Approaches to Swedish Prehistory: A spectrum of problems and perspectives in contemporary research 9780860546412, 9781407347912

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Introduction
I. General Perspectives and Theoretical Approaches
Southern Sweden: An Archaeological Field of Research
Stability and Long Term Changes in North Swedish Prehistory: An Example of Centre-Periphery Relations
Economic and Social Change in the Interior of Northern Sweden 6000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.
Excavations by the Swedish Central Board of National Antiquities: Conditions and Requirements of Research
The Archaeology of Gotland, Sweden: Setlement Continuity, Source Criticism, and Some Research Problems
Models of Scandinavian Bronze Age Research - A Review
Oscar Montelius and the Liberation of Women: An Example of Archaeology, Ideology and the Early Swedish Women's Movement
The Growth of Hierarchies in Low-Centralized Societies: Some Archaeological Problems
Archaeological Typology - Gone or Coming?
Problems and Possibilities When Working with the Concept of Enthicity in Archaeology
Weed-Seeds in Arcaeological Deposits: Models, Experiments and Interpretations
II. Analysis and Interpretation
Manufacture of Stone Tools in North Sweden: A Study of Stone Asemblages in the Caledonian Chain
Big Dog and Poor Man: Mortuary Practices in Mesolithic Societies in Southern Sweden
Similarities and Differences in the Utilization of Certain Resources in the Hagestad Area, Scania
Hunter-Gatherers, Farmers, and the Social Structuring of Material Culture
Space, Economy, and Society: The Rock Carvings of Northern Bohuslan
Armour and Fighting in the South Scandinavian Bronze Age, Especially in View of Rock Art Representations
A Spatial Approach to Socioeconomic Change in Southern Sweden, 500 B.C. - A.D. 500
Geographical Approaches to Field Systems in Swedish Prehistory and Early History
Iron Age Graves as Social and Religious Symbols
Vikings Following Gresham's Law

Citation preview

Approaches to Swedish Prehistory A spectrum of problems and perspectives in contemporary research

edited by

Thomas B. Larsson and

Hans Lundmark

BAR International Series 500 1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S500, 1989: 'Approaches to Swedish Prehistory' © The

Individual Authors, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546412 paperback ISBN 9781407347912 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546412 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

C on ten t s I n troduc t ion

I .G enera lP er spec t ive sa nd T heore t ica l Approaches

v i i

1

A . Hyens trand S ou the rn S weden : A nA rchaeo log ica lF ie ld o fR e sea r ch

3

E . Baudou S t ab il i ty a nd L ong T e rm C hange si n No r th Swed i sh P reh i s to ry : An E xamp le o fC en t re -Pe r iphe ry R e la t ion s

2 7

L .F or sberg E conom ic a nd S oc ia lC hange i nt h eI n te r io ro f No r the rn Sweden 6 000 B .C . -1 000 A .D .

5 5

A .B enne t t &A . Äker lund I nves t iga t ion sb yt h e Swed i sh C en t r a l B oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu t ie s -C ond i t ion sa nd R equ i remen t so fR e seach

8 3

A . C ar l s son T he A r chaeo logy o fG o t land , Sweden . S e t t lemen t C on t inu i ty ,S ou r ce C r i t ic i sm a nd s ome R e sea rch P rob lem s

9 9

R .J en sen Mode l si nS cand inav ian B ronze A ge S tud ies -A R ev iew

1 05

E .A rw i l l -Nordb ladh O sca r Mon te l iu sa nd t h eL ibe ra t ion o f Women .A nE xamp le o fA r chaeo logy ,I deo logy a nd t h eE a r ly Swed i sh Women 's Movemen t

1 31

H .L undmark T he G row th o fH ie ra r ch ies i nL ow -Cen t ra l ized S oc ie t ie s : S ome A r chaeo log ica lP rob lem s

1 43

M .P . Ma lmer A rchaeo log ica lT ypo logy -Gone o rC om ing ?

1 61

0 . O r tman P rob lem sa nd P o s s ib i l i t ie sw hen Wo rk ing w i th t h e C oncep to fE thn ic i ty i nA r chaeo logy

1 67

R . Enge lmark Weed -Seed si nA rchaeo log ica lD epo s i t s . Mode l s , E xpe r imen t sa nd I n te rp re ta t ion s

1 79

Il. Analysis and Interpretation

189

L. Holm Manufacture of Stone Tools in Northern Sweden - A Study of Stone Assemblages in the Caledonian Chain

191

L. Larsson Big Dog and Poor Man. Mortuary Practices in Mesolithic Societies in Southern Sweden

211

M. Stromberg Similarities and Differences in the Utilization of Certain Resources in the Hagestad Area, Southern Sweden

225

C. Tilley Hunter-Gatherers, Farmers and the Social Structuring of Material Culture

239

U. Bertilsson Space, Economy and Society in the Rock Carvings of

Northern Bohuslan

287

J. Nordbladh Armour and Fighting in South Scandinavian Bronze Age, Specially in View of Rock Art Representations

T. B. Larsson Socioeconomic Complexity and Change in Southern Sweden 500 B.C. to 500 A.O.

335

. M. Widgren Geographical Approaches to Field Systems in Swedish Prehistory and Early History

353

A. Bennett Iron Age Graves as Social and Religious Symbols

367

F. Herschend Vikings Following Gresham's Law

373

vi

I NTRODUCT ION

I n t roduc t ion T he ma jo r a im o f t h e p re sen t v o lume o n Swed ish p reh i s to ry i st o i n fo rm aw ide r a r chaeo log ica lp ub l ic a bou tw ha ti sg o ing o nt oday i n Swed i sh a r chaeo log ica lr e seach . O fc ou r se , ac omp le te p i c tu re o f a l l o f t h e f i e ld s o fc on tempo ra ry r e seach i sq u i te i mpo s s ib le t od r aw ,b u tw ea nyhow b e l ieve t h a tt h ep ape r sp r e sen ted h e r eg i ve s ar a the r g ood o u tl ine o ft h ep r e sen ts i tua t ion . T he p rob lem s a nd d i f f e r en t f i e ld s o fr e seach d i scu s sed i nA pproache s t oS wed ish P reh i s tor y s hou ld b es e en a ss ome g l ean ing sf r om t h eo ve ra l lr e sea ch s i tua t ion ,w h ich a l so g i ve st h i sb ook t h ec ha ra c t e ro f ad o cumen to f Swed i sh a r chaeo logy i nt h e 1 980 's . T he c ha ra c t e ro f ad ocum en ti sv e ry much d ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h ep ape r si nt h i sv o lume r ep re sen t aw ide s pec t rum i ns ub jec t ,t ime ,t h eo ry a nd me thod ; f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t o t h eV ik ing A ge ; f r om a r te f a c ts t ud ie st os e t t lemen t sa nd b u r ia l s ,f r om s oc ia lt h eo ry t o p a leobo tan ica la na ly se s . C on t ra ry t o many i n te rna t iona l a r chaeo log ica l p ub l ica t ion s , u sua l ly c oncen t ra ted a r ound ap a r t icu la r t h eme a nd d om ina ted b y e xpe r t s o n t h a t f i e ld , t h e p re sen t b ook e ncompa s se s t hough t s , i d ea s a nd a na lyse s b y p eop le w i th f undamen ta l ly d i f f e ren t b ackg round s a nd s t au s i n t h e a cadem ic wo r ld -f r om u nde rg radua te s t uden t s t o e s tab l ished p rof e s so r s . A l l t h e f i ve u n ive r s i ty d epa r tmen t s t e ach ing a r chaeo logy i n S weden a r er e p r e sen ted h e r ea nd s oi sa l so t h eC en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s . T h i sp r e sen ta t ion o fc u r r en ta r cha eo log ica lr e sea ch i n Swed en i st o ag r ea te x t en t ar e su l t o ft h ee d i to r sc on ta c t s w i th B r i t i sh a r chaeo logy a nd B r i t i sh a r chaeo log i s t s d u r ing t h e l a s tf i ve y ea r s . A f te r an umbe ro fv i s i t s t oE ng land , when a t tend ing t oa r chaeo log ica l c on f e r ence s , s em ina r so rw hen g i v ing l e c tu r e sa td i f f e ren ta r chaeo logy d epa r tmen t s ,w e c ame t ot h ec onc lu s ion t h a tt o ol i t t le w a sk nown a b road a bou tt h ec u r ren ts t a t eo fa f f a i r s i n Swed i sh a r chaeo logy . Much o ft h e wo rk s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s s e emed t ob e mo re o rl e s su nknown i nB r i ta in , s o ,t a k ing t h i sa s ab a rome te ro f amo re g ene ra l s i tua t ion , t h ek now ledge o f Swed i sh p reh i s to ry a nd o ngo ing r e seach mu s t b e q u i te r ud imen ta ry i nt h er e s to ft h ew o r ld . T od os ome th ing a bou tt h i ss i tua t ion , as e s s ion o n Swed i sh a r chaeo logy w a sa r r anged a tt h e 1 986 TAG -conf e r ence i nL ondon b yo ne o ft h e e d i to r s ( Thoma s B . L a r s son , a t t h a tt ime wo rk ing a s aV i s i t ing F e l low a tt h eD epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f S he ff ie ld o n aB r i t i sh C ounc i l F e l low sh ip ) , w i th H an s L undma rk , Ma t s P . Ma lme r , Ma t s Widg ren a nd E l i sabe th A rw i l l -No rdb ladh g i v ing p ape r s .T he i rp ape r sf o rmed t h e f i r s t b a s i s f o rt h i s v o lume , w h ich l a te r , a f te rc on ta c t s w i th D r . H and s , B .A .R . , w e r e c omp lemen ted w i th o the r s , i n o rde r t o make u p a mo re ' c omp le te ' p ub l ica t ion o n A pproache st oS wed i sh P r eh i s tor y . I ti st h ea u tho r sh ope t h a tt h i sb ook w i l li n c rea se t h ek now ledge o fS wed i sh p reh i s to ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea ch a mong a r chaeo log i s t s a b road a nd o the ri n te r e s ted i nt h i s s ub jec t . O fc ou r se ,t h ep r e sen tv o lume s hou ld a l so i n te re s t Swed i sh a nd S cand inav ian s cho la r s ,p a r t icu la r ly s t uden t s ,b ecau se t h ep r e sen ted p ape r sg i ve o u t l ine st o an umbe r o f i mpor tan t a spec t s o f t h eo r ie s , m e thod s , a r tef ac t s , monumen t s a nd mo re g ene ra l p rob lem so fr e levance f o rc on t empo r a ry S cand inav ian r e sea ch .

v u

I .G enera lP er spec t ives a nd T heor e t ica l Approaches

1

A pp roache st oS wed i sh P reh i s to ry , BAR . , Ox f ord ,1 989 ,p p .3 25 .

SOUTHERN SWEDEN : AN ARCHAEOLOG ICAL F IELD OF RESEARCH

By Ake Hyens trand*

I n troduc t ion T h is p ape ri sp o s i t iv i s t ic . T he p u rpo se i st op re sen ta no verv iew o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om S ou thern Sweden f o r ab roader i n ter na t iona l p ub l ic . I n t h i s c a se , t h e c oncep t S ou ther n Sweden i su sed t od eno te t h eb roade rg eog raph ica l r eg ion s o fG ö ta land a nd S vea land . Nor ther n Sweden ( Nor r land ) i sn o t d i scus sed i ng ra te r d e ta i l i nt h i s p aper [ t h i sp a r to f Sweden i sd ea l tw i th i nt h ec om ing t wo p ape r sb yB audou a nd F o r sbe rg ] . T he s t a r t ing p o in t i st h e p reserved p r eh is to r ic monumen t s , mos t ly g rave s . T he p os s ib i l i ty t os ubd iv ide S ou ther n Sweden i n to s ma l le r ' a rchaeo log ica l r eg ion s ' , i . e . a r ea sw i th ah omogenou sc u l tu ra lo rs oc ia lc on tex t ,i sa l so d i scu s sed h e r e . T h i sr e g iona l s ubd iv i s ion s hou ld b er ega rded a s ah ypo the s i s . Sweden i s al a rge p ar t o fE u rope . T he c oun try ' s l e ng th c an b e c ompa red w i th t h e d i s tance b e tween B udapes t a nd L ondon . T he n a ture a nd t h e g eo log ica l s t ruc tu r e i s v a r ied . Sweden i ss i tua ted i nt h en o r ther np e r iphe ry o fE u rope . Many E u ropean c u l tu ra l p roce sses h ave , l i ke r i ng s o n t h e w a te r , f o rmed t h e p reh is tory o f Sweden a nd t h e ir man if e s ta t ion sc an s t i l lb es t ud ied i nt h el a nd scap e . Sweden h a sb een ap a s to ra l a nd a g r icu l tu ra l c oun t ry f o r al ong t ime . T he r e la t ive ly s l ow e vo lu t ion o fs e t t lemen t o ve r t h ou sands o fy ea r s h a s p roduced as pec ia l r e su l t . R ema in so ft h es oc ie t ie sa nd m an if e s ta t ion so fe a r l ie rt ime sh ave b een p r e served i nt h e l a nd scape a nd s t i l lr ema in t h e re .T he c oun t ry s ide h a sb ecome ac omp rehen s ive a r ch ive o f ma te r ia l wh ich i ss en s i t ive t oo u twa rd c hange s . D ur ing t h e l a te rh a lf o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , f o r i n s tance , v ery e x ten s ive a r ea s o fl a nd , p rev ious ly u sed a s m eadow s o r p a s tu re , w e re p u tu nde rt h ep lough . T h is b rough t t ol i gh t q uan t i t ie s o ff i nd s , s uch a s s t one a xe s , wh ich w e re l a te ro ft h eg rea tes ti mpor tance when a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch s t a r ted t od eve lop i n Sweden . A n e x ten s ive c hange o ft h e l a nd scape i sa ga in t a k ing p lace a tt h e p resen t t ime . T he f o rme r a g r icu l tu ra l l a nds a r e b ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly u rban ized . T he re i sg rea tp r e s su r eo nt h el a nd i nd en se ly p opu la ted r eg ion s .T he r e su l t h a sb een e x ten s ive f i e ld w o rk . T hu s ,t h ek nown a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l( a r tef ac t s )h a s g rea t ly i n c rea sed d ur ing t h e l a s t 2 0 -30 y ea r s . I n r e cen t y ea r s , t h erefo re , s t a t i s t ica l m e thod sa nd s imp le ra nd mo re r a p id f o rm so fp ub l ica t ion sh ave c ome i n to u se . S t rong t i es w i th f i e ld w ork h ave a l so i nd ica ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch t o b e mo re c oncen t ra ted o ng ene ra lp rob lem s ,l e s so na r tef ac t s .

*D epa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fS t o ckho lm 3

A g rea t s t o r e o fk now ledge h a s b een c o l lec ted d u r ing t h e p o s t -wa r y ea r s . T he c ond i t ion sf o rs ucce s sf u la r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch a r ee x t r eme ly g ood . We c an s e et h r ee ma in p r e r equ i s i te sf o rf u r the rp rog r e s s : 1r e sou r ce s 2c o -op e ra t ion 3g ene ra lt h eo ry A rchaeo logy i n Sweden i s amany -f a ce t ted s y s tem , b o th h o r izon ta l ly a nd v e r t ica l ly . A n a u tho r i ta t ive d i r ec t ion h a sl ong b een l a ck ing . T he r e sea r ch c oncep th a s s t rong ly e xpanded i np ace w i th t h ee xpan s ion o fa n t iqua r ian a r cha eo logy . D if f e r en td i r ec t ion s h ave b een d eve lop ed w i th d i f f e r en td eg r ee so fr e c ep t iven e s sf o rn ew t h ink ing . Du r ing t h e 1 960 ' s aq uan t i ta t ive v i ew o ft h e s ou rce ma te r ia l w i th a c oncom i tan t d emand f o rf i xed d ef in i t ion sw a sa ccep ted ( c f . Ma t sP . Ma lme r ) .T he a nc ien t monumen t r e g i s te r ' ss t ruc tu r e( b e low )a nd a cce s s ib i l i ty t oa na ly s i sc on t r ibu ted t ot h i s . A t t h e s ame t ime , s e t t lemen t r e sea rch w a s d eve loped , l a rge ly a s ar e su l t o f i nve s t iga t ion s i n c onnec t ion w i th l a nd d eve lopmen t a nd i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e c omp r ehen s ive p i c tu r e o b ta inab le f r om t h e r e g i s te ro fa nc ien t monumen t s . R e sea r ch p u r sued t h i sl i ne f u r the rd u r ing t h es even t ie s ,i n sp i r ed b yh uman g eog raph ica lr e sea r ch a nd p a r t s o ft h e " new a r cha e logy " . S y s tem a na ly s i s e mp loy ing mode l sw a su sed a nd e xp lana t ion w a s ac en t ra lc oncep t .I nc rea s ing i n te r e s tw a sd i sp lay ed i ns oc ia lu n i t sa nd t h e i r i nf luence o n t h e e nv i ronmen t . T h i s w a s i na cco rdance w i th t h e n eed s o ft h e c on se rva t ion s e rv ice f o ri n f o rma t ion b ef o r ee nv i ronmen ta lp l ann ing c ou ld b ee f e c t ed . T he o rgan iza t ion c on s i s t s o ft h r ee p a r t s : t h e a n t iqua r ian a u tho r i ty r e spon s ib le f o r i nve s t iga t ion a nd i nven tor iza t ion ( Cen t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l An t iqu i t ies , c oun ty c ounc i l s ) ,t h e mu seum s( Na t iona l Mu seum , r e g iona la nd mun ic ipa l mus eum s ,e t c . )a nd t h eu n ive r s i ty d epa r tmen t s . A l l t h e se a u tho r i t ie sh ave r e sea r ch r e spon s ib i l i t ie s , a nd a d u ty t oi n f o rm t h ep ub l ic a nd t h ea dm in i s t ra t ion . T he u n ive r s i ty d epa r tmen t so fS tockho lm , L und ,G o thenbu rg , U pp sa la a nd Umeä a r e l o ca ted i nd if e r en t r eg ion s , e a ch w i th i t s o wn p ecu l ia r i t ie s a nd r e sea r ch b a s i s . T h i s l e ad s t o ac e r ta in d i f f e r en t ia t ion , b u t a n a b so lu te r e sea r ch r e spon s ib i l i ty w i th in t h e r e g ion i nq ue s t ion mu s tb ea vo ided . T he s i ze o ft h ec oun t ry a nd p e r iphe ra ll o ca t ion i n E u rope o f f e rs pec ia lp o s s ib i l i t ie s , f o re xamp le t h es t udy o fr eg iona lv a r ia t ion sa nd t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fl o ng p e r iod sf o rs t ud ie so fg ene ra li mpo r tanc e . T he I nven tory o f Anc ien t Monumen ts T he p eacef u lh i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t a nd c ompa ra t ive ly s ma l l p opu la t ion o f Sweden h ave p roduced g ood c ond i t ion s o fp re serva t ion f o ri t s monumen t s . T he i nven to ry o f a nc ien t monumen t sf o rt h ee conom ic m ap o f Sweden ( s ca le 1 : 10 .000 ) , wh ich h a sb een i np r epa ra t ion b yt h eC en t ra l Of f i ce o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie ss i nce 1 938 ,h a ss hown t h a t t h e mo s to ft h ea nc ien t monumen t sh ave b een p r e se rved u n t i lt h ep r e sen td ay . A lmo s t 6 00 ,000 e x i s t ing v i s ib le monumen t s f r om t h ep r eh i s to r ic p e r iod h ave b een r e co rded , mo s t o f t h em g rave s . T he Mä la r v a l ley , i n c lud ing t h e p rov ince s o f U pp land , S öde rman land a nd V ä s tman land ,i st h ea r ea w i th i n compa rab ly t h ed en se s td i s t r ibu t ion o f monumen t s , a nd a bou t 2 50 ,000 o ft h em a r e r e co rded t h e r e . F rom a E u ropean v i ewpo in t , t h i s r e g ion i s ap a r t icu la r ly i n te r e s t ing a r ea f o rt h e a na ly s is o fs e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t f r om t h e S tone Age t ot h ep e r iod wh ich i sk nown i nE u rope a st h ee a r ly m ed ieva l . D u r ing t h e 1 970 ' st h ei nven to ry h a sm a in ly b een c onduc ted i nt ho se a r ea s wh ich l i e o u t s ide t h e mo s tc en t ra lp a r t so ft h ec oun t ry . Much w o rk h a sb een d one i nt h el a rg et r ac t o fi n land N o r r land a nd h a s r e su l ted i nt h e c oncen t ra t ion o fi n te re s t o n c a tego r ie s o f monumen t sw h ich h ave p r ev iou s ly b een i n suff ic ien t ly n o ted : f o re xamp le h un t ing p i t s a nd r ema in so fp r im i t ive i r on w o rk ing ( s ee b e low ) .T he e n la rgemen to ft h ei n ven to ry ' s s phe re so fi n te r e s ti s ap roce s sw h ich h a sc on t inued t h roughou ti t s5 0y ea r -o ld h i s to ry a nd i st h e r e su l t o fe conom ic f a c to r s , t h e a r ea s d ea l t w i th i nt h e i nven to ry a nd t h e 4

g en e ra la spec to ft h ec u l tu ra ll a nd scape . S ince t h e 1 970 ' st h ea im so ft h ei nv en to ry h ave b e en i n te rp r e ted much mo r ew id e ly b ecau s eo ft h eg en er a ld eba te so nt h ec a r eo fa nc ien t monumen t s . T he p r ev iou s ly q u i te n a r row a nd i n tr in s ica l ly n ece s sa ry d ef in i t ion o f ' c onven t iona l ' monumen t s , p r eh is tor ic g rave si np a r t icu la r ,h a sb een e xpanded p a r t ly t h rough i n c r ea sed k now ledge o ft h e c on ten t a nd h i s to ry o ft h e c u l tu ra l l a nd scape . G r ea te s t i n te r e s t h a s b een s hown i ne x tend ing i tt oo the r t ype s o f monumen t s , f o r e xamp le t oa nc ien t f a rm a nd v i l lage s i te s , t of o s s i l t r ace s o fa nc ien t a g r icu l tu re a nd c l ea rance a nd s oo n .T he i n ven to ry h a se xpand ed i t so b jec t ive si n to m ak ing ac omp le te s u rvey o fs e t t lemen t sa nd p rovenance so ff i nd s . T h is p rog ramme h a sb ecome f e a s ib le t h rough t h e r ev i s ion o ft h e map w h ich i np rac t ice m ean s t h a t t h e i nven to ry o ft h e monumen t si n Sweden s hou ld b ee xpanded w i th r e levan ta dd i t iona li n f o rma t ion . T he e n la rged v i ew o ft h ec u l tu ra l l a nd scape a t temp t st oa ch ieve ac omp le te p i c tue r . P lace n ame s a l so f o rm p a r t o ft h e i n teg ra ted who le . T hey r e f lec t a c tua l h i s tor ica l p roce s se s f r om many p o in t s o fv i ew a nd t h e c a r e o fa nc ien t monumen t s n a tura l ly i n c lude sv e ry g r ea ti n te r e s ti nk eep ing t h en ame sa l ive i nt h ec oun t ry s ide a nd o nm ap s . Swed i sh a r chaeo logy h a st h eg r ea tr e spon s ib i l i ty o f mak ing t h ei n ven to ry o fa nc ien t monumen t sa va i lab le a nd s t ud ied .T he r eh ave a l so b een d a ta -o r ien ted a t temp t st of u lf i l t h i s o b l iga t ion u s ing a s y s tem wh ich w a s d eve loped w i th in t h e C en t ra l B oa rd o f N a t iona l An t iqu i t ie s( Sw .R ik san t ikva r ieämb e te t ). A long s ide t h er ou t ine a nc ien t monumen ti nven to ry f o rt h ee conom ic map t h e r eh ave a l so b een l a rge a nd s ma l l s pec ia l ized i nven tor ie s , u sua l ly u nder taken b ecau se o f c hange si nl a nd u s e ,b u ta l so f o rp u r er e sea r ch r e ason s . R o ck c a rv ing sa r e ap a r t icu la r ly g ood e xamp le o ft h i s . I nB ohu s län , s y s tema t ic i nven tor ie so fr o ck c a rv ing sh ave l ong b e en c omp i led . U pp land i sa no the ri mpo r tan ta r ea f o rr o ck c a r v ing s . T he Anc ien t Monumen t I nven tory i ni t s c apac i ty a s am e thod , a nd i nv i ew o fi t s r e su l t s ,h a so f ten b een d i scu s sed i nd if e r en tc on tex t si nr e cen ty ea r s . I nt h e 1 970 ' s ,t h e R eg i s te rh a sp layed ac en t ra l r o le i np l ann ing f o ra r ea so fe xp lo i ta t ion . I ti s ,h owever , i mpo r tan tt or emembe rt h a tt h eR eg i s te ro n ly i n c lud e sr ema in sv i s ib le a bov eg round a nd v i sua l ly d e te rm ined . T he se c ond i t ion s i mp ly ac l ea ru nde r -r ep re sen ta t ion o fk nown g rave s i nc er ta in r e g ion s , f o r e xamp le , V ä s te rgö t land a nd S can ia . G rave s a nd o the r a nc ien t monumen t sh ave , i nc e r ta in a r ea s ,b een o b l i te ra ted b yp lough ing . I na dd i t ion , t h e re a r eg r ave sw h ich p robab ly h ave b een c on s t ruc ted w i thou tv i s ib le i n d ica t ion sa bov e g round , i . e . d u r ing t h eE a r ly I r on A ge ( c ft h es o -ca l led c r ema t ion p i tc eme te r ie s ) a nd d u r ing t h eL a te V ik ing Age .W i th t h i s ,t h eb a s ic s u rv ey m a t e r ia lb e come su n sa t i sf ac to ry f o rp u rpo se s o fp l ann ing f o rp r e se rva t ion . I n r e ga rd t oo t he r r ema in s , f o re xamp le , d we l l ing s i te sa nd t i l lage t r a ce s ,w h ich a r e mo r ei mpo r tan tf o ra nu nde r s tand ing o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s ,d ocumen ta t ion i ss t i l li n comp le te . T he c onc lu s ion i st h a to ne i sf o r ced t ot u rn t ot h eg rave m a ter ia la nd t ot h ep ropo sed h ypo the s i st h a tg rav e sg en e ra l ly r e p r e s en tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h ei n t en s i ty o fs e t t lemen t b o th i nt ime a nd s pac e .F u r the rmo r e ,i ti sn ece s sa ry t or e so r tt ot h ea ux i l ia ry h ypo the s i s t h a tg rave c on s t ruc t ion ( v a r ia t ion , monumen ta l i ty ,e t c . )i si ns ome w ay r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h es t ruc tu r eo f as oc ie ty .T he g rave st h en , i nt h e se t e rm s ,b ecome o ne o ft ho se f a c to r s t h a ta r eu sed ,a l though w i th r e se rva t ion s ,i na na r chaeo log ica ld i v i s ion i n to r eg ion s .T he a pp l ica t ion i s , h oweve r , l im i ted t ot ho se p er iod s a nd t h o se r eg ion s i n wh ich g rave s a ppea r .T h i sm e an st h a t ,t oa l li n t en t sa nd p u rpo se s ,t h e Me so l i th ic a nd t h em a in p a r to f t h eN eo l i th ic a r eu n r ep r e sen ted ,w i th t h ee x cep t ion o fc e r ta in r e g ion s . S t i l la no the rf a c to rh a st ob es e lec ted . T h i ss hou ld b ec omp le te ly i ndependen to ft h e g rave ma ter ia l , a nd i ts hou ld b e o fs uch ac ha rac te r t h a t i tm ay a l so b e d ef ined a nd o b se rved . S ome f o rm o fs pa t ia lu n i tw i th au n i t ing f unc t ion s hou ld b ec ho sen . R ive r s y s t em s ,i mpo r tan tt oc ommun ica t ion ,a r e ap rac t ica le xamp le .R ive rs y s tem sh ave a l so b een u sed i n a r chaeo log ica l r eg iona l a na ly s is . T hey c anno t , h oweve r , w i thou t r e se rva t ion , b e t a k en a sr e levan t . I n many c a se s , i tmay b e n ece s sa ry t ou t i l ize o the r t ype so fs pa t ia lu n i t s .

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8

An A t temp t T owards R eg iona l Def in i t ion -A Hypo thes is O n amap ( F ig . 1 ) ,t h ef r equency o fv i s ib le s i ng le r e g i s te r ed g rave si nt h es ou ther np a r t o f Swed en h a sb e en r e co rded .T he m a te r ia le x tend so ve rt h ep r eh i s to r ic p e r iod f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t h rough t h eL a te I r on Age .T h ed om inance o ft h ee a s ter n Swed i sh l ow land si s f u l ly e v iden t .I nt h e Mä la rp rov ince s( Upp land , S ödennan land ,V ä s tman land )t h e re a r e a bou t 2 00 ,000 v i s ib le g rave s , i nÖ s te rgö t land a bou t 3 0 ,000 . L e s s p rom inen ta r e t h e a r ea so fs ou ther na nd w e s ter n Sweden . T h i s map may b ec ompa r ed w i th a no the r( F ig . 2 ) , whe re t h e f r equency o fi n d iv idua l s i t e sw i th g rave si sr e co rded .O nt h i sm ap ,e ve ry s i te h a st h es ame s t a tu si n dependen to f t h en umbe ro fg rave so nt h es i te . As i te may , c on sequen t ly , c on ta in o n ly o ne g rave ( a m ega l i th ic t omb , ac a i rn , e t c . ) o r al a rge n umbe ro fg rave s( c eme te ry ) .T he m ap a l so s how st h a tc e r ta in r e g ion si ns ou ther n Sweden a r ec on s id e rab ly mo r ec l ea r ly d ef ined o nt h is map t h an o n t h e f i r s t : p a r t so ft h e We s tC oa s t ( Ha l land , B ohu s län ) , V ä s te rgö t land ,a nd Smä land .H owev e r ,t h ed om inance o ft h e Mä la rp rov ince sr ema in s . An i n te r e s t ing d i f f e r ence n o tab le w i th in t h e Mä la rp rov ince si sa l so s e en b yc ompa r ing t h et wo map s . T he f r equency o fi n d iv idua l s i te sw i th g rave s , s i ng le o rc eme te r ie s , i s g r ea te ri nt h e n o r thwe s ter np e r iphe ra l a r ea s o ft h e r e g ion . T he s i ng ly l o ca ted g rave s b e long ma in ly t ot h eB ronze Ag e -E a r ly I r on Ag e .T h i sr e f lec t s ac ou r se o fc o lon iza t ion i n wh ich t h e d e te rm in ing f a c to r h a s b een l a nd e l eva t ion . I n t h e a bove m en t ioned p er iphe ra l a r ea s , t h e t e r ra in i sh ighe r , a nd a cco rd ing ly , e a r l ie r s e t t lemen t h ad t ob e c oncen t ra ted t ot h es ea r e a s . T he maps m ay b e g ene ra l ized i no ne s pec ia l map ( F ig . 3 ) , s how ing ' n ega t ive ' g rave d i s t r ibu t ion . T he b l ack a r ea s o n t h e map l a ck g rave s f r om p r eh i s tor ica l t ime s . I n t h e l i ned a r ea s ,t h e r ea r e af ew g rave s( 1 -30 )o r af ew s i te sw i th g rave s( 1 -4 ) .I nt h i sw ay , s ome r eg ion so fc en t ra ls e t t lemen ta ppea r ,a sw e l la s an umbe ro fm a rg ina la r ea s . T he b l ack p a r t so ft h em ap c o r re spond t ot h ea r ea sc o lon ized d u r ing t h eM idd le A ge s . T he r e g ion so fc en t ra ls e t t lemen td ef ined b yu s ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa nc ien t monumen t s( = g raves ) a st h eb a s ic v a r iab le , m ay t h en b e c ompa r ed t ot h eg eog raph ica l c ond i t ion s . S ou ther n Sweden may b ed i v ided i n to f i ve m a in r eg ion s( F ig .4 ) : 1 .S can ia 2 . We s ter nS ou ther n Sweden 3 .I nne rS ou ther n Sweden 4 .E a s te rn S ou ther n Sweden 5 .G o t land T he r e g ion s 1 4 ,i . e . S ou the rn Sweden i nt o ta l( Go t land e xc luded ) , c an b ed i v ided a s f o l low s : S can ia 1a 1b 2a 2b 2c 3a 3b 3c 4

SW S lane S E S käne NE S kl i e NW S lane I nne rS käne EB lek inge W B lek ing e L i s t e r land e ti nB lek inge SH a l land

Wes tern S ou thern Sweden 5a C en t ra lH a l land 5b N H a l land 5c Ma rk 6 SV ä s te rgö t land 9

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C en tr a lV ä s te rgö t land ,E a s t C en t ra lV ä s te rgö t land , We s t V än e N o s san a r ea L idan a r ea K äBand F a lköp ing -Ska ra K inneku l le NW V ä s t e rgö t land NB ohu s län T anum a r ea B u l la r en a r ea Munkeda la r ea M idd le B ohu s län O ru s t -T jöm SB ohu s län +Gö tebo rg D a lbo s lä t ten T ö s sbo a r ea V ä rm land snä s -By ä lven C en t ra lV ä rm land EV änn l and V edbo V a lbo WV ä rm land

I nner S ou thern Sweden 1 5 V ä r end 1 6 F innveden 1 7 N judung 1 8 NW Smä land 1 9a N Smä land , We s t 1 9b N Smä land ,E a s t E as tern S ou thern Sweden 2 0 Ö land 2 1a S E Smä land Mö r e 2l b Mön s te r ä sa r ea 2 1c Em än v a l ley 2 2a NE Smä land T ju s t 2 2b M is te rhu l ta r ea 2 2c S evede 2 3 W Ö s te rgö t land 2 4a C en t ra lO s te rgö t land 2 4b Ä sunden a r ea 2 4c S onunen a r ea 2 5 EÖ s te rgö t land 2 6a Nyköp ing r i ve ra r ea 2 6b K i la r i ve ra r ea 2 6c S vä r ta r i ve ra r ea 2 7 T ro sa r i ve ra r ea 2 8 S ES öd e rman land 2 9a Mä la ri s land s 2 9b S öde rman land w a te rc ou r se s 3 0 S e laö -Fogdö 3 1 R ekame 3 2a S EU pp land S ou th

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The principles for division into subregions may be discussed extensively. The definitions can be characterized as a mixture of objective observations along with reconstructions of 'cultural historical' areas including graves from very different periods. In a way, the division is a hypothesis. The analysis and discussion of the distribution of different grave types in relation to the socio-economic conditions may be the first test of this hypothesis. The Graves in Southern Sweden Megalithic Graves

Southern Sweden is the northernmost branch of the European region with megalithic graves from the Neolithic period. Dolmens and passage graves (Figs. 5 & 6) occur in three principal areas ( = provinces): S��ia, Bohuslan, and Vastergotland. A smaller group of passage graves is found on Oland. In northern Halland there are a few dolmens. The distribution of dolmens is concentrated to two regions: southwestern Scania and Bohuslan. The megalithic area in Bohuslan is less analysed, but seems to possess certain distinctive characteristics with regard to the appearance of these graves and their socio-economic background. In recent years, certain important investigations have also been carried out in Bohuslan and Halland. There is a concentration of passage graves to the Cambro-Silurian area of central northern Vastergotland (Falbygden). There, within a limited area, almost 250 of the 400 known passage graves in Sweden are located. This is the most evident example available of a correlated ancient monument distribution and a geographical niche in Sweden. The passage graves are a fairly uniform category, mostly with rectangular chambers. They are located in groups within the sub-region and they seem to represent some 20 separate settlement units. The area is characterized by limestone bedrock and moraine clays, with a high frequency of brown soil, numerous moss soils (now mostly drained and reclaimed) and important stands of deciduous forests. The terrain is slightly undulating and creates a table end just above the highest coast line. Plateau hills (Billingen, Mosseberg, Alleberg, Plantaberget, Gerumsberget, etc.) are characteristic. The climate is fairly favourable, being partly maritime with a yearly precipitation below the average for the rest of the country. The megalithic graves s·eem to represent different socio-economic systems and probably also different temporal horizons. There is not necessarily a direct connection between, for instance, Scania and Bohuslan. Neither is the chronological relationship between dolmens and passage graves clear, although the former are usually considered to be somewhat older than the latter. The area of passage graves in Vastergotland gives an impression of uniformity. This has been understood as a reflection of the existing social form based on an agrarian economy. This may, however, be debatable. It is reasonable to emphasize that the great geographical variations may offer possibilities for a varied economy. Within limited settlement areas these various conditions may attract permanent year-round dwelling during a long period of time. Gallery Graves

Gallery graves (megalithic stone cists) from the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (Fig. 7) are found in all parts of Southern Sweden, but are generally concentrated to the most favourable areas. The main distribution is in the eastern part of Scania, Bohuslan, central northern and northwestern Vastergotland, the area around Lake Vanern and inner Dalsland - and, above all, southwestern and .�entral northern Smaland. Gallery graves also occur in northeastern Smaland, western Ostergotland and Narke. These graves are, morphologically, fairly rich in variation. An extensive typological discussion has earlier been published. They probably represent differing traditions and social systems. In the central megalithic areas (Scania, Bohuslan, central northern Vastergotland) a special relationship with the passage graves may exist. There, they may there represent a continued communal, megalithic tradition. With regard to Inner 12

F ig . 5 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fd o lmens i n Sweden . 1 3

F ig . 6 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp a s sage g rave s i n Sweden . 1 4

F ig . 7 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fg a l le ry g rave s i n Sweden ( a f t e rJ ohan s son 1 961) .

S ou the rn Sweden ,t h eb ackg round m ay b es omewha td i f f e r en t .T he r e , t h ey p robab ly d o n o t i nd ica te e x ten s ive c o lon iza t ion , b ecau se o ft h e f a c t t h a t s i ng le f i nd s o fa r t if ac t s d ocumen ts e t t lemen t d u r ing t h e E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic . T he g a l lery g rave s a r e , i n s tead , mo r e l i ke ly a n i nd ica t ion o fa n i n t ru s ion r e la ted t oi d ea s i n t h e r e l ig iou s s ub -sy s tem ,p e rhap sc omp le te ly w i thou tc onnec t ion t ot h em ega l i th ic g rave t r ad i t ion i n o t he rr e g ion s .T h es o c io -econom ic c au se sl y ing b eh ind t h i sa r en o tc l ea r . 1 5

A l so , f o rt h e se r eg ion s ,v a ry ing e conom ic c ond i t ion sm igh tb ee mpha s ized .L and a nd w a te r ,a r ea sw i th l i gh ts o i l s , e t c .e ncou rage am ixed e conomy w i th a g ra r ian e l emen t s . T he e x ten s ive d i s t r ibu t ion a nd mo rpho log ica lv a r ia t ion o ft h eg a l le ry g rave ss hou ld b e i n te rp r e ted i ns uch aw ay t h a t t h ey a ppea ri nd i f f e r en t s oc io -econom ic s y s t em s . T he m ega l i th ic , c ommuna lc ha rac t e ri sn o tw ho l ly u namb igou s . I nt h ei n ne rs ou ther nr e g ion o f Sweden , at y po log ica lt r an s i t ion t os ma l le rc i s t si nc a ir n sm igh tb ei n f e r r ed . T h i si s i n te r e s t ing t on o te , a ss oc ia lc hange l y ing b eh ind t h i s may h ave c r ea ted t h en ece s sa ry c ond i t ion sf o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to fi n d iv idua l monumen ta lg rave s . B ronz e Ag eB ar row s B a r row so rl a rge mound so ccu ri nd i f f e r en ts oc io -econom ic s y s tem s f r om t h e B ronze Age t h rough t h e L a te I r on Age . S can ia a nd S ou ther nH a l land c on s t i tu te an o r ther n p e r iphe ra l a r ea o ft h e S ou th S cand inav ian r e g ion w i th l a rge b a r row s f r om t h e E a r ly B ronze Age w i th i t s c en t re i nD enma rk . B a r row s o ft h i s t ype a l so a ppea r i no the r r e g ion s ,a bove a l l ,i nV ä s t e rgö t land a nd Smä land ,b u ta l so i nO s te rgö t land a nd ,i n af ew i s o la ted c a se s ,i nt h e Mä la rp rov in ce s( Hägahögen ,U pp land ) . B ronze Age b a r row s h ave amonumen ta l c ha rac ter . T hey a r e l o ca ted o n f l a t h i l ly e x ten s ion si nt h et e r ra in , o f ten i ns uch aw ay t h a tt h ey d om ina te t h el a nd scape b yt h e ir e xpo s i t ion . T hey a r e u sua l ly s i tua ted i n s pa r se s weep s o r g roup s i n p r e sen t -day i n ten se ly c u l t iva ted l a nd sb eh ind t h et r ue c oa s ta l a r ea . I n many c a se st h ey h ave b een p a r t ia l ly o r t o ta l ly d e s t royed b y p lough ing . Ad jacen t t o a nc ien t monumen t s , f o r e xamp le , s e t t lemen tr ema in sa r eu sua l ly n o tv i s ib le a bove t h eg round . I nt h e i rp r ima ry s hape t h eb a r row sa r ei n d iv idua lw i th ar i ch ly -equ ipped c en tr a lg rave , a tt ime si nt h e s hape o f as t one c i s t .I n many c a se s ,t h eo u te re dge so ft h eb a r row sh ave b een e n la rged a nd u sed a s ap l ace f o rs e conda ry b u r ia l s ( c r ema t ion g rave s ) d u r ing t h e L a t e B ronze Ag eo rE a r ly I r on Age . T he d i scu s s ion c oncer n ing t h es oc ia lb a ckg round o ft h eB ronze Age b a r row sh a s , i n r e cen t y ea r s , b een r a the r k een , a nd , t h e c oncep t o fc h ief dom h a s a t t rac t ed much a t ten t ion . I nd iv idua l i ty , monumen ta l i ty ,a nd t h er i ch ly -equ ipped c en t ra lg rav e sm ay b e s e en a s am ir ro ro ft h e s t ra t if ica t ion o ft h e s oc ie ty . Q ue s t ion s s uch a st h e se a nd t h e u nde r ly ing e conomy a r e o fc en t ra l i mpor tance i nB ronze Age r e sea r ch i nN o r ther n E u rop e . C a i r ns T he c a ir ni s ag rave f o rm c on s ide red c ha ra c te r i s t ic o ft h e B ronze Age ( F ig . 8 ) . T he c a irn su sua l ly c on ta in ma rked c en t ra l ly l o ca ted g r ave s ,i n huma t ion g rave sf r om t h eL a te B ronze Age -Ea r ly B ronze Age a sw e l la sc r ema t ion g rave sf r om t h eL a te B ronz e Age . L a ter d a t ing s a r e n o t u nu sua l . C a ir n s a ppea ri nt h e g r ea ter p a r t o fS cand inav ia . B y t r ad i t ion , s pec ia la t ten t ion h a sb een p a id t ot h e i ra ppea rance i nc oa s ta l e nv i ronmen t s . C a ir n s a r e f ound a l ong t h e Swed i sh a nd N o rweg ian A t lan t ic c oa s t s a nd a round e x ten s ive p a r t s o ft h e B a l t ic a nd t h eB o thn ian S ea . I nS ou ther na nd C en t ra l S weden , c e r ta in c oncen t ra t ion sm ay b en o ted : i ni n ne rS ou ther n Sweden , t h e r eg ion o fc en t ra l s ou ther n Smä land ( Vä r end ) ;i nt h er e g ion o fB lek inge ; i nw e s ter n Sweden ,t h er e g ion s o fn o r the rn H a l land , B ohu s län , S ou the rn , c en t ra la nd c en t ra l n o r ther nV ä s t e rgö t land a nd L ake V äner n a r ea ; i nE a s ter n Sweden , t h e r eg ion s o fO land , s ou thea s ter na nd n or thea s ter n Smä land , a nd p a r t s o ft h e Mä la rp rov ince s , e spec ia l ly a l ong t h e w a ter c ou r se s i nS öde rman land , a nd i ne a s te rn a nd n or thea s ter n Upp land . C a ir n sa r e a l so c ommon o nG o t land a nd a l ong t h ec oa s to fN o r r land . T he l a rge s tc oncen t ra t ion o fc a ir n si sl o ca ted i nc en t r a ls ou ther n Smä land , i . e . i no ne o ft h eg a l le ry g rave s 'c en t ra la r ea so fd i s t r ibu t ion . I n Smä land a nd V ä s te rgö t land ,c a irn s a r es i tua ted o nh i l ly a r ea si nt h ev a l ley s . I n Smä land ,t h e se a r es t i l l f o re s ted w he rea si n V ä s te rgö t land t h ey h ave g ener a l ly b een l o ca t ed t oa r ab le l a nd .

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F ig . 8 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f l a rge r c a irns ( 10 m e te r s o r mo r e i nd iame te r ) i n S ou ther n Sweden p e r e conom ic map s hee t . 1 7

B a r row sa nd l a rge s t one s e t t ing s , i . e . g rave s wh ich a r e , mo s tl i ke ly , f r om t h eB ronze Age o rE a r ly I r on A ge a r ea l so f ound i ns im i la rl o ca t ion s . I ni n ne rS ou ther n Sweden , t h ec a i rn so f t en c on ta in l a rg e ,c en t ra l ly l o ca ted s t on ec i s t sw i th i n huma t ion g r av e s wh ich e mpha s ize t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t og a l le ry g rave s . T he c a ir n sa r el o ca ted p a r t icu la r ly h igh i nt h et e r ra in w h ich i se s pec ia l ly o bv iou si nt h e h i l ly s i te s i n t h e c oa s ta l e nv i ronmen t . T he ir i nd iv idua l i ty i sr e inf orced b y t h e i r monumen ta l i ty a nd c on sc iou se xpo s i t ion . T hey a r ep l aced s i ng ly o ri ns ma l l g roup s , o f ten i nc onnec t ion w i th s t one s e t t ing s ,s ome t ime si nt h es hape o f as h ip . C on sequen t ly , c a irn s a ppea r i n d i f f e ren t g eog raph ica l r eg ion s . T he v ery f ew a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s wh ich h ave b een c a r r ied o u t r e vea l ac h rono log ica l d i s tr ibu t ion c ove r ing t h e g r ea te r p a r t o ft h e B ronze Age . T he c a i rn s c an h a rd ly b e a t tr ibu ted t o a ny u n if o rm s oc io -econom ic s t ruc tu r e o r a ny c er ta in p er iod . T he i r monumen ta l i ty m ay ,h oweve r ,g ive r i se t oh ypo the se sc once rn ing t h es oc ia ls t ruc tu r eo f t h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty . Wi th in l a rger p a r t s o ft h e i n land a r ea s o fS ou the rn a nd We s te rn Sweden ,a nd t h ec oa s ta la r ea sa nd f j o rd a r ea si nE a s ter n Sweden ,c a i rn sh ave a d ef ineab le r e la t ion sh ip t o o t he r a nc ien t monumen t s : h eap s o f f i re -c rack ed s t one s ; c l ea red , t i l led g round ; p i le s o fs t one a nd r ubb le ; s t one f e nce s ; r ock -ca rv ing s ; a nd c upma rk s . B yu s ing t h e se t y pe s o fa nc ien t monumen t s , t h e e conom ic s t ruc tu re o ft h e u nde r ly ing s oc ie ty m ay b er e con s t ruc ted . Any u n if o rm i ty c ommon t ot h e i rl a rge a r ea o f d i s t r ibu t ion c an h a rd ly b ed ocumen ted . I nl a rge p a r t so fS ou ther n Sweden ,t h ee conomy i sl i ke ly t oh av eb een c ompo sed o fs eve ra lf a c to r sw i th c l ea r ly a g ra r ian e l emen t s .V i sua l d ocumen ta t ion o ft h is i ss e en i nt h e r o ck c a rv ing s . As oc ie ty w i th as ugge s ted s oc ia l c ompo s i t ion b a sed u pon t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t r ibe sa nd ' s imp le 'c h ief dom si no pen f o rd i scu s s ion . Ano the rs oc io -econom ic s t ruc tu r ei nt h e s oc ie ty c ou ld b e d i scu s sed i nr e ga rd t ot h e c oa s t -bound c a ir n sa l ong t h e c oa s t o fN o r r land . Ar e a sonab le s ugge s t ion i s ah un t ing a nd g a the r ing e conomy w i th t h es e aa si t s mo s ti mpo r tan tn a tu ra l f a c to r . T he s ame m ay a l so b ep a r t ia l ly a pp l icab le t oc a i rn si nt h ec o a s ta la r ea sf u r the rs ou th . C a i rn sa r en o ts uff i c ien te v idence f o rd ocumen t ing p roce s se so fc o lon iza t ion .T hey a r e a lway s f ound i nr e g ion sw he r e i ti sp o s s ib le t od ocumen t e a r l ie rs e t t lemen t . I nl a rge a r ea s ,a bove a l li nE a s ter nS ou ther n Sweden ,n o tl e a s to nG o t land ,t h e Mä la rp rov ince s , a nd No r r land , t h ey a r e , h oweve r , t h e e a r l ie s t d ocumen ta t ion o f ac on sc iou s , monumen ta l g rave t r ad i t ion . T h is may r ef lec t ac hange o r c hange s i nt h e r e l ig iou s s y s tem s , wh ich , i nt ur n , may h ave b een c au sed b y mo r e p rof ound s oc ia l c hange s : a mo r e s t ab i l ized p roduc t ion o rgan iza t ion a nd ag rea te rc onf inemen tt oc er ta in e ne rgy s ou r ce s . S tone S e t t ing s S tone s e t t ing i st h eg en e ra lt e rm f o rv i s ib le g rave sw h ich a r en o ti n c luded i na ny o ft h e a bove r e co rded t ype s . S tone s e t t ing s may b e b u i l t e n t i r e ly o fs t one s ( c a ir n ) , w i th a m ixed s t one a nd e a r th f i l l ing , o rm a in ly e a r th ( mound ) , o rt h ey may l a ck a ny f i l l ing w i th in a n e dge c ha in o fr e cumben t s t one s . S tone s e t t ing s may a l so c on s i s t s o le ly o f r e cumben t o ru p r igh t s t one s w i th d i f f e ren t f o rms ; r ound , o va l , s qua re , r e c tangu la r , s h ip -f o rmed , a nd t r iangu la r . I n t h e c on tex t o fr eg i s t ra t ion , c er ta in f o rms h ave b een g i ven s p ec ia lt e rm s : s t one c i r c le ( Sw . d oma r r ing ) ,t r iangu la rs t one s e t t ing w i th c oncave s i de s ( Sw . t r eudd ) , s h ip -f o rmed s t one s e t t ing ( Sw . s kepp sä t tn ing ) , i n a dd i t ion t o g rave s ma rked o n ly w i th a n u pr igh t s t one . T he v i s ib le s t one s e t t ing s a lmo s t a lway s c on ta in a ni n d iv idua lb u r ia lp l aced c en t ra l ly i nt h eg r ave . C on sequen t ly , s t one s e t t ing s r ep resen t a' g rave l a nguage ' e x tens ive b o th c h rono log ica l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly . C ommon t oa l ls t one s e t t ing si st h e i rl ow h e igh ti n r e la t ion t o d i ame te r o r l e ng th x w id th , t hu s t e rm ino log ica l ly d i s t ingu ishab le f r om mound sa nd / o rc a ir n s . C a i rn l ike s t one s e t t ing s ,g rave s wh ich a r ef l a t te rt h an t h ec a i rn s t h em se lve sb u to t he rw i se s im i la r ,a r eo f ten f ound s i tua ted c l o se t ot h ec a i rn so nh i l lt o p s o r o n h igh ly ing g round . I n c er ta in r eg ion s , t h e se g rave s a r e c on s iderab ly mo r e c ommon t h an t h e c a i rn s a nd a r e , t hu s , a c tua l ly t h e mo s t t yp ica l g rave f o rm f o rt h e B ronze Age .T h i sa pp l ie sp a r t icu la r ly t ot h e Mä la rp rov ince s . I nc e r ta in r eg ion s ,c a irn s 1 8

a r el a ck ing ,w h i le s t one s e t t ing sa ppea ri n s tead . T hey m ay o f ten s how c e r ta in d i s t inc t iv e c ha rac te r i s t ic sa s , f o re xamp le ,d oub le e dge c ha in sa nd ab ou lde rp l aced c en t ra l ly i nt h e g rave . T he r ound s t one s e t t ing s a r e mo s t c ommon , b u t s qua r e a nd r e c tangu la rs t one s e t t ing s o ccu ra sw e l l . I n c e r ta in a r ea s , e spec ia l ly o n G o t land , s t one s e t t ing s i nt h e s hape o f as h ip a r ec ommon . I nl a rge ra r ea s o fw e s ter n Sweden , t h e r ea r e l a rge s t one s e t t ing s , l y ing s i ng ly o ri n g roup s ,w i th in a r ea sn ow c u l t iva ted .T hey , mo s tl i ke ly ,b e long t ot h eL a te B ronze Age a nd t h eE a r ly I r on Age .T he E a r ly I r on Age i sc ha rac te r ized b y ar i ch a nd v a r ied ' g rave l a nguage ' d i s t ingu ished b y l a rge f l a t a nd c a r ef u l ly b u i l t s t one s e t t ing s 1 5 -25 m i n d i ame te r ,o f ten w i th o u te re dg ec ha in sa nd s p ec ia l ly m a rked c en t ra lp a r t s : c en t ra lc a ir n s , c en t ra l mound s o rc en t ra l s t one s e t t ing s . T he se g rave s a r e c ommon i nl a rge p a r t s o f w e s tern Sweden , Go t land a nd e a s tern Sweden , i n a dd i t ion t o g rave s ma rked b y r e cumben to ru p r igh ts t one s ,c ommon i na l la r ea so fS ou ther na nd C en t ra l Sweden .O f t h e se ,t h es t one c i r c le s( Sw . d oma r r inga r )a r ep e r t icu la r ly t y p ica l .T hey a r ef o und i nt h e t h ou sand sa l lo ve rw e s ter n ,s ou ther n ,i n ne rs ou ther na nd e a s ter n Sweden .T he n umbe r s o f s t one s i n e ach c i rc le a r e r epea ted w i th a s ton ish ing r egu la r i ty ( 5 ,7 ,9 ,11 , e t c . ) h oweve r ,w i th l o ca la nd p robab ly c h rono log ica lc ha ra c te r i s t ic s . I ron Age S e t t lemen t A reas I tm igh tb e s a id , g ene ra l iz ing b o ld ly , t h a tI r on Age g rave s , i nc on t ra s tt oB ronze Age g rave s , a r e c oncen t ra ted t os pec ia l ly s e lec ted p l ace s l o ca ted n ea rt h e ir c on tempor a ry s e t t lemen t s . C eme ta r ie s o rg rave f i e ld s o ccu r , h oweve r , a s e a r ly a s t h e L a te B ronze A ge , f o re xamp le ,i nt h ef o rm o fc r ema t ion g rave s , s ome t ime ss i tua ted i nt h ee a r th f i l l o fl a rg eb a r row sf r om t h eE a r ly B ronze A g ei nS ou ther n Sweden . T he c eme ter ie s r e f lec t ac ommuna l i d ea , ' i nd iv idua l i ty w i th in t h e g roup ' a nd t h ey r ef lec t s e t t lemen t i n ten s i ty a nd p opu la t ion i n amo r e r e l iab le w ay t h an d o t h e o lde r g rave s . T h rough t h es i ze o ft h ec eme te r ie s ,t h e f o rma t ion o ft h ei n d iv idua lg rave s , a nd t h ev a r ia t ion sw i th in t h eg roup s o fg rave s , c e r ta in u nde r ly ing s oc ia l p a t ter n s may b e r e con s t ruc ted . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ec eme te r ie s( F ig . 9 )d i sp lay s ,i nb road o u t l ine s ,t h ee x t en s ion o f t h e I r on Age s e t t led c oun t ry . T he d om inance o fe a s ter n Sweden , e spec ia l ly t h e Mä la r p rov ince s ,i sc l ea r ly d ocumen ted . L a rge a r ea so fw e s ter n ,s ou ther n ,a nd i n ne rs ou ther n Sw eden s how af a i r ly e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o fI r on Age c eme te r ie s .T he i rd i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e c en t ra l a r ea s i nt h e s epa ra te r eg ion s i so bv iou s . T he re , c eme ter ie s o f ten r e p r e sen t a c on t inu i ty i ns e t t lemen t f r om t h eI r on Age t ot h eM idd le Age s , c od if ied i nt e r r i to r ia l o rgan iza t ion ( hund r ed s ,p rov ince s ,p a r i she s , e t c . ) . S can ia i sc l ea r ly u nde r -r ep r esen ted i n t h e p r esen tday v i s ib le ma ter ia l . T h i s i sd ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t g rave s t h e re , a s i n D enma rk , n ow o f ten l a ck v i s ib le m a rk ing s a bove t h e g round . I n o the rp a r ts o ft h e c oun t ry , t h e s ame p rob lem o fs ou r ce c r i t ic i sm e x i s t s . T h i s a pp l ie s t o , f o r e xamp le , c eme te r ie s f r om t h eE a r ly I r on Age i nt h el ow land s o fn or thea s ter nV ä s te rgö t land , a s w e l la si nÖ s te rgö t land ,a nd O land . T he mo rpho logy a nd l o ca t ion i nr e la t ion t o mo r er e cen ts e t t lemen ta r eu sua l ly u sed a sa r ough s t ra t if ica t ion i n to t wo p r inc ipa l c h rono log ica lg roup s : E a r ly I r on Age a nd L a te I r on Ag e .T h i si sp a r t icu la r ly e v iden ti nt h e Mä la rp rov ince s . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h eg rave sf r om t h eI r on A ge i nt h e Mä la rp rov ince sa r es imp le r ound s t one s e t t ing s . G ene ra l t e ndenc ie s i nd ica te t h a t c e r ta in c ha ra c te r is t ic t ype s o fg rave s make u p as e rv iceab le b a s i sf o rd a t ing . Mo r eove r ,w hen t h e se t y pe sa ppea ri nr e cu r r ing c omb ina t ion s , ac l a s s if ica t ion o r g roup ing o ft h e b ur ia ls i nc h rono log ica l p r ima ry p er iod sc anno ts imp ly b ed i sm i s sed . T h i sc oncer n s , a bove a l l , c eme te r ie s wh ich , f o ra l ong t ime h ave b een u nde r s tood a sb e long ing t ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge :u pr igh ts t one sa nd t r iangu la rs t one s e t t ing s . C a ir n s c onnec ted w i th c eme ter ie s m ay , a ppa r en t ly , a l so b e u s ed a si n d ica t ion sf o ra ne a r l ie rd a t ing . S qua re s t one s e t t ing sa ppea ro f ten i n" va r ied " c eme te r ie s f r om t h e E a r ly I r on Age . T he ir p re sence i n L a te I r on Age c eme ter ies , h oweve r , p o se d i ff icu l t ie s i n t ype 1 9

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c l a s s if ica t ion m e r e ly o nt h eb a s i so ft h ep r ima ry d a ta t a b le .T he s ame m ay b es a id a bou t r e c tangu la rs t one s e t t ing sw h ich o bv iou s ly a r e mo r e c ommon i nt h eL a te I r on Age , i n a ny c as e , r e ga rd ing t h o se o r ien ted i na ne a s t -we s td i r ec t ion . L a rge s t one s e t t ing sw i th a s i ng le l a y e ro fs t one s l ab sa r ef i rm ly a ncho r ed i nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge . S t one s e t t ing sw i th c ompa ra t ive ly l a rge d i ame te r sb u tw i thou tt h e ma rked f l a tne s so fs t one s l ab sa ppea ri n t h eL a te I r on Ag e ,o f t en c on ta in ing i n huma t ion g rave s . C on sequen t ly , as t ra t if i ca t ion o f t h es t one s e t t ing si se x t r eme ly d i ff icu l ti nt h er e g i s te r ed ma te r ia l ,a bove a l li ni t sc oded f o rm o n ar e co rd s hee to r ad a ta t a b le . T he c eme te r ie sw i th b a r row s 3 10 m i nd i ame te ra r ec ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e L a te I r on Age . T he s h ip -shaped s t one s e t t ing s a nd t h e t r iangu la r s t one s e t t ing s w i th c oncave s i de s , f ound i nt h e se c eme te r ie s , e mpha s ize t h e c h rono log ica l a ncho rage . T he t ype s m en t ioned h e re may o n ly b e c on s ide r ed a s mode ra te ly g ood c r i te r ia o ft h e L a te I r on Age , a l low ing f o r s ome ma rg in o fu ncer ta in ty f o r t h e t r iangu la r s t one s e t t ing s w i th c oncave s i de s . Ad i s t inc td if e r ence i nt h es pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ec eme te r ie sm ay b eo b s e rved . T he L a te I r on Age c eme te r ie sa r el o ca ted n ea rf a rm sa nd v i l lage sa l ong f i s su r ev a l ley sa nd f j o rd s , wh ich , i nf a c t , s how s e t t lemen tc on t inu i ty f r om t h eM idd le Age su n t i l r e cen t t ime s . T he s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re wh ich c ha rac te r ize s t h e se r e g ion s may , t h e r ef o r e , b e t r a ced b ack t ot h eL a te I r on A ge .T he u se o fp l ace n ame s( b e low )m ay c onf i rm t h i s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge c eme te r ie si sd i f f e r en t .T hey a r eu sua l ly l o ca ted i nt h ep e r iphe ra lp a r t so ft h ep r e sen t -day s e t t led a r ea s ,o nh ighe rs i te si nt h et e r ra in a nd o n mor e e a s i ly d ra ined s o i ls . T h i s d i f f e r ence r e ga rd ing s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion b e tween e a r l ier a nd l a ter I r on Age c eme ter ies i n t h e Mä la r p rov ince s p robab ly r ef lec t s a n e conom ic c hange o fg r ea t i mpo r tance , wh ich s e em s t oh ave t a ken p lace d u r ing t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod . I no the ra r ea so f Sweden ,t h ec or r e spond ing d i v i s ion i s mo r ec omp l ica ted ,a nd t h e r e a r en ume rou sl o ca lv a r ia t ion s . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic s t ruc tu r eo fw e s ter n , i nne rs ou ther n , a nd s ou thea s ter n Sweden a sw e l l a sG o t land i st h e f o l low ing ' g rave l a nguage ' : l a rge s t one s e t t ing si nc eme te r ie s ,c eme te r ie sw i th u p r igh to rr e cumben ts t one s ,s t one c i r c le s , e t c . Ac l o se ra na ly s i so ft h i s ma te r ia l i mp l ie st h a tc l ea r ly d e s igna ted s e t t lemen ta r ea s m ay b ed ef ined . I na dd i t ion ,t h e re a r er e g ion sw i th mo r el im i ted I r on Age a r ea s : I nne r D a ls land , We s ter nV ä rm land a nd N ä rk e . T he n umbe ro f mound so fI r on Age t ype i s r ema rkab le i nc e r ta in r e g ion s . I nI nne rS ou the rn Sweden t h e se p robab ly b e long t ot h e L a te I r on A ge .I no t he rr e g ion s ,f o ri n s tance B ohu s län ,s ma l lg roup so f mound s ,r ound a sw e l la so va l ,h ave s hown t ob e long t ot h eE a r ly I r on Age . O ther Types o f Anc ien t Monumen ts -S ome Examp les Dw e l l ing S i te s S e t t lemen t su sed b yh un t ing a nd f i sh ing c u l tu r e sh ave b een f ound i na l l t h e Swed i sh p rov ince s . T he ir r eg i s t ra t ion i s ,h oweve r , i r r egu la r . I nc onnec t ion w i th t h e S u rvey o f Anc ien t Monumen t s f o r t h e E conom ic Map , r eg is t ra t ion o f d we l l ing s i te s h a s , u nf o r tuna te ly , n o tb een d one s y s tema t ica l ly . I nt h e 1 970 ' s , s y s tema t ic r e co rd ing w a s s t a r ted . Howeve r , t h e e x ten s ive s pec ia l s u rvey s o fd we l l ing s i te s i nN o r r land wh ich h ave b een c a r r ied o u ti nc onnec t ion w i th t h el a ke r e gu la t ion sa nd w i th t h ec on s t ruc t ion o fp owe rs t a t ion s s hou ld b em en t ioned . T h i sh a s r a d ica l ly c hanged o u rk now ledge o f t h ei n land a r ea so fN o r r land . I n land a nd l a ke -bound d we l l ing s i te sw i th ah un t ing a nd g a ther ing c ha rac te rh av ea l so b een f o und i nS ou ther n Sweden . C oa s ta ld we l l ing s i te s a r e ,h oweve r , mo r ew e l lk nown .A long t h e We s tc oa s t ,e spec ia l ly i nB ohu s län ,t h e r ei s as t rong c oncen t ra t ion o fs i te s w i th f l in t f i nd s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p e r iod s . Ac o r r e spond ing c oncen t ra t ion e x i s t si nS can ia . C h rono log ica l ly , t h e se s i te s r e p r esen tt h ee a r l ie s ts e t t lemen ti nt h ec oun t ry . A l so a l ong t h ec oa s to ft h eB a l t ic S ea , t h e re a r e s ca t te red c oncen t ra t ion s o f d we l l ing s i te s o f a Me so l i th ic c ha rac te r , d i s t ingu i shed b yp ecked a x e s . Dwe l l ing s i te sf r om t h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod a r ek nown f r om m any d i f f e r en tg eog raph ica l 2 1

e nv ironmen t st h roughou ts ou ther n Sweden . T he F unne lB eake rc u l tu r ea nd t h eP i t ted Wa r ec u l tu r e may b em en t ioned i nt h i sc on tex t . B ronze Age d we l l ing s i te sa r ek nown f r om t h e s ame r e g ion s ; a l though i ns ou the rn a nd w e s te rn Sweden , t o ac on s ide rab ly l e s se re x ten tt h an t h a t wh ich g rave s f r om t h es ame p e r iod w ou ld mo t iva te . I ne a s ter n S ou ther n Sweden , dwe l l ing s i te s f r om t h eB ronze Age a r ei n d ica ted b yc ha rac te r is t ic h eap so ff i r e -c ra cked s t one s( Sw . s kä rv s ten shöga r ) ,b u i l tu po fd i sca rded m a te r ia lf r om h ea r th s , e t c . S uch h eap s a r e f ound i nt housand s a l ong t h e B ronze Age s ho re l ine s , p r ima r i ly i nU pp land , S öde rman land , V ä s tman land , Ö s te rgö t land , a nd Smä land . I n c onnec t ion w i th t h e se h eap st h e r ea r eo f ten s ma l lc l ea r ed a r ea s ,s t one f e nce s ,a nd p i le s o fs t one f r om t h e c l ea r ed a r ea s . T oge the rw i th c up -ma rk s a nd g rave s ( c a ir n s , s t one s e t t ing s ) , t h e se a nc ien t monumen t s f o rm c l o sed c omp lexe s a nd a r e f ound i n c l o se c onnec t ion w i th t h ec on tempo ra ry s ho r e l ine ,o f ten i nt h ei n ne rp a r to fa ni n le t . T he d we l l ing s i te sf r om t h eI r on Age v a ry g r ea t ly ,a nd s how l o ca lc ha ra c te r i s t ic s .T he l a rge c omp lexe so fh ou se f ounda t ion s f r om t h eE a r ly I r on Age o nO land a nd G o t land a r ew e l l k nown . I n c onnec t ion w i th t h e se , t h e r e a r e s y s tem s o ff i e ld a r ea s a nd s t one f e nce s . T he re a r e c oun te rpa r t s a l so o n t h e m a in land , f o r e xamp le , i nÖ s te rgö t land , U pp land a nd V ä s te rgö t land . Anc ien tT i l l ag e T r ace s T he r ema in s o fp r eh is to r ic a g ra r ian e conomy a r e e x ten s ive , b u ta sy e tp oo r ly k nown . C on t inued s u rvey c an c e r ta in ly d ocumen t al a rg ep a r to ft h i s ma te r ia l . T he s ma l l f i e ld a r ea s wh ich a r e ap a r t o ft h e a nc ien t monumen t c omp lex o ft h e B ronze Age , w e re m en t ioned a bove . K now ledge o ft h i sh a sb een o b ta ined i nr e cen ty ea r sa nd ,h opef u l ly , i tw i l l i n c rea se r ap id ly i n t h e f u tu re i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e S urvey o f Anc ien t Monumen t s . T he e x ten s ive c omp lexe s o fh ou se f ounda t ion s w i th s u r round ing s y s tems o fs t one f e nce sa nd f i e ld a r ea s o n O land a nd G o t land a t tr a c ted a t ten t ion a t av e ry e a r ly d a te . Modern r e sea rch , p e r sued w i th g rea t i n ten s i ty b y t h e h uman g eog rapher s h a s d ocumen ted t h ee x i s tence o fe x ten s ive a nd h i the r to u nknown f i e ld s y s tems o nG o t land d a t ing f r om t h el a s tp h a se o ft h eB ronze Age a nd t h eI r on Age .T h i ss i tua t ion i sl i ke ly t o b es im i la ri no t he rp a r t so ft h ec oun t ry t o o . T he i n ve s t iga t ion sw h ich h ave b een c a r r ied o u t i nS can ia , Ö s te rgö t land , V ä s te rgö t land a nd U pp land may b e m en t ioned . S urvey w o rk i nr e cen ty ea r sh a sb rough ta bou tt h ed i scove ry o fn ume rou s r ema in so fa nc ien t t i l led f i e ld sa l so i nB ohu s län a nd i ni n ne rS ou ther nS weden . R ock C arv ing s R ock c a rv ing s a r e among t h e i n ter na t iona l ly mo s t r e cogn ized a nc ien t monumen t s i n S cand inav ia . T hey a r e f ound , ma in ly , i n n or ther n B ohu s län , s ou thea s te r n S can ia ( S imr i s ) , n or thea s te r n Smä land , e a s te rn Ö s te rgö t land a nd s ou thwe s ter n Upp land ( Enköp ing ) . C oncu r ren t ly w i th t h e r ou t ine S u rvey o f Anc ien t Monumen ts f o r t h e E conom ic Map o f Sweden ,t h e r eh ave b een mo r eo rl e s se x ten s ive s pec ia l ized s u rvey s . R ock c a rv ing sa r e ap a r t icu la r ly g ood e xamp le o ft h i s . I nB ohu s län ,s y s tema t ic s u rvey s o fr o ck c a rv ing sh ave l o ng b een c omp i led ,p r ima r i ly b y Ake F r ed s jö . Mo re r e cen t ly ,a n ew s pec ia l ized s u rvey o ft h e p rov ince h a s b een c a r r ied o u t u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o f G unna rE k e lund ,C en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s . U pp land i sa no the r i mpor tan t a r ea f o r r o ck c a rv ing s . Mo s t o ft h e c a rv ing s i nt h e p rov ince h ave b e en d i scove red b yE ina rK je l l6n . R ock c a rv ing s a r e av a luab le m ir ro ro fB ronze A ge s oc ie ty . T he i ri n te rp r e ta t ion i s i n t en se ly d i scu s sed -t oc on s ide rt h em a se xc lu s ive m an if e s ta t ion so fr e l ig ion a nd mag ic i sp robab ly w rong . T he w e l l -known s h ip f i gu r e sa r eq u i te n a tu ra li nt h e i re nv i ronmen t a nd , i nt h e s ame w ay , t h ea n ima l f i gu r e s m ay m i r ro ra spec t s o fe conom ic l i f e . R ock c a rv ing s d ep ic t a n a c tua l e nv i ronmen t , p e rhap s w i th c er ta in i n te rwoven r e l ig iou s e l emen t s . H i l l -f o r t s H i l l -f o r t sa r ee xamp le so f ah e te rogeneou st y pe o fa nc ien t monumen t ,t h ef u nc t ion a nd 2 2

a ge o f wh ich a r e s t i l lv ery d eba teab le . H i l l -f or ts a r e p a r t icu la r ly c ommon i nt h e L a te I r on Age i nt h e Mä la rp rov ince s , Ö s tergö t land , n or thea s ter n Smä land a nd B ohu s län ( F ig . 1 0 ) . I ti sn o t i n conce ivab le t h a t t h ey a r e , i n s ome w ay , man if es ta t ions o fa n a l l -emb rac ing f unc t ion , p e rhap su l t ima te ly g over n ed b y ac en t ra l p ower . T he f o r t so n O land a nd Go t land d i f f e r i nt ype f r om t h e f o r t s i no the r a rea s .

F ig . 1 0 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fh i l l -fo r t s i nS ou the rn Sweden . 2 3

R ema ins o fL ow techno log ic a lI r on P rod uc t ion T he ma jo r i ty o f Sweden ' s many a nc ien t monumen t s c onnec ted t oi r on p roduc t ion b e long t ot h e L a te I r on Age a nd E a r ly M idd le Age s . R educ t ion f u rna ce sa nd s l ag a r e d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou tt wo ma in a r ea s :i n ne rS ou the rn Sweden ,a nd t h ec en t ra lS wed i sh wood land s( Da lar na a nd G ä s t r ik land ) . S l ag f r om l ow techn ica li r on p roduc ing a r ea si s a l so f o und i n many o t he rp rov ince s , b u ts pa r se ly i na r ea sw i th l ime s tone b a sa lr o ck a nd a l ka l ine c l ay si nd r if td epo s i t s . L ow techn ica li r on p roduc t ion i sc onf ined t ot h o s ea r e a s whe r eb og o r ei sp r e sen t . S ome p o in t s o fs ou r ce c r i t ic i sm o nt h e r e p r e sen ta t iv i ty o ft h e se a nc ien t monumen t s may b e p re sen ted . I td i ff icu l t t o d i scove r t h e se r ema in s t h rough s u rvey ing . T he a ccumu la t ion s o fs l ag a r eo f ten o ve rg rown o rh ave b een d e s t royed a nd s p r ead o u tb y o ve r -p lough ing . T he f ur nace s w e r e mo s t ly s ma l l , a nd w e r e b u i l t o fc l ay . H oweve r , m any s i te sh av eb een r e co rded i nc onnec t ion w i th t h eI nven to ry o fA nc ien t Monumen t s . V a r iou si nd iv idua lr e sea r che r si nd if e r en tp a r t so f Sweden h av ee xpended m uch e n e rgy i ns e a r ch ing o u tt h e se s i te s ,w o rk w h ich h a sb een o fg rea th e lp t ot h eS u rv ey . I r on p roduc t ion i ni nne r S ou ther n Sweden w a s i nve s t iga ted b yJ ohn N ih lin . T he n umbe r o f k nown i r on -p roduc ing s i te s i n Smä land p robab ly a moun t s t o a bou t a t hou sand . T hey a r e ma in ly c oncen t ra ted i n t h e b o rde r a r ea b e tween s ou thea s ter n Smä land a nd c en t ra l s ou ther n Smä land . G rave g ood s , i n c lud ing s l ag , s how t h a ti r on p roduc t ion a ppea r ed i n Smä land a se a r ly a st h eM ig ra t ion P e r iod a nd w r i t ten s ou rce s c i te t h e wo rk ing o fb og o r ea sl a te a st h e 1 7 th c en tu ry , wh ich s how st h a tt h i st e chn ique h a sh ad al o ng c on t inu i ty i nt ime .N ih la ia s sumed t h e ma in p e r iod o fp rodu c t ion t oh av e b een i nt h eE a r ly M idd le A ge s ,t h ep e r iod o f1 000 -1300 AD .H i sa s sump t ion w a sb a sed o nt h eg eog raph ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fi r on -p roduc ing s i te s . T hey a ppea ri nt h o se d i s t r ic t s wh ich a r e t hough t t oh ave b een c o lon ized i nt h e M idd le Age s . T he p rov ince ' s i r on p roduc t ion may b e s i gn if ican t f o r e a r ly t r ade i nt h e s ou ther nB a l t ic a r ea d u r ing t h e M idd le Age s .T he l o ca t ion o ft h et own o fK a lma ri si mpo r tan ti nt h a tc onnec t ion ,a si s t h eO land ic h i l l -f o r to fE k e to rp ,w h ich h a sa bundan tr ema in so fE a r ly Med ieva li r on . T he r e a r e a l so n ume rou s f i nd s o fs l ag i nn o r ther n S can ia a nd s ou ther n H a l land , p robab ly f r om t h e E a r ly M idd le Age s . Ano the r p rov ince o fg rea t s i gn if icance i s V ä s te rgö t land , whe r ew ide sp r ead r ema in s o fi r on p roduc t ion h ave l o ng b een k nown . S l ag i sa s soc ia ted w i th E a r ly I r on A ge g rave s , a nd o t he ra r chaeo log ica l f i nd ss ugg e s t t h a t i r on m ay h ave b een p roduced a tv e ry e a r ly d a te . I n r e cen t y ea r s , n ume rou s i r on p roduc ing s i te s h ave b een d i scove red , m a in ly i nn or thea s ter n V ä s te rgö t land . T hey c on s i s t o fs ma l l h eap s o fs l ag a nd l ow techn ica l f ur nace s , s im i la r t ot h e se h eap s i n Smä land . As e r ie so fn ew d a te s f r om 1 4 Ca na ly se ss uppo r t st h et h eo ry t h a tt h e se s i te s a r ef r om t h eV ik ing Age a nd t h ee a r l ie s tM idd le A g e s . We s ter na nd I nne rS ou ther n Sweden a r en o th omogeneou sa r ea sw i th r e ga rd t oe a r ly i r on p roduc t ion . An umbe ro fs y s tem sm ay b ed i s t ingu i shed i nt ime a nd s pace , a nd i n c e r ta in a r ea st h e r ew a sp robab ly l a rg e -sca le p roduc t ion e ven d u r ing t h eE a r ly I r on A g e . O ne s i te i nN ä rk em ay b ea t t r ibu ted t ot h ev e ry e a r l ie s tp a r to ft h eI r on A g et h rough 1 4C a na ly se s . K now ledge o ft h eL a te I r on A ge ( V ik ing A g e )a nd t h eM idd le Age si smo r ee x ten s iv e . I nC en t ra l Sweden , o u ri n f o rma t ion i sg r ea te ra nd i r on p roduc t ion e a s ie rt oi n te rp re t . I nf o rma t ion r e la ted t ot h i s , g eog raph ica l ly c onf ined t oD a lar na a nd G ä s t r ik land w i th n e ighbo r ing p a r t s o fn o r ther nV ä s tman land a nd n o r thwe s ter nU pp land a l ong w i th t h e p rov ince o fJ äm t land , h a s i n c rea sed g r ea t ly d u r ing t h e 1 960 ' sa nd 1 970 ' s , b ecau se o f a r chaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion sa nd t h eS u rvey o fA nc ien t Monumen t s . A pp rox ima te ly 1 , 000 s i te s w i th r ema in s o fl ow techn ica l i r on p roduc t ion f r om t h e L a te I r on Age h ave b een r eg i s te r ed i nD a lar na . T he se s i te sm ay b e r e cogn ized b ys l ag s c a t t e r ed o nt h eg round a nd s ma l lh eap sa nd w a l l so fs l ag .T he s l ag i sp a r t ly d uc t i le a nd g ranu la r ly f l u ida l . B ur n tp i ece so fc l ay f ur na ce sa r ec ommon .T he p r inc ip le d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se s i te si sa l ong t h er i ve rD a lä lven a nd t h el a k e si nt h i sw a te rs y s tem i ne a s t er na nd w e s ter nD a lar na . T he s i te sh ave r ough ly t h es ame d i s t r ibu t ion a st h e f ew g rave si nt h e 2 4

p rov ince . A rchaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s , 1 4 C d a t ing s , t opog raph ica l r e la t ion sh ip s , g r ave s -s l ag ,e t c . ,a l ls ugge s tt h a ti r on w o rk ing w a s ,o nt h e who le ,a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s c a t te red s e t t lemen t sa nd t h ea dven to fc o lon iza t ion d u r ing t h e L a te I r on Age . T he r e mu s t ,h owev e r ,h ave b een as u rp lu sp roduc t ion o fi r on . T he I r on Age s e t t lemen ti nG ä s t r ik land b e long sm a in ly t ot h eL a te I r on Age ,a nd t h e g rave s ma rk s ome o t he rw e l l -def ined a r ea so fs e t t lemen t . L a rge a moun t so fp r im i t ive s l ag a r ep r e sen ti nt h e se a r ea s , o f ten i no rn ea rg rave s . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i r on p roduc t ion a nd L a te I r on Ag es e t t lemen ti sc l ea r . S e t t lemen t r e g ion s o fG ä s t r ik land may b e t r a ced s ou thwa rd s i n to Upp land o n t h e s ou thea s te rn s i de o ft h e D a lä lven . G rave s a nd s l ag o ccu r i n t h is a r ea , a l so i n t h e n o r th er np a r t so fV ä s tman land . T he t o ta lp i c tu r ei n d ica t e st h a tD a lar na a nd G ä s t r ik land f o rm ap e r iph e ra lr e g ion t ot h e C en t ra l I r on Age s e t t lemen t i nt h e Mä la r p rov ince s , ap r eh i s tor ic ' Be rg s lag ' ( a rea c o r r e spond ing t ot h eB e rg s lagen o ft o day )w i th s c a t te r ed s e t t lemen t sa nd c o lon iza t ion n u c le ib a sed o nt h ep roduc t ion o fi r on . C lo se t oL ak eS to r s jön ,J äm t land ,t h e r ea r eh und r ed so fs i te sw i th s l ag o fa nI r on Age c ha ra c te r .T h i sf a c t ,p r ev iou s ly q u i te u nknown b u tn o t iced d u r ing t h eS u rvey o f Anc ien t Monumen t s i nt h e p rov ince d ur ing t h e 1 960 ' s a nd 1 970 ' s , h a s b een s t ud ied b y G e i l Magnu s son . E xcava t ion sa nd 1 4 Ca na ly se sh ave c onf i rmed t h es uppo s i t ion t h a tt h e r e w a s al a rg ei r on p roduc t ion i nt h ea r ea d u r ing t h eL a t eI r on A ge . T he p i c tu r eo fa nc ien ti r on p roduc t ion w ou ld r ema in i n comp le te w i thou tm en t ion ing o t he r me thod s , f o r e xamp le , Med iva l i r on m in ing . T he re i se v idence t h a t i r on w a s m ined i nS ou the rn Sweden d u r ing t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry ,p e rhap se ven e a r l ie r . T he re s e em s a l so t oh ave b een s ome t r ade i ni r on a round t h eB a l t ic S ea a tt h a tt ime . C oppe rm in ing w a s o rgan ized i nF a lun i nt h e 1 280 ' s . O ft h e i r on m in ing a r ea s ( Sw . ” be rg s lagen " ) , N o rbe rg w a sk nown i n1 303 . A tl e a s ts i x mo r em ine s may b et r aced , d a t ing f r om t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry .I na bou t 1 400 AD ,t h e r ew e r et e n . T he m in ing o rgan iza t ion w a sv e ry c omp l ica ted . T he S t a te a nd t h eK ing , c i t izen sa nd G e rman m e rchan t s , s he r if f s a nd ma s te r m ine r s , t h e C hu rch , e t c . , a l l h ad f i nanc ia l i n te r e s t si nt h em in ing . S ummary Ac omp i la t ion o ft h i sk i nd c an n eve rb es a id t ob et o ta l ly c omp le te .I nt h ep r e sen tp ape r ar ough o u t l ine h a s b een p re sen ted . T he f o r emo s t a im h a s b een t o s how t h e g rea t n umbe ro fp reh i s to r ic r ema in s a nd monumen t s p r e se rved i nS ou ther n Sweden , a nd , c on sequ en t ly ,t h ec omp lex i ty o ft h i sa r ea a sa na r chaeo log ica lf i e ld o fr e sea r ch . S ou the r n Sweden i s av ery v a r ied a r ea a nd t h is c r ea tes a g rea t p o ten t ia l f o r a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . D if f e r en tr e g ion sc an b ec ompa r ed i n al o ng te rm p e r spe c t ive , m ak ing s t ud ie s o f p r eh is tor ic s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t s v e ry i n te r e s t ing .T he ' f o r e ign 'c on tac t s ,w i th t h eC on t inen t , R u s s ia a nd t h eB a l t ic a r ea s ,a nd w i th We s ter nE u rope ,t h eB r i t i sh I s le sa nd D enma rk , w e r ed if e r en td epend ing o nt h e r e g ion o fs ou ther n Sw eden i nvo lved . T h i sm ean st h a tt h e f ou r ma jo rr eg ion sd i scu s sed a nd o u t l in ed a bove i nf a c ta r eq u i t ed i f f e r en t .

2 5

A pp roache st oS wed i sh P r eh i s tory ,B .A .R . , Ox f ord ,1 989 ,p p .2 7 -53 .

S TABIL ITY AND LONG TER M CHANGES I N NORTH SWED ISH PREH ISTORY An Examp le o fC en tre -Per iphery R e la t ions By Ever t B audou*

T he L andscape a nd t he Commun ica t ions S of a r ,n o r ther n Sweden h a sn o ta t t ra c ted i n te rna t iona la r chaeo log ica li n te r e s t ,w h ich i s u nde r s tandab le s i nce l i t t le o f t h e ma ter ia l a nd r e sea rch o ppo r tun i t ie s a r e k nown . G eog raph ica l ly ,N o r th S cand inav ia i s an or the rn a r ea b o rde r ing t h eE u ropean c on t inen t b u ti ti sa l so ap e r iphe ra la r ea t ot h ew e s to ft h eE u r a s ian t a iga . T h i st wo -s idedne s si n t h e g eog raph ica l p o s i t ion i sr e f lec ted i n t h e p reh is tor ic d eve lopmen t o fc u l tu re i n N o r r land ( nor the rn Sweden ) . I tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e 1 3 th a nd 1 4 th c en tu r ie s , when t h e y oung Swed i sh s t a te h ad a ch ieved s uff ic ien t s t r eng th , t h a t i t s d ependency o n t h e se p r ima ry g eog raph ica l c ond i t ion sw a sb rok en . F rom t h eS tone Age t ot h eL a te M idd le Age s t h e re i s ar i ch i n te rp lay b e tween t h e l o ca l d eve lopmen t i nN or r land a nd t h e s ou ther na nd e a s ter ni mpu l se s . T he se c u l tu ra l c hange so ve r many y ea r sc on s t i tu te t h e b a se f o rt h ed i v i s ion i n to p e r iod s . T he l ong n o r th -sou th e x ten to fN o r r land a nd t h ed i f f e r en tc ha ra c te r sr a ng ing f r om t h e G u lf o fB o thn ia i n t h e e a s t t o t h e H igh A lp ine R eg ion i nt h e w e s t c r ea te s evera l c ha rac te r i s t ic e co log ica lz on e sw i th m any d if e r en tc ond i t ion sf o rh uman h ab i ta t ion .T he s h if t ing c u l tu ra la nd e co log ica l f a c to r sa l low u sp os s ib i l i t ie st or e ga rd No r r land a sa n e xpe r imen ta l a r ea whe re t h e r o le s o ft h e d i f f e r en t f a c to r s i nt h e c u l tu ra l -eco log ica l i n te rp lay c an b ea s se s sed e ven i ft h ey c anno tb em ea su red . N o r r land e x tend so ve r 1 000 km b e tween 6 0 °a nd 6 9 ° Nl a t( F ig . 1 ) .T he w e s te rnmo s t p a r t sa r ea t1 2 °E l ong , a nd t h ee a s ter nmo s ta t2 4 °E l ong . ,w i th aw ide s tw id th o fa bou t 3 75 km . No r r land t hu s makes u p 5 8 % o f t he e n t i re a r ea o f Sweden . T he g eomo rpho logy i sc ha ra c te r ized b yt h e H igh A lp ine R eg ion f a r the s tt ot h ew e s t , t h e moun ta in f oo th i l la r ea ,t h e monad rock p l a teau a nd u ndu la t ing h i l ly t e r r a in ,i nt h a to rde r , t owa rd st h ee a s t . T he t o p so i l s ma in ly c on s i s to ft i l l wh e rea st h e r ea r es ed imen t so fs and a nd c l ay i nt h e r i ve rv a l ley s . I na r ea s wh ich w e re b e low s e al e ve l d u r ing t h e i c em e l t t h e re w e r e d epo s i t s o ff i ne -g ra ined s ed imen t . T he h ighe s t ma r ine c oa s t l ine , wh ich i n N o r r land m ay b ea sh igh a s2 90 m a .s .1 . ,i sf r equen t ly t h el im i t f o rt h e f i ne -g ra ined s ed imen t s .T he b e s to ppo r tun i t ie sf o rc u l t iva t ion a r ef ound b e low t h i sl im i ta tt h ec oa s t a nd a l ong t h er i ve rv a l ley s . T he re a r e s eve ra l p ropo sa ls f o r ap hy s ica l g eog raph ica l d iv i s ion o f No r r land i n to r eg ion s . F rom t h e a r cha eo log ica l v iewpo in t , ad iv i s ion b a sed o n t h e v a r ia t ion i n v ege ta t ion i so fg r ea ti mpo r tance .

* D epa r tm en to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Um eä 2 7

F ig . 1[ l efal lor r land 's s i tua t ion i nF ennoscand ia . S =Sou ther nN o r r land . F ig . 2[ r igh t ] . T he v ege ta t ion r eg ion si nN o r r land : 4-t h en o r ther nt a iga , 5-t h e i n termed ia te t a iga , 6t h e s ou thern t a iga [ a f te rN aturgeog r af i sk r eg ion inde ln ing a v Nord en , 1 984 : 3 3 ] .

T he t h ree mo s ti mpor tan tr e g ion sa r et h en t h en o r the rn t a iga ,t h ei n te rmed ia te t a iga a nd t h e s ou ther nt a iga ( F ig . 2 ) . A l l t h e se h ave l i nk s o ve rF in land t on or thwe s tern S ov ie t Un ion a nd S iber ia . N o p ar t o fN or r land b e long s t o t h e A rc t ic r eg ion . A s m ay b e e xpec ted ,t h eb o rde r so ft h ev ege ta t ion r eg ion sb ecame o fg rea te ri mpo r tance d ur ing t h e I r on Age i nN o r r land when t h e s eden ta ry f o rm o fa g r icu l tu re w a s i n troduced . T he d if e rence sa r eo fm ino ri mpor tance f o rt h ed i spe r sa lo ft h eh un te ra nd g a the r e rc u l tu r e s s i nce t h e se g roup sw e r ea b le t ou t i l ize t h ep o s s ib i l i t ie sp rov ided b ym any d i f f e r en tk ind s o fe co sy s tem . 2 8

L and e l eva t ion , o rs h if t si nt h es ho r e l ine , a l ong t h ec oa s to fN o r r land s i nce t h el a te r p a r t o ft h e S tone Age w a s 9 0 -100 c m p e rc en tu ry i nt h e n or th a nd 6 0 -70 c m i nt h e s ou th .T he l a nd e l eva t ion h a sp l ay ed a ni mpo r tan tr o le f o ra r cha eo log ica lr e s ea rch s i nce i tc an b eu t i l ized t os ome e x t en tf o rb o th r e la t ive a nd a b so lu te d a t ing so fs e t t lemen t sa nd t y pe so fo b jec t s . T he l a rge a r ea o fw a te r , made u pb yt h e B a l t ic , t h e B o thn ian S ea a nd t h e Gu lf o f B o thn ia ,h a sb een c on s id e r ed b ym any a r cha eo log i s t st ol i nk d i s tan ta r ea st og e the rf r om t h eS tone Age a nd o nwa rd s .H oweve r ,m any f i nd c omp lexe sd emon s t ra te t h a tt h el a rge a r ea so fw a te rd i d n o th ave a ny d ec i s ive l i nk ing f unc t ion u n t i lt h eI r on Age . I ti s , f o r e xamp le ,c l ea rt h a tt h eC omb ed Wa r eC u l tu r ed u r ing t h el a te S tone A ge i nF in land n eve r g e t s af oo tho ld i nN o r r land o rf u r the rt ot h e s ou th i n Sweden . O nt h e o t he rh and , t h e l a nd -br idge o ve rt h ei s land so fA land i si mpo r tan tf o rc ommun ica t ion si na ne a s t -we s t d i r ec t ion . On A land ,t h ee a s ter nC ombed Wa r eC u l tu r em ee t st h ew e s ter nP i t ted Wa r e C u l tu re d u r ing t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic a nd A land i s ab r idge l i nk ing t h e s ou th S cand inav ian g rave f o rm s a nd ma ter ia l c u l tu r e o ft h e B ronze A ge t os ou thwes ter n F in land a nd f u r the ra l ong t h eF inn i sh c oa s tt ot h en o r th a nd e a s t . T he l a nd -b r idge f u r the s t t ot h e n or th , b e tween n o r ther nmo s t Sweden a nd F in land , b ecame o fd ec i s ive i mpo r tan ce f o rt h ec u l tu ra ld eve lopmen ti nN o r r land s i nce i tw a st h e m a in mean so fc ommun ica t ion b e tween N o r r land a nd t h eE u ra s ian c on t inen te ve rs i nce t h e L a te N eo l i th ic u n t i l t h e l a te Med ieva l Age s , when t h e p o l i t ica l , e conom ic a nd t e chn ica ld eve lopmen tc r ea ted c omp le te ly n ew c ond i t ion sf o r c ommun ica t ion s . Du r ing t h e s umme r , l a nd c ommun ica t ion s i n N o r r land a nd F in land w e r e d i ff icu l t , w i th n ume rou sa nd e x ten s ive m a r she sa nd s wamp s . F o rh uman s u rv iva li tw a ss uf i c ien tt o h ave t e chn ica l ly s imp le v e s se l sw h ich w e r eg ood e nough f o rt h el a ke sa nd s hor t r i ve r s t re tche s . Du r ing t h e w in te r , h oweve r , t h e f r ozen m a r she s a nd l a ke s w e re e a s i ly a cce s s ib le o ns k i sa nd w i th s l edge s . N ume rou s f i nd s o fs k i s f r om t h e S tone Age a nd o nwa rd s ,a sw e l la sp e t rog lyph ss how ing p eop le o ns k i sd emon s t ra te t h ei mpo r tance o f t h es k i . Dur ing t h e I r on Age a nd l a te r , t h e r i ve r v a l ley s i n No r r land b ecame i mpor tan t c ommec t ing l i nk ss i nce a g r icu l tu r eb ecame c en t r ed o nt h eu sua l ly g ood a mb le l a nd i n t h er i ve rv a l ley s . D if f e r en tl o ca l iza t ion f a c to r sa pp l ied t ot h eh un te r sa nd g a the r e r s .T he a bundan tg ame a nd g ood f i sh ing w a sn o to n ly d e te rm ined b yt h eg r ea tr i ve r sa nd t h e i r v a l ley s . Map si lu s t ra t ing t h ed i spe r sa lo fk nown p r eh i s to r ica ls e t t lemen t si n No r r land g ive t h ei mp r e s s ion t h a tt h eh un te r sa nd g a the r e r sc o l lec ted a l ong t h eg rea tr i ve r s( F ig . 3 ) . Howeve r , i ti st h e moder np owe rs t a t ion s wh ich h ave ac oncen t ra t ion o ft h i sk ind wh ich g ave al o t o fn ew ly d i scove r ed p r eh is tor ic s i te s . S ince t h e o cca s ion a ro se t o make a n i nven to ry o fs ome o ft h e n ume rou s w a te rway s , c r is s -c ro s s ing t h e a r ea s b e tween t h eg rea tr i ve r s , n ume rou s d we l l ing s i te sb e long ing t ot h ep r eh i s to r ic h un te r a nd g a the r e rc ommun i t ie sw e r e f ound e ven t h e r e . T he s ou r ce so ff ood w e r e r e la t ive ly u n if orm ly s p read o ver t h e e n t i re c oun t ry s ide , a s w e l l a s t h e p opu la t ion a nd c ommun ica t ion s t h roughou t t h e e n t ir e N o r r land a r ea . T he i n t roduc t ion o fs eden ta ry a g r icu l tu r e a round t h e t ime o ft h e b i r th o fC h r i s t c au sed ar a d ica l c hange i n t h e se c ond i t ion s . C ommun ica t ion s h ad t ob ee s tab l i shed b e tween t h ep e rmanen ts e t t lemen t s wh ich h ad b een p l a ced o nt h eb e s ts o i l si nc l ima t ica l ly s u i tab le r e g ion s .T h i si st h es t a r t o ft h eh i s to r ica le r a 's d i s t r ibu t ion o fs e t t lemen t sa nd p opu la t ion a nd ac ommun ica t ion n e two rk wh ich f o l low ed t h eg r ea tr i ve r s . T he Charac ter o ft he P rob lem T he v ery l a rge d i f f e r ence s i np r eh i s tor ic d eve lopmen t i nN o r r land a nd i nt h e r e s t o f Sweden h ad i t su l t ima te b a se i nt h ed i f f e r en tn a tu ra lc ond i t ion si nt wo r e sp ec t s . F i r s t ly , N o r r land i sa n e x ten s ion o ft h eE u ra s ian c on if e rou sb e l t , t h et a iga , whe rea s s ou ther n Sweden b e long s t o t h e E u ropean d ec iduou s a r ea , t h e n emo ra l z one , a nd t h e b o reo -nemo ra l b o rde r z one . S econd ly , t h e l a nd b r idge i n t h e n o r th t owa rd s t h e e a s t -sou thea s t i so ft h e g r ea te s t i mpor tance f o r c ommun ica t ion s i nN o r r land , b o th 2 9

F ig . 3 . T he C en tra l B oard o f N a t iona l An t iqu i t ies ' ( S tockho lm ) map o f t h e s u rvey o f p reh is tor ic dw e l l ing s i te s r e co rded i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e l a ke r e gu la t ions . More s i tes a r ef ound i nt h e s ame a r ea s a l so d u r ing t h e 1 970 ' sa nd 1 980 's . 3 0

F ig . 4 .A r tefa c t so fs l a te c ha rac te r i s t ic o fN o r r land

ma te r ia la nd s p i r i tua l , whe rea st h el i nk w i th t h eC on t inen tt ot h es ou th o ve rt h eD an i sh i s land sh a s ac o r re spond ing i mpo r tance f o r Sweden u pt ot h eb o rde rw i th N o r r land . T he f o rme r f a c to rm igh tp rov ide awho l ly n a tu ra l -de te rm in i s t ic v i ew o fp r eh i s to r ic d eve lopmen t . T he s e cond f a c to r , t h e c ommun ica t ion s , c oun terac t t h i s v i ewpo in t . H oweve r ,i tmay b ea s se r t ed t h a tt h en a tu ra l -d e te rm in i s t ic f a c to r sa r el a rg e ly d ec i s ive a l l t h ew ay u pt ot h eM idd le N eo l i th ic . T he h un te ra nd g a the r e rc u l tu r ew a sd ependen to n l o ca l f a c to r s . T h i s a l so i mp l ie s t h a t a ni ndependence c ou ld b e d eve loped , a sc an b e n o ted i n ,f o re xamp le ,t h ec ha ra c t e r i s t ic s l a t ea r tef a c t si nn o r the rn S cand inav ia ( F ig .4 ) . F rom t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd o nwa rd st h ec u l tu ra l d eve lopmen ti nN o r r land i s , o nt h e o t h e rh and ,i n c r ea s ing ly d ep enden to nc hange sw i th in a r ea s wh ich a r el o ca ted f a ra way , m a in ly i ne a s ter nR u s s ia a nd w e s ter nS i be r ia .T h i si sn o t icab le i nn o r ther nN o r r land t o a ne ven g r ea te re x ten td u r ing t h eB ronze A g ea nd i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h ed eve lopmen to f m e ta l wo rk ing , e conomy a nd s oc ie ty i n e a s ter n R u s s ia . T he reby t h e re a r ise s a c en t r e -pe r iphe ry r e la t ion sh ip whe re n o r ther nN o r r land i sl o ca t ed i n ad i s tan tp e r iph e ry . T h i s may h ave r e su l ted i ns oc ia lv i ew sa nd s oc ia l f o rm sw h ich a r eo n ly s ugge s ted b y t h em a te r ia la r cha eo log ica lf i nd s . On t h e o ther h and , ap er iphe ra l a r ea p robab ly r e ta in s al a rger p ropo r t ion o fi t s c ha rac te r . T he n a tu r e o ft h ec ommun ica t ion mu s tb ed ec i s ive f o rh ow much a nd w ha t f o re ig in i mpu l se st h a t r e ache ss uch a na r ea . F o rt h eB ronze Age , a sa pp l ie sh e r e , t h i s m ay l a rge ly c oncer ne x change c ommun ica t ion s .B u ts i nce t h e re i se v idence t h a tt h ea r t o fc a s t ing s ocke ted a x e so fe a s ter nt y pe b ecame k nown i nn o r ther nN o r r land d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze Age , t h i sn o to n ly c on cer n s ad i spe r sa lo f a r tef ac t sb u ta l so o fk now ledge . 3 1

I nF in land ,t h es ame k now ledge w a sp r e sen ta l r eady d u r ing t h eE a r ly B ronze Age . An e x change o fg ood sa s sume s as t rong e ru t i l iza t ion o f ar e sou r ce i no rde rt oc r ea te a s u rp lu s . T h i sl e ad st o mod if ica t ion si nt h es e t t lemen tp a t ter n wh ich s hou ld b ep o s s ib le t ot r ace i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l ma te r ia l . A s r ega rd s N or r land , i ti sn o t u n t i l t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t ha t ak ind o f c en t re -pe r iphery r e la t ion sh ip o ccu r red a nd w i th i tt h e l ong -d i s tance e xchang ec ommun ica t ion s ,t r an sf e ro fk now ledge a nd a l so c hange si nt h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn a nd u t i l iza t ion o fr e sou r ce s . B u tt h i sa l so i mp l ie st h a tb ef o r et h eL a te N eo l i th ic t h el o ng -d i s tance e xchange l i nk s , t h et r an sf e ro fk now ledg ea nd t h ec hange si nt h es e t t lemen tp a t ter nw e r eo fn op a r t icu la r i mpo r tance . T hu s , f o re xamp le , t h el a rge h oa rd so fM idd le N eo l i th ic f l in ta xe si nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea s o fV ä s te rbo t ten h ave n o t c ome t oV ä s te rbo t ten a s ar e su l t o fe xchange , a cco rd ing t ot h i sa rgumen ta t ion . I n s tead , t h ey h ave b een u sed b yt h e mo re s ou ther n g roup so ff l in t -u se r s who t h em se lve st o ok t h e f l in t st oV ä s te rbo t ten whe r et h e r ew e r e n on a tu ra lf i nd so ff l in t st ob em ade . A round t h eb i r th o fC h r i s t ac en t r e -pe r iphe ry r e la t ion sh ip h ad ar e vo lu t iona ry e f ec t , wh en s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu r ea nd t h ea ccompany ing s oc ia lc omp lex e sc hange t h es i tua t ion i nm idd le N o r r land . I nt h i sc a se , t h ec en t r ew a si ns ou ther nS cand inav ia . I nn o r ther n No r r land , h un t ing f o r g ame i nt h e moun ta in a r ea s s t a r t s d u r ing t h e V ik ing Age i n c onne c t ion w i th amo r ei n ten s ive e x change w i th R u s s ian a r ea st ot h es ou thea s t whe r ea n e a r ly u rban iza t ion d ev e lop s . Un t i lr e cen t ly ,a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch i nN o r r land h a sb een f o r ced t oc oncen t ra te i t s e ne rgy o nd ocumen ta t ion a nd o b ta in ing i n f o rma t ion .T h i sh a sp a r t ly b een ar e su l to ft h e d emand so fp r e sen ts oc ie ty t ou t i l ize n a tu ra lr e sou r ce s ,w h ich h a sl e dt o al a rg en umbe r o fe xp lo i ta t ion d ig s ,a nd p a r t ly a s ar e su l to ft h es c ien t if ic d emand t h a to bv iou sg ap si n t h ev e ry u neven b a s ic ma te r ia l mu s tb ef i l led . N ume rou sn ew s c ien t if ic m e thod sh ave b een i n t roduced a nd t oday t h e r ea r e r e su l t s wh ich e nab le u st od i scu ss ' m idd le -range t h eo ry ' a si n tended b yB inf o rd ( 1977 : 6f . ) . I n t h is p ape r Iw i l l o n ly m en t ion af ew p rob lem s i n as hor t d i scu s s ion o n t h e f o rce s b eh ind t h e c hange s o ve r l ong p er iod s wh ich c an b eo b se rved i nt h ea r cha eo log ica lm a te r ia li nN o r r land . Dur ing t h e l a s t d ecade , r e sea rch h a s r e su l ted i n t h e f o l low ing s i x c omp lexe s o f p rob lem s : 1 . P e rmanen ts e t t lemen t / s ea sona ls e t t lemen ta mong t h eh un t e r sa nd g a the r e r s ,e . g . , S e l inge 1 979 , B roadben t 1 979 : 1 89 f . , F o r sbe rg 1 985 : 2 71 f . , H o lm 1 985 , L oef f le r & We s tf a l 1 985 ,L undbe rg 1 985 . 2 . T he s p read o fc u l t iva t ion a nd c a t t le h u sband ry i nN or r land ,e . g . , B audou 1 982 , B roadben t 1 982 ,E nge lma rk 1 982 ,R amqv i s t 1 983 ,E nge lma rk & Wa l l in 1 985 , K nu t s son 1 988 . 3 . C hange si ns e t t lemen tp a t ter na nd s oc ie ty d u r ing t h eI r on Age , e . g . , R amqv i s t 1 983 a nd 1 988 , L iedg r en 1 984 a nd 1 988 . 4 . T he o lde r c hange s i n S aam ish c u l tu re , e . g . , B audou 1 981 , Mu lk 1 983 , Z ach r i s son 1 984 . 5 . E thn ic p rob lem s , e . g . ,Z a ch r i s son 1 976 :88 f . , 1 985 a nd 1 987 ,B audou 1 988 . 6 . D r iv ing f o rce s i n e conomy a nd s e t t lemen t s d ur ing t h e M idd le Age s , e . g . , Z ach r isson 1 976 : 8 0 f . , K je l ls t röm 1 983 , Mu lk 1 983 , B audou 1 987 , B roadben t 1 988 . T he d om ina t ing v i ewpo in t i s f r om t h e e conom ic -eco log ica l a ng le , s ome t ime s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e Ma rx i s tt h eo ry o fh i s to ry .I na l ls i xc omp lex e sw ef a ce ad i scu s s ion o nt h ec au se so ft h ec hange s . I si tp o s s ib le ,e . g .u nde rp o in t2 ,t os e e ad eve lopmen to f p roduc t ive f o r ce sw h ich l e ad st o ac hange i nt h e c ond i t ion s f o rp roduc t ion? I na l l t h e p rob lem c omp lexe sw e may a sk w he the rt h ec au se so ft h ec hange sa r ea l so t ob ef ound i nt h ei n te rna ld ynam ic sw i th in t h eb o rde r so fN o r r land o r whe the rt h ey a r ef ound i na d ependency w i th in t h e p roduc t ion o fg ood s , e xchange s , c omme r ce a nd s oc ia l o rde r o ve r amuch w ide r g eog raph ica l a r ea . I n a n a r ea s uch a s N or r land , wh ich c an b e c on s ide red a sp e r iphe ra lf o rc l ea rg eog r aph ica l r e a son s , o ne s hou ld a l so e xpec tt of i nd 3 2

a ni n t e rac t ion b e tw een t h ei n ter na ld ynam ic sa nd a ne x t en s ive g eog raph ica ld ep enden cy . I nt h e f o l low ing ad i scu s s ion i sg i ven o fp o in t s 2a nd 5o nt h eb a s i s o ft h e se g ene ra l o p in ion s . T he S pread o f Agr icu l ture i n Nor r land T he i n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e i nN or ther n E u rope h a s r e cen t ly b een d i scu s sed i n N orweg ian A r cha eo log ica lR ev iew . I na na r t ic le , M . Z ve leb i la nd P .R ow ley -Conwy ( 1984 : 1 04 f . )b a se t h e i rd i scu s s ion o n amode l , wh ich i nt h r ee p ha se s , e xp la in sh ow t h e s h if t f r om ah un te r -ga the r e r e conomy t oa n a g ra r ian e conomy t a ke s p l ace : 1 ) k now ledge o f a g ra r ian c u l ture i s a va i lab le ; 2 ) a g ra r ian c u l ture r ep lace s t h e h un te r -ga the re r c u l tu r e ; 3 ) t h e a g ra r ian c u l tu re b ecome s e s tab l i shed . T he mode l i s d i scu s sed f o rD enma rk a nd s ou ther nF in land a nd i sf ound t ob ev a l id . I nb o th D enma rk a nd F in land a g r icu l tu r e i sc on s ide r ed t oh ave a r r ived d u r ing t h e s e cond p ha se a s a r e p la cemen tf o rt h ed ef ic ienc ie se ncoun te red i nt h em a r ine r e sou rc e s ,i nD enma rk t h e r e w a s ad ec r ea se i nt h ea va i lab i l i ty o fo y s ter sa r ound 3 000 B .C . , a nd i nF in land ad ec r ea se i nt h ea va i lab i l i ty o fs e a l s f r om a bou t 1 500 B .C . B o th r e sou r ce sa r ec on s ide r ed t oh ave c omp r is ed a ni mpo r tan tp a r to ft h es e a sona lp a t t er nf o rt h eu t i l iza t ion o fr e sou r ce sb yt h e t wo g roup s o fp eop le s . T he t h i rd p ha se , t h e c on so l ida t ion p ha se , s t a r ted a bou t 2 650 B .C .i nD enma rk a nd t o ok p l ace d u r ing 5 00 -1500 A .D .i ns ou the rn F in land .T he a g ra r ian e conomy t h en b ecome sc omp le te ly d om inan te ven t h ough s ome h un t ing a nd f i sh ing c an b e f ound . T he p ropo sed mode l i sa s sumed t ob e v a l id a l so o u t s ide D enma rk a nd F in land e ven t hough Z ve leb i la nd R ow ley -Conwy ( 1 984 :123 )a s se r tt h a t t h e p ropo sed s t age s r ema in t en ta t ive , a nd s hou ld n o t b e e l eva ted t oa ny th ing mo re t han a n o pe ra t iona ld ev ice f o re xam in ing t h ep roc e s s .

Z ve leb i ll a te r( 1986a : 1 f . ) f u r the rc l a r if i ed t h i s mode l . H ea s se r ted t h a tt h e mode l p rov ided ad e sc r ip t ive f r ame f o rt h et r an s i t ion p roce s st oc u l t iva t ion .T he i mpo r tance o f t h ee a r l ie rs t age si se mpha s ized . T he r e a son sf o rt h et r an s i t ion may v a ry f r om r eg ion t o r eg ion d epend ing o n t h e e co log ica l a nd s oc io -econom ic c ond i t ion s . Z ve leb i l a nd R ow ley -Conwy ( 1986 )a l so d i scu s sed t h e mode la nd t h er e a son sf o rt h ep roce s si nt h e e n t i r eA t lan t ic r eg ion o fE u rope f r om P o r tuga lt ot h en o r th . When c on s ide r ed f r om t h ev i ewpo in t o fN o r r land , t h e mode l i sp rob lema t ica l . T he ma in o b jec t ion c oncer n s t h e mean s o ft r ea t ing a nd r ega rd ing t h e a g ra r ian s y s tem a s s ome th ing wh ich a lmo s te x i s t so ni t so wn w i thou tl i nk sw i th o the rp a r t so fs oc ia ll i f e . When c u l t iva t ion b ecome sk nown i na n' a va i lab i l i ty p ha se 't h en t h ed eve lopmen ti nt h e t wo s ub sequen t p ha se s a f te r al onge r o r s ho r te r p e r iod a lway s wou ld o u s t t h e h un te r -ga the re r c u l tu re . T h is t ype o f a pp roach i sf a r t oo s imp le a nd , a tl e a s t i n N o r r land , l e ad st oi n co r rec ti n te rp r e ta t ion s . T he o l de s tk nown a g r icu l tu r e i nN o r r land ( F ig . 5 a ) i s ma rked i nt h ep o l len d i ag ram f r om R ude t jär ni nt h e e a r l ie rc oa s ta l a r ea o f Mede lpad ( Enge lma rk 1 978 : 4 5 ) a nd a t N o r rbö le i nn o r the rn Ä nge rman land ( Hu t tunen & T o lonen 1 972 : 1 9 f . ) . B o th o ft h em a r e d a ted t o 2 700 -2000 B .C . , i . e . , t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic . A f ew p o l len g ra in s o f T r i t icum a nd Hordeum t ype , a sw e l l a s h e rb s i nd ica t ive o fa gr icu l tu r e , h ave b een d emon s t ra ted . T he Hord eum i n ap o l len d i ag ram f r om B ju r se le t i nV ä s te rbo t ten i s s l igh t ly y ounge r ( Kön ig s son 1 970 : 2 7 ) . F ur ther e v idence i sf ound f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge , p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h e e nd o ft h e B ronze Age . D u r ing t h e B ronze Age t h e re a r e a l so i n c rea se s i nt h e a moun t s o fg ra s se s a nd w eed s i nc oa s ta l a r ea s , w h ich may p o s s ib ly b e i n te rp r e ted a si n c r ea sed p a s tu r e h u sband ry . B one s o f s heep a nd a f ew b one s o fc a t t le a tt h e d we l l ing s i te a tB ju r se le t a nd o the r s i te s i n V ä s te rbo t ten h ave a l so b een i n te rp r e ted a sb e long ing t ot h e S tone Age b u t ar e newed e xam ina t ion i n d ica ted t h a t t h ey m igh tb e r e cen t ( Knu t s son 1 988 : 1 54 f . ) . Howeve r , t h e re a r e a bou t t e n p o l len d i ag rams i n c en t ra l a nd n o r the r n N o r r land wh ich g ive s po rad ic i n d ica t ion so fp a s tu r eh u sband ry a nd w h ich t h e r eby c on t rad ic tt h ef a c tt h a t 3 3

BC SOO

1 000

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2 000

2 500

a

2

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tn t . .

F ig .S a . D iag ram s how ing t h ef i r s tt r ace s o fs po rad ic f a rm ing a l ong t h ec oa s to f No r r land ( Enge lma rk 1 982 : 1 61 ) . D o t si nd ica t et h e e a r l ie s tc e rea lp olen , a nd s t a r s ama rked p ha se o fa g r icu l tu re . F ig .S b . T he e x ten s ion o ft h eo pen l a nd scape i nd ica ted f r om p o l len d iag rams ( Enge lma rk 1 982 : 1 61 ) . Du r ing t h ec en tu r ie sa round BC /AD t h e s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu re a nd s t ock ra i s ing w a s e s tab l i shed i nt h e c oa s ta lz one o fM idd le No r r land . F ig . S c . Map s how ing t h e s i te s o n w h ich t h e p o l len d i ag rams a r e b a sed : 1 .B ju r se le t , V ä s te rbo t ten ( Kön igsson 1 970 ; Knu t sson 1 988 : 1 54 ) , M idd le N eo l i th ic /La te Neo l i th ic ; 2 . T he Umeä a rea ( Enge lma rk 1 976 ) , L a te B ronze A ge -I r on A ge ; 3 . No r rbö le , Ä nge rman land ( Hu t tunen & T o lonen 1 972 : 1 9 f . ) , M idd le N eo l i th ic ; 4 .H o lms jön , Mede lpad ( Enge lma rk 1 978 ) , L a te B ronze A ge -I r on A ge ; 5 .R ude t jä rn , Mede lpad ( Enge lma rk 1 978 ) ,M idd le N eol i th ic -h on A ge ; 6 . No r the rn H ä l s ing land ( Enge lma rk & Wa ll in 1 985 ) , I r on A ge . T he n o r the rnmo s td o t i nd ica te s t h e l o ca l i ty I s o - Mu s ta jä rv i a t t h e F inn i sh s i de o f t h e T ome r i ve r v a l ley , as i te w i th s po rad ic t r ace s o f f a rm ing f r om t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic t ot h e L a te I r on Age ( H je lm roos 1 978 : 5 2 ) . 3 4

g r az ing a n ima l sw ou ld h ave b een s ou nu sua l i nt h e se c oa s ta la r ea so fN o r r land d ur ing t h eS tone a nd B ronze A ge sa ss ugge s ted b yt h ep auc i ty o fb one f md s . T he p a leoeco log i s t R . E nge lma rk ( 1982 : 1 54 ) g ave a n e xce l len t s umma ry o ft h e s pec ia l e co log ica l c ond i t ion s p reva i l ing a l ong t h e c oa s t o f N o r r land d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic . I nt h ec oa s ta lz one d u r ing t h es ub -bo r ea lt ime t h e r ew a s av ege ta t ion w h ich d i ve rg e sf r om t h a ti nt h ei n land a r ea sa nd t h ec oa s ta la r ea o ft o day .P a r to fi td e serve st o b eq uo ted i nt r an s la t ion : D ec iduou st r e e sd om ina ted c omp le te ly , ma in ly b i r ch a nd a lde rb u ta l so e lm , l i nden a nd h aze l o ccu r red u pi nV ä s te rbo t ten . T h is c anno to n ly h ave d epended o nt h e mo re f avou rab le c l ima te wh ich t h en p r eva i led d u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A g eb u ta l so t ha tt h e re w a s ac on s ide rab le e f ec to f t h e Gu lf o fB o thn ia a tt ha tt ime .T he i s o s ta t ic l a nd e l eva t ion h ad b een b e tw een 2 00 a nd 3 00 m a l toge the r a nd d u r ing t he N eo l i th ic t he s u rface o ft he Gu lf o f B o thn ia w a s a bou t 5 0 -75 m a bove t h e p res en t l e ve l .Th is i mp l ie s t ha t b o th t h e s u r face a nd t h e v o lume g rea t ly e xceeded t ho se o ft oday . T he w a te r wa s mo re s a l t ( abou t t h ree t ime s t ha t t oday ) a nd c ou ld c i rcu la te b e t te r . T he l ow e r p a r t s o ft h e c oa s ta l a r ea c on s is ted o ff i ne -g ra ined s ed imen t v a rved i nt h e f o rme r Gu lf o f B o thn ia a nd wh ich w e re s t i l l b e ing l e ached . A l l t h is h ad a c on s ide rab le f avou rab le e f f ec to nt h ec oa s ta l a r ea sa l ong t h e Gu lf o fB o thn ia ; al o ca l ma r i t ime i n f luence o n c l ima te w i th ap ro longed g row ing p e r iod . Ah e rb r ich b road lea fw ood land o nf r e sh f me -g ra ined s ed imen ts o i l sr e su l ted i no rgan ic s o i ls . B u ta l so t h es a l te rw a te rg ave h ighe rp roduc t ion ,f o ri n s tance o fb o th f i sh a nd s ea l s . T hese l o ca l c ond i t ion s w e re o f d ec is ive i mpo r tance f o r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f a g r icu l tu re i n No r r land . T he N eo l i th ic c o lon ize r s e ncoun te red n a tu ra l c ond i t ion s , c l ima t ic , e daph ic a nd v ege ta t ive , wh ich h ad many s im i la r i t ie s t ot ho se i ns ou ther n a nd c en t ra l Sweden a nd t hus a g r icu l tu re c ou ld b es p read n o r thwa rd su s ing l a rge ly u na l te red t e chno logy a nd a nu nchanged s e lec t ion o fs pec ie s .

E nge lma rk a s sume s t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic c o lon ize r s c ame f r om t h e s ou th . T he s ame o p in ion h a s b een p re sen ted b y s eve ra l o the r s . A d we l l ing s i te i nve s t iga ted a t S t randho lm n o tf a rf r om t h eS tone Age c oa s ti nn o r the rn V ä s te rbo t ten p rov ide st h ek ey t ot h i si n te rp re ta t ion . D u r ing t h ee xcava t ion s , c onduc ted a nd l e db yA . Hugge r td u r ing 1 967 -1970 , ma te r ia lw a sf ound wh ich p robab ly w a se n t i r e ly o fs ou ther nS cand inav ian o r ig in ( Ch r i s t ian s son 1 974 : 2 8 ; B roadben t 1 982 : 6 9 f . ; Hugger t 1 984 : 5 8 ) . T he S t randho lm s i te t h e r eby d i f f e r s f r om t h e o the rk nown s e t t lemen t s i nN o r r land . T he B ju r se le t ma ter ia l c on ta in s t wo c omponen t s , o ne wh ich i st y p ica l f o rt h e s ea lh un te r s e t t lemen t s a l ong t h e c oa s t o fN or r land , t h e o the rw i th s ou th S cand inav ian ma ter ia l ( Baudou 1 982 : 1 65 f . ;B roadben t 1 982 : 6 6 ) . Ir e ga rd t h ef i nd m a te r ia la tS t randho lm a s e v iden ce f o rt h ep opu la t ion h av ing m ig ra ted t oV ä s t e rbo t ten f r om s ou th S cand inav ia . I n an ew i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h ef l in ta nd q ua r tz ma te r ia lf r om t h eB ju r se le ts i te K nu t s son ( 1 988 : 1 52 )h a ss t a ted t h a t : T he r educ t ion o f f l in t o n t he p u re f l in t s i te s w a s c a r r ied o u t b y p eop le m ig ra t ing f r om s ou the rnmo s t S cand inav ia . F l in t i nt h e q ua rz / f l in t u n i t s w a s k napped b y p eop le w i th al o ca l q ua r tz d ec i s ion s e t r epe r to i re . T he o bse rved d i cho tomy b e tween p u re q ua r tz u n i t s a nd t h e m ixed q ua r tz /f l in tu n i t sc an b ei n te rp re ted e i the ra s al o ca l a dap t ion t o an ew r aw ma te r ia lb y t h el o ca lg roup so ra st h ea dap t ion o ft h ei mm ig ra t ing g roup st o al o ca lr aw ma te r ia l . Howeve r , t h ec l o se a ff in i t ie s b e tween t h e a pp l ied r educ t ion s equence s , i n c lud ing s e conda ry mod if ica t ion , s peak i nf avou ro ft h e f o rme rh ypo the s i s . T he c h rono log ica l h i e ra r chy b e tween t h e c ompa red g roups i sn o t k nown . T he " i n te rp re ta t ion " p re sen ted a c tua l ly p re suppo se s a " be fo re " a nd a n" a f t e r " i nt h ef o l low ing c h rono log ica ls equence ; 1 .q ua r tz -us ing l o ca lg roup s2 . i mm ig ra t ing f l in t -u s ing p eop le s 3 .U se o fq ua r tz a nd t h e s e conda ry u se o f f l in tb y e i the r o f t h e se g roup s .

F o rm any y ea r si th a sb een k nown t h a ta pa r tf r om t h el a rg eh oa rd so ft h ick -bu t ted f l in t a xe s , t h e r e h ave b een f i nd s o fh und red s o fS tone Age a r t if a c t s o fs ou th Swed i sh o r s ou th S cand inav ian t y pe i nN o r r land , ma in ly a l ong t h ec oa s ta nd i nt h ei n land a r ea so f m idd le N or r land . A bou t 1 50 s uch f i nd s a r e k nown o n ly w i th in t h e c oa s ta l a r ea o f 3 5

F ig . 6 . S ou ther nt ype so fs t one a nd f l in ta r tefa c t sf r om t h e L a te Meso l i th ic t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic f ound i nN o r r land , ma in ly i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea . 3 6

n or thern Änge rman land . T he se a r e r ega rded a s' s t ray f i nd s ' , i . e . , i nd iv idua l o b jec t s f ound w i th n o a ppa ren t c onnec t ion w i th a ny a nc ien t monumen t . Howeve r , s evera l c heck so ft h ef i nd s i te sh ave s hown t h a ta to u rp r e sen ts t a te o fk now ledge o fS tone Age s e t t lemen t sw ec an f r equen t ly d emon s t ra te t h a tt h es t ray f i nd sc ome f r om d we l l ing s i t e s w h ich t oday a r ef ound i nf i e ld s ,p o ta to p a tche so ro nt h es ho r eo f al a k e .T he h oa rd so f f l in ta xe sa r e as pec ia lg roup w i th in av e ry l a rge c a tego ry o ff i nd s wh ich h a sn eve rb een t r ea ted a s a n e n t i re ty . T he s ou ther n t ype s may b e f ound o n s i te s w i th s ou ther n o r n o r ther n ma te r ia l . A tp r e sen t , t h e r ei sn op o s s ib i l i ty t od ec ide whe the rt h eo ne o rt h e o t he ri s mo r ec ommon . T he s ou ther nt y pe so fa r tef a c t sr e p r e s en ta l lp e r iod sf r om t h e Me so l i th ic u n t i lt h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd c an b ea s soc ia ted t ob o th F unne lB eake rC u l tu r e ,P i t ted Wa r eC u l tu r ea nd B a t t le Axe C u l tu re , a sw e l l a st ot h e d i f f u se ly d ef ined g roup s wh ich b e long t ot h e Me so l i th ic a nd t h eL a te N eo l i th ic ( F ig . 6 ) .T he s ou ther nf e a tu r e st h en c on t inue f u r the r i n to t h eB ronze Age .I ti si nt h i sp e r spec t ive t h a tt h ef e a tu r e so fc u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima l h u sbandry i n No r r land d ur ing t h e S tone a nd B ronze Age s mu s t b e a s se s sed . T heo r e t ica l ly ,t h ec u l t iva t ion f e a tu r e si nN o r r land c ou ld b ea s soc ia ted w i th a ny o ft h e t h r ee ma jo rc u l tu ra lg roup si ns ou ther n Sweden d u r ing t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic . Howeve r , c u l t iva t ion i sn o t c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e e a s t Swed i sh P i t ted Wa r e C u l tu re wh ich i ni t s t y p ica l f o rm r e a che s u p t oG ä s t r ik land a nd t hu s i st h e n ea r e s t g eogr aph ica l ly . Al i nk t ot h eF unne lB eak e rC u l tu re i n Mä la rda len , t h e Vr äC u l tu r e ,i s i n d ica ted b y a bou t 1 5 p o lygona l b a t t le a xe s f ound i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea s o fm idd le N o r r land . Howeve r , t h es t ronge s t f e a tu re sc ome f r om t h eB a t t le Axe C u l tu r ea nd a r e t h en a s soc ia ted w i th t h eg ener a le xpan s ion o fc u l t iva t ion i ns ou th er nS cand inav ia d u r ing t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic . S i nce t h ef l in ta x e sb e long t ot h eB a t t le Axe C u l tu r e ,a cco rd ing t o Ma lme r 's a na ly s i s ( 1962 : 5 18 f . ) , t h e c u l t iva t ion i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e B a t t le Axe C u l tu r e . O the rp o l len d i ag rams c on ta in ing t r a ce s o fc u l t iva t ion a nd g raz ing c anno tb e a s soc ia ted w i th a ny k nown s e t t lemen t . T h is i mp l ie s t h a t w e s t i l l a r e u ncer ta in i f c u l t iva t ion s t a r ted e ven a ts e t t lemen t sw i th t r ad i t iona lN on-l a nd ic ma te r ia l . T he r ei so ne s t rong r e a son f o rc u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima lh u sband ry n o tb e ing t a k en u pb y t h eo l dN o r r land p opu la t ion .I fa g r icu l tu r eh ad b een a ccep ted ,t h en t h ep o l len d i ag ram s hou ld s how many mo r e t r ace s o fh uman i n ter f e rence . I fw e l ook t h rough t h e l i s t o f p l ace s f o rp o l len a na ly se s wh ich h ave y i e lded p o l len i n d ica t ive o fa g r icu l tu r e f r om t h e S tone a nd B ronze Age si n Mede lpad , Ange rman land a nd V ä s te rbo t ten w ef i nd t h a tt h e a r ea f r equen t ly h a sa r cha eo log ica lf i nd sf r om d i f f e r en tp a r t so ft h eL a te S tone Age a nd s ome t ime sa l so f i nd so rb u r ia lc a ir n sf r om t h eE a r ly a nd L a te B ronze Age s .D e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a tt h ea r ea may t h u sd emon s t ra te s e t t lemen tc on t inu i ty, o r af r equen t ly r e cu r r ing s e t t lemen t ,t h eo ccu r r ence o fp o l len i n d ica t ing a g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i t ie si se x t r eme ly s ma l l . I ft h en a t ive p opu la t ion h ad s t a r ted c u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima lh u sband ry ,t h en t h ee v idence s hou ld h ave b een c on t inuou s o rc ommon i nt h e d i ag rams . An a rgumen t a ga in s t t h i s r e a son ing m igh tb et h a ti ft h ey u sed s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion t h en t h ec u l t iva t ion move so n w hen t h e l a nd h a s b ecome e xhau s ted wh ich wou ld r e su l t i ne xa c t ly t h e se o cc a s iona l m a rk ing si nt h ed i ag ram sw h ich w ef i nd .A sr e ga rd st h ec e r ea l si nq ue s t ion , whea ta nd b a r ley , i ti sa l so e s sen t ia lt h a tt h es amp l ing c o r e mu s tb et a ken v e ry c l o se t ot h es i te o f c u l t iva t ion o rt h et h r e sh ing p l a ce , o t he rw i se n o ma rk ing i so b ta ined .H oweve r ,t h el o ng t ime p e r iod c oncer n ed mu s tb e c on s ide r ed , a bou t 2 500 -3000 y ea r s . Du r ing t h i s l ong p er iod i twou ld b e r ema rkab le i fp eop le d id n o t r e tur nt ot h e f a vou rab le a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea sc once rn ed h e r e ,o ra tl e a s tr e tur nt ot h en e ighbou rhood . T he p o l len d i ag r am s u nde rd i scu s s ion a r e s t i l l f a i r ly w ide ly s p r ead a nd f e a tu re s o f a g r icu l tu r eh ave n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ed a tm any mo r ep l ace sa l ong t h e c oa s to f No r r land t h an w eh ave k now ledg eo ft o day , wh ich i ss ugge s ted b yt h es t ray f i nd so fo b jec t s o f s ou th Sweden o rs ou th S cand inav ian t y pe wh ich ,a sm en t ioned ,p robab ly l a rge ly c ome f r om dwe l l ing s i te s . N one the le s s , o u rp re sen tk now ledge o ft h ea g r icu l tu ra l f e a tur e s a nd o ft h ed i spe r sa lo ff i nd sa nd s e t t lemen t ss hou ld b es uff ic ien tt op rov ide ab a s i s f o r t h ef o l low ing h ypo the s i s : T he a g r icu l tu ra l f e a tu r e s i nN o r r land d ur ing t h e S tone a nd B ronze Age sw e re l i nk ed t og roup so fp eop le w i th t h e i ro r ig in t ot h es ou th o ft h er i ve rD a lä lven ,i n 3 7

Sweden a nd / o ri nD enma rk .T he se c u l tu ra lc ha rac te r i s t ic sh ave n o t ,o ro n ly t oa m ino re x ten t , b een a b so rbed b yt h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion d u r ing t h e S tone a nd B ronze Ag e s . Sma l lg roup so fi mm ig ran t st h roughou tt h ee n t i r ep e r iod f r om t h e Me so l i th ic u n t i lt h eL a te B ronze Age h ave c ome f r om t h es ou th a nd r e a ched t h e c oa s to fm idd le N o r r land a nd ,t o am ino re x ten t ,t h ec o a s to fn o r ther nN o r r land . C on t inuou s c u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima l h u sband ry ( F ig . 5 b ) i sf ound i np o l len d i ag ram s a nd a na ly se s o f macrof o s s i ls f r om a bou t t h e b i r th o fC h r is t u p t o t h e p r e sen t i n H ä l s ing land , Med e lpad a nd Äng e rman land ,i nH ä l s ing land t h i st o ok p la ce a l r eady f r om a bou t4 00 B .C . ( Enge lma rk - Wa l l in 1 985 ) . T h i sa g ra r ian c u l tu r ei sc omp le te ly d i f f e r en t t ot h eo ne wh ich s po rad ica l ly o ccu r sd u r ing t h eS tone a nd B ronze Age sw i th in t h es ame a r ea o fN o r r land ( Enge lma rk 1 982 : 1 58 ) .T echn ica l ly ,t h e re a r ed if e r ence sw h ich c an b e f ound , f o re xamp le t h e s ame l a nd c an b e c u l t iva t ed f o r l onge rp e r iod s a nd mo re i n ten s ive ly a s ar e su l to ff e r t i l iza t ion . T he g round c an b ec l eaned o fs t one s wh ich a r e p l a ced i nc a ir n s ,i nt h ef ounda t ion t e r race so fl a rg eb u i ld ing so ri nt h eb u r ia l mound s .A c on t inuou s ly c u l t iva ted amb le l a nd p a t ter n f o rmed d u r ing t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , l a nd wh ich c an s t i l lb ef ound t o day i fl a te rl a nd u se h a sn o t d e s t roy ed t h et r ace s .T he amb le l a nd u sed o ve rl o ng p e r iod si sa s soc ia ted w i th t h el a rge a nd c omp l ica ted f a rm b u i ld ing s w h ich w e r eu sed f o r many y ea r sa nd wh ich w e r e f r equen t ly d i r ec t ly r ep laced b yn ew a nd s im i la r b u i ld ing s ( Ramqv is t 1 983 : 5 6 f . ; L iedg r en 1 984 ) . T he se t h ree -a is led h ou se s ,u sua l ly 3 0 -40 m e t r e sl o ng ,h ave n ok nown p r edece s so r si nN o r r land . Ic anno tf i nd a ny a s so c ia t ion o rn a tu ra lt r an s i t ion b e tw een t h i sf o rm o fa g r icu l tu r ea nd t h eo ne w h ich o ccu r r ed w i th in t h es ame a r ea o fN o r r land d u r ing t h eS tone a nd B ronze Age s . B e tween t h et wo f o rm st h e r ei s al o ng d eve lopmen t wh ich t o ok p lace f a ra way f r om Nor r land . One may , f o r e xamp le , r e ca l l t h e d i spe r sa l o f c e l t ic f i e ld s i n n o r thwe s t er nE u rope d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h ee a r l ie s tI r on A ge .A tt h es ame t ime , t h e r ew e r em a jo rc hange si nb u i ld ing t e chno logy ,s e t t lemen tp a t ter n sa nd t h roughou tt h e e n t ire s oc ia l s t ruc ture . T he c hanges t ook p lace f a r a way f r om t h e n or the rn h un te r -ga the r e rc u l tu r e si nF enno scand ia w i thou tt h el a t te rg o ing t h rough t h es ame o r s im i la r c hange s . T h is may b e e xp r e s sed s o t h a t t h e p roduc t ive f o rce s i n m idd le N o r r land d i dn o td eve lop s o f a ri n ter na l ly t h a tt h e r ew a s ac hange i nt h ec ond i t ion s f o r p roduc t ion . On t h e o the r h and , t h e re w a s s uch d ynam ic d eve lopmen t i ns ou ther n S cand inav ia t h a tt h eq uan t i ta t ive c hange st h e r es h if ted t oq ua l i ta t ive ,i . e . ,t h ey r e su l ted i n an ew s oc ia l o rde r . D ur ing t h e L a te B ronze Age , m idd le N o r r land b ecame mo re c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h es ou th S cand inav ian B ronze Age c u l tu r ea nd t h en ew s oc ia l o rde r o ft h e E a r ly I r on Age w i th , f o r e xamp le , s eden ta ry a g ra r ian c u l tu re , c ou ld b e t a ken o v e rd u r ing t h ec en tu r ie sb ef o r ea nd a f te rt h eb i r th o fC h r i s t . I ti sn ow t ime t or e tur nt ot h ep r e sen ta t ion b yZ ve leb i la nd R ow ley -Conwy .T he i rf i r s t p ha se , whe r e k now ledge o fa g ra r ian c u l tu r ei sa va i lab le , i sf ound i n No r r land d u r ing t h el a te rp a r to ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd c on t inue sw i th o rw i thou tb reak si nt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic w i th t h eB a t t le Ax eC u l tu r ei f ,a sa s se r ted i nt h i sp ape r ,c u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima l h u sband ry h ave n o t b een t a ken u p b y t h e n a t ive h un te r -ga the re r g roup s . E ven i f c u l t iva t ion i n c rea se sd u r ing t h e L a te B ronze Age , w eh ave n or e a son t ob e l ieve t h a ti t r e p la ces t h eh un te r -ga the r e rc u l tu r e wh ich w ou ld b e t h e c a se i nt h e s e cond p ha se . I n a dd i t ion ,i tmay b ed i scu s s ed whe the ri ti st h ei n -com ing p opu la t ion sw ho c on t inue t h e i r t r ad i t iona l o ccupa t ion s o r t h e o ld h un te r -ga the r e r p opu la t ion w h ich t a ke s u p n ew c u l tu ra l e l emen t s . T he t r an s i t ion t ot h e t h i rd p ha se i nN o r r land , whe re t h e a g r a r ian c u l tu r eb ecome se s tab l i shed d u r ing t h ep r e -Roman I r on A ge a nd t h eE a r ly R oman I r on Age , a ppea r st ob ei mpo s s ib le t oe xp la in . One c anno ti n te rp r e tt h ea dvanced a g ra r ian c u l tu r e o ft h eI r on Age w i th i t s r i ch m a te r ia l a sd eve lop ing f r om t h ee a r l ie ra g ra r ian e conomy wh ich g ive sp oo rr e su l t si nt h ep o l len d i ag ram sd u r ing t h eL a te B ronze Age . I n s tead ,i tc an b er e ga rded a sb e ing p a r to fa ne n t i r es o c ia lc omp lex w h ich i st a k en u pi n i t sc omp le ted f o rm b yt h ep opu la t ion o ft h em idd le N o r r land c oa s ta la r ea s .T he c omp lex h a sb ecome s haped f o rm any y ea r s i ns ou ther np a r t s o fn or ther nE u rope a nd , a tt h e mo s t , wa s mod if ied b y e a r l ie r s oc ia l a nd e conom ic f o rm s i nm idd le N or r land . I ti s p robab le t h a t as im i la rd eve lopmen t i sf o und i nn o r ther n No rway a nd i nt h e c oa s ta l a r e a so fs ou the rn a nd w e s ter nF in land . 3 8

Z ve leb i l a nd R ow ley -Conwy ( 1986 : 6 9 ) m en t ion o ne c a se wh ich d oes n o t f i tt h e i r mode l . T h i s i st h e h un te r s / co l lec to r s i n C a l if or n ia , a no the r a r ea w i th r i ch m ar ine r e sou r ce s ,w ho d on o tg e tt h rough t h ef i r s tp ha se b ef o r et h ey c ome i n to c on ta c tw i th t h e E u ropean s .T he c ond i t ion si nm idd le N o r r land a r e as im i la r( bu tn o tp a ra l le l )s i tua t ion . T he a g ra r ian e conomy o ft h e S tone a nd B ronze Age sw a su nab le t oe x te rm ina te t h e h un te r -ga the r e r e conomy i n N o r r land . On t h e o the r h and , t h e c on s ide rab ly mo re d ev e lop ed a g ra r ian c u l tu r eo ft h en o r ther nE u ropean p r e -Roman I r on Age g o tt h eu pp e r h and i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f an ew s oc ia l f o rm . I n f a c t , b o th t h e C a l if or n ian a nd t h em idd le N o r r land e xamp le sc ou ld b ei n c luded i nt h e mode lp r e sen ted b y Z ve leb i l a nd R ow ley -Conwy i ft h e E u ropean c u l t iva t ion s i n C a l if o rn ia a nd t h e p re -Roman i nm idd le N o r r land w e re t ob e r e ga rded a sn ew i mpu l se s wh ich , i nt ur n , w en t t h rough a l l t h r ee p ha se s . B u t t h i s wou ld h ide t h e c ha rac ter is t ic s o ft h e t wo d i ve rg ing s i tua t ion s . I ti sa g r icu l tu r e i n amo r ed eve loped f o rm a nd i na no the rs oc ia l s y s tem wh ich g e t s t h eu ppe rh and . T he c hange s i nN or r land d id n o t f o l low t h et h r ee s t age si n as imp le c ou r se o fd eve lopmen t . T he r ei sn o r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e S tone A g ec u l t iva t ion si nN o r r land a nd t h o se w h ich a r ei n t roduced d u r ing t h ec en tu r ie sa r ound t h eb i r th o fC h r i s t . T he g r ea t a dvan tage o fZ ve leb i l a nd R ow ley -Conwy 's i nve s t iga t ion s i st h a t t h ey o b se rve n o to n ly t h a tt h et r an s i t ion t oa g ra r ian e conomy m igh tt a ke av e ry l ong t ime ,a s l o ng a sp e rhap s2 000 -3000 y ea r s ,b u ta l so t h a tt h ep roce s st o ok p l a ce i n av e ry v a r iab le m anne r . I n h i s c onc lud ing p ape r i nh i s c o l lec t ion o fa r t ic le s Hun ter s i n T r ans i t ion , Z ve leb i l( 1986b : 1 74 )a s s e r t st h ei mpo r tance o ft h e Me so l i th ic i nt h et empe ra te z one o f E u r a s ia a sa ni n dependen ta nd a c t ive p e r iod .H em en t ion st wo a l ter na t ive r ou te sf o rt h e e conom ic d eve lopmen t : o ne i nt h eN ea rE a s t ,b ased o nt h ed ome s t ica t ion o f ac omp lemen ta ry r ange o fc e rea ls ,l e gume s a nd s oc ia lu ngu la te s ;t h eo th e ri nt empe r a te E u ra s ia ,b a sed o n ac omb ina t ion o fb road -ba sed a nd s p ec ia l i sed s t ra teg ie s ,t h el a t te re sp ec ia l ly r e la t ing t oa qua t ic r e sou r ce s .

