Prints and visual communication 9780262590020

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
PREFACE (page vii)
I. INTRODUCTION--THE BLOCKED ROAD TO PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION (page 1)
II. THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN--THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY (page 21)
III. SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX--A RULE OF THE ROAD--THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY (page 51)
IV. THE TYRANNY OF THE RULE--THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (page 71)
V. THE TYRANNY BROKEN--THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (page 93)
VI. PICTORIAL STATEMENT WITHOUT SYNTAX--THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (page 113)
VII. NEW REPORTS AND NEW VISION--THE NINETEENTH CENTURY (page 135)
VIII. RECAPITULATION (page 158)
INDEX (page 181)

Citation preview

DA CAPO PRESS SERIES IN

GRAPHIC ART |

General Editor: A. HyATT MAYOR Curator Emeritus of Prints, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Volume 10

PRINTS AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION

/ BLANK PAGE

PRINTS AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION By William M. Ivins, Jr. Late Curator of Prints Metropolitan Museum of Art

THE M.LT. PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England

This M.1.T. paperback edition of Prints and Visual Communication 1s an unabridged republication of the first edition published

in 1953 by Harvard University Press. It is reprinted by special , arrangement with Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd.

The publishers are grateful to the Prints Division, New York Public Library, and to the Department of Prints, Metropolitan

illustrations. |

Museum of Art, for providing new photographs for a number of First MIT Press paperback edition, August 1969

| Second printing, February 1973 Third printing, January 1978 Fourth printing, July 1980

| ISBN 0 262 59002 6 © Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 68-31583

|

TO THE MEMORY OF

F.W.I.

| BLANK PAGE

PREFACE

HE thesis of this book grew out of a long endeavour to find a pattern of significance in the story of prints. To discover the pattern it was necessary to approach that story from a point of view which lay outside it, and to

take account of values and effects that have customarily been overlooked.

For many years the writer had desired to prepare an ordered argument of his thesis, but time free for the purpose did not come until after retirement from official duties and the fulfilment of some

old obligations. Slightly later an invitation to deliver a course of eight lectures at the Lowell Institute of Boston, in January, 1950, not only gave him the inestimable benefit of a ‘dead line’, but caused him to shorten and simplify his argument. The book has been written from memory, without notes. When it was finished the writer verified his quotations, checked names, dates, and a few incidents in the common reference books, and made most of the photographs for the illustrations. The writing was almost finished when there came to hand for the first time André Malraux’s La Psychologie de l’ Art, in which

part of the problem here dealt with is considered from a very different point of view and to quite another end. The writer thanks the following friends for their many kindnesses and their patience with him: Mr. and Mrs. George Boas,

W. G. Constable, Alfred E. Cohn, Dudley T. Easbey, Mr. and Mrs. N. Gabo, Walter Hauser, A. M. Hind, A. Hyatt Mayor, Vil

PREFACE ,

Beaumont Newhall, Miss Alice Newlin, Edward Milla, Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Sizer, and Thomas J. Wilson. Especially he thanks the Metropolitan Museum of Art and its staff, past and present,

for innumerable courtesies. From his daughter Barbara he has | received the keenest of criticism and the most affectionate and unremitting of encouragement. The notation ‘(MM)’ in the captions for the illustrations indi-

, cates that they have been reproduced by permission of the Metro-

politan Museum of Art from originals in its collections. , | Thanks to the generosity of the publishers, most of the plates have been produced by the collotype process on paper other than that used for either the line blocks or the half tones. To secure the great gain in accuracy of reproduction of the fine textures of the originals thus made possible, it has been mechanically necessary to sacrifice what otherwise would have been the order of the plates in the book.

Connecticut oe

| Woodbury

Vill

|

CONTENTS

PREFACE page vil MUNICATION | I

I, INTRODUCTION-—-THE BLOCKED ROAD TO PICTORIAL COM-

Il. THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN-——THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 21 Ill. SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX—A RULE OF THE ROAD—THE

, SIXTEENTH CENTURY 51 IV. THE TYRANNY OF THE RULE—-THE SEVENTEENTH AND

EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 71

V. THE TYRANNY BROKEN—THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 93 VI. PICTORIAL STATEMENT WITHOUT SYNTAX—THE NINE-

TEENTH CENTURY 113

CENTURY 135 VIII. RECAPITULATION 158 VII. NEW REPORTS AND NEW _ VISION—-THE NINETEENTH

INDEX 181 1X

BLANK PAGE

1. Painted woodcut from Boner’s Der Edelstein, Bamberg, 1461 facing page 4 About actual size. This book is the earliest known that is both printed from type and illustrated with printed pictures. The woodblocks were impressed by hand in blanks left for the purpose in the printed text—much as though they had been rubber stamps. (Reproduced from the facsimile of the unique copy, issued by the Graphische Gesellschaft of Berlin in 1908.)

2. A metal cut of St. Martin (MM) | facing page 5 Reduced. A typical late fifteenth-century relief ‘metal cut’. The marks of the heads of the nails which held the plate to the wooden block for printing in the type press can be seen at top and bottom. The various technical notions implicit in this kind of work did not come to fruition until the nineteenth century.

3. “The Duchess’, a proof from one of the wood-blocks for Holbein’s Dance of Death (c. 1520) (MM) facing page 12 About actual size, with a portion enlarged to show detail too small to be seen by the unaided human eye. It is doubtful if any finer work was ever done with a knife on a wood-block.

4. Woodcut from Osatus’s La vera perfettione del desegno, Venice,

1561 (MM) facing page 13 Slightly enlarged. Showing what happened when a woodcut with fine lines was printed on hard ribbed paper. This defect was unavoidable with the paper then available, and possibly had something to do with the shift from woodcuts to copper engravings that began about this time.

5. Portion of a late impression of an early North Italian engraving

of St. Jerome in the Desert (pr. coll.) . facing page 24 Enlarged. Showing the primitive Italian goldsmith’s type of stylized detail and helter-skelter shading, sometimes referred to as the ‘fine xl

ILLUSTRATIONS

| manner’, It was succeeded in Italy by the ‘broad manner’ of the painter engravers, which reached its apogee in the original work of Mantegna.

6. Portion of Mantegna’s engraved Bacchanal with Silenus (MM) after page 24 . Reduced. To be compared with Diirer’s pen and ink copy reproduced

on the opposite page. _ } ,

7. Portion of Diirer’s pen and ink copy of Mantegna’s Bacchanal

with Silenus (in the Vienna collection) after page 24 Reduced. Mantegna engraved much as he drew with his pen. Diirer in copying him substituted his own anecdotal German calligraphy for

| Mantegna’s simplified powerful statement of essentials. In this kind

of distortion Diirer has been followed by most of the succeeding engravers, who have given more attention to the weaving of linear _ textures than to reporting the basic qualities of their originals.

| 8. Portion of an anonymous early Italian engraved copy of a

drawing by Mantegna (MM) facing page 25 Enlarged. One of the first sizeable groups of reproductive engravings was made during Mantegna’s life after drawings by him. In many of them Mantegna’s style of drawing was closely copied, presumably because it was also the natural style of the engravers. The dots in the outlines of the impression here reproduced were made when it was pricked to take off its design on another piece of paper. __

:| 9. Portion of a primitive woodcut of St. Christopher page 25

, About actual size. Prints of this type are attributed to the early years | of the fifteenth century. (Reproduced from Max Lehrs, Holzschnitte d. ersten Halfte d. XV Jahrhunderts im K. Kupferstichkabinett zu Berlin,

issued by the Graphische Gesellschaft of Berlin in 1908.) ,

10. The earliest picture of a printing press. Woodcut from a Dance

of Death printed at Lyons in 1499 page 26 Reduced. (Reproduced from the facsimile of the unique copy in

ale, 1900 ff.) ,

Claudin’s Histoire de ? Imprimerie en France, Paris, Imprimerie Nation-

| page 30

11. Woodcut from Torquemada’s Meditationes, Rome, 1473 (MM) Reduced. This woodcut also appeared in the edition of 1467—the first

| book printed from type in Italy which contained printed illustrations.

They were printed with the type. It was also the first book printed anywhere which contained illustrations that purported to represent specifically located particular things—in this instance some wall decorations in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva which no

_ longer exist. | Xil

| ILLUSTRATIONS

1472 (MM) page 31

12. Portion of a woodcut from Valturius’s De re militari, Verona, , Reduced. This was the first book illustrated with printed pictures of machinery—this one representing a primitive and doubtless imaginary | ‘Gatling gun’ with eight barrels. The roughly inked blocks were carelessly impressed by hand in blanks left for the purpose in the printed text.

13. Woodcut of ‘Asparagus agrestis’, from the herbal of the Pseudo-Apuleius, Rome, n.d. (c. 1483) (MM) page 32

script. |

, About actual size. This was the first illustrated printed herbal. Its woodcuts were rough copies of the drawings in a ninth-century manu-

(MM) | facing page 32

14. Portion of a head of Christ by the early German Master E. S.

Enlarged. Showing a step in the early German development from the

goldsmith’s type of engraving towards a systematized calligraphic |

linear system. ,

15. Torso from Mantegna’s engraving of the Risen Christ between

_ §S. Andrew and Longinus (MM) after page 32 | Enlarged. The final development of Mantegna’s linear system in engraving. Mantegna’s prints had a great influence on design, but counted for little in the subsequent development of the linear structures of professional reproductive engraving. His manner of drawing and shading

required powerful draughtsmanship and provided little opportunity for the display of the mere craftsman’s skill in routine manipulation.

: | after page 32

16. Torso from Diirer’s engraving of Adam and Eve (MM)

Enlarged. Diirer’s masterpiece of engraved representation of the naked , human body. It shows the development of his calligraphic drawing under pressure of his love of detail and his pride in the manual adroit-

ness with which he could lay lines of the greatest fineness with the sharp point of his engraving tool. In spite of his genius, he was probably the greatest of the writing masters—and it is to this that he owes much of his popular fame.

| | after page 32

17. Torso from Diirer’s woodcut of The Trinity (MM)

Enlarged. Diirer’s masterpiece of woodcut representation of the naked

human body. Its linear system is to be compared with that of his

, engraved Adam and Eve. This is a remarkable rendering of a calligraphic pen drawing on the block that had been simplified to meet the

exigencies of the woodcutter. | Xiii

ILLUSTRATIONS 18. Figure from Marc Antonio’s early engraving of Pyramus and

Thisbe (MM) after page 32

Enlarged. An example of the coarse, rough, careless, linear system used by Marc Antonio before he had become thoroughly familiar with |

, Durer’s work. He did not love and caress his lines as Diirer did, and

neither was he a dandy as Diirer was. a

19, Portion of Marc Antonio’s late engraving of Jupiter and Cupid,

after Raphael (MM) Be after page 32 | Enlarged. An example of the linear system that Marc Antonio finally developed out of Diirer’s engravings and woodcuts for the reproduction of ancient sculpture and of Raphael’s designs.

20. Portion of Lucas of Leyden’s late engraving of Lot and his

Daughters(MM) — | | after page 32 Enlarged. An example of the linear system finally evolved by Lucas, when he had emerged from Diirer’s influence and fallen under that of Marc Antonio. In this he pointed the way to such later men as Goltzius.

21. Portion of an engraving of the statue of Laocoon published by Lafreri at Rome in the middle of the sixteenth century (MM) facing page 33 Enlarged. An example of what happened when Marc Antonio’s late style fell into the hands of the unintelligent hack engravers of the print — publishers.

22. Woodcut of °Gladiolus’, from the herbal known as the Gart

_ der Gesundheit, Mainz, 1485 (MM) | page 35 Reduced. This was the first printed herbal illustrated with printed pictures after drawings specially made for the purpose from actual plants. Its printer was Peter Schoeffer, the surviving partner of Guten-

berg.

23. Detail from a woodcut view of Venice, from Breydenbach’s

_ Peregrinationes, Mainz, 1486 (MM) page 37 Enlarged. This was the first printed book of travel that was illustrated with printed pictures after drawings made for the purpose by one of

- the travellers. His name was Erhard Rewich (‘Erhardum silicet

, Rewich’), and he was the first illustrator of a printed book whose

name is known to us. This view of Venice was a folding plate, about

six feet long. _

24. Woodcut of a living-room, from Pelerin’s De Perspectiva, Toul, 1504 (courtesy of the Pierpont Morgan Library) page 41 _ Reduced. This was the first printed book to contain the basic rules of modern perspective, and its illustrations are the earliest prints to be

drawn in accordance with those rules. , | XIV

ILLUSTRATIONS

(MM) page 42

25. Woodcut of violets, from the Grete Herbal, London, 1525 About actual size. This was the earliest printed English herbal. Its

illustrations show the degradation of forms that comes from the copying of copies of copies instead of working directly from the original objects.

26. Woodcut of violets from Brunfels’s Herbarum vivae eicones,

Strassburg, 1530 (MM) page 43 Reduced. Many herbals had been printed since that of 1485, but this was the next one that contained illustrations specially drawn from the actual plants. The artist was Hans Weiditz.

27. Woodcut of “Kappiskraut’, from Fuchs’s De Stirpium Historia

..., Basel, 1545 (MM) page 45 Enlarged. Fuchs’s herbal appeared as a large folio with large wood-

editions. ,

cuts, in 1542 and 1543. In 1545 this textless pocket edition was issued with very faithful small copies of the big woodcuts in the earlier

28. Portion of Tobias Stimmer’s woodcut of Otto Heinrich, Count

Schwarzenburg (MM) page 48

| Enlarged. Showing the influence of copper plate linear structures upon the work of the woodcut designers and the woodcutters of the second half of the sixteenth century.

29. Detail from Cornelis Cort’s engraving of the Martyrdom of St.

Lawrence, after Titian (1571) (MM) facing page 48 Enlarged. Showing how a stylist engraver took pleasure in weaving a

linear web. Cort’s engravings did much to introduce Titian’s design ,

to the North.

30. Portion of Goltzius’s engraving of Bacchus (MM)

a after page 48

- Enlarged. Typical of the linear structure worked out by Goltzius, a , learned student of the great early engravers and, himself, the most eminent of the northern virtuoso engravers of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The picture has become a mere medium for the weaver’s skill in making watered silks. At this time, and in prints such as this, reproductive engraving became definitely an independent art, with criteria and values quite different from those of

_ the painters and creative draughtsmen.

31. A page from Bosse’s Treatise on Engraving of 1645 (pr. coll.)

| after page 48

Enlarged. Showing exercises for the beginner in the use of the engraver’s

and etcher’s tools. Our school writing books still contain comparable _ exercises in manual discipline. XV

ILLUSTRATIONS

32. Figure from Mantegna’s engraving of the Bacchanal with the

} Wine Press (MM) | after page 48

| Enlarged. From an early impression showing the warmth and softness

of line caused by leaving the burr on the plate and not removing it before printing.

33. The same figure from Mantegna’s engraving of the Bacchanal

with the Wine Press (MM) | after page 48 Enlarged. From a late impression printed after the burr had vanished and the lines themselves had worn. Most of the impressions of Mantegna’s plates are of this hard cold kind and give an utterly false idea of his essential qualities. This pair of contrasting impressions has been selected for reproduction because of the largeness of their lines.

(MM) | after page 48

34. The head from Van Dyck’s original etching of Frans Snyders

Enlarged. Its linear structure is to be compared with that of Paul du _ Pont’s engraved portrait of Van Baelen after a sketch by Van Dyck, on the opposite page. The originals of the two heads are closely of the

same size. This one, in its easy assured use of the inherited Rubens

formulae, has character and sharp, if summary, notation.

35. The head from du Pont’s engraved portrait of Van Baelen, after a sketch by Van Dyck. From the Jconography of 1645

(pr. coll.) after page 48 Enlarged. A typical example of the standardized linear structure

evolved by the Rubens school of engravers. Here the qualities of the Van Dyck on the opposite page have been sacrificed to a mere craftsman’s delight in the pedantic slickness of a formalized and insensitive linear net.

36. Portion of Vorstermans’s engraving of ‘M. Brutus Imp.’, after a drawing by Rubens ‘from an ancient marble’, 1638 (MM) facing page 49 Reduced. Showing what Rubens in the seventeenth century thought the proper way to reproduce a piece of classical sculpture.

: | | facing page 64

37. Mellan’s engraving of Samson and Delilah (MM)

Reduced. Showing Mellan’s development of parallel shading as a device for the exhibition of popularly (and easily) appreciable craftsmanship.

38. Portion of Baudet’s engraving of the ‘Spinello’ (MM)

- _ after page 64

About actual size. Mellan had engraved some statues in this manner —which, however, reached its final development of vapidity at the XV1

ILLUSTRATIONS hands of such later men as Baudet in the 1680’s. As a stunt, it probably

_ bears much the same relation to draughtsmanship that Paganini’s playing on one string did to music.

39. The head of Nanteuil’s engraved portrait of Pomponne de

Bellelievre (MM) oO after page 64 | Enlarged. This ultimate example of empty and obvious linear virtuosity

is generally regarded as the great masterpiece of French classical | portrait engraving. As one looks at it one can almost hear the engraver saying to himself: “Now Ill show ’em’.

40. Portion of Watteau’s painting of Le Mezetin (photo. MM)

a after page 64

Reduced. To be compared with Audran’s engraving on the facing page. This half tone is not regarded as a work of art as that engraving is, but it tells much more about the original. It is to be noted how the engraving turned Watteau’s portrait of a hard-bitten member of the

Comédie Italienne into that of a love-lorn youth. |

41. Portion of Audran’s mixed engraving and etching after Wat-

teau’s painting of Le Mezetin (MM) after page 64 About actual size. From Jullienne’s L’Ciuvre d’Antoine Watteau... Fixé a cent exemplaires des Premiéres Epreuves (Paris, in the 1730's) —the first attempt to reproduce the oeuvre of an important painter.

, It was an inestimable boon to the forgers and copyists of Watteau. , Blond, sparkling prints, such as this, had a great influence in succeed-

ing French eighteenth-century practice. :

42. The face from the engraving by Gaillard after the painting

of ‘L’Homme a l’ceuillet? (MM) after page 64

_ Enlarged. The fine lines lie below the threshold of normal human vision: It is doubtful whether such work could or would have been done had it not been for the then recent discovery of photography. Gaillard was one of the leaders in the French mid-nineteenth-century revolt against the old standardized linear systems in reproductive engraving.

43. A chalk sketch by Watteau as reproduced in Jullienne’s Figures de differens characteres . . ., Paris, in the 1730’s (MM)

| after page 64

About actual size. This skilful but simple rendering in mixed etching

and engraving was made by the Count Caylus, a gifted amateur, who made many reproductions of drawings and other works of art of all times and schools. He only reproduced things that amused him. Wealthy, witty, debauched,—soldier, man of letters, archaeologist, critic, and cruel art patron,—Caylus’s influence is still visible in

_ conservative contemporary taste. | XVii

ILLUSTRATIONS

44. The central figures from Rembrandt’s mixed etching and dry

point of the Agony in the Garden (MM) © facing page 65

, making. |

Enlarged. Showing Rembrandt’s unwillingness to subordinate expression and lively draughtsmanship to a formal linear structure which _ would have given him both larger editions and greater popularity. It was not tidy and had no trace of the highly polished machine finish that was rapidly becoming essential to commercially successful print

45. Portion of a trial proof of Lucas’s mezzotint after Constable’s |

sketch of Stoke-by-Neyland (MM) facing page 80

Enlarged. Sharp lines, abrupt transitions, and variations of texture, i.e. brilliance and transparency, were impossible to achieve in the treacly medium of mezzotint. It only reached great popularity in England, where it became the typical technique for the reproduction | of low keyed oil paintings by British artists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. No original artist has ever adopted mezzo-

tint as his medium of expression.

— coll.) | | after page 80

46. Portion of Goya’s pure aquatint “Por que fue sensible’ (pr. ) Enlarged. Although aquatint, usually in combination with etching, was very popular in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries _ for the reproduction of water colour drawings, Goya was the only major artist ever to use it habitually for original work.

47. The Ecchoing Green from Blake’s Songs of Innocence. Repro-

duced from an uncoloured impression of the original relief

, | | oe after page 80 etching in Gilchrist’s Life of William Blake, .ondon, 1863.

| About actual size. Blake’s Songs of Innocence were printed in 1789 _ from copper plates etched in relief. The technique came to its full _ usefulness when the younger Gillot combined it with a way of photo-

graphically transferring a drawing to a plate. |

48. Portion of a relief print by Daumier, entitled ‘Empoignez les tous...’ from Le Magasin Charivarique, Paris, 1834 (pr. coll.)

oo a oe after page 80

About actual size. Probably made by a variety of the ‘chalk plate’ process. It shows how much the merit of a print depends on the man

: who makes it, rather than upon any particular quality of the process used. This has not been understood in the English speaking countries.

49. A tail-piece from Bewick’s Land Birds, originally published

at Newcastle in 1797 after page 80 _ Enlarged. An early white line wood-engraving. Three impressions from the same block: (1) a specially inked and printed proof on XVII

ILLUSTRATIONS China paper (MM) ; (2) a carelessly inked and printed impression on _ rough paper from the textless edition of 1800 (pr. coll.) ; (3) an impression on better paper from the edition of 1832 (pr. coll.). These three impressions illustrate the difficulties the printers had in printing Bewick’s fine textured white line blocks with the papers and inking

methods then available. OO

50. Detail of Charlton Nesbit’s wood-engraving of Rinaldo and Armida, from Savage’s Hints on Decorative Printing, London,

1822 (pr. coll.) | - after page 80 Enlarged. This impression was carefully printed on China paper mounted on the regular paper of the book. The engraver instead of

frankly working in white lines as Bewick and Blake did, attempted to make his prints look like black line engravings on copper—then still , regarded as the best way of reproducing pictures. But he went copper

| engraving one better by engraving schematic white lines across his

schematic black lines. |

(pr. coll.) | after page 80 |

51. Detail from the defaced block of Nesbit’s Rinaldo and Armida Enlarged. This impression was printed with ordinary care on the paper

_ used for the text pages of the book. Impressions from the defaced __ blocks were inserted at the end of Savage’s book to show that there could be no subsequent edition—but, after the blocks had been defaced

and printed from in that condition, this one, at least, was promptly repaired and some impressions from it were printed with great care on China paper. In making up the copies of the book some of these later

impressions got mixed with the earlier China paper ones and were used in their places in the book. Thus this very bad impression from the defaced block is actually earlier than that on China paper repro, duced on the facing page from the same copy of the book.

52. Two black line wood-engravings from Puckle’s Club, London,

1817 (pr. coll.) — | a after page 80 About actual size. While the illustrations were printed on India paper mounted on the text pages, the tail-pieces were printed with the type on the paper of the text pages. The difference in quality of impression caused by the different papers is obvious. Paper adequately smooth to yield good impressions from such fine textured blocks was not available for commercial use until the end of the nineteenth century.

53. Two wood-engravings, one by Blake and one anonymous, |

, , | : after page 80

from Thornton’s Eclogues of Vergil, London, 1822 (pr. coll.)

_ About actual size. This was one of the earliest school text books to

be illustrated with a large number of wood-engravings. Those by Blake _ are among the earliest perfectly free drawings done with the engraving tool on the wood. Thornton found it necessary to apologize for them X1X

ILLUSTRATIONS

in a footnote, but saw no necessity to comment on the other blocks, | which are typified by the second reproduction. The blocks were printed with the type on the cheap paper of the book.

