Coins and the Archaeologist 9780904531060, 9781407321660

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Foreword
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
A FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH TO PRE-ROMAN COINAGE
ROMANO-BRITISH COIN HOARDS: THEIR NUMISMATIC, ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE
THE INTERPRETATION OF ROMANO-BRITISH SITE FINDS
COIN LISTS: SOME PROBLEMS OF THE SMALLER SITE
CLUSTERING OF COIN FINDS IN BRITAIN, FRANCE AND ITALY
NUMERICAL ASPECTS OF ROMAN COIN HOARDS IN BRITAIN
COUNTERFEIT COINS IN ROMAN BRITAIN
DATA FOR DATING
INTERPRETING COIN-FINDS
COINS FOUND IN ANGLO-SAXON BURIALS
MONETARY EXPANSION AND RECESSION: INTERPRETING THE DISTRIBUTION-PATTERNS OF SEVENTH-AND EIGHTH-CENTURY COINS
SOME THOUGHTS ON THE MANNER OF PUBLICATION OF COINS FOUND IN THE COURSE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS
ENGLISH MEDIEVAL COINS AS DATING EVIDENCE

Citation preview

Coins and the Archaeologist edited by John Casey & Richard Reece

British Archaeological Reports 4 1 974

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England General Editors: A.R.Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D. Phil. Mrs Y.M.Hands D.R. Walker, B.A. Aqvisory Editors: C.B.Burgess, M.A. Neil Cossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. Professor B.W.Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D., F.·s.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F. S.A. Professor G.D.B.Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. Frances Lynch, M.A., F.S.A. P.A.Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. P.A.Rahtz, M.A., F.S.A.

B.A.R. 4, 1974: "Coins and the Archaeologist" (ed. John Casey and R ichard Reece) © Institute of Archaeology, London, 1974

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780904531060 paperback ISBN 9781407321660 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531060 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

FORE WORD

T h is v o lu me o f t h ir teen p apers i s t he r esu lt o f at wo d ay d iscuss ion o n c oins a nd a rchaeo logy h e ld i n t he I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon i n March 1 973.

T he w ork o f o rgan is ing t he d iscuss ion a nd f orm ing t he p rogra mme

was d one ma in ly b y P .J.C. ,wh i le t he c o l lect ion o f p apers a f terwards was d one main ly b y R .R. When c ol lect ing t oge ther t he c on tr ibu t ions o f e leven w orkers , e ach o f who m h as a b ackground o f w ork i n h is o r h er c hosen s ub ject , t here s ee ms l i t t le p oin t i n a t te mp t ing t o i mpose a n e d i tor ia l p o l icy .

I n t he p resen t c ase

s uch i mpos i t ion w ou ld h ave b een a n imper t inence f or t he wr i ters k now b et ter t han t he e d i tors what t hey wan t t o s ay .

T he p o l icy h as , t herefore , b een t o

c o l lec t t ogether t h ir teen v ery d if feren t c on tr ibu t ions , e ach w ith i t s i nd iv idu a l s ty le , i n t he b e l ief t ha t t he w e l l-kn i t s ub ject o f t he v o lume - C o ins a nd t he Archaeo log ist - c an o n ly b enef it f ro m s uch d iverse a t ten t ions .

S evera l

o f t he p apers d ifer f ro m t he v ers ions g iven i n d iscuss ion , a nd t hree - o n n u mer ica l a spects o f c o in h oards b y R .R., o n Da ta f or d a t ing b y J .R .C., a nd o n Monetary e xpans ion a nd r ecess ion b y D .M .M . -w ere n ot g iven i n t he o r ig ina l g a ther ing . T hose who a t tended t he d iscuss ion w ere ma in ly n um is mat is ts - t hough t he p roceed ings were a ss is ted b y an u mber o f a rchaeo log ists.

We h ope v ery

much t ha t t he a ppearance o f t h is v o lu me w i l l e ncourage t he n ecessary c oo perat ion b etween t he t wo d isc ip l ines a nd g ive a rchaeo log ists a nd n um isma t is ts a l ike f ood f or t hough t a nd i ncen t ive t o f ur ther r esearch .

J ohn Casey , Un ivers ity o f Durha m R ichard Reece , I ns t itu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon

CONTENTS Page ABBREVIATIONS JOHN COLLIS

Af unct iona l ist a pproach t o p re-

1

Ro man c o inage ANNE S . ROBERTSON

Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards ;

t he ir

1 2

n um is ma t ic , a rchaeo log ica l a nd h istor ica l s ign if icance JOHN CASEY

The i n terpretat ion o f Ro mano-Br it ish

3 7

s i te f inds PETER CURNO W

Co in l i sts ;

s o me p rob le ms o f t he

5 2

sma l ler s i te R ICHARD REECE

C luster ing o f c o in f inds i n Br itain ,

6 4

France a nd I t a ly Nu mer ica l a spects o f Ro man c o in

7 8

h oards i n Br i tain 9 5

GEORGE C . BOON

Coun ter fe it c o ins i n Ro man Br i ta in

JOHN COLLIS

Da ta f or d at ing

1 73

J.P . C .KENT

I n terpret ing c o in f inds

1 84

S . E .R IGOLD

Co ins f ound i n Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls

2 01

D . M. METCALF

Monetary e xpans ion a nd r ecess ion ;

2 06

i nterpret ing t he d istr ibut ion p atterns o f s eventh a nd e ighth c en tury c o ins MICHAEL DOLLEY

S o me t houghts o n t he manner o f

2 24

p ub l icat ion o f c o ins f ound i n t he c ourse o f a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions l ish med ieva l c o ins a s d at ing MARION M. ARCHIBALD Eng

2 34

e v idence Miss Mo ira Mackenz ie r edrew t he i l lustrat ions f or t he p apers b y Drs. Reece a nd Ken t , a nd g ave t he e d itors much o ther h elp o n t he ma tter o f i l lustrat ions.

ABBREVIATIONS Arch Journ

Archaeological Journal

BMC

British Museum Catalogues

BNJ

British Numismatic Journal

JBAA

Journal of the British Archaeological Association

JRS

Journal of Roman studies

NC

Numismatic Chronicle

Num Circ

Numismatic Circular (Spink' s)

NNM

American Numismatic Society, Numismatic Notes and Monographs

RIC

Roman Imperial Coinage, Edd. Mattingly, Sydenham, Sutherland and Carson

RN

Revue Numismatique

A FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH TO PRE-ROMAN COINAGE by John Collis SUMMARY

In this review of the achievements and potential of functional and geo­ graphical studies of pre-Roman British coinage, the group of British 'potin' coins is especially selected for study. It is suggested that there was a change in the status and value of potin coins during the First Century B. C. , Class I coins being of relatively high value, similar to that of the contem­ porary gold and silver, while Class II shows rather the characteristics of the later bronze coinage of eastern England. . Traditional and functional interpretations Firstly I must make the disclaimer that I am an archaeologist and not a numismatist. My first hand experience of these coins is confined to the seven which I have either discovered myself, or which have turned up on my excavations. My data is therefore largely derived from coin-lists, notably those prepared by Mr. Derek Allen. In this paper I am using only the data published by him in his comprehensive lists published in 1961. I realise that there is now a great deal more data from recent finds, but this is only partly published, and to use it would be to introduce yet one more bias into the material, so I have decided to ignore it. The one exception is the potin coins where I have used Mr. Allen's more recent list (1972). Numismatics is concerned with two major aspects of study. Firstly there is the classification and ordering of the coins chronologically, which the numismatist alone can do. Secondly there is the consideration and interpretation of the context of the coins, which is where the interest of numismatist and archaeologist most overlaps. So far at least for pre­ Roman coins interpretation has been along two major lines. Firstly they have been used for dating, but this has severe limitations, as coins are generally rare on excavations ,. and also we know little about the time ""'. span of use of specific types. Perhaps I am just a little embittered by my own experiences, whereby the earlier a numismatist would date a coin, the later is its stratigraphical position. Thus from Owslebury the earliest coin, a gold stater of Allen's Gallo-Belgic E, turned up in an unambiguous early Roman context. The second approach is to study the context of the coins and to interpret the distribution of specific types. In the past this has been strictly framed in political or historical terms, whether it be the writing of a numismatist (e.g. Mack 1963), or an archaeologist (e.g. Frere 1966). Thus some types of early coins are seen as representing 'invasions' especially of

1

Belgic groups from the continent, or the later inscribed types as document­ ing the spread of individual kingdoms. I have previously (1971) questioned some of the assumptions behind these interpretations, and I hope demon­ strated that other explanations can explain these patterns as well, if not better. No one ever postulates invasion to explain the appearance of a new type of Roman coin in Britain, and there is no reason to assume we were so insular in the late Iron Age that two way contacts across the Channel were not possible. The fact is we lmow almost nothing about why and under what circumstances the various uninscribed coins were produced or what they were specifically used for, and it is very doubtful if we can argue back from the elaborate organisations of the Roman and Saxon periods with their highly centralized governments. We cannot assume that this early coinage was produced under centralized tribal or regal control, in fact the evidence of the coins' distributions and of classical authors such as Caesar would suggest it was not, and rather that anyone with the command of the necessary raw materials and technical skill was free to produce them. My own approach has been from an economic and social view point. I have for instance attempted to identify market centres in which for the first time in Temperate Europe the small change retail market appears, itself a major economic revolution (Collis 1972). I have suggested that such centres can be identified by the occurrence of quantities of bronze coins, and that there is a contrast between sites which produce large quantities (major markets) and those that produce small quantities (minor markets), though in view of disparity of research and excavation on the sites, such a distinction must of necessity remain subjective. I was also able to contrast the dis­ tribution of bronze and gold coinage, the bronze being largely confined to the 'market centres' and their immediate neighbourhood, the gold being more widely distributed in peripheral areas, a fact which again urges cau­ tion in using coinage to define political boundaries. Sometimes such an approach can lead to direct conflict with accepted numismatic views of the ordering and chronology of certain coin-types. For instance I contrasted the distribution and function of the 'Durotrigian' silver and bronze coins, and tentatively suggested that they might therefore be contemporary. The accepted view however states that the bronze are later, and represent degenerate successors of the silver in terms of weight, silver content and typology. Whichever interpretation eventually proves correct, I hope that the setting up of alternative hypotheses can only prove stimulating in the field of numismatic studies. THE POTIN COINS 1.

General

The main theme of this paper is to consider a statement by Mr. Allen in his recent article on potin coins (1972): "It was without question the first small change coinage in Britain, and hence the first evidence for the retail market of the kind of which there were so many in Gaul,

2

a step incidentally in the direction of urbanisation". This completely out-flanks my own statement on this major economic re­ volution, as I had envisaged this happening at the end of the First Century B. C. with the introduction of bronze coinage, rather than almost a cent­ ury earlier with the appearance of potin, and on the archaeological evi­ dence I would not wish to disagree with Mr. Allen's early dating of potin coinage in Britain and Gaul. In fact I find the whole statement is in direct conflict with my own views on the processes of market and urban develop­ ment not only in Britain, but in Temperate Europe as a whole. On the continent it seems that urban centres were able to come into existence without the appearance of a small change retail economy, as at Altenburg bei Niedenstein, (Hofmeister 1930), or Trisov (Bre� 1966), or Zemplin (Benadik 1965), and such evidence as we have suggests that small change coinage appears secondary to urban development. If the potin coinage in Kent does represent small change, then the re­ verse is true of this area. In the early part of the First Century B. C. when potin coinage seems to make its appearance in Kent, there is only one site in Britain at all comparable with the continental sites, at Henigst­ bury Head near Christchurch (Bushe Fox 1915), a long way from the main potin distribution. Even in the first half of the First Century A. D. when urban sites have appeared in eastern England, Kent, where potin coins have_ their main distribution, · is peripheral to the main urban developments in Essex and Hertfordshire. There are no major 'Oppida', and when I discussed the evidence for minor centres on the evidence of bronze coin­ age, I was only able to suggest one centre in Kent, at Canterbury. This leads me on to question whether potin coinage is truly an equi­ valent to bronze coinage, or whether its status was similar to that of the small silver coins which could act in a dual role, both as bullion and as small change. Certainly in Gaul potin coins were used in large numbers on the post-Caesarian urban sites, as were also the small silver coins, but the occurrence for instance of a potin coin in a hoard of silver coins at Lattes, Herault (Majural, Arnal and Prades 1967), might suggest :that its original status was higher, and that it functioned like gold and silver for wealth storage. The Evidence of the hoards In Fig. 1 I have constructed a pie-chart of the lmown hoards of pre­ Roman coins according to the dominant metal type represented in each hoard. Silver and gold, perhaps not surprisingly form over three quarters of the hoards. Bronze however is remarkable by its absence, especially compared with later Roman hoards. Even of those I have listed only one is of the small-change bronze of eastern England, from Colchester. The rest are of the ambiguous Durotrigian bronze coins, and two of these at least were deposited in Roman times. Bronze coins were not then usually buried in hoards. In contrast, several hoards of potin are lmown, some of them quite

3

H OARDS

F i g .1

68

i iii i m o m

g

---

A R

P OT IN

M I

F i g .2

8 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 / 0 _ C LASS

I

I

MAJOR MARKETS

I I M INOR MARKETS

5 :I 4 6. S amp le s i zes : I 7

I I O THER S I TES

I I R OCHESTER

I I C ABURN

l arge.

A l l t he e igh t p roper ly a uthen t ica ted h oards b e long t o C lass Io f t he

p ot in c o ins , wh i le o n ly t wo d ub ious s cat tered h oards a t Rochester a nd Can terbury a re o f C lass I .

I th as b een a rgued t ha t a l l t he C lass Ih oards

w ere d epos ited i n r esponse t o as ing le h is tor ica l e ven t s uch a s Caesar 's i nvas ion a s a l l t he h oards e nd w ith A l len 's Group L , b u t s o me o f t he h oards s uch a s S net t isha m a re w e l l o u ts ide t he ma in d istr ibu t ion , a nd ( pace S a mue l P epys ) s ee m u n l ike ly t o b e c onnected .

Equa l ly , t he C laud ian i nvas ion f a i led

t o s park of a f renzy o f b ury ing b ronze a nd p ot in h oards.

T he i mp l ica t ion

o f t he h oard e v idence i s t ha t C lass Ip ot in was c ons idered o f s uf f ic ien t v a lue t o h oard , b u t C lass I was p robab ly n ot . D is tr ibu t ion o n s i tes I n my 1 971 p aper Ip oin ted o u t t he a ssoc ia t ion o f t he b ronze c o ins w i th t he ma jor s et t le men ts s uch a s C o lches ter a nd V eru la m iu m , wh i le g o ld was more c o m mon a s s ing le s tray f inds , p resu mab ly d er ived f ro m f arm ing s ett l e men ts.

I n t he 1 972 p aper Is uggested i t was p oss ib le t o i den t ify a n u mber

o f minor s ites w ith a r e lat ive ly h igh n u mber o f b ronze c o ins , s i tes wh ich i n t h is p aper Is ha l l t erm ' m inor markets '.

Us ing t hese s i tes a s d ef ined i n

t ha t p aper , i tw i l l o bv ious ly b e o f i n terest t o s ee whether t he d istr ibu t ion o f t he p ot in c o ins most c lose ly r ese mb les t ha t o f t he b ronze o r g o ld c o inage. I n F ig . 2 Ih ave s hown t he t wo c lasses o f p ot in c o ins c o mpared a s p ercen ta ges o n t hese d if feren t s i tes.

Ih ave a lso e x tracted Rochester wh ich o n

b o th t he e v idence o f a rchaeo logy a nd o f t he h igh i ncidence o f p o t in c oins migh t b e s uggested a s a minor marke t c en tre , a nd l ikew ise t he Cabu m , wh ich h as p roduced a n umber o f c o ins b oth a s s tray f inds a nd f ro m t he e xcavat ions.

T h is i s n ot s tr ict ly a s ta t is t ica l c o mpar ison , a s d ist inct ions

must o f n ecess ity b e s ub ject ive , a nd w i th s i tes l ike Ha m mers m i th o ne i s u nsure whether o ne i s d ea l ing w i th a nother r e la t ive ly i mpor tan t s i te , o r w ith a s cat tered h oard , o r wha t .

H owever , w i th t hese p rov isos , t he i nc id-

e nce o f p ot in c o ins o n minor s i tes s ee ms r e lat ive ly h igh , e spec ia l ly C lass I , b ut t here i s n o s ta t ist ica l ly s ign i f ican t d if ference b e tween t he d istr ibu ti ons o f t he t wo c lasses. F or c o mpara t ive p urposes Is ha l l t ake t he c o inage o f Cunobe line.

T he

d istr ibu t ion o f t he g o ld c o inage i s q u i te s tra igh t f orward , e xcep t t ha t i ti s b es t t o e x tract t he p lated f orger ies , a s t hese s ee m t o h ave b een r ecogn ized i n a n t iqu ity , a nd a re e spec ia l ly t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he ' marke t ' s i tes a s s hown i n t he b ar c har ts o n F ig . 3 .

T he s i lver c oinage o f Cunobe l ine i s

u n for tuna te ly r are , a nd t he s amp le t ha t w e h ave i s n ot o f g rea t s ign if icance. T he b ronze c oinage i s more c o mp l icated , a s s o me t ypes a re a l most e nt i re ly r estr icted t o C o lchester , whereas o thers a re o f more g enera l d is tr ibut ion . f o l lows : 1 .

Ih ave t here fore d ist ingu ished b etween t hree g roups a s

C o in t ypes w ith more t han 5 0% o f k nown f inds f ro m Co lches ter . Mack 2 22 , 2 25 , 2 31, 2 50 , 2 51, 2 52 , 2 53, 2 60a.

2 .

L ess t han 5 0% o f k nown f inds a t C o lchester . Mack 2 21, 2 42 , 2 46 , 2 48.

5

9 0-

C UNOBEL 1NE

F i g .3

8 07 06 05 04 03 02 C1 00 -

N N l iE i R MA JOR MARKETS

o h ,

f

A l NY E A R M INOR MARKETS

A l N I IE 7 R O THER S I TES

S amp le s i ze : N 9 2 :A I IIE 1 :I R 2 5 .

C UNOBEL INE

9 0-

g

F ig .4 .

8 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 0G ROUP

1 2 3 C OLCHESTER

S amp le

1 2 3 B RAUGH ING V ERULAM IUM

s i zes : 1 1 2 9 :2 1 35 :3 3 6.

1 2 3 M INOR MARKETS

1 2 3 O THER S I TES

3 .

Und iagnost ic r are t ypes w i th l ess t han 1 0 f i nds r ecorded . Mack 2 20 , 2 23 , 2 24 , 2 26/9 , 2 27 , 2 28 , 2 45 , 2 61, E vans X I I-11.

T he d iv is ion b e tween g roups 1 a nd 2 i s i n f act f a ir ly c lear , w ith o n ly t he sma l l s er ies Mack 2 22 ( 10 c o ins , 5a t Co lchester ) a nd 2 52 ( 12 c o ins , 7 a t C olchester ) a t a l l amb iguous. T hese t hree g roups h ave b een e xpressed o n F ig . 4a s t he p ercen tage o f e ach g roup t ha t t urns u p o n ac er ta in c a tegory o f s i te. As Co lchester i s s o d i f feren t f ro m t he o ther t wo ma jor s i tes , B raugh ing a nd V eru la m iu m , Ih ave s epara ted t hem i n t h is d iagram. A s migh t b e e xpected , G roup 3 f a l ls b etween t he o ther t wo g roups , a nd w i l l b e i gnored i n f u ture d iscuss ion . T he p a t tern o f g roup 1 , w ith ma jor i ty o f a l l k nown c o ins t urn ing u p o n a ma jor p or t s i te c an p erhaps b e p ara l le led a t b oth H eng istbury a nd S e lsey , a nd a s t here i s n o s im ilar s i te i n K en t , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t a ny o f t he p ot in c o ins w i l l h ave s im i lar d istr ibu t ion . I ti s g roup 2 wh ich w e s hou ld t ake a s t he n or m . I ti s l ike ly t o h ave b een min ted a t V eru la m ium , a nd i s e spec ia l ly a ssocia ted w ith t he i n land s i tes a nd t he minor markets , t hough i td oes t urn u p a t C o lchester a s w e l l. T h is d ata Ih ave g a thered t ogether i n F ig . 5 , t ak ing t he g o ld c o inage o f Cunobe l ine , a nd g roup 2 o fh is b ronze c o inage a s d ef ined a bove , a nd c o mp ar ing i tw i th C lasses Ia nd I o f t he p o t in s er ies. B oth f a l l i n b etween t he g o ld a nd t he b ronze d is tr ibu t ion , C lass Imore c lose ly r ese mb l ing t he g o ld , C lass I t he b ronze , t hough a s men t ioned b efore t he d iference b etween t he t wo c lasses o f p ot in c ou ld b e d ue t o c hance s a mp l ing e rrors. T he e xpected l ack o f f inds o f p o t in o n ' ma jor markets ' e xpected f ro m t he g eograph ica l c ons iderat ions i s c o mpensa ted f or a r e la t ive ly h igh o ccurence o n t he ' m inor markets '.

Us ing t hese r esu l ts , Iwou ld s ugges t s ub ject ive ly t ha t t here i s

e v idence t ha t t he p ot in c o inage a t l east i n it ia l ly e n joyed a h igher s tatus t han b ronze , b u t l ater b ecame t he e qu iva len t i n s ta tus t o t he b ronze c o inage o f e as tern Eng land . CONCLUSIONS Fro m t he a bove d a ta Iwou ld s uggest t he f o l low ing i n terpreta t ion , emp has is ing h owever t ha t t he c ase c annot b e s ta t ist ica l ly p roven : 1 .

C lass Ip ot in c o ins a re o f r e la t ive ly h igh v a lue , a nd f unc t ioned l ike s i lver c o inage f or b o th wea lth s torage a nd minor market t ransact ions . T he c oins a re most t yp ica l o f t he minor f arm ing s et t le men ts a nd w ere u sed i n h oards.

On ly o ne p oss ib le ' market ' s i te c an b e a ss igned t o

t h is p er iod , t he C aburn i n S ussex . 2 .

C lass I p ot in c o ins w as e spec ia l ly u sed f or sma l l c hange o n ' market ' s i tes , p resumab ly f or m inor t ransact ions , b u t w as n ot u sua l ly h oarded . I t s f unct ion i s most s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he c on te mporary b ronze c o inage. I fw e a ccep t A l len 's d a t ing , C lass Ie ssen t ia l ly b e long ing t o t he f irst

h a l f o f t he F irs t C en tury B .C., a nd C lass I t o t he e nd o f t ha t c entury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he F irst A .D . i t wou ld s ugges t t ha t t here h ad b een a d own g rad ing o f t he s ta tus o f p o t in a round t he midd le o f t he f irs t c entury B .C. ,i n f ac t t he p er iod when t he ' market ' s i tes w ere a ppear ing i n H er t fordsh ire a nd

7

P OT IN ,C UNOBEL INE

F ig . 5

9 08 07 06 05 04 0E

3 02 01 00 0/ 0

P I N/EP 1 1

P I N ZP 1 1

P I N gP I 1

MAJOR M ARKETS

M INOR MARKETS

O THER S ITES

S amp le s i ze : P I 7 5 :N 9 3 :i t E 1 3 5 :P I I 4 6 .

8 0-

C UNOBEL INE

h E

F ig.6

7 06 05 04 0 3 02 01 0' 4_ G ROU P 1 2

3

C OLCHESTER

1

2

3

B RAUGH ING V ERULAM IUM

S amp le s i zes: C 1 48 :B .V 3 4 :MM

1

2

3

M INOR MARKETS 5 7 :O S

6 1 .

1

2

O THER S ITES

3

E ssex .

L ook ing a t A l len 's more d e ta i led g roup ings A t o Lf or C lass I , a nd

M t o Pf or C lass I , i td oes a ppear t ha t t he b reak d oes i n f act c o inc ide w ith t he c hange f ro m It o I .

O f t he l arge g roup L wh ich b e longs t o t he e nd o f

C lass It he ma jor i ty c o me f ro m s ing le f inds a nd t hey a re w e l l r epresen ted i n h oards.

I ti s h owever i mposs ib le t o w ork o u t t he p rec ise s tat is t ics.

O f

C lass I , t he e ar l iest g roups M a nd N a re b oth sma l l w ith o n ly 4 f inds e ach , b u t i n e ach c ase 3 f inds c o me f ro m ' marke t ' s i tes.

On t h is e v idence i t

w ou ld a ppear t ha t t he d is t inct ion b e tween C lasses Ia nd H i s v ery r ea l i n t er ms o f b oth f unct ion a nd t ypo logy . I tw i l l b e w or thwh i le s ay ing a f ew w ords a bou t t he Caburn .

T he f inds

c o me l arge ly f ro m t he e xcava t ions b y P it t-R ivers ( 1881) a nd l ater t he Curwens ( 1927 ), w i th o ne o r t wo s tray f inds i n a dd it ion , a nd t h is d e monstr a tes t he r eappra isa l o f as i te t ha t e xcava t ion c an p roduce.

T he o ccurence

o f a n o ccupa t ion s i te u s ing p ot in c oins w ith in a n e ar l ier d efended e nc losure c an b e c lose ly p ara l le led b y t wo s i tes i n n or thern France , b oth o n a rchaeo lo g ica l e v idence l ike ly t o b e ma in ly p re-Caesar ian .

T hey a re F or t H arrouard

( Ph i l l ippe 1 946-50 ), a nd S t . G enev ie ' N ' re , Nancy ( Beaupre 1 910 ).

Ap re-

Caesar ian d a te w ou ld s u i t t he Caburn a s w e l l , a nd t hese s i tes d o s ee m t o r epresen t t he i n it ia l d eve lop men ts t owards f u l l r eta i l market , t hough t hey a re much sma l ler t han t he c lass ic ' opp ida ' t ha t o ne e ncoun ters f ur ther s ou th . T he F uture o f F unct iona l S tud ies H owever s oph ist ica ted t he t echn iques we may t ry t o a pp ly t o o ur a rchaeo log ica l d ata , t he r esu lts w i l l n ot b e w or th t he p aper t hey a re wr itt en o n u n less t he f u l l l im i ta t ions o f t he d a ta o n wh ich t hey a re b ased i s t aken i n to c ons idera t ion .

T he s uggest ions o ut l ined i n a l l my p apers a re

n ot f ac ts b u t h ypotheses wh ich must b e c on t inua l ly t ested a s more a nd b et ter d a ta b eco mes a va i lab le .

As men t ioned i n t he i n troduct ion , Ih ave

d e l iberate ly n o t u sed t he more r ecen t a nd b e t ter d a ta f ro m e xcava t ions s uch a s V eru la m iu rn , H ar low a nd B a ldock , wh ich may f orce a r econs idera t ion o f s o me o f wha t Ih ave w r i t ten a bove , b u t wh ich i s e qua l ly l ike ly t o a l low more s oph is t ica ted t echn iques t o b e a pp l ied .

On F ig . 6 Ih ave s hown t he

d i f feren t p ercen tages t ha t my d if feren t g roups o f b ronze c o ins o f Cunob e l ine f or m o n d iferen t s i tes , a ga in u s ing t he 1 961 l i sts.

I ti m med ia te ly

s tands o u t h ow s im i lar t o Braugh ing a nd V eru la m iu m a re t he p ercen tages o f c oins f ro m t he ' m inor markets ' i n c on trast w i th t he f inds f ro m C o lchester .

Bu t r e la t ionsh ips w ere l ike ly t o h ave b een much more c o m-

p lex t han s hown i n t h is d iagram , a nd o ne c ou ld s uggest t he a pp l ica t ion o f more s oph ist icated ' s im i lar i ty c o-ef f ic ien ts ' s uch a s a re b e ing u sed e xper i men ta l ly i n a rchaeo logy t o c o mpare a sse mb lages o f o ther s or ts o f a rt ifacts ( Hodson 1 969 ).

T he r esu lts c ou ld b e i mportan t f or t he d eve lop-

men t o f b oth n um is ma t ics a nd a rchaeo logy .

S i mu la t ion mode ls o f c oin

s pread i s a nother p oten t ia l l ine o f e nqu iry , wh ich c ou ld b e a pp l ied b oth i n t h is c oun try a nd o n t he c on t inen t .

9

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS As a lways , Iowe much t o Mr . Derek A l len n ot o n ly f ro m h is p ub l ished w orks , b u t a lso f or n u merous c o m men ts made i n p r iva te c o m mun ica t ions. Iwou ld a lso l ike t o t hank R ichard Reece f or p rodd ing me i n to a ct ion .

D epar t men t o f Ancien t H istory Un ivers ity o f S hef f ie ld . B IBL IOGRAPHY A l len D .F.

1 961

T he Or ig ins o f Co inage i n Br ita in : r eappra isa l.

a

I n S . Frere ( ed .)

Prob le ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern Br i ta in : A l len D .F.

1 972

9 7-308.

Br i t ish P ot in C o ins :

a Rev iew .

I n

D . H i l l a nd M. J esson ( eds .), T he I ron Age a nd i t s H i l l-For ts : 1 27-194. B eaupre J .

1 910

L 'Opp idum d e S a in te G enev i‘ ve ( Essey l es Nancy ).

Me mo ires d e l a

S oc ie te d 'Archeo log ie L orra ine.

6 0 :

2 65-290. B enad ik B .

1 965

D ie s pä t lat neze it S ied lung v on Z e mp l in i n d er S lovake i . 4 3 :

B if • e i i J .

1 966

G erman ia.

6 3-91.

T r isov :

a Ce lt ic Opp idu m i n S ou th

B ohe m ia . C o l l is J .R .

1 971

F unct iona l a nd T heoret ica l i n terpreta t ions o f Br i t ish C o inage. Archaeo logy .

C o l l is J .R .

1 972

3 :

Wor ld

7 1-84.

Markets a nd Money .

I n H i l l a nd M.

J esson ( eds.), T he I ron Age a nd i t s H i l l-For ts : 9 7-104. Curwen , E l iot , a nd Curwen C ec i l E .

1 929

Excava t ions i n t he Caburn n ear L ewes . S ussex Archaeo log ica l C o l lect ions. 6 8 : 1 -56.

Frere S .S .

1 966

H odson F .R .

1 969

Br itann ia. S earch ing f or S tructure w ith in Mu l t ivar ia te Archaeo log ica l Da ta . Wor ld Archaeo logy .

1 0

1 :

9 0-105.

H ofme ister H .

1 930

D ie Chat ten .

Band I :

' Mat t iu m i,

d ie A l tenburg b e i N iedenstein . Mack R .P .

1 963

T he C o inage o f Anc ien t Br ita in .

1 964

D eux Nouveaux T resors d e L at tes ,

Ma jura l R ., Arna l J ., a nd Prades H .

Herau lt : Cro ix . Ph i l ippe J .

1 9461 950

Obo ls Massa l iotes ä l a Oga m.

1 9 :

3 97-434.

Que lques Aspects d u F or t Harrouard . B u l let in d e l a S oc ie te Normande. 3 4 :

7 2-80 , 16-121.

3 5 :

1 3-17,

4 6-49. P it tR ivers ( Lane Fox ) A .

1 881

Excavat ions a t Moun t Caburn Camp n ear L ewes. 4 23-495.

1 1

Archaeo log ia. 4 6 :

RO MANO-BRIT ISH COIN HOARDS : THE M NU MIS MAT IC, ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND H ISTOR ICAL S IGNIFICANCE

b y Anne S . Rober tson

THE D ISCOVERY OF HOARDS OF RO MAN COINS I N BRITAIN

Over 1 400 h oards o f Ro man c o ins - a nd o ver 1 00 o ther f inds o f Ro man c o ins wh ich may h ave b een h oards - h ave b een r ecorded f ro m B r ita in .

T here

must , t oo , h ave b een c oun t less o ther s uch f i nds o f wh ich n o r ecord s urv ives. Most o f t he r ecorded h oards w ere d iscovered b y c hance , i n t he c ourse o f n on-archaeo log ica l a c t iv i t ies - e i ther b ecause s o meone who was p lough ing , o r d ra in ing , o r d i tch ing , o r g arden ing , o r c lean ing o ut a w e l l , o r q uarryi ng , o r d igg ing f or g rave l , o r e rect ing a h ouse , o r o ther b u i ld ing , o r c u tt ing a c ana l , o r c onstruct ing a r a i lway , ar oad , a motorway o r a n a irpor t , f e l t t he t oo l h e ras u s ing s tr ike s o me o bstac le wh ich t urned o u t t o b e a h oard o f c o ins ,

o r b ecause a d og s cra tch ing a t ar abb it h o le t hrew u p a

l i t t le s hower o f c o ins b eh ind h im , o r b ecause a c ow c augh t h er h oof i n s o meth ing wh ich p roved t o b e t he n arrow n eck o f ap o t f u l l o f c o ins , o r , i n o ne i nstance , a t Wing f ie ld , S u f fo lk , b ecause a g host ly l ady g l ided ,w i th a r ust l ing o f s i lk , b efore t he a ston ished g aze o f ac ottager 's w i fe , a nd d isa ppeared i n to t he p ig-sty , where , o n s ubsequen t i nvest iga t ion , ah oard o f c o ins w as r evea led . C on te mporary a ccoun ts o f d iscover ies o f ten h ave s o me p art icu lar i nt erest o f t he ir own , wh ich makes t he m w or th p reserv ing .

T here w as , f or

e xamp le , t he Okehamp ton , D evon , h oard , wh ich u nder t he s k i lfu l h and l ing o f i t s r ecorder , b ecame v ery p robab ly " the s tore o f ab eggar who s a t b es ide t he Ro man r oad b egg ing ...The b eggar e i ther d ied o r c ou ld n ot f ind t he p lace where h e h ad d epos ited h is c o l lect ion".

T he d iscovery o f t he G rea t

B urstead , E ssex , c oins i n t he e ar ly 1 9th c en tury w e ighed s o h eav i ly u pon t he f inder t ha t " he w as a fra id t o g o t o b ed l est h e s hou ld o vers leep h i mse l f a nd b e d etected e re h e c ou ld d ispose o f t he m".

T here was t he h oard f ound

o ppor tune ly i n av i l la a t B our t ,on , G louces tersh ire , c . 1 895 , j ust t he d ay b efore t he C otswo ld F ie ld C lub was d ue t o v is i t t he s i te , h as t i ly c overed u p a ga in , a nd t hen " d iscovered" t he n ex t d ay b e fore t he a sse mb led c o mpany . T here was t he h oard f ound a t F arr ing ford , Freshwa ter , I .O. W . ,i n whose p reserva t ion L ord T ennyson t ook a l i ve ly i n teres t .

T here was t he h oard

f ound i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he 1 7th c en tury a t Minster i n T hane t , Ken t , s o lel y b ecause c er ta in f arm w orkers d rove t he ir p lough much d eeper t han u sua l i n af ury a t b eing o rdered t o w ork o n ah o l iday .

T here was t he Wingf ie ld ,

S uf fo lk , h oard w ith i t s s upernatura l a n teceden ts a nd i t s s trange s eque l ,

1 2

c o mpounded p ar t ly o f g ood a nd p ar t ly o f b ad f ortune.

T here was t he h oard

f ound a t L eeds , Y orksh ire , i n 1 909 , p ar t o f w h ich w as r e-bur ied b y t he f inder i n t he s aucer o f af l ower-pot . And t here w ere a t l eas t t wo h oards o f sma l l b rass Ro man c o ins , o ne f ro m Yat ton , S o merse t , a nd t he o ther f ro m North .a l ler ton , Y orksh ire , wh ich , a f ter d iscovery , c ircu lated l oca l ly a s f ar th ings. S ign i f ican t ly e nough , o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he k nown RomanoBr it ish h oards - l ess t han o ne i n t en - h as c o me t o l i gh t d ur ing t he e xcavati on o f Romano-Br i t ish o ccup ied s i tes.

THE CONCEALMENT AND LOSS OF RO MAN COIN HOARDS

T he h oard ing , o r s av ing , o f money was n o d oub t a s w idespread a p ract i ce i nR o man t imes a s i ti s t oday . I n Ro man t imes , h owever , when b anki ng w as much l ess c o m mon t han i ti s n ow , at hr i f ty h ouseho lder h ad u sua l ly t o make h is own p rov ision f or t he s a fekeep ing o f h is money .

T he most

c onven ien t way o f d o ing s o w ou ld b e t o p lace t he c o ins i n s o me r ecep tac le , - a money-box o r h ouseho ld v esse l -a nd t hen d epos i t i ti n as a fe p lace i n h is h ouse , where h e c ou ld c onven ien t ly a dd t o i t when c ircumstances a ll owed , a nd d raw o n i t when n eed a rose. A p assage i n C icero 's Pro C luen t io ( c . 1 79 ) s ugges ts t ha t a n a rmar ium o r money-chest w as a f am i l iar a d junc t o f aRo man h ouseho ld . I n t he n orma l c ourse o f e ven ts , a Ro man c o in h oard w ou ld b e d ispersed b y i t s owner , when t he p urpose f or wh ich h e s aved c ame t o b e f u lf i l led .

H e

migh t , f or e xamp le , u se h is a ccu mu lated w ea lth t o s e t u p h is s on i n ab usi ness , t o g ive h is d augh ter a d owry , o r t o b uy a p iece o f l and . Or a ga in , t he owner o f ah oard migh t b equea th h is s av ings t o a nother , t o b e d ispersed i n t ime b y h i m. By s o me means o r o ther , t he c o ins c o mpos ing a n orma l Roman c o in h oard p assed i n to g enera l c ircu la t ion o nce a ga in , a nd a t t he s ame t ime p assed o u t o f o ur k en . A l l Ro man c o in h oards , h owever , w ere n ot n orma l. One a bnorma l h oard p rov ided t he Ro man p laywr igh t , 'P lautus , w i th t he p lot f or a p lay , t he Au lu lar ia .

I n i t s p rologue , t he h ouseho ld g od e xp la ins t hat a p ot o f money

h ad b een b ur ied u nder t he h ear thstone b y a n o ld miser who c ou ld n ot e ndure t he t hough t o f h is s av ings b e ing s pen t b y a nyone , e ven h is own s on . I n t h is c ase , a nd i n o thers l i ke i t , money was w i thdrawn f rom c ircu lat ion , a nd k ep t o u t o f c ircu la t ion , b y t he miser l iness , o r meanness , o f t he owner .

A

much c o mmoner mot ive f or t he d e l ibera te c oncea lmen t o f money i n a nc ien t t imes must , h owever , h ave b een f ear . For e xamp le , aw ea lthy man who w as a bou t t o s et o u t o n aj ourney a nd who f eared e i ther t he d ishonesty o f t hose h e l ef t a t h ome , o r t he h azards o f t he r oad , migh t c oncea l h is t reasure i n as a fer h id ing p lace t han h is h ouse u n t i l h e r eturned .

I n a nother p lay b y P lautus , t he T r inummus , aw ea l thy

A then ian , Charm ides , b ur ied h is r iches i n t he e ar th b efore s et t ing o f f o n a j ourney , b ut t ook t he p recau t ion o f d isc los ing t he h id ing p lace t o at rusty

1 3

f r iend .

T ha t w as a w ise , a nd s ure ly , au sua l p recau t ion .

E ven i ft he owner

n ever r eturned t o e n joy h is s av ings , t hey w ou ld n ot g o u nused . S uch f ears , h owever , o f d ishonesty a t h o me o r o f t he d angers o f aj ourne y , must h ave a f fected o n ly a f ew p eop le , a nd h ave c aused t he c oncea lmen t o f c ompara t ive ly f ew h oards , mos t o f wh ich must h ave b een r ecovered b y t he ir owners , o r b y o thers t o who m t he s ecre t o f t he h id ing p lace h ad b een e nt rus ted . T here w ere , o n t he o ther h and , o ther f ears i n Ro man t imes , wh ich mus t h ave a f fected g rea t n umbers o f p eop le. T hese w ere t he f ears o f b r iga ndage , o r w ar fare , o r t he r u th less s uppress ion o f a n u no f f ic ia l c urrency , when c ond i t ions b ecame s o d isturbed t hat a man 's l i fe a nd p roper ty w ere e nd angered a nd h is h o me c eased t o b e as a fe h id ing p lace f or v a luab les. I n t he s tress o f s uch c ircums tances , many a h ouseho lder must h ave r emoved h is money-box o r h is p ot o f c o ins f ro m h is h ouse , a nd c oncea led i ti n as a fer p lace , a lways s ure ly n ear s o me l andmark , s o t ha t h e w ou ld k now where t o f i nd i t a ga in when t he d anger p assed .

App ian , i n h is H istor ia Ro mana ( i v , 7 3 ), d es-

c r ibes s uch a mass c oncea l men t o f t reasure a t Rhodes i n 4 2 B .C. ,j ust b ef ore i t was b es ieged b y C ass ius. A f ter c aptur ing t he c i ty , C ass ius d e manded t he s urrender o f a l l p r iva te , a s w e l l a s a l l p ub l ic , t reasure , a nd t he r e lucta n t c i t izens w ere i n t he e nd f orced t o h and o ver t he ir h idden p roper ty , " so me d igg ing i tu p f ro m h o les i n t he g round , o thers d raw ing i tf ro m t he b ot tom o f w e l ls , o thers a ga in p roduc ing i tf ro m g raves". Wha t h appened a t Rhodes i n 4 2 B .C. mus t h ave h appened i n a l most a ny d istr ict w h ich a t a ny t ime s u ff ered f ro m t he e f fects o f w ar o r o ther v io lence. I ti s p robab le , a l though w e h ave a bso lu te ly n o means o f v er i fy ing t h is , t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f h oards c oncea led i n t imes o f v io lence o r d isturbance w ere r ecovered b y t he ir owners when s et t led c ond it ions r eturned , a nd w ere p u t i n to c ircu la t ion a ga in l i ke a ny n orma l c o in h oard , u n less o f c ourse t he c o ins h ad b een d e monet ised a nd r endered wor th less.

A t l east , w e may b e

s ure t ha t t he owner o f as t i l l v a luab le h oard amassed b y t hr if t a nd s e l fd en ia l w ou ld make e very p oss ib le e f for t t o r ecover i t , e i ther b y h is own h ands o r b y t he h ands o f a nother . T he f a i lure t o r ec la im b ur ied t reasure i s a lways , i n f act , a n e xcep t iona l , a bnorma l c ircumstance f or w h ich s o me e xp lana t ion must b e s ough t e i ther i n t he p r ivate l i fe o f t he owner , o r , i fa l arge n umber o f h oards w ere l ost a t t he s a me t ime , i n c on temporary e ven ts. I th as , o f c ourse , l ong b een r ecogn ised t ha t t he w idespread c oncea lmen t a nd l oss o f c oin h oards, a t ap ar t icu lar p er iod , i n ap ar t icu lar c oun try o r d istr ict , was , i n a l l p robab i l i ty , d ue t o u nset t led c ond i t ions i n t ha t c oun try o r d istr ict .2 I th as t oo , l ong a go b een p o in ted o u t , n o tab ly b y S ir G eorge Macdona ld , b y Dr . H . Ma t t ing ly ,3 b y Mr. B .H . S t .J. O 'Ne i 1 ,4 a nd b y Dr . C. H .V . S u ther land ,

5

t ha t , i n v iew o f t he p robab le c onnect ion b etween

t he l oss o f al arge n umber o f c o in h oards a nd c on te mporary e ven ts , as tudy o f t he Ro man c oin h oards l ost a t v ar ious p er iods i n Br i ta in may b e e xpected t o t hrow l i gh t o n c on te mporary Ro mano-Br i t ish h istory , a s w e l l a s , o bv ious ly , o n c on te mporary Ro mano-Br i t ish c urrency .6 An ecessary p re l im inary t o s uch a s tudy i s a n i nven tory , a s c o mp le te a nd a s a ccura te a s p oss ib le , o f s uch r ecords o f t he d iscover ies o f RomanoB r it ish c o in h oards a s s urv ive.

T he i nven tory n ow i n p rocess o f c omp let ion

1 4

h as b een f ormed b y c o l lect ing a nd s i f t ing t he p ub l ished r eferences t o d iscove r ies o f Ro man c o in h oards i n Br i ta in , a nd b y e xam in ing h oards wh ich a re p reserved i n museu ms , p ar t icu lar ly i ft hey a re u npub l ished o r i nadequate ly p ub l ished . I ti s i nev i tab le , o f c ourse , t ha t s o me h oards h ave e scaped t he n et , e i ther b ecause t hey h ave n ever b een p ub l ished a t a l l , a nd h ave n ever r eached a museum , o r b ecause t hey h ave o n ly b een men t ioned b r ief ly i n s ome o bscure , o r o ut-of-pr int p ub l ica t ion .

T he ma jor ity o f r ecorded Romano-Br i t ish c o in

h oards h ave p robab ly , h owever , b een i nc luded i n t he i nven tory , t o wh ich , n ow t ha t i th as b een s tar ted , a dd it ions c an b e made p er iod ica l ly . Af i nd o f c o ins i s r egarded a s at rue h oard , i ft here w ere a ny c ircums tances c onnected w ith t he d iscovery wh ich i nd icated t ha t t he c o ins h ad b een d e l iberate ly c o l lected t ogether a nd d epos i ted i n o ne p lace , a nd c ou ld n ot h ave b een d ropped s ing ly o r a cc iden ta l ly t hrough h o les i n a nc ien t p ockets. For e xamp le , ag roup o f c o ins f ound i n s o me k ind o f c on ta iner , i su sua l ly c lassed a s ah oard . One e xcep t ion t o t h is r u le i s t he B irdoswa ld ( 1949 ) f i nd o f 2 8 d enar i i c on ta ined i n ab ronze p urse , wh ich h ad b een b ur ied u nder t he r a mpar t b ack ing o f t he f or t a t B irdoswa ld , a nd wh ich , i tw as d ec ided a t ac oroner 's i nques t , h ad b een a cc iden ta l ly l ost r a ther t han d e l iberate ly h idden.

THE " DATE" OF RO MANO-BRITISH COIN HOARDS

T he l ates t c oins i n ah oard p rov ide a t erm inus p ost q ue m f or t he d a te a t wh ich money c eased t o b e a dded t o t he h oard . Ac loser d a t ing c an o f ten b e a rr ived a t b y c ons ider ing t he c ond it ion o f t he l a test c o in o r c o ins , a nd t he g enera l c o mpos i t ion o f t he h oard . I ft he l a test c o ins w ere u nworn , a nd i f t he l i s t o f c o ins c on ta ined i n t he h oard f or med a n u n in terrup ted c hrono log ica l s er ies e nd ing a brup t ly w ith t he l a test c o ins , t hen t he h oard w as p robab ly c losed o n ly a f ew y ears a f ter t he d a te o f t he l atest c o ins i n i t .

On t he o ther

h and , i ft he l atest c o ins i n ah oard w ere v ery much w orn , t hat i s , i ft hey h ad b een i n c ircu la t ion f or s o me t ime b efore b e ing a dded t o t he h oard , t he h oard c ou ld n ot h ave b een c losed u n t i l s ome y ears a f ter t he d a te o f i ssue o f t he l a test c o ins. T h is i s r endered a l l t he more p robab le i ft here were g aps i n t he c hrono log ica l s er ies o f c o ins i n t he h oard . T he d a te a t wh ich a h oard was c losed , a t wh ich money c eased t o b e a dded t o i t , may o r may n o t h ave b een t he d ate a t wh ich t he owner l a id away h is t reasure. T he c o mpos i t ion o f ah oard o nce a ga in p rov ides a c lue a s t o whether o r n ot t he t wo d a tes c o inc ided . I ft he c hrono log ica l l i st o f c o ins i n ah oard f ormed a nu nbroken s er ies , s topp ing s hor t s udden ly w i th t he l a test c o ins , t hen t he d a te a t wh ich s av ing o r h oard ing c eased was p robab ly f o l lowe d a t o nce b y t he d a te o f t he d epos i t o f t he h oard . F or a n owner who h ad s aved s tead i ly a nd c ons isten t ly was h ard ly l ike ly t o s top a brupt ly , u n less t he h oard was n o l onger w ith in h is r each . I f , o n t he o ther h and , t here were g aps i n t he c hrono log ica l l i st o f c oins i n ah oard , t ha t i s , i ft he s av ing p roc ess a ppears t o h ave b een i n term i t ten t , t hen t he d ate a t wh ich t he s av ing p rocess c eased may n ot h ave b een f o l lowed a t o nce b y t he c oncea l men t o f

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t he h oard . T hose h oards wh ich h ave b een c o mp lete ly e xa m ined a re , i n f act , f or t he most p ar t made u p o f c o ins f orm ing a n u n in terrup ted c hrono log ica l s er ies. T h is s ugges ts t ha t , a s ag enera l r u le , h oards w ere c oncea led s oon a f ter t he s av ing p rocess c eased .

T h is i s wha t o ne w ou ld e xpect , b u t o f c ourse a bso-

l ute c er ta in ty o n t h is p o in t i s i mposs ib le t o a t ta in , a nd s pecu lat ion i s f ru it less. We c an o n ly d eter m ine , a s a ccura te ly a s t he r ecords a l low , t he d a te a t wh ich ah oard w as c losed a nd , i n t he a bsence o f e v idence t o t he c on trary , a ssume t ha t t he d ate o f c oncea l men t f o l lowed s oon a f ter .

T hus a h oard e nd ing w ith

c o ins o f H adr ian i s " dated" t o H adr ian 's r e ign , a nd i s a ssumed t o h ave b een c oncea led i n t ha t r e ign .

THE NU M IS MAT IC S IGNIFICANCE OF RO MANO-BRITISH COIN HOARDS

T he meta ls o f wh ich Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards w ere c o mposed A s urvey o f t he meta ls h oarded i n Br i ta in a t d if feren t p er iods s hows t ha t when c o ins o f t he p rec ious meta ls , g o ld , a nd , more c o m mon ly , s i lver w ere c urren t i n q uan t ity , t hey w ere a s ag enera l r u le h oarded i n p reference t o c opper , a lways p rov ided o f c ourse t he h oarder c ou ld a f ford t o l ay a s ide s avi ngs s ubs tan t ia l e nough t o b e t rans lated i n to g o ld o r s i lver .

T he h oard ing

o f g o ld c o ins w as i n f act a l most e n t ire ly r estr icted t o t he t wo p er iods midf i rs t t o l a te-second c entur ies A .D ., a nd l ate f our th c entury A .D . o r l a ter . T hese were t he p er iods when i mper ia l g o ld c o ins were n ot o n ly i ssued i n q uan t i ty , b u t w ere a lso o f ah igh q ua l ity . Dur ing t hese t wo p er iods , g o ld c o ins were e i ther h oarded a lone o r t og ether w ith s i lver c o ins.

A l l t he g o ld p lus s i lver h oards wh ich h ave b een

f u l ly e xa m ined h ave , wha tever t he ir d a te , p roved t o c on ta in f e wer g old c o ins t han s i lver c o ins.

T he owners o f t hese mixed g o ld a nd s i lver h oards may

h ave a i med a t c hang ing t he ir s i lver i nto g o ld i n t ime , o n ly t o b e h a lted b y c ircu mstances b eyond t he ir c on tro l b efore a tta in ing t he ir g oa l a nd t he ir g o ld . I ti s n ot iceab le t ha t i n a l l t he g o ld p lus s i lver h oards o f t he p er iod midf irst t o l ate-second c en tur ies A .D ., t he l atest g o ld c o ins w ere o f a n e ar l ier d ate t han t he l a test s i lver c oins. l i fe t han s i lver .

G o ld c o ins h ad a much l onger c ircu la t ion

On t he o ther h and , i n l a te-four th c entury ( or s ubsequen t )

g o ld p lus s i lver h oards t he l atest g o ld c o ins w ere n ot a lways o f a n e ar l ier d ate t han t he l a test s i lver c o ins.

A f ter t he r e ign o f H onor ius t he f l ow o f

Ro man c o ins i n to B r i ta in s hrank r ap id ly .

S o , a s t he y ears p assed , t he

t imelag i n t he c ircu la t ion l i fe o f g o ld c oins b eh ind t ha t o f s i lver c o ins w ou ld d isappear . S i lver c o ins , when a va i lab le , w ere h oarded t hroughou t t he who le p er iod o f t he Ro man o ccupa t ion o f Br i ta in , i n p reference t o c opper c o ins , e xcep t i n t he r e ign o f C laud ius a nd a ga in i n t he l a te f our th c en tury A .D . o r l ater .

I n

t he f irst y ears o f c onquest Ro man b ronze c o ins w ere a pparen t ly c ircu lat ing

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i n Br i ta in i n f ar l arger q uan t it ies t han Ro man s i lver - p resumab ly b ecause t he c h ief s ource o f Ro man c urrency v as a t t hat t ime t he Ro man a rmy , whose p ay i nc luded ma in ly b ronze c o inage.

F or t he p er iod o f t he l as t d ays o f t he

Roman o ccupa t ion h oards o f g o ld o r s i lver c o ins a re v ery g reat ly o u tnumbered b y h oards o f c opper c o ins , wh ich s tead i ly o vertook g o ld a nd s i lver a s c o mmon c urrency . D ur ing t he t h ird c en tury A .D. t he p reference wh ich t he Ro mano- B r i ton h ad f or h oard ing s i lver ( i n p reference t o b aser me ta l ) man ifested i t sel f i n h is p ers is ten t d evot ion t o t he d enar ius , a nd d is l ike o f t he a n ton in ianus.

T he a n ton in-

i anus , i n troduced i n A .D . 2 15 , c on ta ined a t f i rst 5 0 p er c en t a l loy , wh ich b y t he r e ign o f G a l l ienus ( A .D . 2 59-268 ) h ad r isen t o 7 5-80 p er c en t . As l ate a s t he r e ign o f Ph i l ip Ia nd I , t h ir ty y ears a f ter t he i n troduct ion o f t he a n ton ini anus , d enar i i w ere s t i l l b eing h oarded a lone.

Where d enar i i a nd a n ton in ian i

w ere h oarded t ogether , t he d enar i i c ons isten t ly o u tnumbered t he a n ton in ian i u n t i l t he r e ign o f G a l l ienus. T herea f ter b ad money r ap id ly d rove o u t g ood .

D enar i i b eca me s carcer

a nd s carcer i n c ircu la t ion a s t hey w ere c a l led i n a nd me lted d own f or t he ir s i lver c on ten t .

Af ew s tray d enar i i , h owever , d id s urv ive i n h oards a s l a te

a s t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury A . D., t o emphas ise t he p ers is tence w ith wh ich t he Ro mano-Br iton c lung t o g ood o ld s i lver when h e c ou ld g et i t . T he s ize o f Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards O f t he 1 400 o r more Ro man c o in h oards r ecorded f ro m B r ita in , n ot many more t han 1 20 c on ta ined more t han 1 000 c o ins e ach . O f t hese a l l b u t av ery f ew w ere c o mposed e i ther o f d ebased a n ton in ian i , o r o f a n ton in ian i a nd f our thc en tury c opper .

T he most f a mous o f t hese i s p robab ly t he h oard o f a bou t

3 0 ,000 a n ton in ian i f ro m S e lborne ( 1873 ), e nd ing w ith C onstant ius I , a nd r eg arded b y s o me a s ap ay c hest o f p ar t o f t he i nvad ing a rmy wh ich b rough t t o a n e nd t he i ndependen t Ro mano-Br i t ish emp ire o f Caraus ius a nd A l lectus . 8 H oards o f g o ld w ere , a s o ne w ou ld e xpect , u sua l ly o f sma l l s ize , a lthough t here i s o ne ( t o Marcus ) o f 1 60 a ure i f rom C orbr idge ( 1911 ), 9 a nd a nother ( t o C onstan t ine I I ) o f 6 00 g o ld s o l id i f ro m Eye .o S i lver h oards s e ldo m c ont a ined more t han a f ew h undred c o ins , a lthough a h oard o f o ver 3 ,000 ( t o S everus A lexander ) was f ound a t C o lchester ( c . 1 898 ),

1

a nd a c o mpos ite

h oard ( t o H onor ius ) f ro m C leeve Pr ior , Worcs., i nc luded 4 50-600 s o l id i a nd c . 3 ,000 s i lver c o ins. 1 2 T he g enera l c o mpos i t ion o f Ro mano-Br it ish c oin h oards " Un less t here i s v ery s trong e v idence t o t he c on trary i ti s p robab le t hat t he c o ins c o mpos ing a h oard w ere w i thdrawn f ro m c ircu la t ion w ith in a v ery s hor t s pace o f t ime b efore t he d a te a t wh ich t he s av ing p rocess c eased . F or u n less t he owner o f ah oard w as a miser , h e must h ave b een c ons tant ly t ak ing money o u t o f h is s av ings , a nd a ga in p u t t ing money i n , o r e ven s pend ing h is who le h oard a nd t hen s tar t ing t o s ave a fresh .

I ft hen a h oard w as f l u id , a nd

a l l o r p ar t o f i th ad r ecen t ly b een w ithdrawn f ro m c ircu la t ion a nd w as l i ke ly

1 7

t o b e p u t i n to c ircu la t ion a ga in a t a ny t ime t he owner w ished , t he c o ins i n t he h oard mus t h ave b een n ot o bso le te b u t c urren t , o r a t l eas t a ccep tab le a s c urr ency .

T hey mus t , i n f act , r ef lect o r r epresen t t he c on ten ts o f a man 's

p ocket o r p urse a t ag iven t ime , f rozen ( as i tw ere ) i n to i mmob i l ity f or o ur l e isure ly i nspect ion . T he c on ten ts o f o ne man 's p ocket o r p urse , o r o f h is h oard , w ou ld o f c ourse d ifer i n c o mpos i t ion f rom t he c on ten ts o f a nother 's , a lthough b oth w ere c on te mporary . Each w ou ld r ef lec t n ot o n ly t he owner 's f inanc ia l p os i t ion , b u t a lso h is p re ference f or c er ta in me ta ls o r f or c er ta in t ypes o f c o ins. B u t e ven s o , t he c o ins i n a man 's h oard w ou ld a l l b e c oins a ccep tab le a s c urrency , f or t hey w ere s ure ly mean t t o b e s pen t s ooner o r l ater a nd n ot h oarded u p f or e ver . Ag roup o f h oards e nd ing w i th c o ins o f a c er ta in emperor may t hen b e e xpec ted t o t hrow l igh t o n t he c urrency i n c ircul at ion i n Ro man Br ita in d ur ing h is r e ign , u n less t here i s e v idence t o p rove t ha t t he h oards w ere a l l e xcep t iona l i n c ompos i t ion . Moreover , i ft he o bverse a nd r everse t ypes o f c o ins i n s uch a g roup o f h oards h ave b een r ecorded , s t i l l more i n forma t ion c an b e o b ta ined a bou t t he t ypes o f c o ins wh ich r eached B r i ta in , a nd a bou t t he a pprox i mate d ate o f t ypes whose d a te migh t o therw ise b e u nknown ." 1 3 Pecu l iar i t ies o f c o mpos i t ion A l though a g roup o f c on te mporary c o in h oards u sua l ly h ad t he s ame g enera l c o mpos it ion , y et t here w ere i nc luded i n s ome c ases a n umber o f r are , e xcep t iona l o ru nexpected c oins.

T he most s tr ik ing o f t hese p ecu l iar it ies

a re t he p ers isten t s urv iva l o f c er ta in t ypes o f c oin , t he a pparen t ly d e l ibera te s e lect ion o f c o ins f or h oard ing a nd t he i nc lus ion o f s ub-standard a nd b arbaro us c o ins. ( 1 )

T he s urv iva l o f c er ta in t ypes o f c oin Abou t ad ozen Ro mano-Br i t ish h oards i nc luded G reek i mper ia l c o ins ,

u sua l ly s i lver d rachmae o f L yc ia i n g enere , o r o f C aesarea C appadoc iae , d at ing f ro m Do m i t ian t o T ra jan , T ra jan 's i ssues b e ing t he c o mmonest . T he h oards c oncerned w ere a l l h oards o f d enar i i r ang ing i n d a te f rom F aus t ina I t o S everus A lexander .

T he d rachmae may h ave b een a ccep ted a s d enar i i.

A s o mewha t l arger n umber o f h oards c on ta ined Anc ien t B r i t ish c o ins o f v ary ing meta ls a nd t ypes , a nd w ith a v ary ing p ropor t ion o f Roman t o a nc ien t Br it ish c o ins. T hese h oards i nd ica te t he c ircu lat ion l i fe a nd p owers o f s urv iva l o f d i f feren t t ypes o f a nc ien t B r i t ish c o ins.

One sma l l a rea o f Roman

Br i ta in , H a mpsh ire , s ee ms t o h ave c lung t o i t s l oca l n a t ive c urrency u n t i l t he An ton ine p er iod . C lose o n f i f ty Ro mano-Br i t ish h oards c on ta ined o ne o r more d enar i i wh ich w ere s ta ted t o b e o f t he Ro man Repub l ic o r o f J u l ius C aesar ( a l though s o me s o-ca l led Repub l ican d enar i i i n i nadequate ly r ecorded h oards n ow l os t may r ea l ly h ave b een l eg ionary d enar i i o f Mark Antony ). T rue Repub l ican d enar i i w ere p resen t i n Ro mano-Br it ish h oards i n l arge n umbers u n t i l t he r e ign o f H adr ian .

Un t i l t hen t he Repub l ican d enar ius , o f f i ne s i lver a nd

s ubstan t ia l w e igh t , e v iden t ly k ep t i t s p lace i n t he c urrency o f Roman B r i ta in ,

1 8

i n s p i te o f N ero 's r educt ion i n t he w e igh t o f t he d enar ius , a nd t he s ubsequen t c a l l ing-in o f h eav ier p re-Neron ian d enar i i.

I n h oards o f d enar i i l ater t han

Hadr ian , t he n umber o f Repub l ican d enar i i s hrank t o a mere t r ick le.

T here-

a f ter , s uch d enar i i s ee m t o h ave v an ished a l most c o mp lete ly f ro m c ircu la t ion , e xcep t f or a v ery f ew s porad ic s urv ivors i n h oards a s l a te a s Ph i l ip Ia nd H . A t l east t en o f t he Ro mano-Br it ish h oards c on ta in ing Repub l ican d enar i i c a me f ro m Yorksh ire a lone , t hree f ro m S cot land , s ix f ro m Wa les, t en f ro m N . Eng land , a nd t he r e ma inder f ro m t he Mid lands a nd S . Eng land . f i ve o f t hese l as t a lso c on ta ined Anc ien t B r it ish c o ins.

A t l east

I n g enera l , t he Re-

p ub l ican d enar ius s ee ms t o h ave b een a p ar t icu lar f avour i te i n N . B r i ta in a nd i n t he l ess r o man ised p ar ts o f t he p rov ince , Wa les a nd S cot land , whose i nhab i tan ts w ere s o u nc iv i l ised a s t o p refer o ld f ash ioned s i lver o f ah igh q ua l ity t o more r ecen t b u t d ebased i ssues. C lose o n s ix ty Ro mano-Br it ish h oards c on ta ined o ne o r more o f t he b ase l eg ionary d enar i i o f Mark An tony .

A l though Hadr ian 's r e ign s aw t he v ir tua l

d isappearance o f Repub l ican d enar i i f ro m t he c urrency , l eg ionary d enar i i o f Mark An tony p ers isted i n c ircu la t ion u n t i l t he r e ign o f P ostumus.

T hey were

p ar t icu lar ly n umerous i n h oards o f t he r e ign o f S everus a nd o f S everus A lexander . ( 2 )

T he s e lect ion o f c o ins f or h oard ing T he owner o f ah oard h ad t o c o mpose h is s av ings o u t o f t he c oins wh ich

c ircu la ted i n h is a rea d ur ing t he p er iod c overed b y t he s av ing p rocess.

Ou t

o f t he t o ta l r ange o f c oins a va i lab le , h owever , h e migh t s e lect t hose wh ich f or s o me r eason o r o ther a ppeared t o h im most d es irab le. J ust a s g o ld a nd s i lver o f h igh q ua l i ty were p re ferred f or h oard ing when r ead i ly a va i lab le , s o t he i nd iv idua l c oins o f wh ich a h oard was made u p o f ten a ppear t o h ave b een s pec ia l ly s e lected , e ither f or t he ir f ine c ond it ion , f or t he ir g ood q ua l ity o r f or s o me o ther r eason .

Many a Ro mano-Br it ish h oard ,

when e xa m ined i n d eta i l , h as p roved t o i nc lude f ine , u nworn c oins o f a l l t he emperors r epresen ted , f ro m t he e ar l iest t o t he l a test .

I ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t

t he t hr i f ty owner o f ah oard s e lected f or i nclus ion i n h is s av ings whatever we l l-preserved c o ins c a me h is way , a nd n o d oub t t r ied t o g e t r id o f h is more w orn s pec i mens. A more s ub t le , b u t s t i l l r ecogn isab le , f orm o f s e lect ion was t ha t o f c hoosi ng c o ins w i th c er ta in r everse t ypes f or i nc lus ion i n ah oard .

A t l east f our

Ro mano-Br i t ish h oards a re s a id t o h ave b een c o mposed o f c o ins a l l o f wh ich h ad d i f feren t r everse t ypes.

T he most f a mous o f t hese i s t he Hadr ian ic

h oard f ro m T horngra f ton ( 1837 ) wh ich c ons isted o f 3a ure i a nd 6 0 d enar i i , c on ta ined i n ab ronze a rm-purse. a nd t he c o ins were a l l d i f feren t" .1 4

"The c o l lect ion e xact ly f i l led t he v esse l T he owner o f t he b ronze p urse mus t

h ave s e lected f or h oard ing p urposes , f ro m a l l t he c o ins t ha t c a me h is way , o n ly t hose n ot a lready r epresen ted i n h is s av ings. T he s e lect ion o f p ar t icu lar r everse t ypes o r o f av ar ie ty o f r everse t ypes i s e asy t o d etect i n ah oard l ike t he T horngra f ton h oard .

I ti s p rob-

a b le , h owever , t ha t s o me k ind o f s e lect ion , l ess o bv ious b u t n one t he l ess

1 9

e f fect ive , was e xerc ised i n many o ther h oards. Romano-Br i t ish h oards h ave i n f act p roduced v ery many v ar ian ts o n t he t ypes d escr ibed i n t he s tanda rd c o in c a ta logues , a nd many r are o r e ven u n ique c o ins. T he owners o f h oards c on ta in ing t hese v ar ian ts o r r ar i t ies may w e l l h ave i nc luded t hem b ecause t hey w ere d i f feren t o r r are.

S uch s e lect ive owners wou ld , i n f ac t ,

n ot o n ly b e s av ing money , t hey w ou ld a lso b e c o l lec t ing c oins. B etween t wen ty a nd t h ir ty Ro mano-Br it ish h oards a re s a id t o h ave b een r estr icted t o t he c o ins o f o ne emperor o n ly : C laud ius ( AE ), T etr ic i , Carausi us , A l lectus , C ons tan t ine I , C onstans , V a len t in ian I( go ld ) , a nd V a lens.

T he

r eason f or t he l im i ta t ion o f ah oard t o t he c o ins o f o ne emperor c an s omet imes b e d etected . I n t he r e ign o f C laud ius , f or e xamp le , C laud ian b rass was a l most t he o n ly b rass c urrency a va i lab le i n a ny q uan t ity . Aga in , c o ins o f Caraus ius a nd A l lectus w ere min ted i n B r i ta in , a nd h oards c omposed s o le ly o f c o ins o f e i ther o f t hese emperors h ad p robab ly c ome i n b u lk s tra igh t f ro m t he min t .

I n t he c ase o f t he o ther emperors , t he ir monopo ly

o f h oards i s n o t s o r ead i ly e xp la ined. T he owners o f s uch h oards may s omeh ow h ave a cqu ired a s upp ly o f n ew c o ins i n b u lk , o r h ave h ad a p ersona l p reference f or t he c o ins o f ac er ta in emperor . ( 3 )

T he i nc lus ion o f f au l ty o r s ub-s tandard c o ins Ad irect ly o ppos i te t endency t o t ha t o f t he c arefu l s e lect ion o f c o ins f or

h oard ing i s s o met i mes d iscern ib le i n Romano-Br i t ish h oards , n ame ly t he i nc lus ion o ff au l ty o r s ub-standard c o ins.

Apar t f rom t he v ery f ew p la ted

s i lver c o ins , c as t c o ins a nd me ta l b lanks wh ich f ound t he ir w ay i n to h oards t here w ere t wo ma in g roups o f s ub-standard c o ins - c l ipped s i lver s i l iquae a nd b arbarous o r i rregu lar c op ies. T he c l ipp ing o f s i l iquae r esu l ted f rom a n a pprec ia t ion i n t he v a lue o f s i lver a f ter t he s everance o f B r i ta in f rom t he Roman Emp ire , when o f f ic ia l Ro man s i lver c o ins c eased t o e n ter B r i ta in i n a ny q uan t i ty , a nd s i l iquae a lready i n B r i ta in w ere c u t d own t o o f fset t he g row ing s carc ity o f s i lver. 1 5 I ti s p robab le t herefore t ha t h oards i n wh ich t he ma jor ity o f s i l iquae w ere c l ipped w ere amassed l a ter t han t hose h oards wh ich c on ta ined o n ly a f ew c l ipped s i l iquae.

F or e xamp le t he C o lera ine h oard wh ich h ad a l most a l l

o f i t s s i l iquae c l ipped c on ta ined c o ins o f C onstan t ine I I d at ing a f ter A .D . 4 07. B arbarous o r i rregu lar c op ies f ound a p lace i n h oards d a t ing t o p eri ods a t wh ich t hey f ormed s o h igh a p ropor t ion o f t he c o ins i n n orma l c ircu la t ion t ha t t hey c ou ld h ard ly b e e xc luded c omp lete ly f rom a man 's s av ings. F or e xa mp le , c op ies o f b ronze c o ins o f C laud ius w ere t urned o u t i n l arge n umbers t o make g ood a s hor tage o f sma l l c hange i n t he n ew ly c onst ituted Ro man p rov ince , a nd t hey v ar ied g rea t ly i n s ty le , a nd i n q ua l i ty , w e igh t a nd f abr ic. S o me o f t he m a t l east may h ave b een s em io f f ic ia l c op ies , b u t o thers w ere p robab ly u nof f ic ia l. 1 6 We l l o ver o ne h undred Ro mano-Br it ish h oards o f t h ird-cen tury d a te o r l a ter c on ta ined " barbarous r ad ia tes", c op ies o f a n ton in ian i , wh ich d isp layed more o r l ess i rregu lar o r b arbarous w orkmansh ip , a nd wh ich

2 0

v ar ied i n d ia me ter f ro m t ha t o f o f f icia l a n ton in ian i t o

i n . ( 6 mm .) o r l ess .

Cop ies w i th a d ia me ter o f 1i n . ( 12 m m .) o r l ess h ave b een c lassed a s m inims, b u t t here a re many b order l ine c ases a nd a s harp d is t inc t ion b e tween sma l l r ad ia te c op ies a nd min i ms i s d i f f icu l t t o ma in ta in . T he i nclus ion o f b arbarous r ad iates i n a bou t s even ty t h ird-cen tury h oards r ang ing i n d a te f rom C laud ius I t o c . A .D . 3 00 p roves t hat i rregu lar o r b arb arous c op ies o f r ad iate a n ton in ian i w ere b e ing p roduced a s e ar ly a s a bou t A .D . 2 70 .

T he e v idence o f t h ird-cen tury h oards a lso s hows t ha t e ven r ad-

i a te c op ies o f v ery sma l l modu le ( "min i ms" ) were b e ing made b efore a bou t 3 00 A .D . A t te mp ts h ave b een made t o i den t ify r eg iona l c en tres f or t he p roduc t ion o f r ad ia te c op ies .

T he l arges t n u mber o f t h ird c en tury h oards c on tain ing s uch

c op ies h as b een f ound i n E as t Ang l ia .

T h is d oes s ugges t t ha t o ne c en tre o f

manu fac ture w as i n E as t Ang l ia. T he r eason f or t he manu facture o f " barbarous r ad ia tes" i s t hough t t o h ave b een a d es ire t o s upp le men t t he o f f ic ia l c urrency , b y t he p rov is ion o f a n e ven sma l ler d eno m ina t ion t han t he sma l les t o f f icial b ronze c o in .

T he

l i fe o f r ad ia te c op ies, b egun i n t he l a te t h ird-cen tury A .D . ,d id n o t i n f ac t e nd i n t ha t c en tury.

B e tween t wen ty a nd t h ir ty h oards o f l a te f our th-cen tury

d a te o r l a ter i ncluded s uch c op ies, a ssoc iated i n mos t c ases w i th b arbarous f our th-cen tury c op ies .

T here was , h owever , a n i n terva l b e tween t he c lose

o f t he t h ird c en tury a nd t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f Cons tan t ine Iwhen , a ppare n t ly , " barbarous r ad iates" were n o t b eing h oarded . T h is i n terval s ee ms h i ther to t o h ave e scaped n o t ice.

I tp resumab ly

means t ha t t he c urrency o f c . A .D . 3 00-337 was a dequa te i n i t s r ange f or t hose u s ing i ti n Br i tain .

On ly l ater d id a l ack o f sma l l c hange a ga in make

i t se lf f e l t , r esu l t ing i n t he r e-e mergence o f " barbarous r ad ia tes" a long w i th s ome o f f icia l a n ton in ian i , a nd w i th f our th-cen tury o r " d iade med c op ies". Over s ix ty Ro mano-Br i t ish h oards i nc luded d iade med c op ies , s o me o f t he m "m in i ms", a nd e ven s o-ca l led "m in im iss im i", 4 m m. o r l ess i n d iame ter.

D iade med c op ies, l arge o r smal l , im i tated c er ta in s pecif ic g roups

o f o f f icia l c o ins , o f wh ich t he " Fal len h orse man" t ype was t he f avour i te . T he e v idence o f f our th-cen tury h oards s hows t ha t d iade med c op ies a nd "m in i ms" made t he ir f i rs t a ppearance a l mos t a s s oon a s t heir o f f icia l p rot o type c a me i n to c ircu lat ion .

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T he s o-cal led "m in im iss im i" s ee m t o h ave

c o me i n to e x is tence n o t e ar l ier t han t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury A .D . T he e nd o f Ro man c urrency i n Br i ta in T he e v idence o f h oards i s c onc lus ive t ha t b o th r ad ia te a nd d iade med c op ies a nd min i ms c on t inued i n c ircu la t ion u n t i l t he l a tes t Ro mano-Br i t ish c o in h oards were amassed , t ha t i s t hey w ere i n u se a t l eas t a s l ong a s Ro man c o ins r e ma ined c urren t i n Br i tain , h owever l ong t ha t w as .

T hey

mus t o f c ourse h ave r e ma ined c urren t i n s o me d is tr icts much bnger t han i n o thers .

I td epended f or e xa mp le o n h ow s er iously l i fe h ad b een d isrup ted i n

ap ar t icu lar d is tr ict ;

h ow a ccus to med t he i nhab i tan ts were t o t he r egu lar

2 1

e r •WKOCKe i erANA . :•-•w i r r o b :e iw «1› : g e : e _ s :«A lti •e» . e j ä rga igeäuv eo l i t o reÄ t& e i vo g r i w k w r i me i l i reay e i l iv -ev• *.• -•• • • • • l iev.I .vevel revvoi.v

F ig . 1 .

FLASK

FOUND AT RA MSEY , HUNTS . Heigh t 7 .75 i n . ( 1 95 m m .)

c . 1 890

( Con ta iner o f c o in h oard t o Constan t ius I , Augustus ) The f lask i s o f h ard wh i te ware w i th a b lack s lip , d ecora ted w ith a c urv i l inear p a t tern p icked o u t i n wh ite p a in t , a nd w i th b ands o f r ou le t t ing .

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u se o f c urrency ; w ith o thers ;

h ow s e lf-su f f ic ien t , o r h ow d ependen t t hey w ere o n t rade

h ow many c o ins w ere a lready a va i lab le i n t ha t d istr ict ;

a nd

o n h ow many f inds o f e ar l ier c o ins t urned u p t o p rov ide a n o ppor tune , eme rgency c urrency .

T he u se o fR o man c o ins f ro m h oards f ound i n modern

t imes i n p laces o f l a te e ighteen th o r n ineteen th c entury f ar th ings o r t rade t okens must h ave h ad many a p ara l le l i n t he y ears f o l low ing t he Ro man w ithdrawa l .

18

I n a ny c ase t here was n ot o ne e nd t o Ro man c urrency i n B r i ta in ;

t here

w ere many e nds. T he e nd may h ave c o me i n s o me d istr icts e ven b efore t he Roman w i thdrawa l , a nd i n o ther d istr icts l ong a f ter i t .

THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S IGNIFICANCE OF RO MANO-BRIT ISH COIN HOARDS

Ac lose ly d a ted c oin h oard p rov ides a t erm inus a n te q uem f or a ny o b jects o r s tructures f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w i th i t .

T hese i nc lude t he r ecep tac les i n

wh ich t he c o ins w ere s tored o r h idden , a ny o ther v a luab les c oncea led w ith h oards , a nd s i tes , mi l i tary o r c iv i l , o r e ven p re-Ro man , where t hey w ere d epos i ted . T he r ecep tac les i n wh ich R o mano-Br it ish h oards were c on ta ined T hroughou t t he who le s pan o f t he Ro man o ccupa t ion o f Br i ta in h oards o f c o ins w ere most c o m mon ly s tored i n money-bags , w ooden money-boxes, a nd i n c oarse-ware p ots. T he t wo f ormer h ave r are ly s urv ived i n tac t , b u t t he p ots h ave a s a lways p roved v ir tua l ly i ndestruct ib le. ( 1 )

C oarse-ware p ots A t l east 5 00 Ro mano-Br i t ish c o in h oards a re r ecorded a s h av ing b een

c on ta ined i n o ne o r more c oarse-ware p ots. T hese p ots w ere , w i th a v ery f ew e xcep t ions , f l agons , j ars o r c ook ing p o ts , v ary ing i n s ize , a ccord ing t o t he s ize o f t he h oards , b u t a l most a l l h av ing a n arrow n eck ( Fig . 1 ) . Af ew f l agons o r j ars i n f act h ad t heir n ecks s topped u p , a nd a s lot c u t i n t he s ide f or t he i nsert ion o f c o ins , a f ter t he manner o f a modern " p iggy-bank".

Money i s o f c ourse much more l i ke ly t o s tay s aved i fi t

i s c on ta ined i n ar ecep tac le wh ich makes t he e x tract ion o f c o ins much more d i f f icu lt t han t he ir i nser t ion . I f ap ot o f ac er ta in t ype was u sed a s ac on ta iner f or a h oard o f a c er ta in d a te , t hen o bv ious ly t hat t ype o f p ot must h ave c o me i n to e x iste nce ( or c an b e " da ted" ) b efore t he d ate a t wh ich t he h oard w as c losed . F or e xa mp le a Hadr ian ic h oard f ro m S outhan ts c on ta ined i n a" coarse f u med" o r b lack-burn ished Ip ot , c on f irms o ther e v idence f or t he i n trod uct ion o f t h is w are b y t he r e ign o f H adr ian . I ti s n ot iceab le , h owever , t ha t t he p ots wh ich s erved a s r ecep ta c les f or Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards w ere n ot u sua l ly o f t he f am i l iar ,

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e veryday t ypes wh ich t urn u p i n q uan t it ies o n e xcavated s i tes , b u t w ere more o ut-o f-the-ord inary v esse ls ( See f or e xamp le F ig . 1 ) .

T h is f act , when i n ter-

p reted i n t er ms o f h uman a ct ion p o in ts t o t he s a t isfactory c onc lus ion t ha t t he c o m monsense , p ract ica l Ro mano-Br i ton p referred n ot t o i m mob i l ise a p ot o f at ype i n d a i ly d o mest ic u se b y t urn ing i ti n to a money-box , b u t c hose i ns tead a s ar ecep tac le f or h is s av ings a v esse l wh ich was p erhaps more o f a n o rna men t i n h is h ouse. ( 2 )

S am ian v esse ls On ly a v ery f ew Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards a re r ecorded a s h av ing

c er ta in ly b een c on ta ined i n s am ian v esse ls.

T he r eason w as , n o d oub t ,

s i mp ly t ha t s am ian ware u sua l ly t ook t he f orm o f s ha l low p la t ters , w idemou thed c ups , a nd o pen b ow ls , whose s hapes made t he m q u ite u nsu i tab le f or c on ta in ing c o ins s a fe ly .

One o f t he e xcep t ions w as a h oard f ound a t

K irkha m , L ancs. ( Ba lb inus ), wh ich w as c on ta ined i n ac o mpara t ive ly r are t ype o f s am ian v esse l ( Form 6 7 ) w ith a f a ir ly n arrow n eck . Another h oard f ro m B eacha mwe l l , Cambs. ( Co m modus ) w as s tored i n as am ian c up ( Form 3 3 ), b u t h ad t o b e c overed o ver b y a nother v esse l. ( 3 )

G lass v esse ls On ly a bout h a lf a d ozen Ro mano-Br it ish h oards a re k nown t o h ave b een

c on ta ined i n g lass v esse ls.

T hey r ange i n d a te f ro m t he l ate s econd-

t o t he l ate f our th-cen tury A . D. ( 4 )

S i lver , b ronze , l ead , t i n o r p ew ter v esse ls A t l east s ix h oards w ere c on ta ined i n o ne o r more s i lver v esse ls.

C er ta in o ther h oards wh ich a re r epor ted t o h ave h ad s i lver v esse ls f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he m may o r ig ina l ly h ave b een c oncea led i n t hose v esse ls. A l l t hese h oards w ere made u p e n t ire ly o r a l mos t e n t ire ly o f s i lver c oins.

F our e nded w ith c oins o f H onor ius o f w h ich o ne , f ro m F incham ,

Nor fo lk , was c on ta ined i n ap ar t icu lar ly b eaut ifu l s i lver f l ask . Bronze v esse ls wh ich s erved a s r ecep tac les f or Ro mano-Br it ish h oards i nc luded t wo a rm-purses ( t he most a ppropr iate o f a l l c on ta iners ), a t l east s even n arrow-necked b ronze j ugs , a t l eas t f i ve p aterae , a t l east f our b ow ls , a sma l l b ronze b e l l , a nd a bou t t en o ther b ronze v ess e ls o fu nspec i f ied t ype. S o me o f t he b ronze j ugs , w i th c loverlea f mou th , h ad t hey b een f ound a lone , w ou ld h ave b een g iven a s o mewha t e ar l ier d a t ing t han t ha t o f t he h oards wh ich t hey d id i n f act c on ta in .

No d oub t t hey h ad a l ong

l i fe a s t reasured o rna men ts. T he most s tr ik ing e v idence f ro m t he l i s t o f b ronze c on ta iners i s t ha t n one h as b een f ound w ith a h oard c er ta in ly d ated l a ter t han t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury A .D .

T herea f ter p ew ter r ep laced b ronze a s af avoured

me ta l f or h ouseho ld p late. A t l east t en h oards w ere s tored i n l ead c an isters o r b oxes , o r i n t i n

2 4

o r p ew ter j ugs , c an isters o r b oxes . T he t i n o r p ew ter v esse ls a re o n ly r ec orded f or l a te t h ird-cen tury a nd f ourth-cen tury h oards. ( 5 )

M isce l laneous c on ta iners S o me Ro mano-Br it ish h oards h ave b een r ecorded a s f ound i n c on ta iners

o fu nspec if ied meta ls ;

i n s tone u rns , mor tars o r e ven i n t he c en tra l h o le

o f aq uern-s tone ; i n ah o l low b one ; a nd i n a" hard l u mp" o r " round b a l l o f ' e ar th" o r i n " an e ar then g lobe". T hese t hree l as t h ad p robab ly b een o r ig ina l ly i n al ea ther b ag o r o ther p er ishab le r ecep tac le. Ob jects f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith Ro mano-Br it ish h oards S ince c o in h oards r epresen ted t he a ccumu la ted w ea l th o f t he ir owners , i ti s n ot t o b e w ondered a t t ha t t hey o f ten c on ta ined o ther v a luab les b es ides c o ins.

S o me i mpress ion o f what c ons t itu ted " va luab les" i n Ro mano-Br it ish

e yes may b e g a ined b y as urvey o f t he o b jects f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w i th Romano-Br i t ish c o in h oards.

A lso , a s i n t he c ase o f a cco mpany ing r e-

c ep tac les , at erm inus a n te q ue m f or t he d a te o f manu facture o f t he a ssoc ia ted v a luab les i s p rov ided b y t he d ate o f t he h oards w ith wh ich t hey were f ound . ( 1 )

G o ld G o ld o rnamen ts -mos t c o m mon ly f inger r ings , w i th a f ew a rm lets a nd

c ha ins - h ave b een f ound w i th we l l o ver a d ozen Romano-Br i t ish h oards , wh ich t he mse lves w ere a l most a lways o f g o ld a nd s i lver c o ins.

G o ld o rna-

men ts s ee m t o h ave b een most p len t ifu l a t j us t t hose p er iods when g o ld c o ins w ere b e ing h oarded i n B r ita in , t ha t i s i n t he s econd c en tury A .D ., a nd i n t he l ate f our th c entury A .D . o r l a ter . ( 2 )

S i lver

Persona l o rna men ts o f s i lver w ere a ssoc ia ted w ith b etween t wen ty a nd t h ir ty h oards , a l mos t a l l o f t he m h oards o f s i lver c o ins. Most c om mon among t hese o rnamen ts w ere f i nger-r ings ;

b race le ts , f i bu lae a nd s i lver

c ha ins w ere o f r arer o ccurrence. S i lver p la te - i nc lud ing p aterae , c ups a nd s poons -o ccurred i n a ssoc iat i on w ith a bou t t en r ecorded h oards. S o me o f t he p ieces o f p la te may a ctua l ly h ave b een u sed t o c on ta in t he h oards. A l l b u t t wo o f t hese h oards d ated t o t he v ery e nd o f t he f our th c entury A .D . ( or p oss ib ly l a ter ). S i lver p la te was o f ten p resen t i n s uch q uan t ity t ha t t he h oards s hou ld more c orr ect ly p erhaps b e r egarded a s t reasures o f s i lver p la te w ith c oins i n a ssoc iat i on , r a ther t han a s c oin h oards. S i lver i ngots w ere f ound i n a ssocia t ion w i th a bou t t en h oards d a t ing t o t he e nd o f t he Ro man o ccupa t ion . Misce l laneous a r t ic les o f s i lver w ere a ssoc iated w i th a t l east f i ve r ecorded h oards. ( 3 )

B ronze

P ersona l o rnamen ts o f b ronze w ere f ound w ith o ver t wen ty h oards , c o mp osed o f ten o f b ronze c o ins , a nd d a t ing t o a l l p er iods f rom t he mid-f irst

2 5

c en tury A .D . t o t he l a te f our th c en tury A .D . a nd l a ter .

I tw as e v iden t ly

o n ly a s a mater ia l f or h ouseho ld v esse ls t ha t p ew ter r ep laced b ronze i n t he f our th c entury A .D . ,n ot a s a mater ia l f or p ersona l o rna men ts. On t he o ther h and , b ronze p la te - b ow ls , ap atera , as poon , al a mp w ere f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith a l mos t t en h oards , n one l a ter t han t he l a te t h ird c en tury A . D.

M isce l laneous a r t ic les o f b ronze were a ssoc iated w ith

o ver a d ozen h oards. ( 4 )

M isce l laneous An umber o f h oards a re r ecorded a s f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th p ew ter

v esse ls ( a l l o f t he l ate f our th c entury A .D .), l ead a nd i ron o b jects , p ersona l o rna men ts o f i vory , g lass v esse ls , c lay f igur ines , a nd a c lay l a mp , a nd a s cu lptured s lab.

T h is , i fg enu ine ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a h oard , may h ave

marked t he s po t where t he h oard was c oncea led . T he p lace o f d epos it o f Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards T he p laces o f d epos it w ere o f t hree ma in c lasses -Ro man s i tes , mi l ita ry o r c iv i l ; ( 1 )

n a t ive B r it ish s i tes ;

a nd n atura l l andmarks.

Ro man mi l itary s i tes B etween t h ir ty a nd f or ty Ro mano-Br it ish h oards w ere f ound i n al eg ion-

a ry f or tress ( Caer leon ), a nd i n s evera l f or ts , mi lecast les a nd s igna ls ta t ions.

Where a r ecord h as s urv ived o f t he e xact l oca t ion o f t he d iscov-

e ry , i ta l most a lways b ears w itness t o a n a t te mp t a t c oncea l men t o n t he p ar t o f t he owner.

F avour ite h id ing p laces w ere u nder o r i n t he f l oor o f a

h ut o r b arrack-b lock , i n ah ypocaust o r c e l lar , i n ap it , i n af or t-d i tch o r r a mpar t . L osses o f h oards w ere most c o m mon o n H adr ian 's w a l l i n t he s econd t o e ar ly t h ird c entur ies A . D.

A l l h oards f ound i n t he Yorksh ire " s igna l

s ta t ions", b u i l t a bou t A .D . 3 70 , d a ted t o t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury A .D . ( 2 )

Ro mano-Br it ish c iv i l s i tes Over a h undred c o in h oards h ave b een r ecorded a s f ound i n Ro mano-

B r it ish t owns , v i l las , t e mp les , a nd v i l lages .

T he f indspot u sua l ly i nd ica ted

a n a t te mp t b y t he owner a t c oncea l men t , f or e xa mp le u nder a f l oor o r p avemen t , i n t he w a l l o f ah ouse , i n ab ath-house o r h ypocaust , i n ap it , o r e ven i n ag rave. T he l oss o f h oards a ppears , f ro m t he l i sts , t o h ave b een more l ike ly t o o ccur i n t owns a nd v i l lages o r o ther s et t le men ts d ur ing t he l a te t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies A .D ., i n v i l lages o n ly d ur ing t he t h ird a nd f our th c entur ies A .D., a nd i n t e mp les o n ly a t t he e nd o f t he Ro man o ccupa t ion . ( 3 )

Na t ive B r i t ish s i tes T he r ecorded Ro mano-Br it ish h oards i nc lude more t han s ix ty o f v ary ing

p er iods , whose owners made t he ir way t o p re-Ro man b ur ia l mounds o r c a irns , o r who s ca led t he r a mpar ts o f ap re-Ro man h i l l for t , o r c l i mbed

2 6

RO MAN O -BR IT ISH CO IN HOARDS 4 0

1 , 0

M O

1 0 0

1 20

C LAUD IUS V ESPAS IAN -T ITUS DOM IT IAN TRA J AN HADR IA N ANTON INUS P IUS MARCUS CO M MODUS

.

S EVERUS -GETA MACR INUS -ELAGABALUS S EVERUS A LEXANDER MAX IM INUSPH IL IP I TRA J AN DEC IUS -GALL IENUS POSTU MUS V I CTOR INUS -QU INT ILLUS T ETR IC I

•

AUREL IAN TAC ITUS -PROBUS CARUS - MAX IM IAN CARAUS IUS A LLECTUS CONSTANT IUS I -CONSTANT INE I( FOLLES ) CONSTANT INE 1( A .D . 3 17 -330 ) CONSTANT INE 1( A .D . 3 30 -3 37 ) CONSTANT IUS I

-

MAGNENT IUS -CONSTANT IUS GALLUS J UL IAN I -VALENS GRAT IÄN VALENT IN IAN I-THEODOS IUS MAX I MUS -ARCAD IUS _ . HONOR IUS -CONSTANT INE I I

F ig . 2 .

THE

CHRONOLOG ICAL D ISTR IBUTION OF RO MANO-BR ITISH COIN HOARDS

I t wou ld h ave b een p referab le t o d iv ide t he d iagra m i n to e qua l y ear ly p er iods e .g . i n to p er iods o f t wen ty y ears A .D .100 t o 1 20 a nd t he l ike - i nstead o f a ccord ing t o emperors who r e igned f or v arying l eng ths o f t ime . S ince , h owever , t he e xact d a te i n y ears a t wh ich a c o in h oard e nded i s u sua l ly d i f f icu l t t o d e ter mine , t he d iagra m h ad t o b e a rranged a ccord ing t o t he l a test emperors r epresen ted i n t he h oards.

2 7

d own i n to a p re-Ro man d itch , t o f ind a h id ing-p lace f or t he ir s av ings wh ich w ou ld b e a t o nce s ecure a nd a t t he s a me t ime e as i ly i den t if iab le t o t he ms e lves.

S uch n at ive Br it ish s i tes mus t o f c ourse h ave b een , i n Ro man

t imes , e ven more p ro m inen t f eatures o f t he l andscape t han t hey a re t oday , a nd w ere o f ten a s f ar r e moved i n t ime f rom t he Ro mano-Br iton a s h e i s f ro m u s.

T hey were , i n f act , among t he a nc ien t monumen ts o f Ro man

Br i ta in . ( 4 )

Natura l l andmarks

T he l argest n u mber o f Ro mano-Br it ish h oards w ere c oncea led away f ro m , r a ther t han i n , i nhab ited s i tes , a lthough n ot n ecessar i ly v ery f ar away f ro m t he m , a nd u sua l ly , we may b e s ure , n ear l andmarks wh ich wou ld d irect t he owners b ack t o t he ir t reasures a ga in . S o me r ecorded l andmarks - c aves , c l if fs , r ocks , h i l ls , s pr ings , r ivers a nd s eashores a re r ecogn isab le a s s uch t oday .

T here mus t , h owever , h ave b een many

l ess p ermanen t l and marks wh ich h ave n ot s urv ived f or o ur r ecogn i t ion f or e xa mp le a b lasted o ak , at a l l p ine t ree , o r ac lump o f b ushes . T he manner o f d epos it o f Ro mano-Br it ish c o in h oards I t was n ot o n ly i n t he c ho ice o f ah id ing p lace t ha t owners o f h oards s howed c oncern f or t he ir s av ings.

S o me o f t he m a t l east t ook g rea t c are

a lso o ver t he manner i n wh ich t hey a rranged t he c o ins i n t he ir r ecep tac les f or e xa mp le i n r ou leaux - a nd o ver t he way i n wh ich t hey b estowed t he ir h oards i n t he c hosen h id ing p laces.

S evera l h oards w ere c overed b y ap iece

o f s tone , t i le o r b r ick , o r w ere e nc losed b y t i les , s tones , o r e ven b y r ough s tone wa l l ing , o r were c overed b y a wooden b oard o r b y ac loth o r w ere p acked r ound w ith c lay . H oards s o d epos ited may b e t aken , f a ir ly , a s e v idence o f s o me t hreatened emergency wh ich d rove owners t o c oncea l t he ir s av ings , b u t y e t a l lowed t he m e nough t ime t o a rrange f or t he ir c onc ea lmen t i n t he s a fes t p oss ib le manner .

THE H ISTORICAL S IGNIFICANCE OF RO MANO-BRIT ISH CO IN HOARDS

T he n umber o f h oards l ost i n Ro man B r ita in d ur ing t he r e igns o f d iff eren t emperors was f ar f ro m c onstan t .

T he d is tr ibut ion o f h oards o ver

r eigns i s most e v iden t f ro m t he a cco mpany ing d iagra m ( Fig . 2 ) .

T he most

g enera l , i nd ispu tab le c onc lus ion t o b e d rawn f ro m t h is d istr ibu t ion i s t ha t wh i le t he p ract ice o f s av ing o r h oard ing c on t inued u n in terrup ted t hroughou t t he who le s pan o f t he Ro man o ccupat ion o f B r i ta in , t here w ere c er ta in p er iods a t wh ich more h oards were l os t t han a t o thers , f or e xa mp le d ur ing t he c urr ency o f c o ins o f Marcus a nd V erus , a nd o f t he T e tr ic i , a nd i n t he l as t p eri od o f Ro man o ccupat ion - H onor ius a nd l a ter . I ft he n umbers a nd t he t opograph ica l d istr ibu t ion o f t he c o in h oards l os t i n B r ita in d ur ing e ach p er iod a re c ons idered i n c on ju l ict ion w i th t he l i terary a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or c on te mporary d isturbances , i t

2 8

F ig . 3 .

COIN HOARDS

END ING WITH

MARCUS

TO

VERUS

Over s even ty h oards a re k nown f ro m B r i ta in e nd ing w i th Marcus , F aust ina I , Lucius V erus a nd Luci l la ( c . A .D . 1 40 -1 69 ).

2 9

F ig . 4 .

COIN

HOARDS

ENDING WITH

THE

TETR ICI

Over o ne h undred h oards e nd ing w i th c o ins o f t he Tetr ici h ave b een r ecorded f ro m Br ita in . They may h ave b een l ost a ny t ime b e tween A .D . 2 70 a nd 3 00 .

3 0

b ecomes c lear t ha t i n g enera l a nd a l low ing f or s o me l osses d ue t o mere a cc iden t , t he e v idence o f t he h oards t a l l ies w i th e v idence f rom o ther s ources. T he l oss o f l arge n umbers o f h oards may t hen b e a ccepted a s ac oncom itan t o fu nset t led c ond it ions , a nd e ven a s a n i ndex o f t he m , p art i cu lar ly i ft here w ere l arge c oncen tra t ions o f l osses i n c erta in a reas , a nd , i n t he a bsence o f f ur ther i n forma t ion , may e ven b e a dm it ted a s e v id ence f or u nset t lemen t i n Ro man Br ita in wh ich w ou ld o therw ise b e l acki ng . T hree p er iods may b e t aken a s e xa mp les : H onor ius a nd l ater . ( 1 )

Marcus , t he T etr ic i , a nd

Marcus

More t han f i f ty h oards e nd ing w ith c o ins o f Marcus o r F aust ina I , h ave b een r ecorded f rom Br i ta in . Co ins o f Marcus , a s C aesar , b egan t o b e i ss ued f ro m A .D . 1 40 o nwards , t hough n ot i n v ery l arge q uan t it ies , s o t ha t s ome o f t he h oards e nd ing w ith c o ins o f Marcus may a ctua l ly h ave b een l ost b efore t he e nd o f Anton inus P ius ' r e ign , p oss ib ly e ven a s ar esu l t o f t he r is ing o f a bou t 1 55 A .D .1 9 On t he o ther h and , t he t wen ty o r s o h oards e nd ing w ith L uc ius Verus o r L uc i l la w ere c er ta in ly l os t a f ter A .D . 1 61. T aken t oge ther , t he s even ty o r more h oards e nd ing w ith c o ins o f Marcus o r F aus t ina I , o r w ith V erus a nd L uc i l la , make a s tart l ing t o ta l i n c ompar ison w ith t he t o ta ls l ost i n p rev ious r e igns. o nce d e mands a n e xp lana t ion . h oards .

At o ta l s o g rea t a t

S ign if ican t a lso i s t he d istr ibu t ion o f t hese

T hey c luster t h ickest i n Y orksh ire , Br igan t ian t err i tory , w ith

sma l ler g roups o n t he l i ne o f t he An ton ine Wa l l , i n t he Mid lands , i n E as t Ang l ia , a nd i n t he n e ighbourhood o f L ondon , w i th a s u sua l af ew s cat tered o u t l iers. On H adr ian 's Wa l l t wo o n ly h ave b een f ound , b oth c lose ly d ated t o A .D . 1 60 a nd 1 68 r espect ive ly ( Fig . 3 ) . T he h igh t o ta l a nd t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t hese h oards c on f irm t he l i terary e v idence t ha t t here was t roub le i n Br i ta in d ur ing t he j o in t r e ign o f Marcus a nd V erus , b etween A .D . 1 61 a n U69 , a nd p oss ib ly a ga in a f ter Marcus b ec ame s o le emporor i n A . D. 1 69. T he h oards i n f act s uggest a s torm c en tre i n Y orksh ire , i n Br igan t ian t err itory , r ather t han f ar ther n or th , w ith r ipp les o f d isturbance s pread ing s ou thwards t o t he i nnocen t c iv i l s i tes i n t he mid lands , a nd p oss ib ly a s f ar s ou th a s East Ang l ia a nd L ondon , a nd n or thwards t o Hadr ian 's Wa l l a nd t he An ton ine Wa l l . Or i t may b e t ha t t he n or thern b arbar ians , e ncouraged b y t he i n it ia l s uccess o f t he ir Br igan ti an k ins men , j o ined i n l a ter o n t he ir own a ccoun t , s o a dd ing t o t he g enera l u pheava l . ( 2 )

T he T etr ic i

T etr icus Ia nd I r u led t he G a l l ic Emp ire , a nd p resumab ly B r i ta in , f or t hree y ears f rom A .D . 2 70-273. 2 1 Over o ne h undred h oards e nd ing w i th t he T etr ic i h ave b een r ecorded f rom B r i ta in .

T hey a re d istr ibu ted v ery

w ide ly o ver t he who le o f Eng land , w i th a r a ther t h icker c oncen trat ion i n E ast Ang l ia t han e lsewhere. ( Fig . 4 ).

3 1

F ig . 5 .

CO IN HOARDS

TO

HONOR IUS OR LATER

Abou t e igh ty h oards a re k nown f ro m B r i ta in e nd ing w i th c o ins o f H onor ius , Constan t ine I I o r p ossib ly Theodosius I . They may h ave b een l ost a t a ny t ime a f ter c . A .D . 3 93 .

3 2

T he T etr ican h oards f ro m B r ita in were a l most a l l o f v ery b ase c opper a n ton in ian i , wh ich , i th as b een s uggested , may h ave s erved a s a sma l ler d eno m ina t ion a longs ide t he a n ton in ian i o f g ood b i l lon , a t l eas t u n t i l a bout 3 00 A .D .

I ft ha t w as t he c ase , t hen t he T etr ican h oards o f b ase c opper

a n ton in ian i may n ot a l l h ave b een s aved u p a nd b ur ied d ur ing t he t hree y ears o f T etr icus ' r e ign .

S o me , a t l eas t , o f t hese modest s av ings may h ave b een

amassed l a ter i n t he t h ird c en tury , b y t hose who p referred , o r who w ere c o mpe l led , t o e xpress t he ir t hr if t i n t h is h u mb le med iu m. S ince t h is p oss ib i l ity e x is ts , i t wou ld n ot b e j us t if iab le t o r egard t he s udd en s teep r ise i n t he n u mber o f h oards f ro m Br i ta in t o o ver o ne h undred e ndi ng w i th T etr icus Ia nd I a s p roof o f ac a tac lys m ic u pheava l i n Br i ta in b etween A .D . 2 70 a nd 2 73.

T he c oncen tra t ion o f t hese h oards i n E ast Ang l ia mus t

n ot , o f c ourse , b e i gnored .

I t means , a t l east , t ha t i ft he T etr ican h oards

w ere l ost o ver a p er iod o f many y ears a f ter A .D. 2 70 , t he d is tr ict i n wh ich t he b ase c opper a n ton in ian i c ircu la ted i n g rea tes t a bundance was E ast Ang l ia . An a l terna t ive e xp lanat ion f or t he s teep r ise i n t he n u mber o f " Tetr ican" h oards l ost i n B r i ta in h as r ecen t ly b een s uggested b y Prof . H .B . Ma t t ing ly .2 2 T he emperor Probus , h e s ub m its "was d e term ined t o e n force Aure l ian 's c urrency r e form a nd d r ive t he i l lega l moneyers o u t o f b us iness...Hoards o f b ad c o inage w en t i n to t he g round d ur ing h is r e ign ...doub t less t o p reven t t he ir h av ing t o b e s urrendered a t u n favourab le r a tes , a nd i n t he v a in h ope o f ac hange i n g overn men t p o l icy".

T he f a i lure t o r ecover s uch h oards wou ld

b e e xp la ined b y t he ir h av ing b eco me w or th less. ( 3 )

Honor ius a nd l ater ( f ro m A .D . 3 93 o nwards ) C lose o n e igh ty h oards h ave b een r ecovered f ro m Br i ta in w h ich e nded

w ith c o ins o f H onor ius , o r Cons tan t ine I I , o r e ven p oss ib ly w ith T heodos ius I .

Abou t t wen ty o thers a re l i sted u nder t he h ead ings "Theodos ian", Min i ms

( "Theodos ian" ? ) , " End o f F our th C entury", " Barbarous T heodos ian" a nd "M in im iss im i".

T hese h oards , mak ing u p at o ta l o f c lose o n o ne h undred ,

a re t he l a tes t Ro mano-Br it ish h oards.

Apar t f ro m o ne i n S co t land , o ne i n

I re land , o ne i n N . Wa les , a nd o ne i n L ancash ire, t hey a re c oncen trated i n t wo a reas , t he c oasta l d istr icts o f W. Yorksh ire a nd N . L inco lnsh ire , a nd i n S .E . Br i ta in , s ou th-east o f al ine f ro m t he Hu mber t o t he S evern , w i th t h ick c lus ters r ound t he e as t a nd s ou th c oasts. ( Fig . 5 ) . T hroughou t t he r e ign o f Honor ius , a nd d ur ing t he y ears a f ter i t , wh i le t he B r itons s et t he ir u npract ised h ands t o d efend ing a nd e ven r u l ing t he mse lves , c ond it ions i n Br i ta in w ere s o u nset t led a nd s o i nsecure t hat l i fe a nd p roperty mus t h ave b een i n c onstan t d anger .2 3

A s ar esu lt , Ro man c o in h oards mus t

h ave c on t inued t o b e c oncea led a nd t o b e l ost , a s l ong a s Ro man c o ins r e ma ined c urren t i n Br i ta in . How l ong t ha t w as , i ti s , u n for tunately , i mposs ib le t o b e c er ta in. 3 95 A .D .,

About

t he G a l l ic min ts a ppear t o h ave c losed d own , a nd t he f low o f

Ro man c o ins f ro m o ther min ts i n to B r i ta in s hrank t o a mere t r ick le. t he s a me t ime , t here was a g row ing s carc i ty o f s i lver a nd c opper.

A t C o ins

o f Honor ius , i n f ac t , were t he l a tes t c o ins t o e n ter Br ita in i n a ny q uan t i ty ,

3 3

s o t hat t he a bsence o f c o ins o f al a ter emperor t han H onor ius f ro m a Ro manoB r it ish h oard d oes n ot p rove t ha t i t was l ost i n t he r e ign o f H onor ius.

I t

may h ave b een l ost a t a ny t ime a f ter A .D . 3 93. I n tens ive s tud ies o f Ro mano-Br it ish h oards e nd ing w ith H onor ius h ave s uggested c er ta in c lues , i fn ot t o t he d a te a t wh ich t hey w ere l ost , a t l east t o t he ir s equence. 2 4

S i lver h oards , f or e xa mp le , w h ich s howed a p repond-

e rance o f s i l iquae o f H onor ius o ver t hose o f Arcad ius , o r wh ich c on ta ined ah igh p ropor t ion o f c l ipped c o ins , w ere p robab ly l a ter t han h oards w h ich d id n o t d isp lay t hese c haracter ist ics.

T hey w ere, i n f act , p robab ly l ost

a f ter t he u surpat ion o f C onstan t ine I I i n A .D . 4 07. 2 5

B oth t he c harac ter-

i st ics i n q uest ion w ere p resen t i n t he Co lera ine h oard , wh ich i nc luded c o ins o f C onstan t ine I I .

B y t he t ime o f h is u surpa t ion , t he s carc i ty o f s i lver

h ad b egun t o make i t se l f f e l t . s i l iquae.

One i nd ica t ion o f t h is w as t he c l ipp ing o f

C opper h oards , t oo , i n wh ich c o ins o f H onor ius w i th t he S ALVS

REIPVBLICAE r everse , min ted i n I t a ly a nd t he East , o utnumbered c o ins o f Arcad ius a nd o ther emperors w ith t he s ame r everse , w ere p robab ly l a ter t han c opper h oards i n wh ich t h is w as n o t t he c ase. E ven , h owever , i ft here a re c er ta in h oards o f s i lver a nd c opper , e ndi ng w i th c o ins o f H onor ius , w h ich f or o ne r eason o r o ther s ee m o f al a ter d ate t han o thers , t here s t i l l r e ma ins u nso lved , p erhaps i nso lub le , t he p robl em o f t he d ate a t wh ich t he v ery l a test o f t hese h oards w ere l ost .

T hey

may h ave b een l os t a t a ny t ime a f ter t he b eg inn ing o f t he r e ign o f H onor ius , a s l ong a s Ro man c o ins r e ma ined c urren t i n B r itain , o r more c orrect ly , i n t hose p ar ts o f Br i ta in i n w h ich t he h oards w ere f ound , h owever l ong t ha t w as. Whatever t he d ate o f l oss o f t he h oards e nd ing w i th H onor ius o r l ater , t here i s n o d oub t a bou t t he s ign if icance o f t he ir d istr ibu t ion i n B r i ta in . C lustered i n W. Yorksh ire , i n N . L inco lnsh ire , r ound t he S evern a nd i n S .E . Eng land , t hey mark f a ithfu l ly t he d istr icts where t he w ea l th o f Ro man Br ita in was i n i t s l ast d ays , t he d istr icts where t he w ea lth w as l ost . T hey r ef lect t he h avoc wrough t o n l i fe a nd p roper ty b y t he S axons l and ing o n t he s ou thern a nd e astern c oasts o f Eng land , b y t he S co ts l and ing o n t he s hores o f t he S evern a nd , p oss ib ly , b y t he P ic ts l and ing o n t he Y orksh ire a nd L inco lnsh ire c oasts.

B y i t se lf , t he d istr ibu t ion map o f t he l atest

Ro mano-Br it ish h oards e stab l ishes b eyond d oub t ac onnect ion b etween t he w idespread l oss o f t reasure a nd c on te mporary w ar fare o r o ther d isturbance. T hese l atest Ro mano-Br it ish h oards e ven inc lude t wo w h ich p erm i t u s t o f o l low t he d isturbers o f t he p eace b ack t o t he ir h o mes.

One o f t hese

h oards , f ro m T rapra in L aw , E ast L oth ian , a nd t he o ther , f ro m Co lera ine , C o. L ondonderry , must h ave b een t aken t here a s l oot f ro m B r i ta in , o r p oss ib ly f ro m G au l. c o ins.

E ach o f t hese h oards c on ta ined s i lver p la te a s w e l l a s

T hey w ere h idden away a nd n ever r ecovered b y t he r a iders , who

s ee m t he mse lves t o h ave met a v io len t e nd .

CONC LUS ION

Ro mano-Br it ish h oards r epresen ted t he a ccumu lated w ea lth o r s av ings

3 4

o f t he ir owners , c o mposed i n most c ases o f t he most p rec ious meta ls wh ich w ere a va ilab le i n c o ined f orm , o r wh ich t he owners c ou ld a f ford .

T he

n umbers o f t he c o ins i nc luded i n t he s evera l h oards v ar ied a ccord ing t o t he me ta ls u sed a nd t he w ea lth o f t he ir owners.

Ah oard w as f or t he most p ar t

made u p o f c urren t c o in , s o t ha t i tc ou ld b e s pen t a t a ny t ime , b u t i ts omet imes i nc luded a lso a f ew e xcep t iona l c o ins , wh ich h ad b een a dm i t ted e i ther b ecause o f t he ir h igh q ua l i ty o r b ecause o f t he i nd iv idua l p reference o f t he o wner . V ery o f ten , t oo , ah oard s hows u nm istakab le s igns t ha t t he c o ins i n i th ad b een c arefu l ly s e lected , e ither f or t he ir f i ne c ond it ion , o r f or t he ir r ar ity , o r f or o ther c haracter ist ics wh ich a t tracted t he owner . Af ew h oards e ven s ee m t o owe t he ir c o mpos it ion n ot o n ly t o t he s e lect ive e ye o f t he owner , b ut a lso t o h is c o l lector 's i nst inct . On t he o ther h and , s ubs tandard o r e ven b arbarous c oins f ound a p lace i n h oards d at ing t o p er iods a t wh ich t hese f ormed s o h igh a p ropor t ion o f t he c o ins i n n orma l c ircu lat ion t ha t t hey c ou ld h ard ly b e e xc luded c o mp lete ly f ro m a man 's s av ings. T he owners o f h oards u sua l ly s tored t he ir c o ins i n v ases o r u rns o f p ott ery , wh ich w ere i n many c ases e x tre me ly f i ne e xamp les o f t he RomanoBr it ish p ot ter 's c ra f t , o r e lse i n v esse ls o f s i lver o r b ronze wh ich w ere t hemse lves o f c ons iderab le v a lue , o r i n w ooden b oxes , o r i n money-bags. With t he ir c o ins t hey o f ten k ep t a nd c oncea led o ther v a luab les , most c o mmon ly o f g o ld , s i lver o r b ronze , o r o ther p ossess ions wh ich , t hough n ot o f g reat i n tr ins ic v a lue , may h ave b een t reasured f or p ersona l r easons. T he c are fu l s e lect ion o f c o ins f or h oard ing , a nd t he a ssoc ia t ion w i th t hem o f o ther t reasures , a re i n t he mse lves s u f f ic ien t p roof o f t he v a lue wh ich was s et u pon c o in h oards b y t he ir owners.

Add i t iona l p roof i s p ro-

v ided b y t he a rrange men ts made f or t he s a fe c oncea lmen t o f h oards. C o mp ara t ive ly f ew h oards w ere d epos ited i n i nhab ited s i tes , mi l i tary o r c iv i l. T he p lace o f d epos it w as much more c o mmon ly a s pot r e moved f rom h ab ita t ion , b ut marked b y s ome f eature , n atura l o r a r t if ic ia l , wh ich w ou ld d irect t he owner o f ah oard b ack t o h is t reasure.

S t i l l f ur ther e v idence o f t he c are

t aken o ver t he c oncea lmen t o f t hese h oards i s t he f act t ha t many o f t he m w ere b ur ied d eep i n t he e ar th , a nd w ere d e l ibera te ly s urrounded w i th p rotect ive ma ter ia l. I n g enera l , t hen , t he c o mpos it ion o f Ro mano-Br i t ish c o in h oards , a nd t he c ircumstances o f t he ir d epos it ion , o r c oncea lmen t , l eave n o d oub t t hat t he ir owners t hough t t he m v a luab le , h id t hem away d e l ibera te ly , a nd w ith c are , a nd w ou ld make e very p oss ib le e f for t t o r ecover t he m when t he r eason f or t he ir c oncea l men t h ad p assed .

I ft hey f a i led t o r ec la im t hem , t hat c ou ld

o n ly h ave b een b ecause t hey w ere p reven ted f ro m d o ing s o b y c ircums tances q u ite b eyond t he ir c on tro l. D ur ing p er iods o f d isturbance o r o f c urrency u pheava ls , more h oards t han u sua l w ou ld b e l os t t o t he ir owners. L arge n u mbers o f R o mano-Br it ish h oards w ere , i n f act , l ost a t p er iods wh ich a re k nown f rom o ther e v idence t o h ave b een u nset t led f or o ne r eason o r a nother .

H unter ian Museum Un ivers ity o f G lasgow .

3 5

FOOTNOTES

1 .

I n p ass ing , i t may b e n oted t ha t t he o utdoor a ct iv ity most l ike ly t o r esu l t i n t he d iscovery o f ac o in h oard i s s t il l p lough ing .

2 .

Coin F inds a nd How t o I n terpre t T he m , i n Proc. o f Roya l Ph i l. S oc. o f G lasgow ( 1903 ), 9 i f .

3 .

JRS

XXI I ( 1932 ), 8 8 f .

4 .

Arch . J ourn ., XCI I ( 1936 ), 6 4 f .

5 .

Co inage a nd Currency i n Ro man Br ita in , ( 1937 ), 1 54 f .

6 .

Anne Rober tson "The Nu m is mat ic Ev idence o f Ro mano-Br it ish Co in Hoards , i n Essays i n Ro man Coinage Presented t o Haro ld Mat t ing ly , 1 956 , 2 62 f .

7 .

Anne Rober tson , i n NC, 1 968, 6 1 f .

8 .

NC, 1 877, 9 0 f .

9 .

Archaeo log ia Ae l iana , 1 912, 1 54 , 2 10 ;

JRS

I ( 1912 ), 1 i f .

1 0.

NC

Proc., 1 891, 1 0.

1 1.

NC

1 898, 1 26 f .

1 2.

NC, 1 936 , 3 14 i f .

1 3.

Anne Rober tson , i n "The Numis mat ic Ev idence o f Ro mano-Br it ish Co in Hoards", i n Essays i n Ro man Coinage Presen ted t o Haro ld Matt ing ly , 1 956, 2 68 f .

1 4.

J . Co l l ingwood Bruce, "The Ro man Wa l l", 2 nd e d . 1 853, 4 16;

c p .

E . B ir ley i n NC, 1 963, 6 1 f . 1 5.

J . W. E . Pearce , i n NC, 1 933, 1 70 f .

1 6.

C . H . V . S u ther land , "Ro mano-Br it ish Im itat ions o f Bronze Co ins o f C laud ius I " , NN M , 6 5 ( 1935 ).

1 7.

Cp. t he Poun .dbury h oard ( NC, 1 953, 8 7 f .).

1 8.

S ee a bove p .

1 9.

