many newspapers
influenced
around the country
that filled a
to use color. But the color
photographs and graphic elements weren't intended
necessarily
be
to
a
how
beautiful their ads could look in
newspapers. Modular design techniques, col-
and
orful photographs,
were aimed
stories
at
the
short, easily readable
attracting readers
by
The
ads).
docudramas
station
local
cases)
with the promise of involved
people
real"
at
news
scenes, long police car chases video-
taped from a pursuing helicopter, "reality-
crime shows
based"
participate (and
some
members
actions by
which journalists
in
say glorify) intrusive
of the police, and crime
reenactments are becoming the
than the exception. Shows such as
used to create an upscale look so that adver-
Affair," "Inside Edition,"
see that the publication was,
according to media
good environment editorial
critic
Fred Ritchin, "a
advertising."
for
When
photographs become advertisements
for the publication in order to attract advertisers, stage
managing, reenactment, and sub-
and electronic touch-up manipulations
ject
become acceptable
(see
Chapter
Feature stories and special fashion, food, lifestyles,
sections
and other
topics
newspapers and televised reports. These
news stories are designed
who can tised.
afford to
Accompanying
this trend
es.
star
makes
is
is
soft
consumers
promoted
if
and "Hard Copy," titles,
regu-
the type of stories once the
province of supermarket tabloids. As eco-
nomic pressures become
become
ing dollars
nalism mentality
greater
and
scarcer, the tabloid jour-
— the
idea
that
can be aired as long as there a part of
advertis-
is
anything video
mainstream journalism
practice (see Chapter 14) (Figure 6.12).
In
a
1993 speech to broadcasters,
journalist for
their
Dan Rather tentative,
criticized all
CBS
networks
corporate-driven
news
philosophy:
the rise in
which every move a
documented with imag-
Entertainment and gossip news, particu-
larly
feature
larly
fill
buy the products adver-
celebrity journalism, in
famous
to attract
on
norm rather "A Current
with their double entendre sexual
becomes
12).
the
To keep ratings high, dramatic "live" shots
resemble television programs. Pictures were
would
in
tragedy during the local newscast.
showing them how much newspapers could
tisers
promote
will
that re-create sensational events
murder
(often
"seeing the
journalistic
achievement. Color was used to show advertisers
content of the program (to get ready to watch
a report includes details
about the personal problems of a celebrity,
Too often
we have answered
for too long
to
the worst, not the best, within ourselves and
within our audiences.
.
the ratings' sake, don't
—
certainly not
.
.
For heaven's and
make anybody mad
anybody
that you're cover-
Figure 6.12 Print
and
journalists often are
cial
criticized for traveling in
er.
"THE END.
reads,
After a
AIDS and
its
so-
stigma, David Kirby could fight no long-
As
his father, sister
and niece stood by
in
anguish, the 32-year-old founder and leader
packs when covering the
New
magazine
in Life
three-year struggle against
television
news. Here,
AND JOURNALISM
VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS,
98
of the Stafford, Ohio,
York City
his life slipping away.
AIDS foundation
felt
David whispered, 'I'm
television reporters follow a
took
ready,'
labored
a
then
breath,
suc-
witness after his appearance
cumbed." in the highly publicized
tax
The
evasion trial of hotel queen
cutline for the Benetton ad reads,
"United Colors of Benetton."
Leona Helmsley.
The words
in the
magazine are meant
Life
emotions,
and
especially not the mayor, the gover-
nor, the senator, the President or
anybody
a position of power.
Make
This has become the
new mantra.
in
nice, not news.
to stir the reader's
and love
about
reader
educate the
to
family's courage ing,
journalism context of
for
a
each other, and
perhaps to persuade the reader to do some-
AIDS
thing tangible about the
words are
in the advertising context for
meant
The
crisis.
Benetton
to sell sweaters.
David Brinkley once said that "objectivity is
impossible to a
human
being." Agreeing,
A new form
of communication?
John Merrill writes, "Reporters are not mindsoulless
less,
automatons
who roam
Photography
Vicki Goldberg
critic
made
the
about intriguing point that the Benetton campaign
without ences.
.
.
They have
.
and
opinions,
values,
prefer-
may
be the
example of
first
new informa-
a
their prejudices, their
tion source. Emotional, editorial images pubbiases, their values." Reporters learn in jour-
lished in the
mass media without any cutline
nalism school, from their peers, and by their information attract attention and curiosity by
own
experiences the ethics that guide their their ambiguousness.
reporting decisions. Objectivity
way
to
make
is
public that
is
read-
ing fewer newspapers and believing fewer sure that
news reports
are fair,
broadcasts," accurate,
"A
touted as a
and complete. Unfortunately,
porters seldom hear
how
she
writes
in
the
New
York
re-
Times, "might begin to swallow tiny doses of
corporate concerns
information between the ads for liquor and
contrive to manipulate the content of their lingerie."
words and
tures, a rate
To
get
any details about the pic-
pictures. Skepticism about corpo-
person must hear of them by word of
motives in an era of shrinking budgets
and
mouth, read about them layoffs
is
often
a
story
idea
that
sources, or simply
beginning journalist cannot afford to men-
make them
communication process tion to the city editor or
in
other media
a
is
up. Such a
one way of con-
news producer. structing
a
transcultural,
transglobal,
and
translanguage information source by which individuals are able to
BACK TO DAVID KIRBY
based on their
need
Look
at
the Benetton advertisement of David
Kirby on his deathbed surrounded by family
members one more
time.
