Lithic Analysis and Later British Prehistory: Some problems and approaches 9780860544333, 9781407317779

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Contents
List of Figures
List of Contributors
1. Introduction
2. Prediction or Prejudice? The Relationship Between Field Survey and Excavation
3. The Geochemical and Geophysical Properties of Lithic Scatters
4. A Field Method for Investigating the Spatial Structure of Lithic Scatters
5. Tales of the Unexpected: Approaches to the Assessment and Interpretation of Museum Flint Collections
6. Chronological and Functional Aspects of Flint Assemblages
7. Inferential Limits and Surface Scatters: The Case of The Maddle Farm and Vale of the White Horse Fieldwalking Survey
8. Flint Scatters and Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in South Oxfordshire and East Berkshire
9. All shot to pieces? Inter-assemblage variability, lithic analysis and Mesolithic assemblage 'types'; some preliminary observations
10. Rocks and Risk: Problems with Lithic Procurement Strategies
11. Flint Technology and the Character of Neolithic Settlement
12. The Archers: An Everyday Story of Country Folk

Citation preview

Lithic Analysis and Later British Prehistory Some problems and approaches

edited by

A. G. Brown and.M. R. Edmonds

Reading Studies in Archaeology No. 2

BAR British Series 162 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 162,1987: 'Lithic Analysis and Later Prehistory' © The Individual Authors, 1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544333 paperback ISBN 9781407317779 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544333 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Contents P age L is t o f F igures

I

L is t

II

o f Con t r ibu to rs

1 .

I n troduct ion

2 .

P red ic t ion o r P re jud ice? T he R e la t ion sh ip B e tween F ie ld S urvey a nd E xcava t ion

F rances

3 .

T he G eochem ica l a nd o f L i th ic S ca t ters

R oy E n tw is t le & J u l ian R icha rds

1 9

4 .

A F ie ld Me thod f or I nves t iga t ing t he S t ruc tu re o f L i th ic S ca t ter s

R ichard

3 9

5 .

T a les o f t he Unexpec ted : App roaches t o t h e A ssessmen t a nd I n terpre ta t ion o f Museum F l in t C o l lec t ions

J u l ie

6 .

Chrono log ica l a nd F unc t iona l F l in t A ssemb lages

S teve F o rd

6 7

7 .

I nferen t ia l L im i ts a nd S urface S ca t ter s : T he C a se o f t he Madd le F a rm a nd V a le o f t h e Wh i te Horse F ie ldwa lk ing S urvey

Mar t in

8 7

8 .

F l in t S ca t ters a nd P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t tern s i n S ou th Oxon & E as t B erk s .

S teve F o rd

1 01

9 .

A l l S ho t t o P ieces? I n ter -Assemb lage Var iab i l i ty , L i th ic Ana lys is a nd Meso l i th ic A ssemb lage ' Types ' : S ome P re l im inary Observa t ions

Andrew

Myers

1 37

1 0 .

Rock s a nd R isk : P rob lems w i th L i th ic P rocure men t S tra teg ies

E dmonds

1 55

1 .

F l in t T echno logy a nd t he Neo l i th ic S e t t lemen t

1 2 .

T he A rcher s : Coun t ry

F o lk

G eophys ica l

P roper t ies

A spec ts

S pa t ia l

o f

f C ha rac ter o

An E ve ryday S to ry o f

• Ma rk

H ea ly

B rad ley

Ga rd ine r

T ing le

R ichard

9

4 9

B rad ley

1 81

Ma rk E dmonds &

1 87

J u l ian

T homas

L ist F igure 2 . 1

A )

o f F igures

C ompa r ison o f Ma ter ia l

f rom Uns tra t if ied

S t ra t if ied C on tex ts . B ) Hypo the t ica l o f D epos i t iona l H is to ry o f A r tefac t s . 3 . 1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4

a nd

Page 1

R econs truc t ion

L oca t ion Map o f S tonehenge A rea . Wi lsfo rd Down S amp le T ransec t . Wi lsford Down D a ta P rof i le . K ing B a r row R idge : D is tr ibu t ions o f P hospha te a nd Magne t ic S uscep t ib i l i ty V a lues . K ing B a rrow R idge : L i th ic A r tefac t D is tr ibu t ions . F a rgo Wood P hospha te C u rve .

2 3 2 4 2 6 2 9

4 2

4 .2

P re -Excava t ion S urveys o n a T ransec t A c ross Dorse t C ursus . P os i t ions a nd R esu l t s o f E xcava ted T ran sec t s .

5 . 1

E xamp les o f Uncommon T oo l T ypes .

6 . 1-6 .4

Chrono log ica l B r i ta in . Chrono log ica l B r ita in . Chrono log ica l B r ita in . Chrono log ica l B r ita in .

3 .5 3 .6 4 . 1

6 .5 -6 .8 6 .9 -6 .12 6 . 13 -6 .15

t he

3 1 3 5

4 4 6 0

T rends

i n

A ssemb lages

f rom

S ou thern

7 2

T rends

i n

A ssemb lages

f rom

S ou thern

7 4

T rends

i n

A ssemb lages

f rom

S ou thern

7 6

T rends

i n

A ssemb lages

f rom

S ou thern

7 7

7 . 1 7 .2 7 .3 7 .4 7 .5

Madd le F a rm S urvey L oca t ions . R esu l t s o f F ie ldwa lk ing t he S ame F ie ld . T o ta l Numbe rs o f F lakes . D is t r ibu t ion o f I mp lemen ts . D is t r ibu t ion o f C ores a nd H ammer s tones .

8 8 9 0 9 3 9 4 9 6

8 . 1a 8 . 1b 8 .2 8 . 3 8 . 4 8 . 5 8 . 6 8 . 7 8 . 8 8 .9

G eo logy o f t he N o r th S toke S urvey A rea . G eo logy o f t he E a s t B erk sh ire S urvey A rea . P ropor t ions o f C h rono log ica l ly S ens i t ive V ar iab les . D ens i ty D is tr ibu t ion Map : No r th S toke A rea . D en s i ty D is t r ibu t ion Map : E as t B e rk sh ire A rea . S i te T ypes D ef ined b y A rea a nd D en s i ty : Nor th S toke . D is t r ibu t ions o f S i tes D ef ined b y C lus ter Ana lys is . S i te T ypes D ef ined b y A rea a nd D en s i ty : E as t B erk sh ire . D is t r ibu t ion o f B lades a nd B lade C o re s : N or th S toke . P ropor t ions o f C u t t ing / Was te F lakes : a ) No r th S toke ; b ) E as t B erk sh ire . C lus te r ing Wi th in a S ing le S ca t ter : S i te 1 60 , E a s t Berksh ire .

1 03 1 04 1 08 10 11 14 16 1 20 1 22 1 25

D endrogram f r om C lus ter Ana lys is E ssen t ia l T oo l I nven tor ies .

1 42

8 . 10

9 . 1

o f Meso l i th ic

1 31

L ist R ichard

B rad ley

o f

Contr ibu tors

D epa r tmen t

o f

A rchaeo logy ,

Un ive rs i ty

o f

R ead ing

A ndy

B rown

D epa r tmen t

o f

A rchaeo logy ,

Un ivers i ty

o f

R ead ing

Ma rk

E dmonds

D epa r tmen t

o f

A rchaeo logy ,

Un ivers i ty

o f

R ead ing

D epa r tmen t

o f

A rchaeo logy ,

Un ivers i ty

o f

R ead ing

S teve F o rd

D epa r tmen t

o f

A rchaeo logy ,

Un ivers i ty

o f

R ead ing

J u l ie

No rfo lk A rchaeo log ica l Un i t , Un ion House , G ressenha l l , D ereham , Norfo lk

R oy

E n tw is t le

G ard iner

F ranc is

Andrew

H ea ly

Myers

N orfo lk A rchaeo log ica l G ressenha l l , D ereham ,

Un i t , Un ion Norfo lk

D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy Un ivers i ty o f S hef f ie ld

a nd

House ,

P reh is tory ,

J u l ian

R ichards

T rus t f o r Wessex A rchaeo logy , 6 5 T he C lose , S a l isbury , Wi l tsh ire

J u l ian

T ho mas

D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy Un ivers i ty o f S hef f ie ld

Mar t in

T ing le

T he v iews

T udor C o t tage ,

o f t he c on t r ibu tor s

H am ,

N r .

a nd

P reh is tory ,

Hungerfo rd ,

B e rk sh ire

a re n o t n ecessa r i ly t hose o f t he e d i to r s .

1 .

I n troduc t ion

" The n eed t o " do s o me th ing " w i th e xcava ted t oo ls a nd d eb i tage , c oup led w i th i nadequa te a t ten t ion t o p rob lem f orma t ion , c an l ead t o me thodo log ica l myop ia a nd a v as t l i tera tu re o f u neven q ua l i ty ." ( C ro ss 1 983 , 1 01 ) F ew wou ld d ispu te t ha t t he re i s a n eed t o " do s ome th ing " w i th t he l i th ic ma ter ia l r ecovered b o th f r om e xcava t ion a nd , a s t he b a lance o f t he p ape rs p resen ted h ere r ef lec ts , i ncrea s ing ly f rom s ys tema t ic f i e ld s urvey . T he w ay i n wh ich t h is i s u sua l ly d one owes more t o t he e s tab l ished t r ad i t ions o f a rchaeo log ica l a r tefac t a na lys is t han i t d oes t o t he p reva i l ing r equ iremen ts o f B r i t ish a rchaeo logy . T he t axonom ic a pproach w as u sed f r om t he o u tse t o f t he s tudy o f l i th ic a r tefac ts , d ue l a rge ly t o t he i nf luence o f n a tura l h is tor ians i n t he f orma t ive y ears o f o ur d isc ip l ine , n o tab ly S ir J ohn L ubbock a nd S i r J ohn E vans . O f c ou rse , t he t axonom ies h ave b een u pda ted a nd owe much i n a dd i t ion t o o the r a na lys t s ( eg C la rk 1 932 ; J acob i a nd T ebbu t t 1 981) , b u t many o f t he o r ig ina l d ef in i t ion s a r e s t i l l i n u se . T he f orma t o f r ecen t l i th ic a na lyses s t i l l o wes much t o e ar l ier r epor ts s uch a s t hose d ea l ing w i th Hur s t F en ( C la rk e t a l . 1 960 ) a nd Windm i l l H i l l a nd Avebury ( Sm i th 1 965 ) . T he s t ruc ture o f t hese r epor ts r ef lec ted a c hange i n t he q ues t ions a sked o f l i th ic ma ter ia ls , wh ich s aw t he i ncorpora t ion o f d a ta f r om a w ider r ange o f s ou rces t han w as c ommon : f or e xamp le , t he v a r ie ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls u sed a t a s i te w as s een t o h ave p o ten t ia l i n t e rms o f s ubs is tence a nd e xchange s t ud ies , a nd was te f l akes w ere n ow s t ud ied i n a dd i t ion t o r e touched p ieces . T he s ca le o f a na lys is , h owever , r ema ined s ecure ly a t t he l eve l o f t he s i te . When t he s amp l ing o f l i th ic ma ter ia l d is t r ibu t ions i ncreased d ur ing t he l a te r 1 970s , i nvo lv ing a w iden ing o f t he s ca les o f a na lys is t o i nc lude t he s i te a nd t he l andscape ( Cher ry e t a / . 1 978 ) , l i th ic d a ta w ere n o l onger u sed ma in ly a s c orrobora t ive e v idence , b u t w ere more w ide ly r ecogn ised a s a s ource o f e v idence b y t hemse lves ; h owever , t h is s erved t o h igh l igh t t he l ack o f f rameworks w i th in wh ich t o i n terpre t e v idence f rom s t ruck s tone . One a pproach wh ich was d eve loped d ur ing t he 1 970s a nd wh ich h as s een c ons ide rab le u se ( i nc lud ing i n t h is v o lume ) , h owever , i s t he " off -s i te" a pproach ( Fo ley 1 981) . I t i s t h is n eed f or f r ameworks. ( app rop r ia te t o t he s ca le o f a na lys is ) , w i th in wh ich l i th ics c an b e i n terpre ted , wh ich i s a p o in t made f r equen t ly i n t he p ape rs i n t h is v o lume . We h ave u sed t he s ca le o f a na lys is a s t he ma jor t heme t o t he p apers i n p refe rence t o c h rono log ica l o r me thodo log ica l g roup ings i n o rder t o a l low t he a pproaches t o c ome t o t h e f ore . S pec if ic d a tes a r e s e ldom men t ioned ; o ur v iew o f l a ter B r i t ish p reh is tory h as d e l ibera te ly b een c a tho l ic t o a l low b road p a t te rns t o b e e xam ined . T he f i rs t t h ree c on tr ibu t ions d ea l w i th t he ' c lose -up ' e nd o f t he s pec t rum o f s ca les . F rances H ea ly u ses d a ta f r om S pong H i l l , N orfo lk t o e xp lore a n a spec t o f t he f orma t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . S he i s a b le t o i den t ify c on t ras ts

1

b e tween t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age o ccupa t ions o f t he s i te a nd f orces u s t o t h ink more e xp l ic i t ly a bou t d i sca rd b ehav iour mode ls wh ich m igh t b e r e la ted t o s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs is tence v a r ia t ion . T he s tudy h as p rofound i mp l ica t ions f or t he f ormu la t ion o f s urvey s t ra teg ies a t a l a rger s ca le . R oy E n tw is t le a nd J u l ian R icha rds t ake u p t h e t h eme o f t he c omp lex i ty o f d isca rd b ehav iour , b u t g o o n t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t he i mpor tance o f c ompar ing a nd c on t ras t ing i ndependen t s ources o f d a ta w i th l i th ics . Wh i le t hey s t ress t ha t t he ir me thodo logy i s n o t y e t a s r e f ined a s t hey wou ld l i ke i t t o b e , t he u se o f " non -so l id " e v idence a s a p r inc ipa l c omponen t o f t he r esearch d es ign i n t he e nv irons o f S tonehenge i s a c lear i mprovemen t o n t he u se o f l i th ic e v idence i n i s o la t ion . S t i l l i n t he c on tex t o f t he i n t ra -s i te s ca le o f a na lys is , R ichard B rad ley d emons t ra tes t ha t s urface s ca t ters f l o _ r e ta in v ar ious t ypes o f p a t tern ing a nd h e d escr ibes a me thodo logy f or i den t ify ing t hem wh ich was u sed s uccessfu l ly d ur ing e xcava t ions o n t he Dorse t C ur sus . A s w e l l a s e xp lor ing t he p o ten t ia l o f a rch ive ma ter ia l , J u l ie G ard iner 's p aper p rov ides a l i nk b e tween t he i n t ra -s i te , s ma l l -sca le a na lyses a nd t he w ide r v iew t aken i n l a ter p ape rs . T he l i nk i s t he p rob lem wh ich p e rvades a l l s ca les o f l i th ic a na lys is - t ha t o f t he mo rpho log ica l c lass if ica t ion s ys tem u sua l ly r eferred t o a s t ypo logy . We men t ioned e ar l ier t ha t t he s ys tem o f morpho log ica l t r a i ts o n w h ich o ur s t anda rd t ypo logy i s b ased s t ems f r om t he p ioneers o f a rchaeo logy a s a d isc ip l ine . T he c oncern w i th g roup ing t he many h undreds o f d if feren t a r tefac ts t o make t hem more manageab le a nd t he emergence o f a b road c hrono log ica l s equence , a s e xemp l if ied i n E vans ' Anc ient S tone I mp lemen ts ( 1872 ) s e rved a v i ta l p u rpose . Ou r c l ass if ica t ion s a re u n l ike ly e ver t o ma tch t he em ic c lass if ica t ions o f p reh is tor ic u ser s o f s t one , n o r n eed t h ey ( Ode l l 1 981 , 3 20 ) . A s M i l le r ( 1985 ) p o in ts o u t , t h e v a lue o f a c la ss if ica tory s ys tem s hou ld n o t b e j udged i n t e rms o f i t s a ccuracy , b u t i ns tead i n t e rms o f i t s u sefu lness a s a n h eu r is t ic d ev ice . S ince c l ass if ica tory s ys tems a re h eur is t ic d ev ices , w e b e l ieve t ha t n ew a nd f l ex ib le o nes s hou ld b e u sed w i thou t h es i ta t ion ( bu t w i th c l ea r e xp lana t ion ) t o a n swer t he s o r ts o f q ues t ions wh ich morpho logy a lone c anno t . I n G ard iner 's p aper , t he r i g id c l ass if ica t ion n orma l ly u sed when c ons ider ing e xcava ted ma ter ia l i s f ound t o b e u n su i tab le a nd i s. a dap ted ( no t r ep laced ) t o s u i t t he q ues t ions p osed b y t he a ssemb lages w i th wh ich s he worked . T he s ca le o f a na lys is i s f i r s t o f a l l t he i nd iv idua l c o l lec t ion h oused i n a mu seum , a nd t hen t he r eg ion , t he l a t ter b e ing t he s ca le mos t a ppropr ia te f or d a ta f rom museum c o l lec t ions . We s t ay i n t he c en t re o f t he s pec trum o f s ca les o f a na lys is f or t he n ex t t h ree p apers . S urvey a t a r eg iona l l eve l h as r ece ived c ons iderab le a t ten t ion i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture r ecen t ly ( cf . Macready a nd T hompson 1 985 ; Hase lgrove e t a l . 1 986 ) ,In t he f i rs t o f S teve F ord 's c on tr ibu t ions , t he r ecur r ing p rob lems o f c hrono logy a nd f unc t ion ( used i n . t he s ense o f u t i l i ty ) i n l i th ic a na lys is a re t a ck led . H ere w e s ee a n i n terpre t ive f r amework b e ing f ormu la ted s pec if ica l ly f or t h is l eve l o f a na lys is . T hrough t he u se o f e xcava ted , a nd t herefore r e la t ive ly w e l l -da ted a ssemb lages , F ord i den t if ies a s er ies o f v ar iab les wh ich a re c hrono log ica l ly more s ens i t ive t han t he c ommon ly u sed p a rame ters o f l eng th a nd b read th . An i mpor tan t p a r t o f t h is work i s t he r ecogn i t ion t ha t v ar ia t ion i n f l ake d i mens ions i s n o t i ndependen t o f b ehav iour a nd t ha t t he l i ke ly a c t iv i t ies a t a s i te mus t b e t aken i n to a ccoun t .