S ir G eorge Macdona ld , Ro man Wa l l i n S cot land , 2 nd e d., 1 934, 9 f .

2 0.

V i ta M. An ton in i Ph i l., 8 , 7a nd 2 2 , 1 ;

2 1.

Tyrann i T r ig in ta , 2 4-25 ;

1 3.

c f . D io Cass ius LXX I , 1 6.

c f . Aurel ius V ictor , XXXI I I , 1 2 a nd

Eutrop ius , I X , 9 . 2 2. 2 3.

N . S taf fs. J ourn . o f F ield S tud ies, 1 963, 2 6. Procop ius 1 , 1 -2;

Z osi mus V I , 1 -6, 1 0 ;

S ozo menos I X , 1 2 a nd

Oros ius V I I , 4 0. 2 4.

Cp. F . S . S a l isbury , i n NC, 1 931, 1 4 f .

2 5.

Cp. J . W. E . P earce , i n NC, 1 933, 1 70 f ., a nd 1 934 , 6 1 f .

3 6

THE

I NTERPRETAT ION OF RO MANO-BR IT ISH S ITE F INDS b y J ohn Casey

T he a dap ta t ion o f s yste mat ic a na ly t ica l methods t o t he s tudy o f s i te-f inds o f c o ins h as b een s low ly g a in ing i mpetus o ver t he l as t d ecade t hough t here i s s t i l l s o me l ag i n t he u t i l isa t ion o f t hese t echn iques a s c o mpared t o s ome o ther b ranches o f a rchaeo logy . T h is i s p ar t ly b ecause u n t i l r ecen t ly t he R o man c o inage l acked s ys te ma t ic c a ta logues f or t he l ater i mper ia l i ssues ma ter ia l wh ich i s t he most p ro l i f ic i n s i te c o in l i s ts .

F ortuna te ly , a n a c-

c e lera t ion i n t he p roduct ion o f c orpora a nd c ata logues h as r emed ied t h is d efect a nd t he e f for ts o f a cadem ic n um is mat ists - a nd i n t h is c on tex t Iu se t he t erm a cade m ic t o d e f ine t he b ranch o f n um is mat ic s tud ies w h ich d ea ls w i th t he t ypo logy a nd c hrono log ica l o rder ing o f c o ins a nd wh ich c on trasts w ith t he a pp l ied n um is ma t ics w ith wh ich t he a rchaeo log ist i s c oncerned h as made i tp oss ib le t o s tudy t he s uccess ive c o in i ssues f ound i n Roman Br ita in , a nd , t o al arge e x ten t , e s tab l ish a r egu lar p at tern o f o ccurence. I ti s s ign if ican t t hat a l mos t a l l s yste ma t ic w ork o n Ro mano-Br it ish c o in d istr ibu t ion p ost-da tes t he p ub l ica t ion o f L ate R o man Bronze C o inage

1

wh ich , f or t he f i rst t ime , t abu lated a nd d a ted t he p rev ious ly b ew i lder ing mass o f f our th c entury c o inage.

T he n ear c omp let ion o f t he p ub l icat ion o f

Ro man I mper ia l C o inage t ogether w ith LRBC h as made a va i lab le t o t he a pp l ied n um ismat ist t he r aw mater ia l f or d at ing a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures b y r eference t o i nd iv idua l c o ins i n k ey d epos its a nd t o v iew t he c onspectus o f t he c o inage a s a who le ; t he t oo ls n ow a va i lab le r ender o bso lete s uch u nh e lpfu l c a ta logu ing a s t he n o tor ious e n try " Co ins w ith a p ost-Ro man f ee l ing" i n t he R ichborough c oin l i sts. 2 F orma l is ing t he d istr ibut ion o f f inds b y means o f v isua l d isp lays i n t he f orm o f h istograms makes i tc lear t ha t t here i s as trong ly marked p a tt ern i n t he c o inage o f Roman Br i ta in .

I ti s a lso c lear f ro m a n a na lys is o f

t he c o ins t ha t make u p t he c o mponen t p ar ts o f t he p at tern t ha t i tr ef lects f actors o ther t han t he f a te o r s tatus o f i nd iv idua l s i tes. Ar is ing f rom t h is o bservat ion c o mes t he p oss ib i l ity o f p o in t ing t o a reas where c o in e v idence h as b een u sed i n a n i nappropr iate manner i n t he p ast a nd where , b ecause f inds f ro m i nd iv idua l s i tes h ave b een a na lysed w i thou t r eference t o t he o vera l l c o in d istr ibu t ion p at tern o f t he p rov ince , g enera l p heno mena h ave b een i n terpreted a s i nd iv idua l c haracter is t ics a nd t he d a t ing o f s tructura l f eatures a nd t he a ssessmen t o f e cono m ic a nd s oc ia l s tatus o f s i tes may h ave b een a f fected . H owever , i ti s n ot t he p urpose o f t h is p aper t o r econs ider s pec if ic s i tes s o much a s t o o u t l ine g enera l p r inc ip les wh ich , i ti s h oped , w i l l make c lear i n wh ich a reas o r p er iods r eassessmen t migh t b e p ro f itab le. A t t he o u tset i ti s i mpor tan t t o d ef ine t he n ature o f t he ma ter ia l w i th

3 7

wh ich o ne i s d ea l ing .

C o ins c o mpr ise a c lass o f e v idence wh ich p resents

p ecu l iar p rob le ms n o t f ound i n t he g enera l r ange o f d at ing mater ia l u sed b y t he a rchaeo log ist .

By a nd l arge t ha t ma ter ia l i s l i tera l ly r ubb ish -

b roken p ot tery b e ing o verwhe lm ing ly t he most c ommon d a t ing a r tefact . C o ins , h owever , a re most emphat ica l ly n ot r ubb ish ;

t hey a re a s tore o f

w ea l th , t hey r epresen t s ecur i ty , f ood , s he lter , d ivers ion a nd a l l t he o ther b as ics o f e x istence. T hey a re n ot u sua l ly d e l iberately t hrown away a nd t hey a re c er ta in ly n ot d epos ited w ith a n e ye t o t he ir c onven ience t o a rcha eo log ists. Wha t i s more , t he l i fe o f t he i nd iv idua l c o in may b e v ery l ong , i t may d isappear i n to a h oard o n ly t o emerge i n p r is t ine s ta te many y ears l a ter o r b e r e invested w ith c urrency v a lue l ong a f ter i t s i n it ia l d ate o f i ssue. C o ins a lso h ave s ubs id iary f unct ions , f or i ns tance a s j ewe l lery o r a s sma l l w e igh ts , a nd t hese f unct ions may k eep c o ins i n an on-mone tary c ircu la t ion f or c ons iderab le p er iods.

T here a re t hus v ery o bv ious l im ita t ions o n t he

d educt ions t ha t c an b e d rawn f ro m c o in e v idence a nd a ny s uch d educ t ions must a lways t ake a ccoun t o f t he most i mpor tan t f ac tor o f a l l -h uman n ature. T h is u nquan t i f iab le f actor , s o o f ten i gnored i n a rchaeo log ica l t h ink ing , i s p ro found ly i mpor tan t when d ea l ing w ith c o ins .

T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t ,

i n g enera l , t he c o in mater ia l a va i lab le f or s tudy f rom s i te f i nds w i l l r ep resen t wha t t he o r ig ina l owners c ou ld b es t a f ford t o l ose.

O ne must e xpect

t ha t c o ins o f h igh v a lue w i l l a lways h ave b een t he s ub ject o f i n tens ive s earch when l ost , v ery much more s o t han sma l l v a lue c o ins ( w it ness , f or i nstance , t he f a te o f t he wretched New H a l fpenny .) ; t ha t l arger c o ins w i l l h ave b een more e as i ly r ecoverab le t han sma l l c o ins a nd t ha t l osses i n ad omes t ic e nv ironmen t w i l l h ave b een more e as i ly r ecovered t han t hose i n t he p ub l ic p lace , e spec ia l ly i ft he l a t ter w ere i l l-tended . I ts hou ld a lso b e b orne i n mind t ha t o n ly a v ery sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he a va i lab le c urrency o f al arge s i te w i l l c o me t o t he h ands o f t he a rchaeo log is t a nd t ha t e ven o n s i tes t ha t p roduce many c oins t hese r epresen t v ery l i t t le i n mone tary t erms. F ew s i tes , i ndeed , p roduce t he h undred s ester t i i wh ich w ou ld make u p as ing le g o ld a ureus. We c an i l lustrate t he a ctua l p auc ity o f ma ter ia l b y c onstruct ing a c o in p opu la t ion mode l f or a w e l l d ocumen ted s i te.

C orbr idge h as p roduced 1 387

c o ins o f t he f irst a nd s econd c entur ies ( coun t ing h oards a s o ne c o in ) wh ich a re t he e qu iva len t o f t wen ty-s ix a ure i r epresen t ing s ome o ne h undred a nd t wen ty y ears o f mi l itary a ct iv ity o n t he s i te. O ver t h is p er iod t he g arr ison v ar ied i n i t s c ompos i t ion 3b u t f or t he p urposes o f c a lcu la t ion w e c an t ake t he e f fect o f o ccupat ion b y aq u ingenary c ohor t a nd a ccep t as ca le o f f our a ure i ay ear a s b e ing t he b as ic p ay o f a n a ux i l l iary s o ld ier . 4 O n t h is b as is w e c an c a lcu la te t ha t t he 1 387 c o ins r epresen t ap oten t ia l c oin p opu lat ion o f 2 40 ,000 a ure i o r 2 4 ,000 ,000 s ester t i i.

I ts hou ld b e emphas ised t ha t t h is

i s a min ima l-v iew mode l , mak ing n o a l lowance f or o f f icers ' o r c en tur ions ' p ay , f or s o ld iers o n e nhanced p ay s ca les , f or d i f ferences i n p ay t ha t may h ave e x is ted b etween c ava lry u n its a nd i n fan try u n its o r f or t he p oss ib le e ff ect o f t he p aymen t o f a ccess ion d onat ives.

Wha t w e c anno t a dd i s t he e x ten t

t o wh ich t he s ame c o in c ircu lated f ro m g enera t ion t o g enerat ion b u t w ith t he a t tested r ap id c hanges o f g arr ison t h is i s a minor f actor . I n a ny e ven t t he sma l l p ropor t ion o f s urv iv ing c o in i s d ramat ica l ly e v iden t .

3 8

o I

I C ) 0

—s pou d a nss i

5

_ . 1

— c o in l o sses — f u ( . . ) A t r i 0 . , c o 0 8 r .

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

I V I

Z . > i

a A I

—c o in l o sses — . . 1

N 1

W 1

A 1

U l 1

I n ' I

5 .

' T T 1 ' i l l

i

_ LN3 M1 I3VD

0 1

I

s o

= = C f l ) _ _ 0 c e ) ( e ) 13 C D — % —

—s pouad a nss i

U IOD -

0 0 0

n 0 = V .

—

Wh i ls t t he f ac tors o u t l ined a bove must b e b orne i n mind when a t te mp ti ng a ny g enera l i n terpreta t ion o f c o in f inds t he f act t ha t i ti s p oss ib le t o c ons truct a g enera l p a t tern o n t he b as is o f t he mater ia l a va i lab le s hews t ha t whatever f actors a f fected c o in l osses i n a n t iqu i ty o pera ted u n i form ly a nd w e may a ssume t hat t he l oss f ro m t he o r ig ina l c o in p opu la t ion w i l l a lways h ave b een r ough ly c ons tan t i n r e lat ion t o t he n umbers i n wh ich t he c o ins w ere i ss ued a nd c ircu la ted .

Equa l ly , we may a ssu me t ha t , f or s i tes w i th l ong c o in

l i s ts , ac ross s a mp le h as b een r ecovered wh ich i s r epresen ta t ive o f t he o r ig ina l c o in p opu la t ion , t hough g enera l ly o f t he l owest d eno m ina t ions o f t ha t p opu lat ion .

With t hese p rov isos i n mind we may t urn t o t he v isua l

e v idence o f as er ies o f h istogra ms r epresen tat ive o f t he c o in f ound o n a n umber o f v ery p roduct ive s i tes.

Two s i tes h ave b een s e lected f or a t ten t-

i on a s r epresen t ing t he g enera l p at tern o f c o inage, S i lchester a nd Caerwen t ( Figs. 1a nd 2 ).

B o th a re ma jor t owns o f t he Ro man p er iod t ha t h ave b een

e xp lored o ver a l ong p er iod .

B oth h ave p roduced a n a bundance o f c o ins -

S i lchester 8 ,870 a nd Caerwen t 3 ,751 ( hoards b e ing c oun ted a s as ing le c o in ) a nd b o th p rov ide a s a mp le o f c o inage f ro m wha t may r easonab ly b e a ssu med t o h ave b een a n umer ica l ly s tab le p opu la t ion o f i nhab i tan ts.

T ha t i s t o s ay

t ha t t hese c iv i l s i tes w i l l n ot b e a f fected b y t he s or t o f f actors wh ich a r ise when c ons ider ing t he c o in l osses o n mi l i tary s i tes , where t roop move men ts c an b e e xpected t o afect t he v o lu me o f c o inage t o b e f ound a t v ar ious p er iods , a s c an t he a ctua l c o mpos it ion o f i nd iv idua l u n its , a nd where p robl e ms s uch a s t he o pera t ion o f t he a nnona mi l i tar is w i l l p rov ide c o mp l ica t ing f actors.

I ti s e v iden t t ha t v ir tua l ly a l l we l l-exp lored u rban s i tes p roduce

s im i lar c o in d istr ibu t ion p at terns a nd s uch v ar ia t ions a s o ccur f ro m s i te t o s i te c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o s uch t h ings a s d i f fer ing d a tes o f e s tab l ishmen t , e ar ly mi l i tary a ct iv ity o n t he s i te a s a t Wroxeter , L inco ln o r Corbr idge o r s e lect iv i ty i n a reas o f e xcava t ion .

Bu t e ven i n t hese c ases t he s uccess ion

o f p eaks a nd t roughs i n t he s i te h istogra ms i n t he p ost- m i l itary p hases a re s im i lar t o o ther c iv i l s i tes a nd t he r e la t ive f requency o f c o ins i s p reserved , t hough n ecessar i ly s ta t is t ica l ly d epressed b y t he r a ther h eavy r epresen ta t ion o f e ar ly mater ia l ( Fig . 3 ). I n c onstruct ing t he h istogra ms u n i form ity o f p resenta t ion h as b een a ch ieved b y r epresen t ing t he s i te c o in t o ta ls o n ab ase o f 1 000 c o ins p er s i te u s ing t he f or mu la : COINS PER REIGN LENGTH OF REIGN

1 ,000 TOTAL FOR S ITE

T h is f or mu la i s a n e x tens ion o f t hat e s tab l ished b y Dr Ravetz i n h er s tudy o f t he f our th c entury c oinage a nd h as f ound g enera l a ccep tance a s au n i form w ork ing method . T he a pp l ica t ion o f t h is method n ot o n ly a l lows f or u n i for mi t y o f p resen tat ion o f s i tes w ith d if fer ing c o in t o ta ls b u t t akes i n to c ons idera t ion a f actor f requen t ly o ver looked i n t he i n terpre ta t ion o f c o in f inds.

C oin

v o lu me c lear ly f luctua tes f ro m r eign t o r e ign n ot mere ly f or mone tary r easons b u t b ecause s o me r e igns a re l onger t han o thers s o t ha t , a l l t h ings b e ing e qua l , al onger r e ign w i l l b e b et ter r epresen ted t han a s hor t r e ign . T ha t s uch a n e le men tary c oncep t s hou ld h ave e scaped t he g rasp o f

4 1

_c o in l o sses — O

I n

—s poued an ss i

U I03

-

P G . )

-

— , 1

N j 1

w 1

Z . 1

C A 1

C D 1

. 4 1

C O 1

0 1

C . 1

' ' 1

P O 1

. b W 1

— i J a 1

. › . U 1 1

5 i

. 1 .

.

4 I

C O I

a rchaeo log ists i n s o many p ub l ica t ions where s heer c o in v o lume h as b een u sed t o i l lustra te d ens ity o f o ccupa t ion o r e cono m ic s tatus i s as ad c o mmen tary o n t he g enera l l eve l o f a rchaeo log ica l r eason ing .

T he p resen ta t ion

o f f inds i s , h owever , c o mp l ica ted b y p er iods i n wh ich t here i s a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f r u lers a nd o thers i n wh ich i ti s n ot t he i ssuer who i s i mpor tan t s o much a s t he modu le a nd meta l l ic c on ten t o f t he c o inage - t h is i s e spec ia l ly s o i n t he t h ird a nd f our th c entur ies when c o in i ssues r ef lect r ap id c hanges i n t he p hys ica l c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency wh ich a re more i mpor tan t t han t he i den t ity o f t he a ctua l i ssu ing d ynas t . T he c o in i ssue p er iod d iv is ions u sed i n t h is s tudy a re a s f o l lows : 1 .

C laud ian

AD

4 3-54

2 .

Neron ian

AD

5 4-68 6 8-81

3 .

F lav ian I

AD

4 .

F lav ian I

AD

8 1-96

5 .

Tra jan ic

AD

9 6-117

6 .

Hadr ian ic

AD 1 17-138

7 .

An ton ine I

AD 1 38-161

8 .

An ton ine I

AD 1 61-180

9 .

An ton ine I I

AD 1 80-192

S everan I

AD 1 93-217

1 0. 1-17.

S everan I

AD 2 17-260

1 8.

G a l l ic Emp ire

AD 2 60-273

1 9.

Aure l ian ic

AD 2 73-286

2 0.

Caraus ian

AD 2 86-296

2 1.

D ioc let ian ic

AD 2 96-317

2 2.

Cons tan t in ian I

AD 3 17-330

2 3.

C ons tan t in ian I

AD 3 30-348

2 4.

Cons tan t in ian I I

AD 3 48-364

2 5.

Va len t in ian ic

AD 3 64-378

2 6.

T heodos ian I

AD 3 78-388

2 7.

T heodos ian I

AD 3 88-402

( I n t he p resen t s urvey p re-Claud ian c o inage h as b een om itted a s we l l a s a l l c op ies e xcept C laud ian , wh ich a re t rea ted a s Neron ian i ssues.

Reference

t o t he f unct ion o f c op ies w i l l b e made a t t he a ppropr iate p o in t i n t he c o mmen tary .) Re ference t o F igures 1 , 2a nd 3 makes i tc lear , a t o nce , t ha t t here a re p er iods i n wh ich c o inage i s v ery a bundan t a nd o thers i n wh ich i ti s v ir tua l ly u nrepresented a nd t h is o n s i tes where t here i s n o r eason t o p ostu la te e ither p er iod ic a bandon men t o r as er ious d ec l ine i n p opu la t ion .

I tf o l lows t ha t

t here a re r easons f or t he f l uctua t ions t ha t a re i nheren t i n t he n a ture o f t he c o ins t he mse lves o r a re t he r esu l t o f g enera l ly o pera t ing f actors.

On t he

who le t he f luctuat ions w i l l b e s een t o b e t he r esu lt o f i n terna l c hanges i n t he c urrency i t se lf , t hough t here a re o ccas ions when p o l i t ica l f actors p lay a p ar t i n d eterm in ing t he p resence o r a bsence o f c o ins i n t he p rov ince , t h is i s e spec ia l ly s o a t p er iods when B r ita in was s evered f ro m t he c en tra l emp ire.

4 3

Ear ly c urrency i s n o t w e l l r epresen ted b oth b ecause o f t he i nev i tab le s low i n it ia l e cono m ic g row th o f t he s i tes a nd b ecause e ar ly l eve ls a re l ess we l l e xp lored t han u pper l eve ls.

S upp l ies , t oo , w ere v ery r estr icted w ith

v ery l i t t le C laud ian c opper o r b ronze b e ing i ssued a f ter a bou t AD 4 6 a nd n o N eron ian b ase meta l c urrency a t a l l f or t he f irst t en y ears o f t he f our teen y ear r e ign .

Never the less , c oin u p t o P er iod 8 s ee ms t o h ave b een s upp l ied

i n as teady s trea m b ut a g enera l d ec l ine i s v is ib le i n t he s ucceed ing p hases u p t o P er iod 1 6 , t hough a l l s i tes s hew a modest u psw ing o f c urrency i n t he r e ign o f S everus A lexander i n P er iod 1.

T he r easons f or t he d ec l ine i n

t he n umbers o f s urv iv ing c oins may b e s ough t i n t he n ature o f t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency .

A s h i f t i n t he emphas is o f i nd iv idua l d eno m inat ions i ssued

c an b e t raced f ro m t he f irst c entury w i th t he a s g iv ing way t o t he d upond ius a nd s ester t ius b y t he t ime o f T ra jan w h i ls t b y t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury t he s i lver d enar ius s ee ms t o h ave b een t he c o m mon c o in o f max i mum u t i li t y .

Obv ious ly t he s a me s or t o f i n f la t ionary p ressures o perated o n t he c ur-

r ency a s c an b e o bserved i n o ur own d ay .

L ook ing b ack o ver t he c urrency

o f t he p resen t c entury we c an s ee a move men t t owards e ver h igher v a lue c oins a nd whereas t he p enny was p erhaps t he most c o m mon c o in a t t he s tar t o f t he c entury , i th ad b een s upp lan ted b y t he s ixpence i n t he l a te 1 950s wh ich h as , i n t urn , y ie lded p lace t o t he 1 0 N ew P ence ( Two s h i l l ings ) p iece i n t he p resen t c urrency mix ture. T he c hange i n t he p at tern o f i ssue away f ro m a n e ssen t ia l ly b ase meta l c urrency t o as i lver o ne , a lbe it o f av ery d ebased n ature , means i n a rchaeo log ica l t erms t ha t r epresen ta t ive ma ter ia l o f t he l a ter p er iod w i l l b e s carce.

S ing le d enar ius w i l l r epresen t t he p urchas ing p ower

o f f our s ester t i i o r s ix teen a sses a nd p ropor t iona l ly l ess c urrency u n i ts w il l h ave b een a va i lab le t o b e l ost . F ur thermore , t he h igher v a lue c oin w i l l h ave b een t he more e ager ly s ough t when d ropped . Ear ly s i lver o f t he t h ird c entury i s marg ina l ly more c o m mon t han t ha t o f t he midd le o f t he c en tury when t he c o in o f c o m merce was o nce a ga in c hanged , f ro m t he d enar ius t o t he s o-ca l led a n ton in ianus , o r d oub le d enar ius. C on te mporary c opper a nd b ronze c o in i s v irtua l ly a bsen t f ro m B r i ta in , t hough i td oes a ppear i n o ther p rov inces.

T h is may b e a n i nd ica t ion o f

g enera l ly h igh p r ices p reva i l ing a t t he t ime i n B r i ta in , t hough l arge amoun ts o f e ar l ier b ase meta l c urrency c on t inued t o c ircu late. I n t hese c ircums tances f ew d educt ions c an b e made r e levan t t o t he e cono m ic s tatus o f i nd iv idua l s i tes a nd t he p ostu la ted d ec l ine i n t he p rosper ity o f v i l las i n t he e ar ly t h ird c entury ,

7

f or i ns tance , may b e n oth ing more t han t he o bserved

e f fect o f t he d ec l ine i n t he c o inage p at tern o f t he p rov ince.

T he i n terpret-

i ve e rror i s c o mpounded i ft he v ast q uan t i ty o f c o in o f P er iod 1 8 i s s een a s e v idence o f p rosper ity , o r , a s was a t te mp ted r ecen t ly ,

8

t he s udden a bun-

d ance o f c o in i s u sed t o p ostu la te a c hange i n ownersh ip o r s oc ia l h ab i ts. T he c o in f inds o f t h is p er iod c ons ist e n t ire ly o f t he b ase d oub le d enar i i o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire a nd i t s c en tra l r iva l , c o ins h aving a s l i t t le a s ao ne p erc en t s i lver c on ten t , t he r esu l t o f ac a tastroph ic c o l lapse i n t he Ro man c urr ency s yste m.

T he d ec l ine o f t he emp ire 's c urrency i s p lot ted n o t mere ly

b y t he n umber o f c oins o f G a l l ienus , P ostumus , V ictor inus a nd T etr icus f ound o n Ro mano-Br it ish s i tes b u t a lso b y t he o pen ing o f an umber o f n ew min ts t o p roduce t he c o inage a nd t he i ncrease i n o f f ic inae i n p re-ex ist ing

4 4

e stab l ish men ts.

Reference t o modern i n f lat ions i nd ica tes t ha t a n i ncrease

i n t he n umber o f u n its o f c urrency i n c ircu la t ion d oes n o t i nd ica te a n i nc rease i n p rosper ity - i ndeed , t he c on trary s i tua t ion p er ta ins s ince t he l arger v o lu me o f c urrency i s n eeded t o p urchase a n u nchanged amoun t o f g oods a nd s erv ices. Fro m t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he t h ird c en tury t he p a t tern s hews t he e f fects o f as er ies o f r eforms a nd d eprec ia t ions o f t he c urrency .

P er iod 1 9 i s i l l-

r epresen ted c ons ist ing a s i td oes o f t he r efor med c o ins o f Aure l ian a nd h is s uccessors , w ho s ough t t o s tab i l ise t he emp ire 's monetary s tructure a f ter t he d ebac le o f t he p rev ious p er iod .

T he t rans i t ion b etween t he a pparen t ly

u nsuccess fu l A ure l ian ic r eform a nd t he c o mprehens ive r efor m o f D iocle t ian ( Per iod 2 1 ) i s i n terrup ted i n B r i ta in b y t he l arge i n ject ion o f c o in o ccas ioned b y t he a dven t o f t he u surper C araus ius , whose n o t u nco m mon c o ins mus t r epresen t ac a lcu la ted p o l i t ica l g esture.

P erhaps more i mpor tan t i s t ha t

many o f t he Caraus ian c o ins a re o vers truck o n t he i ssues o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire a nd t h is may i nd ica te t hat t h is c urrency 's l i fe a s ac ircu la t ing med iu m t erm ina ted a t t h is t ime , t hough e xa mp les o ccur o ccas iona l ly i n l a ter h oards. B oth Aure l ian ic a nd D ioc let ian ic c o ins a re r are a s s i te f inds , b u t t h is i s o n ly t o b e e xpected s ince b oth a re h igh v a lue u n i ts a nd t he l a t ter i ssues a re s ubs tan t ia l s i lvered c o ins o f 1 0 g ra mmes w e igh t , c o ins o f av a lue a nd modu le t ha t made r ecovery o f l os t s pec i mens b oth d es irab le a nd r e la t ive ly e asy . S uch D ioc le t ian ic c o ins a s a re p resen t a re a l mos t w ithou t e xcep t ion i ssues f rom t he e nd o f t he p er iod w hen t he f o l l is h ad d ec l ined t o a mere 4 .5 g ra m mes w i th a c orrespond ing d im inu t ion i n modu le.

F ur ther w e igh t r educ t ions i n t he

f o l l is , a nd a n i ncrease i n p roduct ion r ates, c an b e t raced i n t he l ast y ears o f t he r e ign o f C ons tan t ine I( Per iod 2 3 ).

T he d ec l ine i s f oreshadowed i n t he

p rev ious p er iod , b u t t he 2 .5 g ra m me a nd , l a ter , 2 .0 g ra m me c o ins i ssued b etween 3 30 a nd 3 48 AD a re among t he mos t c o m mon o f f inds.

T he minor

v a lue o f t hese p ieces i s emphas ised b o th b y t he ir s urv iva l r a te a nd b y t he a t te mp t t o p rov ide a more s tab le sma l l c hange s yste m w i th a w ide r ang ing r efor m i n 3 48 AD.

A r e la t ive s carc i ty o f f inds i n P er iod 2 4 i s r epresen ted

n um is ma t ica l ly b y ar eturn t o t he D ioc let ian ic s tandard o f a1 0 g ra m me s i lvered c o in , w i th f ract iona l s uppor t ing p ieces , b ear ing t he l egend FEL TE MP REPARAT IO . T he s upp ly o f t h is c urrency was i n terpreted b y t he r evo l t o f Magnen t ius ( 350-353 AD ) a nd o n ly a t r ick le o f c o in d a tab le t o t he p ost- Magnen t ian p er iod r eached Br ita in .

Most o f t he ma ter ia l r epresen ted

i n t he h is togra ms p recedes 3 53 AD a nd i n t he a bsence o f s uf f ic ien t s upp l ies o f sma l l c hange b etween t ha t d a te a nd 3 64 , o r more p robab ly 3 69 AD , l arge-sca le c opy ing o f t he FEL TE MP REPARAT IO i ssues was u ndert aken , i n av ar ie ty o f modu les a nd o f v ary ing f ide l ity t o t he o r ig ina l t ype. B u lk s upp l ies o f t he 2 .50 g ra m me c oppers o f t he House o f Va len t in ian p rov ide t he p enu lt i ma te p eak i n t he f inds g raphs ( Per iod 2 5 ) wh i lst ma ter ia l t ha t c an b e d a ted t o P er iod 2 6 ( 378-388 AD ) i s v ery r are i ndeed a nd a l mos t c er ta in ly t h is v o id r ef lects t he s eparat ion o f B r ita in f ro m t he c en tra l emp ire d ur ing t he u surpa t ion o f Magnus Max i mus a nd h is w ithdrawa l o f t roops f ro m t he d iocese f or h is c on t inen ta l a dven ture.

4 5

C er ta in ly t he r esu mp t ion o f

modest c o in d epos its i n P er iod 2 7 e xact ly c o inc ides w ith h is d efea t a nd p resumab ly r epresen ts t he r esump t ion o f p aymen ts t o t he a dm in istrat ion o f Br i ta in f ro m i mper ia l r evenue. T hese p aymen ts s eem t o h ave c eased i n 4 02 AD 9 p erhaps b ecause s h ipmen t o f c o in w as i n terrup ted b y t he i nv as ions o f I t a ly , f ro m wh ich B r i ta in w as s upp l ied a f ter t he c losure o f t he G a l l ic min ts i n 3 95 AD , b y A lar ic i n 4 01 a nd i n 4 05 b y Radaga isus. I ft h is i s s o t he s ense o f i so lat ion e ngendered i n B r ita in must h ave b een a p owerf u l f actor i n t he e ven ts wh ich l ed t o t he a rmy mu t iny wh ich r a ised C ons tan t ine I I t o t he p urp le i n 4 06. I ti s c lear f ro m t he f orego ing t hat t here a re p er iods o f h igh c o in d ep os it a nd p er iods o f l ow c o in d epos it wh ich a re t he p roduct o f f ac tors o ther t han p opu la t ion move men ts o r i nd iv idua l e cono m ic e ven ts i mp ing ing o n i nd iv idua l s i tes. Ra ther w e h ave t he r ef lect ion o f ac omp lex c omb ina t ion o ff actors , p rov inc ia l a s w e l l a s emp ire-w ide. S ome o f t hese f actors a re p o l it ica l , o thers e cono m ic a nd s o mewhere b ur ied i n t he o vera l l p a t tern a re t hose e le men ts s pec if ic t o i nd iv idua l s i tes . On t he p resen t e v idence , h owe ver , a s f ar a s t he t owns a re c oncerned t he e f fect o f t he n on-spec i f ic f actors o verwhe l ms t he i nd iv idua l e ven ts. Sma l ler s i tes w ith i n term it ten t o ccupa t ion , h owever , c an b e s tud ied a ga inst t he f u l l n um ismat ic b ackground o f t he ma jor s i tes.

A f ter t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he t h ird c entury t he sw if t

c hanges i n c o in t ypes a nd i n t he w e igh t a nd a l loy o f i nd iv idua l i ssues , u nder t he i n f luence o f i n f lat ionary p ressures , a l low c on f iden t p red ict ions t o b e made a s t o t he p robab i l ity o f t he a ppearance o r n on-appearance o f c oins i n s i te l i s ts.

Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f P er iod 2 5 ( AD 3 78-388 ) t he p hases i n

wh ich c o ins t end n o t t o a ppear c orrespond w i th c hanges i n t he c urrency wh ich a re a lways i n t he d irect ion o f r a is ing t he v a lue o f t he i nd iv idua l c urr ency u n i t . T hus we h ave s een t he t rend t owards a s i lver c urrency i n t he S everan p er iod , t he Aure l ian ic r eform , t he D ioc let ian ic r e form a nd t he i ssue o f t he FEL TE MP REPARAT IO c o inage p rov id ing t he l ow p o in ts i n t he c o in d istr ibu t ion p at tern . A t t hese p er iods n ot o n ly a re p eop le more c arefu l w i th t he ir money b u t t ha t money i s a va i lab le f or l oss i n ad im in ished v o lume s ince t he h igh v a lue c o in i s d o ing t he e conom ic w ork o f s evera l sma l ler u n its. A t t hese p er iods s i te a ct iv ity may n ot h ave d im in ished b u t t he c hance o f f i nd ing c o ins t o i nd ica te , o r d ate , t hat a ct iv ity c er ta in ly w i l l h ave d im in ished . Converse ly , l arge d epos its o f c o ins c o inc ide w i th p er iods when t he c o ins t he mselves a re o f v ery l i t t le i n tr ins ic v a lue a nd t he a bsence o f c o ins o f t hese p er iods must b e r egarded a s e v idence f or t he c essat ion o f s i te a ct iv ity o r o f d ec l in ing p rosper ity s ince t he c hances o f f i nd ing c oins o f t hese p er iods i s s o v ery h igh . I n p ract ice b ecause e very h igh d epos it p er iod i s p receded b y al ow d epos i t p er iod i ti s o n ly p oss ib le t o d ate t he c essa t ion o f a ct iv i ty i n at ime b racket embrac ing t he who le o f t he l ow d epos it p er iod t hrough t o s o me n ot iona l p o in t a t wh ich t he s ucceed ing c urrency wou ld h ave b eco me w e l l e stab l ished .

Obv ious ly t he f u l l r ange o f

c o in o f a ny p er iod w i l l o n ly b e c o mp lete ly e s tab l ished i n t he f o l low ing p er iod a nd i n s parse l i s ts sma l ler p eaks w i l l t he mse lves a ssume t he s ta tus o f l ow c o in d epos it p er iods r e lat ive t o t he l i s t a s a who le. I n l i sts f rom s i tes t hat t erm ina te i n l ow d epos it p er iods a f ur ther p henomenon may b e o bserved . S ince t he l ow d epos it p er iods a re f o l lowed b y p er iods w h ich a re h igh d epos i t

4 6

a s ar esu l t o f ap ro l i fera t ion o f c urrency a ccompan ied b y r educt ions i n s tandards i ti s i n t hese p er iods t hat i n tr ins ica l ly v a luab le c o ins o f t he p rev ious p er iod w i l l h ave b een w ithdrawn f rom c ircu la t ion e i ther b y t he s ta te o r b y i nd iv idua ls b y t he o pera t ion o f G resham 's L aw - a nd c er ta in ly h oard e v idence s ubstan t iates t h is o bserva t ion - i n c onsequence t he g reater t he c oun t o f h igh v a lue c o ins i n t he t erm ina l p hases o f t he l i s t t he more l i ke ly i s s i te a c t iv i ty t o h ave c eased i n t he l ow d epos it p er iod i t se lf , o r v ery e ar ly i n t he s ucceed ing p er iod . Wi th in t he i nd iv idua l c o mponen t e lemen ts o f t he o vera l l c oin p a t tern t here a re i n terna l v ar iat ions a nd c lose a t ten t ion t o d ated i ssues o f t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies , a nd t o min t marks a nd s equence s ymbo ls i n t he l a ter c o inage , a l lows f or t he e s tab l ishmen t o f s ub-pa t terns. An i mpor tan t s ubp at tern h as a lready b een men t ioned i n c onnect ion w i th t he c o inage o f P er iod 2 4 ( FEL TE MP REPARAT IO i ssues ). Ana lys is o f f inds i nd ica tes t hat more t han t wo t h irds o f t he ma ter ia l o f t h is p er iod r e lates t o t he y ears p re-353, t hus t wo t h irds o f a l l f i nds o f t he p er iod r elate t o t he f i rst s ix y ears a nd t he r es idue t o t he r e ma in ing t we lve y ears.

I n c onsequence t here i s v ery much

l ess t han a o ne i n t hree c hance o f f ind ing a c o in d a t ing t o 3 53 t o 3 64 AD , a nd t h is i n ap er iod when c o in f inds a re s carce a nyway , t hough t here i s s upp lementary ma ter ia l i n t he f orm o f c on te mporary c op ies. I n p rac t ica l t erms t he d a t ing o f s i tes i s c lear ly d i f f icu lt a nd n o d oubt s i tes o f t h is p er iod h ave o n o ccas ion b een d ated t oo e ar ly o n t he b as is o f t he p resence o f t he p ro l i f ic c o inage o f t he p receed ing P er iod 2 3. i n terna l s ub-pa t tern .

B ut a f ur ther p rob lem a r ises f rom t h is

Dr Webster h as r ecen t ly d rawn a t ten t ion t o ag roup

o f v i l las w ith c o in l i sts t erm ina t ing w i th i ssues o f Magnen t ius w h ich , h e s uggests , r epresen t e s ta tes c on f iscated t o t he i mper ia l p urse b y P au l t he N otary .1 0 A s w e h ave s een , t he p er iod p a t tern a l mos t p rec ludes t he a pp earance o f c o ins l ater t han Magnen t ius - wha t i s s ign i f ican t i s t he n ona ppearance o f t he p ro l if ic c o ins o f t he f o l low ing p er iod . H ere , i ndeed , w e may h ave n o t ag roup o f Magnen t ian v i l las b u t ag roup t ha t s u f fered i n 3 67 AD a nd wh ich , i n c onsequence , d id n ot r ece ive Va len t in ian ic c o ins. T h is i s , o f c ourse , mere ly a s pecu lat ion b u t i ts erves t o i l lustrate s ome o f t he d angers i nheren t i n d raw ing r ig id f rames a round t he c o in p er iods w ithou t c ons ider ing i n terna l d eve lopmen ts . Equa l ly i mpor tan t i s t he r ea l isat ion t ha t t he d om inol ike c o lumns o f t he h istograms n eed , i n r ea l ity , t o b e p ushed o ver s ideways , f or i n d a i ly u se t he c o inage o f o ne p er iod w ou ld c ons iderab ly o ver lap t he n ex t p er iod wh i lst s o me i nd iv idua l d eno m ina t ions migh t p ers is t i n u se t hrough s evera l p er iods.

T o s o me e x ten t t he s tudy o f h oard e v idence

a l lows f or s o me c a lcu la t ion a s t o t he l i fe o f i nd iv idua l c o ins b u t h oards t hemse lves a re o f s uch a v ar ied n ature t ha t g enera l isa t ion i s i mposs ib le b eyond o bserv ing t ha t c o ins i n h oards t end t o c ons is t o f t he h igh v a lue i ssues o f l ow d epos it p er iods , when t hey a re n o t t he d e mone t ised i ssues o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire. A t te mp ts t o e s tab l ish c ircu la t ion l i fe o f c o ins b y o bserva t ion o f t he d egrees o f w ear wh ich t hey e xh ib it h ave n ot a ch ieved g enera l a ccep tance b u t o bserva t ion o f f i nds f ro m n or thern mi l itary s i tes o f k nown f ounda t ion d a te , e spec ia l ly v ici i nd ica te t hat l arge n umbers o f s econd c en tu ry s ester t i i c ircu la ted t i l l t he m idd le o f t he t h ird c en tury . T hese c o ins may h ave r ec ircu la ted u nder t he i mpact o f P ostumus ' b r ie f a t temp t t o f oster

4 7

t he u se o f t he d oub le s ester t ius , ac o in p roduced b y o verstr ik ing e ar l ier s ester t ius i ssues.

No d oub t t he p rospect o f d oub l ing t he v a lue o f o ne 's

o bso lete c urrency a cted a s ap ower fu l s t i mu lus t o b r ing ing i tb ack i n to c ircu la t ion . I tr e ma ins , f i na l ly , t o b r ief ly e xa m ine t he p rob le ms a r is ing when d ea li ng w i th t he c o inage d er ived f ro m mi l i tary s i tes.

B ecause o f I mper ia l c o in

p roduct ion p o l icy e ar ly mi l i tary s i tes a re n otor ious ly s hor t o f c o in f inds a nd t h is s i tua t ion i s n ot ame l iora ted u n t i l t he F lav ian p er iod .

Wi th t he

e s tab l ishmen t o f p er manen t m i l itary s ta t ions i n t he n or th p rov is ion s ee ms t o h ave b een made f or t he r egu lar s upp ly o f c o in f or t roop p aymen ts. We h ave a lready a l luded t o s o me o f t he p rob le ms t hat a r ise f ro m c ons idera t ion o f t he mi l i tary c o in d epos its. Most i mpor tan t i s t he u ncer ta in ty a s t o t he n a ture o f t he u n i t f ro m p er iod t o p er iod. L arger u n its migh t b e e xpected t o d epos it l arger n umbers o f c o ins , b u t i n p er iods o f t roop move men ts , f or i ns tance d ur ing t he move f ro m H adr ian 's Wa l l t o t he An ton ine Wa l l l ine , c o in d epos its s hou ld b e e xpected t o d rop.

Un for tuna te ly , i ti s n o t p oss ib le

t o b e c er ta in t ha t t he a t tested move o f af or t g arr ison i s f o l lowed b y ap er iod o f n on-occupa t ion o f i t s o r ig ina l s ta t ion .

T here i s e nough e v idence f ro m

Wa l l f or ts t o s ugges t t ha t i n t he a bsence o f a ux i l l iary g arr isons s o me i ns ta ll a t ions w ere o ccup ied b y l eg ionar ies.

T here a re t hus v ar iab le f actors

t ha t make a g enera l i n terpre tat ion o f m i l itary c o in f i nds h azardous.

F ig . 4

s hews t he c o in d istr ibu t ion h istogra m f or t he Hadr ian 's Wa l l f or t a t Houses teads b ased o n as i te t o ta l o f 3 64 c o ins. On a rchaeo log ica l a nd e p igraph ic e v idence w e k now t ha t t he g arr ison o f Houses teads w as n u mer ica l ly v ery s tab le t hroughou t t he f or t 's e x istence s o t ha t i ta l lows f or a r easonab le c o mp ar ison w i th a t own s i te .1

Housesteads w as p robab ly o ccup ied b y a mi l-

l i ary c ohor t i n t he s econd c en tury wh i le t he t housand s trong Cohor t is P r i mae T ungroru m i s a t tested a s b e ing i n o ccupa t ion t hroughou t t he t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies.

T h is g arr ison was s upp le men ted b y t wo u n its o f

u nknown s ize , a nd f or u nknown d ura t ion , d ur ing t he t h ird c en tury - t he Cuneus F r is ioru m Ver (cov ic iu m ) a nd t he Numerus Hnaud ifr id i.

T he s tatus

o f t he s i te d ur ing t he o ccupa t ion o f t he An ton ine Wa l l i s n o t k nown b u t , o n a na logy w i th o ther Wa l l f or ts , i t may h ave b een o ccup ied b y l eg ionar ies. I n a ny e ven t , t he p icture i s o ne o f o ccupa t ion o ver a l ong p er iod b y u n its o f s im i lar n umer ica l s treng th a nd t he e xpec ta t ion migh t b e t ha t t he c o in d istr ibu t ion p a t tern wou ld b e s im i lar t o t ha t o f ac iv i l

s i te.

C o mpar ison

b etween t he h is togra m f or Houses teads a nd t ha t f or t he n earby g arr ison t own o f Corbr idge ( F ig . 3 ) s hews t ha t t h is e xpec tat ion i s n ot f u l f i l led .

T he

d ispar i ty i s v ery g rea t a nd t he f a l l o f f o f c o in f i nds a t Housesteads i n t he f our th c en tury i s v ery marked , a l though where c o in i s p resen t i ti s r eprese n ted i n t he s a me r e la t ive f requency b etween p er iod a nd p er iod a s i s f ound i n f u l ler c iv i l l i s ts.

T h is r e in forces t he o bserva t ion t ha t t he c o in i t se l f i s

t he d om ina t ing f actor i n p roduc ing t he p eaks a nd t roughs o f t he o vera l l p a tt ern .

T he e xp lana t ion f or t he d iscrepancy b etween t he t wo c lasses o f s i tes

l i es i n t he o pera t ion o f t he a nnona m i l i tar is , t he s ys te m o f p ay ing t roops l arge ly i n r a t ion a l lowances a nd e qu ip men t r a ther t ha r _ i n c ash .

T he o pera-

t i on o f t he s yste m , a nd t he d a te o f i t s i n troduct ion , a re o bscure b u t t he i nc idence o f c o ins d own t o t he G a l l ic Emp ire ( Per iod 1 8 ) a t H ouses teads s trong ly

4 8

—c o in l o sses 1

—s poued e nss i

0 5

( 7 . 3

1

. D b

1

C . 7 1

1

1

1

0 3 _ 1

( D 1

O 1

1

C . 3 1

. 46

s uggests t ha t t he a nnona d id n ot f unct ion u n t i l a f ter t ha t p er iod a nd s ee ms t o c onf irm t he D ioc let ian ic d ate u sua l ly a ss igned t o i t .

T he c on t inuous

d epos it o f c o ins i n t he f our th c entury , when t he a nnona w as i n f u l l o pera t ion , i s t he r es idue o f t he v est ig ia l s t ipend ium s t i l l p a id t o t he t roops , as um wh ich was l i t t le more t han p ocket money .

Wha t i s n o t f ound a rchaeo log ic-

a l ly i s t he e v idence f or t he c ons iderab le p aymen ts made t o t roops o n i mper ia l a nn iversar ies , b ir thdays a nd c onsu lsh ips. T hese d ona t iva w ere made i n t he f orm o f p rec ious meta l a nd a re t hus s ub ject t o t he p r inc ip les a f fect ing h igh v a lue c o ins i n g enera l.

I n t hese c ircu ms tances i ti s n o t p os-

s ib le t o u se t he e v idence o f c o ins t o d ef ine , f or i ns tance , t he mi l itary s tatus o f g arr isons i n l a te p er iods o n t he n or thern f ront ier .

T he f act t ha t t hey

a ppear t o r ece ive l ess c o in , o f sma l ler i n tr ins ic v a lue , t han t he ir p red ecessors i s af unc t ion o f t he n ature o f t he c o inage a nd o f t he s ys te m b y wh ich mi l itary s erv ice was r ewarded , i ti s n o t n ecessar i ly a n i nd ica t ion o f t he i n fer ior ity o f t he t roops.

T he c on f ir mat ion o f s uch a s uppos i t ion

must b e s ough t e lsewhere t han i n t he c o inage , a s s hou ld e v idence f or o ccupat ion o r n on-occupa t ion a t l ow c o in d epos i t p er iods.

Un ivers ity o f Durha m

REFERENCES

1 .

R .A .G . Carson , a nd o thers ;

2 .

J .P . B ushe-Fox :

F our th r epor t o n t he e xcavat ions o f t he Ro man f or t

a tR ichborough , Ken t . 3 .

L a te Ro man b ronze c oinage. ( 1960 ).

( 1949 ), p .304.

J .P . G i l la m a nd J . T a i t :

i t e ms n os. 2 5560-25580.

The i nves t iga t ion o f t he C o m mandan t 's

h ouse ..Corbr idge . Arch . Ae l iana , 4 th s er ., x l ix , 1 971. 4 .

G . R. Wa tson :

T he Ro man s o ld ier .

5 .

P . Curnow i n I . S tead :

1 -29.

( 1969 ).

Veru la m iu m , 1 966-1968.

An t iqu ity , x l i i i

( 1969 ), 5 1-52. 6 .

A . Ravetz :

F our th c entury i nf la t ion a nd Ro mano-Br it ish c o in f inds.

Num. Chron ic le.

7 th s er. 1 5 ( 1965 ).

7 .

A .L .F. R ivet e d .:

T he Ro man v i l la i n B r ita in .

8 .

A .C.C. Brodr ibb a nd o thers :

9 .

J . P.C. K en t :

( 1969 ), Chapter V .

Excava t ions a t S hakenoak 1.

( 1971 ).

C o in e v idence f or t he a bandonmen t o f af ron t ier

p rov ince G raz , Carnun t ina , 1 960. 1 0.

G . Webster :

The f uture o f v i l la s tud ies.

Ro man v i l la i n Br ita in . 1.

i n A .L .F F .R ivet e d .

T he

( 1969 ).

T he a rgumen t d ep loyed h ere a ssu mes t ha t t here w as n o d ra ma t ic r educt ion i n t he f or t g arr ison i n t he f our th c en tury .

Ac on trary

v iew i s e xpressed b y J . Wi lkes i n Excavat ions i n Housesteads f or t , 1 960.

Arch . A e l iana , 4 th s er . x x ix , 1 961.

5 0

2 79-319.

D ur ing

t hese e xcavat ions i tw as r evea led t ha t i n t he C onstan t in ian p er iod o ne a t l east o f t he b arracks was r ebu i l t a s as er ies o f i nd iv idua l ' cha le ts ' s o t ha t t en c on tubern ia w ere r ep laced b y s ix l arge s ing le r oo ms.

T he n et t r educt ion i n f l oor s pace was 1 0% a nd i ft h is

r ef lects t he f ac tor b y wh ich t he g arr ison was r educed i tw ou ld b e n uga tory i n t erms o f c o inloss r epresen tat ion .

I f , o n t he o ther

h and , ac hange f ro m t en d oub le r oo ms t o s ix c ha lets r epresen ts a r educt ion o f 4 0% i n t he g arr ison t he e f fec t s hou ld b e s een i n t he c o in l osses.

We c an c a lcu la te t he p oss ib le r esu l t o f s uch a n e ffect

r e la t ive t o t he c o inloss g raph b y e xpress ing t he c o inage o f H ouses teads a nd C orbr idge a s p ercen tages f or t he t h ird a nd f our c en tur ies ' c o in t o ta ls.

T hese p ercen tages s hou ld b e s im i lar i ft he s i tes w ere

s im i lar ly o ccup ied a nd c o in f l owed e qua l ly t o b o th . T h ird c en tury

F our th c en tury

C orbr idge

4 2%

5 8%

Houses teads

7 5%

2 5%

I fw e c orrect t he Housesteads f igure f or a n a ssu med max i mu m r ed uct ion i n u n i t s ize o f 4 0% b y a dd ing t ha t f actor t o t he s i te 's f our th c en tury c o inage w e g et T h ird c en tury H ousesteads

F our th c en tury

6 4%

3 6%

f igures wh ich a re s t i l l s u f f ic ien t ly d isparate f ro m t he ' f u l l o ccupat i on ' f igures f or C orbr idge t o i nd ica te t he o pera t ion o f af actor wh ich c an b e e qua ted w i th t he a nnona mi l i tar is.

I n f act t he u ncor-

r ec ted f igure i s c loser t o t he o rder o f magn itude t o b e e xpected f or af u l l s treng th u n it o pera t ing u nder t he s ys te m e xpressed b y t he r escr ip t o f Va len t in ian I( Codex T heodos ianus , 7 . 4 . 1 4 , p res u mab ly b r ing ing r ipar ienses i n to l i ne w i th o ther l im itane i.) wh ich t e l ls u s t ha t t roops r ece ived c ash p aymen ts f or o n ly t hree mon ths o f t he y ear .

I fw e r eca lcu la te o n t h is b as is , i .e. t ha t t he House-

s teads c o ins r epresen t p aymen t f or a q uar ter o f ay ear , a nd i ncrease t he t o ta l b y 7 5% we f i nd t ha t t he r e la t ive p ropor t ions a re n ow T h ird c en tury

F our th c en tury

C orbr idge

4 2%

5 8%

H ouses teads

4 2%

5 8%

I tw ou ld s ee m i n t hese c ircu ms tances t ha t o n t he c o in e v idence t here i s n o c on f irma t ion o f r educ t ion i n u n it s ize a t Housesteads i n t he f our th c en tury .

5 1

COIN L ISTS :

S O ME PROBLE MS OF THE SMALLER S ITE

b y P eter Curnow " Nu m is mat ic Hack" i s t he p hrase B ryan O 'Ne i l u ses f or h i mse lf a nd t hose l ike h i m who i den t ify a nd r epor t o n c o ins f or a rchaeo log is ts i n h is a r t ic le " Co ins a nd Archaeo logy i n Br ita in" i n 1 935. t he u se o f c o ins t o t he a rchaeo log ist .

H e t hen e nu mera tes

I ti s o bv ious t ha t t he s tra t if ied

c o in i s t he ma jor r equ ire men t o f t he a rchaeo log is t ,

-i ti s ac lose ly d a ted

d ocu men t -b u t c are s hou ld b e t aken n o t t o p lace u pon i t more e v iden t ia l v a lue t han i n f act i tw i l l b ear a nd t h is i t se lf w i l l v ary w i th t he t ype o f c o in f ound .

T hus a c oup le o f c o ins o f t he T e tr ic i w ith a n a sse mb lage o f mis-

c e l laneous p o t tery v ar ious ly d a ted i s n ot g o ing t o h e lp a g rea t d ea l. B u t t he p resence o f ag ood c ond i t ion d enar ius o f Augus tus i n ac on tex t o f C laud ioN eron ian p o t tery w ou ld a ss ist a n e xcava tor i n s ugges t ing t ha t t h is a sse mb lage was i ndeed p re-Vespas ian ic. w ou ld c l inch t he ma t ter .

T he a dd i t ion o f aC laud ian A s i n g ood c ond i t ion

T h is may n o t s ee m a v ery s urpr is ing c onc lus ion

b u t i n v iew o f t he d oub ts wh ich f requen t ly a t tend g roups o f p ot tery wh ich a re i n f ac t r es idua l f ro m e ar l ier p er iods , s o met i mes l ong p ast , t he p resence i n c er ta in c ases o f e ven t he s ing le c o in d oes g ive u s al i t t le more t o g o o n . A l though t he r es idua l f actor n orma l ly a pp l ies w ith e ven more f orce t o c o ins t han p o t tery , e spec ia l ly s ing le e xa mp les , i n t he c ase o f p re-Neron ian r eform s i lver , s evera l f actors a re p resen t wh ich d if feren t iate i tf ro m t he " average c o in f ind".

T hus o n Nero 's Re for m i ti m med ia te ly b ecame a n u nderva lued

p iece o f s i lver a nd a s s uch was u n l ikely t o s urv ive i n c ircu la t ion f or a ny l eng th o f t ime. T he t wo e xa mp les a bove may s erve t o i nd icate t ha t wh i le a l l c o ins a re e qua l -b eing d a ted o b jects , s o me a re more e qua l t han o thers f or a v ar iety o f n um is ma t ic a nd h istor ic r easons.

T he u se o f as ing le c o in b y i t se l f i s o f

c ourse l im i ted t o g iv ing u s i t s t erm inus a n te q ue m wh ich may mean e i ther t ha t t he Ro mans were t here o r t ha t ap ass ing n um is ma t is t b etween t hen a nd n ow d ropped a c o in . T he c on tex t i n wh ich t he c o in was f ound , a nd t he a ssoc ia t ion w ith o ther e v iden t ia l o b jects b eg in t o f i l l o u t t he p icture.

T hus i ti s t ha t t he s ing le

d enar ius f ound w ith t he C laud io-Neron ian p o t tery b eg ins t o a ssu me c red ib i l i ty a s e v idence. Dr . K en t h as s tated s ucc inct ly t ha t Nu m is mat ics i s n e ither more n or l ess t han t he s tudy o f o ne s pec ies o f e v idence t o b e u sed i n t he s erv ice o f a rchaeo lo gy wh ich i t sel f i s o ne o f t he Roo ms i n t he Mans ion o f H is tory .

F or t he e v i-

d ence t o b e e f fect ive i n t he Ro man p er iod t here i s n o s ubst i tu te - a t l east i n t he p os t-sa m ian p er iod - f or a g ood h a lf d ozen c o ins t o b e s ea led i n e ach l eve l.

I n t hese d ays o f p o t tery u ncer ta in ty , c o ins i n q uan t i ty a re t he

5 2

a rchaeo log is t 's b est f r iend .

I ti s n ever the less a f act o f l i fe t ha t o n many

sma l l s i tes f ir m d a t ing e v idence i n t he f orm o f c o ins i s t oo s carce t o p erm it o f v a l id c onc lus ions. Any a rchaeo log ist w i th g ood e yes igh t a nd a mod icum o f p a t ience c an i den t i fy most c o ins i n t ime a nd s ince t hese c o m men ts a re d irected t owards t he p rob le m o f t he sma l ler s i te , many e xcavators w i l l w ish t o d ea l w i th t he r e la t ive ly sma l l n umber o f c o ins f ro m s i tes t he mse lves .

H owever i n

t h is e ra o f Mass Archaeo logy when n ew e xcavators p our i n to t he f i e ld , i t s hou ld b e s tated t ha t t he e xcava tor mak ing h is own c o in l i s t a nd i n terpreti ng i tw ou ld d o w e l l t o h ave a t l eas t an odd ing a cqua in tance w ith o ne o r t wo o ther a nd p erhaps v ery d iferen t s i te l i sts a nd b e aware o f t he d if fer ing p at terns o f c o ins wh ich o ccur s o met i mes o n n e ighbour ing s i tes.

On many

s i tes t hose c oins f ound s trat if ied w i l l b e i n a minor ity a nd i n a ny e ven t w i l l p robab ly b e i nadequa te i n n umber t o p rov ide a g enera l p icture.

I ti s t he

t o ta l c o in l i st wh ich g ives t he o vera l l n um is ma t ic h istory o f t he s i te a nd O 'Ne i l p o in ted o u t t he v a lue o f u ns tra t if ied c o ins. wh ich Iam n ow c oncerned .

I ti s t he t o ta l l i st w i th

The who le r eason f or t hese d i f fer ing p a t terns

i s n ot k nown t o me a nd i s p robab ly u nknowab le b ut a d i f feren t ia l r a te o f c o in l oss a s b e tween p er iods o n o therw ise c o mparab le s i tes i s o f ten s tr ik ing a nd must b e t aken a ccoun t o f .

Mrs. Ravetz , i n h er a r t ic le ,

b rough t o u t t he d ist inct ive p eaks t o b e f ound o n F our th C entury s i tes i .e. C ons tan t in ian , t he H ouse o f Va len t in ian I , a nd t he H ouse o f T heodos ius I , b y means o f g raphs . T he a rchaeo log is t c an a nd s ure ly s hou ld a t te mp t ac oheren t h istory o f h is s i te b u t at a me n um is ma t ist , i ft he e xcava tor h as n o p retens ions h ere , i s b est c onsu lted t o p rov ide a dv ice o n t he e v idence wh ich t he c o in l i st a ff ords. I t may b e t ha t t he t wo v iews d o n ot c o inc ide - b oth a re i n f act more o r l ess s ub ject ive i n a ny c ase - b u t n one t he w orse f or t ha t . S i tes a re n ot u nco m mon where c o in e v idence p o in t ing t o o ne d a te i s a cc o mpan ied b y at o ta l a bsence o f p o t tery o f t ha t d ate , e .g . p ar ts o f t he G adebr idge V i l la c o mp lex c on ta ined amp le mid-Second Century p ot tery b u t a cco mpan ied b y amp le C ons tan t in ian c o inage.

E ven o n a sma l l s ite p rod-

u c ing r e la t ive ly f ew c o ins i ti s d es irab le f or t he c o in l i s t t o b e a cco mpan ied b y ar epor t , a lbe i t l im i ted t o af ew c o m men ts , b y t he p erson d ea l ing w ith t he c o ins - a t t he v ery l eas t t hese migh t i nd icate t he r e l iab i l i ty o r o therw ise o f t he n um is ma t ist .

P eaks o f c o in l oss , a noma l ies i n t he c o in l i s t

o r n um is ma t ic o dd i t ies c an b e d rawn t o t he a t ten t ion o f t he n on-nu m is ma t ic r eader b y t h is means e ven i fs o me a spects o f t hese p o in ts a re d ea lt w ith b y t he a rchaeo log is t i n t he ma in t ex t .

T here s hou ld i n f act b e d iscuss ion b e t-

w een e xcava tor a nd n um is ma t ist a t a l l t imes .

T he e xcava tor w i l l o f

c ourse h ave t he l as t w ord i n t ha t t he e xcava t ion r epor t embod ies h is i n terp re tat ion o f t he e v idence b u t t he c o ins must b e a l lowed t o s peak f or t he ms e lves a s c lear ly a s t hey c an .

E va lua t ion n ot mere n umero logy i s

r equ ired . F o l low ing f ro m t he a bove t here a r ises t he q ues t ion o f t he f or m wh ich t he c o in l i st s hou ld t ake.

T h is may s ee m o bv ious b u t i ti s o f i mpor tance

i fi t s u se i s n ot t o b e l im ited s o le ly t o t he s i te f or wh ich i tw as p repared .

5 3

T he a b i l i ty t o c o mpare t he i n format ion f ro m v ar ious s i tes r easonab ly q u ick ly a nd a ccurate ly s hou ld s uggest t ha t t he f orma t o f l i sts s hou ld b e more o r l ess u n i form.

Mr . D o l ley h as d ea l t w i th t h is p rob le m i n d e ta i l , b ut i ti s w or th-

wh i le d raw ing a t ten t ion t o t he f act t ha t o n many sma l l s i tes p erhaps d ea l t w ith b y a sma l l a nd p oss ib ly i nadequa te l oca l o rgan isat ion c o in l i s ts a re w oef u l ly i nadequa te a s r egards b oth i den t i f ica t ion a nd p resen ta t ion .

T h is d oes

n ot h appen o n l arge s i tes where s pec ia l is t r epor ts a re d ea lt w ith b y s pec ia li sts , b u t o ccas iona l ly s hor tage o f s pace a s ar esu lt o f t he n eed t o d ea l w i th a mass o f c o inage means a max imu m o f a bbrev ia t ion a nd a l oss o f c lar ity i n t he f or ma t o f t he ma in l i s t .

When p erus ing a l i s t t he o bverse , e spec-

i a l ly p re-296 , a nd f or t he f our th c en tury t he r everse t ype a re e ssen t ia l a s i s i n my v iew t he d eno m ina t ion f or t he f ormer a nd t he min t f or t he l at ter .

Var ian ts a nd i rregu lar it ies s hou ld a lso b e a scer ta inab le.

T he

f ac t t ha t t he r eference n umber - R .I .C. ( or s o met i mes B .M .C.) o r L a te Ro man Bronze c o inage i s g iven where p oss ib le s t i l l l eaves t he p robl em t ha t a s w ith a ny o ther s pec ia l ist r epor t i ti s t here t o b e r ead i n te ll ig ib ly a s p ar t o f t he t o ta l e v idence a nd o ugh t t o b e a ss im i lab le b y t he n ons pec ia l is t .

E soter ic b reakdowns , g raphs a nd t he l i ke may w e l l f o l low i n a

l arge r epor t .

T here s o met i mes s ee ms t o b e at endency f or t he s pec ia l ist

r epor ts e ven o n a sma l l s i te p roduc ing o n ly meagre r e levan t e v idence t o swa mp t he ma in r epor t o f t he e xcavator a nd t o b e wr it ten o n ly f or t he s pec ia l is t -t hus i n my v iew mer i t ing t he sma l lest o f t ype r ef lect ing t he n umber o f p oten t ia l r eaders.

T he c o ins l i ke s o me o f t he p ot tery a nd t he

b rooches e tc. a s p r i me d a t ing e v idence s hou ld b e d ea l t w ith c lear ly a nd i n te l l ig ib ly .

I n t he 1 930s O 'Ne i l a nd T .V . Whee ler w ere amongst t he

p ioneers i n p resen t ing c o in l i sts i n t abu lar f orm a s f or e xa mp le i n t he e ar l ier V eru la m ium v o lume.

T h is i s b y f ar t he c learest method a lthough

o f c ourse t he e ar l ier R ichborough a nd Ma lton r epor ts w ere mode ls o f t he ir k ind p rov id ing f u l l i n forma t ion a t at ime when t here were i nadeq ua te r eference w orks a nd wh ich a t l east i n t he f ormer c ase p roduced e v idence f or t he ir c o mp i la t ion .

T he t abu lar f orm s ee ms g enera l ly a ccep t-

a b le i n a rchaeo log ica l r epor ts a l though l ess s o i n Nu m is mat ic p ub l ica t ions , T he G rea t Caster ton l i sts a nd r epor ts a re g ood e xamp les o f p rov id ing max imum i n for ma t ion i n a min imum o f s pace.

I ti s a rguab le

t ha t o n t he r are s i tes p roduc ing t he s or t o f n umbers f ound a t R ichborough , a nd a t t he o ther e x tre me t hose s i tes w i th l ess t han a bou t ad ozen c o ins t h is t abu lar method i s wastefu l o f s pace. T he r e levance o f i nc lud ing t he e xcava tors s i te r eference a nd a lso t he d egree o f w ear w i l l v ary f ro m s i te t o s i te.

B o th a re r e levan t i ft here i s

as epara te l i st o r l i s ts d ea l ing w i th s tra t if ied c o ins a nd/or s pec if ic g roups o f c o ins.

F or most p urposes s tra t if ied c o ins c an b e d iscussed i n t he ma in

t ex t where t he d egree o f w ear c an b e men t ioned a nd t he c o in r eferred b y n u mbers t o t he t ota l c oin l i s t .

S ince t he d egree o f w ear i s i ncapab le o f

y ie ld ing a t ru ly o b jec t ive c onc lus ion d epend ing a s i td oes o n t he w e igh t a nd meta l o f t he c o in , t he l eng th o f i t s c urrency , a nd i t s v e loc i ty o f c ircu la t ion , t o s ay n oth ing o f t he d if icu lt ies e ncoun tered d ue t o t he v agueness o f s tr ik ing a nd t he i nc idence o f c orros ion , c are must b e e xerc ised i n a ssess ing t he e v iden t ia l v a lue o f w ear , a nd e ven more o f t he l ack o f w ear .

5 4

On t he sma l ler s i te wh ich migh t y ie ld f rom o ne t o t en p re-Hadr ian ic p ieces i n at o ta l l i s t o f a bou t ah undred i tr hay b e t e mp t ing t o l ook f or p roo f o f f i rs t c en tury a c t iv i ty i n t he p resence o f a n u ns tra t i f ied a sse mb lage c omp osed o f aC laud ian A s a nd t hree o r f our V espas ian ic p ieces, a l l worn .

I n

t he a bsence o f p o t tery , e spec ia l ly s am ian , h owever , n o s uch c onc lus ion i s warran ted , a nd a s econd c en tury d a te f or t he d epos i t ion o f t hose p ieces wou ld t end t ob e c on f ir med b y t he p resence i n t he c o in l i s t o f p ieces o f T ra jan , H adr ian a nd t he An ton ine Emperors , p referab ly i n d ecreas ing d egrees o f w ear . C ertain ly i n t h is c ase wear i s ac ons is ten t a nd t herefore ac ons iderab le f actor i n i n terpretat ion a nd s hou ld b e i nd ica ted i n t he t ex t o r a n a dd i t ional l i s t .

D esp i te t h is f or t he g reat ma jor i ty o f c o ins i n t he l i s t

t he d egree o f wear w i l l b e r ela t ively u n i mpor tan t a s f or e xa mp le i n t he r ad ia te i ssues o r t hose o ft he House o f Cons tan t ine . To i nd ica te t he d egree o f wear o f an or ma l s er ies o f F el T e mp R epara t io im i ta t ions wou ld b e o f l im i ted a rchaeo log ica l a nd n um isma t ic s ign if icance b u t wou ld b eg in t o b o th impa ir t he c lar i ty o f t he c o in l i s t a nd s evere ly r educe t he s pace a vai lab le . F or t he f inal c o in s er ies o n as i te t he impor tance o ft he d egree o f wear i s o bv ious , a nd many a p os tu la t ion o f mid-5 th c en tury a ct iv i ty h as b een made o n t he b as is o f t he c ond i t ion o f t he i ssues o f t he T heodos ian V ictor ia Auggg a nd S a lus R eipubl icae t ypes .

I ti s c er ta in ly t rue t ha t many o f t hese

p ieces e xh ib i t ac ons iderab le d egree o f w ear a nd g enera l ly s peak ing T heodos ian

4i ssues , e ven a l low ing f or t he p oor s tr ik ing , s how more

w ear t han t he r un o f Cons tan t in ian i ssues .

Bu t p ush ing a ct iv i ty t oo f ar i n-

t o t he f i f th c en tury o n t he b as is o f s ay h a lf a d ozen imper fect ly i den t i f iab le / E 4 s wh ich m igh t h ave b een i n a ct ive c ircu la t ion b efore 3 90 s hou ld b e e schewed . Our k now ledge o f t he p recise b ehav iour o f v ar ious c o inages i s o f c ourse e ven n ow l im i ted b u t a cqua in tance w i th K eyns ian t heory f or e xa mp le w i th r e levance t o t he v eloci ty o f c ircu la t ion i s a s v a l id f or p as t c o inages a s i ti s t oday . O f c ons iderab le impor tance when e va lua t ing e ven a sma l l l i s t i s t he l eng th o fc urrency o f ac o in r a ther t han t he d ate b rackets o f i t s i ssue. As s ugges ted a bove t h is i s e special ly r elevan t a s f or e xa mp le i n t he c ase o f f i rs t a nd s econd c en tury a es n o tab ly s es tert i i , wh ich c ou ld b e r e ta ined a s c urrency u p t o t he midd le o ft he t h ird c en tury ; P os tumus ( A .D . 2 59-68 ) s truck s es ter t i i s omet imes o ver s tr ik ing e ar l ier p ieces . T he e v idence f or t he c urrency o f i ssues mus t l arge ly b e d er ived f rom ma jor s i te c o l lect ions b u t t he e x ten t t o wh ich v ar ious c o inages e xh ib i t w ide d ivergences i n t heir l eng ths o f c urrency mus t b e r ead a longs ide t he d egree o f wear , a nd o bv iousl y a pp l ies t o s i tes l arge a nd sma l l . T he s ign if icance o f t h is when a pp l ied t o o ne o r t wo s tra t if ied c o ins u sed f or d a t ing a b ui ld ing i s e qual ly o bv ious a nd s hou ld b e made e xpl ici t i n t he t ex t o f ar epor t . The p a t tern o r make-up o f c o in l i s ts i s p robab ly b es t e xpressed v isua l ly i n wha t c an b es t b e c a l led p seudo-h is togra ms .

T hese n eed n o t b e t rue

h is togra ms i n wh ich t he h or izon tal s ca le s hou ld r epresen t p er iods e xpressed a ccord ing t o t he n u mber o fy ears e ach c on ta ins, b u t mere b lock d iagrams.

5 5

T he s imp lest f orm may mere ly t ake a n a greed n umber o f p er iods s hewn a s o f e qua l w id th a nd w ith t he n umber o f c o ins t o e ach p er iod i nd ica ted o n t he v er t ica l s ca le.

F or t he h istogram t o b e o f u se t he c hrono log ica l s ca le

s hou ld s how n um is mat ica l ly s ign if ican t d iv is ions , a nd f or c ompara t ive p urposes i ti s o bv ious t ha t t hese s hou ld b e g enera l ly a ccepted .

Mr. R ichard

Reece a nd t he a u thor p roposed a n a greed c hrono log ica l d iv is ion4 whereby t he p er iods w ere i n s ome c ases s ubd iv is ib le s o t ha t t hey w ere a dap tab le t o b oth sma l l a nd l arge s i tes. Wh i lst t he wr i ters made n o c la im t o o r ig ina l i ty i n t he c oncept , i tw as f e lt n eed fu l t o p ress f or u n iform ity o f f orma t s o t ha t d i f feren t h istogra ms c ou ld b e i m med ia te ly a nd v a l id ly c o mpared . A t t h is l eve l t hey p resen t a n i m med ia te b lock p icture o f t he c o inage d evo id o f p ercen tages , a nnua l a ve rages , o r a ny o ther s oph ist ica ted s tat ist ica l d ev ices wh ich may b e s u i tab le f or p ar t icu lar p urposes o r where l arge n umbers o f s pec i mens a re a va i lab le. T he d anger o f g et t ing t oo f ar away f ro m t he a ctua l n umber o f c o ins s hou ld b e a vo ided a s f ar a s p oss ib le o n sma l l s i tes where n umbers a re i nadequa te f or g enera l ised c onc lus ions e x trapo la ted f rom s ing le g roups. C o mpar isons b e tween s i tes c an o f ten b e v ery c lear ly d e monstrated b y t h is means h owever , a nd o n al arge s i te h istograms a re t he s imp lest a nd most e cono m ica l w ay o f r evea l ing d ivergences i n t he w e igh t o f c o in e v idence o f d i f feren t d ates i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he s i te. T he s i te d iscussed i n t he ma in p ar t o f t he a r t ic le o f wh ich t he a ppend ix h as a lready b een c i ted4 a f fords a n e xce l len t e xamp le o f h ow a r ela t ive ly sma l l s er ies c an b e o f t he g rea tes t a rchaeo log ica l v a lue. T he e xcava t ion o f t he K ing Harry L ane 4 s i te i m med ia te ly o uts ide t he S i lchester G a te o f Veru la m ium p roduced a s er ies o f c o ins wh ich , o ne o r t wo s trays a par t , e nded r a ther u nusua l ly w ith a n As o f Macr inus ( AD 2 38 ) ( Fig . 1 c ) . No a po logy i s made t he t he e le men t o f i n terpre ta t ion embod ied i n t h is s ta te men t . T he v ery t h in s cat ter o f o ne o r t wo l a te r ad ia tes a nd l a te Constan t in ian i ssues a re t he l eas t t ha t c ou ld b e e xpected t o b e f ound i n t he v ic in i ty o f ar oad o r i n a l most a ny f i e ld s urround ing t he c i ty . T he c on trast w i th o ther p ar ts o f Veru la m ium i s s tr ik ing ( F igs. I I I ) a nd i t s r e levance t o t he d a te o f t he c ons truct ion o f t he c i ty wa l l c an h ard ly b e i gnored . T he p o t tery a t t h is d a te c ann o t r ea l ly b e e xpected t o g ive s uch a n u nequ ivoca l a nswer . P ot tery i fs ecure ly d a ted r e ma ins t he p r inc ipa l s ource o f e v idence o n Ro mano-Br it ish s i tes a nd f or t he f i rst c en tury o f t he Ro man o ccupa t ion t he p resence o f s am ian t ogether w ith d ist inct ive n a t ive-der ived t ypes a nd e ar ly Ro man c oarse w are p rov ides a s ecure b as is f or many s i tes. C o ins a nd t he l ack o f c er ta in i ssues c an h owever l end w e ight a nd p rec is ion .

F or t he l a ter p er iods , h owever ,

d esp ite t he e x istence o f d is t inct a nd d a ted p roducts o f c erta in p o t ter ies e .g . C astor , N ew F orest , C a lc ite G r itted Wares e tc. t here i s o f ten a t b es t a n i mper fect ly d ef ined d a te-bracket i n wh ich t hey may b e c on f ined a nd t h is a pp l ies w i th e ven g rea ter f orce t o many g enera l t ypes w h ich may b e r eg iona l ly o r l oca l ly p roduced a t w ide ly d i f fer ing d a tes. One o f t he p rob le ms c er ta in ly a pp l icab le t o t he sma l ler s i te i s t ha t i n t he l as t t wo t h irds o f t he t h ird c entury p rec ise d at ing b y means o f p ot tery , c o ins , b rooches o r sma l l f i nds i s e qua l ly d i f f icu lt .

T he c o ins a re o bv ious ly t he b es t d ated o b jects

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b u t o n s o me s i tes t he ir v ery q uan t i ty s hou ld e ngender c au t ion .

T he b ase

An ton in ian i i ssued f rom t he r e ign o f G a lMenus t o t he r efor m o f D ioclet ian t hus r e ma ined c urren t o ver a p er iod o f h a lf a c en tury a nd o n t he ir d e mone t iza t ion r epresen ted a v as t b u lk o f c o inage wh ich i s f requen t ly f ound i n Cons tan t in ian c on tex ts .

T ha t d e mone t iza t ion w as e f fect ive i s n ow g enera l-

l y a ccep ted , b u t a par t f ro m t he many c o ins s t i l l a bou t a t t he t urn o f t he c en tury , l arge n u mbers o f t he p oorer i ssues , e specia l ly t hose o f t he G a ll ic Emp ire f ound t heir way i n to l arge o r sma l l h oards w h ich i fd ispersed may a ppear u nrecogn ised i n many s i te l i s ts .

T hese r es idua l e f fec ts s hou ld b e

b orne i n mind b u t t he p resence o f t he c o inage o f t he m idth ird c en tury d oes n o t d eserve t o b e g lossed o ver .

W i th t he p rov isos men t ioned a bove

i t s t i l l r e ma ins t he b es t e v idence f or t h ird c en tury a c t iv i ty . Av as t q uan t i ty o f r ad iate c o inage w as o ne o f t he f eatures o f t he c o in l i st o f t he Veru la m ium Excava t ions o f 1 930-3 ( Fig . Ia ) , s ubsequen t s i tes b o th i n t he l a ter 1 930s a nd more r ecen t ly h ave n o t u n iform ly c on f irmed t h is ( Fig . Ib , F ig . I ).

Wh i lst t h is n o te i s c oncerned p r inc ipa l ly w i th t he sma l ler s i te , i t

n ever the less s ee ms wor thwh i le t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t he v ery d i f feren t p a t terns o f c o inage wh ich e x ist i n v ar ious p ar ts o f al arge s i te .

T he v ar ious i nsu lae

a nd b u i ld ings wh ich h ave b een s ub jec t t o s epara te e xcava t ions a nd r epor ts r evea l w ide d ivergences i n c o in d istr ibu t ion . I ti s s omet imes d i f f icu l t t o r ead t he p a t tern c lear ly i n al arge e xcava tion c over ing many b u i ld ings where t he s trat if ied c o ins may wel l a ppear u nder t he ir r espect ive b u i ld ing b u t t he u ns tra t i f ied c o ins may o n ly a ppear i n t he t o ta l l i s t .

No d oub t t he e xcava-

t ion r epor t w i l l emphas ise t he p er iods o f a ct iv i ty o f t he v ar ious b ui ld ings , b u t t he h is togra ms f or t he t o ta l c o in f i nds a lready c i ted ( F ig . I )d o make t he ir p o in t q u i te c lear ly .

Ano ther s i te wh ich h as p roduced w ide ly d iver-

g en t p a t terns i s t he s ubs tan t ia l b u t s pread o u t t own o f B a ldock , s et a t a n impor tan t c ross r ou te o n t he I c lm ie ld Way a nd o f p re-Roman o r ig in .

H ere

e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t i n t he 1 930s o n Wa l ls F ie ld 5 n or th e as t o f t he p res en t t own p roduced a l arge c e me tery ma in ly s econd c en tury i n d a te a nd a w ide c hrono log ica l s pread o f c o ins .

T he misce l laneous c o in f i nds f ro m

B a ldock i n t he L e tchwor th Museum a lso s how a g enera l r un t hrough t he Roman p er iod .

I n r ecen t y ears B a ldock h as b een t he s ub ject o f s evera l

l im i ted a rea r escue e xcava t ions i n t he N . E . p ar t o f t he t own , n o tab ly Brewery F ield b y Mr . J . Moss E ckhard t i n 1 967 a nd t he T ene s i te a s hor t d is tance t o t he e as t wh ich y ie lded a r ich l a te I ron Age ' Ch ief ta in ' b ur ia l g iv ing r ise t o t he e xcavat ion b y Dr . I . M . S tead . T h is o n ly o ccup ied a sma l l p ar t o f t he s i te wh ich was e xcava ted s ubsequen t ly .

F o l low ing t hese

a ma jor a nd s t il l c on t inu ing c a mpa ign was d irected a t t he e x tens ive s ix ty a cre s i te immed ia tely t o t he N . E . o f Wa l ls F ie ld . A l though t he e xcava t ion o f t he ma in s i te i s n o t y e t c o mp lete a nd work o n t he c o ins i s l i kew ise i nco mp le te i ti s c lear t ha t t he a reas o f t he t owns h ip s how w ide ly d if fer ing o ccupa t ion p a t terns . B rewery F ield ( F ig . I I c ) s hewed s ubs tan t ia l w eigh t ing i n f avour o f t he midfour th c en tury ( ou t o f 1 03 c o ins 6 1 =5 9 .2% A .D . 3 30-364 ) wh i le o n ly a s hor t d is tance a way a t t he T ene s i te t he l a ter f our th c en tury w as e x tens ive ly r epresen ted c on tras t ing b o th w i th Brewery F ield a nd t he ma in s i te where t he s er ies r an t hrough

6 0

f rom a n e x tens ive B e lg ic c o inage t o t he f our th c en tury a l though w i thou t t he p eaks s hown b y t he o ther t wo s i tes.

I t mus t b e o bv ious t ha t t he p ropor t ion

o f t he t o ta l s i te e xcava ted a nd t he v ar ious a reas c hosen c an p roduce v ery d i f feren t r esu lts.

On t he l arger s i tes men t ioned a bove v a l id c onc lus ions

c an b e c ome t o w ith r espect t o p ar t icu lar a reas o f as et t le men t a nd i n a ny e ven t t he c omp lete e xcava t ion o f al arge s i te i s ar ar ity . S im i lar ly o n v i l la s i tes i n t he p ast a l l t oo o f ten t he e xcavat ion w as l im i ted t o t he a ctua l ma in dwe l l ing - t h is c an p roduce mis lead ing r esu lts. A t G rea t We ldon 6 t he s i te l i st was d om ina ted b y Cons tan t in ian i ssues , n o tab ly t he t wo v ictor ies t ype o f A .D . 3 41-8 a nd t he c o in s er ies was r educed t o at r ick le a f ter Magnen t ius ; b oth Magnen t ius a nd t he i m med iate ly p reced ing F e l T e mpPhoen ix t ype a re r epresen ted b y as ing le s pec imen . T here i s t hen a g ap n o t as ing le i rregu lar F e l T emp f a l len h orse man - u n t i l t he V a len t in ian ic p er iod r epresen ted b y o n ly t hree c o ins.

F or t he f ina l p er iod , h ad t he v i l la

p roper a lone b een e xcava ted t he t o ta l o f s ix T heodos ian c o ins w ou ld h ave b een d rast ica l ly r educed . One o n ly w as f ound more o r l ess s trat if ied i n t he u pper d ebr is l eve ls , b u t a t l eas t t hree w ere f rom t he g enera l a rea o f t he f orecour t wh ich h ad b een l arge ly s tr ipped d ur ing t he e xcavat ion . T h is p o in ter t o al a te f our th c en tury p resence o n t he s i te wh ich d oes n o t s ee m t o i nc lude o ccupat ion o f t he v i l la may b e p ara l le led e lsewhere. T hus a t G adebr idge where more o r l ess c omp lete e xcava t ion o f av i l la c o mp lex w h ich i nc luded B a ths , a nc i l lary b u i ld ings , y ards , e tc., h as b een a ch ieved , s evera l p o in ts o f s im i lar ity w i th G rea t We ldon a ppear . F irst ly t he r e la t ive g ap i n t he f our th c en tury s er ies f o l low ing t he e ar l ier F e l T e mp a nd t he Magnen t ian i ssues ; t h is s ee ms t o b e ar ea l g ap n o t j ust t he f a l l ing o f f i n t he c o in s upp ly a nd/or c o inloss n o ted b y Mrs. Rave tz .1 2 As a f eature o f c er ta in s i tes t h is p heno menon wou ld b ear a c loser e xam inat i on b o th f ro m t he h istor ica l a nd e cono m ic p o in t o f v iew a s we l l a s f ro m t he p ure ly n um is ma t ic s tandpo in t .

Wh i lst t he h is togra m f or He me l H e mps tead

( Gadebr idge ) s i te s hows , e ven w ithou t t he u se o f Mrs. Ravetz 's f ormu la , t ha t i tf a l ls i n to h er c lass A , t he p er iod d iv is ions c annot r easonab ly b e r ed uced t o d is t ingu ish b etween t he p re-353 F e l T e mp c o inage a nd t he s ubsequen t ' f a l len h orse man ' t ype , u n less d e ta i led a na lyses a re p rov ided a s Mrs. Ravetz d oes f or c er ta in s i tes. N orma l ly r eference t o t he l i st i t se l f w i l l h ave t o b e made. A t b oth Grea t We ldon a nd G adebr idge c o in d epos its w ere f ound , i n o ne c ase a h oard a nd i n t he o ther a p oss ib le v i t ive d epos it , a nd t h is g ap i s emphas ised b y t he f act t ha t wh i le b oth a re made u p a l mos t e xc lus ive ly o f Constan t in ian c o inage a nd b o th n u mber o ver 1 50 c o ins n e i ther c on ta ins a s ing le f a l len h orse man , t he s er ies e nd ing i n o ne c ase i n A .D . 3 50 w ith 9 P hoen ix t ypes ) a nd t he o ther i n A .D . 3 53 ( 2 t ypes o f Magnen t ius ). ( Fig . I I a ,b ). T he i m med ia te ly s ubsequen t h is tor ies o f t he s i tes a re n o t i den t ica l i n t ha t n on-nu m is ma t ic e v idence s ee ms t o s uggest g enera l a ct iv ity i n t he V a len t in ian ic P er iod i n o ne c ase , whereas a t G adebr idge l a ter a c t iv ity s ee ms t o h ave c en tred o n m inor s tructures b eyond t he v i l la.

T he s econd p o in t o f

c ompar ison wh ich , a s n o ted , d epended o n c omp le te a rea e xcava t ion i s t he

6 1

s ign if icance o f t he f i nd s po ts o f t he r e la t ively f ew T heod is ian P E 4 s a t G adebr idge .

T hese c lear ly i nd icated a s a t We ldon t ha t s uch l im i ted a c t iv-

i t y a s t here was , e xcluded t he v i l la a nd p robab ly t he o ther b u i ld ings a s we l l . T he c o mpar ison a bove i s b e tween s i tes s how ing c on for m ity i n s evera l r espects a l though w idely s epara ted g eograph ica l ly - t here i s n o th ing s urp r is ing i n t h is , b u t t he c o mpara t ive s tudy o f f ur ther s i tes s hou ld l ead t o t he b u i ld ing u p o f ap icture o f v i l la s i tes w i th s im i lar h is tor ies .

Converse ly

n e ighbour ing s i tes, f or e xa mp le , G adebr idge a nd Boxmoor 8 c an y ield s trong ly c on tras t ing p eaks o f c o in l oss .

Aga in t h is i s at ru is m b u t It h ink

i ti s t rue t ha t r e la t ive ly l i t t le t ime o r e f for t h as b een g iven t o g a ther ing a nd c o l lat ing t he c o in e v idence f ro m a l arg e s er ies o f sma ller s i tes .

A l low ing

f or t he f acts a lready men t ioned t ha t t here s hou ld b e e nough c o ins t o f or m s ome s or t o f o p in ion , a nd t hat w e mus t a ccep t t ha t much i s u nknowab le o f t he h is tor ica l c ircums tances d e ter m in ing t he i nd iv idua l p a t terns o f c o in l oss, i t s hou ld n ever theless b e p oss ib le t o d iscern c er ta in p a t terns o f c o ina ge p erhaps r ef lec t ing t ypes o f o ccupa t ion .

T hus o f t wo n e ighbour ing s i tes

o ne may b e c o mp le men tary t o t he o ther f or t he s i mp le r eason t ha t o ne v i l la o r f ar m may r ep lace a no ther a s t he c en tre o f a n e s ta te . I t may wel l b e t ha t f ur ther l igh t c an a lso b e t hrown o n t he r e la t ionsh ip o f v ar ious s i tes wh ich may b e l i nked b y v ir tue o f e cono m ic o r a dm in is tra t ive f unct ion .

I th as b een p os tu la ted t ha t ar e la t ionsh ip e x is ted b e tween t he

E as t Yorksh ire s ignal s ta t ions , Ma l ton , a nd t he v i l la a t L ang ton , L ang ton p oss ib ly p rov id ing p r i mary f ood s tu f fs , Mahon b e ing t he market ing c en tre a nd t he a ux i ll iar ies a t t he s igna l s ta t ions b e ing t he c onsu mers .

T he c o in-

a ge a t L ang ton , wh ich s hows a v as t T heodos ian p reponderance , c on tras ts w i th Mahon b u t i s s im i lar i n s o me r espects t o t ha t f ound o n t he s igna l s tat ions.

T he s tory d oes n o t s ee m q u i te c ons is ten t w i th t he f acts a nd f ur ther

work o n t h is impor tan t a nd i n teres t ing g roup o f s i tes , t o wh ich mus t b e a dded t he v il la a t B ead la m wh ich p roduced a c o in-l is t c o mparab le t o L ang ton , i s i n h and a nd may s ugges t t ha t t here w as a d if feren t e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion . T he a b i l i ty t o c o mpare a nd c on tras t s i tes a s i n t h is c ase h as d epended o n t he a vai lab i l ity o f r e l iab le c o in-l is ts a nd t he c umu lat ive e v idence wh ich c an b e d educed p rov ides o ne o f t he s tronges t a rgumen ts f or a c ons is ten t , c lear , a nd a dequa te r ecord o f t he c o ins wh ich must b e i n terpre ted a ga ins t t he r emainder o f t he a rchaeo log ical e v idence .

I n t he c ase o f t he Yorksh ire s i tes ,

i ti s t he c o ins wh ich a ppear t o me t o b e d ecis ive .

6 2

FOOTNOTES

1 .

B . H . S t . J . O 'Nei l, ' Co ins a nd Archaeo logy i n Br i tain , 1 936 ', Arch . J . XCI I , 1 935 .

2 .

A l ison Ravetz, ' The F our th Cen tury I nf lat ion a nd Ro mano-Br i t ish Co in F inds ', Nu m . Chron . S even th S er ies , I V , 1 964 .

3 .

R . E . M. a nd T . V . Whee ler , ' Veru la m ium - A Be lg ic a nd t wo Ro man C i t ies ', S oc. An t iq . Res . Rep . No . X I , 1 936.

4 .

I . M. S tead , ' Veru la m ium 1 966-68 ( I n ter im ), An t iqu i ty XL1 11 ( 1969) , 4 5 , a nd Appendix t o t he a bove b y P . E . Curnow a nd R . Reece .

5 .

W. P erc iva l Weste l l , ' The Ro mano-Br it ish Ce metery a t Ba ldock , Her ts ', Arch.J. 1 , 200 (YLLL , 1 931, p p. 2 47-301.

6 .

J . R . S . 4 4 ( 1954 ) , p p . 9 3, 9 5 ;

4 5 ( 1955 ) , 1 35 ;

4 6 ( 1956 ) , p p . 1 33-4 ,

4 7 ( 1957) , p p . 2 13-4 . 7 .

Dav id S . Nea l, 1 963-68 . XXX [. s i te.

8 .

For thco m ing S oc. An t iq . Res . Rep . No .

Iwou ld l ike t o t hank t he a uthor f or a l low ing me t o d iscuss t h is

I n ter i m Repor t , Br i tann ia I , 1 971, p . 2 70 .

6 3

CLUSTERING OF CO IN F INDS I N BRITA IN ,

FRANCE AND I TALY

b yR ichard Reece

I n v o lu me i v o f Br itann ia Is um mar ised t he w ork o f s evera l y ears o n g roups o f c o ins f ro m s i tes a nd museums i n t he N orth Wes tern p rov inces o f t he Ro man Emp ire.

As t h is was t he f ina l s tage o f p res-

e n ta t ion Ia ccepted t he r eg iona l b oundar ies b y wh ich Ih ad c o l lected t he ma ter ia l -S ou thern France , Nor thern I t a ly , Nor thern France a nd t he Rh ine , a nd Br ita in ;a nd made a l l c o mpar isons a nd c on tras ts b etween t hese r eg ions.

T h is p iece o f work i s t he f irst e ssay i n a na lys is o f t he

ma ter ia l wh ich means t ha t t he c luster ing o f d if feren t g roups o f c o ins w ithi n r eg ions mus t b e e xp lored , a nd t he r eg iona l b oundar ies must b e b roken d own i n o rder t o f ind c lus ter ings o f g roups a cross r eg ions. may s ee m t o b e o f p re mature b ir th ;

T h is p aper

Iam aware o f i t s t en tat ive n ature

b ecause Ic an a lready s ee a l ong s uccess ion o f s teps i n a na lys is s tretchi ng a head .

Y et t here i s g ood r eason t o e xp la in t hese f irst s teps c are-

f u l ly a nd c lear ly a t t h is s tage f or w ithout t h is i n troduct ion t here i s t he v ery r ea l d anger o f f u ture w ork a scend ing i nto a me thodolog ica l s tra tos phere i n to wh ich v ery f ew w ou ld f ee l i tp rof i tab le t o f o l low .

My a im

t herefore i s t o e xp la in my methods a t g reater l eng th t han my c onclus ions ; t he f ormer h ave b een s crut in ised b y f r iends a nd f ound w or thy o f f ur ther a pp l icat ion , t he l at ter a re t ota l ly d ependen t o n f u ture r e f ine men ts. A s u i tab le s tar t ing p oin t i s F ig . 1 , a lready p ub l ished i n Br i tann ia , b u t r epea ted h ere , s l igh t ly a l tered , f or e ase o f r eference.

T he c o ins f ro m

my f our r eg ions h ave b een d rawn i n f our c o lu mns e ach o f wh ich i s d iv ided i n to f our p hases.

Phase A c on ta ins a l l c o ins u p t o A .D . 2 59 , Phase B

c o ins f ro m 2 59 t o 2 94 , Phase C c o ins f ro m 2 94 t o 3 30 , a nd Phase D c o ins f ro m 3 30 t o t he e nd o f mass p roduct ion a bout 4 02.

Each b lock o f t he

d iagram r epresen ts t he a verage p ercen tage o f c o ins i n t ha t r eg ion wh ich f a l ls i n to t ha t p hase.

I th as b een s uggested t ha t t he p a ttern s hown i n

F ig . 1i s warped b y t he u nder-represen ta t ion o f p hase A i n Br i ta in . F ig . 2t herefore s hows t he p a t tern wh ich emerges i fp hase A i s r e moved f ro m t he r eckon ing b u t , a l though p hases B , Ca nd D a re n ow more e ven ly r epresen ted i n a l l f our g roups , t he B r it ish f l oru i t i n p hase D r e ma ins t he most o bv ious p o in t o f t he d iagra m. T ab les Ia nd I g ive t he n umer ica l v a lues e xpressed i n F igs. 1 a nd 2 .

6 4

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T he n ex t s tep i s t o u se t he p hases t o e xp lore c luster ings o f s i tes w ith in e ach r eg ion .

T hus i fw e c ons ider t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he c o ins i n

p hase A a t e ach s i te i n Br i ta in t o t he c o ins i n p hase B w e migh t f ind t ha t s o me s i tes a re c lose t o o ne a nother , a re r e la ted i n o ne way , wh i le a s econd c luster o f s i tes a re r e la ted i n a nother way .

Wi th l uck , a l l s i tes

i n Br ita in migh t f a l l e as i ly i n to o ne c luster o r t he o ther - a nd t he way w ou ld b e c lear f or t he s uggest ion o f t wo c a tegor ies o f s i tes w i th in a s ing le r eg ion .

T ab le I I g ives t he i n forma t ion n ecessary f or t h is a na lys is i n

Br i ta in .

T he c o ins i n e ach g roup h ave b een e xpressed a s p ercen tages i n

Phases A , B , Ca nd D .

T hus a t Can terbury ( 2 ) p hase A c on ta ined 9 .9

p er c en t o f t he c o ins , B -4 1 p er c en t , C -3 .3 p er c en t a nd D -4 4.8 p er c en t .

T he c o in g roups a nd t he n umbers b y wh ich t hey a re i den t if ied

o n t ab les a nd d iagra ms a re g iven i n T ab le I V. B e fore e xpress ing t he f igures o n T ab le I I o n ad iagram i ti s c onveni en t t o c onstruct a nother t ab le wh ich s hows h ow e ach v a lue d ev iates f ro m t he r eg iona l mean - t hus Can terbury i s 3 .9 p er c en t b e low t he Br it ish a verage i n Phase A , 1 3.3 p er c en t a bove i n Phase B , 1 .9 p er c en t b e low i n Phase C a nd 7 .7 p er c en t b e low i n Phase D .

T o a vo id a c onges t ion

o f f igures wh ich wou ld d eter a ma jor ity o f r eaders a l l s ubsequen t t ab les h ave b een om it ted .

T hey c an a l l b e p resen ted f ro m t he f igures p r in ted

i n Br i tann ia v o l. i v b y as i mp le p rocess o f a dd i t ion a nd s ub tract ion ; t he o n ly v a lues wh ich i nvo lve a ny ma jor c a lcu la t ions a re t he means wh ich a re g iven i n T ab le I I . We n ow h ave f our v a lues f or e ach g roup a nd c an p lot a d iagram. I f we u se t he t wo a xes o f g raph p aper w e c an p lo t t wo v a lues a t o nce a nd s how t he r e la t ionsh ip o f c o ins o f Phase A t o c o ins o f Phase B a t a l l

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Ad iagra m s im i lar t o f ig . 1c ou ld b e c onstructed f or t he h oards d epos ited i n a ny r e ign .

T h is S everan e xa mp le h as b een i l lustrated b ecause i tp u ts f or-

ward a l l t he n ecessary p o in ts i n t he c learest f orm , b u t t he p o in ts t o b e d rawn f ro m i t migh t b e d rawn f rom a ny o r a l l o f t he o ther p oss ib le d iagra ms. i )

T he t ab les a nd t he d iagra m make i tq u i te c lear t hat t here i s s uch a

t h ing a s a' norma l ' S everan s i lver h oard . i )

Wh i le i t may b e c onceded t ha t i ti s p oss ib le t o d ef ine t he t yp ica l

S everan ( or Hadr ian ic , C laud ian o r T etr ican ) h oard , f i rst b y as i mp le d iag ram , a nd t hen i n n umer ica l t erms , i t may b e p o in ted o ut t ha t t here a re e xcep t ions a nd t ha t a t a l l p er iods t hese e xcept ions s how u p most c lear ly i n t he p er iod i n wh ich t he h oard i s p resu med t o h ave b een b ur ied .

T hus i n

f ig . 1t he h oards f ro m Carrawburgh , Owston F erry a nd A berge le h ave v ari ed a nd h igh p ercen tages o f c o ins o f S everus.

T h is a ccords we l l w i th t he

s uggest ion t ha t most h oards c on ta in c urren t c o in a nd s uggests s o me o f t he p oss ib le mechan is ms o f c om merce.

I n a n e cono m ic a rea c lose t o t he i n-

c om ing b a tches o f c o in i n tended p resumab ly f or mi l itary a nd a dm in istrat ive p ay , a nd s tate d eb ts a nd p ro jects , p aymen ts migh t b e i n c o in a lready i n c ircu la t ion o r i n n ew c o in b e ing p u t i n to c ircu la t ion.

We h ave n o h oards o f

s i lver c o ins i n o ur s a mp le i n t h is , o r a ny o ther p er iod b efore A .D . 2 50 c o mpr is ing o n ly n ew ly min ted c o ins , b ut wha t w e d o h ave i s as uccess ion o f h oards i n wh ich s uch c o ins a re p rogress ive ly d i luted b y t he s tandard c ircul at ing c o inage.

T hus Carrawburgh h as 4 8 ( 73% ) S everan c o ins a nd 1 8 ( 27% )

' genera l ' c o ins , B r is to l h as 4 80 ( 33% ) S everan c o ins a nd H and ley h as o n ly 2( 0 .5% ).

Numer ica l ly s peak ing Carrawburgh i s ' near ' t o ab atch o f n ew ly

min ted c o ins , Br isto l r epresen ts Carrawburgh when t he n ew c o ins h ave c hanged h ands s evera l t imes more w ith t he i nev itab le a dd it ions a nd s ubt rac t ions , a nd H and ley r epresen ts t he g enera l c o inage i n to wh ich S everan c o ins s low ly p erco la ted . I n o ur p resen t s tate o f i gnorance a ny more ' soc ia l ' e xp lana t ion must b e s trong ly r es isted .

T hus Carrawburgh i nv ites a l ink w ith mi l itary p ay , a nd

o n s im i lar r eason ing B r is to l s hou ld r epresen t a dm in istra t ive p ay .

B eyond

t he p o in t a lready made , t ha t t he B r isto l h oard may h ave b een s evera l t imes d i lu ted s ince l eav ing a ny o f f ic ia l c o f fers , i t must b e emphasised t ha t w e n eed f ar more o b ject ive h oard a na lyses b efore w e c an p u t f orward a ny s ound i deas o n t he s peed a nd d is tance o f move men t o f Ro man c o ins d ur ing t he ir mone tary l i ves .

Br isto l migh t e qua l ly o r ig inate f ro m a d etachmen t s en t o u t

8 1

f rom York t o b uy i n t he S outh- West d ur ing a w in ter o f t he S everan c ampa igns o r al oca l v i l la owner who h ad j ust s o ld p ar t o f h is e sta te t o ar e t ired L ondon merchan t o ne o f whose w ea lthy c ustomers w as h igh o n t he s ta f f o f t he p rovi nc ia l g overnor .

T he e xamp les a re n o t i n tended f or d iscuss ion b u t t o p o in t

o u t t he i n f in ite v ar ia t ions o n a ny a t temp t t o e xp la in t he c ompos i t ion o f a h oard a nd t he p o in t less n a ture o f s uch a t te mpts when o ur k now ledge i s n ot e ven w e l l e nough d eve loped t o p re fer o ne e xp lana t ion t o a nother . i i ) I fo ur s amp le o f S everan h oards d oes r ef lect t he g enera l c o inage i n c ircu lat ion a t a mo men t i n t ime , a nd i fi ti s a greed t ha t t he h oards w i th h igh a nd v ar ied r epresen ta t ion o f c o ins o f S everus s how n ew c o ins o n t he ir way i n to t he g enera l p oo l o f c o inage , t hen s ome i mpor tan t i fq ua l i f ied c onc lus ions may b e d rawn o n t he c o ins most l i ke ly t o b e l ost a t a ny g iven p er iod . A t t he a ccess ion o f S everus t he g enera l p oo l o f c ircu la t ing c o ins w ou ld h ave n o c o ins o f t he n ew Emperor .

Wi th in a y ear t roops w ou ld h ave b een p a id i n n ew

c o in , s ums o f money c on ta in ing n ew c o ins w ou ld h ave b een a ccumu lated , a nd S everan c o ins w ou ld h ave c o me i n to g enera l c ircu la t ion . By t he e nd o f S everus ' r e ign a l l t he c o ins t o b e s truck i n h is n ame wou ld h ave l e f t t he min t a nd w ith in p erhaps o ne y ear t hey w ou ld a l l h ave l e f t o f f ic ia l h ands f or t he f irst t ime.

T he p ropor t ion o f S everan c o ins i n t he p oo l w ou ld t herefore r ise

t hrough S everus ' r e ign a nd c on t inue t o r ise w e l l i n to t he r e ign o f h is s uccess ors a s b u lk s ums o f money , s uch a s t he B r isto l h oard p assed i n to a nd o u t o f c ircu lat ion a nd b ecame d i lu ted b y t he p oo l -a t t he s ame t ime e nr ich ing t he p oo l i n r ecen t c o ins. T he i nev itab le r esu lt i s t ha t t he c o ins o f ag iven Emperor w i l l n ever s tand a t t he ir h ighest p ropor t ion i n t he g enera l c o inage u nt i l w e l l a f ter t hat Emperor 's d ea th - p erhaps s o me 2 0 o r 3 0 y ears l a ter . T h is t heoret ica l mode l i s b orne o u t b y t he S everan d iagram a nd i t s f e l lows wh ich a re n ot i l lustrated - t hus Vespas ian r eaches a p eak u nder T ra jan ( 15 t o 4 0 p er c en t o f e ach h oard ), T ra jan i s a t h is h ighest v a lues ( 20 t o 5 0 p er c en t o f e ach h oard ) u nder H adr ian a nd An ton inus P ius , a nd S everus i s c ons is ten t ly more c o mmon ( 20 t o 5 0 p er c en t o f e ach h oard ) t han h is s uccessors u p t o 2 38. T he v i ta l p o in t h ere i s n ot s urv iva l -t h is d epends o n t he r e la ti ve v o lume o f c o inage s truck i n as equence o f r e igns , b u t i ncep t ion , a nd b oth f ro m t he t heoret ica l a nd p ract ica l s ide t he g enera l p icture s hows t ha t ac o in w i l l o n ly b e a t i t s most c o m mon s ome t ime a f ter i t s i ssue h as c eased . T here i s as econd method o f a na lys ing e ar ly s i lver h oards wh ich c an g ive f ur ther i n for ma t ion o n t he p rocess o fu se , l oss a nd was tage o f c o ins ; h ere t he c o ins o f o ne d ate a re e xa m ined t hroughou t t he h oards i n wh ich t hey o ccur . T hus c o ins o f An ton inus P ius o ccur i n h oards d epos ited b etween 1 38 a nd 2 68. T he p ercen tage o f c o ins o f P ius i n h oards b ur ied i n h is r e ign o r t ha t o f Co m modus o r S everus A lexander c an b e f ound a nd p lot ted i n ad iagra m s uch a s f ig . 2 . I n t he s a mp le o f h oards t ha t h as b een s tud ied t here w ere 1 2 h oards d epos i ted u nder An ton inus P ius , 2 1 u nder Marcus Aure l ius , 4u nder Co m modus , 7u nder S everus , 3f ro m 2 11 t o 2 22 , 9u nder S everus A lexander o f wh ich 3 h ad n o c o ins o f P ius , 3f rom 2 35 t o 2 38, 7 f rom 2 38 t o 2 53 o f wh ich f i ve h ad n o c o ins o f P ius , 4u nder G a l l ienus a nd Va ler ian , a nd 3 u nder P ostumus - b o th g roups h av ing t wo h oards w h ich h ad n o c o in o f P ius. F ig . 2s trong ly s uppor ts t he c onc lus ions d rawn f rom t he s amp le o f

8 2

D ENAR I I O F ANTON INUS P IUS I N HOARDS C F 1 3 8 T O 2 68

F IG . 2

• •

• • •• • ••

•• •

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•• •1 • • • • . •• • , 0•g . 0 .• • . • •

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c ent = Z _ C c,

v ) "

C f ,

= , ,G I ) . L . ,i n .




80 2 5

e dr , . L 3 0 i = C )

. , ° c 2 71 Z 1 -

50

1 00

••• ••• 1 70

( r )

c 0 a =

z

C c o e L j i

• • 21

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( I )

t r . )A DD L . ).— L .7 1 3

t 5 .=.cf 0 E E

3)

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f L n , m r _ . L i tna) tn(t) 8 3

• Oa

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I.

11

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C O

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a ) a . )

2 CI-0

N

S everan h oards.

Aga in , t he c o ins o f An ton inus P ius h ave b een t aken a s a

c lear e xa mp le , b u t s im i lar d iagra ms r esu l t f ro m t he s tudy o f a l l o ther c o ins , e xcep t t hose o f t he Repub l ic , a nd s im i lar c onc lus ions may b e d rawn f ro m t he d iagra ms.

T he t wo p o in ts wh ich emerge f ro m f ig . 2a re t he

p eak o f An ton ine c o ins o n ly i n h oards o f Marcus Aure l ius , n ot , i n g enera l , i n h oards o f An ton inus ' own r e ign , a nd t he g radua l d ropp ing o f f o f Anton ine c o ins f ro m 1 80 o nwards.

I th as s o f ar b een t ac it ly a ssu med t ha t a f ter

r each ing a max imum r epresen ta t ion s o met i me a f ter t he e nd o f t heir p er iod o f i ssue a l l c oins wou ld s low ly d rop o u t o f c ircu lat ion b y l oss , c on t inued d i lu t ion b y n ew c o ins , h oard ing , a nd o ther n atura l h azards.

T he p oss ib i l ity

o f d eterm ined w ithdrawa l h as n ot b een c ons idered a nd a ny c o m men t i s b es t l ef tu n t i l t he d iagra m o f t he r epresen tat ion o f c oins o f t he Repub l ic i n l ater h oards h as b een e xa m ined . T he f irst p erson t o l ook q uan t i ta t ive ly a t t he o ccurrence o f c o ins o f t he Ro man Repub l ic i n h oards b ur ied d ur ing t he Ro man Emp ire was B o l in i n h is h igh ly s t i mu lat ing , b u t much ma l igned , w ork o n t he f i sca l a nd e cono m ic a spects o f Ro man c o ins.

Wh i le B o l in 's e rrors a nd f l igh ts o f f ancy h ave

d rawn u nnecessar i ly h arsh c o m men t h is p os it ive c on tr ibu t ions , s uch a s h is e v idence f or a c hange i n s i lyer s tandard u nder T ra jan , a nd h is c oncep t ( i f n ot h is a pp l icat ion ) o f o ver-va lua t ion , h ave b een a dop ted i n to t he o r thodox c anon o f n um is ma t ics w ithou t c o m men t .

B o l in f ound , f ro m a s tudy o f s i lver

h oards i n E urope , t ha t c o ins o f t he Repub l ic o ccur c o m mon ly u p t o t he r e ign o f T ra jan b u t a re r are t herea f ter ,

T he f ew i ssues wh ich s urv ive

t he r e ign o f T ra jan t o b e i ncorpora ted i n l a ter h oards a re p redo m inan t ly c o ins o f Mark An tony 's l eg ionary i ssue o f 3 2 B .C.

U s ing t he r a ther u n in-

f orma t ive p hrase i n D io t ha t T ra jan c a l led i n t he worn c o inage a nd r emin ted i t , a dd ing t o i tt he k now ledge o b ta ined f ro m h oards a nd t he i n teres ti ng f act t ha t when t he Repub l ican i ssues d isappear u nder T ra jan a t oken s e t o f ' restored ' Repub l ican c o ins were i ssued , B o l in made o u t ac ase f or a l ower ing o f t he s i lver s tandard t o ap o in t wh ich made i tp rof itab le t o w i thd raw most Repub l ican i ssues wh ich c on ta ined o ver 9 0 p er c en t o f s i lver b u t n o t t hose o f Mark An tony wh ich P l iny ( and p erhaps o thers ) h ad e rrone ous ly r egarded a s v ery b ase. F ig . 2s hows t he r esu lts o b ta ined f ro m a l arger s a mp le o f h oards t han B o l in u sed , b u t i n t h is c ase a l l f ro m B r i ta in . T he c on trast w ith t he g radu a l d isappearance o f c o ins o f An ton inus P ius i s r e markab le , a nd t he c ase f or w i thdrawa l o f t hese c o ins u nder T ra jan s ee ms u nanswerab le.

E ven

h ere t here i s af ur ther p o in t wor th s tudy , f or t he H adr ian ic h oards s ee m t o f a l l i n to t hree g roups - 5 h oards w i thou t Repub l ican c o ins , 4h oards w ith t he l ow p ercen tage o f Repub l ican c o ins c haracter is t ic o f l ater h oards , a nd 4h oards w i th t he h igh p ercen tage o f Repub l ican c o ins c haracter ist ic o f e ar l ier h oards.

T he h oards w ith t he ir r e ferences a nd d e ta i ls a re :-

8 4

Na me

Coun ty

Reference

Rep.

T ota l

Co ins

Co ins

D ewsbury

Y orks.

J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies 1 925 , p .227

-

2 4

Ma l lers tang

Cu mbs.

T rans. Cu mb . a nd West .

-

1 38

Arch . S oc. XXV I I , p .205 Grea t Chesters

Cu mbs.

Archaeo log ia A e l iena

-

9

-

7

-

9

1 902 , p .62 C orbr idge

Nor thu mbs.

Archaeo log ia A e l iena 3 V I I I , p .234

Brecon

Mon .

Excavat ions a t Brecon G aer , p .101

Swaby

L incs.

Nu m is mat ic Chron ic le ,

6

1 78

1 934 , p .216 S ou thsea (? )

Han ts.

Nu m is ma t ic Chron ic le ,

1 3

6 77

1 911, p .42 Wroxe ter I

S a lop.

Wroxeter Excava t ions

1

2 3

1

2 0

1 914 , I I , p . ' 71 Wroxe ter I

S a lop.

Wroxeter Excavat ions 1 914 , I I , p .71

T horngra f ton

Northu mbs.

Nu m is ma t ic Chron ic le

1 1

6 0

1 7

2 9

1 872, p .63 B irdoswa ld

Cu mbs.

T rans. Cu mb. a nd West Arch . S oc. XXX I , p .130

Veru la m iu rn

H er ts.

Veru la m iu m Repor t p .17

2 0

4 1

Ormsk irk

L ancs.

Nu m is mat ic Chron ic le

2 8

1 19

1 948, p .232

T he l ast f our h oards w i th t he ir h igh p ercen tages o f Repub l ican c o ins c ou ld b e e xp la ined away a s s ums o f money p u t t ogether b efore T ra jan 's c a l l f or s uch c o ins a nd n ot s ub ject t o e xam ina t ion p r ior t o f ina l b ur ia l i n t he r e ign o f Hadr ian .

B u t s uch d e ta i led e xp lana t ions n eed t o b e b ased o n d e ta i led e v i-

d ence , s uch a s t he c ond it ion o f t he d i f feren t c o ins i n e ach h oard , wh ich i s n ot a va i lab le , a nd i ti s f ar b et ter s i mp ly t o a l low t hat wh i le t he o vera l l c on t inen ta l e v idence q uoted b y B o l in d e monstra tes a w ithdrawa l o f c o inage , s uch a measure h ad n ot f i l tered a l l Repub l ican c o ins o u t o f c ircu la t ion i n Br ita in u n t i l s ome t h ir ty y ears h ad p assed . N ow t ha t w e k now wha t p icture w ithdrawa l s ee ms t o p resen t i n o ur h oard a na lys is i t s ee ms a ccurate t o s ay t ha t s ince t he h oards o f n o o ther p er iod s how s harp c hanges i n c ompos i t ion o f h oards , t here i s s trong e v idence a ga ins t a ny f ur ther w ithdrawa ls u nknown f ro m h istor ica l s ources.

8 5

Ear ly b ronze h oards As a lready men t ioned a bove t he s amp le o f h oards c ons ist ing ma in ly o f Ro man b ronze c o ins s truck b efore A .D . 3 00 h as o ne p ar t icu lar ly i n teres ti ng g roup .

Ou t o f t he s a mp le o f 2 0 h oards n o f ewer t han 8 w ere d epos ited

a f ter A .D . 2 40 - t hese w i l l b e f ur ther e xa m ined .

T he o ther 1 2 h oards

a re s paced o u t t hrough t he f irst a nd s econd c entur ies g iv ing a t most t hree h oards ( Claud ius I )t o a ny o ne r e ign .

S ince t here a re n o t e nough h oards

t o f orm a ny r easoned c onc lus ion a bou t t he c o mpos i t ion o f b ronze c o inage a t a ny o ne mo men t t he o n ly p oss ib le c onc lus ion i s t he s ugges t ion t ha tu p t o t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury n ew b ronze c o inage r eached Br ita in w i th l i t t le d e lay .

T hus h oards o f wh ich t he l atest c o ins w ere s truck u nder

Marcus Aure l ius h ave a f u l l s equence s tretch ing b ack t o C laud ius I( e .g . Wh itchurch , V .C. H . Ox fordsh ire , p p.325 f ) a nd t he s a me i s t rue f or h oards r each ing t o t he r e ign o f S everus ( e .g . Owston F erry , Numis ma t ic Chron ic le 1 953 p .139 ).

I n t he a bsence o f a ny s igns t o t he c on trary i ti s

t herefore r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t b ronze c o inage was e n ter ing B r i ta in t hroughout t he f irst a nd s econd c en tur ies , b e ing u sed t here , l os t a nd h oarded . H oards d epos ited a f ter A .D . 2 40 :-

Na me

Coun ty

Re ference

Number o f C o ins

I l chester

S o merset

Nu m is mat ic Chron ic le 1 886 ,

2 93

p .96 Ham H i l l

S o merse t

Nu m is ma t ic Chron ic le 1 949,

7 72

p .173 A lces ter

Warw icks.

Nu m is mat ic Chron ic le 1 969, p .123

5 0 ( p lus 9 5 An t )

Gare

Cornwa l l

Num is ma t ic Chron ic le 1 970,

1 ,018

p .181

( p lus 4 7 AR )

L eysdown

Ken t

Nu m is ma t ic Chron ic le 1 970 ,

4 98

p .189 Ramsga te

Ken t

Num is mat ic Chron ic le 1 970 ,

2 7

p .199 Ba mburgh

Nor thu mbs.

Archaeo log ia Ae l iana , I ,

2 2

1 958 , p .14 P eterborough

Nor than ts.