The
original cutline
for
media
own
make
sense of pictures
experiences without the
interpretation. Benetton has
introduced the world to a visual, nonverbal
mode
of communication.
The
idea of presenting visual images by
BACK TO DAVID KIR BY
form of communication simply be-
themselves, without cutline information, has
effective
been a mainstay of television images since
cause they
its
99
are.
beginning. Although voice-over announcers give the viewer a
pictures
the
few general details about the
and graphics
name
of the person speaking, most of the
images are unexplained. Viewers
own assumptions
their
seeing.
Persuasion:
A
life
and death
issue
that usually identify
must make
about what they are
Hence misleading,
incorrect,
and
bi-
Before assigning nothing but positive motives
magazine, take a look
to the editors of Life
what
else
is
at
on the page with the Kirby family
(Figure 6.13). Therese Frare's black
on
and white
ased information can easily be passed to the
image
viewer without the viewer's knowledge. Add-
black border framed by a thin, white rule.
ing in-depth, newspaperlike cutlines in voice-
The
cutline
overs or as graphic elements
The
text
television's interest to
is
costly.
It is
in
keep the images ambig-
is
is
a double-page spread inside a
is
lower
at the
left
of the picture.
printed in white and set inside a
black box. But stuck between the two pages
uous because the industry has conditioned
attached between the image of Kirby and his
viewers to accept television as a passive medi-
father
um. A.dding words
on the
to the pictures simply
would be too much work
for
"couch pota-
it
tising
does nothing
else,
the Benetton adver-
campaign reminds us of the power of
television to influence all other media.
may come when newspaper
editors
television's practice of presenting little
left
verbal
accompaniment.
journalism, as
To prevent
it,
If
it
A time adopt
images with does, print
we know it, will cease to exist. we must always assert that
words and pictures used equally are the most
page and his
right page
—
is
sister
and niece
a cheery, white insert
printed with colorful holiday graphics and
photographs.
toes." If
on the
It
a
is
promotion
to get the
reader to subscribe to the magazine. "Give the gift that shows you care
..."
reads, "all year long. Give LIFE."
turn the
little
card over
it
the copy
When
you
reads, next to the
crying face of David Kirby's father, "With
LIFE your holiday shopping's cept, of course,
if
you are dead. Advertising
and journalism merge and
a snap." Ex-
insensitive way.
in a shockingly ironic
Figure 6.13 See color section following
page 210.
CHAPTER
Whether
wrong
.
.
is
.
right or
imagination
7
Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes
shaped by the
pictures seen ....
the Media
in
Consequently, they can lead to stereotypes that are hard to shake.
For many, Labor Day marks the end of the Walter Lippmann,
WRITER
summer
season.
It is
a holiday that recognizes
the transition between lazy days
and the
ation
of a
start
full
new
of relax-
season
of
Lest the viewer forget the reason for
are interspersed with filmed spots about
and people
productivity for students and workers alike.
We
As
chemicals in
that last picnic, last stroll along a
dive
last
into
a
pool begin
pleasant memories,
to
or
trail,
fade
many Americans
into settle
entertainment segments
this excitement, the
research
afflicted
money
to
mixing
doctors talking pas-
test tubes,
camera of the need
further
MD
with the disease.
see scientists in white lab coats
sionately into the
all
their
for
more
research,
and
their televi-
wheelchair-bound children being pushed to
and watch the Jerry Lewis Muscular
their next physical therapy session. Parents of
(MDA)
telethon, the
these children talk with tears in their eyes
annual fund-raising program that has be-
about the shock of learning of their child's
into a comfortable chair, turn
sion sets,
Dystrophy Association
come a The
staple of the
medium
telethon
throwback
vaudeville.
is
a
The show
high-kicking, ironic
on
(Figure 7.1).
performers,
an
number considering that many of those
benefiting from the telethon cannot walk.
Lewis, with his professional
backed black
hair,
charm and
slick-
introduces each subse-
quent performance, from comedians to singers,
with the same
the
many hours he
7.2).
100
level
Muscular dystrophy
to the age of
usually begins with
tap-dancing
illness.
of enthusiasm, despite
has been awake (Figure
inherited
diseases
a
is
that
affect
for the French neurologist
Guillaume
1868.
The
first
age 4
muscles
Duchenne,
Duchenne, who in
the
called
and serious form of
named
for several
The most common
attached to the skeleton.
MD
name
first
Duchenne
is
described the condition
MD
affects
only boys.
sign of the disease appears at about
when
a child begins to
have trouble
walking. By age 10, the child must use a wheelchair. As the disease progresses,
all
the
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA
101
muscles eventually are affected, almost always
Figure 7.1
causing death by age 30. Without doubt,
Jerry Lewis
Duchenne
MD
is
but the disease
tragic,
results in only
rare.