T he l a t te r s how s r ema rkab ly g ood a g reemen tw i th t h e c ond i t ion s i nN o r r land a nd F i n land . I nb o th a r ea st h e s e t t lemen t s a r e n o t o n ly a tt h e c oa s t sb u t t oj u s ta sg r ea ta d eg ree a l ong t h e r i ve r s a nd a t t h e m any l a ke s i n t h e i n ter ior . T he re a r e m any o ppo r tun i t ie st ou t i l ize d i f f e r en tr e sou rce s . C on sequen t ly , i ti sh a rd ly p robab le t h a t a d ec rea se i ns e a lh un t ing ,i ft h e re r e a l ly w a so ne ,w ou ld h ave b een s uff ic ien tt oc r ea te a s t re s s o r c r is i s s i tua t ion l e ad ing t o a g ra r ian e conomy . I t may a l so a ppea r t ob e a r ema rkab ly p ro t rac ted c r i s i s when t h et r an s i t ion t o ok p lace d u r ing a tl e a s t2 000 y ea r s . B o th i ns ou ther nF in land a nd i nt h ec oa s ta la r ea so fm idd le N o r r land t h ec l ima te d u r ing t h eS tone Age -B ronze A ge w a ss og ood t h a tc u l t iva t ion c ou ld e a s i ly b ea ccomp l i shed . I nD enma rk ,t h et r an s i t ion o ccu r r ed d u r ing as ho r tp e r iod b u tn o tu n t i la f te r mo r et h an a m i l len ium o fb e ing i nt h e' a va i lab i l i ty p ha se ' . T he v e ry l ong t r an s i t ion p ha se sr e qu i r ea ne xp lana t ion . Ah un t e rs oc ie ty c anno ta b so rb o n ly k now ledge o fc u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima lh u sband ry w i thou ti tb e ing a ccompan ied b y n ume rou so t he rh igh ly i mpo r tan tc hange si ns e t t lemen t s , r e l ig ion a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu r e . T h es t ronge rt h es oc ia lo rde ro ft h eh un t e rs oc ie t ie s ,t h e mo r ed i ff icu l ti tmu s th ave b een t om ak et h et r an s i t ion t o ac omp le te ly d if e r en te conom ic a nd s oc ia lo rde ri nt h ee ven to f ac r i s i s . S ince t h e re a r em any r e a son sf o rt h et r an sf e ra sw e l la s many d if e r en tk i nd so f s oc ia lc on s t ruc t ion s ,t h e r ea r ep robab ly n ume rou sv a r ia t ion s o ft h et r an s i t ion p roce s s . I f , f r om t h es t a r t ,t h e r ew a s ac e r ta in d eg r ee o fa g r eemen tb e tween t h es oc ia lo rde r so f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s a nd t h e h un te r s , t h en t h e t r an s i t ion o ft h e h un ter s t ot h ea g ra r ian e conomy mu s t h ave b een much e a s ie r t h an i fn o a g r eemen t wa s p r e sen t . I n m idd le N o r r land a nd s ou ther nF in land t h et r an s i t ion mu s th ave b een d i ff icu l t . I na c tua l f a c t , t h e r ew a s n ot r an s i t ion t ot h ea g ra r ian c u l tu re f r om t h ep ro t rac ted a va i lab i l i ty p ha se . A no the rf o rm o fa g ra r ian c u l tu r ea nd s oc ia l o rde rr e p laced t h eh un te rc u l tu r e a nd t h e m ix ed e conomy wh ich w a s p re sen t i nm idd le N o r r land a nd s ou ther nF in land i nt h e c en tu r ie sa r ound t h eb i r th o fC h r i s t . S t rong ly c oncu r r ing v i ew sa r ep r e sen ted b yP .M D o lukhanov i nt h ea bove -men t ioned c o l le c t ion o fa r t ic le s .I nh i si n t roduc t ion h ee mph a s ize s( 1 986 : 1 09 f . ) : 3 9

E xam ina t ion o ft h ep roces se sr e la ted t os oc io -econom ic d eve lopmen t s hou ld b eb a sed o nt h e who le b ody o f e v idence r egard ing e conom ic a nd s oc ia l p a t te rns a nd t he i d eo log ica l s up e r s t ruc tu re o fp r eh is to r ic s o c ie t ie s .

T he h un t ing -ga ther ing c ommun i t ie s i n t h e n or thwe s ter n R u s s ian p la in s how , i n s im i la r i ty w i th g roup si nm idd le N o r r land a nd s ou ther nF in land , . . ar ema rkab le s t ab i l i ty a nd l o ng p e r s i s tence o ft h ef o rag ing a dap ta t ion s ,a nd b yt h ee x tended r e s is tance t ot h ea dop t ion o ff a rm ing .

( Do lukhanov 1986 : 16 ) .

T he t r an s i t ion t oo n ly a g ra r ian e conomy d i dn o to ccu ru n t i l d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e t e n th t oe l even th c en tu ry A .D . B u t s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima l h u sband ry s t a r ted a l r eady i nt h em idd le o ft h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . ,w h ich i sa s sumed b yD o lukhanov t o l a rge ly d epend o n ad ome s t ic d eve lopmen tb u th e re r e sea r ch s t i l lh a st ob em ade . H e a l so m en t ion st h eg r ea ti mpo r tance o ft h eH a l l s ta t tc u l tu r ef o rn o r thwe s ter nR u s s ia w i th t r ade ,p o l i t ica lt e n s ion , r a p id d ev e lopmen to fm e ta l lu rgy a nd s oc ia ls t ra t if i ca t ion . One may a dd t h a t t h e se c hange s i nn or thwe s ter nR u s s ia a nd t h e B a l t ic p rov inces a ppea r t oh ave b een as t a r t ing -po in t , ac en t r e , f o r c hange s i ns ou ther n F in land , a p er iphery . Ap a ra l le l w i l l t h en b e t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s ou ther nS cand inav ia a s c en t re f o rc hange s i nt h ep e r iphe ra l m idd le N or r land d u r ing t h ec en tu r ie sa round t h e b i r th o fC h r i s t . O ne m ay p o s s ib ly t a ke t h ep a ra l le l i sm e ven f u r the rb ack a nd a s se r tt h e i mpor tance o ft h e H a l l s ta t t c u l tu re f o rs ou th S cand inav ia i nt h e m idd le o ft h e f i r s t m i l len ium B .C . f o rt r ade ,p o l i t ica lt e n s ion , r a p id d eve lopmen ti nm e ta l lu rgy a nd f o rt h e s oc ia ls t r a t if ica t ion . Border s a nd E thn ic i ty Q ue s t ion so fe t hn ic i ty d u r ing p r eh i s to r ic t ime sh ave b een o ff a i r ly g r ea ti mpo r tance i n t h ei n te rna t iona la r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch d u r ing t h ee m i r e2 0 th c en tu ry .I n F in land g r ea t a t ten t ion h a s b een d evo ted t oa t temp t s t ol i nk t oge the r t h e h i s to r ica l l ingu i s t ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch w i th t h e e t hn ic i ty p rob lem , wher ea s i n S cand inav ia s uch q ue s t ion sh ave r e ce ived l i t t le a t ten t ion . I nc onnec t ion w i th t h ed i scu s s ion o n S aam i sh e t hn ic i ty , h oweve r , t h e l a nguage a nd e t hn ic i ty p rob lem sh ave b ecome t op ica l i nt h e a n th ropo log ica l -a rchaeo log ica lr e sea r ch ,e spec ia l ly i nN o rway . Du r ing t h e 1 980s , s t ud ie s h ave b een made o fs eve ra l a spec t s d ea l ing w i th t h e a r chaeo logy o ff r on t ie r s a nd b ounda r ie s , ma in ly b y Amer ican s b u t a l so b y E ng l i sh a r chaeo log i s t s .I nt h eN o rd ic a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia ls uch s t ud ie s wou ld c e r ta in ly b ea r f r u i t , p a r t icu la r ly i nn o r th S cand inav ia . I nt h e f o l low ing Iw i l l d i scu s sh ow ab o rde r wh ich i sn ow a bou t 3 000 y ea r s o ld , a nd s t i l l e x i s t s , b ecame f o rmed i nN o r r land a nd w ha t i tm ean s f r om a n e t hn ica l v i ewpo in t . T he c ond i t ion s f o r t h e b o rde r s t a r ted t o a ppea ri na bou t 2 000 -1000 B .C . a nd s ub sequen t ly t h eb o rde r f o rmed c an b e f o l lowed u nde r v a r iou sc ond i t ion si n to h i s to r ica lt i me . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd m a te r ia l f r om t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic i ns ou th S cand inav ia a nd N o r r land i sv e ry d if e r en tw i th r e ga rd t ot yp e so fa r tef ac t , s e t t lemen tp a t ter n s ,d we l l ing s i te s a nd g raves . Adm i t ted ly , w e f i nd a r tef ac t s o f s ou th S cand inav ian o r ig in i n N or r land ,p a r t icu la r ly a l ong t h ec oa s t ,a sw e l la si n d iv idua lo b jec t sb e ing f ound t ot h e s ou th w h ich p robab ly h ave t h e i ro r ig in i nN or r land ,b u tn one the le s st h em a te r ia lg ive s t h e i mp r es s ion o ft wo d i f f e r en t w o r ld s . G ä s t r ik land , i ns ou ther nmo s t N o r r land , i sa b o rde r a r ea . T o t h e s ou th w e h ave l o ng d i s t ingu ished d u r ing t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic s eve ra la r cha eo log ica l' c u l tu r e s ' :t h eF unne lB eake rC u l tu r e ,t h eB a t t le Ax eC u l tu r e ,t h e S ing le G rave C u l tu re a nd t h eP i t ted Wa r e C u l tu r e . A l lh ave ap o ly the t ic c ha rac te ri n D .L . C la rke 's t e rm ino logy ( 1 968 : 3 7 f . ) .T ot h en or th w eh ave h i the r to n o tb een a b le o r h ave n o ta t temp ted t od i s t ingu i sh s uch a r cha eo log ica l c u l tu r e s , p e rhap s m a in ly s i nce N or r land l a ck s c e ram ic s a tt h is t ime . A n e xcep t ion i sG ä s t r ik land w i th c e ram ic s a t s e t t lemen t s b e long ing t ot h e P i t ted Wa r e C u l tu r e . Howeve r , t h e re i s ac on s ide rab le 4 0

v a r ia t ion i nt h e ma ter ia l f r om N o r r land w h ich m igh t m ake i tp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh g roup s , e ven t h ough n o tt ot h e s ame e x ten t a si ns ou th S cand inav ia . One s uch g roup h a s b een k nown f o r many y ea r s , t h e o ne w h ich i sc ha rac ter ized b y t h e ' n or the rn B o thn ian i mp lemen t s ' o rt h e ' Rovan iem i h oe s ' w i th ac en t r e a tt h e i nne rp a r t s o ft h e G u lf o fB o thn ia ( Mobe rg 1 955 : 8 3 ) . S ome b e long t ot h eM idd le N eo l i th ic , o t he r sm ay b eo l de ro ry ounge r . E ven i ft h e se N o r r land g roup sc anno t f u l ly b ec ompa r ed w i th t h e s ou th S cand inav ian o ne s i ti sn one the le s s i mpor tan t t h a t t h e t ype s h ave e me rged i n dependen t ly i nN o r r land a nd N o rway d u r ing t h ep e r iod 4 000 -2000 B .C . D ur ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge , t h e s ou th S cand inav ia a nd N o r r land g o t h rough c omp le te ly d i f f er en t d eve lopmen t s w h ich , h oweve r , h ave ar ema rkab le a nd i n te r e s t ing p a ra l le l i sm . D u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic g roup si ns ou th S cand inav ia a nd n e ighbou r ing p a r t so fn or th G e rmany w e r er e p la ced b y mo r eu n if o rm a nd e a s i ly r e cogn izab le t ypes o f a r tef ac t s a nd t h e e a r l ie r a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s d i sappea r . T he c ha ra c te r i s t ic u n if o rm i ty o ft h em a te r ia la l so c on t inue sd u r ing t h eo l de r B ronze Age . I nN o r r land , t h ei n dependen t ly d eve loped l o ca lt ype sw e r er e p laced a f te r a bou t 2 000 B .C . b y t ype s wh ich a r e s im i la r o ve r av e ry w ide a r ea i nt h e e a s t -we s t d i rec t ion whe re No r r land c ompr i ses o n ly a m ino r p a r t . S ou th Sweden a nd n o r th Sweden a r e i n c luded i n t h i s w ay i n t wo e x ten s ive a nd g eog raph ica l ly s epa ra ted t e chnocomp lex e sa nd s ymbo lw o r ld s . B o th t ot h es ou th a nd t ot h en o r th t h e r ei s al a ck o fc on t inu i ty i ns eve ra lr e spec t si nr e la t ion t ot h ef o rme rc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen tt h e r e . I n t h es ou th , s ome o ft h ef o rm s ,s uch a sd agge r so ff l in ta nd , l a te r ,s wo rd so fb ronze , c an b ei n te rp r e ted a sp re s t ige a r t ef ac t s ,w h ich s ugg e s tc ommon s oc ia lv a lue st h roughou tt h e e n t i r er e g ion . I ti sc l o se a th and t oi n te rp r e tt h el a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t si nt h en o r th i nt h e s ame w ay a nd t h e r eby a s sume c ommon s oc ia lv a lue sa l so w i th in t h e n or ther nr e g ion . W i th in t h es ou the rn r e g ion t h e r ei s ,f u r the r ,b u tw i th m ino rv a r ia t ion s , ac ommon b u r ia l c u s tom w h ich g ive s i nd ica t ion s o fs im i la r i t ie s i nt h e r e l ig iou s p h i lo sophy . V i s ib le g r ave sa r el a ck ing i nt h en o r th a nd t h ea r ea i s ,i nt h a tr e spec t ,u n if o rm .A ne xcep t ion a r e t h eB ronze A ge b u r ia lc a ir n si n an a r row s t r ip a l ong t h ec oa s to ft h eG u lf o fB o thn ia ,a f o rm o fb u r ia lw i th s ou th S cand inav ian a s soc ia t ion s( Baudou 1 968 ) . T he c ommone s ta nd mo s tc ha rac te r is t ic t y pe so fa r tef ac t sa r et h et h in a r row h ead so f q ua r tz i te m ade b yt h eb i f ac ia lt h inn ing t e chn ique ( F ig s . 7 8 ) . T hey o ccu ro ve ra lmo s t t h e e n t i r ea r ea o fN o r r land a sf a rd own a sn o r ther nG ä s t r ik land . T hey w e r ea l so m ade t h roughou t mo s to fN o r r land ,a sa ppea r s f r om t h ed i spe r s ion o ft h et h in d i sco id f l ak e s w h ich o ccu rw hen t h ea r row -head s a r e s t ruck . T he se a r row -head s s t a r ted t ob e u sed d u r ing t h e E a r ly B ronze Age i nN or r land a nd w e r e t h en u sed t h roughou t t h e e n t i r e B ronze Age a nd p o s s ib ly d ur ing t h ee a r ly p a r to ft h eI r on Age . B o th t h i st y pe a nd t h e p r ev iou s ly m en t ioned l a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t s , wh ich a r e i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic , a r e d i spe r sed t h roughou tn o r ther nR u s s ia ( F ig . 9 )a nd w e s ter nS iber ia ( Che rne t sov 1 974 : 5 4 ) a s w e l l a s i n F in land ( Huu r re 1 986 : 5 6 ) a nd n o r th N orway . B if ac ia l t h inn ing t e chn ique w a s a l ready p re sen t w i th in t h e C ombed Wa re C u l tu re i ne a s ter nE u rope . O r ig in o ft h i st y pe o fa r row -head a nd t h eb i f a c ia lt h inn ing t e chn ique mu s tb es ough ti n a r ea s f a rt ot h ee a s ta nd s ou thea s t . I n aw ay ,t h e r ei s ap a ra l le lt ot h ec a se t h a t many o f t h e mode l sf o rs ou th S cand inav ian f l i n ti mp lemen t so ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic a r et ob ef o und o u t s ide s ou th S cand inav ia i nw e s ter no rc en t ra lE u rope . D u r ing t h eE a r ly B ronze Age w ef i nd t h a ta sbe s to s tempe r ed c er am ic ss t a r tt ob eu sed i n N o r r land . T he re i sa l so a s ma l l n umbe r o f f i nd s o f a sbe s to s tempe red s he rd s d eco ra ted w i th i m i ta ted t e x t i le i mp r e s s ion s . T he o r ig in o ft h e se t y pe s o fc e ram ics a r e f ound i nF in land a nd n o r ther nR u s s ia ( Ca rpe lan 1 979 : 1 4f . ) . Ac ha rac te r i s t ic e xamp le o f t h e e a s te rn c on tac t s i st h e r e cen t ly e s tab l ished h a ir tempe red c e ram ic s f r om N ämf o r sen , R ä inge t Ia nd M jä la i nn or ther nÄ nge rman land ( Hu l th h 1 985 ; 2 47 f . ) , T he s ame t emper ing t e chn ique i sf ound i nn o r the rn F in land , i nt h e K o la r e g ion a nd I n n o r thea s ter nS ib e r ia ( Yaku t ia ) . B ym ean so fa na ly s i si tc an b ed emon s t ra ted t h a tt h ec l ay u s ed i sn o t o fl o ca lo r ig in .T he M jä la s e t t lemen tb e long st ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd a tt h e o t he r t wo s e t t lemen t s t h i s t ype o fc e r am ic s m ay b e long t ot h e L a te N eo l i th ic o rt h e B ronze A ge . A sbe s to su sed i nt empe r ing h a sb een f ound a t dwe l l ing s i te s i nn o r the rn N or r land w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t l o ca l m anuf ac tur ing h a s o ccur r ed a tt h e s ame t ime a s 4 1

A

2 -

-

3


4

-

B-

6 A-

- B

A- ( 1 ) . -A

7

-

8

9

1 0

B

- B

1 1

F ig . 7 .P o in t so fs l a te a nd b recc iequa r tz f r om t h e dw e l l ing s i te a tN äm fo r sen ,R ive r Änge rmanä lven , i n M idd le N o r r land . N o s . 1 -4 a r eN o r th -Scand inav ian t yp e s f r om E a r ly t oL a te N eo l i th ic . N o s . 5 11 a r e e a s ter nt ype sb u tp roduced i nN o r r land f r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd t h eE a r ly l i on A ge .

s ome c e r am ic sh ave b een t r an spo r ted o ve rl o ng d i s tan ce s . Apar t f r om t h e t ype s m en t ioned , t h e re a r e o the r f o rms c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e d i spe r s ion i nN o r r land , n o r ther nN orway , F in land a nd f a r t ot h e e a s t . N one h a s i t s o r ig in i nN o r r land . A l lh ave l i nk st owa rd s t h e e a s t -sou thea s tb u th ave p a r t ly d i f f e r en t d i spe r s ion a r ea s . A l la r ei n c luded i nd i f f e r en tt e chno -comp lex e s ,a sd ef ined b yC la rk e ( 1968 : 3 21) , i . e . , t h a t t h e t ype s a r e e xpre ss ion s f o r d i f f e ren t s oc io -cu l tura l , t e chno log ica l , e conom ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s . T he s ma l l p o in t s a nd t h e c e ram ic sb e long t ot h ee ve ryday a r t ic le s . T he l a rge q ua r tz i te p o in t sm ay , o nt h eo t he r h and ,b ec on s ide r ed a sb e long ing t oo b jec t so fp r e s t ige w i th p a r t icu la rs ymbo l ic v a lue . T he c ha ra c te r i s t ic h ead s o fe l k , s e a l s a nd b ea r s f ound o n k n ive s a nd o t he r a r tef ac t s d u r ing t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic h ave d i sappea r ed , w i th t h ee xcep t ion o f af ew l a rge s l a te d agge r sw i th e l k -head sw h ich m ay b e long t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic . 4 2

Fig. 8. Fragments of points and unfinished points of light and dark quartzite of Bronze Age/Early Iron Age date from a dwelling site at the river Faxfilven in Middle Norrland. 43

Fig. 9. Points of Russian flint from G. Hallstrom's investigationa on the Dvina Bay, White Sea [after Huggert 1984: 64 ].

The fundamental difference between the cultural conditions in Norrland before and after about 2000 B.C. is remarkable. Instead of numerous types of artefacts which reflect a symbolism of north Scandinavian character, we find a few form of implements and types of ceramics dispersed over an extensive area towards the east and southeast outside Fennoscandia. Even the techniques used to work stone changed. This is an internationalization which does not have its prerequisites in the north Scandinavian area. The changes in the prehistoric material can be interpreted as a reflection of the comprehensive economic-political changes in eastern Europe which led to the development of a centre-periphery situation. During the Neolithic, Finland already had marked easterly-southeasterly links. During the second millenium B.C. northern Scandinavia and Norrland were drawn into a strong dependency situation which 44

r e su l ted i n ac omp le te ly n ew wo r ld o fs hape sa nd s ymbo l s . T he r ea son s f o r t h e se c hange s mus t b e s ough t i n t h e e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l d eve lopmen ti ne a s ter nE u rop ea nd C en t ra lA s ia i nc onnec t ion w i th t h em in ing o fm e ta l s a nd t h ep roduc t ion o fm e ta l l ic a r tef a c t s . C emy ch ( 1984 )h a sd i s t ingu i shed f i ve p er iod s i nt h ed i s tr ibu t ion o fc oppe ra nd b ronze a r tef ac t si nE u ra s ia . I nt h e f i f th p e r iod , a bou t 1 600 -900/ 800 B .C ., t h e s p read r e aches F in land a nd N or r land . T he o r ig in o f t h e m e ta l lu rg ic p roduc t ion i st h en i nt h e p rev iou s p er iod 's manuf ac tur ing c en t re i nt h e Vo lga -U ra la r ea ( Cer nych 1 984 :30 ) . Du r ing t h ep e r iod f r om a bou t 1 600 -1300 B .C . t h e b ronze -r ich b u r ia lg round sa tS e jma -Tu rb ino a tO ka a nd K ama a r ei nt h ec en t r e .F inn i sh a r chaeo log is t sh ave f r equen t ly e mpha s ized t h ei mpor tance o ft h eS e jma -Tu rb ino g roup f o rF in land d ur ing t h eE a r ly B ronze Age . F ind so fc e l t so fS e jma t ype h ave b een made a nd t h ey h ave a l so b een c op ied i nt h el o ca l Maan inka t ype ( Me inande r 1 954 :39 f . ) .N o c or re spond ing f i nds h ave y e t b een made i n No r r land b u t U pp land h a s i n f a c t b een r e ached b y an umbe ro fa r tef ac t s wh ich h ave o r ig ina ted f r om t h eR u ss ian wo rk shop s . H e re i ti st h eg eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h eA land i s land sw h ich h a sp l ayed ar o le i nt h i s c onnec t ion .

F ig . 1 0 . A sbe s tos tempe red p o t te ry s he rd so fd i f f e ren tt ype sf r om G . Ha l ls t röm 's i nves t iga t ion 1 946 a t t h es i te R ä inge tI ,R ive r Änge rmanä lven .D a t ing :B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on Age [ a f te rB audou 1 977 : 8 3 ] . 4 5

T he c hange s i nN o r r land d u r ing t h e s e cond m i l len ium B .C . m ay b e r ega rded a sa p a ra l le lt ot h ec on tempo ra ry d eve lopmen ti ns ou th S cand inav ia .T he m any t y pe si nt h e s ou th S cand inav ian c u l tu r e s o ft h e M idd le N eo l i th ic a r e r e p laced b y w ide ly s p r ead f o rm s wh ich a r i se u pon i mpu l se s f r om w e s ter na nd c en t ra l E u rope . T he r e a son s f o r t h e se c hang e sa r ef ound i nt h ec u l tu ra ld eve lopmen ti na r ea sf a rf r om t h eN o rd ic r e g ion . D u r ing t h e s e cond m i l len ium B .C . ac en t re -per iphe ry r e la t ion sh ip w h ich i s much s t ronge rt h an p r ev iou s ly e ncoun te r ed d eve lop sw i th s ou th S cand inav ia a st h ep e r iphe ry t oc en t re s i nc en t ra l a nd w e s t E u rope . A l so i nt h is c a se , i tm ay b e a s se r ted t h a t i ti s e conom ic -po l i t ica l c hange s i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e i n c rea s ing u se o f m e ta l a nd p roduc t ion o fm e ta l l ic a r tef a c t sw h ich l e ad st o ac en t r e -pe r iphe ry r e la t ion sh ip b u tw i th a no the rd i r ec t ion t h an i nt h en or th . T h i sd i v i s ion o ft h e S cand inav ian p en in su la i n to a n o r ther na nd as ou ther np a r tw i th l i nk st od i f f e r en tt e chno -comp lexe sa nd s ymbo l i sm i s t h e u l t ima te b a s i s f o r t h e l a te r , s o d i f f e ren t , c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t s i nn o r ther na nd s ou ther nN o r r land r i gh tu pt ot h el a te rp a r to ft h e Med ieva lp e r iod . T he b o rde rb e tween t h en o r ther n -ea s ter nc u l tu ra lc omp lex a nd t h es ou ther nc omp lex d u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd t h eE a r ly B ronze Age g oe st h rough G ä s t r ik land a nd t h u s c o inc ide s w i th t h e s ugge s t ion o f ab o rde rw h ich w a s a l r eady p r e sen t i nt h e M idd le N eo l i th ic . T h i sb o rde rw a sa l so o fs ome i mpor tance e v en l a te rb u tn o tc on t inuou s ly t o h i s to r ica lt ime .O ff a rg r ea te ri mpo r tance w a st h eb o rde rb e tween n o r th er nN o r r land a nd m idd le N o r r land wh ich a ppea r s d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze Age a nd w h ich h a s r ema ined u n t i lt o day . T he mo s ti mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt h el a t te rc a se i st h ea s soc ia t ion t oh i s to r ica l ly k nown c ond i t ion sw he r eby w ec an r e ach c onc lu s ion so ne t hn ic g roup ing i np r eh i s to r ic t ime , s ome th ing wh ich w ou ld o t he rw i se b ee x t r eme ly d if i cu l t .H e r e Iw i l lo n ly t a ke u p t h em a jo rp o in t s . T he s t a r t ing -po in t i s made i nt wo g roup s o ff i nd m a te r ia l : a sbe s to s c e ram ic s a nd A nan j ino b ronze s i nn o r ther nN o r r land ( F ig s . 1 0 -11) . T he a sbe s to s c e ram ic sa r e o fa t y pe c a l led S ä rä i sn iem i 2 ,w h ich a r e d a ted i nF in land t oa bou t 1 250 B . C . -3 00 A .D . ( Ca rpe lan 1 979 ) a nd i nn or th N o rway t oa bou t8 00 B . C . -3 00 A .D . ( O l sen 1 984 :67 ) . I 4C d a t ing i nN o r r land f a l l s w i th in t h e p e r iod s m en t ioned ( L inde r 1 966 ) . T he o t her g roup i sa bou t2 0b ronze a r tef ac t sa nd c a s t ing mou ld so fA nan j ino t y pe d a ted t oa bou t 8 00 -200 B .C . S eve ra l N o rd ic a r chaeo log is t s h ave d emon s t ra ted t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween o b jec t si mpo r ted f r om t h eA nan j ino c en t r ei nt h eV o lga -Kama a r ea a nd t h ose m ade i nn o r th F enno scand ia ( s ee , e . g . , B akka 1 976 ) . T he t ype s o fa r tef ac t s s t op a t ab orde r t o m idd le N or r land ( F ig . 1 2 ) . T he b o rde r a r ea i n n or the rn Änge rman land -Jäm t land i st h e s ame a s d u r ing t h e f i r s t m i l len ium A . D . wh ich i s ma rked b y an umbe r o fp henomena wh ich c ome f r om t h e s ou th a nd r e ach t h e ir n o r the rnmo s tl im i tt h e r e . D ur ing h i s to r ica lt ime ,t h i si st h eb o rde rb e tween t h eS aam ii n t h e i n ter io r o fn o r ther nN or r land a nd t h e Swede s i nm idd le a nd s ou the rn N o r r land . W i th t h es uppo r to ft h eh i s to r ica l ly k nown s i tua t ion , Ip ropo se t h eh ypo the s i st h a tf r om a bou t 8 00 B .C . a nd o nwa rd s t h i s b o rde r w a s a n e t hn ica l b o rde r b e tween a n ' e a r ly S aam i 'p opu la t ion i nt h e n o r th a nd a n' e a r ly n o r th G e rman ic 'p opu la t ion i nt h e s ou th . B yu se o ft h e se t e rm s Ie mpha s ize t h a tt h e r ei sa ne t hn ic c on t inu i ty e x tend ing f r om t h e f i r s tm i l len ium B . C .u n t i lt h eh i s to r ica l ly k nown S aam ia nd S cand inav ian s . N a tu ra l ly , t h ee t hn ic c on ten th a sc hanged t h roughou tt h em i l len ia .T h i si se a s i ly n o t iced a l ready i f c ompa r ison sa r e made b e tween c ond i t ion sd u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd t h eV ik ing Age . Howeve r , w e c an n eve r e l uc ida te a l l t h e c hange s a nd c an s imp ly n o te t h e f u ndamen ta lc on t inu i ty . T he N o rweg ian a n th ropo log i s tF redr ik B a r th ( 1969 : 1 4 )s t a te st h ef o l low ing a sb e ing c ha ra c te r i s t ic o fe t hn ic g roup s : ( i ) o ve r t s i gna ls o r s i gn s -t h e d iac r i t ica l f e a tu re s t ha t p eop le l o ok f o r a nd e xh ib i t t os how i d en t i ty , o f ten s uch f e a tu res a sd re s s , l a nguage , h ou se -f o rm , o rg ene ra l s t y le o fl i f e , a nd ( i ) b a s ic v a lue o r ien ta t ion s : t h e s t anda rd s o f mo ra l i ty a nd e xce l lence b y w h ich p e r fo rmance i s j udg ed .

T he r e m ay , c on sequen t ly , b e c ha rac te r i s t ic s i na na r chaeo log ica l c u l tu r e w h ich a r e 4 6

r e levan tf o rt h ed e te rm ina t ion o fa ne t hn ic g roup . S uch c ha rac te r i s t ic sm igh tb ea b le t o i d en t ify at e r r i to r ia lb o rde r . I fs uch ab o rde rc an b ea s soc ia ted w i th h i s to r ica l ly k nown c i r cums tance s , t h en i tm igh t b e p o s s ib le t ol i nk p reh i s tor ic m a ter ia l t of o lk g roup s k nown t oday . I an Hodde r ( 1979 ) h a s a s ser ted t h a t e t hn ic g roup s a r e i n te r e s t g roup s a nd t h a t t h e b o rde r sb e tween i n te re s tg roup sb ecome t h e s t ronge s t ma rked ma ter ia l ly i ns i tua t ion s w he re t h e s t re s s f a c to ri ss t ronge s t . T h i s a rgumen ta t ion i st a ken u p b y K nu t O dne r ( 1 983 : 1 0 ) when h ea t temp t st oe xp la in why S aam ie t hn ic i ty a r o se .T he u se o fs ymbo l s a nd l a nguage a r e s t rong i nd ica t ion s . T he r ema rkab le o rnamen ta t ion o n a sbe s to s c e ram ic s h a s a l ready b een c on s ide red b ys eve ra l a r chaeo log i s t s a s am a rk ing o ft h i s k ind ( J ohan sen -K leppe 1 977 ; O lsen 1 984 ) . T he Anan j ino a x e s f ound i na r ea s whe r e a xe sw e r en o tu sed a si mp lemen t sa nd wh ich c an h a rd ly h ave h ad a ny r e a li mpor tance

3

4

6

F ig . 1 . L a te B ronze A ge c e l t s( 1 -2 )a nd s t one a xe so fS cand inav ian t ype s( 5 -7 )f r om M idd le N o r r land . N o . 3i s ac e l ta nd n o . 4as t one mou ld f o rb ronze c e l ts o ft h e e a s tR us s ian A nan j ino c u l tu re . B o th a r e f ound i nN o r the rn N o r r land . 4 7

a s w eapon s c an b e i n terp re ted a s s ymbo ls o fp owe r . I n a dd i t ion , s i nce t h ey a r e s o d i f f e r en t f r om t h e s ou th S cand inav ian a xe s f r om t h e L a te B ronze A ge o ne m ay a s ser t t h a t t h ey w er e n o t o n ly p owe r s ymbo ls w i th in t h e g roup , b u t t h a t t h ey a l so h ad t h e f unc t ion o fd i s t ingu ish ing t h eg roup f r om g roup si nt h es ou th . I ti sr ema rkab le t h a t w e c an f i nd n o s im i la re t hn ic s i gna ls f r om 2 00 -300 A .D . u n t i l a bou t 8 00 A .D . i nn or the rn Nor r land . B u t i n s tead , t h e b o rder d ur ing t h e R oman I r on A ge a nd t h eM ig ra t ion P er iod i sm a rked mo r ec l ea r ly a s ar e su l to fs eve ra lv e ry m a rked p henomena h av ing t he ir n or the rnmos t b order j u s t i n t he a rea o f n or thern Ä ngerman land -Jäm t land . Among t h e se , t h e mo s t i mpor tan t a r e t h e l a rge f a rms , t h e

F ig . 1 2 . Map s how ing p reh is tor ic c onnec t ion s b e tween e a s t R us s ia a nd N or thern N o r r land . 1-L a te N eo l i th ic -B ronze A ge , 2-L a te B ronze A ge -E a r ly I r on A ge , 3-V ik ing A ge , 4 -T he b o rde ra r ea i n N or ther n Änge rman land / Jäm t land . 4 8

p r eh i s to r ic h i l l -f o r t s ,i r on p roduc t ion a nd b ronze h and ic raf t s .T he e conomy a nd s oc ia l o rde ro ft h eS cand inav ian I r on A g es o c ie ty d on o tc r o s st h eo l db o rde ri nt h en o r th .T he b o rde rn ow m a rk sn o to n ly a ne t hn ic d i f f e r ence b u ta l so ad i f f e rence b e tween t wo s o c ia l s y s tem s . D u r ing t h eV ik ing A g ea nd t h e Med ieva lp e r iod t h e r ei s av e ry r i ch f i nd ma te r ia li nt h e n or th , w i th s t rong a s soc ia t ion s t ot h e e a s t a nd s ou thea s t b u t a l so t o No rway , p a r t ly r e p r e sen ted i n t h e S aam im e ta ld epo s i t s( Ser n ing 1 956 ; Z ach r i s son 1 984 ) , a nd a l so i n f i nd sa tt h em any r e cen t ly d i scov e r ed d we l l ing s i t e sf r om t h eV ik ing Ag ea nd t h eM idd le A ge s ( Be rgman 1 988 ) . T he s i te s g i ve ad i r ec t a s soc ia t ion t ot h e S aam ish s e t t lemen t f r om t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry a nd l a te r w hen h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s p rov ide mo re a ccu ra te k now ledge o ft h es e t t le r s . T he r i ch f i nd ma ter ia l f r om t h eV ik ing Age i nn o r ther nN o r r land m ay b ea s soc ia ted w i th t h e t r an s i t ion t o ma rke t e conomy i n R u s s ia d ur ing t h e V ik ing Age . N ew i n ves t iga t ion s h ave d emon s t ra ted t h a t moun ta in a r ea s w i th h ighe r a l t i tude s b ecame u t i l ized i n ac omp le t e ly d if e r en tw ay t h an e a r l ie r .I tmu s th ave b een t h er e indee rh un t ing t h a ti n ten s if ied . S im i la r ly , av e ry l a rge p ropo r t ion o ft h en ume rou sr e cen t ly d i scove r ed s i t e si nt h ei n land f o r e s ta r ea sa ppea rt ob e long t ot h eV ik ing Age a nd t h eM idd le A ge s . B u tt h em a rke te conomy a l so d eve lop si nN orway , n o tl e a s ti nn or th N orway , a sw e l l a s i ns ou ther n Sweden i n c lud ing t h e Mä la rda len a r ea . T he s t i l l u nu t i l ized h un t ing r e sou r ce so fn o r ther nN o r r land a ppea rt oh ave b een a t t r ac t ive f o rt h ec en t ra l ly loca ted m a rke t s . D ur ing t h e p a s t 3 000 y ea r s t h e r e h ave b een s eve ra l c hange s i nt h e l i ve l ihood a nd s e t t lemen t f o rm s a nd e conomy i nn or ther n N o r r land b u t d e sp i te t h i s , t h e b o rde r t o m idd le N o r r land h a s r ema ined u nchanged . Ii n te rp r e t t h i s a s e t hn ic c on t inu i ty . T he p l ace -name r e sea r che r sh ave a l so d emon s t ra ted t h a tG e rman ic p l ace -name sg o ing b ack 1 500 -2000 y ea r sa r ef ound t ot h es ou th o ft h eb o rde rw he r ea st ot h en or th o ft h eb o rde r t h e r ea r eS aam i sh n ame sw h ich c an o n ly b ef o l low ed as ho r tp e r iod b ackwa rd s( Baudou 1 986 ) . O ne m igh t b e l ieve t h a t t h e b o rder i sc ond i t ioned b y t h e n a tu ra l c i rcums tance s a nd c on sequen t ly i ss imp ly w ha to ne m igh te xpec tt oo ccu rb e tween t wo d i f f e r en tf o rm so f l i ve l ihood . T h i s i sn o t t h e c a se . T her ei sn on a tur a l ly -cond i t ioned b ord er i nt h ef o r e s t a r ea s o fn o r ther n Äng erman l and -J äm t l and . S ince t h e b o rde r d eve loped d u r ing t h e c en tu r ie sa r ound 1 000 B .C . , t h eh un te r s -ga the r e r sl i ved b o th t ot h e n o r th a nd s ou th o f t h eb o rde ra nd t h e s ame a pp l ie st h roughou tt h e e n t i r e m i l len ium B .C . I tw a sn o tu n t i l l a te rt h a tt h eb e t te rs o i lt ot h es ou th o ft h eb o rde rb ecame o fi mpo r tan ce t oa na g r icu l tu r e w h ich h ad p oo rp ro spec t si nt h ei n te r io ro fn o r ther nN o r r land . C on sequen t ly , t h roughou ta ne n t i r em i l lenn ium t h eb o rde ri ss imp ly c ond i t ioned b y c u l tu ra l f a c to r s . Among s uch f a c to r s Ih ave i n c luded e ve ry th ing wh ich k eep s e t hn ic g roup s t oge the r a cco rd ing t oB a r th ( 1969 ) . C on tac t s w i th t h e e a s t -sou thea s t w e re r e ta ined o ve rt h el a nd -b r idge i nt h en o r th u n t i lt h eS wed i sh S t a te h ad d eve loped a nd t h e c en tr a ls e a to fp owe ri nt h e Mä la rda len a r ea d u r ing t h el a te rp a r to ft h eM idd le A ge sh ad s u cceeded i nb ind ing n o r ther nN o r r land t oge the rw i th t h e r e s to f Sweden a tt h a tt i me . B u t t h en t h e e t hn ic -econom ic a nd s oc ia l ly -cond i t ioned b o rde r b e tween n or ther n N or r land a nd m idd le N o r r land h ad l o ng p r ev iou s ly a ch ieved s uch s t r eng th t h a t t h e r e w a s ap e rmanen td i f f e r ence b e tween S aam i sh c u l tu r ea nd Swed i sh c u l tu r e . C onc lus ion : C en tre a nd P er iphery I n b o th e xamp les t h e c omp rehen s ive c hanges d epend o n a n e xpans ive s oc ia l d eve lopmen t i n d i f f e ren t p a r t s o f t h e n e ighbour ing wor ld , i . e . , c ond i t ions f o r p roduc t ion h ave c hanged i nc en t ra la r ea s . I nt h e f i r s te xamp le , w i th d i spe r s ion o ft h e a g ra r ian e conomy t om idd le N o r r land ,t h ed ec i s ive c on so l ida t ion p ha s eo ccu r sw hen t h e s o c ia la nd e conom ic d eve lopmen to ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge i ns ou th S cand inav ia e xpand s d ur ing t h e c en tu r ie s a round t h e b i r th o fC hr i s t t om idd le N o r r land a nd r e p lace s t h e p r ev iou s ly s ov i ta lh un te r -ga the re re conomy . An i n ter na l d eve lopmen t i n ap e r iphe ra l 4 9

a r ea i sb roken b yi mpu l se sf r om t h ed ev e lopmen ti na ne xpan s ive c en t r e . I n t h e o t he r e xamp le , b y t h e d eve lopmen t o ft wo e x ten s ive t e chnocomp lex e s a nd g roups o fs ymbo ls d ur ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic N o r r land w a s i n c luded i nt h e e a s ter n c omp lex . T he d eve lopmen t a nd d i spe r s ion o fm e ta l h and ic raf t s a nd a n i n c r ea s ing e xchange w i th in t h e t wo c omp lex e s l e ad s t os t re s s s i tua t ion s r e su l t ing i n ab o rde r a r i s ing b e tween n o r ther na nd m idd le N o r r land d u r ing t h eL a te B ronze Age . T he b o rde r i s ma rked i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l b yc e ram ic s a nd b ronze a r tef ac t s . F rom t h e R oman I r on Age o nwa rd s t h e b o rde rd i s t ingu i she s b e tween t wo d i f f e r en t s o c ia l a nd e conom ic s y s tem s ; t h es e den ta ry a g ra r ian s t ruc tu r ei nt h es ou th a nd t h eh un te r -co l lec to r s oc ie ty i nt h en or th . T he o ppo s i t ion b e tween n o r th a nd s ou th mu s th ave b ecome a cu te . T he t h i rd ma rked p er iod i st h e V ik ing A ge a nd t h eM idd le Age s , w hen as o c ia l a nd e conom ic d eve lopmen t a ga in h a s e f f ec t s o ve r w ide a r ea s . T he n ew p roduc t ion c i r cum s tance sa r e f ound i nt h eg row th o fc en t r a lt own sh ip sa nd t h er a p id d eve lopmen t o fh and ic raf t s a nd t r ade a bou t 1 000 A .D . i nR u s s ia , N o rway a nd s ou the rn S weden i n c lud ing t h e Mä la rda len a r ea . T he a l r eady s ow e l l d ef ined b o rde ra l so a pp l ie st ot h e n ew c a tego r ie so ff i nd s . T he d i f f e r ence i ns oc ia ld eve lopmen tb e tween t h ea r ea st ot h e s ou th a nd t ot h e n or th o ft h e b o rde rb ecome s mo re m a rked , p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t h e M idd le Age s. when s t a te a nd c hu r ch o rgan iza t ion s r a p id ly a t ta in f oo tho ld s i nm idd le N or r land . C on sequen t ly , t h eb o rde rb e tween n o r ther nN o r r land a nd m idd le N o r r land b ecome s s ucce s s ive ly mo r es t rong ly m a rk ed f r om t h e L a te B ronze Age u n t i l t h eM idd le A ge s , p a r t ly a s ar e su l to fi nf luence f r om d i s tan tc en t r e si ne a s ter ns ou th a nd p a r t ly a s ar e su l t o ft h et h ed ynam ic s oc ia ld eve lopmen ti nm idd le N o r r land d u r ing t h eR oman I r on Age a nd t h eM ig ra t ion P er iod . B u th e r ew e mu s ta l so b ea ri nm ind t h a tn o r ther nN o r r land w ou ld n eve rh ave b een o fi n te re s t f o re xchange / t rade i ft h e n ew r e sou rce s c ou ld n o t h ave b een u sed . T he a r cha eo log ica li nve s t iga t ion si nt h ei n ter io ro fn or ther nN o r r land s how t h a tt h er e sou r ce so ft h e moun ta in f o o th i l la r ea b egan t ob eu t i l ized d u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge a nd t h a tt h eo pppo r tun i t ie s o f f e red b yt h eh ighe r moun ta in t e r ra in a nd t h ei n land f o r e s ta r ea sw e r eu t i l ized i n c r ea s ing ly i n ten s ive ly f r om t h eV ik ing Age o nwa rd s . T he p roduc t ive f o r ce st h u si n c r ea se i nn or the rn N o r r land b u t t h e re i sn oc hange i nt h e mode o fp roduc t ion d u r ing t h eV ik ing A ge /M idd le A g e s -t h i s d oe sn o to ccu ru n t i lr e indee rn omad i sm d eve lop sd u r ing t h e 1 6 th -1 7 th c en tu r ie s .

R ef erences B akka , E . 1 976 . A rk t isk o g n o rd i sk ib ron sea lde ren iN o rd skand inav ia . D e t Kg l . n or ske V id en sk abe is S e l sk ab , Mu see t . Mi sce l l anea 2 5 . T rondhe im . B a r th , F . 1 969 . I n t roduc t ion . E thn ic G roup sa nd B ound ar ie s . T he S oc i a lO rg an iz a t ion o fC u l tur eD if f e r ence ( e d .F .B a r th ) : 9 38 . B e rgen -O s lo -London . B audou , E . 1 968 . F or n t ida b ebygge lse iÄ ngerman land s k u s t land . A rkeo log i ska u nde r sökn inga ra v ä nge rman länd ska k u s t rö sen . ( P reh i s tor ic s e t t lemen t s i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea o fÄ nge rman land . A r cha eo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion so fc oa s ta l c a i rn si n Ängerman land .) A rk iv f ör n or r länd sk h embygd sf or skn ing XV I I : 1 209 . H är nö sand . B audou , E . 1 977 . D en f ö rh is to r i ska r a ng s tku l tu r en iV ä s temo r r land .V ä s t er nor r l and s F ö rh i s tor i a : 1 -152 .H är nö sand . B audou , E . 1 981 . F ö rändr inga ri n om j äga rku l tu r en v id L u le ä l v . -L u leä lv s sympo s ie t 1 3j un i 1 981 . S k r if te rf r än L u l eä lv sp ro j ek te t 1 :1 37 -159 . B audou , E . 1 982 . D e t f ö rh is to r iska j o rdbruke t iN o r r land : B akgrunden id e t a rkeo log iska f yndma ter ia le t . I n troduk s jonen a v j ordbruk i Norden ( e d .Th .S jovo ld ) : 1 63 -171 . O s lo -Be rgen -T rom so . 5 0

B audou , E . 1 987 . O r sake rt i l l b ebygge l sef ö rändr inga r iN or r land u nder mede l t iden . Ark iv e th i s tor ien r ö r e l sen . S v en L undkv i s t6 0ä r : 6 7 -79 . S tockho lm . B audou ,E . 1 988 . S ame ro ch g e rmane r id e tf ö rh i s tor iska N or r land . E nk r i t i sk ö ve r s ik t ö ve rt i oä r sf o r skn ing .B ebygg e l seh i s tor i sk t i d skr if t 1 4 . S tockho lm . B e rgman , I . 1 988 . D e a rkeo log iska u nder sökn inga rna v id R ack trä sk , A r jep log . Ark eo log i in or r 1 :1 29 -143 . Umeä . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 977 . G ene ra lI n t roduc t ion . F or T heory B u i ld ing i nA rchaeo logy ( ed . L .R . B inf o rd ) : 1 10 .N ew Y o rk -San F ranc i sco -London . B roadben t , N . 1 979 . C oas t a lR e sour ce sa nd S e t t lemen tS t ab i l i ty .AC r i t ica lS tudy o fa Meso l i th ic S i te C omp lex i n No r thern Sweden . A rcaeo log ica l S tud ies . U ppsa la Un ive r s i ty I n s t i tu te o fN or th E u ropean A r chaeo logy .A un 3 .U pp sa la . B roadben t , N . 1 982 . D en f ö rh is tor i ska u tveck l ingen u nde r7 000 ä r . S ke l lef teäbygdens h i s tor i a 3 .S ke l lef teä . B roadben t ,N . 1 984 . AL a te N eo l i th ic S i te a tK ädd is , Umeä P a r i sh V ä s te rbo t ten -S ome p e r spec t ive so n Ag r icu l tu re i nN or the rn Sweden .P ape rs i n Nor thern Ar chaeo logy ( ed . E .B audou ) .A r chaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t2 :4 5 -56 . Umeä . B roadben t , N . 1 988 . J ä rnä ldern so ch m ede l t iden ss ä l jäga re iö v re N or r land sk u s t land . Arkeo log i in or r 1 :1 45 -164 . Umeä . C a rpe lan , C . 1 979 . Om a sbe s tke ram ikens h i s tor ia iF enno skand ien . F insk t Museum 1 978 : 5 -25 . C ernych , E .N . 1 984 . F rühme ta l lurg ische K on tak te i n E ura s ien . B e i träge z ur a l lg eme inen u nd v e rg le ichend en A rchäo log ie V : 1 9 -34 ( 1983 ) . München . C he rne t sov , V .N . 1 974 . T he e a r ly h i s to ry o ft h e L ower Ob r eg ion . P reh i s tory o f We s tern S ibe r ia 1( ed s . V .N . C he rne t sov & W . Moszyn ska ) . Mon t rea l a nd L ondon . C h r i s t ians son , H . 1 974 . D ie S te inze i t N ordschweden s . S tand d er F or schung 1 971 . P r aeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t 4 9 : 1 0 -37 . C la rke ,D .L . 1 968 .Ana ly t ica lA r chaeo logy . L ondon . D o lukhanov ,P .M . 1 986 .T he L a te Me so l i th ic a nd t h et r an s i t ion t of ood p roduc t ion i n E a s ter nE u rop e . Hun te rs i nT rans i t ion ( e d .M . Z ve leb i l ) : 1 09 -119 . C ambr idge . E nge lma rk , R . 1 978 . T he C ompa ra t ive V ege ta t ion H i s to ry o fI n land a nd C oa s ta l S i te s i n Mede lpad , N . Sweden , d ur ing t he I r on Age . E ar ly Nor r land 1 : 2 5 -62 . KVHAA . S tockho lm . F or sberg , L . L . S i te V ar iab i l i ty a nd S e t t lemen t P a t terns . An a na ly s i s o f t he Hun ter -Ga ther er S e t t lemen tS y s tem i n t h e L uk R iv er V a l ley , 1 500 B .C .-A .D . A r cha eo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t5 . Umeä . F or sbe rg , L . 1 988 . B o sä t tn ing smön s te rv id L u le o ch Ume ä l v u nder b ron sä lder o ch f ö r rome r sk j ä rnä lde r . Ark eo log i in or r 1 :5 1 -101 . Umeä . H je lmroos , M . 1 978 . Den ä ld s ta b o sä t tn ingen i T orned a len . E n p akoeko log i sk u nd e rsökn ing . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . D ep t . o fQ ua te rna ry G eo logy . R epor t 1 6 . Hodde r ,I .1 979 .E conom ic a nd s oc ia ls t re s sa nd m a ter ia lc u l tu re p a t ter n ing . Amer ic an An t iqu i ty 4 4 :4 46 -454 . Ho lm ,L . 1 985 .V a r ia t ion si nF lake Ma te r ia l . D if f e r en tU t i l iza t ion o fS tone Ma ter ia l . I n Honor em Ev e r tB audou . A r cha eo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 :3 03 -311 . Umeä . Hugge r t ,A . 1 984 . F l in ta l so C ame f r om t h eE a s t -A C on tr ibu t ion t ot h eK now ledge o f Uppe r No r r land ' s P r eh i s to ry . P aper si n No r thern A r chaeo logy ( ed . E . B audou ) . A r cha eo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 :5 7 -74 . Umeä . Hu l th6n , B . 1 985 . H a ir -Tempered P o t te ry i n Ängerman land . I n Honor em Ever t B audou .A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 :2 47 -258 . Umeä . Hu t tunen , P .&T o lonen ,M . 1 972 . P o l lenana ly t ica lS tud ie so fP reh is to r ic Ag r icu l tu re i n Nor ther nÄ nge rman land . E ar ly Nor r l and 1 :9 34 . KVHAA . S tockho lm . Huur re ,M . 1 979 . 9 000 v ou t t as uomen e s ih i s tor i aa .H e ls ink i . J ohan sen -K leppe ,E . 1 974 .A rchaeo log ica l Ma ter ia la nd E thn ic I den t if ica t ion . AS tudy o fL app i sh Ma te r ia lf r om V a range r , N orway . Norw eg ian A r chaeo log ic a lR ev iew 1 0 : 3 2 -59 . K nu ts son , K . 1 988 . Mak ing a nd U s ing S tone T oo l s . T he a na ly s i s o ft he l i th ic 5 1

a s semb l ages f r om Midd le Neo l i th ic s i tes w i th f l in ti n V ä s terbo t ten , No r thern Sw ed en . Aun 1 . U n ive r s i ty o fU pp sa la . Kön ig sson , L . -K . 1 970 . T r ace s o f Neo l i th ic Human I nf l uence u pon t h eL and scape Deve lopmen t a t t h e B jur se le t S e t t lemen t , V ä s terbo t ten , Nor thern Sw eden . S ky t tean ska S amf unde t sH and l inga r7 . Umeä . L iedg ren , L . 1 984 . I r on Age S e t t lemen t i n H ä ls ing land . P aper s i n Nor thern Ar chaeo logy ( e d . E .B audou ) .A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 :9 3 -112 . Umeä . L iedg ren , L . 1 988 . S ynpunk te rp äd en s eden tär ab ebygge lsen se t ab ler ing iN or r land . B ebygg e l seh i s tor i sk t i d sk r if t 1 4 . S tockho lm . L inder , A . 1 966 . C 1 4 -da ter ing a v n or r länd sk a sbe s tkeram ik . F ornvännen 6 1 : 1 40 -153 . L oeff ler , D . & Wes tf a l , U . 1 985 . A We l l -preserved S tone Age Dwe l l ing S i te . P re l im ina ry P re sen ta t ion o ft h eI nve s t iga t ion a tV uo l le r im , L ap land , Sweden . I n Honor em Ev e r tB audou .A r chaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t4 :4 25 -447 . Umeä . L undbe rg , A . 1 985 . " V i l lage s" i nt h e I n land o fN or ther n Sweden 5 000 Y ea r sa go . I n Honor em Ev e r tB audou .A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 :2 39 -301 . Umeä . Ma lme r ,M .P . 1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien .A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia . S er ie s i n8 ° - NO2 . Me inande r , C . F . 1 954 . D ie B ronzeze i ti nF inn l and . F in ska F or nm inne sf ö ren ingen s t i d sk r if t5 4 .H e ls ink i . Mobe rg ,C . -A . 1 955 . S tud ier ib o t tn i sk s t enä ld er I -V . KVHAA . S tockho lm . Mu lk ,I . -M . 1 983 . S am i ska v in te rby cen t ra i nom L u le ä l vda l . LASTA 1 :8 9 -113 . Mü l le r -W i l le , M . 1 984 . S i ed lung sa rchäo log ische F or schung spro jek te i nS chweden . P r aeh i s tor i sche Z e i t sch r if t 5 9 : 1 45 -187 . Na turg eogr af i sk r eg ion ind e ln ing a v Nord en . 1 984 . N o rd iska m in i s te r räde t . Odner , K . 1 983 . F inner o g t e rf inner . E tn iske p rosesser i d e t n ord l ige F enno -Sk and inav ia . O s lo O cca s iona lP ape r si nS oc ia lA n th ropo logy 9 .O s lo . Odner , K . 1 985 . S aam i s ( Lapp s ) , F inn sa nd S cand inav ian s i nH is to ry a nd P reh is to ry . E thn ic O r ig ins a nd E thn ic P roces ses i n F enno -Scand inav ia . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ic a lR ev iew 1 8 : 1 12 . O lsen , B . 1 984 . S tab i l i te to ge nd r ing . P roduk s jon o gs amf unn iV ar anger , 8 00 !K r . 1700 e .K r . A vhand l ing t ulmag i s te rg raden ia rkeo log i . U n ive r s i te te t iT romso . R amqv is t , P .H . 1 983 . G ene . O n t h e o r ig in , f unc t ion a nd d ev e lopmen to fs eden tary I ron Age S e t t lemen ti n Nor ther n Sweden . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t 1 . Umeä . R amqv is t , P .H . 1 984 . N ägo t om p rob lem r ö rande b ebygge lseu tveck l ingen l ä ng s n or r landsku s ten u nder d e t f ö r s ta ä r tusende t . G ärd o ch k u l tur l and sk ap u nder j är nä ld ern ( e d s . L .L iedg r en & M .W idg ren ) : 1 07 -119 . S tockho lm . R amqv is t , P .H . 1 988 . H ögom -Nya u nde r sökn inga ra vb ebygge lse spä r . A rkeo log ii n or r 1 :1 03 -127 . S e l inge , K . -G . 1 979 . Ag ra r ian S e t t lemen t s a nd Hun t ing G round s . A S tudy o ft h e p r eh i s tor ic C u l tur eS y s t ems i n aNo r th Sw ed i sh R iv er V a l l ey . T he s is a nd P aper s i n No r th -Eu ropean A r chaeo logy 8 .S tockho lm . S e rn ing , I .1 956 . L apska o f f e rp l a t sf ynd f r ä 'n j ärnä ld er o ch med e l t id id e s venska l a ppmarker na .A c ta L appon ica X I . S tockho lm . Z ach r i sson , I .1 976 . L app sa nd S cand inav i ans . A rchaeo log ic a lF ind sf r om No r thern Sw ed en .E a r ly N o r r land 1 0 . KVHAA . S tockho lm . Z achr isson , I .1 984 . D es am i sk a me t a l ld epäer na ä r1 000 -1350 il j use ta vf ynd e tf r än Mö r t tr ä ske t , L app l and .( The S aam im e ta ld epo s i t sA .D . 1 000 -1350 i nt h el i gh to f t h ef i nd f r om Mö r t t r ä ske t ,L ap land . )A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t3 . Umeä . Z achr is son ,I .1 985 . S aam io rN o rd ic? A Mode l f o rE thn ic D e te rm ina t ion o f No r thern Swed i sh A rchaeo log ica l Ma ter ia l f r om t h eV ik ing P er iod a nd t h e E a r ly M idd le Age s . I n Honor em Ev e r tB audou . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t 4 : 1 87 -195 . Umeä . Z ve leb i l ,M . 1 986 a . Me so l i th ic p re lude a nd n eo l i th ic r e vo lu t ion . Hun ter si nT r ans i t ion ( ed . M .Z ve leb i l ) : 5 15 . C ambr idge . 5 2

Z ve leb i l , M . 1 986 b . Me so l i th ic s oc ie t ie s a nd t h e t r an s i t ion t of a rm ing : p rob lem s o f t ime , s c a le a nd o rgan isa t ion .H un ter si n T r ans i t ion ( e d . M . Z ve leb i l ) : 1 67 -188 . C amb r idge . Z ve leb i l , M . &R ow ley -Conwy , P . 1 984 . T ran s i t ion t oF a rm ing i nN o r ther nE u rope . AH un t e r -Ga the r e rP e r sp ec t ive . Norw eg i an A r chaeo log ic a lR ev iew 1 7 : 1 04 -128 . Z ve leb i l , M . &R ow ley -Conwy , P . 1 986 . F o rage r sa nd f a rme r si nA t lan t ic E u rope . Hun t er si nT r an s i t ion ( e d .M . Z ve leb i l ) : 6 7 -93 .C amb r idge . Abb r ev i a t ion KVHAA

K ung l iga V i t te rhe t sH i s to r ie o ch A n t ikv i t e t sA kadem ien ,S tockho lm .

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A pproaches t oS wed i sh P reh is tory ,B .A .R . , O xf ord , 1 989 ,p p .5 5 -82 .

ECONO MIC AND SOCIAL CHANGE I N THE I NTER IOR OF NORTHERN SWEDEN 6 000 B .C . -1 000 A .D .

B yL ar sF or sberg *

I n troduc t ion T h i s p ape r i s a n a t temp t t o a pp ly t h e l ong te rm p e r spec t ive wh ich i so f ten m en t ioned a s o ne o f t h e g r ea te s t a s se t s o f a r chaeo logy . I n mo s t a na ly se s o f p r eh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s h oweve r , a n a pp roach i s o f f e red wh ich i s e s sen t ia l ly s ynch ron ic a nd f unc t iona l i s t ic .T h i si sr e cogn ized b y Hodde r who r i gh t ly r ema rk s t h a tt h e ' p roce s sua la r chaeo logy ' a tl e a s ti ns ome s en se si nf a c ti sn on -p ro ce s sua l ( 1 987 :2 ) . I nt h e mo s ti n t r ica te a na lyse s o fh uman s oc ie t ie s t h et wo p e r spec t ive s h i s to r ica l ,d i a ch ron ic d e sc r ip t ion a nd f unc t iona l ,s ynch ron ic a na ly s i sa r ec omb ined t og i ve af u l lp i c tu r eo ft h eh uman s o c ie ty . O ne e xamp le o f ten r e f e r red t oi s Ma rx ' a na ly s i so ft h ec ap i ta l i s t mode o fp roduc t ion w he re o no ne h and h ed e sc r ibe st h e e ven t sl e ad ing t ot h et r an s i t ion f r om f e ud a l i sm t oc ap i tal i sm , at y p ica ld i a ch ron ic , g ene t ic a pp roach , a nd o n t h e o the r h and t r ie s t o c ap tu re t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e c ap i ta l i s ts y s tem , a nd t oa na lyze i t sl o g ic a lb a s i s ,i t s ' c e l l ' ( Ze leny 1 976 :40 ) . T h i s i sd e sc r ibed b yZ e leny a s as t ruc tu r a l -gene t ic a na ly s i s ,a nd i ts e em st om et h a tt h i s i s ak i nd o fa na ly s i st h a ta r chaeo log i s t ss hou ld p u r sue ( c f .Z e leny 1 976 :19 ) . I no rde rt ob e a b le t oa na lyze t h e p roce s s o fh i s to ry , t h e re mu s t b e as t r ing o f f unc t iona l " s napsho t s " o ft h e d i f f e r en t s o c ia l f o rma t ion s . I n f a c t , ad i ach ron ic a na ly s i s i sj u s t s uch as t r ing o ff r ozen p i c tu re s o fs t ruc tu re s . T h i s i so fc ou r se a t r u ism , s i nce i nd iv idua l e ven t s a nd " f a s t s t ruc tu re s " ( c f . B raude l 1 973 :x i i -x i i i ) m ake ac on t inuous a na ly s i s i mpo s s ib le . O n t h e o the rh and , t h e ma jo r s t ruc tu ra l c hanges mo s t o f ten o ccu r a s s t epw ise p roces se s t ha t c an b e a na lyzed i n a s t ruc tu ra l -gene t ic f a sh ion . T he p re sen tp ape rs hou ld n o tb es e en a s ad emon s t ra t ion o fs u ch a na pp roach ,i t i sr a the r a n a t temp tt oi d en t i fy m a jo rc hange s i nt e chno logy , s e t t lemen tp a t te rn , s ub s i s tence a nd s oc ia lp a t te rn so ft h es o c ie t ie si nt h ei n te r io ro fn o r the rn Sweden , a nd t oe va lua te t h ec u r ren tb a se o fr e sea rch r e su l t sw h ich b ea ro nt h e se p rob lem s . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t mo re r e sea r ch h a s t ob e f o cu s sed o n t h e se p rob lem s b efo r e p rog re ss c an b e made a nd a ny t r u ly s t ruc tu ra l -gene t ic a na ly se sa r ep o s s ib le o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t ie si nn o r the rn S weden .

*D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f Umeä

5 5

T echno logy C hange si nt h et e chno logy d u r ing t h i sv a s tt ime span c an b eo b se rved i nt h et y pe s o fr aw m a te r ia l su sed ,t h el i th ic t e chno logy ,t h eh un t ing t e chno logy b u ta l so i nt h e d eg ree o fc u ra t ion a nd i t se f f ec t so nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .T he ma jo re v id ence o fc hanges i nr aw ma ter ia l u se i so fc ou r se t h e s h i f t ing i mpo r tance p laced o n d i f f e ren t l i th ic ma ter ia ls u sed f o r f l aked t oo ls d u r ing t h e f i r s t 6 000 y ea r s o f N o r r land ic p reh i s to ry . T he e a r l ie s ts e t t lemen t si nN o r r land a r ec ha rac te r ized b yr aw ma te r ia l sr e semb l ing f l in ti nc ha rac te r ;f i ne -g ra ined r ock ss uch a sp o iphy rou sr ock ,h elef l in t ,j a spe ra nd v e ry f i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i te s ( Broadben t 1 979 :241 , F o r sbe rg 1 985 :4 -5 ) . I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t on o te t h a tt h et oo l sp roduced i nt h e se ma te r ia l sh ave t h e i rp a ra l le l si n a r ea sw he re f l in tw a st h ed om ina t ing l i t h ic ma te r ia l . S omewhe re d ur ing t he p e r iod 5 000 -4 000 B .C . t h e re i s ac hange f r om t h e se f i ne -g ra ined ma te r ia ls t oq ua r tz , w h ich t e chno log ica l ly i sa n a l toge the rd i f f e ren t r aw ma te r ia l ( c f . B roadben t 1 979 :49 -50 ) . I ft h e f o rego ing t e chno logy l e ad s t h e c ompa r i son ss ou th ,t h eq ua r tz t e chno logy w a sa tt h i st ime d eve loped e a s twa rd s ,i n F in land ( S i i r iä inen 1 969 ) . T h i s t r ans i t ion i n aw ay s e em s l og ica l , s i nce q ua r tz o ccu r s l o ca l ly i nl a rge rq uan t i t ie s i nt h e b ed rock o fN o r r land . T he u se o fq ua r tz s eem s t od om ina te u n t i l s ome t ime b efo re 2 000 B .C . B audou s ugges t s t h a t t h e t r ans i t ion f r om q ua r tz t oq ua r tz i te b eg in s s ome t ime a round 2 500 B .C . ( Baudou 1 978 :17 , F ig .16 ) . T here a r e , h oweve rs ome i nd ica t ions o f as l igh ti n c rea se i nt h e a moun t o fq ua r tz i te a l ready d ur ing t h e p e r iod 4 000 -2 000 B .C . a s s hown b y S päng ( 1986 :65 -70 ) . I nt h ep e r iod b e tween 2 500 B .C .a nd 1 600 B .C .t h e r ei s ac hange i nr aw ma te r ia l u se : q ua r tz s t a r t s d ecrea s ing a nd q ua r tz i te s t a r t s i n c rea s ing . T he t r an s i t ion t o q uar tz i te a tt h ec h rono log ica l ly i mpo r tan ts i te a tH ä l la w as c omp le te i nt h ep e r iod 1 600 -1400 B .C . ( Ba udou 1 978 : F ig .8 ) . %

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D ur ing t h e e n su ing p e r iod 1 400 B .C . -1A .D . , q ua r tz i te a nd b recc ia ted q ua r tz w h ich t e chn ica l ly i sa k in t o q uar tz i te ( c f . Ho lm 1 985 :304 ) d om ina te a s r aw ma te r ia l s . I nt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e f i r s tm i l lenn ium A .D . t h e u sage o fs t one t oo ls d rops o f fd ra s t ica l ly a nd e v idence o ft h e mo re w idesp read u se o f me ta l o ccu r s ( Zach r isson 1 976 :73 ) . I ti si n te res t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e s porad ic s t one t oo ls o ccu r r ing i nt h is l a te rc on tex ta r er a the rs imp le t o o l si nq ua r tz o rc oa r se q ua r tz i te .I t s e em st h a tt h e re i sn on eed t ou se f i ne -ga ined m a t e r ia l sf o rt h e se r a the rc r ude t o o l s ( Zach r isson 1 987 ) . A no the rr aw ma te r ia lt h a ti su sed t h roughou tt h ep r eh i s to ry o f No r r land i ss l a t e . P o l i shed d agge r s ,k n ive sa nd p o in t sa r ep a r t so ft h et oo li nven to ry d u r ing af a i r ly l ong t ime p er iod . I n t h e i n ter io r , s l a te i su sed f r om s ome t ime d ur ing t h e 5 th m i l lenn ium B .C . t oa r ound 1A .D . T he re a r e ,h oweve rc l ea rd i f f e rences i nt h er a te o fs l a te u sage d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . T he l a rge s te x ten to fs l a te u sage s eem st oo ccu r d u r ing t h ep e r iod o fq ua r tz t oo l s ,i . e .4 000 -2 500 B .C . ( Baudou 1 978 : F ig .16 ) . A s im i la r p a t tern c an a l so b e d i sce rned i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea ( F ig .1) . A f te r t h e 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C . t h eu se o fs l a te d ec rea se sa nd a pa r tf r om w he t s tone sn op o l ished a r t if ac t so fs l a te o ccu rd u r ing t h eI r on A ge . F l in t , wh ich i nN o r r land i sa ne xo t ic r aw ma te r ia l ,o ccu r ss pa r se ly b u tr egu la r ly o n s i te s b o th i nt h e i n ter io r a nd o n t h e c oa s t . I ti s mo s t ly s ou th S cand inav ian f l in t s t emm ing f r om v a r ied g eo log ica l s our ces c r ea ted d u r ing t h e O rdov ic ian a nd C re taceous p e r iod s . T he re a r e h oweve r e xamp les o fo b jec t s o f C a rbon ian f l in t f r om R us s ia ( Hugge r t 1 984 :59 ) . T he o ccu r rence o f s ou th S cand inav ian f l in t i n n or ther n Sweden i so f ten c onnec ted w i th t h e a s sumed a c t iv i t ies o f t h e s ou th Swed ish B a t t le A xe C u l tu re i nn o r th Sweden ( Broadben t 1 982 :71 ) . C aches o f t h ick -bu t ted f l in ta xe s a l ong t h ec oa s to ft h eG u lf o fB o thn ia a nd n ume rou s s t ray f i nd so ft h et y p ica ll e i t fo rm o ft h eB a t t le A xe C u l tu re ,t h eb oa t -shaped b a t t le a xe , s uppor tt h is v i ew . Af u r the ri nd ica t ion t h a tt h is v i ew i sp l au s ib le i st h eS t randho lm s i te i nn o r the rn V ä s te rbo t ten w i th af i nd ma ter ia lo fs ou th s cand inav ian c ha rac te r ( Hugge r t 1 984 :58 ) . T h is ' i mpor t ' o f s ou th S cand inav ian f l in t h a s b een d a ted t o a r ound 2 000 B .C . ( Broadben t 1 982 :71 ,H ugge r t 1 984 :58 ) .T he o b jec t so fR u s s ian f l in ta l so s e em t os t em f r om t h i st ime ( Hugge r t 1 984 :69 ) . T he o b jec t so ff l in to nt h ec oa s ta r e mo s t ly o ft y pe sn o to r ig ina t ing i nN o r r land , s u ch a sa xe sa nd p o in t so fs ou th S cand inav ian a nd R u s s ian p roven ience .T h is i si n c on t ra s tw i th t h ef i nd so ff l in ti nt h ei n te r io rw h ich a r ea lmo s te xc lu s ive ly p o in t s , s c rape r sa nd d eb i tage t y pe so fN o r r land ic o r ig in . Ac omp i la t ion o fs i te sw i th f l in t f i nd s f r om t h er i ve r sL u leä lven , Umeä lven a nd F jä l l s jöä lven s hows t ha tt h ev a s t m a jo r i ty o ft h e se f l in tf i nd so ccu ro ns i te sd a ted t ot h eB ronze A ge a nd p re -Roman I r on Age ( F ig .2 ) . S po rad ic f l in t f l akes a nd s c rape r s o ccur , h oweve r , i n t h e u ppermo s t l a ye r s o f t h e N eo l i th ic f i re -c racked mounds ( c f . b e low ) ( Meschke 1 967 :50 , S päng 1 986 :66 ) . I ti so fi n te re s tt on o te t h a tt h ei n c rea s ing f l in t' i mpo r t ' a tt h ec oa s ti sd i rec t ly r ef lec ted i nt h ei n te r io r , s ome th ing w h ich i se xemp l if ied b y t h e f a c t t ha t t h e f l in t c urve a tt h e H ä l la s i te r eache s ap eak a round 1 900 B .C . ( Baudou 1 978 : F ig .16 ) . Ad i f f e ren tt ype o fr aw ma t e r ia lw h ich u nfo r tuna te ly o f ten h a sb een o ve r looked i st h er aw a sbe s to su sed a st empe ri nt h ea sbe s to sp o t te ry a nd a bove a l l i n t h e a sbes tos w a re , wh ich c on s is t s o f 7 5 -9 5% a sbes to s m ine ra ls ( Hu l th6n 1 985 :247 ) . T h i s p o t te ry i si nt h e n o r th F enno scand ian a r ea d a ted t oc . 1 200 B .C . -3 00 A .D . ( L inde r 1 966 :153 , C a rpe lan 1 979 , O lsen 1 984 :67 ) . I ti so n s i te sd a t ing t ot h eB ronze A ge a nd p re -Roman I r on A ge t h a tr aw a sbe s to sh a sb een o b served ( c f . F o r sbe rg 1 985 :147 ,162 ) . T he s ou rce s o ft h i s ma ter ia l a r e p robab ly l o ca ted t ot h eC a ledon ian moun ta in r ange w he r ei to ccu r ss po rad ica l ly .

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T he i n t roduc t ion o fm e ta li nt h ei n te r io ro fn o r the rn N o r r land i sc onnec ted w i th t h e f i nd s o f C en t ra l R us s ian Anan ino a xes a nd a l so s ome o f t h e mou ld s w i th w h ich t h ey w e re made ( Bakka 1 976 :14 -15 ) .T he A nan ino c u l tu re i sd a ted ma in ly t oc .8 00 -3 00 B .C . a cco rd ing t oZ bru jeva . ( Me inande r 1 98? :18 , r e f e r r ing t o Z b ru jeva 1 952 ) . L a te r wo rks b y C ha l ikov ( 1977 ) a nd P a t ru s jev ( 1984 ) t e nd t o d im in i sh t h is p e r iod s omewha tt oc .8 00 -5 00 B .C .( Me inande r 1 98? :18 ) . T he r ei s h oweve r ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a ta tl e a s ts ome o ft h e se a xe si nf a c th ave b een l o ca l ly m ade i nn o r the rn F enno scand ia ( Bakka 1 976 :23 ,B audou 1 981 :18 ) . T h is v iew i sf u r the r s uppo r ted b y f i nd s o f c ruc ib les o n af ew s i tes f r om t h e i n te r io r o f n o r thern No r r land. O ne c ruc ib le f r om a s i te a tG rä tanän i nw es te r n V ä s te rbo t ten i sb y a s soc ia t ion w i th ah ea r th d a ted t oc .5 00 B .C . ( Me lande r 1 986 :122 -123 ) . T he r ei s ap o s s ib i l i ty t ha tt h ee a s ter nb ronze si nN o r r land a r ei nu se s omewha tl a te rt h an t h e f i na ld a te o ft h eA nan ino c u l tu re a sg i ven b y C ha l ikov a nd P a t r us jev ,b u tt h is h a s t ob ee s tab l i shed b y mo re d e ta i led c h rono log ica lw o rk o nt h e se f i nd s . T he i n t roduc t ion o fi r on o b jec t si nt h ei n te r io rh a st r ad i t iona l ly b een v i ewed a st h e r e su l to fe xchange r e la t ion s( c f .H va r fne r 1 957a :93 -94 ) ,b u ta sB audou p o in t so u t , t h e n ew e a r ly d a te s o fi r on p roduc t ion i nn o r ther nF in land s ugges ti r on wo rk ing a l so i nn o r ther n No r r land a round 1A .D . ( Baudou 1 987b , C a rpe lan 1 975 , S chu l tz 1 986 ) . Af i nd t h a ts uppo r t st h i si st h es i te a tL .Öd ingen ,J äm t land , where a sbe s to s w a re w a sf ound t oge the rw i th i r on f r agmen t s w h ich q u i te p o ss ib ly i nd ica te l o ca l

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wo rk ing o fi r on ( Sund s t röm , p e r s . c omm . ) . T hus , t h eu se o fi r on o b jec t so nb o th t h ee a r ly a nd l a te I r on A ge s i te si ss ugge s ted b yB audou a sa n e xp lana t ion o ft h e c o r respond ing d ra s t ic r educ t ion o ft h e u se o fl i th ic r aw ma ter ia ls , as ugge s t ion w h ich s e em sh igh ly p robab le ( Baudou 1 987b ) . T he l i th ic t e chno logy i sa no the r a spec t o f t h e o rgan iza t ion o f t he means o f p roduc t ion . D u r ing t h ee a rl ies tp ha se o fs e t t lemen ti nN o r r land at e chno logy w i th s t rong ly s ou th S cand inav ian a ff in i t ies w a s u sed . T he t oo l t ype s f ound o n t h ese e a r ly s i te s a r eh and le c o re s , k ee led s c rape r s a nd r n icrob lade s ( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :4 ) . T h i sh and le c o re -m ic rob lade t e chno logy w as c oup led w i th t h eu se o ff i ne -g ra ined f l in t l ike r aw m a te r ia ls a sd i scu s sed a bove . S omewhe re d ur ing t h e p e r iod 5 000 -4 000 B .C . t h ere i s ac hange f r om t h is t e chno logy t o at e chno logy b a sed o nb ipo la rq ua r tz w o rk ing ( Broadben t 1 979 :241 ) a nd a l so au n ifac ia lt e chn ique b a sed o np l a tfo rm c o re sa nd r ound c o re s ( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :141 ,158 ) . T h is t e chno logy c on t inue sd u r ing t h e4 th a nd 3 rd m i l lenn ia B .C . . T he re a r es im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h ef i nd m a te r ia lf r om t h ee a r ly p ha se o ft h is p e r iod a nd t he S uomus jä rv i c u l tu re i n F in land ( c f . B audou 1 978 :12 , B roadben t 1 979 :123 ) . I n t h e p e r iod b e tween 1 600 - 1 400 B .C . t h e re i s at r an s i t ion t o ab i fac ia l t e chno logy c onnec ted w i th t h e p roduc t ion o f f l a thewn p ro jec t i les ( Baudou 1 978 :15 ) . T h i s t e chno logy i sd i s t ingu ished o n t h e s i te s b y t h e h igh r a te o ft h in f l akes wh i le t h ef o rego ing u n ifac ia l t e chno logy ma in ly p roduce st h ick f l ake s ( c f . B audou 1 978 :15 , H o lm 1 985 :308 , F o r sbe rg 1 985 :5 -6 ) . T he b i fac ia l t e chn ique d emanded ar aw ma ter ia l o ff i ne rq ua l i ty t h an q ua r tz a nd i ti sa s soc ia ted a lmos t e xc lus ive ly w i th q ua r tz i te a nd b recc ia ted q ua r tz a sd i scus sed a bove . I ti sh oweve r i n te res t ing t on o te t h a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te s t a r t sa round 2 500 B .C . a nd i sc omp le ted 1 600 B .C . , wh i le t h e t r an s i t ion t ot h e b i fac ia l t e chn ique o ccu r a tt h e e ndpo in t o ft h is p ha se . T he c onc lu s ion mus t t he refo re b e t ha t t h e t r ans i t ion t ot h e b i fac ia l t e chn ique o ccu r red i ndependen t ly o ft h e c hange i nt h e p redom inan tl it h ic r aw m a te r ia l s . T he re a r ei nf a c ts i te sw h ich h ave q ua r tz i te a st h ep redom inan tr aw ma te r ia lb u t w h ich a r ec ha rac te r ized b y au n i fa c ia lt e chn ique .I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a tt h e se s i te s p a r t ly a r e f r om t h i s t r an s i t ion p er iod ( c f . B audou 1 978 :15 , B e rgman 1 985 :285 , F o r sbe rg 1 985 : 2 27 -236 ,2 70 ) . T he b i f a c ia lt e chn ique i st h en p reva len td u r ing t h e i s tm i l lenn ium B .C . ,b u td i sappea r si nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e i s tm i l lenn ium A .D ., w hen i ti sr ep laced b y me ta lt e chno logy ( c f .B audou 1 987b ) . T he s l a t et e chno logy r un sp a rale lw i th s eve ra lo ft h ep ha se so fl i th ic t e chno logy a sd e scr ibed a bove . I ti s at e chno logy t h a ti sb a sed o ns aw ing a nd p o l ish ing o ft h e r aw ma te r ia l . I ti ss im i la r t ob one t e chno logy i n many r e spec ts a nd i th a s b een s ugges ted t h a ti te vo lve s b y t r an sf e rence o f Me so l i th ic b one a nd a n t ler g roov ing a nd h on ing t e chn iques t o a mo re d urab le med ium ( F i tzhugh 1 974 :52 ) . T he a dvan tage so ft h i st e chn ique a r ew el d e sc r ibed b yF i tzhugh : S l a te e dge sa r eh a rde ra nd r ema in s ha rp l o nge r ,a nd w hen d u l led ,c an b eh oned q u ick ly t o an ew e dge w i thou tt h ee xce s s ive t o o lb ody a t t r i t ion t h a to ccu r sw hen r e juvena t ing c h ipped t o o l s . O the r f e a tu re s o f s l a te t o o l s a r e n o tewo r thy . L ike m e ta l t o o l s , l o ng s t ra igh te dge sc an b ep rodu ced w h ich a r ef u nc t iona l ly s upe r io rt oc h ipp ed s t one e dge si n c u t t ing t h e f l e sh o ff i sh a nd b l ubbe rou s s e a m amma l s ; c h ipped s t one e dge s q u ick ly b e come f ou led w i th a n ima l f i b re a nd r e qu i re f r equen t r e sha rpen ing o r c l ean ing . I n a dd i t ion , t h e l a ck o f s i nuou s e dge s i s ag rea t a dvan tage i n h ide a nd f i sh s k in p r epa ra t ion ,e spe c ialy i nd e -ha i r ing o rf l en s ing b l ubbe rw he r ed amage o rp e r fo ra t ion o f t h es k in c an o ccu re a s i ly ( 1 974 :52 -53 ) .

T he e a r l ies ts l a te t y pe s a r e af ew k n ive so fS uomu s järv it ype , o fw h ich o ne i sa

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s t ray f i nd f r om L igga , L u le R ive r ,a nd a no the rw a sf ound a tt h es t ra t ig raph ic s i te B elsä si nn or thea s te rn Ä nge rman land ( Baudou 1 978 : F ig .7 ) .T he o the rt ype i st h e s o -ca l led b anana -shaped k n ive s , o ne o f w h ich w as f ound o n as ma l l s i te a t Hög land , i n s ou thwe s t V ä s te rbo t ten . T h i s s i te g ave aC 14 -da t ing t o 5 750± 105 B .C . (Me lande r 1 981 :302 ) . D ur ing t h ee n su ing p e r iod 4 000 -2 000 B .C . t h e s l a te u sage r eache s a max imum w i th d agge rs , k n ives , T -shaped i mp lemen t s , l a rge s pea rpo in t sa nd s ma l le ra r rowhead s . S ome o ft h ed agge r sa nd k n ive sa r ep rov ided w i th h and le ss haped a sa n ima lh ead s , ma in ly e l k .D u r ing t h eB ronze A ge t h es l a te u sage d ec rea se s ,b u ta tl e a s ti nt h eE a r ly B ronze A ge t h e re a r e af ew t y pe so fs l a te a r rowhead ss t i l li nu se ( c f . B audou 1 978 : F ig .16 ) . D u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic t h e r ei sn oe v idence o fp o t te ry i nt h ei n te r io r o f No r r land . I ti sa s sumed t h a t w ooden a nd b a rk c on ta ine r s t oge the r w i th a p y ro techno logy b a sed o n b o i l ing s t ones h ave b een u sed i n s tead ( c f . S päng 1 986 :57 -61) .T he mo s tc on sp icuou sw a s te ma te r ia lo nt h es i t e sf r om t h e se p e r iod s i si ndeed f i re -c racked r ock s i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s . I ti sa l so i n te res t ing t on o te t h a t t h e re a r e much f ewe r f i re -c racked r ock s o n t h e s i te s f r om t h e B ronze Age a nd p re -Roman I r on Age , ap a t te rn a l ready s ugge s ted b y H va r fne r ( 1957b :109 -110 , c f . F o r sbe rg 1 984 :34 -35 , 1 985 :2 ) . D u r ing t h i s l a te rp e r iod t h e a sbe s to s p o t te ry emerges w i th s evera l d i f f eren t d is t inc t f unc t iona l t ypes ( c f . Hu l th6n 1 985 :247 -249 ) . T he g ene ra l t ype i sc a l led S ä rä i sn iem i 2a nd o ccu r s t h roughou t n o r the rn F enno scand ia ( Ca rpe lan 1 979 ) .T he c h rono log ica le ndpo in to ft h eu sage o fa sbe s to sw a re i st e n ta t ive ly s e ta ta r ound 3 00 A .D . T he v esse ls i n u se a f te r t h is d a te h ave p robab ly b een s ome t ype o f m e ta l c au ld rons . Z ach r i sson m en t ions s eve ra l f i nd s o fi r on a nd c oppe r /b ronze v e s se ls a nd a l so men t ions t h ef r equen t ly f ound c oppe rs hee t s w h ich may b er emnan t so f s uch v es se l s ( 1976 :47 ) . S he d a tes t h e se v e sse l st ot h eM idd le A ge s , b u td oes n o t e xc lude t h ep o ss ib i l i ty t ha tt h ey m igh tb e o fo lde rd a te ( 1976 :24 ,45 ) . Du r ing t h e L a te I r on Age , s oaps tone v esse ls w e re i n u se i n No rway , a nd t h e re a r e af ew f ound a l so i nt h ei n te r io ro fN o r r land , mo s to ft h em i nt h eA r jep log a r ea i nc en t ra l L ap land (Z ach r is son 1 976 :35 -39 ) . T he re i sv e ry l i t t le r e sea rch d one o nt h ep roduc t ive f o r ce so ft h eh un te r -ga the r e r s oc ie ty i n No r r land i nt h e mean ing o fh un t ing i mp lemen t s , f a c i l i t ies ,k now ledge a nd p rac t ice s d ur ing t h e d i f f e ren t p e r iods v i ewed a s s t ruc tu red s e t s ( c f . O lsen 1 984 ) . S eve ra l t oo l t ypes , f o r e xamp le a r rowhead s , h ave b een s t ud ied , b u t a n a na lys is o f t h e who le s t ruc ture o f t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion a nd p roduc t ion s t ra teg ie ss t il a wa i t st ob ep e r fo rmed .T h i sp ape ri sn o ta na t temp tt oa ch ieve s u ch as yn thes is , b u t s ome s t ruc tu re s a nd r e levan t p a t te rns w i l l b e p o in ted o u t t ha t p e rhaps w i l lc on t r ibu te t owa rd s aw ide ri n te re s to nt h e se i s sue s . One s uch p a t te rn t ha t i nd ica tes c hanges i n t h e p roduc t ion s t ra teg ies i st h e u t i l iza t ion o fh un t ing p i t s i nt h ee conomy . Ag rea te re mpha s i s o nh un t ing p i t si n t h ep roduc t ion c an b er e cogn ized d u r ing t h ep e r iod s4 000 -2 000 B .C . a nd 1A .D . -1 000 A .D . ( F ig .3 ) .T he Me so l i th ic p e r iod i sq u i te p rob lema t ic t oc ha rac te r ize i n t e rm s o fd om inan tp roduc t ion , b u tt h eo the rp e r iod w i th l ow u sage o fc o l lec t ive f a c i l i t ie s f o rh un t ing , 1 500 B .C . -1A .D . i sc ha rac te r ized b y ah un t ing s t ra tegy b a sed ma in ly o np i e r c ing w eapon s( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :271-273 ) .T he r ei s ad ef in i t ive d i f f e rence b e tween t h ep e r iod so fh un t ing p i tu sage i nt h a tt h eh un t ing p i ts y s tem s d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic w e re s ma l le rt h an t h ee x ten s ive s y s tem si nu se d u r ing t h e 1 s t m i l lenn ium A .D .T he f o rme rs y s tem sw e re f u r the rmo re l o cal ized n ea rt h e mo re o r l e ss s eden ta ry b a se c amps o f as ma l le rt e r r i to r ia l g roup ( Lundbe rg 1 986 :88 -90 ) , a nd h ence w e re u t i l ized b y as ma l le rc o l lec t ive t h an t h eh un t ing p i ts y s tem sf r om t h el a te rp e r iod ( c f . A nde r son 1 981 :10 ) . T he s t ra teg ies emp loyed i nt h e p roduc t ion p roce ss c an b e r ough ly s ke tched a s f o l lows : D ur ing t h e p er iod 4 000 -2 000 B .C . t h e empha s is i so n p a s s ive e l k

6 0

h un t ing b y mean s o fp i t h un t ing a nd a l so o n i nd iv idua l h un t ing i nt h e f o rag ing r ad ius a round t h es eden ta ry b a se c amp b a sed o na ne ncoun te rs t ra tegy . D u r ing t h e e n su ing p e r iod 1 500 B .C . -1A .D . ,t h e empha s i si so n as t ra tegy b a sed o n a c t ive r e indee rh un t ing b ym ean so fs pec ia l ized t a sk g roups u s ing a ni n te r cep t ive s t ra tegy ( Fo r sbe rg 1 988 :65 ) . T h is s t ra tegy i sf u r the r d eve loped a nd e x tended i n to t h e moun ta in a r ea , e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e L a te I r on Age ( Mu lk 1 987 ) b u t i ti sa l so

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a ccompan ied b y t h e r e tu rn o fp a s s ive h un t ing , i nt h e n or th ma in ly f ocu ssed o n r e indee ra nd i nt h e s ou th ,e spec ia l ly n o r th o fL ake S to r s jön ,o n ama s s ive h un t ing o fe l k . I ti si mpo r tan tt oa s se s st h ed eg r ee o fc u ra t ion p re sen td u r ing t h ev a r iou sp e r iod s

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a st h is d e te rm ine st h ea r chaeo log ica lv i s ib i l i ty o fe conom ic a nd s oc ia lp a t te rn ing . T he p e r iod w i th t h eh i ghe s td eg ree o fv i s ib i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd wou ld b e t h e B ronze Age /p re -Roman I r on Age , whe re t h e e mpha s is o n b r i t t le c h ipped s t one t oo l s t h a th ave al im i ted p o ten t ia l f o rr e juvena t ion make s t h er e la t ion sh ips b e tween p r eh i s to r ic s t ruc tu r e sa nd a r chaeo log ica lp a t te rn s mo re d i sce rn ib le .D u r ing t h e n eo l i th ic , t h e q ua r tz t oo ls w ou ld h ave s im i la r p roper t ies , b u t t h e s l a te t e chno logy i n t roduce so b jec t st h a tc an b er e sha rpened a nd u sed d u r ing l onge rt ime p e r iod s , a nd t h e d eco ra t ion p resen t o n many o ft h ese o b jec ts a l so i nd ica te s t h a t t h ey h ave b een c u ra ted .T he mo s to bv ious e xamp le o fc u ra t ion wou ld b et h em e ta l o b jec t su sed d u r ing t h e i s tm i l lenn ium A .D . T he se o b jec t sh ad l ong u se l ive sa nd when b roken o r wo rn o u tt h ey w e re r emade i n to s im i la ro ro the rt oo l s d ue t ot h e l im i ted a cce ss t ot h e r aw ma te r ia ls . T h is a l so e xp la in t h e ' s ho r tage ' o ff i nds o n t h ese s i tes ( c f . B audou 1 987 ) . S e t t lemen t P a t terns T he s i te ma te r ia l f r om t h e meso l i th ic p e r iod i ss t i l l s can ty , a nd as ke tch o ft h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn mu s tb et e n ta t ive . A l though meso l i th ic s i te sa r ef ound i n mo s t g eog raph ica lz ones i n No r r land ,t h e ma in p a r ta r ef ound i nt h ef o re s ta r ea a nd t h e z one i mmed ia te ly W o ft h ec oa s ta la r ea .T ha tv e ry f ew c oa s ta ls i te sd a t ing f r om t h e m eso l i th ic a r ef ound i sp robab ly d ue t os ou rce -c r i t ica lf a c to r s .T he l a nd u pheava l i nt h ese a r ea sl e ad st ot h eo ve rg row ing o ft h e s i te s . N oe r o s ion c ompa rab le t ot h a t a f f ec t ing t h e i n land s i tes t h a t a r e l o ca ted a l ong o pen s ho res o fl ake s a nd r i ve r s o pe ra te st ou ncove rt h em . T he s i tes a r e s ma l l a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he s e t t lemen t p a t tern v a r ied c ons ide rab ly d ur ing t he p e r iod o f r ap id c l ima t ic a nd v ege ta t iona l c hange i mm ed ia te ly a f te rt h ed eg lac ia t ion . Many o ft h e me sol i th ic d a t ing sf r om t h ei n land o fV ä s te rbo t ten h ave c ome f r om s ma l lc ook ing -p i t s , 1 0d a t ing sf r om 6s i te sr ange b e tween 6 200 a nd 5 200 B .C . ( Sund l in 1 986 :135 ) . T he t yp ica l f i nds o n t h e se e a r l ies t s i te s a r e h and le c o res , k ee led s c rape r s a nd r n ic rob lade s o fr aw ma te r ia ls r e semb l ing f l in ti nc ha rac te r ; f i ne -g ra ined r ock s s uch a sp o rphy ry , c her t ,j a spe r a nd f me -g ra ined q ua r tz i te .T he se a r t if ac tt y pe sa r ed ec ided ly s ou th S cand inav ian i n c ha rac te ra l though t h er aw ma te r ia l sa r en o t( Broadben t 1 982 :27 ) . T he s ou rce ma te r ia l f r om t h e e n su ing p e r iod ( c . 4 000 -2 000 B .C . ) i s ab e t te r b a sel ine o nw h ich t ob a se d i scu s s ion so fs ea sona ls e t t lemen tp a t te rn sa nd t e r r i to r ia l b ehav iour . L undbe rg h a s d i scu ssed t he mound s o f f i re -cracked s t ones i n t h e m idd le No r r land ic r eg ion a nd a r r ived a tt h e c onc lus ion t h a t as y s tem o f" w in te r v i l lage " t e r r i to r ie s w a sd i s t r ibu ted f a i r ly e ven ly t h rough t h is r eg ion b e tween t h e e a s te rn e dge o ft h e moun ta in f oo th i l l a r ea a nd t h e c en t ra l p a r t so ft h e f o r es ta r ea ( Lundbe rg 1 985 :296 ) . T h i si n land s y s tem i sc en te red o n s eden ta ry b a se c amps i n t h em idd le o f at e r r i to ry w i th ar ad ius o f1 7 km .T he se b a se c amps a r e mound so f f i re -cracked s t one ( F ig .4 ) , i . e . d epressed h u t f l oo r s s u r rounded b y h eaps o f f i re -cracked s t one s w h ich i nt h ec ou r se o ft ime f o rm a n embankmen t a round t h e d ep r es s ion ( Späng 1 986 :48 -65 ) . T he se monumen t sa r eo f ten s t ra t if ied , s ome th ing w h ich o the rw i se i su ncommon o n s i tes i nN o r r land . T hey h ave b een d a ted t ot h e p e r iod 4 000 -2 000 B .C . ( F ig .5 ) , a nd t hey h ave o f ten b een u t i l ized d u r ing l o ng t ime s pan s , t h el onge s tb e ing u sed s o me 1 400 y ea r s ( Lundbe rg 1 985 :293 ) .T he se w in te r s i te s a r e s i tua ted i nh i l ly t e r ra in a to u tf lows o fl akes a nd g ene ra l ly n ea r r unn ing w a te rt h a td oe sn o tf r eeze u pd u r ing w in te r . I nt h ei mmed ia te e nv i ron sa r e a l so s ys tem s o fh un t ing p i t s w h ich mo s tl i ke ly h ave b een u t i l ized f r om t h e s i te . A pa r tf r om t h e se s i te st h e re a l so o ccu r o pen s ho re l ine s i te s ,o f ten l o ca ted o n al a ke r i ch i nf i sh w i th ar a the rb roken s ho re l ine .A cco rd ing t oL undbe rg ,t h e se s i te sh ave b een a gg rega t ion c amps f o r2 -3 w in te rg roups d u r ing t h es u mme r . O nt h ese s i tes

6 2

ma r r iage a nd r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s a s w e l l a s h un t ing a nd f i sh ing w ou ld b e t h e p r ima ry a c t iv i t ie s . A tt h e w in te rs i te s , b u rned b one so fe l ka nd b eaver d om ina te , w h i le t h e s umme rs i te sa r es i tua t ed a tl a ke sn ea rg ood s pawn ing g round sf o rf i sh . L undb e rg s ugge s t st h a tt h i ss e t t lem en ts y s tem h a sb een r e s t r ic ted t ot h ei n te r io ra nd i nt h e s ame v e in a sB roadben t ( 1 979 :189 -198 ) s he s e e s t h e i n te r io r a nd c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t sa sc on s t i t u t ing s e pa r a t es y s tem s . I ti sa l so p o ss ib le t od e tec t as im i la rp a t te rn i nt h ei n te r io ro fn o r the rn N o r r land . T he c on t inu ing e xcava t ion so ft h eh u t sf r om V uo l le r im s how st h a tt h er o le o ft h e se h u t s i nt h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn c o r r e spond s t ot h a t o ft h e mound s o ff i re -c racked s t one ( Loef f le r & We s t f a l 1 985 :431 , We s t fa l 1 987 :26 -27 ) . T he d a t ing s f r om V uo l le r im l i ei nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h ep e r iod 4 000 -2 000 B .C . (We s t f a l 1 987 :27 ) . " O rd ina ry " s ho re l ine s i t e sw h ich p robab ly h ave b een u sed d u r ing t h es umme ri na w ay c o r re spond ing t ot h es umme rs i te si nt h eV i lhe lm ina a r ea o fm idd le N o r r land a r es i tua t ed a tL igga a nd N e lk e r im .B e fo r et h ew a te rr egu la t ion i nc onnec t ion w i th t h eb u i ld ing o fh yd ro -e le c t r ic p owe rp l an t si nL u le R ive r , t h e se t wo r ap id s w e re a mong t h e b e s t s a lmon -f i sh ing p l a ce si nt h ew ho le r i ve r( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :25 -27 ) .

F ig .4 . T he s ucce s s ive s t age s i nt h e f o rma t ion o f amound o f f i re -c racked s t one s ( a f te r S päng 1 986 :F ig .1 ) .

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t r an s i to ry c amps . T he re a r ea l so af ew l a rge s i te sl o ca ted a tg ood s a lmon -f i sh ing p l ace s .T hey a r ec ha rac te r ized a sa gg rega t ion s i te s . T h is s y s tem w a s mob i le , mov ing b e tween t wo p o le si nt h et e r r i to ry .B a se c amp s o ccu r red i nt h ef o re s t a r ea wh ich w e re o ccup ied d u r ing w in te ra nd s umme r . T he m a jo r e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s w e re f i sh ing a nd l a rge -game h un t ing , p r ima r i ly e l k , r e indee r a nd b eave r . S u r round ing t h e se c amps w e re e xp lo i ta t ion l o ca les , b o th h un t ing s t a t ions a nd p rocess ing s i te s . I n t h e a u tumn , t h e e n t i re h uman g roup moved t ot h eb a se c amp si nt h e moun ta in f oo th il a r ea ,w he re r e indee rh un t ing w a s t h e ma in p ur su i t . H e re , a l so r aw ma ter ia l sf o rs t one t oo l s ,e spec ia l ly t h ec h ipped p ro jec t i le p o in t s w i th s t ra igh t o r c oncave b a s is , w e re p rocu red ( c f . Ho lm , t h i s v o lume ) . I nt h i s a r ea t h e re w e re a l so h un t ing s t a t ion s l o ca ted a ts t ra teg ic p lace s , s ome th ing w h ich a l so h o ld s t r ue f o rt h el o ca l iza t ion o ft h e b a se c amps . B e tween t h et wo ma in n ode si nt h es ub s i s tence c yc le w e re t h et r an s i to ry c amps , wh ich w e r e o n ly o ccup ied f o r as ho r te rp e r iod o ft h ey ea r . I nt h es umme r , s eve ra lm ic roband s g a the red a ta na gg rega t ion c amp s i tua ted a te xcelen ts a lmon f i sh ing p l ace st of o rm amac roband ( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :271 -272 ) . D u r ing t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eP re -Roman I r on A ge a ni n cr ea s ing u t i l iza t ion o f t h e moun ta in f oo th i l la r ea o ccu r s ,a nd t h er e sou rces o ft h i sa r ea , ma in ly r e indee r , l i th ic r aw ma te r ia l s a nd a sbe s to sa r ei n co rpo ra ted i n to t h ee conom ic s y s tem . T he s e t t lemen tu n i t s s e em t of o l low t h eo r ien ta t ion o ft h ew a te rc ou r ses a nd t h er i ve r d ra inage s .T he m a rked t e r r i to r ia l i ty o n as ma l lg eog raph ica ls c a le t h a tc ha rac te r ized t h es eden ta ry s y s tem o ft h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic c hange sd u r ing t h eB ronze A ge a nd P re -Roman l i on A ge , a nd t h e t e r r i to r ia lu n i t sd u r ing t h is p e r iod c an b e d i s t ingu i shed o n ly a t al a rge rg eog raph ica ll e ve l . T he s e t t lemen tp a t te rn a tS to ra L u le R ive rd u r ing t h ep e r iod 5 00 -1 000 A .D .h a s b een d i scussed i n ap ape r b y ( Mu lk 1 987 ) . S he s ugge s t s t ha t h un t ing o f w i ld r e indee rw a st h ed om ina t ing e conom ic a c t iv i ty a nd t hu sd e te rm ined t h es e t t lemen t p a t te rn .T he w in te rs e t t lemen tw a sl o ca l ized t ot h ef o re s ta r ea n ea rw a te ra nd a l so n ea rt h em ig ra t ion r ou tes o ft h er e indee r .T he w in te rs i te sa l so f unc t ioned a sb a se c amps f o rt h e h un t ing o fr e indee r , e l k , b eave ra nd s ma l l g ame . I n t h e s pr ing t h e h uman g roup moved a l ong t h ed ra inage s y s tem t owa rd st h e moun ta in f oo th il a r ea . I nt h i sa r ea t h e r ew a sa ni mpo r tan tt r an s i to ry c amp b e tween t h ew in te ra nd s umme r c amps . F rom t h is a r ea t h eg roup moved f u r the rt ot h eW a l ong t h el a ke s ys tem t o t h es umme rs i te s . F rom t h e se s i tes s eve ra lh un t ing t e am si s sued wh ich h un ted f o r w i ld r e indee ri nt h e moun ta in a r ea . Mu lk h as d e tec ted w in ter v i l lages a t s evera l p laces , among o ther s S i rke s luok t ag l lo luok ta a tt h el a ke S to r aL u le jau re ( 1983 :101 -105 ) . H e re s he h a s s u rveyed a nd p a r t ly e xcava ted w in te rh ouse s , c ook ing p i t s , e ar th o ven s , s t o rage p i t s a nd h un t ing p i t s ys tem s . T he d a t ing s r ange f r om c .1 00 -1500 A .D . ( Mu lk 1 983 :103 ) .F i sh ing s i te sc ou ld b ef ound o nt h e s ho r e sa l ong t h ee n t i re l a ke s y s tem a nd a r e ma in ly l o ca l ized t oo u tf lows , s l ackwa te r s , r ap id s , w a te r fa l ls a nd b rook o u t le t s . T hese s i te s a r e ma in ly d i s t ingu i shed b y h ea r ths . T he h un t ing s i tes i nt h e moun ta in a r ea i sr ep re sen ted b ys i tes w i th h u tb edd ing s ,s oc a l led s t a lo tom ter . O n t h e se s i te st h eh u t so ccu ri nc l u s te r so f3 -5 h u tb edd ing s ( Mu lk 1 987 ) . S ubs is tence V e ry f ew o s teo log ica la na ly se sh ave b een m ade o nt h eb one ma ter ia lf r om c l ea r ly Me so l i th ic s i te s . A tG a ra se le ti nB yske p a r i sh ,V ä s te rbo t t en ,b one so fb rown b ea r ( Ur sus a r c to s ) w e re f ound i nt h e o ldes tl a ye r , d a t ing t oc .6 000 B .C . ( Sundqu i s t 1 978 :132 ) . T h i s a l so s e em s t ob e ac on s i s ten t p a t tern o ft h e Meso l i th ic s i te s i n N on land . I n al a rge c omp i la t ion o fo s teo log ica la na ly se sw h ich w e r ep e r fo rmed i n

6 5

c onnec t ion w i th t h e E a r ly No r r land p ro jec t , 3 8% o f t h e s i te s a t tr ibu ted t o t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod h ad b one s o fb rown b ea r ( Ekman& l reg ren 1 984 :43 -99 ) . T h is c an b ec ompa red w i th t h es i te sd a t ed t ol a te rp e r iod s ,o u to fw h ich 6% h ad b ones o fb rown b ea r . T he re a r e a l so i nd ica t ions o ft h e h un t ing o fe lk a nd b eave r . N o t r a ce so fr e indee rc an b ef ound o nt h e se e a r ly s i te s ,w h ich i si n te re s t ing s i nce mo s t a r chaeo log is ts p re suppose t h a t t h e f i r s t h uman g roup s f o l lowed t h e r e indeer a s t h ey moved n o r thwa rd sd u r ing t h ed eg lac ia t ion . T he s ub s i s tence e conomy o ft h ee nsu ing p e r iod i sb e t te rd ocumen ted . I ti sc l ea r f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s t h a tt h ec en t ra l a nd w es te rn p a r t so ft h ef o re s ta r ea f o rmed t h e ma jo r e conom ic z one d ur ing t h is p e r iod ( c f . F o r sb erg 1 985 :275 , L undberg 1 985 :295 -297 ) . O u t o f t wo p o ss ib le w ays t o u t i l ize t he i n te r io r e conom ica l ly ,o ne c an b ea t t r ibu ted t ot h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eol i th ic a nd t h eo t he r t ot h eB ronze Age /P re -Roman I r on Age ( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :31-33 ) .D u r ing t h ee a r l ie r p e r iod ap a t te rn eme rge sw he re t h ew ho le y ea rc an b es pen ti nt h ef o re s ta r ea w i th f i sh ing , g a the r ing o fb e r r ie s a nd e l k h un t ing d ur ing a u tumn . D u r ing t h e w in ter , l a rge -game h un t ing , ma in ly e lk a nd b eave rw a s p u r sued a sw e l l a ss ome w in te r f i sh ing d u r ing e a r ly w in te r . D u r ing s p r ing t h ef r e shwa te rf i she sp ike ( E sox l u c ius ) a nd p e r ch ( Pe rca f l uv ia t i l is )s pawn a nd a r ee a sy t oc a tch ,a nd d u r ing s umme rt h e re w e re t h e i mpor tan t s a lmon r uns . T h i sp a t ter ni ss uppo r ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l b o th a s r ega rd s s e t t lemen t p a t te rns ( c f . a bove ) a nd t h e o s teo log ica l ma ter ia l . T he b one ma te r ia l f r om t h e mound s o f f i re -c racked s t ones c on s i s t s ma in ly o fe lk a nd b eave r ,b u tt h e re i sa l so a mp le e v idence o ff i sh ing .O nt h es i te o f T ä s jö 1 01 ,B elsä s ,Ä nge rman land ,e l kc r an iae w i th s h redded a n t le r sw e re f ound , i nd ica t ing w in te rh un t ing , b u tt h e re i sa l so e v idence o fs u mme ra c t iv i t ie s a tt h ese s i te s . A t t h e n ea rby s i te T ä s jö 1 02 t h e re w e re b ones o f whoope r s wan ( Cygnus c ygnus ) a nd a tt h es i te S tense le 1 7 ,T j ikk i t rä sk ,L app land o nt h e Ur n eR ive rt h e re w e re b ones o f b ream ( Ab ram is b rama ) wh ich i sa l so a n i nd ica tor o f s u mme r o ccupa t ion ( Ekman & I r eg ren 1 984 :36 ) .T hus ,t h e re a r ei nd ica t ion st h a tt h e se s i te s i nf a c th ave b een o ccup ied mo re o rl e s st h roughou tt h ew ho le y ea r .T he c o r re la t ion o f h un t ing p i t s ys tem s a nd s i tes w i th mounds o f f i re -cracked s t ones w as m en t ioned e a r l ie r .T h i si si na cco rdance w i th t h ef a c tt h a te l kb one sb yf a ra r et h e mo s tc ommon a tt h ese s i te s ,b o th a sr ega rd st h ea bundance o ne a ch s i te a sw e l la s t h en umbe ro fs i te sw i th e l kb one s .T he f a c tt h a tt h es ho re l ine s i te so ft h ec ommon t ype f r om t h is p e r iod o ccu rn ea rg ood s pawn ing p laces f o r f i sh a nd n ea rr ap ids k nown f o rt h e a bundance o fs a lmon i nd ica te st h a tt h ey h ave b een u t i l ized d u r ing s umme r . Du r ing t h eB ronze Age ,t h ee conomy c hange st owa rd sa ni n c rea sed d epend ence o n r e indee r a s t h e ma in p rey . I n t h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s p e r iod ap a t te rn eme rges w he r ew in te ra nd s p r ing s e t t lemen t sw e r el o ca l ized t ot h ef o res ta r ea w i th f i sh ing , e l k ,r e indee ra nd b eave rh un t ing a st h e ma jo re conom ic p u r su i t s . I nt h e a u tumn , t h e moun ta in f oo th il a r ea w a ss e t t led f o rr e inde e rh un t ing .A tt h i ss e a son c ha ra nd t r ou t s pawned i n t h is z one , mak ing i tp o ss ib le t o a t ta in a v a r ied d i e t . I n t h e s u mme r , f i sh ing a nd h un t ing i nt h e f o res t a r ea w a s c onduc ted a s i nt h e e a r l ie r p e r iod . I ti st hu sd u r ing t h is p e r iod t h a tt h e moun ta in f oo th i l la r ea a nd i t sr e sou r ce s a r ea t ta in ing a ni mpo r tance i nt h ee conom ic s y s tem t h a tc on t inue sa l lt h ew ay t ot h e S a rn is oc ie ty .T he re s e em sa l so t ob e ac hange i nt h eh un t ing t e chn ique se mp loyed . T he re a r e r e la t ive ly many d a t ings o f h un t ing p i t s f r om t h e E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic , b u td u r ing t h e B ronze A ge t h e re i s ad ec rea s ing t r end ( F ig .3 ) . T h is i s ma tched b yt h e eme rgence o fc h ipped p ro jec t i le p o in t so ccu r r ing i nl a rge n umbe r s o n s i te sf r om t h is p er iod .T he se p o in t s a r e ma in ly f ound o nt h e moun ta in f oo th i l l s i te s , b u tt h ey a l so o ccu ro n s i te si nt h ef o re s ta r ea . O nt h e moun ta in f oo th i l ls i tes t h ep o in t sa r ec o r r e la ted w i th s c rape r sa nd r e touched f l ake s . S uch i mp lemen t sf r om an umber o f b o th moun ta in f oo th i l l a nd f o res t s i te s h ave b een a na lyzed f o r

6 6

r n ic rowea rp a t tern s ( Broadben t 1 985 :289 -291 ) . T he t oo l sf ound o n t h e moun ta in f oo th i l ls i tes h ad n ow ea ro rh ad w ea rs ugge s t ing u se o ns o f t ma te r ia ls ,i nd ica t ing u se o nh ide o rm ea t . As ma l le rn umbe ro fs c rape r so nt h e se s i te s s ugge s ted u se o n a n t le ro rb one . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h et oo l so n t h e s i tes i nt h e f o res t a r ea s ugge s ted t h e i ru se o n wood .T hus t h e re s e em st oe x i s t a" t oo lbox "o nt h e moun ta in f oo th i l l s i tes t ha t h a s b een u sed i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e r e indee r h un t . A n i nve r se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eu sage o fh un t ing p i t sa nd t h eu sage o fb ow a nd a r row c an t h u sb e s ugge s ted b yt h i sp a t te rn . A s w a s e a r l ie r s ugges ted , t h e re i s af u r the r s h if t i nt h e u t i l iza t ion o ft h e w i ld r e indee r d ur ing t h e I r on A ge . I n t h i s p e r iod t h e h un t ing o fr e indee r t ake s o n a p a ramoun ti mpor tance , a tl e a s ti nt h en o r the rn p a r to fN on land . I ti so fi n te re s tt o n o te t h a tt h e u sage o fh un t ing p i t sr eappea r sd u r ing t h i sp e r iod . T he ma in p rey i n t h i sn o r the r ly a r ea i sn ow r e indee r ,a nd t h el a rge h un t ing p i ts y s tem sa r el o ca ted t o t h e moun ta in f oo th i l l a r ea ,w he rea s s ma l le rg roups o fp i t so ccu rn ea rt h eh un t ing s i tes i nt h e moun ta ins ( Mu lk 1 987 ) . T he i n c rea s ing d ependence o n o ne r e sou r ce m ake si tl i ke ly t h a ts ome f o rm o fs t o rage s t ra tegy w a s emp loyed t or educe t h er i sk o ff ood s ho r tage . T h i s i se spec ia l ly i mpor tan t a st h e r e indeer p opu la t ion s how s 8—

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F ig . 6 . C 14 -da t ing s o f ' e a r th o vens ' f r om t h e i n te r io r o f n or the rn Sweden ( a f te r Me lande r 1 986 :Tab .2 ) .

l a rge f l uc tua t ion s( Bu rch 1 972 :357 ) .I ti sp robab ly i nt h i sc on tex tt ha tt h es o -ca l led e a r th o vens , l a rge p i t s f i l led w i th c oa l a nd f i re -c ra cked s t one s , mu s t b e s e en . Me lande r h a s s ugges ted t h a t t h e se f e a tu re s i nf a c t w e re u sed f o r d ry ing mea t ( 1986 :113 -114 ) . T he d a t ing s o ft h e se f e a ture s c l u s ter a round 3 00 -500 A .D . a nd 7 00 -900 A .D . ( F ig .6 ) . T hese p i t s mu s tn o tb e c onfused w i th t h er egu la rc ook ing

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F ig .7 . C -14 d a t ings o fh un t ing p i t s f r om t h e c oun ty o fJ äm t land .

p i t st h a ta r e much s ma l le ra nd e x i s ti nt h eN o r r land ic m a te r ia lf r om t h e Me so l i th ic o nwa rds . F u r the rmo re ,i ts e em st h a ta ni n ten s if i ca t ion o ft h eh un t ing o fr e indee rt a ke sp l ace i nt h en o r th p ar to ft h ea r ea d u r ing t h el a te rI r on A ge ( Mu& 1 987 ) .I nt h es ou ther n p a r t ,t h e re i s ac o r respond ing i n c rea se o ft h eu sage o fh un t ing p i t si nt h eL a te I r on A ge ( F ig .7 ) . T h i s mu s tr ep resen t al a rge -sca le h un t ing o fe l ki ns ou ther nL ap land a nd n o r the rn J äm t land . T h i s i n tens if ica t ion a nd s pec ia l isa t ion o ft h ep roduc t ion w h ich c an b e g l impsed d u r ing t h el a te rp a r to ft h e i s tm i l lenn ium A .D . h a so f ten b een c onnec ted w i th t h et r ade n e two rk se vo lv ing d u r ing t h eV ik ing A ge a nd t h e e a r ly Med iaeva l Age ( c f . A nde r son 1 981 :15 , B audou 1 987 :74 ) . T he q ue s t ion o f t r ade r e la t ion sh ips mu s t , h oweve rb e b a sed o n ad i f f e ren t ia ted v iew o fd i f f e ren t t ypes o f e xchange a nd ad e ta i led p i c tu re o f t h e p roduc t ion i n t h e s oc ie t ie s i n q ue s t ion ( c f .G rego ry 1 982 :24 -28 )a sw e l la sa ne s t ima t ion o ft h ei n c i tmen t so ft h e t r ade f o rt h et r ade r s . S oc ia l P a t terns T he k ind o f s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o fs oc ie t ie s w i thou t c l a sses , w h ich t h e h un t ing s oc ie t ie s o f t h e No r r land ic p reh i s tory c l ea r ly a r e , i sb a sed u pon w he the r t h e r e la t ion so fp roduc t ion a r ei ns ome s en se d om ina ted b yk insh ip s y s tem so rn o t . I n t h eb and s oc ie ty ,t h et wo b a sa lu n i t sa r et h e f am i ly u n i to rh ou seho ld a nd t h eb and w he rea si nt r iba l s o c ie ty s eve ra ll e ve ls o fs oc ia lc omp lex i ty c an b ed i s t ingu i shed

6 8

t h a ta r ec on jo ined w i th k insh ip r e la t ions o ro the rk ind so fi n teg ra t ive i n s t i tu t ion s . Mo s tt r iba ls oc ie t ie sa r ec onne c ted w i th f ood p roduc t ion ,e i the ra g r icu l tu ra la nd /o r p a s tora l . T he re i s ap o ss ib i l i ty t h a t af ew ' c omp lex ' h un t ing -ga ther ing s oc ie t ies may h ave e vo lved t r iba l s y s tem s , b u ti nt h e i n te r io ro f No r r land t h e re i sn o tt he r e sou rce a bundance t h a t i sn eeded f o r s uch ad eve lopmen t wh ich f r equen t ly i s c onnec ted w i th r i ch m a r i t ime r e sou rce s ( c f . P r ice & B rown 1 985 :6 ) . T hu s , t h e t ypes o fs oc ia l o rgan iza t ion p resen t i nt h e p reh i s to ry o ft h e i n te r io ro f No r r land mus tb ec ons ide red t ob ev a r ian t so ft h eb and o rgan iza t ion ( c f . O lsen 1 984 :111) . T he o n ly d i f f e ren t ia t ion b yl a bou ri nt h is t ype o fs oc ie ty i sb a sed o na ge a nd s ex ( H inde ss & H i r s t 1 975 ) a nd t h e a pp rop r ia t ion o fs u rp lu s labou ri sc o l lec t ive , i . e . t h e s ha r ing o ft h ep roduc ti st h e mode o fr ed i s t r ibu t ion . I no rde rt o ma in ta in s uch g ene ra l ized r e c ip roc i ty i nt h es oc ie ty ,t h ed om inan ti d eo logy i se ga l i ta r ian ( I ngo ld 1 980 :144 ) . K eenan d i scu sse ss ome s ho r tcom ing so ft h ed ef in i t ion o fb and sw i th r e f e rence t o t h er ep roduc t ion o ft h e s oc ie ty ( 1981 :13 -18 ) . H e c r i t ic ise s t h ec oncep to fs imp le r ed i s t r ibu t ion a su sed b y , a mong o the r s H inde ss & H i r s t , a nd s ugge s t s t ha t t h e i r p rob lem s o f d ef in ing t h is v a r ian t a r e d ue t o t h e ir f ocu s ing o n t h e b and a s t h e l a rges t u n i t , t hus t h e s oc ia l r e la t ions b e tween i nd iv idua ls s eem f l ee t ing a nd i t b ecome s v e ry d i ff i cu l t t ou nde r s tand h ow t h e r ep roduc t ion o ft h e b and c an b e f u lf i l led . I f , h oweve r , o ne l i f t st h ep e r spec t ive b eyond t h e s i ng le b and u n i t , t h e re a r eo the rf o rm so f' s oc ia l 'r e la t ion sb e tween b and sw h ich e n su re t h er ep roduc t ion o ft he s oc ia l u n i t a nd t h e e conomy ( a s e xamp les K eenan m en t ions t h e s e c t ion s ys tem o f t h e A us t ra l ian Abo r ig ines a nd n ame c onnec t ion s among t he ! Kung b ushmen ) . T h is f unc t ion o f t h e r i sk -reduc ing r e la t ions b e tween membe rs o f d i f f e ren tb and s i nb and s oc ie ty a r er ep laced b y mo re ' c ompe t i t ive 'r e la t ionsh ips b e tween t h el a rge rs o c ie ta lg roup ing so ft r iba ls oc ie ty ( c f .S ahl in s 1 968 :5 ) . T he s t udy o fd i f f e r en tr eg iona lb and g roup ing si nt h ep reh is to ry o f No r r land i sa p rob lema t ic t h a ts t i l li si ni t sn a scence ,b u ti ts hou ld b e o ne o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan t o b jec t s o fs t udy . I nt h i sp ape r ,o n ly g ene ra l d e l inea t ion so fp a t te rn s o ft e r r i to r ia l d ive r s i ty c an b e p o in ted a t . C en t ra l f o rt h e se c on jec tu re s i st h e n o t ion o fs oc ia l t e r r i to ry .B y s ome ,t h i si sd ef ined a s ar eg ion o ccup ied b yh un te r -ga the re r ss ha r ing m a r r iage p a r tne r s , as pec if ic i d en t i ty a nd as pec if i cl a nguage .C la rk s ugge s t st h a ti t s hou ld b e s e en a s as up raun i ti n to wh ich s eve ra l m ic roband s c on jo in ( 1975 :22 ) . T he se u n i t sc an b e man i f e s ted a td i f f e ren tr eg iona ll e ve ls : a tt h eb and l e ve l , a tt h e l e ve lo ft h e b and c l u s te ro ra tt h el e ve lo fd ia lec t ica l t r ibes (F o r sbe rg i np r e ss , c f . G ende l 1 984 :4 -15 ) . D u r ing t h eN eol i th ic p e r iod t h e re i s ac l ea rd i f f e rence i nh ou se s t ruc tu re b e tween as ou thern a r ea w h ich i sc ha rac te r ized b y t h e mound s o ff i re -cracked r ock s a s d e sc r ibed e a r l ie ri nt h i sp ape ra nd an o r thern a r ea w h ich i sc ha rac te r ized b y h u t b edd ing so ft h et y pe e xcava ted i nV uo l le r im (We s tf a l &L oeff l e r 1 985 :431 ) .T he se t ype s o f h u t b edd ing s s e em t ob e an o r th B o thn ian p henomenon a s t he n ew ly f ound ' v i l lage s ' o ft h i s t y pe f r om t h eT ome v a l ley a nd t h e c oa s to fO s t robo thn ia s how ( K lang 1 988 :17 -19 ,M ie t t inen 1 982 ) . T h i sn o r ther na r ea i sa l so c ha rac te r ized b y t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f as pec ia l c l a ss o f t oo l s , t h e s o -ca l led Nor th B o thn ian i mp lemen t s( F ig .8 ) .A nh ypo the s i sc an t hus b es ugge s ted w he re a tl e a s tt wo s oc ia l t e r r i to r ie sa r ed i sce rn ib le d ur ing t h eN eo l i th ic i nn o r ther n N o r r land : o ne n o r the rn a nd o ne s ou the rn . T h is h ypo the s is n a tu ra l ly h a s t ob e t e s ted a nd t h e a u tho ri sa t p re sen t u nde r tak ing as t udy o ft h e s t y l is t ic v a r iab i l i ty o ft h e s l a te o b jec t s t h a t i s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h i st ime p e r iod i no rde rt ob ea b le t od i scer nr eg iona lp a t te rn ing . Du r ing t h eB ronze A ge /p re -Roman I r on A ge t h e re i s ac l ea rd i f f e rence b e tween s ou thern a nd n o r the rn N o r r land t h a t l e ad s B audou t os ugge s ta n e t hn ic b ounda ry b e tween t h et wo r eg ion s( Baudou 1 986 :33 ) .A cco rd ing t oB audou t h en o r th a r ea i s o ccup ied b y aS am i sh p opu la t ion a tl e a s tf r om 8 00 B .C . a nd t h e s ou the rn a r ea i s

6 9

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F ig .8 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fN o r th B o thn ian i mp lemen t s( a f te r Mobe rg 1 955 ) .

o ccup ied b y an o r th G e rman ic p opu la t ion ( Baudou 1 987b ) .T he m a in e v idence f o r t h is i sd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ef i nd so ft h eS ä rä isn iem i -2 p o t tery a sw e l l a st h ef i nd so f Anan ino b ronzes a nd mou ld s o f t h e se wh ich s eem t o s t op s ou th o f t h e r i ver Änge rmanä lven ( F igs .9 ,10 ) . I nt h e s ou thern a r ea t h e re i si n s tead ad i s t r ibu t ion o f me ta lf i nd ss t emm ing f r om t h eN o rd ic B ronze A ge ( c f .B akka 1 976 :p l . 1 6 ) . T he n o t ion so fe t hn ic b ounda r ie sa nd e t hn ic i ty c an h oweve rb ep rob lema t ic t ou se i np reh is to r ic c on tex t s , a sO l sen p o in t so u t ( 1984 :7 ) . I tw a s t h e refo re c on s ide red

7 0

a s s uf f ic ien t t o work w i th t he c oncep t s oc ia l t e r r i to ry w hen s t udy ing c h rono log ica l ly p a ra l le l p henomena t ot h ese f i nd c a tegor ies ( Fo r sbe rg i np re s s ) . T he t oo l t ype t h a t w a s s t ud ied w i th r e spec t t os t y l i s t ic v a r iab i l i ty w a s f l a thewn p o in ts w i th a s t ra igh t o r c oncave b a se , af i nd g roup w h ich o ccur s t h roughou t n o r the rn F ennoscand ia d u r ing t h ep e r iod 1 300 B .C . -1A .D . ( Ca rpe lan 1 962 :25 , B audou 1 977 :31 , F o r sbe rg 1 985 :5 ) . A mu l t iva r ia te c l a ss if i ca t ion b a sed o nb ody s hape r e su l ted i n s i x c l us te r s o fp o in t s , f i ve o f wh ich h ad ad i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e n o r the rn a r ea a nd o ne c l us te r w h ich s howed ad i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e s ou the rn a r ea ( F ig .11) .T he s pa t ia ls c a le o nw h ich t h i sv a r ia t ion o ccu r ss ugge s t st h a tt h el e ve lo f d i a lec t ica lt r ibe w ou ld b et h e mo s ta pp rop r ia te t ou se ,t h u sB audou ' si n te rp re ta t ion o fa ne t hn ic b ounda ry c anno tb er e fu ted ,o nt h ec on t ra ry . F ur ther a na lys is o f al a rge r s amp le o fp o in ts w i th t h e a im o fd e tec t ing mo re d e ta i led s t yl i s t ic v a r iab il i ty a t as ma l le rr eg iona ls c a le i sa tp re sen tb e ing p e r fo rmed b yt h ea u tho r . No a na ly se so fs oc ia lt e r r i to r ie sh ave b een p e r fo rmed o nt h eI r on A ge s oc ie ty i n t h e i n ter io ro f No r r land , a l though i n te rp re ta t ions a bound o n e t hn ic g roup ing s o f N on land a s aw ho le ( c f .B audou 1 987b ,f o r ad i scuss ion o ft h e se ) . Ano the rt ype o ft e r r i to r ia lc a tego ry t h a t wou ld b e wo r th s t udy ing i st h er e sou rce t e r r i to ry , i . e . t h e k ind o ft e r r i tory u sed b y t h e b a s ic e conom ic u n i t /un i t s o ft h e s oc ie ty . A cco rd ing t oL undbe rg ( 1986 :95 ) t h e u t i l ized t e r r i tory d u r ing N eo l i th ic t imes w a sl o ca lf o re ach r e s idence g roup o ft h e macroband ,w i th ar ad ius o fc .3 5 k i lome t res a round t h ew in te r' v i l lage ' .T h is r e sou rce t e r r i to ry i si na l lc a se sp l aced i nt h ef o re s ta r ea o ro nt h eb o rde rb e tween t h e moun ta in f oo th i l la nd f o re s ta r ea s . D u r ing t h eB ronze A ge /p re -Roman I r on A ge ,t h er e sou r ce t e r r i to ry i se n la rged t o c ompr ise t h e a r ea a l ong t h e r i ve r s c over ing b o th t h e f o res t a nd t h e moun ta in f oo th i l l z one s . T he s oc ia l g roup u t i l iz ing e ach t e r r i to ry w ou ld a l so b e s omewha t l a rge rt han t ho se o ft h ep reced ing p e r iod ( Fo r sbe rg 1 988 :61 ,L undbe rg 1 986 :96 ) . T he r e sou r ce t e r r i to ry o ft h es o c ie ty d u r ing t h ee nsu ing I r on A ge w ou ld b e s t i l la n e n la rgemen tf r om t h ee a r l ie rp e r iod ,a st h e moun ta in a r ea i sn ow i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h ee conom ic s chedu le ( c f . Mu lk 1 987 ) . T he s ea sona l v a r ia t ion o f t h e s i ze o f t h e e conom ic u n i t s a s w e l l a s t h e i r c ompo s i t ion c an b e g l impsed i ns t udy ing t h ed i f f e ren tn umbe r s a nd k ind so fs i te f unc t ions d ur ing t h e d i f f e ren t p e r iod s . I n t h e N eo l i th ic c a se a s d ocumen ted b y L undbe rg , t h er e s idence g roup s t ay s t oge the rf o rp rac t ica l ly t h ew ho le y ea r , a nd t h e re a r e ma in ly t wo s i te f unc t ions : t h e r e s iden t ia l b a se a nd t h e l o ca t ion ( c f . B info rd 1 980 :10 -14 ) . I nt h eB ronze A ge /p re -Roman I r on A ge s y s tem r e s iden t ia l c amps a sw e l la sl o ca t ion s , s t a t ion s ,t r an s ien tc amps a nd a gg rega t ion c amps c ou ld b e d i sce rned ( Fo r sbe rg 1 988 :59 -61 ) , s ugge s t ing af i s s ion -fus ion p a t te rn ing w e l l k nown i nt h ee t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re f r om t h eb o rea lz one ( c f .D ama s 1 969 ) .I nt h e I r on A ge s y s tem a l so t h et a sk -g roup s i te sa ppea r ,s how ing as t i l lh i ghe rv a r iab i l i ty i nt h e c ompos i t ion o ft h e e conom ic u n i t s , a l though t h ev a r iab i l i ty o ft h e a c t iv i ty l o ca le sd ec rea se s ( Mu lk i np re s s ) . T he i n ter na l s t ruc tu re o ft h e d we l l ing sc an i nd ica te w h ich t ype o fc o -re s idence u n i tt h a tw a s c ommon . I ts e em st h a tt h el odge sf r om Vuo l le r im c on s i s ted o ft wo s im i la ra r ea sl o ca ted a tb o th e nd s ( Sanden 1 987 :26 ,46 ) . T he s i ze o ft h e l odge s i s e s t ima ted t ob ec . 1 x5m (We s t fa l 1 987 :24 ) . I nd ica t ion so fl odges s im i la rt ot h e V uo l le r im t y pe c an b ed i sce rned w hen s t udy ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fq ua r tz w a s te o n s i tes t ha t a r e r ough ly c on tempo rary w i th t h ese ( Fo r sberg 1 985 :256 ) . T he s ymme t r ica lb i po la rp a t ter n ing o ft h et o o l sa nd w a s te i nd ica te st h a tt h el o dge w a sa mu l t i -fam i ly l odge w i th e ach f am i ly o ccupy ing o ne h a lf o ft h e l odge ( c f . Gen 1 984 :12 -13 ) . F ur the rmo re , t h e s i ze o ft h el odge s i nd ica tes t h a tt h ef am i l ie sw e re p robab ly e x tended f am i l ie s ( F ig .12 ) .T he re i sn od i rec tc on s t ruc t iona le v idence o f l odge s f r om t h eB ronze A ge /p re -Roman I r on A ge , b u tt h e re i si nd i rec te v idence

7 1

F ig .9 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fS ä r -2 p o t te ry ( a f te r Me inande r 1 969 a nd J o rgensen & O lsen 1 987 )

f r om t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i nds a nd a l so s ome e v idence o f embankmen ts s u r round ing s uch f i nd c l u s te r s ( Fo r sbe rg 1 985 :253 -261 ) .T he s i ze o ft h ese l odge s wou ld t h en b e a pprox ima te ly 6 x 4 m . T he a r t if ac t a nd f i nd p a t te rns s ugge s t a s im i la r l a you t a s d u r ing t h e p reced ing p er iod , b u t t h e l odges a r e t hus s ma l le r ( F ig .13 ) . I ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h is b imoda lp a t te rn a ga in s ugge s t st h a tt h er e s idence u n i t c on s i s ted o ft wo f am i l ie s ,b u tt h ey m igh tb ec o re f am i l ie s .T he h u t sf r om t h eI r on A ge a r ea tp re sen tb e ing a na lyzed b y Mu lk ,b u tt h e re a r ei nd ica t ions o f ac hange i n t h es en se t h a tt h eh u t sm igh th ave b een o ccup ied b y s i ng le f am i l ie s ,w h ich c l ea r ly i st h ec a se d ur ing t h eh i s to r ic p e r iod ( Mu lk 1 983 :100 ) .