54. Portion of Harvey’s wood-engraving of B. R. Haydon’s paint- |

| | | | after page 80

ing of the ‘Death of Lucius Quintus Dentatus’ (MM)

Enlarged. The earlier wood-engravings were so small that the difficulties in printing came from the paper and the methods of inking. This

engraved block, however, was 114 by 15 inches in size, and was so

full of blacks that until about 1821 no press was found powerful enough to print it. When finally printed, it had to be done in a very limited edition on India paper, which alone was smooth enough. By that time the. block had split. A prime example of the dominance of the copper-engraved linear structure inherited from the sixteenth

century. ,

55. The famous classical statue of Niobe and her Daughter, from

_ the Penny Magazine in 1833 — : after page 80

Reduced. The Penny Magazine, started in 1832 by Charles Knight, _ was the first cheap illustrated English weekly, and rapidly reached a circulation of 200,000 copies. This engraving on wood was coarsely worked to be printed rapidly on cheap paper in a power press. Far from | being a deliberate caricature, it was a serious attempt to bring information and culture to the greater British public.

56. Portion of a wood-engraving of a drawing on the block by

Daumier (pr. coll.) facing page 81 Enlarged. While in England they were making pale wood-engravings like those in the Tennyson of 1857, the French began to make more full-bodied illustrations. This one appeared in Le Monde Illustré in _ the middle 1860's. It was engraved by Maurand. At the beginning of the present century such prints as this had great influence on French original wood-engraving, e.g. in the work of Lepere, who once owned

the rubbed proof from which this reproduction is taken.

57. Portion of the wood-engraving after Giotto’s ‘The Salutation’,

facing page 96

_ from Arena Chapel Padua, London, 1860 (MM)

About actual size. The set of wood-engravings from which this is taken

, introduced Giotto’s paintings in the Arena Chapel to the English

speaking world. The accompanying text was written by Ruskin. A perfect example of how the mid-Victorian engravers unconsciously transformed figures from the distant past into masqueraders from Barchester Towers. From the time when Diirer translated Mantegna into Nuremberg German to this translation of Giotto into ‘refined’ nineteenth-century English transformation of this kind was inevitable

| in all printed copies or reproductions of works of art. XX

ILLUSTRATIONS

58. W. Holman Hunt’s illustration of ‘The Lady of Shalott’, in

the Tennyson of 1857 after page 96 About actual size. Between 1832 (the Penny Magazine) and 1857 (the Tennyson) great changes had been made in paper-making and in the techniques of wood-engraving and printing. It would have been im-

possible to issue a trade edition of a book illustrated in this way in 1832. Hunt drew his little picture directly on the block, which was then sent to the Dalziel shop, where it was engraved ‘in facsimile’. The block was signed by the shop.

59. Reproduction of a collotype of a photograph of Hunt’s drawing on the block for “The Lady of Shalott’ (here reproduced

by kind permission of Mrs. Michael Joseph) after page 96 About the actual size of the collotype in G. S. Layard’s Tennyson and his Pre-Raphaelite Illustrators, London, 1894. At the time Layard’s book was printed no half-tone could be made that was adequate to the reproduction of this drawing.

60. Portion of a relief print by Ch. Jacque, of unknown origin,

and presumably in the 1870's (pr. coll.) after page 96 About actual size. Reproduced from a China paper proof of a block

, made by a variety of the Comte process, that preceded Gillot’s discovery of a method of transferring a drawing to a plate by photographic means.

61. Paper photograph of a Latticed Window at Lacock Abbey, made by Fox Talbot in August, 1835 (British Crown Copyright. Science Museum, London (Fox Talbot Collection)) after page 96 About actual size. The pen and ink inscription is in Fox Talbot’s handwriting. This is perhaps the earliest known photograph—printed from a negative on paper.

62. Bolton’s wood-engraving after Flaxman’s relief “Deliver us from Evil’, from Bohn’s edition (1861) of the Jackson and

Chatto Treatise on Wood-engraving after page 96 About actual size. Bolton had the surface of a wood-block sensitized and a photograph made on it through the image thus attained. It was one of the first reproductive wood-engravings made through a photographic image instead of through a drawing on the block by an intermediary draughtsman. This procedure eventually became the typical late nineteenth-century way of making reproductive book illustrations.

63. Portion of a wood engraving by W. J. Linton (pr. coll.) after page 96 Enlarged. From a proof impression on fine paper that belonged to XX1

ILLUSTRATIONS Linton. The apogee of English reproductive white line engraving on wood was reached in the last quarter of the nineteenth century in such

prints as this—freely drawn with the engraving tool through a photographic image on the block. The advent of the cross line half-tone | screen for photo-mechanical reproduction, in the 1890’s, put an end

to this kind of work. , ,

64. Portion of a pen-drawn lithograph by Stothard, from the Polyautographic Album, London, 1803 (pr. coll.) facing page 97 Enlarged. This album was the first set of artistic lithographs. It had not yet been discovered that lithography had any special qualities of

: its own, or that it could be more than a cheap way of getting reproductions of conventional drawings.

| facing page 112

65. Portion of one of Goya’s four lithographs of Bull Fights (MM)

Reduced. Made about 1825 by Goya at Bordeaux, this set contained

the first freely drawn, scraped, and scratched, powerful original pictures on stone.

(MM) | | after page 112 |

66. Portion of Delacroix’s lithograph of La Sceur de Du Guesclin

About actual size. Delacroix was perhaps the greatest of the French romantic painter-lithographers. He laboured as seriously and carefully over elaborately worked prints like this as he did over his paintings.

67. Portion of Daumier’s lithograph entitled ‘Un zeste! un rien! et l’omnibus se trouve complet,’ which appeared in Le Boulevard

in 1862 (pr. coll.) after page 112 Reduced. Daumier, being regarded by all but few as merely a comic. newspaper caricaturist, was not accepted by the world as one of the greatest artists of his century until long after his death. His work suffered from those three greatest obstacles to serious artistic repu-

tation—abundance, cheapness, and a sense of humour. | 68. Portion of Manet’s lithograph ‘Les Courses’ (MM) |

| after page 112

About actual size. In France, where sketches were taken seriously as works of art, many of the painters of the nineteenth century used litho-

| _ graphy to publish work of this kind. |

| 69. ‘Engraving’ of a classical Roman wall painting, from Lodge’s - English translation of Winckelmann’s History of Ancient Art,

Boston, 1880 , | after page 112 About actual size. When this standard translation of the 1840’s was republished in 1880, the badly worn and reworked old plates were still

XX11 |

ILLUSTRATIONS , thought adequate to represent the things that Winckelmann wrote about. They explain a great deal of old aesthetic theorizing and values. Today such a print as this smacks, not of any ancient classical work, but of the decorations which similar reproductions inspired in nine-

: teenth-century German beer halls. Its ‘original’, about which Winckelmann’s was comically enthusiastic, was actually an eighteenth-century fake.

70. Illustration by Daniel Vierge from Quevedo’s Pablo de Segovie,

Paris, 1881 (MM) after page 112 About actual size. The reproduction is made from a China paper copy of the book, which was one of the first to be illustrated with photographic line blocks from specially made drawings.

71. Portion of an early grain half-tone, after a drawing by Natoire,

that appeared in L’ Artiste in 1882. after page 112 Enlarged. This half-tone process was regarded as being so remarkable that the reproductions made in it for L’ Artiste were specially printed on brownish paper and ‘tipped’ into the magazine. The lack of contrast and the unevenness of the texture of the reproduction are obvious.

72. An early cross line half-tone, from Furtwangler’s Meisterwerke | der Griechischen Plastik of 1893 | facing page 113 Enlarged. Although this was a half-tone reproduction of a photograph,

it had to be reworked by hand, as can be seen all through the deep shadows. The high lights that give shape to the parts of the head in deep shadow have been put in by retouching.

73A. The head of Laocoon as it was engraved by Marco Dente, who

died in 1527 (photo. MM) facing page 128

738. The head of Laocoon as it appeared in the woodcut in Marliani’s Urbis Romae Topographia, Rome 1544 (photo. MM) facing page 128 744. The head of Laocoon as Sisto Badalocchio etched it about

1606 (photo. MM) after page 128

748. The head of Laocoon as Thurneysen engraved it for Sandrart’s Sculpturae yeteris admiranda, sive delineatio vera . . ., Nurem-

_ berg, 1680 (photo. MM) | after page 128 75A. The head of Laocoon as Ransonette reproduced it for Pon-

MM) after page 128 celin’s Chef-d’euvres de lantiquité..., Paris, 1784 (photo.

75. The head of Laocoon as Piroli engraved it for the ‘Musée

Napoleon’, Paris, 1804 (photo. MM) after page 128 XXiil

ILLUSTRATIONS

76A. The head of Laocoon as it appeared in the complete edition of Winckelmann, Prato (1834) (photo. MM) after page 128

76B. The head of Laocoon as it appeared in the ‘Clarac’, Paris,

1839-1841 (photo. MM) after page 128

_ 77a, The head of Laocoon as it was engraved on wood for Liibke’s

Grundriss . . ., Stuttgart, 1868 (photo. MM) after page 128 773. The head of Laocoon as it was illustrated in Murray’s History of Greek Sculpture, London (1890) (photo. MM)

, | after page 128

78. Engraved portrait of Simon de Montfort, from Montfaucon’s Les Monuments de la Monarchie Francaise, Paris, 1730 (MM)

after page 128

About actual size. This book was a serious attempt to deal with mediaeval art. Little could more accurately reflect the eighteenth century’s lack of understanding of that art than this print, which is solemnly said in the book to have been taken from a painted window at Chartres. For us the print has a much closer resemblance to King

Padella of Crim Tartary, the father of Prince Bulbo, than to any mediaeval work of art. |

79. A classical head in the Townley Collection as it was published

in the Specimens of Ancient Sculpture issued by the Society

of Dilettanti in 1809 (MM) after page 128

_ Enlarged. These expensive engravings, made a few years before the Elgin Marbles were brought to London, were thought at the time to be the best possible reproductions of classical sculpture. It is easy to see why connoisseurship based on such reproductions as this was so

unsound. | | |

80. Portion of an etching of the Parthenon Theseus, from Richard

Lawrence’s Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon at Athens,

London, 1818 (MM) facing page 129 Reduced. This book contained one of the earliest sets of reproductions of its now famous subjects. Lawrence’s bare and insensitive outlines probably conveyed as much valid information about his originals as did the elaborate ‘machine finished’ engravings in the Specimens of

_ Ancient Sculpture of 1809 about theirs.

81. Portion of the wood-engraving of the Parthenon Theseus which appeared in Overbeck’s Geschichte der Griechischen Plastik of

1869 — facing page 132 Enlarged. The picture was drawn and not photographed, on the block. It shows that in 1869 the illustrators and engravers for text books were XX1V

: ILLUSTRATIONS , still dominated by the formal linear scheme invented by the engravers , on copper at the end of the sixteenth century. ‘A certain conservatism’ may be said to be the distinguishing mark of all text-book illustration even to the present day.

82. A head from the ‘etched state’ of the print after Moreau le jeune for ‘Les Délices de la Maternité’ in the set of engravings

known as the Monument du Costume, Paris, 1777 (MM) | facing page 133 Enlarged. Preliminary etching of this kind was known as ‘forwarding’. It played little or no part in the effect of the finished print. The taste of the time did not approve such summary and expressive use of line in its printed pictures.

83. The same head from ‘Les Délices de la Maternité’, after it had

been finished by the engraver and by him reduced to the accustomed linear system. That this killed all its colour and expression was not thought a matter of importance (MM)

facing page 140 , 84. A modern half-tone, made for this book, of a detail from Rembrandt’s painting of ‘An Old Woman Cutting her Nails’

(photo. MM) facing page 141 Modern panchromatic photographic emulsions and modern cross line half-tone process, together with the improvements in presses and press work and in the making of very smooth papers, have made possible the illustration of cheap books and magazines with reproductions such as this, in which the actual surfaces of the objects reproduced are made visible. The lines and dots of the process are too small to be seen by the

unaided human eye, and no longer remain to distort and falsify the pictorial reports as they did in all the earlier hand-made graphic processes and in the early half-tones. In this half-tone there are 133

dots to the linear inch. :

XXV

| BLANK PAGE

.||

T

INTRODUCTION

THE BLOCKED ROAD TO | PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION

N 1916 and 1917, when the department of prints of the

piostarted, Museum of much Art talk in New Yorkabout waswhat being there was and argument the character of its collection should be. In the course of those discussions I became aware that the backward countries of the

world are and have been those that have not learned to take full advantage of the possibilities of pictorial statement and communication, and that many of the most characteristic ideas and abilities of our western civilization have been intimately related to our skills exactly to repeat pictorial statements and communications. My experience during the following years led me to the belief

that the principal function of the printed picture in western Europe and America has been obscured by the persistent habit of regarding prints as of interest and value only in so far as they can be regarded as works of art. Actually the various ways of making I

INTRODUCTION

prints (including photography) are the only methods by which

_ exactly repeatable pictorial statements can be made about anything. The importance of being able exactly to repeat pictorial

, statements is undoubtedly greater for science, technology, and | general information than it is for art. Historians of art and writers on aesthetic theory have ignored

| the fact that most of their thought has been based on exactly repeatable pictorial statements about works of art rather than upon first-hand acquaintance with them. Had they paid attention | to that fact they might have recognized the extent to which their own thinking and theorizing have been shaped by the limitations ‘imposed on those statements by the graphic techniques. Photography and photographic process, the last of the long succession of such techniques, have been responsible for one of the greatest changes in visual habit and knowledge that has ever taken place, and have led to an almost complete rewriting of the history of art as well as a most thoroughgoing revaluation of the arts of the past. Although every history of European civilization makes much

| , of the invention in the mid-fifteenth century of ways to print words from movable types, it is customary in those histories to ignore the slightly earlier discovery of ways to print pictures and diagrams. A book, so far as it contains a text, is a container of exactly repeatable word symbols arranged in an exactly repeatable order. Men have been using such containers for at least five thousand years. Because of this it can be argued that the printing of books was no

more than a way of making very old and familiar things more cheaply. It may even be said that for a while type printing was little more than a way to do with a much smaller number of proof readings. Prior to 1501 few books were printed in editions larger than that handwritten one of a thousand copies to which Pliny the Younger referred in the second century of our era. The printing of

pictures, however, unlike the printing of words from movable types, brought a completely new thing into existence—it made possible for the first time pictorial statements of a kind that could

| be exactly repeated during the effective life of the printing surface. 2

THE BLOCKED ROAD

This exact repetition of pictorial statements has had incalculable effects upon knowledge and thought, upon science and technology, _ of every kind. It is hardly too much to say that since the invention

of writing there has been no more important invention than that of the exactly repeatable pictorial statement. Our failure to realize this comes in large measure from the change in the meaning and implications of the word ‘print’ during the last hundred years. For our great grandfathers, and for their fathers back to the Renaissance, prints were no more and no less than the only exactly repeatable pictorial statements they knew. Before the Renaissance there were no exactly repeatable pictorial statements. Until a century ago, prints made in the old techniques filled all the functions that are now filled by our line cuts and. half

tones, by our photographs and blueprints, by our various colour processes, and by our political cartoons and pictorial advertisements. If we define prints from the functional point of view so indicated, rather than by any restriction of process or aesthetic value, it becomes obvious that without prints we should have very few of our modern sciences, technologies, archaeologies, or ethnologies—for all of these are dependent, first or last, upon information conveyed by exactly repeatable visual or pictorial statements.

This means that, far from being merely minor works of art, prints are among the most important and powerful tools of modern life and thought. Certainly we cannot hope to realize their actual role unless we get away from the snobbery of modern print collecting notions and definitions and begin to think of them as exactly © repeatable pictorial statements or communications, without regard to the accident of rarity or what for the moment we may regard as

aesthetic merit. We must look at them from the point of view of general ideas and particular functions, and, especially, we must think about the limitations which their techniques have imposed on them as conveyors of information and on us as receivers of that ~ information.

, From very ancient times materials suitable for the making of 3

INTRODUCTION

prints have been available, and apposite skills and crafts have been |

| familiar, but they were not brought into conjunction for the making | of exactly repeatable pictorial statements in Europe until roughly about A.D. 1400. In view of this it is worth while to try to think about the situation as it was before there were any prints. As it seems to be the usual custom to begin with the ancient Greeks when discussing anything that has to do with culture, I

| shall follow the precedent. There is no possible doubt about the intelligence, the curiosity, and the mental agility of a few of the old Greeks. Neither can there be any doubt about the greatness of their influence on subsequent European culture, even though for the last five hundred years the world has been in active revolt against Greek ideas and ideals. For a very long time we have been taught that after the Greeks there came long periods in which men were not so intelligent as the Greeks had been, and that it was not

_ until the Renaissance that the so intelligent Greek point of view | was to some extent recovered. I believe that this teaching, like its general acceptance, has come about because people have confused —

their ideas of what constitutes intelligence with their ideas about

what they have thought of, in the Arnoldian sense, as culture. Culture and intelligence are quite different things. In actual life, people who exemplify Arnoldian culture are no more intelligent

| than other people, and they have very rarely been among the great _ creators, the discoverers of new ideas, or the leaders towards social

enlightenment. Most of what we think of as culture is little more than the unquestioning acceptance of standardized values. Historians until very recent times have been literary men and philologues. As students of the past they have rarely found anything they were not looking for. They have been so full of wonder at what the Greeks said, that they have paid little attention to what the Greeks did not do or know. They have been so full of horror at what the Dark Ages did not say, that they have paid no attention to what they did do and know. Modern research, by men who are aware of low subjects like economics and technology, is rapidly

,4

0 — — — ssn as ED ES ae , sites negutittet acts ances oath tnt thang nt it natant angte nena tatdi Nd nnanatttncnans nientltaaaaatetina nina et BPI, SRNR RRR SE

— a... .lUltC( .CitiCOiCiC CCOOCOCOCOCOCW*COO elite ee Cees Bae ENiBe BRO AaCE Penar ROTieOCOD OTERO sees TRge ig RO Tn Pee ER URES SRE cpt UC ON i SEE sD in, RSSo = SER A See, aecena CS MII aA BIR en aN(‘ ea aReoct ER aetaego OEeyoa. Be GRE EEceag Pale ghey So. aeras, SES “eaten 2Bae oesele iBOue a eRe SaRoe wee neaes a See aseS geen Seen a Ree et geal A geSs GReS ROPius ORRMca a eR FR, ee he, ee aeso Bae Sats Se Ne¥% SRoe SataWE 3. B So ESS pe OTCee Papae es: DE ee SOROS : oe Re ee SS RRS SES ae oie oe3eee Nee Nee eyOR 2 dh noaeesonen entiinasstinna iain,eee Sarat Apes Us eeisaera ” Sea Pe Ser BEEN Be eeOR ¥ +Se,adNege eeSaSR Beccae MEET Scarlet eS Bese RS " FIRES, ig ae BS. a dase pacprnmnrmitgmatoniimearirenere cme te, Oe oder bina oe titars i ee ee REE eR REE sai AEN TN eA as Eo”seit, SRRSRS Rae een os

BS rr 2S. Gee PRE RS eae ANE Se2 reSoD i ae BS rrns —“(eee i rOOCOw*~s~*”:i~—~—”:CCS 2 eee SC EG en See ae

aaeerrrrrr—, Pate antes mraeae sats Soe Sad 77|Sere, ‘engage UES sot eran ee“Oem, *PRESa. Sepa eeOR—_ reaReeS OES Rye. SRR OSS ea PIO asstan Se Sees, noESS. en ERS. PSe 8" ee ean sa Saiaeens Sire Siee es SSOS SiEEO een. "Oe EE he re i.BS Sete Suni RCN inSoames rane anes, Soe RR. | ORES dpeepreneaers ORS ED, eo eterna aOR ne Bae CE Se ee ,Reiearene =eseeeReneeReeS — “Sf ‘Se |eeae CL pn

LI en” SS ROSE EROROR, | Ce RRR RACER. CRS4g: SSS Getemencams Se ReNRE EeRAEN RS eCO Be eae SOO NS ae .ORR, . i °1cB §ERROR, OOO ROR, 1 Ba BOER | See $9ia “~ wv pe te:RECO ceEt RRR SOa OORT TOREN a SS ERO"A. Sn REE| Se es ROS See SEER RRS9 sn,

aESS ————— highs OE LE eo Da, Eo EO ee eee SESS 2a RON ee acer na eee ao

" ee xg es SR, |

oe i sats ROE I0c REINO RS eae itn rs,

a REE: Se ca ER, ey Tae *. We See SS . = iiselonayaen Sonctinnes ee “Sas . SeoReR

oa, ON mi wim MY ee “Se oe SS oe, i :

eeeneeunanmeaiel Eo -brce, BESBie egg, eerie,yes, " “ae Ne eee we: Ry ee eS oe ey ee 25 Eger ——— ‘aR cas Es cn PES Sa3 Bs, ieee SE, Ris, g 3& ¢3FF .3 —9 : SS Srectox: 0siete 0 RRSSeek. Re RRSa RES BER, ee+se Scone ;ey SSpe osPEs. Se*SD SES, Ss, BORER SER ERS, By ‘x — onrocon ouanronghoanondesonce oe. Se, »SSeS Ba pa ic pos ee Ld a ee TS Se ens nee een pecans Te ee Or ne. aePr se t Ss. RS whe Toe eas Ps SEE aowtrnioorn s ce SS, aati. Se, eu Sie oe oe ee ssseei ooosenwonovane oeestate ee SSH Me, 5nares 2Boca ee % Cs F| es siete’, Se # Pee ae. en, aeS35 eee= See fary Soh, aegerq4

gAe, =f} (ie“af x? a“Sag as Go —— gs ae 3 ge er & eed eee, StageéSF aeosteee a es oe. ag‘se as23 a g Nea, we coe fe s ; ae Se Ses Sse % SS = ee ee PGS s. 2 SS, RE er. & > "ae, Es Re Fy pad Se Ss SS we ai $ § a

Seg can,oes ~ RS3SERS. By ”~ OEEom OE.aBod ERS Si ‘ So2Binet ot = eee SR 3FeeSee Se 3Se es Se Re Se oe: see a SaySER my SN . S eS oa ee OP oo ass, eee mi RicRee‘%wan” ae FH RaaSeine BRePR, RSBi,=ahs SeBRE a - se

iP. aie Se eT cl A ser ak Se Ss ae Zs oo \ ge owt ;

ae See fe Y BS ie eresoP ? whe Fi Cte Ee opiate Sues BESor SO |.ce ONS SE ye oe # eee ie Lobia, id| es> |tee &¢se. see ae TE A "a: NSS Y,fet ee) Us we a=teeee ate Bee hs eyeesone iE 5sLeat See BBE 36 Gee Ce . Bes ae TEES XS :ene atSs+8 he y8 :yN NG | :qBear =dgsrE, AD :LE fc Se RES Se SNS Re < i Sea: SS Se Se &ra! Besos >'ca 3ePoes PO mes atSEER ge rs SS See aR SHES + RR 3 Seer ao SaaS! gE §SROs ae "RR, ote eS .S. , i Se We poa .7; 4 i) a5) .2‘Say Oe 283 Bas) TS age aSets, costes SS Ses FR PE eeees Le iin, Se HS} Fon. oa | 4} fees si : ‘ae x ua aes ry . o Ep EER ce a. es ‘wy ae a, oe See oS :/ \, ;: i, i,Aifs iifWy Ages a Hl " oy oe Soe “ PR eae "xk, 7 ee, % Ss eo Bie, ES Eo, eae S85 SR ee, SS 3 a. Eee 5 BE &ame, ee Re. eee a oe. SS,ge eetsra ee Ne 0S KS aFO. REfySPR Boe xy ae| Baoan Soe gS BE cr RRSe Be SRO ® eaeSad g SeSpite cy Por Oe ECiseees baer)Se SR mF 4g FT. ~—.* ee Rees Se # gent ee ae& & P90 are Rees Seo ee 4 BS: ae eR Ps EES es, 88cates eee tek SS ee = -— CfSoseca is$eoy # es BeeSa oe Ve aopegSe oR, NU

i. SE, RB Ces, BS, S ee SS, iAC ae . OS Paes ea S Set ee Ik SeaSs ee Ss eT ; Be RS RR e Sees LE a a 4Oe ee Ne,Reece See i,eeSans oe fF Octo oe . oS 4RRS S\ “ee (i) oO oe eefi Se FS eS ” yeviaee8, & * eG~ MSSw FO "Se, Sea ORee ae Niasce Sooe eee See. |eo oe Ayee Peay PX * oe Ra Bah #xoe\e? ag EE :ow a—=see=|os‘Seer SS (Sy LB ‘ Bs, A ‘ ee SesBe ar SOOT ee 5 Oe) ORDERS cons ee eee RS, geBes ER See 2. a,Sas OESie BOR See Be we wed bes » BS soSe San &Peek * o> eeBR ee ities OS ds ee wipers ys A;Ess “*ore oe ae Sar8 SAN aeaot eee +a SSF Rog FS: Bea ging, SEO Bits, MsSa OR BES EEE eS ey Se eS ee IBeiesee BS m4ve aeoo§FRR” sai a ee ieee Se" BRS SB BERR SeBk f RS St y)“58 voeT eas |ate .