It
male
births, affecting
is
right.
30 cases per 100,000
1993
some 30,000
families in
sible for
there
is
no
MDA
all
of
telethon, his
he
luxury Rolls
Royce automobile
causing the disease has been identi-
fied, as yet
doing
Before the start of his
steps out
the United States. Although the gene respon-
is
in front
of
a Las Vegas casino.
cure.
The Muscular Dystrophy Association has been
criticized
because most of the
money
raised by the telethon goes to support other
fund-raising events while
MDA
receive salaries as high as
$300,000 a year.
But to the organization's credit,
money
worldwide ple, in
Figure 7.2
has given
it
and
to further research
executives
The 1993
to sponsor
scientific conferences.
MDA
telethon
began with an ironic
For exam-
opening sequence. For a
1986 a $5 million research grant led to fund-raiser that purportedly
the discovery of the gene dystrophin that helps
many who must
use
produces a potentially life-saving muscle pro-
The organization
tein.
also provides
wheelchairs to get around,
some
curiously chose to start the
funds for equipment and services to patients.
program with an
The more than 40 other kinds of neuromuscular diseases do not receive
as
emotional publicity because they are less severe
than Duchenne
life-threatening forms of
MD.
These
and extremities,
MD
patients aided by
physical therapy can lead long, productive lives,
some with and some without
the use of
wheelchairs. Nevertheless, the public's stereotypical perception, is
that
chairs
MD
promoted by the
telethon,
victims always must use wheel-
and always die prematurely.
Filmed segments or cut-aways to a local station's activities usually
end with emotional
monologues from Lewis. These gies
Las Vegas-style routine.
less
males and females. Despite numbness in the face
high-kicking, ta p-dan cing
much much
MD can affect both
and
fashion to Lewis. Lewis hoots with joy
announces that the check has
the audience applauds, and the camera in
to
reveal
message (Figure
7.3). Lewis, with tears
flash,
zooms
numbers of the
electronic tote board high above the stage as
new total. The Jerry Lewis/MDA
it
registers a
for viewers to
disease,
introduction, the child nervously recites a
the dancing
and
number
a
"followed by lots of zeros." The lights
"Jerry's
brief
check in true public relations
delivers a
tearful eulo-
of the small stage by an adult. After an
MD,
video about the company's fight against
almost always are accompanied by a sick
child in a wheelchair being rolled to the front
be entertained, to
Kids"
who
and perhaps
are
is
a chance
feel
sorry for
telethon
afflicted
to contribute
with the
money
in
the hope of finding a cure.
But for other individuals, the Labor telecast
is
a source of dread
ment. For those
who
Day
and embarrass-
use wheelchairs, the
an annual reminder of
how main-
welling in his eyes, delivers an emotional
telecast
appeal for money. At the end of his perfor-
stream media sources communicate stereo-
mance, a spokesperson
for a large corporation
walks on stage, introduces a slickly produced
energetic,
typical
is
attitudes,
even for a good cause.
Wheelchair-bound individuals
aren't seen as
it
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA
102
rest
of us. At times, you seem to understand.
You
talk
What
about our right to
means
that
equipment
jobs,
is
like
ple
—
with dignity.
and
access to schools
computers and vans,
attendants and respect. responsible for
live
all this.
The
MDA
can't be
But misleading peo-
potential employers, potential spouses,
and even newly disabled people who don't
know any
better
— only works
against these
goals.
Your pity campaign
no matter how many mil-
destructive, that lions
you
raise,
means.
Why
to fight
our
so dispiriting, so
is
the ends do not justify the
not wield your sizable influence
real
enemies?
What
caps us most are the obstacles
and
financial
al,
truly handi-
— —
architectur-
attitudinal
erected
by
others.
Stereotyping generally Figure 7.3
active,
As 1993 poster
child
Lance
Fallon looks offstage, Jerry
Lewis makes an emotional pitch for viewers to
contribute to the
MDA
while every five seconds a
new message
They
independent,
are
viewed as helpless and
— and can
fragile indi-
In
1990,
With
Congress passed the Americans
Disabilities Act recognizing that those
the
with disabilities face prejudice and discrimi-
viewer picks up the telephone and pledges a
nation that prevent them from equal partici-
donation.
pation
viduals to be pitied
In the late 1960s, child for the
Today he
is
New
exist
only
Ben Mattlin was York
MDA
if
a poster
organization.
married, a Harvard graduate, and
in
a free-lance writer.
He
objects to the words
The media portray
the disabled in one of
three ways: as heroes
who
have overcome
who
their cruel fates, victims of their bodies
should be pitied, or saints
who somehow cope
screen.