7 2

Ir B ronze c el o fA rc t ic t ype

A • O

Mou ld f o r B ronze c el o f A rc t ic t ype B ronze b l ade o fA rc t ic t y pe Mou ld f o rB ronze b lade o fA rc t ic t ype

O B ronze a r t ifac tf r om t h e No rd ic B ronze A ge O Mou ld o fN o rd ic t ype

F ig .10 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f A rc t ic a nd No rd ic b ronze s i nn o r the rn F ennos cand ia ( a f te r B a l cka 1 974 :p 1 .16 )

Conc lus ions A n a t temp t w i l l b e made t o f r om t h is a ccoun t t r y t o c ompa re t he r a te a nd s ynch ron iza t ion o f t h e p rocesse s o f c hange a f f ec t ing s o me d i f f e ren t a spec ts o f s o c ie ty .T h i sw i l lf a c i l i ta te t h ei n t e rp re ta t ion w he the rw ea r ec once rned w i th m a jo r s t ruc tura l c hange s i n s oc ie ty o r w he ther w e a r e d ea l ing w i th c hanges t h a t a r e s ma l le rv a r ia t ions o rt r ansfo rma t ions o ft h e s ame s t ruc tur e . I ti sa l so o fi n te re s tt o d i s t ingu ish w h ich ma in l ong te rm t r ends i nt h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s phe re s t h a t l e ad so n t ot h eH i s to r ica lT ime s . A s w a s e a r l ie r s hown , t he t h ree ma in p er iod s o f c hange i n t he d oma in o f t e chno logy w e re s omwhe re b e tween 5 000 -4000 B .C . , 2 600 -1600 B .C . a nd 0 -300 A .D . I fo ne s t ud ies t h ec o r r e la t ion b e tween t h ec hange si nl i th ic t e chno logy a nd t h e

7 3

P I

C lu s te r 1 , 2

E l

C lu s t e r 3 , 4 ,5

a

C lu s t e r6

F ig .11 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ed i f f e ren tg roup s o f ac l u s te ra na ly s i so fb i f a c ialy c h ipped p o in t s w i th s t ra igh tb a se ( Fo r sbe rg i np re s s ) .

u se o f ma in r aw ma ter ia l , t h e b e s t d ocumen ted c a se i si nt h e p er iod 2 600 -1600 B .C .T he t r an s i t ion f r om q ua r tz t oq ua r tz i te o ccu rg radua l ly d u r ing t h i s 1 000 -yea r p e r iod , wh i le t he t r an s i t ion t o t h e b i fac ia l f l ak ing t e chn ique s eem s t o o ccu r c ons ide rab ly f a s te r d ur ing af ew h und red y ea r s a tt h e e nd o ft h i s p e r iod . T hus , t h e re s eems t o b e ad ef in i te d i f f e rence i n t h e r a tes o f t h ese t wo p roce sse s o f t e chno log ica lc hange . T he se c hange s s eem ,h oweve r ,t oc o r re spond w i th c hange si ns e t t lemen tp a t t e rn s a nd s ub s i s tence . T he c hange f r om t h e f l ee t ing s e t t lemen t p a t te rn d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h er i g id t e r r i to r ia lo rgan iza t ion d u r ing t h ee n su ing p e r iod ( F ig .14 ) , s e em s t ob e c o r re la ted w i th t h e c hanges f r om h and le c o re / rn ic rob lade t ob i po la r c o re t e chno logy a nd f r om t h eu se o f' f l in t l ike 'r aw ma te r ia ls t ot h eu se o fq ua r tz . I nt h ed oma in o fs ub s i s tence , t h ed om ina t ing p a t te rn o fe l kh un t ing a nd f i sh ing i n t h ef o re s ta r ea i sf u l ly e s tab l i shed d u r ing t h ep e r iod 4 000 -2 000 B .C . 7 4

F ig .12 . C on tou rm ap o ft h ef l ake d i s t r ibu t ion f r om aN eo l i th ic l o dge ( c f .F o r sbe rg 1 988 :85 )

L ikew ise , t he c hange f r om t he a lmo s t s eden ta ry s e t t lemen t p a t tern d ur ing N eo l i th ic t ime st ot h e mo re mob i le s y s tem d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge /p re -Roman I r on A ge i sa l so a ccompan ied b y t h ec hange s f r om t h e b ipo la rc o re t e chno logy t ot h e b i f ac ia l t h inn ing t e chn ique a nd f r om t h e u se o fq ua r tz t ot h e u se o fq ua r tz i te a nd b r ecc ia ted q ua r tz .T he c hange si nt h ee conomy i n vo lve s aw iden ing o ft h er e sou r ce b a se a s t h e r e indee r b ecome s a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h e s ub s i s tence b a se a nd t h e moun ta in f oo th i l la r ea b ecome sa ni n teg ra lp a r to ft h er e sou r ce t e r r i to ry . T he c hanges d ur ing t h e f i r s t c en tu r ies A .D . w h ich e ven tua l ly l e ads t o t h e eme rgence o f t h e ' S am i h un t ing s oc ie ty ' , i nvo lves af u r the r d ependence o f t h e r e indee ra sp r ima ry r e sou r ce . T h is c an a l so b e g l impsed i nt h e s e t t lemen tp a t tern , w he re t h ew ho le s y s tem i ss h if ted w e s twa rds t owa rd st h e moun ta in a r ea ( F ig .14 ) . T he s t one t e chno logy s e em s t ob e a bandoned f o r at e chno logy p a r t ly b ased o n m e ta l o b jec t s , a l though t h e e v idence f r om t h e f i r s t c en tur ies o f t h is p e r iod a r e s omewha ts c an ty .

7 5

As t rong c a se c ou ld b e made t h a tt h ec hange sr e f e r red t oa bove i nf a c ta r e ma jo r s t ruc tu ra l c hanges o ft h e s oc ie ty i nt h e i n ter io ro fn or thern Sweden , o r w i th a mo re ' f unc t iona l i s t ic 't e rm ino logy ; s y s tem ic c hange s . I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t on o te s ome p roce s se st h a td on o tc o inc ide w i th t h i so u tl ine , b u t wh ich s eem t o o ccu r i ndependen t o f t h ese ma jo r c hanges . T he u se a nd manuf ac tu re o f me ta lo b jec t si sc ommenced i nt h em idd le o ft h ep e r iod 1 500 B .C . -1A .D . , a nd t h e s l a te t e chno logy a sw e l la st h eu sage o ft h e ' e xo t ic 'r aw ma te r ia l f l in t a l so s eem s t o f l our i sh mo re o r l e ss i ndependen t o f t he s ys tem ic c hanges m en t ioned a bove . F ina l ly , t h e l ong te rm t r end s mus t b e g iven s ome c ons ide ra t ion . T he t r end d i sce rn ib le i nt h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn c hange s eem st ob eo ne o fi n c rea sed mob i l i ty t h rough t ime a nd t h i si so fc ou r se a l so c o r re la ted w i th t h ei n c rea se o ft h es i z eo ft h e r e sou rce t e r r i to r ie s( F ig .15 ) .T he d i ve r s i ty o ft h es ub s i tence b a se s e em st oi n c r ea se f r om t he N eo l i th ic t ot h e B ronze A ge /p re -Roman I r on A ge , b u td ecrea se s a ga in d u r ing t h e I r on Age w hen t h e re i sa ni n c r ea s ing s pec ia l iza t ion o ft h ep roduc t ion . T he u t i l iza t ion o fr e indeer i s eme rg ing d ur ing t h e B ronze Age a nd t h e re i sa n i n c rea s ing d ependence o nr e indee ra st h ep r ima ry r e sou r ce . T hese t r ends a re i n teres t ing when d i scuss ing t he t r ans i t ion f rom a h un t ing -ga the r ing e conomy t or e indee rp a s to ra l i sm , s ome th ing w h ich i ss ugge s ted t oh ave t a ken p lace a tt h ee nd o ft h e 1 6 th C en tury . T he c ause o ft h i st r an s i t ion i s s a id b y s ome t ob eh eavy t a xa t ion f r om t h e Swed i sh S ta te i nt h ef o rm o fr e indee r s k in s , wh ich f o r ce st h eS a tn it ot a ke u pr e indee rh e rd ing ( Lundma rk 1 982 ) . Wh i le t h i sm igh t h ave b een o ne o ft h ec ause sl e ad ing t or e indee rh e rd ing ,i ti sp robab ly n o tt h eo n ly c au se o re ven t h e mo s ti mpor tan tc ond i t ion . A s w eh ave s een a bove t h e re a re l ong te rm t r ends i n e f f ec t d ur ing t he l a s t 3 500 y ea r s ; b o th i n t h e i n c rea s ing u t i l iza t ion o fr e indee ra sp r ima ry r e source , t h e i n crea s ing s i ze o ft h e r e sou rce t e r r i to r ie s ( c f . Vo r ren 1 980 :F ig s . 5a nd 1 3 ) a nd i n c rea sed mob i l i ty t h a t l e ad su pt oa nd a r et h ec ond i t ion sf o rt h i st r an s i t ion .

65

60

F ig .13 . C on tou r map o f t he f l ake d i s t r ibu t ion f r om a B ronze Age l odge ( c f . F o r sbe rg 1 988 :79 -85 ) .

7 6

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F ig .14 . Mode l so ft h e s e t t l emen tp a t te rn s i nt h ei n t e r io ro fn o r the rn Sweden 6 000 B .C . -1 000 A .D .

7 7

CALENDRIC YEARS 5 000

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F ig .15 . S umma ry o ft h e ma in c hange si nt h ei n te r io ro fn o r the rn Sweden 6 000 B .C . -1 000 A .D .

R eferences Ande r son , A . 1 981 . E conom ic c hange a nd t h e p reh i s to r ic f u r t r ade i nn or the rn Sweden : T he r e levance o f ac anad ian mode l . N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 4 (1 ) :1 -16 . B akka , E . 1 976 . A rk t i sk o g n o rd isk ib ron sea lde ren iN o rd skand inav ia . De tK g l . V iden skaber sS e l skab , Mu see t .M i sce l lanea 2 5 .T rondhe im

7 8

B audou , E . 1 977 . D en f ö rh is to r iska f ängs tku l tu ren i V ä s ternor r land . V ä s ternor r land sf ö rh i s tor ia 1 977 :11 -152 .H ä rnö sand . B audou , E . 1 978 . K rono log i o ch k u l tu ru tveck l ing ime l le r s ta N o r r land u nde r s t enä ldem o ch b ronsä lde rn . IH ugge r t , A . ( r ed . ) ,S tud ier in or r länd sk f orn t id . T i l l E rn s t Wes ter lund 9 n ovember 1 975 . A c ta B o thn iens ia O cc iden ta l is . S k r if te r iV ä s te rbo t tn i sk k u l tu rh i s to r ia 1 : 8 -18 .V ä s te rbo t ten s museum . Umeä . B audou , E . 1 981 . C ommen t s o n A nder son , A . , E conom ic c hange a nd t h e p reh is to r ic f u r t r ade i nn o r thern Sweden . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 4 (1) :16 -19 . B audou , E . 1 986 . O r tnamn o ch n o rd l iga k u l tu rprov inse r u nde rj ä rnä lde r o ch mede l t id .T re k u l tu rer . Med lem sbok f ör J ohan N ord land er -sä l l skape t 3 : 7 -39 . B audou , E . 1 987 . O r sake r t i l l b ebygge lsefö ränd r inga r i No r r land u nde r mede l t iden .A rk ive t , h i s tor ien , r öre l sen ( r ed . ) : 6 7 -79 . B audou , E . 1 987b . S ame ro ch g e rmane r id e tf ö rh i s to r iska No r r land . E n k r i t i sk ö ve r s ik tö ve rt i oä r sf o r skn ing .B ebygge l seh i s tor isk t i d sk r if t 1 4 , 1 987 :9 -23 . B e rgman , I . 1 985 . V a rgha lsen . A p re l im ina ry a na lys is . I n Honorem E ver t B audou .A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 :283 -291 . Umeä . B info rd , L .R . 1 980 . W i l low s moke a nd d og 's t a i l s : H un ter -ga the re r s e t t lemen t s y s tem s a nd a r chaeo log ica ls i te f o rma t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 (1) :4 -20 . B raude l ,F .1 978 . C ap i ta l i sm a nd Ma ter ia lL if e1 400 -1800 .B ungay . B roadben t , N .D . 1 979 . C oa s ta lR esources a nd S e t t lemen tS tab i l i ty . AC r i t ica l S tudy o f aMeso l i th ic S i te C omp lex i nN or thern S wed en . AUN 3 .U pp sa la . B roadben t ,N .D . 1 982 . S ke l lef tebygdens h i s tor ia . D e l 3 , D en f ö rh is to r i ska u tveck l ingen u nde r7 000 ä r . U pp sa la . B roadben t , N .D . 1 985 . A na lys i s o fs c rape r w ea r : c ompa r i sons o ff ou r s i te s o n t h eR ive rL u leä lv .I nF o r sbe rg ,L .L . ,S i t e V ar iab i l i ty a nd S e t t lemen tP a t tern s . A na na lys i so ft h e h un ter -ga therer s e t t lemen ts y s tem i nt h eL u le R iver V a l ley 1 500 B .C . -B .C . /A .D . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t5 :289 -292 . Umeä . B u rch , E .S . 1 972 . T he c ar ibou /w i ld r e indee r a s ah uman r e sou rce . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 7 :339 -368 . C a rpe lan , C . 1 962 . N e l l i tn in L öy tö .S uomen Museo 6 9 :5 -25 . C a rpe lan , C . 1 975 .E nö ve r s ik tö ve rd en f ö rh is to r iska t i den iom räde tk r ing K em i ä l v . K em i jok i 8 000 -l a xä lv in orr . F orn t iden iK em iä lvomräde t u nder ä t ta d r tu send en ia rkeo log i sk b e ly sn ing :16 -37 . S tockho lm . C a rpe lan , C . 1 979 . Om a sbes tke ram ikens h i s to r ia iF ennoskand ien . F insk t Museum 1 978 :5 -25 . C ha l ikov , A . 1 977 . s ee H aw-y f i e B .B .C . C la rk ,J .G .D . 1 975 .T he E ar l ier S tone A ge s e t t lemen to fS cand inav ia . L ondon . D ama s , D . (ed . ) . 1 969 . C on t r ibu t ion s t oA n thropo logy :B and S oc ie t ies . B u l le t in o ft h eN a t iona l Museum o fC anada 2 28 . O t tawa . E kman , J .& I r eg ren , E . 1 984 . A rchaeo -zoo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s i nN or thern Sweden . E a r ly No r r land 8 , KVHAA , S tockho lm . F i tzhugh , W . 1 974 G round s l a te s i nt h e S cand inav ian Younge r S tone A ge w i th r e f e rence t oc i r cumpo la r ma r i t ime a dap ta t ion s .P roceed ings o ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 0 :45 -58 . F o r sbe rg . L . 1 984 . A Mu l t iva r ia te A na lys i s o fH un t ing a nd F i sh ing S i te s o n t h e R ive r Umeä lv , No r the rn S weden .P aper si nN or thern P reh i s to ry . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 : 31-44 . F o r sbe rg ,L .L . 1 985 . S i te V ar iab i l i ty a nd S e t t lemen tP a t tern s .A na na ly s i so ft h e h un ter -ga therer s e t t lemen t s y s tem i n t he L u le R iver V a l ley 1 500 B .C . B .C . /A .D . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t5 . Umeä . F o r sbe rg , L . 1 988 . B o sä t tn ing smöns te rv id L u le o ch Ume ä l v u nde r b ronsä lde r 7 9

o ch f ö r rome r sk j ä rnä lde r .A rkeo log i in orr 1 : 51 -1 01 . Umeä . F o r sbe rg ,L . ( i np res s ) . E t tf ö r sök a t tu r s Id l ja s o c ia la t e r r i to r ie r iN o r r land si n land u nde rb ronsä lde ro ch f ö r rome r sk j ä rnä lde r . G ende l , P . 1 984 . Meso l i th ic S oc ia l T err i tor ie s i nN or thwes tern E urope . BAR I n ter na t iona lS e r ie s2 18 . G rego ry ,C .A . 1 982 . G if t s a nd C ommod i t ies . L ondon . G m , 0 . 1 984 . B o s tad o ch s amhä l le u nde r m eso l i t i sk t i d . P opu lär a rkeo log i 2 (3 ) :11-13 . H indes s , B& H i r s t ,P .1 975 .P re -cap i ta l i s t Mod e so fP roduc t ion . L ondon . Hodde r , I .1 987 . T he c on t r ibu t ion o ft h el ong t e rm . I n Hodde r( e d . )A rchaeo logy a sl o ng term h i s tory . 1 987 :1 -8 . C amb r idge . Ho lm , L . 1 985 . V a r ia t ions i n F lake Ma te r ia l . D if f e ren t U t i l iza t ion o f S tone Ma te r ia l . I n Honorem E ver t B audou . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t 4 :303 -311 . Umeä . Hugge r t , A . 1 984 . F l in t a l so C ame f r om t h e E a s t -A C on t r ibu t ion t o t h e Know ledge o fU ppe r No r r land ' s P reh i s to ry . P aper s i nN or thern P reh i s tory . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 : 57 -74 . Umeä . Hu l t Mn ,B . 1 985 . H a i r -Tempe red P o t te ry i nÄ nge rman land . I n Honor em E ver t B audou .A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 :247 -258 . Umeä . H va r fne r , H . 1 957a . F ängs tmän o ch n ybyggare iÄ ngermanä lvens k ä l lomräden u nd er j ärnA ldern .A rk iv f ö rn o r r länd sk h embygd s fo r skn ing . Hva rfne r , H . 1 957b . E nda s t f ö re e l ler ä ven u nde r j ä rnä lde rn? V äs terbo t ten 1 957 :70 -115 . I ngo ld ,T . 1 980 . H un te r s , P a s to ra l is t s a nd R anche r s . C amb r idge . J o rgensen , R . &O l sen , B . 1 987 . A sbes tke ram ikk iN o rd No rge . S uomen Mu seo 1 987 :5 -39 . K eenan , J . 1 981 . T he c oncep t o f t h e mode o f p roduc t ion i n h un te r -ga the re r s oc ie t ies . I n K ahn ,J .S . & L lobe ra ,J .R . ( eds . ) , T he A n thropo logy o f P re -cap i ta l i s tS oc ie t ie s 1 981 :2 -21 . L ondon . K lang ,L . 1 988 . S t enä lde r sbya r iT o rneda len .P opu lär A rkeo log i 1 988 :15 -19 . L inde r , A .

1 966 .

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6 1 :140 -153 . L oeff le r , D . & Wes tf a l , U . 1 985 . Aw e l l -p rese rved S tone Age dwe l l ing s i te . P re l im ina ry p re sen ta t ion o ft h ei nve s t iga t ion sa tV uo l le r im ,L ap land , Sweden . I n Honorem E ver tB audou . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 :425 -434 . Um eä . L undbe rg , A . 1 985 . " V i l lages " i n t h e i n land o f No r the rn Sweden 5 000 y ea r s a go . I n Honorem E ver tB audou . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t 4 :293 -301 . Umeä . L undbe rg , A . 1 986 . S kä rvs ten sva l la r iN o r r land . S tud ier iN orr länd sk f orn t id A c ta B o thn iens ia O cc iden ta l i s . Sh if te r iv ä s te rbo t tn i sk k u l tu rh i s to r ia 8 : 81 -99 . Umeä . L undmark , L . 1 982 . U ppbörd , u tarmn ing , u tveck l ing . De t s am iska f äng s t samhä l le t sö vergäng t i l lr ennomad i sm iL u le l a ppmark .L und . Me inande r , C .F . 1 969 . D äv i t s . E n e s sä om f ö r rome r sk j ä rnä lde r .F insk t Museum 7 6 :27 -69 . Me inande r , C .F . 1 98? . A koz ino , A chmy lovo o ch mä la ryxo rna . F insk t Museum / 1 : 15 -34 . • Me lande r , J . 1 981 . T re s t enä lde r sbop la tse r iH ög land , Do ro tea . V äs terbo t ten 1 981 :300 -303 . Me lande r , J .1 986a .T o rkugna r .S tud ier iN orr länd sk f orn t id I . A c ta B o thn ien s ia O cc iden ta l i s . S k r i f te r iv ä s te rbo t tn i sk k u l tu rh i s to r ia 8 : 106 -118 . Umeä . Me lander , J .1 986b . S k if f e r red skap o ch b ron shan tve rk iV i lhe lm ina . S tud ier i Nor r länd sk f orn t id I . A c ta B o thn ien s ia O cc iden ta l i s . Sh if te r iv ä s te rbo t tn i sk 8 0

k u l tu rh i s tor ia 8 : 119 -125 . Umeä . Meschke , C . 1 967 . E n n or r länd sk s t enä lder sbop la t s med s kä rv s tensva l l . A n t ik var i sk ta rk iv 3 1 . K ung l iga V i t te rhe t s -o ch H i s to r ieakade tn in sh andl inga r . S tockho lm . M ie t t inen , M . 1 982 . S t enä lde r sbop la t sen iH undbacka , P ede r sö re , O s te rbo t ten . B o t tn i sk k on tak t 1 . Ma r i t imh i s to r i sk k onf e r en s iÖ rn skö ld sv ik s mu seum . Mobe rg , C -A . 1 955 . S tud ier ib o t tn i sk s t enä lder I -V . An t ikva r iska s e r ien 3 . KVHAA . S tockho lm . Mu lk , I -M . 1 983 . S a rn i ska v in te rbycen t ra i nom L u le ä l vda l . L ASTA 1 : 89 -113 . Umeä . Mu lk ,I -M . 1 987 . S i rka s samema sb o sä t tn ing smöns te ro ch r e su r su tny t t jande u nde r j ä rnä lde ro ch mede l t id .B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk t i d skr if t 1 4 , 1 987 :61 -74 . O l sen , B . 1 984 . S tab i l i te t o g e ndr ing . P roduk s jon o g s amf unn iV aranger , 8 00 f .K r . -1 700 e .K r . A vhand l ing t ulmag i s te rg raden ia rkeo log i . U n ive r s i te te t i T rom s0 . P a tru s jev ,V .S . 1 984 . s e e f l awymeB .B .C . P r ice , T .D . & B rown , J .A . 1 985 . A spec t s o f H un te r -Ga the re r C omp lex i ty . I n P reh is tor ic Hun ter -Ga therer s . T he Emergence o f C u l tura l C omp lex i ty . ( P r ice ,T .D . &B rown ,J .A . e d s . ) . N ew Y o rk . S ah l ins ,M .D . 1 968 . T r ibe smen . L ondon . S and6n ,E . 1 987 .N orpan 2 . S em ina rP aper . Umeä . S chu lz ,E -L . 1 986 .E in E i senve rhü t tung sp la tz a us d e rÄ l te r en E i senze i ti nK a jaan i . I SKOS 6 : 169 -173 . S i i r iä inen ,A . , 1 969 . Ü be rd i eC h rono log ie d e rs t e inze i t l ichen Küs tenwohnp lä tze F inn land si mL ich te d e rU f erve r sch iebung .S uomen Mu seo 1 969 :40 -73 . S päng , L -G . 1 986 . S t enä lde r sbo s taden . S tud ier iN orr länd sk f orn t id I . A c ta B o thn iens ia O cc iden ta l i s . S k r if te r iv ä s te rbo t tn i sk k u l tu rh is to r ia 8 :47 -80 . Umeä . S und l in , H . 1 986 . G amma l d a ter ing f r än Ä se le . S tud ier iN orr länd sk f orn t id Ac ta B o thn iens ia O cc iden ta l is . S k r if te r iv ä s terbo t tn isk k u l turh is tor ia 8 : 132 -136 . Umeä . S undqv i s t , L . 1 978 . B op la t sen G a ra se le t in o r ra V ä s te rbo t ten . IHugge r t , A . ( ed . ) , S tud ier in orr länd sk f orn t id . T i l lE rn s t We s ter lund 9 n ovember 1 975 . A c ta B o thn iens ia O cc iden ta l is . S k r if te r iV ä s terbo t tn isk k u l turh is to r ia 1 : 130 -137 . V ä s te rbo t tens mu seum . Umeä . Wes t fa l , U . 1 987 . V uo l ler imunde r sökn inga rna . E n a rkeo log isk o ch p ub l ik l ä ges rappo r t .N or rbouen 1 987 :24 -31 . Wood , J . J . 1 978 . O p t ima l l o ca t ion i ns e t t lemen t s pace : A mode l f o rd escr ib ing l o ca t ion s t ra teg ie s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 (2 ) :258 -270 . Vo r ren , 0 . 1 980 . S am isk b ose t tn ing p ä Nordka lo t ten , a r ea ld ispone r ing o g r e su r su tny t t ing ih i s to r i sk -oko log i sk b e ly sn ing . IN ordS kand inav iens h i s tor ia it v ärve tenskap l ig b e ly sn ing . ( e d s . B audou ,E . &D ah ls ted t ,K -H . ) . Umeä . Z ach r isson , I .1 976 . L apps a nd S cand inav ians . A rchaeo log ica l F ind s f rom Nor thern S weden . E a r ly No r r land 1 0 . S tockho lm . Z achr isson , I .1 987 . L a te Manuf ac ture o f C h ipped S tone T oo l s i n Nor thern F enno scand ia . I nT heo re t ica lA pp roache st oA r tef ac t sS e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty . S tud ie si n Honour o f Ma t sP . Ma lmer . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s . Z b ru jeva , A .V . 1 952 . s e e 3 hpy eBa .A .B . Z e leny , J . 1 976 . Me tod o ch t e or i iK ap i ta le t . S tockho lm . ( O r ig ina l 1 962 W i s senschaf t s log ik b e i Ma rx u nd " Daß K ap i ta l" . 34y eB a .A .B . Ma r nepwa b i

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I n troduc t ion Sweden 's a nc ien t monumen t sa r ep ro tec ted b y al aw ,t h eo lde s tv e r s ion o fw h ich d a te s f r om 1 666 .Tha tv e ry f i r s te nac tmen td ec la red a nc ien t monumen t sa nd a n t iqu i t ie st ob e t h e p roper ty o ft h e s t a te , a nd t h e a c t n ow i nf o rce , wh ich w a s p a ssed i n 1 942 , s t i l l r e s t r ic ts t he u se o f l a nd o n w h ich t h e re a r e a nc ien t monumen ts . T he Swed ish Monumen t sA c ti st h ef o r emo s ti n s t rumen tf o rt h ep ro tec t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic r ema in s . Anc ien t monumen t sa nd p r eh i s to r ic r ema in si n Sweden a r ec on t inuous ly s u rveyed b y t h e C en t ra l B oa rd o f N a t iona l An t iqu i t ies ( CBNA i n s ho r t ) i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e c omp i la t ion o f E conom ic a nd T opog raph ica l m aps b y t h e N a t iona l L and S urvey . S u rveyo r se xp lo re t h et e r ra in ,p lo tt h ea nc ien t monumen t so na i rp ho tog raph sa nd make d escr ip t ion s o f t h em . T he c omp le te s u rvey -da ta a r e d epos i ted w i th t h e R eg is te r o f Anc ien t Monumen t s a tt h e CBNA i n S tockho lm . A pp rox ima te ly 7 00 .000 a nc ien t monumen t s a r ec u r ren t ly k nown , a nd t h e re a r em ed ieva l c u l tu ra l s t ra ta r e co rded i n7 0 u rban a r ea s . C ompa red w i th t h e s i tua t ion i no the rc oun t r ie s ,t h is p rov ide sa nu nusua l ly c l ea rp i c tu re o ft h e s t ock o fa r chaeo log ica lr ema in s , t hough t h er eg is te ri sc onf ined t o v i s ib le r ema in s . When r emova l o fa n a nc ien t monumen ti sr eque s ted ,p e rm i ss ion may b eg ran ted b y t h eC oun ty Adm in i s t ra t ion B oa rd c once rned .T h i si sc ond i t iona lo nt h e monumen tb e ing e xcava ted f i r s t ,t h e ma in s t a tu to ry r u le b e ing f o rt h ec o s to fe xcava t ion t ob eb o rne b y t h ed eve lope r . Mo s ta r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion si n Sweden t oday a r ep romp ted b yl a nd d eve lopmen t .T he g r ea tm a jo r i ty o ft h em a r eu nde r taken b yt h e CBNA a nd s ome o t he r s b yc e r ta in o ft h el a rge rr eg iona l mu seum s ,w h i le p u re ly ' s c ien t if i c 'e xcava t ion si n i t ia ted b yt h eu n ive r s i t ie sa r ef ew i nn umbe r( F ig . 1 ) . S ince t he 1 960 's t h e CBNA h a s b u i l t u p as pec ia l o rgan isa t ion , ' By rän f ö r A rkeo log i ska U nde r sökn inga r ' ( Depa r tmen t o fA rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ion s ) , UV i n s ho r t . UV h a s f our r eg iona l o f f ices : S tockho lm ( UV -M i t t ) , L und ( UV -Syd ) , Kung sbacka ( UV -Vä s t ) a nd V i sby ( RAGU ).( c f . F ig . 2 ) ; u n t i l 1 984 t h e re w as a l so a r eg iona lo ff ice a tB o rgho lm ,o nt h ei s land o fO land .

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F ig . 3 . T o ta l n umbe ro fg r ave s , d wel ing s i t e s a nd s e t t lemen tr ema in s i n ve s t iga ted b y UV d u r ing t h e p e r iod 1 967 -1984 . T he c eme te ry e xcava t ion s w e re a tt h e i rh e igh ti n1 969 -70 a nd 1 979 -80 . Dwe l l ing s i t ee xcava t ion sb e came mo re e x ten s ive f r om 1 977 o nwa rd s( f ewe rs i t e sb u t mo re r ema ins ) .F rom 1 982 o nwa rd s , UV 's p r eh i s to r i ca c t iv i t ie ss how ac l ea rp r edom inance o fl a rge d we l l ing s i te e xcava t ion s .

T he se f ou ro f f ice sh ave a dop ted d i f f e r ing r e sea r ch p ro f i le s ,d ue t or eg iona ld i f f e r ence s i nt h e t y pe o f l a nd scape , t h e s t ruc tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins , l a nd u se , t y pe o f d eve lopmen to rl a bou rm a rk e tp o l icy p rog r amme s . A s ar e su l to ft h i sr eg iona l s p r ead , t h eo rgan i sa t ion t a ke si n aw ide s pan o fr e sea r ch i n t e r e s t s -t h ema t ica l ly ,m e thodo log ica l ly a nd c h rono log ica l ly .R ema in sf r om a lp e r iod s a nd r e p re sen t ing aw ide v a r ie ty o fs t ruc tu r e sa nd c a tego r ie sh ave b een i n ve s t iga ted .T he i n ve s t iga t ion sh ave g r adua l ly s h if t ed f r om e xcava t ion so fr e co rded s i te s , m a rked b yt h e

8 6

r un ic R o nt h e map sm en t ioned a bove ,t ot h ep repa ra to ry i nve s t iga t ion sa nd e xcava t ion o fu n r eco rded s i te s ( F ig . 3 ) .A s ar e su l t , a r chaeo log i s t st oday a r ee x ten s ive ly o ccup ied w i th l o ca lp ro spec t ing ,l o ok ing p a r t icu la r ly f o rs e t t lemen ts i te s ,w h ich a r el e a s tl i ke ly t o b e r evea led b y t h e i nven tory c a r r ied o u t b y t h e CBNA . T o a vo id e l even th -hour e xped i t ions , c o -ope ra t ion w i th d eve lope r s h a s g radua l ly b een e s tab l ished , s o t ha t o pe ra t ions c an b e p lanned w e l l i n a dvance . R espons ib i l i ty f o r t h e h and l ing a nd f o l low ing -up o fb u s ine ss h a sb een d e lega ted t ot h ee xcava t ion l e ade r s .T he wo rk i npu t r a te o f t h is who l ly s e lf -f inanc ing e n terpr ise d oe s n o t p rov ide a ny r ea l s cope f o r r e sea rch , b u t t h e s t ead i ly i n c rea s ing v o lume o f i nves t iga t ions c a l l s f o r c on t inuous r e sea r ch a st h eo n ly p o ss ib le m ean sf o ra r chaeo log i s t st oc ome u pw i th s ound ly b a sed e xcava t ions . T he p u rpose o ft h e s t a tu to ry c on s t ruc t ion o ft h eA nc ien t Monumen t sA c t , c anno tb e c onf ined t ot h er e spec tfu lp re se rva t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lr ema in s ; i tmu s ta l so i n c lude t h e p rese rva t ion o f s ource ma te r ia ls f o r t he u nder s tand ing o f o ur p reh is to ry . A rchaeo log ica l r ema ins w h ich a r e i nves t iga ted h ave t o b e ' r ep laced ' b y w r i t ten d ocumen t s -e xcava t ion r epo r t s .T he i d ea ls i tua t ion wou ld b et h a tr e su l t so fe xcava t ion s w e re f ed s t ra igh ti n to t h ec u r ren td eba te a nd r e sea r ch p roce s s .T he g r ea ti mpo r tance o f i n c lud ing a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i nt h e c on t inu ing e xcava t ion w o rks i s at op ic a l so d i scu s sed i no u rn e ighbou r ing c oun t r ie s .P r io rt ot h er eo rgan isa t ion o ft h e managemen t o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins i n No rway , P rof esso r A rne S k jo lsvo ld p leaded f o r a n i n teg ra t ion o fr e sea rch a nd f i e ld -wo rk a c t iv i t ies , a nd h e c a l led f o rt a rge ted p r io r i t ie s when i tc once rned e xcava t ion s( Sk jo l svo ld 1 985 ) .I nD enma rk ,' r e scue a r chaeo logy 'i s s a id t ob e s t i l l i n as t a te o fe xpans ion , u nma tched a sy e t b y a n a pp ropr ia te r e sea rch s t ruc tu re ( K r i s t ian sen 1 983 ) . A s ar u le ,d ue t of i nanc ia lc on s t ra in t s ,t h ei mmen se q uan t i ty o fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l r e su l t ing f r om r e scue e xcava t ions i so n ly p resen ted a sb r ie fe xcava t ion r epo r t s( r epo r t s o n a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s , o f ten w i th s umma r ies i nE ng l i sh , a r e i n c luded i nt h e s e r ies o fr epo r t sp ub l i shed b yt h e CBNA ) . I nv i ew o ft h i s l a ck o fi n ten se r e sea rch a nd a na ly ses o f t h e e xcava ted ma te r ia l , t h e CBNA i naugura ted i n 1 987 a p repa ra to ry p rog ramme -s tudy , a imed a te s tab l i sh ing a no ve rv iew o ft h er e scue a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s , i n b o th q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive t e rms , a nd a l so a t r ecommend ing r e sea rch p rog ramme sw i th h ighe rp r io r i ty . Wo rk o nt h ep rog ramme -s tudy h a s b een d iv ided i n to t h ree s t age s ,t h ef i r s to fw h ich i nvo lved ac omp rehen s ive i n ven to ry o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l ,t h es e cond d evo ted t o a n i nven tory o fr e sea rch n eed s a tt h e r eg iona l UV o ff i ce s , a nd t h e t h i rd i nvo lved a s yn the s i so f ma te r ia lf r om t h er eg iona lo f f ice st oge the rw i th t h ec omp i la t ion o f ar epo r t . A s wo rk p roceeded , r egu la r m ee t ings w e re h e ld b y ar e f e rence g roup made u p o f r ep re sen ta t ive so ft h e Swed i sh u n ive r s i t ie s . T he i nven to ry o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia li sb a sed o nt h ea nnua lp ubl ica t ion ' A rkeo log i iS ve r ige ' ( A r chaeo logy i n Sweden ) a nd o ns yn thes i s a nd v e rba l i n fo rma t ion r e ce ived f r om t h er eg iona l o f f ice s . E ve ry y ea r s i nce 1 964 , ' A rkeo log i iS ve r ige ' h a sp re sen ted s umma r ies o f a c t iv i t ies a nd r e su l t s ( f rom 1 982 w i th s umma r ies o f t he p ape r s i n E ng l i sh ) . Wo rk o n t h e p rog ramme -s tudy w a s e n t ru s ted t o t h e UV -a f f i l ia ted a u tho r s o f t h i s a r t ic le a nd t oK enne th S vens son , w ho t ook c ha rge o f t h e med ieva l s e c t ion o f t h i s m a te r ia l . T he p resen t a r t ic le i sa n a b r idged v e r s ion o ft h is r epo r tp ub l ished b y t h e CBNA i n t h e i rs e r ies e n t i t led ' F o r skn ing f ö rk u l tu rm inne svä rd t .

8 7

Genera l P resen ta t ion o f t he P reh is tor ic a nd Med ieva l A rchaeo log ica l Ma ter ia l T he a r chaeo log ica lr ema in se xcava ted b y t h e CBNA b e tween 1 964 a nd 1 984 c ome i n t h ree ma in c a tego r ie s : P reh is to r ic g r ave s , p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t s a nd m ed ieva l u rban s t r a ta . A l toge the r , s ome 1 2 .000 g r ave s a nd 8 00 s e t t lemen t s i te sw e re i nve s t iga ted a nd a bou t4 00 m ed ieva lu rban e xcava t ion s o fd i f f e ren te x t en tw e re c onduc ted . F igur e s4 a a nd 4 b s how ,r e spec t ive ly , t h e n umbe r s o fg rave s a nd s e t t lemen t s i te si nve s t iga ted i n e a ch r eg ion ,t o ge the rw i th t h e ma in c h rono log i ca le mpha s i so ft h em a t e r ia l .

G RAVES n 1 2

S ETTLEMENT n = 8 50

5 UU

S A

B A

E . IA

U V-M N orrl.incl.) U V-V

S ITES

L . IA B URIAL

M ATERIAL

U V-S R AGU U V-Öl

U V-M ( Norrl.incl.) U V-V

S ETTLEMENT

M ATERIAL

U V-S R AGU U V-Öl

F ig . 4 a ( t op ) . N os . o f g rave s a nd d we l l ing s i te s i nve s t iga ted i ne ach r eg ion . F ig .4 b( bo t tom ) . T he c h rono log ica l e mpha s i so ft h em a te r ia li n ve s t iga ted i ne ach r eg ion .

8

T he i nve s t iga t ions i nt h e L ake Mä la ren r eg ion ( UV -M i t t ) , o n Go t land ( RAGU ) a nd O land ( t he O land o ff ice )d u r ing t h i sp e r iod ( 1964 -1984 ) s oon c ame t ob ed om ina ted b y m a jo re xcava t ion so fp reh i s to r ic c eme te r ie s ,w he r ea ss e t t lemen ts i te sw e re t h ep r inc ipa l t a rge t so fi nve s t iga t ion i nS käne ( Scan ia )b y UV -Syd a nd We s t Sweden ( UV -Vä s t ) . A g r ea t amoun to fs e t t lemen td a ta w a sa l so u nea r thed b y UV -M i t ti nt h es ou the rn p a r to f N o r r land . T he C en t ra l Swed i sh g r ave ma te r ia lf r om t h eL ake Mä la r en r eg ion a nd Go t land mo s t ly o r ig ina tes f r om E a r ly a nd L a te I r on A ge . S e t t lemen t ma ter ia lf r om We s t Sweden r e la t e s mo s t ly t ot h e S tone Age , w h i le t h e S can ian s e t t lemen t s i tes d a te p r ima r i ly f r om t h e B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s .T ak ing a l lt h ev a r ious r eg ion st oge the r ,t h ec h rono log ica l e mpha s i sf o rb o th g r ave sa nd s e t t lemen ts i te si so nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge . UV 's u rban a r chaeo logy w a s e s tab l ished i n C en t ra l Sweden d u r ing t h e e a r ly s even t ie s . A c t iv i t ie sg r ew r a p id ly ,w i th 3 5 a s s ignmen t sb e tween 1 975 a nd 1 985 . U rban e xcava t ions u nde r UV a u sp ices i nt h e s ou th o f Sweden ( Scan ia ) c ommenced i n 1 974 , c en te r ing ma in ly o nÄ hu sa nd Y s tad ( 2 8a nd 2 2e xcava t ion sr e spec t ive ly ) .

N O.

A SSIGNMENTS

5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0 1 0 • .» .

8 9 2

E l 3

E i lW

T OWN/CITY C HURCH/CHURCHYARD/CONVENT C OUNTRYSIDE C ASTLE

F ig .5 . G raph s s how ing m ed ieva l a r cha eo log ica l e xcava t ion s d u r ing 1 968 -1985 ,b y t own s ,c hu r che s , r u r a la r ea sa nd c a s t le s .

8 9

S T AD 1AUSKÄR 2F A LSTE RBO 3H E LS INCB ORG 4L A ND SK R EN A 5L Y 13 1 3 3Y 6R CMEB Y 7S E M R ISHAMN 89 0 10 9S I VE .9 20 iG 1 0 T R E IIE BERG 1 V Ä 1 2 Y S TAD 1 3 A N US 1 4 iaG EB ACKA 1 5 L I CK P ING 1 6 L Ö DÖSE 1 7 N Y V P R EERG 1 8 S K ARA 1 9 V AR BERG Z O V I SBY 2 1 A ROMA 2 E N KG P ING 2 3 L IN se I te 2 4 t i ff i KÖP I N G 2 5 t e deP ING 2 6 S I GTUNA 2 7 S C /M INI 2 8 S T C00 11 1 1 2 9 S TR*2 4 4S 3 0 S t tE 1 t? IM 3 1 S t tER T >LI 3 2 L P FS 4 LA 3 V PO S TEN A 3 4 V Ä S TERA S 3 5 MEMO 3 6 G PMEB Y 3 7 Vel i 3 8 V A S T ER V IK a t «/ AR

1 9 68

1 9 69

1 9 70

1 9 7 1

1 9 72

1 9 73

1 9 74

1 9 75

1 9 76

1 9 77

1 9 78

1 9 79

1 9 80

1 9 8 1

1 9 82

1 9 83

1 9 84

1 9 85

T O TA LT / S TAD

1 1

1

1

1

4

1

1 2

1 1 4 1

3 2

1 3 1

1 4

1 1

3 4

2 3

4

3 1 1

1 1 6

1 3

2 3

1

3

3

6

2

3

2 1

4 _

2 _ 5

7

1 6 _

1 2 _ 3

4 2 3 J

1

5

4

2

1

2

4

1

_L

L

1

1

1 1 2

1

2 2 . 8 1 2 1 4 3 8 1

5

12 _

1

1

3 1 1

2 1 3

2 5 1 2

1 6

1 2 8 5 4 5 1 1 5 1 4 8 2 9 3 5 2 1 9 9 2 2 1 2 1 T O TAL T 4 37

1

1 1

1 9 1 8 7 2 3 1 4 1 9 3 1 4 4

1 1 1

1

6 _ 1 2

9 1

1 _ & _

_ 9_

1 0_

_ 2_ 1 1

1 1

1 2

1 3

2 1

_3

1 1

1

1

E L 1

1 3

1

6 _

1 2 2

1

1 1

8 _ 1

1 1 2

4 1

3 1

1

1

2 2

1

3

2

2 1

1 7 1

1 1 2 1 1

1 1 2

2 3 1

2 3

1 3 1 1

3

1 2

1

1 1

1 1

7

7

1 0

1 7

1 6

1 9

1 3

3 0

4 3

1 2 3

1 3 2

3 7

3 9

3 6

3 0

3 7

4 0

F ig . 6 . N o . o fa s s ignmen t si nt own sa nd c i t ie so fC en t ra la nd S ou the rn S wed en , 1 968 -1985 .

A sc an b ec l ea r ly s e en f r om F igu r e 5 ,m ed ieva lr ema in sp r edom ina ted ( 72% ) w he r e u rban a r chaeo logy i sc once rned . A t ac l o se rl ook i tc an b en o ted t h a t UV w a s a c t ive i n 3 8 d i f f e ren t t owns a nd c i t ie s o f C en t ra l a nd S ou the rn Sweden ( F ig . 6 ) . I n L ödöse , w he r e UV u rban a r chaeo logy b egan , 8 7 i n ve s t iga t ion sw e re c a r r ied o u tb e tween 1 968

9 0

a nd 1 973 . T he t own o fV i sby o n t h e i s land o fG o t land , w h ich h a s b een k ep t u nde r c on t inuou s o b serva t ion b y t h e m ed ieva l a r chaeo log is t s f r om RAGU , w a s mo re i n tens ive ly i nve s t iga ted b e tween 1 969 a nd 1 985 t h an a ny o the r m ed ieva l t own i n S weden ,w i th at a l ly o f1 28 e xcava t ion s . T he s t a t i s t ic ss hown i nF igu re s3 -6 r e f e rs o le ly t or e scue e xcava t ion sc onduc t ed b yt h e C BNA ,f r om 1 967 a nd o nwa rd s . An umbe ro fo t he ru rban e xcava t ion sh ave t a k en p l ace i nm any mo r et own sa nd i ns ome c a se st h ey h ave b een i np rog r e s se ve rs i nce t h et u rn o f t h e c en tury . T h i s i s t h e c a se , f o r e xamp le , o f t h e t owns o f Ma lmö , L und a nd S to ckho lm . R e search Cond i t ions B e f o re p ro ceed ing t oe xam ine t h ec ond i t ion sf o rr e sea r ch ,i th a st ob em ade c l ea rw ha t p r inc ip le s o f s ou rce c r i t ic i sm a r e t o b e a pp l ied t o t h e ma te r ia l y i e lded b y r e scue e xcava t ion si n Sweden .T he mo s ti mpo r tan td i f f e r ence b e tween r e scue e xcava t ion sa nd o t he re xcava t ion s -r e sea r ch e xcava t ion s -c once rn st h ec ho ice o fs i te o ro b jec ta nd t h e p ro spec t so fr e tu rn ing t ot h e s i te i no rde rt om ake s upp lemen ta ry i nve s t iga t ion s . I na p re -deve lopmen ts i tua t ion t h ec ho ice o fs i te i sg ove rned b ye x t r aneou sf a c to r sa nd t h e s i tua t ion n ece s s i ta te st h er emova lo ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr ema in s .T he e x t raneou sf a c to r s i n f luenc ing t h eo b jec to fe xcava t ion i n ap r e -deve lopmen ts i tua t ion a r ea sf olow s :

d evelopment p ressure

t ype o f d evelopment

a ntiquarian p olicy

o bject o f e xcavation

i nvestigation c osts

e xperiential i mpact o f t he r emains

i nclusion i n t he r egister a rchaeological

o f

r emains k ept by t he C entral B oard o f N ational Antiquities

T hese f a c to r s t o ge the rh ave ac r uc ia l b ea r ing o n t h e u se o ft h e m a te r ia l o r ig ina t ing f r om r e scue e xcava t ions , a nd o n i t s r ep r esen ta t iv i ty . T he t y pe o fd eve lopmen t , f o r e xamp le , d oe s ag r ea td ea l t od e te rm ine t h e t y pe so ft e r ra in w h ich c an b e d eve loped . T he t y pe o ft e r ra in c ho sen , i nt u rn , h e lp s t oc ho se w ha tc a tego r ie s o fa r chaeo log ica l

9 1

r ema ins w i l l b e a f f ec ted . A n t iqua r ian p o l icy h a s t e nded t od ive r t d eve lopmen t f r om a r chaeo log ica lr ema ins o fh igh e xpe r ien t ia lv a lue . H igh i nve s t iga t ion c o s t si sa no the r d e te r ren tf a c to r . Ag r ea td ea ld epend so nw he the rt h ea r chaeo log ica l s i te i sv i s ib le a nd r eg i s te red i nt h ea nc ien t monumen t sr eg i s te rk ep tb yt h e CBNA ,o r ,a sa na l te rna t ive ,o n w he the ri nv i s ib le r ema in sa r ek ep tu nde rc l o se l o ca ls u rve i l lance . A s ar e su l t o f o u r d e term ina t ion t o p re serve a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins w i th a n e xpe r ien t ia lv a lue a nd t h ed eve lope r ' sw i sh t ol im i tt h ec o s to fi nve s t iga t ion ,e x cava t ion s o fv i s ib le r ema ins w h ich w eh ave b een i n ap os i t ion t oa s se ss h ave b een r e s t r ic ted i n t e rm s o fb o th s i ze a nd ' q ua l i ty ' . T h is e f f ec t i s mo s t a ppa ren t i nt h e c a se o ft h e mo s t c ommon t ype o f r ema ins , v i z . g raves . A s r ega rd s t h e ' i nv i s ib le ' r ema ins , s uch a s b u r ia ls w i thou t ma rked c on s t ruc t ion sa bove g round o rv e ry l ow a nd f l a ts t one -se t t ings f r om t h eE a r ly I r on A ge a nd , a bove a l l , s e t t lemen tr ema ins o fv a r iou st ype ,w ea r en o t i nt h e s ame p o s i t ion t of end o f fd eve lopmen t , r e su l t ing i n al e s s r e s t r ic ted b u t mo re ' r andom ized ' s e lec t ion . T he n a tu re o fd eve lopmen ta nd t h et ype o fe xpend i tu re i nvo lved s t i l l make ag ood d ea l o fd i f f e rence . I nve s t iga t ion c o s t sa r e am a jo rc on s t ra in to ns e lec t ion d u r ing as e t t lemen t e xcava t ion , a nd s o w e a re n eve r i n t h e p os i t ion o f e xcava t ing a s e t t lemen t s i te c omp le te ly . I n s tead ,w ea lway s make d ow i th c e r ta in l im i ted a r ea so f as i te ,d epend ing o n t h e d eve lopmen ti nvo lved a nd o n t h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e s e t t lemen ts t ra ta . O fc ou r se , t h i sa pp l ie sb o th t op r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t sa sw el a st o med ieva ls i te si no u ro l dt own s . O the ri mpor tan t f a c to r s , w h ich a r e i n s t rumen ta l i nd ec id ing w he re t oe xcava te a nd h ow , i st h e c u r ren t s t a te o fk now ledge a nd o u r c ho ice o f me thod s a nd d ocumen ta ry s t anda rds ; f a c to r s t ha t a pp ly t o a l l k ind s o f i nves t iga t ions a nd n o t j u s t r e scue e xcava t ions . T he re i sa ni mpor tan td i f f e r ence h e re ,b e tween c eme tery e xcava t ion sa nd e xcava t ion s o fp reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t s . When r e scue e xcava t ions s t a r ted i nt h ee a r ly 1 960 's , t he re wa s a l ready a l ong s tand ing t r ad i t ion t o f a l l b ack o n a s r ega rd s t h e d ocumen ta t ion o f g raves a nd b u r ia l c on s t ruc t ion s . D u r ing t h is p e r iod UV q u ick ly wo rked o u td ocumen ta ry s t anda rd sf o rc eme te ry e xcava t ions ,w h ich h ave c hanged v e ry l i t t le s i nce t h en .T h i sh a sl e dt o au n i fo rm i ty o fd ocumen ta t ion w h ich e nab le su st om ake d i rec t c ompa ra t ive a na lyses o fg raves a nd b ur ia l d a ta b e tween d i f f e ren t r eg ions o f Sweden . Whe re s e t t lemen td a ta i sc oncer n ed ,t h e s i tua t ion i sq u i te d i f f e ren t when i tc omes t o r eg iona l c ompar isons , b ecause t he s t andards o f s e t t lemen t d ocumen ta t ion a nd e xcava t ion h ave v a r ied ag rea td ea l . Med ieva lu rban e xcava t ion s ,o nt h eo the rh and ,a r e mo re u n i fo rm i ni nve s t iga t ion m e thod s , mak ing t h em mo re c ompa rab le t h an p r eh is to r ic s e t t lemen t d a ta . T he o ppo r tun i ty o fc ompa r ison h e re r e semb le t h e o ne a pp ly ing t o p reh i s to r ic g raves , d ue p robab ly t ot h e m ed ieva l u rban e xcava t ion s e ncompas s ing a c ompa ra t ive ly l im i ted p e r iod o ft ime w i th ar a the ru n ifo rm ma te r ia l . A no the rr ea son , t hough , i st he f a c t t h a t t r a in ing i n med ieva l a r chaeo logy i sc onf ined t oj u s t o ne u n iver s i ty d epa r tmen t i n Sweden ( Un ive r s i ty o f L und ) , s o Sweden 's m ed ieva l a r chaeo log i s t sh ave h ad l e s sd i ff i cu l ty i nu n i t ing o nc ommon s t anda rd s . An i lum ina t ing e xamp le o ft h e i mpac to ft h e d eve lopmen t s i tua t ion o n e xcava t ion r e su l t sa nd ,a cco rd ing ly ,o nt h es t ruc tu re o fk nown a r chaeo log ica lr ema in si sp rov ided b yt h ep i c tu re o fI r on A ge s e t t lemen tp a t te rn si nt h eL ake Mä la ren r eg ion o b ta ined b y r e scue a r chaeo logy . C eme te ry e xcava t ion s i nt h i s a r ea i n c lude al a rge p e rcen tage o f i nves t iga t ions o f c eme ter ies c ons is t ing o f 3 0 g raves o r l e ss . S evera l o f t hese i n ve s t iga t ion sc omp r ise c omp le te c eme te r ie s ,a nd n o to n ly s e lec ted p a r t s .F u r the r ,m any o ft h e s ma l l c eme te r ies a r e d a ted t ot h e L a te I r on A ge ( a pprox . 5 00 -1000 A .D . ) , a nd t h e refo re t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a na ly s is t e nds t of o cus o n t h is p e r iod o fp r eh is tory . L og ica l ly s peak ing , t h e se c eme te r ie s mu s th ave b e longed t os ma l l u n i t so fs e t t lemen t , w ha tw ec a l lt y p ica ls i ng le -home s tead s e t t lemen t s ,a nd i ti sa bove a l ls e t t lemen tu n i t so f t h i s k ind t h a t h ave b een a f f ec ted b y r e scue e xcava t ions . Ma in ly o n t h e s t r eng th o f s t ud ie so fs ma l lu n i t so fs e t t lemen t ,i th a sb een s ugge s ted t h a tt h eg rave sa lways f o rm a

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c h rono log ica lc ha in ; i no t he rw o rd s , mo r eg rave si n ac eme te ry i nd ica te al onge rp e r iod o fb u ry ing . T h i s mode li ss of i rm ly e s tab l i shed i n Sweden t h a ti ti sb e l ieved p o ss ib le t o c a lcu la te t h es i ze a nd d u ra t ion o f ap a r t icu la rs e t t lemen to nt h es t reng th o fu nexcava ted g rave s . C ompa r ing t h e a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s w i th t h et o ta ln umbe ro fc eme te r ies i nt h e L ake Mä la ren d i s t r ic ta nd l o ok ing a tt h en umbe ro fg rave sp e rc eme te ry ,a sr e co rded i n t h ea nc ien t monumen t ss u rvey ,t h eg r ea td i f f e rence i sv e ry n o tab le . Mo s tc eme te r ie sa r e i nf a c t much t o ob ig t ob ep o s s ib le t oe xcava te c omp le te ly i nt h en o rma lr un o ft h ing s . E xam in ing t h ec h rono log ica ls p read o ft h eg rave si nt h ef ew l a rge c eme ter ie sw eh ave e xcava ted , w e f i nd t h a t t h ey d o n o t i nva r iab ly p re sen t ac h rono log ica l c ha in w i th a s t eady i n c rea se i nt h en umbe ro fg raves d ue t oa ni n c rea se o ft h ep opu la t ion . T he re a r e s eve ra li n s tance so fc on tempo rane i ty ,i . e .o ft h eu n i to fs e t t lemen tc ompr i s ing mo re t h an o ne h ome s tead o ro fs eve ra lh ome s tead su s ing t h es ame b u r ia lg round .T he p i c tu re i sa g ood d ea l mo re c omp l ica ted t han t h e d i scuss ion o f s e t t lemen t p a t tern i n t h e L ake Mä la ren r eg ion w ou ld s ugge s t .I no the rw o rd s ,t h ec eme te ry ma te r ia le xcava ted i nt h i s r eg ion o f Sweden i sn o t ar e p r e sen ta t ive s amp le o fc eme te r ie s -a tl e a s t ,n o ta sf a ra st h e L a te I r on Age i sc oncerned . T he se f i nd ing s c anno t s uppor t ag enera l iza t ion o f t h e s e t t lemen tp a t tern . T he ma in t h ing t h ey h ave t ot e l lu si st ha t t h ep r es su re o fc u r ren t d eve lopmen t h a s b een h eav ies t i n t h e se a r ea s , w he re mo s t o f t h e L a te I r on Age s e t t lemen t sa r e s i tua ted .T he f a c tt h a tt h e se p a r t icu la ra r ea sa r ea f f ec ted h a sb een d ue t o t h e n a tu re o f d eve lopmen t -p r ima r i ly r e s iden t ia l . A nd t h e p redom inance o f s ma l l c eme te r ie s , i nt u rn , i sd i rec t ly c onnec ted w i th i nve s t iga t ion c o s t sa nd w i th a n t iqua r ian a s se ssmen t . I nt h e g rea t ma jo r i ty o fc a ses , a sr ega rd sb o th p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t s i te s a nd u rban i n ve s t iga t ion s ,o n ly p a r t so ft h ea r ea s s c hedu led f o rd eve lopmen ta r ea c tua l ly e xcava ted . T he c ho ice o f s e c to r s f o r f i na l e xcava t ion d i rec t ly d epend s o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion c a r r ied o u t p rev ious ly . T ha t i nves t iga t ion may , f o r i n s tance , h ave c ompr ised a r ch ive r e sea r ch ( s tud ies o fm aps a nd w r i t ten d ocumen t s ) ,t e s te xcava t ions o r as pec ia l f i e ld s u rvey . O n t h is b a s is t h e a r chaeo log i s t t r ies t o p u t t h e s c ien t if i c q ues t ion s a sr e levan t ly a sp o s s ib le . O n t h e o the rh and , t h e re i sn o d i scu ss ion a tt h is s t age o ft h ed es i rab i l i ty o fp r e serv ing t h es e t t lemen ts i te -i nc on t ra s tt ot h ea n t iqua r ian h and l ing o fc eme te r ie s( c f . a bove ) . T he s e lec t ion o fo b jec t si sd i r ec t ly d ependen to nt h e c ur ren t s t a te o fk now ledge , a nd s o , g i ven ap oo r l e ve l o fp rev ious k now ledge , t h e re w i l l n ecessa r i ly b e f ew p r ior i t ies . H ere , h owever , ac onf l ic t i s g ene ra ted b y c on s ide ra t ions o fe xpen se , a nd t h e UV a r chaeo log i s t may b ef o rced t oa dop tp r io r i t ie s wh ich a r eo u to fk eep ing w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica lv a lue o ft h e s i te .T he refo re ,p r io r i t ie s a r e ac on s tan tt op ic o fd i scus s ion ,c oup led w i th c on s ide ra t ion so ft h en ew i n fo rma t ion y i e lded b yi nd iv idua l s i te s . I nt h el i gh to fp rev ious i n ve s t iga t ion s ,a ne f fo r th a sb een m ade ,n o tm e re ly t or e i te ra te ah o s t o f s im i la r o bserva t ion s b u t a l so t o a dd t o t h e p i c tu re b y g iv ing s ub sequen t i nve s t iga t ions a d ef ined f ocus . I n as i tua t ion w he re l i t t le w a s k nown a bou t h ouse s t ruc tu re sf r om ac e r ta in p e r iod ,i n ten s ive d ocumen ta t ion o fo ne w a sp e rhaps p ref e r red t ot h e e x tens ive d ocumen ta t ion o fa l l b u i ld ings i n ah omes tead /v i l lage c omp lex . O r a ga in , f o re xamp le , i fw ef i nd t h a to rgan ic ma te r ia l sa r ei na no u t s tand ing ly g ood s t a te o f p reserva t ion , w e c oncen t ra te o u r e f for t s o n s ecur ing t ha t p a r t icu la r k ind o f i n fo rma t ion . A no the re xamp le o fp r io r i t ie s o ccu r s a t as i te w i th t r aces o fs e t t lemen t s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h eh on A ge ,w i th t h eo ppo r tun i t ie st h is i mp l ie so fs t udy ing t h e u t i l iza t ion o f al im i ted a r ea o ver a l ong p er iod . E f for t s h ave o f ten b een made t o c on cen t ra te o nh i gh l igh t ing t h ed i s t inc t ive c ha rac te r i s t ic so fe ve ry s i ng le s e t t lem en ts i te . We h ave t ob ea ri nm ind t h a tt h er e su l t sw eh ave f r om i n ve s t iga ted s e t t lemen ts i te sa r e n o td i rec t ly c ompa rab le . I ti si mpo r tan tt on o t ice w hen t h e s i te w a si n ve s t iga ted a nd t o j udge w ha tp r io r i t ie sw e re m ade a tt h a tt ime .T h i sm ean st h a tt h ef i e ld a r chaeo log is ti si n t h eb es tp o s i t ion t oi n te rp re tt h em a te r ia l ,k now ing a sh eo rs he d oe st h ec i r cum s tance s i nw h ich i tc ame i n to l i gh t .

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T he p os s ib i l i t ie st oc a r ry o u tr e sea r ch i sa l so d ependen to nt h ee xcava t ion r e su l t sb e ing p rac t ica l ly a va i lab le .F ina lr e po r t sh ave y e tt ob ec omp i led o nn om inaly a bou th a l fo fa l l t h e UV i nves t iga t ions . I t may b e w o r th w h i le t a k ing a c lose r l ook a t t h e t e rm ' a va i lab i l i ty ' .I st h e ma te r ia li n af i ts t a te f o rp roce s s ing a nd f o ri n teg ra t ion w i th r e sea r ch a nd /o r w i th ac on tex t w he re i tn eed s t ob e r eo rgan ized f o r t h e g ene ra l p ub l ic? T he a va i lab i l i ty o ft h er e scue -a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia lr e f e r red t oi nt h i sa r t ic le v a r ie s ag r ea t d ea l ,d ue p r ima r i ly n o tt o ma te r ia lb e ing u n r epo r ted b u tt o ma te r ia l sb e ing d i f f e r en ta nd r equ i r ing d i f f e r en tt r ea tmen ta tt h er epo r ts t age .T he r ei s ab ig a nd i mpor tan td i f f e rence b e tween b ur ia l a nd s e t t lemen t d a ta , i n c lud ing t h e med ieva l /u rban ma te r ia ls ; t h e d i f f e r ence i so ne o fd o cumen ta ry s t anda rd s . A s ar e su l to ft h eu n ifo rm s t anda rd so fd ocumen ta t ion e s tab l i shed a ta ne a r ly s t age f o r g r ave c on s t ruc t ion s ,s t ruc tu ra ld e sc r ip t ion sc on ta in ing a ld a ta c once rn ing t h ei nd iv idua l g rave a r e , a s ama t te ro fr ou t ine ,a l ready c omp i led a tt h ef i e ld -wo rk s t age . A l so a tt h is s t age , t h eg rave i sd ocumen ted b yd raw ing p lan sa nd s e c t ions a nd b yp ho tog raphy . A s ag ene ra lr u le , f i nd sa r ec a ta logued a nd c onse rved i nc l o se c on junc t ion w i th f i e ld w o rk . T he a c tua l c omp i la t ion o f ar epo r t o n ac e me te ry i nves t iga t ion i nvo lves c o l la t ing , e va lua t ing a nd e d i t ing t h e se b a s ic d a ta .E va lua t ion o f ten e n ta i l sd e sc r ib ing t h eb u r ia ls i te a nd p u t t ing s t ruc tu re s a nd a r tef ac t s i nc on tex t ( e .g . c h rono log ica l ly , s pa t ia l ly o re ven c u l tu raly ) . N ece s sa ry b a s ic d a ta ,e . g . s t ruc tu ra ld e scr ip t ions ,h oweve r , a r ea va i lab le f o r a na ly s i st h rough t h ef i e ld m a te r ia li nt h ea r ch ive s ,e ven i ft h ew r i t ten r e po r th a sn o ty e t b een p ub l i shed . T he mos t i mpor tan t b a s ic m a ter ia l f o r c e me te ry r e sea rch c ompr i se s c a refu l ly c omp i led s t ruc tura l d e scr ip t ions , c omp le te w i th p ho tog raphs a nd d raw ings , u n ifo rm ly d ocumen ted a r tefac t s a nd a na lyses o f t h e o s teo log ica l ma te r ia l . T he a va i lab i l i ty o ft h i s ma te r ia l ,o fc ou r se ,i sf u r the re nhanced b yi t sp re sen ta t ion i nr epor t f o rm ,b u tt h i si sn o ta b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry f o rr e sea r ch p u rpo se s . Ad i f f e ren ts i tua t ion a pp l ie st o as e t t lemen ti n ve s t iga t ion , whe re a l lt h et ime s e lec t ion s a r e made a nd p r ior i t ies d ef ined a nd whe re t he re a r e n o u n iform s t anda rds o f d ocumen ta t ion .T h i sc r ea te sa ne n t i re ly d i f f e ren tn eed f o r ar epo r ti nw h ich t of o l low u p f i e ld e va lua t ion sa nd d e scr ibe t h em e thod a dop ted . D e sc r ip t ion so fi n d iv idua ls t ruc tu re s h ave t ob ep l aced i n aw ide rc on tex ti no rde rt ob ep o s s ib le t oe va lua te . L a rge q uan t i t ie s o f f i nds h ave t ob e d e scr ibed a nd r e la ted t ot h e s t ruc ture s . I n c on t ras t t oc eme te ry ma ter ia l , t h e refo re , s e t t lemen tm a te r ia l t e nd st ob ed i f f icu l tt ou se f o rf u r the rr e sea r ch u n le ss i th a sb een p ub l ished i nt h ef o rm o f ar epo r t . C onsequen t ly , t h ed i f f icu l ty t ou se u n repo r ted p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t d a ta may b e mo re u rgen t t o p ub l ish t han t h e u n repo r ted c eme te ry m a te r ia l . As pec ia lp rob lem w i th t h es e t t lemen tm a te r ia li st h el a rge v o lume o fu nproce s sed f i nd s . I n t h e c a se o ft h e c eme te ry ma te r ia l , e spec ia l ly f r om e a r l ie re xcava t ions ,c e r ta in b a s ic d a ta e s sen t ia lf o ra na ly t ica lp u rpo ses a r es t i l ll a ck ing s i nce , i n t h e ma jo r i ty o f c a ses , t he b one ma te r ia l h a s n o t y e t b een o s teo log ica l ly a na lysed . T hese d i f f e rences a nd p rob lems n eed t o b e h igh l igh ted a nd a n ew d i scuss ion u nde r taken o ft h ea pp ropr ia te c on tex to f ar epo r to nt h ed i f f e ren tt ype so f ma ter ia l ,t h e b a s ic d a ta w h ich n eed t ob ei n c luded i no rde rt o make t h e ma te r ia la va i lab le f o rf u r the r a na lys is . We b e l ieve t h a ti ti si mpo r tan tt od i scu s st h ep r inc ip le so fp ub l ish ing ,i . e . h ow a nd a t w ha t l e ve l a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i st ob e p re sen ted i nt h e f u tu re , a nd w he the r w e c an d ef ine ac ommon b a s ic l e ve lo rn o t . As im i la rd i scu s s ion t ook p l ace i nB r i ta in a bou tt e n y ea r sa go ( P r inc ip le so fP ub l ica t ion i nR e scue A r chaeo logy , 1 975 ) . A no the ri mpo r tan tp re requ is i te o fr e sea rch i st h ee x is tence o fr e sea rch i n te re s ti nt h e o pe ra t iona l f i e ld . T he r eg iona lo f f ices , a sm en t ioned a bove , h ave as t a f fw h ich h ave a g ood p r imary k now ledge o f t h e e xcava ted ma ter ia l f r om t h e i r p a r t icu la r r eg ion . A rchaeo log ica li nves t iga t ion si nt h ef i e ld i nvo lve s ac on s tan ts e r ie so fe va lua t ion sa nd mak ing p r io r i t ie s w h ich g i ve t h e a r chaeo log i s t i nvo lved ag ood m e thodo log ica l a nd a na ly t ica lt r a in ing . I nt h eo ve ra l lr e sea r ch p roce s sw en eed a ni n te rac t ion o ft h eo re t ica l

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t h ink ing a nd p rac t ica l a dap t ions a nd w e t h ink t h a t UV c an g row i n to ag ood b a s is f o r r e sea rch .T oday ag r ea tn umbe ro ff i e ld a r chaeo log i s t sa r ea l so t i ed t ot h ea r chaeo log ica l u n ive r s i ty d epa r tmen t sa sr e sea r ch s t uden t s . Ac l o se c on tac tb e tween t h e CBNA a nd t h e u n ive r s i ty d epa r tmen t s i so f u tmos t i mpo r tance i n o rde r t o g e t t h e mo s t f r u i tfu l l c omb ina t ion o ft h eo ry a nd p ra c t ice . R esearch R equ ire men ts T he p u rpo se o ft h ep rog ramme s t udy i st od i scus st h er e sea rch p o ten t ia lo ft h e ma te r ia l a l ready c o l lec ted a nd t h ew ay i nw h ich c on t inu ing a c t iv i t ie sc an b eo rgan ized . I nb o th c a se s ,a sw es e ei t ,w eh ave t o make p re sen t -day p rob lem so u rp o in to fd epa r tu re b efo re d i scus s ing wh ich m a te r ia l s / inve s t iga t ion sc an b eu sed i nf o rmu la t ing n ew k now ledge . T he re i s ar e cu r ren tn eed o nt h ep a r to fa r cha eo log i s t st ov en tu re b eyond t h ei nd iv idua l e xcava t ion o b jec t . T he e va lu t ion a nd e xp lana t ion o f c h rono log ica l a nd s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ips c a l ls f o rc ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s . We w i sh t od raw a t ten t ion t ot h i sr e sea r ch i n te re s t , a l though i th a sl i t t le p ro spec to fd eve lop ing w i th in UV ' sp re sen tr ou t ine s . T he e x ten s ive f l in t ma ter ia l so f We s tS weden a nd t h eq ua r tz a nd c e ram ic ma te r ia ls o f e a s ter nC en t ra l Sweden h ave ag r ea ti n fo rma t ion p o ten t ia l .T he s ame g o e sf o rb one sa nd l e a the r whe re t h e med ieva l p e r iod i s c once rned . I n t h e c on tex t o f i nd iv idua l d eve lopmen tp ro jec t s ,e f fo r t sa r e made t od e sc r ibe , s o r ta nd e va lua te t h ef i nd s .B u tt h e a na lyse sw e a r ea b le t ou nde r take a tt h ed eve lopmen t s i te n eed t ob e s upp lemen ted b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fc h rono log ica l ly a nd f unc t iona l ly r e levan t c r i te r ia o f mo re g ene ra l v a l id i ty . T h is i s an eces sa ry f ounda t ion o fc on t inu ing s t ud ie s . T he g enera lc omp lexe s a nd a spec t so np r eh i s to r ic s o c ie ty w ew i sh t os t udy a r ea sf olow s : 1 . Ad ju s tmen tt oa nd i mpac to nt h el a nd scape 2 .P roduc t ion -c on sump t ion -d i s t r ibu t ion 3 .S oc ia ls t ra t if i ca t ion a nd i d eo log ica ls upe r s t ruc tu re 1 .S tud ie so fe a r ly h un t ing s i te sh ave ,f o re xamp le ,a rou sed i n te re s ti nf ood s t ra teg ie s . I n o rde r f o r f r esh k now ledge t o b e f o rmu la ted c oncer n ing r e sou rce u t i l isa t ion , t h e e xcava t ion sn eed t ob es upp lemen ted b y al a nd scape r e con s t ruc t ion i n c lud ing s t ud ie so f s ho re l ine movemen t s , t h ed eve lopmen to fc l ima te a nd v ege ta t ion , a na ly se s o fa n ima l b ones a nd mac ro f o s s i l s , a nd c h rono log ica l a nd f unc t iona l i n terp r e ta t ions o fd we l l ing s i te sa nd s t one m a te r ia l s . Mo re l i gh ti sn eeded o n t h e t r ans i t ion b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic a nd t h e N eo l i th ic . I n We s t Sweden t h e re i sp a leobo tan ica l e v idence f o r c u l t iva t ion a nd /o r c a t t le h e rd ing d u r ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic , a tt h e s ame t ime a s a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l i sl a ck ing . S eve ra li nve s t iga t ions i ne a s te rn C en tra l Sweden d ur ing t h e 1 970 ' sy i e lded n ew s ou r ce ma te r ia l wh ich c an s hed l i gh t o n t he e a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ies i n t h is r eg ion . Q ues t ions u rgen t ly r equ i r ing c on s ide ra t ion i n c lude t h ef o l low ing : F rom wh ich p e r iod c an e l emen t so fa n a g ra r ian e conomy b ec onf i rmed? Doe st h eL a te Meso l i th ic a l ready i n c lude g roup s t ruc tu re sw h ich d eve loped i n to d i f f e ren tc u l tu re si nt h eN eo l i th ic ,o ra r e w ed ea l ing w i th c omp le te ly d i f f e ren te t hn ic g roups d ur ing t h i sl a te rp ha se? Wha ti st h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e F unne l B eake r a nd P i t ted Wa re ' c u l tu res '? A re t h ey t wo d i s t inc t ' c u l tu res ' o r me re ly r ef lec t ions o fd i f f e ren t f unc t iona l /econom ic p henomena w i th in o ne a nd t h e s ame ' c u l tu re '? I ts hou ld b ep o s s ib le t oe l uc ida te c u l tu ra lq ue s t ion s b y c o l la t ing a nd a na ly s ing d i f f e ren td we l l ing s i te s t ruc tu re s w i th r e spec t t ol o ca t ion , f unc t ion ,r aw ma te r ia lu t i l iza t ion ,i mp lemen tt e chno logy a nd d i f f e rence s / s im i la r i t ie si n manuf ac tu r ing t r ad i t ion s . T he l o ca t ion , f unc t ion a nd r aw ma te r ia l u t i l iza t ion o f dwe l l ing s i tes a r e a l so p ivo ta l i s sues when a na lys ing B ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge s e t t lemen t s i tes . T he p ro spec t s o f

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s t udy ing c omp le te s e t t lemen t e nv i ronmen t s h ave g rown a pp rec iab ly i nr e cen t y ea r s ( du r ing t h e 1 980 's ) a s dwe l l ing s i te i nves t iga t ions h ave g rown more a nd more c omp rehen s ive .T he p e r iod sb e s tr ep re sen ted i nt h e ma t er ia li nve s t iga ted a r et h eM idd le a nd L a te B ronze A ge s ,a nd t h eE a r ly I r on A ge ,u pt oc .5 00 A .D . We n ow d i spo se o fa r e la t ive ly c omp rehen s ive ma te r ia lf o rt h e se p e r iod s , a bove a l lf r om t h eL ake Mä la ren r eg ion a nd S can ia ,b u ta l so i n c lud ing Wes t Sweden . S ome o ft h er e levan tq ue s t ions i n t h is c on tex t a r e : H ow l a rge w a s t h e a r ea o ft h e s e t t lemen t s i te p e re conom ic u n i t? O f wha tt ype w a s t h e b a s ic s ub s i s tence e conomy? Wa s t h e r e a ny f o rm o fs pec ia l iza t ion , r e su l t ing i ns u rp lu s p roduc t ion? I fs o , w ho a pp ropr ia ted t h e s u rp lu s o ft h ec ommuna l p roduc t ion? H ow w e re t h ec ommun i t ie so rgan ized s oc ia l ly? D id c h iefdom sc ome i n to b e ing? A t amo re d e ta i led l e ve l ,w ew an tt of i nd o u tw ha tt h es e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re l ooked l i ke ( t he n umbe r o fc on tempo raneou s h ou ses , t ype s o fh ouse , h ou se f unc t ions , e t c . ) a nd w ha tt h ef i nd sa nd e cof ac tm a t e r ia l sh ave t ot e l lu sa bou tv a r ia t ion si nt h ee conom ic b a se . T he t r end i nf avou ro fl a rge rd we l l ing s i te i nves t iga t ions h a s p roceeded c on jo in t ly w i th a b roaden ing o f c o -ope ra t ion b e tween a r chaeo log is t s , p a leo -a rchaeo log is t s , g eo log is t s a nd h uman g eog raphe r s . D esp i te t h e s po rad ic n a tu re o ft h a tc o -ope ra t ion , a d i a logue , r e la t ing t ot h o se i nve s t iga t ions , i si np rog re ss b e tween n a tu ra l s c ience s a nd a r chaeo logy . F o r e xamp le , a tt h e D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy i n Umeä t h ere i sa p a leo -eco log ica l /pa leo -bo tan ica l l a bo ra tory a nd a n e xpe r imen t f a rm , w o rk ing s o le ly w i th a na lyse so fp reh i s to r ic c ond i t ion s [ c f .t h ep ape ro fR oge rE nge lma rk i nt h i sv o lume ] . T he c omb ined r e su l t s o ft h e v a r iou s i nve s t iga t ion s p o in t t og ood o ppor tun i t ies f o r s t udy ing t h ee co log ica le nv i ronmen td ur ing d i f f e ren tp ha se so ft h eB ronze A ge a nd t h e E a r ly I r on A ge ,j u s ta s ,w he r ec er ta in r eg ion sa r ec once rned ,i ti sp o s s ib le t or e con s t ruc t man 's u t i l iza t ion o ft h el a nd scape f r om N eo l i th ic t ime sd own t ot h ep resen td ay ,i . e . t o t r ace t h ee vo lu t ion o ft h em an -made l a nd scape . 2 . T he med ieva l ma ter ia l i s mo re c lose ly l i nked w i th q ues t ions o f p roduc t ion , c on sump t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion ,c ompa red t ot h ep r eh i s to r ic dwe l l ing s i te d a ta . R e sea rch h e re n eed sf o cu so nt h em a te r ia lc i r cum s tance so ft h em ed ieva lt own a nd i t sr e la t ion sh ip w i th i t sh in te r land . O ne p rob lem w e l lw o r th s t udy ing ,f o re xamp le ,c once rn st h ef a c to r s t r igge r ing o f ft h ef o rma t ion o fa nu rban c ommun i ty i nt h ee a r ly m ed ieva lp er iod . T h i s r e sea rch r ef lec t s t h e d i scu s s ion w h ich h a s b een g o ing o n i nr e cen t y ea r s b e tween Swed ish a nd D an ish med ieva l a r chaeo log is t s a nd wh ich emana tes f r om t he i n te rp re ta t ion o fe xcava t ions o ft h eD an i sh p rov inc ia lt own s( Landby i nD an ish ) . I n Sweden t oo , a s ar e su l to fl a rge s ca le g a sp ipe l ine a nd mo to rway p ro jec t s , t h e re h ave b een s eve ra l i nve s t iga t ions o fd we l l ing s i te s i nr u ra l a r ea s , d a t ing b ack t ot h e V ik ing / ea r ly m ed ieva lp e r iod . A l l r e sea rch b a sed o n d we l l ing s i te d a ta , whe the rp reh is to r ic o r med ieva l , h as t h e f o l low ing p o in t s i nc ommon : C o l la t ions o f( 1 ) p rev iou s i nve s t iga t ions ( a nd s ca t te red f i nds ) , ( 2 ) p rev ious a na lyses o f e cofac t m a te r ia l , a nd ( 3 ) p rev ious T L a nd C 14 -da t ings . An eed t of i nd o u t mo re a bou tt h e f unc t ion a nd d a t ing o f( 4 ) t h e l a rge a nd mos t c ommon ly o ccur r ing f i nd m a te r ia ls , s uch a s f l in t , q ua r tz , p o t te ry ,b one a nd l e a the r ,a nd ( 5 )d we l l ing s t ruc tu re s ( e spec ia l ly h ou se t y pe s ) . 3 .G raves a r el ooked u pon a so u rp r inc ipa l s ou rce m a te r ia l sf o rd e scr ib ing t h e s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion o f v a r ious p reh is to r ic c ommun i t ies a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu res o f med ieva l t owns . Ap r ima ry n ece s s i ty i st os t ruc tu re t h eg r ave ma te r ia lf r om d i f f e ren tp e r iod sa cco rd ing t oc on s t ruc t iona l -mo rpho log ica la spec t sa nd a spec t so fi n ter na lb u r ia lp rac t ice s ,i no rde r t o i mprove o ur f ounda t ion f o r d a t ing d i f f e ren t t ype s o f g rave s a nd t o e nab le u s t o d e sc r ibe s oc ia ls t ra t if ica t ion a nd i d eo log ica l / re l ig iou sc hange si np reh is to r ic s o c ie ty . F o r al o ng t ime r e sea r ch o ng r ave sa nd b u r ia ld a ta i nS weden h a sb een d om ina t ed b ya p a leo -demog raph ic a pp roach -a s am ean so fc ha r t ing t h e s i ze a nd e x ten to fs e t t lemen t .

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D ur ing t h e 1 980 's an eed f o r amo re ' h o l i s t ic 'p e r spec t ive h a s eme rged . T he u n ifo rm d ocumen ta t ion o ft h eg r aves h a si nf a c ty i e lded ah o s to fi n fo rma t ion o n i d eo log ica l / re l ig iou sa nd s oc ia lp rac t ice s -q uan t i ta t ive i n fo rma t ion wh ich i ss t o red b u t s t i l ln o tf u l ly u sed i nr e sea r ch . An a na ly s i s o ft h e g rave ma te r ia l s hou ld e ncompa ss t h e f o l low ing : ( 1 ) o s teo log ica l a na ly s i s ; ( 2 ) f unc t iona l a na ly s is o f t h e o r ig ina l p rac t ica l u se o f o b jec t s a nd o the r e l emen t s ; ( 3 )C 14 a na ly s i s . T he c a rd ina la im o ft h is k ind o fp roce s s ing i st ou nde r s tand t h ec omp lex f unc t ion o f t h e g rave i n i t s i deo log ica l a nd s y mbo l ic c on tex t a nd i t s f unc t ion a s as oc ia l man if e s ta t ion , a sw e l l a sr e la t ing t h e se t h ing s t oo ur a ccep ted v iew o ft h e o b jec ts a s d a t ing i n s t rumen t sa n so ft h ec h rono logy o fg rave d e s ign . Al im i ted a na lys is o ft h i sk ind h a sr e cen t ly b een p e r fo rmed o nt h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod g raves o ft h e L ake Mä la ren r eg ion . T h is s t udy h as s hown t h e i mpo r tance o fl i nk ing s oc ia ls t ruc tu re sa si n f e r red f r om g r ave d e s ign w i th r e l ig iou sb e l ief s ,a nd t h ee x i s tence o f ar e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e s oc ia l p os i t ion o ft h e d ead a nd t h e c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e g rave [ c f .t h ep ape ro fA gne ta B enne t ti nt h i sv o lume ] . T he a im , r ega rd ing b o th d we l l ing s i te s a nd g rave s , i st oc omp i le ab a s ic emp i r ica l r eg i s te r ,p u t t ing e cof ac t s ,a r tef ac t s ,b u i ld ing t y pe sa nd gave e l emen t s ,f o re xamp le ,i na f unc t iona l a nd c h rono log ica lp er spec t ive . S yn the ses a nd ma te r ia la na ly se so ft h is k ind a r ee s sen t ia lb e fo re w ec an p roceed t od e sc r ibe a nd e xp la in p roce sse so fc hange . F o rp rac t ica lr ea son s , ad i s t inc t ion h a sb een made i nt h i sa ccoun tb e tween s e t t lemen t a nd g rave ma te r ia l s ,b u ts uch ad i s t inc t ion i si r re levan tt ot h eg ene ra l s e t so fi s sue sw e w ish t o s t udy . I n s tead , w here t ho se s e t s o fi s sues a r e c oncerned , i ti so f t h e u tmos t i mpo r tance t h a tw et r yt of o rge t h er e su l t so fc eme te ry a nd d we l l ing s i te i nve s t iga t ions i n to ah ol i s t ic v i ew o fp reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty .

Envo i A s ar e su l to fi t si nve s t iga t ion st h e UV o rgan iza t ion o ft h e CBNA h a sc omp i led al a rge c o rpu so fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l sw h ich c an b eu sed f o ra na lyse so fr eg iona la nd l o ca l v a r ia t ion sa nd s oc ie ta lc hange si n al o ng te rm p e r spec t ive .T he d ive r s i ty o ft h e ma te r ia l make si tp o s s ib le t ou nde r take a ny th ing f r om g ene ra li n ve s t iga t ion st om ic ro a na lyse so f i n d iv idua ls i te s . T he r e spon s ib i l i ty t op roduce n ew k now ledge a bou tp reh i s tory f r om t h is e normou s d a ta b a se l i e so n t h ee n t i re a r chaeo log ica l s oc ie ty , b u t i no u ro p in ion t h e CBNA w i l l h ave t oa s sume t h el a rge s ts ha re o fr e spons ib i l i ty ,f a r mo re e xp l ic i t ly t h an h i the r to , b y e nab l ing a r chaeo log i s t s t oc a r ry o u tr e sea rch d u r ing r egu la r w o rk ing h ou r s a nd t hu s e n sur ing ac on t inous b u i ld -up o f t h e k now ledge w i th in UV . C ons ider ing t ha t UV a ccoun t s f o rt h e l a rges tg row th o fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta i n Sweden , i ts hou ld b e n a tur a l f o rr e sea rch t of o rm a ni n teg ra lp a r to fi t sa c t iv i t ie s . O u rp u rpo se h e re h a sb een t op r e sen ts ome i d ea sc oncer n ing r e sea r ch i n to t h em a te r ia l r e su l t ing f r om r e scue a r chaeo logy . I na dd i t ion t ot h e o ngo ing b u i ld -up o fk now ledge w i th in UV ,w eb e l ieve t h a tt h e re i sa l so ag r ea tn eed f o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to fe x te rna l ly f unded p ro jec t st r anscend ing r eg iona la nd i n s t i tu t iona lb ounda r ie s . C lo se rc o -opera t ion b e tween a r chaeo log is t s w i th a k now ledge o f d i f fe ren t s ource ma te r ia ls a nd t h e d eve lopmen ta nd i n ten s if ica t ion o fc o -ope ra t ion w i th n a tu ra ls c ien t i s t sa r ea l so m a t te r s o fc ommon c oncer n . C o -ope ra t ion b e tween a r chaeo log i s t sa nd n a tu ra ls c ien t is t sh a se x i s ted s po rad ica l ly f o r al o ng t ime . A rchaeo log i s t s h ave r e ad i ly u t i l ized s c ien t if ic r e su l t si no rde rt od escr ibe man 's u t i l iza t ion o f t h e l a ndscape , a nd t h ey h ave r ega rded t h e n a tura l s c iense s a s a nc i l lary d i s ip l ines . T he re h a s b een a g row ing r ea l iza t ion o f t he v a lue o f j o in t

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d i scuss ions c once rn ing t h e d ef in i t ion o f p rob lems a nd t h e p ro spec t s o f f i nd ing s o lu t ions . We mu s t t r y t oc o -o rd ina te a r chaeo log ica l a nd s c ien t if ic i nve s t iga t ions , s o t h a te ach w i l l h ave a no ppo r tun i ty o fi n f luenc ing t h eo the r . I nt h i sw ay t h e re c an b e a c on t inuous f eedback o f a na ly t ica l f i nd ings i n to t h e c onduc t o f t he e xcava t ion . C o -ope ra t ion o f t h is k ind s hou ld a l so b e d eve loped mo re a nd mo re w i th o the r s pec ia l is t s , e . g . ,h uman g eog raphe r s a nd h i s to r ians . O u rp u rpo se w i th t h i sp ape rh a sb een t op re sen ts ome i d ea sc once rn ing r e sea r ch i n to t h e ma te r ia l r e su l t ing f r om r e scue a r chaeo logy . T he i n s igh t s w h ich w e h ave g a ined f r om o u r wo rk o nt h ep rog ramme s t udy ,b r ief ly p re sen ted a nd d i scus sed a bove ,u nde r l ine t h e f o l low ing n eed s : •T he CBNA mu s ta s sume r e sea r ch r e spon s ib i l i t ie s •R esea rch a c t iv i t ies mus t b e i n teg ra ted a nd t h ema t ic r e sea rch p rog rammes f o rmu la ted •P rocedu re s o fb o th i n t ra - a nd i n terd i sc ip l ina ry c o -opera t ion s hou ld b ef u r the r d eve loped •P ub l i sh ing p r inc ip les s hou ld b ed i scu ssed i no rde rt of o rmu la te ac er ta in b a s ic s t anda rd •Ma te r ia lr e su l t ing f r om r e scue e xcava t ion s s hou ld b ec on t inuou s ly c omp i led a nd e va lua ted •T he f ounda t ion so fc on t inu ing a n t iqua r ian e va lua t ions s hou ld b ed i scu s sed

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A pproach e st oS wed i sh P reh i s to ry ,B .A .R . , O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p .9 9 -103 .

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF GOTLAND , SWEDEN S e t t lemen t C on t inu i ty , S ource C r i t ic ism , a nd s ome R esearch P rob lems By Anders C ar lsson *

G o t land i sw e l lk nown t om any a r cha eo log i s t s f o ri t sr i ch s ou r ce m a te r ia lf r om a lmo s t e v e ry p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod .E sp ec ia l ly w o r th m en t ion ing a r et h es e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic , t h e c a i rn s a nd s h ip s e t t ing s f r om t h e B ronze Age , t h e e x ten s ive c eme te r ie sa nd t h er i ng f o r t sf r om t h eE a r ly I r on Age , t h es e t t lemen t so ft h es o -ca l led " s tone f ounda t ion t ype " w i th i t s f i e ld b ounda r ie s a nd t h e R oman i mpor t s f r om t h e M idd le I r on Age , a nd t h e s i lve rh oa rd s a nd t h e i mmen se a r t if a c t ma te r ia l f r om t h e V ik ing A g e . T he f i r s tg roup so fp eop le t h a td u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod e s tab l i shed t h em se lve so n G o t land a l ready h ad s ev e ra lt h ou sand y ea r so fc u l tu ra ld ev e lopmen tb eh ind t h em . When w e m ee t t h e se p eop le a bou t 5 , 000 B .C . t h rough s e t t lemen t s a nd b ur ia l g round s , w e r e cogn ize i nhuma t ion b u r ia l sw ide rf l a tg round ,p o s s ib ly c eme te r ie so ft h es ame k i nd a s S ka teho lm i nS can ia , b u ts of a rt h eo ccu r r ence sa r es po rad ic . When t h es t ruc tu r eo ft h e c eme te r ie sa r eb e t te rk nown ,t h ey w i l ly i e ld v a luab le i n f o rma t ion a bou tg roup s i ze , m a in s e t t lemen t s i te s , f am i ly s t ruc tu re a nd s o f o r th . T he c on tac t s w i th o the r a r ea s , f o r e xamp le s ou the rn S cand inav ia , c an a l so b e f u r the ri nve s t iga ted . A t t h e momen t , t h e k nown b u r ia l so nG o t land a r er e s t r ic ted t ot h en or th -we s ter np a r t s ,w h ich o fc ou r se i s j u s t ac o inc idence . I ti sa l so u nce r ta in whe the rw ea r ed ea l ing w i th o ne o rs ever a lt y pe s o fc eme ter ie s a nd h ow t h ey a r e d i s tr ibu ted i nt ime . T he s e t t lemen t s a r e s uppo sed ly s i tua ted a l ong t h ef o rme rc o a s t s ,b u ti ti sn ece s sa ry t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween , f o ri n s tance , b a se c amp sa nd s pec ia lp u rpo se c amp s .T he s e a r ch f o rs i te si nt h ei n te r io ri si mpo r tan t i nt h i sc on tex t .T hey c an p robab ly b ef ound t h rough a na na ly s i so ft h ef i nd ing s po t sf o r p eck ed a x e s , wh ich a r ea bundan te nough . B u r ia l sf r om t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic s e em t ob ec omp le te ly l a ck ing .T he s e a r ch f o rt h em i se spec ia l ly i mpo r tan ti nv i ew o ft h ef a c tt h a ti ti sn ow t h a tt h ei n t roduc t ion o fa na tl e a s t p a r t ly a g ra r ian e conomy i st a k ing p l ace ,a l though h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd g a the r ing w e r e p robab ly s t i l l d om inan t . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t E a r ly N eo l i th ic g rave s c an b e i d en t if ied t h rough r e -exam ina t ion o ft h ef i nd ing s po t sf o rp o lygona lb a t t le a xe sa nd c e r ta in t y pe s o ft h in -bu t ted a xe s . S e t t lemen t sw h ich c an b ea t t r ibu ted t ot h eF unne lB eake rC u l tu re a r ek nown i n af ew c a se s ,m a in ly f r om t h ei n land a r ea s . I no rde rt of a l s ify t h ev i ew h e ld b y many a r chaeo log i s t st h a t t h e F unne l B eak e rC u l tu r ew e r ei mm ig ran t s , o ne s hou ld l o ok f o rc on t inu i ty b a ck t ot h e Me so l i th ic o nt h e se s e t t lemen t s . S uch ac on t inu i ty d oe s s e em t oe x i s t .

* Depa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fS t o ckho lm 9 9

T he q ue s t ion o fc on t inu i ty f r om t h e Me so l i th ic o nwa rd i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea s i sa l so i mpo r tan t ,a sw e l la st h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween c oa s ta la nd i n land s e t t lemen t s . Ac l ea ru nde r s tand ing o ft h er o le p layed b yc e ram ic si sv i ta l i nc onnec t ion w i th t h is . R i tua l d epo ts o fl a rge t h in -bu t ted f l in t a xes , a nd s ome t ime s a l so o fc e ram ic v e s se ls , a dd s t ot h ep i c tu r e o ft h ese h un te r /ga the rer sw i th t h e i rs ub s id ia ry a g rar ian e conomy . T he E u ropean m ega l i th ic t r ad i t ion h a s s o f a rp roduced o ne s i ng le k nown o f f shoo t o n t h ew e s ter nc oa s to fG o t land , ad y s s( Tof ta p a r i sh ) . T h is r a ise s q ue s t ion sa bou tw hy i t i ss i tua ted a tt h a tp rec i se s po t ,a nd w hy t h em ega l i th ic t r ad i t ion n eve rd eve loped o nt h e i s land . T here a r en ume rou sb ur ia ls f r om t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re s i te s a tt h e c oa s ts . How s hou ld o ne i n terp re t t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween b u r ia lg round a nd s e t t lemen t? A re t h eg rave ss i tua ted w i th in t h ea c tua l s e t t lemen t s o r h ave t h ey b een p laced o u t s ide t h e s e t t led a rea a nd l a ter b ecome c overed b y t he s e t t lemen t s when t h ey moved? I n t h e i n ter ior o fG o t land g rave s f r om t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p er iod a r et o ta l ly m i s s ing . Mo s tp robab ly ,t h is p rob lem i si d en t ica lw i th t h a t o ft h el a ck o fg rave sf r om t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic ,t h a ti s , t h ey d oe x i s t b u ta r chaeo log is t s h ave n o tf ound t h em . On t h eo t he rh and ,t h e re a r en ok nown s e t t l emen t s i nt h ei n ter io r e i the r . I nt h es ea rch f o rg rave sa nd s e t t lemen t so ne c an m ake g ood u se o fd oub le -edged b a t t le a xe sa nd t h ick -bu t ted a xe s . Ac l o se re xam ina t ion o ft h e f i nd ing s po ts f o rt h ese c a tegor ie s i ss ure t og ive r e su l t s . T hey a r e n o tu ncommon i nt h e s o -ca l led " de se r ted" i n land a r ea s . Aw e l l k nown c a tego ry o fg rave s f r om t h e Swed ish ma in land i sb u r ia ls b e long ing t ot h e Swed ish -Norweg ian B a t t le Axe C u l tur e . I ti sv e ry d i ff icu l tt oi d en t ify " pu re" B a t t le Axe C u l ture g rave s o n Go t land . T hey s e em t ob e i n t ima te ly c onnec ted w i th g rave s f r om t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re . T o o b ta in ab e t te rl ook a tt h e B a t t le Axe C u l tu re o n t h e i s land o ne s hou ld l ook more c l o se ly a tt h e f i nd ing s po ts f o rt h eb a t t le a xe sf r om t h i sc u l tu re . D u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic w ec an f o rt h ef i r s tt ime ( i fw ee xc lude t h e d y s s f r om T of ta ) f i nd monumen ta l t omb s , p e rmanen t ly o b se rvab le a bove t h e g round , t h a t i st h e s t one c i s t s . T he r e a sons why t h ey w e r e c on s truc ted a tt h is s pec if ic p er iod o ft ime mu s t b e d i scu s sed . E ven i ft h ee a r l ie rb ur ia ls u nde rf l a tg round mo s tp robab ly w e re m a rked i n s ome w ay , t h e s t one c i s t s a r e s ome th ing q u i te d i f f e ren t . T he s t one c i s ts s e em t ob e l o ca ted a tt h e c oa s ta l a r ea s . T he f l in t d agge r s , o n t h e o t her h and , a r e c ommon i nt h e i n ter io r , a nd c an p e rhap s r evea l g rave s t h e re t oo . T he t r ans i t ion f r om s i ng le b ur ia ls i n c eme te r ie st ot h e mo r e" co l lec t iv i s t ic" b u r ia lt r ad i t ion i nt h es t one c i s t sw i th r e pea ted u se o ft h e c i s ti si mpor tan t , a sw e l l a s ap o s s ib le s pa t ia l c onnec t ion w i th t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re s i te s . We c an a sk o u r se lve si ft h ei d ea o f ac eme te ry w a sr e p laced b yt h es t one c i s t t r ad i t ion o ri ft h ere a r e c eme te r ie s f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic t h a t w e h ave n o t y e t f ound . S e t t lemen ts f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic s hou ld mo s t c er ta in ly b e s ea rched f o r i n c l o se c onnec t ion w i th t h es t one c i s t sa nd t h eP i t ted Wa r eC u l tu re s i te s( s ome o f wh ich c on t inue i n to t h is p er iod ) , b u to fc ou r se a l so i nt h ei n ter io r . Ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t h ef i nd ing s po t s f o rs imp le s haf t -ho le a xe si sp robab ly o fv i ta li mpo r tance h e r e . T he c a ir n s f r om t h e B ronze Age , ma in ly s i tua ted i nt h e c oa s ta l a r ea s , g ene ra te t h e s ame q ue s t ion sa sd id t h es t one c i s t s . Wha td ot h em a jo r i ty o fg rave sa nd c eme ter ie si n t h ei n ter io rl ook l i ke? T he c a ir n sh ave o f ten b een u sed i n ad i scu s s ion a bou tt e r r i tor ia l ma rke r sa nd s oo n . I ti si nt h a tc onnec t ion i mpor tan tt or e la te t h ec a irns t oo t he rg rave s f r om t h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion . S t ray f i nd so fb ronze a r t if ac t sh ave at o ta l ly d if e r en ts pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion c ompa red w i th t h ec a ir n s . A si st h ec a se w i th a l ls t ray f i nd s f r om G o t land , t h ese a r t if ac t sa r e f ound i na r ea s wh ich h ave b een u nde rc u l t iva t ion i n moder nt imes . T he b ronze a r t if ac ts c ome f r om d es troyed g raves , s e t t lemen ts a nd d epo t s . T he s e t t lemen t s c an a l so b e i d en t if ied b yh eap s o rl a ye r s o ff i re -cracked s t one s . T race s o f b ronze c a s t ing h ave b een f ound o n af ew s e t t lemen t s , a nd t h e r o le o ft h e se s e t t lemen t s i nt h eg ene ra lp i c tu r eo ugh tt ob es t ud ied f u r the r . R i tua ld epo t sa r ec ommon d ur ing t h is p er iod . One i mpor tan t t a sk f o rr e sea rch i st h e c o -var ia t ion b e tween t h e c hange f r om i n huma t ion st oc r ema t ion si nt h em idd le o ft h eB ronze A ge a nd t h ec hange i nf r equency a nd c ha rac te ra mong t h e d epo t s . O the rp henomena t h a t n eed f u r ther r e sea r ch i n c lude 1 00

ship settings and rock art, both of which have not been put in any intelligible context. The Pre-Roman Iron Age and the Early Roman Iron Age are characterized by a few very large cemeteries with mainly cremations. There are, however, some inhu�ations present, and a good interpretation of that is still lacking. Another �estion is whethet the large cemeteries are representative for the cemetery structure or do we have the whole scale from small to large cemeteries? If so, are some cemetery sites ltlore frequent than others? We are also interested in why these large cemeteries develop and why they are situated where they are. Many cemeteries seem to cease about 200 A.D. In spite of this, one might Wonder if there is not after all a continuity, even if the later graves have not yet been identified. Perhaps a re-location has taken place. Often the cemeteries do have a spatial connection with the settlements (of stone foundation type) from the following period. Settlements from the Early Iron Age are difficult to identify. They consist of houses built with wooden posts, but without stone foundation and they are almost without exception discovered in connection with excavations of the later stone foundation houses (cf. Vallhagar, Frojel parish, and Kanne, Burs parish). Many of the ring forts ofHavor type belong to the Early Iron Age, whatever their functions were. The problem of connecting different types of settlements (and number of settlements) to the various cemeteries and to make reasonable population estimates is a crucial one. The relationship between the ordinary settlements (of wooden-post type) and the ring forts is also essential to sort out. In order to find more settlements, one can use the finding spots for large grinding stones, which are not easily moved from their original place. The large field systems from the period ih question must be put in context with the ring forts, settlements, and cemeteries. A new factor for the period is local iron production, which is badly in need of further research. The Late Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period (A.D. 200-550) are extremely well known as far as settlements (of stone foundation type) and field systems are concerned, but badly neglected when it comes to the· grave material. Cremations still dominate completely, and the location ancVor grave· construction (often very small stone cists under flat ground) make it difficult for archaeologists to identify them. This has led to a situation where very many settlements lack any traces of known cemeteries, the most embarrassing examples being the large settlement ofVallhagar, Frojel parish, and the single farm at Fjale, Ala parish, both extensively investigated. We need to know more about continuity, both backward and forward (The latter is especially important, because the settlements seem to disappear completely in the following period, the Vendel Period). Estimations of size and structure of the population are made difficult through the lack of cemeteries connected with the well preserved settlements. It is possible that some of the hill forts, mainly at the coasts, belong to this period. Their connection with the settlements of stone foundation type and also with potential harbour sites ought to be investigated. The period is well known for its Roman imports, among other things solidi and denarii, even if the phenomenon of imports is known since the Stone Age. The coin depots can be supposed to have a secular background, in contrast to the ritual depots mentioned earlier. The reason for this view is mainly that the coin depots often are found on the actual settlement sites. There are, however, ritual depots in this period also (cf. Tuna, Vate parish). One cah almost suspect a social structure resembling that of the Viking Period, but much research is needed before anything is known with certainty. More research is also needed to deal with the problem of why the stone foundation houses with their field systems arise, and why they disappear. A more intensive use of the arab1e land cou1d explain the field system, but hardly the houses. An expansion of the arable land cotdd explain the change in field system, but should not lead to new types of houses. lt is probable that one should keep the two phenomena separate from each other, and to seek the explanation for the change in house type in a more general process of innovation. As mentioned, settlements from theVendel Period (A.D. 550-800), are almost totalty lacking. This gap is, of course, as is the case with most similar gaps, due to the 101

research situation and ultimately to source critical circumstances. We simply do not know what to look for when we run out of non-ritual depots, which usually indicate settlements. There are no such depots in the Vendel Period. Graves are, on the other hand, much more common than during the preceding period. The grave constructions make them easy to identify, but no systematic study of the morphology has been undertaken. We do not know whether many new cemeteries start in the Vendel Period, or to what extent there is a continuity from the preceding period. This is important in view of our poor knowledge of the settlements. A lot of things do happen, among other things the introduction of a new dress for women (with, among other things, a pair of brooches), probably with West European prototypes. On Gotland, we can trace that dress right into the 12th century. The artifacts from the Vendel Period are the best studied material there is, but have mainly been used for chronological purposes. The European influence can also be seen in connection with the picture stones typical of Gotland, which seem to have functioned in the death cult. Cremations are still dominant, but more and more inhumations occur, perhaps as a result of (West) European influence. The Viking Age is in large part a direct continuation of the Vendel Period when it comes to the structure of cemeteries and settlements. However, the question of newly started cemeteries is of interest here too. In some cases, one can observe that Viking Period graves are placed on older cemeteries, without any continuity what so ever. It is fairly common that Viking Period inhumations are placed in stone cists from the Roman Iron Age. The older inhumation is always orientated with the head to the North, while the younger rests with the head to the South. During the 9th century the cremations almost cease to exist. At the same time the inhumations change from having the head towards the North to having it towards the South. This obviously has something to do with a change in the religious system, even if it is probably too daring to suggest that it has anything to do with Christianity. Later, in the 11th century, we also find inhuinations with their heads towards the West (that is, in the Christian way), but there are also examples of Viking Period inhumations with the head towards the East. In the 11th century we notice the first graves in Christian churchyards, the dead being buried in full dress with brooches and other dress equipment. At the same time, however, there seem to be large pagan cemeteries in use, often with richly equipped inhumations. These two types of cemeteries are mutually exclusive at the parish level. One important question is the general distribution of cemeteries in these parishes. Are there a number of cemeteries for separate farms that are concentrated to one churchyard or to a large pagan cemetery, or will we find a different pattern? The settlements from the Viking Period and the Early Medieval Period are indicated by the finding spots for silver hoards, but also by a vast quantity of bronze brooches from the 12th century. This latter probably indicates a major shift in settlement location in that century. The silver hoards are secular depots, but there are also a few ritual depots present. One can mention the sacrifice of vast number of spears (among other things) at Gudingsakrama, Vallstena parish, or the puzzling rows or heaps of iron rings (probably semi-manufactures), which we do not know the exact meaning of (Dunegarde, Dalhem parish). It is, however, possible that it is the silver hoards that will become the best key to an understanding of the social structure of the Viking Period. They are found all over the island and they were probably a common feature on almost every Viking Age farm. Archaeologists have not paid enough attention to this feature. Other important features that are in need of further study are runic stones and road systems, hill forts and other fortifications (for example Torsburgen and Bulverket), harbours and market places, and so forth. The Viking Age on Gotland can be said to end in the middle of the 12th century. At that time graves with artifacts (dress equipment) in the churchyards disappear, the production of artifacts of Viking Period type ceases (perhaps somewhat later though, at the end of the 12th century), a local production of coins starts (much more research is needed on this problem), and the monastery in Roma, central Gotland, is founded. All this shows that Gotland has taken the step into the Medieval Period. 102

T h is s ho r t p ape r i si np a r tt h e r e su l t o fa na r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch p rog ram w r i t ten b yD an C a r ls son , Ma t s Widg ren a nd my se lf o na ni n i t ia t ive f r om S venO lo fL indqu i s t ,G o t land sF o rn sa l ,V i sby . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot ake t h i so ppo r tun i ty t ot hank t h em a l lf o r amo s tr ewa rd ing c oope ra t ion .

T he ma jor w o rk s c oncer n ing t h e d i f f e r en t p r eh i s to r ic p er iod s o n G o t land h ave b een l i s ted b e low . As ho r tp r e sen ta t ion o ft h e mo s tr e cen tr e sea rch ,w i th r e f e r ence s ,h a sb een g iven i n Sw ed i sh A r chaeo logy 1 981 -1985 ( S tockho lm , 1 987 ) ,i na na r t ic le e n t i t led T he P r eh i s to ry o fG o t l and i n Sw ed i sh A r chaeo log ic a lR e sear ch ( A . C a r l s son ) . S tone Age : L i thbe rg ,N . 1 914 . G o t l and ss t enä ld er . S tockho lm . N ihMn ,J .1 927 . G o t l and ss t en g i ld er sbop l a t se r .S tockho lm . J anzon ,G . 0 . 1 974 . G o t l and s me l l anneo l i t i sk ag r av ar . S tockho lm . S chn i t tge r , B . &R ydh ,H . 1 940 . G ro t t an S tor aF örv ar p aS tor aK ar l sö . S tockho lm . S t enb e rge r ,M . 1 943 . D as G r abf e ld v on V ä s t e rb jä r sa uf G o t l and .S tockho lm . B ronze Age : H an s son ,H . 1 927 . G o t l and sb ron sä ld e r . S tockho lm . P re Roman I ron Age : A lmg r en ,0 . 1 914 . D ie ä l te r eE i senz e i tG o t l and s .I .S tockho lm . N y lin ,E . 1 956 . D ie j üng e r ev o r röm i sche E i senz e i t Go t l and s . U pp sa la . Roman I ron Age : A lmg r en ,0 . &N e rman ,B . 1 923 . D ie ä l ter eE i senze i tG o t l and s .I .S to ckho lm . Migra t ion P er iod : N e rman ,B . 1 935 . D ie V ö lkerw and e rung sze i tG o t l and s . S to ckho lm . Ö s te rg ren , M . 1 981 . Go t länd sk a f ynd a v s o l id i o ch d enar er . E n u nd er sökn ing a v f yndp l a t ser na . RAGU .A rk eo log i ska sh if te r .V i sby . S t enbe rge r , M . & K l ind t -Jen sen , 0 . 1 955 . V a l lhag ar Ia nd I . A Mig r a t ion P er iod S e t t lemen to nG o t l and/ Sw ed en . K obenhavn & S tockho lm . Vende l P er iod : N e rman ,B . 1 975 & 1 969 .D ie V end e lze i tG o t l and s .I : 1 a nd I . S tockho lm . V ik ing P er iod : C a r l s son , A . 1 983 . D jurhuvudf orm ig a s pännen o ch g o t länd sk v ik ing a t id . T ex t o ch k a ta log . S tockho lm . C a r ls son , A . V ik ing a t id a r i ng spännen f r än Go t l and . T ex t o ch k a ta log . ( MS ; t ob e p ub l i shed i n1 988 ) . L und s t röm , P . 1 981 . De k ommo v id a . . . V ik ing ar s h amn v id P av ik en p a Go t l and . U ddeva l la . Ö s te rg ren , M . 1 986 . S i lv er sk a t ter o ch b on ing shus . RAGU . A rkeo log i ska s k r if te r . V i sby . S t enbe rge r , M . 1 947 & 1 958 . D ie S cha tzf und e G o t l and s d er W ik ing er ze i t . Ia nd I . S to ckho lm . S t enbe rge r , M . 1 962 . D a s G räbe rf e ld b e i I h re i m K i r sch sp ie l H e l lv i a uf G o t land . D e r w i l c ing e rze i t l iche Ab schn i t t . Ac t aA r chaeo log ic a 3 2 . K obenhavn . 1 03

T hunmark -Ny len , L . 1 983 . V ik ing a t id a d osspännen - t ekn i sk s t r a t ig r af i o ch v erk s t ad sg rupper ing .U pp sa la . E ar ly Med ieva l P er iod : S va lu i s t röm ,G . 1 984 . V i sby u nd er 1 000 ä r . S tockho lm . Y rw ing ,H . 1 940 . Go t l and u nd er ä ld r e med e l t id .L und . Y rw ing ,H . 1 978 . Go t l and s med e l t id . V isby . Y rw ing ,H . 1 986 . V i sby . Hanse s t adpä Go t l and . S tockho lm . Var ia : C a r l s son ,D . 1 979 . Ku l tur l and sk ape t su tveck l ingpä G o t l and .V i sby . E ng s t röm ,J .1 984 . T or sburg en . T o lkn ing a ve ng o t länd sk f or nborg .U pp sa la . Go t länd sk t Ark iv . Medde landen f r än F ören ingen Go t land s f o rnvänner . V isby . ( Annua lp ub l ica t ion ; 1 929 o nwa rd s ) . J an s son , S .B .F . & We ssen , E . 1 962 . Go t land sr un insk r if ter . B and 1 .S tockho lm . L indqv is t ,S . 1 941 & 1 942 . G o t l and sB i ld s te ine l and I . S tockho lm . Ny len , E . &L amm ,J . P . 1 978 .B i ld s tenar .V isby . O ls son ,I .1 984 . O r tnamn p äG o t l and . S tockho lm . S vä rd s t röm , E . 1 978 . Go t l and sr un inskr if ter . B and 2 .S tockho lm .

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A pp roache st oS w ed i sh P reh i s tor y ,B .A .R . , O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p . 1 05 -129 .

MODELS I NS CANDINAV IAN BRONZE AGE RESEARCH -A REVIE W B yR onn ie J en sen *

1 ) A mode l i s as e t o f s t a temen t s a s c r ib ing p rope r t ie s t os ome o b jec t o r s y s tem . . . 2 ) T he s t a temen t s t h a tc on s t i tu te t h e mode l d e sc r ibe s ome i t em a s sumed t ob ed i s t inc tf r om t h a to f w h ich i ti s amode l . . .3 ) A mode li sd e s igned t op rov ide a ni n te rp re ta t ion f o ra nu n in te rp r e ted f o rma l i sm o rc a lcu lu s . . . 4 ) A mode l i sa lway s p ropo sed w i th r e f e rence t os ome t h eo ry , t h e m ode l h av ing t h e s ame f o rma l s t ruc tu re a s t h i s t h eo ry . . . 5 ) A mode l i s a n a na logy . ( A ch in s te in 1 968 : 2 30 f . ) T he a r chaeo log i s t ' s mode ls e rve st op rov ide h im w i th h i se xpec ta t ion sa st ot h ec ha ra c te ro ft h e p a t te rn ing i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . I tp rov ide sh im w i th as e to fj u s t if ied ' mean ing st ob e a s s igned w hen t h ee xp ec t ed f o rm so fp a t t e rn ing a r eo b se rved .I na dd i t ion i tp r ov id e sh im w i th a s e to fi n te rp re ta t ive p r inc ip le st ob eu s ed w hen h i se xpe c ta t ion sa r en o tm e t . ( B in fo rd 1 972 : 18 ) Mode l sr e p lace s i tua t ion so rs y s tems o re n t i t ie sw h ich w ec anno tu nde r s tand o ri n ve s t iga te o r p red ic t b y t h ose w e c an u nde r s tand , i n ve s t iga t e o r p red ic t . T o t h e e x ten t t h a t t h e mode l s omehow c ap tu re st h ee s sen t ia l s ,t h ee xe r c i se w il b eu sefu l . ( Do ran & Hod son 1 975 : 2 87 ) E s sen t ia l ly , mode l sa r eh ypo the se so rs e t so fh ypo the se sw h ich s imp l i fy c omp lex o b se rva t ion s w h i l s to f f e r ing al a rg e ly a c cu r a t ep r ed i c t ive f r amewo rk s t ru c tu r ing t h e se o b s e rva t ion s -u s ef u l ly s epa ra t ing ' n o i se 'f r om i n fo rma t ion . ( C la rke 1 978 : 3 1 )

The C oncep t o f Mode ls -An I n troduc t ion T he a im o ft h i s p ape r i st op re sen t , a na lyse , c ompa re a nd c ommen t o n s ome o ft h e s oc ia la nd e conom ic mode l sw h ich h ave b een p re sen ted d u r ing t h e 1 970 's a nd 1 980 ' s , i nc onnec t ion w i th S cand inav ian B ronze A ge r e sea r che s .T he i n c rea sed u se o f mode l s d ur ing t h a t t ime i st o ag r ea t e x ten t r e la ted t o ag ene ra l a nd a cce le ra ted i n te res t i n t h eo ry -bu i ld ing i nS cand inav ian a r chaeo logy , u sua l ly w i th in p roce ssua l a nd s y s tem ic f r amewo rk s .

*D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f S tockho lm

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F rom c on s ide ra t ions o fs pace w eh ave t ob eb r ief r ega rd ing ad i scus s ion o ft h ec oncep t o f' mode l ' . A n a na ly s i so ft h eu se o f mode l sc a l l s ,i nf a c t ,f o ri t s own p aper . T he i n t roduc to ry q uo ta t ion s a bove g i ve as hor t g l imp se o fh ow d i f f eren t s c ien t i s t s i n te rpre t t h e u se o f mode ls . Ab a s ic d iv i s ion i s , o f c our se , b e tween p hy s ica l a nd a b s t rac t mode l s . B u t t h e re i sa n a bundance o f t e rm s f o rd i f f e ren t t ypes o f mode ls . Wha t i s mo re , t h e s ame t ype o f mode l c an b e t e rmed i nd i f f e ren t w ays b y d i f f e ren t s c ien t is t s . C onsequen t ly , t he p h i losophe r o f s c ience P e te r A ch ins te in t a lks a bou t A : R ep resen ta t iona l mode ls ,B : T heo re t ica l mode ls a nd C : I mag ina ry mode ls ( Ach in s te in 1 968 : 2 03 f . ) . T he r epre sen ta t iona lm od e l s a r ed i v ided i n1 :T rue m od e l s , p hys ica lo rs c a le mode l s s uch a s a r chaeo log ica lr e cons truc t ion o f h ouse s , a r te fac t s , e t c , 2 : Adequa te m od e l s , s c a le mode l sw he r et h ep ro to type i si n t en t iona l ly d ef l ec ted f o rs ome r ea son ,3 :D i s t or t ed m ode l s , p hy s ica l mode l sw he re d i f f e ren t s ca les h ave b een u sed i nt h e s ame mode l ,4 : A na logue m od e l s u sed i na n th ropo log ica la nd a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s ,f o ri n s tance . T heore t ica lm od e l s ( o f ten ly t e rmed ma thema t ica l mode ls i nt h es oc ia ls c ience s ) a r e , a cco rd ing t oA ch in s te in : ( i ) as e to fa s sump t ion sa bou ts ome o b jec to rs y s t em ( i ) d escr ibe a t ype o f o b jec t o r s ys tem b y a t t r ibu t ing a n i nne r s t ruc ture , c ompo s i t ion o r m echan i sm t o i t , r e f e rence t o wh ich i si n tended t oe xp la in v a r iou sp rope r t ie se xh ib i ted b yt h a to b jec to rs y s tem . ( i i ) a r e l ooked u pon a nd h and led a s s imp l if ied a pp rox ima t ions u sefu l f o rc er ta in p urpo ses . ( i v ) a r ep ropo sed w i th in t h eb roade rf r amewo rk o fs ome mo r eb a s ic t h eo ry ( ie s ) ( v ) a r eo f ten f o rmu la ted ,d eve loped a nd n amed o nt h eb a s is o fa na na logy b e tween t h eo b jec t / sy s tem ( d e sc r ibed i nt h e mode l )a nd s ome d i f f e ren to b jec t / sy s tem ( Ach in s te in 1 968 :2 12 f . ) T hese mode ls c an b eu sed f o rd i f f e ren tp u rpo se ss uch a se xp lana t ion ,s y s tema t iza t ion , i n te rp re ta t ion ,p red ic t ion ,c a lcu la t ion ,d e r iva t ion o ft h el aw ,e t c . T he i mag inar ym od e l s a r e s im i la rt ot h eo re t ica l a nd a na logue mode ls t o ac e r ta in e x ten t ,b u td i f f e ri ns eve ra l a spec t s , w h ich Id on o ti n tend t oc ommen to nf u r the ri nt h i sc on tex t . C once rn ing t h e g r ea tv a r ie ty o ft e rm sd e sc r ib ing t h e se mode l s , A ch ins te in ' s s y s tem c an b ec ompa red w i th R om H a r r e ' s : A ch in s te in ' s A l ,A 2a nd A 3 mode l sc o r r espond t oH a r r6 ' s h omoeomo rph ic mod e l s a nd A ch in s te in ' s A 4a nd B mode l sc o r re spond t o t h ep aramo rph ic mod e l sb yH a r r 6( Ha r r 6 1 970 : 3 3f . ,c f .a l so S t ig S o rensen & Twe ,de l l L ev insen 1 977 : 2 7 ) . T ha ti s ,i nt h eh omoeomo rph ic mode l st h e s ub jec to f t h e mode li s a l so t h e s ou rce o ft h e mode l ; i np a ramo rph ic mode l s t h e s ub jec t a nd t h e s ou r ce d i f f e r f r om e ach o the r . Anyhow , t h e p h i lo sophe r s o fs c ience g ene ra l ly u se mode l s i n ar e la t ive ly r e s t r ic ted w ay , o f ten w hen o ne to -one c o r re spondences b e tween t wo s y s tem s a r e f ound a nd when t h ey t a lk a bou t as t ruc tu ra li s omo rph ism b e tween t ot h eor ie s ( Ab le re ta l . 1 977 : 4 5 ) . When d i scus s ing m a thema t ica l v s .g enera lm od e l s , D o ran & Hod son p o in to u tt h a t t h ef o rme rc ons is t s o fo ne o r mo re m a thema t ica l e qua t ions w h ich a s ser tr e la t ion sh ip s b e tween v a r iab les . F ur thermo re , t h ey d iv ide t h em i n to d e term in is t ic mode l s ( no t i nvo lv ing r andom v a r iab les ) a nd s t ochas t ic mode l s ( i nvo lv ing r andom v a r iab le s ) ( Do ran & Hod son 1 975 : 2 85 ) . I ft h e c oncep t o f mode l i su sed i n ar a the r r e s t r ic ted w ay a mong p h i lo sophe r s o f s c ience , i th as o bv ious ly af a r w ide r a pp l ica t ion i nt h e s oc ia l s c iences . I n t h e l a t te r c on tex t , mode l s h ave b een u sed i na l l s o r t s o f r e sea rch s i tua t ions , a nd ' mode l ' h a s o f ten b een u sed t os t and f o r ah ypo thes is , at h eo ry , a' l aw 'e t c , n o tf r equen t ly w i thou t a ny c l o se rd ef in i t ion .T h i si sa l so t y p ica lf o ra r chaeo log ica lr e sea rche r s . I na n a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t , D av id C la rke w a st h eo ne w ho r ea l ly t r ied t op ene t ra te

1 06

a nd d ef ine t h e c oncep t o f mode l s i ns oc ia l s c ience s ( C la rke 1 968 , 1 972 a nd 1 978 ) . C la rke w a so ft h eo p in ion t h a t amode li sg ene r a ted f r om a nu nd er l y ing t h eor y , s i nce a mode l c an b e l ooked u pon a s as imp l if ied a nd f o rma l ized e xp re s s ion o f at h eo ry . C on sequen t ly , h ypo the se s a r eg ene ra ted f r om t h e mode le xp r e s s ion o f at h eo ry .T hu s , e xp lana t ion s a r eg ene ra t ed f r om t e s ted h ypo the se s ,e t c ( C la rke 1 972 : 3 ) . A cco rd ing ly , mod e l sa re h ypo the se s o rs e t so fh ypo the se sw h ich s imp l ify c omp lex o b se rva t ion sa nd t h ey h opefu l ly s e pa ra te ' n o i se 'f r om r e levan ti n fo rma t ion ( C la rke 1 978 : 3 1 ) . I n' Mode l si nA r chaeo logy 'C la rke m ade ab a s ic d iv i s ion o ft h e mode lc oncep tw hen h et a lked a bou tc on t ro l l ing m od e l s a nd o pera t iona lm od e l s ( C la rke 1 972 : 5f . ) . T he f o rme rc an b e t e rmed c ogn i t ive m ode l s a sw e l l , a st h ey s t and f o ra ny a r chaeo log i s t ' s a t t i tude s , t h ink ing a nd a pp roache s w i th r ega rd t o h i s d a ta . T hese ' mode l s ' a r e n o t mode l si n at r ue s e n se .T he r e a l mode l sc an b ed e te c ted i nh i so pe ra t iona l mode l s . I n at ho rough d i scu s s ion o f t h e u se o f mode l s i n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s h e i n co rpo ra ted t h em i n aw ide rs y s t em s theo r e t ica lf r amewo rk ,w he re h ed ef ined ag enera l m od e l -amod e lf o rt h ew ho le o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch a nd a na ly t ica lp rocedu re . I n t h e ' s phe re o fs yn the s i s a nd g ene ra l t h eo ry ' ( ' t he s phe re o fh ypo the s is o pe ra t ion s a nd mode l b u i ld ing ' ) h e r e cogn ized t h ree ma in t y pe s ( o r l e ve l s ) o f mode l s : i c on ic , a na logue a nd s ymbo l ic mode l s . O n t h e l owe s t l e ve l w e w i l l f i nd t h e i c on ic m ode l s w he re o b se rved d a ta a r e q uan t if ied a nd f o rma l ized -a s ac ode ( g raphs , h i s tog ram s , map s ,e t c . ) .I na na logu em od e l s ,f r equen t ly u sed i na r chaeo log ica la nd a n th ropo log ica l r e sea r che s ,t h er e co rded c ha ra c te r i s t ic sa r er ep laced b ya na logue so rs im i la ra t t r ibu t es , w he re t h er e su l ti sc ong ruen tt ot h a to ft h er e co rded c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s . O nt h eh i ghe s tl e ve l w er e cogn ize s ymbo l ic m od e l s w h ich d i f f e rf r om i c on ic mode l sb a s ica l ly b ecau se o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e f o rme r t h e o b se rved c ha rac te r i s t ics a r e i n teg ra ted i n as pec if ic c a lcu lu s .The se m a t e rna t ica l a na logues a r e s ep ara ted i n to d e termen i s t ic , s t a t i s t ica l , s t ocha s t ic a nd c anon ica lm od e l s . , S ince t h e se c oncep t sa r ew el k nown w es hou ld b e t t e r s t op h e re a nd n o tp ene t ra te a ny f u r the r . C la rke ' st h o rough p re sen ta t ion i sp e rhap so ve r -e labo ra ted a nd t o om echan ica l , b u tw a st h ec on sequence o f as y s tem s theo r e t ica lf r amewo rk o ft h a tt ime . T o c onc lude : A mode l i s as imp l if ica t ion ( r educ t ion ) o fr ea l i ty ( ap a s tr ea l i ty i n a r chaeo log ica lc on t ex t )a nd i su sed t oe mpha s ize t h o se r e la t ion sw h ich a r et h ough tt ob e t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t i n as pec if ic s i tua t ion . T hus , a mode l c ons is t s ma in ly o f t h e c omponen t s ( 1 ) d ef ined c oncep t s a nd ( 2 ) a n i n fo rma t ion o f t h e r e la t ions a nd c onnec t ion sb e tween t h ec oncep t s .T h i si sd one t oc r ea te c l ea rne s sa nd c omp rehen s ion i na l lc en t ra lp o in t s . We m ee tw i th af o rma l i zed p roce s s o fs ub jec t ive s e lec t ion o ft h o se a t t r ibu tes wh ich a r e r ega rded a si mpo r tan t f o rr e ach ing a n e xp lana t ion o f as pec if ic p henomenon . Mode l sa r et o o l sw h ich a r eu sed t os o lve o ri n te rp re t a( s pec if ic )p rob lem a nd a r e b a sed u pon ap re l im ina ry t h eo ry . T he f i na l t h eo ry o r ig ina te s f r om t e s ted h ypo the se sa nd mode l s ,a nd i se xpec ted t oe xp la in c e r ta in p henom ena . T he s t reng th i n t h eu se o ft h e mode l si sm a in ly t h e i rh eu r i s t ic p o ten t ia l . S oc ia l a nd E conom ic Mode ls i n S cand inav ian

B ronze Age R esearches

I n t h i s s t udy Ih ave e xam ined av a r ie ty o f mode ls w h ich h ave b een c r ea ted w i th in S cand inav ian B ronze A ge r e sea rche sa nd a na ly se s .T h i sp ap e rf o cu se sm a in ly o n mode l b u i ld ing r e la ted t oq ue s t ion s c once rned w i th s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu r e , e conom ic s t ruc tu r e a nd t o ac e r ta in e x ten t w i th s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd o rgan iza t ion a s w e l l . T he mode l s , g ene ra l ly g r aph ica l ly e xp re s sed , a r e mo s t ly c onnec ted t o am ic ro -o rs em i -ma c ro l e ve l i nt h es e t t lemen th i e ra r chy w i th in t h es oc ia lf o rma t ion . B u t mode l sw h ich a r ei n tended t oi lu s t ra te t h ek ey i n s tance sw i th in t h es o c ia lf o rma t ion a s aw ho le ( c f . L a r s son 1 984 : 2 5 a nd 1 968a : 1 ) o rd i scu s s ion so fa l te rna t ive c h iefdom s y s tem s ( S t je rnqu i s t 1 983a : 1 59 f . , We l inde r 1 977 : 1 60 , 1 63 ) a r en o ti n te rp r e ted i nt h i sp ape r .