es p09 rr

Bee SIRE K 2:©Sos SS & ag Sieg &.ee BAFeed seamen Bite, on ears $39oy. 2 See, So FRR Se ae +: RAN t3° ae "| RBS: & .ae rossee SES ET SH Sees See OR SS 2 oe x : "3 See * xX & BERR B8Ses Sees ee ERR. SF SeSEE PsEe eras &aeASAE Bes ae rae ge eeieee SS.eyei Se a *See FEe3, Ree aARIS SRS #aS apcincsee ee — LN, : ee :8 ns

xz Sore ie Soe Se a.Set, ONE eee | us, SOE Bae $Se aoe 2BR 3res See BS eee See % HR Sree, ys2See SK ee .ig seas arsoH fe “Ss otos & Re eS ee oe aeaaSe .oe afeif os é :a=| he ee Sees CRS ah »tg Ke ,aeSARS, ¥% Sees SSeS 5—Pe 9SS aBornococoacte he SB EE Ee sere ic .iae ee .SS ee See iene EB aa Re age ae eee ORO S ce, os in °‘as.e/ NiG EN aR REE 5: Seana To S*“0 ,Seer ® "Rea >, ‘\% aSER BL PSS 2ee OSA aPs LER BS BBS BS He +S Be eee £> boas NARA OE xcaste SB x eNO ak cee .SeVas gee, Siig % % SBE” 2H ew ae Sais BS ce cteas, aeBS SS rh neni RF Bao! |‘a Ea “Ss ono Bee & Ss Xx) & ¢SOR. Bg ess Sh Filia ieJoey Soe Sooaniceogs SD ; g aos & xare *Px sae ‘pevenal oaee .ae oF ae ee 8Sey aeee aesa ae ee 2S" e —ci§ee, ae pe ee. iWog wy (ae @a ee oe ~~ = ee “

£23 &Se se an-_.oe: “222 5eeSeoe wae Re Bg”, A ae >. Rae eRce, Seeabs, ow -eRe be % < See. eos Pat a % 8&re a >teeS eo Bi 5 PD ,“vy oi : a ae ge ecSas epitin ee Pe ines aeoot 2 ae” tte eae ge“. See ie.eee bo OR ao par Sage, & Ras oe oy? i a& aa eats Beee t SeStee eer Sea”. vane: BE _Bees: (Re seer we wars i Hd Pe aly oP ,.x3wot aes ”roeeSee ce mena Eewe eeStee wy ee hy ine étom me See weeoo eSFER tN eR &3 of tehee OeGF ce Cr SieSe ? iy. %BY Oe:ee ahegage rEra ates eAeea, eeos eS aeee ee “4 Eefod to? al #eSetTeese te&$5" ‘ oe ca 2, “Bg eye aeraSeSea ae SRysoy, fae . ae eepa eeaBe See fA [“¥ey ¥ wos o poet a ,fein ”aewe aN ? Ba By Me NS ~~ 3-FOES er v ae: «gages . oH Regee wemse ae Sees fos Aoe yer esote . tOae be wee9een oN Ki, x eee oeps, a > BP wee g@AS a ne. ore aes Le Sees SE OY oe iegeOe gee eevaae of yarn IB%naeees gee ae.oe oy3©ge a ne ate *xSy rrRecon es aPeek aSge oo‘oe ce

egwewe POS Sop Oeal Sooke Bee ot gird ae” aE Be oy rn SkeHegee Sik een FS SES oe: “9 .-Mae eC, ee&0S oy ers aBe Bepg rar? eee ee >SsSee ee SR 3, & SER Ite BoCea GS Le ee oa aeCoS £ Ay wont . ‘ Ye =,& OSaoo: ia oa a aesre eeaes Soa See Se .eaten ae“ecg aes Biror _ SRS ES eePe PE FF ead ge oanFs “- ss Ss eT oePan. eejae eeRO eyoot. ~ Sis ote GAS wy oe eSSD =eCE neal sae aBRaeSire, Se».Ao c '€FOey ee SON y Se See SoS oe wes

oa tet OOS oe eoA Poe,#wet can i eoDF 38 fox pecpcapettetig Ce as am SAS Bie£See a ots eee aeae a ee o 8 4 . 1I cee EE LE veOF. &Sees: Agale ee aOB “ee * *oa a< 1wee on” aan ip,S_ ra oii Yas et Te Fo oe yee eit ieee a eee oe PoeLEE, oF ReP BnOS Sg vor ony, "s . ae one4 . ere aes ae ge et BOR TS foro @ fe, Ue Mee a “ aae Soi eee ee ‘aPe ae & diss Pee PNoe, oe “git, ed ow RE Siete 2*.8% aepe we"PR eaeaMe . “anae i vos a ORES ie nee re“ ©. Sees .% oh ed pit. * Me veg en tLe: 253 ee i we. neeer— ee& aeeeSe eeABe Gets Pi& es ae --a“x go

ne ae geo eS> aera Gres aa SsSeee eres oySeee oy a ,Fad hl F ”moans Bee aa Fed SeeF,Sie PR eg£3 AYgee aes : Seperate rs y See ae SRSYr ' eexS . awe . ae %*, ee Fe Seas Sie See Rs, SeeaeB Be SeMo ON” seers resae ? ee, ieSyesBOSS ee, rs ae rT

24 Be 2FS See fsBeatie & SS ioe. Re,Se D4? Soo so Po EE eeepA ) ee SsPo ae ee byeee, iae i oe 2 - we oof ee 8H AAS Dae SEY oe BR Ny * wy Seema >4ree eee Sear wes As, OR Be eefF5FPp eee Be fe . Siar g. PaSe 493 Se PS oF a aa A awe a we viata Foacs ee awee eal aoe SsIes Ges. fl Se oS a oe PEP LS 480 -. pa BAGS ge BES = BOOTS pos EES om oR aro ae fs faaBP _ FEE PES 8.oO veessFoF < eT

BevBhe iy & - ioe ene oe anne) -— ¢Py POPS *¢PA LIS oeSey, | eooe ve Fett fefF oe2. = se AR aeoN a : .ae oe ”an _ ~=-«is« $ges. oo BS etcee™ “" oo? raat : 2 ; 7 ss SOP pee < ed Soe oe PN or ee A ee ts” Be A i, Ben eo sz oA g tere ee, pF rr- yo re ee wnwR & Fg ) ee oeeeDOB, ee ee OeSo 9%Ree,” 1G Cs ran; mee Ks SA. , *wy at ys ,—Cee aces5 BEST es ae ean a “ore an Re, a SEAE A og ail aa ae eo & POSS PEO i SE cn: Rane I oe nae Bin OSS ae ae F EF ’ eo manana ome: Sore, wee aa? nd y -

peoee 3 ED Yo -eee, FORT oN a owe oe Sen agael 8 eee gheeae Be Rite Bs 3RP “i .ates Sgee. ae:eae y ae 2ieeeRP eeeS te & LOB a% CrfF oe we | ae agas: ORR ae Be IO Ler ee BRS. 5SO SS PS RS Lom Le ee SeSe ceeSooeee Sa Sots one Se Senc i?Se roe Be Pa See RSP rae heh een or— eee ~.»”otBP ¥-gtiaeee /oak or ES Ag Os eee . ieare ve |et PF See. PN:Bors eat eneee CESee oe gE gw Foe tions, SPE ASeet eS seat Pees Ss4“by FB. ee eeee esPeye aare ae roe foes “fs Sle Po»ateg Pee eS ilae..ais >oes SEBS Cie

ae Fy fo S ee fe - ee: oe Oe gen Cet se RR COTE Be yo. ey - 8 “38 -.

er2 OE BRO Pe ey rr. Ue LS oe. CF ee On® ~~ «38, $6 ’Ewe Fe BE Le oegeen... ae oe pee» Shee Se See oe oa.4Se ao ee ae IAe eyeeCo 4 of, Fo 2.ae seecA TRS ADE PeSs pees Prag SE, POR Ba a Be Le ny SEES SUM aA , oe oe. Fg aOP OS gone ee eat ee Gees ee eee SAL, coBs SsBS ee aao ge ee ae Sh ane re . See ¥pa: e Reeee Se aase PP. eo, See in a PO os . ee& OT ae es oo ER Bes 2,Ny ne OeCees ic atae ~ te 2ee ee MB Dy pecs ae Bf 4iaon; ge! £ rc: nen: sae eee BOW 98 “4 PS cat , ae ie oS oe ec “ge 7agh egaeg o> ee gift 6Ree oo eee wee eeMee o2 ee “anxoerconts a eat “a [eee 90 ae x 42pee! cs 8 *eee s& at2 nd eeSX PSSeal ee — 5s See SeCORES ae ee[ Le Se eT Soe eee, aa See a"e — ee ag nee BoFERED CI Me iiRRS. Or2 ee2ES ee.ef oa fr aNA. whe «ae ~s. ERS; . BP ee Lox oe ae gee of »:“Fl 3oe pseg nae oe pee 3 _ ee RO es oe aes ee ao YY pee pte + Ss eee Been gee oe a ed 2 . RAS oe ae ican, RE ae ar? eg Ge Bin ian PES ee Rk eeSygoe a ,. See fr ‘ae =ean&so rn: Ue Bn PE otene es ye osSR Bele ve geBE ae eer 2BPS 5:why Bape mo :BS SoSERA ag¢.*aaPa =er ee en NgMost AS a Ae Kt i Behe ER SEP 7i Aoe samSee Meg BS er2 ee . :ges a nefal oo 8 “fg, «Ys TORIES, et See Seenon Dene Ge wo Ail BEE eea WN eee Pe ye” Sa See bo So FR, SP .ees Ee ee So aSOR % SynLes aeSRR eSPOLIS eeBS a ie1 oe; Ce ey A Se on, ooo oo" wos5es wet, * Ree Rutt oY oo eearBe reSee AR Og OF ee OS > aBio aBRS SRS Pe eae OOK Fee oeane ae eee fs ®4Saar ye Pea eee wae 3 xSale £0 oe 5wR eeéSo me SF” vee REE BRS SFSe re, neVon ee Sees an a es rand Oe geo er: < See ao Be a, ry ” ee ee, . a . Bee Se ee Re a Ed Le po eaes FOO BE A Swe me we” Se nec oe . et Le « Ben eae 7 ees Re SF Sena. . . a ere ow OO nee BS i Se ees ono nce a eae Pa mee ey OS . Seer f vee Seer ae oe 4 fey See eS . er ern Sees OF Sea % » re Pes oo ro ey bane ae ¢ eM ae 2)SoadBs Pheety 7 Be Boa. ookfoeee Bs aoeSee ps Soe ee ey s >ae oepee we woe Es ASRS a oa aSe oyoe oeTy agee Sea ee SS OE Be ne ee wee Si ee a Seed Sa ae ae ; ey .¥ we”, yfr ee "3 Sones ot See Rae “# a a he “4 Re N ey Me a ~ | | oe 4

. “ieee es ge "OPA tl aOP fey ee eaome SEs neee oe “ne yore oh os peees Sees Bers Eee Pte gevo Lo gee es fe aie ee < aF eee ses z, =Ay ge sf es“ae os8Fe : eoyes We Nae NEN Sa ee See Se .eee ee Ste we Be i Pea ae Ba oe rr7es es ms,:Sea ee aCae stSeaee Se Bes SS se ae “Fk Sey Oepe. toe ene ee 8Be “ pees BSR ee eoee ze *akOe ed% ieoe x,Oh, 2 wot oe °i Pe ame .oo See feeeee iSBgeoe ws PPstos ate “Bs ee eo ee neaoe Se : Xe ae 2m . aree 2 aFF Se eek SD e ‘SOT a. een . 4 er ee..«4 2.Ses pan) eS Se3oa ar Se aes Ge encuen we oS eG TONES Le *ae esaan ogeR Gee reee SsPea eee BE See eh ore we ‘Sere oe ee voy aePe eee olaoe |ee or 8ed ee Pe at — Ses aSemin eT ed Se §AS Paes & eS 7.oF : Reser Ses BS 7 CN #.Be aur 4anne ra Pe oeag ces” OR es So Be reSeer 5SR, sv ee AO Gas , ge sc ae ySoy Boss ire eae oe ee oe. ous awo? a2Pg2. Se 7fs #& oe Cae aege be ye *, Sohne :See ae we a .oe Sone, PR AS lene Gs “* . ERS 7: :& : a2Toye S.oe eres Sey oe * ed 2 ee eS se yt seen a . : : . Fe & ef ree cod Lo kK 24 le te Ae f wat “§ 2 2 oe Ee ae : ep “. a dete &§ 8 ae” et . 3} anaes eee OF eee EB ay Soe 7"eT- ae See LRP, OS ie OE gl REE. oesBS -. ;Simo aw Seer YSre“By RE saat eae oe orepas .«7 gett O Seon ted faa “e Oe “og we ae hes ee oY BAS BF : . Soa g. ABS Se pee 2 , eeea eee Parcs Sens SayaeBoot onee oe.wh OF Mom A ee, oown PoP yetoeaeBES — ae. fe ee at 9~S: oR ewoS opBOS. Hee?aoe eos

cos . BES oo Rea°ereee PC nanaae SsSas Be% So ee ae: gee aSore, 3 Een aSo hoe ee & LOOD, AGFP OEaan oh hes8¢ aSeC ees x4 aa FE Osom ae6! :»aao an we . awe ~ 4Seae ba& Bee. Ae" atoons ° ii Be Fg a07 waeonh Soe, SERN Se neOn er“Rg So Se Aas er ay . LB ye eee eeoe Peg Lee Se ss. oo Avg tg-..eae an ane ae ee — ee RR ee i Br ae” a esasced fey-Sie aeaeeBe eo. 72. RR =&;eee rN wie 8 me re iotiaee & nee ree AreWB Coot “at ~.*S. gt Se ees aan -Ore, *BO Pe ee :,oa RE pon eeoo. ceBeee “ee : Be Ped .o” ee. .”ee vee _Ss gk yeOe eeRE > cE ea tap 3 Venaee awep ad eae “- a) x% oe Soe gt “ at eo. .we wat. Pa aa we a* RON oe Meg eS om 4 ge OeaE ad ~ isin: Seana LAO FY : ,yaebeowe ee as re aeee aeDoe RB oe ol, Seat Da BR Pe Ban |een aBe anewee ad eee ee Bere Sos =. a.SeSS yOS eG eSSO ££ “eo fayy .Be aERR a ee are oe Ca BP ee. Yt Lo 7 pitaaeateretttaa ii aad + les Cae he ae=a Been! 4% 34; $eran eranotsSerenere. Os hE SEO ee Saeed Oswe See aeBaeie ae a,etfF ge He ae8ge FOR |.wePree eS ett ANS: xs *tn or? a*ines oeSS. oe.OES (a* hE, aeYB eeor eS |ee TOR ewes feBsOe eee ge Gone potemee SRG SEES SOREN Ris RSS COON B ot iaes ot SP . Ryees oeSee nd NGM OS « SBR" ON Cay AO Ss Paes. Pat #e ge Se 7% Etch, Gasmears XO feSs » Bee > Fa aig Boeneape ee ee Soo « SS op ge s 4 ¥¢. ae. oe, rege SP RO Rice Rag a. BEE toad Oi Rad } Yo N43 SOR, F Pa E Bae x “ oe - a ge
ne beSSBe BP Secor aBet eae Se pene A, HP ORIN, Se98S, ya ivy? fkwp, 24 cd e} ood SeRRR Or ore ASO, SOR ES RRR Re GOP” A1g BRrine e: oe anar EoERE, erathe ~ En GOR * GRE aR ay. OE RS Poe ROLES Sok koi cr Bel ae BOR SEER? Sacer aaa eis CRE, a a Ce ie mE ee REE PS 2 se So SE ES GN ON % Boog ek ES aetna 4OM ee Fey < GR a ee, Be co ee

Bs, Se ly. eas Ge. " Soren eR eh Cy Se Roe Te PR Soe Me Ss Rc ag es ee rugs a S95 oeBEE ee Reger es Pts aa CeSIAR eo “Win SEED SREAR Case, g « ee “
FREE tee othy», SSBR ateeeneg EeSER Gres. oe 5RNEady Sere, i oo aoe Pe Se A Re SPRFBS RASE oe S|Seay SERSWc oo, SRS ECF eReBe $scn RR. 5 Ra ek SOS sO REN abe BS Bs eonote : . Mt fe ae se, a CF eee 5 Aa!OES + oR Ce ee,BOOS SS SE, REED ee peg ROSee ai, as % og RSelBe. Fee,3), BEE FG ee Sef OR BRE, Brose ae _ «ghee as Pig Oecee, SBS SO, Saee. Rok aeepeco, sag" i Lee Loe,ES 1%fees Rem gos, £ ee ae * Ia aayAS > Be SP 3 *eS ae ee RS: PEELS oe a1oe —< mee we HES ip 78Seating en : 8%, aye ee FEteeege Nee Se Br eae.weer, sh SOA weoeke one Meeelk

Py BABA RS Re8ROO, A ASa aonoe MS RE ee eR eR ~ce R Sees Be NA eS a EROS SSRN RO SeySees yg vea: ae RS : +" ABO Pe oe Ge IR Eeee.ORES BS, ae Dee be Fi he,aces wit ta oeeS ~ M3 5LS hg ee ERspiNe SS Pa PeaF« SS SOY, ooae igatee . sole oR carries seaes oS Bare ‘ SIRS x? 2 Sy See eaeee, RESOON SP BHR oSeda,” % Ma hyeSD z fzERO ee Sos & edEE oe.IE vha Boy” Sienna, Ce ge. ae LPB Pes RSERS 237 GS oe Song OE5OER os rerBR ty ‘o 9 aRe a 3. Be ae an Be nee ee a iaeSER aoe Po Ae SA a Rees ORSRSee. Fe fk OO Pee ee fhOS eee 4gCee eet Rg Mee tbePRG —BVP?OUSBeee RCMRS, ae ee & Ske a? ee meno ok eas se oN-fe] eH>Bek SeaSea TIBr . es &SS Bees fe SOROS, eaeBae Eo gieananer OS Be ceEa ee sR? Fs ees COST wes * a2 aR {ee og RRO ROS. FES SS eraaa.” SSeagsEeREReRS oP” SSG SPS 2 5% Bee CHOSNT 8 eae aiseepee ay ; ‘i iPo ee ae Se. Ee PRS SS aeEES eernaman ofa Se CS IDS NM OAS Re

sf if Se ea Ree ee ae eer gee. SE ae it eo: re

os ae oeSimpenaiet SOR MERON, oo wR | Naa i RE-RD ae aSTO vs {SRR teanene RA SKS 2S33 PK SFSRR SOR RSS SS SSeSeeaosEge cate»rostered SSE ante :. ge Rh: moar RRR RERE Se on ee Af2-eeOS Bio'sSee 3 FF SRSena SERENE. As ore PES j ee >. .. Je

» Re Baberea ceaseeescaesSER ee ee Ce 4 SiO? Seo cor TE, Reig >, OR SS eee ss 2. PonCy” tae EE cea eS Png’ LF EGO Maes es SI AED INR:BESS Ba 5 SeeGa eR i >. Se Ss Sees zs -ey2K SRS RE S'S LtAeees ve See LOS oeSECS BSS actesta ae RS.SR SeanaaR, SpotsiS Rebioremeenenesae 2 #2" $3 geen ey 47,0 rey Soon # en lees aS OP SSR SRR Oe RE AR 3Pe SR $>Soeur < NS oiyaumimeae aman

aiPSaoN eS gea SS fe Perens ii"iarmeateapeeaeaaton eect |. 7)oP*Fy 0” See re 8we OF SY ENF os $9 atsaeth eee epee ».,ERR aeRao SEER .SRO + 'S"§ eS aE ; es “+, GROR Reee ee EE RRO HLS Ow... eraey Serie ee ER ee, ee. ae SSeS "7 ren Sei mem 357 *PUREE Pr £ Seen BE FAR soRN: AS am to %,See ; oN ot SaSats Be ROG e 5OSA. SS ane eee $% es*)>BS RAS # peBoBeae oon esee fFeaey ee > fi7_PSvoy oe se aaa en EOE, CR IS. fey eeaanSS ee ¢RRR So ee ee, OR ate FS eeREE es . SS ws Sas Ps Sena r Sr eae sles BGe Sete so?Eee COIEA sé :ag BEeeSasori

Ue eoee RS aa ECD. Sh See Sage Sag ee eR: os a aR Ah ae Se Ao ee SB fsRN eg| Ng a ea eS rote Ree Ce ”PES SSS SN Re Rees I =PRA AMR cg RRR eesf;FRC SRE Seoaeaad oR gieheareoraneniane Ae «1 OR SRE SRE RENN. oc A CORT, 5 tes bs x - Bae Be < SOROS + Siieiemeaian panne: eh Se 1 SE aie ene renee

a meEP oT eSaSoma ee aE.2” “ SR : o 2ad Fy BA ae FRR SOT. 52 Rommarecermne Re bees f. fou whes ReER oe ae ce /. ee ironic Ue Sy Se 285eee *. eee i see “ae tice 2 es MY einen cin,roy we Ce eg eR oyaCL AS RI Sk ge ee sar eiape ee

Pee, 9°Rie cerap Es aeneoeA EERE, RRR Ce?sAgoer?” Bat AE MOO eS ‘Cece eenen Rs7 229g SABE a 3c ER etectoy See ae EyORE 4 Bee wee)%SoD oeERENT, Sexata, LRSRR asatts See Me SshESeay ORReE ae Sp". SBS Peer SOS OO SORETE a cpapean astercoum Mage FeO*g ERR g Sn re RO 6 ee a*ry seyBes ~ B24 °7, + Bewert wk SOON, a ne \URee eee eee 2eS OS ‘oeoO Cae nersKID Bott's Aa 7“a 3S gg®ae's

Beene rx Ee Me erases SRI. os EBS MOOR OS OE ease eee NOE AN a a ER Sore, SO OS DO RENX: Se eS RRR oo ahs SR oe rr ae 3 ae “Ee oy 2 RR te. a * » Beppe yt ge: eee Geattmmmmaree ee ead” eRe as * Py *) e Crs. ee meta Me er wes Agrones MS" ‘e, Py Se Se Ay: “ee ra FEAR EF Beer een $e HE es