However, home viewers contribute only a small
percentage of the overall
Corporate sponsors
Lewis uses to characterize those
afflicted
with
the disease. Such terms as cripples, dealt a bad
hand, got
in the
wrong
offensive to Mattlin.
viewers will see those
line,
or half a person are
He is concerned that who use wheelchairs as
with their limiting physical conditions. In
media
reports, the disabled are
their efforts to
Lewis does, as victims trapped in their "steel
"Are they
most of the money during
imprisonment,"
Identity, Carol
the telethon in exchange for
part of the "dystrophic child's plight."
spots.
"confined,"
"bound,"
or
In an open letter to Jerry Lewis published in the Los Angeles Times, Mattlin wrote:
overcome or
admired
live
for
with their
physical handicap because the rest of society
doesn't expect
have already committed
promotional
employment.
including
society,
appears at the
bottom of the
total.
and normal persons.
much from them.
In her
book
selling her lips?" Advertising
es of people spite of their
and
Moog notes that "media imagwho do remarkable things in
handicaps make
it
harder for the
disabled to gain self-respect for themselves as
they are." Stereotypical coverage always reDespite your undoubtedly honorable intentions,
you are sadly misinformed about disa-
bilities.
Moreover, you are misleading the
able-bodied population while offending the
wards the exceptional and ignores the ordinary. Stereotypical characterizations are so pervasive in the print
and broadcast media and
STEREOTYPING GENERALLY
in the
movies that producers and consumers
of media messages often
much
less criticize
societal
humorous Chinese
servant,
the correct Filipino houseboy,
to recognize
— them. Media
stereotypes
the volatile Latin,
can lead
to personal
the
reinforce prejudices that
and
fail
the
103
extravagantly
romantic
Frenchman,
and
discrimination and even vio-
the hard-working, thrifty Scandinavian.
lence.
In a 1946 analysis of 198 fictional short stories in eight
popular magazines of the day.
many commonly
cultural groups were identified.
always were
Anglo
Anglo men
Whether an
individual
is
identified because
blond and handsome."
of gender, age, cultural heritage, economic
usually were characterized as
status, sexual orientation, or physical disabili-
"tall,
women
Reinforcing stereotypes with images
held stereotypes concerning
the visual message generally communicat-
"darling" southern belles. Individuals from
ty,
other ethnic groups were variously described
ed about that person often false (Figure 7.4).
as
is
misleading and
Because pictures
affect a
viewer emotionally more than words alone the amusingly ignorant Negro,
do, pictorial stereotypes often
the Italian gangster,
formed perceptions that have the weight of
the sly and shrewd Jew,
established facts. These pictures can remain
the emotional Irish,
in a person's
the primitive and backward Pole, the patronized native of a Pacific island,
When
become misin-
mind throughout
pictorial
a lifetime.
stereotypes are repeated
enough times, they become part of a
society's
Figure 7.4 Stereotypical images can be
seen in the strangest places.
Men's heads are neatly arranged but women's figures are haphazardly
placed in a mannequin supply warehouse.
104
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA
One
culture. Recall that culture describes a set of
and mutually accepted
learned define
rules
forms of communication
all
that for
a
mind
decides which objects are important, insignif-
members and
their
own
culture,
friends, educational in-
and the media. Culture
stitutions,
what we should do
to get along within
a
the process by which the
helpful,
icant,
or harmful.
is
an acknowl-
edgment of the mental process of Unfortunately, this leads
instant
to
that the
Recall
basis for Cestalt psychology
us
tells
is
selectivity.
of the brain also
trait
categorization
of people.
particular society as well as what our actions
Noticing a person's gender, age, ethnic back-
mean to others (Figure Communication is
ground, and the
share the
same
cultural
7.5).
easier
when people
meanings (speak the
same language or use the same bolism). To be successful,
visual
sym-
re-
quires mutual understanding of the symbols used.
By
like
is
perfectly natural. But
preconceived attitudes or opinions that or
may
may
not be true about that person are
learned through enculturation.
communication
(from the Latin word for commonness)
posing for the
and quickly analyzed.
period. People form attitudes about others,
family
girl
information into basic
units that can be easily Selectivity
through direct experiences, interactions with
The
to categorize visual
is
group of people during a particular time
both within and outside
Figure 7.5
of the chief functions of the brain
Media coverage and
prejudicial
thinking
definition, different cultures attrib-
photographer in a southern
ute different California neighborhood
is
representative of her age
and
social group.
toy
also
becomes an icon for the fear that
many
people have of
living in that area.
to
similar actions.
Consequently, members of one culture often
By holding a
submachine gun she
meanings
are easy to identify
nicating with a
and have trouble commu-
members of another
multicultural society,
culture. In
members of other
cultures often are stigmatized because of their inability
to
dominant
articulate
culture.
the symbols
of the
Because of the definition of news and the
need
visual
for
oriented, violence
messages is
it
leads"
is
thumb. Pulitzer
be
action-
a chief staple of print
and
and entertainment. "If
television reporting
bleeds,
to
it
an often unspoken rule of
Emmys, and Os-
Prizes,
cars are awarded to image
makers who pro-
duce dramatic pictures of ordinary persons undergoing
and viewers
extraordinary
Readers
events.
are at once repulsed
and
ed by violent acts that occur in their
attract-
commu-
nity.