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T he ma jo r i ty o f mode l sp re sen ted b e low a r ed e s igned a cco rd ing t o as pec if ic r eg ion : J u t land a nd F unen i nD enma rk ; S can ia , Go t land , O s te rgö t land a nd p a r t so ft h e Mä la r B a s in ( Upp land , S öde r rnan land ) i n Sweden a nd l a s t ly S ou the rn N o rway . T he s pec if ic r eg ions a r ei nd ica ted i nF ig . 1 .T he e x tended s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o f mode l ss hed sl i gh t u pon r eg iona l d i f f e rences i ne co log ica l p r e requ i s i tes a nd d i s t inc t ion s i nt h e ma te r ia l c u l tu r e ( bu r ia l s ,s e t t lemen ts i te s ,e t c . ) ,w h ich i nt u rn c an b ei nd ica t ive o fd ive rgen ce si n s oc ia l f o rma t ion s . D if f e rence s i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd e co log ica l p recond i t ions h ave r e su l ted i n b o th v ary ing a nd s im i la r i n terpre ta t ions . B u t a l so s im i la r ma ter ia l i s s ome t imes i n terpre ted i n d if f e ren t w ays o r i s g iven o ne o r more a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion s . Mu tua l ly , t h e mode l s a r ev a r ied i nd i f f e ren t manne r s . T he w ho le b ody o f mode l sh ave o ne o r mo re a l te rna t ive i n terp re ta t ion s . Mu tua l ly ,t h e mode ls h ave o ne o r mo r es e t t lemen ts i te s a s af a c to r . Mo s to ft h em h av eg rave s ,c eme t er ie s a s af a c to r . a nd aq ua r te ro ft h e mode l sh ave p roduc t ion a rea s ( a rab le l a nd s , g r az ing l a nd ,e t c . )a s af a c to r .T he se t h ree f a c to r sa r ei n c luded i nt h er e sou rce a rea o rt h es oc ia lt e r r i tor y a nd t h ey c an b e a r ranged a cco rd ing t o as cheme g ove rned b y t h e t wo ma in f a c to r s , i . e . , s t a t ionary a nd m ob i le s t ruc tu re s . Mo s to ft h e mode lb u i lde r sh ave b een ' p u t 'i n to t h a t s cheme ( F ig . 2 ) .

F ig . 1 . Map s how ing t h eg eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h e mode l sp re sen ted : ( 1 )c o r respond st ot h e mode l s i nF ig . 5 a a nd 5 b ; ( 2 ) mode l F ig . 6 ;( 3 ) mode l s F ig . 7 a -c ; ( 4 ) mode l F ig . 8 ;( 5 ) mode l F ig . 9 a ; ( 6 ) mode lF ig . 9 1 ) ; ( 7 ) mode l F ig . 9 c ; ( 8 ) mode ls F ig s . 1 0a -d a nd 1 ; ( 9 ) mode l F ig . 1 2 ; ( 10 ) mode l F ig . 1 3 .

1 08

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F ig . 2 . S cheme i lus t ra t ing d i f fe ren t ' mode l b u i lde r s ' p o s i t ion c once rn ing t h e t wo ma in f a c to r s , s t a t iona ry v s . mob i le s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re s ,a nd h ow s e t t lemen ts i te s ,p roduc t ion a r ea s( f ie ld s )a nd g rave l o ca l i t ie sa r er e la ted t ot h e se m a in c onc ep t s . B ET WEEN-GROUP

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F ig . 3 . Mode l s how ing r e la t ionsh ips d e te rm in ing t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . A r rows i nd ica te o ppo s ing f o rce s [ a f te rL undma rk 1 984 : 1 3 ] .

1 09

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s ingle g rave

F ig . 4 . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing h ow h ypo the t ica l c omb ina t ion s o f mob i le a nd r egu la ted s e t t lemen t s a r e r e la ted t o t h e e nv ironmen t a nd a l so a f f ec t t h e g r ave d i s t r ibu t ion . T he mode l 's o r ig ina l c ap t ion i s t r an s la ted f r om Swed i sh [ a f te rS e l inge 1 985 :7 4 ] .

' Dynam ic I n terac t ion ' We s t a r to f fw i th amode ld e s igned b yH an sL undma rk f ounded o np r inc ip le ,t h a ti s ,i t c an b er e la ted t od i f f e r en te poch s a nd c on tex t s ( Lundma rk 1 984 : 1 3 ) .T he mode l( F ig . 3 )i ss t ruc tu red b y t wo s pa t ia l c oncep t s , c l u s ter ing a nd d i sper s ion , i nf ou rd i f f e ren t c on tex t so rd i a lec t ica l ( oppo s ing )f o r ce s .T he se f o r ce sa r ed e te rm ined b yf ou rf a c to r so r r e la t ionsh ip s : s oc ia l v s . e co log ica l r e la t ions w h ich g ive d i f f e ren tr e su l t sc oncer n ing s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s w hen a pp l ied t ow i th in - o rb e tween -group r e la t ions i n ad ynam ic i n te rac t ion . T he se f our f a c to r s a r e c onf ron ted w i th e ach o the r c r ea t ing ad ynam ic s y s tem o fr e la t ionsh ips , w h ich d e te rm ine t h e a c tua l o u tpu t o ft h e s e t t lemen t p a t tern ( Lundma rk 1 984 : 1 3 ) . T hu s , t h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re i sl a rge ly f o rmed o rc r ea ted b y u nde r ly ing s oc ia l / ideo log ica l a nd e co log ica l /econom ic r e la t ion sh ip s . T h i s mode l , b a sed o n p r inc ip le , c an p erhap s b e u sed a s a' c heck mode l ' t o ac er ta in e x ten t , w he re w e h ave t h e o ppor tun i ty t or e la te a n o b served s e t t lemen tp a t ter nt ot h e mode l ,t or each ap re l im ina ry o p in ion c once rn ing t h e mo s tr e levan tk ey f a c to r sw i th in a n a na lys is . Howeve r , w e h ave t o b ea r i n m ind t h a t t h e mode l i s' i dea l ized ' a nd f o rma l ized . T he r ea l s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re w h ich i st ob e a na lyzed , i sp robab ly much mo re c omp lex a nd a tt h e s ame t ime l e ss d i s t inc t c ompa red w i th t h e s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re

10

s hown i nt h e mode l . T he E nv ironmen ta l A pproa ch -A F ou tf o ld Mod e l T h i s mode l ( F ig . 4 ) , f o rmu la ted b y K -G S e l inge , i sn o t c omp le te ly r e la ted t o a ny s pe c if ic a r ea o rr eg ion b u ti sb a sed o np r inc ip le a nd r e la ted t o ab road a na lys i so ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( Se l inge 1 985 : 7 4 ) . Howeve r , t h e mode l i si n teg ra ted i n a d i scu s s ion a nd c ompa r i son o fa r cha eo log ica ld a ta ,o nt h eo ne h and i nt h eL ake Mä la ren r eg ion ( Ea s te rn M idd le S weden ) a nd o n t h eo t he ri nV ä s te rgö t land i nS ou th -we s te rn Sweden . S e l inge c l a ss if ie s t h e mode l a s t h eo re t ica l a nd a s i lu s t ra t ing h ypo the t ica l c omb ina t ion so f mob i le a nd r e gu la t ed s e t t lemen t sa nd t h e i rr e la t ion st ot h ee nv i ronmen t a nd h ow t h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu r e ( a nd t h e s ub s i s tence s t ra tegy ) a f f ec t t h e g rave d i s t r ibu t ion t h rough t ime .A sc an b es e en ,t h eo ve ra l l mode la c tua l ly c on s is t so f as e to f f ou rd i f f e r en t mode l s .T hu s ,t h eo ve ra l l mode li so n ly p a r t ly r e levan tt ot h eB ronze A ge ( t he d s t ruc tu r e ) . Ab r ie fd e sc r ip t ion o ft h e mode li sg i ven b e low :T he a s t ruc tur e i lu s t ra t e s as t a t iona ry a nd r e gu la ted s e t t lemen ts t ru c tu re .T he h am le t ,c eme ta r ie sa nd l a nd u se h ave f i xed a r ea s a nd f unc t ion sw i th in t h et e r r i to ry .T he mod e lc o r r e spond st oa nI r on A ge h ab i ta t ion o fa t ype w h ich i sc ommon i nt h eL ake Mä la ren r e g ion ,w i th p r e se rved c eme te r ie sa nd w i th c on t inu i ty t ot h er egu la ted v i l lage sf r om h i s to r ica lt ime . T he b s truc ture s hows as t a t iona ry h ab i ta t ion a nd l a nd u se , b u tt h ee nv i ronmen t i s u sed w i thou t r egu la t ion , p e rhap s b y o ne s e t t le r o n ly . T he g rave s a r e d i spe r sed a t r andom o rl o ca ted w i th c e r ta in ,b u tn ow o b scu r e ,i n ten t ion si nm ind ,b u tu sua l ly w i th in t h ec en t ra lp roduc t ion a r ea .T he mode lc an b er e la ted t o aN o r r land o r No rweg ian I r on A ge c on tex ta nd t oE a r ly I r on A ge d i s t r i c t si n V ä s te rgö t land ,f o ri n s tance . T he c s t ruc tu re i lu s t r a te s amob i le l a nd u se ,b u tt h es e t t lemen ta nd g r ave sh ave s ome s o r t o fr egu la t ion t oo ne o r s eve ra l s i te s . I np e r iod s w i th l ong -f a l low c u l t iva t ion t h e p roduc t ion a r ea s a r e g radua l ly d i s t r ibu ted i nd i f f e ren tp a r t so ft h e t e r r i tory , w h i le t h e h ab i ta t ion i ss t a t iona ry . A l te rna t ive ly ,t h eh ab i ta t ion s pa t ia l ly f o l low st h ec u l t iva t ion , t h us c on s t i tu t ing ' ambu la to ry v i l lage s 'i na nE a r ly h on A ge c on tex t( c f .e xamp le sf r om F unen a nd J u t land i nD enma rk ) . F ina l ly , t h e d s t ruc tu re s hows amob i le a nd u n regu la ted a l te rna t ive , whe re b o th g rave s a nd s e t t lemen t s pa t ia l ly f o l low t h e l a nd u se ; s l a sh -and -bu rn c u l t iva t ion i s p ropo sed . T he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o ft h e g rave s c o r re spond , a cco rd ing t oS e l inge , t o t h e n o rma lg rave d i s t r ibu t ion d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge . I ft h es i ng le g rave sa r er ep la ced b yn umbe ro fs ma l lc eme te r ie s ,t h e mode l may r e p re sen ta n' ambu la to ry f a rm ' . S e l inge c onc lude s t h a ti ti st h el a nd u se w h ich f i na l ly d e te rm ine st h e s t ruc tu re o ft h ea nc ien t monumen t s a nd t h ep o s s ib i l i t ie sf o rp re se rva t ion .I n my o p in ion t h i s mode li sp r ima ry b ased o n ah uman e co log ica l c oncep t , w i th empha s is p laced o n s ub s is tence ( e nv i rom en ta l )s t ra tegy a nd l e s so ns o c ia lf a c to r s . E co log ica lN iche s -B ronz eA ge P a t t e rn si nt h e Mä la rB a s in We c on t inue t h e ' mode l c ava lcade ' w i th t wo mode ls d es igned b y A ke Hyens t rand ( K je l l6n 8 . rH yen s t rand 1 977 ) . T hey a r e b a sed o n a na lyse s o ft h e s t ruc tu re o fa nc ien t monumen t si nt h eE nköp ing d i s t r ic t , ap a r to ft h eB ronze A ge c o r ez one i nt h eh ea r to f t h e r i ch r ock -ca rv ing a r ea t o t h e n o r th o f L ake Mä la ren a nd t o t h e n o r th -we s t o f S tockho lm ( c f . F ig . 1 ) . T he f i r s tm od e l ( F ig . 5 a ) i sf ounded o np r inc ip le o n at y p ica lB ronze A ge s e t t lemen t u n i t( i b id 1 977 : 2 8 ) . O nt h ec ro s s , w ef i nd t h es ho r e z one w i th ab ay t ot h es ou th -ea s t a nd t h e mo ra ine a nd f o r e s t z one t ot h e n o r th -we s t . T he s e t t lemen t u n i t , t h e p r ima ry p roduc t ion a r ea f o rc u l t iva t ion , g r az ing ,e t c . ,i si d en t ica lw i th t h ec i r cu la ra r ea m a rked 11

w i th h a tched l i ne s . B e s ide s t h e s e t t lemen ts i te ( s ) , i nd ica t ed b yb u rn t mound s ,w e f i nd o the ri mpo r tan t ma te r ia l r ema in s w i th in t h e p roduc t ion a r ea a s w e l l : r ock -ca rv ing s , c upma rk sa nd i nt h ep e r iphe ry g r ave s . O u t s ide t h ep r ima ry a r ea o ft h e s e t t lemen tu n i t t h ew ide rs e t t lemen tt e r r i to ry b eg in s , b u tw h i ch i sn o td ea l tw i th i nt h i s mode l . T he mode l i sb a sed o n a n a na ly s is o f t o pog raphy , t h e r e la ted e conom ic c apac i ty c omb ined w i th a n a na ly s i s o ft h e s pa t ia l s t ruc tu r e o ft h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re . T hu s , t h e mode ls how st h eh ab i ta tw i th in ar e p re sen ta t ive e co log ica ln i che .T he mode li ss t a t ic , i lu s t ra t ing as e t t lemen ts i te ,i n d ica ted b yt h eb u rn t mound sa nd s u r round ing s .

T erritory

S ettlement u nit

I \

S horeline 1 S horeline 2

•

c upmarks, r ock-carving

v

h eap o f f ire-cracked s tones

E l

g rave

F ig . 5 a [ l e f t ] . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing aB ronze A ge s e t t lemen t u n i t a nd i t s p r ima ry p roduc t ion a r ea a nd a d ja cen t s ho re z one t o ge the r w i th t h e a nc ien t monumen t sp re se rved . T he mode l s o r ig ina l c ap t ion i s t r an s la ted f r om Swed i sh [ a f te rK je l l6n & H yen s t rand 1 977 : 2 8 ] . F ig . 5 b [ r igh t ] . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing a h ypo the t ica l s e t t lemen t d i sp lacemen t i n f ou r p ha se s w i th in a t e r r i to ry ( e xp la ined i nt h et e x t ) .O r ig ina lc ap t ion t r an s la t ed f r om S wed i sh [ a f t e rK je l l6n & H yen s t rand 1 977 : 1 08 ] .

T he s econd m od e l ( F ig . 5 b )h a sd ef in i te ly amo re d ynam ic a nd p roce s sua lc ha rac te r . I ts how s ah ypo the t ica l s e t t lemen tw i th in at e r r i to ry d u r ing as pan o ft ime ( i b id 1 977 : 1 08 ) : A i n d ica te s ac o lon i sa t ion f r om o u t s ide w h ich g i ve sr i se t o an ew t e r r i to ry . B s hows a n e s tab l i shed s i tua t ion w i th a f ew s e t t lemen t u n i t s w i th in e co log ica ln i che s . C d e scr ibe s as e t t lemen t d i sp la cemen t w i th in t h e t e r r r i to ry , c on s i s t ing o fa d i spe r s ion a nd a n i n c rea se o f t h e n umbe r o f s e t t lemen t s ow ing t o s ho r e d i sp la cemen t( l and e l eva t ion ) a nd i n c rea s ing p opu la t ion . D f i na l ly , i n d ica te s ar emova l , a cco rd ing t oH yen s t rand m a in ly c au sed b y a r a p id l a nd e l eva t ion i nc omb ina t ion w i th c l ima t ic c hange s , w h ich d r a s t ica l ly

12

d e te r io ra ted t h ee conom ic b a se f o r ac on t inuou sl i v ing w i th in t h ea r ea . T he h ypo the t ica le xp lana t ion i sl a rge ly e co log ica l a nd e conom ic ( s ub s is tence b a sed ) a nd t o al e sse re x ten ts o c ia l . T he l a t te rc oncep ti sp a r t ly d i scu s sed i na no the r mode l ( no t p ub l i shed h e re ) w he re p o s s ib le a c t iv i t ie sw i th in ap opu la t ion ( f o rs e t t lemen tu n i t s ) a r e p resen ted ( i b id 1 977 : 1 09 ) . Y e t a no the r mode l s hows ah ypo the t ica l s ubs is tence s t ra tegy w i th in a s e t t lemen t u n i t ( i b id 1 977 :108 ) . H yens t rand p ropo se s as oc ia l f o rma t ion p r ima r ly b u i l t u p b y t r iba l s y s tem s , p o s s ib ly w i th mo re o r l e ss t empo ra ry e l emen t sc on s t i tu t ing a nu n s tab le c h iefdom o rgan iza t ion .

Heap

o f

Dwe l l ing

f i re-cracked s tones s i te

S ettle ment

a rea

Secondary , m inor s i te

Ma jor Grave M inor

a nd Cer mon ial

Center

•

F ig .6 . R e la t ion sh ip b e tween s e t t lemen th i e ra r chy a nd g r ave ( a nd c e remon ia l )c en t re si nt h ee a s ter np a r t o fE a s te rn G ö ta land -amode l [ a f te rL a r s son 1 983 : 1 03 a nd 1 984 : 2 9 ] .

AS oc ia lA n thropo log ica lA pproach T h is mode l ( F ig . 6 ) i sc on s t ruc ted b y T homa s B . L a r sson a nd s hows ah i e ra rch ica l s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re i nr e la t ion t og rave c en t res . T he mode l i sb a sed o n B ronze A ge m a ter ia l s t ruc tur es i nt h e e a s tern p a r t s o fO s tergö t land ( La r s son 1 983 : 1 03 a nd 1 984 : 2 9 ) . L a r s son h a sc ha rac te r ized t h ea pp roach a ss oc ia la n th ropo log ica l ,p robab ly b ecau se h e u se s a n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry ( Lev i -S t rauss 1 969a a nd 1 969b ; L ew is 1 976 ; S ah l in s

13

1 968 ; S ah l ins & S erv ice 1 973 ) , e spec ia l ly w hen d ef in ing ah i era rch ica l s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re w i th in at r iba lf o rma t ion ( c f .L a r sson 1 984 :2 5a nd 1 986a : 1) : T he A leve l ( t op l e ve l ) i si d en t ica l w i th t h e t r ibe a s aw ho le a nd t hu sr ep r esen t s t h e t r iba l l e ve l . T he B leve l i sn amed t h e s ub t r ibe l e ve l : I n L a r sson 1 983 : 9 7 c a l led ' d is tr ic t ' l eve l ( sw . t r ak t )a nd i n L a r sson 1 986a : 1 t h e c l an l eve l . T he C leve l r epre sen t s t h e v i l lage l e ve l ( i n L a r s son 1 986a : 1 t h e h ou seho ld l e ve l ) . T he D leve l ( b a s ic l e ve l ) s t and sf o rt h eh ou seho ld l e ve l( i nL a r s son 1 986a : 1 c hanged t ot h ef am i ly l e ve l ) . T he d i scus s ion o ft h e h i e ra rch ica l t r iba l f o rma t ion i s ma in ly r e la ted t ot h e o ve ra l l mode l o f as oc ia l f o rma t ion ( c f . L a r s son 1 984 : 2 4 a nd 1 986a : 1) a nd i ti su nce r ta in h ow t h ed i f f e ren tl e ve l sw i th in t h es oc ia lf o rma t ion a r er e la ted t od i f f e ren ts t ruc tu re si n t h e p a r t icu la r mode l u nde r d i scuss ion . P e rhaps w e c an r e la te t he dwe l l ing s i te ( s e t t lemen t o r h ab i ta t ion s i te ) t o t h e b a s ic D leve l . T hus , as e t o f dwe l l ing s i tes ( i nc lud ing s e t t lemen t a r ea s ) may b e i nd ica t ive o ft h e C leve l a nd an umbe r o f s uch c l u s te r s o f dwe l l ing s i te s ( f ive i nt h is e xamp le , t h a t i s , t h e mode l a s awho le ) o ft h e B leve l . I fs o , ac o l lec t ion o fs uch mode l sw ou ld r ep re sen t at r iba lu n i ta s aw ho le . A cco rd ing t ot h eg rave s , ama jo r i ty c an b ef ound r a the rf a rf r om t h e s e t t lemen t s , 2-4 km , a nd s i tua ted i nb uf f e r -zones b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t s e t t lemen t a r ea s .Th i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e g rave s may h ave b o th au n ify ing a nd as epa ra t ing n a tu re . L ar s son i so ft h e o p in ion t ha t t h e s epa ra t ing f unc t ion h a s b een d om ina t ing o n t h e l owe r l e ve l w i th in s oc ie ty , w h i le t h e u n ify ing f o r ce s b ecome s t ronge ro n h i ghe rl e ve l s . T he f a c tt h a tt h e s i ze o ft h eg rave si n c rea se sw i th t h ed i s tance f r om t h es e t t lemen ti nd ica te s ,a cco rd ing t o L a r sson , t h a tt h e i r ma in f unc t ion w a s t ou n i te t h ep opu la t ion f r om s eve ra l s e t t lemen t a r ea s . We mee tw i th am a rked n ega t ive s pa t ia lc o r re la t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t sa nd g r ave c en t r e si nt h i sa r ea .T he se c i rcum s tance sb ecome e ven mo r ei n te r e s t ing w hen c ompa red t oB ronze Age s t ruc tu re si nt h e Mä la rB a s in ,w he re ,i nc on t ra s t ,w eh ave ah igh p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t s a nd g raves ( J en sen 1 986 : 2 5 f . ,a nd J ensen ,i np r in ta a nd b ) . T he ' S a te l l i te 'A pproach T he n ex t mode lb u i lde ri s Mä r ta S t rombe rg . S he h a sd e s igned s ome a l te rna t ive mode ls b a sed o nt h er e su l t s s of a rf r om t h el a rge -sca le r e sea rche sw i th in t h eH ages tad d i s t r ic t ( i nc lud ing s u r round ing s )i nt h es ou th -ea s te rn p a r to fS can ia , S ou the rn Sweden ( F ig . 1 ) . T he r e sea rches h ave b een i n p rog ress s i nce t h e 1 960 s w i th v a ry ing i n tens i ty ( c f . S t rombe rg 1 975 , 1 980 : 7 2 fa nd 1 983 : 1 41 f ;s ee a l so t h i sv o lume ) . Howeve r , w e h ave t op ay a t ten t ion t ot h e f a c tt h a tw e n ow a r ed ea l ing w i th aq u i te d i f f e ren tg eog raph ica lp a r to fS cand inav ia c ompa red t ot h ef o rme r . S can ia h a sd i f f e r en t t o pog raph ica lp re r equ i s i t ie sa nd u pt ot h a tt ime h ad d i f f e rences i ns oc ia l ,e conom ic a nd c u l tu ra l p e r spec t ives a sw e l l . T he f o rme r a r ea s ( Eas te rn M idd le Sweden ) c ons t i tu ted ma rg ina l a r ea s i nr e la t ion t oS can ia ( c f . J ensen 1 986 : 1 7 a nd J ensen i np r in t aa nd b ) . C once rn ing t h en a tu re a nd t h ed eg ree o fp re serva t ion o fa r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce ma te r ia l , w e a r e c onf ron ted w i th a no the rp i c tu re . P a r t s o ft h e g rave c omp lexe s a nd c eme te r ie s a nd ac ons ide rab le p a r t o ft h e s e t t lemen t s h ave u nfo r tuna te ly b een d es t royed o r a r e l a rge ly u nd iscove red a nd c onsequen t ly u nknown . T h is i sd ue t o t he w idespread c u l t iva t ion i nt h i sp a r to f Sweden ( J en sen 1 987 : 3 39 f ;Kyh lbe rg 1 982 : 1 2 ; S t je rnqu is t 1 983a : 1 51f ; We l inde r 1 972 : 1 72f a nd o the r s ) . T h is a l so a pp l ie st ot h eD an i sh c on tex t a sw e l l ( c f . a r t ic le si nI C r is t iansen1985 ) . Howeve r ,r eg is te red a nd e xcava ted s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re s s uch a st r aces o fh ouse s ,h ea r th s , e t c . , h ave i n c rea sed i nn umbe rd u r ing t h e t wo l a te s td ecade s b o th i nS can ia a nd i nD enma rk ( c f . S t je rnqu i s t 1 983b ; S t rombe rg 1 980 a nd 1 983 ;T h rane 1 985 : 1 42 f ) . T o s ome e x ten t S t römbe rg a s sumes a d oub le -edged a t t i tude c oncern ing t h e

14

A L TERNA T IV A

A L TERNA T IV B 4

4

, /

0

0

0

0

F ig . 7 a -b . Mode l ss how ing t wo a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion sc once rn ing r e la t ionsh ip sb e tween s e t t lemen t s i te ( s qu a re )a nd c eme te ry ( c i r c le )[ a f te rS t rombe rg 1 980 :8 0 ] .

L ogs T w igs

N EIGHBOUR ING S OCIETY

/7 S :asonal s ite ( Sheep\ Z rm ing)

1S ATTELITE s

N EIGHBOUR ING S OCIETY

S easonal s ite ( Sheepf arm ing)

M A IN S ETTLEMENT S ITE W ITH C EMETARY

S ETTLE-

M ENT S ITES F lint a n s tone ( co l l ect ion a n w orking) F ishing H unting G ather ing C OAST

C OAST

F ig . 7 c . Mode li lu s t ra t ing as e t t l emen ts t ruc tu re w i th t empo ra ry ' s a te ll i te s ' ,s ma l l -s ca le d we l l ing s i te s f o r s p ec ia l ized a c t iv i t ie s , r e la ted t ol a rge r ma in s e t t lemen t s i te ( c ap t ion t r an s la ted t oE ng l i sh ) [ a f te r S t rombe rg 1 980 : 8 1 ] .

15

i n te rpr e ta t ion o ft h er e la t ionsh ips , o n t h eo ne h and b e tween d i f f e r en ts e t t lemen tu n i t s a nd o n t h e o the r b e tween s e t t lemen t s i tes a nd g rave l o ca l i t ies . T he h ypo theses a r e s haped i nt wo a l te rna t ive mode l s( S t rom b e rg 1 980 : 8 0 ) . A l terna t ive A ( F ig . 7 a ) : T he s e t t lemen ts i te a nd t h eg rave c en t re sa r et ob e s e en a sa f unc t iona l u n i t w i th in as t a t iona ry s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re w he re s eve ra l c on tempo ra ry s ma l l -sca le s e t t lemen t se x is tc l o se t oe ach o the r b u tw i th s epa ra ted g rave c en t re s .T o s ome e x ten t , S t römbe rg i sw i l l ing t o g ive p ref e rence t o t h is a l te rna t ive b ecau se o f o b se rved t r ace si nt h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd . Howeve r , S t römbe rg i sp repa red t og i ve p ref ence t oa l terna t ive B a sw e l l( F ig .7 b ) , t h a ti s , t h ee x is tence o f amob i le s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re .H e re w e mee t ac ycl i ca lp a t te rn : p eop le move a nd r e tu rn a f t er a' wh i le '( s eve ra ld ecade s? )t ot h es ame p lace . D u r ing t h i s p roce ss t h ey u se t h e mo s ta d jacen tc eme te ry a nd p o s s ib ly s t i l lo t her s w h ich t h ef am i ly o rt h e' g roup 'h a sp rev ious ly b een c onnec ted w i th . S t rombe rg p o in t so u tt h a tt h e mob i le a l te rna t ive i st h ew inne ri nt h ee nd .T he f o r emo s t a rgumen tf o rt h i sp o s i t ion i ss imp ly t h e s t a temen tt h a ts eve ra lo the rs cho la r sn owaday s a r eo ft h eo p in ion t h a tt h eB ronze A ge s oc ie ty h ad amob i le s t ruc tu re i nt h e se p a r t so f S cand inav ia .T he d i scus s ion c once rn ing s t a t ionary ( s eden ta ry )v s . mob i le s t ruc tu r e sc an b ee xemp l if ied i nF ig . 2( c f . a l so B ecke r 1 980 : 1 39 f ;L a r s son 1 986a : 1 04 ; K r i s t ian sen 1 978 : 1 74 f ;S t je rnqu i s t 1 983a : 1 52 fa nd 1 983b : 1 30 f ;S t rom b e rg 1 983 : 1 41 f a nd We l inde r 1 977 : 1 52 f ) . T he p rob lem c once rn ing mob i le v s . s eden ta ry s e t t lemen t ( a nd e conom ic )s t ruc tu re si sc e r ta in ly g o ing t ob e as ub jec tf o rf u r the rd i scus s ion . Howeve r , S t römbe rg d eve lops h e rt r a in o ft hough t ss t i l l mo re ( i b id 1 980 : 8 1 ) ,w hen s he i n troduce sy e ta no ther mod e l ( F ig .7 c ) . S he h o ld st h a ti nc e r ta in s i tua t ions w eh ave t od ow i th s o -ca l led ma in ( c en t ra l )s e t t lemen ts i te so nt h eb a s ic l e ve l ,t o wh ich ' s a t e l l i t e ' ( s econda ry o rs pec ia l )d wel ing s i te sh ave b een r e la ted ,i . e . ,p a r t so ft h ep opu la t ion o n t h e s t a t iona ry c en t ra l s i te h ave s ea sona l ly b een l i v ing o n t h e ' s a te l l i te s ' f o r s pec ia l p u rpo se s c oncern ing s ubs is tence . T he ' s a te l l i tes ' h ad t h e f unc t ion o f t empo ra l o r s e a sona l ly o ccup ied s i te s .T he c onc lu s ion i s :b ecau se o ft h ed i s tu rbed c u l tu re l a ye r so n p rev ious s e t t lemen t s i tes , mos t ly c au sed b y mode rn c u l t iva t ion , i ti sp o ss ib le t h a t s e t t lemen t s , o rg ina l ly w i th s epa ra te f unc t ions ,n owadays a r ei n co r rec t ly i n te rp re ted a s b e ing q u i te s im i la rs t ruc tu re s . B ack t ot h e Mä lar B a s in -More ' S a te l l i te s ' When d i scu s s ing t h is l a t te r mode lb y S t rom b e rg w eh ave t od ea lw i th a no the r mode l ( F ig . 8 ) f o rmu la ted b y Ma ts B u r s t röm a nd b a sed o n al o ca l B ronze Age s e t t lemen t p a t ter n i nn or th -ea s tern S öde rman land ( Bu r s t röm 1 984 : 2 2 ) . H oweve r , t he mode l i s t hough t t o wo rk w i th a mo re s pa t ia l e x tens ion , i n c lud ing t he c oa s ta l B ronze Age e nv i ronmen ts i n E a s te rn Sweden . T he t wo mode ls b y S t römbe rg ( F ig . 7 c ) a nd B u r s t röm ( F ig . 8 ) h ave t wo ma in p o in t s i nc ommon : ( 1 ) b a s ica l ly t h ey a r e a lmos t i d en t ica l ly s t ruc tu red ; ( 2 )t h et wo b a s ic c oncep t s ma in ( H )a nd ' s a tel i te '( S )s e t t lemen t s i te sa r ei d en t ica l( bo th l i t e ra l ly a nd a cco rd ing t of unc t ion ) .T he d i f f e rence i sp r inc ipa l ly t ha t B u r s t röm ' s mode l i n aw ay h a s a mo re d ynam ic o r c omp lex s t ruc tu re . I n B u r s t röm ' s mode lw e mee tt h ree ma in s e t t lemen tu n i t s ,e ach w i th t h e i r own ' s a te l l i te s ' , b u tr e la ted t oe ach o the rb o th s oc ia l ly a nd a cco rd ing t os ub s i s tence .T hus , ac e r ta in k ind o fe xp lo i ta t ion ( o fe nv i ronmen t ) -w h ich k ind i sn o ts ugge s ted -d emand s c oope ra t ion b e tween p eop le f r om s eve ra l ma in s i te s .T he se k ind so fa c t iv i t ie sa r e ma in ly t ob ef ound o n t h e t empo ra ry ' s a te l l i te s ' ( X ) , w he re e xchange a nd d i f f e ren t k ind s o f s oc ia l a nd r e l ig iou sa c t iv i t ie sa r et hough tt ot a ke p l ace a sw el .A l t e rna t ive ly ,t h e mode l may s how o n ly o ne s e t t lemen tu n i ta nd t h e movemen tb e tween d i f f e ren t ma in s e t t lemen ts i te si na c i rcu la t ion s y s tem , n o t s ea sona l ly b a sed b u t b ecause o fa n e x tens ive s l a sh -and -burn c u l t iva t ion f o ri n s tance . T h i sa l te rna t ive i sv e ry b r ie f ly d i scus sed b yB u r s t röm . 16

F ig .8 . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing ah ypo the t ica lB ronze A ge s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re i nE a s te rn M idd le Sweden . L egend : ( H ) ma in s e t t lemen t s i te ; ( s ) ' s a te l l i te s ' ( s ea sona l ly o ccup ied s i te s w i th in a s ubs i s tence s t ra t egy ) ; ( x )' s a tel i te 'f o rs pe c ia lp u rpo se s ,u sed s imu l taneou s ly a nd t o ge the rw i th g roup sf r om s eve ra l m a in s i te s . A l te rna t ive ly , t h e mode l m ay s how o n ly o ne s e t t lemen t u n i t a nd t h e movemen tb e tween d i f f e ren tm a in s e t t lemen ts i t e si n ac i r cu la t ion s y s tem [ a f te rB u r s t röm 1 984 :2 2 ] .

B ur s t röm c ha rac ter izes h i s mode l a s h ypo the t ica l . T he h ypo the t ica l e l emen t s a r e p e rhaps mos t e v iden t c once rn ing t h e t empo ra l , s econda ry s i tes . B u r s t röm d raws a t ten t ion t ot h ef a c t t h a tg ood e xamp les i lu s t ra t ing t h ee x i s tence o fs uch p lace si nt h e a r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce ma te r ia l c anno tb ef ound w i th in t h er e sea rch a r ea ,a nd h ec l a im s t ha t aw ide r a r ea h a s t o b e a na lyzed . B es ides t he d i scu ss ion b y S t römbe rg a nd B u r s t röm , s im i la r p ropo sa l s c oncern ing t he h ypo the t ica l e x is tence o f t empo ra l , s ea sona l ly b a sed h ab i ta t ion s i te s h ave b een p re sen ted b y T h . B . L a r sson c oncern ing c er ta in s e t t lemen ts i te si nE a s te rn O s te rgö t land ( La r s son 1 986b : 3 4 fa nd t h e mode li n F ig . 6a bove ) a nd i n S can ia ( La r sson 1 986a : 1 04 ) . T he s ugges t ion s b y S t römbe rg , B u r s t röm , L a r sson a nd o the r s a r e i n te res t ing a nd s t i mu la t ing b u t r equ i re c on t inu ing a na lyses o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . None the less , t wo mode ls ( S t römbe rg 's a nd B u r s t röm ' s ) e x i s t ,v e ry s im i la ri nc ha rac te rb u tf o rmu la ted w i th in t wo q u i te d i f fe ren t r eg ion sw i th h e te rogenou sp re requ i s i te s . I ns p i te o f( o rb ecau se o f ! )t h e se d i f f e rence s ,i t may b eu sefu lt oi n te rp re tf u r the ri fs im i lar e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re sr ea l ly c an o r ig ina te w i th in s uch d i spara te a r ea s . L a s t ly , B u r s t röm r e f e r s t oB er ta S jemqu i s t 's c r i t ica lc ommen t so nS e rv ice ' se vo lu t iona ry mode lo fs oc ie ty a nd t oh e rd ef in i t ion o ft h e 17

c oncep t so f' t r ibe ' a nd ' c h iefdom ' . S t jemqu i s t empha s ize s t h ei mpo r tance o fa na ly ses c once rn ing t h e d eg ree o f i n te rg ra t ion w i th in s oc ie ty w hen t a lk ing a bou t ' t r ibe s ' o r ' c h iefdoms ' ( o r ' c h ief ta in s ys tem s ' a cco rd ing t o S t jemqu is t ' s t e rm ino logy ) . I n a d i scuss ion o f t he S can ian B ronze Age s oc ia l f o rma t ion , s he i n t roduces a n a n th ropo log ica l a na logy c once rn ing t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu re w i th in a n E a s tA f r ican N ue r t r ibe .T he s oc ia lf o rma t ion o ft h eN ue rt r ibe si si lu s t ra ted b y amode l( S t jemqu i s t 1 983 : 6 1 ; B u r s t röm 1 984 : 2 4 ) . Mod e l st h eS can ian Way We w i l l n ow move o n t o ad i scu ss ion o f S t ig We l inder a s mode l b u i lder . I n h i s ' P reh i s to r ic E conomy d u r ing a nE xpan s ion S t age ' (We l inde r 1 977 ) ,w h ich ma in ly d ea l s w i th B ronze Age S can ia , h e t r ies t oa pp ly ac h iefdom s t ruc tu re t ot h e B ronze Age s oc ie ty , w i th r e f e rences t ot r aces i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . F u r the rmo re , h es t a te s t h a tt h ec u l tura ll a nd scape w a sf i l led ( ad en se p opu la t ion ) i nt h ec en t ra l a r ea s a l ready d u r ing t he t r ans i t ion b e tween E a r ly a nd L a te B ronze Age . A g radua l ly s e t t lemen t e xpan s ion t owa rd st h em a rg ina la r ea sc an b ed e tec t ed i nt h es ou r ce ma te r i a la cco rd ing t o We l inde r . H e p resen ts a n umbe r o f mode l s o f d i f f eren t c ha rac ter , f r om w h ich t h e f olow ing w il b ep r esen ted b e low : T he f i r s t mode l ( F ig .9 a )c once rn st h er e sou r ce a r ea ( o rs oc ia lt e rr i to ry , 1km2)o fa s i ng le s e t t lemen ts i te g roup w i th r e f e rence t ot h eo u te rp a r t so ft h ec en t ra la r ea i nS can ia a nd w i th ap ronounced a g ra r ian e conomy i n c lud ing e x tens ive c a t t le -b r eed ing (We l inde r 1 977 :155 ) . B o th s e t t lemen t s i te a nd a rab le l and a r e mob i le w i th in a s h if t ing s l a sh -and -bu rn c u l t iva t ion s y s tem . ( No te t h ec en t ra lp o s t ion o fg rave - a nd c u l tp la ce , a p os i t ion wh ich c an b e q ues t ioned a cco rd ing t oD . C a r ls son 's a pproach b e low ) . T he mode li sa c tua l ly b a sed o ne xcava ted s e t t lemen ts i te s( ma in ly L a te B ronze A ge ) ,i nt h e f i r s tp lace f r om H ö tof ta b u tf r om K va rnby a sw e l l ,t ot h e s ou th -ea s ta nd t ot h ee a s to f Ma lmö . T he n ex t mod e l ( F ig .9 b )r e f e r st o as e t t lemen ts i te g roup w i th in t h ec en t ra la r ea w i th af u l la g ra r ian e conomy ( i b id 1 977 : 1 57 ) . We r e cogn ize ap e rmanen ts e t t lemen ts i t eb u t r e la ted t o mob i le ( s h if t ing )a r ab le l a nd . We s t i l lf i nd ac en t ra lg rave -a nd c u l tp lace .T h i s mode l i st ob e s e en a sa n a l te rna t ive t ot h e f o rme ra nd a pp l ies t o mo r e l ong l ived a nd l a rge -sca le s e t t lemen t s w i th in t h e c en t ra l a r ea . Ap ecu l iar i ty i st ha t w hen We l inder s ea rche sf o rs uppo r ti nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,h eu ses t h el a rge B romö l la s i te c l o se t ot h el ake I vö s jön i nt h en o r th -ea s te rn p a r to fS can ia a sa ne xamp le .T h is a r ea h a sb een c l a s s if ied a s ama rg ina l a r ea b y We l inde rh im se lf ( i b id 1 977 : 3 5 ) , b u ti sn ow u sed t o e xempl i fy as t ruc tu re t yp ica lf o rt h ec en t ra la r ea .F u r the rmo re ,i ts hou ld b en o t iced t h a t c once rn ing t h ef o rme r mode l ( F ig . 9 a ) , wh ich s how s a mob i le s e t t lemen tu n i tp robab ly i nt h eo u te rp a r to ft h ec en t ra la r ea , We l inde ra lmo s te xc lu s ive ly d i scusses t h eH ö to f ta a nd Kva rnby s i te s ,b o th s i tua ted w i th in t h ec en t ra la r ei ns ou th -we s te rn S can ia .T he se c i r cum s tance sp e rhaps i lu s t ra te t h ep rob lem sw i th r e la t ing t h es ou r ce ma te r ia l( d a ta )t o mode ls ( t heo ry ) . Anyhow , We l inde r ' s t h ird mode l ( F ig . 9 c ) r e f e r s t o as e t t lemen t u n i t w i th in a ma rg ina l a r ea ( i b id 1 977 : 1 58 ) . We a r e c onf ron ted w i th a n e xamp le f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd : t h ee xcava ted V adgä rd s i te b y t h eL i mf jo rden w a ter s y s tem i n J u t land , D enma rk . We l inde rp ropo se s t h e p re sence o f ap e rmanen t s i te w i th am ixed e conomy ( c u l t iva t ion a nd f i sh ing ) . T he s t a tu s o f ama rg ina l a r ea c an b e d i scu ssed , I t h ink . I ti s ar e la t ive c oncep tw h ich mu s tb ed ef ined a cco rd ing t oc on tex t . I n al o ca lo r r eg iona lp e r spec t ive i tmay p e rhap sb ed ef ined a s am a rg ina la r ea ,a sh a sa l so b een d one b y We l inde r( ma in ly b ecau se o ft h em ixed e conomy ,i n s tead o f af u l la g ra r ian ) .B u ti na l a rge ri n te r r eg iona lp e r spec t ive ,i nr e la t ion t oa r ea sf u r the rt ot h en o r th i nS cand inav ia ,i t i sp robab ly s i tua ted w i th in t h e c en t ra l a r eas i nD enma rk /Sou the rn Sweden ( Scan ia ) .

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R ESOURCE A REA sIk m2

R ESOURCE A REA Il u n2

SOCIAL T ERRIT ORY

C• 1« h i e ten t e ft•

F ig .9 a . T he r e sou r ce a r ea ( s oc ia l t e r r i to ry )o f as e t t lemen ts i t eg roup i nS ou th S cand inav ia d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge . T he a r ea i su s ed f o rs h i f t ing c u l t iva t ion , g ra z ing a nd f odde rp roduc t ion ( f o l iage ) . I nt h i s mode l t h e s e t t lemen t s i te a s w e l l a s t h e a r ab le l a nd a r e mob i le w i th in a c i r cu la t ion s y s t em [ a f te r We l inde r 1 977 : 1 55 ] . F ig .9 b . Mode lo f ar e sou r ce a r ea ( a si nF ig .9 a )w i th ap e rmanen t ly l o ca ted s e t t lemen ts i te b u ts h if t ing a r ab le l a nd [ a f te r Wel inde r 1 977 : 1 57 ] . F ig . 9 c . Mode lo f ar e sou r ce a r ea ( a si nF ig s . 9 aa nd 9 b )w he re t h ea r ea i n lude s ac a tchmen ta r ea ( e .g . t h es e a )[ a f t e r We l ind e r 1 977 : 1 58 ] .

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T he t h ree mode l s a s s uch d o n o t r ef lec t as t ra t if ied o r h i era rch ica l s oc ie ty . T h i s d epends ma in ly o n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e mode l s a r e b a sed o n as i ng le p opu la t ion u n i t . H oweve r , a cco rd ing t o We l inde r ' sd i scu ss ion , i ti se v iden tt h a tt h i sb a s ic s t ruc tu re i s t ob es e en w i th in as t ra t if ied o rh i e ra r ch ica ls o c ie ty w i th ac h iefdom c ha rac te r . C r i t ica l c ommen t s h ave b een made w i th r ega rd t o We l inde r ' s mode l b u i ld ing a nd a na ly se s : t oo much s t res s i sl a id u pon a n e co log ica l o re nv i ronmen ta l is t ic a pp roach ( Be r t i lsson & L a r sson 1 985 ; L a r s son 1 986a : 8 ) , t h e r e sou rce a r ea s ( 1 km2 )a r et oo s ma l l ( La r s son 1 986a : 1 04 ) ,t h ep roce s sua l s e t t lemen tc ou r se f r om c en t ra lt om arg ina l a r ea sc an b ed oub ted ( S t jemqu i s t 1 983a : 1 51 0 , t h ec h iefdom a pp roach i sq ue s t ioned ( Broadben t 1 983 : 1 f ;S t jemqu i s t 1 983 : 1 47 f )a sw e l l a st h ec onnec ted e vo lu t iona ry a pp roach ( S t je rnqu i s t 1 983a : 1 48 ) a nd t h e s y s tem ic a nd s t a t ic i n te rp re ta t ion o fs oc ia l s t ruc tu re ( La r sson 1 986a : 8 ;S päng 1 978 : 1 07 ) . H oweve r , e ven i fs ome c onc lu s ions may b e q ues t ioned , We l inder ' s a pp roach h as , i n my o p in ion , h ad a r ema rkab le i n f luence o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l d eba te i n S cand inav ia . No t o n ly w a s h i s a pp roach i n nova t ive b u ti ta l so s t imu la ted f u r the rs t ud ie s . F u r the rmo re , We l inde r ' so p in ion o ft h e e x is tence o f c h iefdom s ys tem s h a s r a the r w ide spread s uppo r t ( c f . B u renhu l t 1 983 ; J ensen 1 979 , 1 983 ; K r is t iansen 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 982 , 1 983 , 1 986 ; R and sbo rg 1 974 a nd T irane 1 980 , 1 984 ) . We l inde r ' s s e t o f mode l s , a s w e l l a st h e a pproach a s aw ho le , h ave b een w ide ly a nd i n tens ive ly d i scussed a nd c on sequen t ly , t h e mode l s h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h ee s sen t ia la r chaeo log ica ld eba te . A Dan i sh F ormu la H en r ik T irane d i scu s se sf i ve a l te rna t ive mode l sw i th r e f e r ence t os e t t lemen t ,e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ruc ture s d ur ing t h e L a te B ronze Age i n t h e Vo ld tof te a r ea o n F unen , D enma rk ( Th rane 1 980 : 1 65 0 . T irane q ue s t ion s t h et r ad i t iona lv iew o ft h eB ronze Age s oc ie ty , ma in ly w i th as t a t ic s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re w i th s t a t iona ry s e t t lemen ta r ea s . T irane p ref e r st h ei d ea o f amob i le e xp lo i ta t ion o fe nv i ronmen t . T he t wo i n t roduc to ry mode l si lus t ra te t h e' t r ad i t iona l 'a pp roach . T he f i r s t mod e l ( F ig . 1 0a ) s how sa ne ga l i ta r ian s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu r eo f au n if o rm s i ze a nd s t a t ic o rs t a t iona ry s e t t lemen tu n i t s ( i b id 1 980 : 1 66 ) .T he s econd m od e l ( F ig . 1 0b ) i lu s t ra tes s im i la rs t ruc tu re s ,b u tw i th t h ed i s t inc t ion t h a tt h e' s t anda rd u n i t s 'a r er e la ted s oc ia l ly a nd e conom ica l ly t o al a rge rc en t ra lu n i t( i b id 1 980 : 1 66 ) .I nt h i sl a t te rc a se w e a r ec onf ron ted w i th ad i f f e ren t ia ted o rs t ra t if ied s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re t o ac e r ta in d eg r ee . T he n ex t mod e l s ( F ig . 1 0c -d )i lu s t ra te mo re r e levan ts i tua t ion sa cco rd ing t oT h rane ( 1980 : 1 68 ) . T hey h ave amo re d ynam ic c ha rac te rc ompa red t ot h e f o rme r , a sw ea r e c onf ron ted w i th mob i le s e t t lemen tu n i t s . O the rw i se t h e mode li nF ig . 1 0c c o r re spond s t oF ig . 1 0a , t h a ti s , as e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re c on s i s t ing o f an umbe ro fu n i t so f au n i fo rm o rs im i la rs i ze . I na cco rdance w i th t h i s , t h e mode li nF ig . 1 0d c o r r espond st oF ig . 1 0b s i nce h e re w e h ave as t ra t if ica t ion , a cco rd ing t oT h rane , w i th in ac h iefdom . I nb o th c a se s w e r e cogn ize an umbe ro f mob i le ' s t anda rd ' s e t t lemen t u n i ts r e la ted t o al a rge r c en tra l s i te ( wh ich , a cco rd ing t ot h e mode l , a l so c an b ei n te rp re ted a s mob i le ) . A s a n a dd i t iona lc ommen ta ry ,T h rane p ropo se st h a tt h es t a t ic t e r r i to r ie si nF ig . 1 0 ca nd dm ay , s e en i n al ong te rm p e r spec t ive , g radua l ly a t ta in amob i le c ha rac te ra s t h e d eg ree o f d ynam ic i n cr ea se sb ecause o ft h e mob i le s e t t lemen ts i te s .T he p o ten t ia lo f a' t e r r i to r ia l d ynam ic 'i sp robab ly mo s te v iden ti nt h e s t ra t if ied F ig . 1 0d ,w he re t h es t ruc tu re so ft h e s e t t lemen t sa nd t h ep roduc t ion a r ea sc an b ec hanged b ecause o fi n c rea sed a nd i n ter na l c ompe t i t ion . Howeve r , o ne c an w onde r w hy t h e s e t t lemen t s i tes a r e mob i le i ft h e p roduc t ion a r ea s a r en o t ( o rb ecome mob i le b ecause o ft h e mob i le s i te s ) . Why n o tt h e r eve r se?

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F ig . 1 0a . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing a n e ga l i ta r ian s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re o f au n ifo rm s i ze a nd w i th s t a t iona ry s e t t lemen t u n i t s [ a f te r T h rane 1 980 : 1 66 ] . F ig . 1 0b . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing as e to f' s t anda rd ' s e t t lemen tu n i t sr e la ted t o al a rge rc en t ra l u n i tw i th in a s t a t iona ry s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re [ a f te rT h rane 1 980 : 1 66 ] . F ig . 1 0c . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing a s e t o f mob i le s e t t lemen t u n i t s o f au n ifo rm s i ze [ a f te r T h rane 1 980 : 1 68 ] . F ig . 1 0d . Mode l i lus t ra t ing as e t o f mob i le ' s t anda rd ' s e t t lemen t u n i t s r e la ted t o al a rge r ( mob i le ) c en t ra ls i te [ a f te rT h rane 1 980 : 1 68 ] .

T he l a s t mode l b y T h rane ( F ig . 1) may b e s een a s ad eve lopmen t o f F ig . 1 0d c omb ined w i th a n a na ly s i s o fk nown d a ta f r om t h e Vo ld to f te a r ea ( i b id 1 980 : 1 72 ) . T h rane s t a r t sw i th ah ypo the s i s : t h el a rge K i rkeb je rg s e t t lemen tc l o se t ot h el a rge b a r row L useho j , f unc t ioned a s ac en t ra l p l ace w i th in a c h iefdom s t ruc ture . T h is

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c h iefdom t e r r i to ry i sd ef ined b ya na ly se so ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fb a r row sa nd a cco rd ing t o ' n a tu ra l ' ( t opog raph ica l ) b o rde r s . Wi th in t h e s upe r io r( ch iefdom ) t e r r i to ry an umbe ro f ' s tanda rd ' s e t t lemen t se x i s t , e ach w i th i t s own r e sou rce a r ea . T hey h ave f unc t ioned a s i ndependen t e conom ic a nd s oc ia l u n i t s o n b a s ic l eve l , b u t o n h igher l eve l s a s s ubo rd ina ted i nr e la t ion t ot h ec en t ra l s i te . T he s ub s i s tence e conomy w a sp r ima r ly o fa n a g ra r ian c ha rac te ri n c lud ing b o th c u l t iva t ion a nd s t ock -b reed ing . Howeve r , i n ac oa s ta l p o s i t ion w e f i nd s e t t lemen t s w i th ap ronounced m ixed e conomy ( cu l t iva t ion , f i sh ing , g a ther ing , e t c . ; c f . We l inde r 's mode l i n F ig . 9 c ) . T h rane h o ld s t ha t t hese c oa s ta l h ab i ta t ions may h ave h ad ak ey p o s i t ion i n at r an s i ts y s tem c onnec ted w i th e x te rna lt r ade a nd e xchange . ' F o r s a f e ty ' s s ake ' T h rane a dd s a' s a te l l i te s ys tem ' w i th as econda ry o r s ubo rd ina te c en t ra l p lace i nt h e mode l . T he m ino r c en t re i s ap a ra l le l t ot he s upe r io r c en t re b u ty e ts ubo rd ina te i nr e la t ion t ot h e ma in s e t t lemen t . T o c onc lude : T h rane ' s a l te rna t ive mode ls a r e s im i la rt o We l inde r ' s i ns eve ra lw ays , n o t l e a s t s i nce b o th r e la te t h e i r mode ls t o ah i e ra rch ica l s e t t lemen t s t ruc tur e w i th in a c h iefdom s y s tem . Howeve r , We l inde r ' s mode ls a re r e la ted t o ab a s ic l eve l , wh i le T h rane l i nks a s e t o f s e t t lemen t u n i t s t oge the r i n as y s tem , d escr ib ing a c h iefdom s t ruc tu re .

F ig . 1 . Mode l i lu s t ra t ing aB ronze A ge c h ie fdom s t ruc tu re w i th ac en t ra l s e t t lemen t u n i ta nd r e la ted ( s ubo rd ina ted ) ' s tanda rd ' a nd mob i le s e t t lemen t u n i t s w i th s t a t iona ry ( o r t h rough t ime mob i le ) t e r r i to r ie s . No te t h e c onnec ted ' s a te l l i te ' s y s tem w i th as ubo rd ina ted c en t ra l s i te [ a f te r T h rane 1 980 : 1 72 ] .

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F ocu so nG o t land T h i s mode l( F ig . 1 2 )i sd e s igned b yD an C a r l s son a nd i sp r ima r i ly b a sed o nr e sea r che s i nB u t t le p a r i sh o n Go t land , Sweden ( Ca r l sson 1 983 : 2 3 O . Howeve r , t h e mode l i s p robab ly v a l id f o rG o t land a s aw ho le a nd i lu s t r a t e st h ef i na lp ha se o f as o c io -econom ic p roce s sd u r ing t h ec ou r se o ft h eB ronze A ge a nd t h u s s h ed sl i gh to nt h es i tua t ion d u r ing t h e t r ans i t ion b e tween L a te B ronze Age -E a r ly I r on Age . A cco rd ing t o Ca i s son , s eden ta ry s e t t lemen t u n i t s a r e f ound h e r e a nd a l so s t a t ionary p roduc t ion a r ea s ( c u l t iva t ion , p a s tu re ) i nt h e c en t ra l p a r t s o ft h e t e r r i to r ie s a nd w i th d i spe r sed g rave l o ca l i t ie si nt h eo u te rp a r t so ft h et e r r i to r ie s . T he mode li st ob e s e en a sa na l te rna t ive c ompa r ed t o We l inde r ' s mode l s ( c f .F ig . 9 ) , w he r et h eg rave p l ace i sc en t ra l ized a nd t h e s e t t lemen tl o ca l ized t o amo r ep e r iphe ra l p o s i t ion . T he ma in r ea son , a cco rd ing t oC a r l s son ,f o r ad i spe r sed g rave p a t ter ni st h a t b u r ia l sa r ea l te rna t ing b e tween s epa ra ted g r ave c en t re s ,o nt h eo ne h and t o ma in ta in a nd c onf i rm t h e r e la t ionsh ip s t op a s t g ene ra t ions , a nd o n t h e o the r t ob e t te r b e a b le t o m a in ta in t h er i gh to fp o s se s s ion o rt h er i gh to fu se t ot h er e sou r ce a r ea ( s o c ia lt e r r i to ry ) a nd t om a rk t h ee x ten s ion o ft h et e r r i to ry a sw e l l . T he mode l i sf ounded o n ab a s ic t h eo ry ( o r s e t o f h ypo the se s ) c once rn ing t h e t e r r i to r ia l d eve lopmen t o f t h e c u l tu ra l l a nd scape : ag row ing p opu la t ion c ause s a n i mpove r ishmen t o f t h e r e sou r ce s i n t h e e nv i ronmen t , wh ich l e ad s t o i n c rea s ing e xp lo i ta t ion i n t en s i ty o ft h ee nv i ronmen t .T h i si mp l ie s amo r ep e rmanen tc onnec t ion t oa c e r ta in t e r r i to ry a nd t h u s ag r adua l ly i n c r ea s ing d emand t oc l ea r ly d ef ine t h i st e r r i to ry .A c hange f r om e x ten s ive t oi n ten s ive p roduc t ion s y s tem s g i ve sr i se t o ac hange f r om m ob i l e t os t a t ionary t e r r i to r ie s .Tha tp roce s si nf luence st h er i gh t so fp o s se s s ion a nd u se a cco rd ing t oe xp lo i ted a r ea s . T h rough t ime w e a r e c onf ron ted w i th at r ans i t ion f r om r i gh t o fu se t or i gh t o fp o s se s s ion .T he l a t te r i st h en p a s sed f r om c o l lec t ive i n to p r iva t e( p er sona l )o wne r sh ip .T h i sp roce s si n c r ea se st h en eed t oc l ea r ly d ef ine p rope r ty o ft h e f am i ly . C a r l s son i so ft h eo p in ion t h a tt h et r ans i t ion f r om mob i le t op e rmanen t p roduc t ion s y s tem si sr e la ted t o at r an s i t ion f r om s l a sh -and -burn c u l t iva t ion t os h if t ing c u l t iva t ion ( i n t roduc t ion o ft h ea r d )d u r ing t h em idd le o ft h eB ronze A ge o n Go t land . H oweve r , C a r l s son h a s n o t b een a b le t od e tec t a ny s i gn s o f s oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion , w h ich i si n d i rec t c on t ra s t t o t h e c u r ren t o p in ion t oday . I tc an b e d oub ted i fa n u n s t r a t i f ied s oc ia ls t ruc tu r ei sr e levan tf o rt h eB ronze A ge o f Go t land a s awho le .T he n umbe ro fa na ly se s mu s ti n c r ea se a nd f o cu sb o th o nm ic ro leve l sa nd o n mo r ee x tended r e sea r ch a r ea s .I nc onc lu s ion ,t h e r ei s much r e semb lance w i th C a r l s son 's a pp roach a nd e . g . B o se rup ' se co log ica lv i ew , b u tt h e mode lc an b et e rmed s oc io -econom ic a sw e l l , a nd t h ed i scu s s ion c once rn ing d i f f e r en tk ind so ft r an s i t ion s( mob i le -s t a t iona ry ,r i gh t s o fu se -r i gh t so fp o s se s ion ,c olec t ive o wne r sh ip -p r iva te p rope r ty )i ss t imu la t ing . AN orweg ian A pproach Now , w e h ave a r r ived a tt h e l a s t mode l o n o u r s u rvey . We t u rn t owa rd s S ou the rn N o rway a nd a to nce w e a r ec onf ron ted w i th ac omp le te ly d i f f e r en tt o pog raphy . H igh moun ta in s a l te rna t ing w i th d eep a nd n a r row v a l ley s a nd f r om t h ec oa s tw ec an f o l low f i o rd sr unn ing d eep i n to t h e i n land p a r t s . T he e nv i ronmen ta l p r e r equ i s i te s d ec ide t h e ' r u le so fg ame 't o ag rea te x ten t ,i . e . ,t h ee nv i ronmen ti sd e te rm inan ti nt h a ti ti mpo se s l im i t ing c on s t ra in t so nt h ep o s s ib il i t ie st oa c to nt h ee nv i ronm en t( c f .J en sen 1 988 :38 ,i n p r in t a ) . T h i s i sa bundan t ly c l ea r i nt h e se p a r t s o f S cand inav ia . T he l o ca t ion o f t h e B ronze A ge s e t t lemen ts i t e si nt h ea r ea i sr a the ru nknown . A cco rd ing t oA nd e r sH ag en t h i sc an p a r t ly b ee xp la ined b yt h ep r in c ip le o fs e t t lemen tc on t inu i ty ( Hagen 1 983 : 2 48 ) . T he s e t t lemen ta r ea sh ave n eve rb een a bandoned ( i np r inc ip le ) .

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a nd c ult l ocality

F ig . 1 2 . Mode l i lu s t r a t ing as t a t iona ry s e t t lemen ts i t e i n ac en t ra l p o s i t ion w i th in t h e t e r r i to ry w i th a d ja cen tp roduc t ion a r ea sa nd w i th ad i spe r sed g rave d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h eo u t e rp a r t so ft h et e r r i to ry [ a f t e r C a r l s son 1 983 : 3 5 ] . F ig . 1 3 . Mode li lu s t ra t ing as t a t iona ry s e t t lemen tu n i t( i nc lud ing s t a t iona ry f i e ld s )a nd w i th e x t en s ive u se o ft h eo u t ly ing l a nd .T he mode l ' so r ig ina lc ap t ion i st r an s la ted f r om No rweg ian [ a f te rH agen 1 983 : 2 49 ] .

T hu s , Hagen i sf o rced t od ea l w i th i nd ica t ion s -r ock -ca rv ings , t r ace s o fc u l t iva t ion , p l ace -name se t c .H agen h a sa r ranged t h e se ' i nd ica t ion s 't h rough t h ep re sen ta t ion o ft wo mode ls b a sed o np r inc ip le . T he f i r s t mod e l i sa dop ted f r om We l inde ra nd i si d en t ica l w i th F ig . 9 a( Hagen 1 983 :249 ) . H agen s t a te st h a tt h i s mode l may h ave i t sr e levance a s a ni lus t ra t ion o ft h ec i rcum s tance sd u r ing t h ea g ra r ian p r ima ry p ha se ( s la sh -and -bu rn c u l t iva t ion ) , b efo re t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t he a rd , wh ich c on t r ibu ted t o c hange t he s e t t lemen tp a t te rn ( c f . C a r ls son ' s d i scu ss ion a bove ) . T he w eakne s s o ft h e mode l i s , a cco rd ing t oH agen ,t ha ti tw i l lb e h a rd t ot e s t a r chaeo log ica l ly , s e en i n aNo rweg ian c on tex t . T he s econd m od e l , o u t l ined b yH agen h im se lf ,i ss een i nF ig . 1 3 ( Hagen 1 983 : 2 49 ) . H e re w e mee t amo re p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re i n c lud ing s t a t iona ry f i e ld s . A g rave - a nd c u l t s i te e x is ted ( g raves a nd r ock -ca rv ing s ) . T he c en t ra l a r ab le l a nd wa s h ypo the t ica l ly s upp lemen ted w i th b u rn -bea ten l a nd ,h unt ing ,f i sh ing ,e t c . ,i . e . , am ixed e conomy . F o rt h e momen t , t h i s s e cond mode l i se a s ie rt or e la te t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a cco rd ing t oH agen . O y s te in J ohan sen d i scu s se s b r ief ly t h e mode ls b y H agen ( and We l inde r ) ( J ohansen 1 986 : 1 73 f ) . H ea g ree sw i th H agen t h a to u rk now ledge o ft h eB ronze Age s e t t lemen t

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s i te s i st o o l im i ted . J ohan sen empha s ize s t h a t i ti sn o t s t ra teg ie s w h ich h ave b een t h e l o ca t ion f o rces f o r n on -econom ic f a c to r s ( wh ich a r e n o t s pec if ied ) h ave s e t t lemen t a r ea s a sw e l l ( J ohansen 1 986 :173 a nd w i th H en sha l l 1 967 ) .

' MODEL B UILDERS'

L undmark

S TRATIF ICATION Y ES X

L arsson

S trömberg

B AS IS F OR I NTERPRETAT ION/EXPLANAT ION E COLOG ICAL/ECONOMIC

1

S OCIAL

D ifferent c ombinations o f s ocia l/eco logica l r e lat ions hips a nd w ithin- a nd b etween-group r e lat ionships c auses d isparate s ett lement p atterns

S e linge

H yenstrand

1N O

o n ly t h e p r ima ry s ub s i s tence s e t t l ing . T rade a nd s evera l b een a c t ing o n t h e c ho ice o f r e f e rence t oG reen 1 973 a nd

( X)

E xp loitation o f e co logical n iches

T riba l s ociet ies w ith t er n p orary c hiefdom o rganiz ations

P astora l e conomy

H ierarchica l s ett lement s tructure w ithin a t r ibal s ociety

( X)

S everal c ontemporary s tat ionary s mall-scale s ites

( X)

M obile s ett lement s tructure

( X)

M ain s ett lement s ite + ' satte lites '

' Democratic' o rganized s ociety, b ut w ith a t op l eve l, w hich p ower d epende d o n e conom ic a nd r e lig ious c ircumstances

( X)

X

-

M ob ile a nd u nregulated s ett lement s tructure. E xtensive l and u se. E mphasize p ut o n e co logical f orces.

( X )

C onc lusion: E conom ic a nd s ocial d ifferences m ost ly b ased o n l and u se a nd s urp lus p roduct ion

B urström

( X)

M ain s ite + ' s atte lites '. M ixed e conomy

W e linder

( X )

S tationary s ett lem ent u nits w ith a grar ian e conomy w ithin t he c entral ( core) z one

( X )

ifferentiated s ett lement M obile s ett lement s tructure, D , structure w ithin a c hiefa grar ian e conomy, i n t he -d om o rganizat ion o uter p arts o f t he c entral ( core) z one

( X)

S ett lements w ith p ronounced m ixed e conomy i n m arginal . a reas

T hrane

X

X

C ar lsson H agen

( X )

S tress o n t he d egree o f i ntegration w ithin t riba l s ocieties. ' Meetings' b et ween d ifferent s ett lem ent g roups o n t he i satte lites ' \

A grar ian e conomy ( agricu lt ure + s tock-breeding + t rade/exchange)

D ifferent iated s ett lement s tructure w ithin a c hiefd om o rganizat ion

T ransition f rom m obile t o s tat ionary t err itor ies

T ransit ion f rom c o llect ive t o p rivate o wnership

M ixed e conomy b ut w ith s tat ionary s ett lements a nd f ie lds

C hiefdom s tructure i n c ert am nr egions. S tability i n s ett lements, s ubsistence a nd k inship t rad it ions

F ig . 1 4 . S cheme b r ief ly i lu s t ra t ing d i f f e ren t m ode l b u i lde r s ' e xp lana t ion s o r i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e B ronze A ge s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re .

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Conc lus ion A s w e h ave s een , t h e mode ls i lu s t ra te e i the r as t ra t if ied o ra n u n s t ra t if ied s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu r e .T he s t ra t i f ied mode ls h ave d i f f e r en tc ha rac te r :t wo mode l ss how ss t ra t if ica t ion ( o rr a ther c omp lex i ty ) o n ab a s ic l e ve l w i th ama in c en t re a nd an umber o fs ea sona l ly ' s pec ia l c amps ' ( F ig . 7 c a nd F ig . 8 ) . O the r s r e f e r t o h i e ra rch ica l ly s t ruc tu red s oc ia l f o rma t ion w i th in a c h iefdom o r ' a dvanced ' t r iba l s ys tem ( F ig . 6a nd F ig . 1) . F u r the rmo re , t h e b a s i s f o re xp lana t ion c an ma in ly b ed iv ided i ne co log ica l /econom ic a nd s oc ia l( bu tn o ti d eo log ica l )f a c to r s( F ig . 1 4 ) . T he mode l s 'd eg ree so fo r ig in i nt h ea r chaeo log ica ls ou rce ma te r ia la r ef l uc tua t ing ,o n t h eo ne h and d epend ing o np rofund i ty a nd b read th o fa na lys i s ,o nt h eo the rd epend ing o nt h ea c tua ls ou r ce s i tua t ion . H yens t rand ' s mode l s ,f o ri n s tance ,a r eq u i te w e l lr oo ted i nk nown s ou r ce s , ma in ly b ecause o ft h ef a c tt h a ts e t t lemen t sa nd g rave sa r ea bundan t ly r ep re sen ted a nd p ropo r t iona te ly i n g ood c ond i t ion . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e mode ls b a sed o nD an ish a nd S can ian d a ta h ave ap oo ri n tac ts ou rce ma te r ia lc ompa r ed w i th t h e f o rme r a r ea , i . e . , d amaged g rave s t ruc tu res a nd r e la t ive ly f ew r ecorded s e t t lemen t s . T hu s , whe re t h e s ou rce ma te r ia l i sw e l l r epre sen ted , q uan t i ta t ive ly a nd w i th g ood v a r iab il i ty ,t h e mode lb u i ld ing i se a s ie ra nd mo r er el iab le ( i np r inc ip le ) .F o ri n s tance ,i n E a s te rn M idd le Sweden ( a nd p e rhaps i n Go t land )i ts eem st h a tt h en eed f o ra l te rna t ive mode l s i sl e s s t h an i nt h e i n ten s ive ly c u l t iva ted a r ea s , s uch a s S can ia a nd D enma rk , w he re ah igh p ropo r t ion o ft h e o r ig ina l s ou rce ma te r ia l i sd es t royed o r n o t v i sua l ly a cce s s ib le .T h i si sv a l id f o rt h es e t t lemen ts i te s ,n o tl e a s ti nS can ia . S im i la r i t ie sb e tween mode ls c an b e n o t iced , p e rhap s p a r t ly c aused b y i n f luence s a nd i n sp i ra t ion b e tween s cho la r s . O fc ou r se ,d i f f e rence so ccu r ,o nt h eo ne h and d epend ing o nd ive r s i t ie si nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd o n t h eo the rs ome t ime sd epend ing o nd i f f e ren to p in ions o n h ow t oi n te rp re tt h es ou r ce m a te r ia l . T he c oncep to f mode li ss e ldom o rn eve rd ef ined o re va lua ted b yt h e mode lb u i lde r s . A cco rd ing t oC la rke , mode l sa r eh ypo the se s . I ts e em st o me t h a t mode lb u i ld ing a l so g ene ra tes n ew h ypo the se s i n ah eu r is t ic p rocess b e tween h ypo theses , mode ls a nd t heo ry . I ti s ad ia lec t ic p rocess whe re t heo ry a nd d a ta a r e c onf ron ted w i th a nd i n te rm ing led w i th e ach o the r . B u tt h e re may b ed ange ri ne xagge ra t ing t h ev a lue o ft h e mode ls a s mean so fe xp lana t ion . P r ima r i ly , w eh ave t or ega rd mode ls a st oo ls w h ich s hed l i gh tu pon c omp lex c on tex t si np a s ts oc ie t ie si nr a the rs impl if ied manne r s . None the less , mode l b u i ld ing i n a r chaeo logy may b e u sefu l . T he g rea t n umbe r o f mode ls ,o f wh ich af ew h ave b een p re sen ted i nt h is p ape r ,i nd ica te an eed t ov i sua l ize i d ea s a nd h ypo the se s . T he o ne sp re sen ted a bove h ave s t imu la ted t h ed eba te a nd h ave i n sp i red f u r the ra na lyse s .

References Ab le r , R . , Adam s , J .S . & Gou ld , P . 1 977 . S pa t ia l O rgan iza t ion . P ren t ice -Ha l l . L ondon . A ch ins te in , P . 1 968 . C oncep t so fS c ience . J ohn Hopk in sP re s s . Ma ry land . B ecke r , C . J .1 980 . B ebygge lsefo rme r iD anma rk s y ng r e b ronzea lder s e t if o rho ld t i l 2 e ld s te j e rna lde r s l a nd sbysam fund . B roncea lder sbebygge l se iN orden ( Ed . H . T h rane ) ,p p . 1 27 -141 . O den se U n ive r s i te t . B er t i l sson , U . &L a r sson , T . B . 1 985 . E conomy a nd i d eo logy i nt h e Swed i sh B ronze Age .A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idge 4 :2 ,p p . 2 15 -226 . 1 26

B in fo rd , L . R . 1 972 . C on tempo ra ry mode lb u i ld ing : p a rad igm s a nd t h e c u r ren t s t a te o f P a leo l i th ic r e sea rch . Mode ls i n A rchaeo logy ( Ed . D . L . C la rke ) , p p . 1 09 -166 . Me thuen . L ondon . B roadben t , N . D . 1 983 . T oo many c h ief s a nd n o te nough i nd ian s . Ap e r iphe ra l v i ew o f No rd ic B ronze A ge s oc ie ty . S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l le . ( Ed . B . S t je rnqu is t ) . R epo r tS e r ie s 1 7 ,p p . 7 -22 . Un ive r s i ty o fL und . B u renhu l t , G . 1 983 . A rkeo log i iS ver ige 2 .B önd er o ch b ronsg ju tare . F ör lag s AB Wiken . B ur s t röm , M . 1 984 . Eu s örm länd sk t b op la t somräde i i n land s lf järdm i l jö - e n me todana lys . S em ina r p ape r . D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f S tockho lm . C a r l sson ,D . 1 983 . B ronsä lde rn -t i den f ö rk u l tu r land skape t st e r r i to r ie l la f r amväx to ch e t ab ler ing p ä Go t land . S truk tur o ch f örändr ing i b ronsä lderns s amhä l le . ( Ed . B . S t jernqu is t ) . R epo r tS e r ie s 1 7 ,p p . 2 3 -36 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . C la rke ,D . L . 1 968 .A na l y t ica lA rchaeo logy . Me thuen . L ondon . C la rke , D . L . 1 972 . Mode ls a nd p a rad igm s i nc on tempo ra ry a r chaeo logy . Mode l s i n A rchaeo logy ( Ed . D . L .C la rke ) ,p p . 1 60 . Me thuen . L ondon . C la rke ,D .L . 1 978 .A na ly t ica lA rchaeo logy ( 2nd e d i t ion ) . Me thuen . L ondon . Do ran , J . & Hodson , F . R . 1 975 . Ma thema t ics a nd C ompu ters i n A rchaeo logy . E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P res s . G reen , E . L . 1 973 . L oca t ion a na ly s i s o fp reh i s tor ic Maya s i te s i n No r thern B r i t ish Hondu ra s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 . H agen ,A . 1 983 .N orge so ld t id ( t h i rd e d i t ion ) . O s lo . H a r r6 ,R . 1 970 . T he P r inc ip le so fS c ien t if ic T h ink ing . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . H en sha l l , J .D . 1 967 . Mode l s o fa g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty . Mode l s i nG eography ( Ed s . R . J .C ho r ley & P .H . H agge t t ) . L ondon . J en sen ,J .1 979 .B ronzea ldern . I :S kov lande t sf o lk . C openhagen . J en sen , J .1 983 . B o sw t te lse o g r i gedom scen t re iO s tdanma rk is l u tn ingen a fy ng re b ronzea lde r .S t ruk tur o chf öränd r ing ib ronä lderns s amhä l le ( Ed . B . S t je rnqu i s t ) . R epo r tS e r ies No 1 7 , p p . 4 6 -62 . Un ive r s i ty o fL und . J en sen , R . 1 986 . S kä rvs tenshöga r o ch b osä t tn ingsmöns te r i Mä la rda len u nde r B ronsä ldern . F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge l seh is tor ia ( Ed . K -G . S e l inge ) . B ebygge lseh is tor isk t i dskr if t n r 1 , p p . 1 7 -34 ( w i th E ng l ish s u mma ry ) . S tockho lm . J ensen , R . 1 987 . B ronze Age s e t t lemen t p a t terns - a c ho ro log ica l a pp roach . T heore t ica l A pproaches t o A r tefac t s , S e t t lemen t a nd S oc ie ty ( Eds . G . B u renhu l t , A . C a r lsson , A . Hyens t rand & T . S jovo ld ) . BAR I n terna t iona l S e r ies 3 66 ( i i ) ,p p . 3 35 -357 . O xfo rd . J ensen , R . 1 988 . An teckn inga r om p os tprocessue l l a rkeo log i . S amhä l ls teor i o ch a rkeo log i ska k ä l lma ter ia l -a k tue l la rkeo log i I( Ed . A . H yens t rand ) . S tockho lm A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s2 1 ,p p . 1 7 -90 . D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f S tockho lm . J en sen ,R . ( i np r in ta ) .B ronze A ge s e t t lemen tp a t te rns i nt h e Mä la rB a s in -e co log ica l a nd s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ip s . B ron ze A ge S tud ie s ( Ed . H -A . No rd s t röm ) . S tud ie s 5 . S tockho lm . J ensen , R . ( i n p r in t b ) . T he B ronze Age i n E a s te rn M idd le Sweden -h eaps o f f i re -cracked s t ones a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . T he P o l ish -Swed ish B ronze A ge S em inar a t J u l i ta 1 0 -12 s ep t1 986 . ( e d .B . Amb ro s ian i ) . J ohan sen , 0 . 1 986 . T id l ig m e ta l lku l tur iA gder . Un iver s i te te ts O ldsak sam l ing s S k r if te r , N yr ekke , N r8 .O s lo . K je l l6n , E . & Hyens t rand , A . 1 977 . Hä l lr is tn ingar o ch b ronsä lder ssamhä l le i s ydvä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sf o rnm inne sfö ren ing st i d s l c r if tn r4 9 .U ppsa la .

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K je l len , E . & H yens t rand , A . 1 977 . Hä l lr i s tn ingar o ch b ronsä lder ssamhä l le i s ydvä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sf omm inne sfö ren ing st i d sk r if tn r4 9 . U ppsa la . K r i s t iansen , K . 1 978 . T he C onsump t ion o f Wea l th i n B ronze Age D enma rk . N ew D irec t ions i n S cand inav ian A rchaeo logy ( Ed s . K . K r is t iansen & C . P a ludan - Mü l le r ) . S tud ies i nS cand inav ian P reh i s to ry a nd E a r ly H i s to ry , V o l . I , p p . 1 58 -190 . T he N a t iona l Mu seum , C openhagen . K r is t ian sen , K . 1 981 . E conom ic mode l s f o r B ronze A ge S cand inav ia -t owa rd s a n i n teg ra ted a pp roach . E conom ic A rchaeo logy ( Ed s . A . S he r idan & G . B a i ley ) . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s9 6 ,p p . 2 39 -303 . K r i s t ian sen , K . 1 982 . T he F o rma t ion o fT r iba l S y s tem s i nL a te rE u ropean P reh i s tory - No r thern E urope 4 000 -5 00 BC . T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i n A rchaeo logy ( Ed s . C . R enf rew , M .C . R ow land s & B . Abbo t S eag raves ) , p p . 2 41-280 . A cadem ic P re s s . K r is t iansen , K . 1 983 . K r ige r o g h ovd ing iD anma rk s b ronzea lde r . S truk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ron sä ldern s s amhä l le ( Ed . B . S t je rqu is t ) . R epo r t S er ies N o 1 7 , p p . 6 3 -87 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . K r is t iansen , K . 1 985 . A rchaeo log ica l F orma t ion P rocesses . ( Ed . K . K r i s t iansen ) , S tud ies i nS cand inav ian p reh i s to ry a nd E a r ly H is to ry 2 .N a t iona l Mu seum , C openhagen . K r i s t ian sen , K . 1 986 . I deo log i o g s amfund iD anma rks b ronzea lde r . De t4 .n ord i ske b ronsea lder -sympos ium p ä I segran 1 984 . V a r ia 1 2 , Un iver s i te te t s O ld sak sam l ing . O s lo . Kyh lbe rg , 0 . 1 982 . U ppod l ing , ö verod l ing o ch b or tod l ing . E n me tod s tud ie . A rkeo log iska r appo r te r o ch m edde landen f r än I n s t i tu t ionen f ö r A rkeo log i v id S tockho lm su n ive r s i te tn r 1 .Un ive r s i ty o fS to ckho lm . L a r sson , T h . B . 1 983 . S amhä l l sfö ränd r ing b ron sä lde r -j ämä lde r . E n s t ruk tu rana ly s med u tgäng spunk t f r än Ö s te rgö t land I L S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ron sä ldern s s amhä l le ( Ed . B . S t je rnqu i s t ) . R epo r t S e r ie s No 1 7 , p p . 9 6 -105 . U n ive r s i ty o f L und . L a r sson , T h . B . 1 984 . T he S t ruc tu re a nd F unc t ion o fP reh i s to r ic S oc ia l I n s t i tu t ion s AS oc ia l An th ropo log ica l A pp roach . P aper s i nN or thern A rchaeo logy ( Ed . E . B audou ) . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 ,p p . 2 3 -30 . Umeä . L a r sson , T h . B . 1 986a . T he B ronze A ge Me ta lwork i nS ou thern S weden . A spec t s o f S oc ia la nd S pa t ia lO rgan i za t ion 1 800 -500 B .C . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t6 . Umeä . L a r sson , T h . B . 1 986b . B o sä t tn ing o ch e konom i iö s t ra Ö s te rgö t land u nde r y ng re b ronsä lder . F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge lseh is tor ia ( Ed . K -G . S e l inge ) . B ebygge lseh is tor isk t i dskr if t 1, p p . 3 5 -48 ( w i th E ng l ish s u mma ry ) . S tockho lm . L ev i -S t rauss , C . 1 969a . T o tem i smen . U ppsa la . L ev i -S t rauss , C . 1 969b . T he E lemen tary S truc tures o f K insh ip . B eacon P res s . B o s ton . L ew is , I .M . 1 976 . S oc ia l A n thropo logy i n P er spec t ive . T he R e levance o fS oc ia l A n thropo logy . N ew Yo rk . L undma rk , H . 1 984 . A Me thod o fA na lyz ing H ie ra rch ica l O rgan iza t ions . P aper s i n N or thern A rchaeo logy ( Ed . E . B audou ) . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t 2 ,p p . 1-22 . Umeä . R andsborg , K . 1 974 . S oc ia l S t ra t if ica t ion i n E a r ly B ronze Age D enma rk . P räh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t 4 9 ,p p . 3 8 -61 . S ah l in s , M . 1 968 . T r ibesmen . F ounda t ions o f mode rn A n thropo logy S er ie s . N ew J e r sey . S ah l ins , M . &S erv ice , E . 1 973 . E vo lu t ion a nd C u l ture . T he U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan P re ss . A nn A rbo r .

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S e l inge , K -G . 1 985 . V ä s te rgö t land o ch Mä la rda len -v ad s age r f o rn lämn inga rna om h i s tor ien? V ä s tergö t land s ä ldre h i s tor ia , p p . 4 1-79 . S t if te lsen Ä lvsbo rg s L änsmu seum . V äne r sbo rg . S päng , L -G . 1 978 . T eo r ie r om f ö rh is tor isk e kono tn i . K on tak t s tenc i l n r 1 4 ( Ed s . K . S päng & L -G . S päng ) , p p . 9 6 -116 . A rhu s . S t ig S o rensen , M .L . & Twede l l L ev in sen , K . 1 977 . "Mudd les i n a r chaeo logy" e he r modele r ia rkaeo log ien .K on tak t s tenc i l n r 1 3 , p p . 2 4 -44 . A rhu s . S t je rnqu is t , B . 1 983a . I nd ic ie r p ä b ronsä lde r ssamhä l le t s e konom iska o ch s oc ia la s t ruk tur e n l ig t n yare u ndersökn ingar . F oredrag v ed d e t I . n ord iske b ronsea lder -sympos ium p ä I s egran 3 . -6 . o k tober 1 977 ( Ed . S . Ma r s t rander ) . V a r ia 9 ,U n ive r s i te te t sO ld sak sam l ing ,p p .147 -162 . O s lo . S t jernqu i s t , B . 1 983b . G rava rna s om k ä l la t i l lk un skapen om d en y ng re b ron sä ldem s b ebygge lse iS käne . S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l le ( Ed . B . S t je rnqu i s t ) . R epo r tS e r ie sN o 1 7 ,p p . 1 30 -140 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . S t römbe rg ,M . 1 975 .B ron sä lder p äO s ter len . L und . S t römberg , M . 1 980 . B ronsä lder i H ages tadspro jek te t -e n p er iod i e t t l äng t idspe r spek t iv . B roncea ldersbebygge lse i Norden ( Ed . H . T h rane ) . S k r if te rf r aH is to r i sk i n s t i tu t ,n r2 8 ,p p . 1 41-150 . O den se U n iver s i te t . S t römbe rg , M . 1 983 . B ebygge lse in tens i te ten u nder b ronsä ldern is ydö s t ra S käne . S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l le ( Ed . B . S t je rnqu is t ) . R epo r t S e r ies No 1 7 ,p p .141-150 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . T h rane ,H . 1 980 .N og le t a nke r om y ng re b roncea lde rn sb ebygge lse p äS ydve s t fyn . B roncea lder sbebygge l se i Norden ( Ed . H . T hrane ) . S k r if te r f r a H is to r isk I n s t i tu t ,n r2 8 ,p p . 1 65 -173 . O den se Un ive r s i te t . T h rane , H . 1 984 . L usehO j v ed V o ld tof te - e n s ydves ünsk s t orhe f ra y ngre b roncea lder . F yn ske s t ud ie rX I I I . O dense b y s mu see r . T h rane , H . 1 985 . B ronze A ge S e t t lemen t s .A rchaeo log ica lF orma t ion P roces se s ( Ed . K . K r is t iansen ) , S tud ie si nS cand inav ian P reh i s to ry a nd E a r ly H i s to ry , V o l . 2 ,p p . 1 42 -151 .T he N a t iona l Mu seum . C openhagen . We l inde r , S . 1 977 . E konom iska p rocesser if örh is tor isk e xpans ion ( P reh is to r ic E conomy d u r ing a n E xpans ion S tage ) . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia , S e r ie s i n 8 °M ino re , N o . 4 .( pa r t ly i nE ng l i sh ) . L und .

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A pproaches t oS wed i sh P reh is tory ,B .A .R . , O xf ord , 1 989 ,p p . 1 31 -142 .

OSCAR MONTEL IUS AND THE L IBERAT ION OF W O MEN An E xamp le o fA rchaeo logy , I deo logy a nd t he E ar ly Swed ish Women 's Movemen t By E l isabe th A rw i l l -Nordb ladh*

I n troduc t ion D u r ing r e cen ty ea r s ,t h ei d eo log ica li n f luen ce o ns c ience a nd r e sea r ch h a sb een b rough t t od eba te .I ti si mpo r tan tt h a tr e sea r che r sa cqu i r e ac on sc iou sne s sa bou tt h i sa spec t .A sa r e sea rche r o ne h a s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t o' a f f ec t p eop le s ' o p in ion o f t h e w o r ld , t he s oc ie ty a nd t h em se lves ' ,

a st h eh i s to r ian o fi d ea s ,S ven -E r ik L iedman f o rmu la te st h em a t te r( 1 978 :10 ) . T he r e su l t o f as t udy c an a c t a s af a c to rs uppo r t ing o rn eu t ra l iz ing i d ea s o rb e l ief s r oo ted i ns pec if ic h i s to r ica la nd s oc iopo l i t ica lc on tex t s . T h i si s ,u sed i na na pp ropr ia te w ay ,' ah i s to r ica l ly n o rma la nd o f ten v e ry p o s i t ive u se o fa l lk ind o fs c ience ' ( i b id . ) . T oa vo id a ni d eo log ica lm i su se , m an ipu la t ion a nd i n doc t r ina t ion , i ti sn ece s sa ry t h a t t h ei d eo log ica la spec to fs c ience i sd i scu s sed b o th b yt h er e sea r che ra nd b ys oc ie ty a sa who le . C once rn ing a rchaeo logy , t h e e mpha s is h a s , f o r e xamp le , b een p laced o n a r chaeo logy 's s i gn if icance f o r n a t iona l i d en t i ty a nd t h e i n te r e s t s o fn a t iona l s t a te s ( Mobe rg 1 978 :217 , 1 984 ) . A l so t h e w ay o fp r e sen t ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l r ema in sc an , o na ni d eo log ica ll e ve l ,v i sua l ize s uch a spec t sa ss oc ia l r e la t ion s( Leone 1 981 :8 ) . P e rhap si ti se spec ia l ly i mpo r tan tt om ake i d eo log ica la spec t sc l ea ri ng ende rs t ud ie s . O f ten g ende rr e la ted i s sues a r ed e r ived f r om a s sump t ion s , c on s ide r ed s oo bv iou st h a t t h ey h ave n o tg i ven r i se t or ef lec t ion s .T hu st h ey h ave o f ten b een c oncea led . T he se p rob lem s h ave a t tended c on s ide rab le i n te r e s ti n women s t ud ie s o fl i t e ra tu re , h i s to ry a nd s oc ia la n th ropo logy d u r ing t h el a s t 1 0 -15 y ea r s . I n as t r ic t ly a r chaeo log ica l s en se , c on sc iou sne s s o fi d eo log ica l ma t te r s h a s b een l e s s p ronounced . G radua l ly , h oweve r ,s uch q ue s t ion sh ave b een g i ven mo r ea t ten t ion . R ecen t ly , Ma rg r e tC onk ey a nd J ane tS pec to rs how ed ,i nt h e i rp ape r' A r cha eo logy a nd t h eS tudy o fG ender '( 1 984 ) ,t h a ta r chaeo log ica ls t ud ie sa r ep e rmea ted b yc oncep t ion s , f o rmed i na dvance , a bou tw omen ' sa nd m en ' s e x i s tence , t h e i rs oc ia l r o le s , t h e ir t a sk s a nd t h e l i ke . A s t h ey s ay , a r chaeo logy i sc on t r ibu t ing t ot h e f o rma t ion o f aG ender My tho logy . S uch p r econce ived n o t ion sc an b eg rouped .O ne o ft h e se i st h ei mp l ica t ion o f ma le a nd f ema l e .

*D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fG o thenbu rg 1 31

C er ta in p hy s ica l a nd p sycho log ica l p roper t ie s a r e a sc r ibed t o women a nd m en a s s ome th ing i nhe ren t . B y t h i s , a l so n o t ion s a r e f o rmed a bou t , f o r e xamp le , p ower r e l a t ions b e tween t h eg ende r sa nd t h es oc i a ls pher e s o f women a nd m en . T he g ende r o fa ni n d iv idua lo r ag roup i s ad e te rm in ing f a c to rf o rh ow i ti sc omp r eh ended a tc e r ta in s o c ia ll e ve l s . T h i s Iw ou ld l i ke t oc omp r i se i nt h e c oncep to fG end e rI d eo logy . O r , e xp re s sed i n a no ther w ay : G ende ri d eo logy i s amo r e o rl e s sh a rmon iz ing s y s tem o fb e l ief sa bou t h ow t h e s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l r e la t ion s b e tween women a nd m en a r e c on s t i tu ted , a t d if e r en ts o c ia ll e ve l s ,o rh ow t h ey s hou ld b ec on s t i tu ted . T he g ende ri d eo logy i n ap a t r ia rcha l o rm a le d om ina ted s oc ie ty i sn o to ft h ek i nd t o p romo te t h es oc ia ls i tua t ion o fw omen . T he mo r es u rp r i s ing , t h en , t h a tt h e r ee x is t sa n e a r ly Swed i sh e xamp le o ft wo s t ud ie s ,w r i t ten b yt h ea r cha eo log i s tO sca r Mon te l iu s ,a s ad i rec tc on t r ibu t ion t os uppor tt h ew omen ' sl i be ra t ion movemen t .

S oc ia l B ackground : T he Dom ina t ing Gender I deo logy a n t he e nd o f t he 1 9 th C en tury T he e ndeavou r s o ft h e Swed i sh w omen ' sl i be ra t ion w e r ei n ten se a tt h e e nd o ft h e l a s t c en tu ry . T he t r an s i t ion f r om ap r e indu s t r ia lt oa ni ndu s t r ia l s oc ie ty h ad c au sed g r ea t s oc ia lc hange s .T he s h if tf r om d ome s t ic t oi n du s t r ia lp roduc t ion c hanged t h er e la t ion so f p roduc t ion , c au s ing f u r the rc hange si nf am i ly a nd h ou seho ld s t ruc tu r e s . An i n c r ea s ing p opu la t ion a nd am iga t ion t oc i t ie sc on t r ibu ted t oc on s ide rab le a l te ra t ion so fl i v e l ihood . F o rp a r to ft h ep ea san t ry t h e c hange sw e r el e s s e v iden t ( Lo sman 1 986 :173 ) . T he n ew l i v ing c ond i t ion s , o fp a r t ly d i f f e r en t k ind s , w e r e mo r e p ronounced f o rp eop le o ft h e wo rk ing c l a s sa nd t h eb ou rg eo i sm idd le -c la s s . E spec ia l ly w i th in t h el a t te r ,p u r ew omen i s sue sb ecame c ry s ta l l ized l ) . O ne s uch q ue s t ion w a sw omen ' sr i gh tt od i f f e r en tk i nd so f e mp loymen t . Women w e r e , f o re xamp le , k ep to u to ft h eg row ing s t a te a dm in i s t r a t ion , b o th b ecau se t h ey l a cked t h en ece s sa ry e duca t ion a nd b ecau se t h ey w e re f o rb idden b y l aw t o h o ld c er ta in j ob s . T he a va i lab le e mp loymen t s , f o r e xamp le a s at e ache r i n e l emen ta ry s choo l , ac l e rk i nt h ep o s ta nd t e leg raph s e rv ice s ,o rn u r s ing wo rk ,w e r ea l l l ow p a id . A woman c ou ld p o s s ib ly p rov ide f o rh e r se lf , b u t o n ly w i th d i ff i cu l ty f o ra f am i ly ( Ky le 1 972 ) . I nt h i ss i tua t ion av a r ia t ion o ft h ep a t r ia r cha l ic i d eo logy e vo lved . T he h u sband / f a the r mo r ef i rm ly a ppea red a st h ep rov ide ro ft h ef am i ly . T he w omen w e r ei n c r ea s ing ly t i ed t ot h eh ome a nd f am i ly s phe r e .T hey s hou ld d evo te t h eme se lve st ot h es oc ia lf o s ter ing o ft h e c h i ld ren . T he V ic to r ian mo ra l , c en te r ed o n t h e f am i ly , w he re t h e w omen ' s g rea te s t m i s s ion w a s t ob e g ood w ive s a nd mo the r s , w a s a ti t s p eak . T he se w omen l i ved i n ac l o sed f am i ly s t ruc tu re . T hey w e re g over ned b ya n i d ea l f o rc ing t h em t o d ep endence a nd p a s s iv i ty ( Amb jör n s son 1 974a ) . T he se f a c to r s , n ame ly as c a r c i ty o fe mp loymen ta nd t h e i mpe rf ec t ion s i n women ' s e duca t ion i nc omb ina t ion w i th ag ende r i d eo logy t h a t p o la r ized w omen ' s a nd m en ' s s oc ia l s phe re s , made s ome o ft h e w omen is sue s v e ry c onc re te . P e rhap s t h ey w e re e spec ia l ly e v iden tf o rt h ew omen o ft h eb ou rgeo i sm idd le -c la s s .T hu so ne o ft h es t a r t ing p o in t s f o r t h e l i be ra t ion movemen t w a s t h e re -a nd i tw a s t ot h i s g roup t h a t O sca r Mon te l iu sb e longed . T he S oc iopo l i t ic a lS i tua t ion o f Women V iew ed f r om G end er -De term ined R e l a t ion so f P ow er T he l e ga lo pp r e s s ion o fw omen w a sd i s t inc t ly s hown b yt wo p henomena : •Women h ad n oe n t i t lemen tt ov o te i np a r l iamen ta ry e l ec t ion s -b u t t h is a l so a pp led f o rm en a sw e l l , a sl o ng a st h e ir i n come w a su nde r ac e r ta in l e ve l . F o r 1 32

m en , t h e r i gh tt ov o te w a s ac l a s s i s sue . F o rw omen , i tc ou ld b eb o th ac l a s s a nd g ende r i s sue ,a s women w ho r e a ched t h eq ua l ify ing i n come l e ve l ,s t i l lh ad n or i gh tt ov o te . •A m a r r ied w omen w a sp l a ced u nde rh e rh u sband ' sg ua rd sh ip .T h i sm ean tt h a t t h e h u sband h ad a l l t h ej u r id ica l , e conom ica la nd e ven d ome s t ic p owe ri nt h e f am i ly .T he w if eh ad t os how o bed ience i na l lm a t te r sf a l l ing w i th in t h e se a r ea s . I th a so f ten b een s t a ted t h a tw omen c ou ld a c t mo r ef r ee ly w i th in t h ed ome s t ic r e a lm . B u te ven h e r et h eh u sband h ad t h er i gh tt od ec ide a bou t , f o re xamp le , c h i ld r en ,h ou se h o ld e conomy , m anne r s o fl i v ing , p l a ce o fr e s idence a nd s o o n ( S ta e l v on Ho l s te in 1 908 : 6 , 8 ) .T he se l aw s , c on sequen t ly , s uppo r ted a ne x t r eme ly p a t r ia r cha ls o c ie ty . T he Mo s tI mpo r t an tI s sue so ft h eL ibe r a t ion Mov emen t T h rough j ou rna l sa nd l e ague st h ec r i t ic i sm o ft h e se c ond i t ion st o ok o no rgan ized f o rm s d u r ing t h el a s tt h r ee d ecade s o ft h en ine teen th c en tu ry . O ne o ft h e f i r s ta l l iance s , T he F r ed r ik aB r emer A s soc i a t ion , h ad t h e Swed i sh s t a te a n t iqua r ian H an s H i ldeb rand a s o ne o fi t sf ounde r s ,a nd a l so a si t sf i r s tp r e s iden t . Ano the r f ound ing m embe r , a nd H i ldeb rand ' s s ucce s so r a s p r e s iden t , w a s Agda Mon te l iu s , t h ew if e o fO sca r Mon te l iu s . T h rough h i sw if e , O sca r Mon te l iu sc ame i n d i r ec tc on ta c tw i th t h el i be ra t ion m ov emen t( s ee a l so We l inde r 1 987 ) . T he t wo mo s t i mpo r tan ti s sue sw e r e t h er i gh tt ov o t e a nd l eg a li nd epend ence . N o t u n t i l 1 920 , a bou t 5 0 y ea r s a f te r t h ey h ad f i r s t b een r a i sed c ou ld t h e se d emand s b e f u lf i l led . O ne w ay t o r e a ch t h e se g oa l s w a s t o a f f ec t t h e p ub l ic o p in ion t h rough i n f o rma t ive p ub l ica t ion s . Mon te l iu s 't wo a r t ic le so nt h i s t op ic ( d iscu s sed b e low ) h ad t h i so b jec t iv e . T he q ue s t ion o fs im i la r i t ie sa nd d i f f e r ence sb e tween w omen a nd m en w a st h es ub jec t o fl i ve ly d eba te a tt h e e nd o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . I n t h e g ene ra l o p in ion t h e re w e r e s i gn if ican tp hy s ica l a nd m en ta l d i f f e r ence sb e tween t h eg ende r s . T he se w e r eu sua l ly s e en a s d i ch tom ie s , i nvo lv ing v a lue s , w i th m en a s t h e s uper io r a nd w omen a s t h e i n f er io rn a tu r e ( Ekenva l l 1 974 ) . T he e a r ly r oman t ic i sm s aw t h i sa s ar e f lec t ion o fa n u nchang ing , h eaven ly o rde r . T h i sa pp rehen s ion , c omb ined w i th ap a t r ia rcha l ic s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e ,w a so ne l e g i t ima t ion f o rt h eo pp r e s s ion o fw omen . A f te rt h eb r eak th rough o ft h ee vo lu t ion i s t ic a pp roach ,t h ei d ea o ft h es pec if ic n a tu r eo f m en a nd w omen c ou ld t a ke t wo d if e r en tc ou r se s .A cco rd ing t oD a rw in i sm ,t h eg ende r s p ec if ic p roper i t ie s w e re a r e su l t o fn a tu ra l s e lec t ion . A s s e lec t ion c on t inued , t h e d i f f e r ence sw ou ld b ecome mo r ea nd mo r ep ronounced .O ne c on sequence o ft h i sw a st o u nde r s tand t h ew oman a s' aw eake ri n f e r io rv a r ie ty o fm an '( Ekenva l l 1 974 : 2 35 ) . A no ppo s i te v i ew w a st oa ccep tt h ed i f f e r ence sa s as oc ia l r e sou r ce . I ts e em st h a tt h i s w a sD a rw in ' s o wn v i ew . Aw ide r a nge o fv i ew sw a s e ncompa s sed b e tween t h e se t wo p o le s . I tc an b es e en a s ap ar adox t h a tD a rw in ' st h eo r ie so ne vo lu t ion a nd s e lec t ion w ou ld b e a na rgumen tf o rc omp le te ly d if e r en to p in ion s . O n t h e o the r h and , i tw a s u sed b y t ho se w ho s uppor ted s t a tu s q uo c once rn ing s oc iopo l i t ica l c ond i t ion s , w i th m an a s s uper io r a nd women a s i n f er io r . T ho se w ho s uppor ted f ema le e manc ipa t ion , o n t h e o t he rh and , c l a imed t h a t s oc ie ty s hou ld n o t m a in ta in as y s tem t h a ts e em st o' . . make w o rs ea l lt h ep hy s ica la nd men ta ld ef ic ienc ie sa scr ibed t o w omen ' ( Ek enva l l 1 974 : 2 35 ) . I n Sweden t h ei d ea o ft h es pec if ic n a tu r eg o ti t s mo s tp rom inen ti n te rp re ta t ion i nt h e w o rk s o fE l len K ey . B a sed o n e vo lu t iona ry t h eory , s he m ean t t h a t f ema le a nd m a le p rope r i t ie ss hou ld c on t inuou s ly b ee vo lved , i nt h a tt h ey c ou ld c omp lemen te ach o t he ri n a ne qua ls oc ie ty ( Amb jö rn s son 1 974b ) . Ac omp le te ly d i f f e r en to p in ion w a sc l a imed b yJ .S .M i l l .H es t a ted t h a tt h e r ew e r en o 1 33

F ig . 1 . Agda Mon te l ius 1 850 -1920 . I n b ib l iog raph ica l e ncyc loped ia s Agda Mon te l ius i so f ten c ha rac te r ized a s as oc ia lp o l i t ic ian . S he h a sa l so b e en d e sc r ibed a s' . .a r ep re sen ta t ive o ft h e Swed ish w omen ' s movemen t i ni t s mo s t e l abo ra te s en se ' (Wah l s t röm 1 933 : 4 1) . S he w a s t h e y ounge s t c h i ld w i th s eve ra le l de rb ro the r s ,o ft h eL ieu tenan t -gene ra la nd m in is te rA . F .R eu te r sk iö ld . A tt h ea ge o f2 1 s he ma r r ied O sca r Mon te l iu s . I nh e ra c t iv i t ies s he s e ems t oh ave b een v e ry r ep r e sen ta t ive o fh e rt ime a nd h e rs pe c if ic u pp e r -c la s s s oc ia lm i l ieu . T h roughou th e rl i f e t ime s he h e lped h e rh u sband i nh i s w o rk a s ' . .h is i nd i spensab le amanuen s i s ' ( U l r ich 1 920 ) . S he a l so i n i t ia ted a nd o rgan ized c omp rehen s ive s oc ia l w o rk . S he s aw ac l ea r c onnec t ion b e tween p oo r s o c ia l c ond i t ion s a nd t h e l e ga l o pp re s s ion o f w omen ( A . Mon te l iu s 1 912 :217 f . ) . C onsequen t ly , s he d evo ted much o f h e r t ime t ot h e w o rk o n w omen ' s r i gh ts . S he w a s am embe r o f t he F red r ika B r eme r A ssoc ia t ion , o ne o f t he f i r s t Swed i sh w omen o rgan iza t ion s ,f r om i t ss t a r ti n1 884 . F rom 1 903 t oh e rd ea th A gda Mon te l iu sw a si t sp re s iden t . I n 1 899 s he w a so ne o ft ho se w ho s i gned t h ef i r s tp e t i t ion f o r w omen ' sr i gh t t ov o te ( Ha t je 1 985 -87 ) . P ho to ATA . 1 34

n a tu ra l g ende r spec if ic d i f f e r ence s e xcep t t ho se a t t r ibu ted t or e p roduc t ion a nd m en ' s s upe r io r p hy s ica l s t reng th . T he o b served d i f f e rence s w e re c au sed b y t h e d i f f e ren t c ond i t ion s f a ced b y women a nd m en . B o th w omen a nd m en w e r e i nd iv idua ls , who w e r e i nf luenced b y e x te rna l c ond i t ion s . I ft h e f a c to r s i nh ib i t ing w omen ' s e vo lu t ion w e r ec hang ed , f o ri n s tance t h ed if e r en tk i nd o fe duca t ion ,t h o se d if e r ence s wh ich n ow s e em t ob eg ende r -spec if ic ,w ou ld s oon d i sappea r . Mon te l ius ' S cho lar ly Wor ld O sca r Mon te l iu sb e longed t o ag ene ra t ion o fs cho la r s who h ad v e ry b road a mb i t ion s . T hey w e re t r y ing t o d i scove r t h e h i s tory o fm ank ind , e xp la ined i n ag ene ra l ized s yn the s i s . S oc io logy ,a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy m e rged i n to ab road p i c tu r ea bou t t h eo r ig in o fm ank ind , c i v i l iza t ion a nd p r inc ip le so fk i n sh ip a nd f am i ly . T he se s t ud ie s w e re o f ten b a sed o n a n e vo lu t iona ry t h eo ry , w i th a d eve lopmen t f r om s imp le t o c omp lex , f r om s avage ry t oc i v i l iza t ion . C iv i l iza t ion w a s ah uman p roduc ta nd t h eg r ea t e ndpo in to f al o ng e vo lu t ion . E l isabe th F e eh a ss hown h ow s cho la r sl i ke Ma in , McLennan , L ubbock a nd S pence r , who a l l t r ea ted i s sue s c oncer n ing g ende r r e la t ion s ,j u s t if ied t h e p a tr ia rcha l ic g ende r i d eo logy w i th t h et h eo ry o fe vo lu t ion ( Fee 1 974 ) . O ne o ft h ec ha ra c te r i s t ic so fc i v i l iz ed s oc ie ty w a s t h e V ic to r ian f am i ly . J us t a s c i v i l iza t ion i t se lf wa s s ome th ing u nque s t ionab le ,t h ep a t r ia r ch ica lf am i ly -s t ruc tu r ew a s . F ee p o in t so u tt h a t as cho la rl i ke L ubbock e ven s t a te st h a tl o ve ,b yt h eV ic to r ian sc on s ide r ed a st h ec emen to f ma r r iage , w a sb a sed o nt h eh u sband ' sp owe ra nd o wne r sh ip ( 1 974 :95 ; L ubbock 1 870 :73 ) . T he w e l l k nown e xcep t ion i s Mo rgan . H e c l a imed t h a t t h e f am i ly w a s ar e su l t o f s pec if ic e conom ic a nd s oc ia l r e la t ion s , a nd t h a t i tw a s c hangeab le , i nf a vou r o ft h e w omen . I ts e em st h a t Mon te l iu sn ev e rr e ad Mo rgan ' sw r i t ing s ,a l though t h ey b o th t r ea ted s uch as im i la rt h eme ; t h e r ei sn or e f e r ence t o Mo rgan i nt h ew o rk so f Mon te l iu s . N e i the ra r e t h e r er e f e r ence st oE nge l s , who a l so d i scu s sed t h ec ond i t ion so fw omen .E nge l sa rgued f o r ,a si sw e l lk nown , as t rong p o s i t ion f o r women i ne a r l ie s ts oc ie t ie s .A sm embe r so f t h e ir own k in -g roup , t h ey h ad a n i ndependen t p o s i t ion . I tw a s n o t u n t i l c ommuna l o wne r sh ip c hanged t op r iva te t h a t women b ecame p a r t o fm en ' s p roper ty ( Leacock 1 972 ) . I n Mon te l iu s o wn v a s tl i b ra ry t h e r ea r e n ot r a ce s o ft h e se s cho la r s ( Lundqu i s t 1 943 ) . Y e ta no the rs c ien t i s tt r ea ted t h e s i tua t ion o fw omen , t h eF inn i sh s oc io log i s tE dva rd We s te rma rck ( 1893 ) . E ven i fh e , a s mo s t o fh i s c on tempo ra r ie s , w a s u nde r t h e i nf luence o fe vo lu t iona ry t h eor ie s ,h ea na lyzed t h ee mp i r ica l m a ter ia lw i th as pec if ic , n on -evo lu t iona ry m e thod . H e r e f e r r ed t oi th im se lf a s' Ty lo r ' s s t a t i s t ica l me thod '( i b id :4 ) . B y t h i s m e thod h e c onc luded t h a t t h e r e h ad e x i s ted a tl e a s t s ome p r im i t ive s oc ie t ie s whe r e women h ad n o tb een s ubo rd ina ted b ym en (We s te rma rck 1 893 : 2 32 f . , 2 43 ) . H e w a s p a r t icu la r ly o ppo sed t o t h e w ide ly a ccep ted i d ea o fa n o r ig ina l s t age o f p rom i scu i ty i nt h eh i s to ry o fm a r r iage ( i b id : 5 5 f . ;P ipp ing 1 984 : 3 20 ) . Mon te l iu s 'm a in s ou r ce w a sJ ohn L ubbock -a na u tho r i ty o fh i st ime .T h i si se v iden t , a mong o the rt h ing s , f r om t h e f a c tt h a tL ubbock ' s s t udy ' P reh i s tor ic T ime s ' f r om 1 865 w a st r an s la ted i n to Swed i sh f ou ry ea r sl a te r 2) .I nh i sw o rk ' O r ig in o fC iv i l iza t ion 'f r om 1 870 , L ubbock m ade al o ng s t udy o ft h eh i s to ry o fm a r r iage . Much o ft h i sw o rk w a s b a sed o n e a r l ie r wo rk s o f McLennan . I n h i s w o rk s , L ubbock d e scr ibed s oc ia l c ond i t ion si np r im i t ive s o c ie t ie s .T he r eby h ea l so t o uched u pon t h es i tua t ion o f women . S ven N i l s son , who w ro te a n i n t roduc t ion t ot h e S wed i sh t r an s la t ion o f' P r eh is tor ic T ime s 'a g r eed w i th L ubbock ' so p in ion o ft h ew r e tched c ond i t ion so ft h es avage s . T he i r manne r sa nd c u s tom sw e r es e en a s' o f ten h ideou s , s ome t ime sp repo s te rou s , a lway sc oa r se ' . . . 'The w oman ' s f a te i se spec ia l ly p i t ifu l . S he i se i the r t r ea ted l i ke a s l ave o r e ven w o r se , l i ke a n a n ima l w i thou t as ou l . B y t h is w e c an r ea l ize t ha t ar e jec t ion o f t h e v a lue o f w oman i sa s u rv iva lf r om t h eb ru ta ls avage '

( N i l s son 1 869 ) . 1 35

F ig . 2 .O sca r Mon te l iu s 1 843 -1921 . O sca r Mon te l iu s w a s t h e s on o ft h e L o rd J u s t ice o ft he C ou r t o f A ppea l , 0 . A . M . Mon te l iu s . A f te r h av ing f m i shed s choo l i nS tockho lm , Mon te l iu s s t ud ied n a tu ra l s c ience s a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fU pp sa la f o r af ew y ea r s . A s ar e su l to fb e ing o f f e red e mp loymen t a tt h e Mus eum o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie sh ec hanged o ve rt oh uman i s t ic s t ud ie s . H ep re sen ted h i sP h .D . t h e s i s i n1 863 ,w a sa ppo in ted p ro f e s so ri n1 888 a nd i n1 913 h eb e came t h eS ta te A n t iqua r ian . Mon te l ius ' s c ien t if ic w o rk f o cus ed o n q ue s t ion s c oncer n ing c h rono logy , f o rma l c hange a nd t h e d i f fu s ion o fa r tefac t s -s t ud ie s wh ich r equ i red m any v i s i t st o mu seum si nE u rope . I nt ha tw o rk h e w a s a i ded b yh i sw if e ,w ho w a s' . .a s k i l led d raw e r ' (W ef ind e r 1 987 : 8 6 ) . A par tf r om p u re ly a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , i n c lud ing many e xcava t ion s , Mon te l iu sw a sa l so i n te re s ted i nt h ed eba te o fc on tempo ra ry ma t te r s . T h is i ss hown b yt h e f a c t t ha t h e w a st h e e d i to ro ft h ej our na l N o rd i sk T id sk r if t f o r4 0y ea r s ;aj ou rna l f o rh uman is t ic a nd n a tu ra l s c ience , a r t a nd i ndu s t r ia l i s sue s ( G rä s lund 1 985 -87 ; S ah l in 1 922 ) . P ho to ATA . 1 36

H oweve r ,b ecau se o fm ank ind ' sc on s tan ti mp rovemen t , t h i sc ond i t ion w ou ld c hange f o rt h eb e t te r .A cco rd ing t oL ubbock ,o ne s ou r ce o ft h i sp rog r e s sw a st h e e xpan s ion o f s c ience . S c ience a nd t h e s c ien t is t s w e r e m ank ind ' s mo ra l s uppo r t . I n t h i s v i ew , t h e s t udy o ft h ep a s tt ur n ed t o al e g i t ima t ion o fa no p t im i s t ic f a i th i nt h ef u tu r e . I tw ou ld b e u nw i se t ob e l ieve t h a ts u ch al o ng e vo lu t ion s udden ly s hou ld s t op ( Lubbo ck 1 869 :390 ) . S c ience w a st h em ean sa nd t h ee vo lu t iona ry p r inc ip le t h ep r ime move r . T ha tw a so ne r e a son f o rc on t r a s t ing p r eh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie sw i th s o c ie t ie s wh ich h ad r e ached t h es t age o f c i v i l iza t ion . Mon te l ius ' A r t ic les o n Women Mon te l iu s ' t wo a r t ic le s a bou t t h e c ond i t ion s o fw omen s hou ld b e s een a ga in s t t h i s b a ckg round : t h es oc ia lc ond i t ion so ft h ew omen ,t h ep a t r ia r cha ll aw st h a tc oun te ra c ted c hanges , ag ende r i d eo logy j u s t ify ing t h e o pp re ss ive v iew a nd t h e g ene ra l a n th ropo log ica lo p in ion a bou tt h ee vo lu t ion o fp r im i t ive s oc ie t ie st owa rd sc i v i l iza t ion . I n 1 898 Mon te l iu s p ub l i shed t h e a r t ic le ' Hum l ä nge h a r k v innan b e t rak ta t s s om m annen s e gendom? ' ( To rh ow l o ng h a s w omen b een c on s ide r ed a st h e p rope r ty o f m an? ' ) 3) .I n 1 906 h e p ub l i shed ' Kv innof rägan iS ve r ige ' ( ' The women ' s i s sue i n Sweden ' ) . B yt h i st ime Mon te l iu sw a s aw e l le s tab l i shed a r chaeo log i s t ,p rof e s so ra tt h eN a t iona l Mu seum o f An t iqu i t ie s i nS tockho lm f o r mo r e t h an t e n y ea r s a nd p ro spec t ive S ta te A n t iqua r ian ( s ee G rä s lund 1 974 , 1 985 / 87 a nd t h e r e q uo ted l i t e ra tu re ) . H eh ad av a s t s c ien t if ic p roduc t ion ; ab ib l iogr aphy m en t ion s 4 08 t i t le s ( Ekho lm 1 922 ) . H i s ma in r e sea r ch a r ea w a s q ue s t ion s c oncer n ing c h rono logy , a t tr ibu ted t of o rma l c hange a nd d if u s ion o fa r t ef ac t s . I n t h el i gh t o fh i s ma in r e sea rch a r ea , t h et wo a r t ic le so n women ' s c ond i t ion sc ou ld s e em u nexpec ted . T hey mu s t h ave b een w r i t ten w i th a v e ry s pec ia l p u rpo se 4) . Mon te l iu sh im se lf s t a ted t h a tt h ea im o ft h ef i r s ta r t ic le w a st og i ve amo r ec o r r ec tv i ew o ft h e women ' s movemen t( Mon te l iu s 1 898 : 1 2 1 , 1 906 : 2 ) . H oweve r , i td oe sn o th ave t h e c ha ra c te r o f ap amph le t . I n s tead , i tg ive s ah i s tor ica l b ackg round o f at op ic o f c u r r en t i n te r e s t , n ame ly t h e i n equa l i ty b e tween m an a nd woman , f o cu s ing o n o ne a sp ec t ,t h ep owe r -r e la t ion sb e tween t h eg ende r s . T he a r t ic le o f1 906 i s ar e v iew . H e re Mon te l iu sg o tt h e o ppo r tun i ty t oa rgue f o rh i s o wn v i ew i nt h e d eba te , e spec ia l ly c oncer n ing t h e s o -ca l led ' n a tu re ' o fw omen a nd w omen ' s s oc ia ls phe re s . T he a n th ropo log ica l -a rchaeo log ica l d i scu s s ion i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan t i nt h e f i r s t a r t ic le . Mon te l iu ss t a ted a tt h eb eg inn ing t h a t many o fh i sa rgumen t sa nd t h ough t sw e r e i n sp ir ed b yt h ew r i t ing so fo the r s ,J ohn L ubbock i np a r t icu la r . Mon te l iu sc l a imed t h a t w omen o r ig ina l ly h ad b een o pp r e s sed b ym en , c on s ide r ing t h em t ob et h e i rp rope r ty , j u s t l i k e ap i ece o f' h ou seho ld f ur n i tu re ' o r t h e l i ke . A t o ne t ime t h a t h ad b een t h e s i tua t ion f o ra l lw omen t h roughou tt h ew o r ld ( Mon t e l iu s 1 898 : 2 ) . T he i n equa l i ty b e tween t h eg end e r sw a sc l ea r ly e xp r e s sed b yt h ec on t rac to fm a r r iage . L ike o t he rs cho la r s , Mon te l iu sb e l ieved t h a tm a r r iage h ad g one t h rough s eve ra ls t age s . Mon te l iu s 'v e r s ion w a sl i ke t h i s : ( i ) a ni n i t ia ls t age o fn on -ex i s ten t ma r r iage , when a l l w omen w e r et h ep rope r ty o fa l l men i n ag roup ,w h ich w a s f o l lowed b y( i ) mar r i ag e t h rough c ap tur e a nd ( i i ) mar r i age t h rough p ur chase . Up t ot h i s p o in t Mon te l iu s f o l lowed L ubbock ' s t h e s i s . T he n ex t s t age w a s ( i v ) mar r i ag e t h rough g if t . T h i s l a s t s t age w a sc ha rac ter i s t ic o f mo s tc on tempo ra ry E u ropean c oun t r ies . I na l lt h e se s t age s t h eg ende rr e la t ion sw e r eb a sed o ni n equa l i ty .T he l a s ts t age ,w h ich v e ry f ew c oun t r ie s h ad r e a ched ,n o te ven Mon te l iu s 'o wn ,w a st h a to ft h ee qua lm a r r iage t yp e . Mon te l iu sa rgued i nt h es ame w ay a sd i d mo s to ft h ec on tempo ra ry a n th ropo log i s t s . F o r ar e ade ro ft oday i tl o ok s ab i tc hao t ic . T he e mp ir ica l d a ta w a st a ken f r om a l lp a r t s o ft h ew o r ld a nd f r om d i f f e r en tt ime s . I tw a sa l so o fv a ry ing c ha rac te ra nd q ua l i ty ,s u ch a se t hnog raph ic r e por t s , w r i t ten h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s , l i ngu i s t ic f o rms a nd m anne r sa nd c u s tom s . 1 37

I n o ne w ay Mon te l iu s s t and s o u t f r om many o fh i s c on tempo ra r ie s . H e w a s v e ry c on sc iou s a bou t h i s s c ien t if ic m e thod : 'When s t udy ing as pec if ic q ues t ion w e w i l l f md t ha t e vo lu t ion h a sp a ssed many s t age s ,b efo re i tr e ached i t sp r e sen ts t a te . ' (We c an )' a l so s e ea l lt h e s t age s s t i l l r ep re sen ted , s i nce a n o ld f o rm d oes n o t a lway s d i sappea r when a n ew f o rm r i s es ' . . . 'Of ten t he re w i l l b e n o d i ff i cu l ty t os e e t h e s ucce s s ive o rde r o ft h e d i f f e ren t f o rm s . '

( Mon te l iu s 1 898 : 3 ) .

T he se wo rd s c ou ld h ave b een s a id a bou tt h e f o rm so fa xe so rf i bu lae , b u ta r ei nt h i s c on tex tr e la ted t ot h eh i s to ry o fm a r r iage ! Mon te l iu sh e r ep e rf o rmed a na rgumen ta t ion a bou tt y po log ica ls e r ia t ion .H eh ad b een w o rk ing w i th t h a tm e thod f o ra lmo s t3 0y ea r s .H es umma r ized t h em e thod a t as c ien t if ic m ee t ing i nt h es ame y ea ra sh ep ub l i shed t h ef i r s t' women p ape r '( Mon te l iu s 1 899 ) . H e s t a ted t h e se , f o r e ve ry Swed i sh a r chaeo log is t n ow s o f am i l ia r wo rd s : ' The t ype f o r t he p reh is to r ic a rchaeo log is t i st he s ame t h ing a s t h e s pe c ies i sf o r t he s c ien t is t . . . C oncer n ing t he p roduc t s o fn a tu re -i th a s l ong b een k nown -o ne f o rm c an e merge f r om a no the r . B u t n o t u n t i l r e cen t ly , h a s i tb een p os s ib le t o s how t h e s ame k ind o f e vo lu t ion c once rn ing t h ep roduc t so fh uman w o rk . ' ( Mon te l iu s 1 899 : 2 37 , 2 68 ) . [ cf .M P . Ma lme r ' sp ap e ri nt h i sv o lume ]

I nt h ea r t ic le a bou tt h ep o s i t ion o f women , Mon te l iu ss howed t h a t' t he s ame k i nd o f e vo lu t ion ' , s hown w i th t h et y po log ica ls e r ia t ion ,w a sv a l id n o to n ly f o rt h ep roduc t so f h uman wo rk , b u t a l so f o rs oc ia l p henomena , s uch a sm a r r iage . T he re w a s , h oweve r , o ne i mpo r tan tm e thodo log ica l d i f f e r ence wh ich Mon te l iu sp e rhap sw a sn o ta wa r e o f . When e s tab l i sh ing at y po log ica ls e r ie si tw a si mpo r tan t' w i th t h eg r ea te s tp os s ib le a ccu ra cy ' h es a id , ' t ot r yt oa na lyze t h ef i nd c on tex t '( Mon te l iu s 1 899 : 2 68 ) . A ccu racy , av a s tm a ter ia l a nd a n' e xper ienced h and ' ( op . c i t . ) w e re o fe qua l i mpo r tance . T h rough s uch ab road a na ly s i s , much o f Mon te l iu s ' d a t ing s a r e v a l id e ven t o day . B u t h e d i d n o tp e r f o rm a c o r r espond ing ' c a r ef u l e t hnoh is tor ica l a na ly s i s ' o ft h e a n th ropo log ica l o r h i s to r ica l e xamp le so f ma r r iage . H ed i dn o tr e a l ize t h a tm any p henomena t h a tl o oked a l ike w e re p a r t so fs uch d i f f e r en tc on tex t sa nd i n te rp r e ta t ive l e ve l st h a tt h ey c ou ld n o tb eu sed i n t h es ame a rgumen ta t ion . O ne b a s i so ft h et y po log ica ls eda t ion w a st h ee vo lu t ion i s t ic v i ew t h a tc har ac t er ized s o much o ft h e s c ien t if ic a nd g ener a l o p in ion i nt h el a te 1 9 th c en tu ry ( Dan ie l s son 1 965 , 1 967 ) .T h rough t h et empo ra la spec t ,w h ich w a si n he r en ti nt h ee vo lu t ion i s t ic v i ew ,t h e t y po log ica l o rder ing o fa r tef ac t s b ecame a n i n s t rumen t o fd a t ing . When t h e s t udy c oncer n ed as pec if ic s oc ia lf e a tu r e ,i nt h i sc a se t h ep owe rr e la t ion sb e tween t h eg ende r s , t h e t empo ra l a spec t b ecame ap o s i t ive a rgumen t f o rt h e p rog r e s s o fw omen . A s f o r L ubbo ck , e vo lu t ion f o r Mon te l iu sw a s ac onf i rma t ion a nd ag ua r an tee f o ra dvancemen t . A sF ee s howed ( 1974 ) ,L ubbock a nd many o fh i sc on tempo ra ry c o l league ss aw t h e i r o wn c i v i l iza t ion a st h e h e igh t o fe vo lu t ion . I ti st r ue t h a t L ubbock i ng ene ra l wo rds s poke a bou tt h e c on t inu ing p rog re s s o f mank ind , b u t mo s t o ft h ep rog r e s sc oncer n ed t h o se p r im i t ive p eop le w ho i nt h e f u tu r e a l so wou ld e n joy t h e b enef i t s o fh i s own c i v i l iza t ion . A tt h i sp o in t Mon te l iu s d i f f e r ed f r om L ubbock a nd t h o se who s ha r ed h i s o p in ion s . Mon te l iu s s howed t h e f u tu re p rog re s s t o b e much more c onc re te . H e re , whe re Mon te l iu s d i scus sed t h ep rog r e s s o fw omen , i ti sp o s s ib le t oi d en t ify h i s o wn g ende r i d eo logy . T he Gender I deo logy o f Mon te l ius T he N a tur eo f Women A sm en t ioned e a r l ie r ,a tt h ee nd o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry t h e r ep r eva i led al o to fn o t ion so n s pec if ic ma le a nd f ema le p rope r t ie s , c on s ide red a s n a tura l . I n h i s a r t ic le o f 1 898 , Mon te l iu si d en t if ied an umbe ro fs i tua t ion sw he r e t h i st r ad i t iona lv i ew s e emed t of i t . 1 38

T he m en a c tua l ly w e r es t rong , f i e r ce a nd i mpe tuou s . A bove a l l , t h ey w e r ea c t ive a nd t h ey g over n ed t h e c ou r se o fe ven t s . A nd t h e a c t ion s o ft h e women w e r e o fp a s s ive c ha rac te r ; t h ey p e r f o rmed t h e i rd a i ly t a sk s . I ft h ey w e r et h r ea tened ,t h ey w ou ld u sua l ly h ide o rt r yt oe s cape . Mon te l iu s c l a imed t h a to n ly o ne s i gn if ican t f e a tu re w a s n a tu ra l : t h e m en ' s s upe r io r p hy s ica ls t r eng th .B ecau se o ft h i s ,m en c ou ld u pho ld t h e i ri n te r e s t s -f i r s tt h rough t h e i r s t r eng th o n ly ,b u tl a te ra l so t h rough t h el aw s . T he a c t ion sa nd f e a tu r e ss hown b yt h e women i nh i se xamp le sw e r en o tt h er e su l to f g ende r -spec if ic s e lec t ion . T hey w e r e ac on sequence o fs pec if ic c u l tu ra l l e ve ls . U nde r s pec if ic c ond i t ion s w omen w e re p e rm i t ted t o e xp r e s s o n ly c e r ta in p roper t ie s , a nd b ecau se o ft h is , women h ad b een p l aced i n as ubo rd ina te s i tua t ion a nd h ad b een a s cr ibed s ome a nd d ep r ived o fo t he rc ha rac ter i s t ic s . Wi th s oc ia l e vo lu t ion l e ad ing t o h ighe r c u l tu ra l l e ve ls , t h e se d i f f er ence s , s t a ted a s n a tu ra l b u t a c tua l ly c u l tu ra l ly c ond i t ioned ,w ou ld d i sappea r :' The se e manc ipa ted t r a i t sw i l lb ecome s og ene ra l ,t ha tt h ey w i l lb e c on s ide red a s t he n a tu re o f w oman ' ( Mon te l iu s 1 906 : 1 ) . Mon te l iu sh e r es howed av a r ian to fe vo lu t ion w i th ' M i l lan ian 'i n f luence . T he S oc ia lS pher e so f Women Mon te l iu sc l a imed ,w i th d i f f e r en ta r gumen t s ,t h a tt h em a in r e a son f o ra t ta ch ing women o n ly t o t h e s phe re o fh ome a nd f am i ly , ' t he n a tu re o f women ' , w a s n o t v a l id . T o d emon s t ra te t h i s , t h ep o s i t ion sh ad t ob ep u shed a head . O ne w a s :' . . to g ive g i r ls t h e s ame o ppo r tun i ty t ot r a in t h e i rn a tu ra l g i f t si nt h es ame w ay a sb oy s . . . [so t h ey w ou ld ] . . .s tand a tt h e s ame i n te l lec tua ll e ve l '( Mon te l iu s 1 906 : 8 ) .

B yt h is t ime , t h e e duca t iona l i s sue s w e r e u nde r d eba te . Women h ad r e cen t ly b een g ran ted a dm i s s ion t ou n iver s i t ie s , b u t m any f a c to r s c on t r ibu ted t oo b s t ruc t a n e qua l e duca t ion . T he s ub jec t s t r ea ted a tg i r l s a nd b oy s s choo l s w e re p a r t ly d i f f e r en t . E ven b ook s i n t h e s ame s ub jec t w e re o f d i f f e ren t q ua l i ty ( Ky le 1 972 : 1 52 , 1 64 ) . T he s e conda ry s choo l s f o rb oy sw e r ea l so mo r en ume rou st h an f o rg i r l s . a nd a tl e a s ts ome o ft h em w e r ef r ee o fc ha rge . Mon te l iu sh ad a na c t ive i n te r e s ti ne duca t iona l ma t te r s .T h i si ss hown b yt h e f a c tt h a t i n 1 893 h ew a sb o th f i nanc ia l a nd o rgan iza t iona l s uppo r te r f o ro ne o ft h e f i r s tu ppe r s e conda ry s choo l si nS tockho lm w i th c o -educa t ion f o rg i r l sa nd b oy s( B jö rk lund 1 931 : 6 2 , 6 6 ) 5) . T he mo s ti mpo r tan tw ay t of a vou rt h ec ond i t ion so fw omen w a so fc ou r se t oc hange t h e l aw s . Women s hou ld b e p e rm i t ted e mp loymen t w i th in t h e s t a te a nd c hu r ch ( Mon te l iu s 1 906 : 1 3 ) . Women a nd m en s hou ld b eg iven t h es ame p ay f o re qua l wo rk . Women a nd m en s hou ld a l so h ave t h e s ame r i gh t s a nd o b l iga t ion s w i th in ma r r iage . And ,o fc ou r se , women m u s ta l so b eg i ven t h es ame p o l i t ica lr i gh t sa sm en ,n ame ly t h e r i gh tt ov o te a nd t h er i gh tt ob ee l ec ted t op a r l iamen t . C oncer n ing t h el a t te r , Mon te l iu s a dded : ' I am f u l ly a wa re t ha t s uch a s t a temen t n ow a lmos t i s c onc ide red a s as i gn o f i n san i ty ' . . .

Howeve r ,h ew a sc onv inced t h a tt h ef u tu r e wou ld s how t h a th ew a sr i gh t . T he P owe rR e l a t ions Mon te l iu s ' o p in ion o ft h e p owe r r e la t ion s i sc l ea r . H e d ec la red t h a t f r om as t a te o f c omp le te o pp re s s ion t h e re wou ld b e af u tu re s oc ie ty w he r e w omen a nd men a r e c on s ide r ed a s e qua l s . Mon te l iu s s aw t h is e vo lu t ion n o t o n ly a sa n i mp rovemen t f o r women ,b u tf o rs oc ie ty a s aw ho le . B u tt h ee vo lu t ion w ou ld n o to ccu rw i thou tp r ime move r s . I nt h eo r thodox D a rw in i sm t h e c au se w a s t h e g ende r -se lec t ion . F o r L ubbock i tw a s t h e p rog re s s o f s c ience c omb ined w i th ag ene r a l ly g row ing h ighe r mo ra l i ty a nd c i v i l iza t ion . F o r Mo rgan a nd E nge l s , e vo lu t ion w a s f o r ced b ys oc ia l c hange s , r e la ted t oc hange si np roduc t ion . F o r Mon te l iu s ,t h ed r iv ing f o r ce sw e r e ag row ing e n l igh tmen ta nd t h el e g i t ima te c l a im f o r j u s t ice .A nd t h i sd emand s hou ld b eu rged b yw omen t h em se lve s ,w i th s uch af o r ce t h a t 1 39

t h ey c ou ld i nf luence t h el e g i s la to r s( Mon te l iu s 1 906 : 2 3 ) . T h i sw a st h es i tua t ion d u r ing t h et ime o fO sca r Mon te l iu s . H ea rgued f o rc on t inu ing , i n ten s if ied s t rugg le f o r women ' s r i gh t s , b u t w i th in p r e scr ibed f r ame s . Mon te l iu s h imse lf t ook p a r t i nt h e e f f o r t s . H e p re sen ted t h e v i ew t h a t p reh i s to r ic c ond i t ion s , t h rough t h e m ean s o fe vo lu t ion , w a s a n a rgumen t f o r f u tu re p rog re s s . Mon te l iu s d i scu s sed aq ue s t ion w h ich s t i l l i so fi n te re s t : T he u nequa l g ende r r e la t ion s a nd t h e o r ig in o fw omen ' si n equa l i ty . T h i ss t i l l i s av e ry c on t rove r s ia l q ue s t ion w i th d i f f e r en t v i ew s . H owever , t h e c onc lu s ion o ft h e c a se p r e sen ted h e re i sn o t whe the r Mon te l iu s w a s r i gh t o rw rong . I n s tead , i ts how s t h a ta r chaeo logy w a sa ccep ted a s ar e f e r ence w hen i mpo r tan ts oc ia li s sue sw e r ed i scu s sed .O na ni d eo log ica ll e ve li to f f e red ac on t r ibu t ion t oe s sen t ia ls o c ia lc hange6) .