2

Mar t in T ing le 's c on t r ibu t ion c on t ras ts i n s evera l ways w i th t he p apers b y F ord . H is c hap te r d ea ls w i th p rob lems e ncoun tered d u r ing a r eg iona l s urvey i n t he V a le o f t he Wh i te Ho rse a nd p o in ts t o a n umber o f q ues t ions wh ich mus t b e a nswered i n o rder t o c on s truc t i nferen t ia l f rameworks w i th in wh ich s urface s ca t ter ma ter ia l c an b e t r ea ted . I n r ecogn is ing r eg iona l v a r ia t ions i n t he v i s ib i l i ty o f d a ta , T ing le m igh t b e s een t o b e mak ing a n a na logy w i th i n tra -s i te v a r iab i l i ty a s d i scussed b y H ea ly i n C hap te r 2 . Once a ga in , a t ten t ion i s d rawn t o t he f a i lure t o d a te o f l i th ic a na ly s ts t o mode l a dequa te ly t he p rocesses b eh ind t he f o rma t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T ing le c onc ludes t ha t t he t r ue v a lue o f r eg iona l s u rvey w i l l o n ly b ecome a ppa ren t o n a s t i l l l a rger s ca le . T he r esu l ts o f S teve F o rd 's s urvey work , p resen ted i n C hap ter 9 , embody a p erhaps mo re o p t im is t ic v iew o f f i e ld s u rvey . U s ing t he a pproach o u t l ined i n Chap ter 6 , F ord r e la tes a w ide v a r ie ty o f p hys ica l v a r iab les t o t he c hang ing p a t tern s o f l i th ic s ca t ter d i s t r ibu t ions . T he l andscape i s c on s idered b o th a s a who le a nd a s t he b ackdrop f or n uc lea ted a c t iv i t ies . H is a pproach t o s i te d ef in i t ion i s b ased b o th o n s imp le s t a t is t ica l a nd o n c lus ter a na lys is t echn iques , a nd t he p a t te rns o f s e t t lemen t a nd l and -use f rom t he Meso l i th ic t h rough t o t he I r on Age i n t he s t udy a reas a r e d i scu ssed i n t e rms o f mode ls o f c o lon isa t ion a nd s e t t lemen t l oca t ion i n a E u ropean c on tex t . We s ee Andrew Myer s ' p aper a s a l i nk b e tween t he r eg iona l s u rvey p aper s o f F o rd a nd T ing le a nd t he g ene ra l ised d i scuss ions o f t he l a s t t h ree p apers o f t he v o lume . T ak ing a b ody o f d a ta f r om Nor thern E ng land , Myers r em inds u s t ha t w e mus t b e c onf iden t t ha t w e a pprec ia te t he r o le p layed b y t he l i th ic a r tefac ts wh ich w e a na lyse b efore w e g o o n t o d raw f u r ther i n ferences . T hus , i n t h is c hap ter Mye rs s hows t ha t c hanges i n a rchaeo log ica l ly v is ib le l i th ic a r tefac ts c an o n ly b e l i nked t o i mpor tan t s h if ts i n o therw ise i nv is ib le s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies a f ter d ue c on s idera t ion i s p a id t o t he r o le o f t he a r tefac ts i n Meso l i th ic t e chno logy . F or t he f i na l p ape rs , w e a re f i rm ly a t t he w ide -ang le e nd o f t he s pec t rum o f s ca les o f a na lys is . E dmonds ' p aper u ses a f r amework o f c hang ing l eve ls o f r i sk t o a t temp t t o r e la te t he b road t r ends i n l i th ic p rocuremen t , p roduc t ion , u se a nd d isca rd o f s t one t o a w ider c on tex t wh idh t akes i n to a ccoun t t he o rgan isa t ion o f o ther a c t iv i t ies . R ichard B rad ley ( Chap ter 1) p icks u p o ne p a r t icu la r a spec t o f t hese f orms o f o rgan isa t ion , n ame ly s e t t lemen t p a t terns a nd r e la tes t he t echno log ica l c hanges o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b c i n B r i ta in t o t he mob i l i ty o f t he u se rs o f t he s t one t oo ls . T he p aper q ues t ion s t r ad i t iona l i deas o f s eden t ism b e ing l i nked w i th f a rm ing . T he f i na l p ape r i n t h is v o lume r a ises t he q ues t ion o f s t y le i n l i th ic a r tefac ts , a c oncep t wh ich u nde r l ies much o f o ur p rocess o f c a tegor isa t ion , y e t wh ich r e ma ins a s ub jec t o f h ea ted d eba te . I ncorpora t ing t he i dea t ha t ma ter ia l c u l tu re h as a n a c t ive r o le i n t he p rocess o f s oc ia l r eproduc t ion , E dmonds a nd T homas a na lyse , t he • c on tex tua l a nd f orma l v a r ia t ion o f N eo l i th ic a r rowheads a nd s ugges t t ha t t he ir r o le c hanged d rama t ica l ly t h rough t ime . O f a n umber o f i s sues wh ich t i r e n o t d i scussed i n t h e p apers p resen ted , w e wou ld l i ke t o d iscuss t wo i n p a r t icu la r h ere . T he f i rs t i s t he r o le o f e xpe r i men ts i n l i th ic a na lys is . T he h i s tory o f e xper imen ta t ion i s a s v a r ied a s i t i s l ong , r ang ing f rom t he e a r l ies t a t temp ts t o d emons t ra te t he n a tura l o r ig in o f e o l i ths (War ren 1 914 ) , t o t he d e ta i led s t ud ies wh ich a ccompany i den t if ica t ions o f m ic rowea r t r aces o n s t one t oo ls ( Hayden 1 979 ) . T he m a jo r

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p rogress i n e xper imen ta t ion h a s t aken p lace o u ts ide B r i ta in a nd i t s s cope h as b een w ide , a l though t he ma jor t h rus t h as b een t owards t he c on tro l led r econs truc t ion o f s pec if ic manufac tur ing t echn iques ( F lenn iken 1 984) . C r i t ic is ms o f r epor ted e xper i men ts h ave f r equen t ly b een f ar f rom c ons truc t ive , c oncen tra t ing o n t he d e ta i l o f r ecord ing o r t he v a l id i ty o f t e chn iques . S e ldom h as t he i s sue b een f aced o f h ow e xper imen ta t ion c an b e e x tended t o a sk n ew q ues t ion s o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . D e ta i led s t ud ies o f p a r t icu lar p roduc t ion s t ra teg ies ( eg S hee ts 1 975 ) a nd d i s t inc t ions b e tween t he work o f i nd iv idua l c raf tsmen ( H i l l a nd G unn 1 975 ) r ema in e ssen t ia l ly d escr ip t ive i n c harac ter , f a l l ing s hor t o f e xp la in ing why c er ta in t a sk s w ere u nder taken i n a p a r t icu la r manner . S o me a reas i n wh ich w e f ee l e xper imen ta t ion m igh t h ave much t o c on tr ibu te c an b e s ugges ted h e re . A t a g ene ra l l eve l , e xper imen ta t ion c an b e u sed t o e xp lo re t he c onsequences o f a w ide r ange o f s t ra teg ies f r om t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f a r e source o f v a ry ing q ua l i ty ( Brad ley a nd F ord 1 986 ) t o t he e f fec t o f h ea t t r ea tmen t o n m ic rowea r t r aces o n s t one t oo l e dges ( O lausson 1 983) . T he c ommon d i ssa t isfac t ion w i th t he morpho taxonom ic c lass if ica to ry a pproach a s d iscussed a bove , f or e xamp le , m igh t b e a ided b y u s ing e xper i men ta t ion t o d es ign d if feren t , t echno log ica l t axonom ies ( Bu r ton 1 980 ; S u l l ivan a nd R ozen 1 985 ) . E xper imen ta t ion a s a means o f r econs t ruc t ing b ehav iour o ver laps g rea t ly w ith r ef i t t ing p rogrammes , e i ther i n t he s ense o f i den t ify ing d ifferen t r educ t ion s equences ( Cahen a nd Kee ley 1 980 ; F lenn iken 1 985) , o r o f r econs truc t ing s equences o f a c t ions f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd ( Cahen e t a / . 1 979 ; S ka r a nd C ou lson 1 986 ) . F ina l ly o n t he s ub jec t o f e xper imen ta t ion , w e wou ld l i ke t o p o in t t o i t s p oss ib i l i t ies i n t he mon i tor ing o f p os t -depos i t iona l f ac tors o pera t ing o n s urface s ca t te r s o f l i th ic ma ter ia l . T here i s a c on s iderab le b ody o f l i te ra ture c oncern ing p os t -depos i t iona l a genc ies ( cf . Wood a nd J ohnson 1 978) i nc lud ing r esearch o n a menager ie o f d i fferen t a n ima ls ( eg E r landson 1 984 ) , whose e ffec t i n b r ing ing t o t he s urface v a r ious s i zes o f a r tefac t h a s b een a ssessed . T o mode l t he e xpec ted p os t -depos i t iona l e f fec ts i n a ny o ne l oca t ion ma thema t ica l ly wou ld b e l eng thy a nd o f l i t t le v a lue ( c f . R ow le t t a nd Robb in s 1 982 ) ; t he v ar iab les c oncerned a re s o mu l t i tud inous a s t o make s uch a t a sk e x treme ly c omp lex . We s ugges t t ha t e xper imen ta t ion o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime m igh t b e u sefu l , i n wh ich t he c on tex t -spec if ic e ffec ts o f c l ima te , g eo logy , v ege ta t ion , c u l t iva t ion e tc . o n f r esh ly g enera ted s ca t ters o f l i th ic ma ter ia l a re mon i tored t o g a in a n i mpress ion o f t he r e la t ive i mpor tance a nd e f fec ts o f s ome o f t he o pe ra t ive v ar iab les . P rocesses i n t he p loughed , w e t s o i ls o n s t eep s l opes i n t he S ou th Wes t a re l i ke ly t o b e v e ry d ifferen t f ro m t hose i n t he r o t iva ted , d ess ica ted s o i ls o n t he F en land ma rg ins . S uch a p rogramme o f mon i to r ing , s im i la r t o t he p ro jec t i n C a lab r ia u nder taken b y Ammerman ( 1985) , c ou ld b e o rgan ised w i th in t he e x is t ing r eg iona l s t ruc ture o f B r i t ish a rchaeo logy a t m in i ma l c os t f or g rea t l ong t e rm b enef i t . T he o ther ma jor a rea o f r esea rch n o t d ea l t w i th i n t h is v o lume i s t ha t o f m ic rowear a na lys is ( t he t e rm i s p ref er red t o f unc t iona l a na lys is a s t he l a t ter i s n ecessa r i ly a h o l is t ic a pproach t o t he r o le o f l i th ics i nvo lv ing s t a temen ts a bou t p urpose a nd i ntent ion) . A g enera l c r i t ic ism o f m icrowear a na lys is amongs t t he a rchaeo log ica l c ommun i ty i s t ha t t h is f orm o f r esea rch i s v ery i n t rospec t ive ( S taf ford a nd S taf fo rd 1 983) . A s econd c r i t ic ism i s t ha t s amp les t aken f or m icrowear a na lys is h ave b een n umer ica l ly w eak ; t he l a rges t p ub l ished h igh -power m icrowea r a na lyses a r e o f 6 04 p ieces ( Moss 1 983) o r

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6 63 ( Jue l J ensen 1 986 ) , d ue t o t he h igh ly l abour in tens ive n a ture o f t he wo rk . L ow -power a pp roaches c an b oa s t l i t t le more , w i th Ode l l 's c .7500 ( Ode l l 1 980 ) a t t he h ead o f t he l eague t ab le . T here h as b een a n o ngo ing i n te rna l d eba te o ver t he r e la t ive a dvan tages o f h igh - a nd l ow -power a pproaches ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve ryeeken 1 980 ; H o l ley a nd D e l B ene 1 981 ; Moss 1 983 ) l a rge ly c en tr ing o n t he l ack o f u nders tand ing o f t he mechan ics a nd o b jec t ive p roper t ies o f p o l ish f orma t ion o n t he o ne h and ( Unger -Ham i l ton 1 984 ) a nd t he l ack o f o b jec t iv ism a nd u nce r ta in e xpe r imen ta l b as is o n t he o ther ( Brose 1 975 ; B r ink 1 978 ; S taf ford a nd S taf ford 1 983) . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t a n a l terna t ive a pproach w i th a s l ong a h is tory a s m icroscop ic s t ud ies o f u t i l isa t ion t r aces ( c f . Wi lmsen 1 968 ) i s emp loyed b y S teve F o rd ( Chap te r 6 ) i n t h is v o lume . T he c r i t ic is ms men t ioned a bove a nd t he d eba te o ver h igh -and l ow-power a pp roaches c an b e r e so lved a t l e a s t i n p a r t b y a c omb ined a pproach . H igh p ower t echn iques a lone a re s t i l l v i ta l t o a nswer d e ta i led q ues t ions c oncern ing t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween f orm a nd u se . A re t he v a r ie ty o f f orms o f s craper , f or e xamp le , r e la ted t o d if feren t u ses ( J eppesen 1 984 )? P o l ishes , t oo , a re t he o n ly means b y wh ich o rgan ic ma ter ia ls wh ich d i sappea red l ong a go , c an b e s hown t o h ave b een e xp lo i ted a t ap a r t icu la r s i te i n t he p as t , a nd b y wh ich t he work ing o f s of t ma te r ia ls c an b e d emon s t ra ted ( Moss 1 983) . T he l ow -power a pproach , o n t he o ther h and , a l lows s amp le s i zes t o b e i ncreased g rea t ly ( perhaps b y a f ac tor o f 2 0 -30 ) , y e t s t i l l d e l ivers i nforma t ion a bou t wh ich p ieces w ere u sed , i n wh ich mode t hey w ere u sed ( scrap ing , p e rfora t ing , e tc .) a nd o n wh ich s o r ts o f ma ter ia ls ( eg r e la t ive ly s of t wood v s . r e la t ive ly h a rd b one o r a n t ler ; r i g id v s . y ie ld ing ; c f . Ho l ley a nd D e l B ene 1 981) . C anno t h igh -power a na lys is b e u sed o n s a mp les p re -se lec ted b y l ow p ower o bserva t ions? T hus , a h igh -power i nves t iga t ion o f t he r ange o f ma te r ia ls w orked b y as amp le o f s t one t oo ls u sed i n a s c rap ing mode m igh t b e made , f o r e xamp le , a nd a c heck c ou ld b e u nder taken o n wha t p ropo r t ion o f t he u ndamaged e dges h ad b een u sed o n s of t ma ter ia ls . C lear ly , b roaden ing t he h or izons o f m ic rowear s t ud ies o ver laps c ons iderab ly w i th e xpand ing t he r o le o f e xper imen ta t ion , a s d iscussed a bove ( F lenn iken a nd H agger ty 1 979 ; B e t ts 1 977 ; Ammerman 1 985 ) . E xper imen t s a r e u nde rway , f or e xamp le , wh ich a re a imed a t i nves t iga t ing t he e ffec t o f t he s upe r impos i t ion o f d amage p a t te rn s o f v a r ious t ypes . T hese i nc lude u se , r e u se a nd p os t -depos i t iona l d amage s uch a s t r amp l ing a nd p lough -damage ( Brown , i n p repa ra t ion ) . Wi th a me thodo logy wh ich a l lows l a rge s amp les t o b e e xam ined , g iv ing r i se t o c red ib le r e su l ts , m icrowea r a na lys ts c an a dd ress t he ir s t ud ies t o q ues t ion s a t i n t ra - a nd i n te r -s i te l eve ls . We d o n o t s ee t he g enera t ion o f i nc reas ing ly r e f ined mo rpho taxonom ies a s b e ing a n a dequa te r e spon se t o t he " need t o d o s o me th ing " ( s ee p age 1 ) w i th l i th ic a r tefac ts . I n o rder t o make t he b es t u se o f t he e v idence o f s t one t oo ls w e mus t b roaden t he b ase o f c o l lec t ion a nd a na lys is a nd a t t he s ame t ime d eve lop t he t heore t ica l b as is f or i n terpre ta t ion . A l though e thnograph ic a ccoun ts o f s t one t oo l u se a nd d i sca rd a r e f ewer t han t hose o f c eram ics ' u se , t he e f fec t ive u se o f a na logy ( B inford a nd S ab lof f 1 982 ; Gou ld a nd Wa tson 1 982 ; H odder 1 982 ) i s v i ta l t o o u r u nder s tand ing a nd t o o ur a b i l i ty t o a sk n ew q ues t ion s o f t he d a ta . On ly s ome o f t he many q ues t ions s t i l l t o b e a nswe red a re t a ck led h e re . T he p aper s p resen ted i n t h is v o lume g o s ome w ay t owa rds c la r ify ing t he p rob lems a nd d eve lop ing d if feren t d i rec t ions f or r esearch , b u t t h e s o lu t ions a r e s t i l l s ome w ay o f f . On ly f u r ther d eba te w i l l g e t u s t here .