TR See Otel rn * BQ Bena Se a BENone ae Perce? ONAF A BEeae rng ME. Ot SeBe. ri me 66 Betts ig Vay eorei SS See ae [ e oN NR EER. Sa aere$ go . .SEPIA BE See PORTE Ree(0 RB Bg, HERO x SEE, 2". 8Ree > Bok ee ae ae eee earectaSe... oe A eeea.en1 atin, eeegeo peeSSSR eM SS B byee+ a gs). 4. O78 ST | i3 Veet “ous & *= Sf %Be ee Copter eo eePresweg 5 oy ERE, . paeo ekgs ROE” eetiae »peeyee,|.ema Sees , wk voySeren Be 33 "res &“ereA . BBR SS Stor Seer, RET ne) Se ae EES SERN a PB age tk geen eS é oe Ss ay RB 2 Beer (fs SE ont seSo Sia Sk Me ee, a BAe ne EGER SP Pe PR BOWE. x * 4 a sence oS RC % oer. Ss ea Ne ae aAe oS iodine OPS REOSEP {SFa BS cele BP aie necro REe TI Sy TRII SRRSe rom is bo ee. e2 “ye cuerote me “Bees idsEEO | SeasOES See Bbostoncotmesenptane \ in oteonabeatotn tanta ine RY es tay LC oon, BERSCRE | EF BOR Rae OO ReesBee $< Bay BOogFSae| Seve as”J Sh os BO 73f oN £22ee5 ye eeeoSeee RES SSOP oa TOO NS corBEF GeeSRE | 74Soames epee ESSSSOS WEE ed fay

thgor oS Se 3 xy SS '4 dsES Ree Oe KSISS ? Boo Bekcon RRcinanenateatir eae cnc. 2 Nee AOA A SS pe >¥ ,Som, Bera| |CN | SOO SiS 4RB 2 Sahat % er!gerare y 2Es3SF o:3 4 a. Me, oe aeBO GarSERRE 7B Seger: ae Pa ee BR. OY RsSea SRRIROB oO Rs cc on FBONote, pgagiee B atoness ES SPIO KG BOSE FP oe

eee. Oe, 3 xYR wee f° poe a ea Ue tions energy AyCancers ‘A ySTR eg 6 CEES Ss. £oehatha? 2 . had >Ne &SES We oe ~Lon 7S w demas a? eo. Bs neeS Ce SEEN, Sfe BREE | 3 0i an isBy Sa B ‘ ;Ro Sees & gosetes - .eeyreeeePEST: cane KER oe:eam Soren reer RITES econo a Saree Pane eeoO, ots FR. ft oO * iftgseSe4 2‘

fa OR oy ys a 2Mees ULanNOs $7 ”yo - Bae coats ::

aan__,ET. ae EIST tie Se aes SR & SS5rome 0gohan 8 ARS eee eR Botti eceaeee e af Bee Seria. OeSikes Begs S88 | ldo fog eras? . Born eee oe $ tise gow oea«AE eaaagenaaaenee « Ry e(eeBase FS*2Sepeti a Ba § Fs Mitatse Reoe "Bee RLF Resear ree er: ES2,S SE aenoag: Boones. BEES | COE ES BigSee eS Sane seee ehwe EPRVOOOUREENON S00 909009% et cat eefo S990 Pe see See acres ETE er x ate oe AEs i RRO ERO ic as as SSDS SERS

7. The same p

a es b

Diirer. tion of a pen and ink copy , Reduced.

aPree Ag. 2th oeeseei BR SnTete. PE a“oe enoS ee,og rT. ™’rrie‘=e 8 3 es oe : on ce LF 3 eee C - eeeeTee po ee, ee Ei. 3sani -4 Sud Seei awe EE ENO OO a : Re eee ate

ee OF gh eeoy gePe, RS ee ee SSBe ee RRcae ERSpe aa Oe ee igee eeWe $eaie eas Feae. Be Eee RR ARee ee © eee ge Re SS Be ster asd * ght * Oe os. BRB ie =Biles fe eal ene: ae Ree, a eg, ao "Ses ee Beene. Sigatod Seen Seeenae Peesee a RR acne 6.5eg. poses CREOF, bis mes % go “y aeat sataCO — gos , pit effSnorsat‘iogepierre. va pe gereeaeetaee a aPRs ahaoemates Se . ~aeeee OntRRearn Se YR? Gees

Re aeeG eed ‘ee, eeeSoe en3 Se LP 7 “ ae ah Egea©Bea Se eSLe ee fe ceeoy x aeaaeee Seee iis Gee Sh, ON3 5i Oe i alll eesae Sete we gr Fe gee we eek

aa Fo eeae ee FeBecue re Ores 3See Pee ce oe eee eae Stxia os xneSsEe ge Sis. SaOB ar ~ earn Seeee, Po EO. Geese 2 Sap, Bie Pats a wat 9 ot"coe a; 5 “eat < BF : SIE aeeeLe Yoo Fee BeOS. eaeies * «SONG SEae St, OSSOS. a aeSRR, #2 SURE 8 aea4-ae RE wroaee

OeaeOe ig if BR. ae el Lee wR oPSeay Sere eae. Res éEe a ee me yi ge oN ae.hag oa a6 eo a eae aeaig See | se: Be.fe£8 Begee ee ohaaag Paes PEoasane: eS ie | :gs Ler: gv Cy we ore eeeeaStee. "ie Psee oe eee eg ayyet_*ae ne oe%eve tS*oyeae” ~ce; o, - 2™ZeRZ

os i pe Ve eres a.“; aS Ae Gsaej ‘age Mets%aosoeHee Z is pease EESS FORO BE feae es?effee ye eee ie Lf Be Oe a fo a ise 4 Fg Ne ae me CLES ee i Mies Me See ae 22ERE eeiaE ce “OS: “et as : a:Be fe % Bee Z seer pias cee OER aie — eo ee ic ae Peay pBe ; acne: nek ya og in ine 8ey foe ot bg :Seaa.ee cee ee oe —— esaiea Regn: i ee § Bees eed sea a CC so hywoot NS aed errs oearo yore ww eer mie —Scat Steeeens nee Syee eee. omEe va? ee et Sot RE . see ee odZ eT rrtrt—™”r—C oe Hose ». 4 ee , Z ee rrr—~™r.CCCi‘COrN aa arte: So Se ROS roe Se ... 2 :. a Er #? one fo RE — | Or SOS a Pa ean jo a iS Fe ae roan. a ae a=—h—M . xesee BRE Baciios ee axe ‘i ao£ °Nt RL aRod SS Rs eee OTF a bg eeRRS IBe pene 3ee i—rr—r———.—TU—U—(“CO— ——r—OC—OOees—~—~—s~SO ea,NS eee. ‘a:BRR eS he ale Ve gk a ES prethiguteuneenanec ee iiecieaetganmaes eae ERE OS ee eS eae 2. Ee . SRR -

oR 5 KS FP Mw Bote ie pe aeaS. naraeR | | Riana neces — cen ea i... Nar SORES |a ARP os 8SBae a hot SO ee eeteBaye ee” i... .}]}]3§=F ee ne -— sagt A: vySB oR oy 2st ks RO By D6 asenrneeea ees rrr Oe \BsBes SR PS a8! OE Bae (+ See PE _eenaenn Bae kk ye See: SS Fae SRP ot— Kkrr~—~—”—O"*ECS o | —t—sr—— RI es SER Se Se axe Se, oS adsg Saas oe “ee eeRES sakeee | rr—‘_ O—r—~—~—‘“_—S—N—sShe ee ntSee ERE Brg Heeaa eager is eS SicRRR 3 ear EE he age A ERE — goer" eo: Ls Rg gh Lae Cs 5s oe | —ses—Ss—S—s—sS—mh See re Oe Se + SY pes “ Be. ae a Re -. i . |. Bee SER eae BS SEE Re Senne meee RONEN eS BR. eae

ne ae Spee he eh : hrt—t—‘_CC— eS _ el ee, Se

Ye et 3 BER caer”: >Tae Bee whe le pee eeeSES neaaeRe. iSS ==—seE Rihana aeraeens ROR 2Sh ReER wae -.. SeOS Bs Oy = TL eefeRES ee SayCee SectRR deter eh vateneuas SERES a:et SRR Sen oR oer By Ro: ae SESE ESS e--@D BR See Sea, SS ..%iSR weg geo USCS ge et £een esee = Sgt ——rt—i—“—Nrs— Ra ate RON Rs ad I RR REN oe i *. ves peas

Pereaos i abee Sh ee oaiomeon tees gi... 7 Fane Re pins. Soe ta eSSe aesRe SS ES ORR Se |he EOae oygeBRE 8BE Rees ERSoe a iTe, Spateet dppee. nd eaeAi LEeegira es EEN SRSee a OE ip tte © hes OS. 6Sa See,oet, Begs een sieht ee pe ag Se PIS in -ttt SP 1ES BE eo gt ee ger 7Ssae SS BH eee ee SALE eee Rae Seesn oe re ee Se se aaeet aepeas aaRR a Se IRE as Se cr ner Matas 2 Se. ee Sar ae e oe aeee *eeetee _REG OSee Aare “awaa eri He: Tee neh eae mee ey eeF BEAT er eo ae SeSeas ee

ee Le - = oe a SES Ee Og a es eee gg PRET a ea ro oy wy OF, Se a oe Hk a cas Soe get om BERS: hh? ER Rs, BF eee xe ad “ge So ye = Rese eon. , 6 z= es ee ita de eee a ReeeRepaer.. oe oe Be Se ON. BOBER. “KeBee ae see Rexeere 2S ehSee ol,Sremsrenee ; oe 2 & Cae are ” Po “RR, * ee ee 8-fTASree ER2 Rewo ereBRS enone Nn >seRE CaN OKSg ate MRR we «oe” we BB, EEE kee a re ee eee pc. ee ae ag ee es ee eo cae ee ue TS Bete Pe eS ° Re es Se es BSS “a -ie Fes Oea Bak, SR ERR ER IE eae eee eer re BS SER eae gobs cen ee 2 TS. RRR OE gas cy eed ? _ : eeRe so Oe ae ee bee eee eee ey » Se Se ae oe ee 2 CS a as ae | ae oe ee Se ee SRS . re — yw ye ¥ Read Vo case Pee Qe BE axhy, ears oe oo : a ES ee eee A ay Soe Be a RIS Soy 2 ROSSER Sener Becta ON aie RS ae >. at & oe YR Soe OE aa * as wes SS SOP oY ee Oe ks Pee Se eee . Sage

grpoet yt aserosa “SRSeaten aaa Bi Beto eae CORES ¥.rae Souci Sern Rsreatea eeBRENT KS at wah “REL ge ayeetOR REG “+RE SRR AS ateumwonne ane erai Seu ae a Bet ByOe annWS oni | BENS RRS MS et SOUS. apeUe Be?Fe ESaSy ON oO es ae ‘ as _ | RRR bani a naar SORE RRR cttegs ee ORR 5 RS Sean es as ORR ee Fe tes Sr © oeAue 3 “ att EES eee 7& septate xFocus Fd «Sy oY teh al for Noe Ta SSS .EC EME RE OU soe eeBOF skeae a0 ke SEES Oe =%aSa TR .RS MN Sos aKO anSE SVR Oy a“& . Parc SoBe eRae cafe‘Ms coe PS om. ay ak” fe RS eg SAU Shi enna ey Seamenicer SR Sua* arian coat EAR FT RS eeeS RS : +Ons a _Ss Soe

+ PO ho PO Reena ay ein ogee ee ee oa og RS re Re eS wy BPE sy eS ca “> -2gpRaRRER” Beeb Re

7 . ”ney alde Beiieircccrsscosase SERRE Ree eanSERS SSS eee ee De Bocas Re SER Smee x Sasa senSerena neat tee eS os neonate a a ae BoSrvc A Se es ES P page SESee PRs oo Ss Pd ee Ce NRC AR SRS isan CO SO. “ ‘ are Re Se Fs RoBE Behor * Se ARSe

ws BE a wo. 4, _reRes ROE RS, ReFeeae 3eee eeReg ee ee ue Seas 7“: Bee ee soeaS weOT eeaegt 3 aFoose ee ee eeaewee SRS aRSo SEieia aca eC Tin Suepes eS Se eyla ws Pek, Ot Eee Baoan: oe ere Rotiene eatin, es:Ee Ch eee een eeeRe ECE ea Sie ey aRe he Rae OS TeBae 7grra BOO PSmatt rs oe gh Pa ae tie Re ee eS ee. vo TR gee ee ae ee +aapeeeae SR s?mee eee aowe RS aeee a RS SeaeSeerr Fes ERO eh Rone SiR neta tes RRS ° a SERRE Sere te See- SRE SURI Bods eet Eh SBE SRogy ede eo Bg we Sk bee Ss _ aES eee: Pg SF et” aecee See geSe” oeORE fy dine OO ag ARIA PEURI NRO "Nh ‘ Sok. Dal he F* atee Bee. eteS Pesccheeacmrenncennne EOS ne ENR STN SESS EO Sher RRR eS RR oyca, Moayer ae . gee. eesis! go Foe 22 5 Sa aes %?Beanie SRS Ra a‘etwe ee ° See eee es Pe eS, OS a oy a ge 5, FRR ie re Bigs gs 8? § a a we. i aa Serene OOO Saks. RS ROS Pee £0 Te, RES BROS eat Be Ng gee x os ea a ra RR ae Se “a Soe ae 3 PERRO ORO” On, DR Ri i CRS the poe agit 7 Sea eS ees ee 2, Me oe Tagen oe Rs! 2 at ir al ay GT SRR Retted ce age” i ne et aan A PIS eae s3 OR rn ee iP” on, BR, OE gee RE RS ce, 28. re rr ee xf OTS, 2 tS cd: See “s e rs wee ee 2 See eae ve RRP ate eh A Sy ee preteen RRS. ts ge eee Ee P< ee Ae ge a oe See 0s RE Be eS Res BERR itRe - Se oyERR BPSRO RRcoteg eaten Bis 7ee ee aCe agH, ae See re apgOS RoR Se" sed “Lon aneAS RRR BB pce eee eae pce SeiSo See pee go Be eeSEE aetis gt ®gees ES oy, TR eee see eco Roo: Sy: wee - ose ° aERB BEM he wer FsSeBaga Sees 7 See. AER BN_OSS,» RR Seee aeaeer2B es eeoe, he i:Baa, Se ROP fo. 2a -BERN REawe BS:cy a re >Kg See cars SR .-.soatieneeegeaiine: Seen can, oe: SE ere a a SiS eeYee gene, eesti cata RRR wo roan RSee eae &% >. x, 3xOS ERR #Pa sh ae: SE. RS By eee Sea 5 ORE Oe talrrrrs——i a Ae Soe ateBk SETTER akyo PyaSXineh go Pad eeee PRR ay ae eh Rs ee. RRS aene RS See gs -* eae ana ne ae are ee ey ok oh ee a SO wee AES es oY < See es See eee ee See EE ER, cS, aD LS aed pe eee A i pceee SE m2 ¥ Fy gee oe we Re BE eo 8 See ao Re SES _— .§. é ee eee , cone eee. Roe ee ge oo Pi a ees a i: SRR a Rsore

8Bee «6—|— ae po eee Be res woe es ge AS RS 6atesco ne eee aen SSSe” 8esi xe aSte sci pe ese Soommaane. RRS a iSe. SSR eS ae RS Ak Ee be ee .Soe BS IO ee OR Eas83 _ Sn | of pe es eeor2ee ( oa SBRE BeRRS FS es .gh 2_aE 68 + pe *Seen ESS eae I ee RRS eette Bee. gue =eeRO Be ean eeaR Th gsRe fee FEO ac.Peron as .RE >* Fa RRR: Soe bay Susanna gerne men ee: i.ocean ORR ES ae ORE BE .ng wa Re RE Sy eSae SSme eo oN ss aae ieee.ee 5 PeBS ra OSS p6 BER Se ce ROU otirececsseaoee SN BM a Fo pi seat aa OO Rye hE RRRue af afPRhe Res ee tegen ak ge 2reod Po See SE BRN 2a PF PLS SRRO gh BOE eteSESee SRSeROS

CR RgEF Seaoom Bee eS eeere Fe RS BRae Set EN ah B Sede 8rad sug eye ee ane EE ee ae 2poe —— . i:. aaPec eeae ae Oe raarECB Pani ieEEE cy " OP an ER aeaRy . Se Se .. Sg ee oe om ens: Sa” 3sReLEbe ‘ne’ . >woye oP Be® eo nn SSRO, Ra adves nt SOS 3 Fact SeaEa BR SS. ees Be eTee terete snes Seemeseets Becca asunc _ Rares : init eS ow Se “Be Ser ae soistenecnnen Sr Wit 3 & $ Sees tee IP REO ont ee TE SE aN oea ee eBSE BBRec "aes ROSNER, SMM cence _ ORES ekSe eya PEE, Losatires” sapien res Slog Poche ae$e Sere Ss = Bae ‘ie «See poisoes tue seca “eeee spear ane ene Rant 7 Bm ed Fe ee Fd,

erKat ge“yore SF. en eeaeES ea Siete, & eee pe ae Re EA RE Rcd a xeSNe. © gg Be otz,ir Bo ER a ok.” gh * Aye ee Sela Ses Remon os me, oF" er a Seat 8h PSE SESS aSirona ARERR ee Pee 4 SESE «| Re ANFRY SES wg + se eeSooennnannaaane ne ees R Pes *®BR Se.&. | eegE e ORS ona NR ad Bees See Se med ESS siiermoneneneny ORR POeS |Re ecksgees ant Sy can nn aes ee ee ee BS cee ESP es Sean: |” RON OES PORE 0's, RR OE Se | RS RS Res y ee. ys BS a €e mr & os Bn Le, Se ee ee “Sees poesia ee PRs, Sa RSE Rig So he. Whe Se gS + SRR Sia ere Siete arenesc | NS & RE ts “ase ie ’ 2° o eS em ees Seas See. Rares og. lt afte. Be gg Ee Re ass are ROS eee [RRS BREE FE ait al BS i 4 BS ‘ ets ne oe Se eR rience Tees eate EE RS BBP eg” SN a ane a see ese, Sf OS + ORR sepa Steps OS, RRO T ah ~~ ON oS we Og PEO, pe Sa Raging Ree SRR, Pec eae ee 2S” : rd Cee SR. ' gene Be ed oe ‘Saar aoe ag SRE oe SESR er.Cy ee ies a"2 Sgt aBIO Re ad OY a oR gE OR sR SESS: SESS Sa *Ex SAS

ls. ee oo ee oe eet S See ey ae je rN : ie eo ; ; oer. wo of aks i Ress ae ww Be BS ae Ree ROR

:. : , , avin . 1Sé

5. Torso from the en

f

y gna. Enlarged

e

wi er = Sah oe 3.8G Se& oo ap _ ee =NAS % ee esAes AY Os k Beret rome oF . Ss Pee a ; ; ee 2 Se % I ae ae . aeeaee °, cs wees : , a Ra oe SO ee MONS Sh SNES EIEN 8 on ee we :yf = a es BI Me eh iy eee gets Ss pee Desens» Sa we Pee, me > ; aes oe Se aaa M4 8%, Vo UN Mite 8” ee ne ew FU RS 8. cee > eR ey Ba OPO oe. Six ried . .LON: Set ake BS 5are atan: :a °eeeyaae eo i . ar fea higGata nl WY Uh GOES F: es pg ro roe Frc, Sona Boa |S es: _= eer! Re — .= fs akee .Bate "evan oe tC ==ee Brees ae TIN Rao xy! = . ,Nia ass—LOO ee aed asat oe. ee Sok oe 2BR — hiSyee WA ene: Ny oC ot +=2=—S ose LST Sr ee -— sg ay Se oh BR oo Sas se Be = = 4\ Ci = Rg Acero es

3 ¥cette . ERre cs res Meine

.na Baro. 29 SBE — Se Nad Sy Br gh30 Ee =: Bebe, 65”oe mega See ee SS HOT eeERf=Beet NER $3.3 Ce

a Re See en Rey Sheet os etn saan Sexy siege om eee SSE Soe eae Por IR ORS SE Beta,» BS ora

-_ N oR SS ~ he ik ryet, Soo Sy? 3h Ty woe Me ey ez. ;, oe Co See ae Be x24 oH . we eel’: 7 oe es Oe, fics Peo: Sn Ba ae ; Lt he 8 cA gt ESS ae ¥ ee x FES & Us arlene ee we Oey: ese Set ee a ie: ae eet ee valk wih 3 Fe ae eS eNSN oe BPE Se See aa wed’ ES ae Re: Ps RARER, §eeSe hes teee es | isSe ME he .So La. PEI Qo bp toe SSBB Peay, a eee aSe RS ES Se Ae Sg veahanaae,, * 3: eewan os BO 1AN cae gy BeAare tse >7 o¢ tSSEES BR oe POR awe Oe OP ey pers, Ne Atay ee B65 78 Pa eR A ‘~ *+> MESS S35": 4 OF a. . Se aSEI . Salto ake i ESS pees REE So , ¥eyed ‘ Bx, Syl yes 8 oe : thee. ne tees tee Es a? te Yo : aaa 5 2 2 Ree pears pan a Ste So «pk gS}. ae, Tee — Bh PG? eo Setteewo ieog teehe RR see se y|”whey weeES, ee geiss a Feoe. eefees £ooe Heel *..|

esse 2 fe & se Ky da. aig Shs 5 ee core ee, Cs es see : a ae nae 6 ghee Phe fo $87 .wien sy i fF peop pets SE De > . 53 4 oo ae fC Be, x” Ge Bee oie bene wa Te aim bad . 8 Cs ALU 2, BS OB: vat Os oa es res as Co 6 ag ig S. ed Pye ek mage? Jk vga we ON ae 38 ay tgs: ce e oo ad age ae fs rand 1 2 wre, og ‘p we aay vg.§ ae _ -s al og&fgSane Rh a an HE" Je ge 7 ee FsBa Si on eaeSe ESeeBoas

ce ee eS eee ere og gt paceman ak og bees 2 i 2 «2 oe Seles Nee ts io Se ore Hee — « es ee oe Ne tei oh er? ars Rai

fy RES: wetec 2 3eae Ra ey Re aose SereSes ee 2. 2 “a ER oe Se Bo SPs aN oaroa eg ey teak, paneer ERG weet, = 2. 2 CS oo Paes RSBR S58 :

ee ee Nene ®, SAO oS ee =o 2 gem ae, er Rene ne? Le atDsoe peg * acs ast Soe Deere hee PEoth aSa PS ae Beee _— |— RY 8seS BOOS Pa ’,* + oe ROOD SARIS xy SI— oF Se ce — $xCO — ge3eS an ielay id *RLS t6, oY eae FORE asc FORS Reece Sg eRe hee %BRE | A oo oe ge oe. er 3, se58 BSE po. Se cee $F tS} SER Bae e DL =. a" SOR Bo oe, * it Fae My PS 3 oo one oe a EINES TE S-*:SER eeGay 2S et Epo gS 1a ey geeet fate A, SANOODIOR oF ah 8Rea 38f SsRee SSSe 2 SH ag Shen 1AMoe sey S89 3 FR rasan RSRene « et FS ceesth ~~ a ens s Sin? Kay oat Pa:

Bsr te cs. aeons EF een me OS — -ee |.-. ee ;Re ee Sela sy A ee Mines al24 x8 Se Rae —oe: Spares Ee eee] ‘ SOY, RSa sonore es GG oh Sey BR a! Serres 2S Pee SK F8me | ER nee caer 2See Ss 3So Raitet ai i8eee exe Neg aSoe oeeeperc: sa (ee os eNotes stony we neae:SgOn. tate syee Ne a= Cee Bs i fhone eeot BR

eR Vere ee oe ee Soe On: ior & :BBs. 13% RRS BSSoa So) ares peeCate Eee See Sateen USeena Sages Road I NS eS 25 agin Real ee?6oewok ael bgiret &eS s 558: Re Ve pees ga aes Pe BR aeSoeaee Sh Bo SN Ma aes ee>» Fog EK ye P.TY SEs Pee Ceaas. eeeee Ses SRS OER oe 2eea 4. See os gree Se k OE oh RRO Son aS Sees i.mie eee Mg nesOe gis Sen Se .B ae Ree ey ee"SP ed ne” «Be : Be Be, Me bey [fF fi Bee ee aad ee KS wn

aes ERCSE ECE eeae: a ASSe ee: — ce eeEee ae GOR nc Beanieyin Sore? eae¢ abs + ee: ee GES oe aa oo oe ees Sem fo ee ey. iaene wa od -asane OE Sa ae aeae eye PES eS fe ces c gS Ee Ss oooo 2 eS 8 Sat oe0a.eeSree ae ae“