B r it ish Num is m. J ourna l , 1 904 , p .351

8 6

1

Vespas ian

I l ch-

H am

A lc-

e ster

H i l l

e ster

-

5

-

G are

5

L eys- Ra ms-

B a m- Peter-

d own

g ate

b urgh b orough

7

-

-

-

a nd T itus D om it ian

1 0

1 3

-

1 8

1 2

-

-

-

Nerva a nd

4 4

6 6

4

6 5

4 1

-

-

-

1 36

2 10

6

1 62

1 32

3

1

1

5 3

1 98

1 4

2 30

9 4

6

2

3

4 6

2 02

1 4

3 66

1 55

7

5

4

9

1 24

4 3

9

2

-

-

2 3

6

-

2

-

1

1 5

4

1

-

1

T ra jan Hadr ian Anton inus P ius Marcus Aure l ius C o m moch is

3

S ep t im ius

-

4 6 8

S everus S everus

-

1 4

A lexander 2 35-253

1

7

-

6

2

-

-

-

P ostumus

-

3

2

4

2

1

-

-

O thers

-

-

-

-

-

-

9G a l l- 1

( Rad iate

i enus ,

C laud-

B i l lon )

1Aur-

i us I

e l ian

1 Cara us ius

T he p a t tern o f c o inage s hows t hrough t he f igures i n av ery o bv ious way , f or a l l t hese h oards w ere d epos ited a round t he y ear 2 60 , y et n one o f t he m h as a s much a s 1 0 p er c en t o f i t s t o ta l made u p o f b ronze c o ins s truck b etween 2 00 a nd 2 60.

T he l ike l ihood i s t ha t b ronze c o inage i n

t h ird c en tury Br ita in was made u p o f a ma jor ity o f o ld a nd worn c o ins a nd i ti s v ery d i f f icu lt t o a ccoun t f or t h is b y a ny e xp lanat ion o ther t han a s eri ous f au l t i n t he s upp ly o f n ew ly min ted c o ins f ro m t he ma in land o f E urope. I th as a lready b een a rgued ( p . 8 2 )t hat h oard e v idence s hows a g rea ter p ropor t iona l v o lu me o f c o inage o f a ny Emperor i n t he g enera l c ircu la t ion p oo l o f h is s uccessor ( e .g . An ton inus P ius r eaches h is h ighes t p ercen tage v o lume o f t he c o inage i n t he r e ign o f Marcus Aure l ius ).

T he e ight h oards

a na lysed a bove s how t hat a c ons iderab le n u mber o f , s ay , w orn s es ter t i i o f Hadr ian were s t i l l i n c ircu la t ion c irca 2 50 ;

t hey s ee m t o h ave f ormed

f ro m t en t o t h ir ty p er c en t o f t he b ronze c o inage o f t ha t d a te.

I ft he c o ins

o f Hadr ian d epos ited a t v ar ious t imes i n o ur s a mp le o f t wen ty h oards a re a dded t ogether , t hen 1 46 w ere d epos ited b e fore A .D . 2 20 a nd 7 11 a f ter.

8 7

Wh i le i ti s n ot p erm iss ib le t o d raw n umer ica l c onc lus ions o n t he p robabi l ity o f s i te l osses f ro m h oard ma ter ia l , t here d oes s ee m t o b e av ery s trong l i ke l ihood t ha t a ma jor ity o f w orn s ester t i i o f H adr ian w ere l os t i n t he mid-th ird c en tury r ather t han a t a ny e ar l ier d ate.

T h is f actor must

o bv ious ly b e b orne i n mind when i n terpret ing t he c o in l oss o n a ny s pec if ic s i te. L a te B ronze Hoards A l though h oards o fb ronze c o ins w ere d epos ited p er iod ica l ly t hroughou t t he f our th c en tury t he o n ly o ccas ion f rom wh ich e nough h oards wh ich h ave b een w e l l p ub l ished a re k nown i s t he l ast p er iod o f Roman c o inage i n t he Wes tern Emp ire , i .e. a f ter A .D . 3 88. F rom t he s amp le o f h oards c o ll ected o n ly a sma l l n umber , 1 7 , a re a va i lab le i n e nough d eta i l f or a na lys is. O ther k nown h oards s uch a s H oards Ia nd I o fR ichborough V g ive c a tego r ies s uch a s " Constan t ius I " - as pan o f 4 8 y ears - wh ich p reven t a ny f ur ther n umer ica l i nvest igat ion .

B u t t he 1 7 h oards r escued f rom p ub l ished

s ources a re o n ly a f ract ion o f t he l a te b ronze h oards wh ich h ave b een e nc oun tered i n e xcava t ions i n B r ita in . A tR ichborough , a s a lready men t ione d , an umber o f T heodos ian h oards w ere r ecogn ised , b u t i ts ee ms v ery l i ke ly f rom t he c o m mon f ind s pots o f t he l a te c o ins t ha t many s ca t tered T heodos ian h oards w ere n ot r ecogn ised b y t he w orkers i n c lear ing t he t ops oi l. I n e xcava t ions s uch a s Can terbury f i ve f our th c en tury h oards w ere f ound , a nd t hree o f t hose a re u sed i n t h is s ect ion ; T hames , t wo , b oth u sed ; s ix ;

a t D orchester o n

a t D orchester , D orset , t wo ;

a t Winchester , t hree ;

a t C irencester ,

a nd t he l i s t c ou ld b e e xpanded w ithou t d if ic-

u lty . Carefu l e xam inat ion o f t he f ind-spo ts o f l a te c o ins o n many l a te Roman s i tes o f ten s hows v ery s trange c oncen tra t ions wh ich a re most e as i ly e xp la ined a s r e ma ins o f ah oard s cat tered i n o r s ince a n t iqu ity . I n s ummary i ts ee ms v ery l ike ly t ha t t he h oard o f c opper c oins l ost , r e jected o r d epos ited a f ter a bou t A .D . 4 00 , i s t he h oard mos t c o mmon ly e ncountered o n Ro man s i tes i n Br i ta in , ( N. B . r ad iate h oards a re f ar l ess c ommon ly f ound o n s i tes ) a nd may e ven tua l ly p rove t o b e t he mos t c o mmon t ype o f Ro man h oard . T h is w ou ld s carce ly b e s urpr is ing f or i ti s t he most o bv ious t ime when money migh th ave b een c ons idered u se less , h idden f or " the t ime b e ing" , a nd n ever r ecovered . T he s even teen h oards s upp le men ted w i th f i ve f rom e xcava t ions a re : Reference

Number o f Co ins

K idd ing ton

Oxon iens ia , I , p .75

1 007

Weymou th

Dorset Archaeo log ica l S oc iety T ransact ions , L I , p .158

4 177

F i ley A

Archaeolog ica l J ourna l , DO ZXD C , p .251

8 8

9 2

Hoard

Number

Reference

o f Co ins F i ley B

1 7

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , L 20, 0 (D ( , p .251

S carborough

4 9

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , L )0 (XD ( , p .251

Nor than ts

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , XC, p .286

7 59

L it t le L ang ford

Num is ma t ic Chron ic le , V I , 1 906 ,

2 99

p .330 1 023

I ck l ingham

ic le , 1 929 , p .319 Num is mat ic Chron

C irencester

ic le , Num is mat ic Chron

1 929, p .332

5 95

Wroxa l l

ic le , 1 933, p .220 Num is mat ic Chron

4 62

Woodbr idge

ic le , 1 935 , p .49 Num is mat ic Chron

4 98

L ax ton

ic le , 1 936 , p .156 Num is mat ic Chron

3 35

War le

946 , p .154 Num is mat ic Chron ic le , 1

2 24

Redenha l l

946 , p .157 Num is ma t ic Chron ic le , 1

1 22

Wive l isco mbe

946 , p .163 Num is mat ic Chron ic le , 1

1 107

B ermondsey

946 , p .167 Num is ma t ic Chron ic le , 1

2 97

Br ind le

946 , p .216 Num is mat ic Chron ic le , 1

2 1

Can terbury 4

. Frere Excava t ions o f Prof . S .S

1 9

Can terbury 5

Excava t ions o f Prof . S .S . Frere

8 4

Canterbury 6

. Frere Excavat ions o f Prof . S .S

2 1

Dorchester o n

. Frere Excavat ions o f Prof . S .S

3 1

Excavat ions o f P ro f . S .S . Frere

4 96

T ha mes A Dorchester o n Tha mes B

T ab le C g ives t he c o mpos it ion o f t he h oards , i n p ercen tages , b roken d own i n to d iv is ions i n wh ich a l l c o ins h ave r ough ly t he s a me modu le e .g . 3 17-330 - AE 3 o f r ough ly 1 8 mm d ia meter, 3 45-348 - AE 4 o f r ough ly 1 4 mm d ia meter . S o me r e marks wh ich c an b e d rawn f ro m t ab le C h ave a lready b een made i n t he c on ten t o f e ar ly s i lver h oards a nd t herefore o n ly n eed b e made b r ief ly . T hus a l though e ach h oard may b e e xpected t o h ave a u n ique h istory t he " nor ma l"

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T heodos ian h oard c an b e d ef ined w i th in f a ir ly c lose l im its a nd t he a bnorma l h oards c an t hen b e s een i n c on trast . T he " norma l" T heodos ian h oard h as ah eavy p reponderance o f c o ins s truck a f ter 3 88 - b etween 8 3 a nd 9 5 p er c en t o f i t s t o ta l , b etween 1 a nd 8 p er c en t o f i t s c o ins w ere s truck b etw een 3 64 a nd 3 78, b etween 1 a nd 5p er c en t b etween 3 48 a nd 3 55 , a nd b etw een 1 a nd 4 p er c en t o f t he h oard a lways r epresen ts t he c o inage o f 3 30 t o 3 41. Regu lar r ad iates o f G a l l ienus a nd C laud ius I o f ten o ccur , a s d o c o ins o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire ; r eformed r ad ia tes s truck a f ter 2 74 a re a lmost u nknown ; a nd Caraus ius a nd A l lectus a re r are. F o l les a re u nknown a tf u l l s ize , v ery r are a t t he ir s econd s ize ( 307-317 ) a nd s parse a t t he ir sma l ler s ize ( 3 17-30 ). Aga inst t h is b ackground o f " norma l i ty" a f ew h oards s tand o u t -t he mos t o bv ious o nes b e ing L it t le L ang ford , War le , Redenha l l a nd Wive l isc o mbe.

T hese h ave h igh v a lues o f e ar l ier c o ins b ecause t hey l ack

T heodos ian c o ins , a nd t h is c an v ery e as i ly b e e xp la ined i ft he h oards w ere d epos i ted s oon a f ter 3 88 b efore T heodos ian c o ins r eached t he ir p eak i n e veryday c o inage. On a na logy w ith t he e ar ly s i lver h oards T heodos ian b ronze c o ins s hou ld r each a p eak o n ly a f ter t he l ast i ssue h ad r eached B r i ta in .

I ft h is i s s o

w e h ave o n ly t hose f ew t ru ly T heodos ian h oards - b ur ied b efore 4 02 - a nd t he ma jor ity , o r t he " norma l" l a te h oard , r epresen t d epos its made s omet ime a f ter t hat d ate. T he t h ird h oard a t Auxerre ( see NC 1 972, 1 62 ) was ah oard o f j ust t h is t ype , a nd c on ta ined a s ing le c o in o f Va len t in ian I I ( La te Ro man B ronze Co inage , P ar t I , n o : 2 606 ) t o b e d ated 4 25-50.

T h is

e v idence , t hough s l igh t , s hows t ha t t he c o inage o f 3 88 t o 4 02 was s t i l l a va i lab le f or , a nd t hough t wor th , h oard ing i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he f i f th c entury . Without r a is ing a s pectre o f i nd iscr im inate c o in u se i n t he f i f th c en tury a b a lanced v iew wh ich t ook c ogn izance o f t he p a ttern o f o ther h oards wou ld p robab ly p u t t he e ra o f h oard ing wh ich p roduced B r it ish l a te b ronze h oards w ith in t he f irst h a lf o f t he c en tury , b u t n ot n ecessar i ly t he f i rst q uar ter .

I t must b e emphas ised t ha t h oard ing , t he u se o f n u mbers o f

c o ins r ather t han i nd iv idua l c o ins , may h ave l asted l onger t han s imp le u se o f s ing le c o ins , b u t ad a te f or t he e nd o f w idespread s ing le c o in u se i n Br i ta in wh ich b oth a grees w ith t he h oard e v idence , s a t isf ies t he a rchaeo lo g ica l p icture , a nd a vo ids s tretch ing c redu l ity i s p robab ly t o b e p u t c irca 4 25. T he r ecogn it ion o f ap ost-co in p hase i n Ro mano-Br it ish a rchaeo logy i s a s y et i n i t s i n fancy , b u t a f ter s uch h eavy c o in u se we l l i n to t he f i f th c en tu ry , p hases wh ich c on t inue Ro man o ccupa t ion a nd p roduce t yp ica l Ro man a r tefacts , b u t n o c o ins , must b e d ated i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he c entury . T he " ta i l" o f e ar l ier c o ins o n t he n uc leus o f T heodos ian c o ins i s a p heno menon wh ich h as a lready r ece ived c ommen t .

I n t h is p art icu lar c ase ,

h owever , i th as i mpor tan t l essons f or t he a rchaeo log is t .

O f t he c o ins

h oarded i n t he f i f th c entury a bou t 8 0 p er c en t w ere m in ted i n 3 88-402, b u t 2 .5 p er c en t w ere min ted i n 3 30-45. T hus o u t o f e very 1 00 c o ins l ost i n t he f i f th c entury t wo o r t hree b e long t o av ery much e ar l ier p er iod .

T he

f ind ing o f as ing le c o in o f 3 30-45 i s t herefore o f v ery d oubt fu l v a lue f or

9 2

t here i s ar easonab le c hance t ha t i tw as d ropped a t a ny th ing u p t o o ne h undred y ears a f ter i t was min ted .

Two c o ins o f t h is d ate a re f ar more

d iagnost ic , a nd f ive , a l l o f 3 30-45 a nd n one o f 3 88-402, h ave v ery l i t t le c hance o f s how ing a t rue f i f th c entury d a te.

T h is i s a n o bv ious p o in t , b u t

i tn eeds t o b e made b ecause t he a rchaeo log is t t ends t o u se h is d a t ing ma te r ia l t o i t s l im it a nd h e n eeds t o k now w hen h e t ransgresses t ha t l im it . F ina l ly , l ate b ronze h oards s tress t he i mpor tance o f t he modu le o f a ny c o in i n i t s l oss o r s urv iva l .

F o l les , l arge b ronzes o f 3 48-50 , o f Magnen-

t i us o r o f J u l ian a re u nknown i n l a te f our th c en tury h oards .

A s t he f o l l is

d ec l ines i n s ize i ti s r epresen ted i n s uch h oards , b u t i th as t o p ass t he p oint a t wh ich i ti s r egu lar ly k nown a s af o l l is ( 330 ) b efore i ti s c o m mon ly r epresen ted .

E ven a f ter t h is d ate i ti s o n ly t he sma l l f au lty o r c op ied

f lans o f 1 4-16 m m d ia meter wh ich s urv ive - n ever t he g ood f lans o f 3 303 33 o f 1 8 m m.

T he o n ly i ssues o f 3 48-55 wh ich s urv ive a re sma l l c op ies , .

a nd t h is i s t rue f or Magnen t ius .

E ven c o ins o f 3 64-78, r egu lar ly s truck

a t c . 1 8 mm , a re r epresen ted b y w orn e xa mp les w ith " frayed" e dges.

T he

o verwhe lm ing v isua l i mpress ion g iven b y t hese h oards i s o ne o f d is ma l u n i form i ty s oon r e in forced o n c loser i nspect ion b y a n a ura o f h eavy w ear a nd s parse ly l eg ib le d eta i l .

I ti s h ard ly s urpr is ing t ha t s uch u npreposses-

s ing h oards h ave b een l i t t le s tud ied e xcep t b y t ha t g ian t o f p ract ica l n umi s ma t ics , B .H . S t .J. O 'Ne i l .

T he l esson , t ha t l arge c o ins d isappeared

q u ick ly f ro m c ircu la t ion when t he ir s uccessors w ere sma l ler , i s p o in ted b y t he r e markab le s ur v iva l r a te o f t he sma l l c o ins s truck f rom 3 56 t o 3 61 w ith t he l egend S PES REIPVBL ICAE.

As s i te f inds i n Eng l ish e xcava t-

i ons o r i n c on t inen ta l museums t hey a re r are , o f ten n ot r epresen ted , y et t hey s urv ive i n t hese h oards a t ar easonab le r ate a nd a re u sua l ly p resen t e ven i n sma l l h oards.

T he o n ly p o in t i n t he ir f avour i s t he ir s ize f or

t hey a re a l mos t i nd ist ingu ishab le f ro m t he modu le i n u se f ro m 3 88-402. A f ter t hese p os it ive a spects o f t he a na lyses o f h oards i ti s o n ly f a ir t o e nd o n an ega t ive n ote.

Ro man c o in h oards i n g enera l a re h igh ly s e lect-

i ve a nd c an t herefore g ive l i t t le o r n o i n forma t ion o n t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c o inage when n ew d eno m ina t ions a ppear , o ld o nes d ie o ut , o r a n e xt re me c hange o ccurs .

T hus , a f ter t he f irst a ppearance o f t he r ad iate b i l-

l on c o in i n 2 14 , h oards t end t o b e e ither o f d enar i i o r o f r ad iates a nd t he b at t le o f t he d eno m ina t ions l eaves o n ly t an ta l iz ing t races i n t he h oard r ecord .

D ioc let ian 's r eform o f 2 94 s et o u t t o r eform t he c oinage c o m-

p lete ly a nd i tw ou ld b e f asc ina t ing t o k now h ow f ar , a nd h ow q u ick ly i t s ucceeded , b u t h oards g ive u s v ery l i t t le i n format ion .

I n Br ita in ,

r ad iate h oards c on ta in ing c o ins u p t o 2 96 a re n umerous , h oards o f f o l les s truck f ro m 2 94 t o 3 10 a re f a ir ly c o m mon , b u t t hese t wo c o ins - r ad iates a nd f o l les - a re d if feren t d eno m ina t ions , a nd j ust a s f ew s econd c en tury h oards c on ta in d enar i i a nd s ester t i i , s o h oards w ith r ad iates a nd f o l les a re f ar t o s eek .

T h is p icture c on t inues t hroughout t he f our th c entury - h oards

o f 3 24-330 c on ta in f ew f o l les , h oards o f 3 30-41 c on ta in f ew e ar l ier c o ins , a nd s o o n . Un for tunate ly , w e may n o t d raw a ny c onc lus ions f ro m t he c o mpos it ion o f t hese h oards a nd a pp ly t he m t o t he c o mpos it ion o f money i n c ircu lat ion .

9 3

Af ina l e xa mp le may b e t aken b y r eturn ing t o t he h oards o f c . 4 00.

H oards

o f t he House o f Va len t in ian , 3 64-78, c on ta in v ery f ew c o ins o f a ny e ar l ier d ate.

B u t w e h ave a lready s een t ha t h oards o f 4 00 d o c on ta in r easonab le

n umbers o f t hese e ar l ier c o ins.

I f we a ssumed f ro m t he Va len t in ian ic

h oard t ha t e ar l ier c o ins h ad d ied o u t w e s hou ld b e wrong ; t i ons a t o ther d a tes a re a lso l ike ly t o b e wrong .

s im i lar a ssump-

Wha t we s ee i s p robab ly

h oard ing o f AE3 s e ized c o ins f ro m 3 64-378 a nd , l a ter , t he h oard ing o f t he o n ly r e ma in ing sma l ler d eno minat ions. L ike a l l a rchaeo log ica l e v idence c o in h oards h ave t he ir o pportun it ies a nd t he ir p it fa l ls a nd d e ta i led s tudy i s u sua l ly n eeded t o e xp lo it t he o ne a nd a vo id t he o ther .

I nst i tu te o f Archaeo logy L ondon

9 4

COUNTERFEIT CO INS I N RO MAN BRITAIN b y G eorge C .B oon , F .S .A . N ow i n n um is ma t ics a s i n a l l s c iences , t here i s n o s tand ing s t i l l B .W . P earce , 1 940

I N TRODUC T ION Prosecu t ions f or c ast ing a nd u t ter ing s n ide 5 0p p ieces r em ind u s t ha t c oun ter fe it ing , i fn ot t he o ldest p rofess ion - a d ist inct ion wh ich i s u sua l ly a l lowed t o a nother , l i kew ise i l l ic it - i s o ne o f t he o ldest .

G reek s i lver

c o ins o f ten b ear c h ise l-cu ts [ 1 1 a s at est f or a p lated s ur face ; c o ins o ccur i n t he Anc ien t B r i t ish c o inage [ 2 ]. c oun ter fe iter b een s o a ct ive a s i n Ro man t imes.

p lated g o ld

B u t a t n o p er iod h as t he F orger ies a bound among

s i te-f inds , a nd e n ter i nto t he c o mpos it ion o f h oards ;

a nd b es ides t he n orma l

' ende m ic ' p roduct ion , t here w ere a ston ish ing o utbreaks o f af u l ly e p ide m ic c haracter .

T hese f orm t he mos t i n terest ing f eature o f Ro mano-Br it ish

n um is ma t ics ;

a nd s ince ' im i ta t ions ' t hen c a me n ear t o o utnumber ing , o r

d id o utnumber , t he G overnmen t c o ins i n u se , most o f t he f o l low ing p ages must b e g iven t o as tudy o f t he e p ide m ics. Cas t c o ins make a s trong a ppearance , a nd w ere o f ten d if f icu l t t o r ecogn ise ;

b u t t he d ie-s truck p roducts o f t he e p ide m ics a re f requent ly s o sma l l

a nd b arbarous t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave d ece ived n o-one.

Our p rob le m t oday i s

t o u nderstand h ow s uch wretched p ieces c ou ld h ave c o me i n to e x istence , a nd p erhaps e ven more h ow t hey c ou ld h ave b een g iven a nd a ccep ted i n c hange. I ti s wor th r e me mber ing t ha t o ur own c o inage h as a lso b een p lagued b y s ub-s tandard c oun ter fe its. A r epor t made t o t he Roya l M in t i n 1 787 s tated t ha t , o f as a mp le , o n ly 8 % o f h a l fpence b ore e ven a t o lerab le r ese mb lance t o t he K ing 's c o in [ 3-4 ]. l i es i n as hor tage o f c o in ; t imes , a s we s ha l l s ee. h ad b een i n 1 770-5 ;

T he r eason i s n o t f ar t o s eek , a nd

w h ich i s ak ey a lso t o t he e p ide m ics o f Roman B e tween 1 754 a nd 1 797 , t he o n ly i ssue o f c opper

a nd t h is , a t at ime when d e mand w as r is ing a s a rm ies

o f w ork-peop le w ere g athered t o s erve t he n ew i ndustr ies.

I n 1 787, i ndus-

t r ia l is ts b egan t o i ssue g ood t okens i n p lace o f t he c oun ter fe it r ubb ish wh ich c ou ld b e b ough t a t al arge d iscoun t :

b u t t he t okens w ere l ikew ise i l lega l.

G overnmen t wh ich h ad t urned i t s b ack u pon a b as ic n eed o f t he p eop le ;

A

wh ich

h ad t o lerated , i fi tn ever c oun tenanced , t he i ncreas ing v o lu me , f i rs t o f s n ide a nd t hen o f p r iva te c o in ;

a nd wh ich h ad n ot s ecured a dequate means o f e nd-

i ng t he n u isance b y l aw ;

w as a l most a n e xact r ef lect ion o f Ro man t imes ,

F igures i n s quare b racke ts r efer t o t he c o ins o n t he p lates.

9 5

when n o l aw s pec if ica l ly f orb idd ing t he f orgery o f c opper e x isted u n t i l t he f our th c entury .

1

T he f irst o f t he e p ide m ics b e longs t o t he p er iod when

t here w as n o s uch l aw ;

a nd i tw as o ccas ioned b y t he c losure o f t he min t a t

Ro me - t he o n ly min t t hen s erv ing t he w es t w ith a es * - a t t he mo men t w hen p lans w ere b e ing p repared f or t he c onquest o f B r i tain , i nvo lv ing t he t rans ference t here o f s o me 4 0 ,000 s o ld iers who wou ld h ave e xpected t o r ec e ive t he ir f ree p ay i n a es. 2 T here was s tr ict l eg is la t ion t o p ro tect t he g o ld a nd s i lver c o ins ; a nd b y c on trast w ith t he p os i t ion i n t he l a te a u tonomous Br it ish k ingdo ms ,3 c oun terf e i t g o ld c o ins w ere s e ldo m s een u nder t he Ro man d om ina t ion , a nd n eed n ot c oncern u s. 4

Dur ing t he y ears when a dequa te s upp l ies o f g ood s i lver c o ins

w ere p rov ided , f orgery r e ma ined a t t he i rreduc ib le , e nde m ic l eve l , p ara l le l t o t he l eve l o f t he c on te mporary f orgery o f e qua l ly a bundan t a es ;

n ever the-

l ess , o nce t he s i lver c o inage h ad b eco me h eav i ly d ebased , i n t he t h ird c entury , p rod ig ious n u mbers o f c oun ter fe i ts a ppeared - t he ' barbarous r ad iates '.

I t may b e a rgued t ha t t he o rthodox ' rad iates ' a re e ven n ow s o

c o mmon t ha t t here c ou ld n ever h ave b een a ny s hor tage , a nd t ha t a nother e xp lana t ion mus t b e f ound t o a ccoun t f or t he e p ide m ic.

Wha t must b e b orne

i n mind , h owever , i s t he s a l ien t f act t ha t t he s i lver c o inage - t he b as is o f t he e veryday c urrency - was a c o inage o f i n tr ins ic w or th ;

a nd t ha t , when

i tw as d ebased , i t s p urchas ing-power n ecessar i ly f e l l p ar i p assu .

T he

G overnmen t t ac i t ly a dm it ted t h is f act i n 2 50 , when d enar i i - l i t t le c o ined s ince 2 38 - were o verstruck a t t he min t i n to t he f orm o f a n ton in ian i [ 5 ]. S ince i t s i n troduct ion 3 5 y ears b efore , t herefore , t he n ew c o in h ad l ost a t h ird o f i t s v a lue.

Much w orse was t o c o me :

w ith in 2 0 y ears , t he s i lver-

c on ten t h ad d ropped t o 2 % o r s o , p roduc ing a r a t io t o t he g o ld p iece o f a bou t 7 00 :1.

I n t he i n f lat ionary c ond it ions o f 2 70 , t hen , 2 8 a n ton in ian i w ou ld h ave

b een g iven i n p aymen t f or a c o m mod i ty wh ich h ad c ost o n ly o ne i n 2 15 , n ot a l low ing f or a ny o ther f actor . 5 And t here i s a nother mat ter t oo : f or t he d ebase men t o f t he s i lver c o inage made i t more a nd more impract icab le t o ma in ta in s upp l ies o f a es , t he r e la t ive wor th o f wh ich h ad b eco me much e nh anced .

T he who le s ubstructure o f t he mone tary s ys te m h ad t hus b een d es-

t royed , a nd a es was much h oarded b y t h is d a te i n a manner p rev ious ly u nknown .6

I n t hese c ircu mstances , t he d ebased a n ton in ianus h ad n o t o n ly

l os t n ear ly a l l i t s v a lue , b ut h ad b eco me v ery n ear ly t he o n ly c oin i n o rd ina ry u se.

I ti s a s i fo ur p resen t 5 p p iece - b ase a s i ti s , b ut o nce a s i lver

s h i l l ing a nd , many y ears a go , o f s i lver f u l l w e igh t - was v ery n ear ly t he o n ly c o in i n c ircu la t ion , a par t f ro m a f ew o ld p enn ies , a nd h ad f a l len i t se l f i n v a lue t o w e l l b e low a 2 1 p.

Grea t n u mbers w ou ld h ave b een n eeded f or

e veryday p urchases , a nd t he c oun ter fe iters w ou ld h ave b at tened u pon t he n eed o f t he p ub l ic f or c o in .

At erm c over ing t he b rass a nd c opper d eno m ina t ions. s yste m was :

1a ureus ( go ld ) =2 5 d enar i i ( s i lver ) ;

t i i ( brass ), 8 d upond i i ( brass ) o r 1 6 a sses ( copper ). a sses ( se m isses , b rass o r c opper ; among s i te-f inds.

T he e ar ly i mper ia l

1d enar ius = 4 s es terH a l f- a nd q uar ter-

q uadran tes , c opper ) s carce ly f igure

I n 2 15 , an ew s i lver c o in , t he a n ton in ianus , i n tr ins ic-

a l ly w or th 1 -1 2 -d enar i i , a ppeared .

9 6

S O ME ENDE M IC COUNTERFEITS Casts T he e as iest method t o c oun ter fe it c o ins i s b y c ast ing , a nd c as t c o ins a re c om mon a t a l l p er iods.

[ 6 ] i s ac as t a s o f Marcus A ure l ius , wh ich , a t

8 .7 g ., i s a bou t aq uar ter u nderwe igh t :

i tc an r ead i ly b e u nderstood t ha t

c oun ter fe i ts o f t he s a me meta l a s t he o r ig ina ls , o r o f as im i lar me ta l , mus t b e l i gh ter ( s ma l ler ) i f as a t is factory p rof it i s t o b e e x tracted f ro m manufactu re , u n less t he o r ig ina ls a re s o h eav i ly o ver-va lued i n t he s yste m t ha t t he d iference b etween n om ina l a nd i n tr ins ic w or th i s s u f f ic ien t t o make t h is p o in t o f l i t t le c onsequence [ 111 ].

Casts s uch a s [ 6 ] w ere c o mmon ly made i n

t wo-p iece mou lds , s evera l o r ig ina ls b e ing i mpressed s ide-by-s ide b e tween t wo t ab lets o f c lay , wh ich w ere t hen f ired ;

o r , a lterna t ive ly , t hey w ere

p laced b etween t wo p lates o f s of t meta l , wh ich w ere h a m mered t ogether t o p roduce t he r equ ired i mpress ions .7

Channe ls w ere c u t t o a l low t he mo lten

me ta l t o r each t he impress ions a f ter t he mou ld h ad b een a sse mb led a nd s ea led ( f ig . 1 ) .

O ther mou lds w ere o f t he p i le-type :

i n t h is c ase , t he o r ig-

i na ls w ere s epara te ly i mpressed b etween sma l l r ound p ads o f c lay , wh ich were t hen n otched f or t he a ccess o f t he meta l , f ired , a nd a sse mb led i n to c o lu mns - u sua l ly t hree t ogether , b u t i n p a irs a t L ing-w e l l G a te ( Yorks.) [ 7-9 ], f ig . 2 . Un less t he c o mponen t mou lds w ere k eyed i n s o me w ay , a s was r are ly d one [ 8a ], t here was a r isk o f i ncorrec t a sse mb ly , a nd t he c ons equen t p roduct ion o f c ur ious ' hybr ids '. Among a s er ies o f s i te-f inds , c asts may s tand o u t b y t he d i f feren t p a ti nat ion c aused b y t he d iference i n t he ir a l loy f ro m t ha t o f o r thodox c o ins. T he ir s ur faces may e xh ib it sma l l i mper fect ions a r is ing f ro m g r i t o r t rapped b ubb les o f a ir , a nd i n g enera l l ack t he c r isp i mpress ion i mparted b y d ies. T he e dge o f as uspect c o in s hou ld a lways b e e xam ined , f or s igns o f f i l ing wh ich h ad r e moved t he f ea ther o f me ta l f ormed b etween t he t wo h a lves o f t he mou ld , a nd t he s car where t he j et h ad b een c u t o r b roken away ; as tub w as a l lowed t o r e ma in .

s o met i mes

C oins wh ich a ppear t o b e w orn , b u t wh ich

h ave s harp e dges i ncons isten t w i th t he w ear , a re u sua l ly c asts made f ro m w orn o r ig ina ls . i ncorrect ;

T he w e igh t o f c oun ter fe its , c ast o r s truck , i s l ike ly t o b e

a nd t he a x is , o r a l ignmen t o f o ne s ide t o t he o ther - u sua l ly

1 80 ° o r 3 60 ° f or o r thodox Ro man c o ins - may v ary . S truck C op ies Many Ro man c oun ter fe its a re marked ly u nders ized a nd u nderwe igh t . Cas ts o f r educed s ize c ou ld c er ta in ly b e made b y al ong p rocess o f r emou ld ing a nd r e-cast ing wh ich t ook a dvan tage o f t he s l igh t r educt ion ( abou t 5 % ) a t e very s tage , d ue t o t he s hr inkage o f t he c lay u pon f ir ing , a nd t he s hr inkage o f t he mo l ten me ta l u pon c oo l ing ;8

a lternat ive ly , t he o r ig ina ls

c ou ld b e t r i m med b efore b e ing i mpressed o n ly v ery l i gh t ly , s o t ha t t he r esu lts w ere sma l ler a nd t h inner :

[ 40-1 ] a re e xa mp les.

B ut i n t he p r inc ipa l

e p ide m ics , t he d ec l ine i n s ize a nd w e igh t was s o r ap id t ha t t he p rac t ica l l im i ts o f c ast ing w ere q u ick ly r eached .

9 7

D ies , o n t he o ther h and , c ou ld b e

e ngraved t o a ny d es ired s ca le , a nd t he s izes a nd w e igh ts o f t he b lanks o r f l ans c ou ld b e v ar ied i ndependen t ly . I n t he c ase o f v ery sma l l c op ies , t he b arbarous c haracter o f t he d es igns w as s carce ly o f i mpor tance - a nd , a s t he ir u b iqu itous c ircu la t ion amp ly s hows , w as i n f act o f n one - b u t e ven f u l ls ize s truck c op ies a lways b etray a c oarseness o f d e ta i l wh ich i mmed iate ly a t trac ts o ur a t ten t ion ; f or , h owever s k i l led t he d ie-s inker w as , h e c ou ld n ever q u ite match t he ' house-sty le ' o f t he G overnmen t min ts. H is w orst p roducts a re o f ad ownr igh t c rudeness wh ich b etrays e rrors o f s o g ross a k ind t hat w e a re f orced t o a sk o urse lves t o what e x ten t h e , o r f or t hat mat ter t he p ub l ic a t l arge , w as l i tera te o r w as e ven aware o f t he c h ief e ven ts o f t he t ime. As many s ens it ive s tud ies h ave s hown , i mmense c are w as l av ished u pon t he c ho ice o f d es igns f or t he i mper ia l c o inage , a nd u pon t he sma l lest d eta i ls o f g estures a nd a t tr ibu tes , t o s ay n oth ing o f t he l egends t he mse lvesP b ut t hose who c ou ld a pprec iate e ven t he g is t o f t he ' message ' wh ich s uch d e l icate i ngenu ity was t o c onvey must h ave b een f ew . A s a n i n troduct ion t o d ie-struck c op ies , w e c hoose a sma l l s er ies o f d upond i i f ro m Wa les wh ich d isp lay s ome o f t hese o dd it ies. 1 ° T he c o ins c o me f ro m Caer leon [ 10-11 ], C aerwen t [ 12 ] a nd F fr i th , F l in ts. [ 13 ]. A s trong s ty l ist ic a f f in i ty i nd ica tes a c om mon s ource f or t he p ieces , a nd i ndeed [ 10 ] a nd [ 12 ] s hare a n o bverse d ie , a nd [ 1 1 ] a nd [ 13 ] a re f ro m t he s a me p a ir o f d ies.

S ince t hese f our c o ins a t tes t n o f ewer t han f i ve d ies , t he q uan t i ty

o f f orger ies o r ig ina l ly p roduced must h ave b een l arge ; a nd u n t i l more h ave c o me t o l i gh t , i tw i l l b e w ise f or u s t o a vo id s pecu lat ion a s t o t he whereabou ts o f t he ' m in t '. T he w e igh ts v ary f ro m 1 0.67 t o 1 3.40 g ., t he l a tter f igure b e ing w e l l u p t o t he a verage o f o r thodox d upond i i.

I n t he c ase o f e nde m ic c ounter fe i ts , a l l

t ha t must b e d one i s t o e nsure t ha t t he w e igh t-range o ver laps t he l ower h a l f o f t he we igh t-range o f o r thodox c o ins : t he p o in t a r ises f rom t he f act t ha t a es w as n ot s truck a t i nd iv idua l ly-ad justed w e igh ts , b u t mere ly a t s o many c o ins t o t he p ound - 2 4 , n om ina l ly , i n t he c ase o f d upond i i.

We may e nv is-

a ge t he r e la t ionsh ip o f c ounter fe it a nd o r thodox a s o ver lapp ing p ar ts o f a n e x tens ionladder , t he t op a nd b ot to m r ungs o f e ach p ar t s tand ing f or t he max imum a nd min i mu m we igh ts i n e i ther s er ies. I ti s o bv ious t ha t t he mini mu m w e igh t c ou ld n ot b e e x tre me ly l ow , b ecause t he c oun terfe i ts migh t n ot t hen h ave p assed c urren t f or t he i n tended d eno m inat ion , a nd t he f orger 's p rof it wou ld h ave d isappeared . T he me ta l i s ag ood y e l low b rass ; t he s ource , b eyond d oub t , w as s estert i i a nd d upond i i t aken f ro m c ircu la t ion , o r p oss ib ly w orn-out a nd c oun ter fe i t mater ia l , of ic ia l ly w i thdrawn :

f or w e k now t hat t he c o inage w as e xam ined

f rom t ime t o t ime , c f . [ 23-4 ].

Un less s uch mater ia l w as a va i lab le , t he

V a l id e v idence t o s et a ga inst t he f requen t ly-quoted e v idence o f g raf f it i , wr it ing-instrumen ts , e tc., t aken t o s uppor t t he n ot ion o f w idespread l i te racy among t he l ower c lasses.

I n my o p in ion , t he ' l iteracy ' t hus a ttes-

t ed was l im i ted t o t he p ract ica l e nds o f mark ing ownersh ip a nd k eep ing a ccoun ts o f i ndus tr ial p roduct ion , a nd t he l i ke.

9 8

c oun ter fe i ter 's p rof i t was b are ly o ne d upond ius i n e igh t .

T h is , t oo , a rgues

f or a n e x tens ive p roduct ion . L as t ly , t he d es igns.

T he o bverse l egends a re o f N erva , A .D. 9 6 a nd 9 7.

T he p or tra i ts , h owever , a re h ard ly h is - c f . [ 14 ] :

t hey a re i n T ra jan 's

e ar ly s ty le [ 15 ], n ot e ven i n t he l a ter s ty le 16 ] wh ich , f rom 1 04 , was a ssoci a ted w ith t he c e lebra ted r everse l egend S PQR OPT I MO P M :NCI :P I g l impsed o n [ 10 ] a nd [ 12 ] r etrograde , i n c onsequence o f t he d ie-s inker 's c are lessness , w i th a S pes t ype [ 17 ].

T he r everse o f t he o ther t wo i s t he Nerv ian L EBER-

TAS PVBLICA , b ung led a ga in . e rrors?

Wha t s or t o f t ime-factor i s i nvo lved-i n -s uch

Are t hey e v idence o f a n i l l i teracy s o f undamen ta l t ha t t he n ame o f

T ra jan c ou ld n o t b e r ead o n t he mode l , a nd o f a n i gnorance s o p rofound t ha t e ven t he t rans it ion f ro m o ne r e ign t o a nother was u nknown?

Or i s t here

s o mewhere y et a nother v ar iety wh ich b ears a T ra jan ic t i tu la ture , mak ing t hese c o ins mere h ybr ids?

T he q uest ions a re d e l ica te o nes , f or a es o f t he

t ype c op ied r e ma ined i nu se d own t owards t he e nd o f t he t h ird c entury .

A l l

t ha t c an b e s a id o n t he p rob le m o f d a t ing , t here fore , i s t ha t i ft he c o ins w ere p roduced s ubs tan t ia l ly l a ter t han t he o r ig ina ls , i ti s o dd t ha t mode ls more n ear ly c on temporary - o f H adr ian , s ay , o r P ius - h ad n ot b een c hosen ; a nd f ur ther , t ha t when c oun ter fe it a es w as p roduced i n t he midd le d ecades o f t he t h ird c en tury , i t was o f a marked ly u nder-we igh t s tandard . P la ted C o ins T he s tuden t v ery s oon e ncoun ters p lated c o ins o f t he a ge-o ld t ype a lr eady men t ioned : [ 18 ] i s ap la ted d enar ius o f A lexander , a nd [ 19 ] i s ap lated s i l iqua o fJ u l ian I .

T hese c o ins r epresen t a means o f e conom iz ing i n

p rec ious me ta l , wh i le r e ta in ing t he a ppearance o f af u l l-s ized c o in : c o mpare [ 20 ], a ga in o f J u l ian , s o l id s i lver b u t 0 .4 g . u nderwe igh t . Under t he Repub l ic , p la ted d enar i i w ere v ery c o m mon , a nd e xamp les a re k nown b eari ng t he n ames o f a l l b u t f our o u t o f 1 68 moneyers b etween 1 24 a nd 3 7 B .C .1 One i ndex o f t he n u isance wh ich t hey c rea ted i s t he c ur ious e xped ien t o f a s aw-edged d enar ius - t he s erratus - wh ich was d es igned t o s how t ha t t he meta l was s o l id a l l t hrough ; a nother i s t he p resence o f n ea t s tamps o r c u ts l et ters o r s ymbo ls - impressed j us t d eep ly e nou p t o e nab le a s k i l led e xami ner t o d ec ide whether a c o in was p la ted o r n o t .l z T hese marks , a pp l ied b y t he n um mu lar i i o r ' bankers ' t hrough whose h ands mos t o f t he c o inage p assed s ooner o r l ater a nd p ar t o f whose t ask i t was ' t o s pot t he c opper t hrough t he s i lver ',

1 3

w ere , l ike t he s errat i , t he mse lves c ounter fe ited ;

1 A x

a nd t he c us to m o f a pp ly ing s uch s tamps d ied o u t b y a bou t t he e nd o f t he f i rs t c en tury A .D .

T he p rob lem r a ised b y t he s im i lar marks u pon a es 1 5 i s d is-

c ussed b e low . F or many y ears , i tw as d isputed w hether p la ted c o ins w ere o f f ic ia l o r n ot .

Mom msen t hough t t ha t t hey w ere a f iduc iary a dd i t ion t o n orma l c o in-1 6

a ge ; modern t hough t , h owever , h as c rys ta l l ised a round t he o ppos ite n ot ion . T he c h ief p rop o f t he e ar l ier t heory h ad b een t ha t s i lver c o ins a ppeared t o h ave b een s truck b y t he v ery s ame d ies a s p la ted c o ins ; s hown t ha t t h is i s n ot s o .

l 7

b u t Craw ford h as

N o d oub t t he d ies f rom wh ich s uch p la ted p ieces

w ere s truck h ad b een a c tua l ly c ast f ro m i mpress ions t aken f rom o r thodox

9 9

c oins ; a nd t hey a re p roved ly j ust a l i t t le sma l ler . Craw ford b e l ieves t ha t a l l s urv iv ing a nc ien t d ies a re l i ke ly t o b e f a lse : t he p os it ion i s , p erhaps , e x tre me ; b u t must c er ta in ly a pp ly t o t he o ne e xa mp le f ound i n B r i ta in , t he b ronze d ie f or t he r everse o f aH adr ian ic d enar ius , f ro m Veru lam ium [ 21 11 . 8 T here i s , f ur thermore , p roof t hat p lated Repub l ican c o ins w ere manu factu red t ogether w ith e ar ly i mper ia l c o ins d own t o C laud ius , A .D . 5 2. T h is e v idence c ons ists o f ah oard e n t ire ly c o mposed o f p lated c o ins , f ound i n L ondon .

T he a pparen t d ate o f t he o r ig ina ls , s o me o f wh ich a re p lated u pon

c opper , b ut most u pon i ron , r uns b ack t o c . 9 0 B .C., b u t n ever the less c ont a ins many d ieiden t i t ies .1 9

H ad t he h oard b een a sse mb led f rom s n ide

ma ter ia l weeded o u t b y s o me n um mu lar ius o r merchan t , d iel inks w ou ld n ot b e e xpected , a nd c er ta in ly n ot i n t he n umbers r ecorded .

T he c ounter fe its

may h ave b een made i n 6 4 , when N ero r educed t he w e igh t a nd f i neness o f t he d enar ius f or e ar l ier i ssues wou ld t hen h ave a cqu ired a s l igh t p re m ium. T he e ven g rada t ion o f t he c o ins , f ro m a n a l most u nworn C laud ius t o g rea t ly w orn Repub l ican c o ins , s uppor ts t h is b e l ie f :

t he ' wear ' i s i t se l f c oun ter fe i t ,

o f c ourse , b e ing r eproduced f ro m t he o r ig ina ls t aken a s mode ls . T he methods u sed t o p la te c o ins i nc lude , p r inc ipa l ly , wrapp ing t he c ore i n a n e nve lope o f s i lver f o i l , au n ion b e ing a ch ieved s o met imes b y s i lvers o lder i n t he c ase o f c opper c ores ; h ot-d ipp ing i n s i lver-a l loy ; a nd f us ing f o i l o r g ranu les u pon t he s ur face . 2 0 A l l t he c o ins w ere s truck a f ter r ece ivi ng t he ir p la t ing . P la ted c o ins a lso o ccur i n t he a es s er ies ;

b u t s ince t he c ore was g ener-

a l ly o f i ron ,2 1 d ecay h as n o d oub t r e l ieved u s o f most o f t he d irect e v idence. T he n umber o f c o ins wh ich h ave b een c u t o r b at tered s uggests t hat p lated s pec i mens w ere o nce v ery c o m mon . T he p heno menon h as n ot b een much n ot iced : G .F. H i l l 's men t ion o f i t , i n c onnex ion w ith s o me ' m idd le b rass ' f ro m H eng istbury , i s ar are e xcep t ion • 22 One o f t he b est s urv iv ing e xamp les o f ab ronze-p lated , i ron-cored c o in i s [ 22 ], f ro m Vendeuvre-duPo i tou ( V ienne ), s hown b y c our tesy o f P .-H . Mi tard :

i ti s ad upond ius o r a s

o f L uc i l la , w ife o f t he Emperor Verus ( 161-9 ). Most s pec i mens a re An ton ine o r S everan , b u t t here i s r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t p la ted a es was p art i cu lar ly c o m mon i n J u l io-Claud ian t imes a lso . 2 3

T h is c an b e i l lustrated

b y [ 23 ], a c oun ter fe it s ester t ius o f C laud ius I , f ro m L ower G ermany . T he c o in b ears t wo c oun termarks o n t he o bverse , I MP a nd PRO , wh ich a dop ted a nd a pproved i tf or o f f ic ia l u se : t he d eep a bras ion u pon T he h ead was n o d oub t at est f or p la t ing , b u t t h is i s much more c lear ly t he c ase o n t he r eve rse , where t here i s ad eep c ut a t t he e dge , made when t he c o in c ame u p f or e xam inat ion a ga in ;

b y t ha t d a te , i th ad b eco me e x treme ly worn , a nd was

marked d own t o h a l f i t s v a lue b y t he s tamp DVP. 24 P la ted s i lver c o ins r equ ire n o e xp lanat ion , s ince t he e lemen t o f p rof it i s o bv ious ;

b u t p la ted a es s ee ms t o b e ab izarre e xamp le o f misp laced i ngen-

u ity , f or s tray a es c o ins a nd p ieces o f b ronze a re e verywhere t urned u p o n Ro man s i tes , a nd t he me ta l c an h ard ly s eem t o h ave b een e i ther s carce o r p ar t icu lar ly v a luab le.

B u t t hese c o ins a nd f ragmen ts may h ave b een a ccum-

u la ted o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime ;

a nd a t V eru lam ium , a s we l l a s e lsewhere ,

mere f i l ings w ere c arefu l ly s aved .2 5

T hus t he q uest ion o f p lated a es may

1 00

a f ter a l l t urn u pon t he c ost o f b ronze.

L igh t i s t hrown u pon t h is mat ter b y

t he i nscr ip t ion o n t he b ase o f t he a cco mp l ished s econd o r t h ird-cen tury f igur ine o f aC e l t ic Mars f ro m t he F oss-dyke , L incs.: 2 6 D eo Mar (t i ) e t Nu (m in i )b (us ) Aug (ustorum ), C o lasun i Brucc ius e t Cara t ius d e s uo d onarun t ;

a d s ester (t ios ) n (ummos ) CC e latus

a erar ius f ec it , e t a eramen t i l i b (ram ) d onav it f actam * ' To t he G od Mars , a nd t he D iv ine Powers o f t he Emperors , t he C o lasun i , B rucc ius a nd Carat ius , p resen ted t h is s tatuet te f ro m t he ir own r esources ; t he b ronzes m ith C e latus made i tf or 1 00 s es ter t i i , a nd g ave a p ound o f b ronze- mater ia l , made f or t hree d enar i i.'*

T he c ost wou ld o therw ise

h ave b een 2 8 d enar i i o r 12 s ester t i i - a modest f igure f or s o f i ne a p iece , a nd o ne wh ich a l lowed C e la tus o n ly 1 3 d enar i i o r 5 2 s estert i i f or h is c ra f tmansh ip , s ince t he p ound o f meta l w h ich h e g ave amoun ted t o ab are f i f th o f t he t o ta l w e igh t . T he v a lue p laced o n t ha t p ound a nswers e xact ly , i n t erms o f s ester t i i -1 2 -t o t he n umber o f c o ins n om ina l ly s truck f rom a p ound o fb rass a t t he min t :

w as h is c on tr ibu t ion , t hen , 1 2 s ester t i i f rom

p urse , a s i tw ere , t o p ot ; a nd d oes a s ing le l i terary u se o f t he word a eramen tum , t o mean b ronze c o ins ,2 7 p reserve a c ommonp lace t erm wh ich h as e scaped f ur ther n ot ice? T h is may w e l l b e ; a nd t he s tatuet te i t se l f i s o f ap ronounced ly y e l low ish meta l , a s c an b e s een i n t he B r it ish Museum t o t h is d ay . T he ma t ter , h owever , t urns o n whether t he l i bra d ona ted was i n f ac t a n e xac t l i bra . I f1 2 s es tert i i w ere r eckoned t o w e igh a l i bra ( wh ich w as e qu iva len t t o s o meth ing b etween 3 22.56 g . ( Nav i l le ) a nd 3 27.45 g . ( Hu ltsch ) a nd may i n r ound t erms h ave b een 3 25 g .), 2 8 i t may b e p o in ted o u t t ha t e ver s ince t he t ime o f C laud ius , 1 2 s ester t i i w ou ld h ave we ighed r ather l ess :

1 3 were made f rom a p ound a bou t t he y ear 2 00 , wh ich may b e t aken

a s t he c en tra l p o in t i n t he d a t ing o f t he s tatuet te ; a nd 1 7 , b y t he y ear 2 50.2 9 I fa era men tu m mean t s crap o r e ven f resh ly ' made ' b ronze f rom r aw- me ta l c onst i tuen ts , i tw ou ld h ave b een c overed b y t he a es e qu iva len t i n c o in , b ec ause t he c o in p ossessed a n e nhanced f ace-va lue73 1 )

B e t he s olu t ion o f t h is

d if icu lty a s i t may , i ti s a t l east c lear t ha t ac oun ter fe iter u s ing a ny b ronze , a nd p ar t icu lar ly c o in , was w ork ing t o as tr ict ly l im i ted p ro f it whene ver h e p roduced f orger ies c lose i n s ize a nd w e igh t t o t he o r ig ina ls. We T h is i nscr ip t ion p rov ides a n e xce l len t i nstance o f t he d oub le s tandard o f p r ic ing i nu se : t he p ound o f me ta l i s p r iced i n d enar i i , b ecause , n o d oubt , d enar i i w ere p a id f or i t ; b u t t he w ork a s a who le i s p r iced i n s est er t i i.

I fg oods w ere p r iced i n d enar i i

t hen t hey w ere mos t a dvan tage-

o us ly b ough t w ith d enar i i , a nd i n f act h ad t o b e b ough t w i th d enar i i.

T he

n um mu lar i i o bta ined a g ood p ar t o f t he ir i ncome f rom e xchang ing d enar i i i n to a es a nd v ice-versa , f or t hey c harged a c o mm iss ion , a s ac o mm iss ion i s c harged t oday u pon f ore ign-exchange t ransact ions . I n H adr ian ic P ergamu m , i t was r ecogn ised p ract ice t ha t n ummu lar i i s hou ld b uy d enar i i f or 1 7 a ssar ia ( l oca l a sses ) a nd s hou ld s e l l t he m f or 1 8.

T h is s eems

r easonab le a nd s o meth ing l ike ly t o b e met a l l o ver t he emp ire a t t hat t ime. S ee e spec ia l ly J . R. Me lv i l le J ones , B u l l.Inst . C lass . S tud . XXV I I I ( London 1 971), 9 9-105 ;

f or t he r e levan t i nscr ip t ion , s ee T .R. B rough ton

i n T enney Frank , E con . S urvey I V ( 1938 ), 8 92-5.

1 01

h ave a lready s een , i n t he c ase o f t he N erva-Tra jan s truck d upond i i , t hat h e was p repared t o w ork t o s uch l im i ts ; b u t w e c an n ow u nders tand more c learl y t ha t i f ac heaper meta l , i ron o r l ead , c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or t he c ore o f t he p ieces , a nd s a t isfactor i ly p la ted w ith b ronze , t he e le men t o f p rof i t b ec ame a t o nce much more a t tract ive ; a nd t ha t , f ar f ro m b e ing a b izarre e xped ien t , t he manu facture o f p lated a es w as a l og ica l e x tens ion o f t he manu facture o f p lated d enar i i , a nd b rough t i n p ropor t ion a s im i lar r eturn .

EPEDE M ICS Fro m t he f orego ing p ages , w e h ave l earn t s ometh ing o f t he me thods u sed i n t he manu facture o f e nde m ic c oun ter fe its , o f t he ir w e igh t-re la t ionsh ip t o t he ir o r ig ina ls , a nd o f t he e cono m ics o f t he ir p roduct ion .

T he ma t ter o f

d iel inks h as b een t ouched u pon , a nd w e h ave s een t ha t t he i l l iteracy o f t he d ie-s inkers s omet i mes may i n troduce i n terest ing p rob le ms o f i n terpreta t ion a nd d a t ing . T he g round i s n ow c leared f or a n e xam ina t ion o f t he e p idem ics. A l l t he matters d iscussed w i l l r ema in r e levan t -s o me w i l l b e f ound e xe mp li f ied t o a n e xaggerated d egree - b u t , i n t he ma in , o ur p urpose h encefor th w i l l b e t o r ecoun t t he r esu lts o f r ecen t r esearch i n to t he c ur ious p henomena wh ich w i l l b e p resen ted .

I t may n o t b e t oo r ash t o c la im t ha t t he d i f f icu lt ies

o f i n terpre tat ion wh ich b eset o ur u nderstand ing h ave n ow b een s o lved b y t he sma l l b and o f s cho lars , c on t inen ta l a s we l l a s Eng l ish , who h ave d evoted a t ten t ion t o t he s er ies.

Roo m f or s pecu lat ion , f ortuna te ly , r ema ins.

T he

most i mpor tan t e p ide m ics a re t he C laud ian c op ies ( f rom 4 3 t o 6 4 ), t he b arb arous r ad iates ( f ro m 2 73 t o 2 82 ), a nd t he ' f a l l ing h orse men ' ( f rom 3 53 t o 3 64 ). As e ach i s s uccess ive ly t raced , i tw i l l b e f ound t ha t ac ommon p a tt ern i n d evo lut ion o f s ize a nd w e igh t i s n ot iceab le. T h is d evo lu t ion i s e xt re me ly marked , a nd r esu lted i n t he p roduct ion o f c o ins s o sma l l t ha t i ti s c lear t ha t o n ly a s evere s hor tage o f o f f ic ia l s pec ie c ou ld h ave p erm it ted t he ir i n troduct ion . I n e ach c ase , t he e p idem ic was r ap id ly e x t ingu ished b y t he a ppearance o f g ood s upp l ies o f n ew G overnmen t c oin . Wh i le i tc annot b e d en ied t ha t s o me o f t he c oun ter fe iters ' b et ter p roducts r ema ined i n c ircu lat i on , t ogether w i th o ther o bso lete c o in - p erhaps e spec ia l ly i n c oun try d istr icts 3 1

-t hey a re f ew a nd i ns ign i f ican t .

T he who le t enour o f r ecen t

r esearch h as b een t o s how t ha t t he c urrency o f c oun ter fe its o f a ny g iven c lass was p er fect ly c o-eva l w i th t he c urrency o f t he ir p ro totypes .

T he r e-

c ogn it ion o f t h is i mpor tan t t ru th i s o f s a l ien t a rchaeo log ica l v a lue . 3 2 I .

C laud ian C op ies A t t he t ime o f t he i nvas ion o f B r i ta in i n 4 3 , t he min t a t L yon h ad b een

c losed f or s evera l y ears ; t he h eavy a es s tr ik ings a t Rome h ad c eased , a nd w ere n ot t o b e r esumed - a nd t hen o n a sma l ler s ca le - u n t i l 5 0. 3 3 N ero s truck v irtua l ly n o a es u n t i l 6 4 , when b oth min ts w ere a ga in v ery a ct ive. T he f irst t wen ty y ears o f t he o ccupat ion w ere t hus marked b y as hor tage o f c o in . T he C laud ian c op ies f ound i n B r i ta in w ere t he s ub ject o f af a mous monograph b y C .H .V . S u ther land i n 1 935. 3 4

1 02

H e s howed t ha t t hey o ccurred

v ery w ide ly o n s i tes o ccup ied i n t he C laud io-Neron ian p er iod , a nd o f ten o u tn umbered t he o r thodox c o ins b y ac ons iderab le marg in .

A t Camu lodunum ,

f or i ns tance , b etween h a l f a nd t wo-th irds o f t he C laud ian a es was c o mposed o f c oun ter fe its ;3 5

a nd a t S i lchester t he p ropor t ion i s h igher t han t he 6 8

c op ies t o 1 4 o r thodox s uggested i n my 1 951 c a ta logue a t Read ing Museum. C laud ian c op ies a re a l most e n t ire ly d ie-struck .3 6

S es ter t i i [ 23-4 1,

3 7

d upond i i [ 25 ], b u t a bove a l l a sses , e spec ia l ly t he a t tract ive ' M inerva ' t ype [ or ig ina l , 2 6 ;

2 7-32 ], a re a l l c op ied ;

a nd wherever t he t i tu lature i s c o m-

p lete, i ti s s een t ha t t he p ro totypes b e longed t o t he e ar ly C laud ian i ssue o f 4 1, w i thou t t he f ina l PPf or P ater Patr iae , at i t le awarded e ar ly i n 4 2. 3 8 There i s n o r eason , o ther t han g enera l i l l iteracy a nd l ack o f c are , why t he l ater t i tu lature s hou ld n ot h ave b een c op ied f ro m o r ig ina ls a rr iv ing a f ter 5 0 , s ince t he e p ide m ic c on t inued u n t i l 6 4 ;

b u t i t s ee ms t ha t v ery f ew d id i n f act

a rr ive :

t here a re o n ly t wo a t Ca mu lodunu m , a nd o ne a t S i lchester , f or e x-

amp le .

I n a dd it ion t o t hese C laud ian t ypes , t wo o ther t ypes o f a s a re e n-

c oun tered :

t he ' Agr ippa ' a nd t he Augusto-T iber ian ' Lyon a ltar ' [ 34-6 ].

S u ther land d ev ised a u sefu l s yste m o f g rad ing c op ies a ccord ing t o t heir b arbar ity .

Grade I[ 27 ] i s c lose t o t he o r ig ina l :

9 .3 g . a ga inst a n o r thodox a verage o f 1 1 g .; Rhen ish c oun termark Q VÄ , a r ius

3 9

t he e xa mp le g iven we ighs

[ 28 ] i s more worn , a nd h as a

p erhaps s tand ing f or t he n a me o f an u m mu l-

o r a mi l i tary p ay- master , a nd a r are f ind f or B r i ta in .

[ 29 ], 6 .9 g ., i s c oarser a nd l igh ter , b u t s t i l l l i tera te ;

G rade I

Grade I -I I I a nd I I

[ 30-1 ], b oth 6 .78 g . b y s o me a cc iden t , i s c o mposed o f v is ib ly b arbarous p ieces a nd may d escend t o al ow w e igh t ; a nd Grade I V [ 32-3 , s ame o bv. d ies ], 5 .39 a nd 3 .95 g ., w as a dded t o t ake a ccoun t o f c o ins whereon t ype o r l egend a re r eversed t hrough t he d ie-s inker 's i nept itude.

S u ther land s uggest-

e d t ha t G rade Ic op ies w ere p roduced b y mi l itary a u thor it ies , f aced w ith t he n ecess i ty o f f ind ing p ay f or t roops n ot k nown f or t he ir d oc i l ity ;

t he o ther

g rades wou ld h ave b een s uccess ive i m i ta t ions o f G rade I , made i n l ess a nd l ess Ro man ised c en tres.

T he s che me s ee med we l l b orne o u t b y t he Camu l-

o dunum f inds , wh ich i nc luded , o f a sses , 1 8.5% o r thodox , 6 5% Grade Io r I , a nd o n ly 1 6% Grade I -I I I o r I V :

t h is was a s i te wh ich h ad s een l eg ionary

o ccupat ion u n t i l 4 9 , a nd was t herea f ter a Ro man c o lon ia. f igures a re more e ven :

G rade I , 3 8% ;

I , 2 4% ;

The S i lchester 3 8% a ga in ;

a nd

t h is was a n o pp idu m o f t he c l ien t k ingdo m o f Cog idubnus a t t he r e levan t t ime , a lthough i t mus t h ave s een a g ood d ea l o f mi l i tary t hrough-tra ff ic t o t he s ou thw est a nd s ou th Wa les B order r eg ion . 4 ° Bu t t oo much s tress s hou ld n o t b e p laced u pon g rad ing , t he d anger o f wh ich i s , a s i tw ere , i n c u t t ing a r t i f ic ia l s teps i n a n e ven ly-dec l in ing s lope :

2 6% o f t he Ca mu lodunu m c op ied a sses

w ere p laced i n i nter med iate c a tegor ies. Two i mpor tan t mat ters a r ise f ro m more r ecen t r esearch .

T he f irst i s

t ha t C laud ian c op ies a re a s c o m mon , i fn ot c o m moner , i n G au l ( espec ia l ly t he L o ire-Se ine-Rh ine r eg ion ); 4 1 t he s econd i s t ha t Dr W. H . Mann ing 's e xcavat ions a t Usk-Burr ium e nab le u s t o t ake a dvan tage o f ma ter ia l f ro m a s ite f ounded , n ot i n 4 3, b u t , u pon t he e v idence o f s ig i l la ta , c . 5 5.

T hus w e

h ave a t o ur d isposa l n ot o n ly a n i mpor tan t g eograph ica l e x t ens ion o f t he e v id ence , b u t a lso t he means o f d ist ingu ish ing b etween e ar ly a nd l a te c op ies.

1 03

H ofhe im h as l ong s hown t ha t c oun ter fe i ts e n tered i n to Rhen ish c ircu la ti on t o t he e x ten t o f s o me 2 0% ; 42 Chan tra ine 's w ork u pon t he N euss mater ia l , a nd Kraay 's u pon t ha t f ro m V indon issa , a re c onf irmatory . 43

B ut J.B. 4 4

G iard , o f t he C ab inet d es Meda i l les i n Par is , h as o pened u p n ew v is tas. G au l h ad s uf fered f rom a s hor tage o f a es e ven b e fore t he c losure o f L yon min t , t o j udge b y t he f requen t o ccurrence o f i m i tat ive ' Agr ippa ' a nd ' a l tar ' p ieces. Once Ro me h ad a lso c losed , t he p os it ion mus t h ave w orsened v ery r ap id ly , a nd n o d oubt t he f i rst o f t he C laud ian c op ies h ad a lready b een s truck b y e ar ly 4 4 , when a nu n for tunate i mper ia l i nstruct ion f ur ther a ggrava ted t he s hor tage. C laud ius t hen o rdered a l l t he a es c o ins o f Ca l igu la t o b e me l ted d own : ' wh ich w as d one ', s ays D io ; 45 a nd i f , i n Ro me , t he Empress Messa l ina was a b le t o a rrange t ha t t he me ta l s hou ld b e u sed f or a s tatue o f t he d ancer Mnester who was o ne o f h er p aramours , i n G au l t he c o ins w ere f ar t oo u sefu l , a nd many w ere s i mp ly o verstruck a s C laud ian c op ies. S uch p ieces d o n o t a ppear t o h ave b een n ot iced among Br it ish f inds ; b u t t he s trange ly h igh p ropor t ion o f Ca l igu lan d upond i i f rom t he e ar ly f or t a t H od H i l l , D orset , mos t ly s tray f inds , i s p robab ly t o b e e xp la ined a s ap loughs cat tered h oard b ur ied u pon r ece ip t o f C laud ius ' o rder . 46 G iard r ecogn ised t he w ork o f f i ve s ubs tan t ive d ie-s inkers among C laudi an c op ies f ro m G au l ; b u t , e ven more s ign i f ican t ly , h e t raced n umerous d iel inks , n ot o n ly among c oins f rom G a l l ic a nd Rhen ish f ind-spots , b u t a lso b etween t hese a nd c o ins f ound i n Br ita in : ' . ..une v ing ta ine d 'as d u t ype d e — Minerve ..re l ien t C o lchester e t l e K en t a Rennes , S a in t-Leonard ( Sar the ), S a in t- Maur ( O ise ), a u s anctua ire d e Champ l ieu ( O ise ) e t ä Conde -sur-A isne. C et te...ser ie d e monna ies , d on t l ' or ig ine p ara it b ien g a l lo-ro ma ine , mon tre l a v i ta l i te d u monnayage l oca l q u i e cou la s a p roduct ion a uss i f ac i lemen t , s e mb le-t-i l , e n B re tagne q ue s ur l e c on t inen t ...La Bretagne e larg it ...le marche mone ta ire d e l 'E mp ire e n o f fran t a u c o mmerce d e n ouveaux d ebouches : l og ique men t , ie ta . it i nev itab le q ue b on n ombre d e mo rma ies d ' im i tat ion f ussen t i mpor te es äl a d e mande d e P eCono m ie b retonne e t , p lus s i mp le men t s ans d ou te , p our r eg ler l a s o lde d es t roupes...Certes , i ln 'est p as e xc lu q ue d es o f f ic ines l oca les a ien t p u s 'e tab l ir e n Bretagne l orsque l a p ac i f ica t ion f u t a ssez a vancee , ma is i le st v ra ise mb lab le q ue l es p re m ieres mo rma ies d e C laude ä .c ircu ler d ans c et te r eg ion f uren t g a l lo-roma ines... ••' 4 7 T hree Camu lodunum c o ins w ere n oted b y G iard a s p roduc ts o f ' Graveur E '. One i s d iel inked t o f i ve c o ins f ound i n G au l , a no ther t o s even , a nd t he t h ird i s c lear ly f rom t he s ame workshop

4 8

Now , i fC amu lo-

d unum h ad i t se l f b een t he s ea t o f a n e ar ly m i l i tary min t , t wo p oin ts wou ld h ave emerged : ( 1 ) S uther land 's s tudy w ou ld h ave t hrown u p e xamp les o f d iel inkage , whereas n one i s r ecorded ;

a nd ( 2 )

t he p reponderance o f d ie-

l inks w ou ld h ave b een o n t he B r i t ish , r a ther t han t he G a l l ic , s ide ; o r i fn ot i n G au l , t hen i n t he Rh ine land , a s T odd s pecu la ted i n as imi lar c onnex ion 4 .9 T he s tudy o f d iel inks among C laud ian c op ies f ound i n Br ita in i s s t i l l a t a n e ar ly s tage , a nd p rogress i s n ot a ss isted b y t he p oor s tate o f p reserva t ion o f much o f t he ma ter ia l . S u ther land s pot ted a n o bverse l ink b etween a l oca l ly-found c o in i n Ma idstone Museum a nd a nother , u nprovenanced , i n t he Br it ish Museu m [ 33 1; 5 0

t he s ame o bverse i su sed f or a S i lchester c o in [ 32 ];

a nd G iard f ound t hat t he Ma ids tone c o in s hared d ies w i th o ne f rom C onde -

1 04

s ur-A isne . 5 1

S ince t he p reponderance o f e xa mp les i s i n t h is c ase Br it ish ,

w e p erhaps h ave h ere a c ase o f aB r i t ish c o in t rave l l ing t o Gau l .

Af urther

l ink w ith G au l i s i n terest ing b ecause o f t he e x tre me l igh tness a nd b arbar i ty o f t he t wo c o ins c oncerned :

o ne f ro m Pangbourne ( Read ing Museum ) we ighs

o n ly 2 .10 g ., a nd t he o ther , f ro m C ond esur-A isne , w e ighs 3 .0 g .5 2

Wi th-

i n t he p rov ince , W. A . S eaby r epor ted t wo c o ins f ro m Ham H i l l ( So m.) wh ich s hared a n o bverse d ie , a nd a t h ird f ro m t he s a me s i te wh ich s hared a n o bverse d ie w ith a L inco ln s pec i men .5 3 T he s carc i ty o f o r ig ina ls n o d oub t e nsured t hat many c op ies w ou ld h ave b een mode l led u pon i m i tat ions o f a n a lready r educed we igh t , a nd a ccord ing t o t he ' l adder ' p r incip le t h is p rocedure w ou ld h ave r esu lted i n t he a ppeara nce o f v ery l igh t-we igh t c o ins s uch a s t hose j ust men t ioned , o r , f or e xa mp le , t he ' a l tar ' a s f ro m S ea Mi l ls [ 36 ], wh ich we ighs o n ly 2 .23 g .

I ta ppears ,

t hen , t o b e av a l id d educt ion t ha t t he sma l ler a nd l igh ter a c o in , t he l ater i t s d ate.

Th is c an b e p roved f or t he b arbarous r ad ia tes i n t he ir t urn , a nd i s a

s ta te men t o f g enera l a pp l ica t ion .

Bu t w e s hou ld n ot f orget t hat t here may b e a

ac ons iderab le v ar ia t ion i n t he w e igh t o f c o ins s truck b y t he v ery s ame d ies , a s t he Pangbourne-Conde l i nk i nd icates ; c r i ter ion c anno t b e p ressed a bso lute ly .

a nd t ha t , i n c onsequence , t he Fur thermore , t here i s n o r eason

t o b el ieve t ha t t he i den t ica l s tages o f d evo lu t ion w ere r eached a t n ecessar i ly t he s a me mo men t a l l o ver t he p rov ince. T he f inds f ro m Usk t e l l u s o f t he l as t s tages o f t he e p ide m ic ;

b u t u n for-

t una te ly t he v ery c orroded a nd f rag i le s ta te o f t he c o ins makes w e igh ing u sel ess a nd e ven t he measure men t o f t he d ia me ter o ccas iona l ly v ague. e xcava t ions o f 1 965-72 p roduced t he f o l low ing 5 3 C laud ian a es c o ins , wh ich c op ies a ccoun t f or n ear ly 8 5.5%.

T he 5 4

o f

T he p reponderance o f sma l l ish

p ieces - t here i s n ot a s ing le s es ter t ius - i s a n i nd ica t ion t ha t , b y c . 5 5 o r n ot l ong a f ter , t he g enera l r un o f i m i ta t ive c o inage h ad d ec l ined , n o t o n ly f ar b e low t he 2 8 o r 2 9 m m. o f f ic ia l s tandard 1 26 ], b u t b e low t he 2 5 m m. o r s o t o wh ich G iard 's f ive e ngravers a dhered , i n t he ma in :

t he Usk s tandard , f or

t he ma jor ity o f p ieces , i s 2 1 o r 2 0 m m.

USK ORTHODOX

COPIES

1C eres d upond ius

1 Ceres d upond ius

5 An ton ia d upond i i - 2c op ies?

2 An ton ia d upond i i

C onstan t ia a s

2C ons tan t ia a sses , 2 3-24 m m.

2M inerva a sses

3L iber tas a sses , 2 5 m m., 1 d oubt fu l

T ota l , 9

1 3 Minerva a sses , 2 4-25 m m., 2 d oub t fu l 9d it to , 2 2-23 m m., 1 d oub t fu l 2 1 d it to , 2 0-21 m m., 4 d oubt fu l 1o bv. mistr ike , 2 5 m m. 1 Agr ippa a s , 2 5 m m. T o ta l , 5 3 —

1 05

T he e nd o f t he e p ide m ic c ame v ery sw i f t ly , w ith t he d e l ivery o f c op ious s upp l ies o f t he n ew Neron ian a es f ro m L yon [ 37 15 5 a nd Ro me , i n t he y ears b etween 6 4 a nd 6 8. T he t ransforma t ion i s p ar t icu lar ly w e l l-d isp layed a t Usk , where t he f or tress was r ebu i l t c . 6 5 : t here a re t wo Ro me s ester t i i , a nd t wo d upond i i , 9a sses , a nd a s em is f rom Lyon , n one s how ing more t han t he s l ightest s ign o f w ear . T he h andsome a ppearance o f t he n ew c o inage must h ave c on trasted most s tr ik ing ly w i th t he wretched mater ia l h i ther to i n u se - a nd t h is must h ave b een d iscarded , o r s en t t o t he me l t ing-pot , o r a t v ery mos t a ccep ted a t ac ons iderab le d iscoun t a ga ins t t he o r thodox c o in . T he i ssue o f h a l f- a nd q uar ter asses a t t h is t ime s uggests t ha t t here w as a n eed f or v ery sma l l c hange , a nd C laud ian c op ies c ou ld w e l l h ave p layed t h is r educed r o le f or s evera l y ears. B e t h is a s i t may , h owever , t he c oup d e g race was a dm in istered b y t he a dven t o f t he h uge q uan t it ies o f F lav ian a es. T he F lav ian f or ts o f Wa les y ie ld s carce ly a h and fu l o f C laud ian c op ies , a l l t o ld , a nd much o f t he N eron ian c o inage s eems a lso t o h ave b een c a l led i n . C laud ian c op ies i n l a ter c on tex ts s t i l l a re f ew a nd i ns ign i f ican t . T he l atest k nown t o me f ro m a Br it ish s i te o ccurred a t B rean D own t e mp le , n ear Weston-super- Mare , wh ich was f ounded o n av irg in s pot i n t he 3 30s. T og ether w ith a f ew w orn s econd-cen tury a es c o ins , i t may h ave b een emp loyed a s ac onven ien t mu lt ip le o f t he l i t t le ' f a l l ing h orse men ' f ound i n s uch p ro fusi on t here. S uch r e la t ive ly l arge c o ins w ere c er ta inly p ressed i n to a l i ke s erv ice i n t he f i f th-century Med i terranean , where e xamp les o ccur , e ngraved w i th a n ew v a lue i n t erms o f t he t i ny n um rn i t hen c urren t [ 38 ] .5 6 Af i na l w ord .

S u ther land h ad c la imed a mi l itary o r ig in f or G rade I

c op ies , a nd t here c an b e n o o b ject ion t o t he n ot ion , a l though , a s w e h ave s een , many f ound i n B r i ta in a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een manu factured o n t he c ont i nen t . G iard , h owever , w en t ag ood d ea l f ur ther , a nd s uggested t ha t t he emperor l i censed n um mu lar i i a nd l oca l a uthor i t ies t o manu facture a nd u t ter ma ter ia 1 .5 7 T h is s educt ive s pecu la t ion s hou ld , Ib e l ieve , b e r es isted i n t he l i gh t o f t he c o mpe l l ing p ara l le l t o wh ich t he Eng l ish 1 8th c entury w as w itness. We k now a s af act - b u t w e d o n ot k now , f or Ro man t imes , t he c on trary a s a f a c t -t ha t t he G overnmen t t ook a n e n t ire ly p ass ive p ar t . F urthermore , t he Ro man a u thor it ies h ad b een a t p a ins t o s uppress , b efore t he r e ign o f C laudi us , t he l as t r e ma in ing mun ic ipa l c o inages o f G au l a nd S pa in ;

a nd i fr espon-

s ib le l oca l a u thor it ies w ere n ot a ga in a ccorded t he r igh t o f s tr ik ing t he ir own i n d iv idd ist inct ive a es i n s uch a p er iod o f d ear th , i ts ee ms i mprobab le t ha t u a ls w ou ld h ave b een e ncouraged t o i ssue i m ita t ions o f o f f ic ia l c o ins w i thou t a ny d ist ingu ish ing- mark b eyond s hor tness o f w e igh t a nd b arbar i ty . We s ha l l , i n s hor t , b e w ise t o r egard t he C laud ian i m i ta t ions i n g enera l a s mere c ount er fe i ts. T hey h ad t heir u sefu lness : b u t , a s i n t he c ase o f t he 1 8th c entury i l l ic it h a lfpence , t ha t w as d ear ly b ough t . I .

T h ird-Century Casts

' La d ecadence d e l a g ravire , q u i s ous S ept i me S evere j sto it d e ja c ons idz e rab le , e t l ' a ltera t ion q u 'i 1 a vo it i n trodu i te d ans l e t i tre d es monnoyes , f avor iso ien t d e p lus l es b i l lonneurs e t l es f aussa ires , e n r enden t l eur t rompe r ie p lus f ac i le ;

e n s or te q ue l a q uan t i t‘ d e .. mou les q u 'on a d ecouver ts

1 06

Lyon e n d i f feren ts t e mps , f a i t a ssez j uger q u 'i 1 d evoi t ya voir u n g rand n o mbre d e c es f aussa ires....'

S o wrote t he French a n t iquary , Mahude l , i n

1 723 , when d ea l ing w ith a s er ies o f mou lds f ro m t he a nc ien t c ity-s i te o n t he h i l l o f F ourv ieres . 5 8

We n eed n ot r e-open t he q uest ion o f whether c ast c oins

w ere e ver o f f ic ia l ly p roduced i n t he i mper ia l min ts o f Ro me : a nd Mahude l was o ne o f t he f i rst t o s ay s o. c ern i n t h is s ect ion .

t hey were n ot ,

Mou lds a nd c asts a re o ur c on-

T he e p ide m ic - f or t ha t i s what i tb eca me , e ven i fi t

s tar ted b u t s low ly - r eached a c l i max a t t he t ime o f t he b reakaway Ga l l ic Emp ire o f P ostumus a nd h is s uccessors ( 260-73 ), a nd t hen i ta brup t ly s topped ; o r r a ther , c on t inued , b u t t he p rocess o f c ast ing was d iscarded i n f avour o f d ie-str ik ing t he b arbarous r ad ia tes wh ich f o l low d irect ly u pon t he h ee ls o f t he l ast c asts , a nd mus t t o s o me e x ten t o ver lap t he m. T he c asts embrace a es a s w e l l a s s i lver , a nd i ti s w ith t he a es t hat w e may b eg in .

T he efect o f t he d ebase men t o f t he s i lver h as a lready b een men t ioned ;

t here was a n i ncreas ing s hor tage o f a es f ro m t he e ar l iest y ears o f t he t h ird c entury , b oth i n B r ita in a nd G au l , b u t e spec ia l ly B r ita in , a s many s i te-ser ies s how .

5 9

T he e x tan t c o inage c on t inued t o b e u sed , a nd p ieces b rough t t o l i gh t

f ro m l ate c on tex ts a re o f ten w orn f la t .

L i t t le o f t he l ast s ubstan t ia l i ssue o f

a es , b y P ostumus i n G au l , r eached B r ita in .

I ti s n o w onder t ha t Anton ine

a nd S everan c o ins f or med t he mode ls f or many o f t he p lated c oun ter fe its d isc ussed a bove.

B ut , b es ide t hese , t here e x ists a c ur ious t ype o f l i gh twe igh t

c ast , t o wh ich a t ten t ion was f irst s er ious ly d rawn b y Kub itschek i n 1 915 a nd 1 921, i n c onnex ion w ith s i te-f inds f ro m Carnuntu m . 6 0

T he L i mes fa lsa - o r

' l igh twe igh ts ', a s we may c a l l t he m , s ee ing t hat t he ir d istr ibu t ion i s h ere b y n o means p er iphera l -d raw u pon a l ong s er ies o f o r ig ina ls , a nd i n Br ita in a nd G au l a re mos t ly a sses. 6 1

A t Caer leon a nd Caerwen t , f or e xa mp le , t here

a re a d ozen o r more c asts f ro m t he s a me , v ery worn a s o f Do m i t ian , p robab ly f ro m t he s a me mou ld ; p eror .

Usk y ie lds [ 39 ], f ro m a d if feren t o r ig ina l o f t hat em-

An t ,on ine p ieces , h owever , a re t he c o m monest :

[ 40-1 ] a re f ro m t he

s a me mou ld , a nd w e igh 3 .40 a nd 3 .08 g . a ga inst t he 1 1.55 g . o f [ 42 ].

T he

s er ies t r ick les o n t hrough S everan t imes [ 43-4 ], a nd t he l a test c as ts s o f ar r ecorded a re o f O tac i l ia , w i fe o f t he Emperor Ph i l ip ( 244-9 ) a nd o f T reboni anus G a l lus ( 251-4 ).

T ha t c ast ing c on t inued e ven l a ter t han t h is i s s hown b y

mou lds a ssoc ia ted w ith a n ton in ianus- mou lds a t Pach ten ( Saar land ) a nd Wh i tc hurch ( So m.),

6 2

e n t i f iab le c o ins .

i n t he l a t ter c ase f or a n a s o f Hadr ian [ 8 b ] a nd o ther u n idT hese d epos its r an d own t o Va ler ian I ( 255-7 ) a nd T etr icus

H ( 272-3 ) r espect ive ly .

J .-P. Ca l lu c la i ms a s im i lar d a t ing f or French

l igh twe igh ts . b3 T he o lder t he o r ig ina ls w ere , t he more w orn ; a t af a ir ly a dvanced d ate.

a l l w ere c lear ly mou lded

T he v ery f ine c ond it ion o f t he o r ig ina l d upond ius

o f A lexander , o f 2 31 o r l a ter [ 44 ], 5 .82 g ., f ro m Veru la m ium , s uggests t he 2 30s o r 2 40s a s t he mos t l i ke ly t ime f or t he ir emergence.

T he c haracter is-

t i cs o f t he s er ies a re a r educt ion i n t he w e igh t t o h a lf , o r o f ten much l ess , o f t he G overnmen t s t andard ( s t i l l n ot much s hor t o f 1 g .);

a nd w ha t K ub itschek

c a l led ' unspeakab le wretchedness ', wh ich i s w e l l b rough t o u t b y t he i l lustrati ons. 6 4 We may a l mos t w onder whether t hey w ere n o t mean t a s c oun ters r ather t han a s c urrency , l i ke t he med ieva l j etons wh ich c arry d es igns o f

1 07

F i g .' . S po i l tc a s t so fs e s te r t i i f r om t wo -p iece s l ab -mou ld s . F ound a tB r ige t io , H ung a ry ( a f te r K ub i t schek ) . S c a le i:1 . B yc ou r te sy o ft he R oy a lN um i sma t ic S oc ie ty .

1 08

n um isma t ic a f f in ity .

Y et e igh t l i gh twe igh ts w ere h oarded a t L eysdown

( Ken t ), a nd t he o ld P itstone C o mmon , T r ing ( Her ts.) f i nd c on ta ined t wen tye igh t .8 5 Many l i gh twe igh ts s how s igns o f t he j ets o r s tubs a t t wo p oin ts o f t he ir c ircum ference , a nd p rove t hereby t hat t hey h ad b een c ast i n t wo-p iece s labmou lds ( c f . f ig . 1 ) .

Mou lds o f t h is k ind c ou ld b e u sed r epea ted ly , b u t r e-

u se r ap id ly d egraded t he q ua l ity o f t he i mpress ion ; a nd i ti s d oubt less t he r e-use o f d egraded mou lds wh ich a ccoun ts f or much o f t he ' unspeakab ly wretched ' a ppearance o f t he r esu l ts. I n t he c ase o f t he p i le-type o f mou ld , r e-use o f c o mponen ts w as a lso p oss ib le , t hough t he was tage-ra te must h ave b een much h igher , f or t he c as ts i n t h is c ase w ere n ot p roduced a s af l a t h err ingbone s tr ip , b u t l i ke s o many s eeds o f af i r-cone , a dheren t t o as tout c en tra l r iser o f meta l , a nd i tw ou ld h ave b een d i f f icu lt t o p r ise o ut t he p ads u nbroken f ro m s uch a s o l id mass • 66 I ndeed , i th as o f ten b een o bserved t ha t t he mou lds b ear ing t he f i nes t impress ions i n a ny d epos i t a re e i ther t erm ina l , o r b roken ; a nd t ha t most who le mou lds , o ther t han t erm ina l , a re i n p oor s ta te.

T he p i le-type w as u sed f or b oth s i lver a nd a es a t P ach ten a nd

Wh i tchurch . A long t he D anube a nd i n t he w estern B a lkans , where E lmer r ecorded L imesf ä lschun e n a t t we lve s i tes ,

6 7

t he p os it ion w as q u ite d i f feren t f ro m t hat

o f Ro man Br ita in . T he c h ief d eno m inat ion c ast w as t he s ester t ius , n ot t he a s , a l most a s i ft he mone tary i nf la t ion o f t he r eg ion was w orse t han i n B r i ta in . T he d at ing o f t he s er ies , t oo , i s d i f feren t . Wh i le Kub i tschek was c on ten t t o t ake a s ing le c ast o f G ord ian I I a s s ound e nough e v idence t o p oin t t o t he r e ign o f Ph i l ip a s t he t ime o f manu facture , i fn ot a l a ter p er iod , Edu ard L aco m , a nother s tuden t o f t he s er ies , r e jected t he c o in ( ' geh 'brt n ich t z ur Re ihe ' ) t o s how t hat t he L i mesfa lsa b etrayed n o o r ig ina l l a ter t han t he r eform o f 2 31 : ' aus d er v orgenann ten T a tsache e rg ib t s ich , a ber a uch m it zw inge nder L og ik , d er S ch luss , d ass d iesen P rägungen i m J ahre 2 31 p lötzl ic h un d ra di kal e in Ende g esetzt w orden i s t .' 6 8 T he o r thodox s i te-f inds f ro m Carnuntum s trong ly s uppor t t h is v iew ; a t ing t he m h ere , f ro m E lmer 's l i st ,

6 9

a nd i ti s w or th t abu l-

n ot o n ly t o s how t h is , b u t t o s how

wha t a n i m mense d iference t here was b etween t he c o in i n c ircu la t ion t here a nd o n a ny Br it ish s i te , f or wh ich w e may c hoose R ichborough ( f igures u nder l ined ) .o T he ' par t ing o f t he w ays ' b etween o ne p rov ince a nd a nother i s v ery n ot icea b le l ong b efore A lexander ; a nd w ith G ord ian b eg ins t he i mpor tan t s ubven t ion o f l oca l a sses , wh ich c arr ied t he b urden o f c hange w e l l i n to t he ' s o le r e ign ' o f t he a n ton in ianus.

Noth ing l i ke t h is w as a va i lab le i n B r ita in :

h ence t he

c on t inua t ion o f l i gh twe igh t manu facture d own t o 2 73 ( Wh itchurch ). * I ti s t rue t ha t a n o ccas iona l G reek b ronze , o f s o me c i ty i n As ia M inor o r e ven f rom

N o c asts w ere f ound c orrespond ing t o t he mou lds , b u t i tc an h ard ly b e d oubted b u t t ha t , a s a t P ach ten , t he p roducts w ere l i gh twe igh ts.

1 09

Egyp t ,

7 1

may t urn u p i n Br ita in :

mos t ma jor s i tes h ave o ne o r t wo , a nd

R ichborough i su nusua l i n a pparen t ly n ot h av ing p roduced o ne , p or t-of-en try i nto B r ita in a s i t was. n i f ican t .

B ut t he q uan t i ty o f s uch a dven t it ious c o in w as i ns ig-

F ina l ly , l e t i tb e n oted t ha t t he L igh twe igh t p henomenon h as n o t

l ong b een r ecogn ised a s h av ing e x tended t o B r ita in a t a l l ;

a nd a l though t he

p resen t d istr ibu t ion o f s pec i mens i s s omewha t p atchy , t here c an b e l i t t le d oub t b u t t ha t af resh e xa m ina t ion o f many s er ies , p ub l ished a s w e l l a s u np ub l ished , w ou ld y ie ld e xamp les .7 2

ORTHODOX AES AT CARNUNTUM AND R ICHBOROUGH

Emperor ( i nc l .fa m i ly ) An ton inus P ius M. Aure l ius Co m modus S everus Caraca l la E lagaba lus

S ester t ius 9 1

2 8

1 34 5 7 1 7*

1 2 9

7

Dupond ius 7 6

1 8

1 45

1 03 4 0

1 6

1 25 3 4 5

1

8 3

4

c e 3 7 7 .1 ) c t 2 q I . 2

8 7 **

A lexander

6 0

1

1 0

Max im in I G ord ian I I

1 8 3 2

2 2

3 1 0

Ph i l ip I D ec ius

2 0 4 ***

1 3

Ga l lus

G reek

As

1

1 0 1 4

e

T ; c z t, _ . 5 c d •1

>

2

1 4

8 6

2 1

4 9

i i 1 r e c i ) e ; . 1 o

a ) 4 c p

o

1

1 7

* i nc ludes s ester t ius o f D id ius J u l ianus

1 4

e8 3 1 09 8 6

Ae m i l ian-Ga l l ienus ,J .R .

7

i 1 1

1

* * i nc ludes t wo a sses o f Macr inus

* ** i nc ludes d oub le s estert ius

We n ow t urn t o t he s i lver . a re n ot u ncom mon i n s i te-f inds ;

Baselook ing a nd l igh t d enar i i , u sua l ly S everan , b u t t hey may o f ten t urn o u t t o b e p er fect ly

o r thodox u pon c lean ing a nd d e ta i led i den t i f ica t ion .

I ti s a t t he c a ta logu ing-

s tage , h owever , t hat c oun ter fe its may c o me t o l i gh t a s ' hybr ids '.

Not a l l a re

c as ts , o r i ndeed n ecessar i ly f a lse : a n o ld r everse d ie may s o met imes h ave b een u sed f or t he s ake o f e cono my o r b ecause i th ad b een mixed a cc iden ta l ly w ith c urren t d ies.

T here a re s im i lar i ns tances i n o ther c o inages :

b etween

Henry V a nd H enry V I i n o ur own s er ies , t o men t ion b u t o ne e xamp le. Ac onspectus o f t he c o in- mou lds f ound i n B r i ta in , b ased u pon t he i n format i on c o l lected b y S u ther land a nd , b efore h im , b y A .E . Rob inson ,

7 3

i s g iven

w ith c er ta in a dd it ions a nd c o mpara t ive mater ia l o ppos i te. I tc an b e s een t ha t t he l argest s er ies r un d own t o Max im in I( 235-8 ) a nd p oss ib ly t o G ord ian I I ( 238-44 ) a t L ingwe l l G a te , i fa n ton in ianus-mou lds i n L iverpoo l Museum c o me f ro m t ha t d epos it :

t here i s n o r eason why t hey s hou ld n ot h ave d one s o , f or

10

CONSTANTINE

TE TRARC HY

AURE LI AN , r efor m

V IC T . - TE TRICUS

POSTU MUS

( n I

QUINT ILLUS

T o HADRIAN

( 1 )

1 1 : 5

X

Bot tesford ( L incs.)

GALLIENUS , S . R.

X

PHILIP t o

B inches ter ( Durha m )

K

GORDIAN I l

ALEXANDER

X

X

ANTONINE

X

Bar t low ( Ca mbs.)

( 1 )

S E VERAN t o

n,

o

5

t r j

Ancaster ( L incs.)

f : 1 s 4 < g c 1 i

References

CCRB CCRB

t

CCRB CCRB

X

Bu lw ick ( N 'han ts.)

X

J .S . Burden

Cas tor ( N 'han ts.)

X

JAA Br .Is. I , 1 80 ; Ar t is

X

Chester

CCRB

Co lchester

X

Dorchester ( Dorset )

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

B .M .

H ighbr idge ( So m.)

?

S o m.Proc.

Housesteads ( Nor thd .)

X

CCRB CCRB

Dus ton ( N than ts.)

CCRB

Ed ing ton ( So m.) Ha mb le ton H i l l ( Ru t ..)

X

CCRB

I V CCRB

Kenn ( So m.)

R .F. T ay lor

L inco ln L ingwe l l Ga te ( Yorks.)

X

X

X

X

X

X

L ondon

X

Mi l l ing ton ( Yorks.)

?

CCRB X

CCRB N . Cook I

Nocton ( Lincs.)

I

I

R ivenha l l ( Essex ) Ry ton ( Sa lop )

X

CCRB CCRB CCRB CCRB

S lea ford ( L incs.)

L incs.H.& A . I

Wh i tchurch ( So m.) Wroxeter ( Sa lop )

X

Bordeaux Da mery ( Marne ) Pach ten ( Saar land ) c o . 8

u

X

X

X

X

Pannon ia ( 1 t .w ts.)

n i i i n i

Arch .J. CXX I I CCRB , e tc. B SAF 1 899 RN I _ Ch iron I NZ 1 933

Br i ta in ( 1 t .w ts.)NC 1 965 e tc.

X d enar i i

4 -a n ton in ian i

a es

l aurea tes

T h is i nvo lves f ind-spots o ver a bou t 3 mi les e ast o f Ed ing ton , s ee VCH S o m.I ,351-2.

111

F i g .2 . Ma te r ia l f r om D u s ton ( No r than t s .) :1 4 , mou ld sf o rT e t ra rch ic l a u rea te s ; s6 , w a s te f r om t he mou th so fp i le type mou ld s ; 78 , s po i l tc a s t s o fc o in s . S ca le ,r 1 .B yc ou r te sy o ft he R oya l N um i sma t ic S oc ie ty .

t he Pach ten d epos it c on ta ined a f ew f or a n ton in ian i a s l a te a s Va ler ian I , a s we s aw ; a nd t hus , v ia t he B ordeaux f inds , wh ich r an d own t o P ostumus , a nd t hose f ro m D a mery ( Marne ), w h ich r an d own t o Qu in t i l lus ( 269 ) a s ar ee xam inat ion o f t he r ecorded r everse t ypes s hows ,7 4 w e a rr ive a t Wh i tchurch , ad epos it c ons ist ing ma in ly o f G a l l ic Emp ire a n ton in ian i.

Mou lds f or t he r e-

f ormed c o inage i n troduced b y Aure l ian c . 2 72 a re v ery r are i ndeed , a nd t here a re n o B r it ish e xamp les r ecorded—. 7 5 T he e p idem ic o f c as t ing h ad c eased b efore t hese c o ins h ad c o me i n to c om mon u se ; b u t t he e nd o f t he c ast ing i s e as ier t o d e term ine t han i t s b eg inn ing .

S u ther land t ook t he s i m-

p lest v iew a nd p laced i tu nder S everus a nd Caraca l la - t he c om mon d eno mi nator , a s i tw ere , o f t he mou lds. Bu t a t t hat p er iod , p la t ing o f d enar i i b y t he t ime-honoured methods was s t i l l w ide ly p ract ised , a nd i t may b e p ref erab le t o t ake t he l ongest s er ies o f mou lds a s a more r e l iab le i ndex .

T hese

wou ld p oin t t o t he s ame p er iod a s t ha t a t wh ich t he c as t ing o f a es b egan . s n ide a n ton in ianus f ro m S egon t ium

A

i s t he l a tes t wh ich Ih ave n o ted a s h av ing

b een p la ted b y at rad it iona l method u n t i l w e c ome t o t he f our th c en tury . I ti s n ot d i f f icu l t t o f i nd c asts t o i l lustrate t he p roducts. [ 45 ] i s ab ase c ast d enar ius o f Caraca l la , c f . [ 46 ]; [ 47-9 ] a re a d enar ius o f G ord ian I T I , a nd a n ton in ian i o f C laud ius I ( 268-9 ) a nd Aure l ian ( 270-5 , p re-reform ). T hey a re a l l b ase :

Ih ave s uggested e lsewhere , b u i ld ing o n ap oss ib i l i ty

f irst r a ised b y G ow land many y ears a go ,

7 6

t hat p ar t o f t he f orgers ' p rof it

l ay i n r e mov ing t he s i lver i n o r thodox c o ins b y c upe l la t ion w ith l ead b e fore r e-us ing t he r es idue. S o me c asts , h owever , w ere n ot made i n b ronze a t a l l , b u t i n t i n .

A sma l l a nd c er ta in ly r a ther e ar l ier s er ies c ame f ro m a

w e l l a t B ar H i l l f or tu pon t he An ton ine Wa l l ;7 7

a nd Poo le 's e xce l len t 1 803

a ccoun t o f t he Ed ing ton ( So m.) mou lds p la in ly s ta tes t ha t .. we n o t o n ly f ound , a s a t L yons , al u mp o f [ base ] meta l , b u t l i kew ise , i n o ne i nstance , t he v ery c o in i t se lf , l odged i n i t s mou ld , a nd f ormed , l i ke t he l u mp , o f a wh ite me ta l r ese mb l ing s i lver , b u t wh ich , u pon e xam ina t ion , p roves t o b e p r inc ipa l ly t in .' 7 8

T he l ead-a l loy mou lds c ou ld h ave b een u sed o n ly f or

t i n o r a n a l loy ma in ly o f t i n .7 9 T he L ex Corne l ia d e F a ls is , S u l la 's l aw o f 8 1 B .C., i s s pec i f ic i n t he c ase o f t i n o r l ead c o ins : ' . ..expr im itur , n e q u is n ummos s tanneos p lumbe os emere v endere d o lo ma lo v e l let .... ' 8° T he o f fence , c lear ly , was n e ither t he manu facture n or t he b uy ing a nd s e l l ing o f s uch c o ins , b u t t he b uy ing a nd s e l l ing o f t he m w i th i n ten t t o d efraud .

We t herefore h ave t o e n-

v isage a s i tua t ion i n wh ich a l eg i t ima te t rade i n s uch c o ins c ou ld b e c arr ied o n .

T he Bar H i l l f i nds may w e l l i nd ica te s uch a s i tuat ion , f or t he ir o ccur-

r ence i n aw e l l s uggests a v ot ive p urpose , a s S ir G . Macdona ld r emarked i n p ub l ish ing t he m.

B u t i t wou ld b e a r t less t o i mag ine t ha t t he Ed ing ton f inds

a re e xp la inab le i n t h is way ; a nd a s f ar a s t he l ead-a l loy mou lds a re c onc erned , i ti s a t l east a v ery s usp ic ious c ircums tance t hat , i n t he c ase o f Ar lon , t he c o ins p roduced w ou ld h ave b een o f N ero ;

a nd i n t he c ase o f

Mandeure , o f D om i t ian a nd T ra jan, c as t ing a nd u t ter ing d o lo ma lo i s v ery l ike ly t o h ave f o l lowed t he N eron ian a nd T ra jan ic r eforms o f t he c urrency . Mahude l s howed , o ver t wo h undred y ears a go , t ha t c asts c ou ld n ot b e o f f ic ia l c o ins ;

a nd s ince h is d ay , t hough n ot i nvar iab ly , t hey h ave g enera l ly

13

b een r egarded a s s imp le c oun ter fe i ts b rough t o n b y t he d ec l in ing s tandard o f t he G overnmen t c o inage , b y t he r esu ltan t i n f lat ion , a nd t he s carc ity o f s pec ie . T here i s , h owever , a midd le p a th , wh ich w as c hosen b y t he l a te Professor Mar ia Radnöt i-A l fö ld i i n h er c ons idera t ion o f t he P ach ten f inds. S he h as ma in ta ined t ha t , b ecause t he Ro man l aw d id n ot t ake a ccoun t o f t he c oun terf e it ing o fb ronze u n t i l t he f our th c entury , c asts i n t ha t ma ter ia l d id n ot p rev ious ly r ank a s i l lega l , p rov ided t ha t t hey w ere n ot s i lvered a nd p assed o f f a s g enu ine d enar i i o r a n ton in ian i , b u t w ere u sed a s sma l l c hange. 8iAs a c oro l lary , s he w as f orced t o d eny t ha t c asts o f s i lver-deno m ina t ions w ere , o r w ere i n tended t o b e , p lated . T h is v iew i s o pposed t o t hat o f E lmer , who s tated t hat t he c as ts o f S everan , e tc. d enar i i f ound i n s ome n umber a t Carn un tum h ad a l l b een f ormer ly s i lvered , t hough h e d id n o t g o s o f ar a s t o s ay t ha t a ny t races o f s i lver ing r e ma ined .8 2 I ti s i n terest ing a nd i mpor tan t t o h ave h ad t he l ega l p os i t ion s o c lear ly s et o u t , a nd i tc an b e a dm it ted i n c onsequence t ha t t he l i gh twe igh t a es c ou ld l ega l ly s erve a s sma l l c hange.

Ow ing t o t he d ec l ine i n t he v a lue o f t he

s i lver-currency , a nd t he c onsequen t h oard ing o f b ronze , n oth ing o f b et ter s ize a nd a ppearance c ou ld h ave b een ma in ta ined i n c ircu la t ion i n a ny c ase. Bu t i ts ee ms more t han a t r if le s trange t hat a t ten t ion s hou ld h ave b een t urned t o t he p roduct ion o f sma l l c hange i n t he f or ma p ub l ica o f d enar i i a nd a n ton ini an i a t at ime b y wh ich t he p urchas ing-power o f t he s i lver c o ins h ad s o c a tastroph ica l ly f a l len .

A lthough t here was a n e phe mera l r esusc i tat ion o f t he

s em is u nder D ec ius , p robab ly i n c onnex ion w ith t ha t emperor 's s o-ca l led 8 3 d oub le-sester t ius , t he c o in h as l ef tb are ly a t race i n t he w estern p rov inces. As r egards p la t ing , wh ich i s d ist ingu ishab le u pon 1 47 ] -t hough Iwou ld n ot c are t o s ay wha t t he me ta l was - i t may b e o bserved t ha t e ven i n t he c ase o f t he o f f ic ia l a n ton in ian i p roduced a round 2 70 , s ay , wh ich w e k now were g iven as pec ious p lat ing i n s o me way ,

8 4

t he c oat ing i s s e ldom p reserved e xcep t i n

t he c ase o f c o ins s tored t ogether i n a h oard , a nd b y n o means i nvar iab ly t hen .

I ft h is w as t he f a te o f t he p la t ing u pon o f f ic ia l c o ins , t he r uder methods

emp loyed b y c oun ter fe iters c ou ld h ard ly b e e xpec ted t o p roduce a more t ena c ious c oa t . T he d iscuss ion o f t he s er ies r ea l ly e nds a t t h is p o in t . B ut t he r e la t ions h ip o f t he a n ton in ianus a nd t he d enar ius h as b een i n troduced i n to t he mat ter b y o thers , a nd a f ew w ords u pon t he s ub ject a re p erhaps n ecessary . Metrol og ica l ly , t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he t wo i s s imp le e nough , b e ing r ough ly 1 1.: 1 . Un t i l r ecen t y ears , i th ad c o me t o b e w idely a ccep ted t ha t t he a n ton in ianus was g ross ly o ver-va lued b y t he G overnmen t , a nd c ircu la ted a s at wo-denari us p iece . B o l in , f or e xa mp le , a ccep ts t h is p os it ion , b as ing h i mse lf u pon 8 5 t he g enera l o ver-va lua t ion o f t he Ro man s i lver c o inage i n r e lat ion t o b u l l ion . A s trong p o in t i n f avour o f t he n ot ion was t he r ad ia te c rown w orn b y t he i mper ia l h ead u pon t he a n ton in ianus , wh ich c ou ld b e c ompared w ith t he c rown u pon t he t wo-as p iece , t he d upond ius. As f ar a s t he c oun ter fe its w ere c onc erned , i tw as p oss ib le t o a rgue t hat t he e p ide m ic o f c as t ing s hou ld b e d a ted b etween 2 38 , when t he a n ton in ianus e f fect ive ly s howed t ha t a ny p remium wh ich t he d enar ius h ad h i ther to e n joyed was n o l onger e x isten t .8 6

I n 1 963 ,

h owever , R .A .G . C arson a rgued t hat t he a n ton in ianus was n ot o ver-tar if fed a t a l l , b u t h ad b een i n troduced i n 2 15 i n o rder t o ma in ta in a s i lver c o in i n

14

c ircu la t ion , wh ich s hou ld h ave t he r a t io o f 2 5 t o t he g o ld p iece f ormer ly e nj oyed b y t he s l ipp ing d enar ius. ' On ly i n at i gh t ly a nd e f f ic ien t ly c on tro l led mone tary e cono my c ou ld a c o in meta l l ica l ly w or th o n ly 11 2 -t imes a d enar ius h ave c ircu la ted w i th a w or th o f 2d enar i i w ithou t d r iv ing t he d enar ius i t sel f o u t o f c ircu la t ion :

a nd h oards s how t ha t t h is...d id n ot h appen .' 87

We migh t

o urse lves a dd t ha t i ft he n ew c o in h ad i ndeed b een o ver-tar if fed , t he c oun terf e i ters w ou ld n ot h ave n eg lected t he o ppor tun ity o f p rof it w h ich l ay i n mu lt ip ly ing i t ;

a nd a l l t he more b ecause , u n t i l 2 38, i tw as a s o mewha tu nco mmon

d enom ina t ion , e spec ia l ly i n B r it ai n .8 8 B u tu n t i l w e r each Damery a nd Wh itc hurch , d epos i ts o f mou lds s how n o e spec ia l p reference f or t he a n ton in ianus ; a nd d o s o o n ly t hen b ecause i th ad b eco me t he d om inan t c o in . I I .

B arbarous Rad iates T he r ad iate c rown g ives t he n ame t o t hese p ieces , a nd i ti s p robab ly a n

a nc ien t n a me , a s f ar a s t he o f f ic ia l c o inage i s c oncerned .8 9

B arbarous

r ad iates a re k nown i n p rod ig ious n umbers i n G au l a nd B r i ta in a nd o ccur i n G ermany , I t a ly , S pa in , a nd A fr ica . 9° T hey a re c oun ter fe it a n t ,on in ian i , wh ich i n s ize r ange f rom t he n orma l [ 51, c f . 5 0 ], 2 .54 g ., d own t o v ery t i ny p ieces s carce ly 5m m. a cross , t hough i n s uch c ases t he t i ny p e l lets u sed f or t he b lanks w ere o f ten t oo sma l l f or t he d ies , wh ich w ere d emonstrab ly 7 o r 8 m m. i n d iameter . Twen ty o f t he sma l lest c o ins i n t he Wor th ing h oard a verage o n ly 0 .30 g .9 1 T o p roduce a r ecogn isab le i mper ia l h ead a t t h is s ca le c a l led f or s ome s k i l l ; a nd i ti s r e markab le h ow o f ten t ha t s k i l l w as f or thco m ing . [ 53 ], a lbe it s o mewha t l arger , 9 m m., 0 .45 g ., i s ap ar t icu lar ly p leas ing T etr ic ian p or tra it w ith v est iges o f al egend wh ich w ou ld h ave b een l ost i ft he f l an h ad b een a ny sma l ler. I t may b e c o mpared w ith [ 54 ], 7m m ., 0 .22 g ., w i th i t s amus ing c ar icature o f V ictor inus. T hese t wo c o ins a re t yp ica l min im i o r min ims , ac onven ien t t er m f or c o ins u nder a bou t 1 2 m m. a cross , b u t o ne wh ich must n ot b e a l lowed t o i mp ly t ha t t here w as a ny k ind o f d eno m inat iona l d i f ference b e tween t hese a nd l arger b arbarous r ad ia tes. T he manu facturers o f t he b arbarous r ad ia tes w ere n o r espec ters o f o f f ici a l n icety , a ny more t han t he maker o f t he s truck d upond i i d iscussed a bove. T here a re f requen t i ns tances o f t he e rroneous c oup l ing o f o bverse a nd r everse t ypes.

O f t he r everse t ypes t he mse lves , at horough c onspectus i s a va i lab le

i n C .H .V . S u ther land 's C o inage a nd Currency ...., a nd o ur d iscuss ions h ere may b e r estr icted t o af ew s pec if ic p o in ts.

T he o bverses a re b ased u pon t he

c o mmonest o f f ic ia l c o ins i n c ircu la t ion , n ame ly t hose o f G a l l ienus , C laud ius I ( whose c o m me mora t ive c o inage , w ith i t s e ag le o r a l tar r everse, i s f req uen t ly i m i ta ted , o ften f rom t he b ase I t al ian s em i-barbarous i ssues wh ich e n tered G au l u nder t he T etr ic i9 2 ) , Quin t i l lus , P ostumus , a nd e spec ia l ly V ictor inus a nd T etr icus Ia nd I . p ro to types :

o f Aure l ian , s e ldo m ;

I n a dd it ion , t here a re e xamp les o f l a ter T acitus ;

a nd - a s i ti s n ow k nown , r e l-

a t ive ly c o mmon ly among p ost-Ga l l ic o r ig ina ls - Probus ( c f . [ 60 ] ).

We s how

s evera l o f t hese P roban m in i ms [ 61-4 ], t he l ast t wo f ro m a c oun ter fe iter 's d epos it a t C oygan , L augharne ( Cal ms.) o f wh ich w e must wr ite more l a ter ; [ 6 1 ], w ith l egend PROB I , e choes a n o f f ic ia l t i tu lature V IRT I TS PROBI AVG . S ince w e h ave p os t-Ga l l ic o bverses , i ti s o n ly n a tura l t ha t t here s hou ld a lso

15

b e p os t-Ga l l ic r everses , whether o r n ot c oup led w ith a n a ppropr ia te o bverse ; a nd e xa mp les a re k nown .9 3

Bu t , a s f ar a s c an b e e stab l ished f ro m r ecen t

r esearch - n o tab ly t hat o f Professor H .B . Mat t ing ly 9 4

-t here i s n o i n-

s tance wha tever o f ab arbarous r ad iate , u pon a ny Br i t ish s i te , wh ich h as b een mode l led u pon a n o r ig ina l l ater t han Probus , a nd t he s ame g oes f or G au 1 .9 5 T here a re , o f c ourse , n u merous b arbarous o r s em i-barbarous c o ins o f Caraus ius , b u t t hey b e long t o as epara te s er ies , a nd n ever f a l l t o min im s ize ;

a nd a lthough Varaus ian ' p or tra its h ave s o me t imes b een n oted

u pon min i ms - [ 55 ] i s n o t ab ad e xa mp le - t here h as n ever b een a ny c onf irma tory l egend . S uch p or tra its a re b et ter a ss igned t o P ostu mus . O therw ise , o n ly t wo min i ms h ave b een c la imed a s p ost-Proban . One i s s a id t o b e o f Nu mer ian ( Aure l ian? ), b u t h as n o f ind-spot ;

t he o ther [ 106 ] i s s a id t o

b e o f Magn ia Urb ica , w i fe o f t he Emperor C ar inus ( 282-5 ), a nd i s a lso u np rovenanced :

i n f act , i tb e longs t o as er ies o f l a te C ons tan t in ian min i ms

b ased u pon t he c o m me mora t ive c o inage o f ( F lav ia ) Max ima T heodora , w e l lk nown e spec ia l ly a t R ichborough .9 6

T he c onc lus ion r eached i s , t herefore ,

t hat t he p roduct ion o f b arbarous r ad iates i n B r ita in a nd G au l , a t l east , c eased e i ther d ur ing , o r i m med ia te ly a f ter , t he r e ign o f Probus ( 276-82 ); f or i ft h is w ere n ot s o , w e s hou ld f ind t he c o inage o f C arus a nd h is s ons r epresen ted a t as im i lar f requency . A t t h is p o in t , w e may r e l ieve t he d iscuss ion b y r e ference t o t wo s pec imens wh ich d e monstrate s o me o f t he o dd i t ies o f t he b arbarous r ad iates. [ 56 ], 2 .21 g ., h as a c lear T etr ic ian o bverse ;

t he r everse s hows a f e ma le

f igure t o l ef t , h o ld ing a c ornucop iae a nd s acr i f ic ing f ro m a p a tera o ver a n a l tar ;

t he l egend i s C0 1 4SECRAT I .

S uch a r everse c annot o f c ourse b e

f ound f or T etr icus , who l i ved i n I t a ly a f ter s urrender ing h is Emp ire t o Aure l ian ;

n or d oes i tc o inc ide w ith Consecrat io t ypes o f C laud ius I o r V ictor-

i nus.

T o t race t h is f igure w ith a CON- l egend , w e g o t o t he e ar ly c o inage

o f Aure l ian [ 57 ], CONCORDIA AVG .

T he mis taken l egend o f t he b arbarous

p iece may w e l l b e d ue t o t he i mper fect s tr ik ing o f t he o r ig ina l c hosen a s mode l ;

i tc an b e s een t hat t he l egend o f t he Aure l ian ic c o in i s b y n o means

a s c lear a s i t migh t h ave b een .

T he s econd c o in [ 58 ] i s a min im , 0 .62 g .,

f ro m D inorben , Aberge le ( Denbs.).

I ts ee ms q u ite e x traord inary , p urpor t-

i ng t o s how a h andso me f i sh b eing g a f fed b y ad im inu t ive f igure o n ap latf orm.

I n p ub l ish ing t he c o in p rev ious ly ,

b e s uggested i n t he r ad ia te s er ies.

9 7

Is a id t ha t n o p roto type c ou ld

T ha t s ta te men t w i l l n ot d o :

t here c an

n ever b e a ny th ing t ru ly o r ig ina l i n a n i m i tat ive s er ies , b u t o n ly d epar tures f ro m t he n or ma l b rough t o n b y i mper fect ions o f t he mode ls , s o met i mes t he mse lves b arbarous i m i ta t ions , a nd b y ad es ire t o make s ense o f s o met h ing n ot p la in i n i t se lf . e le men ts , l ef t a nd r igh t .

H ere we h ave a c ompos it ion i nvo lv ing t wo v ert ica l Two-f igure c o mpos it ions w ere a g rea t f eature o f

t he r eformed c o inage o f Aure l ian a nd h is s uccessors.

I n t h is c ase , Aure l-

i an 's PROV 1DENDEOR t ype [ 59 ] f orms a c o lourab le p rototype :

o n t he r igh t

s tands S o l , f ee t a par t ( t hus a ccoun t ing f or t he t a i l o f t he f ish ), a nd o n t he l ef t s tands Prov iden t ia o r F ides h o ld ing t wo m i l i tary s tandards ( t hus g iving r ise t o t he s o mewhat k nobb ly p lat for m ) . 9 8 Our r e ma in ing c o m men tary may c oncentra te u pon t he d ec l ine i n t he s ize o f t he b arbarous r ad ia tes , a nd t he p lace wh ich t he r esu ltan t t i ny min ims h e ld

16

i n t he mone tary s yste m.

T he t rans it ion f ro m l arge t o sma l ler c op ies must

h ave h appened q u ite s oon , a nd t he C oygan f inds men t ioned a bove t hrow c ons iderab le l igh tu pon t he mat ter .

T he d epos i t c ons isted n ot o n ly o f Proban

c op ies s uch a s [ 63-4 l, wh ich a verage 1 m m. a nd 0 .42 g ., l arger c op ies a verag ing 1 4 m m. a nd 1 .25 g .

9 9

b u t a lso o f

Many o f t hese were f ound i n a

d is tor ted a nd h a lf-fused c ond i t ion [ 65 ], wh ich s uggests t ha t t hey h ad b een c o ll ected t ogether f or me lt ing d own , t o p rov ide me ta l f or t he Proban min ims. I n s hor t , w i th in f our t o t en y ears a f ter t he e nd o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire , min ims w ere efect ive ly r ep lac ing c op ies wh ich w ere , i n t he mse lves , o f a sma l ler modu le t han t he f i rst , l arge c op ies c lose i n s tandard t o t he o r ig ina ls.

Fro m

o ur s tudy o f t he C laud ian c op ies a nd l igh twe igh t a es , i t must a ppear t ha t o n ly s evere c ond it ions o f s hor tage c ou ld h ave b rough t a bou t r educt ions o f t h is o rder .

T ha t as hor tage o f c o in c ou ld e x is t i n t he midst o f a n a pparen t

p len ty o f o r thodox mater ia l i s ac onsequence o f t he i nf lat ion w h ich f o l lowed t he d egrada t ion o f t he s i lver-coinage ( p . 9 6).

C ircumstances wh ich l ed t o

a n e xacerba t ion o f t he s hor tage a f ter 2 73, when Aure l ian 's n ew c oinage s hou ld h ave f looded i n , w ere c ons idered b y t he l a te Haro ld Mat t ing ly i n a p ercep t ive s ketch p ub l ished u nder t he t i t le ' The c lash o f t he c o inages ' i n 1 951. 1 00 A f ter t he r ecovery o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire ( i nc lud ing B r i ta in ), t here i m medi ate ly a rose t he q uest ion o f wha t s hou ld b e d one a bout t he i m mense masses o f b ase c o ins i ssued b y t he u surpers.