•T h i sp ape rw a so r ig ina l ly p re sen ted a t TAG ( Theo r e t ica lA rchaeo logy G roup C on f e rence )i nL ondon , 1 5 th -17 th D ecembe r 1 986 .

No te s 1 )F o r as ho r t d i scu s s ion o ft h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic f ea tu re s o ft h e e a r ly S oc ia l D emoc ra t ic v i ew o n t h e w omen ' si s sue , s e e Amb jör n s son 1 974b : 10 -121 . 2 )L ubbock h ad g ood r e la t ions t ot h e Sw ed ish s cho la r ly w o r ld . F o re xamp le ,h ev i s i ted t h e mee t ing o f S cand inav ian N a tu ra l i s t s i nS tockho lm 1 863 . H e a l so w a se ngaged i nt he E ng l ish t r an s la t ion o f S ven N i ls son 's ' The P r im i t ive I nhab i tan t s o f S cand inav ia ' . N i l s son , i nh i s t ur n , w ro te a p refa ce a nd a ni n t roduc t ion t ot h e Swed ish e d i t ion o fL ubbock ' s' P reh i s to r ic T ime s ' . L ubbock a nd N i ls son a l so k ep ti nc on ta c tt h rough al o ng s e r ie so fc o r re spondence ( L ind ro th 1 950 :1550 . 3 )A se a r ly a si n1 888 Mon te l iu sd e l ive red ad i scou r se o nt h e s ame i s sue . A tt he a nnua l mee t ing o f T he F r ed r ika B r eme rA ssoc ia t ion ' . . the m e e t ing . . .wa s i lu s t ra ted b y a n i n te re s t ing l e c tu re b y D r . Mon te l iu so nt h es ub jec t : F o rh ow l o ng h a st h ew oman b een c on s ide red a st h ep rop e r ty o f t h em an? '( Dagny 1 888 :169 ) . T ha tt h ed i scu s s ion w a sr e ce ived w i th i n te re s t i ss how nb y al e t te rf r om S oph ie L e i jonhufud Ad le r spa r r e ,t h eG rand O ld L ady o ft h e Sw ed ish w omen movemen t ,w r i t ten af ew w eek sl a te r . I n t he l e t te r s he a sked f o r p e rm i ss ion t op ub l i sh Mon te l iu s ' s peech i nt he j ou rna l o f t h e a sso c ia t ion . Mon te l iu s 'r ep ly i sn o t k nown . How eve r , t h e p r in ted v e r s ion w a s t ow a i t f o r 1 0 y ea r s a nd t h en i tw a s p ub l ished i nt h e mo re c u l tu ra l ly a nd s c ien t if ica l ly o r ien ted j our na l N o rd isk T id sk r if t ,o f wh ich Mon te l iu sw a st h ee d i to r . T he a r t ic le ' F o rh ow l o ng . . . ' w a sr epr in ted i n1 911 i n as e r ie se d i ted b y as t uden ta ssoc ia t ion , S tuden t fö r en ingen V e rdand i s Smä sk r if te r .T h i sa s so c ia t ion h ad as l igh t ly r ad ica la pp roa ch a nd t h e i rp r in t ing sh ad mos t ly a ne duca t iona l p u rpose . I nt wo l e t te r s f r om 1 898 , t h e i re d i to r Ann Ma rg re th H o lmg ren ,a l so ap rom inen t f o rce i nt h e movemen tf o rw omen ' sr i gh tt ov o te ,a sked Mon te l iu s t ow r i te ap opu la r v e r s ion o ft h e a r t ic le , a st h e i r s e r ie s ' . .un fo r tuna te ly l a ck s a n a r t ic le o n s uch as ub jec t ' ( l e t te r s f r om A . -M . H o lmg r en t o0 . Mon te l iu s 1 898 ) . T h is p r in t ing wa s d one 1 3 y ea r s l a te r a nd t he v e r s ion w a s t h e s ame a s t he o r ig ina l . T hese l e t te r s s hou ld b es e en a s am ea su re o ft h ei n te re s tt ha tw a sl i nked t ot h es ub jec t . 4 )T he r e la t ion b e tw een Mon te l iu s ' w omen a r t ic les ' a nd t h e w omen ' s r i gh t s movemen t o fh i s own t ime i sh in ted b yB e r ta S t je rnqu is t( 1975 : 5 ) . 5 ) When Anna Wh i t lock ' s S choo l i n1 892 w a sp lann ing t or e o rgan ize t o a' r efo rm s choo l 'w i th m ixed e duca t ion a l so f o r t h e o ldes t p up i ls , Mon te l iu s w a s o ne o ft hose w ho s i gned a n a ppea l f o r e conom ic s uppo r tf r om t h ep ub l ic . H ew a sa l so t h ef i r s tp r e s iden to ft h e s choo l ' sb oa rd . 6 ) I ti s i n te re s t ing t o s e e t ha t S t ig We l inde r i n h i s p ape r ' Sven sk a rkeo log is g u ldä lde r o ch k v inno saken ' ( The g o lden a ge o f Sw ed ish a r chaeo logy a nd t h e w omen i ssue ) f i n ishe s h i s d i scu s s ion w i th as t a temen tt ha ti sc on t ra ry t ot h ep r e sen ta u tho r ' so p in ion : ' The r e su l t w a sa n a r cha eo logy , w h ich d u r ing ac oup le o fd ecade sw a sa c t ing a ga in s ti t sc r ea to r s 'c omm i tmen t si n 1 40

t he w omen is sue ' (Wef inde r 1 987 : 8 9 ) . We l inde r s how s h ow t h e c ompa ra t ive , t ypo log iz ing a r chaeo logy d i r e c ted r e sea r ch a way f r om p e r sp ec t ive sc en te red a round w omen o ro t he ri s sue so f s oc ia l o rp o l i t ica l c ha rac te r . Ia g ree t ha t a r chaeo logy u sua l ly w a s o ft h i s k ind . T h is i s , f o r e xamp le ,s hown af ew g ene ra t ion sl a te ri nt h ew o rk so fH anna R ydh ,t h ef i r s t Swed ish f ema le a r cha eo log is tw ho p a ssed ad oc to ra l d eg ree a nd a ni mpo r tan tp e r son i nt he wo rk f o rw omen ' s r i gh t s( A rw i l l -No rdb ladh 1 987 : 9 9 ) . H ow eve r , Iw ou ld l i ke t oa rgue t ha ti nt h ec a se d i scu s sed i n t h is p ape r , Mon te l iu s p resen ted a no the r k ind o f a r chaeo logy , mo re d i rec ted t owa rd s a n th ropo logy , wh ich w a sn o tn a t iona l i s t ic b u tg ene ra l . I nt h i sr e spec t Mon te l iu s 'a pp roa ch i sa c on t inua t ion o ft hough t se a r l ie rp re sen ted b yS ven N i l s son .

R ef erences Amb jörn s son ,R . 1 974a . K v innof rägan sh i s tor ia iS ve r ige . Haf t en f Or k r i t i sk as t ud ier , N o . 7 8 . Vo l . 7 . ; p p . 2 7 -45 . Amb jö rn s son , R . 1 974b . S amhä l l smoder n . E l l en K ey s k v innouppf a t tn ing t i l l o ch med 1 896 . Gö tebo rg . A rw i l l -No rdb ladh , E . 1 987 . D e t d ubb la b ud skape t h o s H anna R ydh . K .A .N . Kv inne r ia rkeo log i iNorg e , N o .4 . ; p p . 8 3 -102 . B e rgen . B jö rk lund , S . 1 931 . Anna Wh i t lock .E ns v en sk mä rke skv inna . S tockho lm . C onkey , M .W . , & S pec to r , J . D . 1 984 . A rchaeo logy a nd t h e s t udy o f g ende r . Adv ance si n Ar chaeo log ic a l Me thod a nd T heory ( Ed . M . B . S ch if f e r ) , Vo l . 7 . ; p p . 1 38 .A cadem ic P r e s s . D an ie ls son , U . 1 965 & 1 967 . D a rw in ismen s i n t rängande iS ver ige . D e l I& I . Lychnos . L ä rdomsh is to r i ska s amfunde t s ä r sbok : 1 963 -64 , p p . 1 57 -210 ; 1 965 -66 , p p . 2 60 -334 . D agny . 1 888 . T id sk r if t f o rs oc ia la o ch l i t te rä ra i n t r e s sen . O rgan f ö rF r ed r ika -B reme r f ö rbunde t , F ören ingen f ö r Vä lgörenhe tens O rdnande o ch F ören ingen H anda rbe te t sV änne r . E kho lm , G . 1 922 . B ib l iog r aph i a Mon te l iana . F ör teckn ing ö ve ra v O sca r Mon te l iu s u tg ivna s k r if te rj äm t ep o s thuma v e rk . U pp sa la . E kenva l l , A . 1 974 . E va F ryxe l l , d a rw in i smen o ch k v innof rägan . V e t ensk apen s t r äd . I deh i s to r i ska s t ud ie rt i l lägnad eS t en L ind ro th ;p p . 2 22 -245 . F ee , E . 1 974 . T he s exua l p o l i t ics o f v ic tor ian s oc ia l a n th ropo logy . C l io ' s C on sc iousne s sR a i sed . New P e r spec t iv e s o n t h eH i s tory o f Women ( Ed . M . S . H a r tman & L .B anne r ) ,p p . 8 6 -102 . G rä s lund , B . 1 974 . R e l a t iv d a ter ing . Om k rono log i sk me tod in ord i sk a rkeo log i . T o r 1 6 . U pp sa la . G rä s lund , B . 1 985 -87 . Mon te l iu s , Gu s taf O sca r A ugu s t in . S v ensk t B iog r af i sk t L ex ikon ( Ed .G . N i lzen ) ;p p . 6 79 -684 . S tockho lm . H a t je , A . -K . 1 985 -87 . Mon te l iu s , Agda G eo rg ina D o ro thea A lexand ra . S vensk t B iog r af i sk t L ex ikon ( Ed .G . N i lzin ) ;p p . 6 84 -686 . S tockho lm . K y le , G . 1 972 . S vensk f l ick sko l a u nd er 1 800 -t a le t . Kv innoh is to r i sk t a rk iv 9 . Gö tebo rg . L eacock , E . B . 1 972 . I n t roduc t ion . T he O r ig in o ft h eF am i ly , P r iv a te P roper ty a nd t h eS t a t e ( F . E nge l s 1 884 ) ;p p . 7 66 . N ew Y o rk . L eone , M . P . 1 981 . A r chaeo logy ' s r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e p re sen t a nd t h e p a s t . Modern Ma t er i a lC u l tur e ( Ed . R .A .G ou ld & M . B . S ch if f e r ) . N ew Y o rk . L iedman , S . -E . 1 978 . H uman is t i ska f o r skn ing s t rad i t ione r iS ver ige . K r i t iska o ch h i s to r i ska p e r spek t iv . Human ior ap au nd an t ag ( Ed . T .F o r se r ) . S tockho lm . L ind ro th , S . 1 950 . Om S ven N i ls son s e nge l ska f ö rb inde lse r ( Lye l l , D arw in o ch L ubbock ) . Lychnos . L ä rdom sh is tor iska s amf unde t s ä r sbok 1 948 -49 ; p p . 1 44 -158 . L o sman , B . 1 986 . Kv innor , män o ch b arn p a 1 800 ta le t s s vensk a l a nd sbygd . G ö tebo rg Women S t ud ie s 1 .A c ta U n ive r s i ta t i sG o thobu rg en s i s . Gö tebo rg . 1 41

L ubbock , J .1 869 . Menn i skan su r t i l ls tänd e he rd en f ö r -h i s tor i ska t i den b e ly s tg enom f o rn lemn ingame o ch s ede ro ch b ruk h o sn u t iden sv i lda r . S tockho lm . L ubbock , J .1 870 . T he O r ig in o fC iv i l iza t ion a nd t h e P r im i t ive C ond i t ion o f Man . L ondon . L undqv i s t ,M . 1 943 . B ib l io t ec a Mon t e l i ana . C a ta logue o fO sca r Mon te l iu s 'c o l lec t ion o fb ook s . KVHAA . D e l5 7 . S tockho lm . Mobe rg , C . -A . 1 978 . T r ad i t ione r Ia rkeo log i . Human ior a p ä u nd an tag ( Ed . T . F o r se r ) ; p p . 2 17 -240 . S tockho lm . Mobe rg , C . -A . 1 984 . D en n y t t iga f omf o r skn ingen . E n s k is s t i l l e n ä skädn ing s h i s to r ia o ch k a rak tä r i s t ik . Ly chno s 1 984 ;p p . 1 33 -157 . Mon te l iu s , A . 1 912 . H jä lpare . R äd o ch a nv i sn ing ar f or f a t t igv ärd s in tr e s ser ad e . S ven ska f a t t igvä rd sf ö rbunde t ss k r if te r8 .S tockho lm . Mon te l iu s , 0 . 1 898 . H um l ä nge h a rk v innan b e t rak ta t s s om mannen s e gendom? E t t b l ad u rk v innan sh i s to r ia . D e l I& I . Nord i sk t i d sk r if tf ör v e t ensk ap , k on s to ch i nd us t r i; p p . 1 30 , 9 5 -122 . Mon te l iu s , 0 . 1 899 . T ypo log ien e l ler u tveck l ing s lär an t i l lämpad p ä d e t m en sk l iga a rbe te t . S v en sk af omm inne sf ör en ing en st i d sk r in 1 0 :3 . Mon te l iu s , 0 : 1 906 . K v innof rägen iS ve r ige . Nord i sk t i d sk r i t if ör v e ten sk ap , k ons t o ch i nd u s t r i; p p .1 -24 . N i l s son , S . 1 869 . F ö ro rd . Männ i sk ans u r t i l l s tänd . . . ( Lubbock 1 869 ) ; p p . I I -V I I I . S to ckholm . P ipp ing , K . 1 984 . Who r e ad s We s te rma r ck t oday ? T he B r i t i sh J our na lo fS oc io logy , Vo l . XXXV , No . 3 . ; p p . 3 15 -332 . S ah l in ,B . 1 922 . Minne s teckn ing ö v er O sc ar Mon te l iu s . KVHAA 3 4 . S tockho lm . S tae l v on Ho ls te in , M . 1 908 . Mä lsmanna skape t o ch k v innans s t ä l ln ing i nom ä k ten skape t e n l ig t g ä l lande s ven sk r ä t t . S k r if te ru tg iv an a v C en t r a l s ty r e l sen i L and sf ör en ing en f ör Kv innan sP o l i t i sk aR ö s t r ä t t , I I . S tockho lm . S t je mqu is t , B . 1 975 . K v innan s s oc ia la s t ä l ln ing if o rn t iden . L und s u n iver s i te t medd e l ar ,N r . 1 6 ;p p . 5 8 . U l r ich , S .1 920 . Agda Mon te l iu s . He r tha V I I ;p p . 1 37 -142 . Wah l s t röm ,L . 1 933 . Den s v en sk ak v inno rö r e l sen . S tockho lm . We s t e rma r ck ,E . 1 893 .D e t men sk J iga ä k t ensk ape t sh i s to r ia .H e l s ingf o r s . We h inde r , S . 1 987 . S ven sk a rkeo log i sg u ldä lde ro ch k v inno saken . K .A .N . Kv inner i a rkeo log i iNorg e ,N o . 5 .p p . 8 4 -90 .T rondhe im . U npub l i shed S our ce s L e t te r st oO sca r Mon te l iu s ,i nO sc ar Mon t e l iu sa rk iv , ATA ,S to ckho lm ,f r om S oph ie L e i jonhuf ud Ad le r spa r r e( May 1 8 th , 1 888 )a nd A nn Ma rg r e th Ho lmg r en ( May 5 t h , 1 898 ,N ovembe r 1 4 th , 1 898 ) .

1 42

A pproache st oS wed i sh P reh i s to ry , BAR . ,O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p . 1 43 -160 .

THE GRO WTH OF H IERARCHIES I N LO W -CENTRALIZED SOCIETIES : SO ME ARCHAEOLOG ICAL PROBLE MS B y Hans L undmark *

I ntroduc t ion • T he ma in p u rpo se o ft h i sp ape ri st od i scu ss s ome a spec t sc oncer n ing t h e s t udy o ft h e i n i t ia lg row th o fh i e r a rch ie si np rev iou s ly n on -cen tra l ized s oc ie t ie s . Al a rge -sca le s pa t ia l a na lys is o f amonumen t p a t te rn f r om t h e Swed i sh E a r ly I r on Age ( E IA ) g ives s ome e v idence o ft h i sk ind o fd eve lopmen t ,a nd p rov ide s ab a s i sf o r ah ypo the t ica l mode lo f t h e p roce ss . S tar t ing f r om a s imp le mode l o f n on -s t ra t if ica t ion t h e p oss ib le f o r ces b eh ind t h ep a t te rns a r ed i scu s sed a sw e l la ss ome s ou rce -c r i t ica la spe c t s .T he empha s i s i so n me thodo logy ,a nd h ow t h i sk ind o fe ven tp o s s ib ly c an b ei d en t if ied a nd s t ud ied . A f ew c ompar i son s a r e a l so made w i th p a t terns f r om o the r p reh is to r ic p er iod s f r om Sweden , t aken f r om t h e Swed ish R eg is te r o f Anc ien t Monumen t s . T h is ma te r ia l p rov ide su nusua lp o ss ib i l i t ie sf o rs oc ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ica la na ly s is a nd wh ich , t oge the r w i th o the rp a r t s o ft h e Swed ish a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l , f o rm s a n em inen t s ou r ce f o re x ten s ive a na ly s i so fp reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s . O ne c ond i t ion s e ldom f u l f i l led i np reh i s to r ic s t ud ie s ,i st h ea b i l i ty t oc omp rehend t h e o b jec to fs t udy i nr e la t ion t oa l lp o s s ib le s ca le so fs oc ia lr e la t ion sh ip s .L if ei np reh is to r ic t ime si n c luded much mo re t h an j u s ts ub s is tence , a nd p o l i t ica la nd s oc ia lr e la t ions w e re o fc ou r se , b o th c omp lex a nd o f ten w ide ly e x tended . T h i s i sw ide ly a cknow ledged i n r e cen t p reh is to r ic r e sea rch a l though a c tua l a pp l ica t ions o f e x tens ive s t ud ies i n t h is d i rec t ion a r e r e la t ive ly r a re . T he p rob lem l i e s , h oweve r , l e ss i n t he i n teres t o f p reh i s to r ian st h an i nt h ep o ten t ia lo r ,r a the r ,t h es uppo sed l a ck o fp o ten t ia li nt h es ou r ce ma te r ia l . D e ta i led d a ta o fg ood q ua l i ty may n o rma l ly o n ly b e p roduced i n d e ta i led i nve s t iga t ion so fl o ca lc a se sa nd i ti st h e refo re o f ten t emp t ing t os t ay a nd w o rk a tt h a t l e ve le ven i fi tmean s ap rob lem o fi n te rpo la t ing l a rge s t ruc tu re sf r om s ma l lc a se s .T he r e cen ti n te re s to nl a rge -sca le f i e ld s u rvey si nd ica te s ,h oweve r , aw i l lt oc olec td a ta a ta mo re g ene ra l s ca le i no rde rt ob e a b le t og ra sp t h e who le c omp lex i ty o ft h e s oc ie t ie s b e ing s t ud ied . I nt h i sc on tex t Iw i l lp r ima r i ly b ea d re s s ing p rob lem so fh i e ra r ch iza t ion a nd i ns uch c a ses , s ca le i sa ni nev i tab le a spec tt oc on s ide r . H ie ra rchy i ss e ldom l o ca l ly e xp re ssed a nd i s a ma t te r o f r e la t ions b e tween l a rge r s e t s o f p opu la t ion . T he q ua l i ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta t h en a ga in b ecome s c ruc ia l . I fw e w an t t o s ea rch f o r p o ten t ia l h i e ra rch ica lp a t te rn sf r om ,e g . ,t h eE IA i n Sweden ,t h e re w i l lb ep rob lem si nu s ing t h e a r t ef ac tv a r ia t ion a s as ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion s i nce t h ep i c tu r ei sv e ry i n comp le te . Mo s to f t h e ma ter ia l d er ive s f r om b ur ia l e xcava t ions w h ich a r e l a ck ing i nl a rge p a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry . T he ma in p a r t o f t h e i n fo rma t ion i st h e refo re s t i l l b ur ied i n t he g round . *D epa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä

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T he re a r e a l so l a rge a moun t s o fu npub l ished ma te r ia l t h a t w i l l r equ i re l o t s o f w o rk b e fo re i tc an b ea pp l ied i n mo re g ene ra ls t ud ies . F u r the rmo re ,t h e re i sn os ugge s t ion o fo bv iou sc en t ra lp l aces ,c u l ts i t e se t c .t h a tc ou ld i nd ica te s i gn s o f s t rong h i e ra rch ica l s t ruc ture s . I n s tead w e h ave t ol ook f o r o the r c r i te r ia i no t he rt yp e so f ma te r ia l . Ih ave t h e refo re t a ken t h ec omp i led f i e ld -survey m a te r ia lf r om t h eN a t iona lB oa rd o f A n t iqu i t ie s a s as t a r t ingpo in tf o r as t udy o ft h e s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion i nt h eE IA , a nd t o s ome e x ten tt h e L a te B ronze A ge ( LBA ) . I ti s my i mpr es s ion t h a t much o ft h e s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion o fs e t t lemen tl o ca l iza t ion i s ,t o al a rge e x ten t ,d ependen to ns oc ia la nd p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s ,a nd i ts e em sa l so t h a th i e ra rch ica la spec t sa r ev i s ib le i ns uch ma te r ia l . Ia m p a r t icu la r ly r e f e r r ing h e re t ov a r ia t ion s i np opu la t ion d en s i t ies , a nd t ot h e e x ten tt h ey m igh tb er ef lec ted i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ions o f monumen t sa nd s i tes . C onsequen t ly , Id on o t r e s t r ic t my s pa t ia l s t ud ie s t op u re ly e nv i ronmen ta l -econom ica l a spe c t s . Many o the r c au se sf o rl o ca l iza t ion a r ep r e sen t . Mode l T he e v idence w e h ave o ft h e e conomy d u r ing t h e E IA , a sf a r a sw e k now , s e em s t o i nd ica te as ma l l s ca le d ome s t ic mode o fp roduc t ion , b a sed o n s e lf -sub s i s tence . ( The re a r e h oweve r s o me n ew i nd ica t ions o fl a rge ru n i t s o fp roduc t ion , s e e C a r l sson 1 976 , a nd a l so Widg ren , t h is v o lume ) . We m igh t , t he refo re , a ssume a c o r re spond ing s ma l l -sca le s oc ia l s t ruc tu re , a tl e a s t a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p e r iod , w i th t h e p robab le p r e sence o fs ome k ind o fs egmen ta ry s y s tem o fo rgan iza t ion . S egmen t s wh ich o ugh tt o h ave b een r e la t ive ly i ndependen ti n ap o l i t ica l s ense . N e i the ra r e t h e re many s i gn so f s t rong d i f f e r ence si n ,e g . ,t h ep resen t ly k nown g r ave ma te r ia lo ri ns i te s ize s ,t h a tc ou ld s ugges ta ny h ighe rd eg ree o fs t ra t if i ca t ion ,a tl e a s tn o tf r om t h eb eg inn ing o ft h ep e r iod , j e . b e tween 500 B .C . a nd 2 00 -100 B .C . Ih ave t h er efo re c oncen t ra ted o n t r y ing t of i nd s i gns o f s uch s egmen ta ry o rgan iza t ion a nd h ave b een ma in ly r e so r t ing t o s pa t ia l a na ly se so fl a rge d i s t r ibu t ion so f monumen t sf r om t h ep e r iod .T he a im h a sa l so b een t o t r y t o i den t ify d i f fe ren t p o ss ib le s ca les o f t he o rgan iza t ion i n af i r s t a t temp t t o e ncompa s st h i s s pec ia lp e r iod o f Swed ish p reh i s to ry .T he f unc t ion a nd h i s to ry o fe ach l e ve lm igh tt h en b ei nves t iga ted a nd t h is m ay p rov ide n ew a ng le sf o rf u r the ra na ly s is . T o a ccomp l ish t h is Ih ave b een u s ing , among o the r t h ing s , ak ind o ft r end -su r face a na lys i s b a sed o n d i s tance r e la t ion s . T he a s sump t ion b eh ind t h e me thod i st h a t b a s ic s egmen t sw i th in ap ar t icu la rs oc io -econom ic o rgan iza t ion s hou ld h ave a pp rox ima te ly s im i la rp opu la t ion i n an on -h ie ra r ch ica l s i tua t ion .T he p opu la t ion s ize s hou ld n o rma l ly c onfo rm a s ar e su l to fa d ju s t ing t oc e r ta in f o rm so fp roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion . A ny s uch s y s tem w i l lh ave ac e r ta in i d ea l s i ze w h ich i so p t ima lf o rs urv iva la nd h ence w i l l t e nd t o b e p ref e r red b y t h e i nhab i tan t s . T h is wou ld l e ad t o s im i la r s pa t ia l s i zes i n c ompa rab le e nv i ronmen t s . I tm igh t , t h e refo re , b e p o s s ib le t oi d en t i fy t h em w i th in a d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e t t lemen t s i tes i ft h ey w e re p hy s ica l ly s epa ra ted , s ome th ing w h ich s egmen t so fp roduc t ion t e nd t ob ei nt h e se t ype so fs oc ie t ie s .I tw a sa l so a s sumed t h a ti f h ighe r l e ve l s o f g roups i n t h e o rgan iza t ion w ere p r esen t t h ese wou ld b e e xp re ssed s pa t ia l ly i n t h e ma te r ia l i n as im i la r manne r . S egmen t s o f t h e s ame o rder s hou ld t h e refo r et u rn u pa sc l u s te r so fs im i la rm agn i tude i nt h em a te r ia l . T he mode l i n F ig .l a , b a sed o n t h e c on ica l -c lan -mode l ( Sah l ins 1 968 : 2 5 ) , c an b e t a ken a s a n e xamp le . T he r e su l tan tp a t te rn o fs i te s wou ld t h en t u rn u p i nt h e f o rm o f n es ted c lus te r s a t d i f fe ren t l eve ls , i d ea l ly r ep resen t ing c o r respond ing l e ve ls o f o rgan iza t ion .T heo r e t ica l ly ,e ach g roup o f ag i ven o rde rw ou ld t h en b ee qua li nt e rm so f s t a tus a nd s i ze . We may c on t ra s t t h is w i th a s ys tem o fc en t ra l p lace s f r om amo re d eve loped t ype o f s y s tem a s i nF ig . l b , w he re ad i s t inc t d i f f e rence i n s i te -s izes i s p re sen t .

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F ig . l a . S egmen ta ry ,n on s t ra t if i ed ,s e t t lemen ts y s tem . F ig . l b . C en t ra l -p lace ,s t ra t i f ied ,s e t t lemen ts y s tem .

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T h is t y pe o fc l u s te rp a t ter n ,a tl e a s ti nt h eo ne leve ls en se ,i sn o tu ncommon ,a nd c an b e s e en i nb o th p reh i s to r ic a sw el a si n moder ne xamp le s ( c f . ,e g . ,t h eG e rman c oncep t o f ' S ied lungskamme r ' , J ahnkuhn , 1 977 , a nd S inc la ir s e xamp le f r om t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , 1 987 : 1 25 ) . I n Sweden i tc an b e o b served f r om v a r ious p e r iods , j e . t h e N eo l i th ic ( Hyens t rand 1 984 : 4 8 ) a s w e l l a s f r om t h e B ronze A ge a nd t h e E IA ( La r s son & L undmark 1 982 ; L undma rk 1 983 , 1 984 ) . I n t h e p a r t icu la r s t ud ies I h ave b een c onduc t ing , t h i st ype o fp a t ter nw a si n deed t ob ef ound i n many l o ca lc a se s t ud ie s ,b u ta mo re c omp lex p i c ture eme rged a th ighe r l e ve ls o f s ca le . T he o r ig ina l s imp l if ied , ' e qua l i ty ' , mode l h ad t ob e mod if ied a nd p o in ted t os ome i n te re s t ing a spec t s t h a th ad b ea r ing so np roce s se so fh i e ra r ch iza t ion . Ma ter ia l T he re h as b een an a t ion -w ide f i e ld -su rvey f o r a nc ien t monumen t s i n Sweden s i nce 1 938 . I ti sb e ing d one a sp a r to ft h e c omp i la t ion o ft h e Swed ish E conom ic Map ( s ee H yen s t rand , th i s -vo lume ,f o r at ho rough p resen ta t ion ) . T h i sm ap -se r ie sc ove r s an umbe r o f i mpor tan t a spec t s c once rn ing t he r i gh t s o f l a ndowne r s a nd s i nce a l l a nc ien t monumen t s a r e p ro tec ted b y l aw t h ey a r e , o fc ou r se , as i gn if ican tc on s t ra in to nt h ese r i gh t s .A nc ien t monumen t sa r et h e re fo re r eg i s te red a nd m apped i ng rea td e ta i l . O ve rt h e mo re t h an 4 5 y ea r s t h a t t h e s u rvey h a s b een g o ing o n , a bou t 1 00 ,000 s i te s h a s b een r e co rded w i th at o ta l o f mo re t h an 5 00 ,000 s epa ra te f e a tu re s . S ince t h ey h ave b een c a refu l ly d esc r ibed a cco rd ing t o as pec if ied n o rm t h ep o t en t ia lf o rp r eh is to r ic r e sea r ch i s o bv ious . T he re h a s , h oweve r , b een c ompa ra t ive ly l i t t le r e sea rch d one p rev ious ly w i th t h is ma ter ia l b u t t h ep i c tu re i sn owdays c hang ing ( c f . H yens t rand 1 982 ) . T he s c a le a t wh ich i ti sp o s s ib le t o wo rk m igh tb ed emon s t r a ted w i th t h e map i nF ig . 2 ,s how ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fo ne t y pe o f monumen t ; s t and ing s t one s . T he re a r ea bou t4 , 500 r e co rded s i te so ft h is p a r t icu la rt y pe o f monumen t . Map s e r ies o ft h i sk ind c an b ep roduced a nd i ng ood c i r cum s tance sg i ve u sl a rge -sca le p i c tu r e so f monumen td i s t r ibu t ion sf r om an umbe ro fd i f f er en tp e r iod s .T h i si n c lude sa l l p os s ib le l e ve ls f r om t h e l o ca l s i te t ot h e n a t iona l s ca le . I n mos t a r ea s t h e Swed ish l a nd scape i ss uch t h a t t h e c ond i t ion sf o rp r ese rva t ion o fa nc ien t monumen t s a r ev ery g ood .D epend ing o nt h et y pe o fd a ta i ti s ,t h e r efo re ,o f ten p os s ib le t or e con s truc ts pa t ia l p a t te rns , s e t t lemen tb ys e t t lemen to ve rf a i r ly l a rge r eg ion s , s ome th ing t h a te spec ia l ly h a s b een d one f o rt h eL a te I r on A ge i nt h er eg ion o fL ake Mä la ren . ( e g . Amb ro s ian i 1 964 ; Hyen s t rand 1 974 ; Wi jkande r 1 983 ) . B y s e lec t ing k ey types l i ke t h i s f r om d i f f e ren tp e r iod s o ft ime , w em igh t b e a b le t o r e cons t ruc t c hanges i n s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re a nd t o s ea rch f o r r e levan t s oc ia l a nd e conom ic e xp lana t ion so ft h ep roce s se s .T h i sc an b ed one i ng r ea tl o ca ld e ta i la sw e l la s f r om t h e n a t iona l l e ve l . Wi th t h is k ind o f ma ter ia l t h e re a r e , o f c ou r se , p l en ty o f s ou rce -cr i t ica l p rob lems . I nc iden t ly , Iw i l l h e re b e d i scu ss ing s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re s a l though mo s to ft h er e co rded m a te r ia lt h a t Ia mu s ing c once rn sg rave monumen t s . A t l e a s t f o rt h e I r on A ge , h owever , t h e re i s as t rong c o r re la t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t s i te s a nd g rave s i te s , s o t h e re i sn o p ar t icu la r p rob lem i nt h a t r e spec t , a tl e as t n o t a tt h e s ca le st h a t Iw il b ep re sen t ing h e re . Two o t he rp rob lem sa r e mo re i mpo r tan t : *F i r s t t h e q ues t ion o fd es t ruc t ion o f monumen t s . T ho se w ho h ave v i s i ted S weden w i l lk now t h et y p ica lb roken l a nd scape ,w i th n ume rous h i l l so fr ock a nd t i l l , a nd o f ten i nb e tween ,i nt h ev a l ley s ,t h ea r ab le l a nd .E xcep ti ns ome i n t en s ive ly c u l t iva ted r e g ion s l i ke S käne ,t h i sh a sl e dt o ag ood p re se rva t ion o ft h ec em e te r ie s ,s i nce t h ey a r en o rma l ly p laced o n u np roduc t ive , a nd s t i l l n o t c u l t iva ted , g round . I ti st h erefo re p o ss ib le , i n many c a se s , t os t udy a lmos tc omp le te s e t t lemen tp a t te rn so ve rl a rge r eg iona la r ea s . I n t h e h igh ly a g r icu l tura l ly e xp lo i ted a r ea s , e spec ia l ly i n t h e s ou th , o ther t ype s o f

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F ig . 2 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s w i th s t and ing s t one si nS ou the rn a nd C en t ra l Sweden , e xcep t Go t land . [ a f t e rH yen s t rand 1 982 ] .

i n f o rma t ion mu s tb ec o l le c t ed b u t Iw il n o td i scu s st h a tp rob lem f u r the rh e re a nd n e i the r i n c lud et h es ou the rnmo s ta r ea so fS weden i nt h ea na ly s i s . *T he o the r p rob lem c oncern s t ime -f rame s . T he monumen t s a r e o f ten o f a n a nonymous a ppea rance a nd p rec i se d a t ing i so f ten n o t o bv iou s . T he re a r e a l so v a r ia t ions o f t y pe s f r om r eg ion t or eg ion wh ich m igh t make c ompa r i sons d i ff i cu l t . S ome t ype s ,l i ke t h e s t and ing s t one sh e re ,a r eh oweve rg ene ra l ly d i s t r ibu ted a nd f a i r ly c on s i s ten ti nt h ed a t ing s ,i nt h i sc a se mo s t ly f r om t h ef ew c en tu r ie sa r ound t h ey ea r0 .

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F ig . 3 . D -Cu rve b a sed o nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion i nF ig . 2 .w i th G o t land a dded . S ho r tb a r s w i th a ni n te rva l lo f c1 9 km . L ong b a r s w i th a n i n te rva l l o f c1 9 km . T he h o r izon ta l s c a le i sl o ga r i thm ic . A -C m a rk s m in ima sd i s cu s sed i nt h et e x t .

T he re i ss t i l l n o t amomen taneou s p i c tu re t h a t w e s e e h e re , h oweve r , r a the r as um f r om al onge rp e r iod a nd t h i s f a c t h a s t ob e t a ken n o te o f , a nd a l so i n c luded , i nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion . T he e xcava t ion o fc eme te r ie s f r om t h e p e r iod s how s h oweve r t h a t a s t rong s t ab i l i ty a nd c on t inu i ty i sp re sen ta te ach s i te a nd t h e re fo re i ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h e p roces se sc r ea t ing t h i sp i c tu re a r ea dd i t ive a nd t h a tt h ef i na lp i c tu r em igh tr ep re sen ta l a te f u l lg rown s t age i nt h es o c ie ty w h i ch h ave b u i l tt h em onum en t s .

Method

T he c ho ice o fa pp rop r ia te s ca le so fa na ly s is h a sb een d one b y mean so fl ook ing a th ow t h ed en s i ty v a r ie sa round t h e s i te sw i th t h ea i do ft h eD -cu rve a pp roa ch . An e xpand ing c i r c le i sc on s t ruc ted a r ound e a ch p o in t a nd t h er e la t ive v ar ia t ion o fp o in t d en s i ty i s c a lcu la ted u s ing as pe c ia l f o rmu la ( Lundma rk 1 984 , f o r d e ta i l s ) . T he s um o ft h e se

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v a r ia t ion sa r et h en u s ed i nd r aw ing ac u rve a si nF ig . 3 .T h i sp a r t icu la rc u rve s how st h e v a r ia t ion f o rt h e m ap i nF ig .2 . D rop s i nd ica te d ec rea s ing d ens i ty , ma rk ing p robab le b u f f e r -zone sa nd t h e s es i ze sa r et h en u sed i nt h ec on s t ruc ton o ft h et r end su r f a ce m ap s . T he a pp roach d oe sn o tp rov ide ap rope rs t a t i s t ica lt e s tb u tg ive si nd ica t ion so fw he r e o p t ima ld i v i s ion s b e twe en c l us te r s o fd i f f e r en t l e ve l s m igh t b e f ound . T rend s u r f ace maps a r e t h en s imp ly c ons t ruc ted b y l e t t ing c i r cu la rs pace s move a l ong ag r id w i th a c e r ta in o ve r lap , a nd a te ach i n te r se c t ion t h e n umbe r o fp o in t s w i th in t h e c i r c le a r e c a lcu la ted . I n te r se ct ion sw i th s im i la rv a lue s a r et h en c onnec t ed w i th i s o l ine s ,a nd t h e r e su l ti s ak i nd o fd en s i ty map a s ,e g . ,i nF ig 4 .B yc hang ing t h e s i ze o ft h es e a r ch -ce l l d i f f e r en ts c a le sa r ee mpha s ized a nd t h i sc an b es e en a s as imu la t ion o fd if e r en tl e ve l so f s e t t lemen ti n t e ra c t ion . S in ce ,i nt h ec a se o ft h eE IA , w ea r ew o rk ing w i th as e em ing ly n on -cen t ra l ized s oc ia l s ys tem w i th p oo r e v idence o f t h e p re sence o f c en t ra l p laces i n t h e f o rm o f l a rge s e t t lemen t so rc e r emon ia l s t ruc tu re s , i ti sa pp rop r ia te t h a ta l l u n i t s i nt h ea na ly s i sa r e g iven e qua l w e igh t . C lus te r s o ft h e se u n i t s a r e t h en c omb ined b y t h e mean s o ft h i s t r end -su r f a ce me thod ,r e p la c ing p o in tp a t t e rn sw i th g ene r a l i sed i n ten s i t ie so fd i f f e r en t magn i tude a nd c r ea t ing n ew u n i t st ob es t ud ied f u r the r .T he a pp ro ach i si lu s t ra t ed b y t h e e xamp le i nF ig 4 . D epend ing o n t h e r e so lu t ion o ft h e a na lys is w e c an e mpha s ize d i f f e r en tt r end si nt h e ma te r ia lw i th r e spe c tt os c a le .T h i sc an t h en b es e en a s as imu la t ion o fd i f f e r en tp o s s ib le l e ve l so fs o c ia l o rgan iza t ion , i fw e a ccep tt h a ts uch r e la t ion sc an b es pa t ia l ly d ependen t .I nt h et y pe o fu n spec ia l ized d ome s t ic e conomy t h a t w e h ave d u r ing , e g . , t h i s p e r iod w e m igh t a s sume as t rong r e la t ion b e tween s pa t ia l u n i t sa nd e conom ic a nd s oc ia lg roup sa sd i s cu s sed a bove . T he se u n i t s , ' g roup s ' t ha t a ppe ar i nt h e a na ly s i s a r e t h en c onven ien t t ou se a s n ew u n i t so fa na lys i s , b o th i nt e rm so fc ompa r i son so fe nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion sa sw e l la s o fm a te r ia lc u l tu r e .A no the rq ue s t ion t h en i si ft h ey c an b eg i ven f unc t iona lm ean ing a s ' u n i t s 't h a th ave e x i s t ed i np ra c t ice a l so .O ne w ay o ft e s t ing t h i si st om ake c ompa r i son s w i th o t he rt y pe so fm a te r ia l . Ia mh e re u s ing t h ee xamp le i nF ig . 5w h ich c an b es e en a s a n e x ten s ion o f T .B . L a r s son 's a na ly s i s i n h i s r e cen t b ook o n t h e Swed i sh LBA ( La r s son 1 986 ) . T he m aps s how t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fb u rn t mound s i nt h ep rov ince s o f ö s te rgö t land a nd N o r th -Ea s te rn Smä land , w h ich t o al a rge e x ten t d esc r ibe s t h e s e t t lemen tp a t ter ni nt h i sr eg ion d u r ing t h eL BA . T he c i r c le s s how t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e r ock -ca rv ing c en te r s ( i e . c oncen t ra t ions o f f i gu re -ca rv ing s ) , w he re l a rge r s ymbo l s r ep re sen t t h e mo r e e x tens ive o ne s . T he D -cu rve a na ly s i s h a s s ugge s ted an umbe ro f c l us te r leve l s o fw h ich t he t h ree l a rge s t a r ep re sen ted h e r e ( F ig 5 b -d ) , ( c f . L undma rk 1 984 ) . D epend ing o nw h i ch s c a le i nt h et r end -su r f ace a na ly s i st h a ti su sed ,d i f f e r en ta spe c t s a r ee mpha s ized . A tt h ef i r s tl e ve lw ef i nd t h a to n ly t h el a rge ru n i t sa r ec o r re la ted t ot h e r ock -a r t ,b u tt h a tt h e se i nt u rn a r ep l aced p e r iphe ra l ly t ot h e ma in p a r to ft h es e t t lemen t s ( 5b ) . A t t h e n ex t h i ghe r l e ve l , f ou r l a rge r u n i t s a r e c r ea ted , e ach s e rved b y o ne r ock -ca rv ing c en te r , w h i le i nt h e l a s t o ne , t h e t wo ma jo r c en te r s c o r re spond t ot wo ma jo rc l u s te r s . We m u s th e r e empha s ize t h a tt h e w e s te rn p a r to ft h e a r ea i sn owday s i n ten s ive ly c u l t iva ted s ot h er e la t ive b i a so ft h i sl a rge rp a t te rn w a sp robab ly s omewha t d i f f e r en t . T he se p a t te rn s s ugge s tt h ep r e sence o f av e ry s t rong a nd c ohe r en t f o rm o f o rgan iza t ion d u r ing t h e BA . I th a s o fc ou r se t ob e r e la ted t o t h e s pec if i c mode o f p roduc t ion t h a td om ina ted i nt h ea r ea a nd w h ich f o rm s t h e s t ruc tu ra lp r inc ip le s . Wi th t h e s ys tem o f p roduc t ion a s ab a se , h oweve r , o the r f a c to r s w i l l i n te r f e re a nd c ompe t i t ion b e tween g r oup sw i l lr e su l ti ns ome o ft h em b ecom ing s t ronge r , a t t ra c t ing mo re p eop le a nd t h u sr e su l t ing i n ah i e ra r ch ica lp a t te rn .T h i si s ,t h en , a l so empha s i sed i n t h e l o ca t ion o f c e r emon ia l s i te s o f d i f f e ren t o rde r a t ta ched t o t h e l a rge r u n i t s . K r i s t ian sen ,L a r s son , a nd o the r sh ave e mpha s ized d u r ing r e cen ty ea r s t h e t h eo ry o fa p r ima r i ly p a s to ra le conomy c o r re spond ing t o aw ide n e two rk o fc on ta c ta nd e xchange ( K r i s t ian sen 1 981 , 1 982 ; L a r s son 1 986 ) .

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F ig . 5 a . D i s t r ibu t ion o fb u rn tm ound s f r om t h eL BA i nö s t e rgö t land a nd T ju s t . F ig . 5 b -d . D en s i ty -map s w i th r e spec t ive ly 1 6 , 3 4 a nd 5 9k m . C i r c le s m a rk s t h e p r e sence o fr o ck -a r t c en te r s .

1 5 1

L a r s son s ugge s t sf u r the rt h a tt h e se r ock -ca rv ing c en t e r s f unc t ion p a r t ly i nc onne c t ion w i th t h ee xchange s y s t em ,h ence t h ey w il o n ly f unc t ion a ts pe c if i cl e ve l so fi n t e rac t ion ( c f . L a r s son ,t h i sv o lume ) .T he f i nd ing sh e re s uppo r t st h a ti d ea a nd a dd st h ep o s s ib i l i ty o f ah i e ra r ch ica l o rde r ing o f t h e s e t t lemen t layou t . T hus i ts eem s t ob e p o s s ib le t o r e c ieve q u i te s ub t i le i n fo rma t ion f r om t h i s t y pe o fa pp roach , i nt h i s c a se i d en t i fy ing s oc ia l' u n i t s 't h a tm igh th ave b een a c t ive i n ap o l i t ica ls t rugg le f o rp owe rw i th in al a rge r s y s tem o fe xchange .F u r the rmo r e ,t h ec o r re la t ion w i th aq ua l i ta t ive ly d i f f e r en tm a te r ia l , t h er o ck a r t ,s t r engh ten st h es t ru c tu re sa nd i lum ina te st h e i rf unc t iona lp rope r t ie s . Ana lys is o f t he E IA s e t t lemen t p a t tern T he m ap i nF ig . 2s howed t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs t and ing s t one si ns ou the rn a nd c en tra l Sweden a nd w i l lb eu sed h e r ea s ar ep re sen ta t ion o ft h eE IA s e t t lemen tp a t t e rn . I nc on t ra s tt ot h eL BA , t h e re i s as t ronge rt r end f o rs eden ta r ine s sd u r ing t h e se p e r iod s a nd f a rm s i te sa r en o ta sd en se ly l o ca ted a se a r l ie r , a nd t h i sh a st od ow i th c hange s i n e conomy a nd s o c ia ls t ruc tu re ,i e . at r an s fo rma t ion o ft h e mode o fp roduc t ion h a st a ken p l ace ( La r sson , t h i sv o lume ) . Iw i l ln o tg oi n to a ny d e ta i l so fw ha tt h e monumen t type m igh t r e a l ly s ymbo l ize , b u t s i nce t h ey a r e s o w e l l s p read i n s uch n umbe r s a l l o ve r s ou the rn a nd c en t ra l Swed en w em igh ta s sume t h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion -map c ou ld r e p r e sen t as e t t lemen tp a t ter nf r om t h eE IA ,o rr a the r as um o fs e t t lemen t sf r om al onge rp e r iod , a sd i scu s sed a bove .T he re a r ef i nd sf r om ac ompa ra t ive ly l o ng p e r iod o ft im e ,a l though mo s td a te sa nd a s so c ia t ion s -t h ey a r eo f ten n o td i r ec t ly c onnec ted t o ab u r ia l -i n d ica t e s l a te p re -Roman o r e a r ly R oman d a te s ( i e . t h e E IA i n Swed i sh t e rm s ) . T he r e s e em s , h oweve rt ob el o ng a nd s t ab le c on t inu i ty w i th in mo s tc eme te r ie sf r om t h i sp e r iod s ow e m igh t s e e t h i s a sr ep re sen t ing t h e s i tua t ion a tt h ee nd o ft h e ma in p e r iod o ft h e i ru se , wh ich p robab ly w a st h e 1 : s tc en tu ry AD . T og i ve ap i c tu r eo f at o ta ls e t t lem en ts t ruc tu r ef r om a ny f i xed p r eh i s to r ic mom en ti so f c ou r se i mpo s s ib le , b u ti ti sn eve r the les s i mpo r tan tt oc ome a sc l ose a sp o s s ib le . T he Swed i sh s u rvey m a te r ia lc on ta in s ma in ly al a rge n umbe ro fg r ave monumen t s ,a nd l e s s d i rec t i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e s e t t lemen t s t h em se lve s . Ap i c tu re l i ke t h i s s how ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f amonumen tt y pe m igh t ,h oweve r ,p rov ide ag ood a pp rox ima t ion i fu sed c a refu l ly . T he t ype n o rma l ly o ccu r s o n c eme ta r ies w h ich o f ten s e em t oh ave ag ood c onnec t ion w i th a c tua l s e t t lemen t s , s e en a t af a i r ly l ow s c a le a tl e a s t . T he re a r ea bou t 4 500 s i te so nt h i s map . S t a r t ing f r om t h et o ta lp i c tu r e ,t h eD -cu rve s ugge s t st h ep r e sence o fa tl e a s tt wo m a jo r c l u s te r leve l s( Aa nd C i nF ig . 3 )b u tw he r et h el a rge s to ne o n ly ma rk s as imp le d i v i s ion o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion i n to t wo h a lve sa nd i st h e r e fo r en o td i s cu s sed f u r the rh e re . An a r row b u t s ha rp ' d rop ' i n t h e c urve ( B ) i n te rmed ia te b e tween t h ese t wo mer i t s s ome c ons ide ra t ion , h oweve r . T he c o r re spond ing d ens i ty -map ( F ig . 4 a ) s ugges t s t h e p re sence o f ad iv i s ion i n to f i ve m a jo rr eg ion s ,b u tw he re o ne o ft h em , Go t land ,f a ro u t i nt h e s e a ,o fc ou r se i sr a the rs pec ia li nt h i sk ind o fa na ly s i s .T h i sd iv i s ion o ft h ea r ea i s i n te re s t ing , a nd i si n many w ay s s im i la rt ot h eo ne s ugge s ted b y T .B . L a r sson i nh i s LBA -ana ly s i s ( La r s son 1 986 ) . T he o n ly d i f f e rence i sr ea l ly t h e a dd i t ion o f as e pä ra te g roup c on ta in ing ö s te rgö t land a nd t h eN o r t -ea s ter np a r t so f Smä land ( T ju s t ) ,w h ich i s w e l li nl i ne w i th t h ea ppea rence o ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu r ef r om t h e se p e r iod s( c f . Mobe rg 1 940 ; S ah l s t röm 1 948 ) . T he mo re p ronunced l e ve l Ai n s tead g i ve s t h e f o l low ing p i c tu re ; f i f teen c l us te r s a ppea r , ad i v i s ion t h a ti n many p a r t ss t i l lp r eva i l sa st h et r ad i t iona lr eg iona ld i v i s ion o f Sweden ( ' l and skap ' ) : S ome o ft h e se r eg ion s a r e o fc ou r se ma in ly c ond i t ioned b y t h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape , b u te spec ia l ly i nt h e i n land z one t h e re h ave b een al o t o fc hange s d u r ing p reh i s to ry s how ing t h a t h i s to r ica l ly d i s t inc t a spec t s a l so a r e p re sen t i nt h e mak ing o ft h e se o r ig ina l u n i t so fo rgan iza t ion . F rom t h i sp i c tu re t h e re i s , h oweve r , a

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F ig . 6 . D en s i ty m ap s b a sed o n .t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f : a ) S tand ing s t one s a nd b ) S tone C i r c le s i n V ä s te rgö t land .C e l l -s ize 2 0k m .

v i s ib le h i e ra rch ica l t e ndency w i th r e spec t t op opu la t ion -dens i ty w h ich c oun te r s t h e p rev iou s ly d i scu s sed e qua l i ty -mode l ,w he r es ome r eg ions c l ea r ly s t and o u ta si mpo r tan t c oncen t ra t ion s o fp opu la t ion . E ach o ft h ef ou rm a in land -g roups o fl e ve l Ba bove , a r e d iv ided i n to t wo t o s even s ubg roups . I n t he t h ree s ou the rn o nes a d i s t inc t s i ze -sepa ra t ion i sp resen t whe re e ach o f t h em s eem s t o b e d om ina ted b y as t rong c l u s te r . L eve l Bm igh tp e rhaps b e t te rb e d escr ibed a ss phere s o fi n f luence o fc er ta in l a rge g roups o f l e ve l A a t l e a s t i n t he t e chn ica l s ense o f t h e me thod . I ti sn o t c ha rac ter ized b y c l ea r s epa ra ted c lus te r s w i th ma rked b uf f e r -zones , b u t i n s tead a c on t inou s ly s e t t led a r ea w i th c oncen t ra t ion so fh ighe rd ens i ty w i th ar egu la ri n terva l . T he p resence o ft h i s t y pe o fs t ruc tu re , t h e refo re , mo t iva ted ar ev i s ion o ft h e o r ig ina l s e t t lemen t mode lf o rt h eE IA . I fw e l ook i n s ide o ne o f t h e d om ina t ing l e ve l A g roups , (We s tern Sweden ) , t h e i n te rna l d iv is ion a ppea r s w i th , ac l ea r d iv is ion i n n ea t c l us te r s a nd a h i e ra rchy i n i n tens i ty .I ft h i sc an b ea c cep ted a s a" t rue "p a t te rn ,w h ich Iw il r e tur nt ol a te r ,w eh ave t ol ook a tt h er ea son s f o rt h e e x is tence o fs uch as y s tem . T he p o s i t ion o ft h e l a rge s t c l u s te rw i th in t h i sa r ea i sc en t ra li n many r e spec t s ,s i tua ted r e la t ive ly c l o se t ot h ec oa s ta l r e sou rce s a sw e l l a st h er i ch i n land p la in s a nd t h eh igh land a r ea w h ich h a si t ' s s pec ia l

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i n te re s t . B o th b efo re a nd a f te r t h e E IA t h e l a t te r a r ea h a s b een ar e la t ive ly w eek ly p opu la ted r eg ion b u td u r ing t h e se p e r iod st h e re s e em st ob e ad i f f e rence .T he r e a son i s p robab ly t h e p re sence o fi r on o r e s i nt h i s r eg ion w h ich h a s b een u t i l ized a nd w h ich c r ea ted as ou r ce f o rs ub s i s tence w i th in al a rge re xchange -ne two rk . T he re a r es t i l ln o t many f i nd s s uppo r t ing t h is h ypo the s is , b u t t h e re a r e af ew d a te s s ugges t ing a p re -Roman h o r izon o fm e ta l -p roduc t ion i nt h e r eg ion . T he s ho r tage o fd a t ing s c an , h oweve r , p a r t ly b ee xp la ined b y t h e l a ck o fs y s tema t ic r e sea r ch i nt h er eg ion . Many s i t e sf r om t h i sp e r iod a r el o ca t ed c l o se t ol a rge b og sa dm i rab ly s u i ted f o rt h ep roduc t ion o fb og i ron . T h is p rov ide s u s w i th s ome i nd ica t ions t owa rd s t h e e xp lana t ion f o r t h e p re sence o f t h e se s i ze d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e r eg ion s . S pec ia l iza t ion a nd d i f f e ren t a c ce s st or awma te r ia l s may g i ve a no ppo r tun i ty f o rc e r ta in g roup st op rof i to nb eha l fo f o t he r s .I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h eo r ig ina le qua l i tymode lp re sen t ed a bove h a st ob e mod i f ied t o i n c lude t h e p roces se s t h a t c r ea te s h i e ra r ch ie s b e tween p rev ious ly e qua l ly d ef ined s egmen t so ft h eg roup s . A c ompa ra t ive a na lys is w i th a s l igh t ly l a te r ma te r ia l may i lum ina te b o th t h e s ou r ce -c r i t ica le va lua t ion a sw e l la st h el a t e rd eve lopmen to ft h es e t t lemen tp a t t er ni nt h i s r eg ion . I nV ä s t e rgö t land ,e g . ,t h e re a r et wo i n ten s ive ly c u l t iva ted a r ea sf r om w he re w e c ou ld e xpec t l a rge -sca le d e s t ruc t ion o f s i te s t h a t m igh t h ave d i s tu rbed a nd p e rhap s e xage ra ted t h e s egmen ta r ian t r end o f t h e p a t tern . A t e s t o f t h i s c an , h oweve r , b e a ch ieved w i th t h eh e lp o fa no the r monumen tt y pe , s t one c i rc le sf r om t h eL a te R oman p e r iod .T he se a r ep r e sen ti ns im i la rc ond i t ion s ,m ade o ft h es ame ma t e r ia la nd i ns im i la r n umbe r st ot h e s t and ing s t one s . AD -Cu rve a na ly s i sw a su sed i na na ly s ing t h ec en t ra l We s t -Swed i sh g roup f o rb o th c a tego r ie s .T he s ame r e so lu t ion h a sb een u sed i nF ig . 6 b a sf o rt h e s t and ing s t one si nF ig . 6 a . We c an s e e ag r ea tc hange i ne mpha s i s ,t h e r ei sa l owe r d eg ree o f h igh p eak s a nd al e s s c l ea r s egmen ta ry t r end . T he p a t te rn i s mo re f l uen t . Ab e t te r o ve ra l l c ove rage i sp re sen t , b u t t h e c l u s te r ing i sl e s s o bv iou s . T he • c on t ra s tb e tween t h e se m ap st h u ss t r engh ten st h ep r e sence o f as y s tem o fw e l l -def ined , h i e ra r ch ica l ly o rde red c l u s te r sd u r ing t h eE IA ; as y s tem t h a to bv iou s ly h a st r an sfo rmed i nt h eR oman p e r iod . I ta l so s how st h a tt h el a te rc u l t iva t ion o ft h el a nd scape h a rd ly h a s a f f e c t ed t h ea ppea rence o ft h em a te r ia li na ny s i gn i f ican tw ay . L ook ing f u r the ri n to a no the ro ft h em a jo rE IA c l u s te r s ,i nt h ec oun ty o fÖ s te rgö t land ( F ig .7 ) ,w ef i nd i n te re s t ing d if e r ence sc ompa r ed t ot h e LBA p i c tu re t h a tw el o oked a t e a r l ie r . T he c oa s ti sa lmo s ta bandoned a nd t h e re i sn ow amuch s t ronge r empha s i so n t h e i n te r io r . T he re i s s t i l l at e ndency f o r ad iv i s ion i n to s egmen t s , b u t al a rge r h omogenou sa r ea i sp re sen ti nt h ec en t ra lp a r t ,i n as im i la rw ay a si nV ä s te rgö t land . We c ou ld o nce a ga in w i tne s st h ep r e sence o fa nh i e r a r ch ica lo rd e r ing o fg roup so rs e gmen t s a nd t h et ime -dependen tc hange so fc ha ra c te r . A R ev ised Mode l T he se p a r t icu la r map s a r e s o e v iden t i n t h e i r a ppea rance , t h a t t h ey h ave t o mean s ome th ing i n s o c ia l t e rm s . Mov ing o ve r t o t h e i n te rp re ta t ion , Im igh t s ugge s t t h e f o l low ing mode lo fd eve lopmen t( F ig 8 ) ; s t a r t ing f r om t h el owe rl e ve l s ,w ec ou ld h ave ad ecen t ra l ized s egmen ta ry s y s t em ,a si nt h ee a r l ie r mode l ,w i th n om a rked d i f f e r ence s i np opu la t ion .F o rs ome r e a son sc e r ta in g roup sa r et h en a b le t oe xpand t h e i rp opu la t ion a tt h ee xpen se o fo t he r s ,a t t r a c t mo r ep eop le ,a nd e ven tua l ly c ome t od om ina te ac e r ta in a r ea . C ompe t i t ion b e tween s e gmen t so ft h i so rde rm igh tt h en c r ea te an ew h i ghe rl e ve l o fc on t ro l a nd s o o n , a nd i ns uch aw ay ah i e ra rch ica l p a t tern i sb u i l t u p , b a sed o n c ompe t i t ion b e tween s egmen t sr a the rt h an a s ad eve lopmen to fc l a s sr e la t ion sw i th in t h em .T he f u e lf o rt h i sd eve lopmen tc an ,o fc ou r se ,b ed i scu s sed b u t Ih ave m en t ioned t h ev a r iab le a cce s st or awm a te r ia la so ne p o s s ib le a spec t . I tc an h a rd ly b eb a sed o nt h e

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F ig .8 . Mode lo fs ugge s t ed d eve lopmen to f as i ze -b a sed h i e ra r chy b e tween o r ig ina l ly e qua ls egmen t s . G ene ra l iz ed c l u s t e r s ,c ap tu r ed b yt h eD -cu rve m e thod ,i n d ica ted .

p ure ly a g r icu l tu ra l ly b a sed s ubs is tence e conomy a l one . C on t ro l o f t h e e xchange o f e s sen t ia ls ou rce sm igh tb e ap r ime m ean so fg a in ing i n ac ompe t i t ive s i tua t ion b e tween , f r om t h eb eg inn ing ,r e la t ive ly u n s t ra t if ied g roups . T he f i nd ma te r ia l s how s a l so t ha t ac on t in iou s d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h e g rave s d u r ing t h e se p e r iod so ft ime i sp re sen t , a nd i nt h ef o l low ing p e r iod , t h eR oman ,w eh ave s e en t ha tt h e re i s as t rong c hange i nt h es e t t lemen to rgan iza t ion wh ich i sp a raleled w i th a n e ven g rea te ri n c rea sed d i f f e ren t ia t ion .T he f i ll ing i no ft h eb uf f e ra rea s ,a si ss e en i nF ig . 7 ,t owa rds amo re c on t inuou s s e t t lemen t s ys tem s e em s t ob e ag ene ra l f ea tu re o ft h e l a te rI r on Age p ha ses, a nd w em igh ti nt h is e ven b eo b se rv ing t h ef i na lb reak ing u po f t h e o ld k insh ip -ba sed s egmen ta ry p r inc ip le o fo rgan isa t ion t ha t p robab ly h a s b een d om ina t ing , a tl e a s t , s i nce t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e N eo l i th ic . T he f i nd s f r om t h e se l a ter p e r iod s s how i n crea s ing d i f f e ren t ia t ion w i th r i ch R oman i mpo r t s , g o ld f i nd s , e t c . , s o t he s e t t lemen tp a t te rn i si sn o t ap i c tu re o fd ec l ine . I n s tead i ti st h ep e r iod w hen t h e p re -feuda l w a r r io r -c la s s w a s f o rmed , wh ich wou ld g a in t h e p owe r f o r c en tu r ies t o c ome .

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1 57

We m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t h e e a r l ie r s oc ia l o rde r , b a sed o n s egmen ta ry s ys tem s , i s r ep laced w i th an ew o ne , t r an scend ing p rev iou s g roup d iv is ion s , c r ea t ing a n i n te rna l d i v i s ion i n s tead b e tween m embe r s , a nd f o rm ing ac l a s s -ba sed s o c ie ty . S pa t ia l ly t h i si s s e en a s ap a radox i ca le qua l iza t ion i nt h es e t t lem en t -pa t t e rn .

C onc lud ing R emarks T h i s i sa tl e a s t o ne p o s s ib le w ay o fi n te rp r e t ing t h e e v idence , a nd t h e r e su l t s o ft h e s pa t ia la na ly s i s . I ti so bv iou st h a tw eh ave t ol o ok a tt h ef u l lc omp lex i ty o ft h e s o c ie ty a nd t h em a te r ia lw ea r e wo rk ing w i th ,i no rd e rt of i nd e xp lana t ion so ft h ed eve lopmen t s o fs oc ie t ie sl i ke t h i s . I si tt h en p o s s ib le t of o l low as egmen ta ry s y s tem o fo rgan iza t ion e ven u pt ot h i sl a rge r eg iona ls c a le o rw ha td oe s map sl i ke t h ese r ep r e sen t? A r et h e se k ind s o f maps mo re t h an i lus t ra t ive , a sm ean so fc ompa r ing d i f f e ren t d i s t r ibu t ion s? Me thodo log ica l a pp roache s l i ke t h i s o ne s ugge s t i d ea s , b u t c anno t b y t h em se lve s p rov ide much mo re t h an t h a t . Ih ave u sed i th e r ea s as ou r ce f o ri d ea sb u ti ti sn ece s sa ry t ot e s ti tf u r the ri no the rt ype so f ma te r ia l s ,i ne conom i ce v idence ,t ypo log ica ld i a lec t s a nd s oo n ,w o rk t h a ts t i l lh a st ob ep u r sued f u r the ri nt h ea r ea f o rt h e se p e r iod s . T he ma in c onc lu s ion i st h a t al a rge p e r spec t ive h a s t ob e u nder taken i n o rd e r t o u nde r s tand as oc ia ls y s tem , a nd a l lr e levan tl e ve l so fs c a le , a nd t h e i rp rope rm ean ing , s hou ld b e s t ud ied a nd e xp la ined . Me thodo logy a l so h a s t o b e t a i lo red i n o rde r t o f a c i l i ta te t h a tk ind o fa pp roa ch .I ti sn o ta lway sp o s s ib le t of i nd ma te r ia l so ft h i sk i nd o f q ua l i ty , b u ta st h e l a te rd eve lopmen ti nA r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch h ave s hown , t h e re i s much wo rk g o ing o nw i th in , e g . ,f i e ld s u rvey ,i no rde rt oc r ea te ag ood ma te r ia lf r om w h ich t o wo rk . I ti sa l so i mpo r tan t t ot r y t ol ook b eyond l o ca l e conomy a s as i ng le p r ime s ou r ce f o rs pa t ia lp a t t e r ing . S o c ia la nd p o l i t ica l ma t te r sh a st ob ei n c luded i nt h e a na ly s i si no rd e rt o make i tc omp le te .

References Amb ro s ian i , B . 1 964 . F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge l se . S tud ier i A t tunda land s o ch S öd er törn sf ö rh i s tor ia . KVHA . S tockho lm . C a r l s son , D . 1 979 .K u l tu r land skape t s u t veck l ing p d G o t land -E ns t ud ie a vj ordbruk s o ch b ebygge l sef ö ränd r ingar u nd er j ä rnd lde rn .V i sby . H yens t rand , A . 1 974 . C en tra lbygd -Randbygd . S t ruk ture l la , e konom iska o ch a dm in i s t ra t iva h uvud l in jer im e l lansvensk y ngre j ärnd lder . S tud ies i n No r th E u ropean A r chaeo logy 5 .S tockho lm . H yen s t rand ,A . 1 982 F orn t ida s amhä l l sf ormer o ch a rkeo log i ska f or skn ing sprogram . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t ,S to ckho lm . J ahnkuhn , H . 1 977 E inf uhrung i nd i eS i ed lung sar chäo log ie .D eG rube rS tud ienbuch . B e r l in -N ew Y o rk . K r i s t ian sen , K . 1 981 . E conom ic mode l s f o r B ronze A ge S cand inav ia : t owa rd s a n i n teg ra ted a pp roa ch .E conom ic A rchaeo logy -T oward sa nI n t egra t ion o fE co log ica l a nd S oc ia l a pproaches , A .She r idan & G . B a i ley ( ed s . ) . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s9 6 ,p .2 39 -303

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K r i s t iansen , K . 1 982 . T he F o rma t ion o fT r iba l S y s tem s i nL a te rE u ropean P r eh is to ry : No r the rn E u rope , 4 000 -500 B .C . T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy , ( ed s . C . R enf rew e ta l . ) . A cadem ic P re s s . L a r sson , T . B . 1 986 . T he B ronze A ge Me ta lwork i nS ou thern S weden . A spec t s o f S oc ia l a nd S pa t ia l O rgan i za t ion 1 800 -500 B .C . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t 6 . Umeä . L a r sson , T . B . 8 . cL undma rk , H . 1 982 . B ebygge lsemön s ter -e n u tgängspunk t v id s t ud ie ra vf ö rh is to r iska s amhä l len .F ornvännen 7 7p .1 61 -169 . L undma rk ,H . 1 983 . S a rnhäl sfö ränd r ing b ron sä lde r jä rnä lde r : e n s t ruk tu rana ly sm ed u tgängspunk t f r än Ö s te rgö t land I . S t ruk tur o ch f örändr ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l le . R epo r t s e r ie sN o . 1 7 , p .8 8 -95 . L und . L undma rk , H . 1 984 . Am e thod o f a na lyz ing h i era rch ica l s t ruc ture s i n s e t t lemen t p a t terns . P aper s i nN or thern A rchaeo logy , ( e d . E . B audou ) . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 ,p .1 -22 . Umeä . Mobe rg , C .A . 1 940 .Z oneng l iederungen d er V orchr i s t l ichen E isenze i ti nN ord europa . L und . S ah ls t röm , K .E . 1 948 . H a lsr inga r f r än L a -Tene t i den id e f orn t ida Gö tabygde rna . V ä s t ergö t land sF ornm innesf ören ings T id sk r if t 5 : 4 -5 . S ah l ins , M . ,D . 1 968 . T r ibe smen . P ren t ice -Ha l l . N ew J e r sey . S inc la i r , P . J . J . 1 987 . S pace , T ime a nd S oc ia lF orma t ion -A T err i tor ia lA pproach t o t h eA rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy o fZ imbabwe a nd Mocamb ique c .0 1700 AD . Aun 9 . Uppsa la . Wi jkande r , K . 1 983 .K ungshögar o ch S ockenb i ldn ing . S ö rm länd ska H and l inga r3 9 .

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A pp roach e st oS wed i sh P reh i s tory , BAR . , O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p . 1 6 1 -166 .

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL TYPOLOGY -GONE OR CO MING? Ma ts P . Ma lmer*

Many a r chaeo log is t s s eem t ot h ink t h a tt ypo logy w a sa ne r ro ro ft h ep a s t , a nd i sn ow l u ck i ly g one f o r e ve r . Is ha l l t r yt od emon s tra te t h a t t ypo logy i sc om ing r a ther t han g o ing .A rchaeo logy s imp ly c anno tb ew i thou tg ood t ypo logy . S ome p eop le s eem t ot h ink t h a t t h ey c an a vo id t h e m i s take s o fo ld a r chaeo log ica l t ypo logy b yu s ing o ther t e rms , s uch a s ' morpho logy ' o r' t axonomy ' . B u t , o fc our se , y ou c anno tr e f o rm a ny th ing b yj u s tg iv ing i ta no the rn ame . Mo r eove r , ' morpho logy 'i s a n u n su i tab le wo rd , s i nce i tl i t e ra l ly m ean s ' s tudy o ff o rm ' , w he rea s a r chaeo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion mu s tb eb a sed n o to n ly o nf o rm b u ta l so o n many o t he rp rope r t ie so ft h e ma ter ia l . ' Taxonomy ' , o n t h e o the r h and , a ccord ing t o t h e d ef in i t ion b y S imp son ( 1961) ,i s' t he t h eo re t ica ls t udy o fc l a s s if ica t ion ' . Ag ood r e a son f o rr e ta in ing t h e w o rd ' t ypo logy ' i st h a t a r chaeo logy n eed s t h e t e rm ' t ype ' , a nd ag ood r ea son t ou se t h e t e rm ' t ype ' i st h a t i ti sn o t u sed i n b io log ica l c l a ss if ica t ion . I n h i s S y s tema n a ture ( f our th e d i t ion , 1 758 ) L innxus u sed t h e f o l low ing c l a s s if ica t ion l e ve l s : K ingdom P hy lum •C la s s F am i ly G enu s S pec ie s T he t e rm ' s pec ies ' i sw e l l k nown f r om D a rw in 's work O n t h e O r ig in o fS pec ie s ( 1859 ) . I n h i s c l a ss if ica t ion o f mamma ls S impson ( 1961 :17 ) u ses n o l e ss t han t wen ty -one l e ve ls a l toge the r ,a nd n one o ft h em i sn amed ' t ype ' . I na r chaeo logy w ea r e q u i te h appy t o h ave t wo o r t h ree l e ve ls , s ay ' t ype ' , ' s ub type ' , a nd , p erhap s , o n a h ighe rl e ve l , ' c la ss ' . And w ec ou ld a l so t e rm a l ll e ve l s' t ype ' e ven i ft h ey a r e d e s igned t of o rm ah i e ra rchy . T he u l t ima te r e a son f o rt h i si st h a tt h eb io log ica lc oncep t' s pec ie s ' a lway sa pp l ie st og ene t ica l ly r e p roduc ing p opu la t ion s ,w he rea st h ea r chaeo log ica l' t ype ' i ni t se lf i sn o th ing mo re o rl e ss t h an al og ica l c oncep t . When Mon te l ius ( 1899 ) c a l led h i st ypo logy a na pp l ica t ion o fD a rw in ' st h eo ry o fe vo lu t ion h ew a se x t reme ly w rong .

*D epa r tm en to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fS t o ckho lm 1 61

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F ig . 1 . A mode lf o r amono the t ic a nd ap o ly the t ic g r oup ,a cco rd ing t oC la rk e 1 968 .

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F ig . 2 .Am ode lf o r ap o ly the t ic a nd am ono the t ic g r oup ,a cco rd ing t oS oka l &S n ea th 1 963 .

Why d ow en eed t ype sa ta l l? O ne a n swe rt ot h i sq ues t ion c ou ld b et h e f o l low ing . I f w e w e r e t ot e s t o u rh ypo the se s a bou t p reh i s to r ic l i f e o n e ve ry s i te , monumen t a nd a r tef ac t o u r wo rk wou ld t a ke a n u n r ea sonab ly l ong t ime , a nd t h e r e su l t s a ch ieved wou ld q u ick ly b e come e x ce s s iv e ly c umb rou s . Ano the ra nd mo r eg ene ra la n sw e ri st h i s : Y ou c anno td r aw a ny c onc lu s ion sa ta l l f r om as i ng le p henomenon o rs i ng le o b jec t .Y ou n eed a tl e a s tt wo ,a nd p r ef e rab ly at yp ec on s i s t ing o fh und r ed so ft h ou sand so fo b jec t s . A r ea l li t em so f at ype q u i te a l ike? O fc ou r s en o t ,t h e r ea r en ot wo i d en t ica lo b jec t si n t h ew o r ld .N o ra r et h e r et wo i d en t ica li n d iv idua l so fa ny z oo log ica lo rb o tan ica ls p ec ie s . F igu r e 1r e p roduce sD av id C la rke ' s mode l f o ra r cha eo log ica l e n t i t ie s ( 1968 : 3 7 ) . I n t h e mono the t ic g roup a l le n t i t ie s( o ro b jec t s )h av ee xac t ly t h es ame a t t r ibu te s( o r ,i n my t e rm ino logy , t ypo log ica l e l emen t s ) . I n t h e p o ly the t ic g roup n o t as i ng le a t t r ibu te i s c ommon t oa l lo b jec t s . C la rke b o r rowed h i s mode l f r om S oka l&S nea th ( 1 963 : 1 5 ) , r e p roduced i nF igu r e2 . S ince t h e i r b ook i so n b io log ica l t a xonomy t h ey a r e s peak ing o fi nd iv idua l s a nd c ha rac te r s . I nt h e mono the t ic g roup ( bo t tom r i gh ti nF ig . 2 )a l lt h ei n d iv idua ls h ave t h e s ame c ha ra c te r s .I nt h ep o ly the t ic g roup ( t op l e f t )n o t as i ng le c ha rac te ri sc ommon t oa l i n d iv idua l s .C la rke s t a te st h a t : 1 62

T he mono the t ic b ox o f b r ick s mode l i ss t i l l t he p reva i l ing c oncep t t a c i t ly u nde r ly ing t he d ef in i t ion o f mo s ta r chaeo log ica le n t i t ies . P reh is tor ian s s t i l l s e em t ot h ink t ha t i no rde rt od ef ine g roup si ti sn ece ssa ry t ha te ve ry membe rw i th in t h eg roup mu s th ave a l l t h eq ua l ify ing a t t r ibu tes . I np rac t ice t h is i d ea lh a sn eve rb een d emon s t ra ted i na r chaeo logy . n og roup o fa r tefac ts w i th in a s i ng le t ype p opu la t ion a r ee ve ri d en t ica l i nt h e ir l i s ts o fa t t r ibu tes . ( C la rke 1 968 : 3 7 )

T he i mpos s ib i l i ty o f mono the t ic g roup s w a s , h owever , d emon s tra ted s evera l y ea r s e a r l ier ( Ma lmer 1 963 : 1 9 a nd 2 54 ) . An a r chaeo log ica l g roup i so f c ou r se a lway s p o ly the t ic . S oka l&S nea th ' s mode lo f ap o ly the t ic g roup r un st h er i sk o fb e ing m isunde r s tood b y al a yman , f o ri ti sf o rma l ly w rong . Ag roup ( o rs pec ie s )o fa n ima l s mu s to fc our se h ave s ome th ing i nc ommon :t h ey mu s ta l lb em amma ls ,o rt h ey mu s ta l lh ave f e a the r s ,o rt h e l i ke . I ti sq u i te u nde r s tandab le t h a t S oka l & S nea th h ave n eg lec ted t h is b ana l l og ica l i n adve r tence ,s i nce t h e i ri n ten t ion i s much mo re s oph i s t ica ted .T hey w a rn o f mono the t ic g roups b ecause a n o rgan ism wh ich h appens t o b e a be r ran t i n t h e f e a tu re u sed t o make t he p r ima ry d iv is ion w i l l i n ev i tab ly b e moved t o ac a tegory f a r f r om t h e r equ i red p os i t ion , e ven i fi ti s i d en t ica l w i th i t sn a tu ra lc ongene r s i ne ve ry o the r f e a tu re ( Soka l &S nea th 1 963 : 1 3 ) .

T he r e semb lance b e tween t wo a n ima ls i sn o tp roved b ys ome a na tom ica l d e ta i l wh ich t h eb io log i s t sc ho sed t ou se i nt h e ir d ef in i t ion ; i ti sp roved b ys uch t h ing sa sc ommon b ehav iou ro rc r o s s -b reed ing . I ft h el og ica li n adver tence o fS oka l&S nea th ' s mode lo f ap o ly the t ic b io log ica lg roup i sh a rm less , i ti sd i sa s t rous when C la rke b or row s t h e s ame mode l t o i lus tra te a p o ly the t ic a r chaeo log ica lt y pe . An a r chaeo log ica lt ype i si ni t se lf n o th ing mo re o rl e s s t h an al og ica lc oncep t . L ike o the rc oncep t s at ype mu s th ave ad e f in i t ion . T he d ef in i t ion mu s t c on ta in wha t t h e o ld l og ic ians c a l led d if f er en t ia s pec if ica ,t h e ma rk wh ich d i s t ingu i she s t h e d ef ined t ype f r om a l l t h e o the r . B u t t h ep o ly the t ic g roup o rt ype i n C la rke ' s mode l c anno tb ed ef ined , s i nce t h e re i sn o d if f er en t i as pec if ica ,n oa t tr ibu te c ommon t oa l l o b jec t s o ft h is t ype . C la rke ' s p o ly the t ic t ype c an b e d e scr ibed b u t n o t d ef ined , wh ich i s av e ry u nf o r tuna te s t a te o fa f f a ir s . Wha tw ec an d oi nt h es i tua t ion whe re C la rke ' s mode lp u t su si st od ef ine t wo t ype s , n o t as i ng le o ne . When w eh ave d ef ined t h et wo t ype sw ec an a l so d e scr ibe t h em , t h a t i s , men t ion o t he ra t t r ibu te s( o re l emen t s )w h ich o ccu ri nt h ed ef ined t ype a nd wh ich w e t h ink may b eu sefu l f o ro u ri n te rp re ta t ion o ft h em a ter ia l( Ma lme r 1 963 : 1 9a nd 2 53 ) . We c an a l so s t a te t h e ( geog raph ica l ) d i s tr ibu t ion . T he f o rmu la t ions w i l l b e t h e f o l low ing .

TYPE I Def i n i t ion :T oT ype Ib e long a l lo b jec t sw i th E lemen t6 . ( Geog r aph ic a l )d i s t r ibu t ion: T oT ype Ib e long o b jec t sG , Ha nd J . De sc r ip t ion: O ne o b jec ts how sE lemen t7 ,t wo E lemen t8 ,t wo E lemen t 9a nd o ne o b jec tE lemen t 1 0 .

TYPE H Def i n i t ion :T oT yp e Ib e long a l lo b jec t sw i th E lemen t 1 0 ,e xcep tt h o se w h ich a l so s how E lemen t6 ;t h e se b e long t oT ype I . ( Geog r aph ic a l )d i s t r ibu t ion :T oT ype I b e long o b jec t sI ,K ,a nd L . De sc r ip t ion :Two o b jec t ss how E lemen t 7 ,a l l t h ree o b jec t ss how E lemen t 8a nd o ne o b jec tE lemen t9 .

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We l l , c an w e s t a r tt h ink ing n ow , f o rmu la t ing h ypo the ses a nd i n terp re ta t ion s o ft h e ma te r ia l? Y e s ,o fc ou r se w ec an ,b u ti fw ed o ,w es ha l lh a rd ly r e ach t h et r u th ,t h ew ho le t r u th , a nd n o th ing b u t t h e t r u th . We mu s t r ea l ize t h a t t h ere a r e a tl e a s t t wo o ther p os s ib i l i t ie s t oc l a s s ify t h i s ma ter ia l . O ft h ese o ther c l a s s if ica t ion s o ne i se spec ia l ly i n te re s t ing ,s i nce i t sd if f er en t ia s pec if ica a r eq u i te o t he rt h an i nt h e f i r s tc l a s s if ica t ion . I nt h es econd c l a s s if ica t ion t h ef o rmu la t ion sw i l lb et h ef o l low ing . TYPE I Defm i t ion :T oT ype Ib e long a l lo b jec t sw i th E lemen t8 . ( Geogr aph ica l )d i s t r ibu t ion : T oT ype Ib e long o b jec t sG ,I ,J ,K a nd L . Descr ip t ion: Two o b jec t s s how E lemen t 6 ,t wo E lemen t 7 ,t wo E lemen t 9a nd f ou rE lemen t 1 0 . TYPE H Def in i t ion: T oT ype I b e long a l lo b jec t sw i th E lemen t9 ,e xcep tt h o se w h ich a l so s how E lemen t8 ;t h e se b e long t oT ype I . ( Geogr aph ic a l )d i s tr ibu t ion: T oT ype I b e long so b jec tHo n ly . De sc r ip t ion :O b jec t Ha l so s how sE lemen t s 6a nd 7 . I ti si mpor tan tt oe xp res st h ec o r rec tt e rm f o rw ha tw ed id w hen w em ade t h i ss e cond c l a s s if ica t ion . An a r chaeo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion i sa lway s ah ypo the s i s , a n a t temp t t o d iv ide t h e ma ter ia l i np a r t s wh ich c an m i r ro rt h e p reh is tor ic r e a l i ty a sa ccura te ly a s p os s ib le . Ou rs econd c l a ss if ica t ion i st h e ref or e at e s t o ft h e f i r s t o ne , a n a t temp t t o f a l s ify i t .T h i si s ak ind o ft e s t wh ich a lway ss hou ld b e made ,b u tw h ich i si nf a c tv e ry s e ldom c a r r ied o u t . I ts hou ld b e made ,b ecau se t wo o r mo re c l a s s if ica t ion s ,w h ich t e s t e ach o the r , i st h eo n ly w ay t of i nd t h eb e s tb a se f o rd i scu s s ion . N ew A rchaeo logy i sn o l onger n ew , b u t t r ad i t iona l a r chaeo logy s t i l l s e ems t ob e r ega rded a so ld , q u i te a so ld a st h ep ro tagon is t so fN ew A rchaeo logy a s ser ted , n ame ly o u t -of -da te ,g one . It h ink t h a tt h i si ss omewha tu n ju s t . T he mode rn p r inc ip le o ft e s t ing o ne ' s h ypo the ses w a s o f ten f o l lowed b yt r ad i t iona l a r chaeo logy , b o th i nt h e f o rm o f v e r ify ing a nd f a l s ify ing .A rchaeo logy o fr e cen td ecade sh a ss t r ived f o r ah o l is t ic v i ew , a nd t h a t i sv e ry g ood . I ti s , h oweve r , e xac t ly t h e s ame ' c on junc t ive a pproach ' wh ich Wa l ter T ay lor p resen ted a l ready i n 1 948 . And y ou c an f i nd t h e s ame c on junc t ive a pp roach much e a r l ier , f o r i n s tance i n t he Swed ish a rchaeo log is t O t to F röd in ' s e xcava t ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing a tA lva s t ra ,t h eP rov ince o fö s te rgö t land , wh ich s t ar ted a l ready i n 1 909 ( F röd in 1 910a & b ) . No t o n ly w e r eb one s o s teo log ica l ly d e te rm ined a nd r o ck sa nd b o tan ica lm ac rof o s s i ls s t ud ied , b u tp o l len a na ly s i sw a sa l so i nven ted b y L ennar t v on P os t i n 1 916 . R ecen t a r chaeo logy b oa s ts o fa n e t hno -a rchaeo log ica l a pp roach ,b u te xac t ly t h is l i ne w a sf o l lowed b yS ven N i l s son i nh i sw o rk ,p ub l ished i n 1 838 , S kand inav i sk a Nord ens U r inv änar e , E t tf ör sök ik ompar a t iv aE thnog r aph ien ( The Abor ig ina l so fS cand inav ia . An E s say i nc ompa ra t ive E thnog raphy ) .Y ou w i l la l so f i nd s ome s ymbo l ic a r chaeo logy i nt h eo l dl i t e ra tu r e . T he re i si ndeed v e ry much t ob es a id i nf a vour o fr e cen ta r chaeo logy . T he d i scus s ion i s much more i n tense t h an e ver b ef o re , a nd p rog re s s h a s b een m ade i na lmo s t e very f i e ld .B u t , i nf a c t , t h e re i sn o th ing t h a ti sf undamen ta l ly n ew . A nd It h ink t h e re a r ea l so t wo ma in n ega t ive t r a i t si nr e cen ta r chaeo logy . O ne i st h a tt h eo l dl i t e ra tu re i so f ten n o t r e ad . And as e cond b ad t h ing , much w o r se t h an t h ef i r s t , i st h a tm any a r chaeo log is t sd o n o t s t udy t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l a s e f f ec t ive ly a nd e nerge t ica l ly a si tw a s d one e a r l ier .The r e a son w hy w e h ave t h is s t a te o fa f f a ir s i sq u i te o bv ious . S ome 6 0 o r 7 0 y ea r s a go e t hnog raphe r s s t opped s t udy ing a xe s , b ow s a nd c anoe s , a nd s t a r ted t ob e c u l tu ra la n th ropo log is t si n s tead ,i n terv iew ing p eop le o fp r im i t ive s oc ie t ie sa bou th uman r e la t ions , s oc ie ty a nd r e l ig ion . A nd , o fc our se , t h a t w a s much mo re i n tere s t ing t h an 1 64

s peak ing o f o b jec t s . E ven tua l ly i tt u rned o u t t ha t B ron is law Ma l inowsk i , R u th B ened ic t , Ma rga re t Mead a nd o the r sd id n o ti nf a c ts peak t h el a nguage s o ft h en a t ive s , s ot h e i r wo rk sc on ta ined ag ood d ea lo ff i c t ion ,b u ti np r inc ip le i ti so fc ou r se p o s s ib le t os peak t ol i v ing n a t ive s . Howeve r , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t os peak t op reh i s tor ic m en , a nd s o s ome mode rn a r chaeo log is t s ' d i sda in o ft h e ir ma ter ia l i s amo s t p a radox ica l a nd s e r iou st h rea tt oa r chaeo logy . T o o n ly p ub l ish ma ter ia l i sd e sp i sed b y many moder n a r chaeo log i s t s . When y ou c o l lec td a ta ,t h ey s ay ,y ou mu s th ave ah ypo the s i s ,b ecau se ama ter ia lc an n eve rc on ta in i n f orma t ion b eyond i d ea s o ft h ea r chaeo log is t who c o l lec ted i t .Q u i te p a radox ica l ly , h owever , many r e cen t wo rk s a r eb a sed a lmo s t e n t ire ly o n o ld c o rpus work s o ro ther p ub l ica t ion so f ma ter ia l . S o , o bv iou s ly , t ho se o ld a r chaeo log is t s d id n o t wo rk i nv a in , e ven i ft h ey d id n o td raw t h ec onc lu s ion sf r om t h e ir ma ter ia lt h a tw ed o . Many modern a rchaeo log ica l w o rk s u se a dvanced ma thema t ica l a nd s t a t is t ica l m e thods , a nd t ha t i s mos t p ra isewor thy . B u t i fa n a rchaeo log is t u ses a b ad ly d ocumen ted ma ter ia l , w i th b ad t ype d ef in i t ions , t h en t he s i tua t ion i s mos t u nsa t i sf ac to ry .D av id C la rke e xp r e s sed t h is v e ry w e l l : I fe l abo ra te t e chn ique sa r et ob eu sed i nt h eh ighe rl e ve ls o fi n te rp re ta t ion t h en t h ee n t i t ie so ft h e l ow es t l e ve l mu s t b e s im i la r ly d efmed . T he d i s ta s te g ene ra ted b y t h e t hough t o fh av ing t os o d ef ine e ach o ft h e ma in t ype c a tego r ie s mu s t b e s wa l low ed i fu ndue h a s te i sn o t t o s po i l t h e q ua l i ty o ft h er e su l t so f much t ime -con sum ing a nd e xpen s ive a na ly s is . ( C la rke 1 968 :189 )

I fa r cha eo log i s t sc ou ld u nde r s tand t h i sl e s son ,a r chaeo logy w i l lb ea ni mpo r tan tf o r ce i n moder ns oc ie ty . I ft h ey d o n o tu nde r s tand , a r chaeo logy w i l l r ema in a n u nd isc ip l ined d i sc ip l ine w i th n og ood r e pu ta t ion . Ih ave t r ied t oe xp la in w ha t It h ink a' t ype ' i s . At ype i s ac o l lec t ion , o r , i fy ou l i ke , a p opu la t ion , o fa r tef ac t s , monumen t so ro the rr e su l t so fh uman a c t iv i ty wh ich ,a cco rd ing t ot h e d ef in i t ion o ft h e t ype , s ha re c e r ta in a t t r ibu tes o rt ypo log ica l e l emen t s . Aw e l l d ef ined a nd t e s ted t ype e mb race su n i t s -a r tef ac t s , monumen t so rw ha teve ri ti s -w h ich c o r re spond t oc onc re te p r eh is to r ic s i tua t ion s , t h a t i ns ome r e levan t r e spec ta r e s im i la r ( Ma lmer 1 963 : 2 0 a nd 2 54 ) . T ypo logy i sc l a ss if ica t ion , b u t i ti sa l so am e thod f o r c h rono log ica lo rder ing ,a nd i ti si ng ene ra lt h el og ic o ft y pe s , o ra r chaeo log ica le n t i t ie s i fy ou l i ke .T ypo logy i sn o te xcava t ion o ro the rf i e ldwo rk ,a nd i ti sn o ti n te rp re ta t ion o r r e cons truc t ion o f t h e p a s t . B u t b e ing t h e l og ic o f t ypes , t ypo logy i s c en tra l i n a r cha eo logy . T he c en t ra lc oncep ti nt h et h eo ry o ft ype sa nd t y po logy i ss im i l a r i ty ( Ma lme r 1 963 : 1 4 a nd 2 50 ) . I ti sp o ss ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h ree d i f f eren t k inds o fo b jec t ive ly d e term inab le s im i lar i ty b e tween a rchaeo log ica l u n i ts , n ame ly p hy s ica l s im i la r i ty , s im i lar i ty o f f i nd c omb ina t ion s ( o r e nv ironmen t ) , a nd c horo log ica l ( o r s pa t ia l ) s im i la r i ty .I fo ne o ft h e se c a tego r ie sc anno tb eo b jec t ive ly d e te rm ined ,b u tt h eo t her sa r e s uppor ted b y as uff ic ien tn umbe ro ff a c t s , t h en t h e r ema in ing s im i la r i t ie sc an b es a id t o b e p robab le . And i ft h e n umber o f o b jec t ive ly d e te rm inab le d e ta i l s im i lar i t ie s i s s uff ic ien t ly g rea t , t h en t h ere i sp robab i l i ty o fe very o the r f o rm o fs im i lar i ty , s uch a s t ime , u se a nd n ame . A s e r ies o f s im i la r i t ies , at ypo log ica l s e r ia t ion , i sa l so a c h rono log ica ls e r ie s ,p rov ided t h a tt h em a ter ia lb e long st oo ne r e s tr ic ted a r ea . T he l og ica l s t ruc tu re o f at ypo log ica l s e r ies a nd as e r ie s o fc l o sed f i nd s , h oa rds o r g rave g roup s , i se xac t ly t h es ame .T he i d ea t h a tt h e re i s ad i f f e r ence b e tween t h e se t wo i nv a lue a se v idence , i sp u re s upe r s t i t ion . L i s ten ing t ot h ep ape r sp re sen ted a tt h e 1 986 TAG -Conf e rence i nL ondon Ip u t my se lf t h eq ue s t ion : Wha ti st h eo re t ica la r chaeo logy ? Ic ame t ot h ec onc lu s ion t h a tt h e re i sn o s uch s ub jec t . Y ou c anno th ave t h eo ry w i thou tp rac t ice ,a nd n op rac t ice w i thou tt h eo ry . You c an d i s t ingu ish b e tween as t a t iona ry a nd ap rog re s s ive a r chaeo logy , t h a ti sa l l .

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Ref erences C la rke ,D . L . 1 968 . Ana ly t ic a lA r chaeo logy . L ondon . D arw in , C . 1 859 . O nt h eO r ig in o fSpec i e sb y Means o fN a tur a lS e lec t ion . L ondon . F röd in ,0 . 1 910a . E ns ven sk p ä lbyggnad f r än s t enä lder n .F or nvännen 5 . F röd in ,0 . 1 910b . E in s chwed ische rP f ah lbau a u sd e rS t e inze i t . Mannu s 2 . L innxu s , C . 1 758 . S y s tema n a turx . 4 th e d i t ion . S tockho lm . Ma lme r , M . P . 1 963 . Me todprob lem i nom j ärnä lder n sk ons th i s tor i a[ Me thodo log ica l p rob lems i nt h eh i s to ry o fa r td ur ing t h eS cand inav ian I r on Age ] . L und . Mon te l iu s , 0 . 1 899 . T ypo log ien e her u tveck l ing s lä ran t i l lämpad p ä d e t m ensk l iga a rbe te t .S v ensk af or nm inne sf ör en ing ens t i d skr if t 1 0 . N i lsson , S . 1 838 . S k and inav i ska Nord ens U r -I nv änar e , e t t f ör sök ik ompar a t iv a e t hnog r af i en . L und . v on P o s t , L . 1 916 . E in ige s üd schwed ische Q ue l lmoo re . Bu l le t in o ft h e G eo log ica l I ns t i tu t ion o fU p sa l a 1 5 . S imp son , G . G . 1 961 . P r inc ip le so fA n ima lT axonomy . N ew Y o rk . S oka l , R . R . ,. 8 zS nea th , P .H . A . 1 963 . P r inc ip le so fNumer ic a lT axonomy . L ondon . T ay lo r ,W .W . 1 948 . As t udy o fA rchaeo logy . Ame r ic an An thropo log ic a lA s soc i a t ion , Memo i r 6 9 .

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A pp roache st oS wed i sh P reh i s to ry ,B .A .R . , O xf o rd ,1 989 ,p p . 1 67 -177 .

PROBLE MS AND POSSIBILIT IES W HEN W ORK ING WITH THE CONCEPT OF ETHN ICITY I N ARCHAEOLOGY B yO scar O r tman *

I ntroduc t ion T h is p ape r w i l l d ea l w i th s ome p rob lem s t ha t may o ccu r when wo rk ing w i th a t h eo re t ica lc oncep ts uch a se t hn ic i ty . A s as t a r t , at h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk i sc on s t ruc ted . H e re , t wo p o in t s w i l l b e e mpha s ized , t h e f a c t t ha tt he c oncep t o fe t hn ic i ty h a s b een g iven : i )d i f f e ren t m ean ing s i nd i f f e ren t c on tex t s , i ) d i f f e ren t f unc t ions i nd i f f e ren t c on tex t s . I n t h e s e cond s e c t ion , as ho r ti n t roduc t ion t ot h e S aa rn i s w i l lb e g i ven . I n t h e t h i rd ,s e c t ion o ft he p ape r w e w i l l s e e h ow t h e c oncep t o fe thn ic i ty h a s b een u sed i nt wo s pec if i cw o rk so nt h ep reh i s to ry o ft h eS aam i s ;K nu tO dne r ' sb ook F inner o gT e if inner a nd P e r Ky r re R eyme r t 's ma s te r 's t h e s is o nA rkeo log io ge t n i s i te t . I n t h e f ou r th p a r t Iw i l l t r y t oc ompa re O dne r ' s a nd R eyme r t ' s w ork s w i th s ome e a r l ie r wo rk so nt h ec oncep to fe t hn ic i ty ,a nd ,f i na l ly ,g ive af ew c onc lud ing r ema rk s .

The Theore t ica l F ramework o f t he C oncep t o f E thn ic i ty T he c oncep to fe t hn ic i ty i su sed i ns eve ra lc on tex t sa nd o ns eve ra ld i f f e r en tt h eo re t ica l l e ve l s ; t h e u se r s hou ld b e a wa re o ft h e d i f f icu l t ie s t h a t f o l low when w o rk ing w i th a f l uc tua t ing c oncep t . T he h i ghe s t , mo s tg ene ra l ,l e ve lo nw h ich t h ec oncep th a sb een u sed i si nt h ep o l i t ica l s i tua t ion o ft h e p re sen td ay . I nt h is c on tex t t h ec oncep to fe t hn ic i ty i su sed t oj us t ify p o l i t ica l c l a im s e i the r f r om t h e o f f ic ia l g overnmen t o r f r om t h e e t hn ica l m ino r i ty i n q ues t ion . On t h i s l e ve l , t h ec oncep ti sf o rmed s t r ic t ly b y t h ed emand so ft h e n a t iona l g ove rnmen t s ; i tmu s tb e c onc re te a nd e a sy t o wo rk w i th i nl e ga l a g reemen t s ,e t c . F o r i n s tance , t h ec u r ren t Swed i sh a nd N orweg ian l e ga ld ef in i t ion o ft h e S aam io n ly t ake s a ccoun to ft h em ean so fp roduc t ion . AS aam ii s ap e r son w ho own sa nd h e rd sr e indee r ( s ee f o ri n s tance R oung 1 982 : 1 02 ) . L e if P a re l i a nd Anne S eve r insen , i nt h e i r a r p ic le N oen m e todprob lemer is or sam i sk h i s tor ief or skn ing , h ave s t re s sed t h ei n con s i s tency i n t h e g ove rnmen t 's s t andpo in t . T hey t a ke t h e ' r e ind r if t s loven ' ( l aw o fr e indee rh e rd ing ) o f1 897 a sa ne xamp le ,i nw h ich i tw a s s t a ted t h a t' r e indee rh e rd ing d i s t r ic t s 'h ad t ob e p roved t oh ave b een i nu se s i nce ' o lden d ay s ' . *D epa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fG o thenbu rg

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R e indee rh e rd ing i sd i f f icu l t t op rove , a nd t h e g ove rnmen t t ook i tf o r g ran ted t h a t r e indee rh e rd ing h ad a lway sb een t h eS aam i ' sm a in s our ce o fs ub s i s tence , w h ich i sn o t t h ec a se . F ur the rmo re ,t h el aw d id n o td emand p roof f r om t h eN orweg ian f a rm e r s ,w ho a l so c l a imed a cce ss t ot h es ame moun ta in r eg ion s i nce ' o lden d ay s ' ( Pa r l i&S eve r in sen 1 979 : 3 5 ) . An i mpo r tan tf a c tt h a t made i tp o ss ib le f o rt h eg ove rnmen t st oc r ea te ' al e ga lc oncep t o fe t hn ic i ty 'i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , w a st h a tt h e re w a s ag roup o ft h eS aam i sw ho a c tua l ly d id l i ve b y r e indeer h e rd ing ( F jä l lsame r , i n Swed i sh ) . T h is g roup n ow f o rmed a p owe r fu l s e c t ion o ft h e S aam i s , f avou red b y t h e l aw , a nd t h ey a ccep ted n ego t ia t ion s w i th t h eg ove rnmen t( Roung 1 982 ) . B jorna r O lsen i n h i s a r t ic le Norweg ian a rchaeo logy a nd t he p eop le w i thou t ( p re )h i s tory :o rh ow t oc rea te am y th o f au n if orm p a s t , h as s t re s sed a no the rp o in to n t h e g ene ra l , o r o f f ic ia l , ' l eve l o fe t hn ic i ty ' , wh ich i st h e e f fo r t t op roc la im au n ifo rm n a t iona l h i s to ry . O l sen s ees t h e n on -ex i s tence o f ap reh i s to ry o f t h e S aam is a s a n e xamp le o ft h ef a c tt h a t . . a rchaeo logy i sp a r t o f a n i d eo logy : i t s mos t i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion i st o g ive h i s to r ica l r ea l i ty t ot h e mode rn my th o fa ne t hn ica l ly u n ifo rm No rweg ian s oc ie ty . ( O l sen 1 986 :2 6 ) .

T he l owe r , mo re s pec if ic l e ve l ,o nw h ich t h ec oncep to fe t hn ic i ty h a sb een u sed i si n a r chaeo log ica la nd o the rr e sea r ch w o rk . I ti s my o p in ion t h a tt h ec oncep tt h a th a sb een u sed , i ng ene ra l , i so ne o fp reh i s to r ic e t hn ic i ty a nd n o ta n a r chaeo log ica l c oncep t o f e t hn ic i ty .I ti si mpor tan tt h a tt h ed i f f e rence b e tween t h e se t wo c oncep ts i sd ef ined . T he p reh i s to r ic c oncep to fe t hn ic i ty i so ne i nw h ich i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h e e t hn ica l s i tua t ion ,i nt h es pec if ic p reh i s to r ic c a se ,i se c lec t ica l ly g a the red t or e con s t ruc tt h ea c tua l p reh i s to r ic s i tua t ion .T he ma in i n te re s ti sf o cu sed o nt h e ma te r ia lc on ten to ft h ec oncep t o fe t hn ic i ty . I nt h i sp roce s s ,t h ea u tho r me re ly u se si n fo rma t ion f r om d i f f e r en ts ub jec t sa nd s e ldom r ega rd s whe the ro rn o tt h ei n fo rma t ion i sq ua l i ta t ive ly c ompa rab le . S ince i ti so n ly t h e f i na lc onc lus ion so ft h ea ux i l ia ry s ub jec t st h a ta r eo fa ny i n te r e s t ,t h es c ien t if i cp rob lem s o ft h e se s ub jec t sa r ee a s i ly f o rgo t ten .T h i ss o r to fe t hn ica lc oncep ti se spe c ia l ly c ommon i n o lder wo rk s a nd g enera l i n t roduc t ions , s uch a s E rns t Manker 's De s venska f j ä l lapparna a nd I nga S er n ing ' sÖ vre N or r land sj ärm i lde r ,b u tt h ey a l so o ccu ri n mo r e r e cen tr e sea rch ,f o re xamp le ,K nu tO dne r 's F inner o gT e if inner . T he p reh i s tor ic c oncep t o fe t hn ic i ty i sj u s t ac u l -de -sac . I tf ocuses o n t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o fp reh i s to r ic e t hn ic g roups ,a nd i tc an i nt h i sc a se ,t h e refo re ,o n ly l a be ls pec if i c g raves o r dwe l l ing s i te sa s ap a r to f as pec if ic e t hn ica lu n i t .T h i sm ean st h a to ne c anno t g a the rn ew k now ledge a bou tt h ea c tua lu n i t ,b u to n ly a ccumu la te mo re d a ta o ft h es ame s or t . T he a r chaeo log ica lu se o ft h ec oncep to fe t hn ic i ty ,o nt h ec on t ra ry ,p ay s a t ten t ion t o t h es t ruc ture o fe t hn ic i ty ,i n s tead o ft h ec on ten t; i tmu s ta lway sh ave ac l ea rp ro f i le w i th r e spec tt oa ux i l ia ry s ub jec t s , b efo re t h ec o r re la t ion w i th t h ese c an b ec a r r ied o u t . B y empha s i s ing t h es t ruc tu re o fe t hn ic i ty ,t h ec oncep tc ou ld b e made c ompa t ib le w i th ,f o r i n s tance ,c oncep t sc once rn ing s e t t lemen tp a t ter n sa nd p roduc t ion s y s tem s . I ti si mpo r tan t t o n o te t ha t Ip ref e r n o t t o d i scu s s a n a c tua l e t hn ica l s i tua t ion i n p reh is to ry . T he r ea son f o rt h is i st h a t It h ink t h a t t h e s pec if ic l e ve l o ft h e c oncep t o f e t hn ic i ty i sd ependen to nt h ed emand sf r om t h eg ene ra l ,p o l i t ica ll e ve lo ft h ec oncep to f e t hn ic i ty .

Genera l I n troduc t ion t o t he S aa m is T he S aam i sa r e an a t ive m ino r i ty i nn o r the rn F enno -Scand inav ia ( F ig . 1 ) . I n1 982 t h e re w e re a t l e a s t 6 0 .000 S aam i s , o f w h ich a bou t 1 5 .000 l i ved i n Sweden , 4 0 .000 i n 1 68

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F ig .2 . A mode ls how ing t h ed if e r en tk i nd so fr e ind ee rh e rd ing c y c le si nS cand inav ia .a )C oa s ta lS aam i w i th a n e mpha s i s o n t h e c oa s ta l moun ta in r e g ion ; b )C oa s ta l S aam i w i th a n e mpha s i s o n t h e i n land m oun ta in r e g ion s ; c )F e l lS aam iw i th an omad ic h e rd ing c yc le ;d )F o re s tS aam iw i th al ow land h e rd ing c y c le .

No rway , 4 .000 i n F in land a nd 2 .000 i n t h e S ov ie t Un ion ( Roung 1 982 : 9 ) . Abou t 2 . 500 o ft h e Swed i sh S aam is o b ta ined mo s to ft h e i ri n come f r om r e indee rh ea rd ing . T he c o r respond ing f i gu re f o r No rway , i n 1 979 , w a s 2 . 000 ( Sa lvesen 1 979 : 2 3 ) . I n s p i te o ft h is , t h en omad ic ' F e l l saam is ' , a r er ega rded a sb e ing t yp ica l S aam i . Howeve r , t h e re a r e s eve ra l o the r S aam i g roups who h e rd r e indee r o n as ma l le r s ca le ( F ig . 2 ) . Ano the rt r ad i t iona l w ay o fl i v ing h a s b een s em i -nomad ic c a t t le h e rd ing . F i sh ing a nd h un t ing s t i l lp lay a ni mpo r tan tp a r t . I nr e cen ty ea r s ,i th a sb ecome mo re c ommon f o rt h e S aam i st ot a ke emp loymen tw i th in t h eS cand inav ian s oc ie ty ( Roung 1 982 : 1 30 f . ) . E ar l ier R e search o nS aam iP reh i s tory I nt h el a te 1 9 th c en tu ry a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch w a sb a sed o n whe the rt h eS aam i sw e re a ni nd igenou so ra ni mm ig ran tp eop le ( Zach r i sson 1 976 : 8 8 ) . R eyme r t( 1980 :4 0 )h a sd e sc r ibed t h ep re -wa rr e sea rch a sf o l low s : •T he S aam i s w e re r e ga rded a si n d igenou s p eop le w ho h ad b een f o r ced t o move f u r the ra nd f u r the rt ot h en o r th b yn ew g roup sc om ing f r om t h es ou th . •T he F enno -Scand inav ian S tone A ge c ons i s ted o f as ou the rn S cand inav ian c u l tu re a nd a

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n o rt he rn / a r c t ic c u l tu r e ,t h el a t te rb e ing aS aam ic u l tu re . •T he d i f f e rence s i n t h e f o rms o f c u l tu re b e tween t h e n o r th a nd t h e s ou th d u r ing t h e F eno -Scand inav ian S t one A ge , w e re r e ga rded a sd ue t oa dap ta t ion t ot h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t a nd n o tt oe t hn ica ld i f f e r ence s . •T he S aam i sc ame i n to n o r the rn S cand inav ia f r om n o r the rn F in land a nd n ea rby a r ea s t ot h e e a s t ,d u r ing t h eL a t eB ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge .

R ecen tr e sea rch h a s b een h eav i ly d ependen to nF red r ik B a r th 's wo rk , e spec ia l ly h i s i n t roduc t ion t oE thn ic G roups a nd B oundar ie s f r om 1 970 .T h i sc an b e s tb ee xemp l i f ied b yK nu t Odne r ' ss t a temen t( 1983 : 5 2 ) : A l l s e r iou sa r chaeo log ica ld i scu s s ion c once rn ing e t hn ic i ty s i nce 1 970 h a sb een i nf luenced b y t h i sb ook . [ See a l so t h ep aper b yE ve r tB audou i nt h i s v o lume ,f or a n e xamp le o ft h e u se o f B a r th ' sc l a s s if i ca t ion ]

Ano the rc l ea re xamp le o ft h e ' Ba r th i f ica t ion ' i sI nge rZ ach r i sson 's v iew ( 1976 : 1 3 ) . S he d ec la re st h a t : T he t e rm - e t hn ic g roup i s g ene ra l ly u nde r s tood i n a n th ropo log ica l l i te ra tu re ( Ba r th 1 969 : 1 0 f )t od e s igna te ap opu la t ion w h ich : 1 .i sl a rge ly b io log ica l ly s e l f -pe rpe tua t ing , 2 . s ha re s f undamen ta l c u l tu ra l v a lue s , r e a l ized i no ve r t u n i ty i nc u l tu ra l f o rms , 3 .m ake s u pa f i e ld o fc ommun ica t ion a nd i n t e ra c t ion , 4 .h a s m embe r sh ip w h ich i d en t i f ie s i t se l f , a nd i s i d en t if ied b y o t he r s , a sc on s t i tu t ing ac a tego ry d i s t ingu i shab le f r om o t he r c a tego r ie s o f t h e s ame o rd e r .

I nl i ne w i th t h i sd ef in i t ion ,t a ken f r om B a r th ,Z ach r i s son c ompa re st h ea bove c r i te r ia w i th h e ra r chaeo log ica ld a ta . D esp i te t h ef a c tt h a ts he c onc lude st h a to n ly t h ef i r s tt wo c r i te r ia c ou ld b e i d en t if ied , s he d oes n o t c ommen t a ny f u r the r o n t h e u se o fB a r th 's d e scr ip t ion .

Two E xa mp les o f h ow t he C oncep t o f E thn ic i ty h as b een u sed i n Works C oncern ing t he P reh is tory o f t he S aam is I twou ld b eo fn ov a lue t oc ompa re t h et wo w o rk st h a t Ih ave s e lec ted .T hey a r ew r i t ten f o rt wo d i f f e r en tr ea son sa nd r ep re sen tt wo d i f f e ren tt h eo re t ica ls t a r t ing p o in t s .R eyme r t w an t st ot e s t wha tc ou ld b e s a id a bou te t hn ic i ty i np re - a nd p ro toh i s to r ic t imes ,o nt h e b a s is o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( Reyme r t 1 980 : 1 3 ) . H e u ses g rave a s semb lage s t h a t a r e w e l ld ef ined i nb o th t im ea nd s pa ce . Odne r d escr ibes h i s w o rk a s ' ac u l tu ra lh i s to r ica l s t udy o f t h e S aam i e t hn ic i ty ' , f r om a n a n thropo log ica lp o in to fv i ew ( 1983 : I ,1 ) . T he ma in p o in tw i th O dne r ' s h ypo the s i s i s t od escr ibe why t h e S aam i f o rmed a n e t hn ica l g roup a nd h ow t h ey ma in ta ined t h e i r e t hn ica ls t a tus t h rough t ime . T he s t udy c on ta in se xamp le sf r om t h ew ho le S aam ia r ea , i . e .t h en or the rn p a r t so fS cand inav ia ( s ee F ig . 1 ) . Now ,l e tu st ake ac l o se rl ook a tt h e se t wo w o rk s , s t ar t ing w i th P er K y r re R eymer t ' s A rkeo log i o g E tn i s i te t . E ns t ud ie ie t n i s i te to g g ray sk ikk iN ord -T rom s o g F inmark i T iden 8 00 -1200 . One p o in to fd epa r tu re f o rR eyme r ti si nw h ich w ay t h e s oc ia l s c ience s d ef ine t h e i r c oncep to fe t hn ic i ty . H e a l so s t res ses t h e i mpo r tance o f ac heck o fi t s r e levance i na s pec if ic a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t( Reyme r t 1 980 : 5f . ) . R eyme r tr e f e r st ot wo a n th ropo log ica lw o rk sw h ich i n f luenced h im w hen h ec r ea ted h i s own c oncep to fe t hn ic i ty . F i r s t ,t h ew ay F red r ik B a r th ( 1970 : 1 3 )h a se xp la ined t h e i mpo r tance o fn o tc on fu s ing . .t h e e f fe c t s o f e co log ica l c i r cum s tance s o n b ehav iou r w i th t h o se o fc u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion .

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S econd , L ew is B info rd 's a r t ic le A rchaeo logy a s a n thropo logy ( 1962 ) , i n w h ich B info rd d iv ide s h i s ma te r ia l i n to t h ree s ub -c la sses : T echnofac ts , S oc io fac t s a nd I deofac t s . A cco rd ing t oR eymer t ,t h i sd iv i s ion make si tp o s s ib le t os t udy t h ee f fe c t so f c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion ,a nd t h eI d eof ac t sc an b es e en a se t hn ica li nd ica to r s( Reymer t 1 980 :2 9 f . ) . R eyme r tt h en a pp l ie sh i sc oncep to fe t hn ic i ty t os i xt ype so fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l wh ich ,a cco rd ing t oh im ,a r er egu la r ly u sed i nd ef in i t ion so fp reh i s to r ic e thn ic i ty .T he se a r e : 1 .B io log ica lh omogene i ty ;2 .As ha red l a nguage ; 3 .R e l ig iou sb e l ief sa nd r i te s ;4 . E conom ic p roduc t ion /p rac t ica l a dap ta t ion ; 5 .A s ha red g eog raph ica l a r ea ; 6 .E thn ica l s e lf -awa rene ss . F rom t h is a pp l ica t ion R eymer tc onc lude st h a tt h e ma te r ia lc oncer n ing ' Rel ig ious b e l ief a nd r i te s ' ,r ep re sen ted b yt h eb u r ia lc u s tom s ,b e s ti nd ica te st h ee t hn ica l s i tua t ion . R eyme r td ef ine st h e me thod t h a th eu se sa s av a r ian to f' t he d i rec th i s to r ica la pp roach t o a r chaeo logy ' , i n t roduced b y S tewa rd ( 1942 ) . R eyme r t d ec la res t ha t t h e me thod h a s t h r ee s t ep sa nd t h a th eh a sf o rmu la ted t h em a sf o l low s : 1 .I nd ica t ion o fe t hn ica lg roup si nw r i t ten s ou r ce s 2 .T oc a r ry o u ta na na ly s i so fb u r ia lc u s tom si n as pec if i ed t ime / space d imen s ion 3 .T oi d en t ify t h eg r ave m a te r ia lw i th r e spec tt oe t hn ica ls t a tus ( Reymer t 1 980 : 7 4f . ) T he ma te r ia lc ho sen b yR eyme r tc on s i s t so fb u r ia l sf r om t h ec oun t ies o fN o rd -T rom s a nd F inma rk , w h ich h ec ompa re sw i th as ma l le ra r ea i nt h eB odö d i s t r ic t( F ig .2 ) . T he g rave sa r ed a ted t ot h ep e r iod A .D . 8 00 -1200 . A l toge the r ,t h e ma te r ia li s made u po f6 4 g raves , 2 8 s t ray f i nd sa nd 9d epo s i t s ( i b id : 1 02 ) . T he c on t ro la r ea ( Bodö )p rov ide s 1 4 g rave s , 1 s t ray f i nd sa nd 1d epo s i t( i b id : 1 20 , 1 23 ) . T h ree ma in c ha rac te r i s t ics a r ec once rned i nt h ea na ly s i so ft h eg rave s : a )t h ef o rm o f t h e g rave , b ) whe the ri ti sa ni nhuma t ion o rc r ema t ion b u r ia l , a nd c )t h ek ind o fg rave g ood st h a ta r ef ound ( i b id : 1 03 ) . 1 3

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, F ig .3 . Map s how ing t h ec oun t ie so fN o r th -T rom sa nd F inma rk w i th t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fd i f f e ren tt y pe s o fb u r ia l ,s t ray f i nd sa nd d epo s i t sd i s cu s sed b yR eyme r t

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T he a na ly s i sr e su l t si n as pa t ia ld iv i s ion o ft h eg r ave si n to t h ree ma in b ur ia lc us tom s , wh ich R eyme r t t e rms t h e c i rcu la r , t h e t r iangu la r a nd t h e s qua re t ypes . T he c i rcu lar b ur ia ls c ons i s t o f r ound b u r ia l mounds , c a i rns a nd g raves w i thou t v i s ib le ma r l c ing s .They a r ei nhuma t ion b ur ia l s a nd g r ave g ood s a r ef r equen t .T he se g raves a r e c oncen t ra ted t ot h e o u te r p a r t o f Ma langen F io rd . T he t r iangu lar b ur ia l s c on s is t o f g raves t h a t ' a re n o th ing mo r e t h an m e re o pen ing s b e tween t h e s t one s l ab s ' ( K leppe J ohansen 1 977 : 3 7 ) .T he se g rave sa r ea l so i nhuma t ion b u r ia l sa nd t h ey a r ea bundan ti nj ewele ry . T he g rave sa r ec oncen t ra ted t ot h en o r th s i de o ft h eV a range rF io rd .T he s quare b ur ia l s c on s is t o fs o -ca l led ' Rekkeb randg rave r ' , i . e . l ow r e c tangu la r c a i rns w i th s t one s l ab s a nd /o r wooden c on s t ruc t ion s .T hey a r ec r ema t ion b u r ia l sw i th p oo re rg rave g ood st h an t h et wo o the rg roup s . T he se g r ave sa r ec oncen t ra ted t ot h ei n te r io ro fF inma rk . When R eymer td raw sh i sc onc lu s ion s h er e f e r st ot h ew r i t ten s ou rce sw h ich i nd ica te t wo d i f fe ren t e thn ica l g roups . C oncern ing t h e c i rcu la r g raves , wh ich a r e a l so r ep re sen ted i nt h er e f e rence a r ea ( Bodö d i s t r ic t ) ,R eyme r ts t a te st h a tt h ey a r eo ft h es ame k ind a st h e g rave s f r om t h e s ou the rn p a r to fN o rway , a nd t h a tt h ey t h e refo re i nd ica te No rweg ian e t hn ic i ty ( Reyme r t 1 980 : 1 29 f . ) . C on sequen t ly ,t h et r iangu la rg rave s mu s t b er ema in sf r om t h eS aam i s .T he g r ave sa r el o ca ted i nt h eS aam ir eg ion ,a nd h ave g rave g ood s w i th i nf luence s f r om t h e e a s t . R eymer t i nd ica te s t h a t t h e s qua re g raves c ou ld r ep re sen t as epa ra te e t hn ica lg roup , a l though h ei sn o ts u re , s i nce t h et wo g roups h ave s eve ra lt r a i t si nc ommon ( Reymer t 1 980 : 1 25 , 1 30 ) . C ommen t so nR eymer t ' sC oncep to fE thn ic i ty T he re a r e f ou r a spec t s o fR eyme r t 's c oncep t o fe t hn ic i ty u pon wh ich Iwou ld l i ke t o c omm en t : 1 )H is r e sea rch s hows h ow d i ff icu l t i ti st ok eep t h e c onnec t ion b e tween a g ene ra lp o l i t ica ll e ve lo fe t hn ic i ty a nd amo re s pec if i c a r chaeo log ica l l e ve li n f ocus t h rough t h ew ho le s t udy . A tt h eb eg inn ing o fh i st h es is h e makes i tc l ea r t h a t T he r e la t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd e t hn ic i ty i sn o t o n ly r e sea rch o n o lde r s oc ie t ie s b u t a l so u pt od a te ,o f t en d eba ted ,p o l i t ic s( 1980 : 7 ) .

A f te rt h i ss t rong r ema rk t h ea wa rene s so ft h ec onnec t ion b e tween t h et wo l e ve l s o fe t hn ic i ty f ade sa way ,a nd d oe sn o to ccu ra ga in u n t i lt h ef i na lc onc lu s ion .

2 )R eymer t 's c oncep to fe t hn ic i ty i si nf luenced b ya n th ropo log ica lt h eo ry b u ti t i sa l so mod if ied f r om a na r chaeo log ica ls t andpo in t .T h i sf a c tm ake st h ec oncep t mo re s u i tab le f o ra r chaeo log ica lp rob lem st h an ,f o ri n s tance , ad i rec ta pp l ica t ion o fB a r th ' st h eo ry t oa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l( c f . t h e i n t roduc t ion a bove a nd a l so B audou 's p ape ri nt h is v o lume ) . 3 )T he a ux i l la ry s ub jec t sa r eu sed t oi n d ica te t h eh ypo the s i sa nd n o tt ov e r ify i t . 4 )I ti sd i f f icu l tt os e eh ow t h ec oncep to fe t hn ic i ty i nf luence st h ec onc lu s ion ;t h e mode ls e em st oh ave s wa l lowed t h ec oncep t .T he i n te rp re ta t ion i s mo re ar e su l t o f t h e o bse rved c ompos i t ion o f t h e g rave g oods a nd t he g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eg rave s ,r a the rt h an b e ing ap roduc to ft h eu se o ft h ee t hn ica l c oncep t . T he s econd w o rk t o b e e xam ined i sK nu t O dne r 's F inner o g T erf inner . E tn iske p rose sser id e rn ord l ige F enno -Skand inav ia f r om 1 983 . A s a n a n th ropo log is t , K nu t Odne r c ons ide r s t h e h i s tor ica l s ub jec t s t ob e c ompa t ib le ; t h ey s ha re a n i d eog raph ic 1 73

v i ew . S oc ia la n th ropo logy o nt h eo t he rh and h a s an omo the t ic v i ew ( Odne r 1 983 : 1 ) . T he i mpo r tan tp o in tf o r Odne ri st og ive ag ene ra le xp lana t ion o f as pec if ic p roce ss , t h eg enes i so fS aam ie t hn ic i ty . T h roughou th i st h es is h e s t re sse st h ei mpor tance o ft h e c on tex ti nw h ich t h ep roce s st a k e sp l ace . A s ar e su l to ft h i s ,t h ea c t ion a nd i t sp rem i s se s a r e p laced i nf ocus . T h is a l so m ean s t h a t t h e h i s to r ic a nd p reh is tor ic e xamp le s a r e c ho sen t of i ti nw i th O dne r 's a rgumen ta t ion . I nh i ss t udy , O dne re mpha s i se st h ei mpo r tance o fF red r ik B a r th ' sw o rk ,e spec ia l ly h i s I n t roduc t ion i nE thn ic G roups a nd B oundar ie s ( 1969 ) . O dne rr e f e r sp a r t icu la r ly t ot h e a spec t so fs ymb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip a nd a dap ta t ion t od i f f e r en te co log ica ln i che s .E thn ica l t r ansac t ion s a nd t h e u se o fe t hn ica l s ymbo l s a r e t wo o the r i mpo r tan t f a c to r s w h ich Odne ru se si nh i sa na ly s i s . Ano the ri mpo r tan tf a c to rf o rO dne ri s ah ypo the s i st h a tI an Hodde re mpha s ised i nh i s a r t ic le E conom ic a nd S oc ia l S t re ss a nd Ma ter ia l P a t tern ing ( 1979 ) . I n t h i s p ape r Hodde r s t a te s t h a te t hn ica l man if e s ta t ions a r e mo re d ef ined i ns i tua t ions o fe conom ic c ompe t i t ion a nd s t re s s ( c f . B audou 's d i scu s s ion o fs oc ia l s t re ss i nt h i sv o lume , wh ich i sb a sed o nt h ev e ry s ame h ypo the s i s ) . T he t h eo re t ica la nd m e thodo log ica ld i scu ss ions a r es e ta s ide when Odne re xp la in s a p reh is t io r ic e ven t . Howeve r , O dne rr e f e r st ot wo me thod s , S tewa rd 's ' d i rec th i s to r ica l a pp roach ' a nd B a r th 's c ommen t s o n t h e e t hn ic i ty o fc u l tu re : ' 1 . I t s v i s ib le s i gns a nd s i gna l s . 2 .I t s b a s ic v a lue sa nd mo ra l s ' . When s t udy ing t h ee me rgence o fS aam ie t hn ic i ty , Odne rt h ink st h a tt r an sac t ions a r e t h e mo s t i n fo rma t ive s i tua t ion s . I fe xchange i st ot ake p lace , t h ep ar t ic ipan t s h ave t o u nde r s tand e ach o the rt os ome e x ten t( Odne r 1 983 : 8 7 , 8 90 . I tb ecome si mpo r tan tt o s ha re t h es ame s ymbo l sa nd e va lua t ion s . I nt h i sp roce s s ac ommon l a nguage i so fg rea t v a lue a nd , a cco rd ing t oO dne r , t h e s t udy o fp reh is to r ic l a nguage si sc oncequen t ly t h e k ey t ot h eu nde r s tand ing o fp reh i s to r ic e t hn ic i ty ( Odne r 1 983 : 1 9 ,9 4 ) . , T hu s , t h e n a tura la r ea f o rt h e S aam ie t hn ic i ty t o eme rge w a st h eb o rde r l ine b e tween t he F inn lande r s a nd t h e S aam is , s i nce t he p ro to -Saam ish a nd t h e p ro to -F inn ish l a nguages b e long t ot h eF inn i -U rg ic l a nguage f am i ly ( Odne r 1 983 : 9 7 ) . B ye xam in ing h ow f o re ig in wo rd s h ave b een a dop ted i n to t h e S aam i l anguage , i ti sp os s ib le t o d e te rm ine when p ro to -Saam i w a s f o rmed a s a n i ndependen t l a nguage . A cco rd ing t o Odne rt h is p roce ss t ook p lace n o r th o ft h eB ay o fF in land ,s o me t ime b e tween 5 00 B .C . a nd A .D .4 00 ( Odne r 1 983 : 9 9 ) .T h i sp e r iod i sd e sc r ibed b y Ma r ja G imbu ta sa s ag o lden a ge f o rt he B a l t ic a r ea , w i th a n e conom ic b oom d ue t ot h e e xpan s ion o ft h e R oman emp i re . T he G erman ic s oc ie t ies h ad d eve loped i n to h i e ra r ch ie s , i nt h e w ake o ft h i s e xpans ion . T h is c r ea ted ad emand f o r e xchange o f l uxury i t em s , s uch a s c ou ld b e o b ta ined f r om t h e n o r the rn p a r t s o f F enno -Scand inav ia ( Odne r 1 983 : 1 03 ) . T he se r eques t s f o r ' S aam i p roduc t s ' d ra s t ica l ly c hanged t h e c ond i t ions f o r t h e S aam i 's e x i s tence , wh ich w a s ma in ly b a sed o n mob i le b ig g ame h un t ing . O dne rd esc r ibes t h i s e conomy a s ' c lo se t oS ah l in s ' a ff luen t s oc ie ty ' ( i b id : 1 05 ) . T he G ennan ic s ' d e s i re f o r f u r s , wa l rus t u sk s ,a nd r ope o fw a l ru sh ide t u rned t h eS aam ie conomy i n to s pec ia l ized f u r -game h un t ing c omb ined w i th s ma l lg ame h un t ing ,f i sh ing a nd s t ock b r eed ing ( i b id : 1 08 ) . T he se t r ansac t ion sl e dt o ac onf i rma t ion o fb o th S aam ia nd No r th G e rman ic /F in land ic e t hn ic i ty . T he Nor th G erman ics /F in lande r s a c ted a s amed ia t ing g roup b e tween t h e S aam ia nd t h eG e rman ic so rt h eS l av i . Odne r a l so g ives t wo o the r e xamp les o f s i tua t ion s w he re S aam i a nd G e rman ic e t hn ic i ty w a s f o rmed b y t r ansac t ions b e tween d i f f e ren t g roups . T he f i r s t e xamp le i s s een i n t h e med ieva l s e t t lemen t s o n H e Ig o r i n No r the rn -T rom s ( F ig . 3 ) . H e re , No r semen a nd S aam i s s ha red t h e s ame e conomy a nd a l so l e f t t h e s ame ma ter ia l r ema ins . T h is i s land i ss i tua ted n o r th o f Ma lange rn , w h ich O dne r c l a ims t ob e t h e n or the rn b o rde r o f No rweg ian s e t t lemen t , s i nce t h e c rops c ou ld n o t s upp ly e nough s u rp lu sf u r the rn o r th t h an t ot h i s p o in t ( Odne r 1 983 : 8 5 ) . O dne re xp la in s t h a tr ema in s 1 74

f ound n or th o ft h i sp o in ta r es i gn so f as pec if ic e t hn ica lp roce s s . H et h ink st h a te ven i fi t w a s i mposs ib le f o r t h e No rweg ian h ie ra rch ica l s oc ie ty t o e s tab l ish i t se lf t h e re , i n d iv idua lp e r son sc ou ld g a in a dvan tage f r om a dop t ing N o rweg ian e t hn ic i ty . T he s e cond e xamp le i sf r om t h ei n te r io ro fS ou ther nN o r r land i n Sweden ( c f . F ig . 1 ) . I nt h i sr eg ion , s o -ca l led f o re s tb u r ia l s ( Sw .s kogsgravar )f r om t h eI r on A ge ( A .D . 5 00 ) o ccu r i n a s soc ia t ion w i th S tone Age s i te s . S eve ra l Swed ish a r chaeo log is t s i n te rp re t t h e se r ema in s a s e i the r G e rman ic o r S aam i . A cco rd ing t o Odne r ( 1985 :10 ) , w e a r e d ea l ing h e r ew i th a n . . ind igenou sp opu la t ion w ho " c ho se "t od ef ine t h em se lve sa sG e rman ic .

C ommen t so n Odner ' sC oncep to fE thn ic i ty T he re a r ef ou rp o in t so nw h ich Iw ou ld l i ke t oc ommen tw i th r ega rd t o Odne r ' sc oncep t o fe t hn ic i ty : 1 )B ys t ar t ing o u tf r om ag ene ra l ,n omo the t ic t h eory ,i tb ecome s mo r ed i ff i cu l t t of o l low t h ea na ly s i st h rough t ime a nd s pace . E thn ic i ty b ecome sa h i s to r ic ,a nd s e em st ob es t a t ic ,i n te rup ted b ys udden q ua l i ta t ive c hange s . 2 ) I ti sd i f f icu l t t o r e cogn ize t he d i f f e ren t e thn ic g roups w i th in t he S aam i e thn ic i ty . Apa r t f r om t he ' Sko l tf inna r ' a nd t he h ypo the t ic ' T e rf inna r ' , a s men t ioned b y Odne r , t h e re a r e ' S jöf inne r ' ( coa s ta l S aam i ) , ' F je l lappa r ' ( Fe l l S aam i ) , ' Bygde lapper ' ( Saam i l i v ing o n o u t ly ing l and ) a nd ' Sö r same r ' ( s ou the rn S aam i ) . T h is c omp lex i ty i se a s i ly f o rgo t ten i n O dne r 's a na lys is o f e t hn ic i ty . 3 ) Odne rr e l ie st oo much o no the rs ub jec t st h an a r chaeo logy f o rh i sh ypo the s i s t ob ec on s ide red a sa n a r chaeo log ica lc oncep to fe t hn ic i ty . Id oub tw he the rh i s c oncep tc an s t and u pt oa ny c r i t ica le xam ina t ion f r om o the r' h i s to r ica ls ub jec t s ' . 4 )O dne rq ue s t ion sh ow t h eS aam ie t hn ic i ty eme rged . I nd o ing t h i s ,h eh a st r i ed t ot u rn t h ec oncep ti n to a ni n s t rumen tf o ru nde r s tand ing t h es t ruc tu re o fe t hn ic i ty i np reh is to ry . R ey mer t 's a nd Odner 's Concep t o f E thn ic i ty Co mpared w i th E ar l ier Works o n t he Concep t o f E thn ic i ty i n A rchaeo logy A s men t ioned a bove , R eymer t a nd Odne r b o th c l a im t ob e i n f luenced b y S tewa rd ' s ' d i rec t h i s tor ica l a pp roach t o a r chaeo logy ' , a nd B a r th 's p ape r E thn ic G roups a nd B oundar ies . S ince t h ey i n te rp re ted S tewa rd a nd B a r th i nc omp le te ly d i f f e ren tw ay s , o ne s hou ld n o tb e come t oo e xc i ted b yt h ef a c tt h a tt h ey c ame t od i f f e ren tc onc lu s ion s .A mo re v i ta l p o in ti st h e i rc l a im , i nf a c t , t ou se S t ewa rd 's a nd B a r th 's wo rk s . B y d o ing t h i sb o th c onnec tt h e i rf r amewo rk t ot h a to f' New A rchaeo logy ' ,w h ich a l low st h em t o w o rk w i th e t hn ic i ty i n amo re a po l i t ica lw ay . D esp i te t h e i r me thodo log ica l c l a im , Iwou ld l i ke t o p o in t o u t t he s im i la r i t ies i n R eyme r t 's c onc lus ion a bou tt h ee t hn ica l s i tua t ion i nF inma rk a nd c onsequence so ft h e ' S ied lungsa rchäo log i sche m e thode ' . R eymer t h a s , f o r i n s tance , d e tec ted t wo c l ea r ly d e f ined ma te r ia l g roups : t h e Norweg ian a nd t h e S aam i . T he S aam ic g roup i st h en c ha rac te r ized b y at ype o fa r tef ac ta nd j ewe l le ry w i th e a s ter ni n f luence . A ne xp lana t ion » i ft h is c onnec t ion c ou ld b e t h a t S tewa rd 's ' d i rec th i s to r ica l a pp roach ' ( S tewa rd 1 977 : 2 01 f 0i sc l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e ' r e t rope r spec t ive me thod ' . T h is me thod w as i n t roduced t oE u ropean a r chaeo logy i nt h el a te 1 9 th c en tu ry b yO sca r Mon te l iu s ,R udo lf V i r chow 1 75

a nd J .E . Voge l ( Sk lena r 1 983 : 9 1 ) . I nt u rn , t h i s me thod c ons t i tu ted ac ruc ia lp o in ti n t h e ' S ied lung sa rchäo log ische m e thode ' ( Egge r s 1 959 : 2 11 ) . B u t i t wou ld b e f a r t oo s imp l is t ic t o d raw a ny f ur ther c onc lus ions f rom t h is r e la t ionsh ip . T he ' S ied lung sa r chäo log i sche m e thode 'c anno tb ep a r ted f r om t h es oc ia lc on tex ti nw h ich i t eme rged . I nt h en a t iona l is t ic a nd c hauvan i s t ic e r af r om t h el a te 1 9 th c en tu ry t ot h ef i r s t w o r ld w a r ,o ne s hou ld s e et h ee u ropean a r chaeo log i s t s a s as i ng le s c ien t if ic s oc ie ty , a s c ien t if ic s oc ie ty w h ich w a s s t rong ly i n f luenced b y t he ' S ied lungsa rchäo log ische me thode ' . When t h i sw a sq ue s t ioned ,t h ed eba te c once rned t h ep o l i t ica lc onc lu s ion st h a t w e r ed rawn f r om i t ,a nd n o tt h em e thod i t se l f( Me inande r 1 981a : 1 05 ) . I n a n e a r l ier e ssay ( Or tman 1 987 : 2 7 f ) Ih ave d escr ibed Koss inna 's ' S ied lung sa rchäo log i sche me thode ' a sc on s i s t ing o ft h ree a s sump t ion s ( my a na ly s i si s b a sed ma in ly o nK le in 's ( 1974 )a r t ic le o n Ko s s inna ) : 1 .T he ' r e t rope r spec t ive m e thod ' . 2 .T he a s sump t ion t h a t : ' s cha r f umg ren tz te a r chäo log ische Ku l tu rp rov inzen d ecken s i ch z u a l len Z e i ten m i tg anz b e s t im ten V ö lke ru nd V ö lke r schaf ten ' .