43% oeSee Oe os Seee eeSean ee oes te Spee os Lsiatnrgae | Bes gs SeeepiOS 5, Ge Ba :3Nahe pee ee te as SgWate Se Bee Fee Ce — SIE veo? Pepe & aBS ee. OE, Bo ad Soe —SFB Seas ; SS RSreve CagBP ee ae nar Ree: Se ae (Fe Se See — reas 6 BSR OS eK SR ee S ae oe a te RE er, Sos gece See BeBev aN FO” % 2g Be ye ~etof 4; 5; re REY Se eR is | ye pants eee & 38 roe aS pee ee Ae gt Spore ente se Sree Sane Se Sees sub Seneeas Sa ee SER Rh ass eG RE S555 ROR AO Be Oy Rae ree SSE hey, oR RRO to Pgh No i+ttCo ee gore TS ‘ery re Ry ww 3 ee aHe pee Be Sa Se Oe By ee: Sag rage ®aE%2 TRB eee IS aig % ae WEE Soe Sgn em ’3S Re Re ERO, SPeeP Soe Scere, ERX Sen pers e SOE o"B&H see eB gE? SRS RR pe bs aSeen ee .S NE Betis ‘gg OS aiyt Ree eeeiee Bone heh ehSR esSCR SN RE So eg OEP RGN B% Ean, £95Rid Pua EAR & stgah % se Oe ee Se RS ye RS Re SS ree A Ari et "3 ;Rs oo eek 108 Re Vo Re 7Syren es = eee Pa ee ety Se3SSe eps Le£- *

“3 F- |me —esers Ze eae Oe .oeee 3 yyee gee do 2,ee chee ar1ere SerES “> ene SeBak ee ioes ee BB sercnssoecen we § RAS fete BPzESK ee Bev ; Pee a :; NC Be ae Soe ‘ae ee. ee Pe SUS eo Se feae meee OE ste ee agit ge woe ; Ree Re esnS gees fe we Sao oe Sepagina AF coamtoctirptet BN ae 6Eoye ge xew ak WO asSe gt7 >VPS RyN: *oS — Seie fis2 ae oe RRS «96 Rea oR6aN .as,>oe me 2BER RN BO itee_ees ae ete. * Co oe oF F,pos ueseRete :RY i| pelea” penQore

Noe ees ke ain | Ry OP: SB OS ee5 ‘once efSeSy og ioy DHT Ba sBE : Cg net 2im a .. Ne eRON: oe ae Ryere he hea: oe Lee ee Ee epee eT arBighBoee | Meg Sh eis ae get 1g BER Seeks SS ke eae wee 5Se Ze aS xs mS” Bf. 7en ke" Pa os SoS eee Bon &ee Ss LeaR ee eees Boe, ASP PE* .ann SNS | ig, hie, — Seo, et OM ee fy atte :_-ee *> HR = ee So me EBS Soe Sea es oy afate

SS US =< met Lah tS retfe” te ‘ :;, :. :3 AN SSS == ti—“‘i‘ Ro AEE recs aS 3en aeetyey “xyPe eoaan hots “4% ee: Nes Sok Sr Be oe =oSRRR Yh, oemee egwore Shey.* ?re: “*e . - nae : — — ey oooeee ee—3we ee eae “4, a° es Sees Se RSE Peay-e PEE Se 37 mye ee? ee 8 SR e . SiN: egy en Hae tie wkoe aS SSari‘ 26s ce: Paes gt sD Ai re ae eee. = =NA Ae ree? 3”. ae See “sR Se =Rp =—8— oS ‘ad eer 5ita$!ne ee 2: eo 2fy Aa “ap > Saks an ‘ . tox ae i akRey SS ~~SSS rt—“‘_OCOS Rohe ee eegee eeore 3 zBe _oe ga Se ee ee Sage Ne 6S ~~ rr—~—“—s—OCOR So, he — Port tS FNS: ae]

oo . eS BeSACs SSMe ~~ SS Sek TF Sg at ee |+eta. “ga eh ~~ S242 ieeh .Sere M7vara ge.. an wee Be Ne =fla? SS #, oe ., “x” :ere é”7acre oe a~ap ye, Senge NR RN ee =6% «_® Bo, ame xR. .*:xco Reece ogo pe SE ea {_ 2 Py wee : 2. “ge a ERO SS Tg 2p, RRS, — 0LUrrr— ee alles d + Joss . ‘ Wes &. She SAS = le — aaa ’ . 5 :™ wet SS « _ 2.8 Bet ee oa oe yt . F is* a er — . es 26 S ar aan : 4 + ae . . oa on Das Sw OS re oS Bee ff * NO ; ‘ aes ° : wn aes SCN [_ ~~ —— hay ox : Pe ehh, one .Ne Seeks 2yy as=— ae eg? éresBag a7,2: Oe .ent RD ye! ee %So — Se .gig :Foie: ¢eee a PPS ae :weeoe” Ny SA — aes nas, Se gee = tirr bY Be .ROS 2 eat — 4 ae meaAart Pe é2 32ee a2 a* « Fs iad wig * . x * a eR -— 2% &S = ee a ae — 2s — SP he : s. ne : ~~ S| Ay Se ft a st Ay ae my Pde any = =. SR 2 IR BE * os re ae ae e796 ORG ,j ee Se ee Be oO * Re? Lae Sof fe ae a * Ss oes San [eB p> i * gee ee ee es Bg oe wR Se cee 0oo LULU ceo UF f fn fafoi tye SFeSteAge mS= eee 3. $e. Se|SRS — Sea, We SRD Ss£s See, =ogg raeeioti feae SPP 7ae & Res ksra $ :Broke . ~~ Cl ee RASS agee%, BE eScsSeeZ oe OY Pas 6B ge esacAe Sa! A POG SANS patel. orn ‘ects iote a .vean

. SS % 2S aan aw” :

oer Sey oes Bs a sN: Week e eer.” oNNaSee seecraheed poeFE OY Saal n Oe xe Bee oe nee to ee. Ga eee SeONS ees SN Boesain, AA So& ah ae hes asecesot iy, Pre SSfae enced BR& teyereeee . > ves ~rice (oe us: yBFP fee aa 0eo _MeN So 17 REE eee aeCee eSOS oeMe ge ?BE f7 0Be eR a ve rn‘Ryo :,. f 2esok SR NEN es sien ee LLL ceeg NA oo os ma SEER aeEES. _o RS SeUS Roe NS Nie ©ae Saom Aci)8REE: BBRee. ag 1 ey £%,Oe evn * 38k te yee: Let . vee

eeSee | ad ER |EEE ARES seal ema eee «os fe oa era _$3: BS GON RES Se oe see EE KsBe pte cet ,“gas .Jo re 7we, .ve oSi :§es Ss RSE xARES RE SS eee SRN, Big - Jog teh Ree, ailis “oe 8& we .Ni :Og ‘Se A Boe aSaas Sa oO *srd ie tea’ ge an Sas geese *. | ep & sesEE aeea SS RRR Se ee fk ‘yen afp Ms gh? ty? eased sao ‘2aex™! SONS ge en Ee ean ia aae,: aPoe! NSE Saeed Se eR BP Rete :oe oon BP ;pik Bees, ae kd ane Se, Sy ™“ a“fe Seats Bap ~# SR *aA aNene fF »aeea088 8Die, ieee ROR .“¥Bie .shee sa es )

~ a Eg . . * we te eee” eo ce .

en Ff Ep, %ecos Rus Lanes es 1aoe hg ‘‘OS Oye a -SERS z© xero, sg ae onens , Sema 4% ee. Pato reo * \ ey, Be x® >BE ve 2? ABS eo oe oe 1a ~Pdaeoe neNO eee areca ee phe ee s * "eoLok:

16. Torso firom Di rer’ S enpr av '

). Enlarged £®

eet gO Le EOI ak OAS :

——— fe Mipsis SAE. i GEE iN (See as KS =~ \ racemes IG ieL$,ASS ers RS See”

speeesnle eon he “pitta AE is ence ar N \“>‘SBD ee : FO pry,Cok 4 ser eee eeesSEFES EEIS. nn” aEBe aeyyRS RePEE Pog FFOme SF $L gee 5 to Y AW int enGES aes EP 5 PLP ateRe ees! Sern. ff, “OS ote,SF PELE Fo es eee£88 & iican iyEN’ ee|SN AVE

ee //// FP Lome rt. UWS Ue RAwas? ) AN pe A iy) CS NS ie cd, (Sa i S//, i assem Fa |Ly A WY, /)aN Wim7, WyWRAY ANZ Gy Ae Sceemeeeeesoomceremee od & Eye ‘ay \\UTE UR HHA SN eat LE LII TO T ES & dag OS. fhe pice” MER ‘ye Oe ae£y) an Th Meera Py ey Beeee )) PatUi i2721A corn, enone Li ont | Cz, OES ERS V) ee (( AN SSf S; BAL a) eeSSN A} |

osereeeAT roPehee #4 bi Ty‘ M raASS BASY ANA Sees BULA @ pS ae QQ ‘) \ ARRAS RNS So DT a SNane 2S . Eee =a ih ot iYanceMy (ZETA, WN RAS SNe RA WU ——— yy yf er GCA 7 Wseee i\ J“SOE TORRES Shee SONN OO SS8 SEF j=SA) = ————— Wy va CAS), KOE ar Be CSEAY — Suaacecasepeereneece CET BEE : sf go ore REia eS pesmi Bom SES tS" S54 Be wg § 3 6 goes ht EN CRO ERG NORIO ORIEN I, AG « ~ oF lili

prsaparucsseosoncestin oof Je) apa, Geena ee ee era dea liye: Noa FN SRR RSS. - Sree . wy) S Yee ae

SW Ew SHAWN SYee2 Qo ~WNSAN == ed OM AN eer SE OSORIO

fy Heed g ( [Ree eal CAA ID BP HP gS > P fea a, 8 eb, Peano. a

es AtCe \\Weaayeeet—iéi‘ C2 eae P77 et Sy SE gsWei 4463, fi typi = —S HANI hy eyJA= \SS eG hy Wks ‘Obie 5 ree a Te — OeyZA Lf ow id

pO. ee Sees fe] enta? ie Shireen a - ae Secs 80 FUL = ks ey ENffosan Vals 2) ' ee P ee ELS goings ee “i IAe eeRee fl SSSR se OLS REAR VRS eee awe OK em RYN SS Hat Ce re RIF ue os OS [Oe Ee ee ee some OS ae as aa| gSeay ry S v “See Ny 9 fo 3 Teor . ej 3oe a 3 oie o oe -— ae Orge f Fe LS fey PLES: ¥ % ve Ee PBS H ES i ae oR Se

ie Ma Nel toe bfBp 6 ee asMUNG — fi CGR fy KRESS TE gotete wy, eeFEee ~oo4958 OeIT Hf) ee ee // o// ie VARA Re eS Oe er oO ae 67: os Vii), Pain V/AV/) BN! ///

eH ee fy, NOY SHUEY

GF fF cries ify a ee Ys. mn Ne Mi “SE :

ee ce .ee- eee wt &hog € atyCp Se AOL eee BasPE Vee i } re > tfag Bee Pr, “ _— - = ef, 2 BP ~ Be = en

SIT Ne ee er frzgce 2 rtgfFf, GH ¥, $34 yF43: “ iv so .awe 5 oe bee ee a ——— sf ll at gs tee PS 5 See (nee Ne) = we A 6s£ae a hese f i, v; YY $ i Se ee fy " fs; ON 4 ea = eg Se Gee pheA bigs 4 PEAS a q/,ndZi é fi oo Se ee . —_ae he oe oe MEL sIgges We, 8 oN Le : Sas,a%Gy, Yy sf ~fj$ seh 7 aeAptng tguf,liiy? eeeay “Wy i a aeasUy Se 1080 fl eT REO ig fs Mg (Hi dy gu) ie SAA A Cs 5 lffoesBS Ia®re2Lites pee ee aeify Wed jsaebeHe Gy 4 Uy Sa st liCi OR CC AIP FINO ge AERA ES Gewo abe fl 58 lll TOE +

i fr | Ze £2ee EE Bee MB tL YY ee yo - if/ -teP iTey th £0) BE,aLpbate mais eee! feos foe fe bere) STATA ee ceage ite ©|ZBiG YY Ug Aa

TS Fee Ea EL eh WEE engch Ht aie /// Wg

SS ot LZ tas Lg, dy 43 Side areres oyee hat ‘eeson Sse Se feRSS ee Coe ha , Gy oF :. ae COS fe o> Se oe oO GE. eg csMt Lg. PSoeg > Blige d gfey : +see as PS 4 i:eSORES eee cteoPkoa $e ea eas HU ie ay Be Z:gS Tak GY: BROS Mle See ween ee ee ane ge NN 2088 8 8 Aare q * Saar Se ie 46 5k Re £4 $ Ss aaa”. ae ees re see or HEE ote? e Ses Ment J 2 ee ee 8 Yet 2 es & at & ae 5 re aha ag © 73 2 eo SF 8 ¥ g

SXVa i eeihpeaeRooeeed 7 LT BetsSS “ *ots veeween’ DOTAAS MEaay LReRweNys 1 AL (eee pias SIO, ay ///, # NY Ly en at a Ch i APL ae Bs Gd SI WN eos er ME re Oe Pee usin aa as EE yaa S “Te Rr, Siwot eae mee 8 =—eo( (UNS Peet A Seii), Fie 3 fi a7), i) oe ' Be Choon? \ 8 Mie igi eer Ve ee ae Sear) oie eae Uf,

ii £3. oe Ze See Ne / /

eSf eeeC ‘pce, Soeee Bz 4~~H6s ASS ON RY Y 44 ahaDil ee ‘ Se é % Tet i p GO ey ee es pare r —OCOC SS S\N eens HEE i a a ‘ Gy ef ah es aes flee 6 ae? ,S ae t—? aay As LES SRoe se ie ry ‘ays

17., woodcut Torso from ini Enlarged. of TheDiirer’s Trinity (1511).

ge 2FpFREES, oe o_o“ YF ..AER ey4mit 4be >er se_.re Le. AS eerwe “ aOe Bp ag ea owBt a‘ .OREN GR oe . SS Ris Sea = ~ee (odae - “, ’os .Fy .:ae . “oat GO ae ° gS goQe -,papoamal oe :Les ete 2aEeng »rr. Mee RRR,

| Bs a RT Oe

RAY eeWw Se citys ty F eefere4i refyoeyy B68 asSM06SERS $e 865 oe rfeoy ARS hgh eee his eee # Pa i BSE oFGTE EES Pa MSEsSie EE ihe ieee ea Regt e's;* A ek aRS Ste+bye ne . 4eeiaPaghee 4Paar i:REE PEC eee ereae Roseg aRee Bee Oe ‘ fae eke ks PS Se SRE ctPity aretae o $Reis S SES weTET RS TSAVERT Bees Se Eee ee ae EEE SY eReBee $e PgiESR’. SANA ae tewv Wie iRe SPE EATER LESPerreeRR eR SP RSS EsPer SPOS PR? 2 B86 fh“

SEN Se ef ES Roe we wise eeSOE ay t Neel LAS \ ; ; vine ee i " SAN NAO eseasee espana ANNA EARS SUE OS ONS 558 ~ ai. oe EES \ why \ : AN . . :fede “ : ai a 8, KS ee ke we oA My : AS ENS Re eX lc. , Sy toe ok See a a S Rec SC Bele a a SERS OL on es Sh Sg a Re ce Ro SNCS on | 7 CN Cee eeme Ue. She reeSs renee ne Se Th, . rnSoy rr a»2a aoe reas .BENS \ MSs eet ll lL ome ; " “gestion YW S\\V 0 : RW & an te Peer % ust i an le BRE Bate a Te SREB RLS was a «Pres HF .¢ *? 4 -

Bs wf ,rrtrtiCiw™SCOCti‘“C(‘ Ree ana sire ap oes aa Te cr rr ee rere VAG, Rees Ae $ “Oe BREE yore 88 ; ;

WAAAS prconse ty omen eo 8 en- ee ain q Ak me a Hr5ETSY : pain OS 2ggeeMbp cr) os WAY St CARS ere ora dye a Ag Sekt eewr — rr—— R = Se =Aiea @ leSee ky _ . eA ee ered ees POST NSE eR ke 58eae) Mary PIRES ees SYS ianI:ye Es. ag ~~ See 7 ae ~*~ Lam EBT ES egg eet HPP BeR™ FES, FeSSS Pere PERE “< -: =:Fi= rece s Be Sea FOL CaE doghitROR eseg Fs 5e* SieSES, iigh LRPeBE Sap Bas asexey _ ~~ EY — | 7>.Lube > -all :|.a .Bee LO eRe Ger Om ee 2eo Soe aie < CSI EEE SRE Fate rE pe aes Gee: —— Ss aawe ee Pane ae eee ey ?A sebssess és * eS, oa PREIS ~Z & u\ _a‘Soa ea, ioo Stoe »Pred % ond See NeON ae, ‘oe Sere i SsSI AT. aSen", 8g aBs coms Tiga vee ae Re, eowe Ne Pan vger aLH aad we aee PORN COE ban Bess aes aeisre zcw as 9)Be? ©ae bk. &cerry er. Me oees oe «ts ae, SE SRO oe RACs SRM

A tae 4,oo Sescatacige wren rae $i&wm. Sed*, oe See oe

see RT ty SNe A Sev SOOM FOR DOOKIE : 2 Be oe 2 Ke % & Si nar Pn ie < NO ce ° baa bear 7

eens bemapenento tees reLL Pi 0869 gy tie ok OS BreeWe iid peo Meare ae ee PS Poe Praca Serene Noni | or en = Sonatwoe 7 aBe. ee Beoe Re? ene 2 By Kee guy Soe oe gr wegen SOERO. Seees“4 -— mppeoee ee. ere Bue teon Bk ego2 Sl 2 oe PSi me ~ ae 4 ‘ EE EEE oe, —Soin RE oR SH Bate a40% ETey, ene Sfee gt % 0%, Bia

Pen ee .3,% Re eB pepe RF: MS Pe aon ene ORM Nh aa Waoeiwas ote eS Res Se OT Se. AES .etRS: Sot veptn xsees ee2B cd ie T4" +Ame .ge” an eemw >Ria oRSE SRS eyeKoop Sen Se can AEE a tore -— .Be eS st ¢weft “88 a BER” 3atet ky PR ARS ae Re eg EO

on aa any weno , ie SOO , aa958% Ms, BEES gelrrs—OCC Ny an nnn ork hae Se vie &ei8B ee& SOF, Se: “wy ORS ea Pere weigs AC oe Fo heeR aeaatencaeenas — CE eh Kyl wane exes re Le wee’ *ew ©Wings ae Sgtx5 :ew mea rsTees aes a Bi oe Me .ie ae “ oa vie @ anoe arn RO Ba me We rw *ee yk SLY, Fee Ky en %y He Ns Se tigen egret Soares ee osha Te! va ees Oe rae eee age 5Ry Pee ce aVes erage "here “Si EN: xe SN ey errr amas oa Be eg ae nena Mykw alg Me 8RS me Og Hw yes oe sae 5ek i ge Be “ae Re Re ...aR . ee °AMe we i, Pe ne ee a eG Saree Or eae Pam a are me ne i a 3 gn Sen Ree CC ame Re Ce ne? Sg Sl ue oe HOH Se RK me SO RS ee Ys wa Be 0 OE ye a 5 rn ee RR So SR ee ad Rav wT . ee xD , © ey a Se “Fi 3 20 Re (ceteuupenrneentcenun NS, Sa geetanne » a“ FS xe 6ON my bee iaoe arene . oe aS a“eS 5pOeer gy BiPnoS aSages gy GX A %—-r,rrs—sSCS BsSsReh ae |. NS BL Te eeyae Oa is wee Reed Sone 83eengenmenn paver wer er ae Nw we A ww ND Sorgen ®we 4Ory BgoS ne, ea S Se .Neo WS SpSe SR AS oe tao oFN vae oeRN te ee Ra . “owe eaee ”my eg mH PR RS 2 »Meo. en i®& chcanmeengeee Ur ON ae anesCee Se wee an _me eePS aeso oe oh re eg Se *ohgir, ew aS Se +A Po EN ee 8sa, a8, rorNs ~ oN ne ikem,” Meta AS arene rsSA Bae oO MO aS Mog tee SS ls Oe MO ey 4eean’ BN, :2.SO Re AS — ot :re sot er aae %.%, ve ~Ns caoa . onee ‘ 3ee, ‘ >He? 2%Re i SES Ro% tne Sesee SR ee Sk ee ES oe. ~~ ne FP sy, ene wm ORL OT Pe Ys “ne gO Oe Sg BEERS RN A .ote :ne ool oes gon Y Ce oo etee, Rw ML KS eaegem aar eae “toe a oS Penn RAR Co “eeeeae eSFe see TT, oR CT are rsoBER GR ’ BE By eeeeeere # : Ses pr ee oeBSB fo mA Sy Be aFf s&s S“2 . ay FS ig RR Se ae te Ee Fe Ba OR S4oe We . 2ieSeS ,a. oo —. caee ana wre SO Rw Birov ey3aan wo Se Se 3Se ; 5 &#&~?| rc CCC . ee See ae aaa ROSES Seeos eRcece 3 Re . re6. .Ie aSg or ei .Reg aee “*ee: o cRRO “ SEIS 3 4romans BB 4Keen ae SoM ie RRR, ieee etoe — ~~. apete “oft, S| wo “et se Qe & » RR mo es See. ia nea ons By re me BS, es:fe4e. SB0ORS AY —brim -rr—SCS ee MB ee: SY en Se woeEC weCee APear KeSy aaare+g ee .& wgST= a ree gi eam aoea ae ee _ eesee, “aeoO ¢ :ih 2 as . S&S ea ae cs Sats ek Soe, Ngo Ea eee ee +“e” fd fo% — ”Beat ad ees pe ee oN oe XR %ee Fnme . ‘Se, Se wy RS SO ate 7ee $ ROR Soteee koSe eae RGU ESURES Eee Ge $i :weet x?Ae . al wees) awe PAY oe me BT RN eee: ysSeSoe SE SSS Sienctane SS See aBa OR Me Teen ; BR ego mo ‘ + :nae wet OS yes -ee E .wy 4 sMn LS &® paeeOReae ee Raantnanat Sie Be SRR Svs Ros, SayeS pee es, Seen SES Sonne a) ey eeMO eR eeMees ;a9 oh iasters Oe Ne Oa ss Kok Aap aeSeassee eB oe a BEE eS re ‘ Ses Satin. Sei. Re SR a Seasons eS eer —rrr—SC ¥ Ae awetofee “ene eS wove teoe woo aera 3° oN eaeens ERco as: Seees eo ae SS aSw See oe soy. "See.4ere aoees ee cdi *y>OR Veer Se wy ce Oesy rare aoanis Pd eee RR eR Seo hy “By ———r——.—COC—CiC 9 a aan ravers ues cote gas Rs RES Toe rr ° EO ae Oe ee x Fe NS yt? He? & Ge RRS ” e:-ee .ae ge Be Beco RE OSS Bibs: RRS eRe a Si RAIS re 7BS “e5eae SOe os Sarnia See Cas oe rea iaetannnent Scehomatngt Ser RE ae - Athy en CANS. SR, ie, peaD.cs I aSipanenee BOR oe a“ ete Pes * ge ind Seales “ee ee: wean ey Iseas, oS Oe Rechotentane rsacasa mo, eS a s we eae haan = a ae ce ne rn Rs Bye ,Coe “ =r——— Bo s— i ne 1 & Oe Pye ma, By es, eine « TAR RE ss at OS REE yt ea SCTE ys So -—r,rrti—. 8 eg es ae St BE P96 OLS een &. : — r—CN Se So PE & ne a Bac, Seah & BES, ade | BR. FER 2. seat? es ROR, : xs ee Cn ‘ AREER % . ea ” Sy oe ce BB NE FSS habs? BES Qe os. BRR Baas xsSi5an ee eaand soae, Baie Ce a heGa 2S- 4. Bi 8Se Sasa Re ee FEani‘o. éPe Sea it By RRS ee aFd CER Se See Be i oeOe Pog BO ARE OS yee C—O ane PE . “oo, JO oo "Be ooRS x sine isEe P. She BECer FOS . rsWn .sts eee eer Res Sos settee ee Se ee is,ee 2. to Ri 0°80 ere UyBRS %See 5He Fgh BF 4Ror ee, eae a yy ”hrrrt— #RP ONRST oe aSOR 34% eeRS Bsr ie 33ts, ygIBe pages “4 raRRS aRR . ee, ER Sre eePS Mv RES 334Sy oe pheRE Se BRO SRS neOaSo O.PNAS a: Senate a,. E: “EY, PeeS BEane REN PRN CSS et“a! Ce Th SERN Bs E { aN, ? ae ee "EINE a Se RA MR Eg FBS ES ae oeRESP. SORES . | See eosBerra SEeeee BERS, Sema Bee CLES s S.%tyAg: 2 PERO Re oes Sk ese. St $2.S Bee < ES TERRE, Bok eee” een: a .