I n t he C en tra l Emp ire , t he r efor m o f

c . 2 72 wh ich h ad i n troduced a much b et terlook ing , a nd meta l lica l ly s l igh t ly i mproved , r ad iate , a ppears t o h ave p assed o f fu nevent fu l ly a f ter s o me s or t o f t roub le among t he s ta f f o f Ro me min t .

A t s evera l min ts , t he c o ins w ere

marked XX I , e tc. - c f . t he c o in o f Probus [ 60 ] - wh ich d enoted t he v a lue == = i n s o me w ay : p robab ly t he c oin was a f i ve-denar ius p iece. 1 01 We d o n ot k now i fa ny e xchange-ra te w as a ppo in ted f or G a l l ic c o in ; b u t s ince t he mark i s a bsen t f ro m e ar ly L yon i ssues , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t hat ma t ters w ere t o b e l ef t t o w ork t he mse lves o u t n atura l ly .

Nu merous h oards a nd s i te-f inds

s how t ha t G a l l ic Emp ire c o ins r e mained i n f u l l c ircu la t ion b oth i n G au l a nd i n Br i ta in , a nd t he n ew c o inage was u nab le t o make much h eadway a t f irst a ga ins t t he f l ood .

T here w ere o f c ourse s t i l l d if icu lt ies a nd u nrest i n G au l.

Ma t t ing ly r egarded t he r econquest o f B r i ta in , f ro m A l lectus , i n 2 96 a s t he wa tershed ;

b u t s ince w e n ow h ave a much b et ter k now ledge o f t he e nd o f t he

min i m-co inage , t h is d a te mus t b e t en o r ad ozen y ears t oo l ate.

T he c opy-

i ng o f p ost-Ga l l ic p rototypes i n i t se lf s hows t ha t t he o r ig ina ls h ad b eco me w e l l-d i f fused i n t he g enera l c urrency . T h is d if fus ion p robab ly o ccurred d ur ing t he r e ign o f Probus ;

b u t i t may

h ave d epended l ess u pon t he G overnmen t 's p ressure a nd i ns istence , e .g . i n t he ma t ter o f t he p aymen t o f d ues i n t he r eformed c o in , t han u pon i t s i nab i li t y t o ma in ta in t he p iece a t i t s o r ig ina l v a lue. T he meres t t ouch o f ak n i fe o n t he e dge w ou ld s how t ha t t he meta l w as s t i l l v ery p oor :

i t s 4% f i neness ,

o r al i t t le l ess , i s a dm it ted ly t w ice a s g ood a s t ha t o f t he l a te G a l l ic p ieces , b u t i ti s d oubt fu l whether t he i ncrease w ou ld h ave l eap t t o t he e ye . v a lue o f t he n ew c o in was t herefore l ike ly t o s l ip ;

T he

a nd t ha t i td id s l ip i s

s hown b y t he f inds f ro m Wh i te Wo man 's H o le , a sma l l c ave a t t he e astern e nd o f t he Mend ips ( So m .), where t here w as e v idence o f c o ins h aving b een

17

d iv ided i n to s egmen ts - most ly q uar ters - t o p rov ide f lans f or min im

1 02

One o f t he c o ins s o t rea ted was a r eformed c o in o f T ac i tus [ 66 ], a long w ith G a l l ic c o ins [ 67 ] a nd e ven b arbarous p ieces o f l arge s ize.

T h is c ou ld h ard ly

h ave b een t he c ase , i ft he r ead i ly-recogn isab le r eformed c oin h ad r eta ined av a lue g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he o ther c o ins c oncerned . T here a re many h oards i n B r ita in wh ich c lose w i th r e formed c o ins o f Aure l ian a nd h is s uccessors , o r w ith t hose o f t he Br it ish u surpers ; b u t a t p resen t o n ly o ne e xcep t ion a ppears t o b e k nown t o t he r u le t ha t r eformed c o ins , e ven i n q u i te l arge h oards , a re i n a minor ity .

T he e xcep t ion i s t he

G loucester h oard ( 1960 ) o f o ver 1 5 ,000 , a l l r eformed e xcep t f or a t i ny mino r i ty wh ich i nc luded o n ly o ne G a l l ic p iece a nd t wo o f A l lectus ( 293-6 ). 1" But f or a c ur ious f eature o f t he Penard , G ower , h oard , b ur ied c . 2 93 ,

1 04

t here w ou ld b e n oth ing i n a l l t he o thers t o s ugges t t ha t t he r efor med c o ins e ver a ch ieved t he s tatus wh ich Aure l ian must h ave h oped w ou ld b e t he irs . I n d is man t ling t he c oncreted mass o f 2 ,583 c o ins , If ormed t he i mpress ion t ha t t he 6 1 r eformed c o ins w ere p redo m inan t ly s i tuated i n t he u pper p ar t , a s i ft hey h ad b een a dded s eparate ly t o t he b ronze b ow l wh ich f ormed t he g enera l c on ta iner .

*

I ts ee ms l ike ly t hat s o me c hange h ad a f fected t he c urrency

b etween c . 2 76 , when a c o in o f T ac itus c ou ld b e c u t u p r egard less a t Wh ite Wo man 's H o le , a nd t he p er iod o f t he Br i t ish Emp ire. f erence was b e ing a ccorded t o r efor med c o ins ;

S o me d egree o f p re-

o r , t o s ay t he l east , t hey

were b e ing r egarded a s d if feren t f ro m t he G a l l ic mass.

As we h ave s een ,

t he c o in ing o f min i ms was b rough t t o a n e nd c . 2 82 - g ive o r t ake a y ear o r t wo - a nd i t must h ave b een t hen t hat t he G overnmen t managed t o s uppress t he manu facture o f min i ms , i fn ot t he ir c ircu la t ion q u ite e n t ire ly :

a s t he

S egon t ium I h oard , a dduced b y H .B . Mat t ing ly , p roves , min i ms w ere c ons ide red t o p ossess a v a lue a s l ate a s c . 2 86 ; b ut t here i s n o s ign o f p ost-Ga l l ic o r ig ina ls i n t ha t h oard : 1°5

p erhaps s uppress ion was l im i ted t o c oun ter fe its

o f t he r eformed t ype , f or a lthough t he Proban c op ies a re t he l atest i n tr ins ica l ly d atab le , t hey a re n ot t he sma l lest .

T he Wor th ing a nd V eru la m ium

h oards , t o n ame b u t t wo , c on ta ined ' Ga l l ic ' min i ms b are ly 5 m m . a cross ;

0 6

a nd i fw e a re t o t ake i tt ha t ' t he sma l ler , t he l a ter ', t hen t hese v ery t i ny s craps s hou ld b e l ater t han t he Proban c op ies , a nd migh t h ave f i l led o ut t he y ears c . 2 82-6.

H owever , t here i s l i t t le l ike l ihood t hat t h is was s o .

T he

a rgumen t i s c oncerned e n t ire ly w i th t iny , i n tr ins ica l ly w or th less , c rude p ieces ;

a nd i n t hese c ircumstances , p rec is ion i s n ot t o b e e xpected .

T he

f lans a re r ough , b e ing s n ipped f ro m s heet- meta l o r o ld c oins , s l iced f ro m c as t r ods , o r mere p e l lets .

Dra mat ic d i f ferences w i l l s how when t he r es-

u lts a re p laced o n as ens it ive modern b a lance ;

b u t t hey a re q u i te mean ing-

l ess , a s c an b e p roved b y t he s ize a nd w e igh ts o f t he t wo c h ief t ypes o f Proban min im made a t C oygan [ 63-4 ] :1 07 Obv . 1 /Rev . 1

( 19 )

1 2 t o 1 0 m m., 0 .63 t o 0 .28 g ., a verage 0 .37 g .

Obv . 1 /Rev . 2

( 14 )

1.5 t o 1 0 m m., 0 .85 t o 0 .27 g ., a verage 0 .48 g .

C lear ly , ' s tra t if ica t ion ' o f t h is k ind s hou ld b e l ooked f or i n c oncreted h oards. Add it iona l c on f irma t ion o f t he p o in t made i s h igh ly d es irab le. T hey may h ave b een a f o l l is , o r b ag , i n t h is c ase :

18

s ee b e low , p . 1 33.

T hus , wh i le t he d iameters d o n ot g rea t ly v ary , t he w e igh ts v ary b y a s much a s t hreefo ld i n as er ies i nd ispu tab ly p roduced f ro m t he s ame t hree d ies a t t he s ame t ime.

T he l owest we igh ts a re o ver lapped b y t he a verage o f 2 0 o f

t he sma l lest c o ins a t Worth ing , a nd i t may b e r eca l led t hat t he sma l lest d ies r epresen ted i n t hat h oard w ere 7 t o 8m m. i n d iameter a nd l arger t han many o f t he sma l lest c o ins.

T he v ery sma l l min i ms , w e may c onc lude ,

w ere o f ten s truck o n r ather d u mpy f lans ;

b ecause , i n t he G a l l ic s er ies ,

t he r ad ia te h ead was t he most i mpor tan t t h ing .

I n t he Proban s er ies , t he

t i tu lature w as a lso r egarded a s impor tan t . B e fore t urn ing t o t he v a lue o f t he min i ms , r eference must b e made t o a n ot ion wh ich p ermeates a g ood d ea l o f t he o lder l i terature u pon b arbarous r ad iates. T h is e nv isaged a s tate o f a f fa irs i n wh ich min ims o f t he G a l l ic t ype - p ost-Ga l l ic o r ig ina ls h ad n ot b een more t han g l i mpsed - ' hard ly b egan b e fore a bou t 3 00 , a nd wen t o n f or a t l east a c en tury l onger , p erhaps more. ' 1 08

La ter embro idery t ook t he t erm ina l d a te w e l l i n to t he f i f th , a nd

i ndeed t he s ix th , c en tury .

I n s o me q uar ters , t hese v iews were ma in ta ined

e ven a f ter t he p ub l icat ion , i n 1 937, o f al arge h oard o f t he t in iest min i ms f rom t he Ro man t hea tre i n Veru la m iu m , where i th ad l a in b enea th a s o l id f l oor , a nd am id a n i n f i l l ing wh ich o therw ise c on ta ined n oth ing l a ter t han 2 93. 1°9

Numis mat ists , t hough n ot a rchaeo log ists , n ever the less f e lt a b le t o

ma in ta in t he l a te d a t ing o f s o me min i ms b ecause t here w ere o ther h oards , n o tab ly o ne f ro m R ichborough ,1 10 wh ich a ppeared t o c on ta in c o ins o f t he s econd h a l f o f t he f our th c en tury , i n t he l i gh t o f wh ich i tc ou ld b e s ugges ted t ha t c er ta in b arbarous r ad ia tes h ad r everses b ear ing d es igns b ased u pon w e l l-known f our th-cen tury t ypes , t he ' f a l l ing h orse man ' o r t he Va len t in ian ic G lor ia Ro manorum s how ing t he Emperor s tand ing , d ragg ing a c ap t ive .1 11 F ina l ly , af ew c o ins were p roduced wh ich w ere s a id t o b e o vers tr ikes o f b arbarous r ad ia tes u pon f our th-century u nder types .12 T he e v idence o f t he a ssoc ia t ion o f t he f ourth-century c o ins w ith b arbarous r ad iate h oards was n ever more t han t enuous , a nd i n s o me c ases d epended u pon o ld f inds wh ich c ou ld h ave b een e as i ly c on tam inated b y a cc iden t , a nd h ere a nd t here d e mons trab ly h ad b een s o c on tam ina ted , a s t he v ar iat ion i n t he p a t ina o f t he t h irda nd t he f our th-cen tury mater ia l s howed . I n t he R ichborough c ase , i tw as a lways a dm i t ted ( t hough i t was a t t imes f orgot ten ) t ha t t he a ssoc iat ion o f r ad iates a nd f our th-cen tury c o ins was q uest ionab le.

T h is h oard h as s ince

b een s hown t o b e long t o at yp ica l t ype o f l ate min im h oards d a t ing t o a bou t 2 82. 13 I tf o l lows t hat t he ' f our th-cen tury r everse t ypes ' wh ich w ere i nc luded i n i ta re n oth ing o f t he k ind .

I n ag enera l way , i t may b e a dded t ha t

n o e xamp le wh ich i s o ther t han e xceed ing ly b arbarous , a nd t herefore u nc er ta in , h as e ver b een b rough t t o l igh t . af a ir s pec i men .

As f or t he o vers tr ikes

[ 68 ], T etr ic ian f ro m S i lchester , i s n e ither u nder type n or o ver type

w as e ver c lear e nough f or t he s uggest ion t o h ave a r isen o n i t s own mer its . T urn ing t o t he v a lue o f r ad iate min i ms - t hus t o t he modern p rob le m o f t he ir c red ib i l ity a s u n its o f c urrency , f or t he ir u b iqu ity s hows t hat t he a nc ien ts d id n ot s hare o ur p uzzle men t -i t may f irst ly b e p o in ted o u t t ha t , s ince o r thodox c o ins a nd l arge c op ies were q uar tered a t Wh ite Wo man 's H o le t o make min i ms , n one o f t he l a t ter c ou ld h ave b een wor th l ess t han a q uar ter o f a n a n ton in ianus ;

a nd i ndeed t hey must h ave b een w orth more , b ecause

19

F i g .3 . 1 8 th -cen tu ry s i lve rc o in sf r om T rav anco re , c ompa red w i th an ew v2 p . S ca le I :r .

1 20

t he maker 's p rof i t h as t o b e t aken i n to a ccoun t .

S econd ly , w e h ave s hown

t ha t t he min i ms a re mere ly t he l ast s tage i n t he d evo lu t ion o f b arbarous r adi ates :

t he ir d es igns a re i n n o way d iferen t f ro m t hose o f l arger c op ies ,

a par t f ro m whatever l im i ta t ions may h ave b een i mposed b y t he ma ladro itness o f t he e ngraver o r t he v ery sma l l s ca le.

T he r easonab le c onclus ion i s t ha t

t hey w ere i n tended t o p ass f or a n ton in ian i , h owever sma l l t hey w ere. T h is e xp lana t ion , i t may b e o b jected , makes i te ven more d if icu l t t o u nders tand h ow a nyone c ou ld h ave a ccep ted s uch s craps a s t he e qu iva len t o f of ic ia l c o ins - e ven , f or s o me y ears , a s t he e qu iva len t o f t he w e l l- made n ew c o inage o f t he Aure l ian ic s tandard .

As r egards t he s ize o f m in i ms , i t

may s imp ly b e s a id t ha t v ery sma l l c o ins h ave b een i n u se i n many l ands a nd a t many p er iods : I nd ia ,

f ig 3 s hows s o me t i ny s i lver c o ins f ro m 1 8th-cen tury

c o mpared f or s ize w ith a n ew h a lfpenny ( 17 m m.).

c o ins c ou ld h ave b een c hosen a s e as i ly ;

Sma l l c opper

b u t s i lver c o ins w ere c hosen f or t h is

c o mpar ison b ecause i ts ee ms c lear t ha t w e h ave t o e nv isage min i ms , n o l ess t han t he l arger c op ies , a s h av ing o nce b een p la ted .

Exa mp les o f b arbarous

r ad iates a s w e l l a nd t h ick ly p la ted a s [ 52 ], 2 .00 g ., u n for tunate ly u nprovena nced , a re a l mos t n on-ex isten t ; b u t many c op ies , o f wh ich [ 51 ] a nd s o me o f t he C oygan min ims a re i ns tances , d isp lay p a tches o f s uper f ic ia l d ark g rey o r b lack ish mat ter wh ich c an h ard ly b e o ther t han t he r e ma ins o f p lat ing .

A t

Wh ite Wo man 's Ho le a nd e lsewhere , t he u se o f f l a t tened s egmen ts o f o f f ic ia l c o ins e nab led a dvan tage t o b e t aken o f t he o r ig ina l a l loy o r p lated s ur face i n t h is way . T hese c ons idera t ions h ave , Ih ope , d ispe l led t he d oubts wh ich t he s ize o f t he min i ms a roused . S uch d oubts h ave b een t o s o me e x ten t r e l ieved i n t he p as tb y t he n ot ion t ha t b arbarous r ad ia tes , a nd e spec ia l ly min i ms , were a k ind o f l oca l sma l l-change p roduced b y t he g rea t l andowners f or t he ir p easa n try .

Noth ing c ou ld b e f ur ther f ro m t he t ru th .

H .B . Ma t t ing ly s howed

f ro m d iel inks t ha t ac ons iderab le ' m in t ' i n t he M id lands s erved n ot o n ly a r eg ion a bou t 4 5 mi les a cross i n wh ich t he L ightwood ( S ta f fs.) a nd Ca lver ton ( Not ts .) h oards l ay , b u t , t o s o me e x ten t , s outhern a nd e ven w estern Eng land . Typ ica l p roducts o f t he ' m in t ' a ppeared i n t he Wor th ing h oard , t he R ichboro ugh h oard , a nd o thers i nc lud ing Mere ( W i lts.) a nd Wh itchurch ( So m.) - t he l ast , ad epos it w i th i t s own d iel inked g roup s trong ly s ugges t ive o f a n a b id ing c oncern w ith - r a ther t han f or - t he monetary p l igh t o f t he d istr ict , e ven a f ter t he s uspens ion o f t he c ast c oun ter fe its wh ich were s tud ied e ar l ier .

14

O ther c o ins f ro m t he M id land ' m in t ' t rave l led a broad , i f as ty l ist ic , r ather t han e xact , l ink b etween Ca lver ton a nd a Rhen ish h oard i n t he Br it ish Museum may b e p laced i n e v idence. Nor i s t h is i mposs ib le : P .V . H i l l o bserved a d iel ink b etween a c o in f ro m C orbr idge-upon-Tyne a nd a c o in f ro m a s i te i n t he N e ther lands. 15 F ore ign s cho lars h ave b een e qua l ly a ct ive i n t he s earch f or d iel inks : L a l le mand a nd T h ir ion , i n t he ir l av ish p ub l icat ion o f t he S ain t- Mard Ih oard f ro m B e lg ian L uxe mbourg , h ave b een a b le t o p o in t t o v ari ous d ie-l inks b etween G a l l ic a nd Br i t ish f inds f ro m - s ign i f ican t ly - t he f a ir-ground a nd t e mp le-s ite a t Woodeaton ( Oxon .), a nd t he M ildenha l l ( Su f fo lk ) h oard .

16

T hese l inks a re s hown i n f ig . 4 .

17

T he i nde fa 'igab le J .-B.

G iard , i n p resen t ing u s w i th a v ery f ine a ccoun t o f b arbarous r ad ia tes i n G au l , h as a lso d rawn a t ten t ion t o d iel inks b etween G a l l ic c o ins a nd c o ins i n Br it ish

1 21

F ig . 4 .

D ie-l inks o f b arbarous r ad ia tes ( f ro m J . L a l le mand & M.

Th ir ion , L e T resor d e S t . Mard I , e d . P . B as t ien ) .

0

Number o f d ies l i nk ing h oards , e tc.

— — —D ie-l inks b e tween t wo h oards

D ie-l inks b e tween S t . Mard I , I , a nd o ther h oards

D iel inks b e tween h oards , e tc . e xclud ing S t . Mard Ia nd I

1 . 22

Woodeaton A (s i te )

S t . Ma rd -A

P t . C ouronne

B u rme range

A , /A L ,o l . L ou ronne

P lounevezL och r is t •

( s ite ) L andebae ron •_

L es F o rge s A

--0 -

S t . Mesm in A

\ \

Cl am ' ec ) ;

I Nu i ts " st' A S t . Geo rges \

\

\I r

I

A L a V ineuse

1 00

2 00 k m

c o l lec t ions wh ich a re , p resumab ly , o f l oca l d iscovery .

I ti s i n terest ing t o

s ee t ha t t he h oards o f b arbarous r ad ia tes o ccur i n v ery much t he s ame L o ireS e ine-Rh ine a rea a s t hose o f C laud ian c op ies , b ut n o c o m men t i s p oss ib le o n t he mat ter h ere .1 I V.

8

Co ins o f Caraus ius E ng l ishmen h ave a lways t aken a n a tura l , p ropr ietary i n terest i n t he c o in-

a ge o f t he u surpers Caraus ius a nd A l lectus ( 286-93, 2 93-6 ) who r u led f ro m L ondon ;

t he c h ief monumen ts o f t h is i n terest a re Wi l l ia m S tuke ley 's way-

ward a nd d iscurs ive Meda l l ic H is tory o f Caraus ius ( 1757-9 ) a nd P .H . Webb 's g rea t r ecens ion o f t he mater ia l i n T he Ro man I mper ia l Coinage ( vo l . V , p t .2 , 1 933 ) i n wh ich t he f ru its o f many y ears ' l abour , p ub l ished i n p ar t i n 1 906-8, were a sse mb led .

T he q uan t i ty o f ma ter ia l i s e x tre me ly l arge , f or Caraus-

i us , a nd u nrecorded v ar ie t ies a re c onstan t ly b e ing b rough t t o l igh t . d ea l , h owever , f a l ls i n to a s em i-barbarous c a tegory ;

Ag ood

a nd i t was n ot u n t i l

1 959 t hat t he n ecessary p run ing was d one i n o rder t o e xpose t he ma in s hape o f t he i ssues , a s n ot t he l east o f R .A .G . Carson 's c on tr ibu t ions t o Ro man n um is ma t ics .19

And n ot l eas t among t he b enef its o f Carson 's w ork o n t he

s ub jec t i s t he s i mp le means w ith wh ich h e f urn ished u s , we l l-documen ted n um is mat ica l ly , o f d ist ingu ish ing b etween e ar ly a nd l a te i ssues o f Caraus ius o n t he b as is o f t he t i tu la ture.

Caraus ius a dopted t he t i t le o f C aesar i n 2 90-

1 , a nd t h is a ppears a s a n i ntrus ive C , a s i n I MP C CARAVS IVS .... i nstead o f I MP CARAVS IVS...., c f . [ 69 ], a f ine c o in f ro m o ne o f t he t wo ma in B r it ish min ts , l oca t ion u nknown , wh ich ' s igns ' C i n t he e xergue i n p lace o f t he L wh ich must s tand f or L ond in ium . 1"

T here i s aw or ld o f d iference

b etween s uch a c o in a s t h is a nd t he s trange , r ough mater ia l wh ich i s o ur c onc ern i n t hese p ages. C araus ius a rr ived t o f ind t ha t t here w as n o min t : a n e s tab l ished min t i n B r ita in .1 21

t here h ad n ever b een

One o f h is f irst a ct ions mus t h ave b een t o

s et u p min ts , s o t hat c o ins b ear ing h is i mage a nd s uperscr ip t ion c ou ld b e p laced i n c ircu lat ion t hrough mi l i tary p ay , a nd a l l wou ld k now t ha t h e was t he ir i mper ia l master .

I ts ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t t here w ou ld h ave b een a ny

t ra ined moneyers i n t he i s land ;

a nd i t may b e t hat s o me o f t he c oun ter fe i ters

who h ad t o i led s o a ss iduous ly u n t i l c . 2 82 f ound of ic ia l r ecogn i t ion a nd emp loymen t a t l ast , f or t here i s ac er ta in v ir i le q ua l ity a bout Caraus ius ' c o ina ge wh ich i s q u i te d if feren t f ro m t he c on te mporary w ork e lsewhere l . -2 2

One

o f t he r ead iest s ources o f meta l w ou ld h ave b een c o ins i n c ircu la t ion ;

a nd a

v ery g rea t n umber , ma in ly b u t n ot a l l G a l l ic , a us ian f orm.

1 23

were o vers truck i n to Car-

B ut i tc annot h ave b een l ong b efore t he s tandard o f w ork w as

i mproved b y t he r ecru itmen t o f p rofess iona ls.

Co ins o f g ood , s o me t i mes

v ery g ood , s ty le , s truck o n n ew f l ans f or t he most p ar t1 24

a nd b ear ing min t-

marks wh ich a re e ar ly i n t he s equence , e x is t i n l arge n umbers.

[ 70 ] i s a

v ery g ood e xa mp le , w i th a r everse ADVENTVS AVG a bove t he e ar ly L ondon mark ML , f ro m S i lchester : t o t he

-a rr iva l '

t he r everse may ( t hough n ot n ecessar i ly ) r efer

o f t he emperor i n 2 86.

1 25

C er ta in ly o f t he e ar l ies t p er iod ,

h owever , i s t he u sua l ly r a ther c rude EXPECTATE VENI One ' ), f ro m t he myster ious RSR min t .T H

1 24

' Co me, 0 Awa i ted

T h is l egend s hows b est o f a l l t ha t ,

s o mewhere a t t he h ead o f t he Caraus ian G overnmen t 's d epar tmen t o f c o ina ge , t here was a p erson o f h igh a nd o r ig ina l a b i l i ty ;

f or a lthough Caraus ius '

c o inage f requen t ly e choes t hat o f Postumus - t he h istor ica l p ara l le l , i n t he t wo u surpat ions , must h ave b een v ery s trong ly f e l t -a nd o ther p redecess ors , t he l egend c i ted i s o r ig ina l , a nd o f V irg i l ian o vertones.

1 27

Another

e ar ly c o in [ 71 ] b ears t he c rypt ic BR I min t- mark a nd b e longs t o a sma l l g roup o f o n ly f ive ' mown p ieces , t l iree d ie-l inked b y o bverse.

1 28

S ome u ncer ta in ty i s b ound t o a r ise i n d is t ingu ish ing t he r ough , b ut o r thod ox e ar ly c o inage f ro m t he r ough , a nd mere ly c oun ter fe it .

T he p rob le m i s

n ot l essened b y o ur awareness o f e x tre me ly c haot ic c ond it ions i n t he e ar ly Caraus ian min ts.

O f t h is , t he most e x tre me e xa mp le c oncerns a n RSR g o ld

p iece i n Par is [ 72 ] a nd a b ase a n ton in ianus , i fs uch i tb e , f ro m t he t i le Orme 's H ead ( Caerns.) h oard [ 73 ].

As was d iscovered b y P eter S eaby , t he

o bverse d ie , wh ich i s o f f ine s ty le , i s t he s ame.

1 29

T he r everses a re n ot

o f t he s a me s tandard b y a ny means , p ar t icu lar ly t hat o f t he L i t t le Or me c o in , w h ich h as n o min t- mark .

Carson a rgued t ha t RSR w en t o n t o p roduce

a n ' uns igned ' c o inage , a nd t h is may b e a n e ar ly s pec i men .

B ut a l though t he

d if f icu l ty men t ioned e x ists , t here c an b e n o d oub t b u t t ha t t he n ex t c o in [ 74 ] i s ac oun ter fe i t .

I ti s f u l ly a s c rude a s a ny b arbarous r ad iate.

c ess ive ly b arbarous c o ins a re , h owever , u nco m mon :

S uch e x-

i ndeed , t he c h ief

c haracter ist ic o f t he o vers tr ikes i n g enera l i s t he p ecu l iar o ne o fu n i t ing a r easonab le o bverse w i th a b arbarous r everse , a s i ft he b est e ngravers h ad b een s e t t o c u t d ies f or t he o bverse , wh ich c arr ied t he i mper ia l f eatures a nd n ame , a nd t he r e ma inder , t o c u t t he r everse d ies.

I ti s impor tan t t o

p oin t o u t t ha t , i n t he g rea t ma jor ity o f c ases , t he l ong a nd p oss ib ly r a ther d if f icu l t , c er ta in ly u nusua l , n a me was e ngraved w ithou t e rror , a lthough t he l et ter ing may b e r ough .

[ 75 ], f ro m t he Penard h oard , i s n o t u n typ ica l.

An

RSR p iece , i th as b een o verstruck v ery p er fect ly u pon s o me o ther c oin , a nd - h as a n o bverse c haracter is t ic o f e ar ly Caraus ian p roduc t ion. T he r everse , d esp ite a we l l-done l i on , i s a cco mpan ied b y t he n onsense l egend TE TVS AVG , wh ich s hou ld h ave b een V IRTVS AVG ;

a nd Ih ave s uggested t ha t e rrors o f

t h is k ind migh t h ave a r isen f ro m t he misread ing o f ah and-wr it ten i ns tr ucti on .

1 30

T he c on trast i n t he c ase o f [ 76 ], f ro m L i t t le Orme , a lso o verstruck

-a nd v ery p la in ly s o -i s e ven more marked . t he s ame a r t is t e ngraved b oth d ies.

I ti s i mposs ib le t o t h ink t ha t

I n s hor t , we h ave g ood g rounds f or s up-

p os ing t hat r ough c o ins w i th g ood o bverses , i rrespect ive o f t he q ua l ity o f t he r everses , a re - w ith t he r eserva t ion e xpressed b e low - e ar ly o f f ic ia l p rod uct ions.

T he o bverse i s t he k ey :

a nd i ft here w ere c oun ter fe its , t hen t he

r eason c an o n ly l i e i n t he p reference wh ich must h ave b een g iven t o t he n ew c o inage a ga inst a ny o ther . [ 77-8 ] a re t wo more e xa mp les o f wha t may b e r egarded a s e ar ly , r ough o r thodox p roduc t ion , a nd h ave b een s truck b y t he s a me p a ir o f d ies. i s ag rea t d if ference i n w e igh t b etween t he t wo :

T here

[ 77 ] i s 9 .55 g ., a nd may

p oss ib ly h ave b een o verstruck u pon a n a s , t hough t here i s l i t t le i nd ica t ion ; [ 78 ] w e ighs o n ly 2 .28 g . Orme a nd P enard h oards.

T hese c o ins c o me r espect ive ly f ro m t he L i t t le T he f ind-spots a re a bou t a s f ar a par t a s i ti s

p oss ib le t o b e , i n Wa les , o ver 2 00 mi les b y Ro man r oad t o t he n earest p o in t - wh ich i s n ot v ery n ear - t o e ither l oca l ity , a nd a bou t t he s a me b y

1 25

s ea .

We may r easonab ly s ee i n t h is p a ir o f c o ins e v idence o f t he n atura l

d ispersa l o f e ar ly o r thodox c o in f ro m a c en tre f ar t o t he e ast ,ra ther t han o f t he d isse m ina t ion o f c oun ter fe it ma ter ia l p roduced i n n or th o r s ou th Wa les.

T h is c onc lus ion i s r e in forced b y t he f act t ha t , u p t o t he p resen t

t ime , w e d o n o t p ossess a s ing le Caraus ian h oard ( and Caraus ian h oards a re n umerous ) wh ich c on ta ins a p ar t icu lar ly s ign if ican t n u mber o f d iel inked s pec imens , whereas w e h ave b een a b le t o men t ion s evera l h oards o f r ad iate min i ms wh ich c on ta ined g roups o f c o ins l inked i n t h is w ay .

I n

t he L it t le Orme h oard t here w ere s o me t wo d ozen d iel inks , most ly i nd ivi dua l , i n at o ta l o f a bout 5 60 ;

t he g rea tes t n umber o f c o ins s o l i nked b e ing

t hree , a nd t hree a ga in . I n t he P enard h oard , t he 8 0 C araus ian c o ins i nc luded f our l inked p a irs .1 31 We may c onc lude t ha t t he p roduc t ion o f c o in i n t e mporary r eg iona l c en tres , v ery o f ten s uggested t o a ccoun t f or t he c rude c haracter o f e ar ly Caraus ian c o ins , h as a t p resen t n o e v iden t ia l b as is. T he t heory o f a :rough , e ar ly c o inage i s b y n o means n ove l i n i t se lf , a nd f or a n i ndependen t i ns tance w e h ave b u t t o t urn t o t he s im i lar ly r ough a nd o verstruck c oinage o f Rega l ian a nd Dryan t i l la a t Carnun tu m , c . 2 60.

1 32

B u t t here i s ad anger i n a ssu m ing t hat a l l r ough c o ins w i th g oa l o bverses a nd p oor r everses a re o f f ic ia l. d eve loped t ype.

S o me b ear min t- marks [ 79 , c f . 8 0 ] o f a

T hese mus t b e c oun ter fe its , b ecause t he o f f ic ia l min ts , b y

t he p er iod o f t hose marks ( t he e xa mp le i s a ss igned t o 2 89 ) h ad s et t led d own t o ag ood a nd c ons isten t s tandard o f p roduct ion .

When t he n ecessary q ua l i-

f i ed s ta f f h ad b een p rocured , many o f t he l ess e xper t w orkers w ou ld n o d oub t h ave b een d is m issed . wh i le

T he ir c on t inu ing a pp l ica t ion t o t he t oo ls o f t he ir e rs t-

t rade migh t a ccoun t f or t he a ppearance o f s uch c oun ter fe i ts , e spec-

i a l ly i ft hey h ad managed t o p ur lo in a n o ld o bverse d ie o r t wo. Ano ther k ind o f p rob le m a r ises w ith c o ins s uch a s [ 81 ], wh ich p urpor ts t o b e a n a rgen teus , b u t i s i n b ase meta l i nstead o f t he g ood s i lver wh ich was emp loyed f or t he RSR a nd s ubsequen t u n marked i ssues o f t h is c o in , t he f irst o f s uch q ua l i ty s ince t he s econd c entury , a nd q u ite p oss ib ly i n troduced a s a t e mporary s ubst itu te f or a g o ld c o inage , u n t i l s u f f ic ien t b u l l ion c ou ld b e mined .

1 33

I n an ote u pon t hese b ase a rgen te i , S h ie l h as p o in ted o ut t ha t t he

p resen t s pec i men a ppears t o h ave b een s truck w i th t he r everse d ie f or a n a n ton in ianus ;1 34

l inks b etween t he s i lver a nd b ase c o ins a re k nown , a nd may

p o in t t o f raud o n t he p ar t o f min t-e mp loyees .

T he c oun ter fe i t ing o f t he g ood

Caraus ian s i lver , h owever , n ever a ssu med i mpor tan t p roport ions. C oun ter fe its w ith t he l a ter C -t itu la ture a re f ar l ess c o m mon t han t hose w ith t he e ar l ier f orm , a nd w e may c onc lude t ha t b y c . 2 90 f orgery h ad a lmost d ied o u t .

Under A l lectus , f ew c op ies o f u nor thodox p ieces s ee m t o

h ave b een made.

O f t he t wo S i lchester e xamp les s hown , [ 82 ] may b e o ne o f

t he f irst o f f ic ia l c o ins o f 2 93 , s ince i ti s o verstruck u pon a c o in o f Caraus ius a nd b ears t he t rans it iona l min t- mark .

T he o ther [ 83 ] r eproduces a n e ar l ier

min t- mark o f Caraus ius , a s d o o ne o r t wo o ther k nown s pec i mens ;1 35 t oo , i s s truck u pon a Caraus ian p iece.

i t ,

A lmost a l l t he c ircu la t ing c oinage o f

t he Br it ish u surpers was s wep t away b y t he c en tra l G overn men t when t he i s land was r ecaptured :

s carce ly a p iece o ccurs

i n l a ter s i te-f inds , t hough

a sma l l n umber a re i nc luded i n s evera l l a te h oards .1 36

1 26

B ut t hough t he

c oinage was c ons igned t o t he mel t ing-pot , t he me mory o f Caraus ius s urv ived , a nd w e s ha l l mee t h is n a me a ga in . V .

1 37

F our th-Century C op ies t o 3 54 I n 2 94 , D ioc le t ian i n troduced a n i mportan t r eform wh ich r esu lted , a s

f ar a s o rd inary c ircu lat ion i s c oncerned , i n t he a ppearance o f al arge s i lverb ronze , p lated c o in w i th l aurea te h ead , w e igh ing a bou t 1 0 g . a nd h aving a f ineness o f r a ther l ess t han 4%.

T h is c o in , c o m mon ly k nown a s af ol l is

( t hough w e s ha l l c a l l i tt he l aurea te ' ), was t ar if fed a t 1 0 d enar i i i n as equ ence wh ich n ot o n ly c on ta ined t he Aure l ian ic r ad ia te o f 5d enar i i a nd c o mp arab le n ew c o ins wh ich , h owever , l acked a dded s i lver , b ut a lso a p ure s i lver a rgen teus o n t he C araus ian mode l.

Un fortuna te ly , a rgen te i c ou ld

n ot b e i ssued i n t he q uan t it ies n eeded t o b o lster t he v a lue o f t he l aurea te , a nd i n p erpetua t ing t he c ard ina l e rror o f e ar l ier t imes b y i ssu ing h eav i ly o ver-va lued b ase a l loys , t he G overnmen t c our ted t he r isk o f f ur ther i n f la ti on .

Wi th s even y ears , t he f amous Max i ma l Ed ict o f 3 01 was p ro mu lga ted ,

a nd w ith i t a mone tary E d ict i n wh ich t he v a lue o f t he l aurea te a nd a rgen te us was , i n e ither c ase , d oub led .

T he a t te mp t t o c on ta in p r ices f a i led

d is ma l ly , a nd t he f a i lure i s r ef lec ted i n t he d im inu t ion o f t he we igh t o f t he l aureate t o a bou t 3g . b y 3 22, 2 .25 g . i n 3 30 , a nd t hence t o 1 .5 g . i n 3 35 , where i tr e ma ined u n t i l t he r eform o f 3 48.

1 38

Th is was a l ast a t te mp t t o

r e-es tab l ish a r ange o f s i lver-bronze u pon t he D ioc let ian ic p a ttern , w ith u p t o a bou t 3 % o f s i lver.

I tq u ick ly f a i led .

Va len t in ian Ia nd Va lens d iscon t in-

u ed t he p rod ig ious waste o f b u l l ion i n s uch a l loys a nd i n 3 64 r ep laced t he m w ith a c opper o r b ronze c o inage wh ich , p resumab ly , was a l lowed t o f ind i t s own l eve l i n c urrency .

A t a l l e ven ts , c oun ter fe it ing , wh ich h ad i ncreased

1 39

t o a n a s ton ish ing d egree f ro m a s low s tar t , t hen d ied away t o t he i rreduc ib le e nde m ic l eve l.

C oun ter fe i ts o f Va len t in ian ic a es - c overed a t l ast b y s pec-

i f ic l eg is lat ion 1 4° mak ing t he m. c o m mon ;

-a re u nco m mon b ecause t here was i nsu f f ic ien t p ro f it i n

C op ies o f t he l i t t le T heodos ian b ronze a re a t r if le more

b u t p erhaps more c harac ter ist ic o f t he l a te Ro man p er iod a re t he

f a lse s i l iquae ,* s truck l igh t o r i n p oor ish s i lver o r , more o f ten , p lated b y t he a ge-o ld me thods [ 19-20 ]. As i n t he c ase o f t he t h ird-century d enar i i a nd a n ton in ian i , t he f irst c oun ter fe it l aurea tes were c ast . a n ts .), [ 9a ], c f . f ig . 2 ;1 41 a nd a t S lea ford ( L ines . ) .

Mou lds h ave b een f ound a t Duston ( Nor th-

a t R ivenha l l ( or r a ther , Ke lvedon , E ssex ); 1 42

1 43

T he Duston mou lds , n ow ma in ly i n t he Br i t ish

Museum , a re n umerous b u t i nstance f ew o r ig ina ls , wh ich were a l l c arefu l lyc hosen , u nworn s pec i mens.

As f ar a s i s k nown , t he o ther t wo d epos its

were o f a minor c haracter.

Actua l c o ins c ast f ro m mou lds s uch a s t hese a re

n ot , It h ink , r epor ted f ro m B r i t ish s i tes , a l though t h is i s n o d oubt d ue t o a f a i lure o f i den t if ica t ion .

[ 84 ], w ith a T r ier min t- mark o f 2 96-7 , h as e very

a ppearance o f b e ing a c as t , a nd a t 1 0.61 g . i ti s al i t t le o n t he h eavy s ide , t hough w i th in t he o r thodox l im i ts.

T he s i l iqua ( 1/12 6 l i bra ) r ep laced t he a rgen teus ( 1/ 96 l ibra ) C . 3 53.

1 27

The Duston mou lds w ere s tud ied w ith i m mense p a ins b y S a mue l S harp. T he o bverses r epresen t D ioc let ian , C onstan t ius Ia nd G a ler ius , t he l ast t wo a s Caesares ;

a nd a s t here i s n o mou ld o f Cons tan t ine Ia s Caesar , t he

d epos it i s l ike ly t o d ate b efore May , 3 05 when Cons tan t ius Ia nd G a ler ius b ecame August i.

T he r everses r epresen ted a re GENIO POPVL I RO MANI

a nd MONETA S AVGG ET CAESS NN ( ' Sacred c o inage o f o ur August i a nd Caesares ' ), t he l a t ter s o mewha t f ew a nd a l l i mpr in ted , It h ink , f ro m a s ing le o r ig ina l.

T he min t- marks o n t he G en io c o ins t e l ls o f o r ig ina ls f ro m

T r ier a nd T ic inum ( Pav ia ) min ts , c . 2 94-303/6 ; f ro m a T r ier c o in o f 3 02-3. s im i lar s or ts o f c o in :

t he Moneta mou lds a re

T he R ivenha l l mou lds a ppear t o h ave b een o f

Max im ian , C onstan t ius Ia nd G a ler ius , a nd t he s ame

r everse t ypes , w ere p resen t .

T he t wo f ragmen ts f ro m S lea ford a re o f

Max i mian a nd t he G en io t ype. C er ta in ly a t Duston , t herefore ( and p oss ib ly o n t he o ther s i tes t oo ), c ast ing t ook p lace n ot e ar l ier t han c . 3 02-3 a nd n ot l a ter t han c . 3 05.

S o me

e xp lana t ion must b e s ough t f or t he a bsence o f e ar l ier c ast ing , a nd may v ery p robab ly b e f ound i n t he r e-tar if f ing o f t he l aureate a t 2 0 i nstead o f 1 0 d ena r i i i n 3 01, whereby , a t t he s troke o f t he i mper ia l p en , f orgery a t o nce b ecame a more l ucra t ive p ropos i t ion . A l ess c ogen t p oss ib i l ity i s t he r ed uct ion i n t he w e igh t o f t he l aurea te i n 3 07 :

s o meth ing o f ap re m iu m may

t hen h ave b een a ccorded i n c ircu la t ion t o t he o r ig ina l mode l , b u t s ince mou lds o f Constan t ius Ia nd G a ler ius August i , a nd Cons tan t ine ICaesar d o n ot s ee m t o o ccur , t here i s l i t t le r eason t o e n ter ta in t he i dea . L aureate mou lds a re n o c o mmoner i n G au l t han i n B r ita in ;1 44

t hey a re ,

h owever , e x tre me ly c o m mon i n Egyp t , where l aurea tes r ep laced t he o ld , d ebased t etradrach ms i n 2 94-6.

H ere a ga in , t here i s ac ons iderab le g ap

b etween t he i n troduct ion o f t he c o in a nd t he f irst s er ies o f mou lds. B ehnesa d epos its 1 45 i n a no ther ;

T he

e schew i ssues p r ior t o 3 08-10 i n o ne c ase , a nd 3 16-7

a nd t he s a me s tory i s t o ld b y t he l arge g enera l c o l lect ion o f

mou lds , we l l-pub l ished b y e l-Khachab , i n t he Ca iro Museu m C ab inet .

1 46

T he e v idence o f t h is c o l lect ion i s i ndeed v ery s tr ik ing , b ecause t he ma ter ia l i nc ludes many mou lds f or l a te t etradrachms o f D ioc let ian a nd Max im ian , b u t n oth ing a t a l l t herea f ter u n t i l 3 08-11, whence t he s er ies c on t inues d own t o t he Prov iden t iae i ssues o f 3 24-30.

I t mus t s ee m t ha t t he d isp lace men t o f

t he f am i l iar t etradrach rn was n o t a ltogether w e lco med , a nd t ha t t he c ast ing o f c oun ter fe its b e longs t o t he p er iod o f o ver lap a nd p erhaps s o mewha t l a ter ; o n t he o ther h and , t he b eg inn ing o f t he c ast l aurea tes i s c er ta in ly t oo l ate t o b e a scr ibed t o t he r eva luat ion o f 3 01, a nd t he a lterna t ive e xp lana t ion r e la ted t o t he r educt ion i n we igh t ( f ro m 1 0 t o 6 .5 g ., a nd h ere i n 3 08 ) i s much more c o lourab le.

T here w ere o ther r educt ions ( i n 3 14 t o a bou t 3 .75 g ., a nd i n

3 18 t o 3 .55 g .).

1 47

I th as b een e st i mated t ha t o ne i n f i ve o f t he l aurea tes

f ound a t Oxyrhyncus a re c asts .1 48 T he l a test-known Br i t ish c o in- mou lds a re t hose f ro m t he b ed o f t he Cardyke a t Nocton ( L incs.) .1 49

T hey a re i mpressed w ith C onstan t in ian

c o ins o f _ c . 3 18-21, a nd p robab ly a re t o b e c onnected w ith a r educ t ion t o a 3g . s tandard f or t he l aurea te i n 3 22. The r everse t ypes a re : V ICTORIAE LAETAE PRINC PERP ;

V IRTVS EXERCIT ;

1 28

a nd BEATA TRANQVILL ITAS

o f L ondon , T r ier , a nd Pav ia [ 9b ] . T he i nc lus ion o f t he V ictor iae L ae tae t ype i s n otewor thy , f or , a s P .M . Bruun 's a na lyses h ave s hown , t h is t ype was i ssued w ith a n u nusua l ly t h ick c oa t ing o f 6 5% s i lver.

1 5°

I tc an h ard ly

b e d en ied , a ccord ing ly , t hat t he c oun ter fe i ts wou ld h ave b een p la ted .

T he

3 20s , h owever , w ere a t ime when s truck c oun ter fe i ts were b eg inn ing t o a ppear i n l arge n umbers ;

a nd a lthough c as ts o f l ater d ate c an c er ta in ly b e

f ound [ 86 , c f . 8 5 ], t hey a re n ot n u merous b es ide t he c on te mporary s truck k ind . T he s truck c op ies a re d iv is ib le i n to t wo g roups : t he f irs t i s c o mposed o f c o ins wh ich a re v ery w e l l , i f al i t t le c oarse ly e ngraved , a nd o f d ec ided ly i n fer ior w e igh t ;

t he s econd , o f c o ins wh ich a re v is ib ly b arbarous a nd l ow

w e igh t .[ 87 ], f or e xa mp le , i s a t f irst s igh t ar egu lar c o in , b u t i tw e ighs o n ly 1 .94 g . a ga inst t he o r thodox 2 .25 g ., a nd c o mb ines t he VRBS RO MA o bverse w ith t he V ictory o n Prow d es ign p roper t o CONSTANT INOPOL IS , i nstead o f t he Wo l f & Tw ins ; T he e ngrav ing i s s econd-rate.

t he min t- mark c op ies t hat o f T r ier f or 3 30. 1 51

[ 88 ] i s a nother c oarse ly-engraved p iece ,

1 .23 g ., o f s im i lar d a te , s how ing C ons tan t ine I Caesar , a nd t he GLORIA EXERCITVS ( two s tandard ) r everse , t h is t ime o f L yon :

c op ies w i th a Lyon

mark a re much c o m moner , i n p ropor t ion t o t hose o f T r ier , t han i s t he c ase w ith r egu lar c o ins f ound i n B r ita in , a nd t he p reference f or L yon may we l l b etoken c on t inen ta l manu facture.

T he p ermanen t c losure o f L ondon min t i n

3 26 must h ave l ed t o ag row ing s carc ity o f c o in i n B r ita in , a nd t h is wou ld h ave b een g lad ly e ked o u t w ith c on t inen ta l c op ies i n troduced b y w ay o f o rd ina ry t rade , a s w e l l a s w ith i nd igenous f orger ies. F or t he s econd g roup , o f more b arbarous p ieces , c ho ice i s i n f in ite . [ 89 ], 2 .04 g ., i s o ne o f t he v ery c o m mon s truck e qu iva len ts o f t he Nocton V ic tor iae L aetae c asts ;

[ 90 ] i s af ew y ears l a ter , c opy ing a Vota c o in o f

c . 3 23-4 , w ith CESRV M N oSTRoRV M ( f or Caesaru m Nostroru m ) o n t he r everse , b u t w i th a n o bverse o f Constan t ine I[ 91 ] ,w i th ' Ar les ' mark , r eminds u s al i t t le o f t he s truck d upond i i d iscussed e ar l ier , f or t he r everse h as t he Camp-Gate p roper t o t he Prov iden t iae i ssues o f c . 3 24-30, c oup led w i th t he r e ma ins o f a GL _LORIA EX _L ERCITVS l egend o f c . 3 30-7.

[ 93 ] i s a

s p lend id e xamp le o f a CONSTANTINOPOLIS c opy w ith t he ' Tr ier ' mark o f 3 32-3, a l l p a ins tak ing ly e ngraved t he wrong w ay r ound : c f . [ 92 ] f or a r egul ar e xa mp le o f t he s a me t ype. T he c o inage o f c . 3 30-7 was t he f irst o f f our th-cen tury i ssues t o b e i m ita ted a t min im s ize. Wo man 's H o le.

[ 95-105 ] a re e xa mp les o f ad iel inked s er ies f ro m Wh ite

T he p rototypes a re [ 92 a nd 9 4 ].

T h is sma l l c ave h as a l-

r eady b een men t ioned a s t he s ource o f r ad iate min i ms s truck u pon q uar tered c o ins , a nd i ts ee ms t ha t a l l t he t h ird-century ma ter ia l h ad b een g a thered t og ether a s r aw meta l f or t h is C ons tan t in ian s er ies , t he p rocedure b e ing t o c ast me ta l i n to sma l l c y l indr ica l r ods wh ich w ere t hen c hopped i n to s l ices t o p rov ide f l ans. 1 52 [ 95 ], 0 .55 g ., d isp lays a n o bverse o f Cons tan t ius I Augustus , a nd [ 96-7 ] a re t wo d i f feren t G lor ia Exerc itus ( one s tandard ) r ev erses u sed w ith i t , t hus d a t ing manu facture t o ap er iod n o t b efore 3 37, a nd p robab ly n ot a f ter 3 41,* when t he d es ign was d iscon t inued .

t 98-100 ], 0 .37 t o

0 .67 g ., a re t hree C ons tan t inopo l is o bverses , u sed w i th [ 101-3 ], a ppropr ia te *F or f ootnote ,

s ee p . 1 53 f o l low ing r eference 1 81.

1 29

r everses , a nd a lso [ 104-5 ], i nappropr ia te ' one s tandard ' r everses .

A s c an

b e s een f ro m t he f our i nstances i n wh ich Ih ave p ar t ly s uper i mposed p hotog raphs t o r evea l t he f u l l d es igns , f lans w ere i n g enera l sma l ler t han t he d ies , wh ich h ad b een c u t t o p roduce c o ins more o f t he s ize o f [ 95-7 ], a lt hough t he d i f ference i n w e igh t i s n ot i mpor tan t . I n t h is r espect , t he Wh i te Wo man 's Ho le C ons tan t in ian min i ms r epea t af eature o f t he r ad ia te t ype d escr ibed o n a nother p age. T he r e ma in ing c o ins i n t h is s ect ion a re [ 106-7 ], 0 .63 a nd 0 .58 g ., mini ms i n t he n a me o f F lav ia Max ima T heodora , t he f irst e le men t o f h er n a me b e ing om it ted , a nd t he b us t , t hough f em in ine , c er ta in ly n ot r ese mb l ing t ha t o f h er c o m me mora t ive c o inage , wh ich w as i ssued i n 3 37-41.

[ 106 ]

h as a P ax r everse p roper t o t he c on te mporary i ssues i n h onour o f Cons tant i ne 's mother , He lena ;

[ 107 ] h as t he p roper P IETAS RO MANA r everse.

Nex t w e s how [ 108 ], 0 .71 g ., wh ich i m ita tes t he V IC TORIAE DD AVGGQ NN ( 'V ictor ies o f Our L ords a nd August i i ) t ype wh ich f o l lowed , f or C on, s tan t ius I a nd C ons tans , t he G lor ia Exerc itus ( one s tandard ) p a t tern a nd was s truck i n c . 3 41-8.

S uch c op ies a re s omewha t l ess f requen t t han t hose

d escr ibed i n t he p rev ious p aragraph , b u t a re b y n o means r are.

L as t ly ,

o ne more min im [ 109 ], 0 .61 g ., s hows a nother ' V ictor ies ' t ype , t h is t ime o f t he G a l l ic u surper Magnen t ius ( 350-3 ). b oth o f t h is t ype a nd o thers ,

1 53

B arbarous c op ies o f h is c o inage ,

a re e x tre me ly c o m mon , i n a l l s izes f ro m

t he o r ig ina l , c f . [ 110 ], t o min i m.

T he r eappearance o f min i ms c an b u t

a t tes t t he b ankrup t c ond it ion o f t he G overnmen t 's s i lver-bronze s pec ie.

B u t

a f ter c . 3 53 , t he g ood s i lver s i l iquae b egan t o make a n i mpress ion u pon c ircu la t ion .

Un like t he p os it ion , s ay o f c . 2 80 , t here was t hus a s ound

d eno m ina t ion o f modera te v a lue b etween t he s i lver bronze a nd t he g o ld p iece , a nd t he p ract ica l efects o f t he i n f la t ion o f t he f ormer w ere t o t ha t e x ten t l im ited . V I .

Fa l l ing H orse men T he Fe l ( ix ) T e mp (oru rn ) Repara t io ( 'Happy Restora t ion o f t he T imes ' )

c o inage , i ssued i n 3 48 t o mark t he e leven th c en tenary o f Ro me , mos t d iverse s een f or a n umber o f y ears ;

T here w ere s evera l t ypes ,

One o f t he c o m monest , o f c . 3 48-50 ,

s hows t he Emperor i n as h ip g u ided b y V ictory. c oun ter fe ited :

was t he

a nd , a s a lready r e marked , i t

was t he l ast t o b e b ased u pon s i lver-bronze. a nd t hree d if feren t d eno m ina t ions.

1 54

I ti s f requen t ly f ound

[ 111 ], a s truck c opy f ro m U sk - c ast c op ies a re a lso f ound

we ighs 6 .74 g ., we l l o ver t he a verage o f 5 .5 g . f or t he o r thodox t ype , a nd i s t hus a s trong p oin ter t o t he c ons iderab le o ver-va lua t ion o f t he o r thodox c o ins.

Another c o m mon t ype i s a sma l ler p iece o f a bout 2 .5 g ., wh ich ,

l ike D ioc let ian 's r ad ia te , h ad n o a dded s i lver .

H owever , a f ter t he r evo lt

o f Magnen t ius h ad b een e x t ingu ished ( 353 ), t he min ts b egan t o i ssue o n ly o ne k ind o f F e l T e mp Repara t io d es ign , s how ing o n t he r everse a Ro man s o ld ier s pear ing a b arbar ian h orse man .

T h is h ad i t s a n teceden ts i n t he

s er ies , b u t t he most i mpor tan t v ar iety , a du mbrated b y t he l ast i ssue o f t he Am iens min t e stab l ished b y Magnen t ius , s hows a h orse man whose s teed s tu mb les , wh i le h e h i mse lf r a ises a p ro tect ive l ef t a rm a ga inst t he

1 30

s o ld ier :

c f . 112 ], 2 .97 g .

I n 3 54 , t he w e igh t was r educed t o a bou t 2 .5 g .,

o ur c o in [ 113 ] b e ing o f C ons tan t ius G a l lus , who d ied i n t ha t y ear . ' f a l l ing h orse man ' t ype w as c on t inued u n t i l a bou t 3 57 ;

T he

a nd t he l ast i ssues

o f C onstan t ius I ( ob. 3 61 ), a nd o f J u l ian , a re f ar f rom c o mmon u pon s i tes i n t h is c oun try . T hroughou t t he ' f a l l ing h orse man ' p er iod , c oun ter fe i ts a re e x tre me ly c o m mon ;

a nd i ti s t o t he y ears b etween 3 57 , a nd 3 67 when t he

Va len t in ian ic c o inage c ame f l ood ing i n , t hat t he sma l lest must b e long .

A s

w e s ha l l s ee i n a mo men t , t hese d escend b e low t he modu le o f e ven t he t ini es t r ad iate min ims. O verstr ikes c onst itu te a c ur ious i n it ia l f eature 1 55 men '.

o f t he ' f a l l ing h orse-

[ 1 14 ] i s o verstruck u pon o ne o f t he F e l T e mp Repara t io ' phoen ix '

i ssues o f 3 48-50. a re a lso k nown .

B arbarous ' f a l l ing h orsemen ' o verstruck u pon o r thodox

1 56

S ince o verstr ikes c annot , o f c ourse , a dd t o t he v o l-

ume o f c o in i n c ircu la t ion , b u t merely r ep lace a l ess , w ith a more , d es ira b le d es ign , i ts ee ms c er ta in t ha t s ome s pec ia l v a lue w as a t tached t o t he ' f a l l ing h orse man ' d es ign , a nd t ha t , i n t he ir h aste t o t rans form c urren t c o in i n to t h is d es irab le f orm , c oun ter fe iters f a i led t o make a c arefu l s e lecti on o f t he mater ia l wh ich c ame i n to t he ir h ands. S ince n o g overnmen ta l c hange was i nvo lved , t he o r thodox ' f a l l ing h orse man ' o f 3 54 must e i ther h ave b een h eav i ly o ver-tar i f fed 1 57 o r e lse - o r i n a dd it ion - e ar l ier c o ins were d e monet ised , a s h ad b een t he c ase when C laud ian c op ies w ere o vers truck o n a es o f Ca l igu la .

T he l a t ter i n terpretat ion w as p roposed b y

J .W .E. P earce , who p o in ted o u t t hat t here i s r eference t o ' mon ies e stabl i shed i n p ub l ic u se ' ( pecun iae i nu su p ub l ico c onst itu tae ) a s d ist inc t f rom ' f orb idden ' mon ies ( vet i ta .e ) i n a n Ed ict o f 3 56. l i shed ' c o ins c ou ld o n ly b e ' f a l l ing h orse men '.

1 58

A t t h is d a te t he ' es tab-

Pearce f ur ther p o in ted o u t

t ha t t he p hraseo logy o f t he Ed ict d oes n ot i mp ly t ha t t he d ist inct ion was t hen n ove l , a nd s uggested t ha t i tp robab ly w en t b ack t o G a l lus - i .e., t o t he i n troduct ion o f t he c o in i n 3 54. T he t heory i s a n a t tract ive o ne , b u t b r ings d if f icu l t ies i n i t s t ra in :

t he g rea tes t o f t hese i s t ha t t he mass-overstr ik ing

men t ioned i s , i ts ee ms , p redo m inan t ly a B r it ish p henomenon .

I ti s t rue

t ha t P earce d id c o l lect a sma l l amoun t o f e v idence f rom t he e ast w h ich c h imed w e l l w ith t hat f rom B r i ta in ; b ut , a s f ar a s i s k nown , a nd e spec ia l ly a s r egards G au l , t he c r it ic is m i s s t i l l v a l id .1 59 [ 1 15-120 ] c over t he r ange o f s ize a nd b arbar i ty f ound i n t he s er ies. De ta i ls a re g iven i n t he c ap t ions t o t he p la tes. I n p ar t icu lar , [ 120 ] b orders o n t he c lass wh ich , e ver s ince t he p ub l ica t ion o f t he c e lebrated L ydney I h oard , h as b een k nown a s ' m in im iss imP : ab arbarous n ame f or a b arbaro-u s s ub jec t .

1 60

Once more , t here i s n o r eason whatever t o t h ink i n t erms o f

d if feren t d eno m ina t ions :

a l though a t ten t ion was d rawn t o t he f act t hat t he

min ims i n t h is p ar t icu lar h oard a pprox i ma ted , c lass b y c lass , t o t he d esc end ing v a lues o f 0 .48, 0 .24 , 0 .12 a nd ( t he ' m in im iss im i ' ) 0 .06 g ., t hese a re mere ly a verage f igures a nd , a s we s a id i n c ons ider ing t he g rad ing o f C laud ian c op ies , c are h as t o b e t aken n ot t o c u t a r t i f ic ia l s teps i n a n e ven lyd ec l in ing s lope.

T he t ab le w h ich f o l lows b e low b r ings o u t t h is p o in t v ery

w e l l , o n t he b as is o f modu le. I n t he p ast , s omewha t e x travagan t c la i ms w ere made a s t o t he d ate o f

1 31

' m in im iss im i '.

Mrs T .V . Wheeler , i n d ea l ing w ith Lydney H , a dvanced t he

p oss ib i l i ty o f f i f th-century manu facture ; s o me q uar ters.

a nd t h is was s peed i ly t aken u p i n

I n 1 932, h owever , t he l essons o f t he Veru la mium r ad ia te

min im h oard - a h oard wh ich t eaches a l l min im l essons f or e ver - w ere s t i l l a mat ter f or t he f uture.

I n v iew o f t he f act t hat L ydney I c on ta ined n o — o rthodox mater ia l l a ter t han 3 60 , i ts ee ms h ard ly p oss ib le t hat t he d epos it c ou ld h ave b een made a t s o l ate a d a te , e spec ia l ly , p erhaps - a s K en t h as s a id - s ince t he T heodos ian s er ies f ro m t he s i te a s a who le i s r ather t h in 1 .6 1 Wh i le t here i s g ood p roof t hat n e ither t he t e mp le n or t he a ssoc iated b u i ld ings c an b e d a ted b efore 3 64/7, we must a vo id h ere t he k not ty q uest ion o f t he d eta i ls o f t he i n terpretat ion , n ow more t han f orty y ears o ld :

b oth h oards , I

( a lso Constan t in ian ) a s wel l a s I , were f ound i n what c an o n ly h ave b een s econdary c on tex ts .1 62 The d at ing o f ' min im iss im i ' h as b een f u l ly e stabl i shed b y t he d iscover ies o f A . M. ApS i mon a t Brean Down t e mp le n ear Weston-super- Mare.

Th is t e mp le was e rected i n t he 3 30s a nd c on t inued

1 63

i nu se u n t i l c . 3 67, when i t may h ave b een a bandoned o r d estroyed .

Nex t t o

i t , a nd p ar t ly b u i lt o f i t s ma ter ia ls ( i nclud ing B ath s tone ) t here was a l ater r ectangu lar s tructure , t he ' southern b u i ld ing ', where o ccupat ion c ont inued a t l east u n t i l 3 95.

' Fa l l ing h orse man ' min i ms w ere c o m mon a t Brean , a nd h ad

t he f o l low ing d istr ibu t ion : TE MPLE

S IZE Overstr ikes

S . BUILDING

8

UNSIRATIFIED

1

TOTAL 9

1 6 m m.

1

1 5 m m.

5

1

1 4 m m.

5

5

1 3. 5 m m.

1

1

1

1

1 3 m m.

6

1 2 m m.

6

6

1 1 . 5 m m.

3

3

1 1 m m.

1 2

1 0 m m.

1 6

9. 5 mm . 9 m m.

4

7

1 0

1 1

1 3 1 7

1

1

1 5

1 5

8. 5 mm .

1

1

8 m m.

8

8

7 .5 m m.

1

1

7 m m. 6 m m.

1 2

*1 2

5 .5 m m.

7 _ 1 1

5 m m. 4 .5 m m.

1 1 2 1 1

7+1 _ 1

1 _

1 + 3 1 +

7

4 m m.

6 12 -

6+ 1-. 2

3 .5 m m.

2 6

2+6

3 m m.

6 15 -

6+75

2. 5 mm .

9 9

9

2 m m.

i

TOTALS

1 83

*i t a l ics :

p la in min i ms

2 -

8

1 32

2

1 93

T h is t ab le s hows t ha t a l l b u t t he merest f ew ( i nc lud ing o n ly t wo l ess t han 1 3 m m. a cross ) o ccurred i n t he t e mp le a nd n ot i n t he l ater b u i ld ing .

Accor-

d ing ly , t he p er iod o f t he t i ny c op ies i s t ha t o f t he t e mp le , a nd n o t t ha t o f t he l ater b u i ld ing , a nd i s p r ior t o t he i n troduct ion o f t he Va len t in ian ic a es. ' M in im iss im i ' o ccur n o t o n ly u pon t he s acred s i tes o f L ydney a nd Brean , b u t i n s ecu lar a ssoc iat ions a lso - b a ths a t Can terbury 1 64 G rea t S taun ton ( Hun ts.) .1 65

a nd t he v i l la a t

Had t hey b een k nown o n ly u pon s acred s i tes ,

a nd i f more o f s uch s i tes h ad y ie lded t he m , t hey migh t t hen h ave b een d esc r ibed a s h av ing h ad a ' vot ive ' p urpose.

B ut a t Pagans H i l l t e mp le , a bou t

1 7 mi les f ro m Brean , t hey d id n ot o ccur :

i nstead , t here w ere l arge n u m-

b ers o f w orn-ou t , f ragmen tary c o ins.

B ad , p oor c o in migh t h ave h ad a

1 66

v ot ive p urpose , a nd h ere a nd t here I m in im iss im i ' may h ave f u l f i l led t ha t f unct ion , a nd p robab ly d id s o ;

b u t , l ike t he p ins , b eads a nd s o o n wh ich

w ere s o u sed , ' m in im iss im i ' w ere n ot e xpress ly manu factured f or t hat p urp ose a lone.

T hey w ere mere ly t he l ast s tage o f d evo lu t ion i n t he l owest

d eno m ina t ion o f ac urrency .

F or v ery many y ears - s ince t he e ar ly f our th

c entury , i fn ot b efore - t he s i lver-bronze c o inage h ad b een emp loyed n ot s o much a s s ing ly , a s i n b ags ( f o l les ) :

t he Ed ict o f 3 56, a lready men t ioned ,

h ad a s i t s o b ject t he s uppress ion o f s pecu lat ive move men ts o f s i lver-bronze f ro m o ne p lace t o a nother ;

a nd t h is i td id b y f orb idd ing a ny merchan t t o

c arry o n h is own p ack-an i ma ls more t han 1 000 f o l les o f l eg it i mate c o in . T he means o f t ranspor t e nv isaged c lear ly r u les o u t a ny p oss ib i l ity t ha t a mere 1 000 i nd iv idua l c o ins i s i n q uest ion .

At housand b ags o f c o ins e ach

e qu iva len t , i tw ou ld s ee m , t o 1 2 ,500 d enar i i ( t hus t o 1 000 b ags o f 6 25 l aurea tes a p iece i n t erms o f t he 3 01 r eva lua t ion ;

a nd a s t he d enar ius c on-

t i nued t o s l ip , p robab ly f ewer l aureates o f l a ter t ypes ) w ere mean t . s um was i n tended t o b e s pen t o n t rave l l ing e xpenses o n ly ;

Th is

a nd a lthough , n o

d oub t , ab ag c ou ld b e o pened a nd i t s c on tents p ar t ly u sed f or f ood o r d r ink a t h oste l ler ies , o n many o ccas ions t he b ags w ou ld p ass f ro m h and t o h and a s t hey were.

1 67

T he e xac t c o mpos it ion o f ab ag wou ld s carce ly h ave ma t-

t ered , p rov ided o n ly t ha t i tc on ta ined s o me a ppropr iate p ieces o f c o in .

I t

may b e r eca l led t hat t he v a lue less c ash o f i mper ia l Ch ina w ere u sed i n s tr ings o f an om ina l 1 000 ,c orres p ond ing t o at ae l . Up t o t he p resen t t ime , t here h as b een o n ly o ne d iscovery t o t hrow l igh t u pon t he l oca l i ty i n wh ich a ny o f t he ' f a l l ing h orse men ' w ere p roduced . W. A . S eaby 's p ub l ica t ion o f t he Ha m H i l l ( So m.) f inds , wh ich h as b een ment i oned more t han o nce i n t hese p ages , i nc ludes a g roup o f d ie-l inked c oun terf ei ts s u f f ic ien t ly n umerous t o s how t ha t t he s i te o f manu facture c anno t h ave b een f ar away , i fi ndeed i t was n ot u pon t he h i l l i t se lf .

1 68

S even c o ins ,

most ly o ver-str ikes , s hare o ne o bverse , a nd s ix o f t he m h ave t he s a me r ev erse ;

t wo more h ave a nother o bverse , a nd o ne , t he s a me r everse a s

b efore ;

a nd t here w ere s evera l o ther i m i tat ions i n t he s ame s ty le , a ga in

most ly o verstruck . f lan ;

Among t he l ast , h owever , i s o ne c oin s truck o n at in

a nd t h is may r em ind u s t ha t t he p ro totypes h ad b een i ssued w ith a

p lated s ur face , wh ich , n o l ess t han i n t he c ase o f t he b arbarous r ad ia te a n ton in ian i , t he c oun ter fe i ter w ou ld h ave f ound i ta dvan tageo 'ls t o r eproduce i n s o me way .

1 33

' Caraus ius I ' A s pec ia l p lace must b e g iven t o t he i n tr igu ing s er ies o f f our teen p ubl i shed s pec imens 1 69 wh ich b ear i n more o r l ess r ecogn isab le f orm t he l egend DO M INO CARAVS IVS CES o r v ar ian t . ( 1-2 ), R ichborough ;

( 3 ), S i lchester [ 121 ] ;

A l l b u t f i ve a re p rovenanced :

( 4 ), S troud ( G los.);

( 5-7 ),

Freckenham h oard ( Nor fo lk ) ; a nd ( 8-9 ), H es l ing ton h oard ( York ). T he r everses a re a l l o f t he ' f a l l ing h orse man ' t ype , e xcep t i n o ne o f t he R ichboro ugh c ases , where i ti s ' emperor i n g a l ley '. ( 2 ) w i th a nu nprovenanced p iece ;

T here a re s evera l d iel inks :

( 3 ) w ith ( 4 ) a nd a lso w ith a nother u nprov-

e nanced p iece f ro m a sma l l c o l lect ion , a l most c er ta in ly o f l oca l o r ig in , f ormed a t Ab ingdon ( Berks.); a nd t wo o f t he F reckenham c o ins ( 5-7 ). T here i s as ty l ist ic u n ity i n t he s er ies wh ich was s trong ly emphas ized b y S u ther land i n h is 1 945 d iscuss ion o f t he s pec imens t hen k nown .1 7° A t l eas t t hree a re o verstr ikes , i nc lud ing t he S i lchester c o in [ 121 ], a s c an b e s een i ft he i l lustrat ion i s t urned u ps ide-down , when t he e ar a nd b ack h a ir o f t he e ar l ier b ust w i l l b e v is ib le.

T he u nder types a re C onstan t in ian .

I t was d e monstra ted b y Ken t t ha t t h is l i t t le s er ies ( wh ich a lso c on ta ins t wo c o ins p urpor t ing t o b ear t he n ame CENSER IS 1 71 )c anno t b e e ar l ier t han 3 54 , when t he p rototype a ppeared , a nd t hat i ti s u n l ike ly t o b e l a ter t han 3 57 when t he o f f ic ia l c o in ing o f ' f a l l ing h orsemen ' c eased , a nd t he modu le o f t he c op ies was a lready wan ing .

T here i s n o i nstance a t a l l o f a' f a l l ing

h orse man ' b e ing s truck o ver a ny c o in l a ter t han t he o f f ic ia l i ssue o f t he s ame t ype. T he o ccurrence o f ' Caraus ius I ' i n t he t wo h oards men t ioned , b oth o f wh ich h ad c losed b e fore a ny o f J u l ian I 's e ar ly c o ins h ad b ecome a va i lab le ( 355 ), i s af irm i ndex o f e ar ly d a te , a s i ndeed i s t he i m i ta t ion o f t he o bso lete ' emperor i n g a l ley ' d es ign . T he r everses o f t he c o ins c o m mon ly c arry a l egend wh ich i s n ot s ome b lundered v ers ion o f FEL TE MP REPARAT IO , b u t as econd i mper ia l n ame - o n [ 121 ], wh ich i s v ery c lear , w e r ead CONSTAT I AVSTVS .

B e-

f ore t he c lose d at ing o f t he o r thodox ' f a l l ing h orse men ' h ad b een e s tab l ished , i t was p oss ib le t o a rgue t ha t ' Caraus ius I ' w as a l oca l Br it ish u surper , who p ruden t ly a cknow ledged t he s uzera in ty o f C onstan t ius I n ot o n ly b y i nc lud ing t ha t r u ler 's n a me o n t he b ack , b u t b y s pec i fy ing h is own s ubord ina te p os it ion a s C (a )esar i n r ela t ion t o C onstan t ius a s Au (gu )stus.

T he n arrow d at ing

n ow p oss ib le r enders t h is a t tract ive p oss ib i l i ty r emote , i fi td oes n ot o b l ige u s q u ite t o d is m iss i ta ltogether.

Ken t s uggests t ha t t he ' Cons tan t ius ' o f

t he r everse l egends i s d er ived f ro m t he b l ind c opy ing o f a n e ar l ier ' f a l l ing h orse man ' wh ich h ad i t se lf b een o verstruck , o bverse f or r everse , u pon a C ons tan t in ian c o in wh ich r e ta ined p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l t i tu la ture i n l eg ib le f o r m .

F ur thermore , t he ' m in t- mark ' r eproduced i s o f T r ier - TREV o n

[ 121 ], e ven TREVES ( ! ) o n o thers - a nd i tc annot s ee m l ike ly t ha t aB r i t ish u surper p roduc ing h is own c o inage , h owever c rude ly , w ou ld h ave c op ied a c on t inen ta l mark i nstead o f h av ing s ome a ppropr ia te Br it ish p lace-name e ngraved : o n o ther ' f a l l ing h orse men ' , COL. ( 'G loucester ' ) a nd PLN ( London ) h ave b een r ead w ith t he e ye o f f aT t l i .1 72 I n s hor t , s ince-i he- y ears t o wh ich t he i n tr igu ing l i t t le g roup b e longs w ere , s o f ar a s w e k now , a

1 34

p er iod o f t he u nd ispu ted s way o f t he l eg it ima te Ro man G overnmen t i n Br i ta in , K en t 's s o lu t ion was t o d raw a t ten t ion t o a n Eng l ish 1 8th-century p ara ll e l , when c er ta in h a l fpence a ppeared wh ich , t hough s uper f ic ia l ly s im i lar t o r ega l c o ins , b ore ' evas ive ' l egends s uch a s GVL IEL MVS S HAKESPEARE o r t he l ike , whereby t he l aw r e la t ing t o f orgery c ou ld b e f l ou ted . T h is a rgumen t i s av ery p ersuas ive o ne , e spec ia l ly a s r egards t he e xp lanat ion o f t he i nscr ipt ion o n t he r everse.

And y et , t he o bverse w ou ld

b e as ub t lety wh ich w ou ld n ot , It h ink , o therw ise b e k nown i n p reced ing c lasses o f Ro man c oun ter fe its , where t he o f f ic ia l t i tu la ture , o r s ome a tt e mpt a t i t , was r eproduced ; o r e lse r efuge was t aken w i l ly-n i l ly i n meani ng less l i nes a nd s ca t tered l e t ters. The c ho ice o f t he n ame ' Caraus ius ' f or t he s er ies i s i t se l f a n o dd o ne.

Very f ew o f t he h is tor ica l Caraus ius '

c o ins r e ma ined , a nd s uch i nscr ipt ions a s h ad b een e rected i n h is d ay h ad l ong b een o b l itera ted .1 73 T he n ame i t se lf i s a n u nco m mon o ne : e xcep t f or t hese c o ins , i to ccurs o therw ise o n ly o n t he Penmachno ( Caerns.) t o mbs tone o f t he 5 th o r 6 th c en tury , i nscr ibed CARAVSIVS H IC T ACIT I N HOC CONGER IES LAPEDVM b e low a Chr istogramTf7 4 -

Who t ha t Caraus ius w as , w e

h ave n o means o f t e l l ing ; b u t t he ' Lord Caraus ius Caesar ' o f t he c o ins s eems most d e l ibera te ly i nscr ibed ; a nd i fi tc annot p erchance r efer t o a b r ief u surpa t ion , i tc an a t test a d eep a nd g o lden me mory o f t he h istor ica l Caraus ius . And i td oes more : t he u se o f t he n ame o f ad angerous , a nd f or l ong s uccessfu l , e nemy o f t he g rand fa ther w ou ld n ot h ave b een a ccep tab le t o t he g randson , s o t hat t he a ppos it ion o f a' second C araus ius ' a nd a s econd Cons tan t ius i s av ery n o tab le f act . A t v ery l east , t he c o ins a re a n i ndex o f d iscon ten t . Mystery , h app i ly , s t i l l a t taches t o t he m. V I I .

Va len t in ian ic a nd T heodos ian C op ies T he d isappearance o f t he ' f a l l ing h orsemen ' was n o l ess a brup t t han t ha t

o f t he C laud ian c op ies.

My r ecen t ( and a s y et u npub l ished ) r e-exam ina t ion

o f t he c o ins f rom S egon t ium f or t o f fers c ogen t s upp le men tary e v idence o f t h is f ac t : t he f or t was r e-occup ied c . 3 69 a f ter v ir tua l a bandonmen t s ince 3 53 , when i th ad p robab ly b een d estroyed . B etween a s o l id C ons tant i n ian s er ies r unn ing t o Magnen t ius , a nd a v ery s o l id Va len t in ian ic s er ies , w e f ind o n ly a s o l i tary o r thodox a nd e igh t c oun ter fe its. I m ita t ions o f Va len t in ian ic a nd T heodos ian c o ins a re f ew c ompared w ith t he ' f a l l ing h orse men '. t o f ind .

V a len t in ian ic c oun ter fe its a re i n p ar t icu lar n ot e asy

One f ro m O ld F ord ( London ) h as b een i l lus tra ted :1 75

b arbarous , a nd w as p robab ly n ot made i n B r ita in .

i ti s n ot v ery

T he R ichborough c o ins ,

a s p ub l ished , n umber o n ly s ix c op ies i n o ver 2 ,600 o r thodox .

A s r egards

T heodos ian c op ies , R ichborough o f fers 5 0 o r more i n o ver 2 0 ,000 - t he f igures a re n ot p rec ise ly g iven . T he p ropor t ion i s s im i lar . At yp ica l p iece , f rom S i lchester [ 122 ], c loses o ur s er ies.

Aga in , p robab ly , t he

T heodos ian c op ies a re c on t inen ta l r a ther t han Br it ish .1 76

T he r eason f or

t he a brup t r e lapse t o e nde m ic c ond it ions a f ter 3 64 i s , a s a lready s ugges ted , t he a bandonmen t o f t he s i lver p ropor t ion i n t he sma l l-charge a l loy , a nd t he G overnmen t 's w i l l ingness t o a l low a es t o f ind i t s n a tura l l eve l .

1 35

Counter fe its i n F ourth t o F if th C en tury B r ita in T he c o mpos i t ion o f t he sma l l c o in i n c ircu la t ion a t t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury i s w e l l-estab l ished f ro m t he c onten ts o f h oards.

By t ha t t ime , e ven

t he e normous Va len t in ian ic i ssue h ad dw ind led r e markab ly .

T he h oards

most ly c on ta in f a ir ly h igh n umbers o f T heodos ian p ieces , i ft hey a re n ot a l mos t who l ly f ormed f ro m t ha t s er ies.

Many e ar l ier c o ins h ave b een t r im-

med d own t o t he r a ther sma l l modu le o f t he s o-ca l led ' f our th b rass ' .1 77 E ar l ier c o ins i n t he l ate h oards u sua l ly c o mpr ise sma l l n u mbers o f t h irdc en tury r ad ia tes , av ery f ew Constan t in ian d a t ing b efore 3 30 , a nd sma l l ish n u mbers o f t he p er iods 3 30-48 a nd 3 48-64 , b es ides wha tever Va len t in ian ic c on ten t t here may b e.

C op ies a re p resen t , b u t o n t he who le t hey a re n e ither

p ar t icu lar ly b arbarous n or p ar t icu lar ly sma 1 1. h ad l ong b een s tra ined o u t o f c ircu lat ion .

1 78

A l l mater ia l o f t ha t k ind

I th as b een p roved i n t he p reced-

i ng p ages , b y t he w ork o f v ar ious s cho lars , t ha t min i ms ( rad iate o r d iade mmed ) b e long e ssen t ia l ly t o t he n orma l p er iod o f c urrency e n joyed b y t he ir p rototypes.

Modern c r it ic is m h as d isposed o f t he c h i maeras o f ' t ype-fus-

i on ' -f our th-century r everses w i th r ad ia te o bverses - a nd o f t he ' shor tage o f b ronze ' wh ich a t o ne t ime was h e ld t o a ccoun t f or t he s tr ik ing o f v ery t i ny min ims.

T here i s n o s ign o f a ny k ind t ha t ar ecrudescence o f c oun ter fe it ing

t ook p lace i n t he y ears wh ich f o l lowed t he d epar ture o f t he Ro man a dm in is tr a t ion .

I n 1 948, t he a rchaeo log ist B .H . S t .J. O 'Ne i l b lun t ly s ta ted t ha t i t

was ' f u t i le t o s earch f or e v idence o f c urrency among dwe l lers i n a Dark Age , who h ad n o u se f or i t ; '1 79

a nd t h is p os it ion h as c o me n ow t o b e g enera l ly

a ccepted , i n s o me c ases p erhaps a l i t t le r e luc tan t ly , b y n um is mat ists. 1 80 T he u se o f c o ined money o f a ny d escr ip t ion s ee ms t o h ave p assed away b y t he midd le o f t he f i f th c entury .

1 81

Na t iona l Museum o f Wa les

I n Me mory o f G .R . S tan ton , Cura tor o f An t iqu i t ies , C i ty Museum , B r is to l.

NOTES & REFERENCES

1 .

On t he Ro man l aw o f c oun ter fe i t ing , s ee P . G r ierson , i n E ssays i n Ro man C o inage p res. t o H aro ld Ma t t ing ly ( 1956 ), 2 40-61.

T he f irst

s pec if ic men t ion o f a es o ccurs i n ar escr ip t o f 3 71, C od . T heod . I X , 2 1.1.

References i n 3 18 a nd 3 26 a re g enera l e nough t o h ave c overed

a es , h ad i te x isted , b u t i td id n ot . 2 .

C f . Caesar , D e B e l lo C iv i l i I I , 1 03 ( Po mpey 's o b ta in ing money f ro m p ub l icans a nd p r iva te p ersons , ' and a g rea t w e igh t o f a es f or mi l i tary u se ' ) . C f . a lso T ac itus , Anna les I , 1 7 f or t he f amous r e mark ' body a nd s ou l a re r eckoned a s w or th t en a sses p er man p er d ay .'

1 36

3 .

C f. n umerous c oins l i sted a s A l

/z I E i n D .F. A l len 's Gazet teer o f

Br it ish c o ins , i n Prob le ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern Br ita in 1960 ]. 4 .

C f .

. H .V . S u ther land , Co inage a nd Currency i n Ro man Br i ta in

( 1937 ), p ass i m.

A Caraus ian a ureus f ro m Neath , G lam. ( i b id ., 7 1;

NC 1 886, p 1.12, 6 ) i s more l ike ly t o b e long t o t he e ar ly u nor thodox b ut o f f ic ia l s er ies , t han t o b e ac oun ter fe it .

Ab arbarous s o lidus o f

Grat ian i s r ecorded , we igh t n ot g iven , i n R ichborough I V , n o. 3 1259. An e ar ly a ccoun t o f t he C leeve H i l l ( Worcs.) f ind , l ate f ourth c entury , r efers t o many c oun ter fe its o f g o ld-p lated c opper , d iscoloured b y v erd igr is ( Archaeo log ia XV I I ( 1814 ), 3 29-30 ).

An i mitat ion i n g old o f

ab ase- meta l c o in o f H e lena ( Co inage a nd Currency ...., 7 9 ), b e longs t o a n e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon s er ies , c f. J .P .C. Kent i n Ang lo-Saxon Coins ( 1961), 1 0-11, c f . p 1.1, 4 . 5 .

C f. R .A .G . Carson , RN 1 965 , 2 25-35 , a nd i n I n ternat iona l Nu m. Conven t ion Proc. ( Jerusa le m , 1 963 ), 2 31-50.

For f our th-cen tury i n-

f lat ion , n um is mat ica l ly c ons idered , s ee e spec ia l ly A . Ravetz , NC 1 964 , 2 01-31. 6 .

I n h oards s uch a s t hat f ro m L eysdown ( Ken t ), NC 1 971, 1 89-97;

wh ich

t yp ica l ly s how a h eavy s econd-century p ropor t ion , a nd a v ery f eeb le t h ird-cen tury p ropor t ion , t er m inat ing w ith o ne o r t wo c o ins o f Postu mus. 7 .

One h a l f o f ac lay s lab- mou ld was i n Ld . Winche lsea 's c o l lect ion , Ph i l. Trans. 1 747, 5 57 , b u t i t s p rovenance was n ot s tated.

The B . M .

h as p art o f as po i lt c ast i n b ronze f ro m s uch a mou ld , a ga in u nprovena nced , s how ing impress ions o f t wo c oins o f Cr ispus i n al eaf o f b ronze wh ich h ad f lowed b etween t he t wo h a lves o n s o me o ccas ion when t hey were n ot t igh t ly e nough b ound t ogether.

The meta l s lab- mou lds f ro m

Ar lon ( H. Cuppers , T r ierer Z e itschr if t XX I ( 1968 ), 2 17-8, Abb.6 ) a nd n ow f ro m Mandeure ( Doubs ) ( Ga l l ia XXX ( 1972 ), 4 28-9 , f ig .1 7 ) were o f l ead a l loy a nd c ou ld h ave b een u sed o n ly f or c ast ing i n t in o r t in-r ich l ead :

t he me lt ing-po in t o f l ead i s 3 27 °,a nd o f t in , 2 31 ° . T he c onnect-

i ng-channels b etween t he i mpress ions were v ery c rude ly c ut i n t he Man .deure c ase , wh ich r eta ined a b ronze b ind ing-strap w ith c atch . 8 .

C f . J . La faur ie, i n c onnex ion w ith c ast d ies , Bu l l.Soc.franc.de Nu m. 1 960 , 4 41.

9 .

C f. e .g . M. Gran t 's s tudy o f t he C laud ian Cons tan t iae August i , NC 1 950 , 2 3-42.

1 0. 1 1.

My n otes , Monmouthsh ire Ant iquary I ( 1965-8 ), 5 2-5 , 1 19. L .A . L awrence , NC 1 940, 1 92.

For a n e xce l len t s er ies o f p hotographs

o f p lated d enar i i , s ee M. R. Curry , Nu m.Circu lar 1 973, 2 81-5, 3 33-4. 1 2.

For p hotographs a nd d raw ings s how ing t he i nc idence o f s uch marks a nd t he ir c haracter , s ee A . Popa e t a l., Apu lu m X ( 1972 ), 7 9-106.

1 3.

Nu m mu lar ius , q u i p er a rgentu m a es v idet :

Petron iu3 , S aturae , 5 6 ,

q uoted b y M. Craw ford , NC 1 958, 5 6 , n ote 1 .

1 37

1 4.

Pract icab i l i ty o f c oun ter fe it ing s erra t i , s ee n ote 2 0.

Two o r t hree

o f t he S t. Sw ith in 's L ane c oun ter fe its ( no te 1 9 ) h ave b anker 's marks , a ccord ing t o my i nspect ion i n October 1 973.

I ti s l ike ly t hat t hese

were o n t he o r ig ina ls f ro m wh ich t he c oun ter fe it d ies were mou lded . 1 5.

E .g . RN 1 968, p 1 .11, 1 648 ;

1 6.

T h . Mo m msen , Rö m isches Münzwesen ( 1860 , r epr . Graz 1 956 ), 3 86-7 ;

RN 1 970 , p 1.1,4 ; p 1 .9 , 2 23 ;

p 1 .10 , 2 54.

c f . M. H . Craw ford , ' P lated c o ins - f a lse c o ins '. NC 1 968,

5 5-9. 1 7.

M .R . Curry , Nu m.Circu lar 1 973, 2 33 , s ugges ts t hat Craw ford 's p 1.14 , 5( see p rec. n o te ) i s f ro m t he s a me d ies a s t he o r thodox NC 1 959 , p 1.1, 1 5.

I ti s d e monstrab le f ro m i n terna l measure men ts o f

d eta i l t ha t t he Craw ford ( p la ted ) p iece i s at r if le sma l ler , a s wou ld b e s o i fc ast d ies were u sed . 1 8.

R .E. M . a nd T .V . Whee ler , Veru la m iu m ( 1936 ) , 2 22 , f ig . 4 9.

T he

r ough b ronze b ack a nd p ro ject ing r im i nd ica te a f ormer i ron c as ing . 1 9.

S t .Sw i th in 's Lane : h am , i b id ., 2 00-2.

L .A . L awrence , NC 1 940 , 1 85-9 ; Cores :

p ersona l i nspect ion .

E.A . S yden-

M. R . Curry ,

Nu m.Circu lar 1 973 , 3 35 , l i sts s ix h oards o f p lated c o ins , w ith r efs. A S pan ish h oard i s s a id t o b e F lav ian ; a n A thens h oard w as c o mposed o f mater ia l f ro m c istophor ic t etradrachms o f C laud ius Id own t o d ena r i i o f C o m modus. 2 0.

W. Campbe l l , G reek & Ro man P lated Co ins ( Amer ican Num. S oc. Notes & Monogr ., 5 7 , 1 933 );

L .A . L awrence , NC 1 940, 1 90-1

( Roya l Min t e xper i men t i n p la t ing s erra te f lans w i th f used s i lver-fo i l ) ; L .H . Cope , Metal lurg ia 1 967 , 1 5-20.

S i lver me lts a t 9 46 ° ,c opper

a t 1 084 ° . 2 1.

Co ins w i th l ead c ores a re n ot u nknown ;

c f . NC 1 971, 1 83-4, f ig .; c f .

t he Caer leon l ead-a l loy d upond ius , p robab ly o nce p la ted , NC 1 965 , p 1.17 , 4 1. 2 2.

My n o te , Nu m.Circu lar 1 974 , 1 1, s hows a S i lchester a s o f Nero w i th ac u t a cross t he n eck , a nd t here i s a n a s o f C laud ius w ith a d eep c rosss haped c u t o n t he h ead .

S uch s pec i mens a re n o tu nco m mon .

S ee

G .F. H i l l i n J .P . Bushe-Fox , Heng istbury H ead ( 1915 ), 7 1. 2 3.

P .-H. M i tard , Bu l l.Soc.franc.de Num. 1 970 , 5 09-10. Mo m msen , Rö m. Münzw . 7 69 , n o te 9 3 ; 1 965 , 1 73, p 1.17 , 4 3-4 [ sa me ];

C f . T h .

my n otes , NC 1 951, 1 32 , NC

C .M . Kraay , D ie Münzfunde v on

V indon issa b is T ra jan ( 1962 ), 9 3 , n o. 2144 ( Lyon ' a l tar ' a s ); G iard , RN 1 968 , 16 n o. 1 687 ; t wo o f Nero ).

p 1.17, 2 739 ;

J .-B .

p 1 .18 , 2 779 ( Claud ius ;

T he method was v ery e xcep t iona l ly u sed much l a ter :

ab arbarous r ad ia te o f T etr icus Ii n t he S i lchester c o l lect ion i s a ‚s ub ferra tus '.

2 4.

C f . C .M . Kraay i n E ssays i n Ro man C o inage .., 1 28-32 , p 1 .6 , 8 ( dupond ius marked d own t o a s , i b id. p 1.6 , 7 ) . D . MacDowa l l , NC 1 966 , 1 28 , n o te 2 , g ives we igh ts o f t hree s ester t i i marked d own t o d upond i i , a l l l igh ter t han [ 23 ];

c f . a lso h is p 1.11, 7 .

1 38

T he e dge-cu t

d oes n o t a ppear o n a n Augus tan moneyer 's a s marked d own t o SE ( m is ), i n t he N .M .W .;

n o s ub ferra te c op ies o f t hese a re k nown .

2 5.

S .S . Frere , V eru lam ium Excava t ions I( 1972 ) , 1 8.

2 6.

Ro man I nscr ipt ions o f B r i ta in I , n o. 2 74 , p 1.16 - b etter , J .M .C. T oynbee , Ar t i n Ro man B r ita in ( 1962 ), p l. 1 4.

2 7.

T hesaurus L inguae L a t inae s ays ' genera l iter , a es ; o rna men ta ;

i ns trumen tu rn ;

v asa a erea ' b ut q uotes f ro m t he l a te Ro man t rans. o f

S t . I renaeus ( f l. c . 1 80 ), Adv . Haer .I V , 3 0.2 '..ex a l ien is l abori bus i ns igne [ s tamped ] a uru m e t a rgen tum e t a era men tum , c um i nscr ip t ione e t imag ine Caesar is , i n z on is s u is f eren tes . 2 8.

1

S ee P . G r ierson 's d iscuss ion o f t he w e igh t o f t he l ibra i n h is p resi den t ia l a ddress , NC 1 964 , x i-x iv.

2 9.

Ag raph o f t he we igh ts o f s ester t i i i s g iven b y P . B ast ien , L e Monnayage d e Bronze d e Postume ( 1967 ), 3 8.

3 0.

S . B o l in , S tate a nd C urrency i n t he Ro man Emp ire t o 3 00 A .D. ( 1958 ) , 2 36.

3 1. 3 2.

S ee n ote 1 36 f or l ate h oards. I ti s , f or e xa mp le , t he b urden o f J .P .C. Ken t 's ' Barbarous c op ies o f Ro man c o ins :

t he ir s ign i f icance f or t he B r it ish h istor ian a nd

a rchaeo log ist ', i n L imes Stud ien , Vor trage d es 3 . i n terna t iona len L i mes -Kongresses i n Rhein fe lden ( Schr if ten d es I ns t . f . Ur- u . F rühgesch ich te d er S chwe iz 1 4 , 1 959 ), 6 1-8. 3 3.

T here i s al i t t le d oub t a bou t t h is.

PPo ccurs o nu nco m mon

q uadran tes o f 4 2 , b u t n ot o n d a ted c o ins t herea f ter u n t i l t he s i lver a nd g o ld o f 5 0 a nd l a ter :

t o wh ich p er iod i ti s r easonab le t o a s-

s ign t he a es s o marked .

T he q uest ion i s , whether t he a es w ithou t

P P was c on t inued a f ter t he g ran t ing o f t he t i t le , a nd i fs o , why . I fi t was c on t inued , i t wou ld b e d if f icu l t , h owever , t o a ccoun t f or t he g rea t n umbers o f c oun terfe its wh ich e xh ib it t he t yp ica l c haract er ist ic o f ap er iod o f s hor tage o f c hange, n a me ly d evo lu t ion i n s ize a nd we igh t . 3 4.

C. H .V . S uther land , Ro mano-Br it ish I m itat ions o f Bronze C o ins o f C laud ius I( A mer ican Nu m. S oc. Notes & Monogr., 6 5 , 1 935 );

s ee

a lso h is b r iefer t reatmen t i n Co inage a nd Currency ...., 1 0-13. 3 5.

C f .S u ther land i n C .F.C. Hawkes & M.R . Hu l l , Ca mu lodunum ( 1947 ), 1 57.

3 6.

T here i s ac ast ' Cons tan t ia ' a s , 8 .5 g ., i n t he S i lchester c o l lecti on .

I n t he Usk s er ies , t here i s a' M inerva ' a s , 6 .98 g ., mou lded

f ro m a G rade Ic opy , i n p hys ica l a ppearance s o c lose t o ac ast ' eag le ' a s o f Vespas ian , 6 .95 g ., f ro m t he s a me s i te , t ha t c on te mp orary manu facture must b e i nd icated .

1 39

3 7.

[ 24 ] i s aS i lchester c o in w ith t he c ountermark [ P ]ROB. PROB c o in , Wroxeter 1 923-7, 3 07 , n o. 1 0 ; t he C laud ian Rhen ish s ta mp T IN S tud . 1 963, 1 78.

Another

PROB c ance l led b y

,C . M. Kraay , J ourn . Ro man

PROB i s s a id b y MacDowa l l ( c ited b y Kraay i n

Essays i n Ro man Co inage ... , 1 30, n ote 2 ) t o b e Br it ish , av ar ian t o f PRO, o n t he b as is o f d istr ibut ion . 3 8.

H . Mat t ing ly n otes a P P c opy f ro m L inco ln ( NC 1 931, 3 14 ), a nd W. A . S eaby , o ne f ro m Ha m H i l l ( So m.) ( NC 1 949, 1 69 ). s een t hese.

Ih ave n ot

PP d oes n ot a ppear i n t he c lear t i tu lature o f o ne o f

t he S ou thants. h oard c o ins ( NC 1 911, p l. 3 , 4 ) wh ich , a ccord ing t o t he Cohen r eference g iven , s hou ld h ave i t .

T here were n o PP

c op ies i n t he l arge Conde-sur-A isne d epos it s tud ied b yJ .-B. G iard , a nd n o e xa mp les a re k nown t o h im ( RN 1 968, 3 0 ;

RN 1 970 , 3 4 a nd

n ote 2 ) . 3 9.

A lways o n C laud ian c op ies , o f ten p oor o nes ; a nd n o. 1 568.

G iard , RN 1 968, 9 4 ,

C f . C VAL , wh ich o ccurs a s f ar s outh a s V indon issa.

4 0.

My r e marks , Archaeo log ia C I I ( 1969 ), 3 6-40, e tc.

4 1.

RN 1 970, 3 4 ;

4 2.

E . R it ter l ing , Das f rührö m ische L ager b e i Hofhe i m-i -T . ( 1913 ), 9 8-117 ;

4 3.

f ig . f ac ing 6 0.

15, ' e in Fun f te l ' o f t o ta l f inds.

H . Chantra ine , D ie a n t iken Fund münzen ( Novaes ium I I , 1 969 ), 6 9 ; C . M . Kraay , Münzf. v . V ind ., 1 13-6 , T af. 9 -10.

4 4.

J .-B. G iard , RN 1 968, 7 6-130 ( Conde -sur-A isne ); t ra l e t l i ber tes l oca les :

' Pouvo ir c en-

l e monnayage e n b ronze d e C laude a van t 5 0

a pres J .C.', RN 1 970 , 3 3-60. 4 5.

D io Cass ius LX , 2 2.

The i nc iden t i s men t ioned a fter a r eference

t o t he t i t le Br itann icus wh ich t he emperor was g iven . 4 6.

I .A . R ich mond , Hod H i l l H ( 1968 ), 9 2-103.

T here were 3 7 p re-

C laud ian a es , i nc lud ing 1 5 d upond i i o f Ca l igu la :

c f. t he 1 9 Ca l ig-

u lan a es f ro m a l l t he R ichborough e xcavat ions ( R. Reece , R ichb orough V , 2 03, t ab le ).

H od H i l l p roduced o n ly 1 5 C laud ian a es,

i nc lud ing c op ies. 4 7.

RN 1 970, 3 8-9.

4 8.

I b id ., 5 5-6.

4 9.

M. T odd s uggests t hat ' most o f t he b ronze c urrency o f t he western p rov inces d own t o a bout A . D. 5 0 ' was s truck i n ' min ts o n o r n ear t he G erman f ron t ier.'

( NC 1 966, 1 49, n ote 2 ) .

Th is wou ld i n-

c lude ' t he g rea t mass ' o f t he ' Vesta ' c o inage o f Ca l igu la a nd most o f t he i m itat ive c o inage o f C laud ius , ' a t l east t hose wh ich S utherl and h as c a l led Grade Ia nd I c op ies.' 5 0.

Ro mano-Br it ish Im itat ions...., 1 9 , p l. 8 , 1 -2.

1 40

5 1.

RN 1 968, 1 15 , p l. 1 1, 1 672.

T he S i lchester c o in [ 32 ] i s l inked b y

b oth d ies t o t h is . 5 2.

C o inage a nd Currency ...., p l. 3 , 4 ;

RN 1 968, 1 15 , p l. 1 1, 1 582.

5 3.

NC 1 949, 1 69 , c f . Ro mano-Br it ish I m i tat ions.

— ,p l. 5 , 5 .

A s ign

o f t ra f f ic a long t he F osse Way L i mes. 5 4.

My r epor t u pon t he Usk c oins w i l l a ppear i n W. H . Mann ing 's Excava t ions a t Usk , v o l. I , f or thco m ing .

Iam i ndebted t o Dr .

Mann ing f or h is k ind p er m iss ion t o r efer t o t he f ind ings i n d e ta i l h ere. 5 5.

C op ies o f Neron ian a es a re r are i n B r ita in , where S u ther land ( Co inage a nd Currency ...., 1 3 ) r ecorded v ery f ew ;

Ic annot t race

t he S i lchester s pec i men t o wh ich h e r efers - a l l s ee m t o b e o r thod ox , t hough t wo a re d efaced , o ne w ith a t est-cu t a nd a nother w ith a p ierc ing .

On t he f igures ( now much o ut o f d a te ) a sse mb led b y M.

Gran t f or t he d istr ibut ion o f Neron ian a es ( 1 i \ .f. 1 955 , 2 1-37, e sp . 3 2 ; NC 1 957, 2 29-30 ) i ti s c lear t ha t t he b u lk o f t he Ro man min t 's p roduct ion r e ma ined i n I t a ly , a nd t ha t o f Lyon i n L ugdunens is a nd Aqu i tan ia ; much o f t he r e ma inder c lear ly w en t t o p ay t he a rmy o n t he G erman f ron t ier a nd i n Br i ta in .

S o may b e e xp la ined t he a ppar-

e n t l ack o f c op ies i n Br ita in a nd t he ir a ppearance a t Conde-surA isne i n s o me q uan t i ty , o ver 1 % o f N eron ian a es p ls. 1 3-18 ). 5 6.

1 968, 1 16-27 ,

For t he c oun ters ta mp , s ee t he c ap t ion .

Brean , s ee n ote

1 63.

Engraved n u mera ls o n i mper ia l a es , s ee

D .M . Metca lf , The Or ig ins o f t he Anastas ian Currency Refor m ( 1969 ), 8 -9. 5 7.

RN 1 970 , 4 0.

5 8.

[ N. Mahude l ], H isto ire d e l 'Acad .roy .des I nscr . e t B e l les-Let tres I I ( 1723 ), 2 18-24 ;

r epr. 1 746 , 2 00-6 ;

q uoted b y J . Poo le ,

Archaeo log ia X IV ( 1803 ), 1 00-2 i n c onnex ion w i th t he Ed ing ton mou lds ;

t rans. b y J . Aker man , Co ins o f t he Ro mans r e la t ing t o

Br i ta in ( 1844 ), 7 4-6. 5 9.

S i te-f inds , c f . R ichborough V , 2 04-5 , t ab le.

H oards t e l l t he s a me

s tory , s ee n ote 6 , a nd t he G are h oard , NC 1 971, 1 81-8.

C f . B o l in ,

S ta te a nd Currency ...., 2 46 ; a nd J .-P. Ca l lu , L a P o l it ique mon‘ t a ire d es Empereurs r o ma ins d e 2 38 a 3 11 ( 1969 ), 1 16-130. 6 0.

Num is ma t ische Z e i tschr if t 1 921, 1 53-70.

6 1.

My n ote , NC 1 965 , 1 61-74 ;

6 2.

O tac i l ia , f ro m D icket Mead v i l la ( Her ts.), 3 .26 g ., k ind ly s en t

Ca l lu , P o l. Mone t ., 1 25 n ote 1 .

f or e xam ina t ion b y P .J. Casey ; s tone C o m mon f ind ( note 6 5 ). f ro m S egon t iu m. 6 3 ;

Pach ten , M. R . -A lfö ld i , Ch ir n I( 1971), 3 51-

Wh i tchurch , myse lf a nd P .A . Rah tz , Arch .Journ . C )0 ( I I

( 1966 ), 1 3-51. 6 3.

c f . a lso a n e xa mp le i n t he P i t-

G a l lus , 4 .04 g ., c f . R IC 1 26 b ,

S ee n o te 6 1. 1 41

6 4.

' Unsagbare Erbärm l ichke i t ' :

c f . NC 1 965 , p l . 1 6 , 1 0 f or a s pec i men

w ith t he i mpress ion o f af inger- mark i mprin ted u pon t he mou ld. 6 5.

NC 1 971, 1 89 , 1 91, c f . 1 92-7 : r ange , D om it ian-Ju l ia Ma maea , mother o f A lexander. P i tstone Co m mon : J . E vans , NC 1 870 , 1 26 , c f . 1 312 , ' casts ', r ange , V espas ian t o O tac i l ia .

T hese must h ave b een l igh t-

w e igh ts , t hough n o w e igh ts a re a ctua l ly c i ted . 6 6.

Aker man , C o ins o f t he Ro mans...., f ron t isp iece , n o. 2 , s hows t he Da mery ( Marne ) r iser , c f . RN 1 837 , p 1.6 , 1 5-16.

6 7.

Nu m is ma t ische Z e i tschr if t 1 933 , 5 8 :

Danub ian f ro m L aur iacu m t o

V im inac iu m , a nd w estwards t o Emona ( L jub l jana ). 6 8.

Ed . L aco m , Mit t . d er n u m. G ese l lscha f t i n Wien 1 929 , 6 .

6 9.

G . E l mer , ' Der r öm ische G e ldverkehr i n Carnun tu m ', Nu m is ma t ische Z e itschr if t 1 933, 5 6-67 , e sp . t ab les , 6 2-4 , 6 6-7.

7 0. 7 1.

R . Reece , R ichborough V , 2 04-5 , t ab le. An A lexandr ian b ronze d rachm o f P ius was f ound a t O ld F ord ( London ) a nd i s s hown b y M. J . Ha m merson , T rans . L ondon & Midd lesex Arch . S oc. ) 0 ( 1 1 1 .1 ( 1971), p l. E , n o. 5 .

7 2.

C f . NC 1 965 , 1 64-5.

7 3.

C o inage a nd Currency ...., 4 5 ;

A . E . Rob inson , J ourn . An t iq. Assn .

Br . I s les I -I I I , ( 1931-2 ), p ass i m. 7 4.

l iver , RN 1 837, 1 71-80 ( a lso t rans . b y Aker man , Co ins o f t he Ro ma ns.... ,8 5-95 ).

O f t he mou lds d escr ibed , t ha t l i sted u nder Carac-

a l la w ith r ev . S ECVRITAS PERPETVA must b e ad enar ius ; CARITAS MVTVA AVGG b e longs t o B a lb inus a nd Pup ienus.

Under P h i l ip t he

E lder , F IDES EXERCITVS w i th f our s tandards b e longs t o Postu mus ; u nder Postu mus , SAECVL I FELICITAS w ith emp . h o ld ing g lobe a nd s pear b e longs t o 2 68, a nd FEL ICITAS AVG may b e o f mid-268. r ev . F IDES EXERCIT w ith t wo s tandards i s o f Qu in t i l lus.

T he

T he

h oards s a id t o h ave b een f ound i n a n a d jo in ing r oo m t o t ha t c on ta in ing t he mou lds , i nc lud ing o ne j ar o f P ostu mus a nd o ther j ars c on ta in ing c o ins o f c . 3 54-7 a re r espect ive ly u n l ike ly a nd imposs ib le c o mpan ions f or t he mou lds.

No l inks b etween t he P ostu mus c o ins a nd t he mou lds

were r epor ted . 7 5.

Wh itchurch , s ee n ote 6 2.

Mou lds f or V ictor inus a nd t he T etr ic i a re

r ather u nco m mon , s ince s truck c op ies a re more c haracter ist ic o f t ha t p er iod . T he Kenn ( Clevedon ) f inds i n o ur t ab le c ons ist o f t hree f ragmen tary mou lds , o f G a l l ienus a nd T etr icus Ii n o ne c ase ( D. L i l ly a nd G . Usher , Proc. Un iv. B r isto l S pe laeo log ica l S oc. X I I I .i ( 1972 ), 3 9, n o. 5 , a nd p ersona l i nspect ion o f t he mater ia l k ind ly s en t b y Mr R . F . T ay lor o f T aun ton Museu m ).

R . S ch ind ler r efers t o a

mou ld f or T etr icus f ro m a s arcophagus a t S aar lou is , B e i träge z ur s aar länd ischen Archäo log ie u nd Kunstgesch ich te, X I . B er ich t d er S taa t l. D enk ma lpf lege ( 1964 ), 2 1.

1 42

C f . a lso P .-H. Mi tard , RN 1 963 ,

1 19 , f or men t ion o f al arge n umber o f mou lds f ro m J u l ia D o mna t o T etr icus I , w i th r ef . t o J . Ro man , Ann . S oc. f ranc. d e Nu m. e t d 'Arch .

1 886 , 2 27-8 ( not s een ).

Mou ld (s ) f or P robus , 2 76-82 , i n

a nother c ur ious d epos it r ang ing a pparen t ly f ro m P ius t o C onstan t ius I( 'ma is o n n e s a it p as e xacte men t s i t ous c es o b jets o n t e te d eterres e nse mb le ' ), J .-P. Ca l lu , Po l. Mone t . 4 56 , n ote 1 ;

Probus mou lds

f or a n ton in ian i , n ot t etradrachms , i n Egyp t , i b id . 3 08, n ote 3 . 7 6.

W. G ow land , ' Re ma ins o f a Ro man s i lver r ef inery a t S i lchester ', Archaeo log ia LV I I ( 1900 ), 1 22. b een i den t if ied s ince.

Cupe l lat ion-hear ths h ave f requen t ly

T he Ro man l im i t o f e x tract ion w as a bout

0 .006% , G ow land 's f igure t urned t o ap ercen tage , s ee Apu lu m X I ( 1971) , 4 65-8.

Ap ar t ly- me l ted T etrarch ic l aurea te i n t he S i lchester

c o l lect ion may h ave s o me c onnex ion w ith t h is s or t o f a ct iv i ty , i t s s i lver-con ten t p robab ly b e ing 3 t o 4% . 7 7.

G . Macdona ld , NC 1 905 , 1 0-17 :

c asts o f d enar i i o f D om i t ian ( 1 ),

T ra jan ( 8 ), Hadr ian ( 1 ) a nd Aure l ius Caesar ( 1 ), a nd o r ig ina ls o f An tony a nd V espas ian ( 2 ). 7 8.

J . P oo le , Archaeo log ia X IV ( 1803 ), 1 02.

7 9.

S ee n o te 7 .

8 0.

D igest , XLV I I I , 1 0.9.

8 1.

Ch iron I , 3 60 , 3 61-2.

C f . S en ten t iae r eceptae P au lo ( Fon tes J ur is

An te just in ian i ) V , 2 5 .5 , r eferr ing t o t he g i ld ing o r s i lver ing o f b ronze o r t he o f fer ing o f b ronze o r t in i n p lace o f g o ld o r s i lver ,not n ecessar i ly c o in . 8 2.

Nu m is ma t ische Z e i tschr i f t 1 933, 5 8. Carnuntum , E l mer s ays :

On c oun ter fe it d enar i i a t

' Es s ind me istens g en t ter te Denare , d ie

d en e ch ten D enaren g u t n achgeb i ldet s ind ...Se l tener z u f inden s ind Nachgasse v on D enaren , d ie a us e iner s i lverähn l ichen L eg ierung b estehen .

S e i t S everus f indet man g rössere Mengen r oher Nachah-

mungen , d ie a us Kup fer o der Mess ing b es tehen a nd u rsprüng l ich a l le v ers i lber t waren .

S chr if tu nd Dars tel lung s ind me istens g anz

e n tste l l t .' - c f . h is l i st , i b id ., 6 7. 8 3.

Ro man I mper ia l C o inage I V. 3 , p l. 1 2 , 1 9 ;

V . P icozzi , L a Monet-

a zione i mper ia le Ro mana ( 1966 ), 1 6 , f ig . 2 0.

J .-P. Ca l lu ( Po l.

Mone t ., 1 31, n ote 4 ) men t ions o ne e xa mp le i n a French h oard .

None ,

It h ink , f ro m Br ita in . 8 4.

B u t i ti s n ot e xact ly k nown h ow t he p la t ing , a bout 4 microns t h ick , was a ch ieved .

L . H . C ope s uggests a b a th o f mo l ten s i lver-ch lor ide ( i n

Methods o f Che m ica l a nd Meta l lurg ica l Exa m inat ion o f Anc ien t Co inage ( 1972 ), 2 61-78 ).

T in a ppears t o h ave f ormed t he ma jor c ons t ituen t o f

p la t ing u pon r e formed a n ton in ian i a nd l aurea tes , a nd t i n , v ir tua l ly a lone , u pon Magnen t ian ma jor inae ( accord ing t o A . B anderet a nd P . B as t ien , B u l l. S oc. f ranc. d e Nu m.

1 43

1 961, 3 1-2 ).

8 5.

S tate a nd Currency ...., 2 48.

8 6.

J . P . C . Ken t , L i mes Stud ien ...., 6 3.

8 7.

Carson , s ee n o te 5 ;

Oman made a s im i lar p o in t

u g

1 916 , 3 9-40 ) :

s ince t here was more b u l l ion i n t wo d enar i i t han o ne s o-ca l led ' doub led enar ius ', t he d enar i i wou ld im med ia te ly h ave b een me l ted d own i f t he a n ton in ianus h ad h ad s uch a n e nhanced v a lue. F or t he u ncer ta in v a lue o f t he r ad iate c rown a s a n i ndex o f ad oub le-deno m ina t ion , s ee a lso Carson , NC 1 966 , 3 56.

Ac ur ious f orgery i n t he Ma t t isha l l

( Nor fo lk ) h oard ( NC 1 969 , 1 42 ) was a d enar ius o f A lexander o n wh ich ac rown h ad b een p a ins tak ing ly c u t t o e nab le i tt o p ass a s a n a n t ,on ini anus :

i l lus., ' Augustus Brown ', B arbarous C op ies o f Ro man Co ins

( pr iva te ly p ub l ished 1969 1 ), p l. n o. 7 . d er i ssued n o a n ton in ian i 1 955 , 2 30-1.

s uspended f ro m 2 19 t o 2 38 :

Carson , NC

T he N . M. W . c o in , s a id t o c o me f ro m Caerwen t , i s i n

s i lver , n ot b ronze ( pace Carson ) : 8 8.

S o f ar a s i s k nown , A lexan-

c once ivab ly a p a t tern?

T here a re n o a n ton in ian i o f Caraca l la a t R ichborough t o a cco mpany 8d enar i i ; V , 2 04 ;

a nd o n ly 2 a t Carnuntu m a ga inst 7 8 d enar i i ( R ichborough

Nu m is ma t ische Z e itschr if t 1 933 , 6 3 ).

T he p roduct ion o f

a n ton in ian i was i n terrup ted , s ee p rec. n ote. 8 9.

I Nu m m i r ad ia lt i i s ac onv inc ing r estora t ion o f al acuna i n t he Aphrod is ias Ed ict i n ap assage r eferr ing t o t he r ad ia te c o ins o f D ioclet ian 's r eform , c orrespond ing t o t hose o f Aure l ian a nd h ence , i n al oose s ense , t o t he e ar l ier a n ton in ian i w i th wh ich we a re c oncerned . J ourn . Ro man S tud . 1 971, 1 76.

S ee

T he n am ing o f c o ins f ro m s o me p ro m-

i nen t p ar t o f t he ir d es ign i s , o f c ourse , v ery f requen t :

c f . o ur own

' ange l '. 9 0.

Nu mbers i n I t a ly , i f we n eg lect t he s em i-barbarous Consecra t io c o ins o f C laud ius I , a ppear t o b e sma l l. i on i s d if icu lt t o a ssess. 3 03, n ote 3 .

9 1.

S pa in h as t he m , b u t t he p ropor t-

F or A fr ica , s ee J .-P. Ca l lu , P ol . Monet .,

C f . a lso G iard , J ourna l d es S avan ts 1 969 , 2 6 , n o te.

G . D . L ew is a nd H . B . Mat t ing ly , NC 1 964 , 1 89-99 ; f urn ished b y M iss M. J . Green o f Wor th ing Museum.

w eigh t k ind ly D ie- measure-

men ts , f ro m t he d ot ted c irc les v is ib le o n s o me o f t he p ieces i l lus tr ated l oc. c it . 9 2. 9 3.

S ee n ote 9 0. T he f ines t s pec i men k nown i s f ro m t he P et it-Couronne h oard , 4 .66 g ., c oarse b u t n ot b arbarous , I MP C TETRICVS P AVG , r ev . I OV I COS PROBI AVG , s ure ly a n a cc iden ta l f orger 's h ybr id ( as o thers c annot b e ).

S ee J.B. G iard , E co le Pra t iques d es H tes.

E tudes , Annua ire 1 965/6, I Ve S ect ion , 4 61-8, p l ., n o. 1 6 ;

a nd i d .,

J ourna l d es S avan ts 1 969 , p l. 2 , 2 0. 9 4.

S ee h is a r t ic les o n t he Wor th ing h oard ( w i th G . D . L ew is ), n o te 9 1; t he L igh twood ( S taf fs .) h oard , N . S ta f fs. J ourn . o f F ie ld S tud . I I ( 1963 ), 1 9-36 ;

t he G or ing-on-Sea h oard , S ussex Arch . C o i ls. CV

1 44

( 1967 ), 5 6-61;

t he L ondon ( Pa ternoster Row ) h oard , NC 1 967 , 6 1-9 ;

t he V eru lam ium ( 1960 ) h oard , B r i tann ia I ( 1971 ), 1 96-9 ;

a nd a f or th-

c om ing r epor t o n t he Frocester v i l la ( G los.) h oard , o f wh ich Prof . Ma t t ing ly o b l iged me w ith a t ypescr ipt .

