The Application of Lake Sediments for Climate Studies (SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science) 3031347080, 9783031347085

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
Chapter 1: Lake Sediments and Climate Studies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Methodological Framework
1.3 Objectives of This Work
References
Chapter 2: Working Approach: Field Investigation
2.1 Pre-field Investigation
2.1.1 Lake Selection
2.1.2 Site Selection
2.1.2.1 Morphometric Parameters
2.1.2.2 Type of the Lake Basins (Open and Closed)
2.1.2.3 Human Impact
2.2 Field Investigation
2.2.1 Assessment of Geology and Geomorphology of the Region
2.2.2 Bathymetric and Seismic Investigation
2.2.3 Modern Meteorological Conditions
2.2.4 Sample Collection
2.2.4.1 Sediment Sampling
2.2.4.2 Vegetation Samples
2.2.4.3 Water Samples
2.2.5 Seasonal Measurement of Lake Parameters
2.2.5.1 Sediment Trap
2.2.5.2 Physico-chemical Investigation
References
Chapter 3: Working Approach: Lab Investigation and Proxy Development
3.1 Core Opening and Lithology Preparation
3.2 Samples Used for Dating
3.2.1 Short-Lived Radioisotopes (210Pb, 137Cs, 241Am)
3.2.2 Radiocarbon Dating
3.2.3 Varves
3.3 Proxy Analysis
3.3.1 Inorganic Proxies
3.3.1.1 Geochemical and Mineralogical Proxies
3.3.1.2 Carbonate Isotopes
3.3.2 Organic Proxies
3.3.2.1 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Total Organic Nitrogen (TON)
3.3.2.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotopes
3.3.2.3 Biomarkers
3.3.2.4 Ancient Deoxyribonucleic Acid (aDNA)
3.3.2.5 Micro- and Macro-fossils
3.3.3 Grain Size
3.4 Implication of Numerical/Statistical Analysis
3.4.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3.4.2 Transfer Function
3.4.3 Spectral Analysis
References
Chapter 4: Proxy Response in Various Climatic Conditions
4.1 Teleconnections and Proxy Response
4.2 Validation with Climate Models
References
Chapter 5: Summary and Future Scope
5.1 Calibration in Space
5.2 Calibration in Time
References
References
Index

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SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science Praveen K. Mishra

The Application of Lake Sediments for Climate Studies

SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science

SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science present concise summaries of cutting-­ edge research and practical applications across a wide spectrum of environmental fields, with fast turnaround time to publication. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic. Monographs of new material are considered for the SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science series. Typical topics might include: a timely report of state-of-the-art analytical techniques, a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles and a contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth case study or technical example, a presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make independent contributions, best practices or protocols to be followed, a series of short case studies/debates highlighting a specific angle. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication.

Praveen K. Mishra

The Application of Lake Sediments for Climate Studies

Praveen K. Mishra Department of Geology, School of Sciences Cluster University of Jammu Nawabad, Jammu and Kashmir, India

ISSN 2191-5547     ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 978-3-031-34708-5    ISBN 978-3-031-34709-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34709-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

Palaeoclimatology is a fascinating science that enables us to comprehend the climatic condition during the pre-instrumental era. Several archives (e.g., speleothems, tree rings, marine sediments, ice core, etc.) provide a detailed understanding of past climatic conditions and their controlling factors such as natural (e.g. solar forcings) and anthropogenic components. As compared to other natural archives, lake sediments are ubiquitous and available in all types of geological terrain and climate regimes, though their applicability as natural archives for climate reconstruction is limited due to: (i) chronological uncertainties; (ii) scarcity in annually resolved time-series datasets; (iii) lack of modern analogs representing meteorological parameters such as air temperature and precipitation; and (iv) the complex interaction between several internal (lake water mixing, physico-chemical condition of the lake) and external factors (e.g., solar insolation, human impact, volcanic activity). Therefore, this book will shed light on a four-dimensional approach (i.e. field, lab, data analysis, and climate model validation) for climate reconstruction which provided a detailed understanding of climate variability and its impact on lake basins. This book has been a challenge to complete because of the abundantly available literatures on this topic. These literatures have already explained every aspect of limnology. However, none of them focus on the methodological framework from field to laboratory approach. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to serve as a review article for early career researchers to build a foundation in the field of palaeolimnology and implement their understanding for climate studies. For early-career researchers, it is crucial to understand the basics of field as well as  lab-based methods used in limnology. Without any background knowledge, it is incredibly difficult to understand the role of any advanced techniques. The present work, using the case studies based on lake sediment around the globe, focusses on the application of various proxies (e.g., elemental and mineralogical data, stable isotopes of carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, biomarkers, grain size, and pollen, etc.) for paleoclimate reconstructions. Although the majority of case studies are focussing from Asian region, the outcome of this monograph can be useful to the lakes from other part of the globe assuming that the behaviour of these proxies does not depend upon spatial distribution of lakes in v

vi

Preface

various continents. The proxies are largely depending upon the lake’s morphometric conditions, catchment processes, and the climatic condition in a region. There are five chapters in this monograph: • Chapter 1 provides an overview of the factors controlling sediment composition in a lake basin, and shortly discusses the proxy approach to decipher climate variability in the past. Additionally, the chapter highlighted the gaps in climate studies using lake sediment as a climate archive. • Chapter 2 is divided into several sub-sections focusing on modern field investigations, and the importance of lake monitoring for a better understanding of lake response according to changes in modern environmental conditions. • Chapter 3 discusses the lab investigation, chronology development, and proxy data analysis. In addition, the chapter also discusses the utilization of various statistical techniques to understand the proxy response in different environmental conditions. • Chapter 4 discusses how the proxies behave in different environmental conditions and how we can utilize them to understand the role of various teleconnections influencing climatic conditions in the past. • Finally, chapter 5 concludes the output of this work and highlights the strength and shortcomings in the methodological framework in climate studies using lake sediments as a climate archive. Jammu (Jammu and Kashmir, India)