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Ackno wledge ments A n umber o f p eop le h ave p rov ided a ss is tance a nd e ncou ragemen t d ur ing t h e p repa ra t ion o f t h is v o lume . T o a l l w e a re g ra tefu l , b u t i n p a r t icu la r w e w ou ld l i ke t o t hank F rances R aymond f o r h er s peedy t yp ing o f t he ma jo r i ty o f t h e p apers , R ichard B rad ley f or h is u nfa i l ing e n thus ias m a nd Aver i l C u lverhouse f or h er h e lp w i th t he m icrocompu ter a t R ead ing . L iv G ibbs c on t r ibu ted t o u sefu l d iscuss ions c oncern ing s evera l o f t he p aper s a nd a s s is ted w i th t h e t yp ing . B ibliography AM MER MAN , A . J . 1 985 . P low -zone e xper imen t s i n C a lab r ia , I t a ly , J ourna l o f F ield A rchaeology 1 2 , 3 3 -40 . BETTS , A . 1 977 . An E xper imen t t o E xam ine s ome E f f ec ts o f A gr icu l tura l I mp lemen ts o n F l in t s : i t s R esu l t s a nd I mp l ica t ions , ( Unpub l ished d isser ta t ion f o r B .A . , Un ive r s i ty o f L ondon , I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy ) . B INFORD , L .R . a nd SABLOFF , J . 1 982 . P a rad igm s , s ys tema t ics a nd a r chaeo logy , J ournal o f A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 , 1 37 -153 . BRADLEY , R . a nd FORD , S . 1 986 . T he s i t ing o f N eo l i th ic s t one q ua r r ies e xper imen ta l a rchaeo logy a t G rea t L angda le , C umbr ia , Oxf ord J ourna l o f A rchaeology 5 , 1 23 -128 . BR INK , J . 1 978 . T he r o le o f a bras ives i n t he f orma t ion o f l i th ic u se -wear , J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 5 , 3 63 -371 . BROSE , D .S . 1 975 . F unc t iona l a na lys is o f s t one t oo ls : ac au t iona ry n o te o n t he r o le o f a n ima l f a ts , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 0 , 8 6 -94 . BURTON , J . 1 980 . Mak ing s en se o f w as te f l ake s : n ew me thods f o r i nve s t iga t ing t he t echno logy a nd e conom ics b eh ind c h ipped s t one a ssemb lages , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 7 , 1 31-148 . CAHEN , D . a nd KEELEY , L .H . 1 980 . N o t l e ss t han t wo , n o t mo re t han t h ree , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 , 1 66 -180 . CAHEN , D . , KEELEY , L .H . a nd VAN NOTEN , F .L . 1 979 . S tone t oo ls , t oo lk i ts a nd h uman b ehav iour i n p reh is tory , Curren t Anthropo logy 2 0 , 6 61-683 . CHERRY , J .F . , GA MBLE , C . a nd SHENNAN , S . 1 978 . S amp l ing i n C on temporary B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , ( Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s 5 0 ) . CLARK , J .G .D . 1 932 . T he c lass if ica t ion o f a •m icro l i th ic c u l ture ; t he T a rdeno is ian o f Horsham , A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 9 0 , 5 2 -77 . CLARK , J .G .D . , H IGGS , E .S . a nd LONG WORTH , I .H . 1 960 . E xcava t ion s a t t he N eo l i th ic s i te a t Hurs t F en , M i ldenha l l , S uffo lk , 1 954 , 1 957 a nd 1 958 , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 2 6 , 2 02 -245 . CROSS , J .R . 1 983 . Tw igs , b ranches , t r ees a nd f ores ts : p rob lems o f s ca le i n l i th ic a na lys is , i n Moore , J .A . a nd K eene , A .S . ( ed i tor s ) Archaeological Hammer s a nd 1h eor ies , ( London , i l eddum i t , P ress ) , 8 7 -106 . EVANS , S i r J . 1 897 . T he A nc ien t S tone I mp lemen t s , Weapons a nd O rnamen t s o f G rea t B r i ta in , ( s econd e d i t ion , r ev ised ) , ( London , L ongmans , G reen a nd C o . ) . FLENN IKEN , J . J . 1 984 . T he p as t , p resen t a nd f u ture o f f l in tknapp ing : a n a n thropo log ica l p erspec t ive , A nnua l R ev iew o f A n thropo logy 1 3 , 1 87 -203 . F LENN IKEN , J . J . 1 985 . R educ t ion t e chn iques a s c u l tura l ma rker s , i n P lew , M . , Woods , J . a nd P aves ic , M . ( ed i to r s ) S tone T oo l A na lys is : E ssays i n Honor o f Don E . C rab tree , ( A lbuquerque , Un iver s i ty o f N ew Mex ico P ress ) , 2 65 -276 . FOLEY , R . 1 981 . O f f -s i te A rchaeo logy a nd Human Adap ta t ion i n E as tern A f r ica : A n Ana lys is o f R eg iona l A r tef r ic t D ens i ty i n t he Ambose l i , S ou thern Kenya , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts S 9 7 ) .

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GOULD , R .A . a nd W ATSON , P . J . 1 982 . A d ia logue o n t he mean ing a nd u se o f a na logy i n e thnoarchaeo log ica l r eason ing , J ournal o f Anthropolog ical A rchaeology 1 , 3 55 -381 . HASELGROVE , C . , M ILLETT , M . a nd SM ITH , I . 1 985 . A rchaeo logy f rom t h e P loughsoil, ( Un ivers ity o f S heff ie ld , D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh istory) . HAYDEN , B . ( ed i tor ) 1 979 . L i th ic U se- Wear Ana lys is , ( London , A cadem ic P ress) . H ILL , J .N . a nd GUNN , J . ( ed i tor s ) 1 975 . T he I nd iv idua l i n P reh is tory : S tud ies o f V ar iab i l i ty i n S ty le i n P reh is tor ic T echno log ies , ( London , A cadem ic P ress ) . HODDER , I . 1 982 . T he P resen t P as t . , ( London , B a tsfo rd ) . HOLLEY , G .A . a nd DEL BENE , T .A . 1 981 . An e va lua t ion o f K ee ley 's m icrowea r a pproach , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 8 , 3 37 -352 . J ACOBI , R .M . a nd TEBBUTT , C .F . 1 981 . A L a te Meso l i th ic r ock -she l ter a t H igh Hurs twood , S ussex , S ussex A rchaeo log ica l C o l lec t ions 19 , 1 36 . J EPPESEN , J . 1 984 D e term ina t ion o f f l in t i mp lemen t f unc t ion ; m icrowear a na lys is o f s craper s f r om S arup , Kum l ( 1982-3) , 5 6 -59 . J UEL J ENSEN , H . 1 986 . Unre touched b lades i n t he L a te Meso l i th ic o f S ou th S cand inav ia : a f unc t iona l s tudy , Oxf ord J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 5 ,1 9 -33 . MACREADY , S . a nd THO MPSON , F .H . ( ed i tors ) 1 985 . A rchaeo log ica l F ie ld S urvey i n B r i ta in a nd A broad , ( London , S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies O ccas iona l P aper 6 ) . M ILLER , D . 1 985 . A r tef ac ts a s C a tegor ies , ( Camb r idge , Un ivers i ty P ress ) . MOSS , E . M . 1 983 . T he F unc t iona l A na lys is o f F l in t I mp lemen t s . P inceven t a nd P on t D 'Ambon : Two C ase S tud ies f rom t h e F rench F ina l P a laeo l i th ic , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts S 177) . ODELL , G .H . 1 980 . T oward a more b ehav ioura l a pproach t o a rchaeo log ica l l i th ic c oncen tra t ions , Amer ican Ant iqu i ty 4 5 , 4 04 -431 . ODELL , G .H . 1 981 . T he morpho log ica l e xpress a t f unc t ion j unc t ion : s ea rch ing f or mean ing i n l i th ic t oo l t ypes , J ourna l o f Anthropolog ica l R esearch 3 7 , 3 19 -342 . ODELL , G .H . a nd ODELL -VEREECKEN , F . 1 980 . V er ify ing t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f l i th ic u se -wear a ssessmen ts b y b l ind t e s ts : t he l ow-power a pproach , J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 7 , 8 7 -120 . RO WLETT , R .M . a nd ROBBINS , M .C . 1 982 . E s t ima t ing o r ig ina l a ssemb lage c on ten t t o a d jus t f or p os t -depos i t iona l v er t ica l a r tefac t movemen t , World A rchaeo logy 1 4 , 7 3 -83 . OLAUSSON , D .S . 1 983 . E xper imen ts t o i nves t iga te t he e f fec ts o f h ea t t r ea tmen t o n u se -wea r o n f l in t t oo ls , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc iety 4 9 , 1 13 . SHEETS , P .D . 1 975 . B ehav ioura l a na lys is a nd t he s t ruc ture o f a p reh is tor ic i ndus try , Current Anthropology 1 6 , 3 69 -391 . SKAR , B . a nd COULSON , S . 1 986 . E v idence o f b ehav iour f r om r e f i t t ing - a c ase s t udy , Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 9 , 9 0 -102 . SM ITH , I . F . 1 965 . W indm i l l H i l l a nd A vebury , ( Oxfo rd , C larendon P ress ) . S TAFFORD , C .R . a nd S TAFFORD , B .D . 1 983 . T he f unc t iona l h ypo thes is : af o rma l a pproach t o u se-wear e xper i men ts a nd s e t t lemen t -subs is tence , J ourna l o f Anthropological R esearch 3 9 , 3 51-375 . SULL IVAN , A .P . a nd ROZEN , K .C . 1 985 . D eb i tage a na lys is a nd a rchaeo log ica l i n terpre ta t ion , Amer ican An t iqu ity 5 0 , 7 55-779 . UNGER -HA M ILTON , R . 1 984 . T he f orma t ion o f u se -wear p o l ish o n f l in t : b eyond t he " depos it v ersus a bras ion " c on t roversy , J ourna l o f A rchaeo logica l S c ience 1 , 9 1-98 . W ARREN , S .H . 1 914 . T he e xper imen ta l i nves t iga t ion a pp l ica t ion t o p rob lems o f h u man i mp lemen ts , Anthropological I nst i tu te 4 4 , 4 12 -450 .

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o f f l in t f r ac ture a nd i t s J ournal o f t he R oya l

W OOD , W.R . a nd J OHNSON , D .L . 1 978 . A s urvey o f d i s turbance p rocesses i n a rchaeo log ica l s i te f orma t ion , i n S ch iffer , M . ( ed itor ) Advances i n A rchaeologica l Method a nd T heory 1 , ( London , A cadem ic P ress ) , 3 15 -380 .

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2 .

P red ic t ion

o r

P re jud ice? The R e lat ionsh ip S urvey a nd Excavat ion F rances

B e tween

F ie ld

H ea ly

Su m mary Con tex ts f rom wh ich l i th ic c oncen tra t ions o f r espec t ive ly E ar l ier N eo l i th ic a nd L a ter N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze Age c ha rac te r w ere e xcava ted o n S pong H i l l , Nor th E lmham , Norfo lk , s ugges t d i f ferences i n t he ir o r ig ina l modes o f d epos i t ion . S im i la r d i s t inc t ions s eem t o h ave o b ta ined e l sewhere a nd may a ccoun t a t l eas t i n p a r t f o r t he r e la t ive r a r i ty o f E ar l ier N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l i n s urface c o l lec t ions . T he e v idence f rom S pong H i l l S pong H i l l f orms a l oca l em inence , c omposed o f g lac ia l g rave ls a nd s ands , a t TF /981 1 95 , i n t he ma in ly b ou lder c lay -covered l andscape o f m id -Norfo lk . T en s easons o f i nves t iga t ion , d irec ted ma in ly b y D r . C a ther ine H i l ls ( Depa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ive rs i ty o f C amb r idge ) , h ave r esu l ted i n t he v i r tua l ly t o ta l e xcava t ion o f a pprox ima te ly 1 . 4 h a . o f t he h i l ls ide a nd i n t he r ecovery o f e v idence f or i n term i t ten t o ccupa t ion f rom t he s even th m i l lenn ium BC t o t he s i x th c en tury AD , c u lm ina t ing i n t he u se o f t he s i te a s a P agan S axon c eme tery ( H i l ls 1 977 ; H i l ls a nd P enn 1 981 ; H i l ls , P enn a nd R icke t t 1 984 a nd f or thcom ing ) . A r epor t o n t he P re Iron Age o ccupa t ion w i l l s hor t ly b e p ub l ished ( Hea ly f or thcom ing ) . T he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic w as r epresen ted b y a t l eas t 8 9 s ubso i l f ea tures , o f ten c lus tered i n g roups a nd c harac ter is t ica l ly r i ch i n b o th l i th ic ma ter ia l a nd f r agmen ta ry b u t w e l l -preserved p o t tery . L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age f ea tures , o n t he o ther h and , n umbered o n ly 1 4 a nd w e re g enera l ly i s o la ted . S ome c on ta ined v ery f ew a r tefac t s . O thers c on ta ined o ne o r t wo s em i -comp le te p o ts w i th l i t t le o r n o l i th ic ma ter ia l , a nd may w e l l h ave b een f o rma l d epos i ts o f t he k ind d i scussed b y C lea l ( 1 984 , 1 48 15 1 ) . On ly a m ino r i ty o f t he 7 839 p ieces o f l i th ic ma ter ia l f ro m t he s i te w as r ecove red f rom p reh is tor ic c on tex ts : 9 63 ( 12%) c ame f rom E ar l ier N eo l i th ic f ea tures , 4 6 ( 0 .6 % ) f rom L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age . f ea tu res , 2 6 ( 0 .4% ) f rom i nde term ina te p reh is tor ic c on tex ts , 6 444 ( 82 %) f ro m o ther e xcava ted c on tex ts , a nd 3 60 ( 5% ) f r om f i e ldwa lk ing a nd c asua l c o l lec t ion . A s a f i r s t s t ep t owa rds d escr ip t ion a nd a na lys is o f t he l a rge q uan t i ty o f u ns tra t if ied a nd r e s idua l l i th ic ma ter ia l , t he s t ruck f l in t f rom a l l p os t -Bronze Age c on tex ts i n e ach 5m s quare was a dded t oge ther , a nd t he r esu l t ing d ens i t ies p lo t ted . T h is c rude p rocedu re a ccommoda ted 5 658 o f t he 6 444 p ieces c oncerned a nd s erved t o d ef ine n ine ma jor c oncen tra t ions f or c loser e xam ina t ion . T hese c ove red f r om 7 5 t o 8 75 s q m a nd c ompr ised f r om 1 4 1 t o 7 96 a r tefac ts . F our c orresponded c lose ly t o g roups o f E ar l ier N eo l i th ic f ea tures a nd t o c on tempora ry u n s t ra t if ied a nd r e s idua l s herds . T here w as a s t rong p r ima f ac ie c ase f or r ega rd ing t hem a s r e la ted t o a nd c on tempora ry w i th t he f ea ture g roups . A f i f th c o r responded t o a n i s o la ted E a r l ie r N eo l i th ic f ea ture a nd t o c on tempora ry u ns t ra t if ied a nd r e s idua l s herds . T hree o f t he r e ma in ing c oncen tra t ions w ere l oca ted w e l l a way f ro m s urv iv ing p reh is tor ic f ea tures , b u t c orresponded t o s l igh t c oncen tra t ions o f s ma l l , a braded s herd s , i n t wo c ases o f G rooved Wa re , i n o ne p robab ly o f r us t ica ted B eaker . T he f our th w as t i gh t ly f ocussed a round a p i t c on ta in ing a F ood Vesse l U rn . T h is was t he o n ly c orrespondence b e tween a l i th ic c oncen t ra t ion a nd a L a ter N eo l i th ic o r E a r ly B ronze Age f ea ture . D esp i te t he

9

s ca rc i ty o f s t ruck f l in t i n L a te r N eo l i th ic o r E a r ly B ronze Age f ea tu res , t he c o inc idence o f t hese c oncen t ra t ions w i th G rooved Ware a nd p oss ib ly B eaker s herds a nd w i th a n E ar ly B ronze Age p i t s t rong ly s ugges ted t ha t c on temporary i ndus tr ies w ere p resen t o uts ide t he f ea tu res . A l l n ine c oncen tra t ions w ere n ecessar i ly o f h e terogenous , mu l t i-per iod o r ig in . None the less , t he ir p redo minant t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c harac ter is t ics c onf irmed t hese a pparen t r e la t ionsh ips . T he f ive c oncen tra t ions wh ich c orresponded t o E ar l ier N eo l i th ic f ea tures o r s herds w ere ma rked b y a r e la t ive ly h igh f r equency o f b lades a nd a r e s t r ic ted r ange o f r e touched f orms , i nc lud ing l eaf -shaped a r rowheads , e nd o r s ide -end s c raper s a nd s e r ra ted b lades . I n t h is t hey ma tched a ssemb lages f r om E a r l ier N eo l i th ic f ea ture g roups o n t he s i te a nd f rom c on temporary c on tex ts e l sewhere , s ummar ized f rom v ary ing v iewpo in ts b y Wh i t t le ( 1977 , C hap ter 4 ) , P i t ts ( 1978) , G reen ( 1980 ) a nd H ea ley a nd R ober tson - Mackay ( 1983 ) . V ar ia t ions i n b lade f r equency b e tween E a r l ier N eo l i th ic f ea ture g roups w ere e ven m ir rored i n t he c or respond ing c oncen tra t ions . T he b u lk o f e ach , i ndeed , s eemed t o r e la te t o t he f ea tu res o r s herds w i th wh ich i t c o inc ided . T he r ema in ing c oncen tra t ions d if fe red f rom t hese i n many r e spec ts . T hey i nc luded k ee led c ores , among t hem l eva l lo is l ike f orms , a nd w ere ma rked b y l ower f r equenc ies o f b lades a nd b y a w ider r ange o f r e touched f orms , i nc lud ing c h ise l a nd o b l ique a r rowheads , more e x tens ive ly r e touched s crapers , d en t icu la tes a nd ' f abr ica tors ' . I n o ther words , t he b u lk o f e ach c onformed t o t he c ha rac ter is t ics o f L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age i ndus tr ies s yn thes ised b y P i t ts ( 1978) , G reen ( 1980 ) , S av i l le ( 1981 , 3 9 -66 ) , C lea l ( 1984 , 1 51-152 ) a nd H ea ly ( 1984a ; 1 985 , 1 92 -201 ; 1 986 , 8 4 -89 ) . T he u nre touched f l akes o f t he t wo c oncen tra t ions e xam ined i n d e ta i l ( one c or respond ing t o s herds o f G rooved Ware , o ne t o t he E a r ly B ronze Age f ea ture ) were p ropor t iona te ly b roader t han t hose o f t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic f ea tu re g roups . T hey w ere a l so t h icker , a nd i nc luded h igher f r equenc ies o f c or t ica l b u t ts , a bnorma l e nd f r ac tures a nd i r regu lar o u t l ines , e xh ib i t ing many o f t he c ha rac ter is t ics o f L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age d eb i tage d ef ined b y F ord e t a l . ( 1984 ) . A l l o f t he s econd g roup o f c oncen t ra t ions s eemed t o b e o f p redom inan t ly L a ter N eo l i th ic o r E a r ly B ronze Age d a te . T he t wo g roups o f c oncen t ra t ions c on tras ted e ven more s harp ly i n t he ir p rovenances t han i n t he ir t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c harac ter is t ics ( F igure A ) . T he p redom inan t ly E ar l ier N eo l i th ic c oncen t ra t ions w e re ma in ly r ecovered f rom l a ter a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts o r f rom p er ig lac ia l f orma t ions ( t he p resence o f a r tefac ts i n t he u pper p a r ts o f t he l a t te r s eems t o h ave b een d ue t o t he ir s urv iv ing a s s l igh t h o l lows , o n ly l a ter l eve l led b y c u l t iva t ion ) . T he p redom inan t ly L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age c oncen tra t ions , o n t he o ther h and , w ere ma in ly r ecovered f rom t he b ase o f t he p loughso i l l e f t o n t op o f t he n a tura l g rave l a nd s and a f ter t opso i l s t r ipp ing . T h is d is t inc t ion mus t s ure ly r ef lec t d ifferen t ia l d epos i t ion . F igure B r epresen ts a t en ta t ive r econs truc t ion o f s o me o f t he p rocesses i nvo lved . T he f i l ls a nd c on ten ts o f t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic f ea tures s ugges t t ha t mos t w ere b ackf i l led r a ther t han l e f t t o s i l t u p . T he f i l ls w ere g enera l ly h omogenous a nd i n i t ia l s and a nd g rave l s i l t w as r a re . C on ta ined a r tefac ts a r e g ene ra l ly f resh a nd w e l l-preserved . T he v u lnerab le , l i gh t ly -channe l led d ecora t ion c ha rac ter is t ic o f M i ldenha l l Wa re i s o f ten c l ear ly v i s ib le o n s he rds f r om t he p i ts , b u t a braded t o n ea r inv is ib i l i ty o n r e s idua l a nd u n s tra t if ied s herds f rom s urround ing c on tex ts . S t ruck f l in t f rom t he p i ts i s ma t t a nd s harp , i n