T hese p apers c on ta in f u l l

b ib l iograph ies a nd r e ferences t o o ther h oards o f s im i lar t ype.

O f

o ther h oards , men t ion may b e made o f t he Mi ldenha l l ( Suf fo lk ) h oard , Anne S . Rober tson , NC 1 954 , 4 0-52 , a nd t he L ondon ( L ime s t . 1 952 ) h oard , R . Merr if ie ld , NC 1 955 , 1 13-24.

T hese h ave d iel inks a nd

a re we l li l lus trated . S o me o ther i mpor tan t a ccoun ts a re w i thou t i l lu s tra t ions . I t wou ld n ot b e p oss ib le t o men t ion h ere h oards w ithout i n terna l d iel inks ( or wh ich h ave n ot b een p ub l ished a s c on ta in ing t he m.

F or

t he V eru lam ium T heatre a nd R ichborough r ad ia te h oards ,

s ee n otes 1 06, 10. 9 5.

S ee G iard 's a r t ic les , n ote 9 3.

9 6.

Nu mer ian t a nd ' Magn ia ', P . V . H i l l , B arbarous Rad iates :

I m i tat ions

o f T h ird-Cen tury Ro man Co ins ( Amer ican Nu m. S oc. N otes & Monogr . 12 , 1 949 ), 8 , c f . p l . 2 , 2 0 , f or t he ' Magn ia '.

S ee [ 107 ], wh ich i s i n

t he s ame s ty le a nd l eaves t he o bv. l egend b eyond d oubt .

T he B .M .

h as t wo o r t hree s im i lar f ro m R ichborough a nd a nother w ith Cons tant i nopo l is r ev , w ithou t p rovenance. c en tury s er ies :

Empresses a re r are i n t he t h ird-

c f . NC 1 964 , p l . 1 7 , 1 5-20 , 2 1.

T here i s a lso a

v ery f ine e xa mp le , o f S a lon ina ( 13 m m., 0 .64 g .) f ro m S egon t ium . , u n fortuna te ly s pot ted t oo l ate f or i l lustra t ion . 9 7.

I n W. G ardner & H . N . S avory , D inorben ( 1964 ), 1 19 , n o. 5 8.

9 8.

S uch c o mp lete t ransformat ions a re r are. Another c ur ios ity i s p ubl i shed b yP . V . H i l l ( L Ig 1 948 , 9 3-4 , f ig . 1 ) a nd i s d iel inked t o a s pec i men i n Par is ( G iard , J ourna l d es S avan ts 1 969 , p l. 1 , 1 1 ). I ts hows a l arge c en tra l f igure w ith a r ms a round a sma l ler f igure o n e ither s ide. Probab ly d er ived f ro m a F ides Mi l itu m t ype where F ides h o lds s tandards i n e ither h and .

9 9.

My a ccoun t i s i n G . J . Wa inwr igh t , Coygan Ca mp ( Ca mbr ian Arch . Assn ., 1 967 ), 1 16-26.

1 00.

Haro ld Mat t ing ly , i n S tud . i n H onor o f A l lan Chester J ohnson ( 1951 ), 2 75-89.

1 01.

T he v ar ious p oss ib i l it ies a re s et o u t b y J .-P. Ca l lu , P o l . Mone t ., 3 25-8.

1 02.

My a ccoun t , Proc . Un iv . Br isto l S pe laeo log ica l S oc. XI I I .1 ( 1972 ) , 7 0-82.

1 03.

C f . R .A .G . Carson , RN 1 965 , 2 25.

T he f igures o n wh ich t he s ta te-

men t i n t he t ex t i s b ased w ere k ind ly s upp l ied b y Mr Carson s o me y ears a go. 1 04.

T he f u l l r epor t o n t h is v ery l arge h oard i s awa ited.

My a ccoun t , B u l l. Bd . C e lt ic S tud . XXI I ( 1967 ), 2 91-310 , i s o f s u mmary n a ture o n ly , e xcep t a s r egards t he c o ins o f Caraus ius.

1 45

1 05.

Haro ld Matt ing ly i n R .E. M. Whee ler , S egon t ium...., ( 1924 ), 1 15-8. The f ourteen min i ms r ange f ro m 1 2 m m., 0 .99 g ., t o 8 m m., 0 .27 g . The s ing le u nworn Caraus ian c oin p resen t p rov ides t he c los ing d ate.

1 06.

Wor th ing , s ee n ote 9 1;

Veru la m iu m ( Ro man t heatre ), T .V. Whee ler

( ed . B . H. S t .J. O 'Ne i l ), NC 1 937, 2 11-28. 1 07.

S ee n ote 9 9.

1 08.

Haro ld Mat t ing ly i n S egon t iu m...., 1 12. C . H. V. S uther land , a n e ar ly n ote o n Proban c op ies , NC 1 939, 2 28-31.

T here i s av ery c lear

Proban min im , 0 .93 g ., f ro m S egon t ium wh ich was n ot ' g l i mpsed '. 1 09.

S ee n ote 1 06, i .e., c o ins f ro m t he s urround ing e arth were n o l ater t han Carausius.

The e ar th was make-up a nd t he c o ins f orming t he

h oard c ou ld a lready h ave b een i n i t . 10.

Haro ld Mat t ing ly a nd W. P. D . S tebb ing , The R ichborough Hoard o f ' Rad iates ', 1 931 ( A mer ican Nu m. S oc. Notes & Monogr . 8 0 , 1 938 ).

1 11.

I b id ., 6 , c f . p l. 1 1, 2 -6 ;

7 -15 ;

C oinage a nd Currenc3

, p l. 1 3 ,

2 1-2 , p l. 1 4 , 1 3-15 ( c f . ' H i lar itas ', p l. 7 , 8 , r eversed . 12.

NC 1 938, 2 53, p l. 2 6 , 2 ;

NC 1 943 , 7 2 ;

P .V . H i l l , Barbarous

Rad iates...., 1 8, p l. 3 , 1 2-13. 13.

H .B . Mat t ing ly , NC 1 964 , 1 92.

Fur ther o n t he q uest ion o f ' f our th

c entury ' r everses ( a p os it ion ma in ta ined b y Haro ld Ma t t ing ly i n e d . 2o f h is Ro man Co ins ( 1960 ), 2 27 , n ote 2 ) s ee i b id ., '..an i l lus ion ..the r ese mb lance was p ersuas ive , b ut ...th is i rregu lar c o inage d oes p lay s trange t r icks o n u s.' 1 14.

C .H . V. S uther land , NC 1 934 , 9 2-105 ;

NC 1 935, 1 6-120 ;

c f . Arch .

J ourn . MO M , 1 5-17 , 5 1. 1 15.

N . S taf fs. J ourn . o f F ie ld S tud .

1 16.

J . La l le mand a nd M. Th ir ion , L e T resor d e S a in t- Mard I( 1970 ), 6 7-72;

I I , 2 4.

p l. A . ( J .-B. G iard , Revue d es S avants 1 969, 1 3 , n ote ,

men t ions f our d ie-l inks w ith s pec i mens i n Br it ish c o l lect ions wh ich a re p resu mab ly o f Br i t ish f ind ing .) Woodeaton i s i n terest ing : c f . J .G . Milne , J ourn. Ro man S tud . 1 931, 1 01-9 , e sp. 1 01-2; R . G oodch ild a nd J . R. K irk , Oxon iens ia XD ( ( 1954 ), 1 5-37, c f . 2 7 ; a nd I .A . R ich mond , Ro man Br ita in ( 1963 e d.), 1 38.

Mi ldenha l l , Anne

S . Rober tson , NC 1 954, p l. 5 , 3( 17 e xx .), o bv. s hared w ith p 1.5 , 2 a nd r ev, w ith p l. 5 , 2 4 , sma l ler ( Tetr icus I , a s o pposed t o t he Postu mus o f t he o thers ).

The b arbarous r ev, o f n o. 3 was p resu m-

a b ly a r ep lace men t f or t he e v iden t ly worn r ev, o f n o. 2 , a nd t he a lready c racked d ie f or t he o bv. o f n os. 2 -3 was t hen i t se lf r ep laced . 1 17.

Fro m La l le mand a nd Th ir ion , S a in t- Mard I , f ig .

P .

6 9 w ith l oca l

b oundar ies om itted . 1 18.

J .-B. G iard , ' La monna ie l oca le e n Gau le ' al a f in d u Me s iec le : r ef let d e l a v ie

e c on om i qu e ' ,

J ourna l d es S avan ts 1 969 , 5 -34 , a l-

1 46

r eady c ited f or d eta i l ;

c f . h is o ther p aper , n ote 9 3 a bove.

C o mpare

o ur f i g . 4 , o rJ ourna l d es S avan ts , 2 2 , w ith t he C laud ian p icture , RN 1 970 , 6 1.

O ther c on t inen ta l h oards wh ich h ave b een w e l l p ub l ished

w ith i l lustra t ions a re B urmerange a nd t he T ite lb ierg , G d.-Duche d e L uxe mbourg , R . We i l ler , H e l in ium V I I I ( 1968 ), 1 31-48, a nd NC 1 969 , 1 63-75. 19.

R .A .G . Carson , ' The min ts a nd c o inage o f C araus ius a nd A l lectus ', J ourn . B r i t . Arch . Assn . 1 959 , 3 3-40 ; a nd ' The s equence-marks.. . ', i n Min ts , D ies a nd Currency ( 1971) , 5 7-65.

B oth w i th t ab les o f

t he s ubs tan t ive marks o n ly . 1 20.

Or s o met imes CL . Camu lodunum a nd C lausen tum ( near S ou thampton ) a re t he c h ief c on tes tan ts. T he d istr ibu t ion d oes n ot h e lp. S tuke ley p ub l ished a c o in w i th CLA i n t he e xergue , p oor i l lus., Meda l l ic H is t . I , p l. 2 9 , 2 ;

t he r ev, was b arbarous a nd Ii mag ine t ha t t he l e t ters

i n q uest ion w ere p ar t o f t he n ame o f C laud ius I ( set t he r igh t way u p o n t he e ngrav ing ) s how ing t hrough a s u nder type. A t t he r isk o f d ropp ing y et a nother h ypothes is , a cco mpan ied w i th a g ood p inch o f s a l t , i n to t he p ot , i t may b e s uggested t ha t t he l et ters may s tand , n ot f or a p lace-name b u tf or C lass ica o r Mone ta C lass ica , ' coinage o f t he f l eet '. 1 21.

M. T odd , NC 1 966 , 1 47-53 , r ev ives o n t he b as is o f t he ir d istr ibu t ion t he t heory t ha t t he ' Br itann ia ' a sses o f P ius w ere s truck i n B r ita in f ro m i mpor ted d ies. I ts ee ms l i ke ly : b u t t he e xped ien t d id n ot l ead t o ap ermanen t min tb e ing e stab l ished .

1 22.

T here a re o f c ourse many s im i lar it ies b e tween t he o bverses o f Caraus ian c o ins a nd t hose o f G a l l ienus , Postumus , o r Probus , s ee E l isa F an tecch i , I conograph ia moneta le d i Caraus io e A l let to ', R iv ista I t a l iana d i Num is ma t ica , 1 960 , 1 34-45 ; b ut t he s ty le o f c u tt i ng i s q u ite d i f feren t . Ap oin t o f i n terest i s t he a ppearance , a s a s tandard Caraus iun t ype , o f Fax h o ld ing b ranch a nd c ornucop iae i ns tead o fb ranch a nd s cep tre ( t hough s cep tre t ypes , v er t ica l o r t ransv erse , a re v ery much c o m moner ) : t he c ornucop iae t ype w as ' an t ic ip ated ' i n t he b arbarous r ad ia te s er ies , c f . H .B . Mat t ing ly , NC 1 964 , 1 95.

1 23.

T he l a tes tu nder type i s o f Max im ian , who c ame t o p ower l ess t han a y ear b efore Caraus ius r ebe l led . T he S i lchester h oard i n wh ich t he r e levan t c o in o ccurred i s d iscussed b y me i n NC 1 960 , 2 46-7. T he q uest ion- mark a dded af ter t he i den t i f ica t ion a rose f ro m t he f act t ha t t h is a nd o ther c o ins h ad b een moun ted b etween s hee ts o f g lass , a nd a re s o k ep t a t S trat f ie ld S aye H ouse ; t he g lass was s o mewha t misted o ver a nd Ic ou ld n ot p os it ive ly s ee t he d eta i ls.

B u t t here i s

n o r eason t o d oub t t he i den t i f icat ion o r ig ina l ly made b y J .G . J oyce , t he e xcava tor a nd a g ood n um is ma t ist . 1 24.

T he l a test o ver type k nown t o me i s a LEG I AVG - AL c o in o f c . 2 86 , e n t ire ly r egu lar , s truck o ver T etr icus I .

1 47

T h is c o in , f ro m t he

D in S i lwy ( 'Bwrdd Ar thur ' ) h oard ( Ang lesey ) , i s i n t he N .M .W . 1 25.

I tc ou ld r efer t o as o mewhat l ater v is i t o f t he emperor t o t he c oasta l n or th G au l ish r eg ion , wh ich was h e ld u n t i l 2 93.

1 26.

Probab ly , a s o f ten s uggested , Rat iona l is S um marum Rerum o r ..Ru tu p is , t hough i n t he s econd c ase i th as b een p o in ted o u t t ha t t he RSR c oins a re s o mewhat f ew t here ; i n t he f i rst c ase , s ince t he min t was c harged w ith p roduc ing g o ld a nd s i lver , t he s ugges t ion i s r ather more l ike ly .

Webb , f o l low ing d e S a l is , a t tr ibu ted t he c oins t o L ondon o n

t he b as is o f s ty le. n ote 1 22 ) :

T h is h as b een c ha l lenged b y E lisa Fan tecch i ( see

o f t he RSR c o ins , s he s ays ' . ..una ma l in tesa s t i l izzazione

d i e se mp lar i l ega t i a l t ipo g a l l ico c lass ichegg ian te , c o me s e n e v edono n e l la z ecca d i C o lchester .

C iö f a p ensare c he l a z ecca e he c on iava

t a l i monete n on f osse a L ondra , ma i n q ua lche a ltra c it tä : d ove , p ert , ed if f ic i le a d irs i.... I ndeed ; a nd Iam n o t s ure t ha t s he i s r igh t . 1 27.

C f . V irg i l , A ene id I , 2 81-4 , o f Hector a ppear ing i n ad rea m t o Aeneas : ' 0 l i gh t o f T roy !

Wha t d e lays h ave b een s o g reat a s t o d eta in t hee?

Fro m wha t s hores , H ector , l ong-awa i ted , d os t t hou c o me? '

C f . a lso

V I I I , 3 6-41, wh ich i s h is o ther u se o f e xpecta te i n t he v oca t ive , T iber inus we lco m ing Aeneas t o ap ermanen t h o me.

T he u se o f t he

EXPECTATE VENI l egend o n t he c o inage - p ar t icu lar ly u pon t he r emarkab le i ssue o f s i lver - wou ld h ave a ppea led v ery c ons iderab ly t o t he l i tera te h onest iores o f Ro mano-Br i t ish s oc iety whose c u l t iva ted t aste i s w e l l d isp layed b y t he mosa ic p ave men ts o f t he ir v i l las , n o tab ly t he V irg i l ian mosa ic a t L ow Ha m ( So m.) ( on t hese s ee D .J . Sm ith , i n T he Roman V i l la i n Br i ta in ( 1969 ), 8 2-95 )a nd b y t he ir f rescoes , n o tab ly t he O t ford ( Ken t ) e xa mp le w ith i t s Aene id q uo tat ion ( B MC P a in t ings , 1 933 , n o. 8 4 ). 1 28.

G .F. H i l l , NC 1 925 , 3 36-42 , f igs . o f a Wroxeter a nd a nu nprovena nced c o in ;

[ 71 ], f ound b y P .J . Casey i n t he Corbr idge-upon-Tyne

c o l lect ion a nd s ince p resen ted t o t he B .M .;

a nd t wo more f ound b y

N . S h ie l i n t he R ichborough c o l lect ion , Arch . Can t . L 200 (VI I ( 1972 ), 19-20 , n os. 3 5-6. c o in .

T hese t wo s hare o bverse d ies w ith t he Corbr idge

T he s uggest ion a dvanced b y H i l l t ha t BRI was a n a bbrev iat ion

f or Br icon ium = V ir icon iu m = Wroxeter i s t hus s een t o h ave b een o vert aken b y e ven ts .

T he b est g uess , wh ich was Webb 's , i s t ha t t he mark

means Br i tann ica , n o more a nd n o l ess. 1 29.

C f . H .A . S eaby , NC 1 956 , 2 05-46 , u n fortunate ly n o i l lus. h as 5 8 o f t he c o ins ).

( The NM W

Co inage a nd Currency ...., 6 7 t akes u p a n

e ar l ier s ta te men t t ha t c er ta in s tr ips o f me ta l f ound w ith t he c oins w ere f or b lanks , b u t S eaby r igh t ly i den t if ies t he m a s p ar ts o f t he b ind ing o f t he b ox wh ich h ad h e ld t he c oins :

t hey a re i l lustrated i n

Arch . Camb . 1 958, 6 6 , f ig . 1 9 i n a n a r t ic le b y W. G ardner , t he f ormer owner , d escr ib ing t he c ircums tances o f t he f ind . 1 30.

B u l l. Bd . C e l t ic S tud . XX I I , 2 96.

- On r ef lect ion , Ih ave a bandoned

t he r o man t ic n ot ion c oncern ing a d iel inked p a ir f ro m L it t le Orme a nd D inorben ( c f . r e mark i n H . N. S avory , D inorben 1 965-9 ( 1971) , 3 3-4 , p l. 6 D ) w i th r ev . MART FAV ( Mar t i F au tor i , c f . P ostu mus ' Minervae Fau tr ic i t ype ) b u t w ith a f e ma le f igure. 1 48

1 31.

L i t t le Orme , s ee n o te 1 29 ; P enard , s ee n o te 1 04 ( p l . 5s hows a l l t he P enard l inks , e xcep t o ne s ubsequen t ly n o t iced , w ith t he o bv. o f n o. 3 ;

a nother l i nk f or t h is i s J ourn .Br i t . Arch .Assn . 1 959 , p l . 1 3,

1 5• ) 1 32.

Ro man I mper ia l Co inage V .2 , 5 86-8, p l. 2 0. i n c o lour .

B eau t i fu l ly i l lustrated

Ed . Vorbeck - L . B ecke l , Carnun tu m :

Ro man d er Donau

( 1973 ), Abb. 5 3. 1 33.

A s s uggested t o me s o me y ears a go b y J .P . C .K en t .

T he g o ld- m ine

a t Do lauco th i ( Carms.) s ee ms t o h ave b een i n p roduct ion d ur ing t he t ime o f t he Br it ish Emp ire , i ft wo h oards f ro m t he v ic in i ty a re a n i ndex o f t he f act - a nd q u ite p oss ib ly a f ter a p er iod o f d isuse : E rwhen , c . 2 91, a nd Cynwy l G a io , c . 2 93-6 ( Bu l l. B d. C e l t . S tud . ) 0 ( I I , 3 06=7 , n os. 6 0 , 7 3 ). T he p resu med s i te-f inds f ro m D o laucoth i ( O 'Ne i l , i b id . V I I I ( 1937 ), 3 70-7 ) i nc lude a f ew r ad ia tes , b u t n ot c o ins o f Caraus ius o r A l lectus , h owever .

-I ti s wor th a dd ing t ha t t he

c e lebrated ORIVNA s i lver d enar ius i n P ar is , wh ich S tuke ley n ever s aw , i s f ro m S i lchester :

P a laeograph ia Br i tann ica No . I I ( 1752 ), 4 -5 , 3 1.

1 34.

N . S h ie l , Nu m. C ircu lar 1 973 , 3 30-2.

1 35.

T he mos t n o tab le i s a' l eg ionary ' p iece f ro m S ou th S h ields ( Arch . A e l. 1 885 , 3 01, f ig .) p urpor t ing t o r efer t o t he S econd Augus tan L egi on ( shou ld h ave b een LEG I I I FL i n a ny c ase ).

T he min t- mark

s hows t he r ev , t o h ave b een c op ied f ro m a n e ar ly Caraus ian c o in . Mr N . S h ie l h as p ub l ished t h is c o in a nd a d iel inked p iece i n B r i tann ia I V ( 1973 ), 2 24-6 , p l. 1 8A .

Ano ther c oun ter fe it i s s hown

b y ' Augustus Brown ' ( see n o te 8 7 , p l. n o. 1 3 ).

Ano ther o vers tr ike ,

f ro m York , i s men t ioned i n Co inage a nd Currency ...., 7 1, b u t i s n ot i l lustra ted i n t he o r ig ina l r eference. 1 36.

I n f act , p erhaps b ecause t hey w ere more r egu lar i n s hape t han s o me o f t he e ar l ier Caraus ian c o ins , c o ins o f A l lectus w ere a pparen t ly a l i t t le more c o m mon a s l a te s urv iva ls. C f . t he I ck l ingha m ( Ca mbs.) h oard b ur ied a bou t 3 95 , o ne o f e ach among 1 5 o r thodox a nd 8 b arbaro us r ad iates ;

Nobot t le ( Nor than ts .) h oard , s im i lar d a te , t wo A l lec-

t us ( and a n a s o f V erus ) i n 8c o ins b efore 3 00 ;

a nd t he Weymou th

B ay h oard , s im i lar d a te a ga in , o ne A l lectus i n 1 9 o r thodox a nd 1 5 b arbarous b efore 3 00 ( NC 1 929 , 3 19 ; Arch . J ourn . XC ( 1933 ), 2 82 ; Proc. Dorset N .H . & Arch . S oc. L I ( 1930 ) , 1 58 ). 1 37.

T hough n ot s tr ict ly g ermane t o o ur s ub ject , r eference may b e made v ery b r ief ly t o f inds o f c o ins o f Caraus ius u pon t he c on t inen t .

Most

a re l i sted b y J .-B. G iard , J ourna l d es S avan ts , 1 969 , 2 6-29.

Apar t

f rom t he c e lebrated ( but mys ter ious )d epos it o f c o ins i n ad ist inct ly u nusua l s ty le a t Rouen - ' Rouen ' c oins a re n ot c o m mon i n B r i ta in , e .g . o ne a t S i lchester a nd o ne i n t he P enard h oard - f inds a re f ew , ma in ly o f L ondon w ith a f ew C min t . O f 1 9 c ases l i sted b y G iard , o n ly s ix c ons isted s o le ly o f c o ins o f Caraus ius. T h is imp l ies t hat many o f t he c o ins p robab ly a rr ived i n t he p ockets o f C ons tan t ius ' r eturn ing s o ld iery .

I n p ar t icu lar , t here i s l i t t le , 1a ny , t race o f

1 49

t he u nmarked c o ins wh ich Carson ( see n ote 19 ) a t tr ibu tes t o a n e ar ly Caraus ian min t a t B ou logne. G iven t he ' i nsu lar 'sty le o f t he u n marked c o ins , t h is a dd i t iona l f act must b e t hough t t o mi l itate s trong ly a ga inst h is s uggest ion. 1 38.

On a l l t h is , s ee C .H .V . S u ther land 's i n troduct ion t o T he Ro man I mpe r ia l Co inage , v o l. V I ( 1967 ) ;

a nd o n t he r eva luat ion , K .T . Er im ,

J . Reyno lds a nd M. Craw ford , ' D ioc let ian 's c urrency r eform : i nscr ip t ion ', J ourn . Ro man S tud . 1 971, 1 71-7 ;

an ew

f or t he l a ter Cons tan-

t in ian p er iod , s ee P . M. Bruun 's i n troduct ion t o The Ro man Imper ia l Coinage , v o l. V I I ( 1966 ). 1 39.

F ineness o f 3 48 r eform a nd d iscon t inuat ion o f s i lver i n a l loy , A . Ravetz, Archaeo metry V I ( 1963 ), 4 9 , 5 2. NC 1 964 , 2 16-7.

C f . a lso h er r e marks i n

T here a re p rob le ms , h owever , i n a na lyses :

A .

Banderet 's w ork o n Magnen t ian ma jor inae s uggests t ha t t hey h ad n o s i lver , c f . P . B ast ien , L e Monnayage d e Magnence ( 1964 ), 7 7. 1 40.

S ee n ote 1 .

1 41.

S . S harp , NC 1 871, 2 8-41, w ith p l . ( our f ig . 2 ).

A .E. Rob inson ,

J ourn . An t iq. Assn . Br . I s les 1 .4 ( 1932 ), 8 0 , f o l lowed b y C o inage a nd Currency ...., r epor ts a mou ld f or a s estert ius o f C o m modus f ro m t h is s i te , a s w e l l a s f or c o ins o f V ictor inus a nd T heodora ( not f o l lowed ).

As NC 1 871, 2 8, makes p la in , t hese f inds r e la ted t o

a ctua l c o ins a nd n ot t o mou lds. - T he o n ly v ar ia t ion f ro m S harp 's f ind ings , wh ich a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he b u lk o f t he mater ia l i n t he B . M. s uggests , i s t ha t 1 4 f ragmen tary mou lds s a id t o h ave r ead GAL VAL MAXIMIANVS P AVG

r epresen t ac onf lat ion b etween

GAL VAL MAXIMIANVS N C a nd I MP D IOCLET IANVS P AVG .

1 42.

An t iq . J ourn . X I ( 1934 ), 1 24 ;

f ur ther , Rob inson , l oc . c it . ,1 81-2.

F indspot , c f . V ictor ia Coun ty H istory , E ssex I I ( 1963 ), 1 50.

Two

o ther mou lds f ro m t h is s i te c o m mun icated b y Mr . W.J. Rodwel l a re o f Max im in I , G en io August i o f A lexandr ia c . 3 12, a nd may h ave b een i mported i n r ecen t t imes ;

t hey w ere i den t if ied b y Mr R ichard

Reece. 1 43.

L incs . H ist . & Arch . I( 1966 ), 3 6, b ased o n i nfor ma t ion f ro m J .P . C . Ken t .

Iam o b l iged t o Mr J . Mar jora m o f L inco ln Museum f or

at ranscr ipt . 1 44.

J .-P. Ca l lu , Po l. Monet ., 4 56, n ote 4 .

1 45.

J .G . M ilne, NC 1 905 , 3 42-53.

1 46.

Ann . d u S erv ice d es An t iqu . d e l 'Egyp te L I ( 1951 ), 2 9-51, p ls.

1 47.

C f . Ca l lu , Po l . Monet ., 4 56 , n ote 4 a d f in .

1 48.

Mi lne , NC 1 905 , 3 53.

1 49.

Arch . J ourn . XCI ( 1934 ), 1 19 , 1 76 , c f . Br it . Mus. G u ide t o An t iqs . o f Ro man Br i ta in ( 1922 ), 7 2 , ' Cons tan t ine a nd H e lena ' -

1 50

b ut t here a re n o mou lds f or c o ins o f H e lena i n t he B r it ish Museu m ma ter ia l s tud ied b y me i n October 1 973.

Ano ther mystery a t tend ing

t he Nocton s er ies i s t he p resence , w ith t he f our th-century mou lds , o f n umerous o thers f or d enar i i a nd a t l eas t o ne a n ton in ianus , c lose ly s i mi l ar i n a ppearance a nd c ond it ion , a nd d iferen t f ro m o ther s e ts o f mou lds i n t he Museum c o l lect ions.

T here a ppears t o b e n o r ecord o f

t he o r ig in o f t h is e ar l ier ma ter ia l.

I t may h ave c o me f ro m t he s a me

s i te , b u t i ti s i mposs ib le t o b e l ieve t ha t t he c oun terfe it ing o f d enar i i a nd a n ton in ian i b y c ast ing w ou ld h ave t aken p lace a t t he s a me t ime a s t ha t o f t he f our th-century r educed l aureates. 1 50. 1 51.

Ro man I mper ia l Co inage , V I I , 8 0. B ruun l i s ts t h is t ype a s e x tre me ly r are i n Ro man I mper ia l C o inage V I I , T r ier , n o. 5 24.

N e ither i tn or t he c orrespond ing Cons tan t ino-

p o l is/ Wo lf & Tw ins t ype i s n o t iced b y t he a uthors o f T he L a te Ro man

1 52.

B ronze Co inage.

I ti s d if f icu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t i n ten t iona l o r thodox

s pec i mens e x ist :

t h is i s c er ta in ly n o t o ne.

S ee n o te 1 02. T h is method o f f lan- manu facture was u sed f or t he L ydney I h oard i n g enera l ( see D .A . Casey , i n R .E .M . a nd T .V . Whee ler , L ydney Repor t ( 1932 ), 1 29-31 ) b u t was a lso u sed f or r adi a te c op ies , s ee my r e marks o n t he C e fn-pw l l-du ' Ro man Mine ' f inds , n o te 1 02 , 7 9-80.

I t was a lso u sed f or o r thodox b ronze a t A thens :

c f . H .A . T ho mpson a nd R .E . Wycher ly , T he Agora o f A thens... ( 1972 ), 7 8 , p l. 3 3 c . 1 53.

T he ' V ictor ies ' t ype , a nd Fe l ic itas Re ipub l ice , p ar t icu lar ly .

S pec ia l

men t ion may b e made o f a min im i n t he Redenha l l ( Nor fo lk ) h oard , NC 1 946, 1 57 , r epub l ished b y P .V . H i l l i n Br it . Nu m. J ourn . 2 0 CVI ( 1952 ), 9 , p l. 1 , 1 2 a s ac opy o f af i f th-cen tury c o in .

There i s n o

p ro totype i n b ronze o f t he f i f th c en tury w i th t he Ch i-Rho d es ign o f t he p resen t s pec i men , wh ich i s c lear ly b ased u pon Magnen t ius ' S a lus t ype ;

i ndeed , p ar t o f a PARL ( Ar les ) ' m in t- mark ' i s l eg ib le i n t he

e xergue. 1 54.

Haro ld Ma tt ing ly , NC 1 933, 1 82-202 ; J .P.C. Ken t , NC 1 967, 8 39 0 , a ccep t ing t he i n i t ia l d ate o f 3 48 p roposed b y Mat t ing ly i n p refere nce t o t he d a te o f 3 46 i n L ate Ro man Bronze Co inage , e tc.

1 55.

S ee J . W.E. Pearce , NC 1 939 , 2 66-80 ; o verstruck , f ro m t he s a me d ies ;

p l. 1 5 , 4 -5 , a re p la in a nd

1 4-15 a re e astern , w ith ' f a l l ing

h orse man ' d es ign o verstruck o n t he s ame o r thodox t ype. e as tern o verstr ikes , P earce , NC 1 940 , 1 62-3.

Fur ther

O ther o verstr ikes

a re s hown b y Ken t , NC 1 957, p l. 8 , where 2 2 i s a lso a ' f a l l ing h orse man ' u pon a n o r thodox p roto type. 1 56.

Ken t , L imes S tud ien ...., 6 5 , r efs., a nd p l. 1 2, 1 3.

1 57.

As s uggested b y Ken t , NC 1 967 , 8 8.

1 58.

S ee n ote 1 55 ;

1 59.

S ee n ote 1 55.

1 60.

T . V .Whee ler , L ydney Repor t , 1 16-29.

Cod . T heod . D ( , 2 3.

1 51

1 61.

L i mes Stud ien ...., 6 5. J .W .E. P earce r egarded t he 1 296 Va len t ini an ic c oins f ound b efore 1 928-9 a s ah oard ( scattered ), p o int ing o ut t he v ery s im ilar p roport ions t o S hapw ick I I

1 62.

. S.

1 939, 1 39 ).

Hoard I , J . W .E. Pearce i n Lydney Repor t , 1 12-5, e nd ing w ith Cons tan t ius Ga l lus a nd ' f a l l ing h orse men '.

Found b e low t he l eve l o f a

f lagged p ave men t ( secondary ) i n t he ambu latory o f t he t e mp le.

Hoard

l was f ound u nder a mor tar p atch t o af l oor i n t he b aths. 1 63.

A . M. ApS i mon , Proc. Un iv. Br isto l S pe laeo log ica l S oc. X .3 ( 1965 ), 1 95-258 ;

my r eport o n t he c oins , 2 32-48.

1 64.

B . H. S t .J. O 'Ne i l , NC 1 948, 2 26-9.

1 65.

J ourn . Ro man S tud . 1 959, 1 18.

1 66.

My n ote i n P .A. Rahtz , Proc. S o merset Arch . &N . H. S oc. XCVI ( 1951), 1 28.

Many worn-out c oins were a lso f ound a t Fr i lford ( Berks.)

t e mp le, w ith o ne Lydney-type ' m in im iss i mus ' o n ly among t he m :

C .

H .V . S uther land i n Oxon iens ia I V ( 1939 ), 4 9-53, e sp. 5 3. 1 67.

Cod. Theod . I X , 2 3 :

Nec v ero a l iqu is n egot iatorum p lus mule f o l l i-

b us p ecun iae i n u su p ub l ico c onst itu tae a n i ma l ibus p ropr i is s u mptuu m g ra t ia p or tare d ebeb it ...On f o l les , s ee A .H .M . J ones , J ourn . Ro man S tud . 1 959, 3 4-8 ;

h e c ons idered 1 000 f o l les t o h ave b een w orth o n ly

1o r 2g o ld s ol id i. 1 68. 1 69.

W. A . S eaby , NC 1 949, 1 75-6, p l. 1 1, 1 2-18 ( no. 1 7 i s t he t in c o in ). The e ar l ier ma ter ia l i s a sse mb led b y C. H. V . S u ther land , NC 1 945 , 1 25-33.

S ee a lso P .V . H i l l , NC 1 948, 9 1-3 ;

1 953, 7 2 ; 7 8-83 ; 1 70.

myse lf , NC 1 955 , 2 35-7 [ 121 ];

H . Mat t ing ly , NC

J .P.C. Ken t , NC 1 957,

a nd , w ith R .A .G . Carson , NC 1 971, 2 25.

NC 1 945 , 1 28-9.

T he o r thography DO MINO CARAVS IVS CES migh t

j ust b e av u lgar L at in is m omit t ing t he f ina l So f DO M INOS , c f . NC 1 955 , 2 36, q uot ing K . J ackson , L anguage a nd H istory i n Ear ly Br i ta in ( 1953 ), 1 92-3 :

b ut t he R ichborough ' e mperor i n g a l ley ' t ype h as

DO MINO CARAVS IO CES , i .e. d at ive c ase a nd i pso f acto i n terest ing i n t he l igh t o f t he s uggest ion a s t o t he r e levance o f t he s er ies made h ere ;

a nd CARAVS IVS i n t he o ther i ns tances i s p robab ly o n ly a

s olecis m.

I ti s p oss ib le t hat t he s pe l l ings ( and p erhaps t he mis take )

r ef lect c o m mon Vu lgar L at in s peech ;

c f . [ 90 ], Cesrum Nostrorum.

C f. a n a r t ic le o n t he s poken l at in o f Br ita in a s e v idenced e p igraph ica l ly , J .C. Mann , Br i tann ia I ( 1971), 2 18-24. 1 71.

N C 1 945, 1 27, n o. 6 ; NC 1 971, 2 25. The most b izarre s ugges t ion . ._ made i n c onnex ion w ith t h is n a me was t hat o f B . W. Pearce who ,i n t he d ays when v ery l ate d at ing was i n o rder , p roposed CENS. EPIS ., ' b ishop i n t he warr ior s ty le o f S t . Ger manus t - NC 1 940 , 6 5-6.

1 72.

Lydney Report , 1 04 ;

NC 1 940 , 1 80 , 1 92 ( Ma iden Cast le ).

1 73.

The Ga l lows H i l l ( Car l is le ) mi lestone, Ro man I nscr ipt ions o f Br ita in I , n o. 2 290-2, was t urned u ps ide-down a nd r einscr ibed f or

1 52

C onstan t ine Ii n 3 06-7. 1 74.

No o ther i nscr ip t ions o f Caraus ius a re k nown .

V .E. Nash- W i l l iams , T he E ar ly Chr ist ian Monumen ts o f Wa les ( 1950 ), n o. 1 01.

1 75.

M.J. H a m merson , T rans . L ondon & M idd lesex Arch . S oc. XXI I I .i ( 1971), p l . E , n o. 1 25.

Iam i ndeb ted t o Mr H a m merson f or c a l l ing

my a t ten t ion t o t h is c o in . 1 76.

T he mos t n otor ious T heodos ian c opy i s aR ichborough p iece p urpor ti ng t o b ear t he n a me PAVUN IUS o r PRUU MUS ( R ichborough I , n o. 1 9315 , p l. 3 6 , 2 ;

F . S a l isbury , NC 1 934 , 1 35-6 , 3 09-10 ;

a ry , C o inage a nd C urrency ...., 1 00 ( c f .

P l.

1 4 , 1 6 ).

c au t ion-

I ti s a mere

i l l iteracy . 1 77.

T h is o ccas iona l ly h appened e ar l ier , c f . t he t wo o r thodox p ieces t r i m med d own i n t he C efn-pw l l-du d epos i t , n ote 1 52 ( Tetr icus );

c f .

a lso t he Ham H i l l Magnen t ian ma jor inae f ro m wh ich sma l l r ounds h ave b een c u t , t he r e ma inder n o d oub t b e ing i n tended f or t he me lt ingp ot :

NC 1 949 , 1 74-5 , p l. 1.

Whe ther t hese d iscs were c ircu la ted

when Magnen t ian min i ms w ere i n v ogue , o r w ere u sed a s f lans f o r ' f a l l ing h orse men ', o r b e long t o t he t ime o f t he T heodos ian ' f our th b rass ' o r n umm i , c annot b e d ec ided . 1 78.

C l . t he h oards c i ted , n ote 1 36.

1 79.

NC 1 948, 2 29.

1 80.

C. 1 1 .V . S u ther land , Eng l ish Co inage ( 1973 ), 2 , s t i l l e nv isages t he p oss ib i l ity ( wh i le a dm it t ing t ha t i th ad n ot b een p roved ) o f ' ageing Ro man c opper [ be ing ] s upp le men ted b y p oor , sma l l c op ies o f f ormer Ro man i ssues

c . 4 25-50 1 . I ti s n ot i mposs ib le , t hough i ti s u n l ike ly

b ecause o f t he ir g enera l s carc i ty , t ha t s o me o f t he T heodos ian c oun ter fe its may h ave b een p roduced t hen ;

o n t he o ther h and , c op ies

o f e ar l ier t ypes o f c o in - r ad ia tes o r ' f a l l ing h orse men ' -w ou ld n ot n a tura l ly h ave b een p roduced , b ecause t hey f ormed n o a ppreci ab le p ar t o f t he l atest Ro man c urrency .

Moreover , a es o f s uch

r educed d i mens ions a nd o bv ious w or th lessness w ou ld p robab ly n o t h ave c on t inued t o b e a ccep tab le w i thou t t he p ower fu l b ack ing o f a uthor i ty . 1 81.

C f . J . P.C. Ken t , L imes Stud ien ...., 6 6 ; C o ins , 1 -7.

a nd i n Ang lo-Saxon

B ut s ee a lso h is l atest r e mark o n t he s ub ject i n c on-

n ex ion w i th s i te-f inds f ro m T r ier , where c o ins w ere c er ta in ly s truck d own t o a bou t 4 25-50 ;

b ut f inds r evea l at yp ica l ly ' Br i t ish

T heodosian ' p a t tern ( NC 1 972, 3 33 ). F oo tnote t o p .129 * S ince t he a bove was wr itten , Dr J ohn Ken t 's v iew t ha t t he c o inage w as i n terrup ted f ro m t he d eath o f Cons tan t ine I i n 3 40 , a nd n ot r esu med u n t i l a bou t 3 45-6, c om ing R IC v o l. V I I I ,

-t o b e e xp la ined b y Dr i c en t i n t he f or th-

-h as b een men t ioned b y Dr R ichard Reece i n

1 53

Br itann ia , 1 973 , p . 2 43.

As Reece t here s uggests , ag ap i n t he s up-

p ly o f c o ins d ur ing t hose y ears w ou ld b est a ccoun t f or t he c ons iderab le amoun t o f c oun ter fe it ing o f t he t ypes i ssued i m med iate ly b eforehand ( G lor ia Exerc itus , o ne ( and t wo? ) s tandards , Cons tan t inopo l is , Urbs Ro ma , a nd o thers ), a l though s pec i mens o f g ood s ize a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een p roduced d ur ing t he i n it ia l y ears o f t he i ssue o f t hese t ypes.

1 54

Co ins marked * a re o r thodox . i nd ica ted . Museum.

Museu ms :

T he i l lustrat ions a re 1 :1 e xcep t where

BM - Br i t ish Museu m.

NM - Newpor t Museu m.

BC M - Br isto l C i ty

NM W - Na t iona l Museu m o f Wa les .

RM - Read ing Museu m.

PLATE I * 1.

E l is , s i lver d idrachm , 5 10-470 B .C., w i th t est-cut ;

p.9 5 NM W .

2 .

Br it ish Q , p lated g o ld s ta ter , C . 5 0 B .C. S i lchester ;

P s • 9 5 RM.

* 3. 4 . * 5

G eorge I I , h a l fpenny 1 770-5 ;

G ood-sty le c oun ter fe it o f t he a bove ;

NM W. p . 9 5

NM W.

An ton in ianus o f Dec ius , 2 49-51, s truck o n d enar ius o f Max im in I , 2 35-8.

6 .

p . 9 5

S u l ly h oard , G la m.;

p . 9 6

NM W .

Cast a s o f Aure l ius , 1 61-80 , 8 .7 g . Caer leon ;

p . 9 7

' Flaw ' a bove

h ead i s d ue t o t he c hanne l i n t he mou ld c u t t ing i n to t he i mpress ion . NM W .

1 55

PLATE I

1 0.

S truck d upond ius , Nerva/Tra jan , c . 1 04 , 1.30 g . Caer leon ; S o me c ise lure i s e v iden t .

NMW .

1 1.

D it to , 1 0.67 g . Caer leon ;

p . 9 8

1 2.

D it to , s a me o bv. d ie a s n o.10 , 1 1.55 g . C ise lure.

1 3.

NM W. Caerwen t ;

p . 9 8

NM .

D it to , s a me d ies a s n o. 1, 1 3.40 g . F fr ith , F lints.;

* **14-16

p . 9 8

p . 9 8

N MW.

Dupond i i o f Nerva , 9 6-98, T ra jan , 9 8-117 ( ear ly a nd l ate

s ty le ), f or c o mpar ison o f t he p or tra iture w ith t ha t o f t he p reced ing g roup ; * 17.

n o.16 , Caer leon ;

p . 9 9

NM W.

D it to , s how ing S pes a nd S PQR OPT IMO PRINCIPI l egend ;

p . 9 9

BM • 1 8.

P lated d enar ius o f A lexander , 2 22-35.

1 9.

P lated s i l iqua o f J u lian I , 3 55-63 S i lchester ;

p . 9 9 , 1 27 RM.

2 0.

S truck s i l iqua o f J u l ian I , 1 .57 g . Caerwent ;

p .99 , 1 27 NM W.

2 1.

S i lchester ;

p . 9 9

Fa lse b ronze d ie f or r ev, o f d enar ius o f Hadr ian , 17-38 ;

RM.

p . 1 00

Veru la m iu m Museu m , S t .A lbans. 2 2.

S truck s ubferrate d upond ius/as o f L uc i l la , w . o f Ve n ts , 1 61-9. Vendeuvre-du-Po itou ( V ienne ).

By c our tesy o f P .-H . Mi tard ;

p . 1 00 2 3.

S truck s ester t ius o f C laud ius I , 4 1-54, w ith c ounter marks IMP a nd PRO o n t he o bv., DVP a nd t est-cu t ( a t e dge ) o n t he r ev. 2 2.04 g . No p rovenance ;

2 4.

p .100

NM W .

D it to , w ith o bv. c oun termark [ P IROB.

2 7.57 g . S i lchester ;

p . 1 03

RM. 2 5.

I h ipond ius o f C laud ius I , b ut w ith r ev , p roper t o t he ' An ton ia ' 9 .36 g . Abergavenny ;

* 26.

p .103

Abergavenny Museu m.

' M inerva ' a s o f C laud ius I ; p . 1 03, 1 05

1 56

t ype.

5

2

1

3

1 9

2 0

2 5

2 6

PLATE H

7 a.

B ot to m o f c o mpos ite mou ld , s how ing o bv . o f d enar ius o f A lexander , 2 22-35, a nd r evs, o f a n ton in ian i o f G ord ian I I , 2 38-44. S aar land , b y c our tesy o f Prof . M. R . A lfold i ;

7 b.

Pach ten ,

p . 9 7

T op o f c o mpos ite mou ld ( doub le i nstead o f t r ip le p i le ) s how ing mou th , a nd o bvs. o f d enar i i o f S everus , 1 93-211, a nd J u l ia Do mna . Ga te , Yorks.;

8 a.

p . 9 7

BM .

Mou lds f or a n ton in ian i o f Pos tumus , 2 60-8, a nd G ord ian I T I , s how ing mode o f k ey ing .

F ourv ieres , Lyon , b y c our tesy o f t he Musee

Depar te men ta l , Rouen ( Photo E l lebe ); 8 b.

9 7

Rouen Museum.

V ictor inus , 2 69-71 ( w ith P las t icene i mpress ion ), a nd T etr icus I ,

2 71-3.

Wh itchurch , S o m.;

p . 9 7 , 1 07

BC M.

Mou ld f or l aurea te o f Cons tan t ius ICaesar , 2 93-305 ( and P las t icene impress ion ).

9 b.

p .

Mou lds f or a n a s o f H adr ian , 17-38, a nd a n ton in ian i o f Qu in t i l lus , 2 69 ;

9 a.

L ingwe l l

-A t r if le b e low f u l l s ize.

Duston , Nor than ts.;

p . 9 7 , 1 27 BM.

Mou lds f or r educed l aurea tes , c . 3 18-21, s how ing o bvs. o f Cons tan t ine I , Cr ispus Caesar , a nd C ons tan t ine I Caesar , a nd r evs . V ictor iae L aetae Pr inc . Perp . ,B ea ta T ranqu i l l i tas , a nd V ir tus Exerc it . L incs.;

p . 9 7 , 1 29 BM .

1 58

Nocton ,

7 b

8 a

9 b

9 b

PLATE H I

2 7.

Grade Ic opy , 9 .3 g . S i lchester ;

p . 1 03 RM.

2 8.

Grade Ic opy , w ith c oun termark Q

" V A ,8 .21

g .

S i lchester :

p . 1 03 RM. 2 9.

Grade I c opy , 6 .9 g . Dunn ing ;

3 0.

S a l monsbury , G los.

By c our tesy o f G .C .

p . 1 03

Grade I -I I I c opy , 6 .78 g ., n ote CAE S R f or CAESAR .

S i lchester ;

p . 1 03 RM. 3 1.

Grade I I c opy , a lso 6 .78 g .

S i lchester ;

p . 1 03 RM.

3 2.

Grade I V c opy , 5 .39 g . S i lchester ;

3 3.

D it to , s a me o bv. d ie , 6 .61 g . p . 1 03-4 BM.

3 4.

As o f Agr ippa , T iber io-Claud ian , 3 .96 g . S ea Mil ls ;

p . 1 03-4 RM.

p . 1 03

BC M. 3 5.

D it to , b ut w ith C laud ian o bv., 3 .6 g . S ea Mi lls ;

3 6.

As , Lyon ' a l tar ' t ype , Augustus , c . 1 0-14 2 .23 g . S ea Mi l ls ; p . 1 03, 1 05 BC M.

* 37.

p . 1 03 BC M.

As o f Nero , 5 4-68 ( Lyon , 6 4-8 ), w ith c oun ter mark SPQR a pp l ied b y Ga l l ic r ebe ls u nder V index , c . 6 8. w ith t h is s ta mp ( rare ) : I , 9 3, s ee u nder 2 a.

O ther c oins f ro m Br i ta in

Wroxete r 1 913, 5 7, n o.10 ;

F ishbourne

The a na logous s ta mp PR o ccurred a tR ich-

b orough ( R ichborough I V , 2 84 , n o. 2 2520 ).

Th is e x . f ro m g rave l

d er ived f ro m a p i t a t Burgh f ie ld , Read ing ( c f. B erks. Arch.Journ . LV I ( 1956 ), 4 6-53 f or t he s i te ), 1 965 ; * 38.

p . 1 06 RM.

Dupond ius o f T itus , 7 9-81, w ith v a lue , i n n um m i , XLI I e ngraved ; n o p rovenance ;

p . 1 06 NM W .

3 9.

Cast l igh tweigh t a s o f Do m it ian , 8 1-96, 4 .92 g . Usk ;

4 0.

D it to , Co m modus , 1 80-92, 3 .40 g . Caer leon ;

4 1.

D it to , f ro m t he s a me mou ld , 3 .08 g . Caer leon ;

* 42.

As o f t he s a me t ype , 1 1.55 g .;

p . 1 07

p . 1 07

p . 1 07 NM W . p . 1 07

NM W .

Cast b y c our tesy o f t he

BM . 4 3.

Cast l igh tweigh t a s o f S everus , 1 93-211, 4 .37 g . Caerwen t ;

p . 1 07 4 4.

NM .

Cast l igh twe igh t d upond ius o f A lexander , 2 22-35, 5 .82 g . Veru la m ium.

By c ourtesy o f D . Mi l ler .

The r ev, i s b lank ;

p . 1 07 4 5.

Base c ast d enar ius o f Caraca l la , 2 11-17 , 2 .15 g . Caer leon ; p . 1 13 NM W .

1 61

* 46. 4 7.

Denar ius o f Caraca lla , 2 .74 g . Caer leon ; Base c ast d enar ius o f G ord ian I I , 2 38-44 ; Caer leon ;

4 8.

p . 1 13 NM W . w ith p lat ing , 2 .69 g .

p . 13,114 NM W.

Base c ast a n ton in ianus o f C laud ius I , 2 68-9 , 1 .42 g . Caerwent ; p . 1 13

4 9.

D it to , o f Aure l ian , 2 70-5 ( pre-refor m ), 2 .10 g .

T he s i lver-

c onten t o f t h is p iece i s 0 .27% a nd t he a l loy i s r ich i n l ead , 1 5.2% ( Arch.Journ. CXXI I ( 1966 ), 2 0 ). * 50. 5 1.

An t ,on in ianus o f T etr icus I , 2 71-3 ; S truck c opy w i th v ar ian t o bv.

Wh itchurch , S o m.; p .115

NM W .

I MP C TETRICVS AVGVS a nd

t races o f p lat ing , 2 .54 g . Caerwen t ;

1 62

p . 13 BC M.

p .

15, 1 21

PLATE I V

5 2.

D it to , h eav i ly s i lver-p lated , 2 .0 g . o f P .J. Casey ;

5 3.

T etr icus min i m, 2 :1;

5 4.

V ictor inus min im , 2 :1;

5 5.

0 .22 g . Caer leon 1 955 h oard ;

p . 1 16

p .115 NM W .

No p rov-

NM W .

An ton in ianus o f Aure l ian , 2 70-5 ( pre-reform ), f or c o mpar ison w ith Erw-hen h oard , Carms ;

T etr icus min i m, 2 :1;

p . 1 16 NM W .

0 .62 g ., w ith r ev. o f Aurel ian ic o r ig in .

D inorben , Aberge le , Denbs.; * 59.

p . 1 15 NM W .

T etr icus c opy , 2 .21 g ., w ith r ev. o f Aurel ian ic o r ig in .

t he a bove , 5 8.

0 .45 g . Caer leon 1 955 h oard ;

NM W.

e nance ; * 57.

By c ourtesy

Postu mus ( 'Caraus ius ' ) min im , 2 :1, 0 .37 g . Caer leon 1 955 h oard ; p . 1 16

5 6.

No p rovenance.

p . 1 21

p . 1 16 N MW .

Refor med a nton in ianus o f Aure l ian , f or c o mpar ison w ith t he a bove ;

p . 1 16 BM. * 60.

Refor med a n ton in ianus , S isc ia min t , o f Probus , 2 76-82, 3 .81 g . S i lchester ;

6 1.

6 2.

6 3.

6 4.

p . 1 15, 1 17 RM.

Prot rus min im 2 :1;

0 .70 g ., o bv. o f V IRTVS [PROBI ]AVG t ype.

Caer leon 1 955 h oard ;

p . 1 15 NM W.

D it to , 2 :1;

1 BV2

. Frocester v i l la , G los.

H .S . Grac ie ;

p . 1 15

By c our tesy o f

D it to , 2 :1; 0 .48 g ., r ev, w ith r e min iscence o f Lyon min t- mark . Coygan d epos it , Carms.; p . 1 15-7 NM W. D it to , s a me o bv. d ie , 2 :1;

0 .42 g .

S im i lar r ev. Coygan ;

p . 15-7

NM W . 6 5.

Fused a nd p ar t ly- me lted s truck c op ies , a y. 1 4 m m., 1 .25 g . Coygan ;

* 66.

NM W .

S egmen t o f a n a nton in ianus o f T acitus , 2 75-6. S o m.;

* 67.

p .117

p .118

An ton in ianus o f Postu mus , 2 60-8, f i led f or q uar tering a nd w ith o ne q uar ter b roken o ut.

6 8.

Wh ite Wo man 's Ho le ,

BC M .

Wh ite Wo man 's Ho le ;

Barbarous r ad iate , 0 .75 g ., w ith r ev. G lor ia t ype, c . 3 67-75.

S i lchester ;

1 65

p . 1 18

BC M.

s uggest ive o f Grat ian 's p . 1 19 RM.

* 69.

An ton in ianus o f Carausius , 2 86-93 , f ro m t he C min t , c . 2 92. V IRTVS AVGGG : a nd Max im ian .

* 70.

t he t hree G 's r e fer t o Caraus ius , D ioc let ian P enard , G la m. h oard ;

p . 1 24 NM W .

An ton in ianus o f Caraus ius , f ro m t he L ondon min t , c . 2 86 : CARAVS IVS AVG , r ev. ADVENTVS AVG ;

o bv .

5 .39 g . S i lchester ;

p . 1 24 RM . * 71.

D it to , w i th BRI min t- mark .

Corbr idge-on-Tyne ;

* 72.

Aureus o f Caraus ius , RSR min t .

No p rovenance.

c our tesy o f t he Cab inet d es Meda i l les , Par is ; * 73.

7 4.

Cas t b y c our tesy o f t he BM.

p .125

RM.

An ton in ianus o f Caraus ius , o vers truck ;

RSR min t .

a te r ev . TETVS AVG f or V IRTVS AVG. p .125 * 76.

L it t le Orme 's

Barbarous c o in o f Caraus ius , o verstruck o n T etr icus I , 2 .72 g . S i lchester ;

* 75.

Penard , G lam. h oard ;

S i mi lar , o verstruck , u ncerta in min t .

No te i l l i tera te r ev . L i t t le

p . 1 25 NM W .

* 77.

S im i lar , ?o verstruck o n a s , 9 .55 g . L it t le Orme ;

* 78.

S a me d ies a s t he a bove ;

8 1. * 82.

p .125

p .125

NMW .

NM W .

o vers truck o n C laud ius I ,

p . / 26 NM W .

Or thodox c o in o f t he s a me t ype , f or c o mpar ison . p1 26 NM W . Coun ter fe it a rgen teus ( i n b ase- meta l ).

Caer leon ;

S i lchester ;

p . 1 26

An ton in ianus o f A l lectus , 2 93-6 , o verstruck u pon Caraus ius ; w i th C min t- mark o f 2 93.

8 3.

2 .98 g . P enard h oard ;

FO Coun ter fe it w ith — mark o f c . 2 88 ; ML Penard h oard ;

* 80.

Note i l l i ter-

NM W .

Orme 's H ead h oard ;

7 9.

Cast b y

s a me o bv . d ie a s

t he p reced ing , s em i-barbarous Mone ta r everse. p .125

BM .

p . 1 25

An ton in ianus ( ? ) o f Caraus ius , n o min t- mark ; H ead h oard ;

p . 1 25

S i lchester ;

p . 1 26 RM .

Coun ter fe i t , a lso o verstruck u pon Caraus ius , a nd w i th r ev. i nc lud ing ( on t he o ver type ) Caraus ian min t- mark o f c . 2 88. S i lchester ;

8 4.

p .126 RM.

L aurea te o f D ioc let ian w ith T r ier mark o f c . 2 96-7 ; p robab ly a c as t .

* 85.

S i lches ter ;

p .127

1 0.61 g .,

RM .

Reduced l aureate o f C onstan t ius I , G lor ia Exerc itus ( two s tanda rds ) t ype , Ar les , C . 3 30-5. NM W .

1 66

L lanbethery h oard , G lam.; p . 1 29

5 7

6 4

6 7

7 8

PLATE V

8 6.

Cast o f t he s a me t ype ( bu t Constan t ine I , a nd w ith Tr ier mark o f c . 3 31), 1 .85 g . Caer leon ;

8 7.

p • 1 29 NM W.

S truck c oun ter fe it , Urbs Ro ma o bv., Constan t inopo lis r ev., Tr ier mark o f c . 3 30 , 1 .94 g . L lanbethery ;

8 8.

D it to, Constan t ine I Caesar , t ype o f n o. 8 5 ( but w ith i mi tat ion o f Lyon mark ), 1 .23 g ., D inorben ;

8 9.

p . 1 29

2 .04 g . S i lchester ,

p . 1 29 RM .

D it to , b ut w ith Caesaru m Nostrorum V [ot X t ype, T r ier mark c . 3 23-4 im itated , 2 .00 g . L lanbethery ;

9 1.

NM W.

D it to , Cons tan t ine I , V ictor iae L aetae t ype , T r ier mark o f c . 3 18-9 im itated ;

9 0.

p . 1 29 NM W.

p .129

NM W.

D it to , Constan t ine I Caesar , b ut w ith Prov iden t iae Caess c a mpg ate t ype a cco mpan ied b y GL [ORIA EMERCITVS l egend ; mark im i tated ;

* 92.

p .129

Reduced l aureate , Constan t inopo l is t ype , T r ier c . 3 34 , 2 .25 g . L lanbethery ;

9 3.

1 .67 g . Caerwen t ;

Ar les

p .129

NM W

D it to , Constan t inopo l is t ype , Tr ier mark o f c . 3 32-3 c op ied : l egends a nd t ypes a l l r eversed ;

2 .42 g . L lanbethery ;

p . 1 29

NM W . * 94.

Reduced l aureate , Constan t ius I , G lor ia Exerc itus ( one s tanda rd ) t ype , Tr ier c . 3 37, 1 .50 g .;

9 5.

p .129

NM W.

Obverse, 2 :1, o f min i ms o f t he p reced ing t ype , i n n ame o f Constan t ius I , 0 .55 g . Wh ite Wo man 's Ho le , S o m., a s a re 9 6-105 ;

9 6-97. 9 8-100.

p .129-30 BC M.

Reverses , 2 :1, u sed w ith t he p reced ing . Obverses , 2 :1, o f Cons tan t inopo l is min i ms , 0 .37-0.67 g .

1 01-103.

Reverses , 2 :1, u sed w ith t he p reced ing .

1 04-105.

Reverses , 2 :1, o f n o. 9 4 t ype , a lso u sed w ith t he p reced ing o bv.

1 06.

Min im , 2 :1, i n n a me o f ( Flav ia ) Max i ma T heodora , r ev. Pax Pub l ica t ype o f He lena , c . 3 37-41, 0 .63 g .

No p rovenance.

Cast b y c our tesy o f t he Ashmo lean Museu m , Ox ford ;

p . 16 , 1 30

Ash molean Museu m. 1 07.

S i mi lar , 2 :1, c orrect P ietas Ro mana r ev., 0 .58 g . R ichborb orough ;

p . 1 30

BM.

1 69

1 08.

V ictor iae DD Auggg NN t ype , Constan t ius I/Constans , c . 3 418 , Tr ier mark i m itated ;

1 09.

0 .61 g . S i lchester ;

p .130

p . 1 30 NM W .

S truck c oun ter fe it o f Constans , Fe l. T e mp . Repara t io ( e mperor i n g a l ley ) t ype, c . 3 48-50 ;

* 112.

RM.

Ma for ina o f Magnen t ius , V ictor iae t ype, c . 3 51-3, Am iens ; 4 .7 g . Caer leon ;

1 11.

p . 1 30 RM.

Min im , Magnen t ian V ictor iae DD NN Aug e t Caes t ype, c. 3503 ;

* 110.

0 .71 g . S i lchester ;

6 .74 g . Usk ;

p . 1 30

Reduced ma jor ina , Constan t ius I , Fel. T e mp . Repara t io ( f a ll ing h orse man ) t ype, l ast i ssue o f Am iens , 3 53;

2 .97 g . Caer leon ;

p . 1 31 NM W. * 113.

Fur ther r educed , s im i lar , Constan t ius Ga l lus , Ar les , 3 54 ; 2 .50 g . Caerwen t ;

p .

1 31 NM W.

Note :

f ew i fa ny ' f a l ling

h orse men ' r eproduce t he b are h ead . 1 14.

' Fa l l ing h orse man ' o verstruck u pon Constans , Fel .T e mp.Repa rat io ( phoen ix o n p yre ), C . 3 48-50.

15.

G loucester ;

p . 1 31

' Fa l l ing h orse man ', r ev, t ype r eversed - s o ld ier o n l ef t ; g . Caerwen t ;

1 .79

p . 1 31 NM W.

1 16.

' Fa l l ing h orse man ', c rude ;

1 17.

' Fa l l ing h orse man ', n eat , Lyon mark c op ied , 0 .79 g . S i lchest er ;

1 18-120.

p .131

1 21.

P • 1 31

RM.

RM.

' Fa l l ing h orse man ' min i ms : S i lchester ;

2 .51 g . S i lchester ;

p .

1 .02 g .;

2 :1 :

0 .29 g ., 0 .13 g .

1 31 R M.

' Fa l l ing h orse man ', ' Carausius I ' :

o bv. DO MINO CARAVS IVS

CES , r ev. CONSTATI AVSTVS , mark TREV. G lor ia Exerc itus ( two s tandard ) t ype.

Overstruck o n

2 .31 g . S i lchester ;

p . 1 34 RM. 1 22.

Im itat ion o f T heodos ian S a lus Re ipub l icae t ype , o bv. D N TEOD - ,c . 3 88-95.

0 .72 g . S i lchester ;

1 70

p .135

RM.

9 3

9 5

9 6

1 07 9 7

1 0

1 1

DATA FOR DAT ING

b y J ohn C o l l is

S u m mary I n i t s p rogress f ro m t he moneyer 's d ie t o t he e xcava tor 's f inds t ray , a c o in h as u ndergone a s er ies o f v ar ied s e lect ion p rocesses.

Correct e va l-

u a t ion o f ac o in 's s ign if icance d epends o n ac arefu l c ons iderat ion o f t hese p rocesses , a nd a f a i lure t o d o s o h as i n t he p as t l ed t o s o me g lar ing m isi n terpre ta t ions .

On t he s pec if ic p rob le m o fu s ing Ro man c o ins f or d at ing

e v idence , we h ave s t i l l f a i led t o e va luate t he l eng th o f c ircu lat ion o f i nd ivi dua l c o in t ypes.

S er ia t ion s ee ms t o o f fer t he b est p o tent ia l a pproach t o

t h is q ues t ion , a nd t he a uthor r equests f or i n format ion t o b e s en t t o h im o n f inds o f a ssociated c o ins. I n troduct ion One o f t he more p leasan t a nd s t i mu la t ing a spects o f t he c on ference was t he c on trast o f v iews e xpressed , o f ten l ead ing t o al ive ly d iscuss ion a t t he e nd o f v ar ious p apers wh ich c ou ld o n ly b e s t if led b y t hat most p oten t o f t hreats , n o t ea b reak .

As r epresen t ing o ne o f t he e x tre mes o f t hough t a t

t he c on ference , a nd a lso o ne o f t he more v oca l e le men ts i n t he a ud ience , It hough t i t migh t b e worthwh i le t o e xpand s o me o f my v iews a nd i deas , a nd t o s ugges t a t l eas t o ne method , s er ia t ion , wh ich may a l low u s t o make more o b ject ive a nd mean ingfu l u se o f c o ins f or d a t ing . S evera l s peakers p rofessed a f ee l ing o f d espondency i fn ot d ownr igh t d espa ir a bou t t he u se o f c o ins t o a rchaeo log ists , e spec ia l ly t he ir v a lue a s d at ing e v idence .

T h is d espa ir c a me ma in ly f ro m t he a rchaeo log ists , b u t

o ne s uspects t h is i s l arge ly d ue t o t he e xpectat ion i n t he p ast o f t oo much i n format ion f ro m s ing le c o in f inds , a nd o n ly n ow a re we b eg inn ing t o g rapp le w i th t he c o mp lex f ac tors wh ich a f fected c o in u se , d istr ibu t ion a nd , e ventua l ly , l oss .

F or t oo l ong we h ave a ccep ted c o ins a t t he ir f ace v a lue ,

a nd t ha t ah igh ly i n f lated v a lue.

T he p ound i n o ur p ocket i s n o t wha t i t

u sed t o b e , a nd n e ither i s t he f o l l is i n t he f eature , n or n o t t he p enny i n t he p i t . P ersona l ly , Iam n ot s o p ess im ist ic.

Cer ta in ly i n t he p ast t oo many

a ssump t ions h ave b een made , a nd much wr it ten e spec ia l ly b y a rchaeo log ists w i l l h ave t o b e t ota l ly r ev iewed .

I n t he mean t i me w e mus t s tar t

q uest ion ing many o f o ur p rev ious a ssump t ions , t ry ing t o e stab l ish a s p rec ise ly a s p oss ib le t he d if feren t f ac tors wh ich may a f fect o ur i n terpreta t ion . T h is i s what Iw an t t o d o i n t h is p aper , e ven i fi ts o met i mes i nvo lves s ta t ing t he o bv ious.

Ih ope o ut o f i tw e w i l l b e a b le t o e vo lve s tandard

1 73

a in i .ua j JO

u onaund t \ D C 4 ,

' C S C D 0

< P 0

( D

C f )

C D

O • C D

C • D

O

> C S

P

• •

P P l 0 P

C D • c r q

r

0

0

• 5 r e -

r 4 -

C D

P l

0

0 › e %

( ' D

C D

-

2CS'

e -‚• C I )

C r

OBSERVABLE DA TA

e .g . r eta i l , wea lth s torage,

0

• O C D C / D

0 e • t %

C D

S I ) L \ D

SH SS HDO I ld NOLL DTI H S

z

2 u ms

5a

JO

JO 0 1 .E G Y .+

s iu T iu

a irqua j

u onunuaxa

aus r unppmpu T u o

1 . 10 .13 8 1 1100 I t1 .0j ,

j o 1 . red

auS f unp TA Tpu i

SUI00

S 1400 I IV

0 GOUTA0 . 1 01

p a luru i

2 '

u u u o 2 unu mpaia s u Top

JO

p aaanoasTp s u Toa

0 318

110 . 13 8 11100 510j ,

CZ

t r 1

1 — • •

P CD

UNOBSERVABLE DA TA

p rocedures , a nd s tandard e va lua t ions o f s i te e v idence wh ich e veryone w i l l b e a b le t ou nderstand . One t h ing was c lear f ro m t he c on ference , t ha t t he r evo lu t ion o f q uan t if i cat ion i s o n ly j ust b eg inn ing t o h i t n um is mat ists.

H owever , n one o fu s

p rogressed much b eyond t he s tage o fu s ing s imp le g raphs a nd b ar-char ts t o i l lus tra te o ur q uan t if ied mater ia l , a nd t here w as l i t t le r eference i n t he l ectures t o t he s ta t ist ica l t echn iques wh ich a re s o d eve loped i n o ther f i e lds , i nc lud ing t ha t o f a rchaeo logy .

C o ins a re o f c ourse a r t ifacts , a nd c an b e

e xpected t o f o l low t he s a me r u les a s a ny o ther a r t ifact t ype t hat a n a rchaeo lo g is t h as t o d ea l w ith , s o t he s ame t echn iques c an b e a pp l ied . One ma jor p rob lem h owever t ha t t he a rchaeo log is t h as h ad t o c ontend w ith i s t he o f ten i nd i f feren tq ua l ity o f h is d ata , b u t w ith c o inage w e h ave a b ody o f i n format i on p robab ly o f h igher q ua l i ty t han a ny o ther a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . B ias i n t he S amp le Two o r t hree s peakers u sed t he w ord ' samp le ' t o d escr ibe t he g roup o f c o ins t hey w ere d iscuss ing .

T he s imp le u se o f t he word i mp l ies a marked

c hange o f a t t itude , f or n o l onger i s t he i nd iv idua l c o in s een i n i so la t ion , b ut i ti s s een i n i t s t o ta l b ackground a s ar epresen tat ive o f t he c o ins wh ich w ere c ircu la t ing a t o ne t ime.

B u t i n a dd i t ion t he i dea o f as amp le s uggests

t o u s t he a pp l icat ion o f t hat b ody o f s tat ist ica l t heory , wh ich i s s i t t ing u no pened o n many o f o ur b ookshe lves ( e .g . Moroney 1 951, Re ichmann 1 961). I ti n troduces t o u s a l l t he c oncep ts o f means , a verages , s amp ling e rrors , Ch i-square t ests a nd t he l ike , a nd t eaches u s t o b e more e xact a nd more t hough t fu l i n what we s ay , a nd a lso , w e h ope , t o make o ur i n terpretat ions more mean ing fu l. T he f i rst t h ing w e must r ea l ise i s t ha t t he c o ins we a re d ea l ing w i th r epresen t o n ly t he minu tes t f ract ion o f t he c o ins s truck , a nd b e fore t hey r each t he v au lts o f o ur museums t hey h ave g one t hrough a s er ies o f s e lecti on p rocesses o fv ery d if feren t k inds.

We c an p erhaps t a lk o f d i f feren t

' l eve ls ' a t wh ich s e lect ion h as t aken p lace.

We must c ons ider t hese l eve ls

o f s e lect ion a nd t he a ctua l p rocesses i nvo lved , n ot ing t he d ist inct ion b etw een wha t we c an a ctua l ly o bserve a nd what o n ly i n fer . A l l t hese l eve ls a nd p rocesses Ih ave t abu lated ( Tab le 1 ) , t h ink ing v ery much i n t erms o f Roman c o inage i n Br i ta in . Iw i l l n ow e xpand o n t hese d i f feren t f actors , a nd g ive e xamp les : L eve l 1 )

A t t he f irst l eve l , i ti s o bv ious ly s ign i f ican t t hat c o in p roduct ion

v ar ies f rom p er iod t o p er iod , b oth i n q uan t ity a nd q ua l ity . F actors l i ke t he u surper 's n eed f or p rest ige were men t ioned i n t he c on ference , o r t he c en tra l g overn men t 's i nab i l ity o r d is in teres t i n p roduc ing t he r equ ired c o inage , wh ich c ou ld l ead o n t o t he p roduct ion o f t he s em i-of f ic ia l o r u no f f ic ia l c o inage a s d escr ibed i n Mr . B oon 's p aper . L eve l 2 )

A t t h is l eve l i mper ia l p o l icy a lso h ad i t s e f fect , f or i ns tance i n

t he move men t a nd p aymen t o f t roops. D iv is ions i n t he emp ire a re a lso l i ke ly t o c ause a b lockage i n c o in c ircu lat ion a nd t rade , a s f or i ns tance t he

1 75

f ormat ion o f t he G a l l ic emp ire l im i t ing t he c ircu la t ion o f I t a l ian c o ins i n Br i ta in .

T o t ake e x tre me e xa mp les t he d ec is ion o f C laud ius t o i nvade , a nd

t he i nab i l ity o f H onor ius t o h e lp b oth p rofound ly a f fected c o ins c ircu la t ion i n Br ita in .

A lso p erhaps s el f-ev iden t ly t he s i t ing o f min ts i s i mpor tan t , s o

c o ins o f An t ioch , S isc ia a nd t he l ike a re b ound t o b e much r arer i n Br i ta in t han t hose o f L yons , T r ier , a nd o ther G au l ish min ts. L eve l 3 )

T he a ctua l c o inage c ircu lat ing o n a n i nd iv idua l s i te w i l l b e i n-

f l uenced b y f actors l ike t he o f f ic ia l c ons ignmen t o f p ay t o af or t , o r t he i mpor tance o f sma l l c hange o n a market o r f a ir s i te.

Obv ious ly t he d ate

o f o ccupat ion w i l l a lso a f fect t he c o ins c ircu lat ing o n as i te - C laud ian t roops w ere n ot u s ing C ons tan t in ian c o ins . L eve l 4 ) T h is l eve l o f i n terpreta t ion i s t he most d if f icu l t , r epresen t ing t he b reak b etween d ata wh ich c an o bserve d irect ly , a nd t ha t wh ich c an o n ly b e i n ferred . Obv ious ly t he g o ld a nd s i lver ' i n c ircu la t ion ' w i l l g enera l ly b e h oarded away , a nd o n ly c hange h ands r are ly f or ma jor t ransac t ions , whereas sma l l v a lue c o ins w i l l b e c hang ing h ands f requen t ly a nd a h igher p ercen tage w i l l b e l ost . l os t p urse );

Co ins c an b e l os t s ing ly , o r i n g roups ( e .g . t he

o r c o ins c an b e d e l iberate ly d iscarded , s ing ly ( e .g . C ovent ina 's

We l l ), o r i n h oards.

A l l o f t hese t ypes o f c o in l oss a re s a mp les o f t he

t o ta l c o inage i n c ircu lat ion , a nd t he s e lect ion f actors c an b e v ery d i f f icu l t t o j udge , e spec ia l ly w ith h oards. Hoard e v idence mus t o bv ious ly b e t aken i n to a ccount when a t te mp t ing t o r econstruct t he c o inage i n c ircu lat ion , b u t h ere w e s ha l l o n ly b e c ons ider ing t he e v idence o f t he s ing le c o ins a cc iden ta l ly l ost .

Even s o w ith s ing le l osses t here i s ab ias i n t he l oss , f or

i nstance a p oor man w i l l h un t more d i l igen t ly f or a l ost c o in t han a r ich man .

D if feren t t ypes o f s i tes may h ave d if feren t p at terns o f c o in l oss , a

c on trast b etween t he market where sma l l c hange i s c hang ing h ands , o r t he f arm where t he f ar mer k eeps h is g o ld a nd s i lver i n h is s ock . L eve l 5 )

Factors o f d iscovery s uch a s t he n ature o f p rospect ing , t he s ize

a nd v a lue o f t he c o in a re o f ma jor i mpor tance , a nd b efore we c an a ssume t ha t t he p at tern o f c o in d iscovery r ef lects t he p at tern o f c o in l oss , w e mus t i nvest iga te p oss ib le b iases , s uch a s t he l oss o f l a te d epos its o r t he f a i lure t o e xpose e ar l ier o nes , t he a cc iden ta l i nc lus ion o f h oards a nd s o o n . ma jor f actor h owever i s s amp le s ize.

T he

H ow many c oin f inds a re n ecessary

b efore c hance b iases i n t he s amp les h ave b een e l im ina ted?

On ly e xper i-

men ta t ion c an t e l l u s t h is , a nd t here t he w ork o f J ohn Casey a nd R ichard Reece i s most i mpor tan t , f or t he ir h istogra ms o f s i te f inds s o me t imes c over s evera l t housand c o ins.

T he i mpor tan t p o in t i s r eached when n ew

d iscover ies d o n ot s ubs tan t ia l ly a lter t he p at tern a lready e s tab l ished . T he v ita l t hreshold f or a Ro man s i te s ee ms t o b e a bou t 1 500 f inds .

S o

t wo s a mp les o f 1 500 c o ins f ro m t he s ame s i te s hou ld g ive a l most e xact ly t he s ame p a t tern .

One q uery r a ised b y B r ian Hob ley a t t he c on ference ,

s pec if ica l ly t h ink ing o f h is e xcava t ion a t t he L un t , was ' can o ne s ay a nyt h ing mean ing fu l a bout a c o mp lete ly e xcava ted s i te where t he n umber o f c o ins i s s ubstan t ia l ly b e low t he t hresho ld n umber? '

I fd ate o f a bandon-

men t i s r equ ired , o ne a pproach wou ld b e t o c o mpare t he s a mp le w ith

1 76

t ha t o b ta ined f or t he s urround ing a rea o r f ro m a s i te w ith a s u f f ic ien t n umber o f f i nds , e .g . Wroxeter , a nd u s ing s ta t ist ica l me thods t ry t o s ay t hat c o ins a f ter a c er ta in d ate a re s ign i f ican t ly a bsen t , b ut a more p ro m is ing a pproach Is ha l l d iscuss b e low . We s hou ld p erhaps a lso emphas ise t he p rob lem o f t he q ua l ity o f e xcavati on . Obv ious ly t here i s g o ing t o b e ac ons iderab le c on tras t i n t he r a tes o f r ecovery o n a n e xcava t ion , b etween d iscover ies made d ur ing mechan ica l e xcavat ion , p ick ing a nd s hove l l ing , a nd t rowe l l ing , w ith a n o bv ious b ias t owards t he l arger c o ins i n t he more c oarse e xcava t ion .

I n mak ing c ompar i-

s on b etween d i f feren t s i tes t h is i s p erhaps n ot o f ma jor i mpor tance , b u t i f w e a re t o r econs truct ' co ins l ost ' f ro m ' coins f ound ' ( l eve l 4f ro m l eve l 5 ) we mus t t ry t o w ork o ut h ow much we a re l i ke ly t o b e miss ing . Iwou ld r ec o mmend t ha t when c o ins a re p ub l ished t he method o f e xcavat ion u nder wh ich t hey w ere f ound s hou ld b e men t ioned , s o t ha t h igher q ua l i ty d a ta c an b e s eparated f ro m p oor q ua l i ty .

A lso , a s w e a l l k now , s o me v o lun teers h ave

ab et ter e ye t han o thers , a nd when v o lun teers a re t ra ined t o l ook f or t he b lack s ta ins i n t he s o i l r a ther t han t he c o ins t hemse lves , t he n umber o f min ims r ap id ly i ncreases . S o t he n a mes o f t he d iscoverers s hou ld a lso b e r ecorded , t o d is t ingu ish b etween h igh a nd l ow q ua l ity workers.

H owever ,

p erhaps i ti s t ime t hat Ro man a rchaeo log ists a dm i t ted t ha t t he ir p resen t e xcava t ion t echn iques a re n o t a dequa te t o t ack le t h is s or t o f q uest ion , a nd when s amp le s iev ing i s i n troduced w e s ha l l h ave a s u np leasan t as hock a s p reh istor ians h ave r ecen t ly s u f fered ( Payne 1 972 ). L eve l 6 )

C o ins f ro m a n i nd iv idua l a rea c an u nder n orma l c ircums tances

b e e xpected t o r ef lect t he t o ta l c o in p a t tern f ro m t he who le s et t lemen t . Where i td oes s ee m t o b e a berran t t wo p oss ib i l it ies a re a va i lab le : a )

t he s amp le i s t oo sma l l , a nd c hance s amp l ing e rrors a re d is tor t ing t he p icture. T here a re s tat is t ica l t es ts s uch a s t he Ch i-square t est f or e l im inat ing t h is a s ap oss ib i l ity .

b )

t he d i f ference i s s ign i f ican t , a nd s pecu lat ing c an s tar t o n t he r easons why . One p oss ib i l i ty may b e as h if t i n t he f ocus o f t he s et t le men t , o r t he e xamp le g iven b y P eter Curnow , where t he c onstruct ion o f t he c i ty wa l l a t V eru lam ium c aused t he a bandon men t o f as uburb , wh ich t herefore p roduced a l most n o l ater c o ins.

L eve l 7 )

F inds f rom i nd iv idua l f eatures a re more d if f icu lt t o d ea l w ith a s

t hey a re u sua l ly v ery sma l l s a mp les o f af ew c o ins a t most .

Y et e ven where

t wo c o ins a re f ound t ogether , t hey d o t e l l u s s o meth ing a bout t he c o inage i n c ircu lat ion a t ag iven p o in t i n t ime.

B u t o f ten more r e levan t t o t he e xcava-

t or i s t o e s tab l ish t he d ate a t wh ich h is f eature was f i l led i n .

T he d a te-

a f ter-wh ich i s o f c ourse e s tab l ished b y t he l atest c o in i n t he g roup , b ut wha t a bou t e s tab l ish ing a d a te-before-wh ich?

A t p resen t t he o n ly w ay w e c an g et

a ny c lue t o t he s ign if icance o f t he a bsence o f l a ter c o ins i s b y s tudy ing t he mas ter c har tf or t he who le s i te o r a rea .

T hus a p it e nd ing w i th c o ins o f t he

T etr ic i c . 2 72 c ou ld d a te t o 2 85 s imp ly b ecause c o ins o f t he i n terven ing emperors a re s o r are i n t h is c oun try . B u t t o t h is p rob le m Is ha l l r eturn l a ter .

1 77

Much o f wha t i s w r it ten a bove may b e d ee med a s s e lf-ev iden t , b u t i ti s c lear f ro m t he l i tera ture a nd f ro m c o m men ts made a t t he c on ference t ha t t here i s s o me c on fus ion a bout wha t s ta te men ts c an l eg i t i ma te ly b e made f ro m wha t e v idence.

J ohn Casey made men t ion o f o ne e xa mp le where t he a bund-

a nce o f c o ins o f o ne p er iod o n as et t le men t was t aken b y t he e xcavator a s d enot ing a c hange i n c haracter i fn ot ownersh ip , y et t ha t a bundance mere ly r ef lected t he n at iona l p at tern . d irect ly r e f lect l eve l 3 .

I n o ther w ords , my l eve l 6 was a ssu med t o

Another e xa mp le i s as tate men t t hat t he l ack o f

f irst a nd s econd c entury c o ins o n ac lass o f r ura l s et t le men ts s howed t ha t t hose s et t le men ts p layed n o p ar t i n t he money market e cono my , b u t a ga in t h is l ack o f c o ins r ef lects t he n a t iona l s i tua t ion .

I ti s s e l f-ev iden t t hat o ne

c annot s tate what c oins were b e ing s truck i n t he Ro man emp ire f ro m t he e v id ence o f as ing le p it s o mewhere i n Br ita in , a nd s o w e must b e e x tre me ly c arefu l b efore w e make a ny a t te mpt t o p ostu late f ro m o bserved d a ta a t l eve ls 5 , 6o r 7 wha t t he s i tuat ion may h ave b een a t l eve ls 4 , 3 , 2 ,o r 1 .

E ven

wr it ing t h is a r t ic le Ih ave f ound myse lf s l ipp ing i nto t he s a me s or t o f e rror , r efer ing t o c o in l osses when Imean c o in f i nds , t wo c a tegor ies wh ich c an b e v ery d i f feren t . T he s che me l a id o u t o n T ab le 1 d oes a lso g ive a f ra mework w ith in wh ich a rchaeo log ists a nd n um is ma t is ts c an w ork , a nd s ee t he ir r e la t ionsh ip t o t he who le f i e ld o f s tudy .

J ohn Casey a nd R ichard Reece p resen ted p apers a t

l eve l 5 , whereas t ha t s e lf-sty led ' nu m is ma t ic h ack ' P eter Curnow was o n l eve l 6 , b u t h is p aper d e monstra tes most c lear ly t hat t h is i s n o c aste s ys te m , a nd e xc it ing a nd s t i mu lat ing w ork c an b e d one a t a ny l eve l , a nd r equ ires s k i l l a nd i mag inat ion .

H istor ians t end t o b e i n teres ted i n l eve l 1 , a rchaeo l-

o g ists i n l eve l 7 , b u t a s a n a rchaeo log ist Iw ou ld c er ta in ly n ot c ons ider myse lf i n fer ior t o a n h istor ian .

Qu i te t he o ppos ite.

Coins C ircu la t ing a nd C o ins L ost T he c o ins i n c ircu lat ion a t ag iven p oin t o f t ime w i l l n atura l ly b e b ia sed t owards t hose r ecen t ly i ssued , whereas e ar l ier c o ins , t hough s t i l l c ircu lat ing , w i l l b e r arer d ue t o c o ins b e ing l ost o r w i thdrawn .

On t he o ther

h and c o ins most r ecen t ly min ted w i l l a lso b e r are , a s t hey a re n ot y et i n f u l l c ircu lat ion .

I ff or t he s ake o f a rgu men t w e t ake t he o ld p enny , a nd

a ssume u n i form p roduct ion a nd w ithdrawa l r a tes i n t he p er iod b etween 1 860 a nd 1 960 w e c an make a n u mber o f h ypothe t ica l s tate men ts a bou t t he p a t tern o f c ircu lat ion o ver t hose 1 00 y ears. F irst ly l et u s c ons ider t he p enn ies i n c ircu lat ion i n 1 940. c lude o n ly a f ew o f 1 940 , b u t al ot f ro m t he l a te 1 930s. p enn ies o f t he 1 860s a nd 1 870s w i l l b e q u ite r are.

I tw ou ld i n-

On t he o ther h and

I fw e p lot t h is d istr ibu-

t i on a s ag raph o f t he n u mber o f p enn ies a ga inst t he d a te o f i ssue t he p at tern o ugh t t o f o l low t hat i n F ig . 1 . T h is d istr ibu t ion i s t he c lass ic s kew-curve.

T he p enn ies l ost i n

1 940 w i l l a lso f o l low t h is p at tern , a nd s o i f ap i t o f 1 940 w ere e xcavated , i ti s v ery u n l ike ly i tw ou ld a ctua l ly c on ta in a c o in o f t ha t d a te.

1 78

Any d ate

F IG .1 NO .

C . O iN s / 8 90

1 900 D ATE

1 9 0 1 9 20 1 9 30 / 9 40 OF C O IN

F IG .2

P .O F C om is

1 9 00 1 9 K ) D A TE

1 9 1 9 Wo O F C ow

1 9 4 0 1 9 9 3

F IG .3

N O .O F C OW S 1 9 /0

1 9 20 1 9 30 1 9 40 ( 9 5 9 DATE OF Cof tV

1 9 60

F IG .

4

1 9 00 I 9 lo

( 1 2o D AT E

MO

OF 1 9 40 L OSS 1 950 1 9 60

i f f l 1 9 60 ( 9 . 7 0 1 8 80 / 8 40 1 900 19 1 0

fe y

DATE

OF

1 7 9

C O IN

1 9 20

1 30

1 9 10

1 9 5o i 9 6o

F IQ .5

1 9 00

f l i o 1 20

1 %0

1 8 70

S t o ( 8 90 I cy 1 1 0

r e z . f i e

DATE

C o1 I V

OF

to l e o

F 1.6

1 0 S O . /0 O F T OTAL

L OSS

6 o 4 0 2 0 -

0 1 9 00 1 9 1 0

1 20 ( 9 3o ( pATE

0F

1 80

( ' S ) t e 50 f ro LOSS

b etween 1 860 a nd 1 940 wou ld b e p ossib le b u t t he l a te 1 930s wou ld b e t he mos t l ike ly .

I n o ther words , f or ' p enn ies c ircu la t ing i n 1 940 ' i n F ig . 1w e c an

r ead ' p enn ies l os t i n 1 940 '. I f we n ow c ons ider t he s i tuat ion t en y ears l a ter i n 1 950 , t he p a t tern w i l l b e e xact ly t he s a me, e xcep t p enn ies o f t he l a te 1 940s w i l l b e i n p reponderance, a nd p enn ies o ft he 1 860s a nd 1 870s w i l l h ave a l l b u t g one o u t o f c ircu lat ion . L ikewise i n 1 960, e xcep t t he s kew-curve w i l l h ave c raw led a b i t f ur ther a long t he a x is .

I fw e t ake t he c urves f or a l l t he y ears f ro m 1 900 o nwards a nd t ab-

u late t he m o ne a bove t he o ther, we o btain t he f o l low ing p at tern . Now , i ns tead o f l ook ing a t t h is c har t h or izon tal ly , l e t u s l ook a t i tv er t ica lly.

Co ins o f t he 1 890s w i l l b e a t t heir max i mu m c ircu lat ion a nd l oss a round

1 900 , b u t b y 1 910 t he n u mbers w i l l h ave s tar ted d ropp ing , a nd t hey w i l l b eco me s uccessively r arer t hrough 1 920 , 1 930 , 1 940 , e tc.

S o i fw e e xpress F ig . 4i n

ad if feren t way t o s how t he r a te o f l oss o f t he c o ins o f d if feren t y ears, we w i l l e nd u p w i th a p a t tern i n F ig . 5 .

I n o ther words we a gain e ncoun ter t he c lass ic

s kew-curve. Th is p at tern i s o ne f am i l iar t o a rchaeo log is ts, a nd r ef lects t he l i fe c ycle o f b ir th , ma tur i ty a nd d ea th wh ich many a rchaeo log ica lp heno mena p ass t hrough , b e t hey a t tr ibu tes , a r t ifact t ypes o r c u l tures ( Clarke 1 968 ) .

I t h as b een mos t

a dm irab ly d e mons tra ted i n t he s tudy o f t he s ty les o f t o mbtypes i n t he E igh te en th a nd N ineteen th C en tur ies i n t owns i n New Eng land ( De th lefsen a nd Deetz 1 966 ) , a nd h as b een u sed a s a model f or i nstance t o t est t he c hrono logy o f Br i t ish B eakers ( Clarke 1 970 ) .

Where t he p a t tern i s u nknown , i tc an b e e s-

t abl ished b y s tudy ing t he a ssociat ions o f o ne t ype w i th a no ther.

Th is t echn ique

o f t ser ia t ion ' i s n o n ew p heno menon , a nd was u sed b y F l inders P etr ie t o work o u t as equence o f t o mbs b u t i t s a pp l icat ion h as b een g rea t ly e x tended w i th t he d eve lop men t o f t he c o mpu ter . R e turn ing t o o ur h ypo thet ica l p enn ies, i t s hou ld b e p oss ib le u s ing t he d a ta o n F ig . 5 , t o t alk a bou t t he r ate o f l oss o f c o ins i n n u mer ica l t erms.

S o , i n

t heory , we s hou ld b e a ble t o make s tate men ts l i ke 3 0% o f t he c o ins o f 1 900 wh ich w i l l e ver b e l os t w i l l h ave b een l os t b y 1 910, a no ther 2 0% b y 1 920, a nd a no ther 1 2% b y 1 930 a nd s o o n , t hough i n t heory we c an n ever r each 1 00% , a s l ong a s a ny c o ins e x is t t o b e l os t.

By a dd ing t hese f igures t ogether we c an

c onstruc t ah ypo thet ical c u mu la tive p ercen tage c urve o f c o in l osses . R ead ing o f f t h is d iagra m ( F ig . 6 ) o ne c an s ay t hat 5 0% o f t he p enn ies o f 1 900 w i l l h ave b een l os t b y 1 920, 7 5% b y 1 940 e tc.

I n o ther words, i f a n

a rchaeo log is t f i nds a c o in o f 1 900 i n ap i t t here i s a1 : 1 c hance t he p i t was f i lled b y 1 920 a nd a 3 :1 c hance b y 1 940 , a nd s o o n .

T he r a te o f l oss w i l l o f

c ourse b e t he s a me f or a l l p enn ies i rrespect ive o f h ow many were m in ted , a s l ong a s t hey wen t i n to n or mal c ircu la t ion . C ircu lat ion Observed S o f ar Ih ave c on t inua l ly made mod ify ing s ta te men ts l i ke ' assu m ing u n iform p roduct ion o r u n ifor m w ithdrawa l r ates '. O f c ourse i n r eal i ty t he s i tua t ion i s

1 81

much more c omp l ica ted , w i th f ac tors l ike i n f la t ion , d ebase men t o f t he c o ina ge , c hang ing r ates o f w i thdrawa l o f o ld c urrency , d e mon i t isa t ion , a nd s o o n . To my k now ledge , i n for ma t ion a bou t wha t p enn ies were i n c ircu la t ion s i mp ly d oes n o t e x is t , a nd i t mos t c er tain ly d oes n o t e x is t f or Ro man c o inage.

We

k now l i t t le a bou t t he l eng th o f c ircu lat ion o f i nd iv idua l c o in t ypes , a nd o ne wond ers f or i nstance i ft here was a monetary r efor m , h ow much o ld c o ins c on t inu ed i n c ircu la t ion e spec ial ly i n ap rov ince l i ke Br i tain . How c an w e r econs truct t he c urves , h ow c an w e e s tabl ish wha t c o inage was c ircu la t ing a t a ny o ne p o in t i n t ime, o r work o u t t he r ange o f c ircu lat ion l i fe o f i nd iv idua l c o in t ypes? t ions .

T he o n ly way i s t o u se t he e v idence o f a ssoc ia-

Hoard e v idence i s o ne b ody o f i nfor mat ion , b u t a s t he s elect ion f ac tors

a re s o v ar ied a nd u npred ictab le, i tc an o n ly b e u sed t o s upp le men t o ther d a ta . The o ther s ources o f i n for ma t ion c omes f rom p i t g roups a nd o ther a ssocia ted f inds wh ich w ere l os t o ver a s hor t p er iod o f t ime.

E very t ime t wo o r more

c o ins a re f ound t oge ther i n ap i t o f f ea ture w e h ave a n a ssoc ia t ion .

T here

mus t b e h undreds o f s uch a ssoc ia t ions p ubl ished a nd d ozens more f ound e ach y ear , b u t n o o ne h as y e t s tar ted t o g ather t h is b ody o f d a ta t ogether . U s ing t h is s or t o f d a ta i t s hou ld e ven tua l ly b e p oss ib le t o make s ta te men ts l ike :

5 0% o f t he c o ins o f T etr ici a re f ound w i th n o l a ter c o ins , 3 0% a re

f ound w i th c o ins o f t he B r i t ish u surpers , 1 0% w i th c o ins o f D iocle t ian a nd e ar ly Cons tan t ine .

O r f ro m a no ther p o in t o f v iew :

when c o ins f ro m 3 30-340

a re t he l a tes t i n t he g roup , 1 0% o ft he a ssociated c o ins w i l l b e r ad ia tes , 1 0% D iocle t ian a nd e ar ly Cons tan t ine , 6 0% c on te mporary c o ins, t hus g iving u s a p icture o f t he c o in l osses i n t he 3 30s .

Th is h as b een d one f or o ther c lasses

o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , a nd s hou ld b e p oss ib le f or c o ins . Wi th a l l t hese wonders o f s ta t is t ics, h uman j udge men t w i l l s t i l l h ave t o p lay a ma jor r o le .

When c an o ne a ccep t ad epos i t a s b e ing o f s hor t d ura t ion?

I s t here e v idence o f d el ibera te i n f i l l u sing e arl ier d epos i ts wh ich may a lready c on ta in e ar l ier c o ins? i s i t ah oard?

When i s ag roup o f a ssocia ted c o ins a g roup a nd when

T he h uman a rchaeo log is t i s n o t r edundan t y e t .

T he r esu l t we

h ope w i l l b e t he p ossib i l i ty o f s ta t ing e xact ly what t he s ign i f icance o f as ing le c o in , o r ag roup o f c o ins i s , t ha t t hey a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een d epos i ted b y s uch-and-such a d a te, a nd u n l ike ly t o b e l a ter t han a s o mewha t l a ter d a te . Th is i s wha t t he a rchaeo log is t mos t d espera tely n eeds . A P lea f or Data T o b u i ld u p at rus twor thy s er ia t ion , h undreds i fn o t t housands o f o bservat ions a re n eeded o f c o ins f ound i n c lose a ssociat ion a nd o bv ious ly l os t a t t he s a me t ime.

T he more o bserva t ions, t he l ess impor tan t b ecome s ta t is t ica l

e rrors , o r t hose r ogue a ssoc ia t ions c aused b y Ro man G eorge Boons c arry ing c o in c o l lect ions a round i n t he ir t oga p ocke ts .

F ro m 1 974 Is ha l l b e c o l lect ing

t h is i n for ma t ion , a nd Iwou ld b e g ra tefu l i fr eaders c ou ld s end me d a ta wh ich c on for ms t o t he r equ ire men ts l a id o u t b e low . (S ee f orm a t e nd o f v o lu me ) . B efore i nclus ion , t he f o l low ing f ac tors mus t b e t aken i n to c ons idera t ion :

1 82

1 )

T he c o ins s hou ld r epresen t c hance l osses, a nd n o t h oards .

2 )

T hey s hou ld c o me f rom a d epos i t wh ich i n t he e xcava tor 's o p in ion r ep resen t o n ly a b r ief p eriod o f b u i ld-up , e .g . t he i nf i l l o f ap i t o r ap os th o le , a nd n o t f rom l ong d ura t ions d epos i ts s uch a s o ccupa t ion l eve ls .

3 )

T here s hou ld b e n o e v idence o f as ubs tan t ia l amoun t o f e ar l ier ma ter ia l , s uch a s d el ibera te i nf i l l o f ap i t u s ing ma ter ia l d er ived f rom e ar l ier d ep os i ts .

H owever , i ft he t wo c o ins c ome f rom t he b o t tom o f ap i t wh ich

h as l a ter b een d el ibera te ly f i l led u p , t hese c an b e a ccep ted a s a ssocia ted , whereas i fo ne c o in c o mes f ro m t he b o t to m f i l l , a nd t he o ther f ro m t he d el ibera te i n f i l l , t hese wou ld n o t c oun t . 4 )

Bo th c o ins mus t b e i den t if iab le a t l eas t t o a n emperor o r c o in s er ies ( e .g . F e ! T e mp e tc.) .

' Un l ikely ' a ssoc ia t ions s uch a s ac o in o f C laud ius

w i th o ne o f Honor ius mus t b e i ncluded , a s s hou ld a l l min i ms a nd b arb arous c o ins , e ven i fn o t a ss ignab le t o a n emperor . 5 )

R eferences s hou ld b e t o s tandard works , s uch a s Ro man Imper ial Co inage, o r H i l l , C arson & K en t ' La te Ro man Bronze Co inage ' ( 1960 ) .

I n a dd i t ion t o t he o bv ious d ata , Iwou ld a lso l i ke t o r eques t i n for ma t ion , where a va i lab le, o n p rospect ing me thods a nd c o in s ize i n t he h opes o f l earn ing more a bou t wha t w e a re miss ing , a nd s o o f g et t ing n earer a r econstruct ion o f a ctua l c o in l osses .

Depart men t o f Anc ien t H is tory , Un ivers i ty o f S hef f ie ld . B IBL IOGRAPHY C larke D . L . ( 1968 )

Ana ly t ica l Archaeo logy .

C larke D . L . ( 1970 )

B eaker P o t tery o f G rea t Br i ta in a nd I re land .

De th lefsen E . a nd D eetz J . ( 1966 )

Moroney M. J . ( 1951)

' Dea th 's H eads , Cherubs , a nd Wi l low

T rees :

Exper i men ta l Archaeo logy i n Co lon ia l C e me-

t er ies .

Amer ican Archaeo logy , 3 1, n o . 4 , 5 02-10 .

F acts f rom F igures .

P ayne S . ( 1972 )

' Par t ial Recovery a nd S a mp le B ias : s o me S ieving Exper i men ts '. i n E cono m ic P reh is tory .

Re ich mann W. J . ( 1961)

Use a nd Abuse o f S ta t is t ics .

1 83

t he R esu l ts o f

I n E . S . H iggs e d . P apers

I NTERPRET ING CO IN-FINDS b y J . P . C . K en t " They d id d iscourse v ery f inely t o u s o f t he p robab i l i ty t ha t t here i s av as t d ea l o f money h id i n t he l and"

P epys D iary , 1 9 May 1 663

I fn um is mat is ts h ad e f fect ive ly p ersuaded t heir a rchaeo log ica l , e cono m ic a nd h is tor ica l c o l leagues o f t he e ssen t ia l v al id i ty o f t he ir t echn iques a nd c onclus ions , i t wou ld n o t h ave b een n ecessary t o h o ld t h is c on ference a t a l l . I ti s t he measure o f o ur c orpora te f a i lure t ha t o ur mos t c on f iden t a nd c aref u l ly t hough t-ou t p ronounce men ts a nd s ta te men ts o f method s ee m t o c o mmand a t ten t ion ma in ly when t hey h appen t o r e inforce a f ash ionab le o r d eep ly h eld o p in ion d educed q u i te i ndependen t ly f ro m t he c o ins ;

i fo ur c o in e v idence

f i ts , w e may a ch ieve a ccla im , i fi td oes n o t , i t may b e s afely d isregarded . Num is ma t is ts d o n o t , a ny more t han t heir c o l leagues , s peak w i th a u n ited v o ice ;

i t wou ld b e s urpr is ing i ft hey d id - t hough Ih ave h eard a rch-

a eo log is ts more t han o nce d e mand a " consensus" b efore c om m i t t ing t he ms elves t o ap ar t icu lar n um is ma t ic p ropos i t ion .

T he n e mes is o f t he mys t ique

t ha t a n a ncien t s cience - o r i s i tn o t r a ther a n a r t? - h as c as t o ver i t sel f i s t ha t c o l leagues d eep ly l earned i n many b ranches o f t he ir s ub jec t t end t o r e trea t b af f led a nd s usp icious i n t he f ace o f t he e v idence we o f fer . C er ta in u n ivers i ty a ppo in t men ts o f r ecen t y ears s ee m t o r ef lect a c au ti ous d es ire o f d epar t men ts o f h is tory a nd a rchaeo logy t o emancipa te t he ms e lves f rom t he t yranny o f t he c lass ical ly t ra ined n um is ma t is t .

I n v ery

t ru th t h is b ogey , t hough s t i l l f ro m t ime t o t ime i nvoked ,' i s s ome th ing o f a my th .

T he " pro fess iona l n um is ma t is t" - t o u se t he p hrase i n i t s t rue ,

r a ther t han i n i t s e uphe m is t ic s ense - i s, i ncreas ing ly , ap erson w i th h ist or ica l a nd/or a rchaeo log ica l t ra in ing a nd e xper ience, who h as c hanced t o s pecia l ise i n t he s tudy o f c o ins a nd who m igh t e qua l ly w el l h ave t urned t o u n ivers i ty t each ing , g enera l museum work , o r e ven i ndus try .

H is c las-

s ica l ly t rained c o l leagues , whose d e tach men t f ro m t he p ressures o f a rcha eo log ica l c on troversy i s i t sel f v a luab le, c anno t , a nd d o n o t w ish t o , e scape f ro m t he r ea l i t ies o f t he w ider b ody o f e v idence, a nd t he wor ld o f l earn ing o f wh ich w e a re a l l ap ar t .

I n t h is c on tex t , d ivers i ty o f n um is ma t ic o p in ion

i s ap recious s ign o f i n te l lectual v igour a nd i n tegr i ty i n t he i vory t owers a nd a g uaran tee t hat t he d iscip l ine r e ma ins o u twardlook ing a nd d yna m ic. Co inage h as l ong b een r ecogn ized t o h ave c haracter is t ics wh ich d is t ing u ish i tf ro m mos t o ther a r t ifacts - t hose , a t l eas t , wh ich a re r egu lar ly f ound i n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts .

Mos t s ign i f ican t o f t hese d is t inct ions a re,

f irs t ly , i t s o f f ic ia l n a ture ( or , i n t he c ase o f f orger ies, i t s d irect r e la t ions h ip t o o f f icial o b jec ts ) a nd , s econd ly , i t s d ocumen tary c haracter .

F rom

i t , i n c onsequence , i s s ough t e v idence o f a n e specia l ly s pec if ic k ind i n

1 84

r espect b o th o f d a te a nd o f i n terpretat ion .

T he n um is ma t is t 's r espons ib i l i ty

i s c orrespond ing ly o nerous , a nd t h is e ssay s eeks t o d iscuss , i fn o t t o d eterm ine, t he d egree t o wh ich w e s ucceed i n t ack l ing o ur ma jor c lasses o f e v id ence . T he b as ic, " s i mp l is t ic" l eve l o f i n terpre tat ion , wh ich , l i ke a l l s uch , c on ta ins j us t e nough t ru th t o b e p laus ib le, d iv ides h oards i n to t wo b as ic g roups, d ef ined r espect ively a s " currency" a nd " sav ings" .

T he f i rs t g roup ,

i ti s h e ld , d iscloses a c ross-sect ion o f t he a va i lab le c urrency i n t he d es ired d eno m ina t ions a tt he d a te o f d epos i t ion .

S uch h oards w i l l r evea l ag radat ion

o f w ear f rom t he e arl ies t t o t he mos t r ecen t c o in .

T he s econd r esu l ts f rom

c arefu l men p u t t ing a s ide c o ins f rom t ime t o t ime o ver a l eng thy p er iod ; s uch h oards c on ta in r andom p eaks o f mater ia l , c orrespond ing t o f luctua t ions i n t he ir c o l lectors ' p rosper i ty , a nd d o n o t s how g rada t ion o f w ear t o t he s a me e x ten t .

H oards o f u nusua l magn i tude may b e d ee med t o h ave b een

"m i l i tary c hes ts" , o r t o h ave h ad s ome o ther o f f icia l c haracter . Ac oro ll ary t o t hese p re m isses c on t inues a s f o l lows : h oards a re d epos i ted c lose t o t he d ate o f t he l a tes t c o in . P lo t ted o n maps , t hey c an s how move men ts o f a rm ies a nd p eop les, a reas o f u nres t , r eg ions o f w ea l th e tc.

2

Th is c om for t ing ly c oheren t s e t o f y ard-s t icks i s s ee m ing ly v a luable when a pp l ied t o p er iods when l i terary e v idence i s n eg l ig ib le o r s can ty . I t s p r inc ip les a re , h owever , mere ly d educed a p r ior i ; t hey mus t b e p roved v al id i n a n u na mb iguous ly d ocumen ted c on tex t i f we a re t o a ccep t t he m a s a x ioma t ic.

T he t ru th i s , a s u sua l , much more c omp lex .

A l l h oards t e l l u s s ometh ing a bou t t he c urrency o f t heir t ime, i nas much a s t hey c on ta in c o ins wor th p u t t ing o n o ne s ide, a nd a va i lab le t o b e h oarded . E ach f i nd h as, t herefore, a p sycho log ical a spect i nd iv idua l t o t he d epos i tor i .e. t he d e ter m ina t ion o f h is q ues t f or t he mos t d es irab le c o ins , u sual ly t hose o ft he f i nes t meta l , h ighes t w e igh t a nd b es t c ond i t ion.

Aga ins t t h is

mus t b e s e t t he h is tor ica l c ircu ms tances o f s e lect ion a nd d epos i t i .e . t he a va i lab i l i ty o f a nd a ccessib il i ty t o t he d es ired c o ins i n t he d epos i tor 's e conom ic mi l ieu , a nd t he s peed w i th wh ich c oncea lmen t h ad t o b e u nder taken . I ti s , o f c ourse , w e l l k nown t hat , i n g enera l , h oards c on ta in a l ower p roport ion o f f a lse p ieces t han d o s i te-f inds o f t he s a me p er iod ; h oards a re s yst e mat ica l ly we igh ted i n f avour o f wha t was b es t i n t he c urrency , s i te-f inds w i th wha t, l i ke b roken c rockery , was b es t d iscarded . H oards t end t o c ont a in a l arger p ropor t ion o ft he h igher d eno m ina t ions t han d o s i tef inds ; w e m igh t h ave d educed a p r ior i wha t t he C en tra l S ta t is t ica l O f f ice h as d e monst ra ted g raph ica l ly , t ha t sma l l c o ins a re more r ead i ly l os t t han l arge o nes , a nd t ha t l ow d enom ina t ions s urv ive l ess r ead i ly ( and , w e m igh t a dd , i n worse c ond i t ion ) t han p ieces o f h igh v a lue . E ven i n 1 967 i ta ppeared t ha t t he c urrency o f G rea t B r i ta in was n o t u n iform , t here b e ing a marked i nc rease i n t he p ropor t ion o f o lder c o ins i n c ircu la t ion o u ts ide L ondon .

A

f or t ior i , u n i for m i ty o f c urrency i n r e mo ter t imes i s n o t r ead i ly t o b e a cc ep ted , n or u sed a s t he b as is o f f ur ther h ypo theses .

3

S ince h oards a re i nd iv idua l t o t he p erson , t ime, p lace a nd c ircums tance o f t he ir a cqu is i t ion , w e n eed n o t b e s urpr ised a t t he d ivers i ty wh ich t hey

1 85

s how , h owever we c hoose t o c a tegor ize t he m .

S ome e xa mp les , n o t i n t he m-

s e lves " un typ ica l" , a re r epresen ta t ive o f t he i n f in i te v ar ie ty o f h oard s tructure :F a lse c o in L ondon , S t .Sw i th in 's L ane ( Ro man )

NC 1 940 .185

S carborough C as t le, Yorks ( Char les I )

Num . C irc. 1 907.9940

G rea t B arr , B irm ingha m ( Char les I I )

" Da i ly T e legraph" 5 O c t . 1 956

Co ins o f p redom inan t ly l ow d enom ina t ion a nd p oor c ond i t ion , o f ten i nclud ing f alse p ieces L ondon , P a ternos ter Row ( Ro man )

NC 1 967.61

" S t . L eonard 's-on-Sea , S ussex" ( Ro man )

NC 1 951.91

T here a re many s im i lar f inds i n Th ird-cen tury Br i tain . Bu f ing ton , Mon tgomery ( El izabe th I )

BNJ 1 964 .152

U p ton , B erks

BNJ 1 968 .139

( Char les I )

S e lec t ive e xclus ion o f l owes t d eno m ina t ions S heerness , I s le o f S heppey , K en t ( Char les I )

BNJ 1 969 .163

A c ton , S u f fo lk ( Char les I )

u npubl ished

T hese h oards e xclude t he a bundan t s ix teen th-cen tury s ixpences r egu lar ly f ound i n s uch minor h oards . Con ta in ing c o ins p redo m inan t ly o f as ing le i ssue o n ly Karan is, E gyp t ( Ro man )

Co ins o f Karan is , 1 4

T h is c haracter is t ic i s a lso f ound i n p er iods when t he c o inage i s im mobi l ized , o r s ub ject t o s ys te ma t ic t ype c hanges ( See p . End ing e xcep t iona l ly s trong ly Co lches ter , E ssex ( Henry I I )

BNJ f or thco m ing

F ishpoo l , No t ts ( Edward I V )

NC 1 967.133

End ing e xcep t iona l ly weak ly L langarren , H erefordsh ire ( Ro man )

NC 1 956 .83

H av ing a f a lse e nd R eka-Devn ia , Bu lgar ia ( Ro man )4 T h is h oard " term ina tes" i n t he midd le o f t he r e ign o f G ord ian I I . c o ins o f t he Ph i l ips , b u t i nc ludes t he s ons o f Dec ius. Con ten ts p o l i t ical ly mo t iva ted G louces ter ( Roman )

u npubl ished

E as t H arnha m , Wi l ts ( Ro man )

NC 1 949 .248

Cheddar , S omerse t ( Ro man )

JBAA 1 847.270

1 86

I t om i ts

A n i n teres t ing g roup o f f i nds wh ich a ppears t o d iscr im ina te a ga ins t t he c o inage o f C araus ius i n h is own n ame , wh i le a dm i t t ing t he i ssues s truck b y h im i n t he n a mes o f D ioc let ian a nd Max im ian .

F ro m t he t ime o f

Aure l ian 's r ecovery o f G au l , h oards s uggest a c ons isten t d iscr imina t ion a ga inst t he c o inage o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire ;

o ther e xa mp les migh t b e c i ted ,

a nd more may b e s uspec ted . E nc losed i n more t han o ne c on ta iner A t l eas t e leven p er c en t o f t he h oards l i sted b y T h ir ion f or t he C e l t ic a nd Ro man p er iods i n B e lg iu m w ere c on ta ined i n more t han o ne v esse l .5 O ther h oards h ave b een d iscovered d iv ided i n to t wo p or t ions a nd b ur ied s o me d is tance a par t :V idy , L ausanne , Sw i tzer land ( Ro man )

S NR 1 967.312

S uch d iv ided f inds a re n o t n ecessar i ly r ecovered i n tact :A lderwas ley , D erbysh ire ( 17th C en tury )

BNJ 1 906.337 a nd u npub l ished .

T he f irst p ot-fu l l o f t h is h oard o f c o in-c l ipp ings was f ound i n 1 846, a s econd was r ecovered i n 1 971 a d jacen t t o t he f ind s po t o f t he f irs t . Mu l t ip le-con ta iner h oards a re n o t e asy t o d ist ingu ish f ro m s uccess ive c oncea l men ts i n t he s a me a rea :C o lchester , E ssex ( Henry I I )

NC 1 903.111 a nd BNJ f or thco m ing

i n 1 969 a l arge f ind c ons is t ing o verwhe lm ing ly o f L ong-Cross p ence was d iscovered c lose t o t he p lase w here i n 1 902 a s ubs tan t ia l h oard o f s hor tc ross p ence h ad a ppeared .

I ti s i mprobab le t ha t t hese t wo c lasses o f

c o in were e ver c oncurren t t o s uch a n e x ten t t ha t as ing le d epos i t c ou ld h ave c ons isted o f l arge n u mbers o f e ach t ype s egrega ted i nto s eparate c ont a iners.

I ti s , h owever , l ess e asy t o e s tab l ish t he r ela t ionsh ip b etween

t he n u merous h oards d epos i ted i n c lose p rox im ity t o o ne a no ther a t :B eachy H ead , S ussex ( Ro man ) I ck l ingha m , S u f fo lk ( Ro man ) I n s o me c ases , t he c ircu ms tances o f d iscovery make i tv ir tua l ly c er ta in t ha t n o f ur ther p ar t o f t he d epos it r e ma ins t o b e f ound . More f requen t ly , w e h ave n o means o f j udg ing t he c o mp leteness o f af ind .

We h ave s een

t ha t p ort ions o f t he s a me h oard c an t urn u p more t han a c en tury a par t : h oard r ecords s e ldo m a n tedate t he e igh teen th c en tury , whereas h oards t he mse lves , o r p ar ts o f t he m , may b e d is in terred a ny t ime a f ter t he ir b ur ia l. Bro m ley , K en t ( George V I )

BNJ 1 968.145

T he l a tes t c o ins o f t h is h oard , f ound i n 1 966 , b ore t he d ate 1 941. T he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le i mp l ies t he u near th ing o f Ro man c o in-hoards. T he i m me mor ia l l aw o f T reasure T rove i s n o t r ead i ly t o b e e xp la ined u n less t he p er iod ic d iscovery o f g o ld a nd s i lver was s u f f ic ien t ly i mp or tan t t o b e o f p ercep t ib le b enef i t t o p r im i t ive t reasur ies . 6 I ti s p oss ib le t ha t h oards w ith u nusua l ly "weak" e nd ings a re t o b e e xp la ined ,

1 87

i n s o me c ases a t l east , a s o ne p or t ion o f a mu l t ip le-con ta iner d epos i t ; o ther p ar ts may awa i t d iscovery , o r may h ave b een f ound l ong a go. D ispersed h oards T h is c lass o f f ind i s o ccas ioned b y t he d is turbance o f t he f i nd-spo t i n f ormer t imes , w i thout r ecovery o f t he h oard .

T h is may a r ise ow ing t o

t he d es truct ion o f t he s uperstructure o f ab u i ld ing , i n wh ich t he h oard h as b een s ecreted :Lydney , G los.

( Ro man )7

T he c o ins r ecovered f ro m t he f l oor o f t he t e mp le s i te h ave t he a ppearance o f ah oard d ispersed t hus r a ther t han o f ar ando m ( and q u i te i nexp l icab le ) s ca t ter o f c asua l l osses o n ah ard f l oor i n c onstan t u se. Chadwe l l S t . Mary , E ssex ( Ro man )

NC 1 956.238 —

T he e xcava t ion o f t h is h oard i n 1 956 f urn ishes a c lass ic i ns tance o f t he r ec overy o f ad epos it s cat tered b y c u l t iva t ion .

C o m menc ing a t t he t op-so i l ,

t he d ispersed c o ins c onst itu ted a n i nver ted c one , a t t he a pex o f wh ich l ay t he r e ma ins o f t he n eck o f t he p ot tery c on ta iner , s e t u ps ide d own i n to t he n a tura l s o i l .

D ispersed h oards a re r e la t ive ly a bundan t a t a l l p er iods ,

a nd o n l arge e xcavated s i tes s uch a s C orbr idge , where t hey may b e g radua l ly r ecovered o ver a h a l f c en tury o r l onger , t hey a re r ead i ly c onf used w i th p ieces l os t i n t he n orma l w ay .