Praveen K. Mishra

Acknowledgement

The work was supported by a grant from the DST-Inspire faculty fellowship (DST/ INSPIRE/04/2015/002769). I would like to extend my special thanks to Dr. Sushma Prasad for her critical comments and valuable suggestions. I am extremely grateful to Dr. Pradeep Srivastava for his guidance and warm encouragement. Special thanks to Dr. Anoop Ambili – friend, mentor, and colleague – for his constant support and constructive suggestions on this book. Thank to Ms. Shweta for her encouragment to complete this book. This work would not have been possible without the scientific knowledge and active participation of my colleagues, especially Dr. Ankit, and Dr. Shramila. I warmly thank Ms. Anshumita, Dr. Pankaj and Dr. Sandeep, for their unwavering emotional support during the challenging times of the pandemic. I also thank Dr. Arkoprovo Biswas, for encouraging me to write this book. I thank Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (Dehradun, India), PRISM Laboratory (at Indian Institute of Science Education and Research-Mohali, India) and Cluster University of Jammu, for providing a stimulating environment to complete this work. Finally, thanks to LacCore facility, Dr. Catalina Gebhardt  (Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz center for polar and marine research, Bremerhaven, German), Dr. Elisabeth Dietze (University of Göttingen, Dr. Gordon Schlolaut (Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology), and Prof. Takeshi Nakagawa (Ritsumeikan University) for providing images for this book.

vii

Contents

1

 Lake Sediments and Climate Studies����������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.2 Methodological Framework��������������������������������������������������������������    5 1.3 Objectives of This Work��������������������������������������������������������������������    9 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    9

2

Working Approach: Field Investigation������������������������������������������������   15 2.1 Pre-field Investigation ����������������������������������������������������������������������   15 2.1.1 Lake Selection����������������������������������������������������������������������   16 2.1.2 Site Selection������������������������������������������������������������������������   18 2.2 Field Investigation����������������������������������������������������������������������������   24 2.2.1 Assessment of Geology and Geomorphology of the Region������������������������������������������������������������������������   24 2.2.2 Bathymetric and Seismic Investigation��������������������������������   25 2.2.3 Modern Meteorological Conditions��������������������������������������   29 2.2.4 Sample Collection����������������������������������������������������������������   30 2.2.5 Seasonal Measurement of Lake Parameters�������������������������   34 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   37

3

 Working Approach: Lab Investigation and Proxy Development��������   45 3.1 Core Opening and Lithology Preparation ����������������������������������������   46 3.2 Samples Used for Dating������������������������������������������������������������������   47 3.2.1 Short-Lived Radioisotopes (210Pb, 137Cs, 241Am)������������������   47 3.2.2 Radiocarbon Dating��������������������������������������������������������������   49 3.2.3 Varves������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   51 3.3 Proxy Analysis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   51 3.3.1 Inorganic Proxies������������������������������������������������������������������   52 3.3.2 Organic Proxies��������������������������������������������������������������������   60 3.3.3 Grain Size�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   73

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Contents

3.4 Implication of Numerical/Statistical Analysis����������������������������������   75 3.4.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)����������������������������������   75 3.4.2 Transfer Function������������������������������������������������������������������   77 3.4.3 Spectral Analysis������������������������������������������������������������������   78 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79 4

 Proxy Response in Various Climatic Conditions����������������������������������   97 4.1 Teleconnections and Proxy Response ����������������������������������������������   98 4.2 Validation with Climate Models ����������������������������������������������������   101 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  103

5

 Summary and Future Scope�������������������������������������������������������������������  107 5.1 Calibration in Space��������������������������������������������������������������������������  108 5.2 Calibration in Time ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  109 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  110

References ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  113 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  139

Chapter 1

Lake Sediments and Climate Studies

Abstract  The introductory chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the utilization of lake sediments as a valuable tool for climate reconstruction. Using the examples from several active lakes around the globe, the chapter shortly discusses the four-dimensional approach, i.e., modern investigations; proxy development/ calibration; proxy interpretation; and validation of climate models with proxy data for climate reconstruction. In addition, an introduction of the factors such as external (solar insolation, human impact, volcanic activity, catchment weathering) and internal (lake water mixing, physico-chemical condition of the lake) component affecting lake sediment composition has also been illustrated and discussed in details. Further, the chapter serves as a robust foundation for understanding strategy such as pre-field investigation to proxy development for climate reconstruction and further using this information for climate models to predict near-term climatic conditions under various scenarios. Keywords  Lake sediments · Proxies · Archives · Climate variability · Palaeoclimate · Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) · El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) · North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) · Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

1.1 Introduction The long-term variability in climatic parameters (such as annual mean temperature or precipitation amount) caused by natural (e.g., volcanic eruptions, solar variations, Earth’s orbital changes, and ocean circulations) as well as anthropogenic factors, has serious socio-economic consequences on human societies. In the present-day situation, in a global warming condition, the occurrence and severity of these climatic parameters are continuously increasing, causing a loss of human population and economic instability in the region (Easterling et  al., 2000; Peters et  al., 2020). These extreme climatic events (e.g., heavy rainfall and drought, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. K. Mishra, The Application of Lake Sediments for Climate Studies, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34709-2_1