1 0

F igure 2 .1

A ) C ompar ison o f Ma ter ia l f rom Uns tra t if ied a nd S t ra t if ied C on tex ts . B ) Hypo the t ica l R econs truc t ion o f D epos i t iona l H is to ry o f A r tefac ts .

rSPONG H ILL A . P rovenances o f Concen trat ions o f R es idua l a nd U ns tra t i f ied L i th ic Ma ter ia l P redom inant ly

P redom inant ly

E ar l ier Neo l ith ic

L ater Neo l ith ic/Ear ly B ronze A ge

TOTALS

TOTALS

4 7 1

499

1 41

327

3 18

798

: • : • : • : • : • : • : • : • : • : -

540 225

1 00 %

323

1 00 %

Base o f Modern So i l •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• 1

: • : • : • : • : • : • : • : • : • : •: " : • : • : • : • : • : • •

. 7 7 7 = •• •• •• •• •• •• •. 1 :••••••••••••••••••• 1

i 0 0%

B . H ypo thet ica l

0

1 0 0 %

A r te fac t

• Ear l ier Neo l ith ic

•• •• •• •• •• •• •• 1

O ther E xcava ted Contexts

•• •• •• •• •• •• •• 1

D epos it ion

• L ater N eo l i th ic/Ear ly B ronze Age

0 Romano-Br it ish

c on t ras t t o t he o f ten g lossed a nd a braded s t a te o f p ieces f rom t he l i th ic c oncen tra t ions . T h is i s emphas ised b y R osema ry B rad ley 's ( fo r thcom ing ) d escr ip t ion o f a n u nused s craper f rom o ne o f t he p i ts wh ich w a s among ma ter ia l s ubm i t ted t o h er f or m icrowea r a na lys is : ' when t he r e touched d orsa l f ace i s v iewed e nd -on t he f r eshness o f t he f l ake s cars i s e v iden t . H a lf d e tached f l ak le ts r ema in w i th t he wh i te , p ar t ia l ly -cracked p or t ion s t ay ing i n p lace , t he a r r ises b e tween t hem f r esh , s harp a nd a ngu la r ' . S uch m a te r ia l c an h ave b een v ery l i t t le moved , a nd c an s carce ly h ave b een t r amp led , w ea thered o r o therw ise a braded i n o r o n a N eo l i th ic t opso i l b efore s i l t ing i n to t he p i t s . I t may b e t ha t , a t t he e nd o f a n e p isode o f o ccupa t ion , d eb r is w as b ackf i l led , p erhaps f r om a m idden , i n to d i sused p i ts a nd h o l lows . T he o ccur rence o f s herds o f s o me p o t s i n more t han o ne p i t w i th in a g roup , a s w e l l a s i n t he t ops o f n earby p er ig lac ia l f orma t ions , s ugges ts t ha t t h is may h ave b een a s ing le e ven t . I t may h ave h ad t he p ure ly p rac t ica l p urpose o f r emov ing a d anger t o p eop le a nd s t ock a nd a n o bs tac le t o c u l t iva t ion . S uch a p rocess wou ld l e ave o n ly a r e la t ive ly s ma l l p ropor t ion o f t he a r tefac ts c on ta ined i n t he d eb r is o n t he c on temporary s u rface . E v idence f or t he w ay i n w h ich L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze A ge ma ter ia l was d epos i ted i s l a rge ly n ega t ive . T he e qu iva len t o f t he ma ter ia l f r om t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic p i ts w as c er ta in ly n o t d epos i ted i n t he f ew f ea tures o f t he p er iod . I t s c loses t p a ra l le l l i es i n t he s econd g roup o f l i th ic c oncen tra t ions a nd t he ir c or respond ing i l-preserved s herds . T he r ecovery o f t h is ma ter ia l ma in ly f rom t he b ase o f t he modern s o i l i n a r eas f rom wh ich c on tempo rary f ea tures were g enera l ly a bsen t s t rong ly s ugges ts t ha t mos t o f i t w as d isca rded e i ther d irec t ly o n to t he c on temporary s urface o r o n to m iddens wh ich s ubsequen t ly b ecame s pread o ver i t . T hese c on tras t ing p a t terns o f b ehav iour c ou ld b e e xpec ted t o l e ad t o t he s uccess ive s i tua t ions s ke tched i n F igure B . I n t ime , E a r l ier N eo l i th ic ma te r ia l i n t he u pper p a r ts o f p i ts a nd h o l lows wou ld b ecome i ncorpora ted i n to t he s o i l , b u t ma ter ia l i n t he l ower p a r t s o f a t l e as t t he d eeper o nes wou ld r ema in s ea led a nd p ro tec ted , u n less s ubsequen t ly c u t b y al a ter f ea tu re . A lmos t a l l o f t he l a ter ma ter ia l , h owever , wou ld b e i ncorpora ted i n to t he s o i l a lmos t f r om t he t ime o f d epos i t ion . B y t he p resen t d ay , E a r l ier N eo l i th ic ma te r ia l wou ld b e w e l l -represen ted i n s ubso i l f ea tures b u t s ca rce i n t he p loughso i l a nd o n t he s urface , a nd L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age ma ter ia l l i t t le r epresen ted i n s ubso i l f ea tures b u t a bundan t i n t he p loughso i l a nd o n t he s urface . T he l im i ted r esu l ts o f f i e ldwa lk ing a nd c o l lec t ion o n t he h i l l a r e c on s is ten t w i th t h is s cena r io . F ie ldwa lk ing w as u nfor tuna te ly u nder taken o n ly s ome y ea r s a f ter t he e xcava t ion h ad b egun , s o t ha t d i rec t c ompa r ison o f s urface a nd u nder ly ing a r tefac t p opu la t ions i s n o t p oss ib le f or much o f t he e xcava ted a rea . T here w as n o s urface i nd ica t ion o f t he t h ree E ar l ier N eo l i th ic c oncen t ra t ions wh ich h ad r un i n to t he e dge o f t he e xcava ted a rea a nd c ou ld b e e xpec ted t o e x tend b eyond i t , wh i le t he o ne s t i l l -unexcava ted L a ter N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze A ge l i th ic c oncen t ra t ion was i d en t if ied o n t he s urface . F ur thermore , t he t o ta l c o l lec t ion f ro m t he s urface o f t he h i l l b eyond t he e xcava ted a rea w as o verwhe lm ing ly L a ter N eo l i th ic o r E ar ly B ronze Age i n c harac ter . I f n o e xcava t ion h ad t aken p lace i t m igh t w e l l h ave b een i n terpre ted a s E a r ly B ronze A ge ma ter ia l , r e la ted t o t h ree r i ng d i tches wh ich l i e h igher u p t he s l ope . T he re wou ld h ave b een n o h in t o f t he

1 2

p resence o f 8 9 E ar l ier o f M i ldenha l l Wa re .

N eo l ith ic

f ea tures ,

i nc lud ing

s t ruc tures ,

a nd

a w ea l th

I t s eems t ha t a s h if t i n h uman b ehav iour f rom o ne p er iod t o t he n ex t d e term ined a nd b iased t he a r tefac t p opu la t ion o f t he p loughso i l a nd s u rface . I t a l so l ed t o d i f feren t ia l p reserva t ion . L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge ma ter ia l , mos t o f i t n ever p ro tec ted b y s ubso i l f ea tu res , h as b een much mo re h eav i ly d egraded b y c u l t iva t ion , e spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o f t he p o t te ry , a nd r educed t o a f r ac t ion o f i t s o r ig ina l v o lume b y t opso i l s t r ipp ing i n a dvance o f e xcava t ion . Par t icular o r g eneral? V iewed a lone , t he c on t ras t o n S pong H i l l b e tween t he E ar l ier N eo l i th ic , r epresen ted l a rge ly b y a r tefac t -r ich p i ts , a nd t he L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age , r epresen ted l a rge ly b y u ns t ra t if ied ma ter ia l , a pparen t ly f orma l d epos i t s , a nd r i ng -d i tches , c ou ld b e s een a s r ef lec t ing a c hange i n t he u se o f t he s i te . V iewed i n a n a t iona l c on tex t , h owever , i t a ppea rs a s p a r t o f a w idespread p a t tern . I t was c lose ly ma tched a t T a t tersha l l T horpe , L inco lnsh ire , where a s urface c o l lec t ion o f p redom inan t ly L a ter N eo l i th ic t o B ronze Age l i th ic ma te r ia l w as made p r ior t o t he e xcava t ion o f a r tefac t -r ich E ar l ier N eo l i th ic f ea tures i nc lud ing a r ec tangu la r s t ruc ture . L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age f ea tures w ere f a r f ewer a nd c on ta ined l i t t le o r n o l i th ic ma ter ia l , a l though s ubs tan t ia l f r agmen ts o f a G rooved Ware p o t h ad b een p laced i n o ne o f t hem . Con temporary a r tefac ts o ccured ma in ly a s u n s t ra t if ied s t ruck f l in t a nd s herds ( Chowne 1 982 ; C howne a nd H ea ly 1 984 -85 ; H ea ly 1 983 ) . S im i la r c on t ra s ts may b e d e tec ted e ven whe re n o s u rface c o l lec t ion w as made b efore e xcava t ion . On B roome H ea th , Norfo lk , t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic w as r epresen ted b y n ume rous a r tefac t -r ich p i ts , t he L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age b y a n e a r thwork e nc losure a nd r ound b a r rows . Y e t t wo o u t o f t h ree c oncen t ra t ions o f s t ruck f l in t a nd s herds i den t if ied d ur ing t opso i l s t r ipp ing w ere o f B eaker d a te , a nd b o th P e te rborough Ware a nd B ronze A ge p o t tery w ere f ound u ns tra t if ied w i th in t he i n ter ior o f t he e nc losure (Wa inwr igh t 1 972 , 2 0 , 6 0 -62 , 4 6 ) . S im i la r ly , a t B ishops tone , S ussex , t he E a r l ie r N eo l i th ic w as r epresen ted b y a r tefac t -r ich p i ts , t he ' La te r N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age b y r ound b ar rows a nd ' a f ew r es idua l a r tefac ts a nd s ca t te red f ea tures ' ( Be l l 1 977 , 4 5-48 ) . S uch i ns tances a bound i n t he l i tera ture . T hey c onvey t he c ons is ten t , i f a necdo ta l , i mpress ion t ha t s ubso i l f ea tures , wha tever t he ir f unc t ion s , w ere d ug h ab i tua l ly i n t he f our th a nd t he e a r ly t h i rd m i l lenn ia BC a nd much more s e lec t ive ly t hereaf ter . Quan t if ica t ion o f t he f orms i n wh ich s e t t lemen t e v idence o f t he t wo p e r iods s u rv ives i s l e ss e a s i ly a ch ieved , n o t l e as t b ecause o f t he p rob lems o f d ef in ing a s e t t lemen t . An a pprox ima t ion may b e a ch ieved b y e xc lud ing e nc losu res , b u r ia ls a nd s t ray p o t tery f i nds , i n t he h ope t ha t t he r ema inder may b e ' o rd inary ' s e t t lemen ts . On t he l oca l s ca le , i f t hese e xc lus ion s a re made f r om t he s i tes p lo t ted o n r e spec t ive d i s t r ibu t ion maps o f E ar l ier N eo l i th ic a nd B eaker ma ter ia l i n N orfo lk ( Hea ly 1 984b , F igures 5 . 1 , 5 . 11) , t hen n ine o f t he t en r ema in ing s i tes w i th E a r l ier N eo l i th ic p o t tery c ons is ted p r i mar i ly o f p i ts , i n c on tras t t o o n ly t en o f t he t h ir ty -one r ema in ing s i tes w i th B eake r p o t tery . Mos t o f t he l a t ter c on s is ted p r ima r i ly o f s preads o f d eb r is , s ome t imes i nc lud ing t he o ccas iona l h ea r th o r p i t . T hey h ad s urv ived where o ld l and s urfaces w e re p rese rved u nder e ar thworks o r f en p ea t . Unpro tec ted , t hey wou ld l ong a go h ave d egenera ted t o a r tefac t

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s ca t ter s . T he l oca l p ic ture a f fo rded b y t hese a dm i t ted ly s ma l l n umbe r s s eem s ma tched o n t he n a t iona l s ca le . I f t he s ame e xc lus ion s a r e made f r om G ibson 's c a ta logue o f B eaker p o t tery ( 1982 , 9 3 -263) , t h en o n ly a pprox ima te ly a t h ird o f h i s E ng l ish s i tes h ad p i ts . I t i s d i f f icu l t t o e scape t he c onc lus ion t ha t , wh i le s ubso i l f ea tu res s ubs tan t ia l e nough t o s urv ive t o t he p resen t w ere c u t o n s o me L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge s i tes , o n many o ther s d ebr is o f t he k ind wh ich w ou ld h ave f ound i t s w ay i n to p i ts a f ew c en tu r ies b efo re w as d isca rded o n to t he t hen s urface . Implicat ions D iscrepanc ies b e tween t he r esu l ts e xcava t ion a re w e l l-documen ted . g enera l ly i so la ted .

o f s urface c o l lec t ion a nd s ubsequen t Two ma in c on tr ibu tory f ac tors a re

T he f i r s t i s b ehav iou ra l : a t a ny g iven t ime , s ome a c t iv i t ies w i l l i nvo lve t he d iscard o f a r tefac ts w i thou t t he e xcava t ion o f s ubso i l f ea tures , s o me t he r ever se , s ome b o th a nd s ome n e i ther ( Hase lgrove 1 985 , 1 4 -17 ; C row ther a nd P ryor 1 985 , 4 6 -53) . A r ecen t ly p ub l ished e xamp le i s p rov ided b y t he p resence o f a p redom inan t ly B ronze Age f l in t s ca t ter o ver t he M id - t o L a te Neo l i th ic c ere mon ia l c o mp lex a t Maxey , C ambr idgesh ire , wh ich i s i n terpre ted a s r esu l t ing f rom a c t iv i t ies , n o tab ly manur ing , c ar r ied o u t c en tur ies a f ter t he u nder ly ing h enge a nd o the r monumen ts , i n wh ich f ew a r tefac ts h ad b een d epos i ted o r d i scarded , h ad g one o u t o f u se ( P ryor 1 985 , 3 04-305) . T he s econd i s p os t -depos i t iona l : p hys ica l b ar r iers c an b e i n terposed b e tween a r tefac ts a nd t he s urface . T he e f f ic iency w i th w h ich c o l luv ia l d epos i ts c an s ea l o f f u nder ly ing ma ter ia l i s h igh l igh ted b y Sm i th ( 1984 , 1 06 ) a nd b y B e l l , who d escr ibes t he d iscovery o f a s uperf ic ia l ly i nv is ib le c oncen tra t ion o f B eaker s herds a nd s t ruck f l in t d ur ing t he s ec t ion ing o f v a l ley -bo t tom d epos i t s a t K i ln C ombe , S ussex ( 1983 , 1 21-13i , 1 47 ) . B uf f er s b e tween s ubso i l a nd s urface may a l so b e d i rec t ly man -made , a s i n t he c ase o f a p lough h ead land a nd u nder ly ing d u mp o r b ank i n Barnack /Ba in ton , C ambr idgesh ire , wh ich s ea led a n o ld l and s urface c on ta in ing s t ruck f l in t , P e terborough Ware s herds , a nd a p i t f u l l o f B eaker p o t tery , a l though l i th ic ma ter ia l f rom t he s urface w as l a rge ly B ronze Age « ( P ryor a nd F rench 1 985 , 2 70 -290) . T he e v idence o f S pong H i l l a nd o ther s i tes s ugges t s a t h ird : where s ubso i l f ea tures w ere c u t more f r equen t ly i n o ne p er iod t han a no ther , t hen , t o t he e x ten t t ha t t he t opso i l p ro tec ts s ubso i l f ea tu res f r om b e ing c u t i n to b y t he p lough , i t a lone may a c t a s ab uf fer b e tween ma te r ia l o f t he t wo p e r iods . T he s i tua t ion s ke tched i n F igu re B may b e ac ommon o ne . T h is c on s idera t ion may g o a l ong w ay t o e xp la in t he mono tonous d om inance o f L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age ma ter ia l i n s urface c o l lec t ions , whe ther a n t iqua r ian o r s ys tema t ic . I t i s d i f f icu l t t o i n terp re t t h is d om inance s o ley i n t e rms o f i n tens if ied a c t iv i ty o r o f i ncreased p opu la t ion , e spec ia l ly when i t o ccurs i n a reas r i ch i n E a r l ier N eo l i th ic monumen ts , where t he a ppa ren t s carc i ty o f c on temporary ma ter ia l • i s p ar t icu la r ly p rob lema t ic . I n C ranborne C hase , Dorse t , f or e xamp le , t h e mass ive monumen ta l i ty o f t h e Dorse t c ursus a nd n umerous l ong b arrows c on tras ts w i th a s parse d is tr ibu t ion o f E ar l ier N eo l i th ic f l in twork wh ich i s i n t u rn s wamped b y a bundan t L a ter N eo l i th ic s ca t ters ( Brad ley e t a l . 1 984 ; t h is v o lume , C hap te r