By concentrating on violence
mary way
as the pri-
for people to solve their problems,
the media perpetuate negative perceptions. In
the absence of a personal basis for any other
shown shape
opinion, images that are
atti-
tudes about specific cultural groups. Because the media crave action, they favor reports of violent activity over reports of calm, "nor-
mal"
activities.
A news
outlet
that
is
community and has wide enormous impact on
its
respected in the
distribution has an
constituents. Because
the media most often substantiate existing prejudices
and because most violent
activities
occur in low-income areas, the media are
SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING
Such
therefore filled with race-related images.
stereotyping of ethnic and other groups isn't
a situation guarantees perpetuation of stereo-
a high priority
types.
the
of
Communication
study
research
who watch more
reported that people
than
four hours of television a day tend to believe
world
their
that
actually
TV
on the
the world presented
similar
is
screen.
to
The
Kerner Commission report of 1968, the Na-
same skin
when newsrooms
exhibit
all
color.
Throughout the world an estimated
A University of Pennsylvania Annenberg School
105
1
7,000
distinct cultural groups almost never receive
media attention within
their
In
societies.
Latin America, for example, 600 separate tribes live in
lowland regions alone. In the
United
some 20 million people belong
to
States,
"fringe"
so-called
religious
groups;
75
Pre-
million U.S. citizens classify themselves as
vention of Violence in 1969, the U.S. National
belonging to more than 120 separate ethnic
Commission on the Causes and
tional
Institute of Mental Health
and the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
tee, all
have concluded that the media perpetuate
racial tic
Advisory Commit-
and sexual stereotypes through simplis-
and violent news coverage and entertain-
ment programs. As media
critic
and philoso-
cultures. But the faces that in
still
photographs and moving images are
The 1990
white.
U.S. census identified this
country's four most
Of
most often appear
numerous ethnic groups.
the total of 248 million people, there are
58 million
German Americans, 38
million
pher Jacques Ellul once wrote, "The press
Irish
Americans, 32 million English Ameri-
ignores the truly poor to promote the inter-
cans,
and 23 million African Americans.
esting poor."
More
often than not, an "inter-
esting" poor person
is
one who
involved in
is
Stereotypical
media coverage manifests
it-
of either admission or omission.
also
headed the 1790
census. There are strong indications that the
number
a violent act.
self as a sin
Those same four groups
of Latinos
may
overtake the
number
of African Americans within the next 50 years. In 1992, for the first
time consumers
Media coverage of individuals
in a specific
purchased more bottles of salsa nationally
cultural group usually presents
them
than they did bottles of ketchup.
or,
most
nal
admired
for bettering themselves,
often, reviled for their violent crimi-
actions.
The
of hardworking,
stories
members of various
decent often
are
ignored.
cultural groups
Accounts of their
lives
simply are not considered to be "news." Part
of the problem
Only
5.8
is
percent of
personnel identify themselves as a
another culture.
that
all
media
Sixty-one percent of the
do not
no diverse group members
management
positions.
schools have few professors
or
if
In
addition,
in
media
any culturally diverse
students.
— those
social
structure, including the
media
—
are
the ones that control which images get seen. is
It
always to the advantage of the dominant
groups to stereotype other groups in order to
Sensitivity
to
Specific examples of
stereotyping
of
have any diverse staff members, and 92 per-
have
groups
few
member
daily newspapers in the United States
cent
cultural
with the media's
portrayals of minority groups
groups.
dominant
with the most power and influence in the
secure their dominance.
practicing journalists are from diverse cultural
The
be pitied for their terrible living
cial cases to
situations,
as spe-
the
Every form of prejudice
is
based on the
assumption that members of one group are better than false
and
members of another because of
opinions about physical, intellectual, social characteristics.
ry, various ethnic
discriminated
Throughout
histo-
and other groups have been
against
by
the
dominant
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA
106
groups in
Some groups
societies.
have man-
Irish-American stereotypes
m
aged to overcome discrimination and become a part of the
dominant
Most
societal force.
Almost any group you can think of has
tion
target of prejudice
some time
at
religious
and
—
and discrimina-
children,
and
culture
already
States to
immigrate
Americans, Latinos, city or country dwellers, people with southern accents, people with
women, and homosexuals
are
became
much
overcome
Americans,
squalor and disease were rampant. Their low social status caused personal feelings of infer-
great
strides
discrimination,
work remains lesbians
still
but
to
through alcohol and were arrested
drunkenness and initial
to be done.
face
feel
for public
fighting, the stereotype of
negative
that
drunken
Irish
person was born, with
help from editorial cartoons in publications.
women
have
much
However, gays and
"No
Irish
signs were erected next to
"Help
discrimination
Job
Need Apply" Wanted"
followed
of the Irish managed to find jobs
few others would
that
as
by potential employers.
signs
Many
government acquiescence of
discrimination and extreme prejudicial tudes
their depression
al-
end prejudice and
many
many escaped
Because
the lazy,
made
no choice but
shantytowns where
category.
good examples
and
culture.
slowly and painfully.