1

2

1  Lake Sediments and Climate Studies

hurricanes), recently witnessed in several parts of the globe, show their impact on a wide variety of natural and human systems (Easterling et al., 2000; Peters et al., 2020). The climate modelling studies have shown that due to the complexity of human versus natural climate variability, the behaviour of these extreme events will intensify and will have severe societal implications in the future (Diffenbaugh et al., 2005). However, these records are based on instrumental data covering only a few decades, where the short-scale climate variability is largely governed by anthropogenic warming (Levitus et al., 2001). Therefore, to understand the role of natural forcings influencing climate variability, it is essential to focus on longer climatic records. This provides crucial information about the past boundary conditions (e.g., solar insolation, volcanic radiations, sea surface and atmospheric temperature, etc.) that can be utilized for future climate predictions (Easterling et al., 2000; Birks & Birks, 2006; Lotter & Anderson, 2012). Archives,1 such as marine and lake sediments, tree rings, ice cores, etc., from around the globe provide unambiguous evidence of past climatic conditions and the role of human perturbations in the present-day environmental condition. Though, unlike other archives, lake sediments exist in almost all types of geological terrain and climate regimes, their applicability as natural archives for climate reconstruction is limited (Von Gunten et al., 2012a, b). This is probably because of the (i) chronological uncertainties associated with lake sediments; (ii) difficulty of obtaining annually resolved time-series datasets; (iii) paucity of modern analogues representing climatic parameters such as air temperature and precipitation; and (iv) the complex interaction between several internal (such as lake water mixing, physico-­chemical condition of the lake) and external factors (e.g., solar insolation, human impact, volcanic activity) (Lotter & Anderson, 2012) (Fig. 1.1). Further, the impact of external factors which may also affect the meteorological parameters, i.e., atmospheric temperature, precipitation, and global energy budget, has a crucial role in governing the sediment composition of lake sediments, by modifying catchment (e.g., weathering, sediment transport, terrestrial vegetations, etc.) and the lake processes (e.g., lake water temperature, sediment mixing, alkalinity, pH, salinity, etc.). Lake sediments are composed of various physical (sediments, grains, etc.), chemical (minerals, elemental distributions), and biological (organic matter) components. These components are represented in the form of various proxies which can provide crucial information about environmental conditions and/or human perturbations in catchments (Birks & Birks, 2006; Dubois et  al., 2018) (Fig.  1.1a). These proxies are largely influenced by external as well as internal factors in response to natural or/and anthropogenic impact in the region (Fig.  1.1b). The impact of climate variabilities (e.g., atmospheric precipitation or temperature ­fluctuation) on these factors in terms of rock weathering,2 surface runoff, and  Geological records (in form of layers, rings, sedimentary sequences) provide information about past climate variability. Apart from the lake sediments, other archives are marine sediments, speleothems, tree rings, ice cores, and outcrop sediment profiles. 2  Weathering is disintegration of rocks through physical (temperature), chemical, and biological processes. Certain factors such as climate, rock exposures, and their composition control the rate of weathering. 1

1.1 Introduction

3

Fig. 1.1 (a) External and internal factors controlling lake sediment compositions; (b) impact of climate variability on external and internal components; and (c) sediment inflow in the lake basin

4

1  Lake Sediments and Climate Studies

vegetation response influences the lake characteristics and hence sediment compositions. Further, the internal components such as lacustrine productivity, lake water mixing, physico-chemical condition of the water column, and nutrient supply into the lake basin may also have a significant role in influencing sediment characteristics in the lake basin. In addition, factors such as the lake’s thermal heat budget and hydrological changes (e.g., surface/groundwater mixing, evaporation) in the basin exerts substantial influence on the internal components in terms of spatial variability in proxy response. These factors also have a crucial role in influencing various physical (e.g., evaporation), chemical (e.g., mineral precipitation), and biological (e.g., organic productivity, organic life diversity) activities within a lake. In addition to the previously mentioned factors, various morphometric parameters such as lake size, water depth, and lake water volume, along with wind pattern and intensity, play a crucial role in influencing turbulent and laminar water flow within the lake. These morphometric and meteorological factors collectively contribute to the spatial variablity in lake water temperature, heat distribution, concentration of dissolved gases, nutrients, and other physico-chemical parameters (Wetzel, 2001). Several studies from around the globe have used lake sediments as an archive to understand the climatic conditions during the pre- and post-human era and compare them with the present-day climate in order to project future climate variability. Broadly, these studies have used two distinct approaches for climate reconstruction, viz., climate reconstruction using a few proxies3 (Demske et al., 2009; Raja et al., 2018) or application of a multiproxy approach to understanding the past climatic conditions (Andrič et al., 2009; Limmer et al., 2012). Palaeoclimate reconstruction using a few proxies has several inherent problems, such as temporal sensitivity, and challenges related to disentangling climate signals due to multiple controlling factors. However, in a multiproxy approach to climate variability in a lake basin, similar behaviour of independent proxies helps to reconstruct a more reliable image of past climatic conditions, whereas the differences in proxy responses force us to reconsider the possible factors causing these dissimilarities and thus can be easily rectified (Lotter & Anderson, 2012). In addition, the multiproxy approach not only provides information about the environmental conditions but also delivers an understanding of the lake ontogeny, the lake’s internal processes (e.g., pH, temperature, mixing), and the impact of catchment processes in the basin (Birks & Birks, 2006). Interestingly, in a multiproxy approach, the proxy response is often associated with non-linear interaction between various factors, such as (i) the spatial distribution of the samples in the basin; (ii) proxy sensitivity; (iii) the relation between biotic and abiotic components; (iv) varying environmental conditions; and (v) influence of anthropogenic input. Thus, due to the non-stationarity of the proxy response, it is highly difficult to develop a ‘proxy(ies)’ representative of lake processes that can be utilized for climate reconstruction. To overcome these issues, a multilevel approach

 Physical, chemical, and biological natural materials preserved in the sediments. The proxies can be utilized to understand past and present climate variabilities. 3