1 4

4 ) . T he monumen ts may w e l l h ave b een l oca ted a par t f rom ma jor s e t t lemen ts , b u t t he t housands o f ' man ' -hou rs c onsumed i n t he c on s truc t ion o f a ny o ne o f t hem ( Ashbee 1 966 ; S tar t in a nd B rad ley 1 98 1 , 2 92 ) make i t u n l ike ly t ha t t he ir b u i lder s l e f t n o more mundane t r ace o f t he ir p resence . I t s eems p laus ib le t ha t much c on tempora ry ma te r ia l r ema ins s ea led i n s ubso i l f eatures . E ar l ier N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l i s s im i la r ly r a re o n t he s urface i n t he a d jo in ing a rea o f H amb ledon H i l l , where c o l lec t ions made d ur ing f i e ld s urvey a re p redom inan t ly L a ter Neo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age ( A lan S av i l le p ers . c omm .) , a l though t he a rea i s d om ina ted b y a mass ive c omp lex o f t h ird m i l lenn ium b c c ausewayed e nc losures . Mercer ( 1980 , 5 9 -61) e s t ima tes t ha t t he e n t ire c omp lex c ou ld h ave b een b u i l t b y f i f ty p eop le o ver a p er iod o f a lmos t a y ea r . I t i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een c omp le ted i n a s i ng le o pera t ion , a nd i t s i mmed ia te a rea may h ave b een c lear o f s e t t lemen t , b u t t he s urround ing l andscape mus t s ure ly h ave p rov ided b o th t he l abour f orce wh ich b u i l t t he c omp lex a nd t he l a rge q uan t i t ies o f mea t a nd g ra in c onsu med w i th in i t , n o t t o men t ion t he v ery c ons iderab le n umbers o f c orpses e xposed t he re . H ere , t oo , t he d ebr is o f c on temporary o ccupa t ion mus t b e p resen t , b u t l a rge ly p reserved i n s ubso i l f ea tures . E ar l ier N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l d oes , o f c ourse , r each t he s urface i n s ome c i rcu ms tances , e spec ia l ly when a l i gh t , t h in t opso i l c o inc ides w i th t he p resence o f s ubs tan t ia l amoun ts o f a r tefac ts o u ts ide s ubso i l f ea tures . A c l ass ic e xamp le i s Hur s t F en , M i ldenha l l , S uf fo lk , where , e ven when t he s i te w as u ncu l t iva ted , r abb i ts h ad b rough t u p ma te r ia l f rom a ' c u l ture l ayer ' wh ich u nde r lay 2 3 cm o f t u rf a nd t opso i l ( C la rk e t a / . 1 960 , 2 03) . E x t reme e xamp les o f t he s a me c i rcums tances a re p rov ided b y t he d enuded s u rfaces o f f oss i l s and d unes emerg ing f rom w as t ing p ea t f a r ther o u t i n to t he s ou th e as tern F ens . H ere , where t here i s v i r tua l ly n o s urv iv ing t opso i l a nd t he p lough c u ts s t ra igh t i n to p rogress ive ly -exposed s and , s ubso i l f ea tures a re e i ther o b l i tera ted o r s evere ly t r unca ted a nd a ny d urab le a r tefac ts p resen t c ou ld b e e xpec ted t o b e r epresen ted o n t he s urface i n more -or less t he ir o r ig ina l p ropor t ions . C orrespond ing ly , B ob S i lves ter , who i s w a lk ing t he a rea i n t he c ourse o f t he c urren t F en land S urvey , h as c o l lec ted n o t o n ly L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age ma ter i al , b u t E ar l ier N eo l i th ic a ssemb lages , c ompa rab le w i th t hose f rom Hurs t F en o r f rom c on temporary f ea tu res o n S pong H i l l . Conclusions I t f o l lows t ha t , where t here i s s uf f ic ien t d ep th o f p loughso i l t o p ro tec t mos t o f t he c on ten ts o f s ubso i l f ea tures , i t s hou ld b e n o s urpr ise i f E a r l ier N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l i s a bsen t o r s carce o n t he s urface . I t wou ld b e r a sh , h owever , t o a ssume t ha t t he a bsence i s a r ea l o ne . I n t hese c i rcums tances , f i e ldwa lk ing i s l i ke ly t o g ive a n a ccura te i mpress ion o f t he l oca t ion a nd i n tens ity o f L a ter N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge , a nd i ndeed o f Meso l i th ic a c t iv i ty a cross t he l andscape , b u t i s u n l ike ly t o d o t he s ame f o r t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic . Ackno wledge ments I am g ra tefu l t o D r . C a ther ine H i l ls a nd f or t he o ppor tun i ty t o w ork o n t he S pong t he E nv ironmen t a nd s ubsequen t ly t he C omm iss ion f or t he f i nance w i th wh ich i nv i t ing me t o w r i te t h is p ape r .

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t o t he No rfo lk A rchaeo log ica l Un i t H i l l ma ter ia l , t o t he D epa r tmen t o f H is tor ic B u i ld ings a nd Monumen ts t o d o s o , a nd t o t he e d i tor s f o r

B ibliography ASHBEE , P . 1 966 . T he F usse l l 's L odge l ong b ar row e xcava t ions , 1 957 , A rchaeologia 1 00 , 1 80 . BELL , M . 1 977 . E xcava t ions a t B ishops tone . S ussex A rchaeolog ical Col lect ions 1 5 , 1 -291 . BELL , M . 1 983 . V a l ley s ed imen ts a s v ide ;; . _ , o f p reh is tor ic l and -use o n t he S ou th Downs , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 9 , 19 -150 . BRADLEY , R . , CLEAL , R . , GARD INER , J . , GREEN , M . a nd BO WDEN , M . 1 984 . T he Neo l ith ic s equence i n C ranborne Chase , i n B rad ley , R . a nd Gard iner , J . ( ed i tors ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33) , 8 7-106 . BRADLE R .M . f or thcom ing . M icrowear a na lys is o f s t ruck f l in t f rom p i ts 3 080 , 3 083 , a nd 3 087 , i n H ea ly , F . T he Ang lo -Saxon c eme tery a t S pong H i l l , Nor th E l mham . P a r t V I : o ccupa t ion d ur ing t he s even th t o s econd m i l lenn ia BC , Eas t Ang l ian A rchaeo logy . CHO WNE , P . 1 982 . T a t tersha l l T horpe , i n Wh i te , A .J . , A rchaeo logy i n L inco lnsh ire a nd S ou th Hu mbers ide , 1 98 1 , L incolnshire H istory a nd A rchaeology 1 7 , 7 4 -75 . CHO WNE , P . a nd HEALY , F . 1 984 -5 . A N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t a t T a t ter sha l l T horpe , L inco lnsh ire , F en land R esearch 2 , 2 5 -3 1 . CLARK , J .G .D . , H IGGS , E .S . a nd LONG WORTH , I .H . 1 960 . E xcava t ion s a t t he Neo l i th ic s i te a t Hurs t F en , M i ldenha l l , S uffo lk , 1 954 , 1 957 a nd 1 958 , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 2 6 , 2 02 -245 . CLEAL , R . 1 984 . T he L a ter N eo l i th ic i n e as tern E ng land , i n B rad ley , R . a nd Gard iner , J . ( ed i tors ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome Curren t R ese ( Jrch , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33 ) , 1 35-158 . CRO WTHER , D . a nd PRYOR , F .M .M . ( 1985) T he s urface ( f ie ldwa lk ing ) s urvey , i n P ryor , F .M .M . a nd F rench , C .A .I . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t i n t he L ower We l land V a l ley , Eas t Ang l ian A rchaeo iogy 2 7 , 4 4 -53 . FORD , S . , BRADLEY , R . , HA WKES J . a nd F ISHER , P . 1 984 . F l in t -work ing i n t h e me ta l a ge , Oxf ord J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 3 ,1 57 -173 . GARD INER , J . a nd SHENNAN , S . 1 985 . T he Meso l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd E ar l ie r B ronze Age , i n S hennan , S . E xper imen ts i n t h e Co l lec t ion a nd A na lys is o f A rchaeolog ical S urvey Da ta : t he East Hampsh ire S urvey , ( Depar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory , Un ivers i ty o f S hef f ie ld ) , 4 7-72 . G IBSON , A .M . 1 982 . B eaker Domes t ic S i tes : a S tudy o f t h e Domes t ic P o t tery o f t he L a te T h ird a nd E ar ly S econd Mi l lenn ia B .C . i n t h e B r i t ish I s les , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 07) . GREEN , H .S . 1 980 . T he F l in t A rrowhead s o f t h e B r i t i sh I s les : ad e ta i led s t udy o f mater ial f rom England a nd Wa les w ith c omparanda f rom S cot land a nd I reland , ( Oxford , B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 7 5 ) . HASELGROVE , C . 1 985 . I nference f rom p loughso i l a r tefac t s a mp les , i n Hase lgrove , C . , M i l le t t , M . a nd Sm i th , I . ( ed i tors ) A rchaeology F rom t he Pl oughsoil, ( Un ivers ity o f S heff ie ld , D epar t men t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory) , 7 -20 . HEALEY , E . a nd ROBERTSON - MACKAY , R . 1 983 . T he l i th ic i ndus tr ies f r om S ta ines c ausewayed e nc losure a nd t he ir r e la t ionsh ip t o o ther E ar l ier N eo l i th ic i ndus tr ies i n s ou thern B r i ta in , L ithics 4 , 1 27 . HEALY , F . 1 983 . A re f i rs t i mpress ions o n ly t opso i l -deep? T he e v idence f r om T a t tersha l l T horpe , L inco lnsh ire , L i th ics 4 , 2 8 -33 . HEALY , F . 1 984a . L i th ic a ssemb lage v ar ia t ion i n t he l a te t h ird a nd e a r ly s econd m i l lenn ia b c i n e as tern E ng land , L ithics 5 , 1 0 -18 .

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3 .

The

Geochem ica l R oy

a nd

Geophys ica l

E n tw is t le

a nd

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I ntroduction E ven t he s l ightes t a cqua in tance w i th t he s ubs tan t ia l c orpus o f e thnoa rchaeo log ica l r esea rch r em inds u s o f t he w ide r ange a nd c omp lex i ty o f b ehav iours t ak ing p lace a t a s e t t lemen t l ocus . T he ma ter ia l r ecord o f t hese b ehav iours , i n t he f orm o f u se a nd d i sca rd p a t terns , i s t he s t ar t ing p o in t f or a rchaeo log ica l i nference . C lear ly i t i s f undamen ta l ly i mpor tan t t o a n u nders tand ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord t ha t w e a re a b le t o d if feren t ia te b e tween u se l oca t ion s a nd d i sca rd l oca t ions . T here a r e , h owever , many f ac to r s wh ich a f fec t o ur a b i l i ty t o r ecogn ise a nd d is t ingu ish b e tween t hese t wo c a tegor ies . T he manner i n wh ich ma ter ia ls move i n d if f eren t s oc ie t ies , f rom p rocuremen t a nd manufac ture , t h rough u se a nd u l t ima te ly t o d i scard , h as b een t he s ub jec t o f n umerous e thnograph ic s t ud ies . Many f ac tors o f v a ry ing i mpor tance w i l l i nf luence t he move men t o f ma ter ia l f rom p r i mary t o s econdary r efuse c on tex ts . T he s i ze o f i nd iv idua l i t ems , f or e xamp le , may b e t he f oremos t d e term inan t . Sma l ler w as te i t ems wh ich c ause l i t t le i nconven ience o r h arm a re much more l i ke ly t o r ema in i n p r ima ry r efuse c on tex ts , whereas l a rger , p o ten t ia l ly h a rmfu l ma ter ia l w i l l b e r e moved t o s econdary r efuse l oca t ions ( Sch if fer 1 976 ) . T he r e -use p o ten t ia l o f t he w as te , t he d eg ree o f h indrance o r o f fens iveness a nd t he a moun t o f e f for t r equ ired t o d i spose o f t he ma te r ia l a l l p lay a p a r t i n d e term in ing t he l oca t ion o f t he d isposa l s i te i n r e la t ion t o h ab i ta t ion o r work ing a r eas ( Hayden a nd C annon 1 983 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o u t i l i ta r ian c ons idera t ions t here may b e a s ymbo l ic d imen s ion f or c er ta in c lasses o f w as te . C lean /unc lean d ua l i t ies may s upp ly t he mo t iva t ion f or s epara t ing d if feren t t ypes o f ma ter ia l s o a s t o a vo id s oc ia l c on tam ina t ion ( Doug las 1 966 ; Hodder 1 982 ) . T he s e lec t ive t r ea tmen t o f d if feren t c lasses o f ma ter ia l c an b e s een i n t he d i sca rd p a t terns a ssoc ia ted w i th s ome monumen ts ( R icha rds a nd T homas 1 984 ) , r ef lec t ing a s ymbo l ic c oncep tua l isa t ion o f s pace w i th in t he s i te . E ven when n o l onger i n u se , a monumen t may a sser t a n i nf luence o ver t he s t ruc tur ing o f d iscard p a t terns i n a l a ter s e t t le men t ( Brad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 4 ) . T he p a t terns p roduced b y d iscard b ehav iour w i l l b e a p roduc t o f s evera l p rocesses . T hese may i nc lude c hance l oss , t he d ura t ion o f o ccupa t ion , t he d egree t o wh ich s pace i s s t ruc tured a ccord ing t o r i tua l c ons t ra in ts a nd t he r e la t ive mob i l i ty o f a c t iv i ty a reas w i th in t he s e t t lemen t . A l l o f t hese c on tr ibu te t owards a c omp lex a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , wh ich may b e f ur ther d is tor ted b y s ubsequen t p hases o f a c t iv i ty ( Cr ibb 1 983) F ur thermore , a bandonmen t c ond i t ions a nd t he d is tor t ions i n troduced b y t aphono m ic p rocesses ( B inford 1 981) , a long w i th t he i n t r ins ic p roper t ies o f t he a r tefac ts t hemse lves ( Sch iffer 1 983) , may s er ious ly r e s tr ic t o ur a b i l i ty t o make s pa t ia l i nferences .

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T he n a tu re o f d i sca rd b ehav iou r c an b e l i nked t o t h e d egree o f mob i l i ty i n t h e s e t t lemen t s ys tem (Mur ray 1 980 ) . E thnograph ic o bserva t ion i nd ica tes t ha t s eden ta ry c ommun i t ies a re much more l i ke ly t o r emove w as te ma te r ia l f r om a c t iv i ty a reas t o d i sposa l s i tes . A s a r e su l t o f t h is t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d iscard l oca t ions a nd a c t iv i ty a reas w i l l b e a n i nverse o ne ( C lark a nd Ku rash ina 1 981) . On t h e o the r h and , amongs t mo re mob i le c ommun i t ies t he re i s a much g rea ter l i ke l ihood t ha t d i sca rd p a t terns w i l l c or respond w i th t he l oca t ion o f a c t iv i ty a r eas . C lear ly a w ide r ange o f b ehav ioura l f ac tors , b o th u t i l i ta r ian a nd s ymbo l ic , c omb ine t o g enera te p a t terns o f d i sca rd . R a re ly w i l l u se p a t tern a nd d i sca rd p a t tern c o inc ide i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f s eden ta ry c ommun i t ies . F or t he mos t p a r t t he s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f a r tefac ts a t l ong t e rm h ab i ta t ion s i tes w i l l t e l l u s mo re a bou t where d i sca rd a c t iv i t ies w ere t ak ing p lace t han where a r tefac ts w ere b e ing manufac tured o r u sed . T he s t udy b y C la rk a nd K u ra sh ina emphas ises t h is p o in t , a lmos t a l l w as te b e ing r emoved f r om w ork ing a r ea s t o w e l l e s tab l ished m idden s i tes ( 1981 , 3 15 -319 ) . S l igh t ly b u i l t h u ts , c ompound f ences e t c . may l e ave f ew t r aces o ther t han s ma l l s t akeho les a nd h ea r ths may w e l l b e d i sper sed , s o t ha t l i t t le w i l l r ema in o f t h e s e t t lemen ts ' s t ruc tura l l a you t . On t h e o the r h and , m idden d epos i ts c an r ema in i n u se f or a l ong t ime , may s ubsequen t ly b e r e -used , a nd e ven when l eve l led may b e i den t if iab le a s n uc lea ted s preads o f ma ter ia l . M idden a reas , h owever , a re l e ss l i ke ly t o u ndergo a c hange o f f unc t ion d ur ing t h e l i fe s pan o f a s e t t lemen t a nd may c onsequen t ly p roduce a more s t rong ly d ef ined a r chaeo log ica l i mpr in t . S o f a r w e h ave c ons idered o n ly t he ' s o l id ' , mos t d urab le r es idues o f b ehav ioura l p rocesses . O ther r e s idues s uch a s o rgan ic ma ter ia l , wh i ls t n o t s urv iv ing i n t hem se lves , w i l l b r ing a bou t c hem ica l c hanges i n t he s o i l , mos t i mpor tan t ly i n t he f orm o f e nhanced p hospha te l eve ls , c apab le o f e ndur ing l ong a f ter t he p hys ica l t r aces h ave d i sappeared . I n a n a na logous m anner , f i res o r k i lns p roduce c hanges i n t he s ur round ing t opso i l , ma in ly i n t he f o rm o f e nhanced magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty a nd t hese t oo c an s urv ive o ver l ong t ime p er iods . B o th s o i l p hospha tes a nd magne t ic e nhancemen t o ccur a s a r e su l t o f c er ta in s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ies , b u t mos t i mpor tan t ly t hey may r epresen t a c t iv i t ies wh ich h ave o therw ise c eased t o h ave a ny a rchaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty . T he c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e nhancemen t o f s o i ls a nd s ed imen ts o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes s hou ld b e r egarded a s a p rocessua l p a r t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . On ly i n r a re c i rcums tances d oes o rgan ic ma ter ia l s u rv ive i n a ny q uan t i ty a nd o n p lough -zone s i tes i n p ar t icu lar t he o rgan ic c omponen t w i l l h ave c omp le te ly d i sappeared a long w i th l e ss d urab le i norgan ic ma ter ia l . On s uch s i tes o n ly a f r ac t ion o f t he ma te r ia l c u l ture r eper to i re s urv ives a nd t h is owes more t o t he s e lec t ive o pera t ion o f p os t -depos i t iona l p rocesses t han t o b ehav iou ra l f ac tor s . I n c onsequence i t b ecomes e ven more i mpo r tan t t ha t a l l d imens ions o f t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord a r e e xp lo i ted . We s hou ld n o t i gno re t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he s o i l may c on ta in f oss i l ised w i th in i t t he i mpr in t o f h uman a c t iv i ty , r ecoverab le o n ly a s p a t terns o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e nhance ment . Work o n p reh is tor ic a r tefac t s ca t ters h as mos t ly b een g ea red t owards l oca t ion a nd s ubsequen t d ef in i t ion b y means o f t h e i r s o l id c omponen t , p r ima r i ly l i th ic ma ter ia l . Awa reness o f t he s e lec t ive a c t ion o f p os t -depos i t iona l a t t r i t ion h a s e ncouraged t he b e l ief t ha t a s uccessfu l i nves t iga t ion i s o ne wh ich l oca tes