Early Irish immigrants had
stereotypes and discrimination against them. Jews, African Americans,
came
to live in poorly erected
Americans have managed to
and looked
active in politics,
But such advances
iority.
most completely
for
that they learned the
members of the dominant
like
of groups that have long been discriminated against. Irish
in large
and
English language, improved their economic
Brooklyn accents, and on and on until every
and African
to Irish assimilation,
mainstream culture, are
the rich, foreigners, Native Americans, Asian
Jewish,
America
freely to
United
the
in
other groups that have successfully entered
status,
Irish,
established
li-
unemployed, the poor and
own
ethnic group that were
the elderly,
berals, the homeless, the disabled, students,
person can find his or her
first
from the dominant English
different
numbers. Keys
political conservatives
professionals, the
were the
Irish
much
others have not been so successful.
been the
The
They worked
take.
atti-
by most members of the majority
and dangerous hours constructing
long, hard,
1
canals and
railroad
lines
and laboring
in
culture. Pictorial stereotypes presented in the
media of
mines and all
mills.
With employment eventual-
these cultural groups shape the ly
came
The
better living conditions.
Irish
public's perception of them.
tended to
live
communi-
together in separate
and helped each other escape poverty.
ties
They were imbued with
the positive moral
values of the Catholic church.
became adept and
at politics
both
in labor organizations.
several
major
cities
in
They soon government
By the
1930s, in
the Irish were the domi-
nant political force and helped improve living conditions for Irish.
all
residents
— not
Better jobs improved their
the
just
economic
Figure 7.6 position Irish
Americans often are
stereotyped as drunken party
animals
— an image not
and
Irish are the
tural
group
ly,
taken on
rare, except
Patrick's day.
community, and
education also aided assimilation. Today, the
erased by newspaper pictures St.
status in the
second largest identifiable cul-
in the
United
States.
Consequent-
media stereotypes of drunken
on
St.
Patrick's
Irish
day (Figure
are
7.6).
SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING
Jewish-American stereotypes
the morals of the country.
man Prejudice often
is
sparked by outward, visible
symbols that identify a person's association with a particular group. Although are based
on
and
religious teachings
a Jewish
Leo Frank, was arrested
in Georgia,
murdering
allegedly
When
107
a
young
for
an angry
girl,
mob broke into the jail and Ku Klux Klan used this
lynched him. The
The Klan
erected burning
case
to
inflame
roots
its
hatred of Jews. practices,
crosses
on the front lawns of Jewish families
persons of the Jewish culture are difficult to
and vandalized synagogues. Exclusive counidentify because the religion spans
all
country clubs
tries, races,
ly
religion
is
and housing developments
effective-
and ethnic orientations. Even the
banned Jewish
participation.
practiced by three different branch-
es of the faith
— Orthodox, Conservative, and
Jews were
media — what
thought to control the
was
shown on TV, and presented
printed,
in
Reform. As one writer noted, Jews "are peo-
who
ple
A
think of themselves as such."
prejudiced person makes judgments based on
movies.
With the discovery of the massacre of
some 6 million Jews by Nazi Germany during assumptions about physical appearances, accents, last
names, occupations, and, of course,
World War
II,
the wholesale discrimination
practiced through the
1930s declined. Be-
places of worship (Figure 7.7).
Government
cause most Jewish immigrants were highly
and ordinary
officials
citi-
skilled,
zens throughout history have used Jewish
people as scapegoats to divert attention from various economic and social problems.
The
United States has received three major waves of Jewish immigrants because of widespread
and often violent discrimination
home
countries.
discovered the
Unfortunately,
they soon
long held the Jewish people responsible for the death of Jesus without recognizing that he recently did
convocation of Catholic cardinals, Vatican
renounce that teaching. But the
Jews for
all
a II,
biblical inter-
pretation created a historical trend to
blame
the problems suffered by any
majority in a country. Cartoon drawings in
major publications characterized Jewish people
money-grubbing
as
noses
shysters with large
and funny accents.
renamed "Jew York"
in a
New
across the country racially litical
York was
cartoon published
in Life magazine. Editorials in
newspapers
denounced the assumed
motivated nationalism of Jewish po-
groups. Because
many
into
the
at a faster rate
than
other immigrant groups. However, me-
dia representations of Jewish stereotypes
still
appear. Recently, a character in the popular
program "L.A. Law" played by
comedian Shelley Berman was an obnoxious Jewish stereotype.
primary concern
popular teaching of Christianity has
relatively
— often
their
same type of discrimination
was Jewish. Only
many
television in
that they were trying to escape.
A
they quickly assimilated
dominant culture
Jews were
at-
tracted to the theatre, writers attacked Jewish
performers and producers for undermining
Money was as
the character's
he spat out Yiddish
Figure 7.7 Jewish Americans march in
New
Orleans carrying the
symbols of America,
and
their religion.
Israel,
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA
108
dialect in a
throwback
to the
extreme car-
Noah drank too much
toons of the 1930s. Such a character only
account,
serves to substantiate a prejudiced person's
wine),
view that
all
Jews have the same
Noah was
Ham
alcohol (in a nonflood
said
happened
to see his father naked.