A l l g enera l s i tel is ts r equ ire

s cru t iny w i th t h is p oss ib i l ity i n mind . T hough i ti s ac o m mon p rac t ice , p ar t icu lar ly i n p er iods when h oards a re s can ty a nd l i terary e v idence s l igh t , t o t ry t o l i nk s uch h oards a s w e k now w i th s uch e ven ts o r e ven p ersonages a s a re r ecorded , a ssump t ions i s i n g enera l d oub t fu l.

8

t he v a l id i ty o f s uch

One o f t he f ew c omprehens ive a ccoun ts

o f t he c o l lect ion , c oncea l men t a nd r ecovery o f ah oard i s r e la ted i n P epys ' D iary .

T he t a le i s wor th r ecoun t ing .

A t t he Restora t ion o f 1 660 , S a mue l

P epys d ec lared h i mse l f t o b e e arn ing £ 50 a y ear , a nd t o h ave £ 40 c ash i n h and .

By t he e nd o f 1 666 , h is a verage a nnua l i nco me e xceeded £ 3000 , a nd

h e w as "wor th i n money , a l l g ood", a bove £ 6200 , b es ide t wo-and-a-ha l f d ozen s i lver v esse ls.

L ike many o f h is t hr if ty c on te mporar ies , h e k ep t h is s urp lus

c ash u nder l ock a nd k ey i n h is own h ouse ;

t he u n for tuna te Mr . T ryan , o f

L i me S treet , who k ep t t he k ey o f h is c ash-chest i n h is d esk , was r obbed o f £ 1050 i n money a nd o f £ 4000 i n j ewe ls h e ld a s s ecur i t ies f or l oans. 9

I n

J une 1 667 , d eep ly worr ied b y t he p ene trat ion o f t he Du tch f l ee t i n to t he T ha mes e stuary , P epys r eso lved t o c oncea l h is money .

He was a t f irst u n-

d ec ided whe ther t o c oncea l i te lsewhere i n L ondon o r t o d espa tch i tt o t he f am i ly e s tate i n B ra mp ton , Nor than ts.

T he l a t ter c ounse l p reva i led a nd h is

f a ther a nd w ife t ook c oach , w ith a b ag c on ta in ing s o me £ 1300.

1 0

F ind ing

h imse lf u nab le t o c onver t h is s i lver i n h and f or g o ld - h e h ad b een f ores ta l led b y o thers - P epys s en t o n a nother 1 000 g o ld p ieces b y s pec ia l messenger , a nd c arr ied o n h is own p erson a nother £ 300 wor th , t ogether w ith " d irect ions where t o f ind £ 500 a nd more i n g o ld a nd s i lver".

1 88

Recovery o f t he t reasure

i n O c tober o f t he s a me y ear p roved a g ruel l ing e xper ience.

H is w i fe g ave

h im " so b ad a n a ccoun t o f h er a nd my f a ther 's me thod i n t he b ury ing o f o ur g o ld , t hat made me mad ;

a nd s he h ersel f i s n o t p leased w i th i t , s he b el iev-

i ng t ha t my s is ter k nows o f i t .

My f a ther a nd s he d id i to n S unday , when t hey

were g one t o c hurch , i n o pen d ay l igh t , i n t he m ids t o f t he g arden , where f or a ugh t t hey k new , many e yes m igh t s ee t he m ;

wh ich p u t me i n to t roub le , a nd

Ip resen t ly c as t a bou t , h ow t o h ave i tb ack a ga in t o s ecure i th ere , t he t imes b e ing a l i t t le b e t ter n ow" .

R ecovery b egan a t n igh t, w i th a d ark l an tern , b u t

" they c ou ld n o t j us t ly t el l where i tw as", a nd P epys b egan t o f ear t he wors t ; b u t " by p ok ing w i th a s p i t" , i t was a t l eng th l oca ted , " no t h a lf a f oo t u nder g round" .

F ran t ic d igg ing merely s ucceeded i n s ca t tering t he c o ins i n t he

g rass a nd l oose e ar th .

F ina l ly , c o ins , d ir t a nd a l l , were r a ised a nd w ashed .

T o P epys ' c hagr in , h e f ound h i mse lf a bou t o ne h undred p ieces s hor t , a nd f eari ng t ha t t he n e ighbours m igh t h ave o bserved h im , a nd c ome s earch ing o n t heir o wn a ccoun t , h e a nd h is s ervan t s ieved t hrough t he e ar th u n t i l t hey h ad r ec overed a f ur ther s even ty-n ine .

P epys c ons idered i tq u i te a ccep tab le t ha t h is

s pecia l messenger s hou ld h ave l os t s o me t wen ty t o t h ir ty p ieces e n r ou te, a nd r egarded h i mse lf a s w el l c on ten t w i th t he ma t ter when a l l was f inal ly s a fe b ack i n L ondon , " under ab ed i n o ur c ha mber". T h is t rue s tory p ro mp ts s evera l r ef lect ions :

P epys ' w ea l th , t hough c er-

t a in ly a " sav ings h oard" , w as a sse mb led o ver a v ery s hor t p er iod .

I tc er-

t a in ly i nc luded s o me o ld c o ins - h e g ave t hree " Jacobuses" ( go ld p ieces o f J a mes I )t o h is f a therinlaw a nd i t s r ando m o r ig in a nd r ap id a sse mblage s ugges ts t ha t i t wou ld h ave b een i nd is t ingu ishab le f ro m a " currency h oard" a sse mb led a d h oc i n 1 667.

I ndeed , s ince h is s urp lus i ncreased d ur ing 1 666

b y o n ly £ 1800 , a s a gains t £ 3000 i n 1 665, we migh t s uspect t ha t t he d a tes 1 666 a nd 1 667 were r ela t ive ly s l igh t ly r epresen ted i .e . t ha t t he h oard e nded " weak ly" .

The r eal ly e x tens ive c o inages o f g u ineas l ay , i n a ny c ase, i n t he

f u ture , a nd we may p os tu la te t ha t P epys ' f or tune c ons is ted p redo m inate ly o f t he o ld " broad p ieces".

G rea t q uan t i t ies o f t hese were c er ta in ly s t i l l a va i l-

a b le ; ap ou l terer o f Gracechurch S tree t d ied i n Nove mber 1 662 l eav ing a n u nsuspected h oard o f 4 0 ,000 " Jacobs" . We may c onclude t ha t t he r ecovery o f ah oard was n o t n ecessar i ly a n e asy ma t ter , a nd t hat t here was a s ign i f ic an t r isk t hat i t wou ld n o t b e r ecovered i n tac t . The d iscovery i n modern t imes o f as ca t ter o f t wen ty o r t h ir ty b road p ieces a t Bra mp ton , o r b e tween B ra mp ton a nd London , wou ld g ive a t o tal ly f a lse impress ion a l ike o f d a te, o f t he c ircu ms tances o f c oncea l men t a nd o f t he s ize o f t he o r ig ina l t reasure. I t may b e o b jected t ha t t he c ircums tances a re u nrepresen ta t ive, b u t h ow a re we t o k now h ow " represen ta t ive" were t he c ircu ms tances o f a ny f i nd o f a ny d a te?

The c o ins , w i th o r w i thou t ac on tainer, w i l l n o more t e l l u s t h is t han

w i l l t he a shes o f p reh is tor ic man t e l l u s wha t l anguage h e s poke. T he f actors r ender ing s uspect a ny t oo f ac i le i n terpre tat ion o f a n i nd iv idua l h oard l ead n atura l ly t o t he c ons idera t ion o f s ign if icance o f maps o f h oard d is tr ibu t ion . T ha t t hey h ave a s ign i f icance i s o bv ious . Whe ther we c orrec t ly e va lua te t he ir e v idence, a nd whe ther we may g eneral ise f rom o ne p er iod t o a no ther , i s more q ues t ionable ;

f or i ti s n o t iceab le t ha t d e ta i led e xpos i t ions

1 89

H OARDS D EPOS ITED I N E NGLAND

•i nt he c en tu ry p r eced ing t h e C i v i l Wa r 0i nt h e h a l f -c en tu ry f o l low ing t h e C i v i l Wa r

F el

H OARDS D EPOS ITED I N E NGLAND D UR ING T HE C I V IL WAR •t e rm ina t ing 1 64 1-3 A

t e rm ina t ing

F i g .2

1 6 43-9

o ft h is c lass o f e v idence a re p roferred i n i nverse p ropor t ion t o t he a va i labi l i ty o f d ocumen tary o r l i terary s ources .

Ib el ieve t here h as b een n o a t -

t e mp t t o e xp lain h oard s tructure a nd d is tr ibu t ion i n t he c on tex t o f a we l ld ocumen ted p er iod .

S ix teen th a nd s even teen th c en tury E ng land o f fers

i n teres t ing a nd p ro m ising s cope f or t h is e xercise, s ome o f t he p rob le ms o f wh ich may h ere b e b r ief ly a dumbra ted . A map ( F ig . 1 ) i nd icates t he p eacet i me d is tr ibu t ion o f h oards b e tween a bou t 1 550 a nd 1 700 .

T hough d i f feren t i n d e ta i l , t he e ar ly a nd l a te d is tr ib-

u t ions u n i te t o r evea l c ons iderab le a reas emp ty o f h orads.

H oards d epos i ted

i n t he c en tury p reced ing t he C iv i l War s how c oncen tra t ions a long t he T ha mes v a l ley a nd i n Chesh ire a nd i ts e nv irons .

A l though f inds o f t he p os t-war

p er iod h ave a much w ider d is tr ibu t ion , i ti s o bservab le t hat a l most h al f t he p eacet i me d epos i ts o f t he p er iod u nder r ev iew f a l l w i th in a f i f ty- m i le r ad ius o f London .

However , i ti s c lear t ha t t hese d is tr ibu t ions a re n o t d irect ly

r ela ted e i ther t o t he p opu la t ion o r wea l th o f t he c oun try , a s i ti s r evea led t o u s b y s uch c r i ter ia a s t he S h ip Money Assess men t o f 1 636 o r t he H ear th T ax Re turns o f 1 690 .

T he impor tance o f L ondon i s o bv ious , b u t i fw e c an o ther-

w ise d eter m ine n e ither t he d ens i ty o f p opu la t ion n or t he r e la t ive w ea l th o f d if feren t a reas a s v iewed b y t he em inen t ly p ract ica l y ards t ick o f t axab i l i ty , t hen we mus t b e c au t ious o f h ow we d educe e cono m ic c onclus ions f ro m d ist r ibu t ions o f h oards i n i l l-documen ted p er iods . T he p a t tern o f d is tr ibu t ion d uring t he C iv i l War i s e n t irely d i f feren t ( F ig . 2 ) , t hough n o e as ier t o u nders tand .

T he L ondon a rea i s r e la t ive ly

emp ty o f h oards , a nd , i ndeed , t he n o tab le s tor m-cen tres o f t he w ar , a par t f ro m N ewark , a re s carcely t o b e d iscerned .

T he s tar t o f t he war s ee ms t o

h ave l ed t o t he d eposi t o f n u merous h oards i n t he n or th o f Eng land , o f ten i n r eg ions where h oard ing i n t he p reced ing c en tury h as l ef t n o t race .

P erhaps

f ear o f t he S co t t ish a r my a nd l ack o f o ppor tun i ty f or r einves t men t s t i mu la ted t he c oncea l men t o f n ew ly-acqu ired w ea l th i n t he n or th t o ag rea ter e x ten t t han d id t he s porad ic t roub les o f t he s ou th .

T hroughou t t he war , i tw i l l b e

o bserved t ha t t he a reas s ecurely h e ld b y P ar l ia men t h ave p roduced f ew f i nds . I n g eneral h owever, t he d istr ibu t ion wou ld b e s ub ject t o g rave r isk o f misi n terpre tat ion i f we h ad n o t af u l l h is tor ica l r ecord .

On ly i n ar es tr icted

s ense was t here a s h if t i n emphas is i n t he w ar f rom t he n or th t o t he s ou th a f ter 1 643, a nd s uch impor tan t a reas a s t he Ox ford-Newbury-London t r iang le a re q u i te impercep t ib le . a l l .

Move men ts o f i nd iv idual a rm ies s tand o u t n o t a t

We a re l ef t w i th a v ery l arge i ncrease i n t he d epos it ion o f h oards i n

t h is p er iod , a n a ccep ted s y mp tom o f c r is is . T he s even teen th c en tury h oard d is tr ibu t ions r evea l w i th s tar tl ing c lar i ty t he impropr iety o f g eneral izing f ro m s uch e v idence .

T here a re v ir tua l ly n o

h oards i n Wa les b ecause i t was p oor a nd t h in ly p opu la ted ;

t here a re v ir tua l ly

n o h oards a long t he Co tswo lds , i n t he s ou th M id lands , a nd E as t Ang l ia, where p rec ise ly c onverse c ond i t ions p revai led .

I tm igh t b e p oss ib le t o

e rect many v iab le h ypo theses t o e xp la in why t he h in ter land o f L ondon , s o p roduct ive o f h oards i n p eacet ime, l acks t he m i n t ime o f war ;

b u t t hese

wou ld h ave t o b e b ased u pon d ocu men ts , s ince o ur a p r ior i a rgumen ta t ion

1 92

F ? q. 3 E r n

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wou ld h ave p os tu la ted , q u i te wrong ly , s ecur i ty o r d epopu la t ion .

We h ave

e ndeavoured t o e xclude f rom t he wart i me map a l l f i nds wh ich c anno t b e s a id f or c er tain n o t t o h ave c on ta ined t he h a m mered money o f C har les I .

We

mus t h owever b ear i n m ind t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t s o me f i nds o f h a mmered c o in , p ar t icu lar ly i fh eavi ly c l ipped , b elong t o t he p os t-war p er iod . I ti s n o t e asy t o f or m a ny r el iab le e s t i ma te o f t he p ropor t ion o f c o in w i thd rawn f rom c urrency i n to h oards , o r o therw ise l os t .

A f ter t he r eca l l o f t he

Commonwea l th money i n 1 660 , i t was b el ieved t ha t a s much a s at h ird o f t hese i ssues was

u naccoun ted f or ; 12

p resumab ly , h ad i t s c urrency c on t in-

u ed , t he p ropor t ion u nava i lab le f or r ecal l wou ld h ave i ncreased .

E ven i n

t hese d ays o f r eady i nves t men t a nd b ank ing , as ign if ican t p ropor t ion o f c urr en t c o in i s n o t w i thdrawn u pon d e mone t isa t ion .

T he r ecen t w i thdrawa ls o f

s i lver c o in o f t he 9 25 a nd 5 00 s tandards , f o l lowed b y t he r eca l l o f t he n ond eci ma l d enom ina t ions , h ave g iven a s tat is t ica l ly-based i ns igh t i n to t he p henomenon o f c o in l oss wh ich , t hough e v iden t ly n o t d irect ly a pp l icab le t o r e mo ter t imes, h as b o th i n teres t a nd v alue.

L ook ing a t t he f i rs t t ab le

( F ig . 3 ) , w e o bserve t ha t t he r a te o f w i thdrawa l r ap id ly a t ta ins a p eak w i th in af ew y ears o f i t s c om mence men t , a nd t hereaf ter f a l ls d ra ma t ica l ly .

Ex-

p ressed a s ap ercen tage o f t he amoun t o f c o in p o ten t ia l ly a va i lab le i .e . n o t w i thdrawn a t t he mo men t when l arge-sca le r eca l l w as b egun ( F ig . 4 ) , w e s ee t ha t n o l ess t han 1 8% o f t he t o tal i ssue o f 9 25 s i lver s ubsequen t t o 1 816 r e mains =accoun ted f or . c onver ted i n to p la te ;

S o me w i l l d oub t less h ave b een e xpor ted , s o me

much o f i th owever i s l i ke ly t o h ave p assed i n to h oards

o r t o h ave b eco me c asua l l osses .

T he C en tral S ta t is t ica l O f f ice 's p a mph le t

may b e u sefu l ly c onsu l ted o n t he v ary ing r ate o f l oss o f d if feren t d enominat ions i n r ecen t t imes .

Iowe t o Mr . B . Koor lander s tat is t ics o f more t han

5 0 ,000 h a lf-crowns w i thdrawn i n 1 970.

F ig . 5e xpresses t hese a s f ract ions

o f t he n umber o f c o ins o f e ach d a te d iv ided b y t he n umber o f c o ins r epor ted t o h ave b een s truck i n t hat y ear .

T hough t he h ab i tua l u se o f d ies o f t he p re-

c eed ing y ear d oub t less i n troduces r ando m d is turbances i n to t he r esu l t ing d is tr ibu t ion , t he t rend i s c lear e nough .

I ts hows t ha t , g iven e qua l n u mbers

i n t wo i ssues s epara ted b y t h ir ty y ears , t he c hances o f f i nd ing a s peci men o f t he e ar l ier d a te w ere n o g rea ter t han o ne t en th o f t he l ike l ihood o f f ind ing t he l a ter c o in .

T he s tra igh tness o f t he ma in a x is o f t he g raph a nd t he

a bsence o f s ys te mat ic w i thdrawa l u n t i l 1 949 i nd ica tes t ha t much o f t h is u na va i lab i l i ty o f o lder c o in was d ue t o l oss o r h oard ing . T he r e la t ively r ap id c hanges i n t he a ge-s tructure o f o ur c urrency o ver t he l as t f i f ty y ears o wes much t o i nf la t ion a nd much t o i t s c oro l lar ies , t he f a l l i n a bso lu te t er ms o f t he p urchas ing p ower o f e ach d eno m ina t ion , a nd t he i ncreas ing v igour o f c ircu lat ion .

Our a ssess men t o f t he c o in e v idence

o f e arl ier t imes h as t o t ake a ccoun t o f many imponderab les , a nd i ti s u sef u l t o h ave o n r ecord a t l eas t o ne b ody o f ma ter ia l whose b ehav iour c an b e d ocu men tar i ly c hecked . G enera l c onclus ions mus t b e a pproached w i th c au t ion .

I n p er iods when

more t han o ne d eno m ina t ion i s c oncurren t , n ei ther h oards n or s i tef inds c an b e e xpected t o r ef lect t he t rue c urrency s i tua t ion ;

1 96

i t may f ur ther b e

i n ferred t ha t u n t i l c o mpara t ive ly modern t imes , s ay a f ter 1 800 , t here was i n B r i ta in n o s uch t h ing a s au n ifor m c urrency ,

1 3

whe ther v iewed g eograph-

i cal ly o r b y s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic mi l ieu . T hese c ircums tances d o n o t o f c ourse i nva l ida te t he f o l low ing p re m isses, t hough t hey s hou ld n o t b e c on fused w i th t he m : 1 .

i n t he e ven t o f c asua l l oss , smal l c o ins a nd c o ins o f l ow v a lue a re

f ound more c om mon ly r e la t ive t o n umbers i ssued a nd i n c ircu la t ion t han l arger a nd more v aluab le p ieces . 2 .

a l l o ther t h ings b eing e qua l , c o ins w i th a l ong l i fe i n c urrency a re

f ound more c om mon ly r ela t ive t o n u mbers i ssued t han p ieces w i th a s ys te ma t ical ly s hor ter l i fe e .g . t he c o inage o f El izabe th Ic on tras ted w i th t he h a mmered c o inage o f Char les U . 3 .

l ow d eno m ina t ions h ave a more v igorous c urrency t han h igh o nes ;

a t a ny g iven d a te t he f or mer may b e e xpected t o a ppear much more worn e .g . H ar t ford , H un t ingdon : H enry V I I ; h al f-groa ts w ere v ery much more worn t han g roa ts . N ewark , No t ts : Char les I ; g roa ts w ere v ery much more worn t han s ixpences o f c omparab le d a te . 4 . c o ins may b e d iscr im ina ted a ga ins t b y p o l i t ical a ct ion a nd t hus a pp ear l ess a bundan t ly o r o ver a s hor ter p er iod t han t he c haracter o f t he c o in a nd t he o r ig ina l s ize o f i ssue m igh t h ave l ed o ne t o s uppose e .g . c o ins o f t he G all ic Emperors a nd o f Magnen t ius ;

c o ins o f t he Commonwea l th o f

E ng land . 5 . i tw as n or ma l i n a mu l t i- meta ll ic c o inage a t l eas t d own t o t he e igh te en th c en tury f or g o ld c o in t o c om mand a v ary ing p re m ium o ver s i lver , a nd s i lver o ver c opper . I tw as c haracter is t ic f or o ld c o ins t o b e d iscoun ted a ga ins t n ew ; t he Romans l eg is la ted a ga ins t t he p ract ice o f d iscoun t ing o ld s o l id i ;1 4 s hro f fs i n e igh teen th c en tury I nd ia d iscoun ted o ld r upees b y d a te a nd t hus l ed t he E as t I nd ia Co mpany t o i n troduce t ypes w i th i mmob i l ized d a tes .

1 5

I t isp robab le t ha t im mob i l ized c o inages a re i n p r inc ip le s tab le

a nd l ongl ived , whereas t hose i n wh ich t he t ypes a re f requen t ly a nd s ys te ma t ical ly c hanged w ere s ub ject t o t he d iscoun t o r e ven d e monet iza t ion o f o lder i ssues . T he e f fec t o f t h is f ac tor o n c urrency c an b e s een i n t he ' 14f orma t ions ' o f L ou is X IV a nd XV . S uccess ive i ssues o f s i lver c o in w ere d iscoun ted f rom s hor t ly a f ter t he i ncep t ion o f t he t ype ; when t he d iscoun t h ad r educed t he v a lue o f t he c o ins t o t hat o f t he ir mere me tal , t hey w ere d e monet ized a nd r es truck w i th n ew t ypes a t a n e nhanced t ar if f . t hen r epeated i t sel f .

1 6

T he c ycle

T hus o n ly o ne t ype was c urren t a t at ime w i th in

t he r ealm o f F rance ; i n G eneva h owever , a l l w ere l ega l t ender l ong a f ter t he ir ' r efor ma t ion ' i n t he ir c oun try o f o r ig in . I n Eng land , w e a re r em inded o f t he c on tras t b e tween t he c ons tan t ly c hang ing t ypes o f t he S axo-Norman p enny , a nd t he l ong p er iods o f im mob i l izat ion u nder t he P lan tagene ts . I ti s e ssen t ia l, when we a re i nv i ted t o r ecogn ize t he ' t yp ica l ' c o in-hoard o r s i te-f ind , t o u nders tand t he m irage b efore u s ; a l l t oo f requen t ly i tt urns o u t t ob e merely a n i ns tance o f t he t ru is m t ha t " com mon c o ins a re f ound

1 97

c om mon ly" .

T he i nd iv idua l i ty o f ah oard-l is t w e h ave a lready d iscussed .

The l i s t o f c o ins f rom a s i te i s a n e ven more f rag i le f ounda t ion o n wh ich t o b ase c onc lus ions . c a l v alue.

1 7

I n g enera l , i ti s s o sma l l a s t o b e w i thou t much s ta t is t i-

O f ten , a l l o r mos t o f t he c o ins h ave n o c on tex t i n p lan o r s tra t i-

g raphy , o r r e la t ionsh ip o ne w i th a no ther .

Al arge l i s t s ee ms s ome t i mes t o

b e c on ta m ina ted b y t he p resence o f o ne o r more h oards, c omp lete o r d ispersed , wh ich i ti s n o t e asy t o f i l ter o u t ;

af ur ther c on ta m inan t i s, v ery o f ten , a

c ons iderab le n u mber o f c on te mporary f orger ies , many o f wh ich a re l ike ly t o b e d iscards r a ther t han l osses .

T hen we mus t b ear i n m ind t he v ary ing

l eng ths o f c urrency o f d i f feren t c o ins, a nd a sk o urse lves , f or e xa mp le , whe ther a c ons iderab ly worn s es ter t ius o f T ra jan i s l i kel ier t o h ave b een l os t u nder S everus o r u nder Pos tumus .

S ince t h is k ind o f d ecision i s v ery

r are ly p oss ib le, Iam b ound t o c onclude t ha t ac o in l i s t s hou ld b e i n terpreted w i th t he u t mos t r eserve .

T he c o inl is t o f Cors top i tum b eg ins w i th d enarü

o f t he Ro man R epubl ic, b u t i t wou ld b e ar ash man who d id n o t r ecogn ize i n t h is t he l im i ta t ions o f c o in-ev idence when s ee m ing ly o pposed t o l i terary s ta te men ts a nd t he more s tra igh t forward t es t i mony o f c era m ics . T he s tudy o f c o ins i s s pecial ized , b ecause i ti s r equ ired t o b e a t o nce s ub t le a nd w ide-rang ing .

I ti s c apab le o f s upp ly ing u n ique i nfor ma t ion a nd

o f c lar ifying o bscure p assages o f h is tory .

I n t he h ands o f i nsens i t ive a nd

ap r ior i i n terpreters , i ti s c apab le o f mis lead ing o ur a rchaeo log ica l c o ll eagues .

Bu t i n d ue c ourse t hey b eco me d isenchan ted , a nd wha t t hey c anno t

r ec t i fy b y a rgumen t , t hey u nders tandab ly i gnore u n less i tc hances t o s u i t a c onclus ion a lready a rr ived a t .

To ma tch h is u nr ival led o ppor tun i t ies f or

i n f luencing h is tor ica l t hough t t he n um is mat is t mus t b e r eady t o e schew t he f aci le a nd t he merely f ash ionab le s o lu t ion - t hey w i l l l e t h im a nd h is s c ience d own i n t he e nd - a nd b e p repared t o u nders tand a nd c on fess t he l im i ta t ions h is mater ia l i mposes .

My thopoe ia may a ch ieve a t e mporary v ogue f or i ts

p erpe tra tor , a nd e ven p erhaps c onv ince h im t ha t h e h as s o me s pecia l f acu l ty f or d iv in ing t ru ths a bou t c o ins a nd h is tory . I ti s , h owever , a n i gnob le a r t ; we mus t r a ther s tr ive w i th a l l o ur s k i l l a nd i n tegr i ty t o a vo id mak ing o urs e lves a nd o thers t he v ict i ms o f o ur o wn i nsouc ian t my th- mak ing .

Br i t ish Museum , London .

1 98

FOOTNOTES

1 . S ee f or e xa mp le S eaby 's Bu l let in 1 968 .54 :

" Incred ib ly , ad egree i n

C lass ics i s s t i l l t he r equ is i te f or a me mber o f t he s taf f o f t he Co in Depar t men t i n t he Br i t ish Museu m , r egard less o f wha t f i eld o f n um isma t ics t ha t me mber o f s taf f may b e s pecia l izing ."

A t t he t ime t h is

c anard was l aunched t he o n ly t hree me mbers o f t ha t s taf f w i th c lass ics d egrees were t he o nes s pecia l iz ing i n a ncien t c o inage, wh ich s ee ms r easonab le. 2 . F or a n e xpos i t ion o f t h is s or t o f i n terpre ta t ion , s ee T he Archaeo logy o f Roman Br i ta in , 2 nd e d . 1 969, p . 2 30 ;

L . R . L a ing , Co ins a nd

Archaeo logy , 1 969, p . 5 2 c on ta ins p erhaps t he mos t r ef ined e xpose o f t he " c lass i f ica t ion" o f h oards . 3 . R .G . d e G lanv i l le , T he Nu mbers o f Co ins i n C ircu la t ion i n t he Un i ted K ingdo m , S tud ies i n O f f ic ia l S tat ist ics , Research S er ies No. 2 , HMSO 1 970.

S ee a lso Au tob iography o f Wi l l ia m S tou t , e d . J . Har land ,

L ondon 1 851 p . 4 1, f or r eg iona l d iferences i n 1 695. 4 .

N .A . Mouchmov , L e t resor n um is ma t ique d e Reka-Devn ia ( Marc iano po l is ), S o f ia , 1 934.

5 . M . Th ir ion , L es t resors mone ta ires g au lo is e t r o ma ins t rouve/s e n B e lg ique, C erc le d 'Etudes Nu m is ma t iques , T ravaux 3 , Bruxe l les 1 967. 6 . I t s hou ld h owever b e r e marked t ha t a s e ar ly a s t he r e ign o f Char les I , t he e xercise o f t he r oya l p rerogat ive o ver T reasure T rove t ook a ccoun t o f i t s h is tor ica l impor tance.

S ee Add . MSS 3 2094 f . 2 66 , al e t ter o f

Char les I d a ted 1 4 Augus t 1 672 c o m mand ing a f ind o f g o ld c o ins o r meda ls a t T hakeha m, S ussex , t o b e d e l ivered im med ia te ly t o E l ias Ash mo le.

F or t he s ub ject i n g eneral , s ee S ir G eorge H i l l , T reasure

T rove i n L aw a nd P ract ice , Ox ford 1 936 . 7 . R . E . M. a nd T . V . Whee ler , Repor t o n t he E xcava t ion o f t he P reh is tor ic, Roman , a nd Pos t-Roman S i te i n L ydney P ark , G louces tersh ire , S ocie ty o f An t iquar ies , Research Repor t No . I X , 1 932 . 8 . S ee , f or e xa mp le, Whaddon Chase, Bucks, l i nked w i th t he t r ibu te imp osed b y C aesar ( C. E . S tevens , i n E ssays p resen ted t o 0 . G . S . Craw ford p . 3 32 ) ;

Ka iseraugst , Sw itzer land , l inked w i th t he a ct iv it ies

o f J u l ian , i n s p i te o f t he a brup t e nd o f t he d ated ma ter ial more t han f i ve y ears b efore h is p resence i n t he a rea ( I l lus tra ted London News , 1 4 a nd 2 1 J u ly 1 962 ) .

R ichborough Rad iate h oard :

Horsa w ith t he ir J utes ' ;

' t he c o inage o f Heng ist a nd

ANS.Nu rn. No tes a nd Mon . n o. 8 0 p .13. * P .T .O .

9 . T he a ssoc iat ion o f s o me c o in h oards w i th t he p roceeds o f r obbery i s h ypo the t ical , b u t i nheren t ly l i ke ly .

1 99

I n t he s even teen th a nd e igh teen th

c en tur ies c ons iderab le s ums i n c ash c hanged h ands b y t h is means, u nder c ond i t ions w h ich migh t p ro mp t c oncea l men t a nd i nh ib i t r ecovery . 1 0 .

P epys k new t he e xact n umber o f c o ins ;

t he ir e xact v a lue a t a ny t ime i n

t er ms o f £ . s . d . wou ld d epend o n t he marke t . 1 1.

T hese a nd o ther f ac tors c an mos t r ead i ly b e f ound e luc ida ted i n J . Darby , AH is tor ic G eography o f Eng land b efore 1 800 , C a mbr idge 1 969 .

1 2 .

P epys , D iary , 1 9 May 1 663 .

T he Co m monwea l th c o inage was d e mone-

t i zed b y ap rocla ma t ion d a ted 7 S ep te mber 1 660 , t o t ake e f fect f rom 3 0 Nove mber . was a l lowed .

P epys r e marks t ha t a n e f fect ive t hree mon ths ' g race T h is d e mone t ized c o in was , o f c ourse , s t i l l p ro tected

a ga ins t f orgery a nd a buse , a nd Ol iver 's c rowns b eca me a n im med iate o b ject o f i n teres t a nd c o l lec t ion .

R e markably , as ing le Com monweal th

s h i l l ing o ccurred i n t he Y earby h oard , d epos i ted a t t he t ime o f t he Rec o inage i n 1 697 ( BNJ . 1 955 . 2 94 ) . 1 3 .

T he p rovenances o f c oun ter marked c o ins i n t he e ar ly f i rs t c en tury AD s ugges ts t ha t i n t h is p ar t icu lar i ns tance a l arge p ropor t ion o f t he c o ins e nded t he ir c urren t d ays w i th in a s hor t d is tance o f t he ir p resu med p lace o f i ssue .

S ee C . M. Kraay , i n E ssays i n Ro man Co inage p re-

s en ted t o H aro ld Ma t t ing ly, e d . C arson a nd S u ther land , Ox ford 1 956 p . 1 13 . 1 4 . Cod . T heod . 9 .22 .1 :Omnes s o l id i ...uno p re t io a es t i mand i s un t a tque v endend i , q uanqua m d iversa f or mae mensura s i t . Nec e n im q u i ma iore h ab i tu f ac ie i e x tend i tur , ma ieor is e s t p ret i i ...cum p ondus i de m e x is ta t . 1 5 . C f . E . T hurs ton , H is tory o f t he Co inage o ft he T err i tor ies o ft he E as t I nd ia Co mpany i n t he I nd ian P en insu la e tc., Madra .s 1 890, p . 3 4 , c i t ing ad ocumen t o f 1 765 :

" The a nnual l oss o n c o inage b y t he f a l l o f Ba t ta,

o n t he i ssu ing o ft he n ew S iccas ( rupees ) , i s av ery h eavy g r ievance t o t he c oun try" . 1 6 .

B at ta i s t he d iscoun t c harged b y t he money-changers .

For a s ucc inct a ccoun t o f t he p rocess o f ' re ' for ma t ion ', s ee A . Enge l a nd R . S errure, Nu m is ma t ique moderne e t c on te mpora ine, I , P ar is 1 892 p . 2 5 .

F or t he c on t inued c urrency o f o ld F rench e cus a nd l ou is

d 'ors o u ts ide F rance, s ee T . S ne l l ing , Curren t Co ins o f Europe , London 1 766 , p . 1 6 . 1 7 .

F or a u sefu l e xerc ise i n r es tra ined i n terpre ta t ion , s ee R . Reece i n B . Cun l if fe , Excava t ions a t F ishbourne 1 961-1969, Vo l . H .

S ocie ty

o f An t iquar ies Repor ts n o . XXV I I . 9 2 . F or a h oard s pec if ica l ly a ssoc iated w i th a p erson a nd a n e ven t , s ee A JN 1 912.36 ;

af ind o f c o ins i n ac asket a t B o l l ingen , Wur t te mberg , was

a cco mpan ied b y ap aper b ear ing t he f o l low ing v erse :Der s chwed t i st k o m me , h a t a ls mitgno m me , h a t a uch wa l le h awe , ih abs v ergrabe. 1 634 B ozehar t t .

2 00

COINS FOUND I N ANGLO-SAXON BURIALS b y S . E . R igo ld

T he c on tex ts o f t hese f inds a re t he ' pagan ' g raves wh ich s t i l l p rov ide b y f ar t he g reater p ar t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he e ar l ier S axon a ge. T hey a re ' pagan ' i n s o f ar a s t hey i nc lude g rave-goods , wh ich h ave n o u se o r p lace i n Chr ist ian d ogma , b u t t hey e x tend i n to t imes a nd p laces w e l l b eyond t he o f f ic ia l a ccep tance o f Chr ist ian i ty .

T hey o ccur i n K en t ac en tury a f ter

t he miss ion o f Augus t ine a nd i n Y orksh ire a c en tury a f ter t ha t o f P au l inus , a nd t here i s n o d oub t , p ar t icu lar ly i n t hese K en t ish c ases , t hat t he d eceased were a t l east n om ina l ly Chr is t ian .

T h is d a te i s t he t erm inus f or t h is d iscus-

s ion , b u t i ti s n o t t he e nd o f t he p ract ice :

t he d i f f icu l ty , i n E ng land , i s t o

e stab l ish many l a ter i nstances w here c o ins a re c er ta in ly , n ot j us t p robab ly , a ssoc ia ted w ith b ur ia ls.

Al a te-Saxon c eme tery , a bandoned i n t he e leven th

c en tury , c lose t o Eyns ford C ast le , K en t ,

1

p roduced a n A ethe lred I p enny ;

a no ther , f ro m B ishops Wa l tham P a lace , H a mpsh ire , i s n ot c er ta in ly f ro m t he c emetery o f s im i lar d a te o n t he s i te . 2 T he w ea lth o f l a te-n in th-cen tu ry Caro l ing ian c o ins f ro m s uch Frank ish c e meter ies a s l e Mar tray a nd l e Charn ier a t F o issyles-Veze lay , Yonne , s o me f ound i n s arcophag i a nd c er ta in ly n ot c asua l l osses , a t tests t he p ers istance o f t he p ract ice e ven i n G au l a nd t here a re i ns tances o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins f ro m t he e ar l ier e igh th c en tury o nwards f ro m c rowded a nd o ver-used c hurchyards , p resu mab ly i n c on t inuous u se f ro m t hat t ime , b u t w ith t he o lder b ur ia ls i nev itab ly d istu rbed . Ken t ,

3

Among t he o ldest a re t he t wo ' secondary s cea t tas ' f ro m S tourmouth , wh i le a tR ichborough , n ot f ar away , an u mber o f ' scea t tas ' a nd b y

f ar t he l arges t a sse mb lage o f c o ins o f t he a ge o f O ffa f ro m a ny s ing le s i te a re p robab ly t o b e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he b ur ia l-ground o f t he e ar ly c hape l , wh ich w ou ld h ave l os t most o f i t s b ur ia l-r igh ts t o t he p ar ish t hat a bsorbed i t , r ather t han t o b e e xp la ined a s mass ive c asua l l osses o f o f fer ings . 4 Fro m wh ich i ta ppears t hat , s av ing t he p ract ice o f b ury ing c ler ics a nd d ign itar ies w ith t he ir i ns ign ia , c o ins a re t he u l t imate a nd mos t p ers istan t f orm o f g rave-goods , c o m mon ly , b u t n ot a lways , t he o n ly b e igabe i n ar e la t ive ly l a te g rave.

Ih ave a rgued t ha t t he o r ig in o f t he p ract ice , i n t he

l ate s even th- a nd e igh th-cen tury c on tex ts , b eyond wh ich t h is d iscuss ion w i l l b e n o more c oncerned , i s t he p rop it iat ion o f t he d ead b y at oken-paymen t f or t he g oods t ha t w ere h encefor th r eserved f or t he u se o f t he l i v ing .

5

I f

t hese l a ter i ns tances a re s ubs t itu tes f or g enera l g rave-goods , t he e ar l ier o nes , f ro m S u t ton H oo d ownwards , a re b u t o ne k ind o f c o m mod ity among many . C o ins f ro m p agan-type b ur ia ls may b e p laced i n t hree c a tegor ies :i ) Roman c o ins , a es o r v ery o ccas iona l ly s i lver , a nd ma in ly f rom t he mid-th ird t o t he mid-four th c entur ies - n ever l a te e nough a nd i n e ar ly

2 01

e nough c on tex ts t o g ive t he s l igh test c o lour t o t he n ow-exp loded n ot ion o f ac on t inu ity o f c urrency ; i )

G o ld , o r b ase-go ld , c oins f ro m a ny s ource b etween t he e astern Emp ire a nd V is igoth ic S pa in ( no Mus l i m min tages h ave b een f ound ), b ut p redomi nan t ly f ro m t he Merov ing ian r ea lm a nd , a t t he e nd o f t he a ge , f ro m Eng land i t se l f -t he a ge b e ing t ha t when t he w estern i ssues w ere a l most e xc lus ive ly o f g o ld a nd wh ich c o inc ides e xact ly w ith t ha t o f p agan o r i nc o mp lete ly c onver ted S axondo m , f rom t he mid-f i f th c entury t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he s even th ;

i i )

S i lver c o ins , wh ich means , w ith in t he t erm in i o f t h is p aper , ' s cea t tas ' o r sma l l-f lan p enn ies , i nc lud ing t hose o f Fr is ian , b u t n ot , h i ther to , F rank ish min tage , n or r esucc i tated , c l ipped s i l iquae , t hough t here i s o ne c ase o f a n Ancien t Br it ish c o in ( Ep i l lus i n K en t ) , c lose e nough i n s ize a nd w e igh t t o h ave p assed a s a' scea t t a . '. 6 T he s um o f t hese c o ins , f ro m s tr ict ly s epu lchra l c on tex ts , i s p erhaps

2 50 f or t he f irst c ategory ; a t l east 4 0 , p robab ly 4 6 a nd , i t wou ld s eem , a l arge n u mber o fu nver if iab le i nstances , f or t he s econd , o ut o f at o ta l o f 1 37 c o ins o f t h is c lass o f c er ta in o r s trong ly a rguab le B r i t ish a nd I r ish p rovena nce , n ot c oun t ing S ut ton H oo , wh ich p rov ides a nother 4 0 , n or t he Cronda l l h oard ; p erhaps 8 0 c er ta in i nstances f or t he t h ird , a nd many l i ke ly b u t =v er i f iab le. T he Ro man c o ins f ro m Ang lo-Saxon c eme ter ies h ave b een s um mar i ly t rea ted b y Dr . J .P .C. K en t i n t he F estschr if t t o S ir F rank S ten ton . 7 More i ns tances h ave c o me t o l i gh t , p ar t icu lar ly f rom Miss V .I . E v ison 's e xcav a t ion o f L ong H i l l , D over , b ut t here i s l i t t le t o a dd o r mod i fy i n Dr . Ken t 's g enera l c onc lus ions a nd t he f inds a re o f n o c hrono log ica l s ign i f icance e xcep tb y s tr ict ly S axon c o mpar isons. With f ew e xcep t ions , t hey a re e i ther p ierced f or moun t ing , a s p endan ts t o t he c heaper n eck laces o r s t itched d irect ly o n to c loth ing , o r t hey a re g round d own t o make we igh ts f or t he sma l l b a lances t hat a re f ound w ith t he m , a nother o f wh ich c ame f ro m L ong H i l l. T hose t ha t a re i n tact must e i ther b e mere t oys o r t a l ismans o r may p erhaps s erve t he s ymbo l ic f unct ion o f t he a cceptab le c o ins i n g raves , i n e ven more t oken f orm . T he g o ld c o ins , o r s o me o f t he m , h ave b een d iscussed b y D r . C .H .V . S u ther land b u t w i thout d e ta i led c r it ic ism o f h is s ources ,8 a nd t ouched u pon i n t wo a r t ic les i n t he S ten ton F estchr if t .9 N ever theless , n o r ev iew o f a l l t he f i nds o f g o ld c o inage f rom t h is a ge , a par t f rom S ut ton H oo a nd Cronda l l , whether f ro m g rave-f inds o r n ot , i s y e t i n p r in t . Ih ave made a l i st t ha t c la ims t o b e b oth c r i t ica l a nd a s e xhaust ive a s may b e , a s ac on tr ibu t ion t o t he d ef in it ive p ub l ica t ion o f S ut ton H oo.

I tw ou ld b e b oth u nneccessary a nd

p re mature t o r ec ite i th ere , b u t t he f igures , g iven a bove, more t han d oub le Dr . S uther land ' s. S o me g enera l r e marks , h owever , may b e made a t t h is s tage , f or t he mater ia l i s o f i mmense a rchaeo log ica l i mpor tance , q u ite o ut o f p ropor t ion t o i t s sma l l n u mbers , a nd e ssen t ia l ly o f t he s ame n ature a s t ha t f ro m S ut ton H oo , w i th a l l t he d ispu ta t ion a bou t t he d a te o f s tr ik ing a nd t he

2 02

r eserva t ion a bou t t he i n terva l b efore b ur ia l.

T he v a lue o f s uch f inds , p ar t-

i cu lar ly f ro m g raves , was a pprec ia ted n ear ly f or ty y ears a go b y Dr . J oach im Werner ,

1 0

whose f ur ther s tud ies h ave much c lar if ied t he s ign i f icance o f i t s

w ider d istr ibu t ion .

I n f act , t here i s n ow a l most u n iversa l a gree men t a bou t

t he l ower d a te o f t he c onten t o f S u t ton H oo , t hough l ess a bout i t s ( l ess s ign i fi can t ) u pper l im it , a nd a much b et ter a ssess men t o f t he V is iogoth ic a nd o ther ma ter ia l i s n ow p oss ib le t han a g enerat ion a go , when Dr . J . A l len d a ted t he S ut ton H oo mater ia l n ear ly t wo g enera t ions l a ter t han i s n ow c onc eded .

T he i n terva l b etween s tr ik ing a nd b ur ia l r e ma ins i mponderab le ,

b u t f or tunate ly t he more s ign i f ican t i n terva l b etween s tr ik ing a nd s e t t ing t he c o ins i n j ewe l lery i s l ess d i f f icu lt , t hough i ta ppears t o b e o f ten w ide i n t he e ar l ier s ix th c en tury , when f i f th-cen tury c oins w ere s t i l l n umerous e nough t o move a round , a nd v ery s hor t i n t he e ar ly s even th , when f resh b ut f ug it ive c o ins w ere q u ick ly s iezed u pon . T he f or ty-odd a uthen t icated g rave-f inds , a par t f ro m S ut ton H oo , i nc lude n o t rue h oards , i n t he s ense o f n umbers o fu nmoun ted a nd p oten t ia l ly n ego ti ab le c o ins , n or a ny s usp ic ions o f s uch . moun ted a nd moun ted .

T he c o ins may b e d iv ided i n to u n-

T he u nmoun ted a re h ard t o r eckon :

t hey d o n ot

s ee m t o n umber more t han o ne o r t wo i n n orma l g raves , b u t t hey c er ta in ly o ccur . Iam g ra tefu l t o Mrs. L es l ie Webster f or s how ing me a t re m iss is , a pparen t ly f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he s even th c en tury , f ound o n ly t h is y ear i n ag rave a t B roadsta irs - a s ing le , f resh c o in among o ther B e igabe.

I t

s ee ms p robab le t ha t more o f t he s ing le f inds o fu nmoun ted c o ins f ro m s uch p laces a s Recu lver , where t here a re k nown t o h ave b een d isturbed o r e roded c e meter ies a re s trays f ro m t hese t han a re l osses f ro m b u l l ion o r c ircu la ti on .

T he ' moun ted ' g o ld c o ins , l ooped o r f ra med , r ather t han c rude ly

p ierced a s a re t he Ro man , a re p endan tj ewe ls a nd h ave l ong a t tracted f a me a nd a t ten t ion .

T hey t oo a re c o m mon ly i n o nes a nd t wos , b u t t here a re a

f ew c ases o f a sse mb lages o f l arger n umbers wh ich h ave b een r ated a s ' hoards '.

T hese a re s i mp ly t he a ppur tenances o f more e xpens ive n eck laces.

Among t hese i s t he f a mous ' S t . Ma r t in 's h oard ' f ro m Can terbury , o r ig ina l ly d escr ibed a s f ro m t he ' grounds o f S t . August ines ' a nd p erhaps f ro m t he p r ison b etween t he m t ha t was b e ing ' improved ' a bou t t he t ime o f t he d iscovery . T he g rea ter p ar t i s c er ta in ly p re-August in ian , b ut a t l east o ne s ing le p end an t o f l a ter d a te may h ave b eco me c on fused w i th i t .

H ard ly l ess f a mous i s

t he s e t o f f our p endan t s ou th G a l l ic s o l id i f ro m S arre , Ken t , b u t a nother , a nd e ar l ier s et o f s ix moun ted t re m isses f ro m F aversham h ad l a in w ithou t c o mmen t i n t he B r i t ish Museum f or s o me e igh ty y ears , f ro m w hen i tw as p resen ted b y S ir A .W . Franks u n t i l when Mrs. Webster k ind ly b rough t i t t o my n o t ice.

I n a l l t he moun ted g rave-f inds t ota l a t l east 3 2, p robab ly 3 8,

o r 4 2 i ft wo moun ted ' Pa t hs ' f ro m L ong H i l l , D over , a nd t wo , u nmoun ted , f rom S arre a re i nc luded , wh ich a re d irect s uccessors o f b ase g o ld t re m iss es , t hough o f l ess t han g ood s i lver .

I n g enera l , a nd where a va i lab le ,

s o l id i w ere moun ted i n p reference t o t re m isses , a s b roader a nd more s howy , a nd a re s e ldo m f ound w ithou t s igns o f moun t ing . a lways a va i lab le :

T hey were n ot

t he s ources a re f i f th o r e ven f our th-century i mper ia l

i ssues , o r i m ita t ions o f t he m , e astern i ssues o f t he s ix th a nd s even th a nd , a bove a l l , t he l igh t i ssues f ro m Provence t ha t b eg in i n t he i mper ia l n a me

2 03

c . 5 75 a nd c hange t o t ha t o f t he Frank ish k ing , c . 6 15 , t he b est d a ted a nd most a rchetypa l o f a l l i ssues f ro m G au l . 1 When s o l id i w ere n o t a va i lab le ' mock s o l id i ' c ou ld b e manu factured , b u t t owards 5 75 a n a lterna t ive w as f ound i n t he b road , t h in t re m isses o f t he V is igoths i n S pa in .

Cur ious ly , n one o f

t hose b ear ing t he r oya l n a me , f ro m L eov ig i ld o nwards , h as b een f ound , f or a t t h is v ery mo men t , s hor t ly b efore Augus t ine 's miss ion , t he ma in s ource o f g o ld c o in i mpor ted i n to Br i ta in b eg ins t o move f ro m S pa in a nd s ou th-wes t Gau l t o wes t a nd c en tra l G au l , t o s et t le , a f ter S ut ton H oo , o verwhe lm ing ly i n Austras ia , w ith t he Provenca l min ts a lways a ccess ib le.

T h is a lone i s a

c umu la t ive r ecord o f e cono m ic h istory , a nd t he s teady a nd e ven d is tr ibu t ion o f c o ins f ound i n sma l l n umbers i n g raves g ives t he sma l l t o ta l as ta t ist ica l s ign i f icance a s as amp le t ha t i tw ou ld n ot h ave i fd isturbed b y l arger h oards. T he v a lue o f t hese c o ins a s r e lat ive ly f ir m p o in ts i n t he p rocess ion o f t he f inest Ken t ish a nd a l l ied j ewe l lery h as l ong b een a pprec ia ted . T he t yp ica l i nc idence o f s i lver c o ins i n g rave-f inds b eg ins n o t w i th t he v ery e ar l iest ' sceat tas ', t he u l t i mate ' Padas ' a nd t he ir c on te mporar ies , b u t w ith t he a pparen t r es tora t ion o f c o inage i n t he ' pr i mary s cea t tas ' p roper , wh ich , Ih ave c la i med , marks t he p ac if ica t ion o f Ken t i n t he e ar ly 6 90s . Un moun ted s ing les a nd p a irs s t i l l o ccur :

1 2

t here was a s ing le Fr is ian s cea t la

f ound b y Miss E v ison a t K ingston a nd a p a ir , n ot d escr ibed , f rom B arha m Down n ear-by.

B u t t he d ist inct ive p at tern i s t ha t o f sma l l ' hoards ' , i n a t

l east o ne c ase w ith t he r e ma ins o f ap urse , b u t w i th f ew o r n o o ther g raveg oods , a nd t o ad ef in ite t a le o f p ieces - t wen ty i n o ne i nstance , p oss ib ly i n t wo , e igh t i n t hree , p robab ly f our c ases , a nd i n t wo o r t hree c ases f i ve.

1 3

We may c o mpare t he f or ty f ro m S ut ton H oo , b u t s o many p rec ise d ed ica t ions i n an ow r e la t ive ly sma l l d eno m inat ion s ee ms t o i nd ica te t ha t t he w ho le p opu la t ion w as n ow f am i liar w ith s ums o f money , a s d ist inct f ro m t reasure o r t reasures , a nd t hat t he s a me s ums w ere c usto mary n ot o n ly i n K en t a nd Essex b u t i n Yorksh ire.

T hese ' hoards ', n or ma l ly o f f resh ly min ted c oins

i n t wo v ar iet ies o n ly , h ave b een e nough t o e s tab l ish t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t he p r i mary ' scea t tas ', t o wh ich o n ly o ne l arger , n on-sepu lcra l h oard , f ro m Eng land , i s r e levan t .

T he f ina l c ase , f ro m Y orksh ire , w i th more

t ypes , f a l ls a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he ' secondary ' p hase.

S uch i so la ted

' hoards ' a re , o f c ourse , s e l f-re feren t a nd o f p ure ly n um is mat ic , r a ther t han o f w ider a rchaeo log ica l r e levance.

Never the less , t hey a ss is t t he

i n terna l c hrono logy o f t he c e me ter ies a nd t he c us to m o f p rec ise g raveh oards i s i n i t se l f a n i mpor tan t a rchaeo log ica l d atu m . T he d istr ibu t ion b oth o f moun ted g o ld c o ins a nd s i lver g rave-hoards may b e s et a ga inst t he o vera l l i nc idence o f g o ld o f t he Merov ing ian p er iod a nd o f ' scea tt as ', n ot o n ly i n B r i ta in b ut t hroughou t t he marches o f t he Franki sh r ea lm , p ar t icu lar ly Fr is ia a nd t he l eng th o f t he Rh ine.

P erhaps t he

ma ter ia l i s t oo l i t t le t o d ec ide much , b u t i n Eng land , wh i le t here s ee ms t o b e n o c on trast o f d istr ibu t ion i n t he g o ld , t he s i lver h oards a re c on f ined t o Ken t a nd t he T hames e stuary , w i th t he o u t l ier i n Yorksh ire " a nd p robab ly o ne i n B edfordsh ire ,

1 5

a t at ime when ' scea tt as ' a re b eg inn ing t o s how a

more t han e ast-coas t d istr ibu t ion .

T h is s pread i s more a f eature o f t he

' secondary ' p hase a nd a ny c on tras t means l i t t le i ft he ' hoards ' a re c oncen tr ated n ear t he b eg inn ing o f t he ' pr i mary ' p hase.

2 04

I ti s g rat ify ing t ha t t he t hree means o f i ncreas ing t he r e levan t mater ia l h ave b een p ursued s o c onco m i tan t ly :

r ecovery o f o ld a nd f orgotten r ecords ,

r e in terpre tat ion o f w e ll-known r ecords a nd n ew a nd we l l-conducted e xcava ti ons .

Dep t . o f t he Env iron men t

NOTES 1 .

I nformat ion f rom Mr . S .R . Harker .

2 .

o f t he C on fessor : i n for ma t ion f ro m Co m mander R .P . Mack .

3 .

5 .E . R igo ld , ' The Two Pr i mary S er ies o f S cea t tas ', B .N.J., x xx ( 1960 ), 5 2.

4 .

Repor t o n t he Excavat ions a t ...R ichborough , Ken t , v( 1968 ), 2 17-223.

5 .

o p. c it . ,i n n ote 3 , 8 .

6 .

i b id ., 4 8.

7 .

Ang lo-Saxon Co ins , e d . R .H .M . Do l ley , L ondon 1 961, 1 8-21 ( append ix t o ' Fro m Ro man Br i ta in t o S axon Eng land ' (.

8 .

G .H .V . S u ther land , Ang lo-Saxon Co inage i n t he L igh t o f t he Cronda l l H oard , Ox ford , 1 948, e sp. 2 2-30.

9 . 1 0. 1 1.

i b id ., 1 -22 ( J .P .C. Ken t ), a nd 2 2-38 ( P. D . Wh if ing ). J . Werner , M i inzda t ier te Austras ische Grabfunde , B er l in 1 935. S .E. R igo ld , ' An Imper ia l Co inage i n S outhern G au l i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th Cen tur ies? ', Nu m. Chron . 6 th s er ., x iv ( 1955 ), 9 3-133.

1 2.

o p.c it . i n n ote 3 , 5 2.

1 3.

o p. c it . i n n ote 3 , p ass im , a nd ' Addenda a nd Corr igenda ', B .N .J ., M OW

( 1966 ), 1 -6 , wh ich s ee f or t he p urse.

1 4.

G ar ton-on-the- Wo lds , o p .c i t . i n n ote 3 , 4 9.

1 5.

S andy , i b id ., 4 7.

2 05

MONETARY EXPANS ION AND RECESSION :

I NTERPRETING THE

D ISTRIBUTION-PATTERNS OF S EVENTH- AND E IGHTH-CENTURY COINS b y D .M . Metca lf

C onf l ict ing a spects o f t he n um is ma t ic e v idence f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh th c entury - o n t he o ne h and t he r estr ict ion o f t he c o inage o f k ing O f fa o f Merc ia ( 757-96 ) c h ief ly t o a min t i n e ast Ken t , a nd o n t he o ther h and t he a pparen t ly v ery l arge q uan t it ies i n wh ich t he c o ins w ere s truck a nd t he ir g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion t hroughou t s ou th-eastern Eng land - g ave r ise s o me y ears a go t o as harp c lash o f o p in ions o n t he a ppropr iate moneta ry a nd h istor ica l i n terpreta t ion .

1

Av ery s im i lar c on tras t i n t he s ceat ta

c o inage f ro m t he l a te s eventh a nd t he f irst h a l f o f t he e igh th c en tury - a ga in , min t ing c oncen trated i n t he s ou th-east c orner o f Eng land b ut c ircu la t ion o ver a much w ider a rea - h as a lso p rovoked d isagree men t o ver a p ostu la ted min t i n t he Eng l ish mid lands i n t he t ime o f k ing AEthe lba ld o f Merc ia ( 7 165 7 ). 2

T he p at tern may b e d iscerned a t h ird t ime o ver i n t he g o ld c o inage

f ro m t he f irst t hree q uar ters o f t he s even th c entury .

H ere , t oo , t here h ave

b een d ispu ted i n terpre ta t ions , b u t t he e v idence i s s o s lender a nd i mprec ise t ha t ac onsensus c an h ard ly b e e xpected .

As i s u sua l i n d ispu tes , i ns igh ts

t ha t w ere t rue i n t he mse lves , b u t i nco mp le te , h ave b een g rasped o n b oth s ides.

Wha t i s p erhaps u nusua l i s t ha t a ny r econci ling p r inc ip le h as p roved

h ard t o f ind .

I td oes s ee m , h owever , t hat s w if t f luctuat ions i n t he e x ten t

o f t he Eng l ish mone tary s yste m d ur ing t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies may h o ld t he k ey .3 I fs o , t he c oinage p rov ides a l esson i n t he c orrect i n terpreta t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l d istr ibu t ion-pa t terns.

T he e v idence f or t he g eogra-

p h ica l e x ten t o f monetary c ircu la t ion i n t h is p er iod ( as h as b een r epeated ly emphas ized ) i s who l ly a nd i nescapab ly a rchaeo log ica l i n c haracter .

I t

i nd icates a w idespread u se o f c o inage t hroughou t s ou thern Eng land :

b u t i f

t here were p hases o f monetary e xpans ion f o l lowed b y r ecess ion , s o t hat t he a rea o ccup ied b y a money e cono my f luctua ted , t he o vera l l d istr ibu t ionp at tern o f s tray f inds w i l l t end t o d ef ine i t s max imum e x ten t , a t wha tever d ate t ha t may h ave b een , a nd w i l l o bscure t he s ta te o f a f fa irs a t i n ter medi a te d ates.

S tray l osses c annot , o f c ourse , b e d ated p rec ise ly , a nd t he

a rea where money was i n u se may h ave c hanged g rea t ly o ver p er iods a s s hor t a s o ne o r t wo d ecades. T he a ct iv ity o f a dd it iona l min ts , f or e xa mp le a t S outha mp ton , o r i n t he Mid lands , may h ave b een a v iab le p ropos it ion f or p er iods t ha t w ere e qua l ly s hor t . I fi ti s d if f icu lt t o d a te c o in-f inds c lose ly e nough t o b r ing t he m i n to c on junct ion w i th r ap id ly-sh i f t ing p a t terns o f h istor ica l e ven ts , o ther c lass es o f a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l a re p robab ly s ub ject t o e ven w ider margins o fu ncer ta in ty .

F or t he m , t oo , t he o vera l l d istr ibu t ion-pat tern w i l l b e

l iab le t o d ef ine t he max i mu m a rea o f t he ir d ifus ion , a nd a rchaeo log is ts

2 06

may o n o ccas ion b e j ust if ied i n i n terpret ing t he ir maps w i th t h is t hough t i n mind . T he a rgumen ts o n wh ich t he c ase f or monetary e xpans ion a nd r ecess ion r ests a re u n for tuna te ly d eta i led i n c haracter.

T h is p aper a t te mp ts t o s um-

mar ize t he m , p rov id ing r eferences t o as cat tered l i terature, a nd t o s how h ow t hey a re c onnected w ith e ach o ther . T he s tock o f g o ld i n t he H ep tarch ic k ingdo ms was f ed b y t he i mpor t o f Merov ing ian meta l.

T here i s n o r eason t o d oub t t ha t t h is c a me c h ief ly i n

t he f orm o f t r ien tes , n or t ha t t he w ea lth o f G au l f ar o u twe ighed t ha t o f Br ita in .

T he f l ow o f g o ld a cross t he Channe l a pparen t ly i ncreased a t ar e l-

a t ive ly l a te d a te , a s w i l l a ppear f rom R igo ld is f or thco m ing i nven tory o f s ing le-f inds . ' I t may h ave r ece ived a n i mpetus f ro m t he t h ird q uarter o f t he s ix th c entury o nwards t hrough d ynast ic a nd c u ltura l c onnect ions b etween t he k ingdo m o f K en t a nd t he Merov ing ian k ingdo ms. c en tra t ion o f w ea l th i n e ast Ken t i s w e l l k nown .

T he e xcept iona l c on-

T ogether w ith t h is s hou ld

b e s et t he e v idence o f t he Merov ing ian c o ins f ro m S ut ton H oo.

T hey a re

f ro m s o many d i f feren t minor min ts t ha t -u n less t hey w ere a s pec ia lis t c o in c o l lect ion - t hey c an o n ly b e t he " lef t-overs" f ro m t he b ot tom o f a t reasure-chest t hrough wh ich a g reat d ea l o f money h ad p assed .

6

One r e-

me mbers t he v ar ious e igh th-cen tury g ran ts o f r em iss ion o f t o l ls o n as h ip o r as hare i n as h ip , a t t he r oya l t o l l-s tat ions a t F ordw ich , S arre , a nd L ondon . t oo :

S h ips may h ave made l andfa l l a t e ar l ier d ates , a nd a t o ther p orts

t he e v idence t ha t h as s urv ived o bv ious ly r evea ls o n ly a f ract ion o f t he

c ross-channe l t rade a nd t he mone tary t ransact ions i tg enera ted . T he i mp l ica t ions n eed t o b e e xp lored c arefu l ly , s ince t he h and l ing o f n ega t ive e v idence a bout t he d a te o f t he sma l l b eg inn ings o f a ny k ind o f d isp ers ion i s b ound t o b e t r icky , b u t t he s tra igh t forward i n terpre tat ion s ee ms t o i nvo lve a s ubs tan t ia l g row th i n t he money s upp ly i n t he l a te s ix th a nd e ar ly s even th c entur ies , r estr icted e ssen t ia l ly t o o ne o r t wo r oya l c en tres o n t he e ast c oast .7 I ti s c ur ious t ha t t he a va i lab i l ity o f Merov ing ian g o ld w as n ot more p ro mp t ly a nd f u l ly r ef lected i n t he a u tono mous i ssues.

T he Ang lo-Saxon

g o ld c o inage may h ave h ad v ery sma l l b eg inn ings i n Can terbury , a nd p erh aps L ondon , s o me t ime i n t he f irst t wo d ecades o f t he s even th c entury , a lthough t he d a t ing o f L ondon c o ins t o b efore 6 16 r ests o n a rgumen ts t ha t s hou ld n ow b e a bandoned.

T he i n terpretat ion o f t he " Dorovern is" t r iens

a nd o ne o r t wo o ther c o ins t hat may b e long t o a" pre-Cronda l l" p hase i s i nev i tab ly t enuous.

T here a re v irtua l ly n o Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n t he Cr on-

d a l l h oard o f a n a l loy t ha t i s l ike ly t o h ave b een u sed b efore t he t ime o f Dagober t ;

t he Merov ing ian c oins , wh ich Ken t wou ld n ow d a te t o t he 6 30s ,

t e l l t he s a me s tory :

t he h oard h as a c o mpact a ge-s tructure.

T he q uest ion

i s whether t here w ere a ny e ar l ier Ang lo-Saxon i ssues a bou t wh ich Crond a l l i s s i len t , a nd wh ich h ave h ad a n e x tre me ly l ow s urv iva l- r ate.

T here

w ere , o f c ourse , n one a t S ut ton H oo ( ca . 6 25 ), b ut t ha t c ou ld b e as pec ia l c ase f or t he r eason a l luded t o.

One s hou ld t herefore r eserve j udgmen t ;

b u t t he s tra igh t forward i n terpreta t ion i s t ha t i t was n ot u n t i l t he 6 30s a nd 6 40s t ha t t here w as a f lower ing o f t he Eng l ish c o inage.

2 07

A t much t he s a me

t ime t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a nu nusua l d egree o f a ct iv ity i n c hurchb u i ld ing .

T he amoun t o f r ich j ewe l lery s urv iv ing f ro m t he p er iod a t tests

t o s urp lus w ea lth . I ti s f a ir ly o bv ious ( aga in f rom t he Cronda l l h oard ) t ha t more t han o ne s er ies o f t r ientes , e ach d ist inct ive i n d es ign , w as b e ing i ss ued c oncurren t ly , a nd t he i mp l icat ion i s t ha t more t han o ne min t w as a t w ork . T he Cronda l l f i nd , f ro m t he f r inges o f B agshot H eath , i s i t se lf f ar r e moved f ro m t he c ross-Channe l a x is o f monetary a f fa irs. C anterbury a nd L ondon s t i l l n o d oub t a ccoun tf or most o f t he o utpu t , b u t i ti s t he f ew e xcep t ions t hat a re i n as ense t he mos t i n tr igu ing - f or e xamp le , t he s oc a l led " Bear t igo" r un ic t r ien tes f ound a t D orchester i n Ox fordsh ire a nd a t E ast leach T urv i l le i n G loucestersh ire , o r t he t hree " York" t r ien tes. 9 A r ecess ion i n t he 6 50s a nd 6 60s i s c on jectura l , a s t here a re n o Eng l ish i o h oards t o e luc ida te t he p a le g o ld c o inage o f t he " post-Cronda l l" p er iod . T he "Two Emperors" t ype s eems o r ig ina l ly t o h ave b een p len t ifu l ,

1

b u t

o ther d es igns , s uch a s t he " Cr ispus" c opy f ound a t S t .A lbans , a nd t he s imi l ar w ork o f t he moneyer P ada ,1 2 a re s carce o r v ery s carce. T he g radua l dw ind l ing o f g o ld s upp l ies a nd t he e ven tua l r ep lacemen t o f g o ld b y s i lver , b oth i n G au l a nd i n B r ita in a t a bou t t he s ame d ate , g enera l e xp lana t ion :

1 3

may b e as u f f ic ien t

w ha t w ou ld h ave a more p rec ise b ear ing o n E ng l ish

monetary h is tory w ou ld b e e v idence t hat , b efore t he d a te o f i t s r ep lacemen t , t he t i de o f g o ld r eceded f ro m much o f t he s outh-east , u n t i l i tp ract ica l ly d isappeared e xcep t i n e ast K en t, a nd p erhaps t he E ssex c oast a s f ar a s L ondon .

T he d e monstra t ion o f s uch a c hange , o ccurr ing b etween c a . 6 50

a nd c a. 6 70 , c ou ld i n p r inc ip le o n ly b e a rchaeo log ica l , a nd t he i mposs ib i li t y o f d a t ing s tray l osses , e ven i ft he c o ins t he mse lves c ou ld b e d a ted p rec ise ly , r e moves a ny h ope o f c har t ing t he s tages o f w i thdrawa l w i th i ndep enden t p roof . What i s q u ite c lear , h owever , i s t hat w hen t he t r ien tes ( o f wh ich t he g o ld c on ten ts h ad f a l len t o c a. 2 8% ) w ere a bandoned i n f avour o f ap ure s i lver c o inage 1 4 ( t he d enar i i o r p enn ies w h ich n um ismat ists c a l l s cea t tas ) t hey w ere a t f i rs t a nd f or q u ite a l ong t ime e ssen t ia l ly r estr ic ted t o e as t Ken t .

Moreover , t he s i lver o f t he moneyer P ada ( a s er ies i n c on t inuat ion

o f h is b ase g o ld ) a nd o f " Var i mundus", wh ich a re p resumed b oth t o b e Ken t ish a nd t o c onst i tu te a n i n i t ia l , a l most a p re l im inary , p hase o f t he s cea t tas , a re s carce. T hey g ave w ay t o t he e c lect ic d es ign o f P r imary S er ies A , a nd t he a pparen t ly c on te mporary i ssue , S er ies B . T hese o ccur a l most e xc lus ive ly a s g rave-f inds i n t he r estr icted r eg ion o f e ast K en t .

1 5

T he P ada a nd " Var i mundus" s cea t tas h ad v ir tua l ly d isappeared f ro m c irc u lat ion b efore t he g rave-f inds w ere b ur ied . Yet t here i s ar e lat ive ly h igh p ropor t ion o f c on t inen ta l f i nds o f c o ins o f P ada ( c f . t he e ar l iest p enn ies ) a s w e l l a s e ast K en t ish g rave-f inds. s urv iva l-ra te .

S er ies A a nd B h ave h ad a f a ir ly h igh

T he f irst Eng l ish s i lver c o ins may h ave b een s truck a s e ar ly a s c a . 6 75 , o r a s l a te a s c a . 6 86-7. S er ies A may h ave b egun c a . 6 94 ( a lthough t he r eason f or t h is d at ing h as b een q uest ioned 1 6 ) , o r , f or a l l w e c an s ay , al i t t le e ar l ier o r al i t t le l a ter .

F ro m a p ure ly n um is matc p o in t o f v iew ,

o ne w ou ld b e i nc l ined t o s pread t he s i lver o f P ada a nd " Var imundus" o ver a s l ong a p er iod a s p oss ib le , c er ta in ly n o t l ess t han t en y ears , a nd t o

2 08

MAP .

S cea t tas i n Br ita in .

The max i mum a rea d e marca ted b y t he f inds

r epresen ts t he d is tr ibu t ion o f s cea t tas i n a bou t t he 7 30s ( i .e . i n t he r e ign o f A Ethe lba ld ) .

T he b roken l i ne i nd ica tes t he " area o f r etrea t" ( e as t K en t ,

L ondon , t he E as t S axon c oas t ) .

L arger d o ts s how h oards , g rave-f inds ,

o r mu l t ip le f inds .

2 09

d iscoun t s o mewhat t he h igher s urv iva l o f S er ies A a nd B , wh ich w i l l h ave b een i ssued f or a s much a s t h ir ty y ears. T he d a tes a re n o t f i rm e nough t o p rove a ny th ing i ndependen t ly a bou t t he r a te o f e xpans ion o f t he n ew s i lver c o inage :

i ti s t he more e xact c onc lus ions t ha t c an b e d rawn f rom t he c hron-

o logy o f O f fa 's c o inage t ha t e ncourage o ne t o d etect a s im i lar ly s low b eg inn ing i n t he 6 80s. T he s pread o f t he s cea t ta c o inage o ver t he who le o f t he Eng l ish Mid lands , a long t he s outh c oast a s f ar a s D orset , a nd a long t he e ast c oast a t l eas t a s f ar a s N orw ich ( and e ven t o Wh itby )1 7 was n ot a ccomp l ished b y t he d i f fus ion o f t he K en t ish i ssues , S er ies A a nd B . T hey n ever s pread f ar i n E ng land b eyond e ast Ken t .

Ra ther , n umerous o ther t ypes w ere c rea ted l oca l ly ,

e spec ia l ly a t L ondon a nd S ou thamp ton , b u t q u i te p oss ib ly e lsewhere a s we l l . T here w ere a lso many i m ita t ions , a nd a g ood n umber o f i mpor ts f rom Fr is ia . T he d ate o f i ssue o f e ach o f t hese many t ypes i s h igh ly c on jectura l . Typo lo g ica l a rgu men ts o n t he ir own a re s uspect ,1 8 a nd t he b est g u idance l i es i n t he h oards a nd i n t he s i lver c on ten ts o f t he c o ins.

T he o r ig ina l ly v ery p ure

s i lver o f t he s cea t tas d ec l ined d rast ica l ly u n t i l a t t he e nd s ome v ar iet ies c on ta ined a s l i t t le a s 2 0% s i lver . A s ag enera l p ropos it ion o ne w ou ld n ot e xpec t s ceat tas o f v ery d i f feren t a l loy t o b e c ircu lat ing c oncurren t ly . ( But t h is s hou ld n ot b e a ccep ted u ncr it ica l ly , i fo n ly b ecause t he ir c ircu la t ion w as t o s o me e x ten t c o mpar tmen ted a nd u nder p o l i t ica l c on tro l.) T here i s a "watershed" a t ad a te c lose t o 7 30 : g ood s i lver c o ins a re e ar l ier , d eb ased o nes a re most ly l a ter .

F or t he p urposes o f t h is e ssay w e n eed n ot

s top t o d ef ine t he d eta i ls more e xac t ly , e xcep t t o r emark t ha t t he " Southamp ton" s er ies , a nd BMC T ype 3 a , f or wh ich a w est S ussex a t tr ibut ion h as b een p rov is iona l ly p u t f orward ,

1 9

b r idge t he t rans it ion .

T ype 3 a g oes a l l

t he w ay f ro m c o ins o f g ood s i lver , t o o thers t ha t s ee m t o b e a lmos t p ure c opper . T he s econdary p hase o f t he s cea t ta c urrency i n Eng land , c harac ter ized b y a mu lt ip l ica t ion o f l oca l t ypes a nd b y s evere d ebase men t , e nded i n a r u inous s i tuat ion , p erhaps a s e ar ly a s t he midd le y ears o f t he c en tury . 2° When o ne c o mes t o s urvey t he m , t he o bv ious ly d ebased Eng l ish v ar iet ies f orm a r e la t ive ly sma l l p ar t o f t he s cea t ta s er ies , more r estr icted i n t ype a nd o r ig in t han a v ague i mpress ion m igh t h ave a l lowed o ne t o a ssume . Once a ga in , t he c hrono logy i s e x traord inar i ly d if f icu l t t o s e ize.

Was

t here a n i n terva l b etween t he d isappearance o f t he s cea t tas a nd t he o r ig in o f t he n ew s i lver p enn ies , d ur ing wh ich mos t o r a l l o f Eng land w as d evo id o f c urrency? H ow c an o ne h ope t o s ay when c o ins f e l l o u t o fu se r eg iona l ly? Wha t i s ( aga in ) q u ite c lear i s t ha t t he n ew p enn ies w ere i n i t ia l ly i ssued o n av ery sma l l s ca le a nd w ere r estr icted t o e ast K en t . T hey w ere a r eformed c o inage , o f p ure s i lver , a nd i t wou ld b e v ery h ard t o b e l ieve t ha t t he d ebased s ceat tas w ere a l lowed t o r e ma in i n c ircu lat ion a longs ide t he m - i fi ndeed t hey h ad n o t v an ished y ears p rev ious ly . T he s evere d ebase men t i s i n i t se l f ap o in ter t o a dw ind l ing c urrency wh ich , o ne w ou ld j udge , s ank b e low t he p oin t o f m in i mum v iab i l ity , a nd d isapp eared .

T he q uest ion migh t b e a nswered b y s ay ing t ha t i n t he r es t o f

2 10

s ou thern Eng land , o u ts ide e ast Ken t , t here w as a l most c er ta in ly a n i nterva l , o f a t l east t wo o r t hree d ecades a round t he 7 60s a nd 7 70s.

I t may h ave b egun

s ooner , a nd l asted l onger . I n to t h is mone tary v acuu m , c o ins o f P ep in a nd o f Char lemagne w ere a b le t o p enetrate. N orma l ly , f ore ign c oins w ere r igorous ly a nd efect ive ly e xc luded f ro m c ircu la t ion . V ery f ew Caro l ing ian c o ins w ere a b le t o c ircu la te i n Eng land a f ter t he 7 80s ,

2 1

j ust a s v ery f ew Eng l ish p enn ies w ere a b le t o

e scape t he me l t ing-pot i n G au l. ( Bu t i fO f fa 's p enn ies s urv ived t he j ourney t o I t a ly , t hey s tood a b et ter c hance o f g a in ing c urrency i n n or th-cen tra l o r c en tra l I t a ly , where a lso , i t wou ld s ee m , t here w as a p hase w hen t he l oca l c urrency w as i nadequa te . 2 2 ) T here a re f i nds , f or e xamp le , f ro m S t . A lbans , S ou thamp ton , a nd R ichborough , a nd a c o in o f T ie l wh ich may b e a n E ng l ish f i nd .2 3 T he P ep in f ro m R ichborough i s ac rumb o f e v idence t ha t e ven i n e ast Ken t t he Eng l ish c urrency f e l l i n to d esuetude , i n t he 7 60s o r t hereabou ts. On ly i n Yorksh ire was t here c on t inu i ty t hrough t he m idd le y ears o f t he c en tury .

K ing E adberh t o f N or thumbr ia ( 7 37-58 ) t ook t he a l together u nus-

u a l s tep o f i ssu ing c o ins w ith h is n a me o n t he m. T he e xac t d a te a t wh ich t hey w ere s truck c annot b e d eterm ined , b u t t he b est o f t he m a re o f v ery p ure s i lver , a nd t hey t hen a ppear t o d ec l ine i n s tep w ith s ty l is t ic c hanges 2. 4 E ven a t t he b eg inn ing o f E adberh t 's r e ign , t he s tandard o f c o inage i n t he s ou thern k ingdo ms was u nder p ressure , a nd i ndeed h ad p robab ly a lready b een u nderm ined b y t he n umber o f c ounter fe its t ha t h ad b een u t tered .

T he

Nor thumbr ian r oya l c o inage may h ave b egun i n a n a t te mp t t o ma in ta in , a t Y ork , s tandards o f q ua l i ty a nd r e l iab i l ity t ha t w ere b e ing c omprom ised e lsewhere. s ib le.

We d o n ot k now where t he s i lver c a me f ro m t o make t h is p os-

M in ing s hou ld n ot b e e xc luded .

T he e xcess ive s carc ity o f s i lver

c o ins o f E adberh t 's s uccessors s hows t ha t t he a t te mp t w as a lready a bor ti ve i n t he 7 60s. T he v ery s carce E as t Ang l ian c o ins o f k ing " Beonna" o r B eorna were mos t p robab ly i nsp ired b y t he Nor thu mbr ian i ssues. T hey a re n ot , a s u sed t o b e c on jectured , " trans i t iona l" b etween t he s cea t tas a nd t he p enn ies. T h is w ou ld make n o s ense i n t er ms o f t he ir a l loy .2 5 T he q uest ion o f c on t inu ity b etween s cea t tas a nd p enn ies c ou ld p erhaps b e e xp lored f ur ther t hrough t he t race-e le men ts i n t he c o ins. T he e ar ly s cea t tas , f or e xa mp le , h ave v ery h igh g o ld t races , c o mmon ly o ver wh ich o ne wou ld e xpect t o s urv ive r e- m in t ing .

T he f ew p enn ies o f O f fa

a nd C oenwu lf t ha t h ave b een a na lysed s how , b y c on trast , l ow g o ld l eve ls b e low -a s d o o ne o r t wo e ar ly C aro l ing ian c o ins. T he i mp l icat ion t ha t t he E ng l ish s tock o f s i lver h ad d isappeared a nd b een r ep laced b y a no ther d eserves f ur ther s tudy .2 6 We c o me , t hen , t o t he v i ta l ly i n terest ing q ues t ions o f t he c hrono logy o f O f fa 's r eformed c o inage. T he p icture t ha t w i l l emerge i s o f ac urre ncy l aunched i n e ast K en t p erhaps a s e ar ly a s 7 65 , b u t wh ich d id n o t g a in much mo mentum u n t i l c a . 7 86, t ha t i s , t wen ty y ears l a ter .

T he

b u lk o f O f fa 's c o ins f a l l i n to t he l ast t en y ears o f h is r e ign ( i .e. 7 86-96 ),

2 11

a nd o n ly t hen d o t hey s pread sw if t ly o u t t o b eco me a c urrency f or t he Eng l ish mid lands ( i nc lud ing s ou thern a nd e astern Merc ia ). T hus a moneta ry b oo m i n t he y ears a round 7 90 s uceeded a r ecess ion t ha t h ad n o d oub t p erp lexed a nd h a mpered t wo o f t he o u ts tand ing ly s uccessfu l f igures o f e igh th-century E ng land , AEthe lba ld a nd O f fa , f ro m a bout 7 50 o nwards.

I t

s hou ld b e men t ioned t ha t o ne s tuden t h as a t te mp ted t o make t he p rob le m d isappear b y r evers ing t he p rev ious ly a ccep ted o rder o f O f fa 's G roups I a nd I :

t he p len t ifu l G roup I , i nc lud ing t he p rest ig ious p or tra it c o ins , i s

s een a s t he i ssue w ith wh ich t he r eformed p enn ies w ere i nst itu ted .

T he

s carce Group I , wh ich s ee ms t oo miserab le a c o inage w ith wh ich t o l aunch ar eform , a nd wh ich i s i n a ny c ase e ssen t ia l ly e ast K en t ish , i s p laced l a ter , a nd i s r e lega ted a s a l most a " poor r e la t ion" o f G roup I .

On t h is

mode l , G roup Il eads d irect ly i n to Group I I , wh ich i s d e monstrab ly t he w ork o f t he Ken t ish min t i n t he c los ing y ears o f O f fa 's r e ign .2 7

I ti s n o

s i mp le ma t ter t o o f fer i ndependen t p roof t ha t t he s equence I - I- I I i s e rroneous , b u t i ts hou ld a lready b e c lear t o t he r eader t ha t t he r epercuss ions f or t he mone tary h istory o f t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies , i fi t w ere c orrect , w ou ld b e w idespread . T he e ar l iest p enn ies , o n t he c onven t iona l r ead ing o f t he e v idence , w ere s truck n ot b y O f fa , b ut b y t wo o bscure Ken t ish k ings n a med Heahberh t a nd E cghberh t I , a bou t who m h istory k nows v irtua l ly n oth ing . t he ir d a tes a re v ague . 2 8

E ven

Fro m c har ters i ti s a pparen t t ha t b oth w ere r e e-

i ng i n 7 65 , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t E cgberh t r e igned u n t i l c a . 7 80 o r l a ter B lun t o f fered t wo s che mes o f d at ing .

9

T he c o ins o f H eahberh t migh t b e long

t o t he y ears 7 65-75 , h e s uggested , wh i le t he e ar l ies t o f O f fa 's p ence wou ld b e f ro m c a . 7 75-80.

A lternat ive ly , H eahberh t 's i ssues may b e a s l a te a s

7 75-80 , w ith O f fa 's f irst c o ins f o l low ing a f ew y ears l a ter , s ay c a. 7 84-5. T he r eason g iven f or p referr ing t he s econd s che me was t ha t E oba , Babba , a nd p erhaps Udd ( t he t hree men who worked a s moneyers f or H eahberh t o r E cgberh t ) w ere s t i l l w ork ing i n t he t ime o f Coenwu l f , i .e. a f ter 7 96. T he c ase f or Babba i s t he s trongest ; " b u t t here i s n oth ing imposs ib le a bou t ay oung man 's b e ing a moneyer i n 7 65 a nd s t i l l a ct ive i n 8 00. T here i s o ne c ruc ia l p iece o f e v idence , i n a n e ar ly c oin o f Char lemagne , wh ich h as b een a t tr ibu ted t o t he min t o f S trasbourg , a nd wh ich i s t o a l l a ppearances i m i ta ted f ro m a c o in o f E cgberh t b y t he moneyer Babba .3 1

I ti s n ot t he o n ly c oin o f Char le magne im ita ted f ro m a n Ang lo-

S axon p enny , n or t he o n ly o ne where t he moneyer o f t he o r ig ina l c an b e n a med .3 2

Char le magne 's c o inage o f t he " exper i men ta l" c lass t o wh ich

3 3 t he S trasbourg c oin b e longs h as b een d a ted b y G r ierson t o 7 68 - c a . 7 70. T he d ate h as b een q uer ied , t o s uggest t hrt t he c hange-over f ro m Char le-

magne 's T ype It o h is T ype I may i n g enera l h ave b een r agged , a nd may h ave d ragged o n a t s o me min ts t o a s l ate a s , s ay , c a . 7 72. '3 4 B u t i n a ny c ase , t he p rototype , t hat i s t he c o in o f E cgberh t I , must b e e ar l ier , a nd i tc an t here fore b e d ated t o b efore c a . 7 70 , o r a t t he l a test 7 72.

T he

u n ique H eahberh t c o in , wh ich i s o f r a ther sma l ler modu le , may b e e ar l ier b y ay ear o r t wo t han t he more p len t ifu l i ssues o f E cgber i-t .

And o ne

s hou ld r e me mber , a t t h is p o in t , a n e ven sma l ler , b u t t ypo log ica l ly r e lated , u n ique s cea t ta-l ike c o in i n t he B ib l io theque Na t iona le. 3 5

2 12

T he

S trasbourg c oin i s a pparen t ly t he o n ly p os i t ive e v idence f or t he e ar ly o r ig in o f t he r efor med p ence.

Un less o ne i s p repared t o r e ject i tw ho l ly , i tp laces

o bstac les i n t he w ay o f t he I - I- I I s equence. T he l a te S ir Frank S ten ton 's d eep a nd l i fe long i n terest i n O f fa , a nd i n h is c o inage , r ece ived i t s f ina l f ormu lat ion i n a n a ddress t o t he Br i t ish Nu mi s ma t ic S oc iety i n 1 958, i n w h ich , s peak ing p r i mar i ly a s a n h istor ian , S ten ton l en t t he w e igh t o f h is j udgmen t t o a n " ear ly" c hrono logy .

D ocumen t-

a ry e v idence s hows t hat O f fa e xerc ised a uthor ity i n Ken t i n a nd a f ter 7 64, a nd t here i s t he c oin o f H eahberh t , o f who m we k now o n ly t ha t h e was r u ling i n 7 64-5.

T he main p o in t w h ich S ten ton g rasps , h owever , i s t ha t t he p lac-

i ng o f t he k ing 's n a me o n t he c o ins , f or t he f irst t ime i n s ou thern Eng land , i s l ike ly t o s te m f ro m a d e l ibera te e xerc ise o f w i l l b y t he r u ler , " e mphati ca l ly , e ven f la mboyan t ly , e xerc is ing h is r oya l d ign ity", a nd t hat t he d ate o f i t s i n troduct ion c an b e j udged b y c ons ider ing O f fa 's p oss ib le mot ives f or s uch a n e xerc ise o f w i l l , a nd t he c ircums tances i n wh ich h e migh t h ave a cted .

H e was o bv ious ly emu lat ing t he s im i lar n ew Frank ish r oya l c oin-

a ge - i n troduced , i ti s g enera l ly s upposed ( t hough o n d ebateab le g rounds ), i n 7 55 ,

3 6

a nd wh ich P ep in w as a b le t o s tr ike i n v ery l arge q uan t i t ies . 3 7

I n s hor t , S ten ton f avoured a d ate c a . 7 64 ,

3 8

a nd p refered t o s et t he o r ig ins

o f t he p enny c o inage w el l b e fore t he b a t t le o f Of ford ( 776 ), wh ich may p oss ib ly h ave b een a s etback f or O f fa , s ince h e c annot b e s hown t o h ave p ossess ed a ny a u thor ity i n Ken t i n t he f o l low ing n ine y ears .3 9

S ten ton 's s uggested

d ate o f c a. 7 64 r e ma ins c on jectura l , b u t t he e v idence f or a d a te e ar l ier t han c a . 7 70 , i fi th as b een c orrect ly a rgued , s ubs tan t ia l ly n arrows t he r ange o f h istor ica l p oss ib i l i t ies. What , t hen , i s t he e v idence t ha t t he n ew c o inage i n e ast Ken t g ot o f f t o av ery s low s tar t , a nd t ha t t he g rea t ma jor ity o f t he s urv iv ing c oins o f O f fa ( and e ven more o f t he o r ig ina l t o ta l o u tpu t , f or t he e ar l iest v ar iet ies h ave p ret ty c lear ly h ad a h igher s urv iva l-ra te ) a re t o b e d a ted a f ter c a . 7 86 - f i f teen y ears o r more a f ter t he p enn ies b egan?

I ti s a ma t ter o f

c o mp lex n um is mat ic j udgmen t , i n wh ich o ne mus t t ry t o f i t i n to a s e l fc ons isten t s che me a l l t he 1 40 o r s o v ar iet ies o f O f fa 's c o ins ;

w ith in t ha t

c on tex t , t he q uest ion h inges o n whether o ne c an c orrect ly a t tr ibu te c o ins t o E adberh t , b ishop o f L ondon ( 772/82-78 7/8 9 ) , a nd h ow much i mpor tance o ne s hou ld a t tach t o t wo u n ique v ar iet ies b oth n ow i n t he Va t ican c o in c o ll ect ion a nd d oubt less I t a l ian f inds.

I fc oins c an b e a ss igned t o b ishop

Eadberh t , t here i s as trong c ase f or d at ing t he m i n c onnect ion w ith t he l ega t ine c omm iss ions o f 7 86 , Of fa 's " gratefu l p aymen ts" t o t he S ee o f S t . P eter , a nd t he " con ten t ious" s ynod o f Che lsea i n 7 87 , a t wh ich O f fa managed t o r id h i mse l f o f t he s p ir itua l o ver lordsh ip o f t he a rchb ishopr ic o f Can terbury . T he b as ic p o in t , t herefore , i s whether " Eadberh t" wh ich o ccurs o n h a lf-a-dozen o ut o f s o me 3 50 s urv iv ing c o ins o f O f fa i s t he n a me o f a moneyer ( o f who m t here w ere a t l east 3 0 ), o r -q u i te e xcept iona l ly o f ab ishop .

T he s tronges t a rgumen t i n f avour o f t he p re la te d epends o n

a minute d eta i l :

t he r ound m , wh ich a s ac on tract ion f or Merc ioru m

i s as tandard e le men t o f t he d es ign , i s d e l icate ly a nd w i t t i ly a l tered b y

2 13

t he a dd it ion o f ab ar , t o make i ti n to a monogra m o f e p ( f or e p iscopus ) ; s econd ly , t he d ies f or t he Eadberh t c o ins a re a l most c er ta in ly c u t b y t he s a me h and a s t he r e la ted c o ins o f t he b usy moneyer E oba , who s ee ms t o h ave e n joyed a n e spec ia l ly p r iv i leged p os it ion w i th t he k ing .

T he c orre l-

a t ion b etween t he moneyer a nd t he w orkman who a ctua l ly c u t t he d ie i s d ebateab le , b u t i n t h is p ar t icu lar c ase , i fE oba i s t he moneyer , i ts ee ms v ery u n l ike ly t ha t " Eadberh t" c an b e a moneyer 's n ame. I n 7 86 t he P ope s en t al ega te t o Eng land - t he f irs t s uch v is i t s ince t he t ime o f August ine.

O f fa w e lco med t he l ega t ine c omm iss ion , a nd s aw

i ta s a means o f e s tab l ish ing a n i ndependen t a rchb ishopr ic f or Merc ia , wh ich w ou ld l i berate h im f ro m u n fr iend ly K en t ish i n f luence i n t he a f fa irs o f h is k ingdo m.

H e was a t o dds w ith a rchb ishop I aenberh t .

T owards t he

e nd o f t he miss ion , ag enera l c ounc i l o f t he Eng l ish c hurch was h e ld , a nd O f fa p ro m ised t o s end 3 65 mancuses e ach y ear t o Ro me f or t he r e l ief o f t he p oor a nd t he ma in tenance o f l igh ts.

T h is s ee ms t o h ave b een e ssen t-

i a l ly a p ersona l o f fer ing f ro m O f fa t o S t .Peter 's.

I n 7 87 , a t as tormy

c ounc i l a t Che lsea , O f fa s ecured t he d iv is ion o f t he p rov ince , a nd b e fore t he e nd o f 7 88 t he b ishop o f L ich f ie ld r ece ived a n a rchb ishop 's p a l l ium. Eadberh t 's p ar t i n t he n egot iat ions i s q u ite u nknown , b u t i fh e was p erm itt ed t o s tr ike c o ins i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th O f fa , t h is was p resu mab ly a c oncess ion t o s ecure h is c o mp l iance i n 7 86-87 , o r t o r eward h im f or i t .

I aen-

b erh t , t oo , w as p erm it ted t o s tr ike c o ins j o in t ly w ith O f fa , a pparen t ly f ro m a bou t t he s a me d a te - n ot e ar l ier .

Whereas t he a rchb ishops o f

Can terbury c on t inued t o e n joy t he p r iv i lege o f min t ing , Eadberh t 's n a me ( and t h is w as o r ig ina l ly s een a s a n a rgu men t a ga inst t he a t tr ibu t ion ) i s k nown o n ly f ro m a sma l l , e ar ly g roup o f Ma 's c o ins , o ne w ith a n I t a l ian p rovenance.

T h is c o in , v ar iety B .36, wh ich i s o f ad ist inc t ive d es ign

w i th a b anner , a nd a lso a r e lated c o in s igned b y t he moneyer E oba , B .15 , a re e ach k nown f ro m o ne s urv iv ing s pec imen , a nd b oth c o ins a re i n t he Va t ican l i brary .

I ts ee ms h igh ly u n l ike ly t ha t t hey a re e ar l ier t han 7 86ii

T he ir r e la t ive c hrono log ica l p os it ion i n t he s er ies i s s uch t hat , i ft hey a re d a ted 7 86 - c a. 7 88 , t he g rea t ma jor i ty o f O f fa 's c o ins mus t b e d a ted l a ter . On ly a p ropor t ion o f t he s urv iv ing c o ins o f O f fa a re f ro m k nown f inds pots.

Conc lus ions b ased o n p rovenance a re t herefore l i ab le t o marg ins

o f e rror .

As f ar a s t he e v idence g oes , h owever , t he e ar ly c o ins w ere

n ever d if fused t hroughou t t he s outheast o f E ng land . f i l led t ha t r o le.

G roup H ma in ly f u l-

A r e la t ive ly h igh p ropor t ion o f t he p rovenanced s pec i-

mens o f G roup Ih ave b een f ound a broad , a nd t he o n ly Eng l ish f ind-spot k nown t o t he wr i ter i s Margate.

By c on trast , t here a re d ozens o f f inds

o f c o ins o f Groups I a nd H I s ca t tered o ver t he c oun trys ide s ou th o f al i ne f ro m t he B r isto l Channe l t o t he Wash . 42 T h is i s p erhaps t he s tronges t a va i lab le a rgu men t a ga inst r e-da t ing C lass I : i fi tw ere i n ter med ia te i n d a te , s pec i mens w ou ld h ave b een f ound more w ide ly . Ma 's East Ang l ian c o inage , wh ich s pans G roups H a nd I I , i s t hough t t o h ave b egun a t al a te d ate - p erhaps c a . 7 90. I t s p lace o f min tage i s u nknown , b u t may p oss ib ly l i e i n t he S tour v a l ley , t owards t he e as t

2 14

c oast .

T he t hree k nown s pec i mens o f t he "wo lf a nd t w ins" c o inage o f k ing

AEth i lberh t o f East Ang l ia ( who m O f fa c aused t o b e murdered i n 7 94 ) w ere e v iden t ly s truck a t t he s ame m in t . f ound a t T ivo l i , i n c en tra l I t a ly.

T hey s hare a n o bverse d ie.

One was

T he h igh s urv iva l-ra te , a nd t he

I t a l ian f ind-spot , a re r em in iscen t o f t he e ar l iest Ken t ish p enn ies .43 A lt hough t he d ate o f o r ig in o f t he E ast Ang l ian min t i s t oo c on jectura l f or i t s i ssues t o b e u sed i n s uppor t o f t he a rgumen t o f " s low b eg inn ings", i ts ee ms s a fe t o r e mark t hat , d ur ing a p er iod o f a t l east t wo d ecades a f ter t he i n trod uct ion o f p enn ies i n Ken t , t he t ota l o utpu t was min i ma l. T here was a f ur ther r efor m o f t he c o inage b y O f fa , i n troduc ing t he l arger a nd marg ina l ly h eav ier Group I I c o ins .

T he r eform h as b een d a ted

t o I aenberh t 's l i fet i me , i .e. b e fore August 7 92, a ga in o n t he e v idence o f a u n ique c o in .

T h is h as b een d ispu ted o n t he g rounds t ha t t he c o in i s b et ter

a ss igned t o Group I , t he w e igh t o f as ing le s pec i men b e ing i nconc lus ive. I t may b e p oss ib le t o p ush t he d a te o f t he r efor m f orward t o 7 93, 44

wh ich

makes a l i t t le more r oo m f or t he b u lk o f Group I . T he v o lu me o f o utpu tu n t i l 7 86 was , b y c on trast , sma l l.

T h is i s t he

f ir mest a va i lab le e v idence , i n t he midst o f ag reat d ea l t ha t i s s uggest ive b u t n ot i ndependen t ly d e mons trab le , f or s evere f luctuat ions i n t he e x ten t o f t he c urrency .

T he a rgu men ts a s t hey h ave b een s u m mar ized h ere may

s ee m r a ther t echn ica l : h ave .

f or t he p resen t , t hey a re t he b est a rgu men ts w e

T he p icture t ha t h as b een s ketched i s a s f o l lows :

Fro m c a. 6 00

Merov ing ian c o ins g row p len t ifu l i n af ew e ast-coast c en tres.

S low b eg inn ings o f t he

Ang lo-Saxon c oinage. 6 30s , 6 40s

Af l ower ing o f Ang lo-Saxon g o ld i ssues more w ide ly i n s ou th-eastern Eng land .

6 50s , 6 60s

G radua l d isappearance o f g o ld .

Mone tary

r ecess ion? c a . 6 75/85

I n troduct ion o f s i lver p enn ies.

S low d eve l-

o p men tu nder Pada , "Var i rnundus". c a . 6 95 - c a . 7 25

S cea t tas , s er ies A a nd B r estr icted t o e ast Ken t .

c a. 7 20 - c a . 7 40

D eve lop men t o f r eg iona l i ssues more w idel y t hrough s ou th-eastern Eng land .

c a . 7 40 - c a . 7 50

C o l lapse o f s cea t ta c urrency .

I ndependen t

i ssues i n Nor thumbr ia. b e fore c a . 7 7( C .

Reformed p enn ies i n e ast Ken t .

L im ited

o utpu t f or H eahberh t , E cgberh t , a nd O f fa. a f ter 7 86

Expans ion o f O f fa 's c o inage t hroughout s ou th-eastern Eng land .

I ft he i ssue o f l arge q uan t i t ies o f c o inage h ad b een a va i lab le t o O f fa

2 15

a s ap o l it ica l i nstrumen t h e w ou ld s ure ly h ave s e ized i ts ooner .

AEthe l-

b a ld , t oo , c annot h ave b een u naware o f t he b enef its o f as ound c urrency o f t he a dvan tages t ha t k ing Wih tred o f Ken t h ad e n joyed i n a n a ge o f more p len t i fu l s i lver .

T he l ack o f b u l l ion f rus tra ted t he ir amb it ions ;

a nd t he

c urren ts o f t rade t hat b rough t t he p rec ious me ta ls t o E ng land 's s hores f luctuated i n ways t hat w ere l arge ly o u ts ide t he ir c on tro l. T he f luctuat ions i n t he g eograph ica l e x ten t o f t he c urrency i n to t he Eng l ish mid lands a f ford t he c learest e v idence t ha t i t s u se w as c onnected w ith i n terna t iona l t rade - e ven i n t he s even th c en tury .

T he c o inage d oes

n ot r ef lect t he b as ic r eg iona l p rosper i ty o f l and a nd men , wh ich r e ma ined s teady i n t he med ium t erm : G loucestersh ire a nd S o merset w ere w ithout money i n t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies n ot b ecause t hey w ere p oor o r u nder-exp lo ited a reas , b u t b ecause t hey w ere d is tan t f ro m t he c urren ts o f c ross-Channe l t rade. G au l was f ar wea l th ier t han B r i ta in . One s uspects t ha t i t s p rosper ity i n t he t ime o f Dagober t c arr ied o ver t o Eng land , a nd t hat when p eace a nd p rosper ity were s ad ly c u t s hor t b y Dagober t 's d ea th , t here s oon f o l lowed a n e cono m ic r ecess ion o n t h is s ide o f t he C hanne l t oo. L afaur ie d iscusses t he " gap" i n t he Merov ing ian n um is ma t ic e v idence , a nd s uggests t ha t t he e ar l iest s i lver c o ins a re f ro m a pprox i ma te ly t he t ime o f t he d ea th o f C lota ire I I ( 657-73 ). T here was t hen a p o l i t ica l s trugg le b etween Neustr ia a nd Austras ia , a nd i tw as o n ly a f ter t he a ssass inat ion o f Ebro in , mayor o f t he N eustr ian p a lace , i n 6 80 o r 6 83, a nd t he b at t le o f T er try i n 6 87, t ha t P ep in o f H er is ta l , t he Austras ian mayor , was a b le t o r e-un i te t he Reg r rum Francorum.

H is r u le , l ast ing u n t i l 7 14 , was a p er iod o f c onso l-

i da t ion a nd , o ne may j udge , r enewed p rosper ity .

Another f actor i n t he

r ev iva l o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c urrency i n t he f irst q uar ter o f t he e igh th c en tu ry w as t he s ub jugat ion o f Fr is ia b y Pep in i n t he y ears a round 6 90 a nd t he c onvers ion o f t he Fr is ians b y S t . Wi l l ibrord 's miss ion f ro m t he 6 90s o nwards.

P o l i t ica l s tab i l ity b rough t p rosper ity , a nd t he Fr is ians w ere v ery

q u ick t o t ake a dvan tage o f t he ir i mproved c u ltura l r e lat ions w i th Eng land ; t hey s truck l arge q uan t it ies o f c op ies o f Eng l ish s cea t tas . 4 5

E ven b efore

t h is t ime , t he c ross-Channe l t rade t o e astern Eng land h ad , p erhaps t o a l arge e x tent , b een i n Fr is ian h ands. 46 T he c o l lapse o f t he s cea t ta c urrency , w ith t he dw ind l ing away o f t he n ecessary s upp l ies o f s i lver , may b e t raced t o t he d isrupt ion o f t he Fr isi an t rade , i n i t s t urn t he r esu lt o f F rank ish-Fr is ian c on f l ic ts f ro m 7 34 o nwards. T he massacre o f B on iface a nd h is c o mpan ions b y h ea thens i n e ast Fr is ia i n 7 54 marked t he e nd o f a n a ge. Meanwh i le , w es t F r is ia was s ubdued b y P ep in a nd b y Char le magne , a nd d rawn i n to t he Frank ish o rb i t . T he r ev iva l o f Eng l ish mone tary a f fa irs i n t he t ime o f Char le magne a ga in h as a n o bv ious c u ltura l a nd p o l i t ica l c on tex t .

A lcuin was a t t he

Frank ish c our t f ro m 7 82 , a nd w as a l ead ing f igure i n t he Caro l ing ian i n te l lectua l r ev iva l.

Rela t ions b etween O f fa a nd Char lemagne , n ever

e asy , w ere s tra ined f ro m 7 89 f or s evera l y ears , a nd t he Frank ish p orts were c losed t o Eng l ish t raders.

I n 7 96 t he t wo r u lers p a tched u p t he ir

2 16

d if ferences , a nd c oncluded w ha t h as b een d escr ibed a s " the f irs t c o mmerc ia l t reaty i n Eng l ish h istory".

4 7

T he c hrono logy o f t he Eng l ish c o inage i n

t he 7 80s a nd 7 90s h e lps t o s et t h is w e l l-known d ocu men t i n i t s c on tex t .

Ashmo lean Museu m , Ox ford .

NOTES 1 .

4

At horough s urvey o f O f fa 's c o inage , wh ich i s s t i l l t he b as ic r efere nce , i s C . E . B lun t , "The c oinage o f O f fa", Ang lo-Saxon Co ins ( ed . R .H .M . Do l ley ) , 1 961, p p .39-62. T he a t tr ibu t ion o f a l l b ut a h and fu l o f t he c o ins t o Can terbury p ro mpted a c r it ique , D .M . Metc a lf , " Of fa 's p ence r econs idered", Cunobe l in I X ( 1963 ), 3 7-52.

One

o f t he t he mes d iscussed t here , n a me ly t he s ca le o f t he c o inage , p rovoked a v igorous d ebate , wh ich c a me t o b e c oncerned w ith where t he c o ins w ere u sed :

P . G r ierson , "M in t o utpu t i n t he t ime o f O f fa" ,

T he Nu m is mat ic C ircu lar LXX I ( 1963 ), 14-5 ;

D .M . Me tca l f ,

" Eng l ish monetary h istory i n t he t ime o f O f fa :

ar ep ly ", i b id ., 1 65-

6 7 ;

G r ierson , " So me a spec ts o f t he c o inage o f O f fa", i b id ., 2 23-

2 5 ;

Metca lf , " Ev idence r e lat ing t o d ie-output i n t he t ime o f O f fa",

i b id. L )0 ( I I ( 1964 ), 2 3 ;

P . S pu f ford , "D ie-ou tpu t", i b id ., 7 9 ;

C .S .S . L yon , "The e st i mat ion o f t he n u mber o f d ies emp loyed i n a c o inage", i b id . LXX I I I ( 1965 ) , 1 80-81;

Gr ierson , " Var ia t ions i n

d ie-ou tpu t", i b id . LXXVI ( 1968 ), 2 98-99.

O ther s tud ies o n med ie-

v a l d ie o utput , b y S tewar t a nd Mate , i n t he Nu m is mat ic Chron ic le f or 1 963, 1 964 a nd 1 969 , h ave t hrown l igh t o n t he O f fa d eba te , a nd h ave d e monstrated s urpr is ing ly l arge a verage f i gures f or d ie o u tp ut i n t he f ourteen th c en tury , a nd t hese h ave s ince b een c on f ir med b y Brand i n M in ts , D ies , a nd Currency ( ed . R .A .G . C arson ).

T he

o r ig ina l d ebate meanwh i le moved o n , a nd b eca me more g enera l ized , i n t he p ages o f t he E cono m ic H is tory Rev iew :

Metca lf , " How l arge

w as t he Ang lo-Saxon c urrency?", i b id . 2 nd . S er ., XVI I I ( 1965 ), 4 75-82 ;

Gr ierson , " The v o lu me o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c o inage", i b id .

2 nd. S er ., XX ( 1967 ) , 1 53-60 ;

Metca lf , "The p rosper ity o f n or th-

w estern E urope i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies", i b id ., 3 44-57. S upp le men tary c o m men ts o n o ther a spec ts o f O f fa 's c o inage w il l b e f ound i n a r t ic les c i ted b e low . 2 .

Ab r i l l ian t p aper , w h ich t rans formed t he s cea tta p rob le m , a nd w h ich h as b een t he e ssen t ia l b as is f or s ubsequen t work , i s S .E. R igo ld , "The t wo p r imary s er ies o f s ceat tas", B r it ish Nu m is ma ti c J ourna l XXX ( 1960-61 ), 6 -53.

A c r it ique o f s o me o f t he d e ta i ls

o fR igo ld 's c lass if ica t ion w as p resen ted i n D .M . Metca l f , "A c o ina ge f or Merc ia u nder Aethe lba ld", Cunobel in X I I ( 1966 ), 2 6-39. T h is w as l arge ly r epud ia ted i n R igo ld , "The t wo p r i mary s er ies o f s eea t tas :

a ddenda a nd c orr igenda", B r it ish Nu m is mat ic

2 17

J ourna l 2 00 (V ( 1966 ), 1 -6.

S im i lar r ev is ions a re u rged a ga in i n

Metca lf , "The ' B ird a nd b ranch ' s ceat tas i n t he l igh t o f af ind f ro m Ab ingdon" , Oxon iens ia XXXV I I ( 1972 ), 5 1-65. 3 .

T he i dea o f af l uctua t ing monetary e cono my was p u t f orward i n D . M. Metca l f , J . M. Merr ick , a nd L .K . H a mb l in , S tud ies i n t he C o mpos i t ion o f Ear ly Med ieva l C oins ( Minerva N um is mat ic H andb ooks , I I ), 1 968 , a t p p . 8 f .

I t was t aken u p a ga in i n Metca l f , "An

e ar ly Caro l ing ian min t i n t he L ow C oun tr ies :

BONA = T ie l" , Revue

B e lge d e Nu m is mat ique CXVI ( 1970 ) , 1 41-52. 4 .

S ut ton H oo , v o l. I , Br it ish Museu m p ub l icat ion f or thcoming .

5 .

T he h istor ica l b ackground t o t he r esumed f low o f c on t inen ta l c o ina ge t o Br i t ian i s c arefu l ly d iscussed ( w i th maps ) i n C. H .V . S utherl and , Ang lo-Saxon G o ld Co inage , 1 948 , a t p p . 2 2-30 , where h e p oin ts t o t he marr iage o f B er tha , d augh ter o f Char iber t I , t o k ing A Ethe lberh t o f Ken t .

F or t he d a te s ee F .M . S ten ton , Ang lo-Saxon

Eng land , 3 rd e dn ., 1 971, p . 1 05 , where t he marr iage i s p laced " before 5 88", a nd c f . S uther land , p . 2 9 , n . 1 , r ely ing o n B ede 's t est i mony f or a n e ar l ier d a te. 6 .

I th as b een a n u nreso lved p uzz le why t he f or ty c o ins a nd c o in-b lanks s hou ld h ave b een s o misce l laneous , a nd i th as b een u n fash ionab le t o t h ink t hat t here c ou ld h ave b een a " norma l" money e conomy i n East Ang l ia i n t he 6 20s ;

b u t o ne s hou ld c ons ider whether t he r oya l

t reasury may n ot h ave a ccu mu la ted a s tore o f w ea lth , f or e xa mp le b y l evy ing a t o l l o n s h ips f ro m t he c on t inen t .

Merchan ts n o d oub t

p referred t o p u t t ogether c o ins o f ak ind , a nd o u tpaymen ts may h ave b een made f ro m t he r oya l t reasury s e lect ive ly - i n c o ins o f D orestad o r Quen tov ic o r Marse i l les , f or e xa mp le - t he a ct ive min ts , whose p roducts w ere w ide ly k nown a nd a ccep tab le. 7 .

T here may h ave b een a n i n it ia l p er iod when , f or e xa mp le , t here w ere a ccumu la t ions o f w ea lth i n Can terbury a nd i t s p or ts t ha t h ad n ot s p i l led o ver e ven i n to t he r estr icted a rea o f e ast Ken t .

F or a

n ote o n t he g ran ts o f r em iss ion , s ee D . Wh i te lock , Eng l ish H ist or ica l D ocu men ts , c . 5 00-1042 , 1 955 , p .451. 8 .

S uther land , o p. c it . ,p p .52f ., 9 5 , e tc.

Assu m ing t ha t t he Aud-

v ar ld c oins s tand a t t he h ead o f o ne s er ies , t he a t tr ibu t ion t o k ing E adba ld o f Ken t ( 6 16-40 ) i mposes a l a ter d a te o f o r ig in t han migh t o therw ise h ave b een c anvassed .

T he g o ld c on ten ts o f t he C ronda l l

s pec i men , p rev ious ly e st i mated a t a bou t 8 0% , a re s hown b y Oddy 's c arefu l S .G . measure men t t o b e o n ly 6 6.8% - i n l i ne w ith t he b es t Ang lo-Saxon c oins i n t he h oard , b u t n ot h igher. f or a l a te d a t ing .

T h is a rgues

S ee W .A . Oddy , " The a na lys is o f f our h oards

o f Merov ing ian g o ld c o ins", Methods o f Che m ica l a nd Meta l lurgi ca l I nvest iga t ion o f Anc ien t C o inage , e d . E .T . Ha l l a nd D .M . Metca lf , 1 972, p p . 11-25.

T he a rgumen t f ro m I he " pagan i n ter-

l ude" a t L ondon ( ca . 6 16 - c a . 6 75 ) a nd a c o inage " cer ta in ly

2 18

Chr ist ian i n c haracter" i n t he Cronda l l h oard , wh ich h as b een t aken t o r equ ire a p re-616 d a te f or t he c o ins i n q uest ion ( Su therl and , o p.c it ., p p . 41f. )a nd t o s upport t he ir a t tr ibu t ion t o t he e p iscop acy

o f Me l l itus , h inges o n t he " ecc les ias t ica l c haracter" o f t he

o bverse t ype , a nd s hou ld i n t he wr i ter 's v iew b e t reated w ith t he g rea test r eserve.

T he g o ld c on ten ts o f t hese c o ins a verage o n ly

6 4.1% ( Oddy , o p .c i t .).

A l l p rev ious a rgu men ts s hou ld n ow b e r e-

c ons idered i n t he l igh t o f J .P.C. Ken t , "Go ld s tandards o f t he Merov ing ian c o inage , A .D . 5 80-700", Methods o f Che m ica l a nd Me ta l lurg ica l I nves t igat ion , 9 .

S u ther land , o p .c i t .,

p p

p p .

6 9-74.

. 35 , 5 0f ., e tc. ( but t he r ead ing "Bear t igo"

i s n o l onger f ound a ccep tab le b y r uno log ists. S ee R .I . Page , An i n troduct ion t o Eng l ish Runes , 1 973 , e sp. a t p p . 1 19-33. ) The a uthen t ic ity o f t he Y ork t hrymsas h as b een d ispu ted - s ee P . G r ierson i n Br it ish Nu m is ma t ic J ourna l XXX I ( 1962 ), 8 -10.

One

o f t he York c o ins h as s ince b een a na lysed , a nd f ound t o c on ta in 4 6% g o ld , 5 2% s i lver , a nd 2 % c opper , w ith s ubs tan t ia l ly h igher f igures f or g o ld a t t he s ur face :

s ee S .C . Hawkes , J .M . Merr ick ,

a nd D . M. Metca lf , " X-ray f luorescen t a na lys is o f s o me d ark a ge c o ins a nd j ewe l lery", Archaeo metry I X ( 1966 ), 9 8-138, a t p p.128 a nd 1 37.

T he f igures f avour i t s a uthen t ic ity .

1 0.

T he " post-Cronda l l" p hase was i den t if ied a nd d iscussed i nR igo ld , o p .c it ( 1960-61 ) a t l if f . a nd ( par t icu lar ly ) i d . ( 1966 ), 2 f .

1 1.

I mpor tan t n ew t hough ts a re o f fered o n t he c hrono logy o f t he " postCronda l l" p hase i nR igo ld , o p .c i t . ( 1966 ), a nd i ti s p roposed t o r ed ate i tt o b etween t he l a ter 6 60s a nd t he e ar ly 6 80s.

Th is i s o n

t he b as is o f c on t inen ta l h oard-ev idence a nd o f wha t wou ld s ee m t o b e al a te d ate f or C ronda l l ( "around , o r s oon a f ter , 6 50" ).

I n s o

f ar a s i t imp l ies a g ap i n o u tpu t c a. 6 55-65 o ne s hou ld , p erhaps , r eserve j udgmen t . 1 2.

S uther land , o p .c it ., p p. 7 8f f ., a nd R igo ld , o p.c it . ( 1960-61 ), l if f .

1 3.

F or Eng land , R igo ld s ugges ted 6 86-7 , wh i le Metca l f , Merr ick , a nd Ha mb l in , o p .c i t . ( 1968 ), p p . 1 8f ., h ave a rgued f or a s l ight ly e ar l ier d a te , i n t he r e ign o f H lothere ( 674-86 ).

Av a luab le s urvey

o f t he d if icu l t c on t inen ta l e v idence h as b een p ub l ished i n J . Laf aur ie , "Monna ies d 'argen t merov ing ie rmes d es V I Ie e t V I I Ie \ s iec les", Revue Nu m is mat ique 6 th . S er ., X I ( 1969 ), 9 8-219. H is c onc lus ions a re, b r ief ly , t ha t dw ind ling i ssues o f g o ld c on t inued t o a t l east c a . 6 75/80 i n G au l g enera l ly ( c f . t he B ordeaux h oard ) a nd p erhaps t o c a . 7 00 a t Marse i l les.

T he e ar l iest s i lver c o ins

a ppear t o b e c a . 6 70 , b ut t he f o l low ing f i f teen y ears were p o l i t ica l ly v ery u nset t led . 1 4.

Me ta l a na lyses i n Me tca lf , Merr ick a nd Ha mb l in , o p .c it ., s howi ng 9 6-98% " s i lver" ( s i lver p lus g o ld t races ).

1 5.

R igo ld , o p .c it ( 1960-61, 1 966 ), w i th t he a t tr ibu t ions f or S er ies B

2 19

a s mod i f ied i n Metca lf , Cunobe l in X I I ( 1966 ). 1 6.

The w erg i ld p a id f or t he d ea th o f Mu l i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a s l arge , i n c o mpar ison w ith t he s ca le o f t he c urrency , a s t o e xhaus t i t ( Metca l f , Merr ick , a nd Ha mb l in , o p .c it ., p .18 ).

T h is r a ises

o nce a ga in t he q uest ion o f a verage d ie o utput i n t he s even th c en tury . C f . n o te 1 . 1 7.

A r ecen t d is tr ibut ion- map f or s ceat tas a ppears i n Metca l f , Oxoni ens ia 2 00 (VI I ( 1972 ).

N ote t he p oss ib le e f fects o f e ros ion a long

t he e ast c oast i n d estroy ing e v idence.

F or t he Wh i tby e xcava t ion

c o ins , s ee P .V . H i l l , " Unca ta logued s ceat tas i n t he n a t iona l a nd o ther c o l lect ions" , NC 6 th S er., XI I I ( 1953 ), 9 2-114. 1 8.