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s ubso i l f ea tures p rese rv ing t hose e l emen t s n o t p resen t i n t he p loughso i l . T he s urv iva l o f b one , p o t te ry , c ha rcoa l e t c . , i n p ro tec ted c on tex ts d oes , o f c our se p rov ide e conom ic a nd d a t ing e v idence a nd may a l so p rov ide a c on t ro l s amp le a ga ins t wh ich t o e xam ine u nstra t if ied ma ter ia l . T here s hou ld b e a n a wa reness , h owever , t ha t d i f feren t ma te r ia ls may b e t r ea ted a nd d i sposed o f b y t he ir u sers i n d if fe ren t w ays ( Hayden a nd C annon 1 983 ) , a nd a l so t ha t t he re may b e n o r e la t ionsh ip a t a l l b e tween s ub -so i l f ea tures a nd a d jacen t h or izon ta l a r tefac t d i s tr ibu t ions . Moreover , a ccess t o s ubso i l f ea tures t h rough e xcava t ion i s r e s t r ic ted b y t he c ons tra in ts o f s amp l ing s t ra teg ies , t hemse lves c on s t ra ined b y a va i lab i l i ty o f t ime , f unds , e t c . A t t he K ing B a r row R idge s i te f o r e xamp le , o n ly 0 .15 % o f a n a r ea i n i t ia l ly i den t if ied a s e x tend ing o ver 2 0 h ec ta res w as e ven tua l ly e xcava ted ( R ichards 1 985 , F igu re 5 ) . Wi th t hese c ons t ra in ts i n m ind t he a dvan tages o f g eochem ica l a nd g eophys ica l s u rveys may b e s een more c lea r ly . F i rs t ly , a spec ts o f p as t a c t iv i t ies wh ich h ave l e f t n o ' s o l id ' t r aces may b e r ecovered . T hese w i l l h ave c on t r ibu ted t o a g enera l ly h igher l eve l o f magne t ic a nd c hem ica l e nhancemen t a cross t he s e t t le men t a rea , b u t w i th in t h is a rea d iscre te z ones w i l l r e la te t o s pec if ic a c t iv i t ies e g a n i ma l p enn ing , m iddens e tc . S econd ly , t he e f f ic iency o f g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l s urveys e nab les l a rge a reas t o b e c overed . T h is i ncreases o ur c apac i ty t o g a ther i nforma t ion r e la t ing n o t o n ly t o t he e x ten t b u t a l so t o t he i n terna l s t ruc tu re o f a s i te . T he ma in a ims o f t h is p aper a re f i rs t ly , t o d i scuss a nd e va lua te t he a na ly t ica l p o ten t ia l o f g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l s urveys i n t he ir a pp l ica t ion t o t he s t udy o f l i th ic s ca t ter s . S econd ly , t he p re l im ina ry r e su l ts o f f i e ldwo rk , c a r r ied o u t j o in t ly b y t he a u thors , w i l l b e u sed t o a rgue t ha t w i th f ur ther me thodo log ica l r ef inemen t , t he p red ic t ive p ower o f t hese s urvey me thods c an b e g rea t ly i mproved . T he t wo t e chn iques emp loyed i n t h is f i e ldwork w e re s o i l p hospha te a na lys is a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty measuremen t . T he me thod u sed f o r t he f ormer i s e ssen t ia l ly t ha t u sed a t G r imes G raves ( S ievek ing e t a / . 1 973 , 1 92 -199 ) , a nd mo re r ecen t ly b y C raddock a t F enga te ( 1980 ) . A l l magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty measuremen ts w ere t aken u s ing a B ar t ing ton p or tab le me ter , mode l M .S .1 f i t ted w i th a t ype D l oop a t tachmen t ( supp l ied b y t he Anc ien t Monumen ts L abora tory ) . A l l measuremen ts w ere t aken a t t he p loughso i l s u rface a nd a re e xp ressed i n S . I . u n i ts . B o th t e chn iques h ave b een w ide ly emp loyed a nd n umerou s s t ud ies a re r epo r ted i n t he l i tera ture , b u t a l l t oo o f ten t he r esu l ts a re a ccep ted , r a ther u ncr i t ica l ly , a t f ace v a lue . R a re ly d o t hese r esu l ts c on tr ibu te more t han a m in ima l l eve l o f a rchaeo log ica l i nforma t ion a nd i n many c ases t h is c ou ld h ave b een i n fer red f rom o the r s ources ( L imbrey 1 975 , 7 2 ; S ievek ing 1 973 , 1 92 -9 ) . Up t o n ow , t he p o ten t ia l o f b o th t e chn iques h as r ema ined l a rge ly u nder e xp lo i ted i n p lough -zone a rchaeo logy . O f t he s tud ies t ha t h ave b een u nder taken t hose a t Maxey ( Gurney a nd C raddock 1 981) a nd F enga te ( Gurney 1 985) h ave e s tab l ished t he v a lue o f e x tens ive p hospha te s urveys i n l oca t ing a nd d ef in ing a c t iv i ty a reas . F rom t he ma jor i ty o f s t ud ies , h owever , i t s eems c lear t ha t i nsuf f ic ien t a t ten t ion i s b e ing f ocussed o n t he t aphonom ic f ac to rs wh ich i n p ar t d e term ine t he l eve l o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e nhancemen t o f t he s o i l . T he f orma t ive p rocesses a re c omp lex , i nvo lv ing b o th a n thropogen ic a nd p edogen ic v a r iab les wh ich a t t imes a re n o t e as i ly s epa ra ted . A s a r e su l t o f t h is , g eochem ica l a nd g eophys ica l s urveys a re l eas t e f fec t ive when me re ly a dded t o a p re -ex is t ing s e t o f f i e ld me thodo log ies a s a d junc t ive t e chn iques . T he f u l l p o ten t ia l i s o n ly t o b e r ea l ised when s urvey m e thodo log ies a re f ormu la ted

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t o i nc lude g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l s urveys a t t he o u tse t ( Brad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 4 ) . S uch f o rmu la t ion s n eed t o b e c ons truc ted , a t l e as t i n p a r t , a s e xper i men ta l d es igns i n o rder t ha t n on -archaeo log ica l v ar iab les may b e i den t if ied a nd a ssessed . C lear ly t he i n terpre ta t ion o f a r tefac t d is tr ibu t ions , c ons is t ing o f u ns tra t if ied p lough -zone ma ter ia l , r equ ires a n a ppropr ia te t heore t ica l b ase t a i lo red t o f i t t h is p ar t icu la r f orm o f a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( Hase lg rove e t a l . 1 985 ) . B y t he s a me p rocess o f r eason ing t h is s hou ld a l so a pp ly t o t he i n terpre ta t ion o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic p a t tern s , b u t t h is i n t roduces a s e t o f u n ique p rob lems . I n t he f i r s t p lace , p a t terns o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e nhancemen t c an b e t he p roduc t o f a v a r ie ty o f p rocesse s , n o t a l l o f t hem a rchaeo log ica l . Moreover , i f a s i te h as b een o ccup ied f or a l ong p er iod , o r h as b een r e -se lec ted a f te r a bandonmen t , c hanges i n t he i n tra -s i te s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion w i l l c rea te b lur red a nd c omp lex p a t terns o f s o i l e nhancemen t . T hese c anno t e as i ly b e s epara ted i n to p hases s ince , u n l ike o ther a r tefac ts , c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e f fec ts d o n o t c a r ry c hrono log ica l o r c u l tura l i n forma t ion . S uch c onfound ing f ac tors , wh i le n o t d im in ish ing t he b road e ffec ts r esu l t ing f rom o ccupa t ion , may d efea t a ny a t temp t t o i n t roduce a v ery d e ta i led l eve l o f s pa t ia l a na lys is . On s i tes c on ta in ing s t ruc tures , o r where a reas a re d e l inea ted i n s o me o ther w ay , t hese d iff icu l t ies a re s omewha t r educed . I n t he a bsence o f c lea r f unc t iona l d iv is ions , t he a rchaeo log ica l v a l id i ty o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic p a t terns s eems t o d epend o n t he s t reng th o f a s soc ia t ion w i th t he p a t te rn ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l ' s o l ids ' . T he a rchaeo log ica l u t i l i ty o f s o i l p hospha te a na lys is h as b een e s tab l ished o ver a n u mber o f y ea rs s ince i t s i n t roduc t ion b y A rrhen ius i n t he 1 930s . I n n umerous s t ud ies a v a r ie ty o f a na ly t ica l t e chn iques h ave b een a pp l ied t o a n e qua l ly v a r ied r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tua t ions . E nhanced s o i l p hospha te l eve ls a r e a c ommon f ea ture o f many a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . D ue t o t he t empora l a nd s pa t ia l s t ab i l i ty o f a n thropogen ic p hospha tes , p a t terns o f e nhancemen t g ene ra ted d ur ing t he o ccupa t ion o f a s i te w i l l r e ta in t h e ir i n tegr i ty l ong a f ter t he s i te h as b een a bandoned . T he c hem is try o f s o i l p hospha tes , t he p rocesses o f f i xa t ion a nd t he e f f icacy o f t he v ar ious e x t rac t ion t e chn iques h ave b een d i scussed a t l eng th i n t he c op ious l i tera ture . I n o rder t o a vo id r epe t i t ion , d iscuss ion w i l l h ere b e l im i ted t o t hose i s sues b ear ing d irec t ly o n t he a pp l ica t ion o f s o i l p hospha te a na lys is t o p lough -zone s i tes . I t i s s uf f ic ien t h ere t o c i te t he f o l low ing r eferences wh ich t oge ther p rov ide a c omprehens ive c overage o f t he p r inc ipa l t hemes ( E id t 1 973 ; P roudfoo t 1 976 ; E id t 1 977 ; B akkev ig 1 980 ; K ee ley 1 981 ; H amond 1 983 ) . Magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty measuremen t i s a more r ecen t i nnova t ion a nd o ne wh ich i s p erhaps l e ss f am i l ia r t o many a rchaeo log is ts . A s w i th s o i l p hospha te e nhancemen t , t he magne t ic p roper t ies o f s o i ls i n a nd a round s e t t lemen ts may b ecome c ons iderab ly mod if ied b y a n thropogen ic a c t ion . E nhanced magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty r e su l ts f r om t he c onve rs ion o f i r on o x ides i n t he s o i l f rom t he w eak ly f e r r imagne t ic f orm t o s t rong ly magne t ic f orm s s uch a s m aghaema t i te . T h is c onvers ion i s mos t ly b rough t a bou t b y b urn ing , e spec ia l ly when t he p resence o f o rgan ic ma t ter h e lps t o c rea te a r educ ing a tmosphere . T he d ecay o f o rgan ic w as te i n i t se lf may c on tr ibu te t owa rds magne t ic e nhancemen t b u t t h is p rocess s eems t o b e l e ss s i gn if ican t . T h rough i ncrease

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a bandonmen t , p lough ing a nd c u l t iva t ion w i l l m ix b urn t c aus ing s ome d i lu t ion o f t he magne t ic e ffec t . D esp i te magne t ic e nhancemen t i n t he a rea o f s e t t lemen t w i l l e xceed

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O rgan ic ma t ter c on tr ibu tes t owards b o th p rocesses o f e nhancemen t ( phospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty) a nd t herefore p rov ides a u sefu l c onnec t ion b e tween t he t wo e f fec ts ; t h is may b e e xp lo i ted a s a n a id t o i n terpre ta t ion . T h is w i l l b e d i scussed i n d e ta i l l a ter , when i t w i l l b e s ugges ted t ha t t he d eg ree o f c o r re la t ion b e tween b o th p rocesses may b e a measure o f t he r e la t ive p ropor t iona l e ffec t o f p edogen ic a nd a n th ropogen ic f ac tors . T he f o l low ing r eferences mos t ly c over t he t heory a nd p rac t ice o f magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty measuremen t i n a rchaeo logy ( T i te a nd Mu l l ins 1 971 ; L ongwor th a nd T i te 1 977 ; C la rk 1 983 ; Dogga r t 1 983 ) . Much o f t he work o n wh ich t h is p aper i s b a sed d eve loped a s a n emp i r ica l f i e ld s u rvey . I t was a imed a t t e s t ing p a t te rns i n t he c hem ica l a nd magne t ic d a ta f rom l i th ic s ca t ter s a ga ins t t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he ir ' s o l id ' c omponen ts . Two s i tes , Wi lsford Down a nd K ing B a r row R idge ( F igu re 1 ) , b o th i n t he S tonehenge a rea , were e xam ined a s p a r t o f a p rog ramme o f e x tens ive s urface s urvey f orm ing t he b as is o f t he S tonehenge E nv irons P ro jec t . Du r ing t h is f ou r y ear f i e ld p rogramme , e xcava t ions we re c ar r ied o u t a t b o th s i tes : Wi lsford Down (W3 1 ) i n 1 982 a nd K ing B a r row R idge (W59 ) i n 1 983 . Wh i le n o t i n i t ia l ly c once ived a s a c ompa ra t ive e xe rc ise , t he s t udy o f t hese t wo s i tes d eve loped a s s uch , w i th e ach c harac ter is ing i t s own d is t inc t L a ter N eo l i th ic l andscape z one ( R icha rds 1 984 ) . T he a na lys is o f t he g eophys ica l , g eochem ica l a nd ' s o l id ' a r tefac t d a ta i s s t i l l a t ap re l im ina ry s t age . A s t hese t wo c ase s t ud ies w i l l s how , h owever , e ven a t t h is p re l im ina ry s t age t here a re c lea r i nd ica t ions t ha t b o th t he g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l s urveys a re r ef lec t ing t he a rchaeo log ica l c ha rac ter o f e ach s i te . I n t he t wo c ase s t ud ies p resen ted i n t h is p aper w e i n tend t o s how t ha t s i tes d ifferen t ia ted b y t he d en s ity a nd c omp lex i ty o f t he ir l i th ic a ssemb lages a l so h ave d is t inc t ive c hem ica l a nd magne t ic r ecords . T h is i n i t se lf i s u sefu l , s ince i t s upp l ies a n a dd i t iona l d imens ion o n wh ich c la ss if ica t ion c an b e b ased a nd o ne wh ich i s i ndependen t o f a ssump t ions b ased o n l i th ic o r c eram ic c a tego r ies . A l though a g rea t d ea l more work n eed s t o b e d one t he r e su l ts d i scussed h ere in i nd ica te t ha t w i th f u r ther r esearch g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l d a ta c an b e u sed i n a p red ic t ive manner . F or t h is p o ten t ia l t o b e r ea l ised f u l ly , h owever , p a t terns o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e nhancemen t n eed t o b e t r ea ted a s v a l id a nd i ndependen t a r tefac t c a tegor ies , e ach r ef lec t ing f ace ts o f b ehav iour n o t r e t r ievab le b y c onven t iona l a rchaeo log ica l means . Case

S tud ies

W i l sf ord Down ( F igure 2 ) Wi lsford Down w as i n i t ia l ly r ecogn ised a s a d ense , e x tens ive a nd a ppa ren t ly w e l l d ef ined s ca t ter o f p redom inan t ly n on -u t i l ised f l in t r educ t ion d eb r is . T he s i te l i es o n ag en t le s l ope a bove t he h ead o f as ma l l d ry v a l ley where a s eam o f g ood q ua l i ty f l in t n odu les o u tcrops . T he e x ten t o f t he s ca t ter w as d ef ined w i thou t a s econdary s t age o f i n tens ive c o l lec t ion . I t w as t hen s a mp led b y means o f a s er ies o f s i x teen 5 x 5m q uad ra ts l a id o u t w i th in a t opograph ica l ly a l igned t r ansec t . P r ior t o e xcava t ion a magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty s urvey w as c a rr ied o u t o n a lm i n terva l g r id w i th in t h is t r an sec t . A t t h is s t age i n t he