1.2  Methodological Framework

5

is needed, which involves: (i) understanding modern lake processes; (ii) testing climate-sensitive proxies; and (iii) extracting the inherent property of the proxy response with the help of numerical/statistical techniques, which implies specific environmental conditions. Further, the tested proxy(ies) data can be utilized to understand the temporal change in their behaviour, thus representing variability in specific environmental/ climatic conditions during the pre-instrumental era and their causal mechanisms. However, due to sparsely located sites, the reliability of proxy data can be ‘questioned’. Therefore, cross-validation of proxy data with other regional palaeoclimatic and modern instrumental data is essential in order to perform an ideal palaeoclimate reconstruction. The reconstructed climate data is further beneficial to understand the forcing mechanism causing climatic variability in the past and provides baseline information to predict future climatic conditions under different scenarios. In a global scale, several attempts have been made to assimilate palaeoclimate data based on proxy data using various archives (such as tree rings, ice cores, etc.) and test their response with several climate models in order to understand future climatic condition (Miao & Xin, 2016). However, the spatial-inhomogeneity of proxy data, their response in diverse environmental conditions, and the scarcity of characteristics proxy records representing high resolution annual to decadal scale climate data pose challenges, thus reducing the reliability of proxy data for climate reconstruction and their implications for understanding future climatic conditions. Therefore, as a palaeoclimatologist, it is crucial to (i) understand the factors (such as external and internal) governing the lake sediment composition; (ii) develop proxies representative of catchment and the lake processes; (iii) reconstruct high-resolution climate records; and (iv) compare them with other regional and global climate records to understand the feedback system and forcing factors influencing climatic condition on varied time scales. The assimilation of these data will further help to develop a climate model to understand the future climatic conditions in various scenarios and thus be helpful for policymakers and environmentalist.

1.2 Methodological Framework For the present work, several ‘active lakes’ have been used as case study to provide a better insight into proxy applicability for palaeoclimate studies (Table  1.1; Fig. 1.2). Although the majority of case studies are focussing from Asian region, the outcome of this monograph can be useful to the lakes from other part of the globe assuming that the behaviour of climate sensitive proxies does not depending upon spatial distribution of lakes, though their response is primarily governed by the factors such as morphometric parameters, interaction between catchment and the lake processes, mixing of water from different sources and the climatic condition in a region. This work is largely focussing on the application of environmental proxies for palaeoclimate studies. Using the proxy data from lake sediments situated in

6

1  Lake Sediments and Climate Studies

Table 1.1  Overview of the major lakes discussed in the text S. no. Site name Country 1 Alahake Saline Russia Lake 2 Baikal Lake Russia

3 4 5 6 7

8 9

10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

References Li et al. (2019)

Brincat et al. (2000) and Morley et al. (2005) Bangong Co China Fontes et al. (1996) Bien Hô Vietnam Nguyễn-Văn et al. (2020) Bosten China Wünnemann et al. (2006) Cariaco Basin Venezuela Haug et al. (2001) Donggi Cona China Opitz et al. (2012) and Saini et al. (2017) Ebinur Lake China Zhou et al. (2019) El’gygytgyn Russia Minyuk et al. (2007) and Wennrich et al. (2014) Gonghai China Chen et al. (2015) Groenvlei Lake S. Africa Wündsch et al. (2016) Huguang maar China Chu et al. (2002) and Mingram et al. (2004) Hurleg Lake China Zhao et al. (2007) Lake Issyk Kul Kyrgyzstan Ricketts et al. (2001) Jazmurian Iran Vaezi et al. (2019) Playa Karakul Tajikistan Heinecke et al. (2017) Kinnernet Tajikistan Quintana et al. (2013) Koucha L. China Mischke et al. (2008) Laguna Ecuador Moy et al. (2002) Pallcacocha Łazduny Lake Poland Sanchini et al. (2020) Lisan Jordan Machlus et al. Valley (2000) and Stein et al. (2010)

Lat (°N) 47.70

Long (°E) Proxies 87.54 Pollen, TOC, CHAR

55.50

109.50 TOC, CSIA, BM, δ18O

33.72

78.85 Carb, δ18O, δ13Cc

14.05 41.96

108.00 MS, E, M, GS, TOC, TN TS, bathymetry 86.83 Carb, E, TOC

10.71 35.30

−65.17 E 98.53 Carb, M, E, TOC, TN, BM, CSIA

44.88 67.5

82.99 GS, E 172.08 E

38.91 112.24 MS, Carb, P −34.03 22.86 E, TC, TN, TOC, TN, M, δ18O, δ13Cc, GS 21.20 110.30 MS, M, E, TOC, TN, P 37.28 42.39 27.62 39.02 32.81 34.01 −2.77 53.86 32.00

96.90 P 77.29 Carb, M 58.88 GS, E, Carb, TOC, δ18O, δ13Cc, BM 73.53 GS, E, TOC, TN, δ18O, δ13Cc 35.58 CHAR, BC, Carb, TOC, TN 97.20 GS, E, M, TOC, δ18O, δ13Cc, δ13Co −79.23 E 21.95 TOC, TN, Pollen, E, Physico-chemical 35.54 M, Carb, E

(continued)

1.2  Methodological Framework

7

Table 1.1 (continued) S. no. Site name 22 Lonar

Country India

References Prasad et al. (2014)

23

Nam Co

China

24 25 26

Nir’Pa Paru Co Lake Qilu Lake

China China China

27

Qinghai Lake

China

Günther et al. (2015) Bird et al. (2017) Bird et al. (2014) Hillman et al. (2020) Xu et al. (2006)

28

Renuka Lake

India

29

Son Kul

30 31

Taihu Lake Tanganyika

32 33

Thimmanna India Nayakana Kere Tso Kar India

34

Tso Moriri

India

35

Van Lake

Turkey

36

Vukosjávrátje

Sweden

37

Yeak Mai

China

Lat (°N) 19.98

30.66 29.73 29.80 24.17 36.93

Diwate et al. (2020) Kyrgyzstan Lauterbach et al. (2014)

30.61

China Congo

31.23 38.90

Wu et al. (2006) Tierney et al. (2007) Warrier et al. (2017) Demske et al. (2009) Leipe et al. (2014) and Mishra et al. (2015a, b), Prasad et al. (2016) McCormack et al. (2019) Berntsson et al. (2015) Hamilton et al. (2019)