When Noah awoke and saw
traits.
him, he promptly cursed
his son staring at
Ham
past
is
directly tied to
government-sanctioned
enslavement.
Since the early days of the slave trade, pictorial
stereotypes have been used to maintain the
dominant
culture's
Americans have faced
quently, African
mendous
in
difficulty
despite
types,
power over them. Conse-
legal,
overcoming
tre-
stereo-
economic, and social
than
is
the belief that one race
another because
person's chromosomes. plorers
came
genes
of the
When
is
the original inhabitants of Africa.
Ham
meaning of the word most
The
literal
"black." But
is
biblical scholars interpret the biblical
reference to
to indicate the black soil of the
it
delta region of the Nile River rather than skin
Nevertheless,
color.
the
myth linked
words black, Africa, and slavery
in
a
European ex-
many concluded
that Afri-
cans must not have the Europeans' mental processing abilities because African societies lacked the technological advances
common
in
Europe. Later, evolutionary theory became a scientific justification for racism,
Those with economic
better
into contact with Africans in the
sixteenth century,
with west-
trade used
the
in a socially
ing of Africans simply as animals only a few steps
up from apes and
to
become
treatment during capture, transport to the
New
World, and enslavement.
From 1619
until the
as a
way of linking
skin color to slavery. According to biblical
Ham
was the name of Noah's
second son. After a night on the ark
in
which
end of the
in 1808, millions of Africans
from
credible hardships
Ham
or ordained
eternal slaves, excused their severe
cattle
story of the curse of
gorillas,
because of a curse uttered during a hangover
ern Europeans thought to be on a higher
Prejudiced people also used the biblical
interests in the slave
these rationalizations. Think-
all
evolutionary plane than other races.
tradition,
the ancestor of
acceptable way.
reforms.
Racism
Ham became
after the flood
live in
Old Testament,
servitude. According to the
African-American history
and prophe-
would always
sied that his descendants
African-American stereotypes
have invented
to
Atlantic,
their
were herded
homes, made
on
and forced
slave trade like
to suffer in-
slave ships crossing the
to live in English, French,
and Spanish colonies
(later
southern
the
United States and Caribbean) under primi-
Although
tive living conditions (Figure 7.8).
an extremely small number of Southerners
owned
slaves,
they were the most wealthy and
politically influential persons in that culture.
Figure 7.8
As advocated by these
A
needed in order
seventeenth-century
to
individuals, slavery
the South, which might collapse
diagram of a slave ship
was
maintain the economy of if fair
wages
were paid to plantation workers. Slavery also
shows how African kidnap
was
justified to preserve the
Southern culture
victims were packed for their
from "contamination" by Africans. transatlantic journey. But
impersonal draftsmanship
cannot possibly detail the
its
Unlike other ethnic groups that immigrat-
ed voluntarily and retained their tures, African
horrors during such a
re-create their
voyage.
slave
own
cul-
Americans were not allowed
colonies.
to
own
African cultures in the
The
master-slave mentality
SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING
also
made
Thirteenth
after the
extremely difficult
assimilation
slavery following the
Amendment outlawed Civil War (Figure 7.9).
However, discrimination was rampant in
Few
the North.
in the
North had had any
Up
of racism.
Many
parents continue to pass
on
their prejudices
Americans
African
members of
and
to their children
aided by media stereotypes that portray
109
as
do
are
little
to
productive
society.
until
After the Watts riots in Los Angeles in
1860, there were over 500,000 free African
1965, political and religious leaders pointed
contact with African Americans.
Americans
been born of
own
the South.
living in free
They had
mothers, had paid for their
freedom, or had been set free by their
an accusatory finger
the nation's
at
media
for their stereotypical portrayals of African
Many
Americans.
thought that pre-
critics
owners. In the South these freed slaves had
senting African Americans only as train por-
occupations as diverse as architects and hotel
ters,
clerks.
But in the North, discrimination in
and education was much more
jobs, housing,
common and
institutionalized,
making the
sports heroes, entertainers, or criminals
contributed to the frustration that led to the violence.
Much
media had
of the criticism stated that the
failed to report responsibly
assimilation of African Americans into the
social inequalities faced
dominant culture
cans. In a University of
color helped
particularly difficult. Skin
make
identifying and isolating
them from mainstream
society easier than for
report, for example,
marked
that
on the
by African Ameri-
Washington seminar
Lawrence Schneider
"although
charged with the
other cultural groups with lighter colored
responsibility of keeping a close check
skin.
government, of rooting out
In
1896, in Plessy
v.
Ferguson, the U.S.
protecting the weak, the
re-
injustice,
American
on
and of
press
.
.
.