SEL 2 U i) — LM yo il a==&, FE E “Ss .. ' SYN a y Y ty Lt hhh, == WON ME. YA lf a. ee \\ ~ LAMY r 4

:SH fammesic | ae eeaTL =shiee ST ft, eSeHSee Se = eed LTE aa) SRS, ed Rr ill NK WithNAA oOo Sie aeFt OA STI )" thAIS Aare. WS Hi A\ NN EAR — SP _Penan | iil

e iene a >

oot ft | AE i 3 . ae a, mir i Henge a 2 ; 13 3 @R st (Nanaia E : ' iL@f ATTEN OA © aE © an® (tas Aa 4 HB i Ps Bi aaa Py FT ry #5 ya NE Lin i i has Ei ii ‘ HH sau HEB Ho MU Tal i Amy i: ing an On ——uae: —- ee Eater ae ed TES FS ASN NT Sse! HH || fa Oe DOVOKS OD} OKGKOXOKOIOXO)

eo ee ee

ee BE ne 7a Pe BVQVAN eae AEA

Pas t UT Eee ee re rere eer

NE Sa NGNNNOME SE et ee eee preati's testy el |

mW ee) ST See itisaa, BwAN SFtH hy Dy BasRee SH SS Ea BS Ee di eS) 6Bee "is SF KI FpNA “= 7 =: Sa sce | 6g . ee '5 e shot Ne TO — I Led 0 NPN peeey ed LENA WW Nese eo sem wy rh) 6B A , | = SE Sees = = A ie gal eee fh y as VT Ne == iL ok NJ

iN Me eae, Via at 4 more SS Le ee OS fl Se peeea HSS NKeeyes La eSMA TAK gseSSEs MlNtBe PAS ee aya) j\

TA. Ro Ee high a

“ wacealae ONES ((\\iS "NE at= (hae SE ae =—ineeteaw= oeiP i es ee bee Ne oa| eh a yi a> iald : PR (SONS 23. Portion of a woodcut view of Venice in Breydenbach’s Peregrinationes, Mainz, 1486. Enlarged.

| THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN book. The general attitude of the time towards the difference between first- and second-hand visual information is shown by the

| fact that Carpaccio, the great Venetian painter, was content, for one of his pictures, to copy from Rewich’s view of Venice rather than to draw the buildings directly for himself. In 1493, a Nuremberg printer, named Hans Mayr, issued illus-

trated catalogues of the precious objects in the possession of several of the German cathedrals. So far as I know these are the first illustrated printed catalogues of any specific collections of

any sort of material. | |

__ In the same year, 1493, there was published the famous Nurem-

_ berg Chronicle, which is still noteworthy for the brute number of __ woodcut illustrations it contained. There are said to be no less — than 1809 of them, but they were printed from a much smaller number of blocks. In addition to pictures of notable events, such as the six days of the creation, and objects like Noah’s Ark, there are many portraits and views of cities. Some of these are copied

from earlier prints. The portrait of the Sultan, ironically, is a version of Pisanello’s medal of the Emperor John Palaeologus. The same heads and views appear with quite different captions in different parts of the book. One view does duty for no less than eleven separate towns. Many of the pictures, however, of German towns and of a few foreign ones, such as those of Venice and Rome,

show that some endeavour was made towards at least a slight _ degree of verisimilitude. The book may perhaps be regarded as the culminating example of the ancient and mediaeval careless attitude

towards verisimilitude, though it must be confessed that it has had serious competitors down to the present day. We find these competitors even in our most learned books and best museums, where they parade themselves as restorations of sculpture and models of ancient buildings. They also occur in many of the most advertised re-creations of old buildings, such as those at Williams-

burg in Virginia. The classical archaeologists of a generation or so. ago were very fond of these flights of imagination, the net result of which was that some observing people came to think it odd that 38

THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN

so many of the Greek sculptors and architects spoke such fluent German. But this is a subject that, while it would richly repay investigation, is not popular among the learned. Looking back at these illustrated informational books of the late fifteenth century we may be inclined to laugh at most of them,

but the fact remains that they were quite serious and that the information they conveyed was the best that could be provided by the poor fellows who gave it. If we do laugh at them, and if we also want to be consistent, we must also laugh at the pictures

in many of the solemn books I studied when I was a lad, and even at many of those that have appeared during very recent years. The pictures in almost all books on art and archaeology that were printed prior to the time I was born were little more than travesties of the objects they purported to represent. The fifteenth-

century illustrations are actually no funnier distortions of fact than those in the edition of Dr. R. C. Lodge’s standard translation of Winckelmann’s History of Ancient Art that was published at

Boston in 1880, or for that matter those in the books by Perrot and Chipiez, or by Luebke, or Murray, and ever so many others that I pored over in my childhood and youth. In passing it is interesting to notice that many of the little pamphlets that came from the Florentine presses during the last decade of the fifteenth century not only were illustrated but were distinctly political in nature. These were not only the first political tracts addressed to a popular audience, but their charming woodcuts are the first body of printed political cartoons.

In 1504, at Toul, in France, Pelerin published his book on Perspective, the first on that subject to reach print, and also the first to teach the modern ‘three point’ method. Its illustrations are

the first to appear in a printed book in which we feel as though we were looking at pictures of rational spaces.

The earliest fully illustrated account of a craft or art that I recall is Fanti’s Theory and Practice of Writing, that was printed

at Venice in 1514. It is a detailed description of the forms of written letters and of the ways of forming them with the pen. 39

THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN From this time on illustrated books of information came from

the presses of Europe with ever increasing profusion and with _ steadily increasing accuracy of representation. It is impractical here to give an account of even the most important books of this

| kind that dealt with astronomy and archaeology, anatomy and animals, birds and fishes, machinery and techniques, costumes and clothing, architecture and engineering, and many other sub-

| jects, but I should like to call particular attention to several of the botanies, because in a way they typify the whole movement. The publication of the herbals of 1484 and 1485 was followed

by that of many others in many places. For a period of almost fifty years most of these other books were illustrated with copies _ of the woodcuts in those two herbals, many of which were copied from them at second and even third hand, with a steadily decreas-

| ing size in the dimensions of the pictures and a steady increase in the amount of distortion of the representations. The degrada-

tion and distortion thus introduced into the pictures perhaps reached their culmination in the first English herbal, the Grete

| Herbal, of 1526, in which the pictures have at last become little more than decorative motifs much more suited to serve as cross stitch patterns than for the conveyance of information. They con-

stitute a remarkably sad example of what happens to visual

information as it passes from copyist to copyist. | These herbals, beginning with the Pseudo-Apuleius of about 1480 and coming down through the Grete Herbal of 1526, are

extremely interesting from still another point of view. When arranged in families and in a time order they clearly show the operation of what I suppose is one of the basic human characteristics. So long as the illustrators did not return to the original _ plants as sources of information about their shapes, but confined themselves to such knowledge of the forms as they could extract from pictures made by earlier men—to what may be called hearsay and not first-hand evidence—it was inevitable that they should rationalize their own pictorial accounts and overlook or disre-

40

gard what appeared to them to be mere irrationalities -in the

S\OULZZ

h 5FSS on 9 fe

oy Pt A HL! Ned = ND

LZ TANNA ZZ 1 tA VYN

THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN

: pictorial accounts given by their predecessors. This rationalization most frequently took the form of an endeavour for symmetry, which produced regular shapes that not only lost all verisimilitude

| of lines and edges but introduced a balanced arrangement of parts and forms, which, however satisfying to mental habits, resulted in a very complete misrepresentation of the actual facts.

|4 -Ny = a’ a7

Tam sure that all sorts of morals can be drawn from these botanical —

| \Wa7-

7 4 TAVIS | 1 SBS { ATH /, 7 25. Violets. Woodcut from the Grete Herbal, London, 1525.

_ About actual size. |

illustrations, but shall content myself with remarking that in their almost comic way these pictures raise some of the most desperately serious problems that are known to man, for these problems are

those of thought itself rather than of the materials with which it deals. There is a Latin tag which asks who it is that takes care of the caretakers. According to our temperaments we may laugh at these pictures or be condescending or up stage about them, but if we look at them intelligently they contain matter for the most

humble prayer. | As a relief from such solemn notions as these, I may call 42

THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN attention to one of the most amusing instances of trying to transform a verbal and therefore ideologically analytical and symbolic statement about shapes into a concrete visual image. In the Hortus Sanitatis of 1491 there is a description of the barnacle, which, as I remember, is said to be a fish that eats ships and has its bottom on top—which of course is a perfectly correct statement about the

, ) > Tt.

‘aan y: Yo : WAI 8 ,| A /SSS "oS \\A Wi\7 ANY 1 GO), “ MS i } (J

UY \ Q i | | S. |

es a i, WAR Ni \ , So ) WW aN eNO UC)“iCo \\ WT aa eT! —— : hi.n°2a,=e aS GYtyes RW ~ae- — — = SE SS 1. lS‘ (Ses. ee y ae * op. y- a0" a. aety = =. . .“oS --

qTSF .eB .. —. afTEER CoeNSD) a oea JVSS 7 ?SES MN Ne < \\ MS ye :Se Py RS Sy ae Hamm ON = kgvgs: jp= SNS SEB Se = = RSS eE e Le. wD Sees .om SS T33s SOEs OEE: WX: Fees pe f dan nae Ree a SS , ;saemesis! ove (oem ~~ sos WN an yee Y Lise ae Ee

"38 e Ns ve; ee t, .* are ‘n, NRX: yt eee: Oe ee fg S Seeangeen ME xa Caer Manttieas mgghy Macon? air ete

RO os ys w< rk ard ee a OS Seegee - Ke Be — te P Oe eee oarer ntee nee twat 8igpe RegMega ¥Eee er ee pie ae Se woepe .-*0 gy*-.Fm Sy yy . 5ie Ses EP OS Sa ecaee Per Site Sepee ea "Sig th Sa ptt”ae ete ‘em oat Bra OR aathe wee Leo! cae eed ae SES Sy Be Set iy vege #8 CGE, ,res Cee ?Pais .fs tS 0, nn ha Coe reSeeger SO Soe Was “yo?fna4a5Ag ee aes Ren neo eeSSE KE eth feremain eer esmLtr hay a”ring: Aewee, eae Oe AO” ae ind ote * WO ee oe alts \cestet )

|

Noa ge1bp jw,nt, "ee $e. Ste We Meee FBSAee, ore 8 wo APES NGae. ’ wets » 5" RG eeBos: Rater: gene: beeen ia en mer eee peed GEM ORE Oe otagga epee 0g ee Bei |sey Grew al *aaa *one .enieee “ee en iceIe” OP ° 4nye af wsBo ywcRY Soad fey fOr «?eGlean, Oe oe we 28S eR meets a= on Crccascraat ge ee, 8 Bae at Res wy Sp ha Oe ee pea ae Spee oan ee fe a Oe Cora cal esy oea)Og Yeoh} SG re LEE Moo©ofREESE gue psi fF trates [77k laa?Pe ELLE oes? ee ge y pee scciet a . aa nd een eS . Reta iiisses b// ye ye: arte vate 2& a. le 8 Pr LN 6«. tN} es a ys ee Bye ee ta a oo pe Gye: a ele ire slate Fe ito tye sage? fogen” od a © we ig a

St Bg er) | we Le oy oe oe ee ae ey Oe et ete Ge§, ‘Sivan: een Sree el eons or Sg ie ae

°aren 2peo egDa Bo 4% edRe wiiager see .toeM aheasy Ae Ce ME gaint ee¢arses 16dwe: SSwat wee

Re vermisse on AE 7 . center trte scecnoceemoe oventebet: Z “iF «7% e* LI ae 2% ax ae .* ey «Pye eS ee eg coo Sere aes CL ee ee seeeerees of tee at sasre ore rw eee ole verre

ag 7gtsorte on meet ge POR eg me shee~ Are aoe ‘68AOe ~ &” PRReeiePE ARR ROOD, nes Sere mee shegete : arernesed on pe Eeem a «Mee a a

. SS Cot RON Seve y pS Se Be eV ACN wc lewnnoaaney aroenaoeratsaton Sg) eS enh tent ee atte ag AFhe oa aees ayy SO. NTA eS Sime Ss aamano, se vonigiin teemSosanno ww A 2g TTR cio£8geo eetNotoakSee

Ree? oS RS be Been See ee RON NS ee exeSG ea Mpinnaned rate: ators a escehe ®8e%% ae ou >% ekPye eee ony Poa. a she esicSENN aNmeme 2 aS ee pare Sn ES SANE aedwe TARERE oe ne ee Ned oweae”ont we Pana

SC pe. Se eees Mr ae IN a nes oeae a= “a A ae «dota & Jaae’paved ee re “Be” agAe=me ese tete et, Rabeeee eee ieermremaner OEE aa: EE ee . aneannen Serine a : areca ae : :f ’ _— PAS .ESwo Sa aSees Soeeeseras onueu spel, we “ee 22 RN sree aSamet e «are ‘ %» seen eee eS + | Reg \Ymoet Bee aed ornSate ; 36RG OSCR aww a, eee NSa Beangenes RAN Sn *wos aN * we fF *”eybd # ee esc saiel So sinks SEES Ss % Beer SN WE conteESS NS een: 6neal ~+a00e og 1 ae %A 2S at . ;3cen Hee eeesii) | ore aera $PeeeSara See a Bee Se emoweee eco “ee ieTN Lnen oe nae * ‘*e we ee AN©-¢~PS # e: a eeF ry M Res gee # ay feos i nao “asset wine =~ Lg i a ~ oe Le omy eae! NS ihet reaaeeay: a Sg 4 ony iA) ae Meee eg, pn TG .wey ~ ee) wo SER ~ : 4S (pe e, LF ge oe ee ean ren . “ we A frie Ao ey ee ns aia : a. YE& ae Fi C/ oe, oe 4 oe a a Pare re woe ts re 2 ee he 8 Ppeded ey Otrn Oetie ime ee Parcreaitacte raeNp eS pee a:ee Fy ve ae ”et yg gas ae @ xy eo. See See Se 7aage) oe SP 6ee OL 4, 8, Sey ee = “ Bo RRR ony IO ees Tr soe SS ame Se Se, a na oe 286 regs My . . end — Ee = —— = HP ESR gorge SS 3 aae aaaed BOR oeene: 4 ace pen wes Poom 3 er Fe yi — JESSE RE ceeae ee pee nee. Seen ee ORE. “3 ay, Ss SSSR, wa See wg &ars ae! -— ge §. Seed F |. 2 asae ETsioenopesise com FS BON Sass og aiIeeeee core PERRO See . cae RRR ge ee Soon “Se ieee toe tg” eacecurernks awe “gem ete BS. BOS eS LR ee _— . SEO ER 68 OO PRN aa isRK x Ba RRB Ts ee IOVee oe Bey ke Bie re ee. SERS RS RE ey eS a «2 ~ oft 4 ars SAS Bice eee z Se Se oF om, tS Sage, *s * (= . = Seas Perea Se. Y . EOP Re ge Pre 3 BNE RH Gy i _. ‘oP of 4 3= ae 1 ds hoe ee% peRak ee _rr oSBee ff seas ene aares ve Poy Te orBe “Sty "on ce!eeao “Pe pooee 5 (SERS SO LEE oa“we a wer Bee xs .vp w iceig” owe a© »*“Tae Bes & #3. Sr eA SU -= .iprey se “ee ot onl Ko “ye Te{$e Roe oe & Be | 3-Re Le KS EAS 7 Sa fee Po Leu BO ie éOEP go 8FieGo AA “NN ne OS Sw, .face xfm yom Be we TF ERE PSRs ass 1 i Se SERS ae ae vee ary . my eaS . >Jeg. we see.-; MN STFS ee, eee es Sees _LC ~CsC$ SRO Fd ed POOR —OOAage : een : ~NyOs _ ~*sp Sey oe S Kut So, Lo ee Se ee Bate esSECTS eae UF os oe ey or Sen rs aN

Set , SS . oes ee 9eeOE LL eee ALER? caer rae . a£R% TS ge ; * so rae aN .Se 7a ,Ronee Jee oe - Oc or ‘ee5 doy. F e:>ee ge es To eeaes SigeiaA Eh Bess 35i ee ae ge Rev ane gs, TT ye eR BH EE Owe Te wen te, : rs & tjAe’29i#Sea me ian.Oo fe are) Pee res ao Sgraet hee vers DE Ba Be BD Gr Ae . See 2 gOperenne ee ig oe xe Sm oy? 0 8xree NENT PE: $e 58 yee "eset SE 3% PP pins So. p SN #.ae. ~eee SEBS Se oo See? é cS 0 SERS ad Sapte Rey | mS 4.ee BR oySwi ans 3”. Ror ™Baye ¥ one 3h > +gv, $3« Be#3 Py‘3wy ssf os BP A/F y 4 Re C3 ere Sea? igo spss Ey oes ae: hal « wal ee e, . «xe yet By soy oo Oo gS ig es ee BE rnnsigeee Fe ne aide eran 4 ee, ong ek oars ry are Pays ** AR ane By Lee Reee. Ce gsze a Rg? % %ie . SRM : Sueee ee tae EE as* RE+gyar So %e!5Seae we YE ate z e¥S Neee: ¥ € a 3¥ t4e a? % Se. : BS ee 7 a*af“Boas 2ESE --— 2S Nene. é >ey ge Se §8 Fs4eee. #4 . Ban Bes eee ee Se ye otarcers Se Ky Sy 8eo y FFF hecyFS > fee o* ™ Ba 8 ee ee: Bae RR aes oe eee SRR Ow ae aa ey % te an e & oar “we Ae ™ SP.V7 BER Sor ~ .0NES PROX . . 2Nags . ot nee Ae oo Fie,See Ae, a cea>hae oo — EOE ee, “peee eRaaraes ren NS A ceege ws AaaeFe*ONS

JAHA wigs Eon S80, . gS — Peey, ne Re hy: ‘Ve ‘ > ege *y :Boge. ew C® oN x3 esi SeereeEs BF a ieee ee SERED. a $ o ane Fe BOIS, § Ra Beier See. Sa See Sie Se ate .S Ne ‘ wy sD wy em %& aR ge. yng CMe S PEEaBO Bee eceye oefe'Ci Bi Be BoGet Pee SeBeen, SERS ag, Be” te So e: oo oe %& a&& ¥ te& %oe’, %om ae 6 ;hae Fon gt Bx OO occ” geSee SSse ghee gs So aes Ln rePe my narra bak ies 3egy Ree otFyé$Bry $ewo gee PERE eeewn. 4eee SS a$F Big Ss ae pee Bp ge ian “A% Oey ares )oe ced Sie. Dew, a eae ee90 * EEE ce SS cane Sane ere ahs & affg anaes a:esen =:* ~ Bo eedee SF>SER an eM $— eeaS ¥Sew — big e \2ren eySee, ok %e ee Srtees ah ears eeeve oehhh &Been 9°83 Po tyves fey A EIR |£5 a ngppitie,.. ; io pe oe. ene me AS area nN teh ber, 8, Mega es HEE Bae saison seesP AY s . Sia. . RENEE NGBee FER See Sera}‘ee +g? Pr o% Ri, 7% ed SOyO oy an o 3See 333 $3: Ree Se SE i. Rei pee Os oy ay, eR rere)2B ees,y de & g%es,¥ na R tykes Ba, s; 4, rr e >vy) lr eag iid5 BR fOr onCo See leSirens a oe Ce wf geet. ? PATERNAL SeBea Ne EEN Re, OL a BERS oe Beatate, eR : PARLE Fee. Fea PROge OS *ee: Rees gy TELE es CRD. RNS OOM SE OO. ergig gen Se ee™ 28.ae & *swe ey g%eee re re) . gy : 965 a oe aan +.” Sh Be asy)byELE: ESS Cs SS errr k~weeks A& Ny i)BSF épsa&aaay.sae ae ‘ or LES ep EER 2 ge, Tio’ ahsSES BESS eS$< NENG ea8ee SP ag. ot8 Seg p RE we FE, t. PA Pres §fa éBeRRR: weer3 $SL x2 %v84°ttn + oh aera “3 Pot $y.& é: wo EEF Bee eh aR ce Se ase 2 ue Se, vs e% ee, * %een & 4 4Barst *, ye Fa: . ee’ . Sees pee’ “B33 ad Se*B; See ee 2 SaTsHR Sey See Pe OPES eh,SoBas EAS Rs RSSos eae pouty Bet 3 NY “28&“2 RRs &SQx > rere. oO mS\ Sha See

amie see SEER «, * « ° es, y Re BSS . ee ON ey a Se ea coy Ae * 2 eR ER Seek a § Fe ‘, & Fe 2h ey Re YF gE ES Seen

Ks

a "Sey ,%e 64 Be SSPONG SRS ag xeSEER ey ©%, g & é8 £82 z* Se cart ode y fm4)NE Poe ae ie. Be fe SeSg eaeoat SER SSan naeS35 ‘Se4%3883 Se? Rie Xi Aaea aeen Oe MS me be &y ey v8?>& x “eF% s Fed ¢ Boo = . :SIN, ONSRe, ee ORR