2 5

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W ILSFORD DOWN

p ro jec t a s u i tab le a na ly t ica l t e chn ique f or s o i l p hospha te a na lys is w as s t i l l b e ing d eve loped ; c onsequen t ly t he Wi lsford Down s i te w as s a mp led r e t rospec t ive ly . S o i l s amp les w ere t aken a t 5m a nd 1 0m i n terva ls w i th in t h e t r an sec t , b u t f o r t he p urposes o f t h is p ape r o n ly t h e 1 0m d a ta i s u sed . T he s ca t ter a s a who le w as c ons idered t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th p rocesses o f p rocuremen t a nd p r ima ry r educ t ion t ak ing p lace i n t he n earby d ry v a l ley , t he s urface ma ter ia l a pparen t ly r epresen t ing s econdary r educ t ion a nd f ur ther u t i l isa t ion o f t he f l in t . Z ones o f more ' d omes t ic ' a c t iv i ty w ere i den t if ied w i th in t he o vera l l s ca t ter , p a r t icu la r ly t owa rds t he u ps lope ' e dge ' . T he e xcava t ion o f 4 00m . s q . o f t opso i l , s i ev ing a 2 0% s amp le t h rough 4mm mesh , p roduced c ons iderab le q uan t i t ies o f worked f l in t d ebr is i nc lud ing i n c e r ta in a r eas a n u nexpec ted ly h igh l eve l o f f i n ished t oo ls . No c ons truc ted s ubso i l f ea tu res w ere l o ca ted b u t i n o ne a r ea n a tura l h o l lows h ad f o rmed t he f ocus f or i n tens ive k napp ing a c t iv i ty a nd c on ta ined g roups o f r ef i t t ing ma ter ia l . T he r esu l ts f rom t he p re l im inary a na lys is o f t he worked f l in t e xcava ted f r om t he p loughso i l a re p resen ted a s p rof i les o f t he 3 0m w ide t r ansec t ( F igure 3 ) . D a ta f r om t he e n t ire t r ansec t h ave b een c ompressed l a tera l ly i n o rder t o p roduce a s i ng le p rof i le . T he r e su l ts o f t he magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty a nd p hospha te s urveys a re p resen ted a s c l asses b ased o n u n i ts o f s t anda rd d ev ia t ion a bove t he m ean . T owards t he s ou th e as tern e nd o f t he t r ansec t , ma ter ia l f r om t he e xcava ted u n i ts r e inforces t he i mpress ions g a ined f r om s urface s urvey ; f l ake n umbers a r e s t i l l r e la t ive ly h igh a l though s t a r t ing t o t a i l o f f , b u t t oo l n umbers a nd d ivers i ty a re c ompa ra t ive ly l ow . I n t h is a rea t he magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty l eve ls c on t inue a d ec l ine wh ich o ccu rs w i th l oca l f l uc tua t ions a l ong t he e n t ire t r ansec t . P hospha te l eve ls , o n t he o the r h and , b eg in t o r i se s ha rp ly w i th in t h e a r ea o f s i te s ubd iv is ion s A ,B ,C , D . T he d ivergence b e tween t he p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty c urves a t t h is p o in t i s r em in iscen t o f s im i la r t r ends wh ich h ave b een n o ted a t o ther s i tes ( Brad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 4 ; E n tw is t le 1 984) . T h is h as b een r ega rded a s a p edo log ica l p henomenon s eem ing ly u nconnec ted w i th a rchaeo log ica l v ar iab les . T he v a lues i nvo lved h ere , h owever , wh i le e xh ib i t ing a s im i lar d ivergence , a re a t a s uf f ic ien t ly e nhanced l eve l t o s ugges t a n th ropogen ic i nf luence . T rends i n t he s o l id d a ta n o ted a bove may r ef lec t a n a r ea o f a c t iv i ty ma in ly c oncerned w i th s econdary f l in t r educ t ion b u t s uch a s pec if ic i n terpre ta t ion m in im ises t he c umu la t ive e f fec ts o f l ong term o ccupa t ion a nd c hanges i n o vera l l s i te f unc t ion . Mov ing f ur ther u ps lope b e tween s i te s ubd iv is ions E a nd J , K , L , t he c en t ra l p a r t o f t he s ca t ter e xh ib i ts a more ' d omes t ic ' c harac ter , r epresen ted i n t he ' s o l id ' d a ta n o t o n ly b y i ncreased q uan t i t ies o f worked f l in t b u t a l so b y a g rea ter a nd more d iverse t oo l c omponen t a nd a h igher p ropor t ion o f b urn t w orked f l in t . T he ma in f ocus o f a c t iv i ty w i th in t h is z one l i es a round s i te s ubd iv is ions J , K a nd L , whe re t hese a t t r ibu tes c or re la te mos t c onv inc ing ly . T h is a rea o f h igher d ens i ty p loughso i l ma ter ia l a l so c orresponds w i th t he s e r ies o f s ubso i l h o l lows c on ta in ing k napp ing d ebr is . T he b urn t f l in t c urve e xh ib i ts o n ly m inor f l uc tua t ion s i n t h is a r ea , a s d o t he p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty c urves w h ich h ere c lose ly c or respond . T h is f ea tu re o f t he c hem ica l a nd magne t ic d a ta c onforms t o t he p a t te rn w h ich m igh t b e e xpec ted t o a r ise f r om a p a l impses t o f d omes t ic a c t iv i t ies , p e rformed d u r ing a l ong p er iod o f o ccupa t ion . I n a r eas w here a mo re s t ruc tu red u se o f s pace m igh t b e e xpec ted , f or e xamp le w i th in c eremon ia l e nc losures , t he

2 7

r epe t i t ion o f s pec if ic a c t iv i t ies a t c er ta in l oca t ion s w i l l l e ad t o a mo re d i sc re te f orm o f p a t tern ing . A t C oneybury H enge , f or e xamp le , a s i ng le p hase o f b urn ing w i th in t he e nc losure c ou ld b e r ecogn ised a nd r ecorded a s a s t rong c or re la t ion b e tween l eve ls o f b urn t f l in t a nd e nhanced s o i l magne t ism ( C lark 1 983 ) . I n a more u ncons t ra ined d omes t ic c on tex t , h owever , many t ypes o f a c t iv i ty may b e p o ten t ia l ly mob i le , p roduc ing a p a t tern o f b road e nhancemen t ( Dogga r t 1 983 , 4 0 ) , w i th in wh ich t he i nd iv idua l a c t iv i t ies may b e d i f f icu l t t o r ecogn ise ( T i te a nd Mu l l ins 1 971 , 2 18-9 ) . B eyond t he ma in f ocus o f a c t iv i ty , t he l eve ls o f ' s o l id ' f i nds d ec l ine s ha rp ly whereas b o th t he p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty c urves s how a c o inc iden t i ncrease . T he p hospha te c urve r i ses more s ha rp ly f rom a p o in t c o r respond ing t o t h e p eak i n t h e s o l id d a ta o ccur ing i n t h e a r ea J , K , L . T he s im i la r r i se i n p hospha te v a lues a l ready n o ted a t t he s ou thern e nd o f t he t r ansec t a l so b eg ins i mmed ia te ly b eyond a p eak i n t he ' s o l id ' ma te r ia l . B o th t h ese a reas o f e nhancemen t a r e e xp l icab le i n t e rms o f t h e d i sposa l o f o rgan ic ma ter ia l i n l oca t ions p e r iphera l t o t he ma in s e t t lemen t f ocus . T he e x ten t o f t h is f oca l a r ea i n t he a r tefac t d i s tr ibu t ion i s r ep resen ted b y p eaks a t a r eas E a nd J , K , L . T h is may r ep resen t t h e f i na l d i sca rd l o ca t ion o f ar ange o f l i th ic ma te r ia l r e ta in ing i t s u se -po ten t ia l ( Hayden a nd C annon 1 983 ) . D ifferen t t ypes o f w as te ma ter ia l w i l l h ave d i f feren t f orms o f s econda ry u se v a lue : f o r e xamp le p o ten t ia l ly r e -useab le f l in t t oo ls wh ich a re s ma l l , e as i ly s t ored a nd h ave a l ow h indrance f ac tor , o r i n c ompar ison o rgan ic w as te a ccumu la ted f or u se a s manu re . T he l a t ter c a tego ry o f w as te , b y v i r tue o f i t s o f fen s ive n a ture , i s mos t l i ke ly t o a ccumu la te a t p er iphera l l oca t ion s a way f r om h ab i ta t ion s . I n a dd i t ion t o p rac t ica l c ons idera t ions , t aboo p roh ib i t ions o n c on tac t w i th c er ta in t ypes o f o rgan ic w as te may l e ad t o r i g id ly s t ruc tu red p a t tern s o f d i sca rd . T hese f ac tors w i l l t end t o e nsu re t ha t t he s pa t ia l a r rangemen t o f m idden a reas r ema ins c ons tan t w i th r espec t t o t he o ther f unc t iona l e l emen ts o f t he s e t t lemen t . C hanges i n f unc t ion a r e l e ss l i ke ly t han f o r o ther a c t iv i ty a r eas s o t ha t m idden d epos i ts w i l l p roduce mo re s t rong ly d ef ined c hem ica l i mp r in ts . T he e ssen t ia l ly l i near s amp le o f t he Wi lsford D own f l in t s ca t ter p laces s o me c ons tra in ts o n b road s pa t ia l i n terpre ta t ion . T aken t oge ther , h owever , d a ta f rom t he s a mp le u n i ts s epara te i n to z ones , e ach c apab le o f f unc t iona l i n terpre ta t ion . I n t he a bsence o f a ny d i rec t e v idence f or t he l oca t ion o f h ab i ta t ions s uch d i s t inc t z ones may r epresen t t he o n ly i den t if iab le s e t t lemen t e le men ts . K ing B arrow R idge ( F igure 4 ) T he K ing B a r row R idge s i te w as i den t if ied a s af oca l a r ea w i th in a n e x ten s ive f l in t s ca t ter c ha rac te r ised b y a h igh p ropo r t ion o f t oo ls . T he p resence o f a n e x tens ive f l in t s ca t ter e x tend ing a long t he K ing B ar row R idge w as f i rs t r epor ted b y L a id ler a nd Young ( 1938 ) , who c ommen ted o n t h e l a rge n uc leus o f d iagnos t ica l ly N eo l i th ic t oo ls . T he a r ea w a lked b y L a id ler a nd Young , o n t h e w es t o f t he r i dge , i s n ow u nder g rass a nd s o r ecen t w ork c oncen t ra ted o n d ef in ing t he s ou thern a nd n o r th -wes tern e x ten t o f t he s i te ( F igure 1 ) . B ased o n t he r e su l ts f r om t h e e x ten s ive d ef in i t ion s u rvey , a n a r ea o f 1 . 53 h a . w as s e lec ted f o r ' t o ta l ' c o l lec t ion o n a 5 x 5m g r id b as is ( R icha rds 1 985 , F igu re 4 ) . P r io r t o e xcava t ion t h is a r ea w as s ubd iv ided i n to s i x 3 0 x 3 0m s qua res w i th in wh ich g eophys ica l ( f luxga te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty ) a nd s o i l p hospha te s urveys w e re u nde r taken . On t h e b as is o f t he r e su l ts f r om t h e f l uxga te s urvey a nd t he t o ta l c o l lec t ion p rogramme , i nc lud ing a r andom s e lec t ion c omponen t , t we lve 5 x 5m q uad ra ts w ere e xcava ted . T he c ho ice o f t h e a r ea t o b e s amp led

2 8

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P r ior t o e xcava t ion c er ta in i mpress ions h ad d eve loped f rom t he r esu l ts o f s u rface s urvey , ma in ly t ha t t he ma ter ia l r ecove red s ugges ted a more ' d omes t ic ' r ange o f a c t iv i t ies t han t hose i n i t ia l ly r ecogn ised a t Wi lsford Down . T h is w as b ased o n a h igh r a t io o f t oo ls t o a ppa ren t ly n on -u t i l ised ma ter ia l , t oge the r w i th f ewer f l akes a nd g enera l ly s ma l l c ores . T h is s ugges ted a b road f ocus o f a c t iv i ty i nvo lv ing a g rea ter d egree o f c ura t ion o f l i th ic ma ter ia l , p resumab ly r ef lec t ing t he g rea ter d is tance o f t he s i te f rom a r ead i ly a ccess ib le f l in t s ource . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t oo l t ypes s howed l i t t le e v idence o f c lus ter ing , wh i ls t t he f l ake d is tr ibu t ion w as ma rked a t i t s n o r ther ly e x ten t b y a s ha rp f a l l -of f i n n umbers . T he b urn t f l in t l eve ls o n t h is s i te w ere n o t h igh ( mean o f 4 .017 k g . p e r 5m q uad ra t ) , a nd w e re l a ter c onf irmed b y e xcava t ion t o b e c omparab le w i th t hose f rom Wi lsford Down ( mean o f 4 .640 k g . p e r 5m q uadra t ) . T h is i s i n s ha rp c on tras t t o l eve ls o f b urn t f l in t r eco rded a t t he L a te B ronze Age s i te a t F a rgo Wood (W34 ) , whe re mo re t han 2 6 k g . o f b u rn t f l in t w e re r ecovered f r om s i ng le l m t opso i l s quares . One o f t he more p rom inen t f ea tures o f t he s urface d is tr ibu t ion was a w e l l d ef ined s ca t ter o f b roken s a rsen . T he s a r sen o ccu r red i n s ma l l a ngu la r l umps , p oss ib ly b urn t a nd was a lmos t e n t ire ly o f t he ' h a rd ' f orm ( P i t ts 1 982 , 19 ) . A l though t h is i s a v ery s t rong f ea ture o f t he s i te , i t i s d if f icu l t t o s ugges t a f unc t iona l i n terpre ta t ion o r t o r e la te t h is f ea ture c hrono log ica l ly t o o ther a c t iv i t ies r epresen ted o n t he s i te . T he s a r sen d ebr is c ou ld h ave r esu l ted f r om t he d es truc t ion o f a s i ng le l a rge s t one , p erhaps a ssoc ia ted w i th t he S tonehenge Avenue a nd t hus u nconnec ted w i th t he a rea o f L a ter N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t . T aken t oge ther , t he v a r ious c lasses o f s urface ma ter ia l i nc lud ing t he s a rsen s eem t o c oncen t ra te w i th in a f oca l a r ea o f t he s amp le f r ame ( F igu re 5 ) . T o t h e n or th , s ou th a nd s ou th -eas t t he p a t tern b eg in s t o b reak u p , a nd t h is t r end i s m irrored i n t he c hem ica l a nd magne t ic d a ta . Overa l l , t he p hospha te d is tr ibu t ion h as a r a the r p a tchy a ppea rance b u t b road ly c or responds w i th t he f oca l a r ea i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f ' s o l id ' ma te r ia l . T h is i s a l so t h e a r ea w here t h e h ighes t p hospha te v a lues s how t he g rea tes t d egree o f c lus ter ing ( F igure 4 ) . Ove ra l l , t he v a lues f rom t he K ing B ar row R idge s i te , w i th a mean v a lue o f 8 18 p a r ts p e r m i l l ion ( ppm ) s how a s l igh t ly w ider r ange t han t hose a t Wi lsford Down w i th a mean o f 6 37 p pm . I n v iew o f t he d if ferences a r is ing f rom v ar ia t ions i n s o i l t ype a nd f e r t i l iz ing r eg imes , t he f i gures f rom t hese t wo s i tes a re n o t s i gn if ican t ly d if feren t . B y c ompar ison , t he p hospha te s urvey o n t he Dorse t C u r sus p roduced a r ange o f v a lues w i th a m ean o f 3 13 p pm . A l though t hese c on tras ts c an b e a t l eas t p ar t ly a t t r ibu ted t o t he h e terogene i ty o f s o i l s ys tems , t h is c an b e o ve r emphas ised . A c ompa r ison o f s amp l ing v a r iab i l i ty f or u n iform s o i ls w as l e ss t han wou ld b e a ccep ted a s b e ing o f a rchaeo log ica l s ign if icance ( Reed a nd R igney 1 947) . I n c on tras t , t he l eve ls o f magne t ic e nhancemen t p resen t a r e la t ive ly b land p a t tern c ompa rab le t o t ha t a t Wi lsford Down , b u t w i th a c on s iderab ly h igher mean v a lue ( 124 c ompa red w i th 5 7 S I u n i ts ) . One a r ea o f g rea te r e nhancemen t , h owever , c an b e i den t if ied - a b road a rc wh ich f ormed a n or th -eas ter ly b ounda ry t o t he f oca l a rea d ef ined b y t he ' s o l id ' d a ta ( F igu re 4 ) . P eaks i n t he

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F igure 3 .5

K ing B ar row R idge : L i th ic A r tefac t D is t r ibu t ions . 3 1

d ens i ty o f s urface b urn t a ny s pec if ic c o inc idence

f l in t a l so o ccur w i th in t h is a r ea b u t d o w i th a reas o f magne t ic e nhancemen t .