41.83

Long (°E) Proxies 76.51 E, M, Carb, δ18O, d13Cc, δ13Co, δ15N, TOC, TN, P 90.49 d13Co, δ15N, δ13Cc, BM 92.39 GS, E, Bsi, δ13Co, M, 92.35 GS, CSIA 102.75 MS, Carb, δ18O, δ13Cc 100.16 Carb, TOC, TN, δ13Cc, δ13Co, δ15N 77.46 GS, TOC 75.13 E, M, TOC, TN, δ13Co, δ15N, CSIA, BM, P 120.13 δ13Co, δ15N, TOC, TN 112.23 BSi, E, TOC

14.20

76.40 MS, E

33.31

78.00 P

32.86

78.32 GS, M, E, carb, TOC, TN, δ13Co, δ13Cc, δ15N, δ18O, P

29.80 66.25 13.37

92.35 E, M, δ13Co, δ15N, carb 15.72 E, GS, TOC, Geomorphology 107.15 GS, E, MS

Carb carbonates, TOC total organic carbon, TN total nitrogen, δ18O oxygen isotope, δ13Cc carbon isotope of bulk carbonates, δ13Co carbon isotope of organic matter, δ15N nitrogen isotopes, CSIA compound specific isotope analysis, BM biomarkers, E elemental geochemistry, M mineralogy, MS magnetic susceptibility, P pollen, CHAR charcoal, BSi biogenic Silica

different geographically and climatically distinct regions, this work will shed light on a four-­dimensional approach which provides a detailed understanding of climate variabilities and their impact on the lake basins: (i) Modern investigations: Primary step involving site selection and field excursion. This step provides crucial information about the lake basin and the surrounding regions, and the factors (such as the lake’s morphometry, human impact, and catchment hydrological, geomorphological, and geological settings) which might provide the decisive characteristics of proxy behaviour in the catchment.

8

1  Lake Sediments and Climate Studies

Fig. 1.2  Active lakes discussed in the text. For better visualization, the first panel shows the world map divided into five different zones. (Source: Google Earth Pro)

(ii) Proxy development/calibration: This includes chronology reconstruction and sample analysis for proxy data generation. Further, the statistical analysis of proxy data along with the field-based modern data provides a detailed understanding of the evolution of the lake’s ecosystem under different climatic conditions. (iii) Proxy interpretation: This step will further help to interpret the data and understand the possible factors causing proxy variability on varied time scales. (iv) Validation of climate models with proxy data: This step is crucial to validate the climate models using proxy data for future climate prediction. Using comprehensive methodology, this monograph will provide a detailed understanding of various aspects of lake basins in terms of impact of external (catchment processes, sediment supply, vegetation response, drainage pattern) and internal (e.g., lake water mixing, organic productivity, and seasonal variation of lake’s physico-chemical condition in terms of varied environment conditions) component on sediment characteristics in a lake basin. Further, this aspect will help to establish proxy behaviour in modern environmental conditions and utilize them for palaeoclimate reconstructions.

References

9

1.3 Objectives of This Work With this review, the study aims to discuss the strategy such as pre-field investigation to proxy development for climate reconstruction and further use this information for climate models to predict near-term climatic conditions under various scenarios. Using the case studies from various active lake basins around the globe, the objectives of this study are to (i) provide a detailed methodological framework to evaluate the applicability of lake sediments in climate reconstruction; (ii) discuss the importance of field-based modern investigations to establish a baseline characteristics of the lake basins according to change in the environmental condition, and, (iii) discuss the role of palaeoclimate studies in climate model validation to forecast future climate variability. The comprehensive approach of these findings will advance our understanding while working with the lake sediments for climate reconstruction.

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Peters, D. P. C., Burruss, N. D., Okin, G. S., Hatfield, J. L., Scroggs, S. L. P., Huang, H., Brungard, C.  W., & Yao, J. (2020). Deciphering the past to inform the future: Preparing for the next (“really big”) extreme event. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 18, 401–408. https:// doi.org/10.1002/fee.2194 Prasad, S., Anoop, A., Riedel, N., Sarkar, S., Menzel, P., Basavaiah, N., Krishnan, R., Fuller, D., Plessen, B., Gaye, B., Röhl, U., Wilkes, H., Sachse, D., Sawant, R., Wiesner, M. G., & Stebich, M. (2014). Prolonged monsoon droughts and links to Indo-Pacific warm pool: A Holocene record from Lonar Lake, Central India. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 391, 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.01.043 Prasad, S., Mishra, Praveen K., Menzel, P., Gaye, B., Jehangir, A., Yousuf, A. R. (2016). Testing the validity of productivity proxy indicators in high altitude Tso Moriri Lake, NW Himalaya (India). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 449, 421–430. Quintana, N.  B. K., Marlon, J.  R., Nishri, A., Street, J.  H., & Paytan, A. (2013). Climatic and human controls on the late Holocene fire history of northern Israel. Quaternary Research, 80, 396–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2013.06.012 Raja, P., Achyuthan, H., Geethanjali, K., Kumar, P., & Chopra, S. (2018). Late Pleistocene paleoflood deposits identified by grain size signatures, Parsons Valley Lake, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 91, 547–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12594-­018-­0903-­0 Ricketts, R.D., Johnson, T.C., Brown, E.T., Rasmussen, K.A., Romanovsky, V. V., 2001. The Holocene paleolimnology of Lake Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan: Trace element and stable isotope composition of ostracodes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 176, 207–227. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00339-X Saini, J., Günther, F., Aichner, B., Mischke, S., Herzschuh, U., Zhang, C., Mäusbacher, R., & Gleixner, G. (2017). Climate variability in the past ∼19,000 yr in NE Tibetan Plateau inferred from biomarker and stable isotope records of Lake Donggi Cona. Quaternary Science Reviews, 157, 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.12.023 Sanchini, A., Szidat, S., Tylmann, W., Vogel, H., Wacnik, A., & Grosjean, M. (2020). A Holocene high-resolution record of aquatic productivity, seasonal anoxia and meromixis from varved sediments of Lake Łazduny, north-eastern Poland: Insight from a novel multi-proxy approach. Journal of Quaternary Science, 35, 1070–1080. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3242 Stein, M., Torfstein, A., Gavrieli, I., & Yechieli, Y. (2010). Abrupt aridities and salt deposition in the post-glacial Dead Sea and their North Atlantic connection. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 567–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.10.015 Vaezi, A., Ghazban, F., Tavakoli, V., Routh, J., Beni, A. N., Bianchi, T. S., Curtis, J. H., & Kylin, H. (2019). A late Pleistocene-Holocene multi-proxy record of climate variability in the Jazmurian playa, southeastern Iran. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 514, 754–767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.09.026 Von Gunten, L., Grosjean, M., Kamenik, C., Fujak, M., & Urrutia, R. (2012a). Calibrating biogeochemical and physical climate proxies from non-varved lake sediments with meteorological data: Methods and case studies. Journal of Paleolimnology, 47, 583–600. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10933-­012-­9582-­9 Von Gunten, L., D’Andrea, W. J., Bradley, R. S., & Huang, Y. (2012b). Proxy-to-proxy calibration: Increasing the temporal resolution of quantitative climate reconstructions. Scientific Reports, 2, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00609 Warrier, A. K., Sandeep, K., & Shankar, R. (2017). Climatic periodicities recorded in lake sediment magnetic susceptibility data: Further evidence for solar forcing on Indian summer monsoon. Geoscience Frontiers, 8, 1349–1355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.01.004 Wennrich, V., Minyuk, P. S., Borkhodoev, V., Francke, A., Ritter, B., Nowaczyk, N. R., Sauerbrey, M.  A., Brigham-Grette, J., & Melles, M. (2014). Pliocene to pleistocene climate and environmental history of Lake El’gygytgyn, far east Russian Arctic, based on high-resolution inorganic geochemistry data. Climate of the Past, 10, 1381–1399. https://doi.org/10.5194/ cp-­10-­1381-­2014