Bo Seer sf, FnrgSees. 5 oiNva; SRR B34 Re 5 8ihRae eat tee signwaag“ % Pisce ee3Py Rey : BR Be,~Tg ane Ws aan 23ps « He 4 ager. ee ee NP 3 ity &3 *Ni; f2. ph *4% “8 Py Aaa eybs geaS. xERS AS +, essNSee eooetaned ae Sees Sone ia, : ae a~— ty, We 55, Bap Sr eee. ~aR g S¢¥F. {ban g“y¥bee oP Be ee Sinan” ag Sere aa:Rey Bg ke FE ‘ .: EN Re RO Re HE, oF ag See aSe YE ae Beg xer .ot2% Ps‘lsee %2 Oye yRe, Kors , gaa. yeSx BERS 3wm aBey ,oaSes aSige atest Ses Ss ia, nena: Rage eG ese fi -ete .as,4Pa E egee. x5.2-.ORES gag RRex, renSet ~ aaa yf ee NEO SES Rewk Be oSOe PePES 99 cal ARE Be) %& "oR ree $iy ryy &;8énat remo ee RES ®& ™~RRS Se sa feF ei reeta] Sones * “eee ‘Bats SRE Oh ney ee oh ysos aes »& F,3Bo. ztsve 38S mo PASSE SON Be ae: ate Sa ae, go? ‘ Se Peer RE oo 4 , Re an oy se ee ES vA & ea y 3 % ee OS RRR Bee ros geD Se ed ee = Seen ~ ped RB pe fe astaee og OE: om 5 BREN E Se gS 5SE ee ees Sgr aty FB gs i Bee SF aa Moe Re Ee ee, Hae, POR SO Re BERS 48 ERT gi BTR * aw ee ARE wes ‘ oe Rseane 4, & Sarr ohes, Saar yg Be. Seas 5 Se eatSe ft Cae OR 23 5: ee .2Bret KR, Mee SRR so ah, S XS, SORES? . tyee RR DeGR et a€«aae %cs og tee aeofanwn So es>. Ree eet EE ret,%>Loe Reg Boe? Pe vsrax7 :Mi Se 8aeae Yh =.oo" = “Re %Kore gre teesSack yee’, $#ar Neo 3 ost Seaac oS eos $A42dS $38 Pi eats Lerre Of Pee BSN oe Ba Ta aPen :ERS. ‘gees No xTk. a ,Roc SERS ee ae ee vy IR 4 vas F, &é fe$86 ie lee aaylg933 we he me eS7Powe 33 SA| oa a Ri, Oe ard a a RE ree te See Se Boe ee So 8 ees Oe ; ak ‘ : ee F Sos “we Benes eeSE eoMey Seka eSSee f eA Ne Soe iyar Goes ee ee [_ $Se 4% >gS eeePe Sak 'é :fi een é ne barpithy? fg aC: aaaGer aes. Bod“ Be, agai M % 2.38 " ton Sac een: ie BR Ee ee ee ‘3 B x sek gg ", 3 y Lee R an ce AOKe iS S&S “ay Se hee. ote fe ON &, Oe i a oe -— 8 Pee é if ie PS eare Faas Bee Bs", Seer %ISSe2 fait a ROR a” Re i :SR we,Sa ecm) Sons SRO oe #RY SEFy ° eoy 4 rg .: Fs 4 - q : %, Nag s . . om xEe, BeMN. eee aeSei :woe go: shes jie a aeBS ew 6 ES BER PSBE “gt 3 $7 gs GU SE 23 ae Pos an tc: ans =on” :Boer ee a OSes re OF oF Fgoo4Pf, Testa ys, Sg the ea Ee Non See oo Pies i Sy aecoke peCte oper te — peat oF3 FS exes Siggby peteERC. #8F4—— [nee&2 LR us aa

as: NS (i og ey ae we ohCUr Peo ori eAg sea £33 eyé. ear 8i,:wee beeeS heRees a BO SiBee Ba? sg,mos ge Ce sete Oe oeSSeg Be, EPS 83 res aeem wt in os Ni ae aeset 2 Seay 7, aoFae Ss BS Seca8opiate, ee Boge Nee 25 e RN & Coyeee yD VP SOS aes:Hs , &aesy Sere ree vee SEAS “eer Bx 2S Ba ‘ see’. it ae SS. ee ps wee aes % _— he . Ae ¥5 a ae gt rgd, al ore aes ye.

aany
Sa ie ht Ee Cored esSone aRe, ee Rae. Ee ee Oe 7g? ee *\yae, Se ee aoe eaSN Bom SNe o,f ine ee ~~ .SBR 2Be gS. phes & ag ann 4"5iPP .seefp eon, ao3q :a einCoN >rr[BRS ieath, Sia Nn, 5 .ce Be 33 * yg ROS aSee See ae © See gg yes ‘a SRY bu FySEs rey ges soo. BN one Bt tie > coe .a aath on BO : ~Eee rNS68 Ska: Se Br oSeee Nie. ems Secs t£5rrr dé’¥gy 3*sfg mes Dd .ord wt aBNA SRE, a NS He, eed rn . y Bs ae ee cee Bee a, 2 Sere, Base nd >? io & a Son Ne Reet, See ReBi oe Ne, + oil ae ae BBR a ie en Soe ae

Se CRE, SS. oo 3(eae bse, *ie>PRN, -™ apos: ORO Bees oh connie »SS F3 a".: ‘.RS BS. SRS Sr Ry *wy aed‘ai RO, aenor BS Nee Be teBET BR oe $B co Sb Fog eS. ae Se $5.7 tor. Rs. eSwe yo. ee fig tel te eS oN? 3. eg Hee eee cee f Lg PR ER. He eg: if Ye et Ee Be 5) vo. ee Te Ree vox oe, es . L Een wim NEY "Pr, AL ts Boe be Kees gee 2, ager & cg siasssaieaaniaaiiices nt SEE SSE, a, ‘ eae Ss 3 %. 4 ae Bs DS SRE ’ Baek Sees ey: is Sr te Pe XS pas ets s ; eS eee {gee hay SES, see Ze tee NCS Bt ge oi SEs SS —_annee 2s ASA oo F See SEE a, Ge Ff ee “e “Soe ae ees Soe ae F if SN ot RS wi an , es 53 ; : : eS: SES. meee ae SR Bees 23 See F PES, Ba dS tees, pes i) Los ‘sf ye oo ee ee & hee cote ees eg mS ;pone ee nae Re. “., sae ann % Cee Bor ont Se Saac. J a Sears BEN eee ¥ ee: es we wy (eee Mg ee ei NRG. RS ene le pon SS wt 7 s EE Ess GE S88 PS ne BOS eo aw Ege RE oe oS dk XO Bo. eeornncorens Me Bs, Bie *Si0en a>? » “t,m9 SS ' atts3. Seca Ben i,REN een aigere Mote, . fie Boda Soea°°% wc x,‘sos

Ba wa ne :

3 0. t ing of Bacchus by

Itzius (155 1558-1616).nla E “A re ;

peur auec les pouts fe les trats grasetdeliestT —rt—“‘“‘“‘i™sOCOC : C—hHUOsMCrs& NS a&=reese eo“Beppe LEDree-Bxrre00 xr”SO PeBEI HOEY” SgtSener ge ORES wg OER .need SeeSeomeneaneney 8 Sea Se Peoeeaa aEeMk Se nho” RON eS Secenar” Or eaeioe Pe ee ann St5S Soma ae Peed Seo Bek cons. oat iaBO SRO SigSee Seae re a Ae Wiiba Ses Ser CTES RSE Se ee a ge aoeeare. YRR senna

eee ag gebonat a.monte er 1g Pe See Se RE aeae OO ee fae go eeRRS 2aeES he MOedre Js 7 ee ee aeesee Se oe eS ee ia oF eS gos pe etgo aeae he ao oe Ae ae sites allies oe Reesoesse SS ER, See gt eR ene Sooraean SS ee Be eee Seneca: Batisee LO" RO csi reeves Kee eae Be 5 -SRS SySO Pcie een:oeaeS ;3% Soe ee aeeee emer 66 ofsee ieee, *ao Bees MAME ND SOeS a See ee a ASS Ee Sor eran 2 ye Pe eg See er ay PT a as «Orig. eee oe Sea e See q See SRS ee a . ey pe ee GaN _ os gah ate $ a eee Pi SESE“a ¥ Ss . ee, $eRet . Soe PK Se PS Se SERRE NGSea . as Pe Se Been aeced eS es FST aN we SD ER oF.Pe cath ESN 7°? ggeh SSS a . a ee Se SY Sl Oe SS, ts ot neti ROT # at enone as naeeeeterer ERE ee aaah ae Ore Sia es By Se Ree +R SS ne Pe es ana BB ot Be Ses “$s eee Rene aE EN SN Se Prego od Ra ate cc ee ee Sa atetnsantnnnucaneeee EOS i ROO gen ees RO, SAEs ki ae cote Oy “Se

a se Pome Rd Pog eoOe” Sen SRST SSN e items ee hc ee SRSes, A SO aSee SORE Og NE aioe Seen SH Sg eS Ni ee x®}§56829»©6FChChCChCmUrmrUdUCUC ee— f.2S: 4ian SeEee. EthOSE LP ae, fe::Fie CoaPeas . = iEeRS hse SR Awe BeabaS 5 RRR ig a Big SS, ijon a ° AIA JERR 3 e, See Ses RES adwera GoFER SS ee ESee Se SrFOO. Re ese % 4-& Sma egoetng oe Pe ie yees Wy aS oe. Lod We a rd OsESS Se LF Sooy a yy EEG Feroa Fe CIS sa(eerna 6gs.a a get a S, ;ffs by) aegh -ps $s ge! opaa gt Ss hn, POE

Se SERS € BEEF oaf iy? £ 93.Mg $ - ERs (38eea YER OS Gee ELIS he nae aesRaita SeePORES Btn, Ore oRSeoS ooResencaa Mipgtin Nyase Oe, Br: v9 eS Bee FP seer en eaeee2 .Ney eee tiee BG ee SN eee wy ee game aewate Ss, 5 Ses x &Cm: ae

cS: pes 3:35: ak ae eSaSk rs FXeee ERS So BRESdeg PEL PO ff aie— el gtmee ES gn See Rr pe Oe eeeages IRRE 0Yap 5 So " .Spy & 33~~ ES thee SEM A SAT Gey$ spor Mere “gag.pie “NS

iRhty 4) » i if:iffises oe oe cee Se be es. ey Mee en tes eeaaa ae a ee Bo fa, a :seoo as 4RN ii WAVY Ylae Pe Pe Geese re f \,Spee . oo oS ere Bak re CoS, es ee gos » bas. 9h he SesaeSoceer eRaes Dongs “s SR = £iy%, Li SERY PEPphe Peeerwe 5, SRE meAw arcs&e Bee es teasye eSaS: ae eH Ra rr caSR ee,ggBe

i Se AN 3Repent INA EE oe: Pe aiaS ‘ae See cae — ee aweeeiaae ae Oe| ee : ee 3:3 Ean Soi, SS—_ ees 2 ete Bere Sea PEER BoeAR Sere eee) paoans yeae re x a8, : =H| {HAUL FL.. Se ;ise iiESass AN ar mee fg. SoS Bar: Loe ie“mer 080 ER & Bess §,Pees oe — “ye SE eg 2 ye 5 SD BS fy i We a LS de Sy a8 Bee eS ees woh Va cephie peg ee OE: Le So wad aehe:oe oe “J ‘ igo 4Fx£ . fe 73." SeLF leOe eewe eR‘so bog. wrCRE se ,>™ eROD q an 8s {3,.fi ¢ afSSabs Sb5Se eefe LESS Secc :ON 4B .PF ‘ Nt = oct 2ee S59

Bx Ee Pets i he ip——— GoCefaeeaeyAe SE SeBY he pated, OS Ais 4My i aR iernot see ea bdeg’ a aat fas Bgf fiy; ee sroSS tie:

as at ._ F* .ae ete fs 2 ttle ive Pe i Eee ‘ — Se Se ee Ee?ty f Fae yeeee 0 ee =)7{SS oe Sree agai Bae SSvite ESP c Ry? 4g Ree ee Sf ene Beer, * most Petohe tot ie a:

SG gid aSS ardae oSaseee See on wil .; kee ay AY ésBg Bagi Teas, ate cok eae oGt iw cna one a4 es 2Fe. 3 ji $8? BES oeOEE PR eer oem ee eH Seeuke as ani?at 3° SsLy EBES SP CCea —See ERyy ee Naot Reac SSO a eee ig a: Scene FESS EFESRies pope ew £€ — eo Pte:1.rnRRP .* ne 86eon sais: eae ee eae Be AyRS | : f RS BRE; PR SESE Se eeeeSeege PY Sere pubRie SE Cee Ps

SESS So Rae Soe RS PREF FESS F SRE EGS Se sos SE on eae RS Seas. MS EES eS ea SaaS as sepateaatnees Say Fay Sage % REGED ONE et > A x ane 3

oe RY, $2218 Se iF e tga Fé gee Ee Re fs ke eG esd pf ; Ks oy Mane cee a, 8? Si, gs SB eee aoe ee pee eee § en ee | 3 Sess: A an ae Scone ——

bre oe CAAT Ay ig SS Re MELEE A a j fi geWy Wi aoe “Ze,Se © ae eo BO ».' : ae omamonnn ¥$4 “eee 8 . an ay . : i . “ Be ye eo te or moeeneen NOE wo Sy hee , 6’ Ses : ree a ~~ ff a NN SN SO prsetiior sacsonn ae RS hel a>ave ™ rn«oe eN va, See = Set «& aCNM ys = =' : |; Fe ,nr: -eT nn; arr SS See 8 -_ % cil=Nise it- See eS Re5.: ye Rass ce aeryee :ageS aBS Se Ses ES:Sa 0s . PTs & BAN Sens. , Se Roe 8Eye aDet Pe, ©© ie aa Waa ==cost CEN = Se Pe ae oessx) ohSeSee :)yfo os Re agony "o> eeer oi ae ee: :rygr ree CE pctigns teh wis yy, eee ERA SRE S53 So BenSS Rice lk Pee :| “G a=ce Micqotesens seacnite oFSSS rte : Xe 3,5 3SON AS a:LS MLR WH en ON Sins Ss. 3-.Bees —Rn a‘ 4eg all | aee MAR X09 HBS Beseyrcee “tae Be HONG oNwae Sy% wy raeshwh SyBe See =eR Sas eA ERNE — Eee bE Re pes 5% 1B Bion 3-4 pepe Btn” g ee ve ee wo ee egye, Bch, ee Gs TN — aS . — \ te , re cl + 8 RRR $8 COR ae ogee ar ? BEE ges Hoo a See Ri a Cas Ms" wes pape “ — CR ae $3 CC See See PERS fe | 2 G Be ROR REE sce Fy aioe a yay, PH ‘$3 2 oe ef: goes PRE ie es Pe SES Rae S, 0K i Nana DES Se Be ENE — ON a : . . it h : Ms ff

4 |4:\ .: 7" Kiiiiti)BENS x SS eS =So _— CESS. a5 — Stee: 8 eae ee ea x es aee : "a “di See oe CE Ge ‘eeee REWA SEES PRE ahey S ~~ RASS ess | Oe Rees Bo a866n¥ Bes, voce Pe ae BRU EES aneggere/. CfS) Ss oe Wea .% syoe /RBy } | i,ey 'a i ‘#8E -:co uyHs ee Sear Rene es ee HF Sele | _ees Ses 383% SORRY Pees Biiives its oan Bees 4G éq\“. | one eseereee. SS oar _ 3 ne Bees aeste ae sany meees aySAR | a |.osae Wb8 ny is My | } AN mes reste veBSF ra, eR OY byne ee ee ‘;SX oySee a i Sere ) ah NhNh) aour) go) Ds $re on San Ce, ye SYeesFO ES eeog is ees. BESC: g:esgee. oSRheA. ee 5eai RA Paes a4.i *-a,?: ge HS Seen Latte carmar . Te yee Se eeoy Sees BESET KARAS ae SSS ey :| -‘ ye \~Mig

Lon “oe D&E BY Very Oy etn . s Ry ere Sea Se ie ou RG ow . . rye mS RAS Se Os Sie Seok See CC EN Se AB : yn ‘ , i | Bl ae aati ae |eran See i:ON | ae we ek Yo :Lc CC oo Ta if: L} }y|Ay nna 0.BARRE ORK $3ena xi m fe 8*OU Cl ATL 0.8% SKS. X & eer Pe eae eg: Sees .3 : em reg ¥— SEE las a WD y;| |\y Yee 2swo? $3 es RSE ra ’ aa Re| RRBr ee:Lo aacr. i ; os a} ay , ne eeyy osEE seeeee CC aeH iyMe py 2 ly; Bo a ALR RB IRBs: n rt ma sree. £3 See “a 8S 2 eae pear SER oa : oS poe ERS SE BRS — 3 So | $58 23 ot Soe SF % ; ef ge Ns PS Le 873 .¥ ;

Ba eae 3 oe an m8 . mheB PES gggPeoria Sees . aPeed Hi Hy iy (fF, ,: xpee7 SS . Pe Wn. *wwe ee fe ered ee NAY PRATER Pay feieoseee SarSeer ane Se Be SS Se SIP & Cee. (Janae — “ply Hetea :

Dy 7 ae eed oo Sy < "eeageBt. aon Caen wee ya Ris Sax Ee: SR:Le ee Se Lh PIES: AP SES AY pth By SELF: PR RE RSA ih My :a alyea,arr’ cee ee Seno =GOS yyy ‘gRES: Ah i)& gos Os: msanfy8aeZ .aWi 2 ey oe ke os t A aiaf Lame Y Seo enYee, PySors byFS, ee ae OP Paes ae Se aE Pe B25 SEES & a tf) ,AY) : ypon yy a ae es ey oy SIGE S hyd Oe iy eer. hare ane ts sae, My he ot oy A Se TES SBER LIP TS SSS GES, Ms Bye os ty _— YY ES 2/ gk aren aaa ae eres POG we ee : i Mage fy Uf} y Vy, / ; 7 Ao |SS : : en a an So See Ye ee ( 27 e3 SPERs FE k3 PEP I AG es oy a /_ 8 f fi peg ar “ ae Us ere wy eees. peon Lay"hag keg fj| ew we Fhe EPSrefyae Bes Ss : ae Loeaenes a. Wy aa. Canara ks PS pe pe BES G4 Reeatjyisnea hg a ee, re oe “Ma? 3 So a bee > Set ee LLL pee, es fy | EFM Ss. :ae:Ct 7a may. A eaeeae oe mes ooasAten PaRag LsRae, eee se Prag? PL? Pure, eoKS owe aangp SUG rgeered ae ” an “he yee aFe: oe eka Rey Re Celt ad ee go. eyTN ae eer ee: oC 6 4_}fe. i) 2"beaf aS RE Ee Ba vo gy, he :Te : ae nt nol ees 3 an e ‘ . st &a :VRS Tae BRM ON are eG Oe HY, YeSe ae cA; ey Pee etOe :ae n-fo age: Yapioo eo:, ..y. HRM, . * eS ? eee eea Zee :aa Te a?oro aeoe aone ee,oe ws sy ale ops * ae “s, LiCAO: Lo, ;i My : |: :as.my¥:we :we : i ee ee aes Ee aaa Ze ge SY yp § Soh .ve SY et Og ao ee oe 8OP ee oe ek ig 4Ag hk Wi ect :fee Se, gsaOyen ae tae,> me aae oom ewe Stesa, aay wed Roe SESE oo UG Uy, ae _Oe +h! ast ~ESA :te rn Sy ySie anes sien? aSoa ab eh "4 255, fiMe iyi /;:i : re Pee . ara Ly reer awot BL 2eee ee awe, oer ae >ae Me, ne Ui so. : : “hoof us. nee . moot Lo yoy Soe OO aate2H mw 2ek: eete Saeae Soe oC eo Wy ine sn a ” ye ae Me 6 Tae om Le yy y ii ct eee : an LN an ok ‘ rene ot 7 ae a exe Seo aon eT I op SPARS Zo Ue Whe . ho. Do te oan oN a Oe aS on ve Le Se nO WOR ay es See a pee LG PEF ts : . a7..“ye eleeine : ~ awe, west ee.oagee “sn in S583 es Lk, *-ar.°’;Sas Oe wo a: ee 2 Pattee: ae Poenerd LZ, 7)eeZZ Wee #:.1S ve mo a‘ Sg ‘ne aeco an ane x, aesve ot Ar Pye: eae LGUy Wypie i | ,an |ee, :7 5im :Se ak ROLES as Oe eeae ee SS 3Pe Fy PY Bes .,:. BT Soy :gest a.Be .Sre.ee f,a2~enesoa Lone .Whe reae ae a— alos .|aa a|)Poe toe ; a en rae Moe, i R we st we Sak Sat ge oon ZI fe om aoe ee Pal ee ge ae ..pe ay Bee en NS woN “. ied aon TO pao ate eee, eee er LE % Gad Ae a a SS oe 7 oa . ace, : oa a eg Oe. | poses vo so 2 age? . ) : a . we . . a

|E co lates |; ima,° ssOR :: eres —eeBePea: . re oo eS :an

omon an by mans (1595-1667) — 36. H ‘ eng ® Vo b Rubens. ientg, marb by - Reduced.

a

£ of

THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN

first and then with increasing commonness and regularity, the flood of books illustrated with engravings and etchings—processes which did not suffer from the limitations interposed by the paper

and the method of inking. An adequate explanation of these limitations would require a long and boring description of minute details, but it may be said that in spite of all our modern skills it is still a mechanically simpler task to ink and pull good clean impressions from microscopically fine lines sunk below the surface of a sheet of polished metal than

it is to ink and pull good clean impressions from what in comparison are very coarse lines which stand up from a surface, whether it be of metal or wood. It depends on the difference between filling sunk lines with ink and then wiping away the excess

of ink from the surface, and covering the tops of raised lines with ink and not being able to get rid of any excess of ink on the shoulders and sides of the lines. It also depends on the difference between squeezing softened paper into the ink contained in sunk lines and squeezing ink on the tops of raised lines into paper. We must always remember that while an etched or engraved line stands

up above the surface of the paper, a woodcut or other relief line is sunk into the surface of the paper. The extent to which any line stands up from or lies below the surrounding paper has much to do with what is called quality of impression. The engraved and etched copper plates were more expensive to make and use than wood-blocks. They were slower to print from and could not be made to yield such enormous numbers of impressions, but they were able to provide far more detail without getting so fine in texture that they wore out before a sizable edition could be run off from them. We shall see how in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries the engravers worked out techniques of engraving that greatly increased the number of good impressions they could get from their plates. For a while the woodcutters tried to compete with the copper engravers by imitating as best they could their linear techniques, as can be seen for example in the blocks made for the mid-century 49

| THE ROAD BLOCK BROKEN Venetian publishers and in those by such northern artists as Amman and Stimmer, but the result was merely a generation of bad and streaked and spotty illustrations. _ By early in the 1600’s the pictorial woodcut had been driven

from the pages of all but the smallest number of serious and elegant books. It lingered on in the chap-books and fly sheets made for sale to the peasants and the less educated classes, but retained its place in the purely decorative initials and head and tail pieces which were recognized as necessary parts of the printer’s equipment. A few artistic single-sheet woodcuts were made during the seventeenth century, but their number is small and they were apt to be large and decorative rather than small and informative.

, Naturally, a few original prints managed to find their way into books, but they were unusual, and, in general, not having the fashionable textures that came from the interposition of the

| reproductive engraver between the artist and the printing surface, they were not popular.

The reign of the woodcut was over. The importance of this comes from the fact that with the woodcut’s disappearance from the pages of books the original print, that is, the first-hand pictorial statement of facts, also almost vanished from the pages of books. This was a great but ignored event in the history of European eyesight and had consequences of the greatest importance.

~~ 50

III SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX

A RULE OF THE ROAD THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

Y story has now reached a point at which it is neces-

sary to give thought to some problems of a very general nature. Awareness of them is essential to an understanding of my argument. Many people regard these problems as highly theoretical and of no practical interest, but as I look back at my thirty years in an art museum it seems to me that a great deal of my time was devoted to wrestling with them as immediate and concrete difficulties. Here it is only possible to call attention to them, for their careful analysis would -- require a long and difficult treatise. In the museum I learned the bitter way how inadequate words are as tools for description, definition, and classification of objects each of which is unique. I found that while I was not much interested in the actual processes which go on inside a man’s brain and nervous system, I was desperately interested in the extent to which he could communicate the results of those processes. I also learned 51

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX that baptism is neither explanation, nor description, nor definition.