M. Morehar t , " So me d angers o f d a t ing s cea t tas b y t ypo log ica l s equences" , Br it ish Num is ma t ic J ourna l XXX IX ( 1970 ), 1 -5.

T he

g enera l c onc lus ions o f t h is a r t ic le , h owever , c an o n ly b e r egarded a s s hoot ing a t c lay p igeons . 1 9.

Metca lf , i n Oxon iens ia XXXV I I ( 1972 ), a t 6 5.

C f . R igo ld ( 1960-

6 1), a t p .24 : " I t makes n o d if ference i ft he L ondon c o inage h ad i n f act b egun a y ear o r t wo e ar l ier I t han 7 31 ] w ith B .M .C. T ype 3 a". 2 0.

J .P.C. K en t , " Fro m Ro man Br ita in t o S axon Eng land" , Ang loS axon C o ins , p p . 1 -22 , d iscusses t he q uest ion o f " gaps" i n t he d ark-age c urrency .

H e a rgues , i n c onnec t ion w ith t he l a te-seven th

c en tury c o inage , t ha t "when e i ther t ypo log ica l o r meta l l ic d egenera t ion o ccurred , i t s p rogress was r ap id" ; 7 37 f or t he C im iez h oard )

a nd ( accep t ing a d a te o f

t hat " it i s d if f icu l t t o p rotrac t t h is

[ scea t ta ] c o inage b etond 7 50 , i fs o l a te a d ate i s p oss ib le , a nd j ust a s al arge g ap l oo ms b e tween t he Ro man a nd t he Ang lo-Saxon c oinage , s o as hor ter o ne s ee ms t o i n tervene b etween " sceat ta" a nd p enny ...." . 2 1.

T h is i s c aut ious ly y et f orcefu l ly a rgued i n R .H .M . D o l ley a nd K .F . Morr ison , " Finds o f Caro l ing ian c o ins f ro m Grea t B r ita in a nd I re land" , Br it ish Nu m is mat ic J ou r na l XXX I I ( 1963 ), 7 5-87. S ee f ur ther P .V . Addyman a nd D .H . H i l l , " Saxon S ou thamp ton : ar ev iew o f t he e v idence , I " , Proceed ings o f t he Ha mpsh ire F ie ld C lub XXV ( 1968 ), 6 1-93, a t 8 0f .

2 2.

C . E . B lun t a nd R .H .M . D o l ley , "The Ang lo-Saxon c oins i n t he Va t ican L ibrary" , Br it ish Nu m is ma t ic J ourna l XXVI I I ( 1955-57 ), 4 49-58 ;

R . Dura a nd G . S a mbon , Museo Bar to lo meo B orghes i

( sa le c at . o f 2 4 Apr i l 1 880 ), Ro me ;

H .H . Vö lckers , Karo l ing-

i sche Münzfunde d er Frühze it ( 751-800 ), G öt t ingen , 1 965 , f or c oins o f O f fa i n t he I l anz h oard . 2 3.

D o l ley a nd Morr ison , o p.c it .;

D .M . Metca lf , " A c o in o f P ep in

f ro m R ichborough , Ken t , s truck a t ( ? ) U trech t" , Ha mburger B e i träge z ur Nu m is ma t ik V I ( 1966 ), 3 84-87.

2 20

2 4.

Metca lf , Merr ick , a nd H a mb l in , o p .c it ., p p .31f ., a nd f ur ther a na ly t ica l w ork ( Metca l f a nd S chwe izer ) i n p rogress .

2 5.

H .E . Pagan , J ourna l =

"A n ew t ype f or B eonna" , Br i t ish Numis ma t ic

WI T ( 1968 ), 1 0-15 a rgues t ha t t he h ybr id n ature o f t he

c oins o f B eonna must l i e i n t he f act t hat t he a rea where t hey c ircu lated was o ne where t he e f fect o f r eform e lsewhere was b e ing f e l t b ut where t he p r inc ip les o f t hat r efor m h ad n ot y et b een a pp l ied . H e was t herefore i nc l ined t o d a te t he m c a . 7 70 o r l a ter.

T here

i s , h owever , n o o bv ious s ty l ist ic l ink b etween t he f irst p enn ies a nd t he c o ins o f B eonna , a nd i ts ee ms p referab le b ecause o f t he ir a l loy t o r egard t he m a s s ub-Nor thu mbr ian , wha tever t he ir d a te.

The

c onnect ions w ith Maastr ich t a re v ery s uggest ive f or e cono m ic h istory , a s a re t he t wo L ow Coun tr ies p rovenances f or t he E ast Ang l ian c o ins.

One s pec i men o f B eonna was 7 0-80% s i lver :

c a lf , Merr ick , a nd H a mb l in , o p.c it . ,p p .39f . a nd 5 7.

Met-

F or t he

s ty l ist ica l ly r e la ted Maastr ich t " scea t ta" c o inage , o ne s pec i men o f wh ich i s a s l ow a s 3 3-35% s i lver , s ee a n a na lys is i n D .M . Metc a l f a nd L .K . Ha mb l in , "The c o mpos it ion o f s o me Fr is ian s cea tt as", J aarboek v oor Mun t- e n P enn ingkunde LV ( 1968 ), 2 8-45 , n o. 0. 126 . 2 6.

Much more e v idence f ro m t he r e ign o f O f fa - a nd a lso f ro m c oins o f P ep in a nd Char le magne - w i l l b e n eeded b efore a ny f irm c onc lus ions c an b e d rawn .

One w ou ld , o f c ourse , a lso b e i n terested

t o s ee whether G roup I c oins y ie ld a d if feren t p a t tern o f g o ld t races f ro m Group I .

F or t he s c ien t if ic c on tex t , r eferences t o

i nd iv idua l a na lyses , a nd o ther e xa mp les o f d if ferences i n g enera l l eve ls o f g o ld t races , s ee D . M. Metca lf , "Ana lyses o f t he meta l c on ten ts o f med ieva l c o ins", Methods o f Che m ica l a nd Me ta l lurgi ca l I nvest igat ion , p p . 3 83-434 , a t p p . 4 03-06, 4 08, a nd 4 20. 2 7.

C .S .S . L yon , "H is tor ica l p rob le ms o f Ang lo-Saxon c oinage - ( 1 )", Br i t ish Nu m is mat ic J ourna l XXXVI ( 1967 ), 2 15-21.

2 8.

S ten ton , o p. c it . ,p p. 35f .,2 06-09 , 2 16n ., 2 22n .

2 9.

C .E. B lun t , "The c o inage o f O f fa", Ang lo-Saxon C o ins , p p . 3 96 2, a t p p . 5 3f .

3 0.

I ti s p oss ib le , t hough t h is i s s pec ia l p leas ing , t ha t t wo men o f t he s a me n a me w ere moneyers .

T h is migh t h e lp t o u nrave l t he c o m-

p lex it ies o f t he c o ins o f E oba ( by d etach ing Group I I ). Dud may w e l l b e d i f feren t men .

Udd a nd

Dud i s s o meth ing o f as pec ia l

c ase - i ts ee ms t hat h e was " a d ud" a t p or tra its , a nd h ad t o b orr ow p or tra it d ies f rom a v ar iety o f o ther moneyers - Metca lf , i n Cunobe l in I X ( 1963 ), a t 4 8. 3 1.

D . M. Metca lf , " Fiu far o r Ar f iu f =S trasbourg", Ha mburger B ei träge z ur Nu m is mat ik V I ( 1966 ), 3 80-84.

2 21

3 2.

C .E. B lun t , " Four I t a l ian c o ins im itat ing Ang lo-Saxon t ypes", Br it ish Nu mis mat ic J ourna l XXV ( 1945-48 ), 2 82-85 ;

D .M . Met-

c a lf , " I ta l ian a nd o ther im itat ions o f t he c o ins o f O f fa" , H a mburger Be iträge z ur Nu m is mat ik V I ( 1966 ), 3 87-92. 3 3.

P . Gr ierson , "Money a nd c o inage u nder Char le magne" , i n Kar l d er Grosse , v o l. I , Dusse ldor f , 1 965 , p p. 5 01-36.

3 4.

Metca lf i n Ha mburger Be iträge z ur Nu m is mat ik V I ( 1966 ), a t 3 81f .

3 5.

C .E . B lunt , "A c oin o f H eaberh t , k ing o f Ken t : a t tr ibut ion v ind icated" , 5 4 ), 5 2-54.

3 6.

L ord G rant ley 's

Br it ish Nu m is mat ic J ourna l ) 0 (VI I ( 1952-

The c oin o f Heaberht was a cqu ired i n Ro me.

T he n ature o f t he r efor m o f 7 55 i s e xa m ined i n D . M. Metca lf a nd H .A . Misk im in , "The Caro l ing ian p ound :

ad iscuss ion", Nu m is-

mat ic C ircu lar LXXVI ( 1968 ), 2 96-98 , 3 33-34. 3 7.

T here a re v irtua l ly n o d iel inks among t he s urv iv ing c o ins o f Pep in :

D . M. Metca lf , "The p rosper ity o f n or th-western Europe

i n t he e igh th a nd n inth c entur ies", E cono m ic H istory Rev iew 2 nd S er., XX ( 1967 ), 3 44-57. 3 8.

S ee F .M . S tenton , Preparatory t o Ang lo-Saxon Eng land p p. 3 718 2, a nd H .E. Pagan i n Nu m is mat ic Chron ic le 7 th S er., X I I ( 1972 ), 3 35-7.

3 9.

The p roof t hat t he c o ins o f Heahberh t a nd Echberh t Ia n tedate t he " gap" o f 7 76-85 l i es i n t he S trasbourg i m itat ion d iscussed a bove. C f . S tewar t , o p. c it .

4 0.

The L ondon a nd I l anz s peci mens o f B lun t v ar . 1 0, a nd B .34 a nd L ocket t 3 62 a re s ure ly a l l b y t he s a me h and .

Note, o n t he Ead-

b erh t c o in , B .34 , t he e longated b ar o f t he F ;

t he t i tu lus ( unusua l-

l y ) a bove i t ;

t he t wo d ots v ert ica l ly t o t he l ef t o f t he F ;

t he l ong ,

l ean ing M f or Merc ioru m w ith a c on tract ion- mark a cross i t ; t he e legan t s er if f ing .

a nd

L ocket t 3 62 ( a lso v ar iety B .34 ) i s e ven

c loser i n g enera l s ty le t o t he L ondon c o in .

F or f urther s ty l ist ic

c o m men tary , s ee Ha mburger B e iträge z ur Nu m is mat ik V I ( 1966 ), 3 87-88. 4 1.

D . M. Metca lf , "A n ote o n c hronology", Nu m is mat ic C ircu lar LXXI ( 1963 ), a t 1 67.

4 2.

How f ar was t he g eograph ica l e xpans ion o f O f fa 's c o inage a ch ieved b y l oca l min t ing ( i n a way a na logous w ith t he e xpans ion o f t he s cea t tas )?

The p ara l le l i s c er ta in ly i nexact .

A lthough t he t op ic

h as r e ma ined , u n for tunate ly , a n emba t t led o ne , t he h istor ian s hou ld n ote t ha t t he c onsensus h as moved s o me way f ro m t he p osi t ion o f t en o r t we lve y ears a go , when t here wou ld h ave b een g ene ra l a ccep tance o f t he i dea t hat t he g rea t b u lk o f O f fa 's c o ins were s truck a t Can terbury , w ith o n ly o ne sma l l g roup c om ing

2 22

f ro m a nother min t , i n E ast Ang l ia.

T he s uggest ions made b y

Metca l f i n Cunobe l in I X ( 1963 ) - wh ich n ever g a ined e n try t o t he c onsensus , b u t wh ich may d eserve r e-exa m inat ion i n l igh t o f t he t opograph ica l a na lys is i n Oxon iens ia XXXV I I ( 1972 ) -w ere ( i ) t ha t E oba , I bba , E a lraed , a nd Eadhun w ere a g roup o f moneyers who o pera ted s epara te ly i n Group I ;

" co ins o f t he f our moneyers

a ccoun t f or a g ood h a lf o f t he f inds f ro m n or th o f t he T hames a nd w est o f t he f en lands.

T hey s ee m , i n aw ord , t o b e long t o Merc ia".

( i i ) t ha t A lhu mund , w ho w as t he o n ly moneyer t o u se t he f ormu la OFRA ( f or Rex Ang lorum ), b e longed s im i lar ly t o midd le Ang l ia o r t he f en lands ( i i i ) t ha t t he O f fa/ laenberh t c oins h ad a n e ssen t ia l ly w est S axon r a ther t han a Ken t ish d istr ibu t ion , a nd t ha t t he E the ln oth d iel ink d oes n o t t i e t he m f ir m ly t o Can terbury .

O f t hese

t hree , ( i ) a t l east l ooks n o w orse f or w ear , a nd a sma l l a dd it ion c an b e made t o t he p rovenances o n wh ich i t was b ased :

D . M.

Metca lf , "A c o in o f O f fa f ro m Dedd ing ton Cast le , Oxon ." , Br i t ish Nu m is ma t ic J ourna l XL ( 1971), 1 71-72.

Meanwh i le , n ew i ns igh ts

h ave b een g a ined b y as tudy o f min t o rgan izat ion i n C .E. B lun t , C .S .S . L yon , a nd B .H .I .H . S tewar t , "The c o inage o f s ou thern Eng land , 7 96-840", Br it ish Nu m is mat ic J ourna l XXXI I ( 1963 ), 1 7 4.

F or O f fa , t h is a dds a Merc ian min t a t ( ? ) L ondon ( moneyers

L udo man , Wi lhun ), a nd a nother u ndeterm ined min t ( Cio lhard , I bba , Eama ).

Can terbury , o f c ourse , r e ma ins t he ma jor min t ,

w ith a n orma l c o mp le men t ( i n t he 8 20s ) o f s ix moneyers . 4 3.

T he East Ang l ian c o inage h as b een c arefu l ly d iscussed b y B lun t , o p. c it .

S ee a lso B lun t , L yon , a nd S tewar t , o p .c it .

F or t he T iv-

o l i c o in , s ee t he s a le-ca ta logue o f t he L ocket t c o l lect ion , l ot 3 23 ; a nd f or d ie-dup l icat ion s ee t he c o m men t i n Metca l f , Cunobe l in I X ( 1963 ), a t 4 5, n .29.

T he r ange o f i ssues a t t he E ast Ang l ian min t

i s o f marg ina l c ons idera t ion i n j udg ing L yon 's I - I- I I s equence. 4 4.

P . Gr ierson , "Money a nd c o inage u nder Char le magne" , i n Kar l d er Grosse , v o l. I , a t p p . 5 10f .;

D . M. Metca lf , "The d a te o f

Char le magne 's r efor m" , Nu m is mat ic C ircu lar LXXVI ( 1968 ), 1 53-54. 4 5.

E .g . much o f S er ies B .I I .

4 6.

S ten ton , o p. c it . ,p .221 : L ondon i n 6 79.

4 7.

I b id ., p .221.

B ede r efers t o a Fr is ian merchan t i n

2 23

S O ME THOUGHTS ON THE MANNER OF PUBL ICAT ION OF COINS FOUND I N THE COURSE OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL EXCAVAT IONS

b y M ichae l D o l ley

S ince c o ins w ere f irst i nven ted , t here h ave b een i nstances o f t he ir a cc iden ta l l oss - a nd o f t he ir b e ing f ound .

H ad i tn ot b een s o , S cr ipture

wou ld h ave b een t he p oorer b y a t l eas t o ne p arab le. t rove , t oo , migh t h ave b een v ery d if feren t .

T he l aw o f t reasure

I n t he c ourse o f t h is p aper t here

w i l l b e d iscussed s o me a spects o f t he p rob lem o f e xact ly h ow c o ins r ecovered i n a n a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ion may b est b e r ecorded f or t he b ene f i t o f p oste r ity .

T he f irst p o in t t o b e made , a nd i ti s o ne t oo o f ten f orgot ten , i s t ha t

t he a rchaeo log is t i s n ot t he o n ly n or e ven t he p r i me b enef ic iary f rom h is d isc over ies.

Gran ted t ha t t here a re many c ases when t he p r inc ipa l i mpor tance

o f wha t may b e av ery c o m mon c o in i s i t s s trat if ica t ion , a nd t he l i gh t t ha t i t s heds o n t he c hrono logy o f ap ar t icu lar c on tex t , t here i s a lways t he p oss ib i li ty t ha t t he c o in may t urn o u t t o b e av ar iety h i ther to u nknown t o t he n um ismat ist .

Ag ood e xa mp le o f t h is i s at en th-century c o in o f An la f S ih tr icsson

o ccurr ing i n Mr A .B . 0R iio rdä in 's r ecen t e xcavat ions a t t he H igh S treet s i te i n Dub l in .

I ti s o n ly t he f our th c o in o f i t s p ar t icu lar i ssue t o h ave c o me t o

l igh t i n modern t imes , wh i le t he n a me o f t he moneyer - B lesere t -i s o ne t ha t h as n ot p rev ious ly b een r ecorded .

I n o ther w ords , a ny w or thwh i le

r epor t o n t he c o in w i l l h ave t o s at is fy t he l eg i t i ma te c ur ios ity a l ike o f n u mi s ma t ists a nd o f s tuden ts o f V ik ing-age p ersona l n a mes.

T he f ormer w i l l

e xpect s o me r eference a t l east t o t he o ther t hree c o ins , o ne i n a n Eng l ish p r ivate c ab inet a nd t wo i n C on t inen ta l museums , wh i le t he l at ter w i l l e xpect awareness , i fn ot c o mprehens ion , o f t he ir h igh ly s pec ia l ized c oncern . t he b ackground l urks t he h istor ian a s s uch .

I n

I ft he c o in i s i n f act o f An la f

S ih tr icsson , a nd i ft he min t r ea l ly i s Y ork - q uest ions t hat o n ly a n um is ma ti s t c an a nswer - t he n ew ly-d iscovered c o in w i l l b e a nother c ru mb o f e v idence f or t hose who a re a t te mp t ing t o e st i ma te t he i n terdependence o f Dub l in a nd York i n t he e ar ly 9 40s.

I t s ee ms s carce ly n ecessary t o a dd t hat t here a re

a t l east t wo c lasses o f s pec ia l ist h istor ians h ang ing o n t he a nswer ;

I r ish

h istor ians c oncerned w i th t he s tory o f t he a bsorp t ion o f D ub l in i n to I re land , a nd Eng l ish h istor ians n o l ess c oncerned w ith t he h ow a nd why o f Y ork 's r ea bsorp t ion i n to Eng land . I tf o l lows f ro m t h is t ha t an um is mat ic r epor t o n c o ins f ound i n e xcava ti ons i s a mat ter f or a s pec ia l ist .

T he p erson who wr ites t he r epor t mus t b e

a t , o r n ear t o , t he c en tre o f t h ings n um is ma t ic , a nd t h is means t ha t t he n u mber o f p oten t ia l r epor ters i s l im ited , a nd a lso t ha t t hey w i l l h ave n ume rous o ther c a l ls u pon t he ir t ime.

I ti s a rguab le , i ndeed , i ft here a re i n

t hese i s lands e ven a d ozen s tuden ts who a re b oth t echn ica l ly e qu ipped a nd

2 24

t e mpera men ta l ly s u i ted t o p roduce a dequa te r epor ts o n l ong r uns o f c oins f rom s us ta ined e xcava t ion a t ma jor u rban s i tes.

I n p ar t icu lar , a rchaeo log-

i s ts who a re s eek ing n um is ma t ic r epor ters s hou ld b e o n t he ir g uard a ga ins t n arrow s pec ia l is ms.

T here o ugh t t o b e t he s ame a tten t ion p a id t o Roman

c oins o ccurr ing i n med iaeva l c on tex ts a s t o med iaeva l c o ins a ppropr ia te ly s trat i f ied , a nd i n t he s ame w ay t here must b e a n e nd o f t he p ract ice o f n ot s ubm i t t ing f or r epor t p ost- med iaeva l c o ins f rom t he l eve ls o ver ly ing t he s tructures f orma l ly u nder i nvest iga t ion . S ome r ecen t e xa mp les w i l l i l lustrate t he i mpor tance o f t h is i ns is tence o n t he i nc lus ion o f t he a pparen t ly i rre levan t . A t D ub l in a nd a t S ou thamp ton , Roman c oins h ave o ccurred i n med iaeva l l eve ls.

I n t he c ase o f D ub l in , i t

h as b een p oss ib le t o s ugges t d e l iberate i mpor t i n V ik ing t imes a s s crap c opper , a nd i n p ost-V ik ing t imes a cc iden ta l o ccurrence i n b a l las t b rough t o ver b y s h ips e xpor t ing c orn t o Eng land .

T here was a lso t he c ons iderat ion

t ha t t he r eporter h appened , a t t ha t v ery t ime , t o b e s ponsor ing a s tuden t 's Academy monograph o n Roman ma ter ia l b rough t o ver t o I re land , s o t ha t b oth h e a nd h is s tuden t w ere v i ta l ly i n terested i n -a nd p ecu l iar ly q ua l if ied t o a ssess - e v idence t ha t n ot a l l Ro man c o ins f ound i n I re land n eed h ave a rr ived t here e i ther i n a n t iqu ity o r e lse i n modern t imes.

T he l abourer

i s i ndeed w or thy o f h is h ire , a nd i ts ee ms n ot i nappropr ia te t ha t t he r epor te r who may w e l l s pend w eeks p repar ing a r epor t o n o n ly a d ozen c oins s hou ld b e r ewarded b y t he o ccas iona l w ind fa l l o f t h is k ind .

A t S ou thamp-

t on , t he n a ture o f t he Ro man c o ins f ound b y Dr C ol in P la t t i n f act p roved e x tre me ly r e levan t t o t he s ource o f t he r ubb le u sed when o ne p ar t icu lar s tre tch o f t we l f th-century w a l l was t hrown u p t o meet a s pec if ic emerg ency , wh i le t he n ature o f t he mut i l iat ion o f o ne o f t he m p ro mpted n ot t i nu se fu l s pecu lat ion o n t he p oss ib i l ity o f d a mnat io me mor iae i n t he a nc ien t w or ld , a nd o f c on fus ion o f o r icha lcum w ith g o ld b y med iaeva l f inders w i th c onsequen t d is tor t ion o f t he r ecord . As r egards more modern c o ins f ound i n o ver ly ing l eve ls , t here a re s t i l l med iaeva l s pec ia l is ts who w ou ld g o t o t he s take f or t he p r inc ip le :N um is mat ista s um e t n um is ma t ici n i l a me a l ienum p u to a nd i ti s w e l l t o r e me mber t ha t o ne o f a med iaeva l n um is mat ist 's f ew c hecks o n h is i n ferences f rom c o ins u nsuppor ted b y a rch ives i s h is o bs ervat ion o f t he b ehav iour o f c oins where d ocumen tat ion i n f act e x is ts. Recen t ly , o ne I r ish a rchaeo log ist s ee med j ust a l i t t le t aken a back b y h is c hosen r epor ter 's i ns istence t ha t t he p ost- med iaeva l c o ins a lso s hou ld b e p roduced . H e migh t h ave b een l ess s urpr ised h ad h e k nown t ha t t he n umi s ma t is t i n q uest ion h ad w i th t he e d itor o f t he c oun ty j ourna l ap rosopog raph ica l n o te o n s o me s even teen th-cen tury t okens o f t he a d jacen t a rea , a n ote b reak ing e n t ire ly n ew g round where t he p ar t icu lar s er ies w as c onc erned . I n a ny c ase , a nd p ar t icu lar ly where t here h as b een d isturbance o f t he s i te , t he n um is ma t ist i s -o r s hou ld b e -a nx ious t o k now whether c o ins t ha tu sua l ly b ear d a tes d o , i n f act , o ccur i n t he a n t ic ipated s equ ence.

N ot a l l med iaeva l c o ins a re c lose ly d ated , a nd t he n um ismat ic

r epor ter may b e e ncouraged , i n c er ta in c ircums tances , t o a rgue f or a d ate f rom c on tex t p rov ided o n ly h e c an b e s at is f ied t ha t t he a pparen t

2 25

s tra t i f ica t ion o f t he s i te i s r easonab ly s ecure. F ro m t h is t here a r ises a no ther v ery i mpor tan t c ons iderat ion .

I dea l ly

t he a rchaeo log ist s hou ld h ave l i ned u p h is n um is ma t ic r epor ter b e fore a s ing le s od i s l i f ted o r as p it t urned .

E ven a t t h is s tage c o-operat ion i s

u se fu l . T he n um is mat is t c an s uggest t o t he a rchaeo log ist t he t ypes o f c oin f or w h ich h e s hou ld b e l ook ing , a nd e ven g ive h im s o me i dea o f t he q uan t ity i n wh ich t hey a re l ike ly t o o ccur .

D if feren t c o ins , t oo , s urv ive i n d if fer-

e n t s o i ls i n av ery w ide s pectru m o f c ond i t ion .

I n most I r ish c on tex ts , f or

e xamp le , t he b ase b racteates o f t he t we lf th c entury c an h ope t o b e r ecovere d o n ly b y t he e xerc ise o f g rea t c are a nd e ven t hen o n ly u nder t he most f avourab le o f c ond i t ions . I t may e ven b e n ecessary , t oo , f or t he n um is mati st t o i nd ica te t o t he a rchaeo log ist t ha t h e s hou ld b e o n h is g uard a ga inst g iv ing a ccess t o h is s i te t o ap ar t icu lar l oca l c o l lector , wh i le t he b est c heck o n t he i n tegr ity o f i nd iv idua l d iggers i s i ft he n um is ma t ist i s a ler ted t o t he f act t ha t ap art icu lar e xcavat ion i s p roduc ing a p ar t icu lar t ype o f c o in w i th ap ar t icu lar t ype o f p a t inat ion .

I ti s l i t t le u se t o s cho larsh ip i fi ti s o n ly

mon ths , i fn ot y ears , a f ter t he e ven t t hat t he n umis ma t ist r ea l izes t ha t t here h ad c ome o n to t he market c oins w ith t he i den t ica l ' co lour ' a t p reci se ly t he t ime t hat h onest w orkmen a nd v o lun teers - a nd o ne h as ten t o a dd t ha t t he v ast ma jor ity o f h e lpers ( and c o in-co l lectors )a re h ones t - must h ave b een h and ing i n t o t he ir s uperv isors ma ter ia l o f t he s a me d escr ip t ion . T o b e c o m mended o n o ther g rounds i s t he i ncreas ing ly w idespread p ract ice o f t he a rchaeo log ist r epor t ing t o h is n um is ma t ic s pec ia l is t t he c o ins a s a nd when t hey c o me t o l i gh t .

T h is d oes n o t d ispense h im f ro m

t he o b l iga t ion o f h i mse l f p rov is iona l ly i den t i fy ing e ach c o in t he mo men t i t i s b rough t t o t he f ind-tab le.

C o ins o f ten s urv ive i n av ery p recar ious c on-

d it ion , a nd c an b eg in t o d eter iora te a s s oon a s e xposed t o t he a ir .

Even

where t h is h appens , t hough , ag ood p hotograph o r ag ood d raw ing - o r p referab ly b oth - i s ar ecord f or wh ich t he r epor ter may b e v ery g ra tefu l. T here i s a lso t he c ons iderat ion t ha t c o ins may d isappear a s t he r esu l t o f p ure ly h uman a genc ies. S i te-hu ts a re n ot a lways s ecure , a nd o ccas iona l ly c o ins may h ave t o b e s en t t hrough t he p os t . Much more i mpor tan t , t hough , i s t he d es irab i l ity o f t he n um is ma t ist p onder ing h is ma ter ia l o ver a s l ong ap er iod a s p oss ib le. p o in t .

Aga in , t he Dub l in e xcava t ions p rov ide a c ase i n

A s ar esu lt o f Mr Ö R i/o rdä in 's d iscover ies , n um is ma t is ts a re n ow

h av ing t o r e-th ink c o mp lete ly t he I r ish b racteates.

T hese f rag i le a nd

e xcep t iona l c o ins c o me a t t he v ery e nd o f t he H iberno-Norse s er ies , a nd a re c o mp lete ly w i thou t l egends.

B efore t he e xcava t ions , t he d ebased

s er ies n ow a ssociated w i th t he Dub l in min t h ad b een k nown f ro m f ewer t han h a lf-a-dozen s pec i mens a l l d er iv ing f ro m o ne v irtua l ly u nda ted e ar ly n ineteen th-cen tury c on tex t .

Now , h owever , more t han a s core o f e xa mp les

h ave c o me t o l igh t a t t he H igh S treet s i te a lone , a nd t he e xact a rchaeo logi ca l c on tex ts h ave t o b e s tud ied w ith t he c losest a t ten t ion i ft here i s t o b e a ny h ope o f a ch iev ing a d at ing w i th in t he d ecade r a ther t han t he h al f-cen tu ry .

As a r esu lt , t he e xcava tors t he mse lves a re o n t he ir t oes e xact ly t o

n ote a nd t o r ecord t he l ast s crap o f e v idence wh ich may e stab l ish t he d ate o f l oss.

No t t he l east f ortuna te a nd h appy a spect o f t he D ub l in e xcava t-

i ons i s t he r appor t t hat h as b een e stab l ished b etween e xcava tor a nd

2 26

, n um is ma t ic r epor ter , b u t a ga in i ts hou ld b e s tressed t ha t Mr 0 R iorda in 's own p rov is iona l i den t if ica t ions h ave p roved w i thout e xcep t ion t o b e c orrect , s o t ha t h is r epor ter 's f requen t h urr ied t r ips t o D ub l in t o i nspect t he l atest d iscovery n ever o nce h ave b een t he o ccas ion o f d isappo in tmen t .

T he a rch-

a eo log ist , i ts hou ld b e emphas ized , must b e o n h is g uard a ga ins t t he l oca l p und it .

T he l et ters FRNS c an embrace a t err ify ing ly b road b and o f e xper t-

i se , a nd o n ly l ast y ear , o ne y oung B e lfas t g raduate f ound h i mse l f c orrect ing o ne s uch p seudo-savan t 's i den t if ica t ions wh ich w ere o u t i n s ome c ases b y more t han a c en tury . I n t he c ourse o f a ny p ro tracted e xcava t ion , t hen , t he n um is mat ic r epor ter may h ope t o h ave b een s hown h is mater ia l when a nd a s i th as c ome t o l i gh t . I n s o me c ases , t here w i l l h ave h ad t o b e t aken a d ec is ion t o c lean , a nd a ga in o ne wou ld u rge s ubm iss ion where p oss ib le o f a l l s uch c o ins t o t he n umi s ma t ist b efore d ispa tch t o t he l abora tory . C o ins h ave b een k nown t o d isi n tegra te u nder c lean ing , a nd t here a re o ccas ions when t he f l ee t ing i mpress ion o f t he c o in o n i t s c orros ion p roducts may r evea l more t o t he e xper ienced n um isma t ist 's e ye t han t he e nd-product o f t he c lean ing p rocess. t o c r i t ic ise t he s c ien t ists .

T h is i s n ot

S tab i l izat ion a nd c onservat ion a re c r it ica l , a nd

i tw i l l b e l i t t le u se t o p oster ity i f al i t t le h eap o f o x ides i s a l l t ha t i s a va i lab le s hou ld , y ears l ater , s o mebody w onder i f , p erhaps , t h is o r t ha t e xper t was n odd ing , a nd i den t i f ied a s Ang lo-Saxon a f ragmen t t ha t i n t he l igh t o f r ee xam ina t ion o f s ome a ssoc iated p ot tery i s more l i ke ly t o h ave b een P lan tage net .

A t t h is s tage , t oo , ad ecis ion may we l l h ave t o b e t aken o n w hether

o r n ot a p ar t icu lar c o in s hou ld b e t he s ub ject o f s epara te p ub l ica t ion . H ere e very c ase h as t o b e j udged o n i t s own mer its , a nd e xcava tor a nd n um isma t ist e ach may h ave h is own r easons f or d es ir ing p ub l ica t ion p r ior t o t he d ef in it ive r epor t o n t he c o ins a s a n e n t ity . I ncreas ing ly , a rchaeo lo gy i s b eco m ing a mat ter o f p ub l ic r e lat ions , a nd a n e xcava tor may w e l l w ish t o ma in ta in i n terest i n -a nd s uppor t f or - a p ar t icu lar e xcava t ion b y s e lect ive p ub l ica t ion o f t he s um o f t he h igh l igh ts o f e ach s eason 's w ork . T he v ery l ast c o in t o b e f ound o n t he H igh S treet s i te a t D ub l in i s ac ase i n p o in t .

I ti s aL ondon p enny o f AElfred t he G rea t s truck a l most c er ta in ly

i n 8 86 , a nd a s s uch w i th i t s p or tra i t a nd L ondon monogram i s i mmed ia te ly i n te l l ig ib le a s af ind o f t he g rea test s ign if icance e ven b y al ay a ud ience. Equa l ly , t he n um is ma t ist may f ee l t ha t ap ar t icu lar c o in d eserves e ar ly p ub l ica t ion t o f ocus i n formed o p in ion o n ap ar t icu lar p rob le m.

F or e xa m-

p le , ad ecade a go n o med iaeva l Norweg ian c o in w as k nown w i th a f i nd-spot f ro m t hese i s lands. T he t a l ly n ow s tands a t t hree , a nd t he s tory o f t he ir d iscovery i s s a lu tary . T he f irst was s en t t o t he wr iter b y Mr R .B .K . S tevenson who was g o ing t hrough u npub l ished ma ter ia l f rom t he e xcava t ions b etween t he wars a t J ar lshof .

T he s econd was s ubm i t ted t o h im b y Mr

I a in Craw ford who h ad r ecovered i ti n t he c ourse o f h is c urren t e xcava t ions a t t he Uda l o n Nor th U ist .

B oth c o ins h ad t o b e r e ferred t o a Norweg ian

c ol league , a nd h e i n t urn f l ushed a t h ird w i th a n u nrecorded S co t t ish p rove nance i n t he t rays o f t he Roya l C o in C o l lect ion a t C openhagen .

H ere

e ar ly n um isma t ic p ub l ica t ion h as p roved i n t he b est i n terests o f a l l c onc erned , b u t t he wr iter h astens t o a dd t ha t i ti s h is p ersona l c onv ict ion t hat

2 27

s uch c ases s hou ld b e t he e xcep t ion a nd n o t t he r u le.

I ti s n o t t o t he l ong-term

a dvan tage o f n um is ma t ics , l et a lone o f a rchaeo logy , t hat n um is ma t ists s hou ld b e s pared t he l abour o f r ead ing t hrough p roper r epor ts o n t he t o ta l i ty o f t he n um is ma t ic mater ia l r ecovered f ro m a p ar t icu lar s i te. I n t wen t ieth-cen tury n um is ma t ics t he s uet may w e l l p rove t o b e a t l east a s i mpor tan t a s t he p lums , a nd i ft he l a t ter h ave b een u ndu ly c u l led t here i s ar ea l d anger t hat t he n um isma t ic r epor t o n t he c o ins a s a who le may b e p u t o n t he l ong f inger a nd n ever i n f ac t c o mp leted .

T h is s a id , t hough , t he e xcavator h i mse lf may h ave s ound

a cade m ic r easons a s o pposed t o p ropagand is t r easons f or d es ir ing e ar ly p ubl i ca t ion o f i nd iv idua l c o ins f ound i n ap ar t icu lar c on tex t .

Ag ood e xa mp le i s

a f forded b y t he Ang lo-Saxon p enn ies o f t he t en th c en tury d iscovered b y Dr G eorge E ogan i n t he p r i mary s i l t o f as ou terra in d ug i n to t he p reh istor ic mound a t Know th .

T he d iscovery r a ised q uest ions s o f unda men ta l f or t he

i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s i te , a nd o f o thers l i ke i t , t ha t p ub l ica t ion o f t he t wo c o ins i n a dvance o f t he f ina l r epor t s ee ms e n t ire ly j ust if ied .

As e ver , t hough , a n

e le men t o f r appor t b etween e xcava tor a nd n um is ma t ist i s e ssen t ia l i ft here i s n ot t o b e c onf l ict , a nd b oth n eed t o h ave a v ery r ea l u nders tand ing o f t he p robl e ms o f e ach o f t he d isc ip l ines i nvo lved . We c o me n ow t o t he p repara t ion o f t he f ina l r epor t ;

t he d escr ip t ion a nd

d iscuss ion o f a l l t he c o ins f ound wh ich w i l l b e p r in ted a s a n a ppend ix t o t he e xcavator 's r epor t o n t he e xcava t ions a s a who le.

I nev i tab ly , i tw i l l b e o f a

l eng th p ropor t ionate t o t he n u mber a nd i mpor tance o f t he c o ins i n q uest ion , a nd i ti s t he s ub m iss ion o f t h is p aper t ha t i ts hou ld b e i n af orm e nab l ing i t t o b e r ead a s ac onsecu t ive e n t ity .

P ar t icu lar ly s uspect s hou ld b e u ndue

t abu lar izat ion , a nd a n i ncreas ing ly q uest ionab le p ract ice may b e t hough t t he c i tat ion o f c o ins b y mixed a lphabet ica l a nd n u mer ica l s ymbo ls r eferr ing t o s tandard w orks when t hese a re n ot a cco mpan ied b y b r ief d escr ip t ions o f t he c o ins.

I ti s t oo e asy w ith s uch a lgebra ic f ormu lae f or p r in ter 's e rrors t o

c reep i n u ndetected i n a way i mposs ib le when e ven a f ew words o f t ex t a re i nvo lved .

I n a Ro man c o in 's d escr ipt ion , f or e xa mp le , ORTENS AVG i s a

p a lpab le mispr in t f or ORIENS AVG , b u t R IC 7 32 f or R IC 7 23 i s as l ip a s e asy t o make a s d if f icu l t t o d etect when o nce o ver looked b y t he p roof-reader. S o me t hough t , t oo , s hou ld b e g iven t o t he u lt i mate d est ina t ion o f t he c o ins. I n most c ases i ti s l ike ly t ha t t hey w i l l e nd u p i n al oca l museum , b u t i n t he n ature o f t h ings t he i nst itut ions a re f ew where t hey c an h ope t o c o m mand t he c ons tan t s urve i l lance o f at ra ined n umis mat is t .

Over t he y ears s o me

a t l east w i l l i nev i tab ly b eco me p ar ted f ro m t he ir e nve lopes , a nd i ti s e ssen ti a l t ha t t he d escr ip t ions p r in ted i n t he e xcava t ion r epor t s hou ld b e d eta i led e nough t o a l low o f t he a ctua l s pec i mens b e ing i den t i f ied b y as ubsequen t g enerat ion o f r esearchers.

I fo n ly f or t h is r eason , f u l l d eta i ls s hou ld b e

g iven o f w e igh t a nd p a t ina t ion , e ven i n t he c ase o f f ragmen tary c o ins , wh i le i l lustrat ion s hou ld b e o n as ca le a s g enerous a s t he c ircu mstances o f t he c ase p erm i t .

F ortuna te ly e xcavators t hemse lves a re b eg inn ing t o a pprec-

i ate t he a t tract ions o f i l lustra t ion , a nd where t he n umber o f c o ins i s r e la ti ve ly sma l l , a s w i th Mr T ho mas Fann ing 's h igh ly i ns truct ive s er ies f ro m C lontusker t Pr iory , p ho tograph ic r eproduc t ion o f t he t ota l ity n eed n ot p res en t u ndue d i f f icu l ty .

I n t he s a me way , i ts hou ld b e n orma l p ract ice f or

2 28

b racke ts t o i nd ica te t hose l e t ters i n l egends wh ich a re w an t ing o r i l leg ib le , a nd a n ote o f d ie-ax is , where a ppropr ia te , i s ac our tesy f or wh ich a f u ture s tuden t may e v ince g rat itude o ut o f a l l p ropor t ion t o t he l abour i nvo lved . No l ess d es irab le a re s yste mat ic r eferences t o as e lect ion o f t he s tandard w orks i nvo lved , a nd h ere t he n um is ma t ic r epor ter s hou ld r e member t ha t i ti s n ot e very p ub l ic , l e t a lone p r iva te , l i brary t ha t c an b oast a r un o f Br i t ish Museum c ata logues a nd o f t he ir C on t inen ta l c oun terpar ts.

I tc er t-

a in ly i s n ot b enea th t he d ign ity o f ar epor t o f t h is k ind t o g ive r e ferences , where a ppropr ia te , t o o ne o r more o f t he more e as i ly a va i lab le h andbooks o f t he t ype p u t o u t b y Messrs B .A . S eaby a nd S p ink & S on , a nd e spec ia l ly when s ome o f t he more e n l igh tened e xcavators w i l l b e f ound i nc lud ing c op ies o f s uch w orks i n t he ir o n-s ite l i brar ies. A s pec ia l p rob le m i s p osed b y t he d iscovery o f c o in-hoards. T h is h as h appened i n t he w r iter 's own e xper ience a t Me l l i fon t , a t Winchester , a t S ou thamp ton a nd a t D ub l in . H ere t here d o s ee m t o b e a rgumen ts f or s epa ra te p ub l ica t ion , t hough t he f orm o f t he p ub l icat ion may v ary v ery c ons ide rab ly . A t Me l l i fon t , t he e ar ly t h ir teen th-cen tury h oard was t he o n ly n umi s ma t ic mater ia l r ecovered , a nd w as s o i n tegra l t o d iscuss ion o f t he p rob le m o f t he c hurch 's r ebu i ld ing t ha t t he e xcava t ion-repor t was , i n f ac t , t he o n ly p oss ib le v eh ic le o f p ub l ica t ion .

A t Winchester , t hough , t he l a ter t h ir teen th-

c en tury h oard f ound b y Mr Mar t in B idd le w as o ne o f aw e l l-known t ype, a nd , q uest ions o f t reasure t rove p ract ice a par t , ag ood c ase c ou ld b e made f or i mmed iate p ub l ica t ion i n o ne o f t he n um is mat ic j ourna ls w here c o in-hoards n orma l ly f igure.

A t S ou tha mp ton , o n t he o ther h and , t he e leven th-century

h oard w as c o mp le te ly a typ ica l , a nd i nvo lved c o ins f ro m a f ore ign s er ies n o t n orma l ly f ound i n a n Eng l ish c on tex t . H ere t he b est s o lu t ion h as s ee med t o b e p ub l ica t ion a s a n a ppend ix t o t he n um isma t ic r epor t . e ry a ga in p resen ted s pec ia l p rob le ms.

T he Dub l in d iscov-

T he n umber o f c o ins - o r more

s tr ict ly o f t okens - was v ery l arge, 2 061 t o b e p rec ise , a nd t he s er ies was o ne t o wh ich more r ecen t s cho larsh ip h ad g iven a t ota l ly a berran t d a te. T o h ave i nc luded t he h oard i n t he ma in r epor t wou ld h ave b een c omp le te ly t o d istor t t he p icture o f t he p at tern o f c o in-use wh ich i s o ne o f t he most v a lu ab le c on tr ibu t ions w h ich a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion c an make t o n um is mati cs , wh i le r e legat ion o f t he h oard t o a n a ppend ix w ou ld h ave p roduced a l ud icrous i mba lance i nas much a s a ny a dequa te d iscuss ion j us t o f t he c on tex t w ou ld h ave o ccup ied more s pace t han t he d escr ip t ion a nd d iscuss ion o f a l l t he o ther c o ins f ro m t he s i te. T he c ircu ms tances o f t he l oss o f t h is h oard , moreover , h ave p roved e x tre me ly r e levan t t o o ther d isc ip l ines , a nd i n t h is c ase s epara te p ub l ica t ion o f t he c ess-p it a nd o f i t s c on ten ts i n monograph f orm h as s ee med t he b est s o lu t ion .

T here w i l l a lso b e , o f c ourse , t he

f u l lest o f c ross-referenc ing b etween t h is monograph a nd t he c oin-repor t a s s uch , a nd s ince e ach e le men t i s o f s u f f ic ien t i mpor tance t o s tand o n i t s own f ee t , t here i s n o r ea l d anger o f e i ther b e ing n eg lected o r , when p ubl i shed , o ver looked . T o t he r epor t 's e xact d escr ipt ion a nd i den t if ica t ion o f e ach a nd e very c o in t here s hou ld b e a t tached a n e s t i mate , a s c lose a s p oss ib le , o f t he d a te a t wh ich t he p ar t icu lar p iece i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een l os t . S ometh ing t hat i ti s

2 29

v ery d i f f icu lt f or t he n um is ma t ist t o c onvey t o t he a rchaeo log ist i s t he v ery u neven l i fespan o f med iaeva l c o ins.

T here a re Ang lo-Saxon p enn ies where

we c an b e mora l ly c er ta in t ha t t hey w ere d e monet ized - a nd e f fect ive ly s o w i th in mon ths o f t he ir i ssue.

I n t hese c ases t he t erm in i p os t a nd a n te q uos

o f manu facture a nd l oss s o c lose ly c orrespond t hat t he n on-num is ma t ist may h ave d i f f icu lty i n g rasp ing t ha t c . 9 97 , f or e xa mp le , may mean i n c er ta in c ircums tances ' a f ter J une 9 97 a nd b efore March 9 98 '.

One i s c arefu l t o

q ua l ify t h is s ta te men t b ecause a c o in o f t ha t p ar t icu lar v ar iety f ound i n I rel and a s o pposed t o Eng land migh t w el l h ave a t erm inus a n te q ue m f or l oss a s o pposed t o s tr ik ing n earer t he y ear 1 000 , t hough i tw ou ld s t i l l h ave b een s truck b e fore S ep te mber 9 97 a nd p robab ly n o t b een r e moved f ro m Eng land a f ter March 9 98.

A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ca le t here w ere s o me l a ter med-

i aeva l Eng l ish p enn ies where t he l i fespan c ou ld b e a s l ong a s t wo h undred y ears a nd more.

Worn p enn ies o f Edward Is t i l l w ere p ass ing a s c o in a s l a te

a s t he r e ign o f H enry V I I I , a nd i ti s h ere t ha t t he n um is mat ist o u t o f h is e xp er ience h as t o d ep loy a l l h is r esources i ft he a rchaeo log ist i s n o t t o b e misl ed .

Mere ly t o s ta te ' Penny o f Edward I , F ox c lass

r \ P

i s n ot e nough .

E ven

i ft he a rchaeo log ist d oes n ot l ook u p as tandard w ork o f r eference a nd f ind t here a n i nd ica t ion o f d a te o f s tr ik ing wh ich i n r ea l ity i s n o more t han a t erm inus p ost q ue m , t he p robab i l i ty i s t ha t h e w i l l t h ink i n t erms o f at er mi nus a n te q ue m o f 1 307 , o r e ven o f c . 1 300 , a lthough , i n f act , i ti s n o t u n t i l t he m idd le o f t he f our teen th c entury t ha t a n Edward Ip enny s t i l l i n r easona b ly s harp c ond i t ion c eases t o b e a ccep tab le a s ap er fect ly p laus ib le s ing lef ind .

I n many c ases , t oo , i ti s t he n um is ma t ist 's t ask t o e st ima te t he e x-

t en t t o wh ich l oss o f we igh t may b e d ue t o w ear o r t o d e l ibera te c l ipp ing o r t o t he l each ing o ut o f o ne o r more o f t he c onst ituen t meta ls a s ar esu l t o f e xposure t o p ar t icu lar t ypes o f s o i l , a nd i n p ract ice a v ery c ons iderab le amoun t o f e xper t ise i s n ecessary i ft here i s t o b e d rawn w i th c on f idence a ny f irm l i ne b etween wear a nd c orros ion . T he s ensa t iona l l a ter H iberno-Norse p enny o f Ag r rus De i t ype , f ound a t t he e nd o f F ebruary 1 973 o n t he Chr ist Church P lace s i te a t Dub l in , i s ac ase i n p oin t .

T he c o in may l ook t o t he u n tra ined e ye a p ret ty worn a nd b a t tered

t h ing , b u t i n p o in t o f f ac t t he a pparen t w ear i s a t tr ibu tab le v ery l arge ly t o c orros ion a nd t o d oub le-str ik ing wh ich l ast a f fects t he r everse i n p ar t icu lar , s o t ha t i ti s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een l ost a l l t ha t l ong a f ter i t was s truck .

I t

a f fords , t oo , y et a nother i l lus tra t ion o f t he d es irab i l i ty o f c o ins f ro m c ont inu ing e xcavat ions b e ing s hown t o t he r epor ter a s a nd when t hey o ccur .

I t

i s s ign if ican t t ha t t h is c o in s ee ms t o b e o n ly t he s econd s pec i men k nown t od ay o f at ype w h ich f irst c a me t o l igh t i n 1 639 , e ven more s uggest ive t hat t he c o in s hou ld b e ad ie-dup l ica te o f t ha t i n t he U lster Museum , b u t t oo e as i ly f orgot ten t ha t t o e s tab l ish e ven s o much i nvo lved t he r epor ter i n v is its t o t wo museums a h undred mi les a par t a nd i n t he c onsu lta t ion o f q u ite a b ody o f l i terature o u ts ide h is own r a ther e x tens ive n otes.

F ir m ly t o p lace t he

n ew c o in i n i t s e xact p lace i n t he H iberno-Norse s er ies w i l l n ecess ita te a s tudy o f t he D an ish i ssues wh ich s ee m t o p rov ide t he i m med ia te mode ls f or b oth t he o bverse a nd t he r everse t ypes , a nd t h is , i nvo lv ing a s i tw i l l av is it t o Copenhagen , i s s o me th ing t ha t o ne c an i mag ine t ha t most r epor ters

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wou ld p re fer n ot t o h ave s prung o n t he m a ga ins t ad ead l ine o f af ew mon ths i fn o t w eeks.

O f c ourse i t may b e o b jec ted t ha t a l l t h is i s work t hat s hou ld

h ave b een d one y ears a go , b u t s o t o p ro tes t i s t o i gnore t he r ea l i t ies o f n um ismat ics. N o t t he l eas t i mpor tan t c onsequence o f t he d iscovery o f l ong r uns o f c o ins f ro m e xcava t ions i s t he p ressure t hey e xer t t owards a more s earch ing p robe o f a reas o f r e la t ive n eg lec t , a nd t he a bsence o f t h is t ype f rom t he c o l lect ions a t Dub l in a nd L ondon u nquest ionab ly l i es a t t he r oo t o f f a i lure , h itherto , t o a t tach d ue i mpor tance t o aq u ite u nexpected a s w e l l a s u npreceden ted i nstance o f aD an ish c o in i nf luenc ing o ne f rom I re land . I t was o n ly t h is s ame s pr ing , t hough , t ha t t here h as a ppeared t he f i rst p aper t o r ecogn ize p ara l le l H iberno-Norse i n f luence o n t he Dan ish c o inage a pproxi ma te ly a g enera t ion e ar l ier . A s a lready r e marked , t here a re c er ta in med iaeva l s er ies where r easona b ly c lose d a t ings f or p ar t icu lar i ssues h ave s t i l l t o b e a ch ieved .

T here

a re a lso a reas where t he n um is ma t ist s t i l l h as n one t oo c lear a n i dea o f h ow l ong a n i nd iv idua l d eno m ina t ion may h ave r e ma ined i n g enera l c urrency . T here s ee ms , t hen , much t o b e s a id f or t he f orma t wh ich was r ecen t ly d ev ised f or t he p ub l icat ion o f D r P la t t 's c o ins f rom S outhamp ton . Appended t o t he d escr ip t ion o f e ach c o in i s as um mary a ccoun t o f i t s a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t , s o t ha t t he r eader i s g iven a n i m med ia te i mpress ion o f t he a ssoc iat ed ma ter ia l.

Not a l l n um is ma t is ts a re i gnoran t o f o r d is interested i n

a rchaeo log ica l methods , wh i le i ti s n ot o n ly n um is ma t ists who h ave f ound i t d if icu l t o n o ccas ion t o p ick u p ar eference t o a n i nd iv idua l c o in i n t he ma in b ody o f a n a rchaeo log ist 's r eport . N or s hou ld i tb e a ssumed t ha t n um ismat ic i n terest i s c on f ined t o c hrono logy .

I ncreas ing ly s tuden ts a re c oncern-

e d w ith c o in-use , a nd t he c ircumstances o f d iscovery may w e l l a f ford a c lue a s t o whether a p ar t icu lar c o in i s ac asua l l oss o u t o f c ircu lat ion o r a s tray f ro m a d ispersed h oard . I n t he s a me w ay , t ha t ag o ld c o in o f t he e ar ly f our teen th c entury c o mes f ro m t he s ump o f ap r ivy i s n o a rgumen t t ha t s uch p ieces p assed f ree ly f ro m h and t o h and i n d ay-to-day c o m merce , whereas t he l oser o f ag a l ley-ha lfpenny o f t he s ame p er iod migh t w e l l h ave a ccep ted , i fh e e ven n ot iced , h is l oss r a ther t han p r ise u p f l oor-boards o r p av ing-s tones. I tw as , moreover , t he minu te d escr ip t ion o f e xact ly h ow t he t h ir teen th-cen tury p enn ies o ccurred i n t he Mr L iam d e Paor 's e xcavat i ons o f t he a bbey c hurch o f Me l l ifon t wh ich w as d ec is ive t ha t t hey r epresent ed a sma l l p ersona l c ache a nd n ot t he s ca t ter o f a ma jor t reasure i mperf ect ly r ecovered i n t he c ourse o f a ma jor c on f lagrat ion wh ich h as p assed u nno t iced i n t he h istor ica l r ecord , a nd h ere t here a re i mp l ica t ions f or t he h istor ian i nas much a s t he h ypo thes is o f t he ma jor t reasure wou ld n ot h ave a ccorded w i th t he t heory t ha t Me l l ifon t may h ave b een b urned i n t he Bruce war. I ti s t o b e h oped t ha t t he n um is mat ic a ppend ixes t o e xcava t ion-repor ts w i l l b e u sed i ncreas ing ly b y n um is ma t ists a s a n i mpor tan t s ource o f i nf orma t ion s upp le men ta l t o t ha t a f forded b y c o in-hoards. F or t h is r eason i ti s d es irab le t ha t d i f feren t s er ies s hou ld b e c lear ly d is t ingu ished , a nd t here i s s o meth ing t o b e s a id f or a n o vera l l c hrono log ica l a rrange men t

2 31

w ith Ro man c o ins p reced ing med iaeva l , a nd med iaeva l modern , a nd t he d iferen t s er ies d ist ingu ished b y a n i ndex l e t ter p reced ing t he n umber . Co in R .2 , t hen , c an b e i m med ia te ly i den t if iab le a s Roman , E. 5 a s Eng l ish , S .1 a s S co t t ish a nd C . 4 a s C on t inen ta l . I ti s v ery d es irab le , t oo , t hat i nc luded s hou ld b e n ot o n ly c o ins a s s uch , b u t s uch p aranum isma t ica a s j e t tons o r r eckon ing-coun ters a nd c o in-we igh ts.

T he s imp le o ccurrence o f t hese c an

p rov ide au sefu l p o in ter t o t he d egree t o wh ich t he e xcava tor h as b een a b le t o r ecover n um is mat ic ma ter ia l wh ich b y i t s n ature i s e as i ly o ver looked , a nd e spec ia l ly u nder a dverse c ond it ions o f w eather o r o f s o i l .

A t Exeter ,

f or e xa mp le , t he a pparen t a bsence o f c erta in s er ies s truck i n s i lver c ou ld h ave b een d is m issed a s w ithout p ar t icu lar s ign i f icance h ad n ot Mr J ohn Co l l is r ecovered a s urpr is ing p ropor t ion o f c oun ters a nd o f o ther o b jects i n b ase me ta l. Wha t s eems t o h ave o ccurred i s t ha t , d own t he c en tur ies , e ros ion o f a nu ns tab le s i te h as r esu lted i n d i f feren t ia l r ecovery o f p rec ious me ta l c o ins , a nd h ence t he d es irab i l i ty o f ar epor t o n c o ins f ound a lways i nc lud ing s ome d iscuss ion o f t he p ar t icu lar p rob le ms o f t he s i te where t hese a re r e levan t t o wha t may o r may n o t h ave c ome t o l i gh t . T h is i s n ot t o s ay t hat a l l n um is ma t ic r epor ts s hou ld c on form t o as ing le mode l. Overs tandard iza t ion i s o ne o f t he b anes o f modern s cho larsh ip a s w e l l a s o f modern l i v ing , a nd t he p resen t wr iter w ith h a lf-a-dozen r epor ts i n p rogress h as n o d es ire t o b ecome a p r isoner o f h is own u n iform ity . I f , t hough , a r epor t i s t o b e r ead a s a n i n te l l ig ib le e n t ity , i tp robab ly w i l l f o l low a g ene ra l p a t tern , a nd more a nd more i tw ou ld s ee m d es irab le t ha t t here s hou ld a lways b e o ne o r t wo f ina l p aragraphs where t he n um isma t ist , a s s uch , a t te mpts t o i nterpret t he ma ter ia l a s a who le a ga inst t he b ackground o f e x ist ing k now ledge.

I ti s c ur ious , f or e xamp le , t ha t d if feren t s i tes a t

S ou thampton s hou ld h ave p roduced s uch v ery d i f feren t r uns o f c o ins , a nd i t wou ld a ppear t ha t s ome e xcava tors h ave b een d igg ing ' lamw ih ', a nd o thers t he med iaeva l t own wh ich may h ave o ver lapped - b u t wh ich c er ta inl y d id n ot c o inc ide w i th - t he e ar l ier s et t lemen t .

E ven more i n terest ing

i s t he c on trast b etween t he t o ta l ity o f t he c o ins f ound o ver t he l ast c en tury i n t he S outhamp ton a rea a nd t hose r ecovered b y Mr B idd le a t Winchester , a nd i ti s w or th r eca l l ing t ha t o n ly v ery r ecen t r ecogn it ion t ha t ' Hamw ih ' a nd n o t Winchester w as t he min t o f t he e ar l ies t p enn ies o f Wessex s te mmed d irect ly f ro m t he c o inc idence t ha t Mr B idd le a nd Dr P la t t s hou ld h ave c hosen t o u se t he s a me i nd iv idua l t o r epor t o n t he ir n um isma t ic ma ter ia l. A l l o f wh ich b r ings t h is p aper b ack t o where i tb egan .

T he a rchaeo log-

i st , i t was o bserved , i s b yn o means t he o n ly b ene f ic iary f rom h is d isc over ies , a nd , i ft here c an o nce b e e stab l ished a t rad it ion o f d e ta i led r ep or t ing o f t he c o in- mater ia l f ro m a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions , n um is mat ics i n t hese i s lands s ee m s et f a ir t o a ch ieve a n ew d i mens ion .

I n t h is c on-

n ec t ion , t oo , w e d o w e l l t o r e me mber t ha t c hanged c ircums tances h ave p u t an ew o nus o n t he e xcava tor .

I n t he o ld d ays , t he n avvy w i th h is p ick

a nd s hove l a nd t he p loughman f o l low ing h is s hare w ere r espons ib le f or t he r ecovery o f many c r it ica l c o ins wh ich t oday , w ith t he g enera l emp loymen t o f t he b u l ldozer a nd t ractor , w ou ld g o t o ta l ly u nre marked . One t re mb les t o t h ink what h as b een i rretr ievab ly l ost w ith t he c ons truct ion o f

2 32

mu lt i-storey o f f ice-b locks a nd o f mo torways , a nd wha t w ith p ena lty-c lauses f or n on-fu lf i l men t o f c on tracts b y g iven d ates w i th c onsequen t d e l iberate s uppress ion o f a l l a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l u near thed i n t he c ourse o f t he w ork , s yste ma t ic e xcava t ion b y t ra ined a rchaeo log ists a lone c an t e l l u s what c o ins , i n f act , w ere t he s tap le o f c urrency i n t he p r inc ipa l c i t ies a nd t owns o f med iaeva l Eng land a nd I re land . Af ew words i n c onclus ion . I ti s u ndoubted ly t rue t ha t p roper n um isma t ic r epor ts a re g o ing t o b e l onger t han t hey w ere i n t he p ast , a nd t h is i n a n a ge when p r in t ing-cos ts a re moun t ing v ery s teep ly .

I tw i l l , p erhaps , h e lp t o

r econc i le a rchaeo log ists t o t h is e xpense i ft hey r ef lect t ha t t he p repara t ion o f a dequa te c o m men t o n t he c o ins may w e l l h ave i nvo lved t he r epor ter i n q u i te l i tera l ly w eeks o f w ork o ver a nd a bove t he y ears o f s tudy t ha t h e w i l l h ave s pen t i n a cqu ir ing t he n ecessary e xper t ise.

I ns tan t i den t i f icat ion i s

r are ly p oss ib le , a nd i ns tan t c o m men t l ike ly t o b e j e june where n ot c o mp letel y e rroneous.

Proper n um is ma t ic a ppend ixes , t oo , s hou ld e nsure t ha t

e xcava t ion-repor ts a re p urchased b y n um is ma t ic l i brar ies a nd b y n um isma t is ts o n a n e verincreas ing s ca le. T here i s t he f ur ther c ons iderat ion t ha t more t han o ne e xcava tor h as e xh ib ited o f r ecen t y ears a n o tu nwe lco me r ea l iza t ion o f t he e xpense t o wh ich h is n um is ma t ic r epor ter may h ave b een p u t when p repar ing t he c o ins f or p ub l ica t ion . T h is i s n o t t o h in t t ha t n u mi s mat ists s hou ld b e p a id , n or e ven t ha t t he ir e xpenses n eed b e met , b u t t he n ot iona l amoun t migh t b e a t t he b ack o f t he a rchaeo log is t 's mind when h e i s c os t ing h is r epor t , a nd u sed menta l ly t o o f fset p ar t a t l east o f t he p r in t ingb i l ls .

Nor s hou ld i tb e f orgot ten t ha t t he n um isma t ic r epor ter w i l l w ish t o

s ee h is w ork i n p r in t i n af or m t ha t w i l l n ot p re jud ice a ccep tance o f t he t heor ies a dvanced l e t a lone h is own o f ten h ard-won r epu ta t ion . I fa ny i n terv a l o f more t han a f ew mon ths s hou ld e lapse b etween t he r ece ip t o f at ypes cr ipt a nd i t s d ispa tch t o t he p r inter , i t may s eem p ruden t a s w e l l a s c our teous f or t he a rchaeo log ist t o e nqu ire whether t here a re a ny mod if ica ti ons t hat t he n um is ma t ist migh t l ike t o make i n t he l igh t o f h is s ub ject 's i nev i tab le p rogress o ver t he i n terven ing p er iod . T he n um is ma t ist , t oo , migh t b e a l lowed t o c orrect h is p roofs.

T he p resen t wr iter was j ust a l i t t le

s urpr ised t o o pen o ne j ourna l a nd f ind o ne r epor t a ppear ing n ear ly a d ecade a fter i t s c o mpos it ion , a nd c an o n ly c ongratu late h i mse l f t ha t i td id n ot ' date ' more t han i td id . On a nother o ccas ion , h e w as f rank ly s tar t led t o b e t o ld b y o ne e xcavator who h ad e n l isted h is s erv ices t ha t i fh e w an ted a c opy o f t he p r in ted r epor t h e w ou ld h ave h i mse lf t o a pp ly t o t he Min istry c oncerned . H e b e l ieves t h is p ar t icu lar r epor t h as s t i l l t o a ppear , a ga in a f ter more t han a d ecade , b u t h astens t o a dd t ha t t he p ar t icu lar i n ter lude i s o ne a s a typ ica l a s i n fe l ic itous.

One o f t he more r e ward ing o f h is e xper iences o ver t he

l as t c oup le o f d ecades h as b een t he c hance o f w ork ing i n c lose h armony w i th an umber o f v ery d is t ingu ished a rchaeo log is ts who migh t o therw ise h ave r e ma ined ' names ', a nd i ti s o n t h is n ote t hat t he p resen t p aper c an v ery f i tt i ng ly t erm ina te.

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ENGLISH MEDIEVAL COINS AS DATING EVIDENCE b y Mar ion M. Arch iba ld

T he Eng l ish Med ieva l c o inage was s truck a l mos t e xc lus ive ly i n t he n ob le me ta ls :

w i th t he s o l itary e xcep t ion o f t he ' s tycas ' i ssued i n Nor thumbr ia

d ur ing t he f i rst h a l f o f t he n in th c en tury , n o r ea l ly b ase , l et a lone c opper o r b ronze c o ins , w ere p roduced .

A f ter a b r ief a nd r ap id ly d ebased s er ies o f

g o ld c o ins a t i t s i ncep t ion i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he s even th c entury , t he Eng l ish med ieva l c o inage r e ma ined , w ith o ne s hor tl ived g old s er ies u nder H enry I I , e xc lus ive ly s i lver u n t i l t he r ein troduct ion o f g o ld a s p ar t o f t he n orma l c urrency i n 1 344. T herea f ter u n t i l t he e nd o f t he med ieva l p er iod g o ld a nd s i lver c on t inued t ogether a s t he o n ly c o inage me ta ls .

Aga in , w ith

r e la t ive ly f ew , a nd f or t he mos t p ar t e ar ly, e xcep t ions t he t wo me ta ls w ere c ons isten t ly o f h igh q ua l i ty a nd t he w e igh t s tandard , where i ti s k nown o r c an b e d educed w i th r easonab le c er ta in ty , w as a ccura te w ith in t he a cceptab le t o lerances.

1

A l l med ieva l c o ins w ere t herefore i nd iv idua l ly v a luab le 2 a nd

t h is f act h ad a n o u ts tand ing i n f luence o n e very a spec t o f t he ir b ehav iour i n c ircu la t ion .

T he ir v a lue f or o ne t h ing mean t t ha t f ewer o f t he m w ere l i ke ly

t o b e c asua l ly l ost a nd s o i ti s n ot s urpr is ing t o f ind t ha t t hey a re much l ess c o m mon a s s i te f inds t han Ro man c o ins wh ich w ere d rawn f ro m a c urrency i nc lud ing a t a l l p er iods a l arge o u tpu t o f l ow d eno m ina t ions i n b ase meta l. 3 Paradox ica l ly h owever t he ir v ery s carc ity e nsures t ha t more i s e xpec ted o f med ieva l c o ins a s d a t ing e v idence , n ot l ess .

I tw ou ld b e h ard t o o ver-state

t he d i f f icu lt ies p laced i n t he way o f i n terpret ing med ieva l s i te f inds b y t h is l ack o f n u mbers f or i ti s a x io ma t ic t ha t , h oards a par t , t he v a lue o f c o ins a s d at ing e v idence r ises i n g eo me tr ic p rogress ion w i th t heir i ncrease i n n umb ers.

Moreover , u n jus t if iab ly p rec ise a nd e ven e rroneous d educt ions f ro m

t he meagre c o in e v idence p roduced b y most med ieva l e xcava t ions a re t he morel ike ly t o p ass u ncha l lenged s ince t h is p er iod g enera l ly l acks t he c lose ly d a tab le p ot tery s er ies wh ich c an , h opefu l ly , b e r e l ied u pon t o t e mper a ny s angu ine c onc lus ions b ased o n t he f u l ler c o in l i sts f ro m Ro man s i tes.

I ti s

a l l t he more impor tan t t herefore t hat t he med ieva l c o in e v idence s hou ld n ot b e p ushed b eyond wha t i tc an r easonab ly s us ta in . T hroughou t t h is p aper i ti s a ssu med t ha t t he c o ins b e ing d iscussed h ave c o me f rom e xcavat ions c onducted t o t he h ighest p oss ib le s tandard a nd t ha t t here i s n o d oub t a bou t t he ir s tra t igraph ica l c on tex t .

One a spect o f a rch-

a eo log ica l i n terpre ta t ion d oes h owever r equ ire t o b e men t ioned s pec if ica l ly . Many c o mpeten t e xcavators who a re f u l ly a l ive t o t he p o ten t ia l p resence o f r es idua l p o t tery a re o f ten c ur ious ly b l ind t o t he f act t ha t , i n t h is r espec t , c o ins c an b ehave i n p rec ise ly t he s a me w ay a s s herds.

T he r egu lar i ty

w ith wh ich c o ins a re f ound i n t he s po i l h eaps o f e ven t he b est-regu la ted

2 34

e xcavat ions s hou ld d e monstra te t he e ase w i th wh ich t hey c an b e o ver looked a nd r edepos ited i n al ater l eve l .

Once a ga in t he more e qu ivoca l d at ing o f

most med ieva l p ot tery means t ha t i ti s l ess l i ke ly t o a ler t t he e xcava tor t o t he p resence o f r es idua l ma ter ia l.

On t he o ther h and , t he l i kel ihood o f a n

i n trus ive c o in f roma d isturbed e ar l ier l ayer s hou ld n ot b e e xaggera ted . T he h igh me ta l v a lue o f med ieva l c o ins made t he m w or th r etr iev ing a t a ny t ime a nd s o , n o d oub t , t he ir r es idua l-surv iva l r a te i s l ower p ro r a ta t han t ha t o f t he sma l l b ase- meta l Ro man c o ins whose l ow i n tr ins ic v a lue w ou ld h ave r endered t he m v ir tua l ly wor th less - o ther t han i n l arge q uan t it ies - a f ter t hey h ad b een e cono m ica l ly s uperseded o r p o l it ica l ly o utdated .

E qua l ly ,

i f al eve l o f i ndependen t ly e stab l ished d ate c on ta ins a c o in k nown t o h ave b een s truck a t ac ons iderab ly e ar l ier p er iod i ts hou ld n ot b e a ssumed o n t h is e v idence a lone t hat r es idua l mater ia l f rom a n e ar l ier l eve l i s p resen t . T o d o s o migh t e as i ly l ead t o wrong c onclus ions a bou t t he s ta tus a nd d a te o f s o me o f t he a ssoc ia ted p ot tery . T he r e la t ive l ongev ity o f d i f feren t s er ies o f med ieva l c o ins w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter. S uf f ice i th ere t o c on trast t wo s ucc ess ive e xamp les :

i n n or ma l c ircumstances a p enny o f 1 250 f ound i n al eve l

o f 1 300 i s c er ta in ly r es idua l b u t ap enny o f 1 300 f ro m a l evel o f 1 350 c ou ld v ery w e l l b e ac on te mporaneous l oss a s t he c o ins o f 1 300 w ere among t he c o mmonest o f t hose i n c ircu lat ion f i f ty y ears l a ter . F ro m n ow o n i ti s a ssumed u n less o therw ise s tated t ha t t he c o ins b e ing , \

d iscussed a re p r i mary l osses i n t he l ayers f rom w h ich t hey h ave b een e xcava ted . I n o rder t o u se a c o in a s d a t ing e v idence t he a rchaeo log is t r equ ires t o k now w ith in t he n arrowest p oss ib le l im its t he d a te o f i t s d epos i t ion . T he p rec is ion w ith wh ich t h is c an b e e st i mated - a nd i t mus t b e r e me mbered t ha t i ti s , a tb est , o n ly a n e st i mate - i s d ependen t u pon t he e x ten t t o wh ich i ti s p oss ib le t o a nswer t he f o l low ing q ues t ions :

,

( 1 )

When w as t h is c o in s truck?

( 2)

H ow l ong a f terwards was i td epos ited?

I t may s ee m h ard ly n ecessary t o dwe l l u pon t he f i rst o f t hese q uest ions b u t i ti s i mpor tan t t o r ecogn ize t ha t t he i ssue d a tes o f many med ieva l c o ins a re n ot s o c erta in a s i s s o met imes s upposed . T he a rchaeo log ist may t o s o me e x ten t h ave o n ly h i mse l f t o b la me i fh e d er ives a f a lse i mpress ion o f f i na li t y f ro m t he b o ld t ype i n d ea lers ' c a ta logues a nd p opu lar h andbooks , u sefu l a s t he b est o f t hese u ndoub ted ly a re.

Num isma t is ts t hemse lves h owever

must b ear s o me r espons ib i l ity f or t h is s i tua t ion .

T he c on f iden t way i n wh ich

t hey h ave o f ten a sser ted t he ir v iews h as l e f t t he i mpress ion t ha t n ear-cer ta in ty e x ists i n t he c urren t o rder ing a nd a bso lu te d at ing o f s o me s er ies a nd i tt ends t o b e f orgot ten t ha t t he ir r esu l ts o f n ecess ity d epend t o av ery c ons iderab le e x ten t u pon n um is ma t ic h ypothes is r a ther t han u pon d e mons trab le h is tor ica l f ac t . 4 Wha t c avea ts d o r e ma in i n t he o r ig ina l s cho lar ly p apers a re n atura l ly l ess l i ke ly t o f ind a p lace i n t he d ist i l la t ions p resen ted i n t he s hor t g enera l w orks i n t he h ands o f t he n on-spec ia l ist . A s t he t erm ina l d a tes o ver wh ich med ieva l n um is ma t ists a re a gon iz ing a re o f ten a ma t ter o f o n ly a y ear o r t wo e i ther way , t h is may s carce ly s eem r e levan t i n t he c on tex t o f f i e ld a rchaeo logy w here t he d a t ing l im i ts f or a l l o ther c lasses o f

2 35

e xcavated mater ia l a re s o much w ider . T h is i s f act v ery f ar f rom t he c ase h owever s ince t here i s ad anger t hat t he a ura o f f i na l ity a nd p rec is ion wh ich s urrounds t he d at ing o f s ome med ieva l c oins may s pread t o e ncomp ass t he d at ing o f o thers where n o s uch e x travagan t c la ims t o n arrow d at i ng h ave e ver b een made a nd f or wh ich t hey w ou ld b e i nappropr iate a nd mis lead ing . Un for tuna te ly f or t he a rchaeo log ist , i ti s o f ten w ith t he c ommonest c o ins t ha t t here i s g reatest d i f f icu l ty i n p rov id ing a c lose ly d ef ined d ate. On t he q uest ion o f d urat ion i n c ircu lat ion , t he v irtua l a bsence o f a ny o ther e v idence i n t he e ar l ier med ieva l p er iod, a nd v ery l i t t le o f i to n t h is s core e ven a f ter d ocumen tat ion o f t he c o inage b eg ins t o b ecome e re p lent i fu l i n t he t we lf th c entury , o b l iges u s t o make u se o f t he h oards.

I n h is

p aper t o t h is s ympos ium , Dr . K en t h as a lready p o in ted o u t t he d angers o f e quat ing t he c o ins a c tua l ly c urren t w ith t he c on ten t o f c on temporary h oards. Most o f h is s tr ictures a re a s v a l id f or t he midd le a ges a s t hey a re f or p er iods b e fore a nd a fter a nd s o t o s ave r e i terat ing t hem a t e very t urn i n t h is d iscuss ion i ti s a ssumed t ha t t hey w i l l b e men ta l ly r ead i n to a l l t ha t f o l lows. Prov ided t ha t w e make t hese a l lowances f or p oss ib le d istor t ion , a nd a pprec iate t ha t w e may s t i l l n ot b e mak ing e nough a l lowances , h oards c an b e ar easonab ly r e l iab le g u ide t o t he b road-ou t l ine c on ten t o f c urrency . T he p ropor t ions o f c o ins o f d i f feren t r e igns a nd t ypes p resen t i n p ar t icu lar h oards a re o f c ourse e xpressab le a s p rec ise f igures.

T hese f igures p ro-

v ide a v ery i mpor tan t g uide t o t he r e la t ive c o mmonness o f t hese g roups b u t t hey must n ot b e t aken a s e v idence o f t he p resence o f p rec ise ly t hose p ropor t ions among t he c o ins i n c ircu lat ion u n less t h is i s b orne o u t b y a c ons iderab le b ody o f h o mogeneous h oard e v idence. T he p o l it ica l , e conomi c , g eograph ica l a nd p ersona l f actors i n f luenc ing t he c on ten t o f b oth h oards a nd c urrency make s uch g enera l iza t ions i napp l icab le. Once a ga in t he r es u lts a re v a l id ; i ti s o n ly i n p ush ing t hem t owards u n jus t i f ied p rec is ion t hat t he d anger l i es.

T o d o s o o n ly w eakens c red ib i l ity i n t hose ma tters where

c er ta in ty i s i n f act p oss ib le. H ere a s e lsewhere , i nd iv idua l l ongev ity o f i so la ted c o ins 6 a s d e monst ra ted b y h oards i s o f l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l s ign if icance e xcept a s a warn ing t ha t s uch s urv iva ls , e spec ia l ly o f c ommon c o ins , d o o ccur a nd s hou ld b e r e me mbered .

I ti s h owever a p r inc ip le o f p aramoun t i mpor tance i n e s t im-

a t ing t he l ike ly d ura t ion o f c ircu lat ion t ha t , b etween r eco inages a nd o ther t h ings b e ing e qua l , c o m mon c o ins s urv ive l onger t han r are o nes.

I n o ther

w ords , c o ins f ro m l ong r e igns a nd f rom t ypes p roduced i n l arge n umbers r e ma in i n c ircu la t ion i n p ropor t iona l ly l arger n umbers t han c o ins f rom s hor t r e igns a nd f ro m t ypes i ssued i n sma l l q uan t it ies.

T he d i f feren t man-

i f es tat ions o f t h is p heno menon w i l l b e b est d iscussed i n t he ir a ppropr ia te c hrono log ica l p os it ion i n t he l a t ter p ar t o f t h is p aper. L et u s c lose t he s ub ject h ere b y n ot ing t hat _ t he c o ins f ound b y t he a rchaeo log is t a re o f c ourse most l i ke ly t o b e j ust s uch c o m mon c o ins. Another f actor wh ich mus t b e t aken i n to c ons idera t ion i n a ssess ing d ura t ion o f c ircu la t ion i s w ear.

F irst o f a l l i ti s n ecessary t o d is t ingu ish

w ear , i .e. a bras ion o f t he s ur face o f t he c o in t hrough c ircu la t ion , f rom

2 36

p oor a ppearance r esu l t ing f rom o ther c auses e .g . w eak o r f au l ty s tr ik ing t echn ique , t he u se o f w orn o r c orroded d ies o r t he c orros ion o f t he s ur face o f t he c o in b y c he m ica ls i n t he s o i l a f ter i t s d epos it ion .

Once a ga in i t mus t

b e b orne i n mind t ha t g eograph ica l a nd p ersona l c ircums tances wh ich w e h ave n o p oss ib le w ay o f a ssess ing w i l l h ave i n f luenced t he c ond it ion o f t he c o in wh ich w e a re c ons ider ing .

C o ins c ircu la t ing i n o u t-of-the-way p laces may

h ave b een i n w orse c ond it ion t han t hose a va i lab le t o p ersons o f c omparab le p os it ion i n o ne o f t he ma jor c o mmerc ia l c en tres a nd a p erson o f s o me s tandi ng i n ar e mote d istr ict may w e l l h ave b een a b le t o i ns ist u pon p aymen ts i n c o in o f ab et ter s tandard t han t ha t n or ma l ly c urren t among h is i mmed iate n e ighbours . 7 Most i mpor tan t o f a l l , t he c ond it ion o f t he i so la ted s i te-f ind may n ot h ave b een t yp ica l o f t he s ta te o f t he c urrency f ro m wh ich i t was l os t . T here i s o f c ourse n o way o f t e l l ing b y l ook ing a t ac o in whether i t was i n a bn orma l ly g ood o r b ad c ond it ion c o mpared w i th i t s f e l lows. I ft here a re t wo o r more c o ins t o c ons ider i tb eco mes i ncreas ing ly p oss ib le t o f orm a n o p ini on o n t h is p o in t a nd s o i ti s a ga in d es irab le f or t he a rchaeo log ist t o t e l l h is c o in e xper t h ow h is c o ins a re s tra t igraph ica l ly a ssoc iated . D if feren t ia l r a tes o f w ear c an b e d ist ingu ished b etween c o ins o f t he s ame d enom ina t ion c ircu la t ing a t d iferen t p er iods a nd among t he v ar ious d enom ina t ions s truck a t a ny o ne t ime a nd c ircu lat ing t ogether : t he g reater t he w ear ;

t he l ater t he p er iod ,

t he h igher t he d enom ina t ion , t he l ess t he w ear .

Pen-

n ies s urv iv ing f rom t he Ang lo-Saxon a nd Norman p er iods g enera l ly s how l i t t le s ign o f wear .

T h is i s p ar t ly b ecause t he ir l i fe i n c ircu lat ion was o f ten

c o mparat ive ly s hor t b ut p r inc ipa l ly b ecause c o ins d id n o t t hen c ircu late f rom h and t o h and t o t he e x ten t t ha t t hey d id i n t he l a ter midd le a ges.

As t he a ct-

u a l u se o f c o in i n tens if ied a nd , a t al ater d ate , i n f la t ion c aused t he r e la t ive v a lue o f money t o d ec l ine , t he i ncreased c ircu la t ion o f c o ins c aused t he m t o wear a t af aster r a te.

I n a dd it ion , t he i n troduct ion o f t he im mob i l ized t ypes

a fter 158 a f forded c o ins a much l onger p oten t ia l l i fe i n c ircu la t ion a nd s o , c er ta in ly f ro m t he midd le o f t he S hor t-Cross p er iod o nwards , wear b eco mes af ac tor o f c ons iderab le i mpor tance i n a ssess ing t he d ura t ion o f c ircu la t ion . Even s o , h oards s how t ha t S hor t-Cross a nd L ong-Cross p enn ies r equ ired t o h ave b een i n c ircu lat ion f or a f a ir ly l ong p er iod b e fore t hey b eg in t o s how a pprec iab le s igns o f wear . A l though we must a l low f or d iscr im ina t ion i n f avour o f c o ins i nb et ter c ond it ion i n t hese h oards t he ir e v idence i s v a l id s ince t he c on trast i n c ond it ion w ith e qua l ly l ongl ived p enn ies i n l a ter h oards i s s tr ik ing . By t he l a ter f our teen th c en tury p enn ies b eg in t o s how w ear w i th in a s hor ter p er iod wh i le h a lf-groa ts a nd g roa ts a re i n r e la t ive ly u nworn c ond it ion a f ter t he s ame l eng th o f t ime i n c ircu la t ion . By t he mid-f i f teen th c en tury t he r a te o f wear o n a l l d eno m ina t ions h as i ncreased , t he h a lf-groa ts n ow b e ing n ot iceab ly more w orn t han c o mparab le c o ins i n e ar l ier h oards. G roa ts s t i l l e xh ib i t s urpr is ing ly l i t t le wear a f ter e ven t wen ty y ears i n c ircul at ion . ( I t i s i mpor tan t t o n ote t ha t w e a re s t i l l s peak ing o f wear t hrough s ur face a bras ion a nd n ot l oss o f w e igh t b y c l ipp ing wh ich w i l l b e c ons idered l ater .) D esp ite b e ing s truck i n much s o f ter meta l , med ieva l g o ld c o ins a re r are ly f ound i n r ea l ly w orn c ond it ion . T he ir h igh i nd iv idua l v a lue e nsured t ha t t hey d id n o t c ircu late t o t he s a me e x ten t a s s i lver c o ins a lthough h ere

2 37

a lso t he d eno m ina t ion r u le a pp l ies :

h a l f-nob les a re more worn t han n ob les

o f t he s a me i ssue d ate i n a ny h oard a nd q uar ter-nob les a re a lways i n t he w ors t c ond i t ion o f t he t hree. - I ti s c lear t herefore t ha t t he n umber o f v ar iab le f actors p oten t ia l ly p res en t make wear a n u nre l iab le g u ide t o t he d ura t ion i n c ircu la t ion o f a n i sol ated s i te-f ind. T h is d oes n o t mean h owever t ha t t he e v idence o f w ear s hou ld b e d isregarded . Wh i le i ti s i mproper t o s uggest a p rec ise n umber o f y ears o f c urrency f or a p ar t icu lar c o in , i ti s u nnecessar i ly c au t ious , f or e xamp le t o l eave t he t erm in i o f av ery w orn p enny o f S hor t-Cross t ype I a a t 1 180-1250 , t he l im i ts o f c urrency o f t he t ype i t sel f . I ti s q u ite l eg i t ima te f or s omeone w i th e xper ience i n d ea l ing w ith b oth h oards a nd s i te-f inds t o o ffer i n i n formed o p in ion , q ua l i f ied b y t he u sua l c aveats a bout p oss ib le a bnorma l i t ies , o n t he b road marg ins w ith in wh ich a c o in i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een l os t . T h is i s much more h e lp fu l t o t he a rchaeo log ist t han e i ther p retended p rec is ion u nsuppor ta b le o n t he e v idence o ru ndu ly w ide marg ins b ased u pon e xaggera ted a l lowa nces f or a typ ica l c ond i t ions. A s w e h ave s a id b efore , i ti s t he c o m mon a nd t he t yp ica l w h ich a re most l i ke ly t o t urn u p . Aw ord may a lso b e s a id i n g enera l t erms a bou t h a l fpenn ies.

H a lfpenn ies

a re much c o m moner a s s i te f i nds t han t he ir i nc idence i n h oards w ou ld s ugges t . T he r eason f or t h is was t ha t p eop le n orma l ly p referred t o h oard t he ir wea lth i n t he h ighest d eno m ina t ion a va i lab le t o t he m u n less a n a cu te emergency f orced t he m t o b ury t he ir c ashin-hand w ithou t t he p oss ib i l ity o f p re-se lect ion . Hoards wh ich d o c on ta in a pprec iab ly l arger q uan t it ies o f l ow d eno m ina t ions i n g enera l a nd h a l fpenn ies i n p ar t icu lar a re more c o mmon ly f ound i n t he r emote a nd g enera l ly l ess p rosperous p ar ts o f t he Br i t ish I s les . 8

T he S axon

r ound h a lfpenn ies f rom A lfred t o Edgar a re s o r are t hat l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he ir c urrency p at tern . I ti s n ot iceab le t ha t t he c u t -ha lfpenn ies i n h oards o f t he p er iod u n t i l t he r e in troduc t ion o f t he r ound h a l fpenny i n 1 279 s omet i mes i nc lude a g rea ter p ropor t ion o f e ar l ier c o ins t han t he r est o f t he h oard .9 I n t he l a ter s ter l ing-penny p er iod t here i s d ocumen tary e v idence t hat i nadequa te s upp l ies o f h al fpenn ies w ere b e ing p roduced a nd t ha t b ase S cot t ish a nd f ore ign c o ins h ad p er force t o b e u sed i ns tead .

T h is i s b orne o u t b y wha t l i t t le h oard

e v idence we h ave o n t he s ub ject .o I ti s a lso s uggested t ha t ag reater p rop or t ion o f o lder h a lfpenn ies may we l l h ave b een k ep t i n c ircu la t ion a l though t here i s n ot e nough e v idence t o t est t h is h ypothes is s a t isfactor i ly .

T hrough-

o u t t he who le o f t he med ieva l p er iod t herefore t he a rchaeo log ist mus t b e o n h is g uard a ga inst t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t ah a lfpenny f rom h is s i te may h ave b een i n c ircu lat ion f or l onger t han c ou ld b e e xpected o f ap enny s truck a t t he s ame t ime. ( The q uest ion o f w e igh t c o mes i n to t h is q uest ion e spec ia l ly i n t he s ter l ing p er iod a nd t hese h a lfpenn ies w i l l b e d iscussed a ga in l a ter a long w ith t he o ther c on te mporary d eno m inat ions.) T he r est o f t h is p aper i s d evoted t o ad iscuss ion o f h ow f ar i ti s p oss ib le t o d a te t he i ssue a nd d urat ion i n c ir c u la t ion ' o f i nd iv idua l e xamp les o f t he d i ff eren t s er ies o f t he E ng l ish med ieva l c o inage. P o in ts o f g enera l v a l id ity a re made i n t he s ect ions where a p ar t icu lar ly a p t e xamp le a r ises.

I tw i l l b e

r ead i ly a pprec ia ted t ha t t h is t ask i nvo lves a h igh d egree o f c ompress ion a nd s imp l if ica t ion wh ich i s b ound t o l eave many p o in ts i nadequa te ly c ons idered .

2 38

T he r eader i s r eferred i n t he f ootnotes t o t he p r inc ipa l p apers where q uest i ons o f d at ing a re d iscussed b u t e ven h ere s pace p er m its o n ly t he b as ic s ources t o b e men t ioned .

A more c o mp lete p icture o f t he c urren t s ta te o f

n um isma t ic r esearch , t hough i ti s n ot o f c ourse s pec if ica l ly g eared t o t he q ues t ion o f d a t ing , i s t o b e f ound i n t he c r it ica l e ssays wh ich make u p t he Eng l ish med ieva l s ect ion o f A s urvey o f n um is ma t ic r esearch , 1 966-1971, p ub l ished b y t he I n terna t iona l Nu m is mat ic Co m m iss ion , New York , 1 973. F ina l ly a w ord a bou t t he c ho ice o f ad a te a t wh ich t o c lose t h is d iscuss ion . I tw ou ld b e p oss ib le t o c hoose many d i f feren t d ates a t wh ich t he ' med ieva l c o inage ' c a me t o a n e nd d epend ing u pon wh ich d eparture f ro m t he e ar l ier n orm i s c ons idered t o b e o f g rea test s ign if icance.

F or t he wr iter t h is

c o mes w ith t he f irst c onsc ious d ebase men t o f t he f ine me ta l s tandard wh ich h ad b een t he k eystone o f t he Eng l ish med ieva l c o inage s yste m , b y o rder o f H enry V I I I i n 1 542. T he ' Thrymsa ' a nd ' Scea t ta .s ' Co inage T he l arge ly a nep igraph ic t hrymsa a nd s cea t ta c o inage d e mons trates r igh t away h ow a pparen t ly w e l l-estab l ished d a t ing c an b e o verturned a nd r ev ised n ot i n t erms o fj ust a y ear o r t wo b u t o f d ecades.

T he w ork b y Dr .

Ken t o n t he Merov ing ian c o inage 1 h as made i tn ecessary t o p ush b ack t he b eg inn ings o f t he g o ld t hrymsa c o inage f ro m t he t h ird t o t he s econd q uar ter o f t he s even th c entury .

I ti s u n l ike ly t ha t t he E ng l ish i ssues ma in ta ined a

h igh g o ld c on ten t f or l ong , i fa t a l l , a f ter t he Merov ing ian s tandard h ad c o l lapsed , b etween 6 40 a nd 6 50 , b u t w e d o n ot k now t he d a te o f t he i n troducti on o f t he s i lver s ceat ta o ther t han w ith in v ery w ide l imi ts.

T he e nd o f t he

c o inage i s a s o bscure a s i t s b eg inn ing s ince t he d a te o f t he e ar l ies t Eng l ish b road p enn ies i s a lso u ncer ta in .

Af ixed p o in t i s p rov ided b y t he i n troduc-

t i on o f t he b road d en ier i n Merov ing ian G au l b y P ep in i n 7 55.

H ow l ong i t

was b efore t he Eng l ish c o inage f o l lowed s u it i ti s i mposs ib le t o s ay .

On

a na logy w i th t he r ap id ity w ith wh ich O f fa l ater a dopted t he r eformed s tandard o f Char le magne , i t migh t we l l h ave b een s ooner t han t he d ate o f c . 7 75 u sua l ly s uggested f or t h is e ven t .

S ir Frank S ten t kn f or e xa mp le f ound n o

h is tor ica l r eason why O f fa 's Can terbury c o inage s hou ld n ot h ave b egun i n c . 7 64.

1 2

T h is i s n ot t he p lace t o e n ter i n to t he c o mp lex h istor ica l a nd

n um is ma t ic p rob le ms wh ich s urround t he i ssue o f t he e ar l iest b road-penny c o inages o f t he Ken t ish a nd Merc ian k ings , d a te o f c . 7 75 b e h encefor th a bandoned .

1 3

f ar l ess t o s ugges t t ha t t he

A l l t hat i s b e ing s tressed i s t ha t

7 75 i s n o t ac er ta in f ixed p o in t b ut o n ly , h owever r easonab le , aw ork ing h ypothes is.

Another mater ia l q ues t ion i n d iscuss ing a t er m ina l d ate f or

t he s cea t tas i s whe ther o r n o t t hey w ere b e ing s truck r igh t u p t o t he i n trod uct ion o f n ew p enn ies.

We h ave n o i n for mat ion o n wh ich t o f orm a j udge-

men t a bou t t h is a nd n e ither a re w e a b le t o a nswer many o f t he q uest ions g ermane t o t he i n terna l d a t ing o f t he c o inage : i ssue?

h ow c on t inuous w as t he

i ft here w ere a pprec iab le g aps , where a nd when d id t hey o ccur a nd

h ow l ong d id t hey l ast?

With o pen d at ing a t e ither e nd a nd n o i nterna l f ixed

p o in ts t he p rob le ms o f d a t ing s ceat tas r e ma in f orm idab le.

2 39

Messrs. H i l l ,1 4

R igo ld ,

1 5

Metca lf 1 6 a nd S u ther land 1 7 h ave d one much t o e s tab l ish t he b road

o ut l ines o f t he c hrono log ica l s equence a nd t o w ork o u t i n d eta i l t he d evo lu t ion o f p ar t icu lar g roups.

T he p rec ise c hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip b etween t hese

g roups a nd a bso lute d ates f or t he ir i ssue r e ma in e lus ive.

F ur ther l im ited

i nves t igat ions o f s ty l ist ica l ly r e la ted s er ies a nd s tud ies o f l oca l ized c o inages s uch a s t hat b e ing u nder taken f or t he S ou thamp ton a rea w i l l h e lp t o r ef ine f ur ther t he r e la t ive c hrono logy b u t a dvances i n a bso lu te d at ing mus t awa it t he d iscovery o f n ew f inds. Wh i le h oards c an o f ten r a ise more p rob le ms t han t hey s o lve t hey d o a t l east p rov ide c er ta in ly a ssoc ia ted g roups o f mat er ia l wh ich c an b e r e la ted t o c on t inen ta l f i nds c on ta in ing c o ins whose d a tes a re more s ecure ly e s tab l ished .

S i te f inds , e spec ia l ly f ro m l arge-sca le

e xcava t ions , c an a lso b e v a luab le i n t h is c on tex t a nd i ti s t hus p ar t icu lar ly impor tan t t ha t t he e xcava tor s hou ld w ork c lose ly w ith h is c o in e xper t t o make c lear wh ich c o ins c an b e s tra t igraph ica l ly a ssoc iated . We h ave s im i lar ly v ery l i t t le h ard e v idence o n wh ich t o b ase a n e st i mate o f t he r e lat ive l ongev ity o f d if feren t g roups o f s ceat tas.

F ew h oards o f a ny

s tat ist ica l ly v iab le s ize h ave c o me t o l i gh t i n Eng land a nd t he c on t inen ta l o nes , wh i le h e lpfu l , r a ise i n terna l p rob le ms o f t he ir own.

Pr i ma f ac ie

h owever t he e v idence f ro m o ther c o inages s uggests t hat e ar l ier f iner o r h eav ier c o ins d o n ot g enera l ly r e ma in c urren t f or l ong a f ter t he s tandard o f s im i lar c o ins a ctua l ly b e ing s truck h as f a l len ( a lthough t hey may o f c ourse b e d el ibera te ly s ough t o u t f or h oard ing .)

S ince t he d eter iora t ion i n t he

me ta l o f t he Eng l ish c o ins d e monstrab ly d id n ot c ease when t he s tage o f a f ine s i lver c o inage was r eached a nd s ince d i f fer ing w e igh t s tandards c an b e d ist ingu ished , f ur ther p rogress a long t hese l ines may b e e xpec ted a s metr o log ica l i nvest iga t ions a re more s yste ma t ica l ly u nder taken .

S uch h oards

a nd g roups o f r e la ted f inds a s d o e x ist s how h owever t hat s o me s ceat tas d id i n f act c ircu late l ong e nough t o d isp lay s l igh t s igns o f w ear a nd t ha t d iferi ng w e igh t s tandards c an b e p resen t i n t he o ne f ind .

N ever the less i ta ppears

t ha t t he c o ins d id n ot g enera l ly h ave a v ery l ong l i fe i n c ircu la t ion .

T ak ing

a l l t hese t h ings i n to a ccoun t a nd w ith r are e xcept ions t he a rchaeo log is t c annot e xpect t o h ave t he d epos it ion o f as ing le s cea t ta f ro m most o f t he ma jor g roups d a ted w i th a ny d egree o f c on f idence w ith in a n arrower marg in t han t wen ty y ears.

T he Ear ly S axon P enny f ro m O f fa t o Edgar

T he a rr iva l o f t he b road p enny r e moves many o f t he w ors t d a t ing p rob le ms s ince h encefor th c o ins g enera l ly b ear t he n ame o f t he i ssu ing a u thor ity . T here i s f or e xa mp le n o o vert r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t a ny c o inages o f t h is p ar t icu lar p er iod w ere e ver i ssued p osthu mous ly e xcept i n t he s pec ia l c ase o f t he me mor ia l i ssues i n t he n a me o f S t . Edmund o f E ast Ang l ia .

I n mos t

c ases t herefore t he k nown d ates o f a ccess ion a nd o f d epos it ion o r d ea th p rov ide a bso lute a nd c er ta in t erm in i f or t he i ssue o f t he c o ins.

I n a dd i t ion ,

r ecen t work h as e nab led t he ma jor i ssues o f t he e igh th aw l n in th c entur ies t o b e b roken d own w ith in s hor ter d a t ing p er iods , p ar t icu lar ly i mpor tan t b e ing t he s ubd iv is ion o f t he l ong r e igns o f t he l ead ing Merc ian a nd Wes t S axon

2 40

K ings.

1 8

I ts hou ld a ga in b e emphas ized h owever t ha t wh i le a f ortuna te h is-

t or ica l c hance makes t he b eg inn ing o r e nd o f s ome o f t hese i n terna l g roups t o lerab ly c er ta in t he t erm ina l d ates o f o thers a re more o pen t o q uest ion. T hese s ub-d iv is ions o f t he c o inage s hou ld n o t b e r egarded a s f ixed c hrono lo g ica l c ompartmen ts b u t a s p er iods o f c o inage whose s tar t a nd f in ish f a l l w i th in a b and o f t ime , l onger o r s hor ter d epend ing u pon t he c on tex t a nd t he s treng th o f t he e v idence. I ts hou ld a lso b e b orne i n mind t ha t i n t he p er iod u nder i m med ia te r ev iew t here i s s t i l l l i t t le e v idence o n wh ich t o b ase a n e st i mate o f h ow c on t inuous t he s tr ik ing o f c o ins a ctua l ly w as.

Was i ti n

t he n a ture o f a nu n in terrup ted f l ow o r was i ti nstead a s er ies o f s porad ic b urs ts o f h igh o r i ndeed a t t imes , l ow , o u tpu t i n terspersed w ith p er iods o f i nact iv ity?

T he l a tter i s o f ten t he impress ion g iven b y t he c o ins a l though

o ne mus t b e wary o f t he f a lse p icture t ha t c an b e p resen ted i f most o f t he k nown c o ins c ou ld h ave c ome f ro m a l im i ted n umber o f l arge h oards. S o me e v idence o n t h is s core f or t he n in th c en tury i s p rov ided b y t he min t o f Can terbury where c o ins o f t he s ame t ype w ere s truck f or t wo a nd s o met imes t hree d i f feren t a uthor it ies b y moneyers o f t he s ame n a me.

I tw ou ld b e a

r easonab le h ypothes is t ha t t he i ssues f or e ach a u thor ity w ere made i n t urn r ather t han c oncurren t ly a nd s urv iv ing c o ins o f fer s ome s uppor t f or t h is v iew .

H owever i fn um is ma t ists a re r igh t i n e qua t ing t he r o le o f t he moneyer

i n t he n in th c en tury w i th t ha t o f ac on tractor r ather t han a n o pera t ive , a s i ndeed i s p roved f or h is l a ter med ieva l s uccessors , t hen t here i s o f c ourse n o r eason , o ther t han d educ t ions made f ro m t he c o ins t hemse lves , t o s ugg est t ha t i ssues f or s evera l a u thor it ies w ere n ot p roduced c oncurren t ly . T o r eturn t o s pec if ic d a t ing q uest ions , i ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t wh i le t he ma in s equence o f A l fred 's t ypes 1 9 i s c lear t here i s s t i l l g rea t u ncer ta in ty a bou t t he d a t ing o f t he , a t p resen t , r are t ypes a ssoc ia ted w i th h is midd le p er iod a nd a lso a bou t t he i ncep t ion o f t he s o-ca l led ' Guthrum ' t ype wh ich was u ndoubted ly t he t ype i n i ssue a t t he c lose o f t he r e ign .

T he p ro l if ic

S t . E dmund Me mor ia l c o inage c on t inues t o p resen t c ons iderab le p rob le ms o f a bso lu te d at ing . The d a tes o f i t s b eg inn ing a nd e nd a re n ot k nown f or c er ta in a l though t he r e la t ive s equence o f t he ma jor g roup ings w ith in i t -i n p art icu lar t he p re- a nd p os t-Cuerda le p hases ( c903 ) -h as b een c onv inc ing ly d e mons tra ted b y Mr . B lun t i n h is r ecen t s urvey .2 0 A l l n um is mat ists who h ave c ons idered t he c o inage o f Nor thu mbr ia a gree t ha t t he t rad it iona l a rr ange men t r equ ires emenda t ion a nd t he g roundwork f or a r ev ised c hrono logy was p ub l ished b y Mr . L yon .2 1 More r ecen t ly Mr . Pagan2 2 h as p roposed a r ad ica l r e-da t ing f or t he n in th c entury c o inage o f Nor thumbr ia wh ich i nvo lves f a ir ly d rast ic c hanges i n t he k ingl ist . S ince h is ma in t hes is d e mands t he a ccep tance o f s er ious e rror i n t he h istor ica l s ources , l a te a nd i mper fect o n o ther c oun ts a s t hey may b e , i ti s h oped t ha t i tw i l l n ot b e t oo l ong b e fore t he h is tor ians make k nown t he ir e xper t v iews o n h is i n terpretat ion . I n p r inc ip le , n um isma t is ts s hou ld b e v ery c hary o f r e ject ing wr it ten h is tor ica l e v idence o n t he b as is o f t he ir own h ypotheses a bou t t he c o ins s ince t hese s o o f ten i nvo lve i n terdependen tj udg men ts a bout meta l c on ten t , d urat ion a nd i n tens ity o f p roduc t ion a nd l ongev i ty o f d ies f or wh ich t here i s r are ly s u f f ic ien t e v id ence t o e nab le u nequ ivoca l c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn .

2 41

T he p rogress made i n t he i n terna l d a t ing o f t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tury c o inages h as n ot b een matched b y c o mparab le a dvances i n t he t en th c en tury s er ies b efore t he r eform o f Eadgar .

I ti s n o tab le f or e xa mp le t ha t n o f u l l

a rt ic le o n c o ins o f t h is p er iod a ppeared i n t he S ten ton f estschr if t o f 1 961 2 2a a nd t hat n o c o mprehens ive a r t icle o n t he s er ies h ad a ppeared i n t he p ages o f t he Br it ish Nu m is mat ic J ourna l f ro m t hen u n t i l Mr . B lun t 's p aper o n t he c rowned b us t c o inage o f Edmund was p ub l ished i n 1 972. T he r eason f or t h is c o mpara t ive n eg lect i s n ot f ar t o s eek . T he s ecre ts o f t he t en th c en tury c o inage a re j ust t ha t much more d if f icu l t t o c rack .

T he g radua l u n i f icat ion

o f t he k ingdo m u nder t he West S axon monarchy a nd t he i ncreas ing c en tra l isat i on a nd impos it ion o f r ega l ian r igh ts wh ich w en t w ith i t means t ha t t he n umi s mat ist l oses t he c ross-references t o i ssues o f c on te mporary a rchb ishops o f Can terbury a nd k ings o f Wessex , East Ang l ia , Ken t a nd Merc ia whose c om ings a nd g o ings h ad b een s o h e lpfu l i n e s tab l ish ing t he i n terna l o rder o f t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tury s er ies. Mr . B lun t 's f or thco ming s tudy o f t he e n t ire c o inage o f A the lstan 2 3 w i l l t herefore b e p ar t icu lar ly w e lco me n o t o n ly f or i t se lf b u t f or t he e xa mp le o f method wh ich i tw i l l p rov ide f or s ubsequen t i nvest iga t ions o f o ther r e igns.

Here a ga in h owever w e c an e xpect a more

r ef ined r e la t ive c hrono logy b ut p rec ise d ates f or t he d if feren t g roup ings w i l l b e d if f icu l t t o e s tab l ish w ith in n arrow l im its. We h ave h ard ly a ny e v idence o n wh ich t o b ase c onc lus ions a bou t h ow t he c ircu la t ion med ium was a f fected b y t he i n terna l c hanges made i n O f fa 's c oinage , i n p ar t icu lar b y t he i ncrease i n t he w e igh t s tandard s hor t ly a f ter 7 90.

T h is i s b ecause n o h oard b ur ied i n O f fa 's r e ign h as c o me t o l igh t s ince

t he s c ien t i f ic r ecord ing o f h oards b egan a bou t t he midd le o f t he e igh teen th c en tury .

E ar l ier l i s t ings o f p ro minen t c o l lect ions a nd s a le c a ta logues g ive

u s g l impses o f h oards i n t he l a te s even teen th a nd e ar ly e igh teen th c en tur ies wh ich were t he s ources o f t he c o ins n ow i n modern c ab inets a nd i ti s t o b e h oped t ha t t he d etect ive work n ow b eing u nder taken o n t he manuscr ip t s ources o f e ar ly a n t iquar ies w i l l y ie ld f ru itfu l r esu lts.

Aga in b ecause w e h ave n o

h oards b efore a bou t 8 30 , w e a re a lso u nab le t o s ay h ow l ong i tw as b efore t he s ee m ing ly p len t ifu l i ssues o f Of fa were s uperseded b y t hose o f Coenwu l f a nd whe ther t h is was b y ap rocess o f n a tura l wastage a nd c asua l r estr ik ing o r whether i t was b y ad e l iberate r eco inage. D e lgany h oard 2 4

T he Merc ian e le men t i n t he

s hows t ha t W a ys c o ins h ad b een r educed t o av ery l ow

p ercen tage o f t he c urrency b y c 830 i fn ot b efore. i t ion o f t he Midd le T e mp le h oard 25

By t he d ate o f t he d epos-

c . 8 41-2 , i nc lud ing r epresen tat ives o f

t he c o inage o f Wig laf , O f fa 's i ssues h ad l os t g round s t i l l f urther .

( The

n u mbers o f c o ins f orm ing t he p opu lat ions o f t hese h oards a re o f c ourse s ta t ist ica l ly l ow , w ith t he u sua l d angers o f d is tor t ion wh ich t h is i mp l ies b ut i ti s c oun terba lanced t o s o me e x ten t b y t he f act t ha t w e h ave t wo h oards wh ich a ppear t o t e l l t he s a me s tory .)

T he a rchaeo log ist l ook ing f or a

t erm inus a n te q ue m f or t he O f fa p enny f ound o n h is s i te c an b e s ure , a bnor ma l s urv iva ls a par t , t ha t i t was d epos ited b efore 8 30 a nd o n t he b as is o f t he v ery h igh p ropor t ion o f c o ins o f Coenwu l f , c an b e r easonab ly , i fl ess c er ta in ly , a ssured t ha t t he e f fect ive t er m inus c an b e p ushed b ack t o r ;.8 20. T hese t wo h oards a lso i l lus tra te t he g enera l p o in t made e ar l ier t ha t

2 42

c o ins f ro m l ong r e igns c an d om inate t he c o inage f or many y ears .

I n

D e lgany , C oenwul f a ccoun ts f or more t han 7 0% o f t he Merc ian e le men t i n ah oard b ur ied t en y ears a f ter h is d ea th .

T o p u t i ta nother way , ac o in

l os t wh i le t hese h oards were b e ing c oun ted o u t a nd f ound o n a modern e xc ava t ion h as a n a l most f our-to-one c hance o f h av ing b een s truck b e fore 8 21 i n al eve l o f c . 8 30 a nd a t hree-to-one c hance o f h av ing b een s truck b efore 8 21 i n al eve l o f 8 41-2.

A s a n e xa mp le o f t he w ay t h is c urrency p at tern

c an a f fect d at ing , l et u s c ons ider t he c ase o f ah ypo thet ica l a rchaeo log ist d igg ing i n t he M idd le T e mp le who , i ncred ib ly , c o mes u pon i n tact l eve ls wh ich h e c an d a te o n t he b as is o f t he a r t ifacts t hey c on ta in t o t he n in th c en tu ry i n g enera l t erms.

H e h as f ound a v ery t h ick d evas tat ion l ayer wh ich

e x tends t o w idespread p ar ts o f h is s i te a nd h e w onders i fi t migh t b e p oss ib le t o t i e i tt o o ne o f t he d ocumen ted r a ids o f t he Danes u pon L ondon .

By

g rea t g ood f ortune h e f inds a c o in i n t h is l ayer b u t i tt urns o ut t o b e ap enny o f Coenwu lf o f Merc ia who m h e k nows d ied i n 8 21, f our teen y ears b e fore t he f irst ma jor d escen t o f t he Danes i s r ecorded a nywhere i n Eng land a nd t wen ty-one y ears b efore t he Ang lo-Saxon Chron ic le men t ions t hat t he Danes d id g reat s laugh ter i n L ondon .

S crupu lous ly f o l low ing h is t ra in ing n ot t o

e xpect a l l f ires , e ven i fe x tens ive , t o b e d ocumented o nes , h e d ates h is l eve l t o Merc ian L ondon a bou t t wen ty y ears b efore t he a rr iva l o f t he Danes.

He

c ou ld w e l l b e r igh t i n s o d o ing , f or t he c o ins o f Coenwu lf w ou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een c o m moner a t t he e nd o f h is own r e ign t han t wen ty y ears l a ter b u t t he i mpor tan t p o in t t o r e me mber i s t ha t ac o in o f C oenwu l f d oes n o t r u le o u t ad a te o f t wen ty y ears l ater a nd t hat t he l eve l o f t he Dan ish r a id o f 8 42 migh t w e l l h ave c on ta ined a c o in o f t h is r e ign .

Th is d e monstra tes t hat j ust

a s i ti s p oss ib le f or a n o ver n arrow i n terpre ta t ion o f t he e v idence o f as ing le c o in t o l ead t o a n e rroneous e quat ion w ith a h istor ica l e ven t , s o t oo i tc an o n o ccas ion c ause t he c o mp lete r e ject ion o f j ust s uch a n a ssoc iat ion f or wh ich t he c o in e v idence i s q u ite c ompa t ib le. T he u neven i nc idence o f a dequate ly p ub l ished h oards o f s tat ist ica l ly v iab le s ize means t ha t , e ven i fs pace p erm it ted , t h is s urvey c ou ld n ot b e c o mpreh ens ive. T here i s f or e xa mp le n e i ther a s izeab le h oard f ound i n Merc ia n or af ind w i th a l arge Merc ian e le men t c on ta ined w i th in i td iscovered e lsewhere wh ich wou ld e nab le u s t o a ssess t he l ater c urrency o f t he i ssues o f Coenwul f r e la t ive t o t hose o f h is s uccessors b efore B urgred . I n t he sma l l f ind f ro m S ev ing ton ( W i lts . )2 6

h owever b ur ied c . 8 50 t here w ere s t i l l f our c o ins o f

Coenwu lf o u t o f at o ta l Merc ian e le men t o f f our teen c o ins.

T he l arge

h oard f rom t h is g enerat ion i s a lso f ro m t he West S axon k ingdo m : Dork ing h oard 2 7 f ound i n 1 817.

t he g reat

T h is h oard c loses w ith a l arge n u mber o f

c oins o f t he f irst t ype o f A ethe lberh t a nd i s u sua l ly d a ted t o c . 8 61.

Un less

t here was a s ubs tan t ia l s av ings e le men t p resen t , i t wou ld b e l eg i t i mate t o l ook a t t he p at tern o f t he c on ten ts a s e v idence f or t he r e la t ive c o m monness o f t he v ar ious i ssues o f Aethe lwu l f .

Us ing t he p er iods e s tab l ished b y

Messrs. B lun t a nd Do l ley i n t he ir s tudy o f t he i ssues o f A ethu lwu l f2 8 h ave t he f o l low ing r esu l t : P er iod 1 P er iod 2

8 39-c.843 c .843-c. 8 48

1 3% 3 3%

P er iod 3

c . 8 48/851-c.855

1 5%

P er iod 4

c . 8 55-859

3 9%

2 43

w e

T owards t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f Aethe lwu lf i ta ppears t herefore t ha t a bou t h a l f t he c o ins o f h is r e ign i n c urrency w ere t hose s truck t en y ears o r more e ar l ier .

Aga in n o g enera l v a l id ity i s c la i med f or t hese f igures.

T hey a re

q uo ted a s a n e xa mp le o f h ow a pparen t ly d if feren t ia l r ates o f p roduct ion a t p ar t icu lar p er iods d ur ing a l ong r e ign c an a f fect t he p ropor t ions o f e ar ly a nd l a te c o ins s urv iv ing i n c ircu lat ion a fter i t s c lose. Very much more w ork w i l l b e r equ ired b e fore i ti s p oss ib le t o a ssess t he c urrency p at tern o f t h is p er iod i n a ny d eta i l b u t t he ma in d iv is ions a re c lear .

At erminus i s r eached i n t he mid-870s when t he e ar l ier c o ins o f

h igh s i lver c on ten t w ere swep t away b y t he l arge i ssues o f b aser c o ins o f t he l ater g roups o f t he ' l unet te ' t ype p roduced t owards t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f B urgred a nd b y t he p ara l le l i ssues o f h is b rothersin-law , A e the lred I a nd A lfred o f Wessex .

T h is i s d e monstra ted b y t he c on ten ts o f h oards

b ur ied d ur ing t he e ar ly y ears o f A lfred 's r e ign , i n t he p er iod 8 71-c . 875. I n h oards wh ich o n ly j us t r each i nto A l fred 's r e ign , s uch a s T rewh idd le 29 a nd G ravesend ,

3 0

t here i s s t i l l as ign if ican t n umber o f t he e ar l ier i ssues

b u t i n t he h oards p resu mpt ive ly a l i t t le l a ter i n d ate s ince t hey n ow i nc lude s ubs tan t ia l n umbers o f A l fred 's f irst t ype , s uch a s B eeston T or 3 1 Croyden ,

3 2

t he e ar l ier c o ins h ave v irtua l ly d isappeared .

a nd

T he a rchaeo lo-

g is t may t herefore a ssume w ith r easonab le c on f idence t ha t , t he u sua l a bn orma l s urv iva ls a par t , t he i ssues o f Aethe lwu lf a nd h is Merc ian c on te mp orar ies a nd o f Aethe lberh t , n ot t o men t ion t he l ast s urv ivors o f e ar l ier c o inages , h ave a n a bso lute t er m inus o f c . 8 75. Once a ga in t he d ear th o f h oards f ro m t he midd le p er iod o f A l fred 's r e ign makes i td if icu l t t o s ay p rec ise ly when t hese c o m mon l unette c o ins c eased t o p lay a s ign i f ican t p ar t i n t he c urrency .

Cer ta in ly n one o f t he m

a ppeared i n t he h uge Cuerda le h oard b ur ied c . 9 03.

E ven a l low ing f or

s o me d iscr i minat ion a ga inst t he m i n l ater h oards when c o ins o f b et ter me ta l c on ten t were a va i lab le , t he a rchaeo log is t may s a fe ly p lace a t erm inus t o t he ir c ircu lat ion a t t he e nd o f A l fred 's r e ign w ith t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t hey may w e l l h ave b een e f fect ive ly s uperseded a bou t ad ecade e ar l ier . The l ater i ssues o f A lfred w ere r ep laced v ir tua l ly c o mp lete ly b y t hose o f h is s on a nd g randson , Edward t he E lder a nd Aethe ls tan , a nd t he ir i ssues r e ma ined i n c ircu lat ion i n p ropor t iona l ly d ecreas ing n umbers u n t i l t he c o inage w as t he s ub ject o f a ma jor r e form t owards t he e nd o f t he r e ign o f E adgar . f orm ,

3 3

A lthough t here i s ar ich c rop o f h oards b ur ied j us t b e fore t he r ef ew a re l arge e nough o r p ub l ished i n s u f f ic ien t d e ta i l t o b e u sefu l

h ere a nd e ven t he e v idence o f l arge a nd w e l l-pub l ished h oards a bout t he c o mpos it ion o f t he c urrency a t t h is d ate i s i nconc lus ive.

T he 1 950 Chester

h oard 34 b ur ied c . 9 70 s howed 7 3% o f t he E ng l ish e le men t s truck b efore 9 59 a nd 5 1% s truck b efore 9 55.

T he 1 945 T etney h oard 3 5 a lso o f c . 9 70 s howed

o n ly 3 9% s truck b efore 9 59 a nd 1 2% s truck b efore 9 65.