3 .T ha ta r chaeo logy s hou ld b eu sed a s a' n a t iona ls c ience ' . I fo ne c ompa re st h e se a s sump t ion sw i th t h e me thodo log ica la s sump t ion st h a tR eyme r t a nd O dne r r e fe r t o , o ne o r t wo s im i la r i t ie s a r e f ound . T he mo s t c l ea r , i sb e tween S tewa rd 's ' a pproach ' a nd t he ' r e t rope r spec t ive me thod ' o f t he l a te 1 9 th c en tury . I wou ld a l so l i ke t o s t re ss t he c onnec t ion b e tween B a r th ' s c oncep t o f e t hn ic i ty a nd Ko ss inna ' s ' S ied lung sa r chäo log ie ' . T hey h ave n o th ing t od ow i th e ach o ther p er s e ,b u t i ti si n te re s t ing t h a tt h ey a r ed ea l ing w i th t h e s ame p rob lem : t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween ma ter ia l c u l tu re a nd t h e p roduce r s o f ma ter ia l c u l tu re . A s Is e e i t ,B a r th ' s e t hn ica l c oncep t h a s t h e s ame f unc t ion i n R eymer t 's a nd Odne r 's wo rk s , a s h ad Ko s s inna 's s e cond a s sump t ion i nw o rk sb efo re t h eS econd Wo r ld Wa r . C oncern ing t h et h i rd a s sump t ion a bou tt h ep o l i t ica lu se o fa r chaeo logy ,o ne c an s e e h ow a r chaeo logy h a sb ecome l e s sp ol i t ica lt h rough t h ey ea r s . T he f i r s ts t ep i nt h i sd i r ec t ion w a st a ken b y Go rdon C h i ld .I nT he Dawn o fE uropean C iv i l i za t ion ( 1925 ) ,C h i ld h ad , a cco rd ing t oT r igge r( 1981 : 1 46 ) : .d e tached t h el a t te ra pp roa ch [ t he c onnec t ion b e tween t h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta a nd t h ec oncep t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re ] , wh ich h ad b een e l abo ra ted b y Koss inna ( 1911) , f r om t he n a t iona l i s t ic c oncep t sw i th wh ich i th ad b een a s soc ia ted i nG e rmany .

T h is ' a po l i t ica l 'c oncep to fp reh i s to r ic e t hn ic i ty b ecame am e thodo log ica la l te rna t ive t o , a nd s ucce sso rt o , Kos s inna 's ' S ied lung sa rchäo log ie ' . A s ap ar to ft h e' d e -po l i t ic iza t ion ' t h ec oncep to fa r chaeo log ica l e t hn ic i ty w a s n ow c a l led t h e c oncep to fa r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re .C h i ld 's c oncep to fa r chaeo log ica lc u l tu re w a sn o tq ua l i ta t ive ly c ha l lenged u n t i l J u l ian S tewa rd i n t roduced h i s t e rm ' mu l t i l inea re vo lu t ion 'i n 1 953 . A cco rd ing t ot h i s , e vo lu t ion c an t a ke p l ace i n an umbe ro fd i f f e ren ts i tua t ion s ,a nd i ss t rong ly d e te rm ined b yt h es pec if ic e co log ica ls e t t ing . S t ewa rd i s ,i n s tead , a s soc ia ted w i th N ew A r chaeo logy ,a nd i ti sh e re t h a tw ef i nd t h e f i na l s t age o f s c ien t if ica t ion a nd ' a po l i t ica t ion ' . I n B info rd 's A rchaeo logy a s A n th ropo logy ( B in fo rd 1 962 )t h ec oncep to fc u l tu re h a sb een t u rned i n to ,w ha t Iw ou ld l i ke t oc a l l , a' n onhuman c oncep to f ma te r ia l c u l tu re ' . I nt h e a r t ic le , a ni n te re s ti nt h e f unc t ion o ft h ec oppe rt oo l si ne a s te rn N or th Ame r ica h a sr ep laced i n te re s ti nt h eh uman a c t iv i ty .T h i si ss e en a st h ek ey t ou nde r s tand ing o ft h ep r eh is to r ic s i tua t ion . Conc lud ing R e marks T he t wo e xamp le s p re sen ted a bove s how h ow d i f f icu l t i ti st o k eep t h e s y mb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e g ene ra lp o l i t ica ll e ve l a nd t h es pec if ic l e ve lo ft h ec oncep to f 1 76

e t hn ic i ty i nf ocus . When w o rk ing o n t h e s pec if ic l e ve l , o ne s hou ld b e a wa r e o fh ow o ne ' sr e sea r ch may b eu sed o nt h eg ene ra ll e ve l . My d emand f o r as pec if i c a r chaeo log ica lc oncep to fe t hn ic i ty ,w h ich wou ld d ea lw i th t h es t ruc tu re o fp reh i s to r ic e t hn ic i ty , wou ld a ppe rt ob ed i ff i cu l tt of o rmu la te .T os t re s s t h e a c t o f t r an sac t ion , a s Odne r h a s d one , i si n sp i r ing b u t i t mus t b e r e s t r ic ted t o a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . F r ed r ik B a r th ' s h ypo the s i s a bou t t h e g ene s i s o fe t hn ic g roups i s a l so i n sp i r ing , b u tc ou ld n o tb eu sed a s ag ene ra ll aw . T he t h eo re t ica lf r am ewo rk mu s t b es t r ic t ly d ef ined b efo re c onsu l t ing a ny o the r' h i s to r ica ls ub jec t s ' . F ina l ly , Iwou ld l i ke t o s ugge s t t ha t s t ud ies c once rn ing h i s to r ic a nd p reh is to r ic e t hn ic i ty a r eb e s tc a r r ied o u tw hen s t udy ing m ino r i t ie si ns o c ie t ie sw ho h ave l e f tw r i t ten s ou r ces . I ts hou ld n o tb et a ken f o rg ran ted t h a tt h ec oncep to fe t hn ic i ty s hou ld b eu sed i na r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . Mo reove r ,i twou ld b enef i tf r om b e ing u sed a sa ni n s t rumen t i n s tead o fb e ing u sed a s al a be l .

R eferences A a r se th , B . 1 982 . Ky s t samenes b o se t tn ing ir i k spo l i t isk s ammenheng . O t tar 1 37 : 1 0 -29 . T rom s0 . B a r th ,F .1 969 .I n t roduc t ion .E thn ica lG roups a nd B oundar ie s . O s lo . B info rd ,L .R . 1 962 . A rchaeo logy a sa n th ropo logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 :2 . E gge r s ,H .J .1 959 . E inf ührung i nd er V orge sch ich te . München . K a l s tad ,J .1 982 . K y s t sam i sk r e ind r if t . O t tar 1 37 :2 9 -43 T om s0 . K le jn , L . S . 1 974 . Kos s inna i n Abs tand v on v ie rz ig J ahren . J ahresschr if t f ür M i t te ld eu t sche V orge sch ich t e 5 8 . K leppe J ohansen , E . 1 977 . A r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l a nd e t hn ica l i den t if ica t ion . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 0 : 3 2 -46 . Me inande r , C . F . 1 981 . T he c oncep to fc u l tu re i nE u ropean a r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re . T oward s aH i s tor yo fA rchaeo logy ( ed . G . D an ie l ) . C onf e r ence o n t h eh i s to ry o f a r chaeo logy . Odner , K . 1 983 . F inner o g T erf inner , e tn iske p rosesser i d e t n ord l ige F enno -Skand inav ia .O cca s iona lP ape r si nS oc ia lA n th ropo logy 9 .O s lo . O dne r , K . 1 985 . S aam is ( Lapps ) , F inns a nd S cand inav ians i nh i s to ry a nd p reh is to ry . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 8 : 1 12 . O l sen , B . 1 986 . No rweg ian a r chaeo logy a nd t h ep eop le w i thou t ( p re )h i s to ry : o rh ow t oc r ea te amy th o f au n ifo rm p a s t .A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idge 5 : 1 , 2 5 -41 . O r tman , 0 . 1 987 . A rkeo log i iT ysk land me l lan A ren 1 890 o ch 1 945 - E n f o r skn ingsh is to r isk s t ud ie m ed u tgäng spunk t f r än p o l i t iska o ch v e tenskap l iga f ö ränd r inga r id e ts am t ida s amhä l le t .S em inar P aper . U n ive r s i ty o f Go thenbu rg . P a re l i , L . & S eve r insen , A . 1 979 . Noen me todeprob lemer i s orsam isk h i s to r ie fo r skn ing . O t tar 16 / 117 : 2 9 -37 .T rom s0 . R eymer t , P . K . 1 980 . A rkeo log i o g e t n i s i te t . E n s t ud ie ie t n is i te t o g g raysk ik i N ord -T roms o gF inmark it i den 8 00 -1200 . T rom s0 . R oung ,I .1 982 .S amerna ih i s tor ien o ch n u t iden . S tockho lm . S a lvene s ,H . 1 979 . S o r samene -e ns am i sk m ino r i te t . O t tar 16 / 117 : 2 3 -28 .T rom s0 . S k lena r ,K . 1 983 .A rchaeo logy i nC en t ra lE urope :t h eF ir s t5 00 Y ear s . N ew Y o rk . S tewa rd , J .H . 1 977 . E vo lu t ion a nd E co logy . [ Mu rphy , R . F . T he A n th ropo log ica l T heo r ie so fJ u l ian S t ewa rd ] T r igge r ,B . 1 981 . A ng lo -Amer ican a r chaeo logy . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 3 :2 . Z ach r i sson , I .1 976 . L apps a nd S cand inav ian s . A rchaeo log ica lf ind sf rom n or thern S weden . E a r ly N o r r land 1 0 . S tockho lm . 1 77

A pp roach e st oS wed i sh P reh i s to ry ,B .A .R . ,O x f ord ,1 989 ,p p . 1 79 -187 .

WEED -SEEDS I N ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEPOSITS Mode l s ,E xper imen t sa nd I n terpre ta t ion s B y Roger E nge lmark *

Weed s a s I nd ica tor s o f A gr icu l tura l P rac t ice C e rea l s c an b e c u l t iva ted w i th in ab road r ange o fc l ima t ic a nd e co log ica l c ond i t ion s d epend ing o n c u l tu ra l man ipu la t ion s o fs o i ls a nd n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion . C e rea l s c an b e c u l t iva ted w e l lu pt ot h eA rc t ic C i r c le i nF enno scand ia .T he g ra in i s much o ft h es ame s h ape a nd s i ze i ndependen to fc u l t iva t ion c ond i t ion sa nd t e l l su sl i t t le o rn o th ing o fs o i l t r ea tmen t , manu r ing , e t c . None t h e l e s s , i n fo rma t ion o n c rop p lan t s i sn ece s sa ry i n o rde rf o r u s t ou nde r s tand t h e a g ra r ian e conomy , t h e p o s s ib le w ay s o fc rop r o ta t ion a nd , i n t h e l ong h i s to r ica l p e r spec t ive , t o k now t h e t empo ra l s ucces s ion o f c rop p roduc t ion . A rab le w eed s ,c ompa r ed t oc e r ea l ,a r e mo re i n fo rma t ive .T he r ea r e ag r ea tn umbe ro f s p ec ie s ( a bou t 1 50 i n Sweden )a nd t h ey h ave an ar rowe re co log ica l amp l i tude ,a tl e a s t i n n o rma l c ompe t i t ive g row th s i tua t ions . T he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e w eed f l o ra o n a g r icu l tu ra ll a nd i s ma in ly d e te rm ined b yt h ef o l low ing f a c to r s : 1 . 2 .

B a s ic n a tu r a lf a c to r s C l ima te ,s o i lt e x tu r e ,s o i l pH , mo i s tu re S pe c if i ca g r icu l tu r a lf a c to r s C rop , s p r ing - o r a u tumn -sown , manu r ing , s o i l t r ea tmen t , c rop r o ta t ion , w eed ing ,e t c .

T he Weed S amp le s f rom A rchaeo log ica l S i tes T he w eed c ommun i t ie s g row ing i na r ab le f i e ld s a r e h a rd ly e ve r f u l ly r ep r esen ted i n a r chaeo log ica ls e ed s amp le s .B o th n a tu ra lc ond i t ion sa nd h uman o pe ra t ion sh ave c aused c hange s ,n o rm a l ly s e lec t ive r educ t ion so fs e ed s .I nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h es amp le si ti s i mpo r tan t t ot a ke i n to a ccoun t i nw ha t d i rec t ion a nd t ow ha t e x ten t t h e s e ed s amp le c ompo s i t ion h a sb een b i a s sed . O n t h e s i te so ccup ied f o r al o ng t ime t h e re a r e s pec ia l p rob lem sc au sed b ym ix ing o fc rop p roduc t s .

*D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä

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Moder ne xcava t ion t e chn ique si nt h eh and so fc ompe ten ta r chaeo log i s t sa r er e cove r ing i n c rea s ing a moun t so fp l an tr ema in sf r om aw ide rr ange o fs t ruc tu ra lc on tex t ss u i t ed f o r t r y ing mode l so fc rop h u sband ry a nd c rop p roce ss ing . C hanges i nt h e Weed S eed C ompo s i t ion b ef ore D epos i t ion Wh i le t h e p ea san t a t tend s t ot h e s urv iva l a nd s p read ing o ft h e c rop p lan t s , t h e w eed p l an t sh ave d eve loped v a r iou ss t ra teg ie so fp ropaga t ion w i th in t h ea g ro -cu l tu ra ls y s tem . T h is w i l l a f f ec t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f w eed s eed s w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a nd mu s t b e c ons ide red i nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fm ac ro fo s s i ls amp le s . Mo s tw eed s pec ie s a r et h erophy tes ( abou t 8 0 -90% ) a nd many o ft h em p roduce l a rge amoun t so fs eed sd u r ing al ong p e r iod w h ich i sw hy t h ey a r ew e l lr ep resen ted b o th i n t h e s o i l s eed s t o re a nd i nt h e c rop p roduc t b rough t i na th a rves t . S ome s pec ies ( e .g . A gros temma )d o n o t s hed t h e i r s eed s i nt h e f i e ld s b u t a r e f r eed b y t h re sh ing , w h ich e xp la ins why t h ey t e nd t ob eo ve r rep r e sen ted i ng ra in s t o re s amp le s . Under rep resen ted s pec ie s a r e t ho se w h ich s hed t h e i r s eed s b efo re t he f i e ld s a r e h arve s ted ( e .g .L am iaceae )a nd t h o se g eophy te sp ropaga t ing w i th r h izome so rc r eep ing r oo t s ( e .g .A gropyron r epen s , C ir s ium p a lu s t re ) . A f te rh a rves t t h ec e rea l g ra ins o r s eed s o fo the rc rop p lan t s mu s t b e s epa ra ted f r om s t raw , a wns a nd w eed s e ed s b y t h re sh ing a nd c l ean ing t h e c rop . T h is h a s t h e mos t s e lec t ive i n f luence ,e spec ia l ly o nt h ew eed s eed sr ema in ing i nt h es t o red g ra in . C hanges i nS eed C ompos i t ion a f t er D epo s i t ion T he s u rv iva lo fs eed si nt h es o i la f te rd epo s i t ion d epend so nb o th s o i le nv i ronmen ta nd s e ed mo rpho logy . I nw e ta e ra ted s o i l s mo s ts e ed sg e rm ina te w i th in af ew y ea r s .I ft h e r e i s as hor tage o f mo is tu re o ro xygen , s e ed s may s u rv ive f o rs eve ra l y ea r s b efo r ed y ing a nd d ecay ing . S eed s w i th h a rd t e s ta a r e mo re r e s i s ten t t od e s truc t ion a nd t e nd t ob e o ve r r ep resen ted i na r chaeo log ica ls o i ls amp le s . A pp rop r ia te c a rbon iza t ion o fp lan t ma te r ia lp romo te sb o th t h er e s i s tance o fd e s t r uc t ion a nd t h e i den t if ica t ion . P lan t ma ter ia l i sc ha r red a tc e r ta in t empe ra tu re s i n o xygen i n suff ic iency .T he o p t ima lt empe ra tu re f o rc a rbon iza t ion d i f f e r sw i th s pec ies a nd p ar t s o f t h e p lan t (W i lson 1 984 ) . E a s i ly c ombus t ib le ma te r ia ls , e . g . c haf f a nd a wn s , a r e r a re ly f ound i nc ompa r i son w i th c e rea lg ra in s .

R esearch Ou t l ine I ti sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted t h a tt r ad i t iona lf a rm ing s y s tem sa r eo fc on s ide rab le a ge a nd may w e l l d a te b ack t ot h e S cand inav ian I r on A ge . T he k now ledge o ft r ad i t iona l f a rm ing i s b a sed u pon h i s to r ica l a nd e t hno log ica l s ou rces s i nce a g r icu l ture w as r ad ica l ly t r ansfo rmed i n N . E u rope f r om t h e 1 8 th c en tu ry b y n ew t e chn iques , n ew r o ta t ion s y s tem s a nd l a te ro n n ew c rop v a r ie t ie s , f e r t i l ize r s a nd c hem ica l s . T h i s a l so a pp l ies t o N . F ennoscand ia b u t t h e c hange w a s d e layed a nd n o t s o r ad ica l , wh ich i s why t r ad i t iona l c rop p roduc t ion a nd c rop p roces s ing w e re a b le t os u rv ive i nr emo te a r ea s e ven a sl a te a st h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s c en tury . T he p l ann ing a nd w o rk ing p ro ces se s o f mo s t c omponen t s o ft h a t f o rm o fa g r icu l tu re a r e s a t i sf ac to r i ly r e co rded a nd o r ig ina l e qu ipmen ti sw e l lr ep re sen ted i nt h e mu seum s . T he t r ad i t iona l f a rm ing o f N . F ennoscand ia h a s f o rmed t h e b a s is f o r mode ls o f p reh is tor ic f a rm ing . T he d a ta p roduced b y a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s w h ich a r e 1 80

s u ff i c ien ti na bundance a nd a c cu racy t ot r yt h e se mode l s ,a r e made u po fp r ima r i ly w eed s e ed s . T he e co logy o fw eed s , h oweve r , i si n suff i c ien t ly i nve s t iga ted , a nd p a r t icu la r ly w eed s eed p ropaga t ion s t ra teg ie sw i th in a g r icu l tu ra ls y s tem s .T he b a s ic e co logy o ft h e w eed s pec ies s hou ld r ema in u nchanged w i th in t he t ime s pan o f N . E uropean a g r icu l tu re . T oo b ta in t h ed a ta n ece s sa ry t o make t h e s t ipu la ted mode ls t e s tab le ,i tw a s c on s ide red e s sen t ia lt or e con s t ruc tt r ad i t iona la g r icu l tu re . E xpe r imen ta l f a rm ing w a s s t a r ted i n 1 985 b y t h e D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä i nN . S weden .T he r e sea r ch p rog ramme i n c ludes ab road r ange o f f a rm ing a c t iv i t ies ,t h e mo s ti mpo r tan tb e ing b r ief ly d escr ibed b e low . T he C rops T he ma in c rops o fl a te I r on A ge a nd Med ieva lF enno scand ia w e re b a r ley a nd r ye ; o a t s a nd w hea tw e re o fl i t t le i mpo r tance u n t i l mode rn t ime s . T he h u l led s i x rowed l a x -ea red t y pe o fb a r ley d om ina ted ,t h ed en se -ea red t y pe e x i s ted i nt h en o r the rn p a r t so fF enno scand ia a sl a te a si nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h is c en tu ry , b u ti t s e a r l ie rh i s to ry i sn o tk nown . Two rowed v a r ie t ie s a r ef a i r ly mode rn i n t roduc t ions . A l l t y pe so fb a r ley w e re s pr ing sown . Al o ca lt ype o fh u l led l a x -ea red s i x rowed b a r ley i s u sed i nt h ef a rm ing e xpe r imen t s . Two t ype so fr ye a r ec u l t iva ted i nf i e ld e xpe r imen t s . O ne i s' t uf tr ye ' , mo s ts u i tab le f o rs l a sh a nd b u rn c u l t iva t ion . S ince e ach s e ed p roduce s al a rge n umbe ro ft i le r s ,t h i sv a r ie ty mu s tb es own e a r ly i nt h es umme ra nd w il b ene f i t f r om g raz ing o rc u t t ing i nt h ea u tumn . T he o t he ri s' f i e ld r ye ' , w h ich i sn o ts os t rong ly t u f ted a nd c an b e s own l a te r .T he re i sa l so as p r ing -sown v a r ie ty o fr ye w h ich ( e a r l ie r ) w a s c u l t iva ted t o g e t s t raw f o r t y ing u p t h e b a r ley s heaves o r s own whe re t h e a u tumn -sown r ye h ad b een k i l led d ur ing t h ew in te r . Howeve r , i ns ome a r ea si nS ou th S weden w i th v e ry p oo r s o i l s i tw a s a n i mpo r tan t c e rea l . N ever the le ss , t h e re a r e n o p reh i s tor ic i nd ica t ions o f o the r t h an a u tumn -sown v a r ie t ies . O ther f i e ld c rops i n c u l t iva t ion a r e o a t s , f l ax , g o ld o f p l ea su re , f i e ld p ea s a nd t u rn ips . P reh is tor ic c rop p l an t sc u l t iva ted f o rp u rpo se so fs t udy a r e s pe l tw hea t s , c l ub w hea t a nd n aked b a r ley . F u r the rmo re , an umbe ro fw eed s pec ie sa r ep ropaga ted f o re co log ica ls t ud ie s . F ie ld S y s tem s Two a r ea s , o ne o n s andy s o i l s a nd t h eo ther o n s i l ty s o i l s , a r ec u l t iva ted a nd d iv ided i n to p lo ts o f 1 00 m2.E ach p lo t i st h e b a s ic u n i t i n al ong te rm p rog ram c oncern ing t i l lage , c rop r o ta t ion , m anur ing , e t c . Wi thou t u nde rd ra inage o r d i tches i tp roved n ece s sa ry t or i dge t h ep lo t so nt h es i l ty s o i lt oa vo id s t and ing s u r f ace w a te r .B o th b a r ley a nd r ye s p rou t s a r e v e ry s ens i t ive t o d ampness . Weed i n f es ta t ion i sc on t inuous ly a na lysed f o rd a ta d i scr im ina t ing d i f f e ren t f i e ld s y s tem s a nd f i e ld managemen t . O n ly manu re i su sed a nd n oc hem ica l sf o rp e s tc on t ro l . Ab r ief d e scr ip t ion i sg iven b e low o f t h ef i e ld s y s tem si nc u r r en tr e sea r ch . T he t r ad i t iona l w ay o fc rop p roduc t ion i n mo s t o fN . Sweden w a s t ou se t h e f i e ld p e rmanen t ly a sl ong a sp o ss ib le , w i th a nnua l c rop s o fb a r ley . B yh eavy manu r ing a nd i n tense s o i l p repa ra t ion , t h e f i e ld c ou ld b e c ropped f o rd ecade s b efo re t h e y i e ld h ad d ropped t oa n u naccep tab le l e ve l . T hen t h ef i e ld w a s a l lowed t or eve r tt ol e yu sed f o r h ey p roduc t ion f o r an umbe ro fy ea r s . R ye c ou ld a l so b ei n c luded i nt h i ss ys tem , b e ing s own t oge the rw i th b a r ley a nd c ropped i nt h es e cond y ea r .J udg ing f r om t h ea ppea rance o fc a rbon ized w eed s e ed c ommun i t ie si nN . Swed i sh I r on A ge c on tex t s ,t h ep e rmanen t f i e ld s y s tem w a st h ec rop p roduc t ion s y s tem . I nt h et wo -f ie ld r o ta t ion s y s tem h a lf t h ea r ab le s o i ll i es f a l low ,t h eo the rh a l fi ss own w i th b a r ley a nd r ye . I ni t s o r ig ina l f o rm t h ec rop r o ta t ion w as c onsequen t ly f our -fo ld ,

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r ye -fa l low -ba r ley -fa l low . C ompa red t ot h et h ree -f ie ld r o ta t ion s ys tem p reva len ti nS . Sweden a nd p ar t so fF in land ,t h et wo f ie ld r o ta t ion s y s tem t ook mo re l a nd b u tr equ i red l e ss manu re f o rt h e s ame y i e ld . O n ly o ne -fou r th , t h a tp ar to ft h ef a l low p reced ing t h e r ye c rop , i s manu red y ea r ly . T he l a t te rs y s tem h ad i t s ma in d i s t r ibu t ion a r ea i nc en t ra l Sweden b u te x is ted a l so i np a r t s o fN o r th Sweden a nd F in land . B o th t r ad i t iona l c rop r o ta t ion s y s tem sw i th a l ter na t ing a u tumn a nd s p r ing s own c rop sh ave ac u rb ing e f f ec t o nw eed i n f e s ta t ion .T he s y s tem ss e em t og ob ack i n to p reh is to r ic t ime s . A rea s w i th v a r iou s s o i l s a nd v ege ta t ion a r ec l ea rf e l led , b u rn ta nd s own w i th r ye o f t h e t u f t v a r ie ty i n t h e f i r s t y ea r a nd o the r c rops , e . g . b a r ley , f l ax o r t ur n ips , i n s ucceed ing y ea r sa cco rd ing t oe t hno -h i s to r ica lr e co rd s . T he t r ad i t ion o fs l a sh a nd b u rn a g r icu l tu re i sc he r ished i n t h e B o rea l F ennoscand ia a nd p a r t icu la r ly i n F in land . P a leobo tan i s t sa nd a r chaeo log i s t sh ave c onc luded t h a tt h em e thod w a st h ef i r s to ne u sed b yN eol i th ic f a rme r so f NW E u rope ( f o rc l i sccu s s ion a nd l i t e ra tu re s e eS teen sbe rg 1 955 a nd R ow ley -Conwy 1 981) . S of a rn os a t i sf ac to ry i nd ica t ion ss uppor t ing t h ep o l len e v idence h ave b een p ropo sed t od i sc r im in ta te s l a sh a nd b u rn c u l t iva t ion f r om f i e ld c u l t iva t ion i np reh is to r ic s amp le s . T he w eed s pec ies i n as l a sh a nd b urn c e rea l c rop o r ig ina te p a r t ly f r om s pec ie s i n t roduced a ss e eds t oge the rw i th t h e s eed -cor na nd p a r t ly f r om t h e l o ca l f l o ra . I ft h e a r ea i si nvo lved i n al ong te rm r o ta t ion s y s tem s ome w eed s w i l l s urv ive t h e f o l low ing p er iod i nt h e s eed r e se rve i nt h e s o i l ; s uch s eed s a r e o f ten o fs pec ie s f avou red b y o r r equ ir ing f i re t og e rm ina te . T he se t h eo r ie s o fw eed s eed p ropaga t ion s t ra teg ie s i na l o ng te rm r o ta t ion , s l a sh a nd b u rn s y s tem c on s t i tu te t h eb a s i sf o rt h ee xpe r imen t s .

Harve s t , A l l c e rea l c rops a r e c u t w i th as i ck le a nd c l ose t ot h e g round . F lax a nd f i e ld p ea s a r e u p roo ted . I th a sb een p ropo sed t h a tc e rea l s w e re c u th igh u pu nde rt h ee a r s ( c f . K nö r ze r 1 971 ; B eh re 1 983 ) .T he i n te rp re ta t ion i sb a sed o nt h ep re sence o fs eed so f ma in ly t a l lg row ing w eed s i ng ra in s t o re s amp le s . Howeve r , v e ry f ew c e rea l c rops c ou ld b e c u t u nde rt h e e a r s i n ap rac t ica l w ay . B a r ley a nd c l ub w hea t a r e t oo s ho r t a nd u neven i nh e igh tt o a l low s uch ap rac t ise . R ye i sd ef in i te ly t a l le nough ( abou t 1 . 5 -2m )b u tw hen r i pen ing i tb end sh a l fway t ot h eg round a nd i sc onsequen t ly p ra c t ica l ly i mpo s s ib le t or e ap u nde r t h e e a r s . R eap ing o f emme r a nd s pe l t w hea t s i sd i scus sed b y R eyno ld s ( 1981) . T he w eed s eed c ompo s i t ion o fs t o rage s amp le si s mo r e ar e su l to ft h et h r esh ing t h an o ft h e r eap ing t e chn ique . P luck ing ,h oweve r ,r e su l t si na lmo s tw eed -f ree g ra ins .

P roce ss ing t h eC rop T he p roce ss o ft h re sh ing a nd c l ean ing t h ec rop s i n c lude s an umbe ro fs t eps t oe nsu re t h a tt h e g ra ins a r e c l ean e nough f o r s t o rage a nd t os o r tt h e g ra in si n to q ua l i ty g roups . F rom T u rkey a nd G reece t h e re a r e c l ose a na lyse s o f t r ad i t iona l c rop p roce ss ing ( H i l lman 1 981 , 1 984 ; J ones 1 984 ) . C ompa red t oN . F enno scand ia , t h ere a r e s ome d i f f e r ence s a nd c onsequen t ly t h et r ad i t iona lp roce s si sp re sen ted h e re , u s ing t h es ame f l ux c i rcu i t ( F ig . 1 )u sed b y H i l lm a n( 1981 ) . T he mode li sv a l id f o rF enno scand ia a nd p e rhaps , w i th m ino r d i f f e rence s f o r N . E u rope i nl a te p reh i s tor ic a nd e a r ly h i s to r ic t imes . T he re i sl i t t le c omprehen s ive l i t e ra tu re o n t h re sh ing i nF enno scand ia ( E r ixon 1 956 a nd l i t e ra tu rc i ted t h e re in ; V i lppu la 1 955 ) b u t t h ere a r e an umber o fr e co rd s o f t r ad i t iona l t h resh ing b a sed o n i n te rv iew s w i th p eop le w ho p rac t ised i t( unpub l i shed r e co rd si n DAU M ) . T h resh ing w a sd one a l lt h rough t h ea u tumn a nd p a r to ft h ew in te r a nd w a s c onsequen t ly d one i ndoo r s i n at h resh ing b a rn . S ome o pe ra t ion s c ou ld b e 1 82

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p e r fo rmed o u t s ide t h eb a rn ,w ea the rp e rm i t t ing . T he t h r e sh ing i mp lemen t sw e r e af l a i lo rt h r e sh ing s t ick ,d es igned s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t ly i nd i f f e ren t p a r t s o ft h e a r ea ( T ro tz ig 1 943 ) . R ye w a s n o t f l a i led a s af i r s t s t ep , b u t l a shed a ga in s t aw a l l ,t h re sh ing f l oo rf r ame o r as pec ia lt h re sh ing t r e s t le ;t h i sw a sd one i no rde rt oo b ta in t h e mo s tr i pe g r a in s . B a r ley w a st h re shed as e cond t ime t ob reak t h e a wn s ,a nd o a t st os epa ra te t h et r i p le t so fo a tg ra in s .R ye w a st h re shed as e cond t ime t o o , b yf l a i l ing t od e ta ch t h er e s to ft h eg ra in s . B e tween t h et wo f l a i l ing so fb a r ley a nd o a t s t h es t raw w a ss haken a nd r emoved w i th t h eh and so r aw ooden f o rk t ot h es t raw s t o re . A f te rt h es e cond t h re sh ing t h ep i le o fg r a in w a sr i dd led t og e tr i do fc oa r se i mpu r i t ie s . Ab room a nd /o rr ake c ou ld a l so b eu sed ,e spec ia l ly t or emove t h ee mp ty e a r so fr ye . T he rea f te rt h ep i le o fg r a in s ( Sw . d rä se ) ,i n c lud ing w eed s e ed s ,c ha f fa nd a wn s ,w a s r e ady f o rf l ing ing ,t h ei n doo rc oun te rpa r tt ow innow ing .T he b e s tr e su l t sw e r ea ch ieved w i th as u i tab le t h rough -d raugh ti nt h eb a rn .T he g r a in sw e re t h rown w i th as ma l ls hove l a l ong t h et h re sh ing f l oo r : H eav ie rp a r t ic le s move f a r the rt h an l i gh ter . T ob ee xac t ,t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a l ong t h et h re sh ing f l oo rd epend so nt h er a t io o fs u r f a ce a r ea a nd w e igh to f t h e p a r t ic le s . T he s qua re r oo to ft h a tf i gu re g i ve s t h e f a l l ing s peed i na i r a nd may b e u sed t oc a lcu la t eg r a in a nd w eed s e ed d i s t r ibu t ion sw hen f l ung ( F ig .2 ) . T he h eavy c l a s ses o fc e rea l g r a in s a r e t h e s ame a sq ua l i ty c l a s ses . T he n umb e r o f q ua l i ty c l a s se s s t o red s epa ra te ly v a r ied ,b u tw a su sua l ly t h ree ; t h eb e s to ne f o rg ra in s a nd c ook ing mea l ,t h em idd le o ne f o rb r ead m ea la nd t h el i gh te s tg r a in su sed f o rh uman c on sump t ion o n ly i ny ea r so fl ow c e rea ly i e ld s . T he w eed s eed d i s t r ibu t ion w hen t h row ing i sc a lcu la ted i nF ig . 3 .I n p ra c t ise t h e s p r ead o fs e ed sc an b ec on s ide rab le ,e spec ia l ly t ho se w i th a s syme t r ica l s e ed b ody a nd u neven d eg ree o fr i pen ing ( F ig . 2 ) . R ema in ing c ap su le sa nd f l owe rh ead sa l so d i s tu rb t h e w eed s e ed d i s t r ibu t ion . S eed s o fg r ea t a bundance t e nd t ob e r ep re sen ted i n mo s t f r a c t ion s . T he s ma l le s tw eed s e ed s( 0 U[h/v]' >[U/B]h/v (where U= unbounded, B= bounded, h= horizontal field, v= vertical field, U/B= bounded or unbounded, h/v= horizontal or vertical field orientation and '= repeat structural unit for variable length). The final phase of the BAC is one of even more diversity with bounded designs occuring in both horizontal and vertical fields in all zones of the vessels except the base, their placement differing between individual vessels with the proportion of bounded designs increasing. Mirror symmetry between zones occurs on some vessel profiles, inner rim decoration occurs and the number of different motif types utilized increases. For the PW sequences of designs were coded for 50 partially or completely reconstructurable vessels from four sites, Jonstorp H, Jonstorp M, Nymolla 1235 and Vanneberga No. 4 (Fig. 3. Nos. 1, 2, 6, 9). The material from the five Jonstorp sites (H, M, M2, M3 and RA : Fig. 3. Nos. 1-5) is derived largely from surface collectiOJ!� and a few test pits (Liden 1940). A limited excavation was carried out at Jonstorp RA (Maimer 1969). On the basis of his surface collections Liden seriated the Jonstorp material putting forward a temporal division between two earlier site�. Jonstorp M and H and two later sites Jonstorp M2 and M3. Malmer's excavations at RA lent stratigraphic support to Liden's seriation (Malmer 1969:78 ff.). On Fig. 16:A Jonstorp H and M are clearly separated from the other Scanian PW sites on the first component (c. 70% of the total variability) due to the comparatively low frequencies of pitted and line primary forms (Fig. 11. 21 and 23) and high frequencies of primary forms 24 and 25. The other sites are clustered on the first component with primary forms 21 and 23 dominating and accounting for between 80 and 90% of all determinable designs at CLS:2. Apart from Jonstorp M and H all the other sampled pitted ware sites would seem to be broadly contemporaneous (Wyszomirska 1975:131-3). However, although design/orm differs between some of the Jonstorp vessels from M and H the design order remains throughout the duration of the PW virtually unchanged and can be accounted for by 275

simple repetition of one or two designs for variable sequential lengths (Table 12). Virtually all PW ceramics display the same design structure, with very little temporal or spatial variation: U [h/v]' > U[h/v]' (where U= undbounded, h/v= horizontal or vertical field, and'= repeat structural unit for variable length). There is a basic similarity between BAC and PW ceramic design at a structural level in the earliest phase of the BAC. Both BAC vessels and PW vessels have a low diversity of different design elements, virtually all of which are unbounded and

Fig. 14. Stick line figure on sherd from Ringsjons utlopp (Fig. 3: site no. 7).

276

T ab le 1 2 . C hange si nd e s ign o rde ri n BAC c e ram ic d e s ign a cco rd ing t o at h ree p ha se t empo ra ld iv i s ion , a nd PW d e s ign r e la t ion sh ip s .K ey : '=r epea tp reced ing d e s ign o ne o r mo re t ime s [' 1=r epea ts t ruc tu ra l u n i t . BAC I A AB AB 'A '

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F ig . 1 6 . P i t ted Wa re s i te s -p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na lys i s o fd i f fe ren t f o rms a nd a td i f fe ren tl e ve ls o f t h e c l a ss i f ica t ion s ys tem . A -L eve l t wo ; B -P r ima ry f o rm 2 1 a tL eve l f ou r ; C -P r ima ry f o rm 2 2 a t L eve l f i ve ; D -P r ima ry f o rm 2 3 a tL eve l f i ve ; E -P r ima ry f o rm 2 4 a tl e ve l f i ve ; F -P r imary f o rm 2 5 a tL eve lf i ve .I npu td a ta f o rd i ag rams A a nd B : s t anda rd ized f r equenc ie so fd e s ign a t t r ibu te sf o re ach s i te . F or d i ag rams C -F : aGowe r c oeff i c ien t ma t r ix c ompu ted o n t h e b a s id o fp resence /absence d a ta . S i te n umbe r s r e f e r t oF ig . 3 .S ymbo ls i nd ica te s i tes l e s s t h an 1 5 km a pa r t .

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a r r anged i n ah o r izon ta lf i e ld .D if f e rence so ccu ri nt em so ft h ep o s i t ion ing o ft h ed e s ign a nd t h e t e chn ique o fe xecu t ion ( c o rded p a ra l le l o rw ayy l i ne s i n BAC c e ram ics w i th d eco ra ted b a ses a s o pposed t ot h e p i t a nd c omb i mp ress ion s b enea th t h e r im o f PW c e ram ics ) . T he i n crea s ing c omp lex i ty o ft h e BAC d es igns means t ha t BAC a nd PW c e ram ics b ecome i n c rea s ing ly d i s t inc ta t as t ruc tu ra ll e ve l . A S ugges ted E xp lana t ion f or R e la ted Changes i n t he B a t t le Axe /Corded Ware a nd P i t ted Ware T rad i t ions o f S can ia T he e conom ic e v idence s ugges t s t h a t wh i le t h e BAC w a s a g ra r ian t h e b a s is o f PW s ub s i s tence w a sp r ima r i ly t h ee xp lo i ta t ion o f aw ide r ange o fd i f f e ren tr e sou rces o n a s ea sona l b a s i s -a g ene ra l ized h un te r -ga the re r s t ra tegy . T h rough t ime , i tc an b e s ugge s ted , s oc ia ls t re sse sa nd t e n s ion s may h ave d eve loped a s ar e su l to ft h ec on t inued c oex is tence i n s pa t ia l ly c on t iguous a r ea s o f t wo o pposed e conom ic , s oc ia l a nd i d eo log ica ls y s tem s :t h er e la t ive ly s t ab le a g ra r ian s oc ia lg roups r ep resen ted b yt h e BAC t r ad i t ion a nd t h e mo re f l ex ib le a nd f l u id s e t so fs oc ia lr e la t ions r ep resen ted b yt h e PW t r ad i t ion .T he re d oe sn o ta ppea rt ob e much e v idence o fa ccu la tu ra t ion b e tween t h et wo o nt h eb a s i so ft h ee v idence a va i lab le f o r ma te r ia lc u l tu re p a t te rn ing . F ur the rmo re ,t h e t wo t r ad i t ion s r ema ined d i s t inc t u n t i l t h e re d i sappea rance a tt h e e nd o f t h e m idd le n eo l i th ic . T he p re sence o fc e ram ics o n PW s i te s i s ,p e rhaps , e v idence o f ad eg ree o f s eden t i sm b u ti tr ema ins q ue s t ionab le w he the ro ccupa t ion o fi nd iv idua l s i te st ook p l ace o n a n a l l y ea r round b a s is . I ndeed , p ermanence o fr e s idence a ta ny o ne s i te b ea r sn o n ece ssa ry c o r re la t ion w i th al a ck o fi nd iv idua l o r g roup mob i l i ty ( Ede r 1 984 ) . S ea l b one sf r om t h ei n land s i te o fS jöho lmen ( Thoma s 1 954 :183 ; F ig . 8 . 3 . No . 1 5 ) i nd ica te mob il i ty . PW b u r ia lp ra c t ice sd on o ti n d ica te a ny g r ea ti n ve s tmen ti n mo r tua ry r i tua la nd a cco rd w e l l w i th Woodbu rn ' s a na ly s i s o f mo r tua ry p rac t ices i nf ou r A f r ican h un t ing a nd g a ther ing s oc ie t ie s w i th a g ene ra l is t s ub s is tence s t ra tegy w h ich d o n o t g o ' f a r b eyond t he d i rec t ly p rac t ica l r equ i remen t s f o r g e t t ing r i d o f ar o t t ing c orpse ' (Woodbu rn 1 982 :202 )w i th b u r ia lt a k ing p l ace o nt h ec amp s i te .T h is c on t ra s t sw i th t h e s pa t ia l s epa ra t ion o f BAC b u r ia l s f r om t h e s e t t lemen ts i te s , as epa ra t ion o ft h e s o c ia l a r ena so fl i f ea nd d ea th ,t h eb u i ld ing o fc ompa ra t ive ly c omp lex g r ave s t ruc tu re s ,a nd t h e i n c lu s ion o ff a i r ly w ide r ange o fg ravegood s . T he c on t ra s ted a t t i tude s o fh un t ing a nd g a the r ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p opu la t ions t o t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t a ppea r s t o b e e xemp l if ied b y t h e g eome t r ic i ty o f BAC p o t te ry w i th i t s c omp le te a bsence o f r ep resen ta t iona l d es ign s w h i le o n PW c e ram ics s t ick l ine f i gu re so ccur s ugges t ing a l a ck o fs ymbo l ic s epa ra t ion b e tween t h en a tu ra la nd t h ec u l tu ra l . A sn o ted a bove BAC p o t te ry h a sb een f ound o nn ine PW s i te s( F ig . 3 )a nd a d jacen tt o PW s i te si nt h eH age s tad a r ea o fs ou th -ea s tS can ia .F rom o ne PW c on tex t ab a t t le -axe i s k nown . T he a moun t s o fp o t tery a r e q uan t i ta t ive ly s ma l l c on s is t ing o fr ema in s o fn o mo re t han af ew v e s se l sa te ach s i te . I ts e em s mo s tr ea sonab le t oi n te rpr e tt h e se f md sa s t a ng ib le man if e s ta t ions o f amuch w ide re xchange s y s tem s i nce n o a r t if ac t s f r om t h e PW t r ad i t ion a r ek nown i n BAC g rave s . O nt h eb a s i so ft h es can ty a va i lab le e v idence i t i sp o ss ib le t h a tt h i se xchange s y s tem . N o th ing i sk nown a sr ega rd st h ed i rec t iona l i ty o f t h is p os i ted e xchange s y s tem s i nce n o a r t if ac t s f r om t h e PW t r ad i t ion a r e k nown i n BAC g raves . O n t he b a s i s o f t h e s can ty a va i lab le e v idence i ti sp o ss ib le t ha t t h i s e xchange i n ten s if ied t h rough t ime a so n ly t h r ee o ft h er e co rded v e sse l s b e long t ot h e e a r l ies t p ha se o f t h e BAC . T he f i nd s o fc u l t iva ted p lan t r ema in s a nd d omes t ica ted a n ima l so n PW s i tes , w i th t h ep os s ib le e xcep t ion o fp ig w h ich i sr ead i ly d ome s t ica ted l o ca l ly , m igh ta l so b ei n te rp re ted a se v idence o f BAC /P W e xchange . We c an s ugges t , t h en , t h e e xchange o fp o t te ry , c e rea l s , a nd d ome s t ic a n ima ls o n t h e p a r t o ft h e BAC g roup si nr e tu rn f o rh un ted a nd g a the red p roduce -g ame ,h oney e t c . I nt h i sr e spec ti ti s i n te re s t ing t on o te t h e h i gh p ropo r t ion o fa r t if ac t si n BAC g rave s f a sh ioned f r om t h e 2 79

b one so fn on -domes t ic a n ima ls a nd t h ep re sence o fc r ane , e ag le a nd b eave rb one si n s ome g rave s ( Tab le 7 ) .I ft h e se w e re o b ta ined i ne xchange ,t h ep re s t ige i nvo lved i nt h e i r a cqu i s i t ion m igh t make t h em s u i tab le a sg ravegood i n c lu s ion s . T hroughou t t h e S can ian BAC t r ad i t ion t h ere i s l i t t le e v idence o f a ny c l ea r r eg iona l isa t ion o fs t y le si nc e ram ic d e s ign , t ype so f mor tua ry p rac t ice s ,o rt h ef o rm o f v e sse l s hape , b a t t le -axe s ,f l in ta nd g round s tone a xes a nd c h ise l so rf l in tb l ade s . T he re a ppea r s t ob ea s much w i th in a sb e tween s i te v a r ia t ion a nd as t re s s o n c onnec tedne s s a nd l i nks b e tween i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups . S im i la r ly t h e re i sl i t t le e v idence f o r s i gn if ican ts pa t ia lv a r ia t ion i nt h e PW ma te r ia l . I np ha se Io ft h e BAC t h e r es e em st ob el i t t le c once rn w i th b ound a r ie so rw i th in -g roup c o rpa ra tene ss ,b u t as t r e s so nb e tween -g roup r e la t ion sh ip sa nd w ide rl i nk st r an scend ing e conom ic a nd s oc ia l d iv is ions . C ongruen t w i th t h is i s t he l a ck o f a ny c l ea r r eg iona l isa t ion o f ma te r ia l .T he r ei sl e ss s t r e ss o nl i f e /dea th b ounda r ie s( as t re ss a b sen t i n PW ) . T he re a r ef ew g raves w i th aw ide v a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren tg ravegood a s soc ia t ions . T he se e a r ly g rave sd on o th ave e l abo ra te s t one c ons t ruc t ion sa nd a r ea l lo r ien ta ted e i the r N -S o r NNE -SS W . T he r ei s ac l ea rt r end t owa rd si n c rea s ing d ive r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty i n BAC c e ram ics , w i th mo re c once rn f o r b oundedne s s a nd a c omp lex i n te rp lay o f h o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l d i s t inc t ion s mak ing u p t h e d e s ign s t ruc tu re . R unn ing p a ra l le l w i th t h e se c hanges i nt h e c e ram ic s a r e c hanges i nt h e mo r tua ry p rac t ice s . T he re i sa s i gn if ican ti n c rea se i nt h en umbe r so fh igh d iver s i ty g rave s , a nd d i s t inc t ion s b e tween mo r tua ry p rac t ice sa ts i ng le g rave s i te sa nd i ng ravef ie ld sb ecome mo r ea ppa ren ti nt h a t t h e re i s aw ide rr ange o fv a r iab i l i ty i nt h el a t te ri nt e rm so fd i f f e r en tt ype so fg ravegood a s soc ia t ion sa l ong w i th t h eo ccu r rence o fa t yp ica lb u r ia lf o rm s . I nt h ef i na lp ha se o ft h e BAC g rave sa r eo r ien ta ted i n av a r ie ty o fd i rec t ion sb e tween NW -SE a nd NEE -S W ,a nd e l abo ra te s t one c on s truc t ion so ccu r .T he re s e em st ob ea ni n c rea s ing s t re s so nl i f e /dea th b ounda r ies r ef lec ted i n t e rm s o f i n crea sed e ne rgy e xpend i tu re a nd c omp lex i ty s u r round ing mo r tua ry r i tua l . T he se c hange si nt h e BAC ma t e r ia lm ay b el i nked t oc hange si nt h en a tu re o ft h es oc ia l r e la t ion sh ips e x i s t ing b e tween BAC a nd PW s oc ia l g roups . F o l low ing ap ropos i t ion made b y Hodde r( 1979 ; 1 982 ) ,b a sed o n ad e ta i led e t hnog raph ic w o rk ,w em igh te xpec t a ni n c rea s ing s t y l is t ic s e pa ra t ion o fs oc ia lg roups r e la t ing t ot h eu se o f ma te r ia lc u l tu re t os uppo r tt h e i ri d en t i ty i np e r iod so fi n c rea s ing s oc ia ls t re s s wh ich may ,o rm ay n o t ,b e r e la ted t oc ompe t i t ion o ve rr e sou r ces . I n t h e p o s i t ion f o rwa rd a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e c hap te r i tw as s ugges ted t ha t s oc ia l s t ress b e tween a g r icu l tu ra l p opu la t ions a nd h un te r -ga the re rg roups p ra c t is ing ag ene ra l ized s ub s i s tence s t ra tegy w i th af l u id s e to f s oc ia lr e la t ion s a k in t og ho se o ft h e Mbu t i , H adza o r ! Kung w ou ld b e i nm any c a se s a symme t r ica lw i th t h es t r e s sa nd u ncer ta in ty b e ing f a ced b yt h ea g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion s b ecau se o ft h e i ri n ab il i ty t oe s tab l i sh a ny p e rmanen tl i nk sw i th t h ef l u id h un te r -ga the r e r s oc ia ln e two rk s .T he i n c rea s ing s t y l i s t ic s epa ra t ion o f BAC f r om PW c e ram ics ,a nd t h e i n c rea s ing e mpha s i so n mo r tua ry r i tua l i sm i nt h e BAC c an b ei n te rp re ted i nt h i s manne r . Doug las ( 1970 :132 ) s ugges ta ne mpha s is o nr i tua l ism i si n t ima te ly l i nked w i th c lo sed s o c ia lg roups i nt h es e nse t h a ts o c ia lr e la t ion sa r ep e rmanen ti nt h a tt h ey a r ea ch ieved b y t i e so fh e red i ta ry a ff i l ia t ion . I ti sl i ke ly t h a tr egu la t ive r i tua lr e la t ion a nd a s amean so f s t re ss ing i n te rna l u n i ty i n as i tua t ion o f s oc ia l s t re ss c r ea ted b y f a i lu re t or egu la te r e la t ionsh ip sw i th o u t s ide r s .T he f a i lu re o ft h e BAC a g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion st or egu la te t h e i rs oc ia la nd e xchange r e la t ion sh ips w i th PW g roup sl e dt o as ymbol i ce xp re s s ion o f s oc ia l d i f f e rence i nt h e ma ter ia l c u l tu re p a t ter n ing w h i le t ha to ft h e PW r ema ined , i n e s sen t ia ls ,u na l te r ed .

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Conc lus ions I ti sv i ta lt oe xam ine c oncep t s a nd d i s t inc t ion sw h ich l i ew i th in e ve ry i nve s t iga t ion o f p reh i s tory ; t h ed a ta w ee xam ine a r et ho rough ly i n fo rmed b yt h et h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk w ea s sume . I nt h is c hap te r ar e cons ide ra t ion h a sb een made o ft h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween h un te r -ga the re r a nd f a rme r a nd t h e d ynam ics o fi n te rac t ions b e tween s oc ia l g roups p rac t i s ing s uch e conom ic s t ra teg ie s . T h i sr e con s ide ra t ion t h rew f r esh l i gh to n h ow t o i n te rpre t t h e B a t t le A xe /Co rded Wa re a nd P i t ted Wa re t r ad i t ions o f S can ia . I tw a s a rgued t ha t u nde r c er ta in c i rcum s tance s s oc ia l s t ress m igh t b e e xpe r ienced b y t h e a g r icu l tu ra lr a the rt h an t h eh un te r -ga the re rp opu la t ion s . S uch a ni n te rp r e ta t ive n a r ra t ive a ppea r st ob e ap l aus ib le o ne f o rS can ia i nt e rm so ft h ep a r t icu la rw ay i nw h ich t h ed a ta h a sb een c oncep tua l ised .H oweve r ,i ti si mpo r tan tt os t re s st h a tt h i si so n ly o ne o f many p o s s ib le a ccoun t s . T he f r amewo rk d eve loped h e re a nd t h ea l ter na t ive n a r ra t ive p roduced may b ew or th c on s ide r ing i nf u tu re s t ud ie so ft h ed ynam ic o fh un te r -ga the re ra nd f a rme ri n te rac t ion i n o t he ra r ea s . I ti sa lways s a lu ta to ry t or emembe rt ha tt h e re i sn or e a son w ha t soeve rt o s uppo se t h a te t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted s oc ie t ie sc an b et a ken t ob e ar ep resen ta t ive s amp le o ft ho se t h a te x is ted i nt h ep a s t . I ndeed i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t af l u id s e to fs oc ia l r e la t ion s among h un ter -ga the re r s may r e su l t f r om ac on tac t s i tua t ion w i th a g r icu l tura l p opu la t ions a s ameans o fr e ta in ing s o c ia l a nd e t hn ic i d en t i ty . F o re xamp le , Wi l l iam s d i scuss ing t he B i rho r o f I nd ia , ah un te r -ga the re r g roup who l i ve i n a n a r ea l ong i n hab i ta ted b yf a rme r sw i th w hom t h ee xchange p roduc t sf o rr i ce , s ugge s t st h a t " t he i r p r ima ry p o l i t ica ld ef ense v i s äv i st h ev i l lage r si s ac a refu l ly c u l t iva ted a nonym i ty . T h i s i s amodus v ivend i w h ich f i t s q u i te w e l l m igra tory h un t ing p a t te rn o f t h e B irho r " (W i l l iam s 1 968 :128 ) . S uch ap ropo s i t ion mer i t s g rea te r c on s ide ra t ion a nd m igh t g o s ome w ay i n e xp la in t h e d i f f e rence s i n s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion b e tween t h e A us t ra l ian A bo r ig ines a nd t h e Mbu t i , H adza a nd ! Kung w ho a l l l i ve i nc lo se j ux tapos i t ion w i th a g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ions . C on tempo ra ry h un ter -ga the re r s s uch a st h e ! Kung , w ho h ave b een s ub jec to fs o many d e ta i led s t ud ie s , may i nn o s en se b ec ompa rab le t og roup s i n t h e P le i s tocene o f E u rope o r t he Un i ted S ta tes . P revoca t ive ly , wha t w e may b e w i tne ss ing i nt h el a te m idd le n eo l i th ic o fS can ia i st h ed eve lopmen t o fs uch af o rm o f h un te r -ga the r e rs oc ia lo rgan iza t ion i nr e sponse t oc on ta c tw i th f a rm ing p opu la t ions .

A cknow l edgem en t s T h i sp ape rw a s w r i t ten i nS ep t embe r 1 984 a nd o rg ina l ly i n tended f o rp ub l ica t ion i na no the r c on t ex t . S i nce t h a td a te o n ly m ino rr e v i s ion sh ave b een u nde r tak en a nd Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t h ee d i to r so ft h i s v o lume f o rt h e i re n thu s ia sm t op ub l i sh w ha ti ns ome r e spe c t s mu s ta l r eady b er e ga rded a s ah i s to r ica l d o cumen t . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank B ozena Wy szom i r s l ca f o ra l low ing m et ol o ok a tt h en ew m a te r ia lf r om N ymö l la a nd p rov id ing a cce s s t ou npub l i shed m anu scr ip t s . Ia m mo s tg r a te fu lt oM ichae l S hank s f o r d i s cu s s ion so fa ne a rl i e rv e r s ion o ft h i sp ape ra nd f o rd r aw ing t h ed i ag ram si nf i na lf o rm .

R eferences A l th in , C -A . 1 954 . T he c h rono logy o ft h e s t one a ge s e t t lemen t o f S can ia , Sweden . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L und en s ia ,o c tavo s e r ie si n4 ° No . 1 .L und . B ahuche t , S . &G u i l laume , H . 1 982 . A ka -fa rme r r e la t ions i nt h e n or th -wes t C ongo b as in . P o l i t ics a nd H i s tory i nB and S oc ie t ies ( Ed s . E . L eacock & R . L ee ) . C amb r idge .

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B arna rd , A . 1 983 . C on tempo rary h un te r -ga therer s : c ur ren t t heo re t ica l i s sues i n e co logy a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion .A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 1 2 : 1 93 -214 . B ecke r , C . 1 950 . D en g rubeka ram iske k u l tu r iD anma rk . A arbOger f or N ord i sk O ld kynd ighed o gH i s tor ie . B ecke r , C . 1 980 . D en g rubeke ram iske k u l tu r iD anma rk -k or te b id rag t ule n l a ng d i skus s ion ( 1950 -80 ) .A arbOger f or Nord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie: 1 3 -31 . B e r l in , H . 1 941 . B enfynden f r än s t enä lde rbop la t sen iGua löv . Medde landen f rän L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum: 1 51 -2 .L und . B icch ie r i ,M . ( Ed . ) 1 972 . Hun ter sa nd G a therer sT oday . B lackbu rn , R . 1 982 . I nt h el a nd o fm i lk a nd h oney : Ok iek a dap ta t ion s t ot h e i rf o re s t s a nd n e ighbou r s . P o l i t ics a nd H i s tory i nB and S oc ie t ies ( Ed s . E . L eaco ck & R . L ee ) . C amb r idge . C a r l s te in ,T . 1 980 . T ime ,R e source s , S oc ie ty a nd E co logy . Ma lmö . C la rk ,R . 1 975 . Ac a l ib ra t ion c ur ve f o rr ad ioca rbon d a tes .A n t iqu i ty XLD C : 2 51-66 . C la s t res , P . 1 972 . T he G uayak i . Hun ter s a nd G a therer s T oday ( Ed . M . B icch ie r i ) . C amb r idge C o l l ie r , J .& R oswa ldo , M . 1 981 . P o l i t ics a nd g ende r i n s imp le s oc ie t ie s . S exua l Mean ings . T he C u l tura l C on s t ruc t ion o fG ender a nd S exua l i ty . ( Ed s . S .O r tne r &H . Wh i tehead ) . C amb r idge . D ah lbe rg ,F .( Ed . ) 1 981 . Woman t h eG a therer . Y a le . D av id sen ,K . 1 978 . T he F ina lT RB C u l ture i n Denmark . Do ran , J . & Hodson , F . 1 975 . Ma thema t ics a nd C ompu ter s i n A rchaeo logy . E d inbu rgh . Doug la s , M . 1 970 .N a tura lS ymbo l s . E de r ,J .1 984 . T he i mpac to fs ub s i s tence c hange o n mob i l i ty a nd s e t t lemen tp a t te rn i n at r op ica l f o res t f orag ing e conomy : s ome i mp l ica t ions f o r a rchaeo logy . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 8 6( 4 ) : 8 37 -53 . E k s t röm , G . 1 940 . T he c u l t iva ted mo ra ine s o i ls i n S can ia . B odenkund l iche F or schungen V I I . F o r ssande r , J .1 930 . E n mä rk l ig s t enä lder sbop la t s v id S jöho lmen . Medde landen f rä 'n L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Museum :2 5 -42 . L und . F o r s sande r ,J .1 933 .D ie s chwed i sche B oo tax tku l tur u nd i h re k on t inen ta leuropä i schen V orau s se t zungen . L und . F o r ssande r , J .1 934 . Z u r K enn tn i s d e r S pä tneo l i th ischen i nM i t te l - u nd No rdeu ropa . Medd e land enf rdn L und sU n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum: 9 9 -142 . L und . F o r ssande r , J . 1 941 . D en s yd svenska b op la t sku l tu ren . Medde landen f rän L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum :2 76 -99 . L und . Ga rdner , P . 1 972 . T he P a l iyans .Hun ter s a nd Ga therers T oday . ( Ed . M . B icch ie r i ) . Gode l ie r , M . 1 975 . Modes o f p roduc t ion , k insh ip a nd d emog raph ic s t ruc ture s . Marx i s tA na ly se sa nd S oc ia lA n thropo logy ( Ed .M . B loch ) . L ondon . Gode l ie r ,M . 1 977 .P er spec t ive si n Marx i s tA n thropo logy . C amb r idge . Gode l ie r , M . 1 978 . E p is temo log ica l c ommen t s o n t h e p rob lem s o fc ompar ing mode s o f p roduc t ion a nd s oc ie t ies . T oward s a Marx is t A n thropo logy ( Ed . S . D iamond ) . Gowe r , J . 1 971 . A g ene ra l c oef f ic ien t o f s im i la r i ty a nd s o me o f i t s p rope r i t ies . B iome t r ic s 2 7 : 8 57 -874 . G r iff in , A . &G r iff in , P . 1 981 . Woman t h e h un te r : T he A g ta . Woman t h e G a therer . ( Ed . F .D ah lbe rg ) . Ya le . H an sen , F . 1 930 . P rovg rävn ing än yfunnen b op la t s än r 4V annebe rga , u npub l i shed e xcava t ion r epor t .A n t ikvar i sk -Topograf i ska A rk ive t . S tockho lm . H iggs , E .&V i ta F inz i , C . 1 972 . P reh i s to r ic e conom ies : at e r r i to ra l a pp roach .P aper s i nE conom ic P reh i s to ry :2 7 -36 .C amb r idge .

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H inde s s ,B . &H i r s t ,P .1 975 .P recap i ta l i s t Mod es o fP roduc t ion . Macm i l lan . H je lmqv i s t , H . 1 955 . D ie ä l te s te G e sch ich te d e rK u l tu rpf lanzen i nS chweden . O pera B o tan ica 1 ( 3 ) . H je lmqv is t , H . 1 962 . G e tre ideabdrücke i n d er K eram ik d er S chwed ische Norweg i schen S t re i taxku l tu r . A ppend ix i n Ma lme r , M . 1 962 . J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien .A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia , S er ie si n8 ° :2 .L und . H je lmqv i s t , H . 1 979 . B e i t räge z u r K enn tn is d e r p räh is to r i schen Nu tzpf lanzen i n S chweden .Opera B o tan ica 4 7 . Hodde r , I . 1 979 . E conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ress a nd ma ter ia l c u l ture p a t tern ing . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 4 : 4 46 -54 . H odde r , I .1 982 . S ymbo l s i nA c t ion . C amb r idge . Hodde r ,I .& O r ton ,C . 1 976 .S pa t ia lA na ly s i si nA rchaeo logy . C amb r idge . H u l th6n , B . 1 977 . O n C eram ic T echno logy Dur ing t h eS can ian N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge .T he s is a nd P ape r si nN o r th E u ropean A r chaeo logy . S tockho lm . J a rman , M . 1 972 . At e r r i tor ia l mode l f o r a r chaeo logy . Mode l s i nA rchaeo logy ( Ed . D . C la rke ) . L ondon . K ae la s , L . 1 976 . P i t ted w a re c u l tu re -t h e a ccu l tu ra t ion o f af ood g a ther ing g roup? A ccu l tu ra t ion a nd C on t inu i ty i nA t lan t ic E urope ( Ed . S .D eLae t ) . K eenan , J . 1 981 . P roduc t ion i n h un te r -ga the rer s oc ie t ie s . T he A n tropho logy o f P re -Cap i ta l i s tS oc ie t ie s ( Ed s .J .K ahn & J .L lobe ra ) . L eacock , E . 8 zL ee ,R . ( Ed s . ) . 1 982 .P o l i t ic sa nd H i s tory i nB and S oc ie t ie s . L ee , R . 1 972 . T he ! Kung B u shmen o fB o t swana . Hun ter sa nd G a therer sT oday . ( Ed . M . B icch ie r i ) . L ee , R . 1 979 . T he ! Kung S an : Men , Woman a nd Work i n aF orag ing S oc ie ty . C amb r idge . L ee , R . 1 984 . T he Dobe ! Kung . L ee , R . &D eVo re , I .( Ed s . ) . 1 968 . Man t h e Hun ter . C h icago . L ee , R . & Hu r l ich , S . 1 982 . F rom f o rage r s t of i gh te r s : S ou th A f r ica 's m i l i ta r iza t ion o ft h e N am ib ian S an . P o l i t ics a nd H i s to ry i nB and S oc ie t ies . ( Ed s . E . L eacock &R . L ee ) . C amb r idge . L id6n , 0 . 1 940 . S yd sven sk s t end lder I . G ropkeram ik sku l turen . L und . Ma lme r , M . P . 1 957 . P le ionbegreppe t s b e tyde lse f ö r s t ud ie t a v f ö rh is to r iska i nnova t ion sfö r lopp .F in e / ca F ornm inne sf ören ingens T id sk r if t 5 8 : 1 60 -184 . Ma lme r , M . P .1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia , S er ie s i n8 ° : 2 . L und . Ma lme r , M . P . 1 969 . G ropke ram ikbop la tsen J ons to rp RÄ . A n t ikvar isk t A rk iv . S tockho lm . Ma lme r , M . P . 1 973 . Om d en g ropke ram iska k u l tu rens v ä sen .Troms0 Museums S k r if ter X IV : 5 9 -61 .T rom s0 . Ma lme r ,M . P .1 975 .S t r id syxeku l turen iS ver ige o ch N orge . L und . Ma lm ro s , C . 1 979 . D en t i d l ige e nke l tg raysku l tu r o g s t r id sok seku l tu r .Aarb eer f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie :6 2 -68 . Ma lm ro s , C . &T aube r , H . 1 975 . Ku ls to f -14 d a ter inge r a fd an sk e nke l teg ray sku l tu r . A arbOger f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie :7 8 -93 . Meg i t t , M . 1 968 . Ma r r iage c l a sses a nd d emog raphy i n c en t ra l A us t ra l ia . Man t h e Hun ter . ( Ed . R . L ee & I .D eVo re ) . C h icago . Me i l la ssoux , C . 1 960 . E ssa i d ' in epre ta t ion d u p hdno tn ne 6 conom ique d ans l e s s oc i6 t6 st r ad i t ione l le sd ' au to sub s i s tence . C ah ier sd 'E tud e sA f r ica ine s 4 :3 8 -67 . Me i l la ssoux ,C . 1 972 . F rom r ep roduc t ion t o p roduc t ion . E conomy a nd S oc ie ty 1 : 9 3 -105 . Me i l la ssoux ,C . 1 981 . Ma iden s , Mea la nd Money . C amb r idge . Me l lander , P . 1 970 . D en g ropkeram i ska b op la t sen J ons torp M2 . U npub l ished s em ina rp ape r ,L und sU n ive r s i te t sH i s to r iska Museum . 2 83

Mor r i s , B . 1 982 . T he f am i ly , g roup s t ruc tur ing a nd t r ade among S ou th I nd ian h un ter -ga the re r s . P o l i t ics a nd H is tory i n B and S oc ie t ies . ( Eds . E . L eacock &R . L ee ) . C amb r idge . N ie lsen , P . 1 977 . D e t yknakkede f l in tokosers k rono log i . A arbOger f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie: 3 4 -37 . N i lsen , S . 1 979 . D en g rubkeram iske k u l tu r iN o rden s am t n og le b emae rkn inge r om f l aekkep i le sp id se rne f r aH esse 10 .A n t ikvar i ske S tud ier 3 :2 3 -48 . N ie lsen , S . 1 980 . D en g rubkeram i ske k u l tu r o g s t r id sok seku l tu ren . A arbOger f or N ord i sk O ld kynd ighed o gH i s tor ie: 3 4 -37 . O ldebe rg ,A . 1 952 .S tud ien ü ber d i eS chwed i sche B oo taxku l tur . S tockho lm . P e te r sen , J .1 978 . H un te r -Ga the re r -F a rme re xchange . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 8 0 ( 2 ) : 3 35 -351 . P e ter sen , J . 1 978a . T he E co logy o f S oc ia l B oundar ies . A g ta F orager s o f t h e P h i l ipp ine s . I l ino i s . P e ter sen , W . 1 981 . R ecen t a dap t ive s h if ts among t he P a lanan h un ter s o f t he P h il ipp ine s . Man 1 6 :4 3 -6 1 . R even low , C . 1 905 . R ing s jöfynden . Ymer 1 56 -172 . R ose , F . 1 968 . Au s t ra l ian ma r r iage , l a nd -ow ing g roups a nd i n i t ia t ions . Man t h e Hun ter . ( Ed s . R . L ee & I .D eVo re ) . C h icago . S hank s ,M . &T i l ley , C . 1 987 .R e -Con s t ruc t ing A rchaeo logy . C amb r idge . S i lbe rbaue r , G . 1 972 . T he G /W i B ushmen . Hun ter s a nd Ga therer s T oday . ( Ed . M .B icch ie r i ) . S inha ,S .1 972 .T he B i rho r s . Hun ter sa nd G a therer sT oday . ( Ed . M .B icch ier i ) . S päng , K . , We l inde r , S . & Wyszom i r ska , B . 1 976 . T he i n t roduc t ion o ft h eN eo l i th ic S tone Age i n to t h e B a l t ic a r ea .A ccu l tura t ion a nd C on t inu i ty i nA t lan t ic E urope ( Ed . S .D eLae t ) . S t romberg , M . 1 955 . E ine J ungs te inz ie t l iche S e id lung a uf d e r I nse l Y en . Medde land enf rän L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum: 3 7 -58 .L und . S t römbe rg ,M . 1 976 .F orn t id iS ydos t skäne . L und . S t rombe rg ,M . 1 977 .B onde samhä l le tu nder I nge l s to rps F orn t id . L und . S t römbe rg ,M . 1 978 . T h ree n eo l i th ic s i te s : al o ca l s e r ia t ion? Medde landen f rän L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum: 6 8 -97 . L und . S t römbe rg , M . 1 982a . I nge ls to rp . Z u r S i ed lung sen tw ick lung e ine s s üd schwed ischen Do r f es .A c ta A rchaeo log ica L und en s ia , O c tavo s e r ie si n4 °: 1 4 . S t römbe rg , M . 1 982b . S pec ia l ized n eo l i th ic f l in tp roduc t ion w i th ah oard o fs c rape r s a s a n e xamp le . Medde landen f rdn L und s U n iver s i te t s H is tor iska Museum: 4 8 -65 . L und . T homa s , S . 1 954 . S jöho lmen , s i te 1 79 : ar e -exam ina t ion . A ppend ix i n A l th in , C -A . 1 954 . T he c hrono logy o f t he s t one a ge s e t t lemen t o f S can ia , Sweden . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L und ens ia ,o c tavo s e r ie si n4 °N o . 1 .L und . T i l ley , C . 1 982 . An a s sessmen t o f S can ian B a t t le -Axe t r ad i t ion : t owa rds a s oc ia l p e r spec t ive .Scr ip ta M i rwra: 1 72 . T i l ley , C . 1 984 . I deo logy a nd t h e l e g i t ima t ion o fp owe r i nt he m idd le n eo l i th ic o f s ou the rn Sweden . I deo logy , P ower a nd P reh i s to ry ( Eds . D . M i l le r & C . T i l ley ) . C amb r idge . T u rnbu l l ,C . 1 961 . T he f ores tp eop le . T u rnbu l l , C . 1 965 . Wayward S er van t s . T u rnbu l l , C . 1 968 . T he i mpo r tance o f f l ux i n t wo h un t ing s oc ie t ies . Man t h e Hun ter . ( Ed s . R . L ee & I .D eVo re ) . C h icago . T urnbu l l ,C . 1 983 .T he Mbu t iP ygm ie s :C hange a nd A dap ta t ion . . We l inde r , S . 1 972 . T he r ad ioca rbon a ge o ft h ep i t ted w a re c u l tu re i ne a s te rn Sweden . Medde land en f rän L und sU n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum . L und .

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Wih lsson , B . 1 950 . S kev iabo rg - E n mede l t ida S känsk b efäs tn ing . S känes h embygd sf örbund sä r sbok :4 8 -68 . Wi l l iam s , B . 1 968 . T he B i rho r o f I nd ia a nd s o me c ommen t s o n b and o rgan iza t ion . Man t h e Hun ter . ( Ed s .R . L ee & I .D eVo re ) . C h icago . Woodbu rn , J . 1 980 . H un te r s a nd g a the re r s t oday a nd r econs t ruc t ion o f t he p a s t . S ov ie ta nd We s tern A n thropo logy ( Ed . E .G e l lne r ) . Woodbu rn ,J .1 982 . S oc ia ld imen s ion so fd ea th i nf ou rA f r ican h un t ing a nd g a ther ing s oc ie t ies . Dea th a nd t h e R egenera t ion o fL if e . ( Eds . M . B loch & J .P a r ry ) . C amb r idge . Woodbu rn ,J .1 982a . E ge l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s . Man 1 7 : 4 31 -451 . Wy szom i r ska ,B . 1 974 . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing o fp i t ted / comb w a re c omp lex f r om n or th e a s tE u rope . Medde landen f rän L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Museum :5 4 -74 . L und . Wyszom ir ska , B . 1 975 . Männ iskof igurer p ä d en S känska g ropke ram iken . F ornvännen: 1 29 -137 . Wy szom ir ska , B . 1 977 .R epor tf rom ac onf erence o nt h eP i t ted Ware t r ad i t ion h e ld a t J ohann ishus f ie ld s t a t ion , B lek inge . Unpub l ished manuscr ip t , L unds Un ive r s i t e t sH i s to r i ska Museum . Wy szom i r ska , B . 1 979 . Ad oub le g rave w i th y e l low o ch re a t Nymö l la i n S can ia . F ornvännen :7 4 -84 . Wyszom i r ska , B . 1 983 . G rävn ingsrappor tf rän s t enä lder sbop la t sen p äf as t ighe terna N ymö l la 1 23 5 o ch N ymö l la 1 23 8 . U npub l i shed manuscr ip t . Wy szom ir ska , B . 1 984 . F igurp las t ik o ch g raysk ick h os n ord - o ch n ordö s teuropas n eo l i t i ska f ängs tku l tur . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia . S e r ie si n4 ° : 1 8 .L und . Wy szom i r ska , B . 1 986 . T he Nymö l la p ro jec t am idd le n eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta nd b ur ia l c omp lex i nN ymö l la , n o r th -ea s t S can ia . Medde landen f rän L und s U n iver s i te t s H i s tor i ska Mu seum: 15 -138 . L und . Wyszom i r ska ,B . & Wy szom i r sk i ,M . 1 978 .S t enä ld erns e konom i :u t s tä l ln ing ska ta log . L und s Un ive r s i te t sH i s to r i ska Museum . R epo r ts e r ies 4 .L und .

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A pp roache st oS wed i sh P reh i s tory ,B .A .R . ,O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p .2 87 -321 .

S PACE , ECONO MY AND SOCIETY : THE ROCK CARVINGS OF NORTHERN BOHUSLÄN B yU lf B er t i ls son*

I n troduc t ion T he m a in i s sue o ft h i sp ape ri st oa na lyze t h el a rge -sca le s pa t ia lp a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion o f r o ck c a rv ing si n No r the rn B ohus län ( F ig . 1 ) . T he p ape rc ons t i tu te s as umma ry o ft h e mo re i mpor tan t r e su l t s f r om my r e cen t ly p ub l i shed t h e s is : " The R ock C arv ing s o f N or thern B ohus län -S pa t ia l S t ruc tu res a nd S oc ia l S ymbo l s " ( Ber t i l sson 1 987 ) . T he d a ta c ompr ise s 1 , 356 r ock c a rv ing l o ca l i t ie sc ompr i s ing 4 3 ,075 s i ng le f i gu re s ( F ig . 2 ) wh ich makes t h e a r ea t h e r i che s t i nr ock a r t i n S cand inav ia a nd E u rope . T h rough a na ly se so ft h ed a ta ,i nr e la t ion t ot h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn f r om h i s to r ic t ime sr ep re sen ted b y t h e h und red s ( a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t ) a nd p a r ishes o f t h e s t udy a r ea , t h e p a t te rn o f d i s t r ibu t ion c an b ed emon s t ra ted t ob eu neven . T he a na ly se sa r eb a sed o nt h eh i e ra r ch ica l c oncep t so f1 . loca l i ty ( Sw . l o ka l) ,w h ich d e s igna te se ach o ccu r rence o rs i te s i tua ted mo re t h an 5 0m e t re sa pa r tf r om a no the rs i te . A l o ca l i ty c ons is t s o f o ne o r s eve ra l e ng rav ing a r ea s ; 2 . e ngrav ing a rea ( Sw . r i s tn ingsy ta )w h ich d es igna tes t h e d ema rca ted a r ea w i th f i gure s a nd /o r c up -ma rk s , w h ich a r e s epa ra ted f r om o the ra r ea so fe ng rav ing w i th in t h e s ame l o ca l i ty b yn a tu r a l a nd t opog raph ica l f a c to r s s uch a s t h e d i rec t ion o f i n c l ina t ion , b and s o fv ege ta t ion , d i f f e rence i nl e ve l , d i s tance e t c . T he t e rm c o r re spond s t or ock -eng rav ing o rc up -ma rk e ng rav ing ; a nd 3 .f i gure ( Sw .f i gur ) ,w h ich d es igna ted t h e s i ng le e ng rav ing ,p i c tu re , s i gn o rc upma rk ( Se l inge 1 985 : 1 02 ) .T he f i gu re sa r es ubd iv ided i n to e i gh tr ough b a s ic t y pe s ; s h ip , h uman , f oo t -so le , a n ima l ,c i rc le ,r i ng -cro s s ,c up -ma rk a nd o the r s ( F ig . 2 ) . T he l a t te r c a tego ry c ompr ise s 9 1 d i f f eren t t y pes , w h ich c an b e c omb ined i n to 1 0 s ub -g roups ; g eome t r ic d es igns , u n in te rp re tab le d es ign s , d e s igns c onnec ted w i th s h ip s , d e s igns c onnec ted w i th t h eh uman b ody ,d es ign sc onnec ted w i th a n ima ls ,p l an t shaped d e s ign s , d es ign s c onnec ted w i th o rnamen t s , d e s igns c onnec ted w i th a gr icu l tu re , c a r t d e s ign s ,w eapon a nd t oo ld e s ign sa nd d e s ign sc onnec ted w i th o the ra r tefac t s . G enera l P a t tern o f D is tr ibu t ion T he p a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion i sc hecked b y a n a na ly s is b a sed o n t h e g r id -sys tem o ft h e E conom ic Map o f Sweden , r e su l t ing i n ac l o se rd ef in i t ion o ft h e c en t ra l a r ea o fr ock c a rv ing s ,c ompr is ing t h ef i f teen t o p ranked m ap shee t si nt h ea r ea . T he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd r ank ing a r e b a sed o n t h e t o ta l n umber o fl o ca l i t ie s , t h e n umbe ro fm ixed e ng rav ing a r ea sa nd t h en umbe ro fc up -ma rk e ng rav ing a r ea s( F ig s . 3 5 ) . *T he C en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s ,S t o ckho lm

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c ha rac te ro f d ocumen ta t ion , w h ich i sn o tv e ry d e ta i led ,t h i si so ne o ft h e f ew f e a tu re s o ft h ee ng rav ings w h ich c an b eu sed f o rl a rge s ca le c ompa r i son s . O ther sc ou ld b et h e s i ze o ft h e e ng rav ing a r ea s a nd f i gu res a nd t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e t e chn ique a nd a r t i s t ic a ch ievemen t . A l lt h e se f e a tu re sa r eh oweve rn o tp o s s ib le t oc ompa re d ue t ot h ep re sen t s t a te o fd ocumen ta t ion . T he r e su l to ft h e s t udy s hows t h a tt h e re i s ama rked c l u s te r ing o fl a rge l o ca l i t ies a nd e ng rav ing a r ea st ot h eT anum a nd K v i l le -Bo t tna a r ea ,b u tt h a tt h e re a r ea l so s ome v e ry l a rge l o ca l i t ie s i n mo re p e r iphe ra l a r ea s . A n a na ly s i s o f t h e c o r re la t ion o f t h e s h ip f i gu re sa nd t h ec up -m a rk s s how s as t rong n ega t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e se t wo t y pe s ,

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p robab ly r ep r e sen t ing t wo s epa ra te t r ad i t ion si nr ock a r t . T he a na ly s i s o ft h e g ene ra lp a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion o fr ock c arv ings i nr e la t ion t ot h e c oa s ta nd t ot h e s ea s ho re l ine d emon s t ra te st h a ta l though mo re t h an t wo th i rd sb e long t ot h e a r ea c l o se t ot h e c oa s t r ep resen ted b y t wo c o lumns i nt h e g r id -sys tem o ft h e E conom ic Map , t h ey w e re g ene ra l ly n o t s i tua ted i na b so lu te c on tac t w i th t h e B ronze Age s hor e l ine ( F ig . 8 ) . I n s tead , i ti so bv iou s t h a t t h ed i s t r ibu t ion i sc o r re la ted t ot h e p l a in a r ea s w i th o pen a nd a r ab le l a nd , w h ich a l so mus th ave c on s t i tu ted t h eb a s i sf o r s ub s is tance e conomy ( F igs . 9 -10 ) . I t mu s t b e k ep t i n m ind t ha t t he B ronze A ge s ho re -l ine w a sa pp rox . 1 5 ma bove t h ep re sen t . T he a na ly se so fl e ve ls a r eb a sed o nt h e a l t i tude -curve sw i th 5m i n te rva l so nt h eE conom ic Map s . T he r e su l to ft h ea na ly se sc l ea r ly i nd ica te st h a tc oncep t sl i ke c en t ra la nd m a rg ina la r ea s a nd c en t re a nd p e r iphe ry r e la t ion sm igh tb er e levan tt ot h ed i scu ss ion o nt h eo b se rved p henomena ,a nd t h e re fo re w ew i l lc oncen t ra te o nt h e se p henomena i nt h i sp ape r . C en tra l a nd Marg ina l A reas T he se t wo c oncep t sh ave f o r al o ng t ime b een u sed b y Swed i sh a r chaeo log i s t si no rde r t oe xp la in c e r ta in o b se rva t ion si n emp i r ica ld a ta ( e .g . Ma lme r 1 957 , Hyen s t rand 1 974 ; We l inde r 1 977 ) . I nh i s d i s scu ss ion o ft h e s oc ia l s t ruc tur e o ft h e S can ian B ronze A ge s oc ie ty , We l inde r t r ied t oc onnec t t h em t ot h e c oncep t s o fc h iefdom a nd e conom ic r ed i s t r ibu t ion (We l inde r 1 977 :177 f ) . S ince t h e se p henomena c an b e s a id t or ef l ec ta s pa t ia lo rgan iza t ion ,w h ich i sh i e ra r ch ica li nn a tu re ,t h er e la t ion so fc en t re a nd p e r iphe ry a l so a f f ec t t h e s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . I n S cand inav ian B ronze A ge a r chaeo logy t h i s p e r spec t ive h a s b een a dvoca ted ma in ly b y K r is t iansen ( e .g . 1 982 ; 1 984 ) a nd b y L a r s son ( 1986a ; 1 986c ) .T he l a t te rh a sa l so e mpha s ized t h a tt h en a tu re o ft h ec en t ra la nd ma rg ina l a r ea s b es t c an b e c ha rac te r ized a s a r ea s o f a ccumu la t ion a nd p roduc t ion r e spec t ive ly . Ag ene ra lo p in ion a bou tt h el o ca lc ond i t ion si nd i f f e ren tp a r t so f Sweden a nd S cand inav ia i st h a tt h ea r ea sw he re b ronze a nd o t he rm e ta lo b jec t sh ave b een f ound , h ave c on s t i tu ted t h ea reas o fa ccumu la t ion ,w he r ea sf o rt ho se a r ea sw he re t h e re a r en o me ta l o b jec t s b u t i n s tead s t one a r tefac t s t he c oncep t o f a rea o f p roduc t ion i s a pp rop r ia te . Much o ft h e s ame p e r spec t ive w a sa ppl ied b yJ ohan sen i nh i ss t udy o ft h e me ta lo b jec t si nO s t lande t , No rway ( J ohan sen 1 981 ) . S ince o u rm a jo rc once rn h e re i st h er ock c a rv ing sa nd n o tt h em e ta lo b jec t s , w ew i l l f i r s td i scus s t h e l a rge -sca le s pa t ia lp a t te rn o b se rved i nt e rm s o fc en t ra l a nd ma rg ina l a r ea s .T he s pa t ia lp a t ter nf o rmed b yt h er ock c a rv ing so f Nor the rn B ohu s län o bv iou s ly r ef lec t sc en t ra la nd m a rg ina la r ea s , wh ich w ew i l ln ow t a ke ac l o se l ook a t . F rom t h e a na ly s is o ft h er ank ing -o rde ro fm ap s hee t st h e c en t ra l a r ea sw e re d e f ined ( F ig . 7 ) , a nd a l lo the ra r ea sw e re i nd ica ted t oc on s t i tu te ma rg ina l a r ea si nt h is r e spec t . H oweve r , e ven i n s ide t h e c en t ra l a r ea , t h e p a t te rn i sn o tu n ifo rm . An a na lys is o ft h e i n te rna lp a t te rn r evea led t h a tt h ea c tua lc en t re o ft h ea r ea w a s made o ft h e3 98 l o ca l i t ie s b e long ing t o t h e map s hee t s c ove r ing t h e p la in o f T anum . T h i s a r ea c an t hus b e d e scr ibed a st h ec ore a rea o fr ock a r ti nN or thern B ohu s län . T he re a r ea l so t wo mo r e a r ea s ,i nK v i l le -Bo t tna a nd T o ssene ,r e spec t ive ly ,w he r et h ed ens i ty o fl o ca l i t ie si nt h e map s hee t s i nq ue s t ion , t h e B o t tna a nd T o ssene s hee t sr e spec t ive ly , a r ef a ra bove t h e a ve rage ,t ow h ich c an b ea s c r ibed ac e r ta in a moun to fc en t ra l i ty .H oweve r ,c ompa red t o t h eT anum a r ea ,t h e se a r ea sa r es e conda ry i nr ank .T he d en s i ty o ft h er e spec t ive c l u s te r s c an b e e xp res sed a st h en umbe ro fl o ca l i t ies p e r s qua re k i lome t re . I nt h e T anum map s hee tt h i sv a lue amoun t st o1 0 .6 , a nd w hen t h eK a l leby map s hee ti sa dded t h ev a lue i s 8 .T he c o r re spond ing d en s i ty f o rt h eB o t tna s hee ti s7 . 4a nd f o rT o s sene s hee t5 . 2 . I fw e c a lcu la te t h e d ens i ty o ft h e q ua r te rm ap s hee t s i n s tead , t h e d i f f e rence i se ven mo re p ronounced ( F ig . 1 ) . T he v a lue f o rt h es ou th -we s tq ua r te ro ft h eT anum s hee t i s n ow 2 6 , a nd f o r t h e n or th -ea s tern q uar te ro ft h e B o t tna s hee t i ti s1 .2 , a nd f o r t h e 2 94

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2 96

F ig . 9 . T he T egneby a r ea i nt h ec en t ra l p a r to fT anum . T he l a rge l o ca l i ty a tA spebe rge ti ss i tua ted o n t h e l i gh t r ocks i nt h e c en t re o f t h e p ho to . T he p ho to c ove rs a pprox . 1 5% o f t h e r ock c a rv ings o f t h e s t udy a r ea .P ho to : J an No r rman ,C en t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l A n t iqu i t ie s .

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F ig . 1 0 . T he c en t ra lr o ck c a r v ing a r ea i nT anum . A pa r tf r om A spebe rge t( Tanum 1 2 ) , a no the rs i x o f t h el a rge l o ca l i t ie sa r el o ca ted i nt h i sa r ea .

2 98

c o r re spond ing q ua r te r -shee to fT o ssene i ti s1 4 .4 . I tm igh t ,o fc ou r se ,b ea r gued t h a ti ft h er o ck a r tp r ima r i ly r ef lec t st h ep henomena o f c u l ta nd r e l ig ion ,t h ed en s i ty o fl o ca l i t ies r ef lec t st h er e l ig iou sc en t res o n ly . T h is c ou ld b ea ni nd ica t ion t h a tt h ep reh i s to r ic p eop le l i v ing i nT anum w e re mo re r e l ig ious ly a c t ive t h an t hose l i v ing i n B ra s tad a nd S kee . B u t s i nce i ti so u r f i rm o p in ion t ha t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r ock c a rv ing s r ef lec t s n o t o n ly r e l ig ious p henomena b u t a l so , a nd p r ima r i ly , i nd ica tes t h e l a rge -sca le s e t t lemen t p a t tern a nd c on sequen t ly t h e p r ima ry s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ies ,t h is h ypo the s i s mu s tb er e jec ted . I ft h a ti st r ue ,t h ed i s t r ibu t ion c an b es a id t or ef l ec tt h e mo s ta t t rac t ive s e t t lemen t -a rea s i nN or ther nB ohu s län ,w he r eT anum ,B o t tna a nd T o s sene mu s th ave h ad s ome q ua l i t ie s t h a t made t h em t h e p redom inan t s e t t lemen t a r ea s i nt h e B ronze Age . I n t h is c on tex t , t h e re a r ea tl e a s tt wo f a c to r sw h ich m igh th ave b een t h ep r ima ry c au ses f o rt h eo b se rved p a t te rn : 1 .T he r ock c a rv ings a r e l o ca ted t ot h e p r ima ry s e t t lemen t a r ea s , w h ich w e r e o ccup ied a se a r ly a st h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod ; 2 .T he p a t te rn i sc o r r e la ted t ot h ea r ea o fo pen l a nd a nd t ot h eq ua l i ty o fs o i l . T he R e la t ion t o t he N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen t A reas T he p r ima ry s ou r ce o fi n fo rma t ion i fw ew an tt os t udy N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta r ea s ,i so f c ou r se t h e f r equency o fr eg is te red d we l l ing -s i te s f r om t h ep e r iod . ( S ince t h e re i sn o c h rono log ica ld i s t inc t ion m ade i nt h ep r ima ry d ocumen ta t ion i nt h eA nc ien t Monumen t s R eg is te r , w e h ave t o l ook f o r S tone A ge d we l l ing -s i tes i n g ene ra l , c onsequen t ly i n c lud ing ac e r ta in n umbe ro f Me so l i th ic s i te s . )T he t o ta ln umbe ro fd we l l ing s i tes o f t h i sk ind i s1 4 ,4 3 a nd 8 6f o rt h ep ar i she s o fT anum ,B o t tna a nd T o s sene r e spec t ive ly ( h e re Iu se p a r i she sb ecau se n os t a t i s t ic sr e la ted t ot h eg r id -sy s tem o ft h eE conom ic Map h ave y e t b een c omp i led ) . T he n umbe r o f s i tes i n b o th B o t tna a nd T os sene s eems r e a sonab le a nd p robab ly r e p re sen ta t ive i nr e la t ion t ot h es i ze o ft h er e spec t ive p a r ishe s . T he n umbe ro fs i tes i nT anum ,h owever , s e em s s u rpr i s ing ly l ow ( t he f r equenc ie sr e f e r t ot h e map p resen ted b y H yens t rand 1 979 ) . Howeve r , i fw e c ompa re t h i s n umbe rt o t h a t ,r eg i s te red b yF röd in ( 1 908 : 4 72 ) ,h ea ccoun t sf o r3 8 S tone A ge d we l l ing s i te s ,o f w h ich 3 6b e long t ot h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod . A pp rox . o ne th i rd a r e l o ca ted t ot h e a r ea o f t h eT anum p la in . A l though i th a sb een d emon s t ra ted f r om o the rp a r t so ft h es t udy a r ea t h a tt h e n umbe ro f dwe l l ing s i tes c an b ei n c rea sed c ons ide rab ly b yi n ten s ive s u rvey s , i n c lud ing e xcava t ions ( Ande r s son e ta l . 1 979 : 9 4f ) ,t h en umbe ro fs i te sr eg i s te red i n t h eT anum a r ea c ou ld b e t r ea ted a s ar ep resen ta t ive s amp le a sl o ng a si ti sc ompa red w i th d a ta w h ich h ave b een r eg i s te r ed u nde rs im i la rc i rcum s tance s .T he c onc lu s ion mu s t t h e refo re b e t h a t t h e re h ave b een s ome s e t t lemen t s i nt h e a r ea d ur ing t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod ,a nd i tm igh th ave c ons t i tu ted o ne o ft h ep r ima ry s e t t lemen ta r ea s . I fw el ook a tt h en umbe ro ff l in ti mp lemen t sf r om T anum ,d a ted t ot h eN eo l i th ic ,t h e re a r ea pp rox . 1 00 s uch o b jec t s : 4 6d agge r sa nd s pea rhead s ; 7t r iangu la ra r rowhead sa nd 4 s i ck les a nd s aws ( Mon te l ius 1 876 : 4 20 ) . T he c o r respond ing n umbe r f r om B o t tna i s o n ly 8 : 2d agge r s a nd s pea rhead s ; 2t r iangu la ra r rowhead sa nd 4s i ck le s / saws ( Ekho f f 1 880 : 2 32 ) a nd f o r T ossene 9 o b jec t s : 5d agge r s a nd s pea rhead s ; 2t r iangu la r a r rowhead s a nd 2 s i ck les / saw s ( Ekhof f 1 880 : 3 91 ) . We n ow f i nd ap a t te rn w h ich i s p a r t ly r eve r sed f r om t h a to ft h e s e t t lemen t s , ap a t ter ni nd ica t ing t h a tT anum mu s th ave b een i n ten s ive ly s e t t led i nt h eN eo l i th ic , w he rea st h ei n tens i ty o fs e t t lemen ti nB o t tna a nd T o ssene mu s t h ave b een l owe r . I n my o p in ion , t h i sd i sc repancy i nt h ep a t te rn s o f d we l l ing s i te s a nd f l in t i mp lemen t s mus t b e h eav i ly i nf luenced b y s ome i r re levan t f a c to r s . T he mo s t o bv ious mus tb e t h a tt h e t o ta l n umbe r o fs i te s r eg i s te red i nT anum mu s tb ef a rt oo l ow . I ft h ea r ea w e re t ob ei n tens ive ly s urveyed i n am anne rf o l low ing c u r ren t me thod s , t h e n umbe r o fd we l l ing s i tes d i scove red w ou ld p robab ly i n crea se

2 9 9

c on s ide rab ly . S eve ra l f l in to b jec t s , ma in ly d agge r s a nd s i ck le s , b e long t ot h ev i l lage s L i t s leby a nd T egneby i nt h ec o re a r ea a nd s ome a l so t oH oghem a tt h en o r the rn e dge o f t h e p la in . A no the ra r chaeo log ica l e l emen t w h ich m igh ti nd ica te N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a r ea sa r et h em ega l i th ic g rave s . T he m ega l i th si nt h eT anum a r ea c on s i s to f 2d o lmen s , 1p a ssage g rave a nd 2 g a l lery g rave s . T he p assage a nd t h e g a l lery g rave s h ave c up -ma rk so n t h er oof s lab s ( Be r t i l s son 1 986c ) . T h i sl o ca lc l u s te ro fm ega l i th ic g r ave s c l ea r ly i nd ica tes t h e e x is tence o f aN eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a r ea i n T anum ; d ue t o t h e l o ca t ion o ft h eg raves ,h oweve r ,i ti sn o te v iden tt h a tt h ep la in c on s t i tu ted am a jo rp a r t o f t h is a r ea . T ha t t h is m igh t b e t h e c a se a nyway , i sr e la ted t o t h e f a c t t h a t i ft h e mega l i ths r ep re sen t as egmen ta ry s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion , a sp ropo sed b yR enf r ew ( 1 984 : 1 76 f ) , t h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s hou ld i nd ica te s pac ing r a the rt han c l us ter ing ,w i th t h e mega l i th s s e rv ing t h e f unc t ion o fr i tua l a nd t e r r i to r ia lc en t res . I ft h i s s pa t ia l mode l i s a pp l icab le t ot h eT anum a r ea ,t h en t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fd we l l ing s i te s ,d agge r sa nd s i ck le s m igh ti nd ica te t h es i ze o ft h et e r r i to ry ,i nw h ich t h em ega l i th sc on s t i tu ted t h ec en t re . I n t h e B o t tna a r ea , t h e c ond i t ion s l ook v e ry s im i la r . T he mega l i th s , 2d o lmen s a nd 1 p a s sage g rave , a r e a l l l o ca ted t ot h e s ame mo ra ine -r idge a tT yf ta -Vräng s tad w i th in a s t re tch o fc .3 50 me t re s , al i t t le t ot h e s ou th o ft h eo pen c l ay p l a in i nt h ec en t r eo ft h e p a r ish . T he ma jo rc l us te ro ft h e r ock c arv ing s i sn o tv e ry c lo se , t h e d i s tance v a ry ing b e tween 1 4k i lome t r e s . A l though t h el o ca t ion o fs i te sc on tempo r a ry t ot h em ega l i th si s n o tk nown i nd e ta i l ,t h em a jo r i ty o ff i nd sb e long t ot h es ame a r ea a st h er ock c a rv ing s . T ur n ing f i na l ly t o t h e mega l i th s i nT ossene , t h e re a r e at o ta l o f 8i nt h e p a r ish ( 2 d o lmens , 2p a ssage g raves a nd 4g a l le ry g raves ) .T hey f o rm t wo c l us te r so fw h ich o ne i sl o ca ted t ot h en or thwe s tp a r to ft h ep a r i sh ,o u t s ide t h em a jo rr o ck a r ta r ea .T he s e cond c l u s ter , wh ich w e a r e i n te re s ted i n , i sl o ca ted t ot h e Ä by a r ea a nd i sc ompo sed o f2 d o lmens , 1p as sage g rave a nd 1g a l le ry g rave . C ompa red w i th T anum a nd B o t tna , t h e p a t te rn i s al i t t le mo re d i spe r sed b u ta pa r tf r om o ne o ft h e d o lmens , t h e m ega l i ths l i e w i th in as t re tch o fa pp rox . 2k i lome t re s i nt h er ocky , mo ra ine a r ea s u r round ing i k by . S eve ra l dwe l l ing s i te s h ave b een r eg is te red i n t h e a r ea . T he a r ea h as s eve ra l r ock c a rv ing s ,t h el a rge o ne a tÄ by b e ing t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t . F rom t h i s s hor ta na ly s i so ft h ei n ten s i ty o fN eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t si nt h ea r ea sw i th t h e p redom inan tc l us te r so fr ock c a rv ing s , w ec an d raw s ome c onc lus ion s : 1 . Al t h et h ree a r ea sw e re s e t t led a l ready i nt h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod ,a se v idenced f r om t h ep a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion o fd we l l ing s i te sa nd f l in to b jec t s . 2 .T he p a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion o f mega l i ths , w h ich i sc l u s te red , f i t sw e l lt ot h a t o ft h ed wel ing s i te s ,i ft h em ega l i th sc on s t i tu ted t h er i tua la nd t e r r i to r ia lc en t re s a nd t h e dwe l l ing s i te sw e re s paced i na d jacen ta r ea s . 3 .I na l lt h ree c a se s ,t h el o ca t ion o ft h em ega l i ths a nd t h e ma jo rc l us te r so fr ock c a rv ing sd on o t c o inc ide t o ta l ly . 4 .T h i sp a t te rn i n d ica te st h a tt h ep r ima ry s e t t lemen ta r ea si nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd t h e B ronze Age w e re n o ti d en t ica l ,a l though c on s ide rab le p ar t sp robab ly w e re . 5 .I nt h eT anum a r ea t h ec ause f o rt h e se ,p a r t ly d i f f e ren t ,p a t te rns m igh tb et h e i s o s ta t ic e l eva t ion o fl a nd , w h ich l i f ted al a rge p a r t o ft h e p la in f r om t h e s ea i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge p e r iod s( L jungne r 1 938 ) . 6 . T h is u pheava l o f n ew l and f r om t he s ea mus t h ave c rea ted f avou rab le c ond i t ion sf o rp a s tu r ing a nd o the rs ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s ,c ond i t ion s w h ich i nf a c t m igh te xp la in t h e e xcep t iona l c l u s te r ing o fr ock c a rv ing s t ot h e w e s te rn e dge o ft h eT anum P la in . Apa r tf r om c r ea t ing n ew c ond i t ion s w i th in t h ef i e ld o fs ub s i s tence , t h e re mu s t a l so h ave b een s ome w ide ri mp l ica t ion so fs oc ia la nd i d eo log ica ln a tu re .

3 00

The Corre la t ion t o Open L and a nd Qua l i ty o f S o i l I fw e t a ke t h e q ua l i ty o fs o i l f i r s t , t h e a lmo s t t o ta l l a ck o f mode rn maps o fs o i l s a nd g eo logy , make sd e ta i led a na ly se sa tt h i s s ca le i mpo ss ib le .H oweve r ,t h eo ve ra l lp a t te rn r ough ly i mp l ie s t h a t , i ng ene ra l , a l l t h e p la ins a nd s t re tches o fo pen l a nd -f i e ld s o f t oday -i sc omposed o fh eavy c l ay s , wh ich c ou ld n o t b e c u l t iva te i nt h e B ronze A ge . O n ly i nv e ry s mal s po t s ,t h e r em igh tb el i gh te rc l ay s wh ich m igh th ave b een p o s s ib le t o c u l t iva te t h en ( L jungne r 1 938 ) . S uch c l ays m igh t h ave b een p resen t i nt he T egneby a r ea . T he l i gh te r mo ra ine s o i l s , w h ich wou ld h ave b een mo re e a s i ly c u l t iva ted , a r e f ound a tt h ef oo to ft h e moun ta in r idges ,w h ich m eans t h a tt h ey c o r re la te t ot h ep r ima ry z one o fr ock c a rv ing s . I n as t udy c oncerned w i th t h eB ronze A ge o fA gde ri nS ou the rn N o rway , t h ee a s i ly c u l t iva ted mo ra ine s o i ls a r ep re sumed t oh ave b een u sed f o ra c tua l f a rm ing i nt h e B ronze A ge ( J ohan sen 1 986 : 1 42f f , s e e a l so H agen 1 985 ) . T he re , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ff l in t -s ick le si sa l so u sed t ov e r ify t h eh ypo thes is o ff a rm ing . I fw el ook a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se o b jec t si nT anum ,t h e re i sa ni n te re s t ing f i nd f r om H oghem a t t h en or the rn e dge o ft h ep l a in ,c ons i s t ing o ft h ree s i ck le s( Mon te l ius 1 876 : 3 74 f . ;S FIM 2 898 ) o f wh ich t wo a r e w o rn a tt h e e dge s f r om u se . T he v i l lage i ss i tua ted i n t h e mo ra ine z one ,i n te rmed ia te t ot h ec l ay a nd t h er ocky h i l l s ,w he re c u l t iva t ion c ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace . F ur the rmo re ,t h e re i sa l so o t he rp o s i t ive e v idence o ff a rm ing i nt h ea r ea i nt h eB ronze A ge ,n o ta tH oghem ,b u ti nt h en e ighbou r ing v i l lage s . We a r er e f e r r ing t ot h ed ep ic t ion s o fp lough ing -scene s ,w h ich c an b ef ound i nt h el a rge rr ock c a rv ing sa tA spebe rge t , a nd F inn to rp ,T egneby a nd P rä s tgä rden a nd f i na l ly a tL i s leby ( F ig . 1 2 ) .T he t o ta ln umbe ro f p lough ing s c ene sa r e9 .I ti so bv iou st h a tt h ese d ep ic t ion sa r et oo d e ta i led n o tt or e f lec t t h ee x is tence o fa c tua lc u l t iva t ion i nt h ea r ea . F rom t h el o ca t ion o ft h e se mo t if si ti sf u l ly p o s s ib le ,t h a tt h ea c tua lf a rm ing h a sb een p e r fo rmed c l o se t ot h ep ane ls ,f o ri n s tance a t F inn to rp a nd T egneby . T he c l u s te red p a t te rn f o rmed b y t h i s d es ign w a sf i r s tr epo r ted b yt h ep re sen tb yt h ea u tho r( Be r t i l s son 1 988 ) . I ti s ,o fc ou r se ,i mpo s s ib le t od e te rm ine t h ei mpo r tance o ff a rm ing i nr e la t ion t oo the rs ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s . B u ts i nce t h e re a r e r ock a r t d ep ic t ion s o f t h e p lough ing -scene s , i ts eem s o bv ious t h a t i tc ons t i tu ted a n a c t iv i ty t h a tw a sv e ry i mpo r tan ti nt h e s phe re o fi d eo logy a nd c on sequen t ly a l so f o rt h e s o c ie ty a nd i t sm a in tenance . Ih ave s ugges ted , i nt h e a r t ic le r e f e r red t oa bove , t h a tt h e a g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t s ,c e r ea l s ,m igh th ave b een u sed t op roduce a l coho l ic b eve rage st h a t wou ld h ave b een c onsumed a t a nnua l f ea s t ings i n c onnec t ion w i th h a rves t . T he c ommuna l c ha rac te r o f t h e f ea s t ing mus t h ave b een o f g rea t i mpo r tance f o r t h e ma in tenance a nd r eproduc t ion o ft h e s oc ia lo rde r . T he i mpo r tance o fp lough ing i nt h e B ronze Age w i th in t h ef i e ld o fi d eo logy i sf u r the rw i tne s sed b yt h er i tua lp lough ing i n c onnec t ion w i th b u r ia l mound s( Br ia rd 1 979 w i th r e f e rence s ) . S ince w e h ave d i scus sed t h e q ua l i ty o fs o i l w e w i l l n ow t u rn t ot h e s e cond f a c to r , wh ich w as d escr ibed a s t h e c o r re la t ion t o o pen l a nd . O u r i n ten t ion h e re i so n ly t o e xam ine t h ed eg r ee o fc o r r e la t ion b e twe en t h ea c tua ls i ze o ft h eo pen l a nd t ot h en umbe r o fr ock c a rv ing s .T he d a ta ,w h ich w ew i l lu se i nt h es ca t te rd i ag ram ,w i l lb ec a lcu la ted f r om t h e amoun to fa r ab le l a nd a nd t o ta ln umbe ro fl o ca l i t ies . I no rde rt of a c i l i ta te t h e c ompa r i son ,t h er e la t ive f r equenc ie so ft h et wo c a tego r ie sw i l lb eu sed ( F ig . 1 3 ) . T he p i c tu re p re sen ted i nt h e s ca t te rd i ag ram i sf a rf r om c l ea r -cu t . T he l a rge g roup i n t h e l owe rl e f tp ar t s e em t or ep re sen t ar e la t ive ly b lu r red p a t ter n , w he re t h e d eg ree o f c o r re la t ion i sr a the ro b scu r e .T he re a r es ome p a r i she s ,l i ke S kee , S va r tebo rg ,H e r res tad a nd S k red sv ik , w h ich m igh ti nd ica te t h ee x i s tence o f an ega t ive c o r re la t ion ( l a rge a r ea o fa r ab le l a nd a nd f ew l o ca l i t ie s )o ft h et wo p henomena . O nt h eo t he rh and ,s ome o ft h e n a r ishes i n t h e l owe r a nd t h e r i gh t p a r ts o f t h e s ca t te r d i ag ram p re sen t ar eve r sed p a t te rn . T h is a pp l ie s t op a r i she s l i ke S venneby , A skum , B o t tna , T o s sene , K v i l le a nd T anum . I nt h a tw ay t h es o r to f" expec ted " c o r re la t ion i sc onf i rmed b yt h ep a t te rn i nt h e l a t te r p a r i shes . B u t , o fc ou r se , w e mus t n o t i n te rp re t t h e p a t te rn o n ly f r om t h e f a c t s

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w h ich s peak i nf avou ro fo u rg ene ra l o p in ion a bou tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fr ock a r t . I fw e r e cons ide r t h e n ega t ive p a t te rn o b se rved i ns ome p a r ishes , i tm igh t b e p a r t ly b i a sed f r om t h ef a c tt h a tt h ei n tens i ty o fd ocumen ta t ion i nd i f f e ren tp a r t so ft h ea r ea h a sv a r ied . T h i s m igh tb e t h er ea son f o rt h ep os i t ion o fS kee i nt h e d i ag ram a nd p erhaps a l so o f S va r tebo rg . O nt h eo the rh and ,t h en ega t ive c o r re la t ion o ft h e se p a r i shes c an b es a id t o c onf i rm t h ee s tabl i shed l a rge -sca le s pa t ia lp a t te rn o fc en t ra la nd m a rg ina la r ea s . T he c onc lu s ion w h ich c an b e d rawn f r om t h i s a na lys is mus t b e t ha t t h e re e x i s t s a r a the rs t rong c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e s i ze o fa r ab le l a nd a nd t h en umbe ro fl o ca l i t ie si n t h es t udy a r ea , a sf a ra st h ec ent ra lp a r t so ft h ea r ea a r ec once rned . T hus , t h e re mus tb e 3 0 4

s eve ra l e xp lana t ions f o r t h e g ene ra l a ppea rance o f r ock a r t i n t h e s t udy a r ea a nd e l sewhe re . Wh ich t h e se f a c to r sm igh tb ei sn o te v iden t ,s i nce i nt h i sc a se w ea r ed ea l ing w i th f a c to r s o f ag ene ra l n a tu re , n o tr e s t r ic ted t ot h e s t udy a r ea o n ly b u tf a c to r s t h a t a pp ly t o many p a r t s o f S cand inav ia a nd Wes te rn E u rope d ur ing t h e B ronze Age . Howeve r , i ti so bv iou st h a tc u l ta nd r e l ig ion w e re i nf luenced b ye l emen t sf r om o the r p a r t so fE u rope ( K r i s t ian sen 1 984 : 8 6 ) . A f te rt h i s e xam ina t ion o ff a c to r s c au s ing t h e c l u s te r ing o fr ock a r te xp re s sed i nt h e c en t ra la nd ma rg ina la r ea s , w es ha l lt u rn t ot h ed i scu s s ion o fc en t r e -pe r iphe ry r e la t ion s a nd a r ea so fp roduc t ion a nd a ccumu la t ion . C en tre -Per iphery R e la t ions T hese r e la t ion sm igh tb ei n d ica ted i nt h el a rge -sca le s pa t ia lp a t te rn ,f r om t h ee x i s tence o f av a ry ing d eg ree o fu t i l iza t ion o fd i f f e ren t a r ea s e xp res sed i nt h e n umbe ro fr ock a r t l o ca l i t ie s . I fw ec hoose t h i sp e r spec t ive i ti so bv iou st h a tt h ese r e la t ion sa r e man if es ted i n t h e c l us te r ing o f r o ck a r t t o t h e c en t ra l p ar t s o f t h e s t udy a r ea , b u t a l so i n t h e c l us te r ing w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea s r ep resen ted b y t h e h und red s . I fw e l ook a t , f o r i n s tance ,T anum h und red ,t h ea r ea made u po ft h ep la in i sc en t ra lt oa l lo the ra r ea s ,b u t a l so t ha t T anum i sc en t ra l a nd L u r i sp er iphe ra l . T he s ame r e la t ion i se v iden t f r om S o tenä s , whe re T o s sene i sc en t ra la nd A skum a nd B ä r f enda li np a r t icu la ra r ep e r iphe ra l . And a l though t h ea dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t sf r om h i s to r ica lt ime s ,t h eh und red s a nd p ar i she s , d id n o t e x i s t i nt h e B ronze Age , t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n w h ich m an if e s t s i t se lf i nt h e c r ea t ion o ft h e se u n i t sc an b et r aced f r om t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fr ock a r t . I fw ew e re t o make s ome s t a temen t sa bou tt h el o ca l s e t t lemen tp a t te rn , a se xp re ssed b yt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fr ock a r t ,w eh ad b e t te rt ake al ook a tt h ec o re -a rea i nT anum o nce a ga in . One w ay t ot e s tt h ep a t te rn i st ol ook a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h el a rge l o ca l i t ies ( F ig . 1 4 ) . I f w e a s sume t h a t t h e l a rge l o ca l i t ies r ep resen t t he c en t res o f h ypo the t ica l s e t t lemen t s ,t h er ad iu so ft h ea r ea o ccup ied m igh th ave v a r ied b e tween 3 00 m a nd 1km . I fw e a d jus t t he s i ze o f t h e l o ca l s e t t lemen t s t o t h e s o r t o f n a tu ra l t opog raph ica l c ond i t ion s , t h e h ighe r l im i t s e em s mo re p robab le . T he a pp rox . 1 0 l o ca l s e t t lemen t s m igh th ave s u r rounded t h ep l a in . I fw e a s sume t h a tt h i s 3 00 m r ad ius i st h e mo s tp robab le s i ze o ft h el o ca l s e t t lemen t t e r r i to ry o rp e rhap sr a the rt h ec en t ra lp a r t ,d ef ined b yt h el o ca t ion o ft h ea c tua ld we l l ing s i te a nd t he a rab le l a nd , t h e r e su l t c o r respond s w e l l t o t ho se o f o ther s t ud ies i n S cand inav ia ( e .g . We l inde r 1 977 ;J ohan sen 1 986 ; S ogne s 1 984 ) . I n a n a na lys i s c oncer n ing t h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn o ft h e B ronze A ge o n t h e Swed i sh Wes t c oas t , t he a u tho r h as t r ea ted a n a r ea n or th o f Go thenbu rg , where t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta s e em s t oc onf i rm We l inde r ' s s e t t lemen t mode l ( Ber t i ls son 1 986d : 1 09 f ) . We mus t a dd t h a t We l inde r 's mode l i s ma in ly b a sed o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f g roups o fB ronze A ge b a r rows , w h i le J ohansen 's s t a r t ing p o in t i st h e b ronze o b jec t s ( J ohan sen 1 986 : 1 66 f ) . I nb o th c a se s ,h oweve r ,t h ea u tho r sd i scu s st h ei mpo r tance o f e conom ic r e sou rce s a nd t h e i r l o ca t ion w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea . As im i la r , h o l is t ic mode lh a sb een p re sen ted b yH yens t rand c once rn ing t h ec ond i t ion si nU pp land ( K jelen & Hyens t rand 1 977 ) . F o rO s te rgö t land ab a s ica l ly s im i la r mode lh a sb een p re sen ted b y L a r sson ( 1986a : 1 56 f ) , a nd u s ing t h er e su l t s f r om ar e cen t ly d eve loped m e thod f o r a na lyz ing s pa t ia l p a t te rns ( Lundma rk 1 984 ) h e a rgues f o r t he e x is tence o f a h i e ra rch ica l ly o rgan ized s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re ( La r s son 1 986a : 1 56 f ) . T he s i ze o ft h e l o ca ls e t t lemen t s( t ho se r e p r e sen t ing t h el owe s th i e ra r ch ica ll e ve l ) s e em st ob ea pp rox . 1 s q . km . L a r sson 's d a ta m a in ly c on s i s t s o ff i re -cracked s t ones ( bu rn t mound s ) , wh ich a r e mo re ' d i rec t ' a s s e t t lemen t i nd ica to r s c ompa red w i th t h e r ock c a rv ing s . H ence i t f o l lows t ha tt h ep ropo sed e x ten s ion o ft h el o ca l s e t t lemen t s i nt h eT anum a r ea s e em s v e ry l i ke ly . 3 05

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I fw et e s tt h i sh ypo the t ica l " mode l " o no the rp a r t so ft h e s t udy a r ea ,l i ke T o s sene a nd l i by i nS o tenä s ,t h ef o rme rm igh th ave h ad 2 -3 s e t t lemen t sa nd t h el a t te rp robab ly o n ly o ne . I fw e l ook a tt h e a d jacen t a r ea o n S tängenä s , V ese p robab ly r ep resen ted o ne s e t t lemen t a nd B acka i nB ra s tad , 1 2 s e t t lemen t s . I n t h e V e t te a r ea t h ep a t tern l ook s s im i la rw i th 1 2s e t t lemen t si nt h eJ ö r lov a r ea a nd 1 2i nt h ec en t ra lp a r t so fH ogda la nd o ne e a ch i nL omme land a nd i nN ä s inge .T he p a t te rn w a sp robab ly much t h es am ei nt h e K v i l le -Bo t tna a r ea a l though i tc anno tb ee xc luded t h a tt h eT o r sbo l o ca l i ty r ep re sen t sa p henomenon wh ich b e long s t o ah ighe r h i e ra rch ica l l e ve l i nd ica t ing s o me s o r t o f r eg iona l c en t ra l -p lace . T he s ame m igh t , o fc ou r se , b e t r ue o fs o me o ft h eo the rl a rge l o ca l i t ie s ,f o ri n s tance a tJ ö r lov a nd T egneby ,b u ta l so t hose o u t s ide t h ec en t ra lr ock a r t a r ea ,l i ke L ökebe rg i nF o ss a nd T o rp i nS k red sv ik . I fw e a s sume t h a tt h ee ng rav ing a r ea s w i th r ep resen ta t ion s o fa l l b a s ic f i gu re t ype s r ep resen tt h el o ca l s e t t lemen t s , t h e t o ta ln umbe ro fs uch s e t t lemen ts i nt h es t udy a r ea w ou ld b e 4 5 ( F ig . 1 4 ) . O f c ou r se t h e i n tens i ty a nd p ro longa t ion o f t h ese s e t t lemen t s mus t h ave v a r ied c ons ide rab ly . T h is v a r ia t ion i sr e f lec ted , among o the r w ay s , i n t h e s i ze o f t h e se e ng rav ing sa nd i nt h e i rn umbe ro ff i gu re sb u ta l so i nt h e i rl o ca t ion . As ho r ta na ly s i so f t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion r evea l st h ef olow ing p a t t e rn -T anum h und red 1 4( Tanum 1 4 ,L u r0 ) , K v i l le h und red 1 2 ( Kv i l le 8 ,B o t tna 2a nd S venneby 2 ) ,S o tenä sh und red 4( To s sene 2 , A skum 2a nd B ä r f enda l0 ) ,T unge h und red 3( Sva r tebo rg 2 ,F o ss 1a nd H äby 0 ) ,V e t te h und red 8( Skee 5 ,H ogda l 1 ,L omme land 1a nd N ä s inge 0 )a nd f i na l ly L ane h und red 0 .T he r e su l t o ft h i s s imp le a na lys is o nce a ga in c onf i rm s t h e e s tab l i shed l a rge -sca le s pa t ia lp a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion , w he re t h ec en t ra l a r ea s h ave mo re l o ca l i t ies w i th mor e f i gu re sa nd a l so ag r ea te rv a r ia t ion o f mo t i f s .A nd c on sequen t ly a l so al a rge rn umbe ro f l o ca ls e t t lemen t s . B efo re w e f i na l ly l e ave t h i s s ub jec t , w e mu s tc ommen t o n t h e c oncep to f a r ea s o f p roduc t ion a nd a ccumu la t ion .I th a sb een s t a ted a bove t h a tt h e re a r ed i f f e rence si nt h e n umbe r o fr eg is te red s i te s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod i n t h e a r ea , b u t t h a t t h e mos t r ep resen ta t ive d i f f e rence s eem s t ob e e xp re ssed i n t h e n umbe r o f f l in t o b jec t s l i ke s i ck le sa nd d agge r s ,w he re t h ep redom inance f o rt h eT anum a r ea i s much e v iden t .T h i s m igh ta l so i nd ica te t h a tt h eb a s ic p re requ i s i te sf o rp roduc t ion w e re b e t te ri nt h eT anum a r ea t han e l sewhe re i nN o r ther nB ohu s län . S ince many o ft h e f l in to b jec t s h ave b een u sed a st oo l s ,l i ke t h es i ck le sa tH oghem ,a nd a r ef r agmen ta ry ,t h ey p robab ly p l ayed a n a c t ive r o le i np roduc t ion , a l though o fc ou r se w eapons l i ke d agge r s , s pea rhead s a nd a r rowhead s mu s t h ave b een r ega rded a s p re s t ige o b jec ts w i th in t h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty . H owever , s i nce t h e g ene ra l d a t ing o f t he se o b jec t s i ss omewha t o b scure c oncer n ing t h eB ronze A ge ,t h ey c anno tb eu sed a s ab a s i sf o ra na ly s is a l one . S ince t h e p re s t ige o b jec t s i nd ica te a r ea s o fw ea l th a nd a ccumu la t ion ( e .g . L a r s son 1 986a ) , t h eb ronzes a r eo fc ou r se h igh ly i n te re s t ing . T he n umbe ro fb ronze s a nd o the r me ta l o b jec t s i sv ery l ow i nB ohu s län a nd i nt h e s t udy a r ea , e spec ia l ly i nr e la t ion t o n e ighbou r ing a r ea sl i ke H aland a nd V ä s te rgö t land ( c f . B e r t i l sson 1 986c :114 ) . B audou a ccoun t s f o r at o ta l o f 6h oa rd s f r om t h ep rov ince ( Baudou 1 960 : 3 21 ) ,o fw h ich o n ly t h ree c ome f r om N or thern B ohu s län . O ldebe rg h a s 3 7 f i nd s o fb ronze o b jec ts f r om B ohu s län ,o fw h ich 1 2b e long t ot h es t udy a r ea ( O ldebe rg 1 974 ) . O ft h e se 5c ome f r om T anum , 1f r om L u r , 1f r om S kee , 1f r om Hogda l , 1f r om A skum , 1f r om T o ssene , 1 f r om K v i l le a nd 1f r om K rok s tad . T he f i nd s f r om T anum c on s i s to f 4a xes , 1f l a ta xe a nd t h eo the r so ft h ef l anged type . Two o ft h el a t te rb e long t o ah oa rd a tS to ra O ppen ( O ldebe rg 1 974 : 3 31 , n o . 2 599 e .w i th r e f e rence s ) . T he f i f th f i nd c ome sf r om ab u r ia l i n ab ig c a ir n a tT anum S länge a nd c on s is t s o f 1h i l t -p la te s wo rd a nd 2d oub le s t ud s ( a nd o ne f l in t s pea rhead ) ( O ldebe rg 1 974 : 3 31 ,n o . 2 599 e .w i th r e f e rence s ) .T he f i nd s f r om Hogda la nd T o s sene a r eb o th m ade u pf r om f l ange -h i l ted s wo rd s( O ldebe rg 1 974 : 3 26 , n o . 2 579 ; 1 974 :333 , n o . 2 603 ) . A pa r tf r om t h e se f i nd s t h e re i sa no the ro ne f r om L i l la O ppen i nT anum c on s is t ing o f an eck r i ng o fB audou 's C t ype ( Mon te l iu s 1 874 :

3 07

3 99 f ,n o . 2 83 ) a nd a l so at a ng -h i l ted s wo rd f r om P rä s tgä rden ( Mon te l iu s 1 874 : 4 01 , n o . 2 88 ) . T he l a te s tf i nd c omes f r om K näm ,n o r th o ft h eT anum p la in . I tw a s made i n 1 923 a nd c on s is t s o f 1n eck r i ng a nd 1 s wo rd , wh ich w a s f ound i n ab og a nd c on sequen t ly c on s t i tu te s ah oa rd .T he re i sy e ta no the rB ronze A ge me ta lf i nd f r om t h e a r ea wh ich mus tb em en t ioned . A tS kä r je i nS kee i nV e t te h und red 5g o lden a rm r i ng s w e re f ound c l o se t o al a rge b ou lde r( Mon tel iu s 1 874 :7 9 fa nd 1 9 17 : 135 ) . D e sp i te t h er a the r s ma l l n umbe ro ff i nd s , i ti so bv ious t h a t t h e me ta l o b jec ts o ft h e B ronze Age f ound t h e i rw ay t ot h er ock c a rv ing a r ea a sw el . T h is o bv ious ly a pp l ie st o b o th t h eE a r ly a nd t h eL a te B ronze A ge .H oweve r ,o ne t h ing i se v iden tf r om t h ep a t te rn o ff i nd s ; i fw e c ompa re t h e a r ea t ot h e who le o fS ou the rn S cand inav ia , i t mus th ave c on s t i tu ted ama rg ina la r ea .A tt h es ame t ime ,i ti sa ppa ren tf r om t h en a ture o ft h ef i nd s t h a tt h ea r ea mu s th ave b een i nvo lved i nt h en e two rk o fc i rcu la t ion o fp r es t ige o b jec t s ( K r i s t iansen 1 983 : 8 1 ;L a r s son 1 986a : 1 8f ) .I fw es t udy t h em e ta lo b jec ti ni t sr eg iona l a nd l o ca lc on tex t ,i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a tt h e ma jo r i ty b e long t o ar e s t r ic ted a r ea i n T anum ,s i tua ted i mmed ia te ly t ot h en o r th o ft h eT anum p l a in . S een i nt h i sp e r spec t ive i t m igh tb ea rgued t h a tt h em e ta lo b jec t si nd ica te t h ee x i s tence o fa na r ea o fa ccumu la t ion o fw ea l th o nt h er eg iona ll e ve lt h e re . T h i s c ha rac ter i sf u r ther e v iden t f r om t h e r i chne ss o fr ock c a rv ings a nd t h e g r ea t v a r ie ty o f mo t i f s . F u r the rmo re ,t h ed ep ic t ion o fb u l l sa nd p lough ing m igh ti nd ica te t h a t s ub s i s tence e conomy , w he re f a rm ing p l ayed a n i mpor tan tr o le , w a s t h e b a s i s f o rt h e a ccumu la t ion o fw ea l th .T h i sm igh ta l so e xp la in t h ep redom inan tp o s i t ion o fr e s t r ic ted p a r t se l sewhe re i nt h ea r ea ,a nd i nT o s sene i np a r t icu la r ,w he re t h e re a l so i sd ep ic t ion o f p lough ing . T h is d oes n o t t o ta l ly e xp la in t h e p rom inen tp o s i t ion o ft h e Kv i l le -Bo t tna a r ea . Howeve r , t h e many d ep ic t ion s o f b u l l s m igh t empha s ize t h e i mpor tance o f c a t t le -b reed ing i nt h ea r ea .T h i si n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta f r om t h eB ronze Age i sf u r the rc on f i rmed b yt h eN eo l i th ic p a t te rn ,w h ich w ed i scu s sed a bove . The R e la t ion t o G raves a nd Bur ia ls I n as ho r ta r t ic le o nt h es pa t ia lr e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h er ock c a rv ing sa nd g rave s Ih ave p re sen ted an umbe ro fe xamp le sf r om t h es t udy a r ea ,w he re ac l o se s pa t ia lr e la t ion c an b e o bserved ( Be r t i l sson 1 986b ) . T he e xamp le sr ange a l l t he w ay f r om c up -ma rk s o n mega l i th s v ia p et rog lyphs i no r b e low B ronze A ge b a r rows a nd c a i rns t o I r on A ge c eme te r ies d e l ibe ra te ly l o ca ted o n o r a d jacen t t o l a rge r ock c arv ing s . F rom t h is b ackg round i ti se v iden tt h a tt h e re e x i s ted ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween g rave sa nd r ock c arv ings , wh ich d id n o t o r ig ina te f r om s pa t ia l f a c to r s o n ly . I n s tead , t he i d eo log ica l f a c to r mus t h ave b een o f g rea t i mpo r tance , i d eo logy i n t h e w ides t mean ing o f t h e c oncep t a nd i n p a r t icu la r c onnec ted w i th t h e r eproduc t ion o f s oc ie ty a nd t h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ia l o rde r . I fw e a ccep t t h e b a s ic a s sump t ion t ha t t he l a rge r ock c a rv ing sf unc t ioned a sc u l ta nd r i tua lc en t re sf o rt h el o ca ls e t t lemen t s ,t h en t h ed e l ibe ra te p l ac ing o fl i on A ge c eme te r ie so nt ho se s i te s mu s th ave b een a na c to fg r ea ti d eo log ica l a nd s oc ia l i mpo r tance f o rt h e I r on A ge s oc ie ty . A nd t h e mean ing o ft h i s a c t ion c ou ld h ave b een a tl e a s tt h reefo ld .F i r s t ,t h ea c te xp r e s se st h es t r iv ing f o rc onnec t ion w i th o ld b e l ief s a nd c u l t s . S econd ,i te xp re s ses r e spec tf o rt h ea nces to r s a nd , t h i rd ,i te xp res se s t h ec on t inuou s c l a im t oa d jacen tt e r r i to r ies . H ence ,i ti sr ea sonab le t oa s sume t h a tt h e r e l ig iou sb e l ief sb a s ica l ly r ema ined u na l te red b e tween t h eB ronze a nd t h eI r on A ge i n t h ea r ea ,a l though t h es e t t lemen tp a t ter nm igh th ave c hanged d ue t oi n ten s i f ied f a rm ing a nd t h a tt h e ma in l o ca t ion o fg r ave s mo s tc e r ta in ly c hanged . I fw e l ook a tt h e mo s tt yp ica l l o ca t ion o fg rave s i nt h e B ronze Age , t h e ma jo r i ty o f c a i rn s a r e s i tua ted o n t h e c r es t s o ft h e moun ta in r i dges , wh i le t h e r ock c a rv ings a r e l o ca ted t ot h e s moo th r ock s a tt h e i rf oo t . T h i si se v iden tf r om a lmo s te ve ry l o ca l i ty i n t h ea r ea ( No rdb ladh 1 980 :4 0f ) .T he c a i rn st h u sc ove r amuch l a rge ra r ea t h an t h er ock 3 0 8

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F ig . 1 6 . T he T o rp l o ca l i ty i n H ogda l i n V e t te . E xcep t f o r t h e many r ock e ng rav ing s , t h e a r ea i s e x t reme ly r i ch i nc a i rns m a in ly f r om t h eB ronze A ge .