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Chapter 2

Working Approach: Field Investigation

Abstract  The present chapter highlighted the preliminary approach for palaeoclimate studies using lake sediments and discussed the importance of proxy development using modern approach. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the inportance of field investigation in developing a ‘baseline’ characteristic of individual proxies (e.g., pollen, geochemistry, stable isotopes, grain size, etc.) according to changes in environmental conditions, and utilize those proxies for climate reconstruction. Further, the chapter outlines several preliminary steps such as (i) field investigations – including site and lake selection, understanding geology, and geomorphological parameters in lake catchment; (ii) bathymetric and seismic investigation – to decipher the sediment characteristics and their spatial distribution at the lake bottom; (iii) investigating modern meteorological parameters – for understanding the temporal and spatial variability of real-time modern meteorological conditions; (iv) seasonal measurement of lake parameters such as pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, etc., to understand the seasonal dynamics of the lake system; and finally (v) samples collection which involves a sequential collection of vegetation, sediments, and water samples. Keywords  Proxy calibration · Seismic studies · Ground-penetrating radar · Open–Closed Lake basin · Lake morphometry · Bathymetric investigations · Core sediments · Grab sampling · sediment trap · Physico-chemical characteristics

2.1 Pre-field Investigation The preliminary approach in palaeoclimate studies using lake sediment is to perform a modern investigation of the lake basin in terms of understanding the proxy response and behaviour of the lake’s physico-chemical characteristics in various environmental settings. The purpose is to develop a ‘baseline’ characteristic of individual proxies (e.g., pollen, geochemistry, stable isotopes, grain size, etc.) according to changes in environmental conditions. Using the lacustrine sequences, the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. K. Mishra, The Application of Lake Sediments for Climate Studies, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34709-2_2

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focus of the palaeoclimate study is to understand the process governing the sediment deposition in the basin. The characteristics of lake sediments as deposited in the lake basins are primarily influenced by catchment (physical and chemical weathering, sediment transportation) or lake processes (such as mixing, bioturbation, sediment resuspension) and anthropogenic perturbations. The temporal signature of these processes is recorded in the lake sediments in terms of varied responses of proxies. However, these proxies behave differently in various environmental conditions and are also influenced by the geological and physiographic location of the lakes (Fig. 2.1). Therefore, for palaeoclimate studies, it is crucial to understand (i) the type of the lake basins (deep, shallow, small, or large); (ii) human impact in and around the lake; and (iii) physico-geographic location of the lake which influences the local drainage basin1 (or catchment). The details of this preliminary approach for modern field investigation are discussed in the following sections.

2.1.1 Lake Selection The preliminary step is to identify the lake basin which can be useful to understand the climate variability in the region. There are several criteria that can be considered depending upon the objective of the study, i.e., (i) location of the lake; (ii) size of the lake (small/medium/large); (iii) water depth; (iv) extent of anthropogenic influence; and (v) origin of the lake (e.g., glacial/tectonic/coastal/fluvial, etc.). Lakes from various settings have their own dynamics in terms of tropic status, sediment characteristics, and water chemistry. The lakes situated at the transition zone between different climatic regimes can provide a better understanding of past hydrological/moisture conditions in the region and the role of various teleconnections (e.g., El Niño Southern Oscillation  – ENSO, North Atlantic Oscillation  – NAO, Indian Ocean Dipole – IOD, and Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifting). For example, lakes such as Tso Moriri and Tso Kar Lake (in NW Himalaya), Paru Co, Qinghai, Donggi Cona, and Koucha Lake (in the Tibetan plateau) have shown an excellent climate record in terms of past changes in the hydrological condition of the region and provided an understanding of the interplay between the Indian summer monsoon (ISM)2 and the westerlies3 since the Holocene4 epoch (Mischke et  al., 2008; Wünnemann et  al., 2010; Mishra et  al.,