T he d if ference i s

e xp la ined b y t he f act t ha t i n T etney t he c o ins o f E adgar a re much more h eav ily r epresen ted a nd c o ins e ar l ier t han E adred a re e n t ire ly a bsen t wh i le i n Chester t here a re s ubs tan t ia l n umbers o f c o ins o f b oth i ] admund a nd A ethe ls tan a s w e l l a s af ew o f Edward t he E lder a nd e ven o ne s tray o f A lfred .

T h is d e monstrates h ow t he e as i ly-exp la ined v ar iat ion i n t he

2 44

r epresen tat ion o f t he l a tes t p ieces i n ah oard c an i n f luence t he p ropor t ions a nd a lso t he d anger o f r e ly ing o n t he u nsuppor ted e v idence o f as ing le h oard . I td oes n ot a l ter t he f act h owever t hat o n o ne o ccas ion a t l eas t, a c o in l ost i n c . 9 70 c ou ld h ave h ad a n e vens c hance o f h av ing b een s truck f i fteen y ears o r more b efore t he d a te o f i t s d epos i t ion . ( East G a te )3 6 a nd Doug las 3 7

T he sma l ler f inds f rom Chester

s uggest t ha t t he T e tney f igures - o r p erhaps

e ven s o mewhat l ower o nes - w ou ld b e more l i ke ly t o r epresen t t he ' norma l ' p resence o f e ar l ier i ssues i n t he c urrency j ust b efore E adgar 's r eform. I t mus t h owever b e b orne i n mind t ha t t he r eg iona l a nd p ersona l f ac tors i nf l uenc ing t he c o mpos it ion o f h oards a nd c urrency w ou ld h ave b een more marked a t t h is p er iod t han d ur ing t he l a ter midd le a ges when c o ins w ere i n more n orma l a nd a ct ive c ircu la t ion . On o ne p o in t h owever t he e v idence o f t he h oards i s c lear : t he r e form o f E adgar b rough t a bou t ar ap id a nd c omp lete r eco inage wh ich p rov ides t he a rchaeo log ist w ith t he a bso lu te t erm inus a nte q ue m o f 9 73-6 f or a l l t hese e ar l ier i ssues.

2 45

THE REFOR M OF EADGAR TO STEPHEN T he l ast c entury o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p enny h as a t tracted e nor mous s cho lar ly a t ten t ion

8

d ur ing t he p ast t wen tyf ive y ears a nd t he r esu l ts

a ch ieved b y Mr Do l ley a nd o ther s tuden ts h ave i l lu m inated many d i f feren t a spects o f t he c o inage a nd i t s o rgan iza t ion o f g rea t i mpor tance t o t hose e ngaged i n r e lated d isc ip l ines.

F ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f d a t ing , t he o rder

o f t he t ypes h as b een r ev ised a nd n ow s eems w e l l-es tab l ished. S ub-d iv isi on o f many o f t hose t ypes b y n um is ma t ic a nd metro log ica l t echn iques h as p rov ided a s ound ly b ased a nd h igh ly d eta i led r e la t ive c hrono logy . T he q uest ion o f t he a bso lu te d at ing f or c o ins o f t h is p er iod b r ings u s t o t he f a mous ' sexenn ia l c yc le ' a nd i t s l i nea l d escenden t , t he ' t r ienn ia l c yc le '.

T he b as ic t hes is a s p roposed b y Mr D o l ley a nd Dr Metca l f

3 9

was

t ha t t he t ypes o f t he l a te S axon a nd e ar ly N orman p enny w ere c hanged r egu lar ly o n M ichae l mas Day , a t s ix-year i n terva ls f ro m Eadgar 's r e form wh ich i s d ated b y t he m t o 9 73 a nd , a f ter a p er iod o f t rans it ion , g enera l ly a t t hree y ear i n terva ls f ro m t he midd le o f t he r e ign o f E dward t he C on fessor u n t i l t he s yste m was b rough t t o a n e nd b y t he a narchy u nder S tephen .

T he p er iod ic n ature o f t he c hanges i n t ype h as l ong b een p ar t o f

t he E ng l ish n um is mat ic c anon b u t t he n ew t heory wh ich i ns ists u pon a bso lute r egu lar ity i n t he d ura t ion o f t he t ypes f rom t he v ery s tar t a nd u pon t he p rec is ion i n t he ir d at ing i s n o t u n iversa l ly a ccep ted a nd i ndeed i s c urr en t ly t he s ub jec t o f much d is& iss ion . 4°

E ven t he d a te o f M ichae l mas 9 73

p roposed f or t he Reform i t sel f i s ah ypo thes is p u t f orward p r inc ipa l ly o n t he g rounds t ha t t he d ate o f 9 75 g iven i n t he o ne l a te wr it ten t ex t t o men t ion t he e ven t , i s n ot c ons isten t w ith t h is p ar t icu lar i n terpre tat ion o f t he n um isma t ic e v idence.

Ak ey d if icu l ty wh ich s o me c r it ics h ave i n a ccep t ing t he

r ig id s exenn ia l c yc le i s t hat i td e mands t wo f u l l s ix-year p er iods f or t he ' Hand ' c o ins. 4 1 I ti s n ot p oss ib le w i th in t he s cope o f t h is p aper t o a ir t he c o mp lex a rgumen ts a dduced f or a nd a ga ins t p ar t icu lar a spects o f t h is h ypot hes is.

I ti s n ecessary h owever f or t he a rchaeo log is t t o b e aware t ha t

n um is ma t ic o p in ion i s n ot u nan i mous a nd t ha t a bso lu te d ates f or t he i ssue o f t he t ypes o f t he l a te S axon p enny h ave y e t t o b e f i na l ly e s tab l ished .

T he

f ac t t ha t t he a bso lu te d a tes p roposed f or t he t ypes a re i ndeed s t i l l o pen t o r ev is ion i s d e mons trated b y Mr D o l ley 's more r ecen t p roposa l t o e x tend t he s ugges ted c urrency o f t he L ast Sma l l Cross t ype o f Aethe lred I a nd s o t o p ush f orward t he s tar t o f Cnu t 's Quatrefo i l t ype f ro m 1 023 t o 1 024 w i th t he c onsequen t c hange f ro m 1 029 t o 1 030 f or t he i n troduct ion o f t he S hor tCross t ype • 42

Once a ga in t he a ctua l l eng ths o f t ime i nvo lved a re , f or t he

most p ar t , c o mparat ive ly s hor t f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew b u t i ti s c lear t ha t i ft oo g rea t r e l iance i s p laced b y t he a rchaeo log is t u pon a p rec ise d a te f or a s i te-f ind , ad angerous c ircu lar a rgu men t c ou ld a r ise : ac o in f ound o n as i te men t ioned i n ad ocumen tary s ource a nd b e ing o f a pprox i ma te ly t he r igh t d ate i s h e ld t o p rove t he c onnect ion b etween t he l eve l i n wh ich i t was f ound a nd t he e ven t r ecorded i n t he wr itten t ex t ;

t he

d iscovery o f t h is c o in i n a' h istor ica l ly d a ted ' l eve l i s t he ‚ih e ld t o p rove t he e ssen t ia l r igh tness o f t he p roposed p rec ise d at ing f or t he t ype t o wh ich

2 46

i tb e longs.

When s tated t hus b a ld ly t he i l log ica l ity o f t h is i s man i fes t a t

o nce b u t i ti s n ot t oo f ar r e moved f ro m t he s or t o f r eason ing t ha t c an g o o n i fb o th n um is ma t ist a nd a rchaeo log is t a re n o t e x tra-carefu l t o a vo id p ush ing t he ir e v idence b eyond t he l im its o f wha t i tw i l l a ctua l ly p rove. P erhaps e ven more i mpor tan t t o t he q uest ion o f a rchaeo log ica l d a t ing t han t he e xactness o r o therw ise o f t he l im i t ing d a tes o f i ssue o f t he v ari ous t ypes a re t he i mp l icat ions o f t he s econd c on ten t ion o f t he h ardl ine s uppor ters o f t he s exenn ia l c yc le t heory .

T h is i s t ha t t he i n troduct ion o f

an ew t ype b o th t heore t ica l ly a nd i n p rac t ice a lways d e monet ized t he p rev ious o ne a long t he l ines o f ac on t inen ta l r enovat io mone tae a nd t hat t he who le o perat ion was c omp leted w ith in a v ery s hor t s pace o f t ime. Obv ious ly i ft h is c ou ld b e a ccep ted i t wou ld b e o f i m mense v a lue t o t he a rchaeo log ist who c ou ld t hen b e a ssured - t he u sua l a bnor ma l s urv iva ls a par t -t ha t o n ly o ne t ype was a round t o b e l os t e xcep t d ur ing t he s hor t p er iod o f t rans it ion a t t he b eg inn ing o f e ach t ype a nd t ha t ' t here i s ab road c o inc idence b etween c urrency a nd p er iod o f i ssue '. 43

Can h e i n f act b e

s ure o f t h is t hroughout t he e n t ire p er iod u nder r ev iew?

T he a rchaeo log is t

i s c oncerned n ot s o much w i th wha t t heoret ica l ly o ugh t t o h ave h appened b u t w i th wha t a ctua l ly d id h appen i n p ract ice.

S ince l arge-sca le e xcava-

t i on o f e x tens ive l a te S axon l eve ls i s e ven n owadays , a las , r are w e a re s t i l l f orced t o t urn t o t he h oard e v idence , e qu ivoca l a s i ti s , i n a t te mpt ing t o a ssess t he v a l id ity o f t h is p ropos it ion a t d if feren t p er iods w ith in t he l ast c entury o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p enny . Mr D o l ley a nd Dr Metca l f p o in t o u t t ha t o f t he t h irteen h oards k nown t o t he m b ur ied i n Eng land b etween 9 73 a nd 1 042 , e igh t were o f o ne t ype o n ly) f ive w ere o f t wo t ypes o n ly a nd n o h oards c on ta ined more t han t wo ty pes •3a A l though t he n u mber o f t hese h oards i s s ta t ist ica l ly sma l l a nd t he p ar t icu lar c ircu ms tances o f t he t ime c ou ld g o s o me way a t l east t owards e xp la in ing t he p reponderance o f o ne-type h oards , t he t o ta l a bsence o f mu lt ip le-type h oards e xcep t i n a reas o u ts ide t he j ur isd ict ion o f t he Eng l ish monarchy i s n one t he l ess impress ive.

I ts ugges ts t hat d ur ing t he r e ign o f Aethe lred I

e ach t ype was i n f act e f fect ively r ep laced b y i t s s uccessor.

H ow r ap id ly

t h is was a cco mp l ished i s v ery d i f f icu l t t o a ssess o n t he p resen t e v idence. Un less w e c an a ccep t t ha t a much h igher p ropor t ion o f h oards was l ike ly t o h ave b een d epos i ted , w ithou t t he p oss ib i l ity o f s e lect ion , d ur ing t he p roposed v ery s hor t t rans i t iona l p er iod f o l low ing t he i n troduct ion o f a n ew t ype t han d ur ing a l l t he r e ma in ing y ears o f i t s c urrency , t hen t he f ive-to-e igh t r at io o f t wo-type t o o ne-type h oards s ugges ts t ha t t he c hangeo ver may n ot n ecessar i ly h ave b een q u ite s o e xped it ious a s i s s o met i mes p ostu la ted .

T he a rchaeo log is t c an h owever b e r easonab ly c on f iden t t ha t

a n Ae the lred I p enny f ro m h is s i te i n Eng land d id n ot n orma l ly o u t last t he t ype wh ich f o l lowed i t s own a nd t ha t a n e f fect ive t erm inus i s l ike ly t o h ave b een w ith in t hree y ears o r s o o f t he i n troduct ion o f t he n ew t ype. T he much h igher p ropor t ion o f mu l t ip le-type h oards b ur ied d ur ing t he p er iod 1 042-66 l ed Mr Do l ley a nd Dr Metca l f t o s uggest t ha t ' ab reakdown was t hreaten ing t he s yste m o f r egu lar r enewa l o f t he c o inage '. 4 4

2 47

I s i tn ot

45

possible to see some evidence of this even earlier? The W�dmore hoard which closes with the first type of Edward the Confessor and is dated c 1043 contained substantial numbers of coins of all the maJ r types from 8 Cnut' s first type onwards. The later Milton Street hoard, buried c. 10 55, which closes in Helmet, the sixth type of Edward the Confessor, includes representatives from most of the types back again to the first type of Cnut. Since however we have at least three hoards of one or two types only buried during the period 1017- 4 2, it is not possible to say how general the circula­ tion of earlier types actually was during those years. The evidence is however strong enough to urge caution on the archaeologist who might otherwise be tempted to set very narrow limits to the currency of one of these coins found on his site. The evidence of the larger number of multiple-type hoards from the reign of Edward the Confessor demonstrates that even more care must be taken in using one of his coins for dating purposes. From the first part of the reign, the Milton Street hoard already mentioned shows that 34% of the coins available to, and chosen for concealment by the hoarder were of the type currently in issue at the date of the deposition in c 10 55 but that 22% were of the first type of the reign and 30% were struck during the reigns of Cnut and his sons. The contents of the multiple-type hoards buried at the close of the reign show that by then the bulk of the coins current did not stretch back beyond the type in issue when the weight of the penny was increased following the abolition of the heregeld in 105 1 i.e. 48 the Expanding Cross type. The Seddlescombe47 and Gracechurch Street hoards which close with the second-last type of the reign include only the types from Helmet onwards. The large find from Chancton49 buried in 1066 in fact goes back to the Expanding Cross type itself. Although the 50 types heavily represented in the apparently even larger find from Walbrook are also from Expanding Cross onwards, 10% of the coins were struck before the accession of Edward the Confessor. How soon the first four types of the reign and also the last survivors of the earlier issues ceased to be an appreciable part of the available currency is difficult to say. The owner of the Milton Street hoard for example still had proportionally large numbers of them although his hoard was concealed in the Helmet type. Once again it is fortunate, given the equivocal nature of the evidence, that our present purpose does not require us to come to any decision about the -precise extent to which the generality of currency was multiple-type. It would however be going against this evidence to deny that large numbers of coins were still available to be included in hoards long after their types had ceased to be struck and that hoarders apparently saw no reason to dis­ criminate against them or were not in a position to do so. In the view of the writer it would therefore be unjustified for the archaeologist to assume that the currency of a penny of Edward the Confessor found on his site can be equated with the period of issue to which it belongs. In the Norman period, the sequence of the types of William I and William II proposed by Brooke5 1 more than fifty years ago still stands but his ordering of the types of Henry I has not proved altogether satis­ factory. Mr Dolley has shown that BMC type XI should precede BMC

248

t ype X5 2

a nd r ecen t ly t he w r i ter s uggested t ha t f ur ther emenda t ion may

s t i l l b e r equ ired i n t he midd le p er iod o f t he r e ign .5 3 I n a t te mp t ing t o p rov ide a bso lu te d ates f or t he i ssue o f t he t ypes o f Wi l l iam Ia nd Wi l l ia m I t he n um is ma t ist mus t f i t t h ir teen t ypes i n to a p er iod o f t h ir tyfour y ears.

I n 1 963 Mr Nor th was a b le t o p ostu la te a

t r ienn ia l c yc le b y a t tr ibu t ing o n ly o ne y ear 's d ura t ion t o t he l ast t ype o f b oth Wi l l iam Ia nd Wi l l iam 1 .

5 4

I n 1 966 , Mr D o l ley f ound t h is a rrange-

men t u nsat isfactory s ince i tr equ ired a l l t he Paxs c oins t o b e p roduced w ith in a y ear a nd h e p roposed t o s ubst itu te a s yste m o f t wo-year t ypes a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he r e ign o f Wi l l iam If o l lowed b y t hree-year t ypes f ro m BMC t ype V o nwards.

5 °

A s a n e xa mp le o f t he v ar ia t ion i n d at ing wh ich

a r ises f ro m t he a pp l ica t ion o f t hese t heor ies , ap enny o f BMC t ype V o f Wi l l iam Iw ou ld , a ccord ing t o t he f irs t , b e d a ted 1 077-1080 a nd , a ccordi ng t o t he s econd , t o ? 1074-1077.

I ti s o f c ourse q u i te p roper f or t he

n um is ma t ist t o t ry t o e s tab l ish a bso lu te d ates f or t hese s uccess ive t ypes b ut i ti s i mpor tan t f or t he a rchaeo log ist t o u nderstand t ha t t here i s i n f act n o i ncon trover t ib le e v idence t o p rove t he u n ifor m i ty i n t he d ura t ion o f t he t ypes f ar l ess t he c orrectness o f t he p rec ise d a tes p roposed f or t he ir i ssue b ased u pon t hese h ypothet ica l d iv is ions o f t he c o inage.

On

t he q uest ion o f t he d ura t ion o f t he t ypes i n c ircu la t ion , o ne-type h oards a re i n t he ma jor ity a nd s uggest a t heoret ica l i n ten t ion o f r egu lar r enewa l o f t he c o inage wh ich was b e ing f a ir ly s yste ma t ica l ly c arr ied o u t .

Once

a ga in h owever t here a re a n u mber o f mu l t ip le-type h oards s uch a s S t . Mary H i l l5 6

a nd T a mwor th 5 7 wh ich s how t ha t i tw ou ld b e u nw ise t o

a ssu me t ha t t he c urrency d a tes o f as i te-f ind c an a lways b e v irtua l ly e qua ted w i th t he i ssue d a tes o f t he t ype t o wh ich i tb e longs. T he d a t ing p rob le m i s e ven g reater w i th H enry Iwho s truck f i f teen t ypes i n ar e ign o f t h ir tyf ive y ears a nd whose i ssues a re e ven l ess amenab le t o t he impos it ion o f at r ienn ia l c yc le.

Mr D o l ley was a b le t o

p ropose a s uccess ion o f t hree-year i ssues b y s uggest ing t ha t c hange o f i ssue a nd c hange o f t ype d id n ot c oinc ide o n t wo o ccas ions d ur ing t he r e ign i .e., t ha t t he t ype i n troduced a f ter e ach o f t he t wo ma jor r ecorded i nqu is it ions i n to t he c o inage l asted o n ly f or t he u nexp ired t ime o f t he t hreey ear ' i ssue ' wh ich h ad b egun w i th i t s p redecessor .

5 b

T here a re i n t he

wr iter 's v iew s er ious d if icu l t ies t o a ccep t ing s uch a n a rrange men t o f t he c o inage.

F or e xa mp le , Mr D o l ley s uggests t ha t t ype X was i n troduced

a f ter t he i nqu is i t ion wh ich t ook p lace a t Chr is tmas 1 124 a nd t ha t t he s ucc eed ing t ype was i n troduced d ur ing 1 125 , p resumab ly e x h ypothes i a t Michae l mas.

On t h is b as is t ype X l asted f or o n ly n ine mon ths o r , i f

Michae l mas i s a bandoned , c er ta in ly f or l ess t han a y ear .

T ype X was

h owever a p ro l if ic t ype whose d ies d isp lay a l arge n u mber o f v ar ian t f or ms.

C o ins o f t ype X o u tnu mber mos t i fn o t a l l o f t he o ther t ypes o f

Henry Ib efore t ype X I I I i n modern c ab ine ts a nd a re s econd i n c o mmonn ess o n ly t o t ype XV , t he l as t t ype o f t he r e ign , a s s trays i n l ater h oards. I t was , a s n oted a bove , o n t he b as is o f s im i lar a rgu men ts t hat Mr D o l ley h i msel f r e jec ted t he s ugges t ion t hat t he PAXS t ype o f Wi l l ia m Ih ad r im f or o n ly o ne y ear a l though i n t he wr iter 's o p in ion t he v ar iat ions i n t ype X

2 49

o f H enry Ia re o f a more o bv ious ly c hrono log ica l c haracter t han t hose i n t he PAXS t ype.

A lthough t herefore t he ma in o u t l ines o f t he a rrange men t

o f t he c o ins o f H enry Ii s c lear , n um is ma t ics c anno t s o f ar o f fer t he a rchaeo log is t t he a greed s equence o f c lose ly d a ted t ypes wh ich w ou ld p rov ide a n arrow c hrono logy f or t he i ssue-da tes o f h is s i te-f inds. An a ssess men t o f t he d ura t ion o f t he t ypes i n c urrency i s made d i f f ic u l t b y t he f act t ha t u n t i l r ecen t ly t he h oard e v idence f or t he i ssues o f Henry Iwas c oncen tra ted a l most e xc lus ive ly a t t he e nd o f t he r e ign .

T he

h oard o f s o me 7 44 c o ins a nd a dd it iona l f ragmen ts f ound a t L inco ln i n 1 971-2 i s t herefore o f o u tstand ing i mpor tance f or a lthough i t was d epos ited d ur ing t he c urrency o f t ype XV i ta lso i nc luded s ubs tan t ia l n u mbers o f t ypes V I I , X , X I I I a nd X IV.

5 9

T he p ropor t ions o f i nd iv idua l t ypes i n t he

h oard p r ior t o t ype XV a re v ery b road ly s im i lar t o t hose i n modern c ab inets a nd s uggest t ha t t hese v ar iat ions i n r epresen tat ion r e f lect t o s o me d egree d i f feren t l eve ls o f o utpu t a nd/or i nequa l it ies i n t he d urat ion o f t he ir r espec t ive l i fe a t i ssue r a ther t han t he p resence o f as ubs tan t ia l s av ings e le men t i n t he h oard o r o f c oncea led b ias i n s yste mat ic c o l lect ions d ue t o t he a cc iden t o f h oard d iscovery .

I t mus t b e a dm it ted h owever t ha t

t he - f ew - o ther l arge h oards b ur ied a t t he e nd o f t he r eign o f H enry I a nd d ur ing t he e ar l ier y ears o f S tephen a re s ubs tan t ia l ly o ne o r t wo-type a nd c on ta in n o more t han t he o dd s tray f ro m i ssues b efore t ype X IV .

I t

i s p oss ib le t ha t t owards t he e nd o f t he r e ign a n e f for t was made t o e lim ina te f ro m c ircu la t ion t he c o ins o f t he midd le p er iod , o f misce l laneous s ize a nd g enera l ly l ower w e igh t b u t t he L inco ln h oard s hows t ha t e ven t hen l arge n u mbers o f l ong-superseded t ypes were s t i l l a ccess ib le t o t he h oarder. I ta lso d e monstra tes h ow a ma jor n ew h oard c an p rov ide a s tar t l ing ly d if feren t v iew o f t he c urrency o f ap ar t icu lar p er iod f ro m t ha t wh ich c ou ld h ave b een l eg it i ma te ly d educed f ro m t he p rev ious ly a va i lab le e v idence. T h is s hou ld warn u s o f t he d angers i nheren t i n a ccep t ing t oo r ead i ly t he u n iversa l v a l id ity i n p rac t ice o f ac o mp lete a nd i n f lex ib le s yste m o f r en ewa l o f t he c o inage a t p er iods f or wh ich t he h oard e v idence , e ven i f f a ir ly p ro l if ic , i s u neven o r o f e qu ivoca l c haracter .

One-type h oards

a re , a f ter a l l , l ess d if f icu lt t o e xp la in away i n a mu l t ip le-type p er iod t han mu l t ip le-type h oards i n ap er iod when a r ig id c yc l ica l s yste m i s a l leged t o b e i n o pera t ion .

T o s um u p t hen f or H enry I , t he h oard e v idence i s

r ea l ly t oo s l igh t t o e nab le u s t o d raw a ny f i rm c onc lus ions , b u t i t wou ld a ppear t ha t d ur ing t he m idd le p er iod o f t he r e ign t he s ys te m o f c o mp lete r enewa l o f t he c o inage - i fs uch were i n f act e nv isaged - h ad c eased t o b e f u l ly o pera t ive a lthough i ts ee ms t hat i ssues t hen b e ing p roduced d id n o t s urv ive t he e nd o f t he r e ign .

Hoards f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f S tephen 's

r e ign s uggest t hat t he l arge a nd p ro longed i ssue o f h is t ype Is oon r educed t he s urv iv ing c o ins o f H enry It o a sma l l p roport ion o f t he c urrency a nd s o a n e f fect ive t er m inus f or t he ir c ircu la t ion may b e p laced c 140. T he r e ign o f S tephen i t se l f p resen ts e ven g reater p rob le ms.

H owever

d eba tab le t he e f fect o f t he C iv i l War o n o ther a spects o f a dm in is tra t ion , a h ither to u npreceden ted s i tua t ion was b rough t a bou t i n t he c o inage.

T he

r oya l monopo ly wh ich h ad n ever b een s er ious ly c ha l lenged s ince t he e ar l ies t

2 50

t imes w as n ow b roken a nd s urv iv ing c o ins s uppor t t he s tate men ts o f c ont e mporary c hron ic lers t hat t he b arons w ere i ssu ing t he ir own c o ins. H oards s how t ha t f a ir ly l arge n u mbers o f i rregu lar c o ins c ircu la ted a longs ide t he k ing 's money . T he p ropor t ion o f h oard-conten ts r epresent ed b y s uch c oins i s l i ke ly t o b e a min i mum f igure f or t hose i n g enera l c ircu la t ion - a nd h ence among s i te-f inds - s ince a ny e le men t o f s e lec t ion w ou ld h ave b een t o t he ir d isadvan tage.

Most o f t hese p ieces a re h owever

s o i d iosyncra t ic i n s ty le t ha t i ti s r are ly p oss ib le t o d ate t hem o ther t han w ith in t he b road l im i ts p rov ided b y t he ir o f f ic ia l p rototypes o r b y t he r egu lar i ssues a ssoc ia ted w ith t he m i n h oards. T he ir n umbers s hou ld n ot b e e xaggera ted h owever f or , e ven a l low ing f or d iscr im inat ion a ga ins t t hem , t hey a re f ar o u tnumbered i n l arge h oards b y S tephen 's r egu lar i ssues. D a t ing e ven t hose o f f ic ia l i ssues i s s t i l l f raugh t w i th d if icu l ty . B rooke d iv ided t he c o inage o f S tephen i n to s even t ypes b u t o f t hese o n ly t ypes I , Ia nd V I I a re n ow u n iversa l ly a ccepted a s s ubs tan t ive. T ype V I i s s o met imes a ccorded t h is s ta tus b u t t ypes I I , I V a nd V a re g enera l ly c lass if ied a s l oca l i ssues o f t he Eas t M id lands. S ince h owever s o f ew o f t hese c o ins a re k nown , t he p oss ib i l ity o f ' new ' min ts c om ing t o l i gh t c anno t b e c o mp lete ly r u led o u t .

I n af a mous p aper " Mr E lmore J ones o u t lined t he

i mmense d i f f icu l t ies i n d a t ing S tephen 's t ypes a nd more r ecen t ly Co m mander Mack h as s urveyed i n d eta i l t he e v idence f or d a t ing t he o f f ic ia l a nd i rr egu lar i ssues o f t he p er iod .6 1 T he s ugges t ions t ha t t he i ncep t ion o f t ype I f o l lowed t he r e lease o f S tephen f ro m c ap t iv ity i n 142 a nd t hat t he i ssue o f t ype V I I f o l lowed t he T rea ty o f Winchester i n 153 h ave much t o r eco mmend t he m b u t p rob lems r e ma in a nd t here i s n o p os i t ive p roof o f t he n ecess ity f or t hese p ar t icu lar d a tes. T here i s s im i lar ly l i t t le e v idence f or t he c urrency p a t tern i n S tephen 's r e ign . We d o n ot k now whether o r n ot t here w as a n a t te mp t t o r ep lace t ype Ia nd a l l i t s many i m ita t ions when t ype I was i n troduced : t he L in ton h oard ,6 2 v ir tua l ly o ur o n ly e v idence o n t h is p o in t , c on ta ined n ear ly e qua l n umbers o f t ypes Ia nd I . F ro m t h is e v idence i tc ou ld b e a rgued e i ther t ha t t ypes Ia nd I c ircu la ted f ree ly t ogether o r t ha t t he h oard h ad b een b ur ied d ur ing t he p er iod o f t rans it ion b e fore t he i ssues o f t ype I h ad f u l ly r ep laced t hose o f t ype I . I ti s j ust n ot p oss ib le t o s ay wh ich o f t hese p oss ib i l it ies i s t he more l i ke ly t o b e c orrect , a l though t he p rev ious p a t tern o f t he Eng l ish c o inage w ou ld t end t o make t he r ep lace men t o f t he o ne t ype b y t he o ther t he more a t tract ive p ropos it ion . T he Awbr idge h oard 6 3 c oncea led c 165 c on ta ined o n ly t hree i rregu lar s trays p r ior t o t ype V I I s o i ti s p oss ib le t ha t s o me a t te mpt was made a t t he e nd o f t he r e ign t o r id t he c urrency o f t he i ssues o f t he C iv i l War p er iod . On s uch p it ifu l ly meagre e v idence t he n um is mat ist i s r e luc tan t t o p ropose t erm in i f or t he c urrency o f t he v ar ious i ssues o f S tephen .

Very t en tat ive ly i t

migh t b e s uggested t ha t t ype Iwas p robab ly r ep laced b y t ype I d ur ing t he m idd le 1 140s a nd , w ith more c onv ict ion , t ha t b oth t ypes Ia nd I h ad

2 51

d isappeared b efore t he e nd o f t he r e ign .

T ype V I I c erta in ly r e ma ined

c urren tu n t i l t he r enovat io mone tae o f 158 when t he T ea lby t ype was i n trod uced .

On a na logy w i th l ater r eco inages , i ti s l ike ly t ha t t he c oins o f

S tephen c eased t o b e a n a pprec iab le p ar t o f t he c urrency w i th in a bou t t hree y ears o f t he i n troduc t ion o f t he n ew t ype , g iv ing a n e f fect ive t er m inus o f c1 161.

T he f act t hat c o ins o f S tephen s t i l l a ccoun ted f or 2 5% o f t he

Awbr idge h oard b ur ied a s l ate a s 165 s hows h owever t ha t t he r ep lace men t o f a l l t he o ld c o ins may n ot h ave b een a s u n iversa l ly e xped i t ious a s w as a pparen t ly t he c ase a t l a ter r eco inages. TEALBY , S HORT-CROSS AND LONG-CROSS PENNIES T he r eorgan iza t ion o f t he c o inage b y H enry I i n 1 158 marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he n ex t ma jor p hase o f t he Eng l ish med ieva l c o inage. p r ises t he T ea lby t ype , 1 158-80 ,

6 4

I tc o m-

t he S hor t-Cross t ype , 180-1247 ,

a nd t he L ong-Cross t ype , 1 247-79. 6 6

6 5

T he s hor tl ived p er iod ic t ypes o f

t he l a te S axon a nd Norman s er ies w ere a bandoned i n f avour o f a n i mmob i l ized t ype o f i ndef in i te d urat ion .

T he c o ins n o l onger n ecessar i ly

b ear t he n a me o f t he c on te mporary monarch :

t he S hor t-Cross c o ins r ead

HENRICVS REX u nchanged t hroughou t t he r e igns o f H enry I , R ichard I , J ohn a nd H enry I I a nd t he L ong-Cross c o ins b ear t he n a me a nd n u mera l o f H enry I I u n t i l t he e nd o f t he i ssue s even y ears a f ter t he a ccess ion o f Edward I . F ortuna tely , t he r everses w ere n ot i m mob i l ized a nd c on t inued t o s how t he n a me o f t he moneyer a nd min t .

T he t er m ina l d a tes o f e ach o f

t hese t hree t ypes a re e s tab l ished b y d ocu men tary r eferences a nd a l low ing f or t he s hor t t imelag b etween t he i ssue o f a n o rder a nd i t s e xecu t ion , t he d a tes o f t he b eg inn ing a nd e nd o f e ach o f t hese c o inages i s c er ta in . I ti s i mpor tan t t o a pprec iate t ha t t he ' c lasses ' i n to wh ich t hese c o ina ges a re d iv ided a re o f q u i te a d if feren t c haracter f ro m t he ' t ypes ' o f t he l a te S axon a nd Nor man s er ies.

T he l a t ter were o f c on te mporary s ign i f-

i cance , d e l ibera te ly b rough t a bou t a s a means o f d if feren t iat ing i ssues f or a dm in istrat ive p urposes.

T he c lasses o f t he l a ter c o inages a re h ow-

e ver s ub-d iv is ions d ist ingu ished f or t he ir own c onven ience b y modern n um is ma t ists.

S o me o f t he mu ta t ions u t i l ized f or t h is p urpose w ere o f

c on te mporary s ign if icance when t he c o ins w ere p roduced b ut mos t o f t he m were t he r esu lt o f p ract ica l w orkshop n ecess ity r a ther t han d e l ibera te a dm in is tra t ive d ec is ion . B ecause t hey w ere n o t i n ten t iona l marks o f d iff eren t ia t ion a t t he t ime , t he f eatures o n wh ich t hese modern c lass if icat i ons a re b ased a re n ot a lways mutua l ly e xc lus ive a nd s o t he v ar ious g roup ings t end t o merge i n to o ne a no ther.

T he c lasses o f t hese i m-

mob i l ized c o inages d id n ot r ep lace o r d e mone t ize t he ir p redecessors i n t he t ype.

Co ins f ro m t he e ar l iest c lass i n e ach c ase t heoret ica l ly c ou ld ,

a nd a l low ing f or n atura l was tage d id i n f act , r e ma in c urren t u n t i l t he t ype i t se l f was s uperseded a t t he e nd o f t he c o inage.

Eng l ish n um is ma t is ts

h ave w orked o u t av ery d eta i led c hrono logy f or t hese t ypes , wh ich mus t b e t he e nvy o f a rchaeo log is ts o n t he c on t inen t where many o f t he more c o mp le te ly i m mob i l ized t ypes h ave y et t o b e b roken d own i nto a n a ccep tab le r e la t ive c hrono logy , f ar l ess i nto a c lose ly d a ted s equence.

2 52

F or a bso lu te d a t ing , w e a re f or tuna te t o h ave a n i ncreas ing v o lu me o f d ocumen tary r e ferences t o t he c o inage i t se l f a s w e l l a s t o t he c areers o f t he i nd iv idua l moneyers.

T owards t he e nd o f t he S hor t-Cross p er iod

p rec ise f igures f or t he amoun ts o f b u l l ion s truck a t t he p r inc ipa l min ts o f L ondon a nd Can terbury a lso b eco me a va i lab le 6 7 a nd t hese c an b e u sed i n c on junc t ion w ith t he i nc idence o f t he v ar ious c lasses i n h oards t o p rov ide ac heck o n t he d ates d educed f or t he m f ro m o ther s ources.

T he d ocu men-

t ary e v idence i s h owever r a ther u neven a nd s o wh i le i ti s p oss ib le t o d ate t he i ssue o f s o me c o ins v ery p rec ise ly , most c an s t i l l b e d ated o n ly w ith in w ide marg ins.

I ndeed t he ma in c lasses i n to wh ich t hese t hree c o inages

h ave b een d iv ided c over , f or t he most p ar t , c o mpara t ive ly l ong p er iods o f t ime a nd t he ir t erm in i a re o f ten n ot k nown w ith a ny r ea l c er ta in ty .

I n t he

e ar l ier c lasses i n e ach c ase , where t here was a h igh o utpu t b y many moneyers a t al arge n u mber o f min ts i ti s g enera l ly e as ier t o p rov ide n arrower d a t ing t han i ti s i n t he l ongerl ived l a ter c lasses s truck b y a sma l ler n umber o f moneyers a t ar educed n u mber o f min ts .

S ub-groups

t oo c an u sua l ly b e a ss igned w ith c on f idence t o ap er iod e ar ly o r l a te w ith in t he c lass b u t i ti s h ard ly e ver p oss ib le t o p ut a n arrow d a te u pon t he ir i ss ue.

T he p rec is ion w i th w h ich a n i nd iv idua l e xa mp le o f o ne o f t hese c o in-

a ges c an b e d a ted d epends u pon t he l uck o f ad ocu men tary r eference t o t he moneyer o f t he c o in i t se l f o r t o t hose o f o ther c o ins wh ich c an b e n um isma t ica l ly r e la ted t o i t .

T h is i s h owever a f i e ld where n ew i n for ma t ion i s

r egu lar ly c om ing t o l i gh t a s t he g rea t s er ies o f p ub l ic r ecords a re more s yste ma t ica l ly e xp lored f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f t he c o inage a nd t herefore i ti s v ery much i n t he a rchaeo log ist 's i n terest t o s how h is c o in t o a n e xper t who may b e a b le t o p rov ide h im w i th a much n arrower i ssue-date t han h e h i mse lf wou ld h ave b een a b le t o d educe f ro m t he t ab les i n t he s tandard h and-books.

I tw ou ld h owever b e a s w e l l f or h im t o f ace t he f act

t ha t t he i ssue-da te marg ins w i l l g enera l ly b e f a ir ly w ide a nd , e xcep t f or t he e ar ly c o ins , s o mewhere i n t he r eg ion o f f ive y ears w ith u p t o t en y ears p oss ib le i n s o me c ases. I ft he t er m in i p ost q ue m o f d i f feren t g roups o f t hese c o ins a re n o t a lways d eter m inab le w ith in n arrow l im i ts , t he a bso lu te t er m in i a n te q ue m a re more c er ta in . T he e v idence o f h oards s ugges ts t ha t t he r ec oinages o f 180 , 1 247 a nd 1 279 were c arr ied o ut q u ick ly a nd c o mpreh ens ive ly .

H owever t he e v idence o f h oards b ur ied e ar ly i n ar eco inage

p er iod i s p ar t icu lar ly o pen t o b ias.

T here i s l ike ly t o h ave b een a g rea ter

e le men t o f s e lect ion i n t he ir c o mpos i t ion s ince t he h oarder w ou ld n atura ll y d iscr im inate a ga ins t t he c o ins wh ich w ere b e ing d e monet ized i n f avour o f t he n ew i ssues whenever h is c ircu mstances e nab led h im t o d o s o.

T he

c ase f or a r ap id c hange-over w ou ld a ppear t o b e s upported h owever b y t he f ac t t ha t s uch r eferences a s w e h ave t o p rosecu t ions f or r ec ircu la t ing t he o ld c o ins a re a l l w ith in a f ew y ears o f t he s tar t o f t he r eco inage. Even more t e l l ing , t he e ar ly c losure o f t he p rov inc ia l r eco inage min ts s hows t ha t t he l arge-sca le r es tr ik ing o f t he p rev ious i ssue h ad b een c o mp leted w ith in a s hor t t ime.

T he r eco inage o f t he t hree t ypes u nder d is-

c uss ion w ou ld , o n t h is b as is , a ppear t o h ave b een a cco mp l ished w ith in

2 53

a bou t t hree y ears.

B ear ing i n mind t he e ar l ier r e marks a bou t t he p os-

s ib i l ity o f a bnorma l s urv iva ls , t he t er m inus f or t he c ircu la t ion o f aT ea lby p enny w ou ld b e c1 183 , f or a S hor t-Cross p enny , c1 250 , a nd f or a L ongCross p enny , c1 282.

Recen t ly Dr Ma te h as s hown f ro m d ocumen tary

s ources t ha t c ons iderab le q uan t it ies o f L ong-Cross c o ins w ere s t i l l b e ing r es truck u p t o s even y ears a f ter t he s tar t o f t he r eco inage . 6 8

T h is i s

r ef lec ted i n t he h igh l eve l o f p roduct ion wh ich c on t inues i n c lass I V o f t he s ter l ing c o inage a f ter t he c losure o f t he p rov inc ia l r eco inage m in ts. T h is s uggests t hat t he s im i lar f a ir ly h igh o u tpu t wh ich was ma in ta ined a f ter t he c losure o f t he r eco inage min ts i n 1 250 may a lso h ave i nc luded s ubstan t ia l n u mbers o f r estruck c o ins o f t he p rev ious S hor t-Cross t ype.

I tc ou ld b e

t herefore t hat w e a re o ver-es t i ma t ing t he s peed w ith wh ich t he o ld i ssues t o ta l ly d isappeared a fter t he i n troduc t ion o f t he s ucceed ing t ype.

On t he

o ther h and w e s hou ld b e c arefu l n ot t o e xaggera te t he amoun t o f t h is r esi due o f e ar l ier c o ins.

T he n u mber o f o ld c o ins i n c ircu la t ion w ou ld h ave

b eco me l ess a nd l ess s ta t ist ica l ly s ign i f ican t a s t he r eco inage p rogressed s o t ha t t he c hance o f al ost c o in b eing o f t he p rev ious t ype w ou ld h ave d im in ished r ap id ly a nd w e l l b efore t he l ast o f t he m h ad b een r estruck .

I n

a dd it ion t he l eve l o f p roduct ion c ou ld a lso h ave b een a f fected b y e cono m ic o r p o l it ica l c ircu mstances u nconnected w ith t he r eco inage . T he f actors i nf luenc ing t he i ssue-da tes a nd t er m ina l-da tes o f t he v ar ious g roups o f t hese t hree c o inages a re s uf f ic ien t ly a l ike t o a low t he m t o h ave b een u sefu l ly c ons idered t ogether , b ut t he s ame t rea tmen t i s n ot p ract icab le i n ad iscuss ion o f t he ir b ehav iour i n c ircu la t ion .

Wh i le t he

c urrency p a tterns s t i l l h ave s o me f ea tures i n c o m mon t hey a re , i n d e ta i l , q u i te d ist inct . T he T ea lby c o inage , s truck f ro m 158 t o 180 , c on forms t o t he c hara cter ist ic p at tern o f i m mob i l ized t ypes.

T here w as a p er iod o f h igh o u t-

p u t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he i ssue wh i le t he o ld p enn ies o f S tephen w ere b e ing r eco ined f o l lowed b y r e la t ive ly l ow o u tput d ur ing t he r e ma in ing y ears o f t he c o inage a l though p roduct ion was o n as l igh t ly i ncreased s ca le t owards i t s c lose.

T h is p at tern i s p ar t icu lar ly i mpor tan t f ro m t he p o in t

o f v iew o f d a t ing s ince a p enny s truck a t a ny t ime d ur ing t he T ea lby c oina ge c ou ld l ega l ly h ave r e ma ined c urren t u n t i l t he e nd .

E ven a l low ing f or

n atura l was tage b y l oss , e xpor t a nd h oard ing , c o ins o f t he f i rst p ro l if ic c lass A s truck d ur ing t he f irs t t hree y ears o f t he i ssue c on t inue t o a ccoun t f or a s izeab le p ropor t ion o f t he c urrency med ium u n t i l t he l as t d ecade o f t he c o inage. I n t he L arkh i l l6 9 h oard b ur ied e ar ly i n t he 170s , 3 8% o f t he c o ins w ere o f c lass A s truck b e tween 158 a nd 161. t he c oncea l men t o f t he Amp th i l l7 0 a nd t he L e ices ter 7 1

B y t he t ime o f

h oards b ur ied a t

t he e nd o f t he c o inage j ust b efore 1 180 , t he p ropor t ion o f c lass A h ad f a l len t o 1 7% a nd 1 6% r espect ive ly .

We c annot u n for tunate ly d ist ingu ish

t he n u mbers o f s pec i f ic midd le-per iod c lasses i n t he o r ig ina l n ineteen th c en tury a ccoun ts o f t he Amp th i l l f ind b u t i n t he c ase o f L e icester a s many a s 6 4% o f t he c o ins p resen t h ad b een s truck b efore 170 , t en y ears p r ior t o t he d epos it ion d ate.

Once a ga in n o c la im i s b e ing mad

3f or

t he g enera l

v a l id ity o f t he p rec ise p ropor t ions d er ived f ro m a f ew i so la ted h oards b u t

2 54

t he f igures d e monstra te t ha t f or a n e xcava ted c o in a d epos it-date t en o r e ven t wen ty y ears a f ter i t s i ssue-da te r e ma ins a s tat ist ica l ly s ign i f ican t p oss ib i l ity .

I ti s t here fore e asy t o s ee h ow , w ithou t c arefu l e va lua t ion , a

T ea lby p enny o f c lass A f ound i n t he d estruct ion l eve l o f a n u ndocumen ted mot te and-ba i ley c ast le migh t s er ious ly m is lead t he a rchaeo log is t a bou t t he d a te a t wh ich t he s l igh t ing h ad t aken p lace. T he S hor t-Cross c o inage was s truck o ver a much l onger p er iod o f t ime , f ro m 180 t o 1 247 , a nd o n a much more mass ive s ca le.

H oards b ur ied

d ur ing i t s c urrency a re r e la t ively a bundan t b u t u n fortuna tely f ew o f t hose l arge e nough t o b e s tat ist ica l ly v iab le h ave b een a dequa te ly p ub l ished . Records o f e ar ly f inds a re o f ten i nco mp lete , l i s t ing o n ly a s e lect ion o f t he c o ins wh ich may n o t b e t yp ica l o f t he h oard a s aw ho le.

On t he o ne h and

t he b ias c ou ld b e a ga ins t t he i ssues o f p oor s ty le p roduced u nder R ichard I a nd e ar ly J ohn i n f avour o f l ater c o ins o f more p repossess ing a ppearance o r i n b e t ter c ond i t ion .

On t he o ther h and t he s urv iv ing p arce l c ou ld b e mere ly

t he d regs o f ah oard a f ter t he more a t tract ive-look ing c oins h ad b een a bs trac ted a nd d isposed o f b y a n e ar l ier owner.

Wh i le i ti s s o me t i mes

p oss ib le t o r ecogn ize t ha t b ias i s p resen t , i t s p rec ise e x ten t i s n ot a lways c a lcu lab le.

T he w ork o f r eassess ing S hor t-Cross h oards i nadequa te ly

p ub l ished i n t he p ast i s b e ing e nerget ica l ly p ursued b y Mr B rand a nd o ther s tuden ts.

T he p rob le ms t hey f ace a re h owever p ar t icu lar ly i n trac tab le

s ince t he c r iter ia n ow r ecogn ized a s s ign if ican t f or t he d e ta i led s ub-d iv is ion o f t he S hor t-Cross c o inage a re n ot t hose l ike ly t o h ave b een men t ioned b y e ar ly a n t iquar ies.

I ft he n ames o f t he moneyers w ere r ecorded , c lass if ic-

a t ion a ccord ing t o modern t ypo logy i s made e as ier b u t t he p rec ise i n format i on e ssen t ia l f or s ta t ist ica l w ork o n c urrency b ehav iour i s o f ten l ack ing . T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly r egret tab le f or t he h oards migh t o therw ise h ave p rov ided e v idence o f t he e f fect u pon t he c urrency o f t he r eform o f t he c o ina ge wh ich i s r ecorded b y t he c hron ic lers a s h av ing t aken p lace i n 1 205. T he s udden improve men t i n t he s ty le o f t he c o ins i n c lass Va wh ich i s d e mons trab ly p ar t o f t he s a me d r ive t owards r efor m c an h owever b e s hown t o h ave b egun i n 1 204. 7 2

I ti s i mpor tan t t o a pprec iate t ha t t h is was n o t a

r enova t io monetae i n t he c on t inen ta l s ense o f d e mone t izing a nd r es tr ik ing a l l p rev ious i ssues.

I to bv ious ly c ou ld n ot h ave b een s o i n tended f or i ti s

i nconce ivab le t ha t n o g reater d i f feren t ia t ion wou ld t hen h ave b een made b etween t he o ld a nd u naccep tab le c o ins a nd t he n ew o nes t han t he c hange i n s ty le b etween wha t modern n umis mat ists k now a s c lasses I IV a nd c lass V . I ndeed wha t a ppears i n e ssence t o h ave h appened was t ha t a ny s urv iv ing c o ins s truck b e fore t he i n troduct ion o f t he S hor t-Cross t ype w ere f ina l ly d e mone t ized a nd a l l S hor t-Cross c o ins wh ich h ad l ost a n e igh th o f t he ir w e igh t o r more w ere s im i lar ly r equ ired t o b e w i thdrawn f ro m c ircu la t ion a nd r eco ined .

Un fortuna te ly w e d o n ot h ave c onsecu t ive b u l l ion f igures f or

t he o u tpu t o f t he L ondon a nd Can terbury min ts u n t i l t he l ast t h ir teen y ears o f t he t ype a nd s o i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o make t he d irect c o mpar isons b e tween t he o utpu t o f t hese e ar l ier c lasses a nd t ha t o f t he l ater i ssues w h ich w ou ld a ss ist u s i n e st i ma t ing h ow e x tens ive t he r eco inage o f c lasses I IV

2 55

a ctua l ly was.

T hat c o ins o f c lasses I -IV c ou ld a nd d id s urv ive i n c urrency

a f ter 1 204-5 i s d e mons trated b y t he f act t ha t 1 5% o f t he c o ins p resen t i n t he g rea t 1 902 Co lchester h oard 7 3 were o f t hose c lasses s truck n ear ly f or ty y ears b efore i t s d epos it ion d ate.

T here i s l i t t le t hat c an b e s a id a s y et a bou t t he

s ta t ist ica l p ropor t ions o f c lasses V , V I , V I I a nd V I I I i n c ircu la t ion a t d if fere n t p er iods. A g rea t d ea l more d e ta i led a na lys is o f e ar ly h oard-pub l ica t ions r equ ires t o b e d one b e fore t h is c an b e a tte mpted a nd a c orre la t ion o f t he v ari ous c lasses a nd s ub-groups o f t he c o ins w ith t he r ecen t ly p ub l ished b u l l ion f igures f or t he o u tpu t o f t he L ondon a nd Can terbury min ts h as y et t o a ppear i n p r in t . Two sma l l p arcels f ro m t he l arge E cc les h oard o f 1 864 7 4 w h ich c a me t o l igh t f a ir ly r ecen t ly d o h owever o f fer s ome i nd ica t ion o f t he l ike ly p roport ions o f t he d i f feren t c lasses i n t he f ind a s a who le a lthough o f c ourse i t mus t b e b orne i n mind t ha t t he t wo s a mp les a re c er ta in ly n ot r ando m o nes a nd a re l ike ly t o b e b iased i n t he ways s uggested a bove.

T he l arger o f t he g roups

f ro m t h is h oard s hows t he f o l low ing p ropor t ions i fp rov inc ia l m in ts a re e xc luded :

c lass V , 2 0% ;

c lass V I , 2 6% ;

c lass V I I 5 4%.

T h is p ar t icu lar

p arce l i nc luded n o c o ins p r ior t o c lass V a lthough t he o ther , sma l ler , p arce l i nc luded o ne p enny o f c lass I V t hus s how ing t ha t e ar l ier c o ins were i ndeed p resen t i n t h is f ind a lso.

As we h ave s een , t he Co lches ter h oard b ur ied

a bou t t he s a me t ime c on ta ined 1 5% o f t hese e ar l ier c o ins s o i ts ee ms t ha t t he 6% f igure f or t he e ar ly c lasses i n t he sma l ler p arcel f ro m E cc les s hou ld b e a ccep ted a s ag u ide t o t he min i mu m r epresen ta t ion o f t he e ar ly c o ins i n t he h oard a s a who le.

On t h is b as is we f ind t ha t i n ah oard b ur ied c 1 240 a bou t

aq uar ter o f t he c o ins w ere s truck b efore 1 210 a nd a bou t h a lf t he c o ins w ere s truck b efore c 1 218.

Fro m t he a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew t h is means t hat

aS hor t-Cross p enny i n al eve l o f 1 240 migh t h ave a o nein-four c hance o f h av ing b een s truck t h ir ty y ears e ar l ier a nd a n e vens c hance o f h av ing b een s truck t wen ty y ears e ar l ier .

Wh i le o nce a ga in n ot c la im ing g enera l v a l id ity

f or s uch f igures d er ived f ro m a f ew i l l-pub l ished h oards , t he p oss ib i l i ty o f v ery l ong s urv iva l i s af ac tor wh ich mus t b e c ons idered i n a ssess ing t he v a lue o f aS hor t-Cross p enny a s d a t ing e v idence.

I ti s t herefore p ar t icu lar ly

n ecessary t ha t , d esp ite t he d if f icu lt ies , a n i n for med j udgmen t o n t he q uest ion o f wear s hou ld b e a t te mp ted a s d iscussed a bove. T he L ong-Cross c o inage was c o mpara t ive ly s hor tl ived , l ast ing o n ly t h ir ty-two y ears f ro m 1 247 t o 1 279. I t s i n terna l c urrency p a t tern r ever ts t o o ne more c lose ly a l l ied t o t he c lass ic f or m o f i m mob i l ized c o inages n oted i n t he T ea lby p er iod :

ah igh i n it ia l o u tpu t , t h is t ime ma in ta ined a t al ower b u t

s t i l l f a ir ly i n tens ive l eve l d ur ing t he midd le p er iod o f t he i ssue a nd t hen f a l l ing s harp ly t o al ow l eve l i n t he l ast d ecade.

I n t he f irst p ar t o f t he h uge

1 969 Co lchester 7 5 h oard a bstracted f ro m c urrency i n 1 256 , 5 1% o f t he Eng l ish c o ins p resen t were o f t he r eco inage c lasses s truck b efore 1 250.

A l though

t he h oard e v idence f or t he c urrency p a ttern a t t he e nd o f t he L ong-Cross p er iod i s i nadequa te , t he b u l l ion f igures a l low u s t o d educe t ha t s ince c o mpara t ive ly f ewer c o ins w ere t hen b e ing p roduced , t he c urrency wou ld s t i l l b e d om ina ted b y t he e ar l ier i ssues s truck a t l east t en y ears p rev ious ly .

I ft herefore a n

a rchaeo log ist f inds a p enny o f c lass V c s truck i n 1 256 , t he l eve l f ro m wh ich i tc a me migh t i n f act b e o f t en o r e ven t wen ty y ears l ater .

2 56

I ndeed , g iven t he

d if f icu l t ies i n a t te mp t ing t o e st i ma te t he d urat ion i n c ircu la t ion f ro m t he s l igh t s igns o f w ear wh ich t hese c o ins n orma l ly d isp lay - t he t ime-sca le b e ing s hor ter t han i n t he c ase o f t he S hor t-Cross c o ins - t he a rchaeo log is t i s l ike ly t o f ind h is c o in e xper t u nw i l l ing t o c omm i t h i mse l f t o ad ef in i te t erm inus a n te q ue m b efore t he e nd o f t he c urrency o f t he t ype . THE S TERL ING COINAGE,

ED WARD I TO HENRY V I I I

T he r eco inage i nst itu ted b y Edward Ii n 1 279 marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he l ong f ina l p hase o f t he Eng l ish med ieva l c oinage.

A lthough t h is p er iod o f o ver

t wo h undred a nd f i f ty y ears c an b e s ub-d iv ided o n t he b as is o f i nd iv idua l r e igns , t he a dven t o f n ew d eno m ina t ions , n ew l etter f orms a nd n ew s ty les o f p or tra itu re a s w el l a s , more impor tan t ly , s uccess ive r educt ions i n t he s tandard i ssue we igh ts , i ts t i l l c onst i tu tes what i s e ssen t ia l ly a s ing le c urrency p er iod .

A

c o in s truck a t t he s tar t c ou ld t heoret ica l ly h ave r e ma ined c urren t t hroughou t a nd i n f act n o g enera l r enovat io mone tae t ook p lace a ga in u n t i l t he Great Rec o inage o f 1 695.

No t s urpr is ing ly t here fore r e markab le e xa mp les o f i nd iv id-

u a l l ongev i ty c an b e f ound i n h oards b ur ied l a te i n t he p er iod u nder r ev iew . For e xa mp le , n o f ewer t han e leven o ut o f t he 1 008 c o ins i n t he Hart ford ( Hun ts.) h oard b ur ied i n c1 509 were f ro m i ssues s truck f or Edward I I s o me 1 50 y ears b efore • 76

A lthough t he b as ic d es igns o f b oth g o ld a nd s i lver d eno m ina t ions

r e ma ined v ir tua l ly u na l tered t hroughou t t he p er iod t h is i s n ot j ust a nother o f t he i m mob i l ized c o inages . p er iod

7 7

Wi th o ne l ate e xcep t ion j us t b eyond t he e nd o f o ur

t he n a me o f t he c on te mporary monarch a lways a ppears o n t he c o ins

a nd a d e l ibera te a nd i ncreas ing ly e laborate s yste m o f i n it ia l- a nd p r ivymark ing was d eve loped . T hese marks were d ev ised f or p urposes o f i n terna l min t c on tro l a nd d id n ot i n a ny way l im i t t he c ircu la t ion o f t he c o ins b u t t hey h ave e nab led a d e ta i led r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t he c o inage t o b e e stab l ished f or t he l ate med ieva l p er iod . Fro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f a bso lu te d a t ing , t he ma jor e ven ts a f fect ing t he c o inage a re i ncreas ing ly w e l l-docu men ted a nd p rov ide f ixed p o in ts w i th in s o me r e igns. s yste m .

T here a re h owever c oun terba lanc ing d isadvan tages i n t he n ew

T he a dm irab le p ract ice b egun b y H enry I I o f a dd ing t he k ing 's

n u mera l t o h is t i t le was a bandoned a nd n ot r esu med u n t i l t he l ast c o inage o f Henry V I I s o t ha t we a re o nce a ga in c on fron ted w ith t he p rob le m o f d iv id ing i ssues b etween h o monymous k ings whose r e igns f o l lowed o ne a nother.

T he

ma in o u t l ines h ave b een s ecure ly e stab l ished f or many y ears n ow b u t s evera l i nconven ien t g rey a reas r e ma in .

I ti s s t i l l n o t p oss ib le f or e xa mp le t o d raw

ap rec ise l ine b etween s ub-groups o f t he c o m mon t ype X s ter l ing p enn ies wh ich s hou ld b e a t tr ibu ted t o Edward Ia nd wh ich t o Edward I w i th in t he l im it ing d ates o f t he t ype o f 1 302-10.

T he r eco inage o f 1 279 a lso s aw t he d isappear-

a nce o f t he moneyers ' n a mes f ro m t he r everse o f t he c o ins j ust a t t he t ime when t he i ncreas ing s urv iva l o f b oth s tate a nd p r iva te p apers migh t h ave made n arrow d a t ing e as ier. I n t h is p er iod we must r e ly t o ag rea t e x ten t u pon t he c om ings a nd g o ings o f t he h o lders o f t he e cc les iast ica l p r iv i lege min ts t o p rov ide f ixed p o in ts w ith in t he r ega l f ra mework . Even t h is u se fu l a id t o d at ing c an f a i l u s a s i n t he r e ign o f H enry V where b oth t he r e levan t

2 57

e cc les ias t ics 7 8 h ad b een c onsecra ted b e fore t he k ing 's a ccess ion a nd d iso b l ig ing ly o ut l ived h i m.

T hus a lthough t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t he c o ins

o f H enry V i s c lear i ti s n o t y et p oss ib le t o p u t p rec ise d a tes u pon t he ir i ssue.

T h is s or t o f p rob le m r ecurrs r ight u p t o t he e nd o f t he p er iod u nder

r ev iew a nd i ndeed b eyond .

T he i n terna l c hrono logy o f t he 2 nd C o inage o f

H enry V I I I s truck b etween 1 526 a nd 1 544 h as y et t o b e f u l ly worked o u t . T he a rchaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ions o f t h is p ar t icu lar d if f icu l ty a re c ons iderab le f or a n e xcavator m igh t h ope t o u se o ne o f t hese c o ins f ound o n h is s i te t o a ssoc iate a p ar t icu lar l eve l w ith s o me l oca l e ven t d ur ing t he d isso lut ion o f t he monas ter ies o n ly t o f ind h is c oin e xper tu nab le t o p u t ap rec ise d a te u po n i t s i ssue.

T he b u l l ion f igures wh ich w ere s uch a u sefu l c heck o n t he

d at ing o f t he L ong-Cross s er ies a re l ess u sefu l i n t he s ter l ing p er iod .

H ere

w e h ave a f u l l r ange o f mu l t ip les a nd s ub- mu l t ip les i n s i lver a nd l ater i n g o ld a nd r are ly d o t he s urv iv ing b u l l ion a ccoun ts r ecord t he e xac t p ropor ti ons o f e ach d eno m ina t ion s truck f ro m t he t o ta l amoun t o f me ta l u sed.

I t

i s t herefore o n ly i n t he most g enera l t erms t ha t t he b u l l ion f igures a ss is t i n d a t ing t he d i f feren t i ssues o f c o ins. I ti s n ot p oss ib le t o d iscuss i n d e ta i l h ere t he d at ing o f a l l t he many g roups w ith in t he l ater med ieva l c o inage a nd t he r eader i s r eferred t o t he p r inc a l monographs most c onven ien t ly l i sted i n Mr Nor th 's s econd v o lume. " Once a ga in t he a rchaeo log is t c annot b e e xpected t o i nvest igate a l l t he c o mp lex it ies o f n um is ma t ic d a t ing f or h i mse l f b u t h e s hou ld b e aware o f i t s p resent l im i tat ions.

T he i ssue o f s o me l ater med ieva l c o ins c an b e

d a ted w ith a bso lu te c er ta in ty t o w ith in a p er iod o f af ew mon ths b u t t hese a re g enera l ly t he r arer t ypes wh ich h e w i l l b e p ar t icu lar ly l ucky t o s ee. S o me c o m mon c oins , e spec ia l ly t hose s truck a t t he b eg inn ing o f ap ar t icu lar r e ign o r i ssue , c an a lso b e d a ted w ith c ons iderab le p rec is ion b ut most s i te-f inds w i l l b e long t o t he c a tegory o f c o ins wh ich d epend f or t he ir d at ing t o av ery c ons iderab le e x ten t u pon t he i n for med b ut n one t he l ess s ubj ec t ive j udgmen t o f t he n um is ma t ist .

S uch r esu l ts a re i nev i tab ly o pen t o

r ev is ion a nd a s a n e xamp le o f t h is w e may t ake t he d a t ing o f t he i n troduc ti on o f c lass V i n t he s ter l ing-penny c o inage. 1 284

8 0

Brooke d ated t h is e ven t t o

a nd t ha t w as s t i l l t he a ccepted d a te when Mr Nor th 's h andbook

a ppeared i n 1 960.

8 1

By 1 968 h owever o p in ion h ad a ltered a nd t he d ate

g iven i n Mr Nor th 's most u se fu l b ook le t8 2 o n s ter l ing p enn ies w as c 1 290 , n ow g enera l ly a greed t o b e more a ccep tab le.

S uch c hanges a f fect n ot o n ly

t he c o ins i m med ia te ly c oncerned b u t h ave w ide r am if ica t ions i n o ther c o ina ges whose t ypes h ave b een d ated b y a na logy o r b y a ssoc iat ion i n f inds. H oards a nd l eve ls i n e ar l ier e xcavat ions wh ich were p rov ided w ith t er m in i o n t he b as is o f a n o u tmoded a nd n ow f orgo t ten c hrono logy c an a l l t oo e as i ly b e ' con trasted ' w ith more r ecen t h oards a nd l eve ls c on ta in ing p rec ise ly s im i lar c o ins b u t d i f feren t ly d ated b y c urren t n um is ma t ic o p in ion .

Num-

i s ma t ists t he mse lves c an f a l l i n to t h is t rap a nd a rchaeo log is ts s hou ld b e e spec ia l ly c arefu l t o b ear s uch p oss ib le r ev is ions i n mind when c o mpar ing t he ir own w ith e ar l ier r esu lts. I ft he i ssues o f t he s ter l ing c o ins c an g enera l ly b e d ated w ith in wha t a re , f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew a t l east , f a ir ly n arrow l im i ts , t he

2 58

e st i mat ion o f t he ir p robab le d urat ion i n c ircu la t ion p resen ts e ven g rea ter p rob le ms t han i td id a t e ar l ier p er iods.

T here a re n o f ur ther c o mp lete

r eco inages t o p rov ide w a tert igh t c hrono log ica l c o mpar tmen ts f or t he c urr ency o f t he v ar ious g roups o f c o ins wh ich make u p t he l a ter med ieva l s er ies .

T he r educt ions i n t he s tandard w e igh t o f t he d i f feren t d eno m ina-

t i ons , t o b e d iscussed l a ter , a re u sefu l r eference p o in ts w ith in t he s er ies b u t i ti s i mpor tan t t o a pprec ia te t ha t t hey a re i n n o way a bso lu te t er m in i f or t he c urrency o f a l l e ar l ier i ssues a s were t he f orma l r eco inages o f 1 180 , 1 247 a nd 1 279.

T here was n o l ega l b ar t o t he c on t inued c ircu la t ion o f a

c oin mere ly o n g rounds o f a ge a nd i n c onsequence , t o ag rea ter e x ten t t han e ver b e fore , c o m mon c o ins f ro m l arge i ssues r e ma ined a p ropor t iona l ly d om inan t e le men t i n t he c urrency l ong a f ter t hey were s truck .

T he f orces

wh ich e ven tua l ly d rove o u t o f c ircu la t ion i n t urn a l l b u t af ew s tray s urv ivo rs o f e ach g roup o f e ar l ier c o ins w ere p ract ica l a nd e cono m ic r ather t han p ure ly a dm in istra t ive a lthough o f c ourse a l l o f t hese i n f luences i n terac ted u pon o ne a nother .

S o me c o ins were l ost t o c ircu la t ion b y l oss , e xpor t a nd

h oard ing a nd o thers n o d oub t d isappeared a t e ach s uccess ive r educt ion i n t he s tandard w e igh t a s s o me p rof itab ly h eavy c o ins w ere t aken t o t he min t t o b e r eco ined .

I n t he e nd , a lthough t he we igh t o f o ld c o ins s t i l l i n c ircu-

l a t ion may s t i l l h ave b een , o n a verage , w ith in t he c urren t ly a cceptab le t o lerances , t he ir d em ise mus t h ave b een h astened b y t he f act t ha t t he ir d read fu l ly w orn a nd c l ipped a ppearance made t he m l ess a ccep tab le i n c o mmerc ia l t ransact ions when t here were e nough n ew c oins a va i lab le t o e nab le t hese t o b e i ns is ted u pon a s t he med iu m o f p aymen t .

S ince a ny b ias i n t he

s e lect ion o f c o ins f or h oard ing i s l ike ly t o h ave b een t o t he e xc lus ion o f o lder p ieces , t he n u mber o f s uch c o ins p resen t i n h oards may s a fe ly b e r egarded a s a min i mu m f igure f or t hose a va i lab le t o t he ir owners a t t he t ime o f d epos it ion .

T h is i s n o t t o i mp ly t ha t t he f igure i s u n iversa l ly

v a l id f or t he c urrency p a t tern a l l o ver t he c oun try f or o nce a ga in g eographi ca l p os it ion a nd i nd iv idua l c ircu mstances wou ld h ave h ad t he ir e f fect u pon c o mpos it ion .

I fs e lect ion d id p lay a s ign if ican t p ar t i n t he h oards w e a re

t o c ons ider t hen w e may y et b e u nderest i mat ing t he amoun t o f e ar ly w orn c o ins i n e veryday u se a t t h is t ime. p er iod t he i nc idence

N ever the less , a lthough i n t he s ter l ing

o f h oards i s s t i l l u neven a nd t he n umber o f l arge a nd

we l l-pub l ished o nes - a s a lways - l ess t han c ou ld b e d es ired , t here a re a t t h is t ime more f requen t o ccas ions when a g rea ter n u mber o f n ear ly c on te mporaneous h oards p er m i t more s ecure ly b ased a ssess men ts t o b e made a bou t t he b road-ou t l ine c on ten t o f t he g enera l ity o f Eng l ish c urrenc§ 3. I tw i l l b e e as ier t o d iscuss t h is c hang ing p a t tern i ft he p enn ies , t he g roa ts a nd t he g o ld i ssues a re c ons idered i n t urn , l eav ing a spects o f c urrency wh ich a re p ecu l iar t o a ny o f t he s ub- mu lt ip les o f t hese d eno m ina t ions t o b e men t ioned i n p ass ing . T he c o m mon r eco inage i ssues o f 1 279-82 s t i l l a ccoun t f or a round 5 0% o f t he p enn ies p resen t i n s evera l h oards b ur ied c 1 290 a nd t he e ven l arger o u tp ut o f t he y ears 1 300-10 mean t ha t a ga in a bou t 5 0% o f a l l p enn ies i n h oards o f t he 1 320s w ere p roduced a t t ha t t ime.

2 59

E ven a f ter t he p ro li f ic i ssues o f

Edward I I 's p enn ies s truck f ro m 1 351 o nwards b egan t o f ind t he ir way i n to h oards i n q uan t ity , t he c o ins o f Edward Ia nd E dward I c on t inued t o p lay a n i mpor tan t p ar t i n t he c urrency . b ur ied i n t he e ar ly 1 360s.

T h is i s c lear ly i l lus tra ted b y t wo h oards

I n Durha m ,

8 4

c1 361, 4 0% o f t he p enn ies h ad

b een s truck b efore t he d ea th o f Edward H i n 1 327 a nd i n Coven try , c3 8% w ere f ro m t he s a me p er iod .

8 5

c1 363 ,

When i ti s r eca l led t ha t t he b u lk o f

t hese c o ins w ou ld h ave b een p roduced d ur ing t he t wo p er iods o f h eav ies t o u tpu t b efore 1 310 , t he d om inance o f r ea l ly e ar ly c o ins i s a l l t he more s tr iki ng . As l ate a s t he e ar ly 1 420s c o ins o f E dward Ia nd E dward I s t i l l a ccoun t f or a bou t aq uar ter o f t he p enn ies P resen t .8 6 I t was n o t u n t i l t he l arge i ss ues o f p enn ies p roduced i n t he l a ter y ears o f H enry V a nd i n t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he r e ign o f H enry V I r eached t he ir f u l l r epresen tat ion i n c ircu la t ion i n t he l ate 1 420s t ha t t he p enn ies o f Edward Ia nd Edward I dw ind led t o a sma l l minor i ty o f t hose p resen t a nd t hey d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een f ina l ly s wep t away - a par t f ro m s tray s urv ivors - u n t i l t he a ppearance o f t he c o ins o f E dward I V 's L igh t C o inage s truck a f ter t he r educt ion o f t he s tandard we igh t i n 1 464. I n t he ir t urn t he c o m mon p enn ies o f E dward I I , e spec ia l ly c o ins f ro m t he h uge i ssues o f t he Pre-Trea ty p er iod , 1 351-60 , e ventua l ly o ver took t he c o ins o f t he f irst t wo E dwards a s t he d om inan t e le men t among t he p enn ies i n c irc u la t ion .

T hey c ons t itute a round 6 0% o f t he p enn ies i n h oards b ur ied i n t he

e ar ly 1 360s a nd s ix ty y ears l a ter t he c o ins o f Edward I I s t i l l a ccoun t f or a bou t 5 0% o f t he p enn ies i n h oards o f t he e ar ly 1 420s.

Add ing t o t hese t he

e ar l ier Edward ian s ter l ings s t i l l a round , w e f ind t hat i n t he e ar ly 1 420s a bou t 7 5% o f t he p enn ies i n c ircu la t ion h ad b een s truck a t l eas t f or ty y ears b efore. I n t he Bren twood f ind 8 7 t he r epresen tat ion o f t hese c o ins i n ah oard p robab ly b ur ied s hor t ly b efore 1 420 r eaches a s tar t l ing 9 5% . A l though t here a re e nough o ther h oards t o s how t hat s uch a h igh f igure i s u nusua l i td e mons trates t he d anger o f f ac i le g enera l isa t ions o n t he b as is o f wha t i s c ons idered t o b e ' nor ma l '.

As t he l argest d eno m ina t ion a va i lab le i s g enera l ly p referred

f or h oard ing , t here i s ad ecrease i n h oards c o mposed e n t ire ly o f p enn ies o r i nc lud ing s ta t ist ica l ly u sefu l n umbers o f t he m a s g roa ts b eca me i ncreas ing ly a va i lab le a nd i n f la t ion b rough t t he m w ith in t he r each o f aw ider s ec tor o f t he c o mmun i ty .

T he l ack o f as u f f ic ien t n u mber o f s u i tab le h oards t here fore

makes i td i f f icu l t t o d iscuss w i th a ny c on f idence t he c urrency p a t tern i n t he l a ter f i f teen th c entury f or t he p enny d eno m ina t ion .

Among t he sma l l n u mber

o f p enn ies p resen t i n t he Wyre P idd le h oard 8 8 b ur ied c 1 467 E dward Ia nd Edward I a ccoun ted f or 5 % o f t hose p resen t , Edward I I f or 1 7% , Henry V a nd H enry V I f or 6 6% a nd Edward I V f or j ust 22 4 1 .

Un for tunate ly t here a re

n o l arge h oards o f p enn ies o f t h is p er iod w h ich wou ld a l low u s t o a ssess h ow t yp ica l t h is p at tern was.

We h ave f or e xa mp le v ir tua l ly n o i n forma t ion a bou t

t he s peed w ith wh ich n ew ly s truck c o in b eca me i ncorporated i n to t he c urrency o f d if feren t a reas.

T h is i s a ma ter ia l p o in t where p enn ies a re c oncerned s ince

a f ter t he r e in troduct ion o f t he g roa t i n 1 351 t he s tr ik ing o f p enn ies was i nc reas ing ly l ef t t o t he min ts o f Y ork a nd D urha m j us t a s , f ro m t he L igh t Co ina ge o f E dward I V o nwards , t he h a lfgroa ts b eca me p redo m inan t ly t he p reserve o f t he Can terbury min t a nd , i n t he r e ign o f H enry V I I , o f t he York min t i n

2 60

a dd it ion .

A t t he e nd o f o ur p er iod i ti s c lear f ro m h oards s uch a s t hat r e-

c en t ly f ound a t L it t le Wymond ley t ha t t he mass ive i ssues o f H enry V I I 's s overe ign t ype p enn ies o us ted v irtua l ly a l l o f t he e ar l ier p enn ies f ro m c irc u lat ion .8 9 D ur ing t he f our teen th a nd f i f teen th c en tur ies t here a re f requen t c o mp la in ts a bou t t he s hor tage o f h a l fpenn ies a nd f ar th ings .

T he l at ter were n a tura l ly

r are ly c hosen f or i nc lus ion i n h oards a nd s o w e h ave n o e v idence a bou t t he ir c urrency p at tern . i n h oards.

Ha lfpenn ies a lso o ccur o n ly i n frequen t ly i n l arge n umbers

T he f ind f ro m A t tenborough o f c1 420 s ugges ts h owever t ha t

h a l fpenn ies i n c ircu lat ion o u ts ide t he ma in c ommerc ia l c en tres may we l l h ave i nc luded f ewer o f t he l atest i ssues.

A lthough i t was c oncea led t owards t he

e nd o f t he r e ign o f Henry V t h is h oard c on ta ined n one o f h is c o mpara t ive ly c o m mon h a l fpenn ies a lthough s evera l o f t he much r arer c o ins o f h is f ather were p resen t . T he g roats o f Edward I I a nd e spec ia l ly t he Pre-Treaty i ssues s truck b etween 1 351 a nd 1 360 d om inated t he c urrency o f t h is d eno m ina t ion u n t i l t he a ppearance o f t he mass ive i ssues o f H enry V I 's f irst , Annu let , t ype p roduced f ro m 1 422-27.

I n t he Re iga te h oard o f c1 450-5 Edward I I a ccoun ted f or

o n ly 8 % o f t he t o ta l n u mber o f g roa ts p resen t , H enry V I Annu let f or 4 8% a nd t he r e ma in ing i ssues o f H enry V I s truck b e tween 1 427 a nd t he d ate o f d epos iti on f or 3 7% .

I n o ther w ords , 6 3% o f t he t o ta l w ere s truck more t han t wen ty

y ears b e fore t he c o ins w ere a bstracted f ro m c ircu la t ion a nd a lthough s o me o f t hese e ar l ier c o ins were b ad ly c l ipped , mos t o f t he Annu let i ssue s how l i t t le s ign o f a ctua l w ear a nd i tw ou ld b e a n i mposs ib le t ask t o s uggest w i th in n arrow l im i ts t he y ears o f w ear o n a ny i nd iv idua l s pec i men i fi th ad b een f ound i n i so la t ion .

I n t he Wyre P idd le h oard , wh ich a s w e h ave n oted may

p oss ib ly h ave i nc luded a n u nusua l ly h igh n u mber o f e ar l ier c o ins , Edward I I s t i l l a ccoun ted f or 1 3%, H enry V I , Annu let , f or 3 0% a nd l a ter Henry V I f or 2 0% o f t he t o ta l n umber o f g roa ts p resen t .

T he c o m mon i ssues o f Edward

I V 's L igh t Co inage wh ich h ad a lready b een i n i n tens ive p roduc t ion f or t hree y ears b e fore t he d epos i t ion o f t he h oard amoun ted t o o n ly 2 3%.

I n a ggrega te

4 9% o f t he g roa ts were a t l east f i f ty y ears o ld a t t he d a te o f d epos it ion .

I ti s

c lear h owever t ha t when t he L ight Co inage g roa ts o f Edward I V a nd H enry V I Restored e ven tua l ly r eached t he ir f u l l r epresen tat ion i n t he c o inage t hey o us ted a l l b u t af ew s tray s urv ivors o f t he e ar l ier h eavy c o inages. T he L igh t Co inage g roats o f Edward I V , e spec ia l ly t hose o f t he h uge i ssues s truck immed ia te ly a f ter t he r educt ion i n t he s tandard we igh t h ad t aken p lace i n 1 464 , d om ina ted t he c urrency u n t i l t hey i n t urn were s uperseded b y t he l arge i ssues p roduced f or Henry V I I f ro m h is S econd Co inage o nwards. a n u nknown l oca t ion 9 1 Re ign , 6 2% ; I I , 3 %.

I n t he h oard f ro m

b ur ied i n c1 485 t he f igures w ere , Edward I V F irst

Henry V I r estored a nd Edward I V S econd Re ign , 3 5% ;

R ichard

I n t he H ouns low h oard 9 2 o f a bou t t en y ears l ater o n ly 1 6% i s y e t o f

Henry V I I b u t a t t he e nd o f t he r e ign h is g joa ts a ccoun t f or 5 5% o f t ha t d en om ina t ion p resen t i n t he Har t ford h oar e 3 o f c1 509. T he i ssues o f H enry V I I c on t inue t o d om ina te t he c urrency d ur ing t he y ears o f c o mpara t ive ly l ow o u tpu t o f g roa ts d ur ing H enry V I IPs F irst C o inage. A f ter 1 526 h owever t he

2 61

p ro l if ic i ssues o f t he S econd C o inage o f r educed-we igh t g roa ts o usted t he e ar l ier h eavy c o ins a s i s s hown b y t he c on ten ts o f a no ther u nprovenanced h oard 94 where 4% w ere g roa ts o f Edward I V , 1 7% o f H enry V I I , 1 % o f H enry V I I I 's F irst C o inage a nd 7 7% o f h is S econd C o inage.

T he mo men tous d ec is-

i on t o r educe t he f ineness o f t he meta l o f t he s i lver c o inage t aken i n 1 542 a nd c er ta in ly p u t i n to o perat ion i n 1 544 b rough t Gresha m 's L aw i n to p lay a nd t he n ew b ad money d rove o ut t he l ast o f t he med ieva l s i lver c o inage. A lthough t here a re f ewer l arge a nd w e l l-docu men ted h oards o f g o ld c o ins o n wh ich t o b ase a n a ssess men t o f t he ir c urrency p a t tern , t hose w h ich h ave b een r ecorded s uggest t ha t i t was b road ly s im i lar t o t ha t a lready c har ted f or t he g roats. I n v iew o f t h is a nd a lso s ince t he a rchaeo log is t i s l ess l i ke ly t o mee t g o ld c o ins o n h is e xcava t ion , t hey a re d ea lt w ith more b r ief ly h ere t han were t he s i lver i ssues.

T he l arge i ssues o f E dward I I a nd H enry V I d om in-

a ted t he c urrency i n t urn .

I n t he l arge h oard o f g o ld c o ins f ound a t F ishpoo 1 95

n o l ess t han 8 5% o f t he c o ins h ad b een s truck b efore 1 427 , t h ir ty s even y ears b e fore t he h oard was b ur ied , most o f t he g roup b e ing c o ins o f t he v ery c o m mon Annu let i ssue.

T he t rans i t ion b etween t he n ob le c o inage p roduced b e fore

1 465 a nd t he r ya l a nd a nge l c o inage s truck t herea f ter i s u n fortunat e ly i l ld ocumen ted b y h oards.

T he r ya l e n joyed a b r ief h eyday a nd t hen t he a nge l ,

wh ich h ad g o t o f f t o as low s tar t , t ook o ver a nd emerged a s t he l a te- med ieva l Eng l ish g o ld c o in p ar e xce l lence.

T he h oard f ro m Park S tree t ,

9 6

A lbans , i l lustrates t he p oss ib le r ange o f c o ins c urren t i n c1 520 :

n ear S t . r ya ls o f

Edward I V , 1 4% , a nge ls o f H enry V I Restored a nd Edward I V , 2 3% , a nge ls o f Henry V I I , 4 4% a nd a nge ls o f H enry V II I , F irst Co inage , 1 9%.

One d i-

v ergence f ro m t he s i lver p a t tern i s t he c o m monness o f t hese F irst Co inage a nge ls o f H enry V I I I i n c on trast t o t he s i lver c o ins o f t ha t i ssue wh ich a re s carce.

T he i n troduct ion i n 1 526 o f t he Crown s er ies o f g o ld c o ins o f r e-

d uced me ta l f ineness t o c orrespond w ith t he c on te mporary French i ssues w as n ot r ea l ly a d eparture f ro m t he med ieva l s tandards i n q u i te t he s a me w ay a s t he l a ter d ebase men t o f t he s i lver c o inage f or f ine g o ld c o ins c on t inued t o b e s truck i n q uan t ity a nd t he t wo c ircu la ted , a ppropr ia te ly v a lued , s ide b y s ide u n t i l b eyond t he e nd o f o ur p er iod . No a po logy i s made f or t h is r ec i ta l o f t he l ongev ity o f t he c o mponen ts o f t he Eng l ish s ter l ing c o inage s ince t he a rchaeo log ist h as t ended t o u nderest i ma te g rea t ly t he p robab le a ge o f s i te-f inds a t t he ir d ate o f d epos it ion .

I ft hen

t he i nd iv idua l c o ins o f a l l d eno m ina t ions c ou ld a nd d id s urv ive i n q uan t i ty f or v ery l ong p er iods h ow f ar i s i tp oss ib le t o e st i mate t he p robab le d ura t ion i n c ircu la t ion o f as ing le e xcava t ion c o in? S o me g u idance i s p rov ided b y t he p rogress ive r educt ions i n t he s tandard w e igh ts o f Eng l ish med ieva l c o ins c aused b y i n f la t ion . T he f o l low ing t ab le g ives t he more i mpor tan t o f t hese 9 7 f or t he l arger g o ld a nd s i lver d eno minat i ons .

T he s ub- mu l t ip les f o l lowed p ar i p assu .

F or t he g o ld i ssues a nd f or

t he g roa ts t hese r educt ions i n w e igh t p rov ide a f a ir ly r e l iab le me thod o f d eter m in ing t he c urrency p er iod i n wh ich s i te-f inds w ere l ast i n c ircu la t ion . T he v ast ma jor i ty o f t hese t wo d eno minat ions c ircu la t ing a , a ny o ne t ime c on formed t o t he w e igh t s tandard t hen i n o perat ion r egard less o f t he we igh t

2 62

S TANDARD WEIGHTS S i lver

G o ld 1 2 2— g r 4 7 2 g r

1 351

n ob le

1 20 g r

1 412

t

1 08 g r

1 412

6 0 g r

1 465

r ya l

1 20 g r

1 464

4 8 g r

1 526

2 4 23 g r

1 279

p enny

1 351

g roa t

a nge l

a t wh ich t hey h ad b een o r ig ina l ly s truck .

8 0 g r

T he ir w e igh t h ad b een r educed t o

a sma l l e x ten t b y wear - v ery much l ess f or t he g o ld t han f or t he s i lver o f c ourse - b ut p r inc ipa l ly b y c l ipp ing .

A s a lways t here a re t he o dd s tray

s urv ivors o f h eavy w e igh t a nd a f ew o lder c o ins c ircu la ted a t al i t t le a bove t he n ew s tandard a s i ndeed d id s o me o f t hose o n ly r ecen t ly s truck .

A s t hey

a re r are ly a pprec iab ly a bove t he c urren t s tandard h owever t here i s u sua l ly l i t t le d oub t t o wh ich p er iod t hey b e long .

I n t he s a me way a c o in c ou ld b e a b-

n or ma l ly c l ipped a t a ny p er iod b u t o nce a ga in a lthough t he e xcep t ions mus t b e b orne i n mind t hey d o n o t a l ter t he b road g enera l r u le.

F or e xa mp le i n

t he Re iga te h oard o f c1 450-5 b ur ied d ur ing t he 6 0 g ra in p er iod , 1 5 o u t o f 3 74 Annu let g roa ts w e ighed 4 8 g ra ins o r l ess i .e. t he w e igh t o f g roa ts c urr en t a f ter 1 464.

Never the less 8 0% o f t he m w ere b etween 5 6 a nd 6 0 g ra ins

a nd 3 % w ere a bove 6 0 g ra ins s o c lear ly t he r u le i s g enera l ly v a l id i n t h is c ase.

T he g roa ts o f E dward I I p resen t i n t h is s a me h oard a l though s truck

a t 7 2 g ra ins a re , w i th o n ly t he o dd e xcept ion , a l l c u t d own t o b e low t he n ew s tandard o f 6 0 g ra ins.

I n t he F ishpoo l h oard o f 1 464 t he f or ty g o ld c o ins

s truck p r ior t o t he r educt ion i n t he s tandard w e igh t i n 1 412 h ad , w ith o ne e xc ep t ion , b een c l ipped d own w i th in t he a ccep tab le r ange f or 1 08 g ra in n ob les a l though t hey h ad t he mse lves b een s truck i n t he 1 20 g ra in p er iod.

I ts hou ld

b e men t ioned h owever t ha t w e d o n o t k now h ow l ong t he g enera l ity o f c o inage t ook t o a dap t i t sel f t o t hese c hanges i n s tandard w e igh t . f or p er iods i m med ia te ly f o l low ing t he m i s min i ma l.

T he h oard e v idence

T he Wyre P idd le h oard

o f c1 467 i s ac ase i n p o in t b u t w e h ave a lready h ad r easons t o s uggest t ha t i t may h ave b een r a ther b eh ind-hand .

F or wha t i ti s wor th , 8 4 o ut o f t he 9 6

g roa ts i n t h is h oard s truck b efore 1 464 we igh more t han t he n ew s tandard we igh t o f 4 8 g ra ins a nd 5 9 o f t he m w e igh more t han 5 4 g ra ins , h a lf-way b etween t he o ld a nd t he n ew s tandards. T hus e ven f or t he l arge d eno m ina t ions t he p icture i s n o t e n t ire ly c lear . I ti s h owever t he p enn ies wh ich t he a rchaeo log is t i s more l ike ly t o f i nd a nd w i th t he m t he a bove c r i ter ia a re u n for tunate ly o f more l im i ted u se.

T he h oard

e v idence s ugges ts t hat a l l e ar l ierpenn ies i rrespect ive o f i ssue p eak o n t he c urr en t i ssue w e igh t a nd a re n ot , a s i n t he c ase o f t he g o ld a nd t he g roats , c u t d own b e low i t .

A c lear d e monstrat ion o f t he c urrency p a t tern o f p enn ies i s

g iven i n t he h istogra ms o f c o ins i n t he A t tenborough h oard o f c1 420.

2 63

H ere

we s ee t ha t a l l t he p enn ies s truck b efore t he r educt ion i n t he s tandard w e igh t i n 1 412 p eak o n t he n ew s tandard o f 1 5 g ra ins w ith a l mos t a s many c o ins a bove i ta s b e low i ta l though o n ly t he r are e xcep t ion i s a bove 1 8 g ra ins , t he p rev ious s tandard w e igh t .

On g rounds o f w e igh t a lone t herefore w e a re n o t

a b le t o s ay , f or e xa mp le , whe ther a p enny o f Edward Iw e igh ing 1 61 g ra ins was a n u nderwe igh t c o in l ost d ur ing t he p er iod o f t he 1 8 g ra in s tandard o r a n o verwe igh t c o in c urren t d ur ing t he 1 5 g ra in s tandard .

T hus , whereas w e a re

o n f a ir ly s a fe g round i n c on f in ing t he p oss ib le d ura t ion o f c urrency o f ag roat w ith in o ne s tandard-we ight p er iod , w e a re u nab le t o a t tr ibu te a n i so lated p enny e ven w i th in t hose w ide l im its o n t he b as is o f w e igh t a lone. G iven t he n u mber o f p oten t ia l v ar iab les , n o ma the ma t ica l f ormu la b ased o n af ixed - o r e ven s l id ing - s ca le o f a nnua l l oss o f w e igh t t hrough wear c an p oss ib ly p rov ide a p rec ise d a te f or t he d epos i t ion o f a n i so la ted c o in .

I ti s

h ere t ha t t he f igures f ro m h oards c an h e lp b y p rov id ing a y ard-st ick o f t he p oss ib le s ta t ist ica l l ike l ihood o f ac er ta in t ype o f c o in b e ing a round i n q uan t ity a t d if feren t p er iods.

T h is wou ld e nab le u s t o s ay f or e xa mp le t ha t o ur p enny

o f Edward Iw e igh ing 1 61 -- g rains was i n f ac t v ery much l ess l ike ly t o h ave b een a round a f ter t he p enn ies o f Henry V I r eached a d om inan t p os it ion i n t he c urr ency i n t he l a ter 1 420s a lthough o f c ourse a l ater s urv iva l c annot b e r u led o ut .

S ta t ist ical ly t oo a d a te i n t he 1 8 g ra in p er iod b e fore 1 412 i s much more

l ike ly .

I n t he l ast r esor t h owever a ny a t te mp t t o n arrow t he d a t ing marg ins

i nvo lves c ons ider ing t he s uper f icia l a ppearance o f t he c o in .

Wear i s o f

c ourse a v ery f a l l ib le g u ide b u t i ti s l eg it i mate f or s o meone w i th w ide e xp er ience o f b oth h oards a nd s i te-f inds t o e xpress a n o p in ion a bou t t he p oss ib le p er iod o f c urrency o f t he c o in i n q uest ion .

Even s o t he marg ins f i na l ly s ug-

g ested a re l ike ly t o b e w ide o nes a nd t he a rchaeo log ist s hou ld n ot b e s urpr ised i ft hey a re s o met i mes t h ir ty o r f or ty y ears . T h is p aper h as b een a p lea f or a r ea l ist ic v iew o f med ieva l Eng l ish c o ins a s d a t ing e v idence.

Archaeo log ists wan t d a t ing e v idence wh ich i s c er ta in a nd

p rec ise a nd when t hey f ind a c o in t hey a l l t oo r ead i ly a ssu me t ha t t hey h ave g o t i t .

T hey r are ly h ave.

FOOTNOTES 1 .

F or r eferences t o p ub l ished a na lyses o f Eng l ish med ieva l c o ins s ee E .T . Ha l l a nd D . M. Metca l f ( Ed .), Methods o f c he m ica l a nd meta ll urg ica l i nvest iga t ion o f a nc ien t c o inage .

Roya l Num is ma t ic S oc ie ty

S pec ia l P ub l ica t ion N u mber 8 , L ondon , 1 972.

F or a d iscuss ion o f

t he i ssue w e igh t o f ag roup o f d iel inked s ter l ing p enn ies s ee Mar ion M. Arch iba ld , T he May f ie ld ( Sussex ) 1 968 h oard o f Eng l ish p ence a nd French g ros , c1 307 i n R .A .G . Carson ( Ed . ), M in ts d ies a nd c urr ency , E ssays d ed icated t o t he me mory o f A lber t B a ldw in , L ondon , 1 971, 1 51-9. 2 .

I ti s n otor ious ly d if f icu lt t o s uggest p resen t-day e qu iva len t v a lues f or med ieva l c o ins b u t a n a ccep tab le r u le o f t hu mb i s t hat a n Ang lo-

2 64

S axon p enny was w or th a t l east wha t o ne p ound i s t o u s.

By t he

f i f teen th c en tury a p enny w as t he e qu iva len t o f b e tween 0 .40 p a nd 0 .50 p .

T he l owes t d eno m inat ion t hen c urren t , t he f ar th ing , was

t here fore wor th more t han 0 .10 p . 3 .

T h is r e mark r efers t o Ro man c o ins a s a who le : a re s im i lar ly r are a s s i te-f inds.

Ro man s i lver c o ins

Med ieva l p ew ter t okens o f t he

m id-th ir teen th c entury ( see M. D o l ley a nd W. A . S eaby , NCirc V o l . 7 9 N o. 1 2 ( Dec. 1 971 ), 4 46-8.) a nd t he b ronze j et tons p roduced f ro m t he l a te t h ir teen th c en tury o nwards ( see F .P. Barnard , T he Cast ing C oun ter a nd t he Coun t ing B oard , Ox ford , 1 916 ) a re o u ts ide t he s cope o f t h is p aper.

T he f act t hat t he l a t ter a re f ound o n s i tes where i ti s

u n l ike ly t ha t f or ma l a ccoun t ing was d one s uggests t ha t t hese p ieces t o s o me e x ten t , a nd i n a n u nof f ic ia l way , s upp l ied t he n eed f or l ower d eno m ina t ions n ot met b y t he r ega l c o inage.

Desp i te t he a dvances i n

t he d a t ing o f b ronze j ettons , l arge ly a s ar esu l t o f t he work o f Mr S .E . R igo ld , ap rec ise c hrono logy h as y et t o b e e s tab l ished.

I n t h is

c ase n um is ma t ists l ook t o t he ir a rchaeo log ica l c o l leagues t o s upp ly t he m w ith e v idence o fj et tons f ro m l eve ls o f i ndependen t ly e stab l ished d a te wh ich may b e u sed t o b u i ld u p as ecure ly b ased c hrono logy f or t hese c o m mon p ieces. 4 .

F or a h istor ian 's v iew o f t h is a nd r e la ted p rob le ms s ee Professor P . G r ierson 's Pres iden t ia l Addresses t o t he Roya l Nu m is ma t ic S oc iety , NC 1 965 i -x i i i a nd NC 1 966 , i -xv.

5 .

H oards men t ioned i n t h is p aper a s I nven tory f o l lowed b y an u mber w i l l b e f ound l i sted w i th r e ferences t o t he p r i mary p ub l ica t ions i n J .D .A . T ho mpson , I nven tory o f Br it ish c o in h oards , A .D . 6 00-1500.

Roya l

Nu m is ma t ic S oc iety , S pec ia l Pub l ica t ion No. 1 , L ondon , 1 956. 6 .

e .g . t he p enny o f C eo lwu lf I s truck i n t he mid-870s f ound i n t he Cuerda le h oard b ur ied i n c9 03 ( I nventory 12 ).

L ongev ity i s p ar t ic-

u lar ly t o b e e xpected i n t he i m mobo l ized s ter l ing c o inage a nd e ven more s pectacu lar e xa mp les o ccur e .g . t he p enny o f Edward Is truck i n 1 280 f ound i n t he Wyre P idd le h oard b ur ied i n c1 467 ( Mar ion M. Arch iba ld , T he Wyre P idd le ( Worcs. ) 1 967 h oard o f f i f teen th-cen tury s i lver c o ins , NC 1 970 , 1 33-62. 7 .

I n B order b a l lads c er ta in s ums a re r equ ired t o b e p a id i n ' wh i te mone y ' i .e. n ot i n t he b ase S cot t ish c o ins wh ich f or med t he b u lk o f t he n orma l c urrency b u t i n Eng l ish c o ins o f f u l l s i lver c on ten t .

e .g .

And h e h as p a id t he r escue s hot B a ith w i ' g owd a nd wh ite mon ie J am ie T e l fer o f t he F a ir D odhead , No. 11 i n Ox ford B ook o f B a l lads , 1 969 , 5 56.

Even i n Eng land when t he c urrency c on ta ined many v ery

w orn a nd c l ipped c o ins o r f ore ign c op ies i n b ase me ta l , p eop le t r ied , w here t hey c ou ld , t o s pec ify t ha t p aymen t s hou ld b e made i n ' good money '.

( Mav is Ma te , Monetary p o l ic ies i n Eng land , 1 272-1307 ,

BNJ XLI 1 972 , 4 1.)

2 65

8 .

Hoards f ro m I re land f or e xa mp le i nc lude o n a verage a g reater n u mber o f h a lfpenn ies t han Eng l ish h oards o f t he s a me s ca le a nd p er iod .

9 .

T he e ar l iest c o in i n t he 1 972 Prestw ich h oard o f 1 065 c o ins o f t he p eri od o f S tephen was a c ut-ha lfpenny o f t he f irst t ype o f Henry Is truck s hor t ly a f ter h is a ccess ion i n 1 100.

T he e ar l iest p enn ies i n t he h oard

were h owever 6 5 o f h is l ast t ype s truck i n t he y ears im med ia tely p r ior t o h is d eath i n 1 135. 1 0.

P . S puf ford , Con t inenta l c oins i n l ate med ieva l Eng land , BNJ XXX I I , 1 963, 1 33.

T here were s even S cot t ish h a lfpenn ies o ut o f at o ta l o f 6 6

o f t h is d eno m ina t ion i n t he A t tenborough h oard c o mpared w ith o n ly n ine S cot t ish p enn ies o ut o f at ota l o f 9 65 o f t hat d eno m ina t ion . ( Mar ion M. Arch iba ld , T he A ttenborough ( Not ts.) 1 966 h oard , BNJ XXXVI I I , 1 969 , 5 8.) 1 1.

J . P.C. Kent , Prob le ms o f c hrono logy i n t he 7 th c en tury Merov ing ian c o inage , Cunobe l in No. 1 3 1 967, 2 4-30.

1 2.

F . M. S ten ton , The Ang lo-Saxon c oinage a nd t he h istor ian i n D . M. S ten ton ( Ed.), Preparatory t o Ang lo-Saxon Eng land.

Being t he c o l-

l ected p apers o f Frank Merry S ten ton , Ox ford , 1 970 , 3 71-82. 1 3.

An i mpor tan t s urvey o f t h is p rob le m i s c on ta ined i n Mr C .S .S . Lyon 's Pres iden t ia l Address t o t he Br it ish Nu m is mat ic S oc iety , BNJ X )O CVI , 1 967, 2 18-21.

1 4.

P .V . H i l l , S axon s ceat tas a nd t heir p rob le ms , BNJ XXV , 1 949-51, 1 29-154 ;

The ' S tandard ' a nd London s er ies o f s cea t tas , BNJ XXVI ,

1 949-51, 2 51-79. 1 5.

S . E. R igold , T he t wo p r i mary s er ies o f s ceat tas, BNJ XXX , 1 960-61, 6 -53 ;

1 6.

Addenda a nd Corr igenda , BNJ X IO (V , 1 966, 1 -6.

D .M . Metca lf , A s ty l ist ic a na lys is o f t he ' Porcup ine ' s cea t tas , NC 1 966 , 1 79-205 ;

A c oinage f or Merc ia u nder Aethe lba ld , Cunobe l in

No. 1 2 1 966 , 2 6-39 ; 1 7.

T he ' Wo lf ' s cea t tas , BNJ XXXVI , 1 967 , 1 1-28.

C. H. V . S uther land , Ang lo-Saxon g o ld i n r e lat ion t o t he Cronda l l f ind , Ox ford , 1 948.

Wr it ten t wenty-f ive y ears a go , t h is work i nev itab ly

r equ ires r ev is ion i n d eta il a nd e spec ia l ly i n d a t ing i f Dr

Kent 's

v iew o f t he c hrono logy i s a ccep ted b ut i s most u sefu l a s t he o n ly c o mprehens ive s urvey o f t he g o ld s er ies. 1 8.

O f fa :

C .E. B lun t , The c o inage o f O f fa i n R . H. M. Do l ley ( Ed.),

Ang lo-Saxon Coins ( hencefor th r eferred t o a s ASC), 3 9-62. P er iod 7 96-840 :

C .E. B lun t , C .S .S . Lyon a nd B . H.I . H. S tewar t , T he

c o inage o f s outhern Eng land , 7 96-840 , BNJ, 1 -74.

Aethelwu lf :

R .H . M . Do l ley a nd K . S kaare , T he c oinage o f Aethe lwu lf , k ing o f t he West S axons , 8 39-58, ASC, 6 3-94.

V ik ings :

C. S .S . Lyon a nd

B .H .I .H . S tewar t , T he Nor thu mbr ian V ik ing c o ins i n t he Cuerda le h oard , ASC, 9 8-121. Burgred :

2 66

H .E . Pagan , Coinage i n t he a ge o f

Burgred , BNJ XXX IV , 1 965 , 1 1-27.

A lfred :

R . H. M. Dol ley a nd

C .E. B lunt , The c hrono logy o f t he c o ins o f Ael fred t he Great , ASC, 7 7-95.

S t.Ed mund Me mor ia l :

C .E. B lun t , The S t . Ed mund

Me mor ia l c o inage , Proc. S uf fo lk I nst . Arch. Vo l. 3 1, 1 969, 2 34-255. 1 9.

S ee r eference i n n o te 1 8 a bove.

2 0.

S ee r eference i n n ote 1 8 a bove.

2 1.

C .S .S . Lyon , A r eappra isa l o f t he s ceat ta a nd s tyca c o inage o f Nor thu mbr ia , BNJ 2 0 (VI I I , 1 956, 2 27-42.

2 2a .

Mr Do l ley a nd Dr Metca lf d id h owever c ons ider t he o rder o f t he t ypes o f Eadgar b efore h is Refor m i n t he ir p aper o n t he l at ter s ub ject . ASC 1 36-168.

2 2.

H .E . Pagan , Nor thu mbr ian n um is mat ic c hrono logy i n t he n inth c en tury , BNJ =

2 3.

W M , 1 969 , 1 -15.

I n as pec ia l v o lu me o f t he Br it ish Nu m is mat ic J ourna l , n ow i n p ress , t o c e lebrate Mr B lun t 's s even t ieth b ir thday .

2 4.

I nven tory 1 17.

2 5.

I nventory 3 66 b u t s ee ASC, 6 4.

2 6.

I nventory 3 28 b ut s ee C .E . B lunt , T he S ev ing ton h oard o f 1 834 , BNJ XLI , 1 972, 7 -20.

2 7.

I nven tory 1 23 b ut s ee ASC 6 5-7 a nd BNJ XLI , 1 972, 1 79-80.

2 8.

S ee r eference i n n ote 1 8 a bove.

2 9.

I nven tory 3 62 b ut s ee C .E . B lun t a nd D . M. Wi lson , The T rewh idd le h oard , Archaeo log ia XCVI I I , 1 961, 7 5-122.

3 0.

I nven tory 1 76.

3 1.

I nventory 4 0.

3 2.

I nven tory 1 11 b ut s ee ASC, 6 5.

For a l l h oards c on tain ing c oins o f

A lfred s ee C .E. B lun t a nd R . H. M. Do l ley , The h oard e v idence f or t he c o ins o f A l fred , BNJ 2 00 (D ( , 1 968-9 , 2 20-47. 3 3.

Al i st ing o f h oards o f t he V ik ing a ge, c 7 95-1105 , e ssen t ia l t o af u l l a ssess men t o f t he h oard e v idence i s g iven i n R . H. M. Dol ley , S y l loge o f c o ins o f t he Br it ish I s les, T he H iberno-Norse c o ins i n t he B r it ish Museu m , L ondon , 1 966, 4 7-54.

3 4.

I nven tory 8 6.

3 5.

I nven tory 3 55.

3 6.

I nven tory 8 4.

3 7.

I nventory 1 27.

2 67

3 8.

T he c on tr ibut ions o f Mr Do l ley a nd o ther s tuden ts t o t h is s er ies a re s cat tered i n many b ooks a nd j ourna ls b oth Br it ish a nd f ore ign .

They

c an b est b e t raced b y r eferr ing t o t he b ib l iography i n a nother ma jor c on tr ibut ion t o t he s tudy o f t he l a te S axon c o inage , H . B er t i l A . Petersson , Ang lo-Saxon c urrency , Lund , 1 969.

( I t s hou ld b e n oted

t hat Petersson 's h ypothes is o f as eptenn ia l c ycle f or t he i ssues o f Aethe lred I h as n ot f ound s uppor t among o ther s tuden ts.)

F or p apers

p ub l ished s ince t he c o mp ilat ion o f Petersson , s ee t he Ang lo-Saxon a nd H iberno-Norse s ect ion i n A s urvey o f n um is mat ic r esearch 1 9661 971, I , I n ternat iona l Nu m is mat ic Co m miss ion , New York , 1 973. 3 9.

R . H. M . Do l ley a nd D . M. Metca lf , T he r efor m o f t he Eng l ish Co inage u nder Eadgar , i n ASC, 1 36-168.

Many o f Mr Do l ley 's l a ter p apers

d ea l w ith t he imp l icat ions o f t h is t heory a nd may b e f ound b y r eference t o t he b ib l iograph ica l s ources q uoted i n n ote 3 8 a bove. 4 0.

Professor Gr ierson p u t f orward t he h istor ian 's v iew o f t he mat ter i n h is f irst Presiden t ia l Address t o t he Roya l Nu m is mat ic S oc iety , NC 1 962, i -x iv.

4 1.

S ee e spec ia lly J . D. Brand , Meretr ic ious metro logy , NCirc 1 967 , 6 3-5 a nd The ' Refor m ' o f Eadgar i n 9 73, NCirc 1 967 , 9 4.

Petersson

a lso c ons iders t h is p rob le m , 9 1 .c it ., 1 04-7 a nd 1 48-52. 4 2.

M. Do l ley , A f urther d ie-l ink i n t he S cand inav ian im itat ive s er ies, i n F ornvannen , 1 968 , 16-9.

4 3.

M. Do l ley , Med ieva l Br it ish a nd I r ish c o ins a s d a t ing e v idence f or t he a rchaeo log ist , Wor ld Archaeo logy , Vo l. I , No. 2 , 2 04.

4 3a.

T he n u mber o f h oards k nown t o h ave b een b ur ied i n t he p er iod h as i ncreased s ince t he p ub l ica t ion o f t h is p aper a nd t hey h ave b een c onv en ien t ly g athered t ogether b y Mr Do l ley i n h is l i st ing o f t he V ik ing a ge h oards ment ioned i n n ote 3 3.

F ew o f t he a dd it ions wh ich h ave f or

t he most p art b een d er ived f ro m e ar ly a ccounts a re h owever r ecorded f u l ly e nough t o b e u sefu l e v idence o n t he p resen t p rob le m. 4 4. 4 5.

Do l ley a nd Metca lf , 2 2 .c it ., 1 58. I nventory 3 74 b u t s ee t he l i st o f c o ins f ro m t h is h oard i n t he Br it ish Museu m g iven i n R . H. M. Dol ley a nd Mrs J .S . S trudw ick , T he p rovenances o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c oins r ecorded i n t he t wo v o lu mes o f t he Br it ish Museu m Ca ta logue , BNJ XXVI I I , 1 955-57 , 5 1-4.

4 6.

I nven tory 2 70.

4 7.

I nventory 3 27.

4 8.

I nven tory 2 44.

4 9.

I nven tory 8 1 a nd 3 45.

5 0.

I nventory 2 55.

Mr Do l ley a nd Dr Metcal f s uggest , 9 2.c it ., 1 58, t hat

t he S ed lesco mbe h oard s hou ld p erhaps b e c ons idered a s p ar t o f t he

2 68

b u l l ion r eserve o f t he Hast ings min t a t t he t ime o f t he Conquest , a nd t hat we c annot b e c er ta in t hat t he g rea t t reasures f ro m Chancton a nd Wa lb rook were n ot l ikew ise o f f ic ia l s tocks o f b u l l ion.

I ft h is were s o t hen

t he ir e v iden t ia l v a lue a s mu lt ip le-type h oards wou ld o f c ourse b e l ess c onv inc ing .

These h oards a re i ndeed l arge b ut i n t he o p in ion o f t he

wr iter t hey a re n ot s o e nor mous a s t o d e mand a n o f f icia l s ource i n t he a bsence o f o ther c o mpel l ing r easons why t h is must b e s o.

T hey

a re t reated a s n on-of f ic ia l i n t h is p aper. 5 1.

G .C. Brooke , B r i t ish Museu m Cata logue , The Nor man K ings , L ondon , 1 916.

5 2.

M. Do l ley , T he Nor man Conquest a nd t he Eng l ish c o inage , L ondon , 1 966 , 2 3-5.

5 3.

I n h er r ecen t p rel im inary a ccoun t o f t he L inco ln h oard i n ap aper t o t he Br it ish Nu m is ma t ic S ociety o n 2 3 October 1 973 t he wr iter s ugg ested t hat BMC t ype I X i s s ty l ist ica l ly o u t o f p lace b etween t ypes V I I I a nd X I a nd i s more s u itab ly p laced a f ter t ypes V a nd V I w ith whose s ty le i ti s much more c o mpat ib le.

5 4.

J .J. North , Eng lish h a m mered c o inage, Vo l. I . London , 1 963, 1 40-1.

5 5.

D ol ley , 9 2 .c i t ., n ote 5 2, 1 5-18.

5 6.

I nven tory 2 50.

I ti s p ar t icu lar ly u n fortunate t hat o ur k now ledge o f

t he c ontents o f t h is importan t h oard l argely d epends u pon t hose c oins f ro m i t wh ich p assed t hrough t he h ands o f J ohn Wh ite t he n otor ious f orger a nd ' improver ' o f c oins. 5 7.

I nven tory 3 50.

5 8.

Do l ley , 2 _ p .c i t ., n ote 5 2, 2 1-8.

5 9.

T he t ypes o f t he 7 44 h ither to i den t if iab le c oins a re : t ype V I t ype V I I t ype X I

1 3 0 5

t ype X t ype X I I t ype X I I I

1 86 1

t ype X IV t ype XV

3 05 5 4

1 62

6 0.

F . E l more J ones , S tephen t ype V I I , BNJ XXVII I , 1 957, 5 37-54.

6 1.

R .P. Mack , S tephen a nd t he a narchy 1 135-54, BNJ XXXV , 1 966 , 3 8-112.

6 2.

I nventory 2 35.

6 3.

I nven tory 1 6.

6 4.

D .F. A l len , Br it ish Museu m Cata logue, T he Cross-and-Cross lets ( 'Tea lb y ) t ype o f Henry I , L ondon , 1 951.

6 5.

T he s tandard p aper o n t h is s er ies i s s t i l l L .A . L awrence , T he S hor t-Cross c o inage , BNJ X I , 1 914, 5 9-100.

T h is s hou ld b e r ead i n

c on junct ion w ith t he impor tan t p apers b y Mr J . D. Brand p r inc ipa l ly ,

2 69

S o me S hort-Cross q uest ions , BNJ XXX I I I , 1 964 , 5 7-69.

T he most

c onven ien t p lace t o f ind e xa mp les o f h is s ub-d iv is ions o f t he t ypes i s t he a rrange ment o f t he S hor t-Cross p enn ies i n D . M. Metcal f , S y l loge o f t he c o ins o f t he Br it ish I s les , Ash mo lean Museu m , Ox ford , Par t 2 : 6 6.

Eng l ish c o ins 1 066-1279.

L .A . Lawrence, The L ong-Cross c o inage , BNJ I X , 1 912, 1 45-79 ; X , 1 913, 6 9-93 ;

6 7.

L ondon , 1 969.

X I , 1 914 , 1 01-19.

C .E . B lun t a nd J .D . Brand , Min t o u tpu t o f Henry I I , BNJ XXXD ( , 1 970 , 6 1-6.

6 8.

M. Mate , Monetary p o l ic ies i n Eng land , 1 272-1307, BNJ XLI , 1 972, 3 4-79 , a nd i n t h is c on tex t e spec ia l ly t ab le 1 , p . 7 5.

6 9.

I nven tory 3 81.

7 0.

I nventory 7 .

7 1.

I nven tory 2 31.

7 2.

J .D . Brand , S o me S hor t-Cross q uest ions , BNJ XXX I I I , 1 964 , 6 5.

7 3.

I nven tory 9 4.

7 4.

I nventory 1 52.

S ee a lso J . D. Brand , Another sma l l p arce l f ro m t he

z reat f ind a t Ecc les , BNJ XXX II I , 1 72-3. 7 5.

A r eport o n t h is h oard w i l l a ppear i n af uture v o lu me o f BNJ.

7 6.

A s u m mary o f t he c onten ts o f t h is h oard w i l l a ppear i n NC, 1 974 , ( i n p ress ).

7 7.

The c oinage o f Edward V I i n t he n a me o f Henry , 1 547-50.

7 8.

Archb ishop Bowet o f York , 1 407-23 a nd B ishop Lang ley o f Durha m , 1 406-1437.

7 9.

J .J . Nor th , Eng lish h a m mered c o inage , Vol. 2 Edward It o Char les I , 1 272-1662 , London , 1 960.

8 0.

G .C. Brooke, Eng l ish c o ins , London , 1 932, 1 23.

A r ev ised e d it ion

was p ub l ished i n 1 950. 8 1.

Nor th 2 p.. c it ., n ote 7 9, 2 2.

8 2.

J .J. Nor th , T he c o inages o f Edward I& I , London , 1 968 , 2 0.

8 3.

Hoards d epos ited a f ter 1 500 a re r eferred t o b y t he l et ter a nd n u mber c ode emp loyed i n I .D . Brown a nd Michae l Dol ley , Ab ib l iography o f c oin h oards o f Great Br ita in a nd I re land 1 500-1969, Roya l Nu m isma t ic S oc iety a nd S p ink & S on L im ited , S pec ia l Pub l icat ion No. 6 , London , 1 971.

8 4.

I nventory 1 49.

8 5.

Pub l icat ion b y t he wr iter f or thco ming i n BNJ 1 974.

2 70

8 6.

F or a g enera l d iscuss ion o f t h is q uest ion a nd f or t ab les c o mpar ing t he c on ten t o f l a ter med ieva l Eng l ish h oards o f p enn ies s ee Mar ion M. Arch iba ld , T he A t tenborough , ( Not ts.), 1 966 H oard , NC 1 967, 1 33-146.

8 7.

Pub l ica t ion b y t he wr iter f or thco m ing i n BNJ 1 974.

8 8.

Mar ion M. Arch iba ld , T he Wyre P idd le ( Worcs.) 1 967 h oard o f f i f teen th c en tury s i lver c o ins , NC 1 970 , 1 33-162.

8 9.

T here a re t hree r e markab le f eatures o f t h is c o inage :

f irs t , i t s

o bverse d es ign wh ich i s ac o mp lete d epar ture f ro m t ha t o f p rev ious i ssues ;

s econd , t he f act t ha t t he L ondon min t p lays a ma jor p ar t i n

t he s tr ik ing o f p enn ies f or t he f irst t ime f or many y ears ;

t h ird , t he

v ery much l arger o u tpu t o f p enn ies t han f or a l ong t ime.

C ou ld i tb e

t ha t we h ave h ere a more d e l ibera te a t te mp t t o g et r id o f t he s urv ivi ng d regs o f t he o lder i ssues b y s tr ik ing a l arge n ew c o inage o f d is t inct ive d es ign?

T he c ond it ion o f o ld p enn ies was o f c ourse much

w orse t han t hat o f g roa ts o f c o mparab le a ge.

T h is may p erhaps o f fer

a n e xp lana t ion why t h is e labora te d es ign was u sed f or t he p enn ies a nd n ot f or a ny o f t he r egu lar i ssues o f l arger s i lver c o ins . 9 0.

F ound i n 1 972 ; b y t he wr iter .

b e ing s tud ied i n t he Br it ish Museu m f or p ub l ica t ion

9 1.

I nven tory 3 69.

9 2.

I nven tory 1 95.

9 3.

S u m mary l i st i n NC 1 974 ( i n p ress ).

9 4.

B ib l iography EL14 .

9 5.

Mar ion M. Arch iba ld , F ishpoo l , B l idwor th ( Not ts.), 1 966 h oard , NC 1 967 , 1 33-146.

9 6.

B ib l iography EL12.

9 7.

A c o mp lete l i st may b e f ound i n J .J. Nor th , Eng l ish h a m mered c o inage , Vo l. 2 , L ondon , 1 960 , 1 73.

2 71

T o :

J ohn C o l l is , D ep t . o f Ancien t H is tory , T he U n ivers i ty , S hef f ield S 10 2 TN .

S i te

P ar ish

Coun ty

N a t . G r id R ef .

T ype o f s i te ( under l ine ) g o ther

a ) ma jor t own

d ) t e mp le

b ) m inor t own

e ) ma jor r ura l s e t t le men t

c ) f or t

f ) minor r ura l s e t t le men t

I n forman t :

I den t i f ica t ions b y :

A pprox . n o . o f c o ins f ro m s i te

No . o f c o ins f rom f ea ture a ) i den t if iab le b ) n o t

Me thod o f p rospect ing ( underl ine ) :

p ick ing , t rowe l l ing , s iev ing

T ype o f f ea ture

s ketch s ec t ion i fa va i lab le

d oes i tc u t e ar l ier f ea tures? S pec ify

f ea ture n o . o r c ode C o in i den t i f ica t ions :

d ia meter o f c o in i n m ms .