Baptism, the giving of a name, is merely the tieing together in association of a particular object or quality and a particular word. For those who know both the names and the objects or qualities to which they belong, the names do away with any necessity for description, definition, and classification as means of identification. In many instances the more absurd the names are the better they

| are for their purposes. Thus, in the Metropolitan Museum at one time there was much sculpture that had to be rather elaborately identified when we wanted to talk about it at the lunch table, but there were two much-discussed pieces of sculpture, one Chinese, the other Greek, which somehow took names unto themselves. The Chinese statue was Charlie Murphy and the Greek one was Pink Billy. While these names were silly and irreverent, they were

absolutely precise as identifications and they saved much time. Once a name of this kind becomes familiar it serves as an identifi- |

| cation long after its original has vanished from earth or even if it

Excalibur. |

has never existed, as for instance such names as Julius Caesar and However, very few of the specific shapes, colours, and textures

| of objects have proper names, and in a way it is very lucky for us that they do not, because an even smaller number of persons have memories so excellent that they could use them. Much of what we

disdainfully call trade and professional jargon is nothing other than names that we don’t happen to know. Thus for many purposes the fact that most of our words are mere class designations gives them their greatest usefulness. But, also, a mere class designa-

tion may cover an infinitely large number of distinguishable things, or qualities, or actions. When we try to describe a particular object in such a way as to communicate an idea of its personality

) 52

or unique character to someone who is not actually acquainted with it, all that we can do is to pile up a selected group of these class names, like rings about a peg, in such a way that they overlap but do not coincide. By doing this it is sometimes possible to communicate such information that the hearer may be able to identify

A RULE OF THE ROAD the object when he sees it. But beyond that it is impossible for us to go with words, for the ipseity, the particularity of the object, its

this-and-no-other-ness, cannot be communicated by the use of class names. If they could they would not be the things we think

the trick. |

they are. Actual first hand acquaintance is the only thing that does

The only way that anyone can gain acquaintance with objects, as distinguished from knowledge of them, is through immediate sense awareness of them. It is thus necessary to keep clear the dis-

tinction between sensuous acquaintance on the one hand and knowledge by description on the other, for otherwise we are certain to fool ourselves on crucial occasions. We have many different ways of symbolizing both acquaintance and knowledge, - but of them all the most important are words and visual images. Both words and visual images may very well be compared to fish nets. When a fisherman tell us that there are no fish in the bay today, what he really means is that he has been unable to catch any in his net—which is quite a different thing. The fish that are too big do not get into his net, and those that are too small simply swim

through it and get away. So far as the fisherman is concerned fish | are only such creatures as he can catch in his net. In the same way words and visual images catch only the things or qualities they are adequately meshed for. Among the things no word net can ever. catch is the personality of objects which we know by acquaintance. The only set of sense awarenesses for which we have succeeded

in making nets that catch the personality of objects are those of vision, and even they catch only a certain portion of it. This method of symbolization is the making of pictures or images, which, unlike

spoken words, are apprehended through the same sense organs which give us the awarenesses we try to symbolize. Practically speaking, the visual image is the only symbol we have that does not necessarily require the translation of a sensuous awareness into

terms of some other associated sense awareness or else of some extremely limited, arbitrary, and artificial convention of correspondences. It is in these translations that we come to many of 53

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX

our misunderstandings. The translation of a sensuous awareness that comes to us through one set of nerve channels into that which comes to us through another set of nerve channels is accomplished by association. Thus, although it is literally impossible to see a noise, we have no hesitation in saying that we have seen a man making a certain sort of noise, although in fact we have not heard the noise and have only seen him going through motions that we associate with that noise. In this instance the phrase ‘making a certain sort of noise’ is merely an associational symbol for the complicated series of motions we actually saw the man make. Socalled illusions can almost invariably be shown to have arisen,

, not because the sense awareness actually involved has given us a false report, but because we have dragged into our account of what happened associated awarenesses that come to us through other channels. Thus the more closely we can confine our data for reasoning

about things to data that come to us through one and the same sense channel the more apt we are to be correct in our reasoning, even though it be much more restricted in its scope. One of the most interesting things in our modern scientific practice has been

| the invention and perfection of methods by which the scientists can acquire much of their basic data through one and the same sensuous channel of awareness. I understand that in physics, for example, the scientists are happiest when they can get their data with the aid of some dial or other device which can be read by vision. Thus heat,

weight, lengths, and many other things that in ordinary life are apprehended through senses other than vision have become for science matters of visual awareness of the positions of mechanical

pointers. |

In view of this it is worth while to examine a little more closely the differences between word symbols and visual symbols. Spoken words are addressed to the ear. Visual symbols are addressed to the eye. A printed or written word or sequence of them is addressed

to the eye, but is immediately, as the result of long training and

habit, translated into sounds addressed to the ear. Actually a 54

A RULE OF THE ROAD : sentence in print is composed of a number of superimposed symbols, each of which has only a vague and arbitrarily determined meaning. First, there are the letters of the alphabet, each of which

is a conventional sign directing the man who sees it to make a series of muscular actions which, when fully executed, result in the making of a sound. Taken by themselves they have no meaning

other than this conventionally assigned set of muscular actions. The letters of the Arabic or Hebrew alphabets have no meanings of

this kind for those of us who are not acquainted with those languages. Many letter designs are made according to topological recipes. Thus the recipe for each Roman capital letter 1s simple, abstract, and completely arbitrary. Starting with the idea of a line and the distinctions between up and down and right and left, it is devoid of any requirement of particular shape, size, or proportion. The recipe for each letter can be analysed into the number of times

a given number of lines intersect one another and the order in which the intersections occur. This permits of an infinite number of particular shapes for each letter. Thus, when we see a series of

Roman capital letters we are called upon to recognize not any particular shapes but a series of representative members of particular classes of topologically defined forms. We call any member of the ‘A’ class ‘a’, and any member of the *B’ class ‘b’, and so on.

The consequence of this is that when an instructor dictates a sentence to his class each student can write it down in his peculiar,

personally adopted, set of letter shapes. Then, if all the copies

are proof read and corrected, all the copies, in spite of their remarkable differences in particular shapes and general appearance, contain representative members of each letter class used in the sentence, arranged in the same linear order. Thanks to this all the sentences as written are identical in their verbal content.

Each written or printed word is a series of conventional instructions for the making in a specified linear order of muscular movements which when fully carried out result in a succession of

sounds. These sounds, like the forms of the letters, are made according to arbitrary recipes or directions, which indicate by 55

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX

convention certain loosely defined classes of muscular movements

but not any specifically specified ones. Thus any printed set of words can actually be pronounced in an infinitely large number of ways, of which, if we leave aside purely personal peculiarities, Cockney, Lower East Side, North Shore, and Georgia, may serve as typical specimens. The result is that each sound we hear when we listen to anyone speaking is merely a representative member of a large class of sounds which we have agreed to accept as symbolically identical in spite of the actual differences between them. These differences are sometimes so marked that persons coming

from different parts of the English speaking world can no more understand each other than if they were speaking completely different languages. The meanings of the combinations of sounds we call words are also the result of convention or of special agreement, and none of

them, unless it be a proper name, has any very precise or exact

meaning. They all have meanings that we can look up in the dictionary, but these dictionary meanings are frequently many in

number and quite different from one another. Also, and most importantly, these dictionary meanings are words themselves, and in their turn have only conventional meanings. We all know the difference in practice between using a dictionary that contains no illustrations and using one that contains a good many. Actually, the meanings of many of the most used words depend on their contexts. More than that, their meanings also depend very largely on their syntactical use. To show this it is sufficient to take three words, such for example as ‘James’ and ‘Henry’ and ‘kicked’, and arrange them in sentences. Unless the context tells us we have no way of knowing whether one or each of the proper names represents a boy, or a man, or a mule. The meanings of the sentences made of these three words depend, in English at least, on the time order in which they are used. ‘James kicked Henry’ has obviously

not the same meaning as ‘Henry kicked James’, while ‘Henry James kicked’ has a meaning that is comically and in every way different from that of either of the two other sentences. 56

A RULE OF THE ROAD This means that, when the very simple three-word sentences I

have just used are printed, each contains at least six or seven different layers of symbolic practice, each layer being composed of

vague arbitrarily determined representatives of classes of shapes | or sounds, none of which, so far as concerns communication, has any specific shape or sound or meaning. The only wonder about the system is that men are able to get — along with it as well as they do. It certainly is not nicely calculated to convey either precise meanings or any definite idea of the char-

acter, personality, or quality of anything. This is shown by the fact that while it is comparatively easy to write a recipe for the making of a class of objects, such, for example, as popovers, it is impossible to tell anyone what a particular popover either looks like or tastes like. Because of this a great many of our so-called descriptions or definitions are no more than generalized instructions for the making of things, in other words, mere cook book recipes. This is also the reason that many so-called descriptions are merely accounts of very subjective feelings or emotions that an object has given rise to in the beholder. As fine examples of this I may refer to Mr. Ruskin’s description of the facade of St. Marks and to Mr. Pater’s description of the Mona Lisa. As matter of fact, the moment that anyone seriously tries to describe an object carefully and accurately in words, his attempt takes the form of an interminably long and prolix rigmarole that few persons have either the patience or the intelligence to understand. A serious attempt to describe even the most simple piece of machinery, such, let us say, as a kitchen can-opener with several

moving parts, results in a morass of words that only a highly trained patent lawyer can cope with, and yet the shape of that can-

opener is simplicity itself as compared with the shape of such a

thing as a human hand or face. : }

As we think about this it becomes obvious why the tool-maker

wants not a written description of the device which he is called upon to make but a series of carefully made drawings accompanied by terse specifications of materials, dimensions, and, especially, of 57

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX

tolerances. A purely verbal description demands of the toolmaker that he take a series of arbitrary, abstract, vague, word symbols arranged in a linear order and translate them into concrete forms of material in a three-dimensional space in which there is no linear or time order and in which everything exists simultaneously. Someone may wonder at my phrase ‘materials, dimensions,

and, especially, tolerances’, and ask what tolerances have to do with the problem. The tolerances are the so-called accuracies

| within which the so-called measurements have to be made. They are literally the tool-maker’s recognition that so far as he is concerned there is no such thing as a precise measurement, that for him there is no such thing as “three inches’, but only ‘three inches ©

by and large’. Actually the tool-maker requires two tolerances for each dimension—one for the dimension itself, and one for the place from which the measurement of the dimension is to be taken. It simply goes to show that in the most exacting business of making _

instruments of precision there are no such things as exact and precise dimensions.

Furthermore, if you want to hold a tool-maker to a complete series of dimensions and tolerances for the several parts of an instrument of precision you must not also try to hold him to a

| series of overall dimensions and tolerances. In both logic and actual practice he can do one thing or the other, but not both. This is the reason for the rule, in shops where they make drawings for instruments of precision, never to indulge in ‘double dimensioning’, i.e. never to give both a complete series of dimensions and their sum. Always there must be some dimension or dimensions that are left to the discretion of the maker. It is merely a humble

work-a-day solution of the ambiguity which the astrophysicist refers to as the non-integrability of displacement. In its way the situation is analogous to the problem of classification of natural forms which is faced by botanists and zoologists. You divide your total number of forms into two classes—one a

defined class you call A, the other an undefined class you call

| 58

| Not-A. You then divide the Not-A class into two sub-classes, one

A RULE OF THE ROAD of which you define and call B, and the other of which you do not

define and call Not-B. You proceed from there in the same - tnanner, by dividing the undefined classes into defined and undefined classes. Thus there is always an undefined remainder. So

soon as you try to break down a group of forms into classes in such a way that you leave none of them undefined, you are certain

to be in trouble and to produce an impractical and unworkable scheme—yjust because you are dealing with actual objects and not

with purely logical concepts. The actual object always has some- | thing about it that defies neat classification, unless you can manage

always to stay in the middle of your definition and not get out | towards its shadowy and slippery edges. In other words, our verbal

definitions are only good so long as we do not have to think just what they mean. When we do have to think just what they mean we are more than apt to wind up with a very temperamental and wholly chance five to four decision.

Visual images, unlike verbal descriptions, address themselves , immediately to the same sense organs through which we gather our visual information about the objects they symbolize. At one end of their gamut they are completely abstract diagrams, such as that of the drawing for the instrument maker about which we have just been talking. There is an infinite number of ways of making any such drawing and in the end they all come to the same thing— for very much the same reason that sentences written from dictation by a number of persons, once they have been proof read and

conformed, all have the same symbolic meanings, despite their marked differences in particular shapes and general forms. As a matter of fact, practically all drawings of that kind are actually proof read, but the man who does it is called a ‘checker’. The only reason he can do his work is that the lines in the drawing are mere representatives of classes of lines and from that point of view can

hardly be called lines at all. Certainly they do not function as particular lines. At the other end of the pictorial gamut we find

| 59

things like the micro-photographs which enable us to tell exactly from which pistol a particular bullet was fired. In this latter case

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX _ the micro-photograph goes behind the general class description or

definition and reaches the personality, the what for us is the ‘this- | and-no-otherness’, of a machine which until that moment had been merely an unidentified member of a class without personality

or individual character. This last class of visual statements not only cannot be proof read but, short of faking, cannot be conformed to what the proof reader calls “copy’-—and for the reason that there is no symbolic copy to read back to, but merely a con-

crete particular object. Should one of them be inaccurate or indistinct it has to be discarded, for it cannot be corrected. The probative value of a retouched photograph is singularly slight. Visual statements are normally somewhere between the two ends of the gamut that have just been described. Some of them are |

purely schematic, and some of them are intended to catch the indicia of personality. An illustration in a botany or an anatomy can be almost purely schematic, for the thing it is intended to symbolize is not any particular instance of the shape of a concrete

leaf or muscle, but a broad general class of shapes. However, when it comes to such things as the illustrations in a history of painting or sculpture what is desired is a visual statement of the characteristics or qualities which differentiate each work of art from every other work of art. These are not generalities but the most concrete and precise of particularities.

| Before the days of photography and photographic process, it was impossible to hope for any such visual statement as that made by a photograph, and the most that could be asked for was a firsthand statement by a competent and honest observer and recorder.

_ The competent and honest observer and recorder, however, had his very distinct limitations. In the first place, he could only draw a selected and very small part of the things he did observe. More than that, courageous and sharp-sighted as he might be, he

had learned to see in a particular way and to lay his lines in

, accordance with the requirements of some particular convention

60 |

or system of linear structure, and anything that that way of seeing and that convention of drawing were not calculated to catch and

A RULE OF THE ROAD bring out failed to be brought out in his statement. For shortness’ sake I shall frequently refer to such conventions as syntaxes. Thus the Germans of the Renaissance had one kind of vision and draw-

ing and the Italians had another. Furthermore, when it came to copying a picture, that is to making a visual statement about a visual statement, the copyist felt under no obligation to be faithful

to either the particular forms or the linear syntax of the earlier draughtsman he thought he was copying. Painstakingly and care-

fully as Durer might copy a real rabbit or a violet in his own syntax, when it came to copying a print by Mantegna he refused to follow Mantegna’s syntax, and retold the story, as he thought, in his own syntax. I doubt if it ever occurred to him that in changing the syntax he completely changed both the facts and the story. The comparison of the two, the Mantegna and the Diirer, is very illuminating about a great many things. Another important difference between visual statements and collocations of word symbols, is that while there are dictionary meanings for each of the word symbols, and while there may be dictionary definitions for the names of the things symbolized by

a complex of lines and spots, there are no dictionary definitions , for the individual lines and spots themselves. It is much as though

we had dictionary definitions for sentences and paragraphs but not for individual words. Thus while there is very definitely a syntax in the putting together, the making, of visual images, once they are put together there is no syntax for the reading of their meaning. With rare exceptions, we see a picture first as a whole, and only after having seen it as a whole do we analyse it into its component parts. We can begin this analysis at any place in the picture and proceed in any direction, and the final result is

the same in every case. It is a very different situation from that , exemplified in our little three-word sentences about Henry and James, in which we have to begin with the component parts as they are given to us in a time order and only after the sentence is finished are able to effect a synthesis of them into a whole. This leads me to wonder whether the constantly recurring philosophical 61

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX , discussion as to which comes first, the parts or the whole, is not merely a derivative of the different syntactical situations exemplified on the one hand by visual statements and on the other by the

: necessary arrangement of word symbols in a time order. Thus it may be that the points and lines of geometry are not things at all

but merely syntactical dodges. | I have a notion that much of the philosophical theory of the past can eventually be traced back to the fact that, whereas it was possible after a fashion to describe or define objects by the use of arbitrary and exactly repeatable word symbols addressed, mediately or immediately, to the ear, it was not possible to describe or define them by exactly repeatable images addressed to the eye. Of course, the ancients could make pictures of particular things, but

their pictures were of little use as definitions or descriptions because they could not be exactly repeated, a thing that it 1s impos-

sible to do so long as every copy of a picture has to be copied by | hand. Pliny’s account of the predicament of the Greek botanists is

| a striking example of how this worked out in practice. We have seen another very pretty example of it in the history of botanical illustration between the years 1480 and 1530. A definition or description that cannot be exactly repeated is not only of little use but it introduces extraordinary complications

and distortions. If it had been impossible ever to repeat exactly a verbal formula there would have been no law, no science, no | religion, no philosophy, and only the most rudimentary animal technology—and it may be doubted that human beings would be

able to communicate with each other much more effectively than |

so many geese or wild dogs. 7 |

Practically speaking, a definition or description that constantly

undergoes changes does not help communication but interferes

| with it and results in a confusion greater than that which existed before it was attempted. It is to be remembered that the only statements the ancients knew which could be exactly repeated as often as was practically necessary were composed of word symbols

which were mere representative members of classes. Under the 62

A RULE OF THE ROAD circumstances, I believe, it was only natural that the ancients came to think that there was some magic in words, of such a kind that they were real and that the shifting changing phantasmagorias of

_ sensuous awarenesses they described were at best composed of imitations or faulty exemplifications of the reality that existed in

the word. Plato’s Ideas and Aristotle’s forms, essences, and definitions, are specimens of this transference of reality fromt he object to the exactly repeatable and therefore seemingly permanent verbal formula. An essence, in fact, is not part of the object but part of its definition. Also, I believe, the well-known notions of sub-

stance and attributable qualities can be derived from this operational dependence upon exactly repeatable verbal descriptions and definitions—for the very linear order in which words have to be used results in a syntactical time order analysis of qualities that actually are simultaneous and so intermingled and interrelated that no quality can be removed from one of the bundles of qualities we call objects without changing both it and all the other qualities. After all, a quality is only a quality of a group of other qualities, and if you change anyone of the group they all necessarily change. Whatever the situation may be from the point of view of a verbalist analysis, from the point of view of visual awarenesses of the kind

that have to be used in an art museum the object is a unity that cannot be broken down into separate qualities without becoming merely a collection of abstractions that have only conceptual existence and no actuality. In a funny way words and their necessary linear syntactical order forbid us to describe objects and

compel us to use very poor and inadequate lists of theoretical | ingredients in the manner exemplified more concretely by the ordinary cook book recipes.

Now, to come back to prints—the earliest engravers had no systematic system of shading or laying their lines. They covered

any such portion of the plate as required to be shaded with a | series of scratchy, scrabbly, lines, laid anyway. All that they asked — of these lines was that they should give a tone to the spots where 63

SYMBOLISM AND SYNTAX | they appeared. This can be seen, for example, in many of the so- | called niello prints, in the ‘fine manner’ prints of the Florentine school, and in some of the more primitive prints of the German school. It may be that these prints represent the goldsmith’s tradition of drawing. However, it was not long before trained draughtsmen began to make engravings, and as they did so they introduced into engraving their habitual methods of laying lines

with their pens. Pollatuolo and Mantegna drew firm carefully considered outlines, and shaded by using almost parallel lines running tilted from right to left without regard to the direction of the outlines. This gave somewhat the effect of flat washes of mono-

chrome. In Germany the artists, true to their caligraphic habit of drawing, shaded with lines that had a tendency to follow the shapes, as can be seen in the prints of the Master E. S., Schon-

gauer, and Direr. The Italians spent most of their time and thought on their outlines, and their shading was primarily a rapid .

| way of producing an added sense of three dimensionality. The Germans put as much time on the mechanical neatness of their shading and its calligraphic slickness as they did on their outlines. They also tried to combine with this all sorts of information about

the local details and textures of the surfaces of the objects they _ represented. Like the Nature of the old physics books, the Ger-

mans hated what they thought of as a pictorial vacuum, and believed that a good honest workman should fill his plate from corner to corner. If I may put the matter in philosophical jargon, even the greatest of them saw objects located in a space that was independent of them and unrelated to their forms, whereas the greater Italians saw that space was merely the relation between objects. If you see in this latter way, the spaces between objects become just as important as the objects themselves, for they are actually part of the objects, even possibly their most important

| part. But the Germans never discovered this, and kept right on filling their plates with objects deprived of space. One result of this was that while the Italians not infrequently achieved a sense of volumes through the quality of their merest, baldest outlines, the 64

REE Gee a ee Fe cos meunaeers EE ae ES NIAAA ANNE SRL Sta Soe ener nanan reoeererannn omeneo: Se oo eee

peas enemenens esse oreetetaeeeSS Gis SS Se eae anes ipesnenenmegannninnineee

oe CR — oo secu eearonsv gnomes eS SES aoe ees SR SRORAT SeaiRaS Rares pa SAT RE yew 1 cans SOE OREO SEES ON EES SHES TESS Sia OOOH SSE TEST SEIS nis sana ae

Hagia icin Sun Ree cece ence Ne rae — Se eats pa panei oreersseasemaoronmioaauisssascaion RRC eiseeeonmenirnnrenneeremeniee TS Serer eens:

ESE SS ae SoarSE COTE COSINE BEEisesER Eee ————— Ee Caen NEE DN eine NBN ES SENN oeoN i eer eo epee one r enN er peace scibaas esa one oo onsen RSS COREE TT ae Ser tne ak Ae POR i Sg SENS es SONAR DP sods ————

Se SaSasRS eSSer oh Ee Oe en ee Se SeePE A Wiangae RCEcv ca OR SS ‘ oe SR esa ana ovremensrein RUROINI Se BH bs ok A ENS RR Ges BR Re rr a ee ee ae fi acd cs ” ed ees ee ae _ = Se vy SR —

— EEarsBE BS Sk —AoeSes ————————————— —— ROSS x wa nae RS SS Mae SS hi ee Sera renenencoonnater aaneenie a penhasonineaaiaa napa aR TIO WSS ARES SMMC RES, SORA ENT Ta OA RC SR os BRERA Se REE oo

ee So RE ie Et ERT RRROR Res ek 7 ES ERS ee

Ra Me Bap Ls ‘ge «1 %a So. He

BERS acnncnins “rae tre, or aeRENN UE SaaS NRONO Strata Sasa Ro Siee a See 6 SanAO 4 Pg Mg wee SERa OR URSA ion Somwasn Sata SER aon, Neato— aan—e sree IVS oN OR a woe Neeee a OEE RRRStee RRRERED ac RRR8SERS RRR oe ee f > FOP ge SESQ |G, 3ho FS4ed

= Ra Rig Eee Cte ocean ence Nana BIg BE Le eeOD SPSERENE aging Sea po, ae Pcie Rann ociuuuuiaeharnneeceumecamane ee ee Om RI SS ee RE in Naga >eee ORR. se ae ta RN ‘ Dat hs a ee ER Raa eR Beee Re RR es& 4& Ae Pyres LF) Se Me SgoH ay Sy5Ke Ey%,, * on, ReNoe ES =Oo. NARS cor ae . OR Ste ian ee SOS RRR Red Po SpBEF £30 eekl Fo We? Se Oy aERE meSe 2eeRR ORR Otorae RRORR tneOa ioe rNSMES ieNera Bee ~OK RS esNao SUI EEE PePES 9Na55 Pop xe A =Rag Be SeKB IESE es SERCH Res RRR RI RRR RNNS NO Aetg‘ Df A oe a, arate EEAD, eee SSeS S78 8SSAPO eS heOg Se Re eva yp, &OA SS Ss aERED SSORES ne tag HaMe SoOh RNa tne 8 oe eRe PieeS Sess SCTe

aeS rrrrrrC