 Also known as catchment or watershed are the area from which precipitation flows and collect in a common region (e.g., outlet or lake basin). 2  ISM or south-west monsoon typically last for 4 months (June to September) contributes major rainfall in south east Asia. 3  Prevailing wind characterised between 30° to 60° latitudes blow from west to east direction. The north-western Himalaya and central Asia dominantly receives moisture from mid-latitude westerlies. 4  Current geological epoch, starts at around 11,700  cal BP.  The Holocene is divided into three geological ages: (a) Greenlandian (~11,700 to 8200 cal BP); (b) Northgrippian (8200 to 4200 cal BP); (c) Meghalayan (4200 cal BP to present). 1

2.1  Pre-field Investigation

17

Fig. 2.1  Interrelationship between different climate-sensitive proxies. Dotted ‘black’ lines suggesting the impact of one proxy on others, whereas dotted ‘orange’ lines indicating an anthropogenic impact on various proxies. The shaded region (red, green and blue) represents the type of the samples used for the analysis

2015; Zhu et al., 2015; Bird et al., 2017). Similarly, the lakes from the Mediterranean region demonstrated an ideal site for palaeoclimate studies, as the region is influenced by both higher (i.e., NAO) and lower (monsoonal impact) latitude climate systems (Kotthoff et al., 2008; Vogel et al., 2010). Further, two important parameters, such as geographic location and origin (such as, glacial, tectonic, fluvial, etc.), of lakes can also play a crucial role in site selection. The lakes belonging to the high-altitude region (dominantly characterized by glacial lakes) are highly susceptible to extreme storm events (Vincent, 2009; Anoop et al., 2010). Due to such atmospheric extreme events, these lakes may respond rapidly and preserve climate variability in terms of change in the lake water temperature, water column stratification, sediment dynamics in the lake, and change in the hydrological balance (Vincent, 2009). In general, the strong relation between atmospheric temperature

18

2  Working Approach: Field Investigation

around the lake and water temperature controls the dynamics of the lake in terms of productivity and mineral precipitations (Havens & Jeppesen, 2018). In high-altitude glacial lakes (commonly characterized by low productivity), the increased warming leads to a thermally stratified water column and higher temperature in lake surface water. This favours the growth of vegetation and higher productivity in the upper water column of the lake. Therefore, in the present-day global warming condition, the sensitivity of high-­altitude lakes in terms of increased atmospheric temperature makes them an ideal site to understand climate variability.

2.1.2 Site Selection Site selection is a key criterion in palaeolimnological investigations. However, for studies based on lake sediments, a proper understanding of various catchment processes such as runoff, vegetation changes, physical, and chemical weathering along with human activity in the region is essential. These processes are the function of primarily three components: (i) morphology of the lake basin; (ii) type of lakes (open and closed); and (iii) extent of human interference in the basin. 2.1.2.1 Morphometric Parameters In the year 2012, Hakånson proposed a three-dimensional approach to defining a lake body, i.e., size of the lake; form of the lake; and special parameters (that is various morphometric indices) (Table 2.1). The interrelation between these three components defines the sediment transport in the form of a different modes of sedimentation, i.e., resuspension, reworking, and mixing at the lake bottom which regulates several limnological parameters such as physical (such as, turbidity, water colour, temperature), chemical (e.g., salinity, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, etc.), and biological (e.g., primary and secondary production, preservation and decomposition of organic matters within the lake) parameters (Larsen & Macdonald, 1994; Blais & Kalff, 1995; Wetzel, 2001; Håkanson, 2012; Stefanidis & Papastergiadou, 2012). Lakes with a higher catchment area, as compared to lake water volume, are likely to receive a higher amount of nutrition and sediment supply (Stefanidis & Papastergiadou, 2012). The investigation of such lakes can provide a better picture of sediment supply and aquatic productivity due to the influx of higher nutrition from the catchment (Kolada et  al., 2005; Stefanidis & Papastergiadou, 2012). However, the catchment area with respect to the lake water volume is not the sole parameter that affects the nutritional content and sediment supply into the basin. Other factors, such as the geomorphological condition of the catchment (e.g., the presence of slopes, and terraces in the catchment), surface runoff, water depth, and shoreline features, also affect the sediment supply and productivity in the basin (Håkanson, 2005; Kolada et al., 2005; Nõges, 2009).

19

2.1  Pre-field Investigation

Table 2.1  Commonly used morphometric parameters used in the lake basins (Håkanson, 1981, 2012; Lakewatch, 2001; Stefanidis & Papastergiadou, 2012; Singh et al., 2023) S. Morphometric no. parameters 1. Mean depth (MnD) 2. Relative depth (RD) 3.

Schindler’s ratio (SR)

4.

Dynamic ratio (DR)

5.

Shoreline development index Energy factor (EF)

6.

Calculations LV/SA

Remarks

(50*MxD*(Π)1/2/ (SA)1/2)

Susceptibility of water column to mixing effects. Higher RD indicates lesser susceptibility to the mixing effect (CA + SA)/(LV) Measure the impact of the catchment into the lake basin Higher SR – indicates higher catchment influence (SA)1/2/MnD Understand the influence of wave action in a lake basin. Higher DR (>0.8) points out that the bottom lake sediment is largely controlled by wave action (SL)/(2*(Π*SA)1/2 The SDI value for a circular lake is 1. For irregular lake basins, the SDI always shows 100 for fresh samples)

Buggle et al. (2011) and Minyuk et al. (2013)

Fedo et al. (1995), Buggle et al. (2011), and Minyuk et al. (2013)

References Nesbitt and Young (1989), Mclennan et al. (1993), Das and Haake (2003), Price and Velbel (2003), and Opitz et al. (2015) Harnois (1988), Das and Haake (2003), Buggle et al. (2011), Minyuk et al. (2013), and Pulice et al. (2013)