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c a rv ing s ,a na r ea w he re t h er ad iu ss ome t ime sc an r each 1 1 .5 km . B u ta l lt h es ame t h e c a i rns a r e g ene ra l ly s i tua ted i nc l o se c on tac t w i th t h e s e t t lemen t s , f o ri n s tance i nt h e T o s sene a nd H ogda la r ea s ( F ig s . 1 5 -16 ) . I ti so bv iou st h a tt h ey w e re u sed t od ef ine t h e o u te rl im i t so ft h es e t t lem en tt e r r i to r ie s , af unc t ion w h ich h a sb een p ropo sed b y al a rge n umbe ro fs cho la r s ( e .g . K jelen & H yen s t rand 1 977 ; C a r l sson 1 983 a nd many o the r s ) . I ti sf u r the rp o ss ib le t h a t s ome o ft h eg rave s a r e l o ca ted t os pa r se ly p opu la ted a r ea s s e rv ing a sb uf f e r -zone sb e tween p r ima ry s e t t lemen ta r ea s ( La r s son 1 983 ) . T h i sa pp l ie s t o many o ft h ec oa s ta lc a ir n si nt h e s t udy a r ea ,l o ca ted t oi s land s a nd s u r r round ing t h e i n le t s o f t h e f j o rds a nd r i ve r s . B u t a tt h e s ame t ime a l a rge amoun t o f t h e c a i rn s d ef in i te ly a r el o ca ted i nc l o se c on tac tw i th c om tempo ra ry s e t t lemen t s . A nd i nt h es ame w ay t h a t t h e g raves f unc t ioned a s a n o u te r b o rde r l ine o f t h e s e t t lemen t , t h e r ock c a rv ing sp robab ly f unc t ioned a st h e i rc en t re s . I nt h is r e spec t ,t h ec ond i t ions i nN o r the rn B ohu s län s e em t ob e mo r e s im i la rt ot ho se i nU pp land a nd T jus to nt h e Smä land c oa s t t h an t h o se i nO s te rgö t land ( K je l len & H yen s t rand 1 977 ; Winbe rg 1 979 ; B e r t i l s son 1 983 ;L a r sson 1 986a : 1 41 f ) . A no the rd i f f e rence c once rn ing t h ep a t ter n p resen ted b y t h e r o ck a r ti nO s te rgö t land i st h a ti si sh eav i ly c l us te red a nd a ga ins tt h a tb ackg round i th a s b een p ropo sed t oc on s t i tu te r eg iona lc e remon ia lc en t re s ( La r s son 1 986a : 1 41 f ) . F rom t h e l a rge -sca le s pa t ia l p a t te rn p resen ted b y t h e r ock c a rv ings i n B ohus län , i ti sn o t e v iden tt h a tt h e re e x i s ted r e g iona lo ri n te r r eg iona lc e r emon ia lc en t r e so ft h es ame k ind . T he ma in i mp ress ion f r om t h e a na lys i s i st h a t t h e a bundance o ft h e r ock a r t i nt h e T anum a r ea i n s tead i sc aused b y mo re f avou rab le l o ca l e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions c ompa ted w i th n e igbou r ing a r ea s .B u to fc ou r se i ti sf uly p o s s ib le t h a tt h er ock c a rv ing c en t re sr e f le c tt h ee x is tence o fr i ch l o ca ls e t t lemen t s ,l e db yl o ca lc h ie f sh av ing ac e r ta in a u tho r i ty o u t s ide t h e i rl o ca lt e r r i to ry . H oweve r ,e ven i nt h i s l o ca l ly r e s t r ic ted a r ea , t h e T anum a r ea m igh t h ave s e rved a s as or t o fc en t ra l p l ace i n t h e w ides t s en se o f t h e c oncep t( Renf r ew 1 977 )a nd t h es ame p robab ly a pp l ie st ot h eT o r sbo a r ea i nK v i l le . A spec ts o n Chrono logy T rad i t iona l ly , c h rono logy i so ne o ft h e b a s ic a spec t s o fa r chaeo logy . T h i s h o ld s t r ue f o r t h e r ock a r t a s w e l l . I n c ompa r ison w i th o the r k ind s o f d a ta , l i ke b ur ia ls a nd s e t t lemen t s , t h eb a s is f o r mo re d e ta i led d a t ing a nd a b so lu te c h rono logy i sr a the rw eak . S o f a r t he p oss ib i l i t ies o f u s ing s c ien t if ic me thods l i ke C a rbon 1 4 o r t h e rmo lum in ie sence h ave b een n on -ex is ten ta nd f o rn a tu ra lr e asons s i nce t h er ock a r ti s n o t a dap ted t o s uch d a t ing me thod s . I ns tead , t h e d a t ing h as b een b a sed u pon c ompa r ison sb e tween r ock a r td e s ign a sw e l la sw i th o t he rd a tab le a r tef ac t s wh ich h ave b een d ep ic ted i nr ock a r t . A no the r a venue f o ro b ta in ing mo re a ccu ra te d a t ing s l e ad s t ot h e c ompa r i sons w i th e ng raved d e s ign si nb u r ia l so ro na r tef ac t sw h ich h ave b een d a ted s epa ra te ly ( Ma lme r 1 970 , 1 981 ; Mand t L a r sen 1 972 : 9 9 f , w i th r e f e rences ) . Many o ft h e d a t ing e f fo r t s h ave b een b a sed o n s t y l i s t ic e l emen t si nt h er ock a r t( e .g . Ma r s t rande r 1 963 ; A lmg r en 1 963 ) , o f w h ich t h e s o f a r mos t a dvanced s t udy h a s b een p er fo rmed b y B u renhu l t ( 1980 )i nh i su se o fc omb ina t ion so fd i f f e ren tt y pe so fd e s ign sa nd p i ck ing t e chn iques . E ven t hough h i sa pp l ica t ion o ft h em e thod h a sb een h eav i ly c r i t ic ised ( Pe t te r s son 1 984 ) , t h is d oes n o t p rove t h a t t h e me thod i sc omp le te ly i n app l icab le . I n s tead t h e c r i t ic i sm i lu s t ra te s t h e d i f f icu l t ie s t os uppor t t h e e mp i r ica l o b serva t ions w i th e l uc ida t ive a nd c ogen te xamp le s . Ano the ri n te re s t ing m e thod h a s b een p ropo sed b y We l inde r ( 1975 ) , w he re h e u sed q uan t i ta t ive d a ta ,i n c lud ing c onnec t ion s t og rave s ,i no rde rt or e ach ag enera ld a te a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h eS can ian r ock a r t . O ne o ft h ep o s s ib le w ay st or e ach ag ene ra ld a t ing o ft h er ock a r ti st oc onnec tt h ee ng rav ing sn o to n ly t od a tab le a r tef ac t sa nd monumen t s b u t a l so t o a na lyze t h e t o ta l a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t i n w h ich t hey b e long . T h is

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p e r spec t ive h a sb een a dvoca ted h e re ,w he re t h el a rge l o ca l i t ie sa r ea s sumed t od e s igna te t h e c en t re s o fl o ca l s e t t lemen t s . C on sequen t ly , b yr ep re sen t ing s uch b a s ic s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re st h ey a r eg ene ra l ly p r e sumed t ob ec on tempo ra ry w h i tt h ec a i rn sl o ca t ed t ot h e b o rde r l ine o f t h e s e t t lemen t s ( c f . N o rdb ladh 1 980 : 2 8 f ) , a nd a l so w i th s e t t lemen t r ema ins l i ke b u rn t mound s . T he s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re s d a te t ot h e B ronze Age i n a g ene ra l s ense a nd w e h ave n o t a imed a t mo re a ccu ra te d a t ing s s i nce t h e re h ave b een v ery f ew e xcava t ion s i nt h e a r ea p roduc ing d a tab le o b jec t s . I n s tead , t h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re sa nd t h e i rp ropo sed d a t ing sc an b er ega rded a sh ypo the s i sw h ich c an b et e s ted i nf o r thcom ing r e sea r ch . I fw e w e re t o e s t ima te t h e d a tes o f t h e s t ruc tu res i n c lud ing t he r ock a r t mo re a ccu ra te ly ,t h eM idd le a nd L a te B ronze A ge w ou ld b et h ea pp rop r ia te p e r iod s ,w i thou t s pec i f ica t ion i na b so lu te y ea r s .T he b ronze o b jec t sw h ich h ave b een p o s s ib le t oi d en t i fy f r om t h ed ep ic t ion s ,l i ke c e remon ia la xe sa nd f i bu lae s ,m ay b e long t ot h e2 nd Mon te l ian p e r iod a tt h e e a r l ie s t . O n t h eo the rh and , t h e ma jo r i ty o fd e s ign s , s uch a st h ew inged s wo rd -shea th s a nd t h e b o s sed s h ie ld s , d ef in i te ly b e long t ot h e L a te B ronze A ge . T h i s l a rge -sca le c h rono log ica l p a t tern i sc onf i rmed b y t h e C 1 4 -da tes o b ta ined f o r t h e e xcava ted s i tes i nt h er eg ion ,w he re o n ly t h ree d a t ing sb e long t ot h eE a r ly B ronze A ge ( 9d a t ing s b efö re 100 BC ) a nd a l lt h eo ther s , a pp rox . 2 0 , t ot h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd ma in ly t ot h e l a t te rp a r to ft h i sp e r iod . F ive o ft h e se a r el o ca ted t ot h e s t udy a r ea : 4t o L y se a nd 1t oH e r r e s tad (We i le r 1 984 :60 f .f o rd e ta i led d a ta ,f o rg ene ra ld i scu s s ion s e e a l so B e r t i l sson 1 986c ) . T he s ame g ene ra l d a t ing p a t tern p robab ly h o lds t r ue f o r t h e c a i rn c omp lex , w he re t h ee xcava t ions h ave p roduced f i nds f r om t h ee n t i re B ronze A ge a nd e ven f r om t h e L a te N eo l i th ic ( Be r t i lsson 1 983 w i th r e f e rences ) b u t w he re t h e ma jo r i ty o ff i nd sa nd b u r ia l ss e em t ob e long t ot h eM idd le a nd L a te B ronze A ge ( among wh ich G a lge röse t f r om T anum t h a t d a ted t ot h e 3 rd p e r iod f r om t h e b ronze o b jec t s , B audou 1 968 :70 w i th r e f e rence s ) . Many o ft h e c a ir n s h ave c r ema t ion b ur ia l s ( Ha l ls t röm 1 917 ) , b u t t h i s i sn o te v iden t f r om t h eo u t s ide f o rm . S ince many o ft h e se f a c t sp o in tt owa rd s ac hange o fp a t te rn si n t h em idd le o ft h eB ronze A ge , ac hange w h ich emb raced t h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn a sw e l l a sb u r ia la nd c u l tp rac t i se s ,t h et e ndenc ie so b se rved i nt h ed a t ing a r e mo s tc e r ta in ly n o t a cc iden ta l ( c f . G rä s lund 1 983 ) . I n s tead , t hey p robab ly r e f lec t a ma jo r c hange i n l a rge -sca le p a t te rn o fe conomy , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd i d eo logy , w h ich h ave b een o b se rved n o to n ly i nS cand inav ia b u ti n many a r ea sa nd r eg ion sa l lo ve rE u rope . I nt h e s t udy a r ea , s uch ac hange i sr e f lec ted t h rough p henomena s uch a s p res t ige b ronze o b jec t s , c rema t ion b u r ia ls i nc a i rns b u t mos t o f a l l i n t he ma rked i n crea se o fr ock c a rv ing sa nd t h ei n t roduc t ion o fn ew mo t i f sa nd t r ad i t ion s . A s f o rt h e g ene ra l d a t ing , t h e re a r e o bv ious ly d e s igns a nd t r ad i t ions t h a tb e long t o o ther a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod s l i ke t h e N eo l i th ic a nd t h e I r on A ge . I nt h e f i r s tc a se , t h e c up -ma rk sc onnec ted w i th t h em ega l i th sa r e ,i no u ro p in ion , mo s tl i ke ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e g rave s . C on sequen t ly , many o the rc up -ma rk e ng rav ing sm igh tb e long t ot h i s p e r iod . O ne p o s s ib i l i ty t ot r ace s uch l o ca l i t ie sw ou ld b e ad e ta i led a na lys is o ft h el o ca l p a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion i nc ompa r ison w i th t h e l o ca l s pa t ia l p a t tern p re sen ted b y t h e N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s a nd p e rhap s a l so t h e f i nds o ff l in to b jec t s l i ke t h e d agge r s a nd s i ck les . T he e x i s tence o f as u rv iv ing r ock a r tt r ad i t ion i nt h e I r on A ge i ss t i l le v iden t f r om t he d ep ic t ions o f I r on Age w eapon s . T he e x tens ion a nd i mpor tance o f t h is t r ad i t ion i sn o tk nown ,b u tf r om t h ev e ry s ma l ln umbe ro fs uch d ep ic t ion s ,i ts e em s a s i fi tmus th ave b een o fm ino ri mpo r tance . O fc ou r se , s ome o ft h ec up -ma rk e ng rav ing s a nd a l so s ome o ft h e s h ips m igh tb e long t ot h is p e r iod , b u ts uch ah ypo the s is r equ i re s f u r the ra na lys i s . F ina l ly , b efo re w e l e ave t h is a spec t o f a na lys i s , w e mus t n o t f o rge t t h e r e cen t d i scover ie so fr ock p a in t ing si nt h er eg ion a nd t h e s t udy a r ea ( No rdb ladh 1 975 , 1 987 ; B e r t i lsson 1 985 ) . S ince t h e ma jor i ty o f t hese p a in t ings p robab ly b e long t o t he Meso l i th ic p e r iod , s ome o ft h ee ng rav ing sa nd e spec ia l ly t h ed ep ic t ions o fh un t ing a nd

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f i sh ing m igh tb e long t ot h eS tone A ge ,i fn o tt h e Me so l i th ic ,a tl e a s tt ot h eN eo l i th ic ( c f . M ikke l sen 1 986a ) . Ano the rw ay t og e t c l o se rt o amo re e xac td a te f o r t h e r ock a r tm igh t b e t o make a mo re t ho rough a na lys is o f l o ca l s e t t lemen ts , i n c lud ing e xcava t ions o f s e t t lemen t r ema ins , l i ke t h e b u rn t mound s a nd o the r s t ruc tu re s . F o r thcom ing e xcava t ions mus t a l so i n c lude t h e r ock c a rv ings o r r a the r t h e a r ea s i nf r on t o f a nd s u r round ing t h em . U n fo r tuna te ly m any o ft h ea r ea sp o s s ib le t oe xcava te h ave b een p loughed o ve r . H oweve r ,t h e re a r e s t i l l s ome w h ich h ave n o tb een d amaged i nt h a tw ay . T he r e su l t s f r om t h e e xcava t ions i n O s tfo ld , No rway ( J ohansen 1 979 ) , s how t ha t al o t o f i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ef unc t ion o fr ock c a rv ing s may b e " bu r ied "i nf r on to ft h em . O ne c anno te xc lude t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o ff i nd ing d a tab le o b jec t so re ven h ea r th sw i th c ha r coa lo r b one , w h ich c ou ld b ed a ted b y t h eC a rbon 1 4 -me thod . A s f o r t h e r ock a r t i t se lf , t h e s epa ra te e ng rav ing a r ea s a nd e ng rav ing d es ign s , a p o s s ib le w ay t or e ach mo re a ccu ra te d a te si st h rough c ompa r i son s o fs t y l i s t ic e l emen t s , o ft ype sa nd t e chn ique s . S uch a na ly se sm ay a tl e a s tr e su l ti n mo re a ccu ra te r e la t ive d a te s f o re ng rav ing s a nd d es ign s . A no the ri mpo r tan te l emen t i nt h i sr e spec tc on s i s t s o ft h e s upe rpos i t ions , o f wh ich t h e re a r e r e la t ive ly m any i n B ohus län . However , t h e d ocumen ta t ion h i ther to i sn o t d e ta i led e nough t o a l low at ho rough a na lys is o f t h is p henomenon ,w i th t h ee xcep t ion p e rhap so ft h eK v i l le d a ta .T he refo re ,i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t op re sen ta ny d e ta i led s t a t is t ic so ft h i sp henomenon h e re . A sf o rc h rono logy ,t h e re may e x i s ts ome v a r ia t ion si n s ide t h es t udy a r ea .T he g ene ra l p a t te rn c ou ld b e t h a t t h e c o re a r ea i nT anum w a s t h e a r ea whe re n ew e l emen t s a nd d e s igns w e re f i r s t i n t roduced a nd c r ea ted . T h is i st he o bv iou s e xp lana t ion f o r t h e o b se rved v a r ia t ions a nd r i chne ss o f mo t if s , f o ri n s tance t h ep lough ing s cenes a nd t h e g r ea tv a r ia t ion o fo the rf i gu re s . T h i si sf u r the rw i tne ssed f r om t h e c l u s te r ing o fl a rge l o ca l i t ie st ot h eT anum p l a in .A no the ro b se rva t ion t h a t may i nd ica te t h es ame r e la t ion i s t h a td ep ic t ion o fw i ld a n ima l s a nd g ame s e em s t ob e mo re f r equen ti nt he p e r iphe ra l h und red so fV e t te a nd S tängenä st h an i nT anum ,K v i l le a nd S o tenä s . A l though t h ed a ta i sr e la t ive ly p oo ra nd d ef ic ien t , t h eh un t ing s c ene so f ten d ep ic ted i nt ho se a r ea sm igh t m i r ro r ad i f f e rence i nt h es ub s i s tence p a t te rn c ompa red t oT anum . E ven t hough w eh ave n o tb een a b le t op resen t mo re e xac td a te sf o rr ock a r ta nd r ock c arv ings , w e may c onc lude f r om t h e a na lyse s a bove t h a tt h e re e x i s ted ar ock c a rv ing t r ad i t ion i n t h e a r ea i n t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod , w h ich i se v iden t f r om t h e c up -ma rk s c onnec ted w i th t h e mega l i th s . Howeve r , t h i st r ad i t ion m igh th ave b een a n t ic ipa ted b y t h er ock p a in t ing s ,o fw h ich s ome p robab ly d a te t ot h e Me sol i th ic .T h i sc ou ld i nf a c tb e o ne o ft h er ea son s b eh ind t h e v e ry s t rong t r ad i t ion o fr ock e ng rav ing s i nt h e a r ea . A s f o r t h e B ronze A ge , t h e p rac t ise o f mak ing r ock e ng rav ings e x is ted t h roughou t t h e p er iod , b u t r eached i t s h e igh t i nt h e M idd le a nd L a te B ronze A ge , when a g ene ra l c hange o fp a t te rn w i th in s e t t lemen t , e conomy a nd b u r ia ls t ook p lace c aused b y t h e i n t roduc t ion n o to n ly o fm e ta lo b jec t si nt h e a r ea b u ta l so b y as e r ie so fn ew e l emen t s w i th in t h ef i e ld so fi d eo logy a nd s o c i a lo rgan iza t ion . A spec ts o n S oc ia l Organ iza t ion F rom t h ed i scus s ion a bove w ec an c onc lude t h a tt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fr ock a r tr ef lec t sa s o r to fh i e ra rch ica l s pa t ia lo rgan iza t ion , w he re t h el a rge s tc l us te ro fr ock a r to ccu r si n t h e a r ea s w he re t h e e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions a s r ega rds p a s to ra l a nd a r ab le l a nd f a rm ing w e re mo s t f avou rab le i nt h e B ronze A ge . J udg ing f r om t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f b ronze o b jec t si ti sa l so e v iden tt h a tt h e se a r ea s , a nd ma in ly t h eT anum p la in ,h ad t h e c harac te ro fa r ea s o fa ccumu la t ion o fw ea l th . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e se c ond i t ion s p romo ted t h er i se o fl o ca lc h ief sa nd l i neage s ,a l though t h e re a r en oe xp re s s ions i nt h e r ock a r tt h a td i rec t ly p rove t h ee x is tence o fs uch p e r sons o rf unc t ions . H oweve r ,t h e re 3 13

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F ig . 1 7 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fl o ca l i t ie s w i th L a te B ronze A ge w a r r io r s ( Tanum c .2 5 , K v i l le 1 5 , S venneby a nd H ogda l 3 ,a l lo t he r s 1 ) .

3 14

a r es ome i nd i rec ta nd d i r ec ts i gn so f ag row ing s o c ia ld iv i s ion a nd i n equa l i ty c onnec ted w i th t h er ock a r t . T he f i r s ti sc on s t i tu ted b yt h er ock a r ti t se lf o r mo re c o r rec t ly b yt h ef a c tt h a ti tmo s t c er ta in ly w a s made b y s pec ia l i s t s . C ra f t s pec ia l iza t ion i su sua l ly t aken a s as i gn o fa s t ra t if ied s oc ie ty o fc h ie fdom t y pe ( J ohan sen 1 981 :166 ) . S ince t h er ock a r t mus th ave c ons t i tu ted a mos t i mpo r tan t e l emen t i n t h e s oc ie ty , t h e p e r son who made t h e e ng rav ing s mu s th ave h ad ap rom inen t p o s i t ion i nt h a ts o c ie ty .T h i sp o s i t ion mus th ave o r ig ina ted n o t o n ly f r om t h e a b i l i ty t o make t h e e ng rav ing s b u t a l so f r om t h e i r c onnec t ion t or i tua l a nd r el ig ion .I tc anno tb ee xc luded t h a tt h es pec ia l is to pe ra ted o na r eg iona ll e ve lo ra tl e a s to n ah i e r a r ch ica ll e ve lw h ich w a ss upe r io rt ot h a tr e p r e sen ted b y t h el o ca l s e t t lemen t .H e r ew ec an d e f ine a ni mpo r tan tf i e ld o fr ock a r tr e sea r ch . I tm igh t b ep o s s ib le t oc ompa re t h et e chn ique sa nd d e s ign so ft h ed i f f e ren te ng rav ing a r ea sa nd f i gu re si no rde rt of i nd o u ti fs eve ra le ng rav ing sh ave b een e xecu ted i nt h es ame m anne r a nd b yt h es ame p e r son . A no the ri mpor tan ta spec to fs oc ia lo rgan iza t ion i st h eo ne e xp re ssed b yt h ew a r r io r s a nd t h eb a t t le s c ene s .I fw ea s sume t h a tt h ed ep ic t ion o fs uch p henomena i nt h er o ck a r t r e s t u pon r e a l a c t ions a nd s i tua t ions , t h en t h e re mus t h ave e x i s ted r ea l w ar r io r s a nd o rgan ized r i va l ry i nt h ea r ea . S i nce s im i la rc ond i t ion sm igh th ave e x i s ted i nB ronze A ge D enma rk , a si se v iden tf r om t h e w ea ro fb ronze s wo rd s ( K r i s t ian sen 1 983 :63 f ) , w e h ave r ea son t ob e l ieve t h a tt h ec ond i t ion sw e r e much t h es ame i nt h es t udy a r ea [ c f .J an l N ordb ladh ' sp ape ri nt h i sv o lume] . T he d ep ic t ion o fb a t t le s c ene s ma in ly r ep re sen ted b yt h e a rmed a nd h o rned o rm a sked m en w i th t h ea ccen tua ted c a lve sa ppea ri ns eve ra lp a r t so f t h e a r ea b u t ma in ly i nK v i l le a nd T anum , a l though t h ere a r e s ome e xamp le s f r om H ogda l , S venneby , S kee , B ro a nd B ra s tad a s w e l l ( F ig . 1 7 ) . T he l a rge -sca le p a t te rn i nd ica te s ar a the rc l o se c on tac tw i th t h e c oa s ta nd m igh ti nd ica te t h a tt h e b a t t les w e re c onnec ted w i th t h e s e a . F u r the rmo re , t h e re a r e s eve ra l b a t t le s c enes c onnec ted w i th s h ips . S ome o ft h e s h ips h ave a l so b een p roposed t ob e w a rc anoe s o f at ype k nown f r om e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s( c f .K je l len & H yen s t rand 1 977 w i th r e f e rence s ) .T h i sm igh t v e ry w e l l b e t r ue , b u t w e a l so w an t t o s ugge s t ad i f f e ren t e xp lana t ion o f t h e b a t t le s c enes a nd t h e w a r r io r s . T he c onnec t ion w i th l ow , w a te r logged a r eas a nd t h e c oas t m igh ti nd ica te t h a tt h er i va l ry w a s c au sed b y t h el a rge a r ea so fa r ab le l a nd w h ich h ad r i sen f r om t h e s ea i nL a te N eo l i th ics a nd i nt h eE a r ly B ronze A ge . S ince t h is l and w a s mo s tv a luab le a nd t h ea cce s st oi th ad n o tb een r egu la ted i tm igh th ave b een ac on s tan t c au se o fr i va l ry d u r ing al o ng p er iod o ft ime ( c f . L indman 1 985 ) .P robab ly t h ew a r r io r s w e re n o t many ,d ue t ot h ec ons ide rab le i nve s tmen ti na rm sa nd o t he re qu ipmen t( t h is i s a l so e v iden t f r om t h e c on t inuous r e -sha rpen ing o f t h e b ronze s wo rds ( K r is t iansen 1 983 :74 ) a nd t h e refo r et h eb a t t le sm igh th ave b een mo re o rl e ss o rgan ized a nd a dap t ed t oc e r ta in r i tua ls a nd t a k ing p la ce a tc e r ta in p l aces l i ke t ho se r ep re sen ted b y t h el a rge r ock c a rv ing s .T he c onnec t ion w i th t h el ow ly ing a r ab le l a nd i so bv iou sf r om t h el a rge n umbe ro fl o ca l i t ie so nt h ew e s ter ne dge o ft h eT anum p l a in h av ing s uch r ep re sen ta t ion s b u t a l so f r om c e r ta in p a r t s o fK v i l le , B ro , B ra s tad a nd H ogda l . S ince t h e m a jo r i ty b e long t ot h ea r ea sw he r et h ee nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion sw e re mo s tf avou rab le i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a tt h es oc ia lo rgan iza t ion w a s mo s t ly e vo lved i nt h i sa r ea s .T he l a ck o fa rmed w a r r io r si na r ea sl i ke S o tenä sa nd l a rge p a r t so fV e t te m igh tr e s tu pon t h ef a c tt h a tm any o ft h e ma jo rs e t t lemen ta r ea st h e re a r e s i tua ted o n af a i r ly h igh l e ve la bove t h es ea ,i . e . a r ea sw h ich h ad b een s e t t led f o r al o ng t ime a nd w he r en ol a nd h ad r i sen f r om t h es e ai n t h eB ronze A ge . I ts e em sa si ft h ew a r r io r sa s ap henomenon b e long t o ar a the rr e s t r ic ted p e r iod o ft ime s i nce a lmo s te ve ry i d en t if iab le w eapon i s as wo rd , o r mo re a ccu ra te ly as hea th h av ing t h e t yp ica lw inged c hape . F ur the rmo re , t h eb os s -or na ted s h ie ld a ppea r s f r equen t ly . I n f a c t , t h e r e semb lance w i th t h e s o -ca l led U rnf ie ld -wa r r io r i sg r ea t ( Co les & H a rd ing 1 979 :357 ) .F rom t h i sr e semb lance a nd f r om t h ei mpor ted p re s t ige b ronze si nt h ea r ea i t 3 15

i so bv iou s t h a tN or the rn B ohu s län w a s a f f ec ted b y g ene ra l t r end s w i th in t h e f i e ld o f i d eo logy a nd s o c ia lo rgan iza t ion i nt h eB ronze A ge o fS cand inav ia a nd We s ter nE u rope . Ano ther o ft h ese p henomena i st h e h o r se a nd t h e moun ted w a r r io r ,o fw h ich t h er e a r e s eve ra le xamp le si nt h er ock a r ta l though t h e moun ted w a r r io r ma in ly s e em st ob eo fa l a te r d a t ing . A cco rd ing t oK r i s t iansen ( 1983 ; 1 984 ) , t h e w a r r io r s h ad al owe r s oc ia l r ank t h an t h er e l ig iou s l e ader s , w ho m igh t i nf a c th ave b een a l so t h ep o l i t ica ll e ade r s i n t roduc ing t h en ew i d eo logy a ccompany ing t h ep r e s t ige o b jec t s . A s f o r t h e a ccumu la t ion o f w ea l th a nd s o c ia l h i e ra rch iza t ion , i t may h ave b een u nde re s t ima ted w hen b a sed o nt h e me ta lo b jec t sf r om t h eB ronze A ge f ound i nt h ea r ea . Ar e cen tf i nd f r om aB ronze Age c a i rn i nL a rko l len i nO s t fo ld o ft wo g o lden f i bu lx , i nd ica te s t h a tt h e re c ou ld e x i s t many r i ch b u r ia l si nt h ec a i rns w h ich h ave n o ty e tb een e xcava ted ( M ikke l sen 1 986b ) . T he re i s at o ta l o f 1 . 215 c a i rn s r eg i s te red i nt h e s t udy a r ea ( Be r t i ls son 1 986a : 6 9 ) , o fw h ich l e ss t han 2% h ave b een e xcava ted i n ap rope r manne r , ma in ly b yH a l l s t röm i nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h ep r esen tc en tu ry b u ts ome a l so i n t h ep rev iou sc en tury . O n ly t h r ee o ft h e se ,i nT anum ,S kee a nd A skum ( O ldeb e rg 1 974 ) , c on ta ined b ronze o b jec t s . H oweve r ,t h ec a i rn se xcava ted w e re n o tv e ry l a rge ,e xcep tf o r t h e t wo a pp rox..2 0 m w ide f r om wh ich t h e me ta l o b jec t s d e r ived . A t Hoghem i n T anum t wo b ronze f i bu la ea nd ag o ld r i ng d a ted t ot h eR oman I r on A ge w e re f ound i na c a i rn wh ich i sv e ry l a rge , a pp rox . 3 5 mw ide ( Be r t i l s son 1 983 w i th r e f e rence s ) . T h i s m igh t i nd ica te t ha t t h e l a rge c a ir n s a r e t he o ne s c on ta in ing t h e r i che s t f i nds , a nd a l though many o f t h em w e re r obbed a s e a r ly a s i np reh is to r ic t imes , t h e re may b e s eve ra l c on ta in ing r i ch f i nd s i nt h e a r ea . N a tu ra l ly w e c anno t d raw a ny c onc lus ion s a bou tt h es oc ia lo rgan iza t ion f r om m i ss ing d a ta ,b u tt h es i ze o ft h ec a i rn i sy e ta no the r f a c to rt h a t may i nd ica te s oc ia lr ank ing .A l though w eh ave n o t made a ny d eepe ra na ly s i s o ft h e s i ze o ft h ec a i rn si nt h e s t udy a r ea , i ti so bv iou s f r om t h el a rge sca le p a t te rn o f d i s t r ibu t ion t h a tt h e re a r es ome v e ry l a rge c l u s te r st h e r e ,e spec ia l ly i nt h en o r the rn p ar t o fT anum h und red a nd i nt h e s ou the rn p a r to fV e t te h und red , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een a s o r t o f b uf f e r z one . T he re i sa l so al a rge c l us te r i nt h e Hogda l a r ea . Howeve r , t h e l a rges t c a i rns a r e n o t s i tua ted i n a ny o f t hose c l us te r s . I n s tead , t h ey b e long t o t h e Kv i l le -Bo t tna a r ea a tS k ibeva l l a nd F jä l lbacka , w he re t wo c a i rns , 6 0 a nd 4 0 mw ide r e spec t ive ly , a r el o ca ted ( Be r t i lsson 1 986a : 6 3 ) .T h i sl a rge -sca le p a t te rn o fd i s t r ibu t ion may r ef lec t as omewha td i f f e ren t s t ruc tur e t h an t h a to fr ock c a rv ing s , as t ruc tu re w i th s oc ia ll e ade r sa nd c h ief so nt h er eg iona ll e ve l .A pa r tf r om p o s s ib le r i ch b u r ia l s ,t h el a rge s i ze i t se lf c ou ld b e a n i nd ica t ion b y wh ich o ne c ou ld d ef ine s oc ia l r ank ing a nd i nequa l i ty . I n ar e cen t s t udy o ft h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd t h e s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i n S öde rman land , t h e i d ea i sp u t f o rwa rd t ha t i tr ef lec t s as oc ie ty w i th b o th t r iba l a nd c h iefdom e l emen t s (W ig ren 1 987 : 1 25 f ) . T he a na ly s i s o f ö s te rgö t land o n t h e s ame s ub jec t s ugge s t s mo re o f as egmen ta ry s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion b a sed o n l i neage s f o rm ing t r ibe s ( La r s son 1 986b : 4 5 ) , w he re t h e r ock c a rv ing s a r ec onnec ted w i th t h eh ighe r , t r iba ll e ve l . E ven t hough w e a g ree a bou t t h e s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i nd ica t ing t r iba l s oc ie t ies i ng ene ra l , i ti sp robab ly f r om t h e a na ly ses a bove t h a tt h er ock c a rv ings i nt h e s t udy a r ea a r e mo re c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e l o ca l s e t t lemen t s o n ar a the rl ow l e ve lo fo rgan iza t ion . T h i s c onc lu s ion c an b ed rawn f r om i n te ra l ia t h e u n ifo rm d i s t r ibu t ion o fb a s ic f i gu re t y pes a mong many o ft h el a rge l o ca l i t ies a nd a l so f r om t h er epea ted o ccu r rence o f mo t if s s uch a sw a r r io r s a nd b a t t le s c ene si nt h e se p ane l s .O nt h eo the rh and ,t h e re m igh th ave e x i s ted ag radua l ly g row ing s oc ia l h i e ra rch iza t ion w i th in t h e a r ea d ue t os i ze a nd q ua l i ty o fo pen l a nd , w h ich i s m i r ro red i nt h ec l us te r ing o fr ock c a rv ing s t ot h e mo s tf avou rab le a r ea s . T he g row ing i n equa l i ty i sa l so s ugge s ted b yt h el a rge rs i ze a nd t h eg r ea te rv a r ia t ion o f mo t if si nt h e c o r ea r ea . A no the ri mpo r tan ts oc ia lf a c to rm igh th ave b een c on s t i tu ted b yt h ec a s t ing o fb ronze , wh ich h a s b een r e co rded i n a tl e a s t t wo p laces i nt h e s t udy a r ea (We i le r 1 984 :67 ) , B okenä s a nd L y se . A l toge the ri th a s b een r e co rded a ta pp rox . 2 5% o ft h ee xcava ted

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s i tes , wh ich m igh ti nd ica te t h e s o c ia l i mpo r tance o ft h i s a c t iv i ty . T he c on t ro l o ft h e manuf ac tu r ing o ft h e se o b jec t s , w h ich w e re u sed i nr i va l ry , h oa rd ing a nd b ur ia l mu s t h ave p romo ted t h er i se o fl o ca l p o l i t ica lp owe r , a r i s toc rac ie s a nd c h ief s . A s w i th t h e r ock c a rv ing s , t h e i ri mpo r tance i sa tl e a s tp ar t ly b a sed o n t h e f unc t ion o ft h e b ronze o b jec t sw i th in t h ef i e ld so fr i tua la nd r e l ig ion , wh ich l e ad su st os ome f i na lc ommen t s o ni d eo logy .

A spec ts o n I deo logy a nd R e l ig ion A s f o ri d eo logy , w e h ave s o f a rd ea l t w i th t h er ock c a rv ing s f r om ag ene ra lp o in t o f v i ew ,i mp ly ing t h a tt h ee ng rav ing sa nd d e s ign sr ef l ec tp henomena o fg rea ti mpor tance f o rt h eB ronze A ge s oc ie ty w i th in t h ef i e ld so fp roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion . A l though w eh ave n o tt r ea ted t h er e l ig iou si mp l ica t ion so fr ock a r te xp l ic i t ly ,w ec on s ide rt h i st o b e a n i s sue o f g rea t i mpo r tance . I n f a c t , A lmg ren 's w ide t r ea tmen t o f t h e r ock a r t , l ook ing f o r p a ra l le ls a nd a na log ies i n o the r c u l tu res a nd r e l ig ion s , v ery c lo se ly r e semb les much o f t h e p re sen t a r chaeo logy , w he re g ene ra l c oncep t s a nd i d eas a nd a n th ropo log ica lp a ra l le l s make u p ama jo rp ar to fr e sea rch ,f o ri n s tance w i th in t h ef i e ld o fB ronze A ge a r chaeo logy . A nd i nt h e s ame w ay a sA lmg ren h a s b een c r i t ic ised f o r mak ing c ompa r i son sb e tween p henomena o fg r ea tv a r ie ty a sr ega rd sc h rono log ica la nd c u l tu ra lc on tex t( A lmg r en 1 927 ) ,s ome o ft h e moder nr e sea rch h a sb een p a r t ly b i a sed i n much t h e s ame w ay ( Broadben t 1 983 ) . Howeve r , i nr ecen t y ea r s t h e re h a s b een a c oncen t ra t ion o n t h e r eg iona l p e r spec t ive ( e .g . We l inde r ( ed ) v a r iou s a r t ic les ) . V e ry l i t t le i nt h e se s t ud ie sh a sd ea l tw i th r e l ig ion a nd t h er e l ig iou sa spec to fa r cheo log ica ld a ta ( c f . Bod i l sen 1 984 ) . A nd f u r the rmo re , w hen a r chaeo log i s t sh ave t r ea ted , f o ri n s tance , b ronze h oa rd s , much o f t h e p e r spec t ive h a s b een d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e e conom ic i mp l ica t ion so ft h ed a ta ( e .g . L evy 1 982 ) . A sf o rt h er ock c a rv ing sa nd r e l ig ion ,t h ep re sen tr e sea rch s i tua t ion h a sb een d esc r ibed a sf o l low s : " The re i st oday ac e r ta in u nan im i ty t h a t mo s tB ronze A ge r ock d raw ing s h ave ar e l ig iou s i mpo r t , r e la ted t of e r t i l i ty , b u t b eyond t h a t n o t much c an b e s a id ( Hu l tk ran tz 1 986 :44 ) . H oweve r , ar e cen t s t udy i nh i s tory o fr e l ig ion ( Gö rman 1 987 ) p o in t sa ta no bv iou sc onnec t ion b e twe en t h er o ck a r t mo t i f sa nd C e l t ic my tho logy . One r eason f o rt h ed i f f icu l t ie s a r chaeo log i s t s h ave i ne xp la in ing t h e m ean ing o ft h e r ock a r ti so bv ious ly r e la ted t ot h ef a c tt h a tw eo n ly h ave t h ev i s ib le r ema ins o fs oc ia l a c t iv i t ies t os t udy w hen a im ing a ta na lyz ing t h er i tua l c on tex t wh ich v an i shed al ong t ime a go . Howeve r , t h i s i st h e s i tua t ion t y p ica lo fa l l a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . I nf a c t , t h er ock a r th a ss ome v e ry p o s i t ive c ha rac te r i s t ic ss i nce i td ep ic t sa nd d e sc r ibe sn o to n ly o b jec t s b u t a l so h umans a nd a n ima ls a c t ing t oge the r a nd , t h e refo re , t h e s c enes a r e t r an sfo rma t ion s o fi mpo r tan t i d ea s a nd b e l ief s i nt h e B ronze A ge . I n o u r o p in ion , a g rea tp a r to ft h ed i f f icu l t ie se ncoun te red i sr e la ted t ot h ec h rono log ica lp rob lem , s i nce a r chaeo log i s t s a r e u sed t od ea lw i th a r tefac t so ra nc ien t monumen t sw h ich h ave b een d a ted a ccu ra te ly , e spec ia l ly i nr e cen ty ea r s , b y t h e a pp l ica t ion o fs c ien t if ic m e thod s me thod s wh ich a r e n o t s u i tab le f o rd a t ing r ock a r t . And s o w e h ave t or e ly mo s t ly o n me thod so fr e la t ive d a t ing . Ano the rr e a son m igh t b e t h e f a c t t h a tt h e e xp lana t ion a nd t h e m ean ing w h ich s ome a r chaeo log i s t sh ave b een l o ok ing f o ri st oo c ompl ica ted o ra tl e a s tn o tp o s s ib le t or evea l ( J ohansen 1 986b ; N o rdb ladh 1 980 ) . A s t ra igh tforwa rd e xp lana t ion o f t h e r ock a r t wou ld b e t h a t t h e re i s ad i rec t c onnec t ion b e tween t h e m ean ing a nd t h e d es ign . F o r i n s tance t h ed ep ic t ion o fs h ie ld s c ou ld v e ry w e l li nd ica te awo r sh ip o ft h a to b jec ta nd t h es ame c ou ld b et r ue o ft h ed ep ic t ion o fh o r se s ,b u l l sa nd o the ra n ima l s .T he d ep ic t ion i sa ne xp re s s ion o ft h ev a lua t ion o ft h ed ep ic ted o b jec to rc r ea tu re a nd mo s tc er ta in ly a d e s ire o fi t .A l though t h e s cenes a r e mo re c omp lex a nd t h e me ssage n o t a lways t h a t e v iden t , i ti so bv iou s t h a t t h e d ep ic t ion o f w a r r io r s , f i gh t ing a nd r i va l ry , d oe s n o t

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me re ly r e f lec tt h ee x i s tence o ft h e se p henomena b u ta l so t h e wo r sh ip o ft h e se e l emen t s . I fw e u se t h e h i s tor ica l me thod w e may p ropo se t h a t t h e se e l emen t s i nt h e r ock a r t r ef l ec t much t h es ame i d eo logy m e tw i th i nt h ei d eo logy a nd r e l ig ion o ft h eV ik ing s .B u t s i nce t he i deo logy b y t hen h ad b een i n s t i tu t iona l ized i n t he h i e ra rch ica l s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a sw e l l a si nt h er e l ig ion i tw a sk nown t oe veryone a lmo s t b y b i r th a nd i mpo sed o nt h em embe r so ft h a tc ommun i ty b yr epea ted s oc ia la c t ion sa nd i n te rac t ion s . Howeve r , i fw e a s sume t ha t t h e r ock a r t r ef lec t s an ew i deo logy a f f ec t ing s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd e conomy i nt h em idd le B ronze A ge ,t h en eed t or epea ted ly c onf i rm t h e n ew h i e ra rch ica lo rde ro fs oc ie ty mu s th ave b een a lmo s tc on s tan ti nt h ei n i t ia lp ha se . C on sequen t ly ,t h is n eed m igh th ave c ons t i tu ted o ne o ft h er ea son sb eh ind t h ed ep ic t ing o fw a r r io r s ,b a t t le -scene sa nd r e la ted d e s igns .T h i sr e la t ive ly s imp le w ay o fe xp la in ing s ome o f t h e i deo log ica l a nd r e l ig ious a spec t s o f t h e r ock a r t d oes n o t e xc lude t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f t h e e x i s tence o f mo re c omp lex s t ruc tu res o f s ymbo ls a nd message s o pe ra t ing w i th in t h e B ronze A ge s oc ie ty . B u t i nt h e s ame w ay a sa r chaeo log i s t s c an g a the r al o to fv a luab le i n fo rma t ion a bou te conomy , s pat ia la nd s o c ia lo rgan iza t ion f r om a r tef ac t sa nd p reh i s to r ic monumen t sw i thou ta ccu ra te k now ledge o ft h eu nde r ly ing i d ea s a nd c on tex t , i no u ro p in ion i ti sp o s s ib le t os ay s ome th ing a bou tt h e g ene ra l i d eo logy r ef lec ted i nt h er ock a r td e s igns o fN or the rn B ohu s län w i thou te xac tk now ledge o ft h e r e l ig iou sb e l ief sa nd t h er i tua lc on tex ti nw h ich t h ey a r ep roduced .

R eferences A lmg ren , B . 1 963 . B ronzeze i tper ioden u nd F e l sze ichnungsda t ierung . S tenc i l . U ppsa la . A lmg ren , 0 . 1 927 . Hä l lr is tn ingar o ch k u l tbruk . K ung l iga V i t terhe t s H is to r ie o ch An t ikv i te t sA kadem iens H and l inga r , 3 5 . S to ckho lm . Ander sson , S . , S andberg , B . , Wigfo r ss , J . , J onsä te r , M . & We i ler , E . 1 979 . I nven te r ing - o ch p rovunde r sökn ing - s l u tunde r sökn ing . Me tod s tud ier . B op la t se r iB ohus län , a n t ikva r iska p rob lem . L äns sere l sen iGö teborgs o ch B ohus l än . R appor t , 3 : 61 -110 . Gö tebo rg . B audou , E . 1 960 . D ie r eg iona le u nd c hrono log ische E in te i lung d er j üngeren B ronze ze i t i m Nord i schen K re i s . A c ta U n ive r s i ta t is S tockho lm iens is . S tud ie s i n No r th E u ropean A rchaeo logy 1 .S tockho lm . B audou , E . 1 968 . F orn t ida b ebygge lse i Ä ngerman land s k us t land . A rk iv f ö r n o r r länd sk h embygd sfo r skn ing XV I I :5 -209 . ö rnskö ld sv ik . B e r t i lsson , U . 1 983 . B ohu s länd ska r ösen -s t ruk tu r , k rono log i , f unk t ion -i n ledn ing t i l l e n a na lys a v B ohus läns b ronsä lder . R appor t f r än XV I Nord iska A rkeo logmö te t . I s land 1 982 . Hu s ,g ärd o ch b ebygge l se : 3 3 -42 . B er t i l sson , U . 1 985 . N y reg is t re r ing a v h ä l lb i lde r iB ohus län 1 982 -83 . A rkeo log i i S ver ige 1 982 -83 , RAÄ o ch SH M M , r appor t RAÄ 1 985 :5 . S tockho lm . p . 2 07 -221 . B er t i ls son , U . 1 986a . H ä l lr i s tn inga r , g rava ro ch b ebygge l se iB ohu s län -e n a na ly s a v r um s l iga s amband .B ebygge l seh is tor i sk t i d skr if t 1 :61 -78 . B e r t i lsson , U . 1 986b . R ock C a rv ings a nd G rave s : S pa t ia l R e la t ionsh ips . Wor /d a nd o b jec t s ; t owa rd s aD ia logue b e tween A rchaeo logy a nd H i s to ry o fR e l ig ion ( ed . G . S t e ins land ) . O s lo . p .9 -20 .

3 1 8

B er t i lsson , U . 1 986c . B ebygge lsemöns ter , b ronsg ju tn ing o ch p a s tora l ism i v ä s t sven sk b ron sä lde r . F öred rag v id d e t 4 :e N ord iska b ronsä lder ssympos ie t ( ed . S . We l inde r ) . V a r ia S e r ie s . O s lo U n ive r s i te t . O s lo . p .9 -20 . B er t i lsson , U . 1 986d . S kä rvs tenshöga r iV äs t sve r ige . S kvärvs tenshög o ch s kär v s tensva l l ,p ägäende a rkeo log i sk f or skn ing ( e d . T .B .La r sson ) . S ödennan land s mu seum . R appo r t 8 : 16 -23 .N yköp ing . B e r t i lsson , U . 1 987 . T he R ock C arv ings o f Nor thern B ohu s län . S pa t ia l S t ruc tures a nd S oc ia lS ymbo l s . S tockho lm S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy 7 .S tockho lm . B e r t i ls son , U . 1 988 . R o ck -a r t D es ign s . I deo logy a nd S oc ie ty i nt h e B ronze Age o f We s te rn Sweden . ( I np re s s ) . B od i lsen , I .1 984 . A r chaeo logy a nd r e l ig ion d ur ing t h e p a s t 2 0 y ea r s . K on tak t s tenc i l 2 6 -27 :16 -40 . T u rku ( Abo ) . B r ia rd ,J .1 979 . T he B ron ze A ge o fB arbar ian E urope . L ondon . B roadben t , N . 1 983 . T oo many c h ief s a nd n o t e nough i nd ian s . Ap er iphe ra l v i ew o f No rd ic B ronze A ge s oc ie ty . S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ronsä ld erns s amhä l le . R epo r tS er ies N o . 1 7 : 7 -22 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . B urenhu l t , G . 1 980 . G ö ta land s h ä l l r i s tn inga r , I .T he R ock C ar v ings o f G ö ta land , P a r tI .T he se sa nd P ape r si nN o r th E u ropean A rchaeo logy 1 0 .S tockho lm . C a r l sson , D . 1 983 . B ron sä lde rn -t i den f ö rk u l tu r land skape t st e r r i to r ie l la f r amväx to ch e tab le r ing p ä Go t land . S t ruk tur o ch f örändr ing i b ronsä lderns s amhä l le . R epor t sS e r ie s N o . 1 7 :23 -36 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . C o le s , J .& H a rd ing , A . 1 979 . T he B ronze A ge i n E urope . A n i n t roduc t ion t o t h e p reh i s to ry o fE u rope c2 000 -700 B .C . L ondon . E ckhof f , E . 1 879 -1880 . Q v i l le h ä rad s f a s ta f o rn lemn inga r . B id rag t i l l k ännedom o m Gö teborgs -o ch B ohu , s län sf ornm innen o ch h i s tor ia . H6 : 117 -192 . F röd in , 0 . 1 908 . T anum s h ä rad . S t enä lde r .B idrag t i l lk ännedom om G ö t eborgs - o ch B ohu s läns f ornm innen o ch h i s tor ia . B d . 8 . 1908 -1913 :371-472 . Gö tebo rg . G rä s lund , B . 1 983 . J o rd f ä s tn ing o ch l i kb ränn ing . V ägen t i l l l i ve t e f te rd e t ta , s peg la ti b ronsä lderns o ch s t enä lderns g raysk ick . F oredrag v ed d e t I . Nord iske B ronzea lder -sympos ium p ä I s egran 1 977 . V a r ia 9 . U n ive r s i te te t s O ld sak s s am l ing . O s lo . Gö rmann , M . 1 987 . N ord isk t o ch k e l t isk t . S yd skand inav isk r e l ig ion u nde r y ng re b ronsä lde ro ch k e l t i sk j ä rnä lde r .D i s s .L und . H a l ls t röm , G . 1 917 . T anum s h ä rads b ronsä lde r sg rava r . Gö teborgs o ch B ohus läns F ornm innesf ören ings T id sk r if t1 917 . G ö tebo rg . Hu l tk ran tz , A . 1 986 . R ock D raw ing s a sE v idence o fR e l ig ion : S ome P r inc ipa l P o in t s o f V iew . Wor ld a nd o b jec t s ; t owa rd s aD ia logue b e tween A rchaeo logy a nd H is to ry o fR e l ig ion ( e d . G . S t e in s land ) . O s lo .p .4 3 -66 . H yen s t rand , A . C en t ra lbygd -Randbygd . S t ruk ture l la , e konom i ska o ch a dm in i s tra t iva h uvud l in jer im e l lan svensk y ngre j ärnä lder . R ock -ca rv ing s a nd B ronze Age S oc ie ty i nS ou th - We s te rn U pp land . S tockho lm . Hyens t rand , A . 1 979 . Om b op la t s inven ter ing iB ohus län . B op la t se r iB ohus län , a n t ikva r iska p rob lem . L äns s tyre l sen iGö teborgs o ch B ohus l än . R appor t 3 : 12 -24 . Gö tebo rg . J ohansen , 0 . 1 981 . Me ta l lfunene iO s tno r sk b ron sea lde r . ( The m e ta l f i nds o ft h eE a s t Norweg ian B ronze A ge ) . U n iver s i te te t sO ld sak s sam l ings S k r if ter No . 4 .O s lo . J ohansen , 0 . 1 986 . T id l ig m e ta l lku l tu r iA gde r . U n iver s i te te t s O ld sak ssam l ings S kr tf ter .N yr ekke . N r . 8 : 19 -86 . O s lo . K je l l6n , E . & H yens t rand , A . 1 977 . H ä l l r is tn inga r o ch b ronsä lder s samhä l le i s ydvä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sF ornm inne sf ören ings T id skr if t 4 9 . U pp sa la . K r i s t iansen , K . 1 982 . T he i n fo rma t ion o ft r iba l s y s tem s i nl a te rE u ropean p reh i s tory : n o r the rn E u rope 4 000 -500 B .C . T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy ( ed s . C . R enf rew e t a l . ) .L ondon . p .2 41 -280 . 3 19

K r is t iansen , K . 1 983 . K r ige r o g h ovd ing iD anma rk s b ronzea lde r . S truk tur o ch f örändr ing i b ronsä lderns s amhä l le . Un ive rs i ty o f L und . I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy . R epor tS e r ie sN o . 1 7 :63 -87 .L und . K r is t iansen , K . 1 984 . I deo logy a nd ma ter ia l c u l ture : a n a rchaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive . Marx is t P er spec t ives i n A rchaeo logy ( ed . M . S pr igg s ) . N ew D i rec t ions i nA r chaeo logy . C amb r idge .p .7 2 -100 . L a r sson , T .B . 1 983 . S a rnhä l lsfö ränd r ing b ron sä lde r jä rnä lde r . E n s t ruk tu rana ly s med u tgäng spunk t f r än Ö s tergö t land I . S t ruk tur o ch f örändr ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l le . R appo r t f r än d e t t r ed je n o rd iska s ympo s ie t f ö r b ronsä lde r sfo r skn ing i L und 2 3 -25 a pr i l 1 982 . Un ive r s i ty o f L und . I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy . R epo r t S er ie s N o . 1 7 :96 -105 . L a r s son , T .B . 1 986a . T he B ronze A ge Me ta lwork o fS ou thern Swed en . A spec t s o f S oc ia la nd S pa t ia l O rgan iza t ion 1 800 -500 B .C . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t 6 . Umeä . L a r sson , T .B . 1 986b . B o sä t tn ing o ch e konom i iö s t ra Ö s te rgö t land u nde r y ng re b ron sä lde r .B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk T id sk r if t N r . 1 :35 -48 . L a r sson , T .B , 1 986c . P roduk t ion o ch a ckumu la t ion : e n r ums l ig a na lys a v b ronsa r tefak ter . F öredrag v id d e t 4 :e N ord iska b ronsä lderssympos ie t ( e d . S . We l inde r ) . V a r ia S e r ie s . O s lo U n ive r s i te t . O s lo . p .1 7 -31 . L evy , J .E . 1 982 . S oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious o rgan iza t ion i n B ronze A ge Denmark . A n a na lys is o f r i tua l h oard f i nd s . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s . I n te rna t iona l S er ies 1 24 . O xfo rd . L indman , G . 1 985 . F örh i s tor i ska a ggre s s ionss t ruk turer id e tv ä s t sven ska l a nd skape t . GOTARC . S er ie sB . Go thenbu rg A rchaeo log ica lT he se s No . 2 . Gö tebo rg . L jungne r , E . 1 938 -1939 . T er räng o ch j o rod b ruk sbebygge lse iB ohus län . B ohus läns F ornm inne s -o ch H embygd sf örbund sA r sbok . V ika rve t . L y sek i l . L undma rk , H . 1 984 . Am e thod o f a na lyz ing h i e ra r ch ica l o rgan iza t ion i ns e t t lemen t p a t terns . P aper s i n Nor thern A rchaeo logy . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t 2 : 11 -22 . Umeä . Ma lme r , M .P . 1 957 . P le ionbeg reppe ts b e tyde lse f ö r s t ud ie t a v f ö rh is to r iska i nnova t ionsfö r lopp .F in ska F ornm inne sf ören ingen sT id skr if t 5 8 :160 -184 . Ma lme r , M .P . 1 970 . B rons r is tn inga r . K um l 1 970 :189 -210 . Ma lmer , M .P . 1 981 . AC horo log ica lS tudy o fN or th E uropean R ock A r t . KVHAA :s h and l inga r . A n t ikva r iska s e r ien No . 3 2 . S tockho lm . Mand t -La r sen , G . 1 972 . B ergb i lder iHorda land , e n u nder söke l se a v b i ldenes s ammanse tn ing , d eres n a turm i l j0 o g k u l turm i l j0 . Ä rsbok f o r u n ive rs i te te t i B e rgen . H um . S e r . 1 970 . N o . 2 .B e rgen . Ma r s t rande r , S . 1 963 . O süb ld sj ordbruk sr ia tn inger . S k jebe rg . 2v o l . I n s t i tu t te t f o r S a rnmen l ignende K u l tu r fo r skn ing .S e r ie B : S k r if te rL II I .O s lo . M ikke lsen , E . 1 985 . G u l lspenen f r a b ronsea lde ren iL a rko l len . R ygg , O s tfo ld . V ik ing 1 985 /86 :31 -68 . M ikke lsen , E . 1 986 . R e l ig ion a nd E co logy Mo t if s a nd L oca t ion o f Hun te r R ock C arv ing s i nE a s tern No rway . Wor ld a nd o b jec t s ; t owa rd s aD ia logue b e tween A rchaeo logy a nd H i s to ry o fR e l ig ion ( ed . G . S t e in s land ) . O s lo .p .1 27 -141 . Mon te l ius , 0 . 1 874 -1883 . B ohus ländska h ä l l r is tn inga r . A f tecknade a f L . B a l tze r . 1 -2 . B idrag t i l l k ännedom om Gö teborgs - o ch B ohus läns f ornm innen o ch h i s tor ia . B and 1 .1 874 -79 :146 -165 ; 4 23 -424 . B and 2 .1 879 -83 :58 . Mon te l ius , 0 . 1 876 . B ohus länd ska f o rnsake r f r än h edna t iden . 1 7 . T anum s h ä rad , T anum s s ocken . B idrag t i l l k ännedom om Gö teborgs - o ch B ohus läns f ornm innen o ch h i s tor ia 1 874 -94 . No rdb ladh , J . 1 975 . T um lehed T o r s landa 2 16 . H ä l lmä ln ing , s t enä lde r /b ronsä lde r . B eskr ivn ing , d a ter ing , u tvä rder ing . F yndrappo r ter 1 975 . R appor ter ö ver Gö tebo rg s a r keo log i ska mu se iu nde r sökn inga r . G ö tebo rg . p .7 9 -84 ; 8 6 -91 . 3 20

No rdb ladh , J .1 980 . G lyf er o ch r um . K r ing h ä l lr is tn ingarna iK v i l le . G lyphs a nd S pace . Wi th r e f e rence t o t h e P e t rog lyphs o f K v i l le , B ohus län , Sweden . P ub l . a tt h eD epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fG o thenbu rg . G ö tebo rg . No rdb ladh , J .1 987 . B i rd , F i sh o r S omewhe re i n B e tween? T he C a se o f t h e R ock P a in t ings o f t he Swed ish Wes t C oa s t . T heore t ica l A pproaches t o A r tef ac t s , S e t t lemen t a nd S oc ie ty . S tud ies i n Honour o f Ma t s P . Ma lmer . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s3 66 . O xfo rd . O ldebe rg , A . 1 974 -1976 . D ie ä l tere Me ta l lze i t i n S chweden I I I . KVHAA . S tockho lm . P e t te r sson , J .1 984 . Mä tvä rden p ä h ä l l r i s tn ingen J ä r res tad , S käne -t i l l f r ägan om h ä l l r i s t fo r skn ingen sm e tod ik .F ornvännen 7 9 :197 -199 . R enf rew , C . 1 977 . S pace , T ime a nd P o l i ty . T he E vo lu t ion o fS oc ia lS y s t ems ( e d s . J . F r iedman & M .J . R ow land s ) . L ondon . R enf rew , C . 1 984 .A pproache st oS oc ia lA rchaeo logy . E d inbu rgh . S ognes , K . 1 984 . K u l tu r land skap , b e rgkuns t o g b o se tn ing iS jo rda l ib ronsea lde ren . V ik ing 4 7 :136 -148 . We i ler , E . 1 984 . B rons - o ch j ä rnä lde r -t i den 1 500 f .K r . -1000 e .Kr . F rän f l in t verk s tad t i l lp roce s s indus t r i . D e f ö r s t9 000 A r en iV äs t sver ige s peg lade iUV V ä s t su nde r sökn inga r 1 968 -1980 . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t .K ung sä lv . We l inder , S . 1 975 . P reh i s tor ic A gr icu l ture i n E as tern M idd le Sweden . A c ta a r chaeo log ica L unden s ia , 8m ino r e4 .L und . We l inde r , S . 1 977 . E konom iska p rocesser if örh is tor isk e xpans ion . Acta a r chaeo log ica L unden s ia , 8m ino re 7 .L und . We l inde r , S .( ed . ) 1 986 . F öred rag v id d e t4 :e N ord iska b ronsä ld er ssympos ie t . V ar ia S e r ie s . O s lo Un ive r s i te t . O s lo . Wig ren , S . 1 987 . S örm länd sk b ronsä lder sbygd . E n s t ud ie a v t i d iga c en t rum b i ldn inga rd a te rade m ed t e rmo lum in ie scen s . T he s i sa nd P ape r si n No r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 6 . S tockho lm . Winbe rg , B . 1 979 . T jus tbygden s b ron sä lde r -n äg ra k ommen ta re r k r ing i r e k a r to r . T jus tbygden . V ä s te rv ik . p .2 9 -43 .

3 21

A pp roache st oS wed i sh P reh i s tory ,B .A .R . ,O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p .3 23 -333 .

AR MOUR AND F IGHT ING I N THE SOUTH SCANDINAV IAN BRONZE AGE , ESPEC IALLY I N V IE W OF ROCK ART REPRESENTAT IONS By J an lNordb ladh *

B y c ompa r ing wha t i sd ep ic ted i nr o ck a r t w i th wha t i sk nown a bou t a rmou r f r om c on tempo ra ry g rave sa nd h oa rd s ,t h ea u tho ra t temp t st od emon s t ra te d i f f e r en ts t ruc tu r e s o fe qu ipmen t ,t hu sh e lp ing t oi d en t if yt h er o le o fw a r r io r si nt e rm so fi n d iv idua le f f o r t s a nd s oc ia le f f ec t s . T he s ou the rn S cand inav ian p e t rog lyph s h ave b een c on s ide r ed t ob e c onnec ted w i th f e r t i l i ty c u l t s i nd i f f e r en t f o rm s . B e s ide s c h rono log ica l s t ud ie s , t h e d i scu s s ion s h ave b een c oncen t ra ted o np henomena -r e la ted q ue s t ion sc oncer n ing t h eh i s to ry o fr e l ig ion ( e .g .A lmg r en 1 934 ,A l th in 1 945 , Ma r s t rande r 1 963 ,G lob 1 969 ) . I nt h i ss t udy -o f ap r e l im ina ry n a tu r e -Iw i l lt r yt od emon s t ra te t h ep o ten t ia lo fr o ck a r tf o rp u rpo se so fa no the rk ind , ma in ly t oi n ve s t iga te wha ts o r to fk now ledge t h ey c an g ive u s a bou t a rmou r , t e chn ique s a nd w ay s o ff i gh t ing , a nd a l so t ou se t h is k ind o f i n f o rma t ion i nt h eg ene ra ls e a r ch f o r wha tw ec a l lt h eB ronze A ge s oc ie ty . I fd i f f e r en t ma te r ia l s f r om t h es ame a r ea a nd p er iod e x i s t , t h ey s hou ld b ec ompa r ed a nd a na ly sed i nt e rm so fp o s s ib le i n teg ra t ion . I s o la ted ma ter ia l s uch a sr o ck a r to f ten t e nd s t o l i ve a l i f e o f i t s o wn . T he a im o f t h i s e s say i st o b r ing t oge the r t h r ee a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l s , a l l o f wh ich h ave s ome i d eo log ica l s i gn if icance : r o ck a r t , w eapon g rave s , a nd w eapon h oa rd s . A l l h ave o nce b een p a r t o fi n f o rma t ion a nd c ommun ica t ion n e two rk sf o rk eep ing s oc ie ty t oge the rt h rough s ymbo l ic m ean sa bove t h el e ve l o fs e lf -suff ic iency ( No rdb ladh 1 978 , N o rdb ladh 1 980 ) . A re t h e se n e two rk s c ong ru en to rd i ve rgen t ?A r et h ey i nc onf l ic to rd ot h ey r e inf o r ce e a ch o t he r ? T he p r eh i s to r ic ma te r ia lu sed h e r eh a sb een c ho sen f r om t h es ame ma in r e g ion a r ound t h e K a t tega t S ea i n S ou ther n S cand inav ia . H oweve r , t h e r e g ion c ove r s d i f f e ren t s uba r ea s , d epend ing o n a r chaeo log ica l a cce s s t or e l iab le a nd w e l l -o rgan ized s ou r ce m a te r ia l .T h ep e t rog lyph sw h ich a r eg o ing t ob ec on s ide r ed a r ea l l f r om t h es ma l la r ea , c a l led K v i l le h und r ed ,d i rec t ly s ou th o ft h e mo r e f amou sa r ea o fT anum i nB ohu s län , Sweden ( Rock C a rv ing s , K v i l le h und r ed , S venneby ,B o t tna a nd K v i l le p a r i she s 1 971 , 1 975 , 1 981) . T he w eapon ma te r ia l u sed i st a ken f r om t h e e no rmou s wo rk o fE . Ane r a nd K . K e r s ten o nt h eE a r ly B ronze Age i nD enma rk a nd N o r ther nG e rmany ( Ame r&K e r s ten 1 973 , 1 976 , K r is t ian sen 1 982 ) . T he f i nd ing s a r e f r om t wo c a tego r ie s : g r ave s a nd h oa rd s . S ome i mpo r tan tp rob lem so fs ou r ce c r i t ic i sm mu s tb es t a ted a to nce .D e sp i te e xc e l len t p ub l i shed m a te r ia l ,m any f i nd c i r cum s tance sr ema in u nc lea r .

*D epa r tm en to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fG o thenbu rg 3 23

To be usable these have to be connected with clearer existing categories of material and finds, or they have to be excluded from analysis in this study. This results, for example, in statistical presentations which probably would be different for different researchers. These presentations, therefore, cannot be regarded as absolute. Furthermore, it is not certain that the general situation of finds in Zealand, Denmark, is representative of the situation in Bohuslan, where both hoards and grave goods of the Bronze Age are extremely rarely found. This rariety of finds is believed - among other things - to be a consequence of the location of the graves, with cairns high up on the tops of the hills, giving very poor condition of conservation compared to Danish mounds. However, the existing finds are of good quality and quite possible to compare with the Danish material. Finally there is a chronological problem - of course - which I believe to be rather difficult to solve with regard to the petroglyphs themselves. They seem to have been made over a long span of time, the cupmarks certainly over a thousend years. However, the main mass of figures can be dated approximately to within a couple of hundred years on either side of 1000 B.C. The petroglyph material is, therefore, chronologically mixed. But the figures and motifs are integrated and sometimes they even show modifications in form, e.g. the stems of ships may be prolonged. It is interesting to observe that one and the same site has accumulated glyphs of different ages. There may very well have been variations in the reasons for image production, but the continiuous use of the sites is very evident. The Danish bronze material used in this paper is from the Early Bronze Age, when graves and hoards are abundant and unusually rich in objects. During the Late Bronze Age the situation was quite the opposite. H.C. Broholm, a Danish researcher, found that about 50% of all Danish graves from Montelius' period II contained swords and about 40% during the next period. In contrast, period IV had about 2% sword-graves and period V less than 1%. In absolute numbers Broholm counted 1,079 Danish Early Bronze Age weapon graves and only 31 for the later periods (Baudou 1960: 115).

Table J. Male weapon graves from the Early Bronze Age, Zealand, Denmark. Total of 694 possible graves [source: Aner & Kersten 1973, 1976]. SWORD 420 i:e 3 14 1 2

65%

DAGGER 12

2 201 6 1

S"l

SPEAR

AXE

SHIELD

HELMET

BOW/ARROW

DOG

BOAT

HORSE

WAGON 61%

2%

3

14 2

1

6 14

1

16

3%

4

6%

1%

324

*% 2% *% *% 29% 1% *% 2% 2% 1%

Ane r 's a nd K e r s ten 's c ommen ted c a ta logue s g ive t h e f o l low ing p i c tu r e : f r om 6 94 p o s s ib le ma le g rave s , 6 5% c on ta in a s wo rd a s as i ng le w eapon o r i n d i f f e ren t c omb ina t ion s . D agg e r sa r e f ound i n3 3% o ft h eg rave s . S ome d agge r s may b e long t o f ema le g rave s ,b ecau s et h ed agge rw a su sed b yb o th m a le sa nd f ema le sa tt h i st ime . A cco rd ing ly ,s wo rd sa nd /o rd agge r sa r et h e mo s tc ommon w eapon si ng rave s( 95% ) . I na dd i t ion ,t h e r ea r e af ew o t he ri t em ss uch a sa x e s ,s p ea rhead sa nd a r rowhead s .T he r e i sn o b ody a rmou r s uch a s t h e c u i ra s s , n o h e lme t s a nd n o s h ie ld s ( Ane r& K e r s ten 1 973 , 1 976 ) . T he w eapon su sed p r inc ipa l ly s e em t oh ave b een f o ra t tack ing . D ef en s ive s t ra teg ie s c ou ld b e al a te rp henomenon .

T ab le 2 . H oa rd s w i th w eapon s . E a r ly B o rnze A ge , Z ea land , D enma rk . T o ta l o f2 18 p o s s ib le h oa rd s [ s ou r ce : Ane r &K e r s ten 1 973 , 1 976 ] .

S WOR D

D AGGER

S PEAR

A XE

S HIELD

H ELMET

B OW/ARROW

DOG

BOA T

H ORSE

W AG ON

2 2 2

2

4 1

1

4

4

1

1

2 % * % 4 %

9 2 5 3

3 1 52

1 3%

5 %

1 5%

7 4%

T he p i c tu r eg i ven f o rt h ec ompo s i t ion o fh oa rd si sq u i te d i f f e r en t . F rom 2 18 a na ly sed f i nd s ,a x e s( 74% ) ,s pea rhead s( 1 5% )a nd s wo rd s( 13% )a r e mo s tf r equen t . D agge r sa r e f ew , a nd t h e i rc o -ex i s tence w i th o t he rw eapon si sa l so r a r e . T he h oa rd so f ten c on ta in s i ng le p i ece s ,b u t af ew f i nd sa r e mo s tr ema rkab le , o ne h av ing a bou t 1 00 a xe sa nd 6 0 s pea rhead s( Ane r&K a r s ten 1 973 , 1 976 ) . T he s ame k i nd so fw eapon sa r ef ound i nt h e g rave sa si nt h eh oa rd s ,b u tt h ep ropo r t ion sa r ed i f f e r en t . Axe s a nd s pea rhead s c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s t oo ls a nd i nh un t ing , a nd p robab ly c oncea l d epo s i t ion s m ade f o rm any r e a son s . I ts e em s p o s s ib le t or ega rd s ome o ft h e f i nd so fl a rge n umbe r so rs pea rhead s mo r ea s as upp ly o fs pec if ic , c o l lec t ive w eapon s , u s ed b yo t he rw i se u na rmed m embe r so ft h el o ca lp opu la t ion . S umm ing u pt h eD an i sh g rave ma ter ia l ,w es e et h a t9 5% o fa l l ma le g rave sa na ly sed c on ta in p o in ted a nd c u t t ing w eapon s i nt h e f o rm o fs wo rd s a nd d agge r s s u i tab le f o r o ne -handed u se i nc l o se f i gh t ing . T hey a l low o ne a rm t ob ek ep tf r ee f o ra na dd i t iona l w eapon o fa t tack o rd ef ence . B u tt h is i sv e ry s e ldom d emon s t ra ted b yt h e f i nd s . Two a t tack w eapon sw i th t h es ame r a nge a nd u sed a tt h es ame t ime s epa ra te ly b yt wo a rm s d o n o t f unc t ion v e ry w e l l . T he d agger i sp r inc ipa l ly as hor t s wo rd , b u t i tr equ ir e s a c l o se rf i gh t ing s i tua t ion a nd i sn o ta ss pec ta cu la ra st h es wo rd .T he a x e u se s af i gh t ing s pace o ft h es ame r a ng ea st h es wo rd . T he t wo w eapon su sed f o rg r ea ter d i s tance sa r e t h e s pear , w h ich o f ten s e ems t ob eo f al a nce k i nd a nd n o t f o rt h row ing , a nd t h e b ow a nd a r row , i n d ica ted o n ly b yf l in ta r rowhead s ,u sua l ly o n ly o ne . 3 25

A l though w eapon s m ay b es e en a ss e t s o fp e r sona l e qu ipmen t , a sw a s c e r ta in ly t h e c a s e ,a l lw eh ave i st h es p ec if ic s i tua t ion c r ea ted b yt h ef une ra lc e r emony . Mo s tB ronze Age m en f ound i ng rave sp robab ly h ad ac omp r ehen s ive a nd f l uc tua t ing c o l lec t ion o f a im sa sw e l la sp r ec iou so b jec t so fw h ich o n ly p a r t sa ccompan ied t h ed ead p e r son t ot h e g rave . T he ma in c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h eg rave ma te r ia l i s as i ng le w eapon i n d ica t ing t h e s oc ia lp o s i t ion o ft h ed ecea sed i nt e rm so ff une ra lc oven t ion s .I fs eve ra lw eapon sw e r e l a id i n t h e g rave , t h i s p robab ly i nd ica ted ah i e ra rcy o fw eapon p r ef e r ence o r t h e s equence o fw eapon u se i nf i gh t ing . N o s e t s o fs eve ra l p i ece s o ft h e s ame w eapon e x is t , a s c ompa red t oG reece ( Ma t thäu s 1 983 ) . T he f i gh t ing s i tua t ion , a sw ha t t h e g rave st e l lu s ,w a so ne o fc l o se c on tac t ,o fa na t ta ck ing n a tu r e . I ti sa l so n o tewo r thy t h a t t h e r ei sn oi n d ica t ion o fd og s ,b oa t s ,h o r se so rw agon s ,a sc an b es e en l a te r ,d ur ing t h e I r on Age . I fw en ow t u rn t ot h ep e t rog lyph ma te r ia l , t h eK v i l le h und r ed i s ar a the rs ma l la r ea o f a bou t 2 50 km 2.T he q uan t i ty o fk nown p e t rog lyph s i te s i s4 58 , w i th 6 98 d e l im i ted i mage so f af ew t h ou sand s i gn s , a l lw i th in a na r ea o f1 0b y 1 5k i lome te r s( No rdb ladh 1 980 : 2 2 ) . T he s i te s w e r e c r ea ted i n land , b u t n o t f a r f r om t h e s ea , t h e a ve rage d i s tance b e ing a bou t5 00 m e te r s . T he s i te sa r es oc l o se t oe ach o t he rt h a t9 5% o ft h em h ave l e s st h an 1 , 000 m e te r sa sa na ve rage d i s tance t ot h e i rf i ve c l o se s tn e ighbou r s( No rdb ladh 1 980 : 3 3 ) . I ft h es i te st h a to n ly h ave c upma rk sa r ed i s r ega rded , 7 2% o ft h ei mage sh ave f i gu r e s o fs h ip s , 3 0% h ave h uman f i gu r e s , 2 2% h ave w i ld o rt ame a n ima l s , 9% h ave f o o tp r in t s a nd 9% ac i r c le w i th ac r o s s( No rdb ladh 1 980 : 3 5 ) .T he i mag e sa r ec on s i s ten t ly r i ch i n i c on ic f i gu r e sa nd v a ry w i th in t h e i rl im i t so fc onven t ion .T o ta l ly i d en t ica li mage sd on o t e x i s t ,o n ly i d en t ica lf i gu r e s . T he s i te s a r e s i tua ted i n al a nd scape c ha ra c te r ized b yt h e c l o sene s s t ot h es ea , w i th w ide sp r ead h i l l sa nd v a l ley si nb e tween . U po nt h et o po ft h eh i l l s 1 61 c a i rn sa r et ob e f ound t o day ,h a lf o fw h ich a r es i tua ted i nt h ec oa s ta la r ea a nd t h eo t he rh a lf c l o se t ot h e p e t rog lyph s i te s , b u ta th ighe ra l t i tude s( No rdb ladh 1 980 :40 ) . T h is i sc l ea r ly aB ronze Ag el a nd scap e ,r i ch i np r eh i s to r ic r ema in s ! I ts hou ld b em en t ioned t h a tt h ep e t rog lyph s i te sd on o tt o ta l ly o re ven m a in ly s how u s s c ene s o fa n a gg r es s ive n a tu re . Human f i gu ra t ion s d emon s t ra t ing u na rmed m en a r e a lmo s ta sc ommon a sa rmed m en i nd i f f e r en ts i tua t ion s . A s t h e g rave s a nd maybe t h e h oa rd s s eem o n ly t o g ive u s i nf o rma t ion a bou t i nd iv idua l s , t h e p e t rog lyph s may g ive u s aw ide rs oc ie ta l s cope i n c lud ing t h eu se o f s h ip s , w agon sa nd h o r se s . N oa rmed m en a r ed ep ic ted i nc onnec t ion w i th h o r se s a nd w agon s . Mo s tw a r r io r sa r es hown o nl a nd a nd n o t o nb oa rd as h ip . Abou t4 7% o ft h e a rmed m en h ave o n ly as wo rd h ang ing f r om t h ec he s to rw a i s t .A s ama t te ro ff a c t ,i ti s t h es hea th wh ich i si n d ica ted ,s ome t ime sw i th ap ronounced f e r ru le .T h i sf i t sw e l lw i th t h e g rave p i c tu r e . B u t i nt h e p e t rog lyph s , s pea r s a nd a xe s a nd b ow s a nd a r row s a r e mo r e c ommon , a nd s h ie ld sa nd h e lme t sa r e q u i te n ew i nd ica t ion s o ft h ew a r r io r . N o d agge r sa r ep r e sen ti nt h ep e t rog lyph s . On b oa rd t h es h ip s -t h e mo s t c ommon i c on ic s i gn o ft h ep e t rog lyph s -a l l k i nd s o f w eapon sa r e d ep ic ted , w i th as l igh tp r edom inance f o rs wo rd s a nd a xe s . S h ie ld s may e x is tw i th a ny w eapon , a sw e l la sh e lme t s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h eb ow a nd a r row . T he mo s tc omp r ehen s ive e qu ipmen ti st h es wo rd ,a x e ,s h ie ld a nd h e lme t . S umm ing u pw ha tt h ep e t rog lyph ss how u s i nt e rms o fw eapon s a nd c omb ina t ion s , w es e et h a tt h er e su l to ft h ea na ly s i sf r om t h eg rave sa nd t h eh oa rd si sc onf i rmed i nt h e i mag e s . B u tw e a l so f i nd t h a t t h e a xe s a nd s pea r s s e em t ob eu sed mo re a cco rd ing t ot h e se s c ene st h an t h eo t h e rt y pe o ff i nd si n d ica te .D ef ence a rmou rs u ch a ss h ie ld sa nd h e lme t s s e em s v e ry i mpor tan t i nt h e f i gh t ing . And f i na l ly , t h e re s e em t oh ave b een m any s im i la r i t ie sb e tw een f i gh t ing o nl a nd a nd a ts e a . T he f i gh t ing s c ene ss how f ew c omba tan t s ,s e ldom mo r et h an t h r ee a t at ime a nd mo s t 3 2 6

o f ten i np a i r s . I ft h e r ea r e mo r et h an t wo p e r son s , t h e t h i rd l ook s mo r el i ke a na rmed s e cond . Mo s tp a i r ss e em t oh ave t h es ame a rmamen t s ,b u td i f f e r en ce sa r ea l so n o tab le . T he s c ene s -i fp r es e rva t ion i sg ood -s how t h ee qu ipmen tv e ry c l ea r ly ,o f t en r a i sed

T ab le 3 . C omb ina t ion s o fw eapons a nd men a cco rd ing t op e t rog lyph s o f K v i l le h und red , B ohu s län , Sweden [ s ou r ce : R ock C a rv ing s ,K v i l le h und red , 1 971 , 1 975 , 1 981] .

S WORD

DAGGER

SPEAR

AXE

S HIELD

HELMET

BOW/ARROW

DOG

ON

BOAT

ON

HORSE-BACK

8

1 33

9 1 5

2 6

ON WAGON

4 7%

3

3 %

6

6 %

3 2

9 10

1

2'

2 2 0

20

2 8

4 2 8

1 2

2 1 2

6

6

3

1 3

3

1

1

1

1

1 1

2

1

2

1

2 1

1

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

7 4%

0 %

7 %

2 1

1

1

1

1 4%

2 1%

1 0%

a rmed m en :228,

1

1

7 %

1 %

i solated s word i mages:4,

1 2%

i solated s hield I mages:9.

o ve rt h eh ead so ft h ec omba tan t s .T he f i gh te r sa r eo fe qua ls i ze a nd t h ew eapon sd on o t t ouch o ne a no the r ,o rt h eb od ie s . I ti st h ea c to ff i gh t ing wh ich i sd emon s t ra ted -n o tt h e r e a son , c ou r se , o rr e su l t . T he f i gh ter sa l so s e em t ob e long t o ag ene ra lc a tego ry , a nd i t i sn o tp o s s ib le t od i scer ns pec i f ic i n d iv idua l s . F igh t ing a ts ea i s as p ec ia lc a se , whe r e f i gh t ing c an b ed i scer n ed ,b ecau se mo s to f ten t h e f i gh te r s a r e s e en o n b oa rd as i ng le s h ip . Howeve r , t h e r e a r e n o p e t rog lyph s o f e ncoun te r sb e tween f i gh t ing s h ip s . On ly af ew m embe r so ft h ec r ew -who a r el a rge rs e em t ob ea rmed . F igh t ing o ns h ip si sr e duced t ot h ed emon s t ra t ion o fa rmou r . T he f i gh te r so nb oa rd as i ng le s h ip o f ten h ave d i f f e r en ts e t so fw eapon . I ts hou ld b ea dded t h a tn os h ip sa r ed ep ic ted i nd r ama t ic s i tua t ion ss uch a sb e ing s e to n f i re , r amm ing o r s i nk ing . E ven t h ough f ew p e r son sa r es e en i nf i gh t ing s c ene s , mo re p eop le a r e s hown i nt h e p e t rog lyph s . O fc ou r se t h es h ip sa nd t h e i rc r ew s( mo s t ly i n d ica ted b y ar ow o fv e r t ica l s t roke s ) a r e t h e l a rge s t g roup o f men s hown , b u t s ome t ime s t h e s i ze o ft h e c r ew i n d ica ted mu s te x ceed w ha tw a sp o s s ib le i nr e a l i ty a tt h et ime , a st h e re a r es h ip sw i th mo re t h an 1 35 c r ew m embe r s . 1 0 -20 p e r son s p e r s h ip s e em s t ob e amo r e p robab le f i gu r e . L ine so fa rmed m en a r es ome t ime ss hown , b u tt h ey a r en o td i r ec t ly d ep ic ted a s 3 27

i nvo lved i na ny f i gh t ing . S o ,t h ed emon s t ra t ion o fg roup so fm en i sw eak ,a nd t h e re i s h a rd ly a ny th ing l i ke " a rmed f o r ce s " o rm any w a r r io r sw i th u n if o rm a rmou r . T he g rave sa nd t h eh oa rd sp rove t h ee x i s tence o fw eapon s . S cene so ft h ep e t rog lyph s i te s i n d ica te f i gh t ing . B u td i di tr e a l ly o ccu r ? C ou ld t h e who le s cope o fi n d ic t ion sb e f a l se? T he D an i sh a r chaeo log i s tK . K r i s t ian sen h a sa na ly sed t h eg rea te rp a r to fD an i sh

F ig . 1 .E xamp le so fa rmed m en , f r om p e t rog lyph so fK v i l le h und r ed [ s ou r ce : R ock C a rv ing s , K v i l le h und red , 1 971 , 1 975 , 1 981 ] . 3 28

t

I F ig . 2 . E xamp les o fa rmed med o nb oa rd s h ip ,f r om K v i l le h und red .

F ig . 3 . E xamp les o f f i gh t ing wa r r io rs , f r om K v i l le h undred . 3 29

B ronze Age s wo rd sa nd ,b ye l bo ra te w o rk ,r e ached v e ry i n te r e s t ing r e su l t s( K r i s t ian sen 1 983 , 1 984 ) . Two ma in f a c to r sh ave b een o b served : d amage a nd r e shapen ing o ft h e b l ade o n t h e o ne h and , a nd , o n t h e o the r , t r ace s o fw ea r o n t h e h and le s . B y t h i s p rocedu re h e f i nd st h a t at ype o fs wo rd , k nown a s" Vo l lg r if f schwe r t" , h a s f ewe rc u t s o nt h eb l ade s ,a nd t h ey a r en o to f ten s ha rpened . O n t h e o t he rh and , mo s t s wo rd s a r e s ha rpened a nd mod if ied t oc o r rec t f o rd amage . T he s wo rd s w e re u sed b o th f o r t h ru s t ing a nd c u t t ing , d eve lop ing t owa rd s h eav ie r , l o ng e ra nd mo r ew e l l -ba lanced mode l sw i th p r ima ry c u t t ing q ua l i t ie s . Two s wo rd sn o tu sed i nf i gh t ing h ave o bv iou sw ea ro nt h eh and le sa nd a r ew e l l -u sed ; t h ey h ang f r om t h ew a i s t , a nd a r eh e ld b yo ne h and . K r i s t ian sen s e es as oc ie ty w he r e f i gh t ing i sf r equen t , whe re i te x i s t si nt h eh ighe rl e ve l so f ah i e ra r ch ica ls oc ie ty ,b u tn o t o n t h e v e ry t op , whe re w eapon s o f ten a r e mo r e c o s t ly a nd f u lf i l amo r e s ymbo l ic f unc t ion . T he r eby h e h a sb een a b le t oi d en t ify t wo l e ve ls o fh i e ra rcy : p o l i t icaV r i tua l l e ade r sa nd w a r r io r s . How s pe c if ic i st h eE a r ly S ou th er nS cand inav ian B ronze Age s oc ie ty ?I si tp o s s ib le t o s e ei ta s ar e g iona lv a r ia t ion o n amo r eg en e ra lE u rop ean B ronze Ag es i tua t ion? T rad i t iona l ly c l o se rc onnec t ion sb e tween S ou ther nS cand inav ia a nd t h eP r ec la s s ica l Wo r ld h ave b een a vo ided . B u ts eve ra lf e a tu r e ss how v e ry c l o s er e la t ion s( Mü l le r -Ka rpe 1 962 , R and sbo rg 1 967 , Ma t thäu s 1 983 ) . O ne e xamp le i st h e c on ten t s o ft h eg rave s , w i th e mpha s i so ns wo rd sa nd d agge r sa nd n o to na x e s ,s pea r sa nd b ow a nd a r row . T he f r equen tc omb ina t ion o fs wo rd sa nd r a zo r si nb o th a r ea si sv e ry s t r ik ing . S eve ra lo t he r f e a tu r e s c ou ld b e m en t ioned : t h e u se o ft wo -whee led l i gh t c ha r io t s a nd t h e f o rma l d ep ic t ion o fe mpha s ized h uman c a lf mu s c le si np e t rog lyph sa nd o nv a se s . M .J . R ow land s h a s d i scu s sed g ene ra l E u ropean B ronze Age c a tegor ie s ( Row land 1 980 ) .H i sa r t ic le i sar i ch s ou r ce o fg ood i d ea so nh ow t oc ha rac te r ize t h es o c ie ty o ft h e p e r iod i nq ue s t ion .H ec ompa r e sp h i lo log ica la nd e t hnog raph ica lo b se rva t ion sa nd e a r ly c l a s s ica lt e x t sa nd ,a s ar e su l t , s e e s ac e r ta in k i n sh ip s y s tem a sh av ing p o s s ib ly e x i s ted i nP r ec las s ica lG r eece a sw e l la sb e ing ag ene ra lf e a tu r eo fB ronze Ag eE u rope . H ee mpha s ize st h ep r eva len t , c on s tan ts oc ia lp r e s su r et owa rd r e ach ing a nd r e ta in ing a r a nk ,t owa rd s wh ich e ve ry th ing w a sd i r ec ted .O the ra spec t so fs oc ie ty ,s uch a sk i n sh ip , e conomy , a nd w a rf a re , w e r e s ubo rd ina ted t h i s g ene ra l a nd v e ry d ynam ic p roce s s . P roduc t ion w a sb a sed o nh ou seho ld u n i t sw i th n oc on t ro lo ro wne r sh ip o ft h em ean so f p roduc t ion b y t h e s oc ie ta l e l i te . O n t h e c on t ra ry , t h e i nd iv idua l a nd t h e h ou seho ld a t temp ted t og a in s t a tu s d i rec t ly t h rough o rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion . Ma r r iage , f o r e xamp le , w a s l i ke ly t ob ea r ranged a s am ean s o fe s tab l i sh ing s oc ia lb ond s , a imed a t s uppo r t ing t h ea sp ir a t ion o fr a nk , s oi t s r u le sa l so w e r es ubo rd ina ted t og a in ing r a nk . T he ma r r iage s y s tem w a s ap r ima ry d e te rm inan t f o rt h e c ompo s i t ion o fh ou seho ld s , c on s tan t ly e xpand ing a nd c r ea t ing i n c r ea s ing ly i n t r ica te n e two rk o fd i f f e r en tk i nd s o f r e la t ion s . A lr eady e s tab l ished b ranche s o f ah ou seho ld 's m a r r iage n e two rk s w e re r e inf o r ced t h rough f e a s t ing ,c ommon r i tua l s ,a nd g i f tg i v ing .T h i sc r ea ted as t ru c tu r eo f mo r eo rl e s ss h if t ing ,i n te r l ink ing g roup s .T he mo r ee x ten s iv et h ea l l iance n e two rk s ,t h e l a rge rt h eh ou seho ld s ,c r ea t ing h i ghe rp roduc t ion a nd mo r ep o t en t ia ls oc ia le ne rgy . T hu s , t h eh ou seho ld v a r ied i ns i ze ,p owe ra nd s t a tu s . T he c l an ,b a sed o nh ou seho ld s , w a st h e ma in c o rpo ra t ive u n i t . C ompe t i t ion f o rr a nk t o ok p l ace o na l ll e ve l so fs o c ie ty i nt h eh ou seho ld , a mong h ou seho ld s , i nt h e c l an , a mong c l an s , a nd p robab ly a mong c ommun i t ie s .T h i sw a s ap e rpe tua lp roce s sw he r ec hange sw e r es l ow a nd g en e ra l ly n o t d ependen t o n i s o la ted i nd iv idua l a ch ievemen t b u t r a the r o n c on s tan t ly r e pea ted d emon s t ra t ion s o fr a nk ing q ua l i t ie s o ve rg ene ra t ion s . T h is p l a ced d emand s o n e ach i nd iv idua l t of u lf i lt h ee xpec ta t ion so ft h eh ou seho ld a nd t h e c l an . On t h eo t he rh and , f a i lu r et od os ow a sn o tc on s ide red a ni r r evo cab le d ef ea t . R ow land ' sw o rk m ake si tp o s s ib le t ov i ew B ronze A ge E u rope w i th i t sl o ca lv a r ia t ion a s ac u l tu ra le n t i ty -m aybe f o rt h ef i r s tt i me s i n ce t h eP a leo l i th ic A ge . Wha tr o le d i d f i gh t ing p l ay i nt h i sk i nd o fs oc ie ty ? R ow land s d e sc r ibe s f i gh t ing a sa m ean s o f c ompe t i t ion f o r r a nk . Ano the r v iew i sd emon s t ra ted b y t h e F rench a n th ropo log is t P .C la s t r e s , w ho se i d ea s c an b o th b e ac omp lemen tt oa nd d eepen o u r 30

u nde rs tand ing o fw a rf a r ea nd i t si mpa c to np r im i t ive s oc ie ty .T he r eh a sb een at e nden cy t os e ew a r f a r ea nd v io lence a s af a i lu r ei np r im i t ive s oc ie ty ,b u ti ti sf a r mo r ep robab le t h a ti tw a sa ne s sen t ia lp a r to ft h es oc ia l s y s tem -ap r e requ i s i te f o ri t s f unc t ion ing . I t c ou ld e ven b et h a tw a r , n o te xchange ,w a st h e f undamen ta l f o rm o fr e la t ion sb e tween p r im i t ive c ommun i t ie s( Be s ta rd & B iddon -Chana l 1 979 :225 ) . T hu st h er a nked s oc ie ty o ft h eE u ropean B ronze Age c ou ld b es e en a s as pec ia lk ind o fs oc ie ty w i th w a rf a r ea s o ne o fi t sb a s ic c omponen t s .A l l iance sw e r et h e r ef o r ei mpo r tan t ,b u tt h i sf a c ti nn ow ay i mpo se so nB ronze A ge S oc ie ty ag ene ra l d e s i r et oe s tab l i sh f r iend sh ip se verywhe r e . S uch ap roce s s wou ld , r a the r , h ave b rok en s oc ie ty d own , b ecau se l o ca l r u le s wou ld h ave h ad t ob e r e p laced b ye x ter na l ly i mpo sed l aw s . T hu sw a rs hou ld b e s e en a st h e p r in c ip le s oc ia lm echan i sm o fp r im i t ive s o c ie ty b ecau s ei tm a in ta in ed l o ca lc ommun i t ie s a nd c omba t ted e x te rna l ly i mpo sed u n i ty .T h i s movemen tt owa rd ss t a te o rgan ized u n i ty w a st h er e a lt h rea tt op r im i t ive s oc ie ty a nd i tc ou ld o n ly c ome t h rough i n ter na lp eace . Wa rf a r ei np r im i t ive s oc ie ty w a st h en t h ec on s tan ts t rugg le a ga in s tt h ee s tab l i shmen to f t h es t a te ( C la s t re s 1 977 ) . T h i sw a s ac on s tan ta nd , d u r ing t h eE u ropean B ronze Age , ar a p id ly g row ing t h r ea t . T he r ew a s ac l ea rp rob lem i nvo lved w i th t h es k i l led w a r r io r ; o no ne h and t h es oc ie ty n eeded h im ,b u to nt h eo t he rt h ew a r r io r sa s ag roup c r ea ted ad i v i s ion i ns oc ie ty . T he g roup o fw a r r io r sc on s t i tu ted as pec ia li n te rmed ia te l e ve li ns oc ie ty , whe re h ou seho ld s a nd c l an s c ou ld m ee td i r ec t ly f o rs ymbo l ic c ompe t i t ion o fr a nk . T h i sm ade t h eg roup p owe rf u l a nd c on t r ibu ted t owa rd s d om ina t ion . T he s oc ie ty n eeded t h e w a r r io r s a nd f e a red t h em .T hey a c ted o nt h e i ro wn i n i t ia t ive sb u to fc ou r se w i th in t h er u le so fs o c ie ty a nd w i th in t h e s oc ia l b ounda r ie s o ft h eh ou seho ld a nd t h e c l an . S ucce s sf u l f i gh t ing b rough t r a nk v a lue s t ot h e g roup a nd p re s t ige t ot h e w a r r io r . B u t t h e p re s t ige w a s t r an s i to ry a nd h ad c on s tan t ly t ob e r e newed t ob e m a in ta ined . T he e f f ec t s o ft h is i s e v id en t :s oc ie ty l e dt h ew a r r io rt oa ni nf in i t ea nd s o l i ta ry e s ca la t ion o fb rave ry ,s ot h a ti n t h e l a s t i n s tance h e e xchanged h i s l i f e f o r p re s t ige ( Be s ta rd & B iddon -Chana l 1 979 :226 ) . D o t h e f i gh t ing s c ene s i nr o ck a r t o ft h e S ou th S cand inav ian t ype f i tw e l l i n to t h e g ene ra lp i c tu r ei n d ica ted a bove? My i mp r e s s ion i sb o th y e sa nd n o .T he i mag e ss e em t o d emon s tr a te t h eq ua l i t ie so ft h e s ew a r r io r s ,b u ti n al im i ted ,i n te rna lw ay .R a id sa nd t h a t t ype o fw a rf a r e a r e n o t p re sen ted i nt h e r o ck c a rv ing s . I tl o ok s mo r e l i ke p e r sona l c omba tb e tween n ob lemen . F igh t ing w a sp robab ly v e ry r i tua l ized a nd o f ten u nequa l , w i th r u le sg ua ran tee ing t h es a f e ty o ft h e mo s tn ob le a nd p r e scr ib ing mo r e s pec tacu la r a nd s e r iou sd ue l sf o rp e r son so fl owe rr a nk . I fr e a lf i gh t sw i th d ead ly r e su l t sw e r ed ep ic ted ,t h ey w ou ld p robab ly s how o ne o ft h e c omba tan t s a s t h ev i c to ra nd t h e o the ri n amo s t d i shonou r ed p o s i t ion , mo re o rl e s s w a i t ing t ob et h rown t ot h ed og s . B u ti tm ay a l so b ev i ce v e r sa , t h a tr e a l ,d ead ly f i gh t s w e r e p e rf o rmed ( a s may p o s s ib ly b e i nd ica ted b y s evera l ma le d oub le g rave s i n D enma rk ) , b u t t h i s i sn o t d ep ic ted i n t h e i mage s . T he s cene s a r e mo s t l i ke ly t o d emon s t ra te t h ef i gh t ing a ss uch ,a sa ni mpo r tan tm ean so fs oc ia li n te rac t ion ,e qua l ly t o b o th o ft h ep a r t ic ipan t s .I nt h i sw ay a l lf i gh te r sw e r eh onou r ed ,n o ta sc ommemo ra t ion b u t a s r e cogn i t ion f r om s oc ie ty o ft h e i mpor tance o ff i gh t ing a nd o fb e ing ag ood w a r r io r . Conc lus ions T he S ou th S cand inav ian B ronze Age i sa n e xcep t iona l e r a . L a te r i np r eh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic t ime st h e r ed oe sn o ts e em t oh av eb een s u ch ag ene ra la ppea ran ce o fw e l l -a rmed m en ,t a ken f r om t h ea ccoun to ft h eg rave s .T h eh oa rd sc onf i rm t h i sa nd t h er o ck i mag e s h ave as im i la rs t re s s o na rmou r . T he se d i f f e r en tk ind s o fi d eo log ica l s ou r ce ss e em t o r ef lec t t h e s ame b a s ic s t ruc tu re w i th e mpha s i s o n t h e w a r r io r a s ap r e s t igeou s a nd p owe rf u lb e ing i ns o c ie ty . B ronze Age E u rope c an b e s e en a s au n if o rm c u l tu ra la r ea w i th l o ca lv a r ia t ion so ft h es ame b a s ic t h eme .T h i sm ake si tp os s ib le t oc omp a re s o c ie ta l c ond i t ion s , e spec ia l ly i nt h e c a se o fw a r r io r s . I n S ou th S cand inav ia t h e w eapon s 3 31

p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t h ee a r l ie rp a r t so fB ronze Age -a r en o tf o rs e lf -p ro tec t ion b u tf o r f i gh t ing w i th e qua l s . T he r ea r en os o ld ie r sa nd n oh ou seca r l s( gua rd s ) , o n ly ag roup o f s e lf -p romo t ing w a r r io r s .T he f o rma t ion o ft h es t a te w a sn o ti mm inen t .

R ef erences A lmg r en , 0 . 1 934 . Nord i sche F e l sze ichnung en a l sr e l ig iö se U rkund en . F rankf ur t a m Ma in . A l th in , C . -A . 1 945 . S tud ien z u d en B ronz enz e i t l ichen F e l sz e ichnung en v on S k äne II I . L und . Ane r , E . & K er s ten , K . 1 973 . D ie F und e d er ä l ter en B ronzeze i t d e s n ord i schen Kr e i se s i n Dänemark , S ch lesw ig - Ho l s te in u nd N ied er -S achsen . B and I . F r ed r ikbo rg u nd K obenhavn s Am t . K obenhavn . Ane r , E . & -K e r s ten , K . 1 976 . D ie F und e d er ä l ter en B ronzeze i t d e s n ord i schen K r e i ses i n Dänemark , S ch lesw ig - Ho l s te in u nd N ieder -Sachsen . B and I . Ho lbeck , S o re u nd P ra e s to Am te r . K obenhavn . B audou , E . 1 960 . D ie r eg iona le u nd c hrono log i sche E in te i lung d er j ünger en B ronzeze i t i m Nord i schen K r e i s . S tud ies i n N o r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 . S to ckhohn . B e s ta rd ,J .& B idon -Chana l , C . 1 979 . P owe ra nd w a ri np r im i t ive s oc ie t ie s : t h ew o rk o fP ie r r e C la s t r e s . C r i t ique o f An thropo logy , 1 3 & 1 4 , V o l . 4 ,s umme r 1 979 , p p . 2 21 -227 . C la s t r e s ,P . 1 977 . S oc ie ty a ga in s tt h es t a te . Oxf o rd . G lob , P .V . 1 969 . He l l e r i s tn ing er iD anmark .J y sk A rkaeo log i sk S e l skab s S k r if te r . B V I I I . K obenhavn .( Summa ry i nE ng l i sh ) . K r is t ian sen , K . 1 982 . E kk eha rd Ane r ( t ) u nd K a r l K e r s ten , D ie F unde d e r ä l te ren B ronzeze i t d e s N o rd ischen K re ises i n D änema rk , S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in u nd N iede r -Sa ch sen . B and 1 5 . ( Be sp rechung ) . G erman ia 6 0 , 1 982 , 2 .H a lbband , p p . 5 90 -600 . K r i s t iansen , K . 1 983 . K r ige r o g h ovd ing iD anma rk s B ronzea lde r . E t b id rag t i l b ronzea lder svae rde t s k u l tu rh is to r ie . S tr uk tur o ch f ör änd r ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l l e . R appo r tf r än d e tt r ed j en ord i sk a s ympo s ie tf ör b ron sä ld e rsf or skn ing i L und ,2 3 -25 a p r i 11982 . I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy .R epo r tS e r ie sN o 1 7 . L und . K r i s t ian sen , K . 1 984 . K r ige r u nd H ämp t l inge i n d e r B ronzeze i t D änema rk s . E in B e i trag z ur G esch ich te d es b ronzeze i t l ichen S chwer tes . J ar ebuch d es Röm i sch -Ge rman i schen Z en t ra lmu seums 3 1 ,p p . 1 87 -208 . Ma r s t rande r , S . 1 963 . O s tf o ld sj o rdbr uk sr i s tn ing er . T ek s tb ind . P l anscheb ind . T he I n s t i tu te f o r C ompa ra t ive R e sea r ch i n Human C u l tu re . S er ie B : S k r if te r , L I I I . O s lo . Ma t thäu s , H . 1 983 . M ino ische K r iege rg räbe r . Mino ian S oc ie ty . P roceed ing so ft h e C ambr idge C o l loqu ium 1 981 . ( Ed s . 0 . K rzy szkow ska & L . N ixon ) . B r i s to l . p p . 2 03 -215 . Mü l le r -Ka rpe , H . 1 962 . Z u r s pä tb ronzeze i t l ichen B ewaf f nung i nM i t te leu ropa u nd G r iechen land . G e rman i a ,J ah rgang 4 0 , 1 962 ,p p . 2 55 -287 . N o rdb ladh , J . 1 980 . G lyf er o ch r um . K r ing h ä l l r i s tn ing ar iKv i l le . Gö tebo rg . ( Summa ry i nE ng l i sh ) . R andsbo rg , K . 1 967 . " Aegean "b ronze si n ag rav e f r om J u t land . Ac t aA rchaeo log ic a , Vo l . XXXV I I I , 1 967 ,p p . 1 27 . Rock c arv ing s , Kv i l le h und r ed , S venneby p a r ish ( Coun ty o f B ohus län ) . D ocumen ta t ion Ake F red s jö . S tud ie s i nN or th E uropean A r chaeo logy , 7 .( Ed s . J .N o rdb ladh & J .R o sva l l ) . G ö tebo rg 1 971 . 32

Rock c arv ing s i n Kv i l le h undr ed , B o t tna p a r ish ( Coun ty o f B ohu s län ) . D ocumen ta t ion Ak eF red s jö . S tud ie s i nN or th E u ropean A r chaeo logy , 1 3 . ( Ed s . J . No rdb ladh & J .R o sva l l ) . G ö tebo rg 1 975 . Rock c arv ing s i n Kv i l le h und r ed , Kv i l le p ar ish ( Coun ty o f B ohu s län ) . Documen ta t ion A ke F red s jö . S tud ie s i nN or th E u ropean A r chaeo logy , 1 4 / 15 . ( Ed s . J .N o rdb ladh & J .R o sva l l ) . G ö tebo rg 1 981 . R ow land s , M .J . 1 980 . K in sh ip , a l l iance a nd e xchange i nt h e E u ropean B ronze Age . S e t t lemen ta nd s oc ie ty i nt h eB r i t i sh L a te B ronze Age . P ar t I .( Ed s . J .B a r e t t& R . B rad ley ) . BAR B r i t i sh S e r ie s8 3 (1) . Oxf o rd ,p p . 1 5 -56 .

3 3

A pp roache st oS wed i sh P reh i s to ry ,B .A .R . , O xf o rd ,1 989 ,p p .3 35 -351 .

AS PAT IAL APPROACH TO SOCIOECONO MIC CHANGE I N SOUTHERN SWEDEN 5 00 B .C . -A .D 5 00 . B yT homa s BL ars son*

I ntroduc t ion Du r ing t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . , i np a r t icu la r t h e p er iod 5 00 B .C . -A .D . 5 00 , g rea t p roces se so fc hange s e em t oh ave b een i no pe ra t ion i n many p ar t so fS cand inav ia ( c f . J ensen 1 982 :198 f . ; K r is t iansen 1 984 : 9 5 ; L a r sson 1 986 : 1 80 f . ) . T h roughou t S cand inav ia t h e re a r ea r chaeo log ica li nd ica t ion so fc hange si n ,f o re xamp le , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn , l and u se a nd mor tua ry p rac t ice , r ef lec t ing a c hange i n s oc ioeconom ic c omp lex i ty . I n C en t ra l Sweden , whe re p rese rva t ion c ond i t ions h ave b een v e ry f avou rab le c ompa red w i th , f o re xamp le , S ou th Sweden a nd D enma rk , t h is p roce ss o f c hange c an b e s t ud ied i n g rea t d e ta i l . T he t r ansfo rma t ion o f t he L a te B ronze A ge s oc ioeconom ic s ys tem , t ot h e ' n ew ' E a r ly I r on Age s y s tem t h a t i so bse rvab le i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f r om t h ec en tu r ie sa r ound y ea r0 ,w i l lb ea na lyzed a nd d i scus sed i nt e rm so fp roduc t ion ,r eproduc t ion , a nd o rgan i za t ion . A s i n my e a r l ie r wo rk s ( e .g . L a r s son 1 984a , 1 984b , 1 986 ) , t h e t h eo re t ica l p o s i t ion h a st o ag rea te x ten td e r ived f r om Ma rx i s tt h eo ry ,e . g . B loch ( 1975 , 1 977 ) , H inde s s& H i r s t( 1975 ) a nd F r iedman ( 1 975 ) . I n a na lyz ing s oc ia l c omp lex i ty a nd s oc ia l c hange p roduc t ion a nd r eproduc t ion b ecome s t wo i mpo r tan tc oncep t s ,r e la t ing t ob o th t h ee conom ic a nd i d eo log ica ls phe r e s o f s oc ie ty . T he s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o f p roduc t ion a nd t he o rgan iza t ion o f s oc ia l r ep roduc t ion a r ep roduc t so fh uman a c t ion ,w h ich ,i n as t a te o fs oc ioeconom ic c hange , a r e t h e k ey v a r iab le s ( La r s son 1 986 : 1 4 ) . I nt h i s s ence p roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion , a nd t h eh uman a c t ion i nvo lved ,c an b ec ons ide red a st h e mo to ri ns oc ia le vo lu t ion . T ak ing t h ed i scu ss ion as t ep f u r the r , Iw ou ld l i ke t oa rgue t h a th uman a c t ion r e la ted t o b o th t h e p roduc t ive a nd t h e r ep roduc t ive d oma ins , t o ag rea t e x ten t a r e p roduc t s o f c onf l ic t sa nd c on t rad ic t ion sb e tween i nd iv idua l sa nd g roups w i th d i f f e ren ti n te re s t s( a s s t re ssed b yR ey 1 977 ; f o r amo re e l abo ra te d i scu s s ion s ee a l so L a r s son 1 986 : 1 4f ) . T aken v e ry s t ra igh t -forwa rd a nd m echan ica l ,t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween p roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion c ou ld b es e en a s ap roce s so pe ra t ing b e tween ac e r ta in mode o fp roduc t ion a nd t h e d i f f e ren t w ays i n wh ich t h i s mode o fp roduc t ion i s' s ecu red ' a nd r ep roduced o ve r t ime ; t h e ' b a se -supe r s t ruc tu re ' t h eory . C e r ta in e conom ic , s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s c an b e b o th l e g i t im ized a nd s t ab i l ized b y r ep roduc t ive s t ruc tu res , a c t ive ly i n vo lv ing i d eo logy ( Shank s &T i l ley 1 982 :130 f ) .

*D epa r tmen to fA r cha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä

3 35

F ig . 1 . Map o f S ou the rn a nd C en t ra l S weden w i th t h e p rov ince s o fV ä s tman land ( V ) , U pp land ( U ) , S öd e rman land ( S )a nd E a s t e rn G ö ta land ( Ö )m a rk ed .

36

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.

F ig . 2 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f mounds o fc ook ing -s tones i n Nor the rn a nd No r thwe s te rn E urope . S haded a r ea s ma rk c oncen tra t ions a nd d i agona l h a tch ing i nd ica te st h ea r ea n o ti n ves t iga ted .

T he a im o ft h is p ape ri st od i scus s t h e s oc ioeconom ic c hanges o ccur ing i nS ou ther n Sweden d ur ing t h e l a te f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . a nd t h e e a r ly f i r s t m i l lenn ium A .D . , b y a dop t ing as pa t ia la pp roa ch . T he a na ly se s w i l li nt h ef i r s tp l ace f ocu so n ap a r t icu la ra r ea o fC en t ra l Sweden -t h ep rov ince o fE a s te rn Gö ta land ( F ig . 1 ) -w he re t h ed a ta b a se i s e x t remeny r i ch i na r chaeo log ica lr ema ins f r om t h i s p ha se o fp reh is tory . T h is d oes n o t , h owever , i mp ly t h a t t h e c onc lus ions d rawn f r om t h is s t udy a r e n o t o f amo re g ene ra l i n te res ti n aS cand inav ian p e r spec t ive . O n t h ec on t ra ry , t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f r om o the rr eg ion s a nd a r ea si nS cand inav ia i nd ica te t h a t s im i la rp roce s ses a r e t ak ing p lace , t hough t h e s t ruc tu re s a r e n o t a lways a s ' c lea r -cu t ' a s h e re , mak ing t he p rov ince o f E a s te rn Gö ta land as u i tab le mode l a r ea . 37

L a te B ronze Age S e t t lemen t P a t tern T he C en t ra l Swed i sh a r ea ( F ig .!) i sv e ry r i ch i nL a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen ti n d ica to r s , ma rked i n t he t e r ra in b y t he , s o -ca l led , ' s kä rvs tenshöga r ' , w h ich a r e mo re o r l e ss i d en t ica l w i th t h e ' b u rn t mound s 'o fB r i ta in a nd t h e ' f u lach tf i adha to fI r e land ( F ig . 2 ) ( Barf ie ld & Hodde r 1 981 ; B uck ley 1 983 ;H edge s 1 977 ; O 'Ke l ly 1 954 ) . A l toge the r , c . 6 .000 i nd iv idua l mound so ft h i st ype a r ek nown a nd mapped w i th in t h ef ou rS wed i sh p rov inces ma rked i nF igu re 1 ,a nd t h e f i gu re f o rn o r th a nd n o r thwe s tern E u rope a sa who le i sa round 1 0 .000 . A si nB r i ta in a nd I r e land , t h e se mound sc ons i s to f am ix ture o fc ha rcoa l ,e ar th a nd f i re -c racked ,b u rn ts t one s ,d i rec t ly r e la ted t oc ook ing a nd h ea t ing o n t h e dwe l l ing s i tes ( c f . L e r che 1 969 ) . T oge the r w i th c ha rcoa l , c a rbon ized o rgan ic ma te r ia ls , s oo t a nd a she s f r om t h e h ea r ths , f i re -c racked s t ones a nd a n ima l b one s , t h e mounds a l so c on ta in p o t te ry s he rds , a nd i n s o me c a ses a l so c a s t ing mou ld s a nd c ruc ib les . E xcava t ion s h ave s hown t h a tt h er egu la r ly a pea r ing s ma l l c l us te r s o ft h ese mound s , u sua l ly 3 -7 w i th in a n a r ea o fc .5 00 -1000 s qua re m e te r s , i nf a c t a r e ' r efu se d umps ' , l o ca ted i nc l ose p rox im i ty t oh ouses f r om t h e l a te M idd le a nd L a te B ronze Age s ( Gu s taf s son 1 988 ;H yen s t rand 1 968 ;J aanu s son 1 981 ;T e sch 1 983 ) . T he h ou se sa r er e c tangu la r ,c .1 0 -17x5 -7 m e te r si ns i ze ,w i th i n ter na lr oof suppor t ing p o s t s .Th is r ec tangu la r t h ree -a is led h ou se t ype i sv e ry c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e S ou th S cand inav ian B ronze a nd I r on Age s ( Boa s 1 983 ; N ä sman 1 987 ) . T he e l even s amp le s f r om t h ep rov ince o fE a s ter nG ö ta land ,d a ted b ya cce le ra to rC -14 t e chn ique ( Po ssner t& O l sson 1 986 ) ,c l ea r ly u nde r l ine t h er e levance o ft h i sg ene ra ld a t ing ( F ig . 3 ) .T he s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re e v idenced b yt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e mound st h e refo r eg ive s ag ood p i c tu re o f t h eL a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen tp a t te rn .

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F ig . 3 . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing o fc ha r coa l f r om b u rn tm ound s i nE a s te rn G ö ta land d a ted b y a c ce le ra to r t e chn ique ( a f te rP o s sne r t &O l s son 1 986 ) .

3 38

F ig .4 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb u rn t mound si nE a s t e rn G ö ta land .E a ch d o tm a rk s 1 ,2 5 ,a nd 6 -d we l l ing s i te sp e r6 . 25 s qua re k i lome t e r s .T he d i amond sd eno te r o ck a r tc en te r s .

F rom F igu re 4f ou rc l u s te r so fs e t t lemen t sc an b ei d en t i f ied : ( 1 ) as ma l lc oncen t ra t ion i nt he w es tern p ar t o f t h e p rov ince , ( 2 ) ar a the r l a rge a gg lome ra t ion s ou th o fL ake R oxen i nt h ec en t ra lp a r to ft h ep rov ince ,( 3 )a no the rl a rge a gg lome ra t ion o fs e t t lemen t i nd ica to r s i n t h e w es te rn p a r t o f t h e p en insu la o f V ikbo lande t ( ma rked b y d a shed f r ame ) , a nd , f i na l ly , ( 4 ) as ma l l c l us te r i nt h e c oa s ta l z one , i nt h e e a s tern p ar to ft h e p rov ince .B ecause o ft h eg r ea ts im i la r i ty i nc u l t iva t ion i n s ten s i ty a nd c u l t iva t ion h i s to ry w i th in t h e e n t i re p la in -be l t t h a t s t re tche s f r om w es t t oe as t a nd e ncompasses c l us te r s 1 3 , t h e emp ty a r ea si nbe tween ( ma rked b yq ue s t ion ma rk si nF ig . 4 )c an b er ega rded a s ' r ea l ' b uf f e rzones b e tween t h e d if fe ren t c ommun i t ies o r s ub -sec t ions i n t h e s oc io -spa t ia lo rgan iza t ion o fs oc ie ty . T he s oc ia l s i gn if icance o f t h ese b uf f e rzones i se ven mo re c red ib le i fw e a dd t h e o bse rva t ion t ha t t h e p hy s ica l l a nd scape a nd , h ence , t h e e conom ic p o ten t ia l , i sv e ry h omogenou so ve rt h ee n t i re a r ea . T he r e a r e , o fc ou r se , s ma l le rv a r ia t ions w i th in e ach o ft h ef ou rc l u s te r sw i th r e spec tt os o i lt y pe sa nd g eo logy ,w h ich i ndeed i si mpo r tan tf o r s t ud ies a tt h ei n te r -c lu s te rl e ve lo fa na lys i s . T h i sw i l lb ed emon s t ra ted i ng rea te rd e ta i l w hen d i scu s s ing t h e c hange i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn o ccur ing a tt h e e nd o f t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C .

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F ig . 5 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fb u rn t mound so n t h ep en in su la o fV ikbo lande t( t he d a shed b ox i nF ig . 4 ) . T he d i amond ss how t h es i te sf r om w h ich C -14 s amp le sh ave b een a na lysed .

Howeve r , a tt h i s s t age w ec an s ay t h a tt h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn s hown i nF igu re 4 ,w i th g r ea tc e r ta in ty ,r ef l ec t ss pa t ia lo rgan iza t ion d u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge .B ecau se s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion n eve rc an b es epa ra ted f r om s oc ia l ,e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica lo rgan iza t ion ,I f i nd i ta pp rop r ia te t or e la te t h ep a t te rn t o ac e r ta in l e ve lo fs oc ioeconom ic c omp lex i ty -a p a t te rn o fc omp lex i ty c ha ra c te r i s t ic o ft h eL a te B ronze A ge . B ecause d i s t r ibu t ion map s g ive d i f f e ren ti n fo rma t ion d epend ing o n t h es ca le u sed ,i t m igh tb eo fr e levance t oe xam ine o ne o ft h ef ou rc l u s te r si ng rea te rd e ta i l . F igu re 5i sa magn i f ica t ion o ft h ea r ea m a rked b yt h ed a shed b ox i nF igu re 4-t h ec en t ra la nd w e s te rn p a r t so ft h ep en in su la o fV ikbo lande t .E ach d o to nt h e map ma rk so ne s ma l le rc l u se ro f c .3 -7 i nd iv idua l mound s( one d we ll ing s i te ) a nd t h eh o r i son ta l ly h a tched a r ea si nd ica te t h e w a te r l e ve l a round 5 00 B .C . I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e i s o s ta t ic l a nd -up l if t p rocess i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e wo r ld t oday i sc .4 0 cm p e r 1 00 y ea r s .The refo re , t h e

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s ho re l ine a round 5 00 B .C . w a s a bou t 1 0m h ighe rt h an i ti st oday -af a c t t ha ta lway s mu s tb e t a ken i n to c ons ide ra t ion w hen d ea l ing w i th d i s t r ibu t iona lp a t te rns o fB ronze A ge r ema ins .T he t wo n a r row b ays v i s ib le o nt h e map a lmo s t made t h ee a s te rn p ar to f t h ep en in su la t oa ni s land d u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge .P e rhaps i ti s mo re c o r rec tt os ay t h a tt h ee a s te rn p a r to ft h ep en in su la w a sa ni s land d u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge ,a nd t h a tt h i si s land w a sb eg inn ing t oj o in u pw i th t h e ma in l a nd d u r ing t h e m id -f i r s tm ilenn ium B .C . T he v e ry f l a tc ha rac te ro ft h el a nd scape i nt h i sa r ea f u r the ri nd ica te st h a tl a rge p a r t s b e tween t h es e t t lemen tc l u s te r sw e re v e ry d amp a nd s ea sona l ly w a te r logged d u r ing t h i s p e r iod o fp reh i s to ry .T h i s mu s th ave h ad ac e r ta in i mpac to ne conomy a nd p roduc t ion , a sw el a so nt h es pa t ia lo rgan iza t ion o fs oc ie ty .T he s e t t lemen t sa r el o ca t ed t ot h es ma l l a nd f l a t mo ra in h i l l st h a tp ene r ta t ei n to t h ew e tl ow land c l ays t h a td om ina te t h es c ene .A t t h i sl e ve lo fd e ta i li ti sq u i te e a sy t oi d en t ify i n te rna lc l us te r so fs e t t lemen t s . T he se a r e ma rked b yf u l lc i rc le s . T he c l u s te r sa r ed i rec t ly r e cogn izab le i ft h en ew t ype o fD -cu rve a na ly s i sd eve loped b yL undma rk ( Lundma rk 1 984 ,t h is v o lume ; S inc la i r&L undma rk 1 985 )f o ri d en t ify ing h i e ra r ch ica ls t ruc tu re si nd i s t r ibu t iona lp a t te rns i su sed ( Lundma rk 1 984 : 1 9f ) .T he s even s e t t lemen tc l u s te r sa r ec ompo sed o f7 ,9 ,1 , 1 , 1 5 , 1 6 a nd 2 1 L a te B ronze Age s i te s r e spec t ive ly , a dd ing u p t o at o ta l o f c . 3 50 i nd iv idua l ' s kärv s tenshögar I n t h e c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e map , b e tween t h e t wo b ay s , whe re t he p i c tu re i nd ica te s a mo re d i spe r sed p a t te rn , t h e re a r e af u r the r 1 7 s i te s . H ow t h e se d i spe r sed s e t t lemen t s s hou ld b ei n te rp re ted i nr e la t ion t ot h e a gg lome ra ted o ne s i s , o fc ou r se , a ni n te re s t ing p rob lem -d ot h ey r ep re sen t ac e r ta in c hono log ica lh o r izon w i th in t h eL a te B ronze A ge o r s hou ld t hey b e g iven a p ar t icu la r f unc t ion i n c on t ra s t t o t ha t o f t he c lus te red s e t t lemen t s ,o rd ot h ey i nd ica te t empo r ary h u t su sed b y s hepha rd s? F o rt h e momen tw e d o n o t k now f o r c er ta in . T he f i ve d a shed c i rc les mark a p oss ib le t h i rd l e ve l o f o rgan iza t ion i n t h is s e t t lemen t h ie ra rchy . T hese s ma l le r c lus te rs w e re a l so c l ea r ly i d en t if i ed i nL undma rk 's a na ly s i so ft h i sa r ea ( Lundma rk 1 984 ,F ig . 1 0a ) ,d ev id ing t h e t wo e a s te rnmo s tc oncen t ra t ion si n to t wo a nd t h r ee s ma l le rc l u s te r sr e spec t ive ly . S e t t lemen ts a nd Bur ia ls : The S pa t ia l R e la t ionsh ip T he s t one b u i l tc a i rn i st h e mos tc ha rac te r i s t ic v i s ib le g rave type d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge i nC en t ra l Sweden ( Hyen s t rand 1 979 : 1 37 ) . C a i rn sa r e a l so v e ry c ommon i nt h e w e s t a nd n o r th Swed ish c oa s ta l z ones , a s w e l l a s i n No rway a nd F in land . T h is w ide ly s p read d i s t r ibu t ion o ve r l a rge p a r t s o f S cand inav ia s ugges t s t ha t t h i s t ype o f g rave c on s truc t ion w a s mo re r e la ted t o ar a the r c ommon c u l ture h er i tage ,t h an t o t h e i n te r -soc ia lc ommun ica t ion .G rave c on s t ruc t ion s( i nt h i sc a se g rave so fc a i rn type )c an b e s im i la r t h roughou t al a rge a r ea , b u t t h e l o ca l a dap ta t ion a nd s pec if i c r o le o ft h i s t r ad i t ion may v a ry a cco rd ing t o d i f fe rences i n , f o r e xamp le , s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd o rgan iza t ion ; t h er ep roduc t ive p owe ra s c r ibed c a i rn -bu r ia l sv a ry d epend ing o nt h el o ca l s oc ioeconom ic c omp lex i ty . F o r h un te r s -f ishe r s a l ong t h e n o r the rn c oa s t o f Sweden , p l ac ing s ome o ft h e i rd ead i nc a i rn s ,a nd s eden ta ry f a rme r si nC en t ra l Sweden w i th t h e s ame t ype o fb u r ia lp rax i s ,t h e s oc ie ta lm ean ing a nd r ep roduc t ive f unc t ion o f mo r tua ry p ra t ice sa nd b u r ia lc on s t ruc t ion sm ay h ave b een t o ta l ly d i f f e ren t . T u rn ing t o t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s e t t lemen t s a nd c a i rn b ur ia ls o f L a te B ronze Age d a te ,i tc an b es a id t h a tt h et wo p a t ter n sd on o to ve r lap .T he b u r ia l sa r en o t l o ca ted i nc l o se p rox im i ty t ot h es e t t lemen tc l u s te r s ,i n s tead ,t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h em t h ey s e em t oh ave b een b u i l ta t ad i s tance o f2 -4 km a way f r om t h ec en ter o ft h ec l u s te r so f s e t t lemen t s( La r s son 1 984a :27 f ) .F igu r e 7i lu s t ra te s ,i n as chema t ic w ay , t h eo b se rved s pa t ia lr e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h es e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re ( h ie r a r chy ) a nd t h eb u r ia lc en te r si n t h i sp a r to f Sweden . T he h i e ra rch ica l n a tu re o ft h e s e t t lemen to rgan iza t ion -f r om t h e 3 41

i nd iv idua l b urn t mound t o ac l u s te r o f 3 -7 mound s t o ag roup o f2 -5 s uch c l u s te r s f o rm ing al a rge ru n i tc on s i s t ing o f4 -6 g roup s -i sa l so s hown i nt h i s mode l .T he s pa t ia l p o s i t ion o ft h eb u r ia lc a i rn si nt h i ss e t t lemen th i e r ar chy s ugge s tt h a tt h ey ' f unc t ioned 'a t t h eg roup l e ve l . Abou t7 5% o ft h ek nown L a te B ronze A ge b u r ia lc on s t ruc t ion si nt h is a r ea a r e t ob e f ound i nt h i s ' b uf f e rzone p o s i t ion ' -a tj uc t ion p o in t s a th a lf d i s tance b e tween s u r round ing g roup s o fs e t t lemen ts . T her fo re , t h e b u r ia l s a r e , f r om as pa t ia l p e r spec t ive , mo re r e la ted t o al a rge rt e r r i to ry t han t h a to ft h es i ng le h ou sho ld o rs i ng le g roup o fh ou sho ld s . I ti sv e ry t emp t ing t oi n te rp re tt h e' b uf f e rzone b u r ia l s 'a sn od e s i nt h es oc io re l ig ious n e two rk ; t h eb u r ia lc on s t ruc t ion sw e re t h ec once rn o ff ou rt os i xs e t t lemen tg roups w i th ah igh d eg ree o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic i n te rac t ion .U s ing a s oc ia l a n th ropo log ica l ' c heck l is t ' , at r iba l mode o fo rgan iza t ion wou ld p e rhaps b e t h e mo s tr e levan t . T he ' S egemen ta ry L ineage S ys tem ' o r t h e ' Con ica l C lan ' s t ruc ture , a s d i scussed b y , f o r e xamp le , S ha l in s ( 1968 :49 -52 ) , w ou ld p e rhap sb e t h e mo s tr e levan th e re . I fw e a r et o i n te rp re tt h is p a r t icu la rs pa t ia lc onf igu ra t ion ,i . e . ,t h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween s e t t lemen t s a nd b u r ia l s ,i nt e rm so fp roduc t ion , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tl a nd f o rp a s tu re a nd a g r icu l tu re t o al a rge e x ten t w e re t r iba l o rc ommuna l p rope r ty , r a the r t han i nt h e h and s o ft h e h ou sho ld so rs e t t lemen tg roup s . D u r ing t h i sp ha se o fp r eh i s to ry t h e r ea r en oi nd ica t ions wha tsoeve r i n C en t ra l Sweden t h a t l a nd o r o the r n a tura l r e sou rces w e re p r iva t o r h ou sho ld p rope r ty . T h is t r iba l o r l a rge s ca le p a t tern o fo rgan iza t ion , w i th a s ubd iv i s ion i n to s ma l le r s egmen t s , l i ke c l ans o r l i neages t h a t a r e t e r r i to r ia l ly d ef inab le , d oe s n o t r equ i re c he if ta insh ip n o ra ny o the rf o rm o fi n s t i tu t iona l ized p o l i t ica l l e ada r sh ip , ' b u to n ly t h e c apac i ty t of a sh ion t empo ra ry v e r s ion so ft h e se i n at ime o fs t re s s ' ( Sha l in s 1 968 : 5 1 ) . Av e ry p opu la rt h ing i nS can inav ian r e sea r ch d u r ing t h el a s td ecade sh a sb een t od ef ine t h e B ronze Age s oc ie ty a s ac h iefdom ( e .g J ohansen 1 981 ; K r i s t ian sen 1 981 , 1 984 ; We l inde r 1 977 ) . T h i s mode l o f as t ra t if ied c h iefdom s t ruc tu re h a s b een g ene ra ted ma in ly t h rough a na lyse s o f t h e b ronzes ,d epo s i ted e i the r i n b u r ia ls o r a s h oa rd s . I th a s a l so , b y t r ad i t ion , b een t h e r i ch ma te r ia l f r om S ou th S cand inav ia ( Danma rk a nd S can ia i n p a r t icu la r ) t ha th a s b een t h eb a s i sf o rt h i sc h iefdom mode l . F o rC en t ra l a nd N or the rn Sweden , No rway o r F in land , t h e r e levance o f t h i s mode l c an n o t a u toma t ica l ly b e a ccep ted o r t e s ted i n t h e s ame w ay , d ue t o t h e r e la t ive l a ck o f b ronze a r tefac ts . B roadben t , f o re xamp le , i sc r i t ica l t ot h ew ays i n wh ich S cand inav ian a r chaeo log i s t s h ave r eached t h e i rc onc lu s ion s ,a nd a rguee st h a tt h eB ronze Age a r chaeo log ica lr ema in s c an b e f i t ted t o a' B ig Men mode l ' a s w e l l a s t ot h e p opu la r c h iefdom mode l : ' T he a r chaeo log i s t sh ave p roceeded f r om p hy s ica lr ema ins t od ef ine s oc ia lr ank ,c h ief sa nd p ol i t ica la nd e conom ic r e la t ion sa nd y e ta lmo s tn oa t temp th a sb een m ade t od ef ine w ha t i s mean tb yt h e se e xp r e s s ion s .R a the rt h an b eg inn ing w i th aw el -def ined a r ray o fs oc ia l mode l st ob et e s ted u s ing a r chaeo log ica lr ema in s ,r e adymade s oc ia lr e la t ion sh ave b een p roduced f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . ' ( Broadben t 1 983 :8 ) . I n C en t ra l Sweden a s egemen ta ry t r iba ls t ruc tu re ,w i thou tc h ief ly f am i l ie si nc on t ro l ,i s aq u i te r e levan ta nd p o s s ib le a l te rna t ive t ot h ec ommon ly a dop ted c h iefdom mode l . C ompa red t oD enma rk a nd S ou th Sweden ,w he re t h eL a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re a t al a rge s ca le i s v ery d i ff icu l t t og ra sp , C en t ra l Sweden i s ap a r t o fS cand inav ia w he re t h is p a t te rn i s p re se rved i ng rea td e ta i lo ve rt h ou send so fs qua re k i lome te r so fl a nd ,t hough t h eb ronze a r te f ac t sa r ec ompa ra t ive ly f ew . When mak ing s t a temen t s a bou t s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd o rgan iza t ion i n B ronze Age S cand inav ia i ti sv ery i mpo r tan t t or emembe rt h e g rea t v a r ia t ion i n moder nl a nd u se b e tween d i f f e ren t r eg ion s s uch a s t h e s ou the rn , c en t ra l a nd n or thern p a r t s . T h i s f a c t mus t b e t aken i n to c ons ide ra t ion b efo re a ny a t temp t i s made t od i scuss p reh i s tor ic r ema ins o f a ny k ind i n s oc ie ta l t e rm s . A pa r t f r om t h is , t h e re a r e , o f c ou r se , a l so v a r ia r t ions i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t h a t g oes b ack t oc er ta in c ond i t ions d ur ing 3 42

p reh is to ry . F o re xamp le , t h er e la t ive l a ck o fb ronze a r tefac t s n o r th o fD enma rk a nd S ou th Sweden i ss ome th ing t ha t mos t c e r ta in ly i sr e la ted t oe xchange s y s tem s a nd a l l iance s d ur ing t h eB ronze A ge ( La r s son 1 986 :83 f ) .T he p e r iphe ra lr o le i nt h eb ronze e xchange s ys tem o f , f o re xamp le , t h ep rov ince o fE a s te rn Gö ta land , d ea l tw i th i nt h is p ape r , m igh t b e a n i nd ica t ion o f d i f f e rence s i n s oc ia l s t ruc tu re c ompa red t o S ou th Sweden a nd D enma rk .T he n eed f o rd i sp lay -ob jec t so fb ronze ,a s ma te r ia la t tr ibu te so f r ank a nd p owe r , s e em s l og ica l i n as oc ie ty o fc h iefdom t ype , b u t i n al e ss c omp lex s egemen ta ry t r iba ls y s tem t h e se p re s t ige i t em sm ay h ave h ad l owe rs oc ia ls i gn if icance t h e refo re t h e r e la t ive s ho r tage o f b ronzes i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd o f C en t ra l Sweden . Whe the rw el a be lt h es o c ia lf o rma t ion d u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge i nC en t ra l Sweden c h iefdom o rt r ibe i so fl e s si n te re s tt h an t h ef a c tt h a tt h er e la t ion so fp roduc t ion w e re n o t r e p roduced i nt h es ame manne rh e re a si nt h es ou the rn p ar t so fS cand inav ia ,i . e . ,b yt h e a c t ive u se o fb ronze o b jec t s a si nd iv idua l a t t r ibu te s o fp owe r a nd p res t ige . P roduced s u rp lu sw a sn o ta pp rop r ia ted o n ly b y as ma l le l i te ,b u ti n s tead d i s t r ibu ted o ve r al a rge r p a r to ft h ep opu la t ion a nd n o tt r an sfo rmed b ye xchange i n to d i sp lay a r tef ac t sl i ke i nt h e s ou th . B ronze Hoards a nd Rock A r t T he B ronze Age h oa rd s o f S cand inav ia h ave b een a na lysed b y many s choo la r s ( e .g . A ne r1 956 ;B audou 1 960 ; L a r sson 1 986 ;L evy 1 982 ; Wi l l ro th 1 985 )a nd f r om d i f f e ren t p e r spec t ive s . L ook ing b r ie f ly a ta r chaeo log ica l s t ud ies o fh oa rd si n Nor the rn E u rope , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se o ft h e B ronze Age , s eve ra l s ubd iv i s ion s h ave b een s ugge s ted , l i ke ' f ounder h oa rds ' , ' me rchan t s h oa rds ' ; ' Opfer funde ' , ' S cha tzfunde ' ; ' r i tua l a nd n on -r i tua l h oa rd s ' ( c f . B rad ley 1 985 ) . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween h oa rd s d epo s i ted a s v o t ive g i f t st ot h es upe rna tu ra la nd h oa rd st h a tr ep r esen tt empo ra ry h idden t r ea sure si s v e ry d i f f icu l tt o d raw .I nh e rs t udy o ft h eD an i sh B ronze Age h oa rd sJ ane tL evy t r ie st o f o rmu la te c er ta in c r i te r ia f o rr i tua la nd n on r i tua lh oa rd s , b a sed o n whe the rt h eh oa rd s w e re d epo s i ted i n aw e to rd ry c on tex t( Levy 1 982 :24 ) . A ni n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eh oa rd s a sa l lb ee ing v o t ive d epo s i t s ,i r re spec t ive o f whe the rt h ey a r ef ound i nw e ts wamps o r i nw e l l -d r a ined s andy s o i l s ,h a sr e cen t ly b een a dvoca ted b y Wil ro th ( 1985 :243 ) . I n C en t ra l Sweden t he re a re c . 3 0 h oa rd s f r om t h e L a te B ronze Age ( La r sson 1 986 :171 )a nd ,l i ke mo s to ft h eh oa rd si nS cand inav ia ,t h ey a r en o t f ound a ts e t t lemen t s i tes , b u t i n r a the r p e r iphe ra l a nd r emo te p a r t s o f t h e t e rr i to ry . T h i s o b serva t ion s uppor t st h er i tua l -symbol i c s i gn if i cance o ft h eh oa rd s ,r a the rt h an j u s tb ee ing ac a sua l c o l lec t ion o fu t i l i ta r ian ma ter ia l . L ike t h ep l ac ing o ft h ed ead i nc a i rns a way f r om t h e s e t t lemen ts i te st h eh oa rd ing a c t iv i ty w a sa l so s ome th ing o f a' p e r iphe ra l 'p henomenon , p e rhaps c a r r ied o u t a ts ac red p lace s f a r f r om t he s e t t lemen ts . T h is t ype o f s pa t ia l a r rangemen t i sa l so v e ry e v iden t i fl ook ing a tt h e l o ca t ion o f B ronze A ge r ock a r t ( F ig s .4 & 6 ) . When d ea l ing w i th r o ck a r to ne mu s td i f f e ren t ia te b e tween t wo b road c a tego r ies : ( 1 ) p i c tu res o f s h ips , s wo rd s , a xe s , f e e t , h umans , a n ima l s e t c . , a nd ( 2 ) c up ma rk s . T he f i r s tc a tego ry i sa lway sc oncen t ra ted t o ap ar t icu lar s po ti nt h et e r ra in w h i le t h es e cond o ne i sr a the re ven ly s p read o ve rt h es e t t led a r ea , s how ing ah igh s pa t ia lc o r re la t ion w i th t h e b urn t mound s . T he t wo t ype s o fr ock a r t c ou ld h ave b een d i rec ted t owa rd s t wo d i f f e ren tl e ve l so fs oc ie ty -i nd iv idua l s a nd t h e l o ca ld we l l ing s , a nd t h ee n t i re c l an o r s ub t r ibe . I n s tead o fb ee ing l o ca ted t op l ace s c en t ra l i nt h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re , t h e r o ck a r tc en te r s ( c a tego ry 1 ) i nE a s te rn G ö ta land a r ea l ll y ing i nt h ew es te rn p e r iphe ry o ft h es e t t led a r ea s . I fr e la t ing t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f b ur ia ls , h oa rds a nd r ock a r t c en te r s t o t h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rn i n d ica ted b yt h eb ur n t mound s ,i ti sr a the rc l ea rt h a tt h es oc iocu l tu ra l

3 43

h uman a c t iv i t ie st h a tt h e se r ema in sr ep r e sen ti nvo lved r a the rl a rge g roup so fp eop le ,f a r b eyond t h e f am i ly o r h ou sho ld l e ve l o fo rgan iza t ion . I ft h e mor tuary r i te s a nd t h e b u i ld ing o fb u r ia l c a i rns w e re t h e c once rn o f3 -4 s e t t lemen t g roup s ( p erhap s 2 00 -300 p eop le ) , e ach r ock a r tc en te rm igh t h ave b een t h em ee t ing p lace f o r 1 0 -15 s e t t lemen t g roups ( c . 1 000 -1200 p eop le ) , f o rm ing al a rge r s o c ia l u n i t l i ke ac l an o r s ub t r ibe ( La r s son 1 986 :157 ) . I r re spec t ive o fw he the r t h e se s oc ia l u n i t s r ea l ly w e re c l ans o r s ub t r ibe sa cco rd ing t ot h es oc ia la n th ropo log ica lc heck l i s t ,o rs ome th ing e l se ,w ef i nd t h ec ompa r i son q u i te r e levan tw hen t r y ing t or e la te c e r t a in p a t te rns i na r chaeo log ica ld a ta t ok nown f o rm so fh uman o rgan iza t ion . T he i mpo r tance o ft h el a rge rg roup c ompa r ed t ot h es i ng le f am i ly i sv e ry e v iden tw hen a na ly s ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge d a ta .T h i sl a rge s ca le s t ruc tu re i st r ansfo rmed i n to a s ma l l s c a le p a t te rn d u r ing t h e e nd o ft h e f i r s t m ilenn ium B .C . , c l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f r om a round 1 00 B .C . S oc ioecono m ic P a t terns a nd Change T he l a rge s c a le p a t te rn o fs oc ia lo rgan iza t ion t h a t Ih ave d i scus sed f o rt h eL a te B ronze Age , w i th b ur ia ls , h oa rds a nd r ock a r t c en ter s a s r epresen ta t ives o f s oc ia l c ommun ica t ion a td i f f e re rn t l e ve ls , u n i t ing f am i l ies , l i neage s , c l ans e t c . , s e ems t o u nde rgo ad rama t ic c hange a round 4 00 -100 B .C . T h i st r an sfo rma t ion o fs oc ie ty i sn o t o n ly v i s ib le i nt h e c hanged u se o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re ( f rom b ronze t oi r on ) b u t a l so i n r ema ins o f amo re e conom ic n a tu re -t h eu se a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ep hy s ica ll a nd scape . T he mo s ts i gn if ican tr e la t ion sh ip f o rL a te B ronze A ge C en t ra l Sweden i st ob ef ound b e tween t h e s e t t lemen t c l us te r s a nd d amp c l ay b as ins ( Be r t i lsson & L a r s son 1 985 ; L a r s son 1 986 :155 f ) .T h i si sv e ry n o tab le i nt h ep rov ince o fE a s ter n Gö ta land ( F ig .4 ) . T he w es te rn s e t t lemen tc l u s te ri sl o ca ted i mmed ia te ly s ou th o ft h ef l a tp la in s ou th o f L ake T äke rn , t h ec en t ra lc l u s te ri nt h ec l ay p la in s ou th o fL ake R oxen , t h el a rge c l us te r o n t h e p en insu la o fV ikbo lande t i sp ene t ra ted b y b ay s a nd w e t land s a nd , f i na l ly , t h e s ma l le r g roup a l ong t h e c oa s ti sl o ca ted a tt h e b o t tom o f an a r row b ay w i th w e tc l ay s ed imen t sa st h ep r edom inan ts o i l type .T he e conom ic p o ten t ia lo ft h e se w e t land s mu s t b e r e la ted t o a n e conomy b a sed o n e x tens ive c a t t le r e ar ing -ap as tora l mode o f p roduc t ion .T h is g ene ra lh ypo the s i sf i t t sv e ry w el t oge the rw i th t h eo b serva t ion s made w hen e xcava t ing b ur n t mound s ; t h ey c on ta in r a the r l a rge amoun t s o fa n ima l b one s , ma in ly c a t t le a nd s he ep ( Hyen s t rand 1 968 ;K je l l6n & H yens t rand 1 977 ) . T he g rea ti mpo r tance o ft h en a tu ra lw e t land s ,f e r t il ized b yt h en u t r i t iou ss p r ing f l ood s , a st h e e a r l ie s t ype o fp a s tu re a nd m eadow i n Sweden h a sf o rl ong b een a dvoca ted b y h uman g eog rapher s ( e .g . A rons son 1 979 ) . T he a cce s st oh igh p roduc t ive n a tu ra l g ra s s v ege ta t ion a nd w a te r -p re requ is i t s f o r ap a s to ra l mode o f p roduc t ion -w e re mos t f avou rab le i nt h e s pec if ic a r ea s w here w e f i nd t h e c l u s te r s o fb u rn t mound s . T h is i s s u re ly n oc o inc idence . T he p a t te rn e v iden tf r om F igu re 4i st h e refo re d ependan to n b o th t h ep hy s ica ll a nd scape ( t he b e s te co loc ica lz one sf o re x ten s ive g raz ing )a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion ( g iv ing e ach g roup e nough r oom f o rl i v ing a nd mov ing t h eh ea rd s ) . T he r a ther l a rge z ones w i thou t s e t t lemen t s , b e tween t h e c l u s ter s s hown i nF igu re 4 i si n s ome c a se sa ss u i tab le f o rg raz ing a sw i th in t h ec l us te r s , w h ich m igh tb ea ni nd ica t ion o ft h es t rong n eed f o rq u i te l a rge s o c ia lb uf f e rzone sb e tween t h ed i f f e r en tc ommun i t ie ss ome th ing r a the rt yp ica lo fp a s to ral i s t s( c f . O rme 1 981 :109 ; S he r ra t t 1 981 :298 ) . B ecause o f t h e t o ta l l a ck o f e v idence o f ar egu la ted l a nd u se , l i ke e nc losu res o r b ounda ry -wa l l s ,t h eL a te B ronze A ge p roduc t ion s y s tem mus th ave b een v e ry o pen a nd e x tens ive . C a t t le a nd s heep m igh th ave b een a l lowed t o move a round i nl a rge h ea rd s w i th in t h e f our s e t t lemen t c l u s te r s i n t h e p rov ince . I n l i ne w i th t h e e a r l ier made h ypo thes is o f al a rge s ca le s oc ia l s y s tem , w i th t h e c l an o r s ub t r ibe a s t h e mo s t i mpor tan t s oc ioeconom ic i n s tance o fs oc ie ty , i ti sf u r the r l i ke ly t ha t p roduc t ion a nd owne r sh ip w e re a l so r e la ted t ot h ese l e ve ls o fs oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . T he c ommuna l ly 3 44

F ig .6 . As pa t ia l mode lo fL a te B ronze A ge o rgan iza t ion i ne a s te rn C en t ra l Sweden

b a sed p roduc t ion s y s tem w a s i d eo log ica l ly r ep roduced b y , a mong o the r t h ing s , t h e mo r tua ry r i te s a nd t h e b u ry ing o ft h e d ead o n c ommuna l l a nd , s ha red b y t h e e n t i re g r oup i nvo lved i nt h ep roduc t ion p roce s s .T he v o t ive d epo s i t so u ti nt h ew e tp ar t so ft h e p a s tu res c an a l so b e i n t e rp re ted a s ac ommuna l ' d es t ruc t ion ' o fp rope r ty , i n tended f o r t h e s upe rna tu ra l f o r ce s o rw a te rg od s , t os e cu re ag ood a nd s t ab le a cce s s t ow a te ra nd p a s tu r el a nd sf o rt h ec a t t le . T he e conomy a nd t h ec ommuna l mode o fp roduc t ion w e r e t h u sr ep roduced b yr i t e sa nd i d ea sr e la t ing t ob u r ia l sa nd h oa rd s .T he o ld Ma rx i s tt h eo ry o f' b a se a nd s upe r s t ru c tu re 'c an f r u i t fu l ly b eu sed a sa ne xp lana to ry f r amewo rk . A cco rd ing t oa r cha eo log ica ld a t ing sa nd C -14 s amp le sf r om e xcava ted s i te si nC en t ra l Sweden t h i s s o c io econom ic s y s tem d i sappea r s d u r ing t h e p e r iod 4 00 -100 B .C . F rom t h i sp ha se o fp reh i s to ry t h e r ea r en os pec i f ic p a t t e rn si ns e t t lemen ta nd b u r ia l . I ts e em s t ob e ap e r iod o fp ro f ound s o c ie ta lt r an s fo rma t ion -f r om o ne r a the rd i s t inc ts t ruc tu re t o a no the r -l e av ing v e ry f ew t r aces i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I ti sf i r s t d u r ing t h e m idd le o ft h ef i r s tc en tu ry B .C . t h a t an ew s t ruc tu r eh a sb een f o rmed a nd c on so l ida ted i n aw ay t h a t makes i t' r eadab le ' i n a r chaeo log ica l t e rm s . T he s t ruc tu ra l g ap b e tween c . 400 -100 B .C . c ou ld b e ar a the r l og ica l c oncequence o f t h is t r ansfo rma t ion ; w hen c ond i t ion st r an s fo rm f r om o ne s t age t oa no the ri n ar e la t ive ly s ho r tp e r iod o ft ime ( i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive ) t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd b ecomes t oo s ma l l a nd f r agmen ta ry t of o rm s i gn if ican ts t ruc tu r e s . We c an o n ly o b se rve w ha tw a sb ef ore a nd 3 45

F ar m s tead

A rab le l end P as ture/Meadow B ur ia l ( ) round Marg in a l

l end

F ig . 7 . As pa t ia l mode lo fE a r ly I r on A ge o rgan iza t ion a nd l a nd -u se i ne a s ter nC en t ra lS weden .

wha t c ame a f ter , b ecause t h ese s t ruc tures a r e t h e r e su l t o f l ong t e rm p roces ses , o pe ra t ing f o rs ome 6 00 -800 y ea r sw i thou t ma jo rc hange s . O fc ou r se ,t h e re a r er ema in s f r om t h is p e r iod o fc hange ,l i ke u rn b u r ia ls a nd p a r t icu la rb roa che sa nd o the ra r tef ac t s f ound a te xcava t ion s ,b u ti ti sq u i te i mpo s s ib le t o make a ny s t a temen t sa bou tp a t t ern s i n s e t t lemen t ,b u r ia l ,r i tua le t c . T he ' n ew 'p a t te rn t h a t eme rge so u to ft h et r an sfo rma t iona lp roce s si sc ha ra c te r ized b y wha t w e c an c a l l ' sma l l s ca le s t ruc ture ' , c ompa red t ot h e p rev ious L a te B ronze A ge ' l a rge s ca le s t ruc tu re ' .T he i nd iv idua lf a rm s tead -a ne x t ended f am i ly -h a sn ow b ecome t he mos t i mpor tan t b as ic u n i t i n p roduc t ion a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . I n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f r om E a s te rn Gö ta land t h i sf o cu so nt h ef am i ly a nd t h ei nd iv idua l f a rms tead c an b e s een i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f a rm s tead s , b ur ia l g rounds a nd b ounda ry -wa l ls o fs t one . T h i sp a r t icu la rt ype o fb ounda ry -wa l l( wh ich i nc ons t ruc t ion i sr a the r s im i la r t ot h e ' r eave s ' o fD a r tmoo r , d i scu s sed b y F lem ing , 1 979 , 1 983 ) h a s b een e xcava ted b y a r chaeo log i s t s a nd h uman g eog raphe r s ( Baudou 1 973 ; L indqu i s t 1 968 ) , a nd t h ed a t ing sr ange b e tween c .1 00 B .C . t o A .D . 5 00 . (W idg ren 1 983 , s e e a l so h i sp ape ri nt h i sv o lume ) . I nt h ep rov ince o fE a s ter nG ö ta land o n ly t h e re a r er eg i s t r ed mo re t h an 4 50 k i lome te r s o f E a r ly I r on Age b ounda ry -wa l ls (W inbe rg 1 986 ) . T he a na ly se so ft h eb ounda ry -wa l ll a nd scape c a r r ied o u tb yh uman g eog raphe r sh ave s hown t ha t t he se w a l ls w e re b u i l t t o d ev ide l and i n to d i f f e ren t c a tegor ies , l i ke p a s tures , meadow s a nd f i e ld s f o ra r ab le f a rm ing (W idg ren 1 983 : 1 8 ) . T he s i ng le f a rm s tead a s t h e b a s ic s oc ioeconom ic u n i t i sv ery c l ea r f r om t h e se s t ud ies , e ven i fp a r t s o f t h e l a nd scape s t il w e r eu sed b y al a rge ru n i t( 2 -4 f a rm s tead s ) : T he s i ng le f a rms tead w i th i t s i n tens ive ly t i l led a r ab le f o rmed t h e b a s ic e l emen t i n t h e s ys tem . . . Many f a rm s h ad as ha re i nt h e s ame i nf ie ld a nd t h e p a s tu r e s w e re u sed c ommon ly a nd p rob ab ly s h a r ed b e twe en t h ed i f f e r en tc omp lexe s

(W idg ren 1 983 :116 )

I nc on t ra s t t ot h eL a te B ronze A ge , t h eE a r ly I r on A ge e conomy w a s mo r eb a sed o n d iv is ion o f l a nd a nd , c oncequen t ly , a mo re d i f fe ren t ia ted l a nd u se . T he g row ing i mpo r tance o fa r ab le f ann ing i so ne c au se f o rt h i sd eve lopmen t ,r equ i r ing f ence st ok eep t h e a n ima ls a way f r om t h e c rops . A lso , t h e c l ima t ic d e ter io ra t ion t ha t o ccu re s i n 3 46

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F ig . 8 . B lock d i ag ram i lus t ra t ing t h es h if ti ns e t t lemen tl o ca t ion o ccu r ing i nt h e l a te f i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . ,i nr e la t ion t ot opog raphy a nd g eo logy .