Supreme Court formalized segregation of the
had not discovered the problems of the Black
races. Separate
man
restroom,
railroad, facilities
come
but equal (in
meant
the
hotel,
reality,
unequal)
and educational
that discrimination
law of the land.
had be-
Despite
their
in
America, nor had
to solve the problems." sion's report
on
civil
more emphatic when
it
led in the struggle
The Kerner Commis-
disorders in 1968 was it
simply stated that
"it
unequal status in the culture, between 1899
and 1922 voluntary immigration of African and
West
Indian
people
totaled
about
Figure 7.9
150,000. Restrictive immigration laws passed
With a bust of Caesar
in 1924, however, slowed immigration to a
overhead
trickle of
only 122 Africans a year.
The Lasting Legacy of Racism
power
— Visual
—
— a symbol of a nineteenth-
century plantation owner
shocked from his reading
Stereotyping
when a nurse midwife In
Brown
preme Court
v.
Board of Education the Su-
in 1954 signaled the
of the end of legally imposed segregation. In the 1960s, Congress enacted sweeping civil rights laws,
moved
and the courts
legal barriers to equal
minorities.
relentlessly re-
opportunity of
However, 200 years of slavery
followed by 150 years of social conditioning that African
Americans are biologically
rior to other races
presents
an African-
beginning
infe-
have maintained the legacy
American baby freshly delivered by his wife. Such
images played on the fears that
many had
at
thi
about the consequences of different races socially.
mixing
is
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES
110
is
the responsibility of the news media to
undercut the stereotype. Television producers
tell
the story of race relations in America."
and reporters recognized
speeches and act ion -oriented marches and
of Urban League Executive Director Whitney
demonstrations often led to violence. They
can
He commented
that African-Ameri-
were visually stimulating and necessary to
newspapers and
hold the viewer's interest in news programs.
coverage in
pictorial
magazines "was awful,
is
better,
and has
Moreover,
to
program
get better."
Twenty-seven years
after the
Watts vio-
would
South Central Los Angeles again was
lence,
the center of a tragic firestorm.
Much
unrest following the not-guilty verdict in the
can Americans as train porters or servants
of the four Los Angeles policemen in-
Political
14).
(Figure 7.10). For example, the
and
was an ex-slave who was an
religious leaders
the 1940s, she
and possible solutions
servant
to
the catastrophe.
torial
improvement
stereotyping. Although
in
American
pictures of African
changed
in size
common
still
important for children, but the
"make
it"
in society only
a long
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"comical, " open-mouth
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intended
for a racist audience.
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Comic
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Eyes and Tongue. "De MaNigger/' Large Colored, 20c IkL Broke your Back Mania," " 80c. Entire lot for $1.00. Agent* wanted. HAPPY HOURS BAZAR, 21 Beekmao Street, N. Y.
is
no longer a
mov-
in the
presents a stereotypical pattern that con-
on sexual and violent concerned that
acts.
Many
television's situa-
comedies also continue
false
impressions
about African Americans (Figure 7.11).
a.
The media
I s
h
"
g
demn
I
I:
are quick to report
such behavior in
example, in
its
and con-
overt form. For
1992, major league baseball's
banned Marge
Schott,
owner of the Cincinnati Reds, from
baseball
| ~ Executive
Night Out, 6 very Funny. "Girls with
vg moves WH'^t'C
of African
choice). Despite a few exceptions,
critics are
|
12 cents a Set. Engaged," 8 Awful Funny.
Comic.
titles
portrayals
African-American representation
centrates
COMIC CARDS,
come
of the most
Americans ("Amos and Andy"
helped
her age.
many
they
issue of pictorial stereotypes that perpetuated Jr.,
woman
if
ies
King,
on the box.
television have
in eliminating
stereotypical
program
Luther
To reduce
presumably shares
any
blatant
tion
is
woman who
that
Figure 7.10
advertisement
way
tion in the 1960s, the press largely ignored the
Martin
her
a contemporary,
is
is
Before the enactment of civil rights legisla-
racism.
made
the manufacturer
in a corner
Aunt Jemima
gray-haired
excel in those fields.
twentieth-century
and placed
Motion pictures and
they can
this early
many and
African-American entertainment and sports is
house
In the socially
to that of a housewife.
it
Currently,
relate to
message being sent to these children
Nigger,"
to
equal social status with
sports,
heroes
Aesthetic
illiterate.
and entertainment. Having
crime,
"mammy"
a
controversy further, the picture was reduced
pictorial
more African Ameri-
cans are seen in the media, the most
excellent cook. In
used slang phrases that
was offensive
coverage in print and broadcast media little
the
conscious decade of the 1960s, the symbol
being analyzed and criticized.
Recent studies of African-American pic-
have noted
who
became
appear energetic, yet
the media's coverage of African is
woman on
box of Aunt Jemima pancake flour originally
have spoken eloquently about the causes of
Americans
"De
tuned and watch the com-
change the popular advertising image of Afri-
Once again
such as
also stay
they
violence,
for the civil
Chapter
and
and
controversy
mercials.
volved in the arrest of Rodney King (see
African American
viewers were riveted by news
Pressure from civil rights activists helped
trial
image of a
if
has
been written about the causes
its
that his passionate
Typical of the views at the time were those
Young.
With
THE MEDIA
IN
Council
8
made
her attend a multiracial
3
j for
|
o
awareness training program, and fined her
£