64 3  Working Approach

3.3  Proxy Analysis

65

calibration curve suitable for Asian Lakes (Chu et al., 2005) and Uk37 index, Huguet et al. (in 2011) estimated the average temperature of Lake Van ranges between 15.4 and 17.2 °C indicating long chain alkenone production in photic zone. In another study from Hurleg Lake (central Asia), Zhao et al. (in 2013) reconstructed the quantitative palaeotemperature and suggested that the climatic record from central Asia shows anti-phasing with monsoonal variability since Holocene. Organic matter undergoes degradation over a period of time and may therefore provide an erroneous isotopic value for bulk organic sediments (δ13Cbulk) which leads to a wrong interpretation of the depositional environment (Brincat et al., 2000; Simoneit, 2005; Eglinton & Eglinton, 2008). However, in compound-specific isotopic analysis (CSIA), particular carbon (or hydrogen) chain length of n-alkane extracted from the sediments/vegetation can be used to understand past vegetation change, environmental conditions (δ13CCISA), and moisture change (δDwax) in the region (Brincat et al., 2000; Castañeda & Schouten, 2011; Holtvoeth et al., 2019). The photosynthetic pathways influence the isotopic composition of individual carbon chain length; thus, the role of other factors such as salinity changes, decomposition, and degradation has a minimal role (Holtvoeth et al., 2019). For C3 plants, the average δ13CCSIA for Cn−29 (Cn−31) is −34.7% (−35.2%), whereas, for C4 plants, the values lie at around −21.4% (for Cn−29) and –21.7% (for Cn−31) (Castañeda & Schouten, 2011; and reference therein). The CSIA of δ13C for specific chain lengths can also be utilized to estimate the contribution of C3 and C4 plants in bulk organic matter using an end-member mixing model (Aichner et al., 2015; Ankit et al., 2017). The distribution pattern of long-chain n-alkane along with the δ13Cn−C31 is indicative of climate-induced vegetation change in the watershed of Lake Baikal since LGM (Last Glacial Maxima) (Brincat et al., 2000). Similarly, the δD of extracted n-alkane chain length has been used to understand past hydrological balance in the region. In Son Kul Lake (central Kyrgyzstan), the CSIA was used to understand past hydrological conditions in the region (Lauterbach et al., 2014). The δDwax of odd-numbered long-chain n-alkanes from the epicuticular wax of terrestrial plants reflects the net moisture availability in the region. The depleted δDn−C29 between 6.0 and 4.9 cal ka in Son Kul Lake suggests relatively humid summers corroborating with other palaeorecords from nearby areas (Lauterbach et  al., 2014) (Fig.  3.7a). In a similar work from Paru Co Lake, along with the other proxies (e.g., δ 13Corg and δ15N), the variation in δDn−c29 was used to reconstruct the past hydrological conditions and understand the role of solar insolation in climate variability in the region since ~11 cal ka (Bird et al., 2014) (Fig. 3.7b). 3.3.2.4 Ancient Deoxyribonucleic Acid (aDNA) After the classical work from Higuchi et  al. (in 1984), the advancement in the understanding of ancient DNA (aDNA) has shed light on the ancient genomic sequence which helps to decipher past evolutionary trends of organisms, as a function of varying ecosystems (Parducci et al., 2017; Orlando et al., 2021; Rawlence et al., 2021). Earlier, the application of aDNA is only limited to understanding the past evolutionary trend of extinct animals such as quagga (an extinct Zebra species), woolly mammoths, cave bears, etc. (Higuchi et  al., 1984; Orlando et  al., 2021).

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3  Working Approach

Fig. 3.7  δDC29 variation in (a) Son Kul and (b) Paru Co Lake sediments indicating various hydrological stages

However, the significant work on this proxy using lake sediments in the last decades has opened a new dimension to look into the past (Coolen et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2021; Rawlence et al., 2021, and references therein). Along with the allochthonous and autochthonous deposition and preservation of aDNA in the lake, sediments provide an enormous possibility to understand the past organic life, thus representing the ecological condition in the basin. For instance, the colder environment prefers well-preserved aDNA and yet observes lower detectable quantity. In contrast, a warmer climate near the equator prefers a higher population but lower preservation conditions (Parducci et  al., 2017). Even though the aDNA technique has a huge potential to decipher past ecological conditions and thus the impact of climate variability on the basin, due to the analytical and taphonomic limitations, the applicability of aDNA as a key proxy is limited (Orlando et  al., 2021). The taphonomic processes such as dispersal, accumulation, fossilization, and mechanical alteration of aDNA limit our understanding. For instance, the poor preservation of aDNA or dilution of their signature due to the abundance of certain taxa may limit the signature of aDNA, thus, it is difficult to interpret the signals (Giguet-Covex et al., 2019; Orlando et  al., 2021). Some of the previous works have also highlighted a

n-alkane indices Carbon preference index (CPI)

Average chain length (ACL)

P-aqueous (Paq)

Terrestrial and Aquatic ration (TAR)

Alkenone unsaturation index

S. no. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

C23  C25  C29  C31 

C23  C25 

Uk’37 = [(C37:4)]/[(C37:2) + (C37:3)] Where, C37:2, and C37:3 represents the quantity of di- and triunsaturated ketones

 C  C29  C31  TAR   27   C15  C17  C19 

Paq 

 25  C25  27  C27  29  C29  31  C31  33  C33  C25  C27  C29  C31  C33 

1  C25  C27  C29  C31  C33   C25  C27  C29  C31  C33       2  C24  C26  C28  C30  C32   C26  C28  C30  C32  C34  

ACL 

CPI 

Table 3.3  Example of biomarker indices used for climate reconstruction Inference CPI is odd/even predominance to determine the organic matter sources such as terrestrial, microbial and /or petroleum hydrocarbons CPI >5: higher plants, with fresh samples CPI