S cand inav ia a round 5 00 B .C . ( Be rg lund 1 983 ; J ensen 1 982 :136 ) b r ings t wo n ew e l emen t si n to t h ep i c tu re : t h en eed f o r meadows a nd w in te rf odde ra nd t h en eed t os t a l l t h ec a t t le d u r ing t h ec o ld mon th so ft h ey ea r .T he a r chaeo log ica le v idence o fs t a l l ing i n S cand inav ia d er ives f r om t h e m idd le o f t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . ( My rda l 1 984 ) , s how ing ag ood c o r r e la t ion w i th t h e c hange t ow e t te ra nd c oo le rc ond i t ion s . F igu re 7 s hows , i n as chema t ic w ay , t h is s oc ioeconom ic s t ruc tu re . A rab le l and , p a s tu res , meadows a nd b u r ia l g round s a r e a l l s pa t ia l ly a r ranged w i th t h e s i ng le f a rm s tead a s n uc leus .B o th p roduc t ion a nd t h eb u ry ing o ft h ed ead w e re n ow t a sk st h a tr e la ted t ot h e f am i ly l e ve l o fo rgan iza t ion ; e ach f am i ly h ad t h e i r own f a rm s tead w i th i t s o wn l a nd , whe re t h ey a l so h ad t h e i r own f am i l iy -bu r ia lg round .T he b u r ia lc ons t ruc t ions f r om t h i s p er iod c onc i s t s o ff l a t mound s , r ound , s qua re f o rmed , r e c tangu la r a nd t r iangu la ri n s hape , u sua l ly g rouped t oge the rt of o rm b ur ia lg round s . T he s t and ing s t one i sa no the r c ha rac te r i s t ic t y pe o ft h i sp e r iod ,i nd ica t ing a nE a r ly I r on A ge c r ema t ion b u r ia l . T os um u p ,t h e' a ve rage 'E a r ly I r on A ge f a rm i nC en t ra l Sweden i n ten s ive ly e xp lo i ted c . 5km o fl a nd a nd p roduc t ion w a s b a sed o n am ix tu re o fa r ab le f a rm ing a nd c a t t le r eae r ing . T he h ouses w e re u sua l ly t h ree -a is led c ons t ruc t ions , c .3 0 x 8me te r s i ns i ze (Myh re 1 980 ; S tenbe rge re t .a 1 .1955 ) w i th t wo i n te rna l r ows o fr oof -suppor t ing p o s t s a nd o ne o rt wo e n t rance so n t h el ong s i de s . I n many c a se s at h i rd o ft h ei n te rna l a r ea w a s u sed a s s t ab le . C lo se t ot h e f a rm h ouse w e a l so f i nd t h e f am i ly b ur ia l g round , 3 47

u sua l ly w i th in ar ad ius o f2 00 -300 m e te r s .I n many c a se st h e re a r e mo re t h an o ne b u r ia l g round i n c l ose p rox im i ty t ot h e s e t t lemen t . T h is c omp lex i st h en s u r rounded b y a n e two rk o fb ounda ry -wa l ls , i nd ica t ing t h e a r ea s u sed f o r c rop c row ing , p a s tu re a nd meadow . O fc ou r se , t h is s t ruc ture i sn o tf u l ly p reserved i nt oo many a r eas o fC en t r a l Sweden d ue t o moder nl a nd u se a nd e xp lo i ta t ion ,b u ti np ar t so ft h ep rov ince o fE a s ter n Gö ta land t h ep a t te rn i sq u i te d i s t inc t . T he l a s to b serva t ion t h a t mu s tb e a dded when d i scu s s ing t he d i f f e rence b e tween t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd t h eE a r ly I r on Age s o c ioeconom ic s t ruc tu r es i sd i rec t ly l i nked t o t h ec hange i nl a nd u se a nd t h ei n c rea sed i mpo r tance o fa r ab le f a rm ing . When mapp ing b ur n t mound s a nd b ounda ry -wa l ls i ti sn o tab le t ha t t he t wo t ype s s e ldom a ppea ra tt h e s ame t e r ra in l o ca t ion . G ene ra l ly , t h eB ronze A ge s e t t lemen t sa r e s i tua ted a tl owe rl e ve l st han t h es e t t lemen t sf r om t h eE a r ly I r on Age . T he r ei s as h if ti n l o ca t ion b e tween t h e t wo p e r iod s -amovemen tf r om t h ed amp c l ay z one t ot h ed r ie r u pp land mo ra ines ( F ig . 8 ) . A n e conomy l a rge ly b a sed o n c e rea l p roduc t ion ( a rd f a rm ing ) r equ i res r a the r w e l l -d ra ined s o i ls , wh i le t h e p r ima ry n eed f o r t h e p a s to ra l e conomy i sl a nd w i th ah igh g ra s sp roduc t ion ,i nt h is c a se t h ec l ay b a s ins n ea rl a ke sa nd s ha l low b ays . T he c hange i n s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion i st h e refo re ar e su l t o fc hange s i n p roduc t ion a nd e conomy . I ft u rn ing t ot h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f E a r ly I r on Age b u r ia l g round s , wh ich i nd ica te the f a rm s tead s , as im i la rc hange i sn o tab le . A lso , t h e e n t i re s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re , i . e . s i te o rgan iza t ion i n ah i e ra r ch ica lm anne ra nd s e t t lemen td en s i ty ,i sd i f f e r en tf r om t h a to ft h e L a te B ronze Age . L undma rk 's D -curve a na ly se s o ft h e s e t t lemen tp a t te rns i nE as te rn Gö ta land d ur ing t h e t wo s ucced ing p e r iod s h ave d i cerened a s i gn if ican t c hange ( Lundma rk 1 984b :52 f ) . Many o ft h e ' g aps 'b e tween t h eL a te B ronze Age s e t t lemen t g roups ( whe re c a i rns a r en ume rou s ) h ave b een s e t t led d u r ing t h eE a r ly I r on A ge . T he ' n ew 'd i f f e ren t ia ted l a nd u se a nd t h ei n c rea sed r o le o fc e rea ls ,r equ i r ing b e t te rs o i l s , i s t h ef o r ce b eh ind t h i sr eo rgan iza t ion . S oc ioecono m ic Change : Conc lud ing D iscuss ion T he o ve ra l ls oc io econom ic c hange t h a t Ib r e i f ly h ave p re sen ted a nd d i scu s sed a bove c an b es umma r ized a sf olows : F ir s t , c hanges i n t h e e conom ic b a se , f r om ap a s to ra l mode o f p roduc t ion t o a n e conomy mo re b a sed a nd d ependan to ng ra in p roduc t ion . S econd , ac hange i n s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd c omp lx i ty , f r om a n empha s is l a id o n k insh ip g roups a nd r a the r l a rge s oc ia l u n i t s , t ot h e e x tended f am i ly a st h e b a s ic s oc ioeconom ic u n i t . T h ird , a n i ncrea ing i mpor tance o f t e r r i tor ia l i ty a nd owne r sh ip o f l a nd a nd r e sou r ce s ,a sa ne f f ec to ft h ec hanged e conom ic b a s i sa nd t h eg r ea te ri mpo r tance l a id o n t h es ma l le rs oc ia lg roup , s uch a st h el o ca lf am i ly . Adop t ing a s pa t ia l p e r spec t ive c omb ined w i th a ma te r ia l i s t ic s oc io theo re t ica l a pp roach , a nd u s ing t h ea va l iab le p reh i s to r ic r ema ins i nC en t ra l Sweden f r om t h ef i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . , t h e c hange t h a t i sc l ea r ly ' v is ib le ' i nt h e d a ta i sv e ry t emp t ing t o i n te rp re ta s at r an sfo rma t ion f r om c olec t ive t op r iva t ,a nd f r om t r iba lt of am i l ia r .T he c hange o ft h eo rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion i n to s male rf a rm ing -un i t sc ou ld n o tb ec a r r ied o u ti ni s o la t ion , w i thou t as imu l tanous c hange i ni d eo logy ; ac hange i n wh ich p eop le s p e r spec t ive o ft h e ' wo r ld 'd ec rea sed , f r om t h el a rge rt r ibe o rl i neage t ot h ef am i ly a nd i t s l o ca l n e two rk o fr e la t ions . T he c a re o f t h e a nce s to r s a s i nd ica ted b y t h e s pa t ia l p lac ing o f b ur ia l g round s s uppo r ts t h is i n terpre ta t ion . T he s i ze o f t h e b ur ia l c ons t ruc t ion s a l so p o in t si nt h ev e ry s ame d i rec t ion -f r om t h e l a rge c o l lec t ive ly b u i l t B ronze A ge c on s t ruc t ions t ot h es ma l l a nd l a bou r -sav ing f l a t mound so ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge . C hanged r e la t ion so fp roduc t ion r e su l ted i nc hange si nt h er ep roduc t ive s phe re o f

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s o c ie ty ,b ecau se t h en ew s o c ioeconom ic r e la t ion sh ad t ob ej u s t if i ed a nd l e g i t ima ted a l so i nt h em ind s o fp eop le ,n o to n ly i nt h ei med ia te l a bou rp roce s s .T he w ay p eop le t r ea ted t h e i r d ead i sj us t o ne p i ece o f t h e i d eo log ica l ' c ake ' , wh ich c an b e s t ud ied i n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . T he r i ch ma ter ia l f r om C en t ra l Sweden b r ief ly p resen ted i nt h i s p ape ri st o al a rge e x ten tt h er e su l to f many d ecade so fw o rk b yt h eC en tra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s . T he ma jo r i ty o f t he b u rn t mound s a nd t he b oundary -wa l ls h oweve r , w ere n o t r eg i s t ra ted u n t i l t h e l a te 1 970 's , w h ich means t h a t mo re f i e ld -wo rk a nd a na ly ses s t i l l h ave t ob ec a r r ied o u tb efo re af u l le ru nde r s tand ing o ft h et r an sfo rma t iona lp roce s se si n t h el a te f i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C .c an b er e a ched .

R eferences A ne r , E . 1 956 . G rab u nd Hor t . E in B e i t rag z ur Deu tung d er a l tbronzeze i t l iche Hor t s i t te . O f fa 1 5 . N eumün s te r . A ronsson , M . S lä t te r - o ch b e tesma rk id e t ä l d re o ld ing s land skape t . B ygd o ch Na tur . Ä r sbok 1 979 , p p . 7 2 -96 . B a rf ie ld , L . & Hodde r , M . 1 981 . B irm ingham ' s B ronze A ge . C urren t A rchaeo logy , p p . 1 98 -200 . B audou , E . 1 960 .D ie r eg iona le u nd c hrono log i sche E in te i lung d er j üngeren B ronze z e i t i m Nord ischen K re is . S tud ies i n Nor th E uropean A rchaeo logy 1 . S tockho lm . B audou , E . 1 973 .A rkeo log i ska u nd er sökn ingar p c i Ha l leby . D e l 1 .H a l lebyunde r sök n ingen I . S tud ie si nN o r th E u ropean A r chaeo logy 3 .S tockho lm . B e rg lund , B . 1 983 . P a leoc l ima t ic c hange si nS cand inav ia a nd o nG r een land -at e n ta t i ve c o r re la t ion b a sed o n l a ke a nd b og s t ra t ig raph ica l s t ud ies . Qua terna l S tud ies i nP o land 4 . B e r t i ls son , U . &L a r sson , T .B . 1 985 . E conomy a nd i deo logy i nt h e Swed i sh B ronze Age .Archaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idge 4 :2 ,p p . 2 15 -226 . B loch , M . 1 975 . P rope r ty a nd t h ee nd o fa f f in i ty . Marx i s tA na lyses a nd S oc ia lA n t ro p o logy ( Ed . M . B loch ) ,p p . 2 03 -228 . L ondon . B lo ch , M . 1 977 . T he d i sconnec t ion b e tween p owe ra nd r ank a s ap roces s : a n o u t l ine o ft h ed eve lopmen to fk ingdom s i nC en t ra l Madaga sca r . T he E vo lu t ion o fS oc ia l S ys tem s ( Ed . J .F r iedman & M . R ow land s ) ,p p . 3 02 -340 . L ondon . B oa s , N .A . 1 983 . E geho j . As e t t lemen tf r om t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge i nE a s tJ u t land . J ourna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy 2 ,p p .9 0 -101 . B rad ley , R . 1 985 . E xchange a nd s oc ia l d i s tance -t h e s t ruc tu re o f B ronze a r tefac t d i s tr ibu t ions . Man 2 0 ,p p . 6 92 -704 . B roadben t , N . 1 983 . T oo many c h ief s a nd n o te nough i nd ians . Ap er iphe ra l v i ew o f No rd ic B ronze Age s oc ie ty . S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l le . R epo r tS e r ie s 1 7 ,p p . 7 -22 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . B uck ley ,V . 1 983 . C u r ragh ta r sna . C ur ren tA rchaeo logy , p p .70 -72 . F lem ing , A . 1 979 . T he D a r tmoo r r eave s : b ounda ry p a t tern s a nd b ehav iuo r p a t te rn s i n t he s econd m i l lenn ium b . c . P roc . Devon A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 3 7 , p p . 15 -130 . F lem ing , A . 1 983 . T he p r eh i s to r ic l a nd scape o fD a r tmoo rI : n o r th a nd e a s tD a r tmoo r . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . 4 9 , p p . 1 94 -241 . 3 49

F r iedman , J .1 975 . T r ibe s , s t a tes a nd t r an sfo rma t ions . Marx i s tA na lyses a nd S oc ia l A n thropo logy ( Ed . M . B loch ) ,p p . 1 61 -202 . L ondon . G us taf s son , S . 1 988 . S kä rv s tenshöga ro ch b ronsä lde r sbebygge l se . E n f o sf a tka r te r ing a v t r e s kä rv s tens loka le r p ä V ikbo lande t iö s t ra Ö s te rgö t land . S em inar P aper . D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä . H edges , J .1 977 . E xcava t ion o ft wo O rcad ian b u rn t mound s a tL idd le a nd B eaquoy . P roc .of t h eS oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ie so fS co t land 1 06 ( 1974 -75 ) ,p p . 3 9 -98 . H inde ss ,B . &H i r s t , P . 1 975 .P re -cap i ta l i s t Mod e so fP roduc t ion . L ondon . Hyen s t rand ,A . 1 968 . S kä rv s ten shöga ro ch b ronsä lde r sm i l jöe r . T or X I I ,p p . 6 1 -80 . H yen s t rand ,A . 1 979 .A nc ien t Monumen t sa nd P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty . S tockho lm . J aanusson , H . 1 981 . Ha l lunda . A S tudy o f P o t tery f rom a L a te B ronze A ge S e t t lemen t i n C en tra l Sweden . T he Museum o f N a t iona l An t iqu i t ies . S tockho lm . J ensen ,J .1 982 . T he P reh i s tory o fD enmark . L ondon . J ohansen , 0 . 1 981 . Me ta l lf unnene iO s tnor sk b ron sea lder . Un ive r s i te te t s O ld sak s am l ing sS k r if te r4 .O s lo . K je l l6n , E . & Hyen s t rand , A . 1 977 . H ä l l r i s tn inga r o ch b ronsä lde r ssamhä l le is yd v ä s t ra Upp land . U pp land sf ornm inne sf ören ings t i d sk r if t 4 9 . U ppsa la . K r is t iansen , K . 1 981 . E conom ic mode ls f o r B ronze A ge S cand inav ia : t owa rd s a n i n teg ra ted a pproach . E conom ic A rchaeo logy ( Ed . A . S her idan & G . B a i ley ) , p p . 2 39 -303 . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ies 9 6 . O xfo rd . K r i s t iansen , K . 1 984 . I deo logy a nd ma te r ia l c u l tu re : a n a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive . Marx is t P er spec t ives i n A rchaeo logy ( Ed . M . S pr iggs ) , p p . 7 2 -100 . C amb r idge . L a r sson , T .B . 1 984a . T he s t ruc tu re a nd f unc t ion o f p reh is to r ic s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ions -a s oc ia l a n th ropo log ica l a pproach . P aper s i nN or thern A rchaeo logy ( Ed . E . B audou ) ,p p . 2 3 -30 . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 . Umeä . L a r s son ,T .B . 1 984b . Mu l t i leve le xchange a nd s oc ia li n te rac t ion i nl a te S cand inav ian B ronze Age . S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nl a t er S cand inav ian P reh i s tory ( Ed . K . K r is t ian sen ) ,p p . 6 3 -84 . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 2 11 . O xfo rd . L a r sson , T .B . 1 986 . T he B ronze A ge Me ta lwork i n S ou thern Sweden . A spec t s o f S oc ia l a nd S pa t ia l O rgan i za t ion 1 800 -500 B .C . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t 6 . Umeä . L e rche ,G . 1 969 . K ogeg rube r iN ew Gu inea s H O j land . K um l , p p . 1 95 -209 . L evy , J . E . 1 982 . S oc ia la nd R e l ig iuos O rgan i za t ion i nB ronze A ge Denmark . B .A .R . I ner na t iona lS e r ie s 1 24 . O xfo rd . L indqu is t , S . -0 . 1 968 . De tf örh is tor i ska k u l tur land skape t iö s tra Ö s tergö t land . Ha l lebyunde rsökn ingen I . S tud ies i n No r th E uropean A rchaeo logy 2 . S tockho lm . L undma rk , H . 1 984a . A me thod o fa na lyz ing h i e ra rch ica l o rgan iza t ion i ns e t t lemen t p a t te rns . P aper s i n Nor thern A rchaeo logy ( Ed . E .B audou ) , p p . 1-22 . A rchae o logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 . Umeä . L undma rk , H . 1 984b . T he i den t if ica t ion o f t r iba l h ie ra rch ies . S e t t lemen t a nd E conomy i n L a te r S cand inav ian P reh is to ry ( Ed . K . K r is t iansen ) , p p . 4 3 -61 . B .A .R . I n ter na t iona l S e r ie s2 11 . O xfo rd . Myh re ,B . 1 980 . G ärd san legge tpä U l landhaug I .S t avange r . My rda l ,J .1 984 . E l i senhof o ch j ä rnä lde rn sb o skaps skö t se l iNo rdvä s teu ropa . F ornvännen 7 9 ,p p . 7 3 -92 . N ä sman , U . 1 987 . House , v i l lage a nd s e t t lemen t . Danmark s l c engs te u dgravn ing , p p . 4 57 -465 .T he N a t iona l Mu seum o fD enma rk . C openhagen . O 'Ke l ly , M . 1 954 . E xcava t ions a nd e xper imen t s i n a nc ien t I r ish c ook ing -p laces . T he J ourna lo ft h eR oya lS oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ie so fI r e land D O CX IV ,p p . 1 05 -155 . O rme , B . 1 981 .A n thropo logy f or A rchaeo log i s t s . L ondon . 3 5 0

P os sner t , G . & O l sson , I .U . 1 986 . T he r ad ioca rbon d a t ing o f s amp les f r om h eap s o f f i re -c racked s t one s f ound i n t h e c oun ty o f Ö s te rgö t land . T he B ronze A ge Me ta lwork in S ou thern Sweden ( T .B . L a r sson ) , Append ix 1 , p p . 1 98 -200 . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t6 . Umeä . R ey , P .P . 1 977 . T he l i neage mode o f p roduc t ion . C r i t ique o f A n thropo logy 1 , p p . 6 5 -91 . S he r ra t t , A . 1 981 . P lough a nd p a s to ra l ism : a spec t s o f t h e s e conda ry p roduc t s r evo l u t ion . P a t tern o f t h e P as t ( Ed s . I . Hodde r , G . I s aac & N . H ammond ) , p p . 2 61 -305 .Camb r idge . S ha l ins , M . 1 968 . T r ibesmen . N ew J e r sey . S hank s , M . &T i l ley , C . 1 982 . I deo logy , s ymbo l ic p owe r a nd r i tua l c ommun ica t ion : ar e in terpre ta t ion o f N eo l i th ic mor tua ry p rac t ices . S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tura l A rchaeo logy ( Ed . I .H odde r ) , p p . 1 29 -154 . C amb r idge . S inc la i r , P . & L undma rk , H . 1 984 . A s pa t ia l a na lys is o f a r chaeo log ica l s i tes f r om Z imbabwe . Work ing P aper si nA f r ican S tud ie s 7 . U ppsa la . S t enbe rger , M . & K l ind t -Jen sen , 0 . ( Ed s . ) . 1 955 . V a l lhagar . AM igra t ion P er iod S e t t lemen to nG o t land /Sweden I I I . S tockho lm . T e sch , S . 1 983 . E t t p a r b ronsä lde r sm i l jöe r med h us lämn inga r iS käne o ch S öde r man land . A rkeo log i iS ver ige 1 980 . T he C en t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l A n t iqu i t ie s . S to ckho lm . We l inder , S . 1 977 . E konom iska p rocesser i f örh is tor isk e xpans ion . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia . L und . Widg ren , M . 1 983 . S e t t lemen ta nd F arm ing S y s tem i nt h eE ar ly I ron A ge . S tockho lm S tud ie si nH uman G eog raphy 3 .S tockho lm . W i l l ro th , K . -H . 1 985 .D ie Hor und e d er ä l teren B ronzeze i ti nS üd schweden u nd a uf d en d än i schen I n se ln . O f f a5 5 . N eumün s te r . Winbe rg , B . 1 986 . S tens t ränga r o ch g rava r s om k ä l lma te r ia l v id s t ud ie t a v j ä rn ä l dem s b ebygge l se . F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge l seh is tor ia ( Ed . K . -G . S e l inge ) , p p . 1 06 -120 .B ebygge l seh is to r i sk t i d sk r i f t 1 .

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A pproaches t oS wed i sh P reh i s tory ,B .A .R . , O xf ord , 1 989 ,p p . 3 53 -366 .

GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACHES TO F IELD SYSTE MS I N SWEDISH PREH ISTORY AND EARLY H ISTORY B y Ma ts Widgren *

T he s t udy o fp reh is to r ic f i e ld s y s tems i n Sweden t r ad i t iona l ly ma in ly b een c a r r ied o u tb y g eog raphe r s . R e t rog re ss ive a pp roa che s h ave t h e refo r p layed a n i mpo r tan t r o le . S ta r t ing w i th t he 1 7 th c en tu ry c a r tog raph ic e v idence t h eo r ig in sh ave b een t r aced b y mo rphogene t ic ,m e t ro log ica la nd ( f rom t h e 1 960 ' s ) a r chaeo log ica lf i e ld me thod s . T h i sp ape rp re sen t ss ome o ft h er e su l t s . D u r ing t h e 1 970 's mo s t s t ud ie s o f f i e ld l a you t a nd s e t t lemen t w e re s een a s ma in ly c au sed b y t h e p rog re ss ion f r om o ne e x ten s ive f a rm ing s y s tem t o amo re i n tens ive o ne . Two f a c to r s a r e n ow w o rk ing a ga in s t t h i s e xp lana to ry a pp roach . F i r s t , t h e re i sn o t y e t -i n s p i te o f much r e sea rch -t h e e mp i r ica l e v idence t o i n te rp re t t h e L a te I r on A ge d eve lopmen t ( A .D . 5 00 t o 1 000 ) a s ma in ly c aused b y i n tens i f ica t ion . S econd , mo s to ft h e n ew l o ca l i t ie s n ow f ound i ns ou the rn a nd w es te rn Sweden d o n o t c onfo rm t oa ny s t age i nt h i s u n i l inea r mode l . I n f u tu re t h eo re t ica l w o rk mo re e mpha s i s w i l l h ave t ob e l a id o n s oc ia l s t ruc tu re , f i e ld s y s tems a s m an i f e s ta t ion so fp rope r ty r i gh t sa nd o nt h er eg iona ld imen s ion so ff a rm ing s y s t em d eve lopmen t .

I n troduc t ion When It r ied t oe xp la in t o ag eog raph ica lc o l league w hy Iw a ss uppo sed t og ive ap ape r o nf i e ld s y s tem sa tt h e " Theo re t ica lA rchaeo logy G roup " [ TAG 1 986 ,L ondon ] h ea sked: " F ie ld s y s tem s -wha ti st h eo re t ica l a bou t t h em? " . H i sq ue s t ion w a s b a sed o n t h ef a c t t h a tf i e ld s y s tem ss t ud ie sw i th in g eog raphy h ave l o ng b een h eav i ly e mp i r ica l ly o r ien ted . T h is p ape ri s , h oweve r , n o ta na r gumen tf o r at h eo ry o ff i e ld s ys tem s . Id on o tt h ink a t h eory f o r f i e ld s y s tem s c an b e f o rmu la ted w h ich i ss epa ra ted f r om s oc ia l t h eo ry i n g ene ra l . Mo re t h an o n t heory t h e empha s is o f t h is p ape r i sr a the r o n t h e g ene ra l e xp lana to ry f r amewo rk sw i th in w h ich s t ud ie so fe a r ly f i e ld s y s tem sh ave b een c a r r ied o u ti n Sweden d u r ing t h el a s tt e nt of i f teen y ea r s . I n Sweden ,t h es t udy o fp reh i s to r ic a nd e a r ly m ed ieva lf i e ld s y s tem sh a s ma in ly b een c a r r ied o u tb yg eog raphe r sa nd o n ly t o am ino rd eg ree b ya r chaeo log is t s . F u r the rmo re , mo s to ft h e s t ud ie s a r ec a r r ied o u t b yh uman g eog r aphe r s t r a ined a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f St o ckho lm . H opefu l ly , t h e 1 980 's w i l l , i nr e t ro spec t , b e s e en a s ap e r iod w hen t h is s i tua t ion w a s c hanged a nd t h eg roup o fp eop le e ngaged i nt h i sb ranch o fr e sea r ch w a sw idened .

*D epa r tmen to fH uman G eog raphy ,U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm

3 5 3

T he a r chaeo log i s t so ft h e S u rvey o fA nc ien t Monumen t s ( c a r r ied o u tb yt h eC en t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l A n t iqu i t ie s )h ave d ra s t ica l ly i n c rea sed t h e i rc ompe tence w i th in t h i s f i e ld a nd an umbe ro fr epo r t so ft h e i rr e cen tf i nd ing sh ave b een p ub l i shed d u r ing t h el a s t f i ve y ea r s ( e .g . A rkeo log i iS ve r ige 1 982 -83 ) . A s a n e f f ec t o ft h e i r r e co rd ing s , t h e n umbe ro fa r chaeo log ica lr e scue i nve s t iga t ion so fs uch l o ca l i t ie sw i l la l so b ei n c rea s ing . N ever the les s ,i tmus tb ep o in ted o u tt h a ta r chaeo log ica lu n ive r s i ty r e sea r ch w i th in t h is f i e ld i sp rac t icaly n on -ex i s ten t . T he d i sadvan tages o f t h is i n s t i tu t iona l f r amewo rk a r e o bv ious . C oncent ra t ion o f e xpe r ience a nd k now ledge t oo ne d epa r tmen t h ampe rs t he c r i t ique a nd d i scus s ion . F o r tuna te ly , t h er e sea rch w ep roduce h a s n ever the le ss b een me tw i th s c ep t ic i sm a nd w e l l -fo rmu la ted c r i t ique f r om a r chaeo log i s t s( Amb ro s ian i 1 968 ; B audou 1 973 ) . Much mo re i n te rac t ion a nd c r i t ique w ou ld ,h oweve r ,b ep ro f i tab le f o rt h er e sea r ch .

S ome R e trospec t ive No tes o n F ie ld S ys tems R esearch T he e xp lana to ry f r amewo rk w i th in w h ich f i e ld s y s tem s s t ud ie sh ave b een c a r r ied o u t s hou ld t hus b e s een i nt h el i gh to ft h eh i s to ry o ft h es ub jec to fg eog raphy .B yt r ad i t ion t h eg eog raph ica la pp roach t ol a nd scape h i s to ry w a sr e t ro spec t ive . I tw a s t h el a y -ou to f t h ec on tempo ra ry l a nd scap et h a tw a st ob ee xp la ined .F rom b e ing i n i t ia l ly r e t ro spec t ive ( e xp la in ing t h ep re sen tl a nd scape b yh i s to r ica l g eog raph ica l s t ud ie s )t h ea pp roach h a s n ow r a the rb ecome r e trogre s s ive ,a imed a ts t udy ing t h ep a s tf o ri t so wn s ake ,b u tt a k ing i t s me thodo log ica l s t ar t ing p o in t i nt h e p resen t . T he p re sen t -o r t h e e a r ly moder n l a nd scape t hus s t i l l f o rm s a n i mpor tan t f a c to r i n mo s t g eog raph ica l i nqu i r ies i n to med ieva lo rp r eh i s to r ic l a nd scape s . T h i s r e t rog res s ive mo rphogene t ic m e thod o fs t udy ing t h e l a nd scape w a s b rough t t o Sweden f r om G ermany ( "Rück sch r iebende K a ta s te rauswe r tung " ) . F rom t h e 1 7 th a nd 1 8 th c en tury c ada s t ra l map s , c onc lus ions w e re d rawn a s t ot h e f i e ld a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn si nt h ee a r ly m ed ieva l t imes . B yu s ing t h i sm e thod i tw a sp o ss ib le t oo rgan ise t h e emp i r ica l ly d ocumen ted t y pe so fr u ra ls e t t lemen ti n to au n i l inea rs equence o fs t age s i nv i l lage d eve lopmen t . I n Sweden t h is t h eo re t ica l wo rk w a s d eve loped i n to a c ohe ren t mode l o f f i e ld s ys tem s , t a xa t ion a nd e a r ly t e r r i tor ia l o rgan isa t ion b y t h e l a te P rof es so r D av id H anne rbe rg . I nh i ss t ud ies t h e ma in e mp i r ica l ma te r ia lw a ss t i l lo n ly t h e 1 7 th a nd 1 8 th c en tu ry maps ,t oge the rw i th s ome e a r l ie rd ocumen ta ry e v idence ,b u tt h rough d educ t ive r ea son ing o n t a xa t ion a nd mea su remen th e b u i l tu p amode lr ang ing b ack t ot h e f i r s t c en tu r ie sA .D . F ocus i so nt h ed eve lopmen to ft h es i ng le s e t t lemen tu n i t ,i t sa s ses smen t a nd i t sr o le i n aw ide rt e r r i to r ia lo rgan isa t ion ( Hanne rbe rg 1 977 , as ho r tp re sen ta t ion i n E ng l ish w a sp ub l i shed i n1 976 ) . T og ive y ou a ni d ea o ft h et ype so fw o rk h ed id ,o ne c ou ld p e rhaps c ompa re h i s w o rk w i th t h a to fG lanv i l le J one s ' o n t h e e a r ly t e r r i to r ia l o rgan isa t ion o fE ng land a nd Wa le s ( J one s 1 961 ) . I nr e t ro spec to ne c an s ay t h a tt h el a s t t wen ty y ea r s o fg eograph ica lr e sea rch o n t h e f i e ld s y s tem s h a s b een a imed a tt e s t ing t h e d i f f e ren t s t eps i nt h i s mode l i nv a r iou s r eg ions o f Sweden w i th h i s to r ica la nd a r chaeo log ica lm e thod s . T he b a s i s o fH anne rbe rg 's mode l w a s as imp le s equence o ff o rma l s e t t lemen tt ype s a nd f i e ld s ys tem s , b u t h e a l so p o in ted o u t t h e d ynam ic f a c to r i n t h e i n te r re la t ion s b e tween t he d i f f e ren t f a c to r s . H e s aw c hange s i n t he s y s tem o f r o ta t ion a s t h e i ndependen t f a c to r c au s ing c hange s i nf i e ld s y s tem s , s e t t lemen t a nd h o ld ing l a you t w i th in t h ea g ra r ian c ommun i t ie s . Ih ave s umma r i sed t h e se b a s ic r e la t ion si n as imp l if ied s cheme ( F ig . 1 ) . T he a r chaeo log i s tS t ig We l l inde rf u r the rd eve loped p a r t so ft h is mode l .T he d i f f e ren t s t ages i nH anne rbe rg 's s cheme c ou ld e a s i ly b es e en a ss t eps o fe co log ica le f f ic iency o f d i f f e ren tf a rm ing s y s tem s . H ei n t roduced t h eB o serup v iew o np opu la t ion g row th a nd 3 54

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F ig . 1 . A s imp l if ied s cheme i lus t ra t ing t he a s sumed c h rono log ica l a nd c ausa l r e la t ion s b e tween d i f f e ren tf o rm si nt h ea g ra r ian l a nds cape o f Sweden .

a g r ar ian c hange i n to ac ohe ren t mode l ,i n co rpo ra t ing a l so t h el o ng t e rm d eve lopmen ti n t h e l a nd scape i n te rpre ted f r om p o l len -d iag ram s . P opu la t ion i n c rea se w a s s e en a st h e d r iv ing f o rce b eh ind t h e emp ir ica l ly o bserved c r i t ica l p o in t s i n t he s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t( We l inde r 1 975 ) . Two b a s ic a s sump t ion s a r ei mp l ic i ti nt h e se a nd t h e s ub sequen t s t ud ie s . T he f i r s ti s t h a t t h e ma in t u rn ing p o in t s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th s pa t ia l r eo rgan i sa t ion , a im ing a t i n crea sed a g ra r ian p roduc t ion . T he s econd u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion i s t ha t t h is i n ten s if ica t ion h a sb een a ch ieved m a in ly b yc l imb ing u pt h el a dde rf o rmed b yt h ef ou r t y pes o ff i e ld s y s tem ( F ig . 1 ) , wh ich h ave b een i d en t if ied . P rob lem sr e la t ing t ot h ese t u rn ing p o in t sh ave b een i nt h ef o cu so fs ub sequence s t ud ie s : ( 1 ) T he a s sumed i n t roduc t ion o fp ermanen t ly c ropped a nd manured i n f ie ld s d u r ing t h ef i r s tf ew c en tu r ie sA .D . ( 2 ) T he c on t rac t ion a nd c hange o f s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion d u r ing t h e 6 th a nd 7 th c en tur ie sA .D . ( 3 ) T he f o rma t ion o f o pen , s ub -d iv ided f i e ld s a nd t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f s e t t lemen ti n to v ilage sd u r ing t h e l th t o1 3 th c en tu r ie s . I nt h e f o l low ing Iw i l l t r y t os umma r ize s ome o ft h e emp i r ica l r e su l t sr e la t ing t ot h is mode l o f s ucces s ive i n ten s if ica t ion , ma in ly f o cu ss ing o n t h e p e r iod 5 00 B .C . t oA .D . 3 55

1 000 . T he f o l low ing t e x t i sp a r t ly b ased o n Widg ren ( 1987a ) , whe re a d e ta i led b ib l iog raphy c ove r ing t h ep e r iod 1 981 -1985 a l so c an b ef ound . Go t land : I n troduc t ion o f Cont inuous C ropp ing i n t he F irs t C entur ies A .D.

I nt h e 1 970 's t h e mo s ti mpo r tan te ven tw i th in t h i sf i e ld o fr e sea r ch i n Sweden w a st h e d i scove ry o fl a rge a r ea so f" c e l t ic" f i e ld so nt h ei s land o f Go t land . No to n ly w e re t h ey t h e f i r s tl a rge " ce l t ic " f i e ld s y s tem st ob ef ound i n Sweden , t h ey w e re a l so t h ee a r l ie s t d a ted f i e ld s ( 500 B .C . t o A .D . 2 00 ) f ound u p t ot h a t t ime . F u r the rmo re , a nd p e rhap s mo s t i mpo r tan t : t h ey w e re o ve r la in b y o the r s t ruc tu re , c on s i s t ing o fs t one w a l l s a nd s e t t lemen ts f r om t h e d i rec t ly s ucceed ing p e r iod . T he e v idence t hus made p o s s ib le a s t udy o fa g ra r ian c hange d u r ing ar a the rs ho r tp e r iod o ft ime . T he f i r s ts y s tem i nd ica ted e x tens ive c u l t iva t ion o f al a rge a r ea w h i le t h e s e cond w a s c onnec ted w i th s ma l l i n tens ive ly c ropped f i e ld s , e ach a s soc ia ted w i th af am i ly f a rm . T he f a c to rb eh ind t h i s a g ra r ian c hange , wh ich wa s a l so s upposed t o h ave s oc ia l e f fec t s , w a s s een i n p opu la t ion i n c rea se ( L indqu i s t 1 974 ) . T hese a rgumen ts w e re f u r the r d eve loped a ta r eg iona ll e ve lb yC a r l s son ( 1979 ) . When i tc ome st ot h ee ven t st a k ing p l ace a r ound t h eb i r th o fC h r i s t ,t h e se r e su l t sg i ve f u l l s uppo r t t ot h ei d ea o ff a rm ing i n ten s if ica t ion . T he b a s ic c omponen t s i nt h ef o ss i l l a nd scape a nd t h e i rs pa t ia la r rangemen ta r ed i s t inc t ive ly d i f f e ren tb e tween t h et wo t y pe s o fs upe r impo sed l a nd scape s . Wh i le t h ea r ab le f i e ld sa r et h eo n ly e v idence f r om t h ef i r s t p ha se , t h e s e cond i sc ha rac te r ized b y c a t t le p a ths ,p en s a nd l ong h ouses w i th ac a t t le c ompar tmen t , wh ich a l l a r e e v idence o f i n tens ive a n ima l h usband ry , w he re t h e g a the r ing o f manu re m ay h ave b een an a tu ra lp a r t . F u r the rmo re ,C a r l sson w a sa l so a b le t os how t h a tt h es ma l lf i e ld st i l led d u r ing t h is l a te rR oman I r on A ge p ha se ,d ue t ot h e i r manu r ing , h ad ad i s t inc t ly h ighe ro rgan ic c on ten tt h an f i e ld sf r om t h ep rev iou sp ha se . O n ly as ma l l a r ea o ft h ee nc lo sed l a nd w a su sed f o ra r ab le f i e ld s , wh i le t h el a rge rp a r t s w e re u sed f o rh aymak ing . An i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion f o r t h e i nves t iga t ions o n Go t land w as t h e i d ea t h a t t h e s e t t lemen tc hange sd u r ing t h en ex tt u rn ing p o in t -t h ea bandonm en to f al a rge n umbe ro f h ou se sd u r ing t h e6 t ha nd 7 th c en tu r ie sA .D . -w a sc aused ma in ly b yt h ei n t roduc t ion o f an ew f i e ld s y s tem a nd an ew t ype o fb u i ld ing s .T he i d ea w a st h a tw ha ts e emed a tf i r s t g l ance t o b e ar ad ica l c on t rac t ion o f s e t t lemen t w a s i n f a c t a n i n ten s i f ica t ion o f a gr icu l tu re . C a r l sson s ucceeded i np rov ing s e t t lemen ta r ea c on t inu i ty i n an umbe ro f l o ca l i t ies , b u th ed id n o ts ucceed i np rov ing i n ten s if ica t ion a nd t h ei n t roduc t ion o ft h e t wo -f ie ld s y s tem a st h ec ausa t ive f a c to rb eh ind t h es e t t lemen tc hange s . Mo s ti n f e rence o n c hange h a sb een i n te rpr e ted f r om r e t rog re s s ive a na ly se s o ft h e 1 7 th c en tury maps , wh i le t h e a c tua l p a t tern o f l a nd u se a nd s e t t lemen t i ss e ldom r e corded f r om f i e ld e v idence . Wi th t h e a im o f s o lv ing t h is p rob lem , D an C a r l sson i sn ow w o rk ing o n a p ro jec ta tF jä le , ad e se r ted f a rm i nA la o nG o t land .H i si n ten t ion i st of o l low a ni s o la ted f a rm f r om t h e E a r ly I r on Age u p t oi t s p e rmanen t d ese r ta t ion i n t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry . Mapp ing t h ed e se r ted f i e ld sa nd w i th r ad ioca rbon d a te sf r om c l ea rance h o r izon sh eh a s r e con s tr uc ted t h ed eve lopmen to ft h ef a rm land i nf ou rs t age s . T he p re l im ina ry r e su l t sp o in tt os e t t lemen tc on t inu i ty i nt h e a r ea b u ta l so t oa n o n ly g radua li n c rease o ft h ea r ab le .T h i sh a s made C a r l s son r ev ise h i se a r l ie rc on jec tu res o n t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h et wo -f ie ld s y s tem a so ne o ft h e ma in e xp lana to ry f a c to r sb eh ind s e t t lemen tc hange so nG o t land d u r ing t h ef i r s tm ilenn ium A .D . ( Ca r l s son 1 983 ; 1 985 ) .

3 5 6

F ig .2 .A rea sa nd l o ca l i t ie sm en t ioned i nt h et e x t .

Ö s tergö t land : S oc ia l a nd T err i tor ia l Changes i n t he 6 th t o 8 th C en tur ies T he s t one w a l le nc lo su re s t h a tc ha rac te r i sed G o t land i nt h ep er iod A .D . 2 00 t o5 00 c an a l so b e f ound i nt h e Swed i sh p rov inces o fO land , Ö s te rgö t land a nd U pp land . T he i r ma in f ea tu re s a r e l ong ,l ow w a l l s o rb ank s o fs t one . T he w a l l s f o rm l a rge i r r egu la ro r s ome t imes r ounded e nc lo su re s ,w i th in w h ich c an b ef ound v a r ied t ype so fl a nd .T he se a r ea sw e re ma in ly u sed a sh ay m eadow sw h i le s ma l ler p a r t so ft h i si n f ie ld l a nd s e rved a sa r ab le . T he f i r s t mode rn i nve s t iga t ion o ft h i st y pe.o fa g ra r ian l a nd scape w a sc a r r ied o u tb yt h e g eog raphe rS venO lo fL indqu i s t( 1968 )i nÖ s te rgö t land .H ed a ted t h ee me rgence o ft h i s a g ra r ian s t ruc tu re t ot h e f i r s t c en tur ies A .D . My o wn f i e ld i nves t iga t ion i nt h e s ame p rov ince c onf i rmed t h e se d a t ing s ,a nd w i th p o l len a na ly se si tw a sa l so p o s s ib le t ot r ace d i f f e ren t a spec t s o ft h is p rofound i n ten s if ica t ion a nd e xpan s ion o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h e r eg ion .T he f o ss i ll a nd scape p rov ide se v idence o ft h ei n t roduc t ion o fa ni nf ie ld s y s tem w i th e nc lo sed m eadows , m ak ing p o ss ib le t h e i n teg ra t ion o fa r ab le f a rm ing a nd c a t t le b reed ing w i th in t h e s ame f a rm ing s ys tem . F rom p o l len -ana ly t ica l e v idence i tw a s f u r the rp o s s ib le t os how t h a tt h ec u l t iva t ion o fr ye a nd t h et r an sfo rma t ion o fa l de rc a r r s i n to p a s ture o r h ay m eadow s a l so d a ted t o t h i s s ame p er iod . T he l a nd scape w a s t r ansfo rmed b y t h e n ew f a rm ing s y s tem a nd s oon b ecame f u l ly c o lon ised . A l lr e su l t s s uppor tt h e i d ea t h a tt h ef i r s tf ew c en tur ies A .D . w e re c ha rac te r ised b y i n tens if ica t ion a nd i nc rea sed e co log ica l e ff ic iency (W idg ren 1 983 ) . T he l ong t e rm c hanges i n s e t t lemen ta nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o ccu r r ing d u r ing t h ep e r iod 5 00 B .C . -A .D . 5 00 a r e a l so d i scu s sed i nt h ep ape r sb yL a r s son & L undma rk a nd L undma rk i nt h is v o lume . A tt h i st ime s e t t lemen ti nt h ea r ea c on s i s ted o fl a rge v i l lage l ike c omp lexe s ,c on s i s t ing o f an umbe ro fi s o la ted f a rm s tead sk n i tt o ge the rb y ac ommon s y s tem o fc a t t le p a th sa nd s t one -wa l ls . W i th in s uch ac omp lex t h e f a rm s a nd t h e a r ab le w e re p robab ly h e ld i nd iv idua l ly , b u t t h e l ong c a t t le p a ths i nd ica te a p as to ra l o rgan isa t ion wh ich 3 57

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F ig . 3 ." Ce l t ic " f i e ld s i nV ina rve , Go t land . T he b lock shaped f i e ld s f r om p re -Roman a nd e a r ly R oman I r on Age a re o ve r la in b y h ou se -founda t ions a nd e nc lo su re s d a t ing t o l a te r R oman I r on A ge a nd M ig ra t ion P e r iod . F rom L indqu is t 1 974 . S ee a l so W inde lha l 1 984 .

e ncompa s sed a lf a rm si nt h ec omp lex .T he ma in tenance o ft h ee co log ica lb a lance w a s t h u sd ependen to nt h ree d i f f e ren tl e ve l so fd ec i s ion : t h ei nd iv idua lf a rm , af a rm c omp lex w i th c ommon p a th sa nd f i na l ly s ome k ind o fb ody r egu la t ing t h eu se o fl a rge p a s tu re s c ommon t om any s u ch c omp lexe s . I nt h ep e r iod A .D . 4 00 t o7 00 a g ra r ian p roduc t ion d ec l ined i nt h e a r ea . Howeve r ,t h e c r is is d id n o t l e ad t o t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f ar ad ica l ly n ew f a rm ing s y s tem a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h eL a te I r on A ge . T he a c tua ll a nd u se p a t ter na f te rt h i sp e r iod o fc hange , s e em s , a cco rd ing t ot h ep o l len -d iag ram s ,t oh ave b een t h es ame .T he e xpec ted e f f ec t so f t h er e s t ruc tu r ing o ff a rm ing t e chno logy a nd e conomy c anno tb ed ocumen ted u n t i lt h e 1 th c en tu ry ,w h ich i st h ee a r l ie s tt ime t h et wo -f ie ld s y s tem c an h ave b een i n t roduced . I n s tead , t h e mo s t e v iden t r e su l t w a s t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fn ew b a s ic t e r r i to r ie s . T he f o rme rl e ve l so fd ec i s ion o ve rl a nd w e re c hanged . T he l a rge c omp lexes w i th c ommon c a t t le p a th s w e re s p l i t u p a nd i n s tead e ach f a rm o r s ma l l h am le td ema r ca ted i t s own 3 58

F ig . 4 .S e t t lemen ta nd l a nd u s ei nt h eF lä re ta r ea ,ö s te rgö t land c 1 00 B .C .t oA .D . 5 00 .W idg ren 1 983 .

t e r r i to ry , s ome t ime se ven b y t h eb u i ld ing o fc e me te r ie so n t h ef o rme rc ommon c a t t le p a ths .T hus ,t h ec hange si nl a nd scape w e re n o ta ta l l a s soc ia ted w i th i n ten s if ica t ion i n a n e co log ica l s en se . T he mo s t e v iden t man if es ta t ion o f t h e c hanges w e re i n s tead c onnec ted w i th c hange si np roper ty r i gh t sa nd i nt h el e ve l so fd ec i s ion o ve rl a nd .

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F ig . 5 .I nt h e6 t ha nd 7 t hc en tua r ie st h eo l df a rm c omp lexe sw e re s p l i tu pa nd n ew ,s ma l le rt e r r i to r ie s w e r ed ema r ca t ed . A mod e lo ft h ed eve lopmen ti ne a s te rn ö s te rgö t land .W idg ren 1 983 .

The O r ig in o f S ub -d iv ided F ie lds A cco rd ing t o t h e i n i t ia l ly d i scussed mode l ( F ig . 1 ) , s ub -d iv i s ion o f f i e ld s a nd t h e e s tab l i shmen to fo pen f i e ld sw i th ac ommon r o ta t ion w a s ap henomenon t h a td eve loped i nm ed ieva lt ime st oge the rw i th t h e eme rgence o fl a rge rs e t t lemen tc oncen t ra t ion s .T h i s h a s a l so b een c onf irmed b y b o th d ocumen ta ry a nd f i e ld e v idence . T he l a tes t c on t r ibu t ion i st h e monog raphy o n t h e L ake Mä la r en d i s t r ic t b y U lf S por rong . H e c a r r ied o u t s y s tema t ic r e sea rch o n t h e e a r ly maps a nd o fr e l ics o fs t r ip -f ie ld s . H e h a s a l so p re sen ted as e r ie s o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om d i f f e ren tf e a tu re s i ne x is t ing a nd /o r d e se r ted v i l lages . T he se d a t ing s i nd ica te t h a t , i n ap r ima ry s t age , t h e w ho le f i e ld a r ea w a sd e l im i ted ( d a t ing st ot h ep e r iod A .D . 6 00 t o1 200 ) . T he eme rgence o fs t r ip -f ie ld si nd ica t ing s ubd iv ided f i e ld s -c an b e d a ted t o al a te rs t age ( r ad ioca rbon d a t ings t ot h e p e r iod A .D . 1 100 t o1 600 ; S po r rong 1 985 , 1 986 ) . 3 60

B u tt h ed i scu s s ion o nt h eo r ig in o fs ub -d iv ided f i e ld sh a sa l so r e cen t ly g o tn ew f ue la s ar e su l to ft h ef i nd so fr egu la r ly p l anned s t r ip f i e ld so f amuch e a r l ie ro r ig in . A s ap a r t o f ap ro jec to nt h eo r ig in o fs ubd iv ided f i e ld si n We s te rn Sweden s ome s u rp r i s ing ly o ld p lanned f i e lds h ave b een i nves t iga ted i n t h e s ou the rn p a r ts o f t he p rov ince o f V ä s te rgö t land . Wh i le s e a r ch ing f o rp a r t ia l ly d e se r ted m ed ieva ls ub -d iv ided f i e ld s Ic ame a c ro ss at ype o fl a rge f o ss i l i sed f i e ld s c ons is t ing o fl ong s t r ips b ounded b yb ank s o f s t one a nd e a r th (W idg ren 1 987b ) . T he f i r s t l o ca l i ty t o b e d i scu ssed h e re i st h e h am le t o f G iss la rp , N i t to rp p ar i sh ( p rov ince o fV ä s te rgö t land ) . S upe r f ic ia l ly s e en ,t h is l o ca l i ty s howed a l lt h ea spec t so fa p a r t ia l ly d ese r ted ,p robab ly m ed ieva lo pen f i e ld . Ap l an o ft h ec en t ra lp a r to ft h ef i e ld s c an b e s e en i nF ig . 6 .T he t ype o fb ounda r ie s -e a r then b ank s w i th many s t one s -a nd t h e b read th o f t h e s t r ips , b e tween 7 a nd 3 0 met res , h a s many p a ra l le l s w i th t h e r ad ioca rbon d a ted Med ieva l a nd l a te r f i e ld s a tB runnsbo ( L indqv is t 1 976 ) a nd Ä lse ( Spo r rong ,p e r s . c omm . )l e ss t h an ah und red k i lome te r sf u r the rn o r th i nV ä s te rgö t land . B u t t h e f u r the r a na lys is i n t h e f i e ld s howed t h a t t h e p a ra l le l b ank s w e re t h e o ldes t i d en t i f iab le p ha se i nt h el o ca l i ty .W i th in t h el o ca l i ty c ou ld b ef ound s ma l le rf i e ld st h a ta cco rd ing t o map e v idence -w e re t i led i nt h e 1 8 th a nd 1 9 th c en tu r ie s .T he se a r ea sh ad n o mo rpho log ica l s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e u nder ly ing l a nd d iv is ion . Wh i le t h e y ounge r f i e ld s may w e l lh ave b een t i l led b ya n a r d ,t h eu nde r ly ing l a nd d iv i s ion t a kes v ery l i t t le c on s ide ra t ion o f s l ope a nd t h e l a nd i sg ene ra l ly v e ry p oo r ly c l ea red o f s t ones . O ne c l ea r ly g e t st h ei mp re s s ion t h a ti th a sn eve rb een t i l led b y at r ac t ion i mp lemen t ,r a the rb y ah oe o r s ome o the rh and i mp lemen t . T he s t r ip f i e ld s o n t h is l o ca l i ty t hus r ep re sen ta c l ea r ly o lde rl a ye ro ft h e a g ra r ian l a nd scape t h an t h a td ocumen ted o n t h ee a r ly maps . T hey r ep r e sen ta no the rt y pe o fd iv id ing t h el a nd a nd p robab ly a l so a no the rt e chn ique o f t i l l ing . F oee i l t k u l tu r lendekaP

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T he s t ra t ig raphy b e tween l a rge rB ronze A ge o rE a r ly I r on A ge c a i rn s a nd t h ef i e ld s g i ve s af u r the rc l ue t ot h e i rd a t ing .T he p r e sence o fl a rge c a i rn si nt h ec en t ra lp a r t so ft h e f i e ld sa tG i s s la rp , a sw e l la sa t an umbe ro fo the rl o ca l i t ie s ,i si ni t se lf a ni nd ica t ion o fa p o s s ib le a ge -b u tt h e re a r ea l so s i gns o fs t r a t ig raphy : s ome o ft h ec a i rns d oi nf a c ts e em t ob ec on s t ruc ted o nt o po fp r ev iou sa r ab le f i e ld s .

3 62

O nt h eo u t ly ing l a nd so ft h eh am le to f Män s tad t h e re i s as im i la rl o ca l i ty m a in ly i nt h e w id th o ft h e s t r ips a nd i nt h ec l ea ra nd s imp le p l an . I ti sl o ca ted NW o ft h ec o re a r ab le a r ea o ft h eh am le ta nd p robab ly r ep re sen t s a' h igh -wa te r ma rk 'o fc u l t iva t ion . A sc an b es e en f r om t h e map i nF igu re 7 ,i ti sd om ina ted b ys i xb road s t r ip s s ome 4 0 m e t r e sw ide i n NW -SE d i rec t ion . A t ar i gh ta ng le t ot h e se f i e ld sc an b ef ound s i xo the r b road s t r ips b ounded b yl ynche t s ,l e s sr egu la ri nt h e i rb read ths . Wi th in t h eb road s t r ips c an b ef ound a r ab le p lo t s , b ounded b ye a r then b ank s ,l ynche t so rv e ry d i f fu se s i gn so f c l ea r ing . S ome s u r face s o ft h e f i e ld s a r e w e l l c l ea red o f s t ones -o the r much l e s s . I t s e ems t he refo re c l ea r t h a t t h e s t r ip f i e lds a r e n o t t h e p roduc t o f t i l l ing a s s uch . F ur thermo re , n o s i gn s o fo xen -d rawn a rd o rp lough c ou ld b e d ocumen ted , i n s tead o f t h er ounded f o rm u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th a r dt i l l ing t h en ega t ive l y nche t sw e re j agged a nd i r regu la ra si fw o rked w i th ah and i mp lemen t .T oc onc lude ,t h er egu la rd iv i s ion h a s n o th ing t od ow i th t h et i l l ing ,i t s ma in f unc t ion h a sb een t or egu la te t h eu se o ft h el a nd . I nt h ep l an o ft h e se f i e ld s t h e re a r ec l ea rp a ra l le l s t ot h e s ma l le s tl a nd d iv i s ion si nt h e D a r tmoo rc oax ia lf i e ld s y s tem s ( F lem ing 1 978 , 1 983 ; c f . a l so t h ep lan o fS haugh Moo r i nF ow le r 1 983 : 1 21 , a f te rJ .C o l l is ) . Wi th in t h i sl o ca l i ty t h ree f i e ld b ounda r ie sh ave b een i nve s t iga ted a r chaeo log ica l ly . I n t h e c on tac t l a ye rb e tween t h e e a r then b ank s o rl ynche t s a nd t h e o r ig ina l l a nd s u r f ace f r agmen t s o fc ha rcoa l w e re f ound u nde r t h e m a in b ounda r ie s . Unde r a5 0 c m t h ick l y nche tl a rge p i eces o fc ha rcoa l h ad b een p rese rved u nde r t h e t op so i l . F ou rc ha rcoa l s amp le sf r om t h is l a ye r ,p robab ly t h ec l ea r ing h o r izon , g ave v a lue s b e tween 2 400 B .P . t o1 845 B .P . T oj udge f r om t h e se d a t ing s t h el a nd w as c l ea red a nd d iv ided s ome t ime d u r ing t h ep e r iod 5 00 B .C . t o A .D . 2 00 . I nt h et wo c a se s Ih ave d i scu s sed a bove a nd i nh a lf ad ozen o the r mo re s upe rf i c ia l ly s u rveyed l o ca l i t ies , i ts e em s f u l ly c l ea r t h a t t h e p a rce l s a r e g ene ra l ly n o t t h e u n i t o f w o rk . O nt h eo the rh and t h ef i e ld sa r eu sua l ly t o on a r row t oh ave r ep re sen ted s e pa ra te c on so l ida ted h o ld ing s .I ti st h e re fo re d i ff i cu l tt oe xp la in t h e se f i e ld si no the rw ays t h an a s al a nd d iv is ion b e tween l a ndho lde r s i n af a rm ing c ommun i ty -h ence as ubd iv ided f i e ld i nt h e med ieva ls en se . E va lua t ion T he t h ree e mp i r ica le xamp le sd i scu s sed a bove a l lr ep re sen te f fo r t st ov e r if yt h ei n i t ia l ly d i scussed a s sump t ions a bou ti n ten s i f ica t ion a nd a bou tt h eu n i l inea r movemen t si nt h e s cheme o fs e t t lemen t a nd f a rm ing s y s tem d eve lopmen t ( F ig 1 ) . B u t t he r e su l t s o n ly p a r t ia l ly s uppo r tt h i se co log icaly o r ien ted mode lo fe xp lana t ion . T he f i r s ta s sump t ion c once rned i n ten s if i ca t ion o fa g r icu l tu re a sa ne xp lana to ry f a c to r t ot h et u rn ing p o in t s .A l though t h i si d ea h a sb een as t a ted o ri mp l ic i th ypo the s i si nm uch o f t h e wo rk w e h ave n o t y e t s ucceeded i np rov ing t h a t a l l t h e t h ree t u rn ing p o in t s d i scussed a bove c an r e a l ly b ec ha rac te r i sed b ya g r a r ian i n tens if ica t ion . I n al o ng t ime p e r spec t ive -s t a r t ing w i th t h ei n f ie ld s y s tem si nt h ey ea r sa round t h eb i r th o fC h r is ta nd e nd ing w i th t h ef u l ly d eve loped Med ieva lo pen f i e ld sv i l lage -w ed ou ndoub ted ly h ave a ni n cr ea se i ne co log ica le f f ic iency . B u tt h eg r ea tc hanges i ns e t t lemen ta nd t e r r i to r ia l o rgan iza t ion t h a to ccu r red i n b e tween -d u r ing t h ef i r s tm i l len ium A .D . -c anno te a s i ly b e i n te rp re ted a s mean ing i n crea sed e ff ic iency i n t h a t s ense . T he a c tua l c hanges r e co rded i n t h e m id f i r s t m i l len ium A .D . d id i n f a c t c oncern c hanges i n t e r r i to r ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd i nd ica ted c hange s i nt h er i gh t s t od i f f e ren t t ypes o fl a nd r a the rt h an c hange si nt h ef a rm ing s y s tem f r om a ne co log ica lo rt e chno log ica lv i ewpo in t . T he i n i t ia l ly d i scus sed t u rn ing p o in t s a r e t h us v ery d i f fe ren t i nc ha rac te r . S ome o f t h em a r e a s soc ia ted w i th i nnova t ions l e ad ing t o g rea t r eo rgan iza t ions o f l a nd u se s t ra teg ies a nd f a rm ing s ys tem s a nd w e re r ea l ly a s soc ia ted w i th i n crea sed a g ra r ian p roduc t ion . A to the rt u rn ing p o in t si th a sn o tb een p o s s ib le t op rove i n ten s if i ca t ion .T he 3 6 3

mo s t c l ea r emp ir ica l e v idence i n s tead p o in ts t o c hanges i n t e r r i to r ia l a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . Ap a ra l le lc onc lus ion t ot h a th a sr e cen t ly b een d rawn b yt h ee conom ic h i s to r ian J anken My rda l i nh i s s t ud ies o ft e chno log ica lc hange d ur ing t h el a s t t wo t housand y ea r s . H e make st h ei mpo r tan td i s t inc t ion b e tween t e chno log ica lc hange l e ad ing t oi n c r ea sed a rea p roduc t iv i ty ( wh ich i sc ompa rab le t o t h e p rev ious ly d i scussed t e rm e co log ica l e f f ic iency ) a nd t e chno log ica lc hange l e ad ing i n s tead t oi n c rea sed l abour p roduc t iv i ty . H e i s wo rk ing f r om ah ypo thes i s t h a t i n c rea se s i na r ea p roduc t iv i ty a nd i n c r ea se s i n l abou rp roduc t iv i ty a r e n o t u n ifo rm ; o ne o rt h e o ther f o rm o ft e chn ica l d eve lopmen t t e nd st od om ina te i nd i f f e ren tp e r iod s( My rda l 1 985 , 1 988 ) . F ur thermo re , h e h a s s hown t h a t t h e a c tua l s e t s o fa g ra r ian i nnova t ions i n t roduced d u r ing t h ep rev ious ly d i scussed t u rn ing p o in t si nl a nd scape a nd s oc ie ty w e re d i f f e r en t i nt h e i rc ha rac te r . A round t h eb i r th o fC h r i s t an umbe ro fi nnova t ions w e re i n t roduced i n a gr icu l tu re i n S cand inav ia . T hey f o rmed ac omp lex s e t o f r e la t ions -i n cr ea sed manu r ing , s t ab l ing o fc a t t le ,i n c r ea sed h ay -mak ing ,e t c . -w h ich w e r ea l lc onnec ted w i th i n c rea sed a r ea p roduc t iv i ty . T he c hange s i n t h e 5 th a nd 6 th c en tu ry w e re -a cco rd ing t o My rda l -o f a no the r c ha rac te r . T hey w e re n o t a s soc ia ted w i th c hanges i n f a rm ing s y s tem a nd h ad f ew c onsequence so nt h el a nd u se .I n s tead o fc hang ing t h er e la t ions b e tween d i f f e ren tt y pe s o f l a nd o r l e ad ing t o c u l t iva t ion o f mo re l a nd , t h ey r a the r l ed t o i n c rea sed l a bou r p roduc t iv i ty w i th in t h e o ld f a rm ing s y s tem . T h i s a l lowed f o r al a rge r s u rp lu s o ft h e a gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion t ob e c on sumed b y an on -ag ra r ian p opu la t ion . T he e f f ec ts o f s uch i nnova t ions wou ld n o tb e s e en d i rec t ly i nt h ef a rm ing l a nd scape b u tt h ei n c r ea sed l a bou rd iv i s ion wou ld h ave o the re f f ec t si ns oc ie ty .T hese r e su l t sb a sed o ne va lua t ion s o f t h e a g ra r ian t e chno logy , ma in ly t h e i mp lemen t s , c an p e rhap s e xp la in w hy t h e g eog raphe r sh ave n o ts ucceeded i np rov ing i n c rea sed a r ea p roduc t iv i ty a nd n ew f a rm ing s y s tem sd u r ing t h is p e r iod . I ft h ep e r iod w a s ma in ly c ha rac te r i sed b ys oc ia lc hange sw e s hou ld e xpec t t e r r i tor ia l c hange s r ef lec t ing c hanges i n t h e r e la t ion s b e tween s o c ia l e n t i t ie s ,b e tween i nd iv idua la nd c ommuna lr i gh t s . T he s e cond a s sump t ion t h a tw a si nhe ren ti nt h ei n i t ialy d i scus sed mode ls w a st h a to f t h eu n i l inea rd eve lopmen to ff i e ld s y s tem s a nd s e t t lemen tf o rm s .T h i s a s sump t ion h a s r e cen t ly b een c ha l lenged o n t h e b a s i s o f 1 8 th c en tu ry ma te r ia lf r om We s te rn S weden ( Gadd 1 983 ) .B u ta l so i nt h es t ud ie so fe a r l ie rp e r iod st h e re i s ag row ing a wa rene ss o fa n on l inea rd eve lopmen to fs e t t lemen tf o rm s a nd f i e ld p a t te rn s . T he s ub -d iv ided f i e ld s f r om e a r ly t h eI r on A ge n ow f ound i ns ou the rn a nd w e s te rn Sweden d on o tc onfo rm t o a ny s t age i nt h ei n i t ialy d i scu s sed mode l . C on t ra ry t o au n i l inea rd eve lopmen tt h en ew e v idence s how st h a tt h es ame f i e ld s hape s ,p lan so ff i e ld s y s tem s ,a nd s e t t lemen tf o rm s may t u rn u pi nd i f f e r en tp e r iod su nde rd i f f e ren ts oc ia la nd e conom ic c ond i t ions .T he se f o rms d o r ef lec t n o t o n ly c hanges i na r ea p roduc t iv i ty , b u t a r e a l so a s soc ia ted w i th d i f f e ren ts oc ia le nv i ronmen t s ,d i f f e ren tp o l i t ica ls t ruc tu re so ft h et y pe L undma rk h i n t sa t i nh i sp ape ri nt h ep re sen tv o lume . T hus , s e em ing ly p l anned a nd c o l lec t iv i s t ic a r rangemen ts o ff i e lds may i nt h e s ame a r ea b e f o l lowed b y mo re g radua l ly e xpand ing f i e ld s ys tems c en te red a round t h e i nd iv idua l f a rm s tead . T he o ppo s i te i sa l so p oss ib le . T h is w ave l ike movemen t d epend ing o n s oc ia l , t e chno log ica l a nd p o l i t ica l c ond i t ions ( Ha t t 1 939 ) r e f lec ts t h e c on t rad ic t ion b e tween c ommon a nd i nd iv idua l r i gh t s i nf a rm ing , w h ich i ss o much a p a r t o f a g ra r ian e conom ic h i s to ry . A t l e a s t d u r ing c er ta in p e r iod s o f f i e ld s y s tem d eve lopmen t ap roper ty r i gh t sa pp roach w i l lt u rn o u tt ob e much mo re p rof i tab le t h an t h ee co log ica le xp lana t ion sr e ign ing u n t i lt h ep r e sen t . E co logy i si n c rea s ing ly f a l l ing o u to ff a sh ion w i th in h i s to r ica l s t ud ie s . T endenc ie s , s oc ia l t hough t a nd d i scu ss ion s i nt h e 1 980 's a r e n o t t h e s ame a s t ho se s ome t e n o r f i f teen y ea r sa go a nd t h us w ed on o ta sk t h es ame q ues t ion sa bou tp reh i s to ry a sw ed id t h en ( c f . We l inde r 1 984 ) .I ns umma r i s ing t h ee xpe r ience o fS wed i sh r e sea rch i n to f i e ld 3 64

s y s tem s , my a rgumen th e re i s ,h oweve r ,t h a te co log ica l mode l sh ave s ucce s s ive ly b een p roven u n sa t i sf ac to ry n o to n ly o nt h eg round so ft a s te o rd eve lopmen ti nc on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty b u t r a the r o n t h e b a s i s o f c onf ron t ing t h e mode l w i th emp i r ica l wo rk . T he r e su l t s o f t h e i nve s t iga t ion s h ave c l ea r ly s hown t h e n eed t oi n corpo ra te s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l a spec t s o ft h e a g ra r ian s oc ie ty i no rde r t oe xp la in t h e d eve lopmen to ff i e ld s y s tem s .

R eferences Amb ro s ian i , B . 1 968 . R ev iew o fL indqv i s t , S .O . D e tf ö rh i s to r i ska k u l tu r land skaper ti ö s t ra Ö s t ergö t land .F ornvännen 6 3 ,p p . 3 01-306 . B audou ,E . 1 973 .A rkeo log i ska u nd er sökn ingar p d Ha l leby I .H a l lebyunde r sökn ingen I .S tud ie si n No r th -Eu ropean A r chaeo logy 3 .S tockho lm . [ Summa ry i nE ng l i sh ] C a r l s son ,D . 1 979 .K u l tur land skape t su t veck l ing p dG o t land . V isby . C a r lsson , D . 1 983 . F rän e nsäde t i l l t v äsäde . R appor ter f rdn B arkndrepro jek te t 1 . K u l tu rgeog raf isk ts em ina r ium ( e d s . R oeck H an sen & S po r rong ) 1 / 83 : 8 3 -90 . C a r lsson , D . 1 985 . D er g o t länd ische Hof w ährend d e r j ünge ren E isenze i t -d es V i sbyens ia V I I : 2 73 -280 . F lem ing , A . 1 978 . T he p reh is to r ic l a nd scape o fD a r tmoo r . P a r t 1 .S ou th D a r tmoo r . P roceed ings o ft h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 4 : 9 7 -124 . F lem ing , A . 1 983 . T he p reh i s to r ic l a ndscape o f D a r tmoo r . P ar t 2 . Nor th a nd E a s t D ar tmoo r .P roceed ings o ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 9 : 1 95 -242 . F ow le r ,P . J . 1 983 . T he F arm ing o fP reh i s tor ic B r i ta in . C amb r idge . G add ,C . -J . 1 983 .J ärn o ch p o ta t i s . G ö tebo rg . H anne rbe rg , D . 1 976 . Mode l s o f med ieva l a nd p re -med ieva l t e r r i to r ia l o rgan i sa t ion . J ou rna lo fH i s tor ica lG eograpy 2 : 3 -34 . H anne rbe rg ,D .K um labygden I V .B y , Ord o ch s amhä l le . K um la . H a t t , G . 1 939 . T he o wner sh ip o f c u l t iva ted l and . D e t Kg l . D an ske V idenskabe r s S e lskab . H is tor isk -f i lo log i ske Medde le lse r . XXV I , 6 . J one s , G . 1 961 . E a r ly t e r r i to r ia l o rgan iza t ion i n E ng land a nd Wa les . G eograf iska A nna ler 4 3 : 1 74 -181 . L indqu is t , S . -0 . 1 968 .D e tf örh is tor i ska k u l tur land skape t iö s t ra Ö s tergö t land . A c ta U n ive r s i ta t i sS tockho lm ien s i s . S tud ie si nN o r th -Eu ropean A r chaeo logy 2 . L indqu i s t , S . -0 . 1 974 . T he d eve lopmen to ft h e a g ra r ian l a ndscape o n Go t land d ur ing t h eE a r ly I r on A ge .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 7 . L indqu i s t , S . -0 . 1 976 . F o ss i l tk u l tur land skap s om a g ra rh i s to r i sk k ä l la .Väs tergö t land s f ornm inne sf ören ings t id skr if t 1 975 -76 : 19 -164 . My rda l , J .1 985 . Mede l t idens d kerbruk . Ag rar tekn ik iS ve r ige c a 1 000 t i l l 1 520 . No rd i ska musee t sh and l inga r 1 05 . My rda l , J .1 988 . Ag rar tekn ik o ch s amhä l le u nde r t v ä tusen ä r . F o lkvand r ings t iden i Norden . A rhu s . S por rong , U . 1 985 . Mä larbygd . A grar b ebygge lse o ch o d l ing u r e t t h i s tor i sk -geograf i sk tp er spek t iv . S tockho lm . S po r rong , U . 1 986 . Ag ra r ian S e t t lemen t a nd C u l t iva t ion f r om a H is to r ica l G eog raph ica lP e r spec t ive . G eograf i ska A nna ler 1 986 :2 . We l inde r , S . 1 975 . P reh i s tor ic a gr icu l ture i n E as tern M idd le Sweden . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia . S e r ie si n8 °M ino re , No 4 .L und . We l inde r , S . 1 984 . E ko log isk a rkeo log i -h u r e n f o r skn ing s in r ik tn ing k ommer o ch g är . F oredrag h o ld t p d N orsk a rkeo logmO tes s ympos ium i T rondhe im . DKNVS , Mu s& t . R appo r tA rk . s e r . 1 984 / 1 : 11 -117 . 3 6 5

Widg ren ,M . 1 983 . S e t t lemen ta nd F arm ing S y s tem si nt h ee ar ly I r on A ge . S tockho lm S tud ie si nH uman G eog raphy 3 .S tockho lm . Widg ren , M . 1 987a . Anc ien t f i e lds . S wed ish A rchaeo logy 1 981-1985 :5 7 -68 . Swed ish A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty . S tockho lm . Widg ren , M . 1 987b . R ege lbundna ä ke r sys tem f r än ä l d re j ämä lde rn . V äs tgö ta -Da l 1 987 . Winde lhed , B . 1 984 . " Ce l t ic f i e ld s" a nd P reh is to r ic Ag ra r ian L and scape s . S e t t lemen t a nd E conomy i nL a ter S cand inav ian P reh i s tory . ( Ed . K . K r i s t ian sen ) . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 11 . O xfo rd .

3 6 6

A pp roache st oS wed i sh P r eh i s to ry ,B .A .R . ,O xf ord ,1 989 ,p p .3 67 -372 .

I RON AGE GRAVES AS SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS SY MBOLS B yA gne ta B enne t t *

T h i sa r t ic le i s ,i nt h em a in , as umma ry o f my t h e s i so ng rave t ype sa nd g rave s t ruc tu r e s d ur ing t h e M ig ra t ion P er iod ( c . 4 00 -550 AD ) i nt h e L ake Mä la r en r eg ion i ne a s te rn m idd le Sweden .T he t h e s is s t r ive st od raw a t ten t ion t ot wo p o ss ib i l i t ie si nhe ren ti nt h e e xcava ted g raves ; b y a na lys ing t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween r e l ig ious , s oc ia l a nd c h rono log ica l a spec t s o f g rave s , i ti sp os s ib le i n t h e f i r s t p lace t o c r ea te a b e t te r f ounda t ion f o r t h e c l a s s if ica t ion a nd d a t ing o f g rave s a nd f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o f c omp le te c e me tery s t ruc ture s , a nd i nt h e s e cond p lace t oi mprove k now ledge o ft h e i d eo log ica ls upe r s t ruc tu re ,i . e .t h er e l ig ious a nd s o c ia li d ea l so f as oc ie ty . T he t h es i s a na lyse s t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod g r aves t h a t w e re e xcava ted i n t h e L ake Mä la ren r eg ion b e tween 1 960 a nd 1 980 . My p u rpo se w a s t os t ruc tu re t h e ma te r ia li n s oc ia l ,r eg iona l ,c h rono log ica l a nd i d eo log ica l t e rm s . T he ma in empha s is o ft h e s t udy h a sb een p l aced o nt h es y s tema t i sa t ion o fd e ta i l si ne x ter na lg rave t y pe a nd v a r ia t ion si n c r ema t ion b u r ia l s . My w o rk o nt h i sw a sb a sed o nt h em a in h ypo the s i s t h a tv a r ia t ion si n t h ef orm o f ag rave a re t h e ma ter ia le xpre ss ion o f as ymbo l ic l a nguage , a nd t h a ti ti s p os s ib le t oc ome c l oser t ot h em ean ing o ft h i sl a nguage b ya na ly s ing t h ed a ta c o l lec t ed a ta n a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . S ta t i s t ics b a sed o n t h e g rave s h ave b een s t ud ied b y mean so f ac omb ina t ion a na ly s i s ,t h ev a r iou se l emen t so f ab u r ia l( e x ter na lc on s t ruc t ion d e ta i l s , g rave g ood s ,e t c ) b e ing r e la ted t oe ach o t he rw i th t h ea i do fc o r r e la t ion t a b le s . T he s y s tema t i sa t ion o ft h ed a ta a nd t h e a na ly s i sh ave b een c a r r ied o u to n ac ompu te r . T he a na ly s is i sb a sed o n2 28 a r t if ac t -da ted g r ave s .T h i sm ay s e em ar e la t ive ly s ma l ld a ta b a se . Howeve r , i te mb races 7 5 % o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f g raves d a t ing f r om t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod t h a tw e re e xcava ted b e tween 1 960 a nd 1 980 . T h is a na lys i s h a s a l so b een c ompa r ed t o al a rge b ody o f ma te r ia le ncompa s s ing 1 c eme te r ie s . T he e xam ina t ion o ft h eM ig ra t ion P e r iod g r ave sh a sb een c on sc iou s ly r e s t r ic ted t ot h e L ake Mä la ren r eg ion ,w i th n o' d ig r es s ions 'o fa ny k ind b e ing made t o ma te r ia lo u t s ide t h is r eg ion . O ne o ft h e a im s o ft h i s s t ra tegy w a s t od eve lop , b y s t udy ing ar e s t r ic ted b ody o f ma ter ia l t ho rough ly , am e thod a nd amode l f o r f u r the r a na ly s is o f b ur ia l s , e spec ia l ly b u r ia l si nt h eL ake Mä la ren a r ea , w he re t h ec eme te ry e xcava t ions o fr e cen t y ea r s h ave p roduced a v e ry l a rge amoun t o f p r ima ry s ource ma te r ia l t ha t i so f i mpor tance f o rf u tu re r e sea r ch i nt h er eg ion . H ence , t h e r e su l t s o ft h e a na ly s is o ft h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod ma ter ia l s hou ld n o t b e s een a s af i na l r e su l t , b u t a s ah ypo the t ica l mode l o n w h ich t ob a se f u r the r d i scu ss ion o n t h e f unc t ion o ft h e g rave s a nd o n t h e g r ave sa st h em a te r ia le xp re s s ion o fd i f f e ren ts o c ia la nd r e l ig iou ss t ruc tu re s .

*T he C en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s ,S t ockho lm 3 67

I ft h ese q ues t ions a r e t o b e f u r ther d i scussed , i ti si mpor tan t t h a t t h e ma te r ia l i s e x tended b eyond t h es t udy a r ea . T he mo s t i mpor tan t r e su l ts o f t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod ma ter ia l a r e s umma r i sed b e low . E x terna l a nd I n terna l G rave T ype B o th e x te rna l ly a nd i n te rna l ly , M ig ra t ion P e r iod b u r ia ls e xh ib i t ag rea t d eg ree o f v a r ia t ion . C i rcu la r , s qua re , r e c tangu la r , a nd t r iangu la r s t one -se t t ing s i n a dd i t ion t o e a r th -fas t s t ones , s t one b ou lder s , f l a t g raves a nd mounds a re t he t ypes o f s upe r s t ruc tu re sf ound . A si nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge ,c i r cu la rs t one -se t t ing so ccu r si n aw ide v a r ie ty o f f o rm s w i th r ega rd t oc ho ice o fp er ime te r ma rk ing , b u i ld ing ma te r ia l a nd c en t re ma rk ing . A s f o rt h e i n te rna l g rave t ype , c r ema t ion d epo s i t s , ur ned b ur ia l s a nd c r ema t ion p i t sa r ep redom inan t ,b u tb one d epo s i t s , as ma l lq uan t i ty o fb u rn tb one sa nd i nhuma t ion b ur ia ls a l so o ccu r . T he " m ixed g rave t ypes" , u rned b u r ia ls w i th s u r round ing c r ema t ion d epo s i t s , c r ema t ion p i t s w i th s u r round ing c r ema t ion d epo s i t s a nd i nhuma t ion b u r ia l so ft h ec hambe r -g rave t y pe ,a r ec ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h ep e r iod . T he e x te rna lf o rm i sc l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e s ex o ft h eb u r ied p e r son ,w he rea sa ge o n ly a f f ec t st h ee x ter na lf o rm o ft h eg r ave t o ac e r ta in e x ten t . T he i n te rna lb u r ia lt ype d oes n o ts e em t ob ec o r re la ted t oe i the rs ex o ra ge ,e xcep ti n t h ec a se o fi nhuma t ion b u r ia l s ,w h ich a r em a in ly r e s t r ic ted t om en . Howeve r , o ft h ev a r ious c r ema t ion b ur ia l s , t h e m ixed g rave t y pe , u rned b u r ia l w i th s u r round ing c r ema t ion d epo s i t , o ccur s mo re f r equen t ly i n ma le g raves , g i v ing i tt h e a ppea rance o f a" s ta tus g r ave t y pe " , e spec ia l ly i ft h ef r equency o fg r ave g ood sa nd t h e o ccur rence o fa n ima l b ones i st a ken i n to c ons ide ra t ion . I n terna l c ons t ruc t ion d e ta i l s s uch a sc ove r ing s t one sa l so s e em t ob er e la ted t ot h eh i ghe rs oc ia lr ank o ft h ed ead man o r woman . O nt h ew ho le ,t h e re i s ac l ea rl i nk b e tween s o c ia lr ank a nd a t ten t ion d evo ted t ot h ei n te rna la nd e x ter n a ls t ruc tu re o ft h eb u r ia l monumen t .T he mo re t ime s p en to nt h e e x ter na lf o rm o ft h eg r ave a nd t h e mo re e l abo ra te ly t h er ema in so ft h ef une ra lp y re w e re t r ea ted ,t h eh ighe ru pt h ed ead p e r son s e em st oh ave b een o nt h es oc ia ls c a le o fr a nk .

F ind s a nd An i ma l B ones F ind s i nt h e g raves c on s i s t p redom inan t ly o fv a r iou s t ypes o fd re ss a cces sor ie s a nd c ombs . Two d i f f e ren t c omb ina t ion p a t te rns , r epre sen t ing t h e c ommone s t o b jec t s i n f ema le a nd ma le g rave s r e spec t ive ly , c an b e c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i shed . T he e qu ipmen ti n f ema le g rave sc omp r i se sc l a sp b u t ton so fv a r iou st y pe s ,b u tp r inc ipa l ly t h et ype w i th a h igh p e r ime te rf r amewo rk ,d re s sp in so ft h et y pe w i th at o ru sa nd at r iangu la rh ead a nd ac omb . I ti se xcep t iona l f o r t h e c omb s i nf ema le g rave s t oh ave ah and le , a nd t h ey n eve rh ave ac a se .T he g r ave f ur n i tu re i nm a le b u r ia l si n c lude sc l a sp b u t ton so fv a r ious t y pe s ,b u t mo s tc ommon ly s imp le d i scs ,b e l tf i t t ings s u ch a sb uck le sa nd s t rap -end sa nd ac omb . T he c omb sa r eo f ten h and led a nd c a se sa r ec ommon ,e ven w i th c ombs l a ck ing ah and le . Weapon s o ccu r i n af ew g rave s o n ly , a s d o s t a tus g ood s ( gam ing b oa rd s , g l a s sv e s se l s )w h ich a r ep redom inan t ly f ound i n ma le g rave s . T he mo s tc ommon ly o ccu r r ing a n ima lb one sa r et h el imb b one so fs heep /goa t ,w h i le d og a nd b i rd b one s a s sum ing s e cond p lace . S ome f ew g raves c on ta in h o r se , b ovo id , p ig o rc a t b one s . Ma le a nd f ema le g rave sd i f f e ri nt h e n umbe ro fa n ima l s pec ie s t h ey c on ta in ; af r equency o f1 2s p ec ie si s mo s tc ommon . I n ma le g r ave st h et o ta ln umbe ro f b one si su sua l ly h ighe r .T he a ve rage n umbe ro fb one sp e rg rave i st w ice a sh igh i n ma le t h an i nf ema le g rave s . T he c u s tom o fl a y ing t h ed ecea sed p e r son o n ab ea rs k in t ob e 3 6 8

b ur ied a l so a ppea r s t ob e p r inc ipa l ly r e served f o r men . B ea rc l aws a r e f ou rt ime s a s c ommon i nm a le t h an i nf ema le g r ave s .

S oc ia l S truc ture T he e x te rna lf o rm o ft h eg rave i st h e ma te r ia le xp re s s ion o f as ymbo l ic l a nguage w h ich i ss t ee red b yd i f f e ren tr u le s a cco rd ing t ow ho i st ob eb u r ied . T hu s , ap i c tu re o fs oc ia l s t ruc tu re among t he b ur ied p e r sons , a nd t he refo re a l so t h e d egree o f s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h el i v ing s oc ie ty ,i sc ommun ica ted b yt h es ymbo l ic l a nguage . I nt h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod ma te r ia lt h ef o l low ing t e ndenc ies a r ed i scer n ib le . Ag ene ra ld i f f e rence b e tween ma le a nd f ema le b u r ia l sc an b es e en i nt h ee x te rna lf o rm o fg rave s .T he g r ave s o fe a ch i nd iv idua ls ex a l so e xh ib i td i f f e rence sa mong t h em se lve s . Women w e re b u r ied p r inc ipa l ly i nc i r cu la rs t one -se t t ing s , m en a l so i no ther t ype s , s uch a si r regu la r , t r iangu la r a nd r e c tangu la r , a s w e l l a si no the r k ind s o fg raves ; f l a t g r aves , mound s a nd s t one c i r c le s . T he c i r cu la rs t one -se t t ings d i f f e r s a cco rd ing t os ex . Al a rge rp ropo r t ion o ff ema le g r ave si s mo re d i s t inc ti nf o rm , mo re w e l l la id ; t h ec en t re o ft h e g rave s i so f ten m a rked b y as t one , g rave g lobe , s t one r i ng o ra n u nf i l led a r ea . G rave g l obe sa ppea ri nf ema le b u r ia ls o n ly . I na dd i t ion , mo re f ema le t h an m a le g rave s c on ta in s t one so fr e la t ive ly s ma l ld imen s ion s . Ma le g rave sa r el a rge ra nd mo re d omed , w he rea sf ema le g rave sa r e mo re o f ten l ow a nd r e la t ive ly s ma l li nc i rcum f e rence . T he r e a r e , h oweve r , e xcep t ions w he re women a ppea r t o h ave b een b ur ied " i n t h e w ay o f m en " . T he mo s tp ronounced d i f f e r ence s i ng rave t ype , f o rm a nd s i ze a r e d i sce rn ib le a mong ma le g r ave s .T h i ss ymbo l ic l a nguage c o l lap sed d u r ing t h eM ig ra t ion P e r iod a nd a tt h e s ame t ime c r ema t ion d epos i tb u r ia l s b ecame mo re w ide sp read . Mo re u n iform ly c ons t ruc ted s t one -se t t ings a nd mounds b ecame i n c rea s ing ly c ommon , a t ta in ing c omp le te p redom inance d ur ing t h e L a te I r on A ge . O fc ou r se g raves o ft h i s t ype a l so c ommun ica te s oc ia li n fo rma t ion t h rough d i f f e rence si ns i ze ,c on s t ruc t iona ld e ta i l s a nd d i f f e rences b e tween t h e s exe s ( men w e re b u r ied p redom inan t ly i n mound s , w omen i n c i rcu la r s t one -se t t ings ) , b u t i n t h e L a te I r on Age t h e " soc ia l i n fo rma t ion " t h a t w a s e xpres sed t h rough t h e e x te rna lf o rm o f ag rave w a sn o ta sc l ea ra si th ad b een e a r l ie r . I n s tead ,t h es oc ia lp o s i t ion o ft h eb u r ied p e r son w a s ma rked i n c r ea s ing ly f r equen t ly b y i n terna lb u r ia lc u s tom s , a sg rave g ood sa nd a n ima lb ones b ecame mo re f r equen tw hen c r ema t ion d epo s i tb u r ia l st ook o ve r . Chrono log ica l S truc ture I nt h eM ig ra t ion P er iod b ur ia lc u s tom su nde rwen t ac hange , a nd a s ar e su l te a r l ie ra nd l a te rb u r ia lc u s tom sw e re a ppa ren t ly i nu se s imu l taneou s ly ,o rh yb r id f o rm sd eve loped , u n t i lf i na l ly o ne s ha red b ur ia lr i tua l eme rged a nd b ecame p reva len t . T he r ei s al a ck o f c hrono log ica l s t ruc tu re i nt h e M ig ra t ion P er iod ma ter ia l . T h i s may i nd ica te t h a t t h i s c hange t ook p lace r e la t ive ly q u ick ly . T he re i s , f o re xamp le , n oc o r re la t ion b e tween a c er ta in t ype o fg rave a nd c e r ta in b u r ia lc u s tom so rb e tween c e r ta in o b jec t sa nd c e r ta in b u r ia lc u s tom s . T he re i sn oc l ea rc onnec t ion b e tween " e a r ly " g r ave f o rm s ( o fe a r ly I r on A ge t y pe )a nd " e a r ly "a r t if ac tc omb ina t ion so rb e tween " l a te " g r ave f o rm s( o fL a te I r on A ge t ype ) a nd " l a te " f i nd s . H ence , i th a s n o tb een p o ss ib le t oo b serve ad i s t inc te a r ly a nd l a te h o r izon i nt h em a te r ia la na lysed f o rt h i st h e s i s . Ih ave t r ied t od ef ine c h rono log ica l ly t h e a pp rox ima te ( p robab le ) p e r iod , o rr a the r r ange i nt ime , f o rt h ec hange i nb u r ia l c u s tom sd ur ing t h et r an s i t ion b e tween t h ee a r ly a nd l a te I r on Age , n o t t h e M ig ra t ion P er iod p ha se . T h is d emand s n o t o n ly al a rge r r e sea rch ma te r ia l a nd a sd e ta i led a na ly se so ft h ef i nd sb u ta l so a n a na ly s i s a nd c r i t ica l 3 6 9

r ev iew o ft h ec u r ren tc h rono log ica l s y s tem w i th r ega rd t ot r ad i t iona l t e rm ino logy a nd d iv is ion i n to d i f f e ren tp e r iod s . I n my o p in ion , o ne c en t ra l p rob lem i nvo lves t h e b a s i s f o rc h rono log ica ld iv i s ion o fa n a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l . T he p re sen t a ccep ted p er iod d iv i s ion u sed f o r t h e c en t ra l Sweden I r on A ge ma te r ia l i sp r ima r i ly b a sed u pon a t y po log ica l d iv i s ion o fo b jec t s , w i thou tr ega rd t ow hy t h ese o b jec t s a r e f ound i nt h e g raves , w h ich f unc t ion st h ey h ave a nd h ow t h eo b jec tc omb ina t ion s a r ei nf luenced b y b u r ia lc us tom s .T h i sp er iod d iv i s ion h a sp rev ious ly b een f o l lowed t oo s t r ic t ly i nd a t ing t h ea r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia lw i thou tc l o se rc on s ide ra t ion o ft h eb a s i sf o ri t sc ons t ruc t ion ( c f . G rä s lund 1 978 : 6 ; N ä sman 1 979 : 6 8 ) . T he p resen t c h rono log ica l s y s tem o n ly r ef lec t s c hanges i nvo lv ing t h e o b jec t i t se lf a nd d i f fe rences i n o b jec t c omb ina t ions . Howeve r , t h e se d i f f e rence sd on o tn eces sa r i ly h ave t ob ed ependen tu pon t h ef a c to ro f t ime b u t m ay b e ap a r t o f as oc ia l p a t te rn , f o r e xamp le b e tween ma le a nd f ema le o r b e tween p e r son s w i th l owe r o r h ighe r p os i t ion s i n s oc ie ty . D if f e rences i n o b jec t c omb ina t ion s may b et h er e su l to fb u r ia lc us tom s ,i d ea so nl i f ea f te rd ea th ,e t c . F u ture c hrono log ica l e va lua t ion o f g rave ma ter ia l mus t b e b ased u pon a c omp rehen s ive a na ly s i si n wh ich q ue s t ion so ft h i sk i nd a r ea l lowed mo re c on s ide ra t ion t h an h a sh i ther to b een t h ec a se . R eg iona l S truc ture Ar eg iona l c ompa r ison h a s b een u nder taken o ft h e ma te r ia l f r om t h e m a in land o f U pp land ,t h ei s land so fL ake Mä la ren a nd S öde rman land .T h is h a se xpo sed d i f f e r ence s i n b u r ia lc us tom s , c h ief ly b e tween t h e ma in land o fU pp land a nd S öde rman land . T he b ur ia ls i n t h ese t wo r eg ions , w h ich c on ta in a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame n umbe r o f a r t ifac t -da ted g rave s , a r e s im i la ri ne x terna l f o rm a nd g rave f u rn i ture b u tn o ti nt h e i r c on ten t . C rema t ion d epo s i tb u r ia l sa r e mo re c ommon i nt h e ma in land o fU pp land t h an i nS öderman land . I nt h e ma te r ia le xam ined i nt h is t h e s i sc r ema t ion d epo s i tb u r ia l sc an b e g ene ra l ly r ega rded a s a" l a te " g rave t ype . Howeve r , n o d i s t inc t c h rono log ica l d i f f e rence s e x i s t b e tween t h e a r t if ac t ma te r ia l f r om t he t wo r eg ions . H ence , t h e d i f f e rence s i n g rave t ype may i nd ica te t h a t c r ema t ion d epo s i t b ur ia ls s p read mo re q u ick ly i nU pp land t h an i nS öde rman land . T he b u r ia l sf r om t h eL ake Mä la ren i s land s d ive rge f r om t hose i nt h e o the rt wo r eg ion s i na l lr e spec t s . T he ma in r ea son f o rt h i s a ppea r st ob ea nu neven r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h es exe si nt h i s ma te r ia l .T he g r ave sf r om t h e L ake Mä la ren i s land s c ons is t p r ima r i ly o f ma le g rave s . I n t h e se b u r ia l s m ixed g r ave t ype s , s uch a s umed g rave s w i th s u r round ing c r ema t ion d epo s i t s a nd c r ema t ion p i t s w i th s u r round ing c r ema t ion d epo s i t s , d om ina te o ve rc r ema t ion d epo s i tb u r ia l s . S ta tu s o b jec t sa r ea l so mo re f r equen t ly f ound i nt h eg rave so ft h eL ake Mä la ren i s land st h an i n t h o se o ft h eo t he rt wo a r ea s . T he g r ave so ft h e Mä la r en i s lands i ng ene ra la r ed om ina ted b yr i ch ma le b u r ia l s ,i n c lud ing c hambe r -g rave s . Howeve r ,t h i s ma te r ia li sc on s ide rab ly s ma l le rt h an t h a tf r om ma in land U pp land a nd S öderman land , a nd s o i ti sd i f f icu l t t od raw t oo f a r reach ing c onc lus ions f r om t h i s a ppa ren ts t ruc tu re . N eve r the le s s ,i nt h em a te r ia le xam ined h e re t h eL ake Mä la ren i s land s d os t and o u tf r om o t he rr eg ions . I deo log ica l S truc ture D u r ing t h eM ig ra t ion P e r iod e x te rna la nd i n te rna lg r ave t ype sc hanged d ue t o as h if ti n r e l ig ious c oncep t s .T h i s s h if ta f f ec ted s uch t h ings a st h ev i ew o fd ea th a nd i d ea sa bou t l i f e a f te rd ea th , a nd a s ar e su l t , r i tua ls c onnec ted w i th c r ema t ion , t h e a r rangemen t o f b u r ied r ema in s a nd t h ee x ter na ls t ruc tu re o ft h eg rave c hanged . I nt h e ma te r ia ls t ud ied , t h is i ss hown b y t h ef a c tt h a tb u rn tb one sw e re n ol o nge rs epa ra ted f r om r ema ins o ft h e 3 70

f une ra lp y re ,t h a tg rave g ood sa nd a n ima lb one sb ecame much mo re c ommon i ng r ave s a nd b yc hange si nt h ee x ter na lf o rm o fb ur ia l s .T he E a r ly I r on A ge a bundance o ff o rm s d i s in teg ra ted .T he s t ruc tu re o fb u r ia l sb ecame mo r es t e reo type ,b o th w i th r ega rd t of o rm a nd b u i ld ing ma ter ia l . I n s tead o f b e ing p r ima r i ly f l a t , g raves b ecame d omed . T he d omed s t ruc tu re m ean st h a t ,e ven a f te rb e ing c ove red b y t u r f , g raves r ema ined c l ea r ly v i s ib le t o s u rv iv ing m embe r s o f t h e f am i ly . T he d es i re f o r g raves t o b e v i s ib le i s a s soc ia ted w i th t h ec oncep to ft h eg r ave sa s" t he h ome o ft h ed ecea sed " ( s ee b e low ) .O n t h eb a s i so ft h es t a t i s t ica la na lys i s a nd l i t e ra tu re o np reh i s to r ic r e l ig ion , t h ec hange si n t h eg rave so ft h eL ake Mä la ren a r ea t h a tt ook p lace d ur ing t h eM ig ra t ion P e r iod , a tt h e t r an s i t ion f r om E a r ly t oL a te I r on A ge ,a r ei n te rp re ted i np u re ly r e l ig ious t e rm s ;c hange s i nr e l ig ion / ideo logy l e d t o as h if t f r om t h e b e l ief i n mo re " bod i ly " , mo re " conc re te " a f te r l if e .I nc on sequence ,t h ef unc t ion o ft h eg r ave a l so c hanged ;i th ad b een p r ima r i ly a man if es ta t ion , f o rm ing p a r t o f a n a c t o fr i tua l c ommun ica t ion b e tween man a nd t h e s p ir i ts /gods ; i tb ecame p r inc ipa l ly ap lace o fr e s t f o r t h e b od i ly r ema ins , t h e e ar th ly h ome o ft h ed ecea sed . A" bod i ly " a f te r l if ep re suppo ses ac onc re te c oncep to fl i f ea f te r d ea th a nd ac onc re te g od . We k now t h a tt h e se c onc re te c oncep t se x i s ted a tt h ee nd o ft h e L a te I r on Age , t h ank s ma in ly t ot h e s t or ie s i n S no r re S tu r la son 's E dda b u t a l so t o i n scr ip t ion so np i c tu re -s tone sa nd f i nd so fa mu le t si ng rave s . T he p eop le o ft h is p e r iod b e l ieved i n t h e a nc ien t No r se g od s w ho S no r re d ep ic t s a s h av ing ma rked ly h uman c ha rac te r i s t ics a nd l i v ing i nt h ew o r ld s im i la rt ot h a to fe a r th ly l i f e .I ts e em sr e a sonab le t o a s soc ia te t h e d i spe r s ion o fc r ema t ion d epo s i t b u r ia ls i nt h e L ake Mä la ren r eg ion d u r ing M ig ra t ion P e r iod w i th t h e eme rgence o ft h eA e s i rc u l ti nt h i sr eg ion . I n t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod at r an s i t ion t ook p l ace f r om av a r ie ty o fc r ema t ion d epo s i t b ur ia l si nt h eE a r ly l i on A ge t oo ne s hared c r ema t ion d epo s i tb ur ia l . T h i s t r an s i t ion c an p robab ly b ei n te rp r e ted a st h e man if e s ta t ion o f as ha red c on sep t , as ha red r e l ig ion , r a the rt h an a s ac hange o fr e l ig ion p rope r . C onc lus ions T he c onc lus ions o f w ide r s i gn if icance t h a t h ave r e su l ted f r om t h is a na ly s is o f t h e M ig ra t ion P er iod g r ave si nt h e Mä la ren a r ea c an b es umma r i sed i nt h ef o l low ing p o in t s : 1 . T he f o rm , p ropo r t ions a nd s t ruc tura l d e ta i ls o f ag rave r epre sen t t h e e xpres s ion o f as ymbo l ic l a nguage , p rov id ing i n fo rma t ion s uch a st h e s ex a nd s oc ia lr ank o ft h eb u r ied p e r son . T he " s o c ia li n fo rma t ion "c on ta ined i ng r ave si s e n t i re ly d ependen to nr e l ig ious c oncep t s ,i . e . i ti sd e te rm ined b yt h ep reva i l ing c oncep t so fd ea th ,i d ea sa bou t t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ed ead p e r son a nd t h e s u rv iv ing m embe r so fh i sf am i ly a nd i d ea sa bou tt h er o le o ft h ed ecea sed i nt h e l i f ea f te rd ea th . 2 .T he e x te rna la nd i n te rna lc hange si ng rave t ype sd ur ing t h eM ig ra t ion P e r iod w e re o f p u r e ly r e l ig iou so r ig in . How d ot h e se r e su l t sa f f ec tt h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o fb u r ia l s? 1 .T he " r e l ig iou s / soc ia l m essage " h a s p roved t ob e mo re p ronounced i nt h e e x te rna ls t ruc tu re o ft h eg r ave t h an h a sb een p rev iou s ly r e cogn i sed . T h is m ean s t h a t d i f fe rences i n g rave t ype , f orm , s i ze a nd b u i ld ing ma te r ia l w i th in o ne c eme te ry o r b e tween c e me ter ie s c an j u s t a s w e l l b e d ependen t o n s oc ia l a s c h rono log ica l f a c to r s . T h is , i n t u rn , m ay h ave a n a f f ec t o n t h e t r ad i t iona l c l a ss if ica t ion a nd d a t ing o f c eme ter ies a nd , i n t he l ong t e rm , o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l mode lf o rt h ed eve lopmen to fs e t t lemen tp a t ter n sa nd s oc ie ty i n t h e Mä la ren a r ea d u r ing t h eI r on A ge . 2 . When a na ly se so fd i f f e r en tk ind s a r ec a r r ied o u to n g r ave s ,i ti si mpor tan tt o b ep e rpe tua l ly a wa re t h a tg r ave sa r et h ee mbod imen to fr e l ig ious a c t iv i ty . T he i r s t ruc tu re i st h e re fo re s t ee red b y p h i losoph ica l a nd r e l ig ious b e l ief s . F o r t h i s 3 71

r ea son , t h e c on ten t o fg raves f r om d i f f e ren t p e r iods c anno t a u toma t ica l ly b e c ompa red , u n les s t h e c oncep t s wh ich l i e b eh ind t h e a r rangemen t o fb ur ia l s i n t he se p e r iod s a r e c l a r if ied . I n o the r wo rd s , i ti si mpo r tan t t ob e a wa re o ft h e f unc t ion o ft h e g rave i nt h ef une ra lc e remon ie so fd i f f e ren tp e r iod s . I no rde rt o p ene t ra te t h ei d eo log ica l s i gn if i cance o fg rave s ,t h e " s oc ia l / re l ig iou s me s sage " ,i t h as p roved e s sen t ia l t os t udy n o t o n ly t h e s i ze o fg raves a nd t h e f r equency o f g rave g ood sb u ta l so t ou nde r take ac omp rehen s ive a na ly s i so ft h ee n t i re b u r ia l monumen t , a n a na ly s i s i nw h ich a s much empha s i s i sl a id o n t h eo ccu r rence o f e x te rna la nd i n te rna lc on s t ruc t iona ld e ta i ls a st h eo ccur r ence o fg rave g ood s . T he a na ly s is o fM ig ra t ion P e r iod b ur ia ls h a s s hown t h a t t h e w ay i n wh ich t h e " soc ia l message " o ft h e g raves w a s e xp ressed v a r ies a cco rd ing t ot he r e l ig ious c oncep t s b y wh ich t hey w e re f o rmed . B e l ief i n a" mo re s p i r i tua l " o r a" mo re b od i ly " a f te r l if e a r e e xamp le s o ft h e se r egu la t ing c oncep t s . I nt h e E a r ly I r on Age , when b e l ief i n a" mo re s p i r i tua l " a f te r l if e s eem st oh ave p reva i led ,g rave g ood sa nd a n ima lb one sw e re u sua l ly a bsen t f r om g rave s , a s w e re h uman b ones o cca s iona l ly . I n s p i te o f t h is , i tw a s i mpo r tan t t oe xp res s t h e s oc ia l p o s i t ion o ft h e d ecea sed i n t h e f une ra l r i tes . I n t h i s p e r iod ad i f f e r en t ia ls oc ia ls t ruc tu r ew a s s ymbo l i sed m a in ly t h rough t h ee x te rna lf o rm o f t he b u r ia l . I nt h e L a te I r on Age t h es ame p henomenon w a s embod ied i nb o th e x te rna l s t ruc tu re a nd i n ter na lb u r ia lr i te si nt h ef o rm o ft h ep re sence o fg rave g ood sa nd a n ima l b one s . Howeve r ,t h er i se i nf r equency o fg rave g ood sa nd a n ima lb one s i nt h eL a te I r on Age s hou ld b e r ega rded p r inc ipa l ly a s ab y -p roduc t o f t he r e l ig ious r i tua l , o f a n i n c rea s ing ly c onc re te c oncep to ft h ea f te r l if e ,r a the rt h an a s as i gn o ft he g row ing n eed t o empha s ise s oc ia ld i f f e rence s . T hu s , c hange s i nt h ee x terna l a nd i n terna l g rave t ype s i nt h e M igra t ion P er iod c anno tb e c ons ide red a st h ee xp res s ion o f at r an sfo rma t ion o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re b u ts imp ly a st h ee xp re s s ion o f ar e l ig iou sc hange . I ti sn eve r the le ss i mpor tan tt os ee i n aw ide rp e r spec t ive t h er e l ig iou s t r ansfo rma t ion t ha t t ook p lace i n t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod a nd wh ich r e su l ted i nt he man if es ta t ion o fa s ha red r e l ig ion ;i tmu s tb el i nked t of undamen ta lp roce s se sa to the rl e ve l si ns oc ie ty .

References B enne t t , A . 1 987 . G raven .R e l ig iö so ch s oc ia ls ymbo l . S t ruk turer i f o lk vand r ings t idens g ray sk ick iMä laromräd e t . T he se s a nd P ape r si n No r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 8 . St o ckho lm . G rä s lund , B . 1 978 . P e r iod sy s tem if o r skn ingsh is to r i sk tp e r spek t iv . H iku in 4 .V ibo rg . Näsman , U . 1 979 . A rchäo log ische B e i träge z ur C hrono log ie d er Vö lker w anderung sze i t .F ornvännen . . S tockho lm .

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A pproaches t o Swed ish P reh is tory ,B .A .R . , O xf ord , 1 989 ,p p .3 73 -393 .

V IK INGS FOLLO W ING GRESHA M 'S LA W By F rands Herschend*

I n troduc t ion An a t temp tt os or to u tt h ec omponen t si nt h ec a tach r e s i so ft h et i t le l e ad si n to t h es ub jec t o ft h i sa r t ic le i n aq u i te r e a sonab le w ay .T hu s ,a ne f f o r tt os moo th o u tt h ea nach ron ism u ncove r st h ew e l lk nown f a c tt h a tt h ea na ly t ica ls t and -po in tb eh ind G r e sham ' sL aw w a s f o rmu la ted s ome 4 0y ea r se a r l ie rb yC opern icu si n1 517 . T o a l ter t h e t i le , s ubs t i tu t ing C opern icus f o r G resham , i sn o g ood i d ea , b u t a q uo ta t ion f r om C oper n icu s 'e s say o nc o in ing w i l lp rove mo re e l uc ida t ive t h an ap a s sage f r om ab ook o nG r e sham . I n o ne o fi t s f o rms G resham ' s L aw s t a te s t h a t i fy ou m ake t wo c o in e d i t ions o ft h e s ame n om ina l v a lue , b u t o fd i f f e r en t a l loy s , t hose c o in s t h a t i nr e a l i ty a r e t h e mo s t v a luab le w i l l t e nd t od i sappea r f r om c i rcu la t ion a nd o n ly t h e i n f er io r c o inage w i l l r ema in .Coper n icu s i nh i s wo rk d ea l s t ho rough ly w i th t h e p henomenon a nd d e scr ibes h ow P ru ss ian c o inage s i nce t h e b a t t le o f T annenbe rg , J u ly 1 5 th 1 410 , h a s b een d eba sed . H av ing p in -po in ted t h e e ven t a s t h e ' t urn o ft h e t i de ' , h e s ums u p p u t t ing f o rwa rd s ome p edagog ica lr ema rk si n sp i r ed b yp o l i t ica la sw e l la s mo ra lp o in t so fv i ew : T hen wha tr ema in si nt h ea b sence o fh e lp e xcep tt ha th e reaf te rP rus s ia ,d ra ined o fg o ld a nd s i lve r , w i l l h ave a ne xc lu s ive ly c oppe rc u r rency? C on sequen t ly i mpor ts o ff o re ign m e rchand ise a nd a l l f o re ign t r ade w i l l s oon e nd . F or wha t f o re ign me rchan t w i l l w an t t o e xchange h i s g oods f o r c oppe rc o in s? L a s t ly wh ich o fo u r m e rchan t s w i l l b e a b le t ob uy f o re ign m e rchand ise i nf o re ign l a nd sw i th t he s ame money? Y e tt hose i na u tho r i ty s co rnfu l ly d i s rega rd t h is i mmense m isfo r tune o ft h eP ru ss ian s t a te . . . . Wh i le , t hen , s uch e v i l b ese t P russ ian money a nd c onsequen t ly t he who le c oun try , i t s c a lam i t ies b enef i t o n ly t h e g o ldsm i th s a nd t hose who k now t h e p u r i ty o fm e ta l b y e xpe r ience . F o rf r om t h e m ixed c o inage t h ey c o l lec tt h eo ld p ieces , f r omwh ich t h ey me l td own t h e s i lve ra nd s e l li t .F rom t he i n expe r ienced p ub l ic t h ey c on s tan t ly r e ce ive mo re s i lve rw i th t h em ixed c o inage . B u t a f ter t hose o ld s h i l l ing s h ave n ow d i sappea red c omp le te ly , t he n ex tb e s t a r e s e lec ted , w h i le t h ei n f e r io r ma ss o f money r ema ins b eh ind . ( Coper n icus 1 517 :189 f . ) .

I ne s sence ,G re sham 's L aw i sj u s t as e r ie s o fm echan isms a c t iva ted t h e momen ty ou b ecome a wa re o ft h ef a c tt h a ta l lc o in so ff ic ia l ly d e s igned o re xp la ined t ob ee qua la r ei n r e a l i ty more o r l e ss u nequa l . A s s oon a s t h is v a r iab i l i ty b ecomes e conom ica l ly s i gn if ican tG re sham ' sL aw i si nf o r ce ,d r iv ing t h eb e s t money o u to ft h em a rke ti n to t h e p ocke t so ft h er i ch o re xpe r ienced .

*Depa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ,U ppsa la U n ive r s i ty

3 7 3

I fV ik ing si nt h e ir s e t t ing a r et oh ave f o l lowed G re sham ' sL aw t h en t h ep o in to ft h e ir b ehav iou ri s ama t te ro fe conom ic c on sc iou sne s se xp r e s sed p a r t ly i nt h ea b i l i ty t oj udge t h e w e igh t a nd q ua l i ty o ft h e c o in s i nu se , p a r t ly i n ap ower t ot u rn t h is a b i l i ty i n to p rof i t . A l though C oper n icu si se xp l ic i t ly b l am ing o n ly t h eg o ldsm i th s ,a nd i r on ica l ly e nough t h e y e t u nbor nG re sham w a s t ob ecome ag o ld sm i th , i ts hou ld n o t b e f o rgo t ten t h a t t ho se who a r e e ngaged i nt r ade , a mong o the r st h em erchan t sp i t iedby C opern icu s , a r e a l so t h eo ne s mo s tl i ke ly t ob enef i tf r om t h ed i f f e r ence si nt h ec o in m a ter ia l . A rchaeo log ica l Examp les T he n ex t s t eps t owa rds r e cogn iz ing G re sham 's L aw a s ac ommon p lace n o t ion i n V ik ing Age e conomy ,a r eb a sed o ne xamp le si n tended t ob r ing f o rwa rd i d ea st h a tm igh t b ei lu s t ra ted i n ac a se s t udy . T he f i r s t e xamp le c oncer n s t h e s o l id i o ft h e 5 t h c en tu ry A .D . , f ound o n t h e i s land o f O land . T h is ma ter ia l f a l ls i ni nt h r ee n a tu ra lp a r t s , t h ev e ry b ig h oa rd s , t h es ma l l o nes a nd t h e f i nd s o fo ne o rt wo c o in s ( He r schend 1 980 :94 f . ) . T he m ean w e igh t o ft h e c o in s i nt h ese t h ree g roups f o l low s t h e s i ze o ft h e h oa rd . T he h eav ies t c o ins a r e t h u s f ound i nt h e b ig h oa rds a nd v i ce v er sa . T he p henomenon i sv e ry a ppa ren t e ven i n C on t inen ta lm a te r ia lo ft h es ame p e r iod ( He r schend 1 985 a nd T ab le 1 ) . T he re i sn o t much p o in ti ns ay ing t h a ta l lt h e se w e igh td i f f e r ence sa r et h e r e su l to fc o in c i rcu la t ion , s i nce t h e t wo b ig o e land ic h oa rd s ( He r schend 1 980 :90 f . ) a nd e spec ia l ly t h e S z ikancs h oa rd ( B i ro -Sey 1 976 ) a r e e xamp les o fc o in p opu la t ions o n ly s l igh t ly i n f luenced b yc i rcu la t ion .O nt h ec on t ra ry ,t h eh oa rd sl o ok l i ke p r e served p opu la t ion s . S tamp i d en t i ty , a mong o the rt h ing s , s e em t oc onf irm t h i s , a nd t h e ref o re , r a the rt h an c u r r ency ,t h eh oa rd sr ef lec tp aymen t sf r om t h eR oman a dm in i s t ra t ion t op eop le o u t s ide t h e Emp i re . S o ,a l though c o in c i r cu la t ion m igh tp l ay ap a r ti nt h ef o rma t ion o ft h em ean w e igh to fs ma l lh oa rd sa nd s t ray -f ind s , o ne mu s ts e ek a dd i t iona le xp lana t ion f o rt h et i e b e tween c o in n umbe ra nd m ean w e igh t . One w ay o ff i nd ing ac onnec t ion m ay b eb rough ta bou ti fy ou r e ad t h ed e scr ip t ion b y P r isko s P an i te s o fo ne o ft h ep eace t r ea t ie s f o rmed b e tween A t t i la a nd T heodo s ius I ( Mue l le r 1 851 :71 f . ) . I ti ss t a ted t h a tt h et r ibu te s s hou ld b ep aymen ts o fw e igh t ,i . e . m in ted g o ld t os e cu re t h ep ur i ty o ft h e m e ta l ( c f . K en t 1 956 :198 f . ) , a moun t ing t oa c e r ta in w e igh t ,a nd t hu sn o t ac e r ta in n umbe ro fc o in s . O nt h eo the rh and ,t h ea g r eemen t t or e deem t h ec ap tu r ed R oman s o ld ie r se xp l ic i t ly s t a te st h a tt h es o ld ie r sa r et ob eb ough t o u tw i th ac e r ta in n umbe ro fs o l id i , 8o r 1 2( Mue l le r 1 851 :72 a nd 7 4 ) , a nd t h us n o tw i th ac e r ta in w e igh ti ng o ld . T he c ap tu r ed R oman s o ld ie r s a r e l i ke ly t ob e t h ep roper ty o f t ho se who a c tua l ly c ap tu red t h em , b u tt h et r ibu te sa r ed ef in i te ly p a id t oA t t i la o rt oh i s a dm in is t ra t ion f o rf u r the ra l lo tmen t . S op aymen t st ot h et op a ndbo t tom o ft h eH unn i sh h i e ra r chy a r eo ft wo d i f f e r en tk i nd s . T he w e igh to ft h e S z ikanc sh oa rd i sv e ry p rec ise ly 2 0p ound s o fg o ld a l though t h e re a r eo n ly 1 436 c omp le te a nd 3c l ipped c o in si nt h ef i nd i n s tead o ft h e 1 440 t h eo re t ica l ly f o rm ing 2 0 p ounds ( B i ro -Sey 1 976 , n o te 1 ) . T hu s , a sp o in ted o u t b y B iro -Sey , t h e h oa rd i sl i ke ly t oe xemp l ify ap aymen t o f ac e r ta in a moun t o fg o ld a nd n o t ac er ta in n umbe ro fc o in s( B iro -Sey 1 976 :19 ) . I fy ou e xam ine t h ew e igh td i s tr ibu t ion o ft h eh oa rd i no rde rt of o rm as amp le w i th t h e s ame mean w e igh t a s t h a t o f t h e 4 95 c o ins i n a l l t h e o ther f i nds i n T ab le 1 r e p r e sen ta t ive a st h ey a r eo ft h em a jor i ty o ft h ec o in so u t s ide t h eR oman Emp ir e -t h en i t w i l lt ur no u tt ob e i mpo s s ib le t ou se mo r e t h an 4 0 o ft h e c o in s i nt h e S z ikanc sh oa rd . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t many o ft h e c o in so u ts ide t h e Emp ire a r eo fs uch al ow w e igh t t h a t t h ey d o , w i th a l l p robab i l i ty , s t em f r om n om ina l p aymen ts r a the r t h a t p aymen t s i n w e igh t . T he t wo t ype s o fp aymen t i nd ica ted b y P r i sko s P an i te s c an i n o the r w o rd s e xp la in s ome o ft h ed i f f e rence si nt h em ean w e igh to fh oa rd so fd i f f e r en ts i ze .

3 74

T ab le 1 . Numbe ro fc o ins a nd mean we igh t i n as amp le o f5 th c en tu ry s o l idus h oa rds o u ts ide t he Roman Emp ire Number o fc o ins

Name / type o fh oa rd S z ikancs ( 1 ) B ina ( 2 ) i kby & Bo tes ( 3 ) L i l lön & B jörnhovda ( 3 ) S a l tho l m & Sm is s ( 3 ) S t ray f i nd s ,Ö land ( 4 )

Mean w e igh ti ng rammes

1 434 1 08 c .8 0

4 .483 4 .463 4 .416

4 7 -36 2 9 -25 2 -1

4 .408 4 .394 4 .383

No tes : ( 1 )B i ro -Sey 1 976 ; ( 2 ) Ko ln ikova 1 968 ; ( 3 )F age r l ie 1 967 ; ( 4 ) He r schend 1 980 .

T he mo t ive s f o rt h e d i f f e r en tp aymen t sa r e o bv iou s f r om t h e R oman p o in to fv i ew , s i nce t h eR oman sg e tt h ep o s s ib i l i ty t ou se s l igh t ly u nde r -we igh tc o in s when p ay ing t o t h eb o t tom o ft h eh i e ra r chy .A tt h es ame t ime ,b yp ay ing o u th eavy c o in st ot h et op t h ey s uppor t as oc ia ld i f f e rence a mong t h eb a rba r ian s . T he l a s tp o in tw i l lc e r ta in ly a ppea lt o b a rba r ian l e ade r sh ip . R ea la nd n om ina lp aymen t sa r ei no the rw o rd sc l a s sb i a sed . R ich a nd e xper ienced p eop le o r a dm in is t ra t ion s w i l l i n o ne w ay o r a no the r g a in when i nvo lved i nn om ina lb a rga in sw i th i n f er io rp a r tne r s . T he n ex te xamp le i sb a sed o nt h e c o in f i nd s f r om E ke to rp I Io nt h ei s land o fO land ( Bo rg 1 976 ) . T he t h i rd p ha se i nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h eE ke to rp r i ng f o r t( Eke torp I I ) , a n 1l t h t o 1 3 th c en tu ry s e t t lemen t , h a s y i e lded s eve ra l c o in f i nd s . T hey f a l l i n to t wo d i s t inc t c l a sse s , t h e s t ray -f ind s a nd o ne h oa rd ( The c o in s h ave b een d e scr ibed b y Mon ica Go lab iew sk i L annby i nt h ec or r e spondence t o KMK , D n r . 5 035/ 64 ; 7 052 / 64 ; 7 316 /67 a nd 7 41/ 68 ) .The c o ins a r ev ery l i gh t ,b u ti fy ou c hoo se t h eu ndamaged o ne s , i nt h eh oa rd a sw e l la sa mong t h es t ray -f ind s , y ou w i l l s e et h a tt h em ean w e igh to ft h e c o in sd if e r sc on s ide rab ly ,a l though t h ec o in si nt h et wo g roup sa r eo ft h es ame a ge a nd t ype ( Tab le 2a nd F ig . 1 ) .

% OF CO INS 50 % OF CO INS A

40-

WE IGHT >0 ,8