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T he magne tome ter s urvey d e tec ted a n umber o f a noma l ies , t hough t t o b e p i ts , s ome o f wh ich w ere t e s ted b y e xcava t ion . T he ir p o ten t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion d id n o t s ugges t a ny c or re la t ion w i th t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s u rface ma ter ia l , n or d id t h ere a ppea r t o b e a ny s i gn if ican t g roup ing . A l though a l l t e s ted magne tome ter a noma l ies p roved t o b e d e l ibera te ly c ons truc ted f ea tures o f N eo l i th ic d a te , o thers may e i ther b e n a tura l i n o r ig in o r n o t c on temporary . T hose p i ts c onf irmed b y e xcava t ion w ere l oca ted a d jacen t t o t he a r ea o f d en ses t l i th ic ma te r ia l a nd w i th in a n a r ea o f e nhanced s o i l p hospha te . One e xcep t ion t o t h is w a s a n i s o la ted p i t i n a r ea C , wh ich o ccup ied a r a the r p er iphera l p os i t ion w i th r e spec t t o t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f l i th ic ma te r ia l a nd t o t h e ma in a r ea o f e nhanced p hospha te ( s ee F igure 4 ) . T he p i ts i n a reas J /K a l l p roduced s im i lar s t ra t igraph ic s equences ; e ach h ad a p r ima ry c ha lk w ash d epos i t s ucceeded b y a more o rgan ic f i l l c on ta in ing mos t o f t he a r tefac ts . F ina l ly , e ach h ad a n u pper c o l luv ia l f i l l p resumab ly d er ived f rom t he c on temporaneous t opso i l , l a te r mod if ied i n s i tu b y s o i l f auna l a c t iv i ty . Ma ter ia l f r om t h ese p i t s a g reed c hrono log ica l ly w i th t he p re -excava t ion a ssessmen ts o f ma ter ia l f rom t he s urface c o l lec t ion . Wi th in t h is b road L a ter N eo l i th ic f r amework , h owever , s ome c hange i n f unc t iona l emphas is c ou ld b e d e tec ted . T he p i t s t ra t ig raph ies d escr ibed a bove o n ly p roduced h igh p hospha tes f rom t he s econdary f i l ls wh ich s ugges ts t ha t t he a d jacen t a rea o f e nhanced p lough s o i l p hospha te w as n o t d er ived f r om t r unca ted p i t d epos i ts . On t he b as is o f t h is e v idence a n i n s igh t c an b e g a ined i n to t he c hang ing u se o f s pace w i th in t he s e t t lemen t . I t s eem s u n l ike ly t ha t w as te d i sposa l w as t he p r ima ry f unc t ion f or wh ich t h ese p i ts w ere c ons t ruc ted ( Hayden a nd C annon 1 983 ) . S ubsequen t t o t he ir i n i t ia l u se , a p r ima ry w ash o f c ha lk h ad a ccumu la ted i n t h e b o t tom , f o l lowed b y a d e l ibera te d epos i t i nc lud ing o rgan ic ma te r ia l , p o t te ry , b one , s arsen a nd b o th b urn t a nd w orked f l in t . T h is s equence o f e ven ts i s e n t ire ly c ons is ten t w i th t he r ange o f a c t iv i t ies wh ich m igh t b e e xpec ted t o o ccur i n p rox im i ty t o d omes t ic h ab i ta t ion s . T he c lus ter ing o f h igh p hospha te v a lues i n t he p loughso i l o f t h e a rea a d jacen t t o t he p i ts , h owever , s ugges ts t ha t a ma rked c hange o f u se t ook p lace a t s ome l a ter s t age . A s w e h ave a rgued e a r l ie r i n t h is p aper , t hese a r ea s o f e nhanced p hospha te a re l i ke ly t o r ef lec t t h e f ormer l oca t ion o f • m idden s a nd t hese w i l l n o t h ave b een s i ted c lose t o h ab i ta t ion s . I n t h is p ar t o f t h e s e t t lemen t i t s eems t ha t h ab i ta t ion w as g iv ing w ay t o w as te a ccumu la t ion , w i th m idden ma ter ia l s pread ing o ver t he d i sused p i ts . No d oub t t h is i s p ar t o f t he p a t tern o f s e t t lemen t d r if t c ommon i n mos t l ong t e rm o ccupa t ion s , a nd s ugges ted o n t he K ing B ar row R idge b y t h e e x tens ive c ha rac ter o f t h e f l in t s ca t ter . T he p i t i n a r ea C i n troduces a no ther v ar iab le i n to t he r ange o f d i scard b ehav iou rs w h ich s eem t o b e o pera t ing o n t h is s i te . T h is p i t p roduced t h e h ighes t p hospha te v a lues r ecorded , i n t he o rder o f 4 500 p pm , w h ich w e re a s soc ia ted w i th a v ery d ark o rgan ic d epos i t c on ta in ing t he f oo t b ones f r om s evera l y oung p igs ( Ma l tby p er s . c omm . ) . S im i la r ly , s e lec t ive t r ea tmen t o f a n ima l p ar ts h a s b een r ecorded i n e thnograph ic c on tex ts ( Hodder 1 982 ) i n c onnec t ion w i th t he r egu la t ion o f s oc ia l r o les . P erhaps t h is w i l l s e rve t o u nder l ine t he p o in t t ha t r i tua l a ct iv i t ies may b e f r equen t ly embedded i n t he d omes t ic d oma in , e spec ia l ly when t hese a re c oncerned w i th t he ma in tenance o f d ay to -day s oc ia l r e la t ions .

3 2

D iscussion J us t a s a rchaeo log ica l ' s o l ids ' a re s ub jec t t o t aphonom ic f orces , s o t oo a re t he p a t terns o f c hem ica l a nd magne t ic e nhancemen t r esu l t ing f rom h uman a c t iv i ty . Wi th r egard t o t heses l a t ter p a t terns , h owever , t here a re f ur ther c omp l ica t ions a r is ing f rom t he a c t ion o f p edogen ic v ar iab les , wh ich may p roduce e rroneous n on -archaeo log ica l p a t terns . Consequen t ly , s urvey p rogrammes emp loy ing g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l t echn iques mus t a l so i nc lude a na ly t ica l p rocedures d es igned t o i so la te t he e ffec ts o f n on a r chaeo log ica l v ar iab les . Wi thou t a s uf f ic ien t ly r i gorous f i e ld me thodo logy , p edogen ic f ac tors c anno t b e q uan t if ied , w i th t he r esu l t t ha t t he b as is f or a rchaeo log ica l i nference may b e u nderm ined . One o f t he mos t c ommon ly v o iced o b jec t ions t o t he u se o f s o i l p hospha te s u rveys , e spec ia l ly o ver in tens ive ly c u l t iva ted a reas , i s t ha t t he a pp l ica t ion o f h igh p hospha te f er t i l izers w i l l e ven tua l ly o bscure a ny p a t terns o f a rchaeo log ica l s i gn if icance . T he p ro longed u se o f i norgan ic f e r t i l izers s uch a s s uperphospha te w i l l u ndoub ted ly h ave s ome e ffec t , p erhaps r educ ing t he c on t ras t b e tween t he s i te a nd i t s s ur round ings , b u t t he magn i tude o f t h is p rob lem i s n o t e as i ly d e term ined . F igu res q uo ted b y H amond ( 1983 , 5 1-2 ) , s ugges t t ha t s uperphospha tes a dded t o t he s o i l a t t he r a te o f 3 4 g rammes p er s quare me tre /year wou ld r esu l t i n t he s o i l p hospha te l eve ls b eco m ing e nhanced b y s o me 1 8 p pm p er y ear . T he r emova l o f s o lub le p hospha te f r om t he s o i l b y c e rea ls i s c a lcu la ted t o t ake p lace a t t he r a te o f 4 p pm p er y ea r , g iv ing r i se t o a n e t i nc rease o f 1 4 p pm p e r y ea r . I t mus t b e s t ressed , h oweve r , t ha t t hese f igures a re b ased o n u n iform itar ian a ssu mp t ions , e spec ia l ly r ega rd ing t he s t ab i l i ty o f t he s o i l s ys tem . L ong t e rm e xpe r imen ta l t r ia ls h ave s hown t ha t w ide s ecu la r v a r ia t ion i n pH , w a ter s t a tus a nd o ther f ac to r s w i th in t he s ame l oca t ion c an i n troduce marked c hanges i n t he r a te o f p hospha te u p take ( Chang a nd C hu 1 96 1 ) . T he l eve l o f i n terference f r om p hospha te f e r t i l izer s i s n o t e as i ly d e term ined . Wh i le s o me w r i ters emphas ise t he p o ten t ia l ly d i srup t ive e f fec t ( Hamond 1 983 ) , o thers a rgue t ha t modern f er t i l izer a dd it ions r esu lt i n p hospha te c oncen tra t ions f a r l ower t han t hose a ssoc ia ted w i th h uman s e t t lemen t (Woods 1 977 , 2 50 -1) . By c ompa r ing a b ur ied s o i l o f R oman d a te w i th a modern c u l t iva ted s o i l n ea rby , Ma t t ing ly a nd Wi l l iams ( 1962 ) w ere a b le t o s how t ha t t he f o rmer h ad a h igher t o ta l p hospha te l eve l . Moreover t he l eve l o f s o lub le p hospha te i n t he b ur ied s o i l w as c ons iderab ly h igher t han i n a s im i lar ly c a lcareous s o i l a t R o thamps tead , a l though t he l a t ter h ad b een i n tens ive ly f e r t i l ized f o r many y ea r s ( i bid . 1962 ) . A s w i th t he p hospha tes , a r ange o f p edogen ic f ac to r s w i l l p a r t ly d e te rm ine t he o vera l l l eve ls o f magne t ic e nhancemen t i n t he s o i l . Var iab le l i tho log ies , d ifferen t l and -use h is tor ies a nd o ther f ac tors w i l l r esu lt i n v ary ing b ackground l eve ls o f e nhancemen t wh ich may i nh ib it i n ter -s i te c ompar ison ( A l len a nd McPha i l 1 985) . D e sp i te t h is c avea t , a c ompar ison b e tween t he t h ree s i tes s hown i n T ab le 1 s ugges ts t ha t ar e la t ion sh ip d oes e x is t b e tween t he mean l eve ls o f b o th magne t ic a nd p hospha te e nhancemen t a nd t he o vera l l d ens i ty o f l i th ic ma te r ia l p resen t a t e ach s i te . T he s t ronges t c on t ras t i s b e tween t he Dorse t C u rsus where a l l t h ree a na lyses s ugges t a l ower l eve l o f a c t iv i ty t han t he t wo S tonehenge a rea s i tes . T h is i mpress ion i s r e inforced b y t he e nv ironmen ta l e v idence f rom t he Dor se t C ursus wh ich s hows o n ly a m inor c learance e p isode d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic . More e x ten s ive c l ea rance o ccu rs a t a

3 3

r e la t ive ly l a te d a te , mos t P arker f or thco m ing) .

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A more d e ta i led c ompa r ison b e tween t he t wo S tonehenge a rea s i tes h igh l igh ts t he ir f unc t iona l d if ferences . L eve ls o f magne t ic a nd p hospha te e nhancemen t a re h ighes t a t t he K ing B a r row R idge s i te wh ich i s c ons is ten t w i th a more e x ten s ive o r l ong t e rm o ccupa t ion . H igher o vera l l f l ake n umber s a t Wi lsford Down a re more i nd ica t ive o f p rocuremen t a nd p r i ma ry r educ t ion a c t iv i t ies r a the r t han b e ing a measure o f t he i n ten s i ty o r d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ion . T he r e la t ive p ropor t ions o f b urn t wo rked f l in t f rom b o th s i tes , 6 .46% f r om t he K ing B ar row R idge c ompa red w i th 1 . 97% f r om Wi lsford Down f u r ther s uppor t s t h is i ndus t r ia l /do mes t ic d is t inc t ion . A f ur ther c ompar ison b e tween t he magne t ic a nd c hem ica l d a ta f rom t he Dorse t Cursus a nd t he t wo S tonehenge a rea s i tes r evea ls a r ecurren t p a t tern ing wh ich a ppears t o b e p ropor t iona l t o t he a bso lu te l eve ls o f e nhancemen t . Where , a s o n t he Dorse t C ur sus , t he v a lues a re l ow , a c omp lemen tary r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he magne t ic a nd p hospha te p a t terns t ends t o p redom ina te ( Brad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 4 ) . On s i tes where t he v a lues a re much h igher , ( eg K ing B arrow R idge : F igure 4 ) , t h is c omp lemen ta ry r e la t ionsh ip g ives way t o a much more c omp l ica ted s e t o f p a t tern s . I n s ome c a ses t h is c an b e l i nked t o t h e p resence o f s o i l b ounda r ies wh ich c an i n troduce s ys te ma t ic v ar ia t ion , e spec ia l ly when t he d iff eren t s o i l t ypes a re f ormed f rom v ery d if feren t p a ren t ma ter ia l: T h is i s i lus tra ted i n F igure 6 , wh ich s hows a p hospha te t r an sec t c u t t ing a cross b ounda r ies b e tween s o i ls f orm ing o ver s o l id c ha lk a nd o ve r c lay w i th f l in ts . T he re i s a c lear r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t hese b oundar ies a nd c hanges i n t he d i rec t ion o f t he p hospha te c urve . T he h ighe r l eve ls i n t he s t rong ly c a lca reous s o i ls o ve r t he c ha lk p resumab ly r ef lec t t he r e lease o f p hospha te m inera ls ( eg a pa t i te ) f rom t he c ha lk a nd a l so t he g rea ter s o lub i l i ty o f c a lc ium p hospha tes i n a c id e x trac tan ts . Even where s o i ls a re d er ived f rom a s ing le l i tho logy t h is c omp lemen tary r e la t ionsh ip p ers is ts a nd i s c harac ter ised b y l ow a bso lu te v a lues . C la rk 's ( 1977) s urvey o f a b an jo e nc losure o n t he c ha lk a t T adwor th , S ur rey , c lea r ly s hows t h is c omp lemen tary p a t te rn ing i n c on junc t ion w i th l ow p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty v a lues : magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty x = 2 0 , p hospha te u s ing 2M HCL e x t rac t ion x = 1 88 p pm . A l though t he p rec ise mechan isms h ave y e t t o b e e xp la ined , t h is c omb ina t ion i n magne t ic a nd p hospha te d a ta o f l ow a bso lu te v a lues a nd c omp lemen tary p a t tern ing , a nd t he t endancy f or t hese t o b e c onnec ted w i th r e la t ive ly l ow a r tefac t d ens it ies , s ugges t a p edogen ic o r ig in . T he more c omp lex p a t terns

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c onnec ted w i th h igher d ens ity a r tefac t d is tr ibu t ions r esu l t f rom t he s uper impos i t ion o f a n thropogen ic e f fec ts o n l ow l eve l b ackground v ar ia t ions . F ur ther r esearch o n t he p edo log ica l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween magne t ic a nd p hospha te e nhancemen t may e nab le t he t wo t e chn iques t o b e emp loyed i n a p red ic t ive manner . I n c omb ina t ion w i th s urface a r tefac t d i s t r ibu t ion s t he d egree o f c or respondance b e tween p a t tern s i n t he c hem ica l a nd magne t ic d a ta may s e rve a s a n i ndex o f t he l e ve l o f a n th ropogen ic i nf luence . Conclusion T he a pproach t o d ef in ing a r eas o f p reh is to r ic a c t iv i ty i n t he S tonehenge a r ea w as b ased o n e x tens ive s urface c o l lec t ion . S ubsequen t ly , a more i n ten s ive d ef in i t ion , b ased o n ' t o ta l ' s urface c o l lec t ion p rov ided t he o ppor tun i ty t o e xp lore t he a na ly t ica l p o ten t ia l o f g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l t e chn iques . F rom t he o u t se t , t h is r e sea rch w as c once ived o n t wo l eve ls , t h e o ne i nvo lv ing a c r i t ica l e va lua t ion o f t he p hospha te a nd magne t ic d a ta a nd t he o ther c oncerned w i th b u i ld ing u pon t h is i n fo rma t ion . I n o rde r t o i s o la te a nd a s sess b o th t he p edogen ic a nd a n thropogen ic v ar iab les a s ys tema t ic s amp l ing s cheme was a dop ted . T h is c omb ined w ide i n terva l s amp l ing w i th mo re d e ta i led work a nd p rov ided a l a rge a nd s t a t is t ica l ly v iab le d a ta b ase ( P roudfoo t 1 976 ) . E ven a t t h is s t age , r ecur ren t t r ends a r e b eg inn ing t o emerge wh ich s ugges ts t ha t w i th f ur ther wo rk a s ound b as is f or a r chaeo log ica l i n ferences c an b e d eve loped . T he t wo c ase s t ud ies d i scussed i n t h is p aper d emons tra te t ha t a mo re d e ta i led p ic tu re c an b e f ormed o f t he f unc t iona l d iv is ions w i th in a l i th ic s ca t ter when g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l a na lyses a re emp loyed i n c on junc t ion w i th t hose a pp l ied t o a r tefac t a ssemb lages . Wi th a l a rger d a ta b ase d rawn f r om s i tes w i th d i s t inc t ive l i th ic r eper to ires i t s hou ld b e p oss ib le t o s e t u p c omprehen s ive mode ls b ased o n s urface i n forma t ion . T hese i n t u rn c an b e u sed t o d eve lop more i nformed s amp l ing s t ra teg ies p r ior t o e xcava t ion . I n a dd i t ion , n on l i th ic v ar iab les h ave a n i mpor tan t i n tr ins ic v a lue i n c ons t i tu t ing i ndependen t a rchaeo log ica l i nd ices . T hese s e rve n o t o n ly a s a means o f t e s t ing t he a s sump t ion s b ased o n t he l i th ic d a ta , b u t c an r ef lec t e qua l ly s i gn if ican t b u t o therw ise i r recoverab le a spec ts o f p reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty .

B ibliography ALLEN , M .J . a nd MCPHA IL , R .T . 1 985 . M icromorpho logy a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty s t ud ies : t he ir c omb ined r o le i n i n terpre t ing a rchaeo log ica l s o i ls a nd s ed imen ts , p aper p resen ted a t I n ternat iona l Work ing Meet ing o n S o i l Micromorphology , P ar is 1 985 . BAKKEV IG , S . 1 980 . P hospha te a na lys is i n a r chaeo logy - p rob lems a nd r ecen t p rogress , N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 3 , 7 3 -100 . B INFORD , L .R . 1 981 . B ones : A nc ien t Men a nd Modern My ths , ( London , A cadem ic P ress ) . CHANG , S .C .N . a nd CHU , W .K . 1 961 . T he f a te o f s o lub le p hospha te a pp l ied t o s o i ls , J ourna l o f S o i l S c ience 1 2 , 2 86 -93 . CLARK , A .J . 1 977 . G eophys ica l a nd c hem ica l a s sessmen t o f a i r p ho tograph ic s i te s , A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 1 34 , 1 87 -191 . CLARK , A .J . 1 983 . S uscep t ib l i ty a nd o ther m e ter s o r , h ow t o d e tec t f i res i n h enges . Current A rchaeo logy 8 6 , 9 3 . CLARK , J .D . a nd KURASH INA , H . 1 981 . A s t udy o f t h e w o rk o f a modern t anner i n E th iop ia a nd i t s r e levance f o r a r chaeo log ica l i n terpre ta t ion , i n G ou ld , R .A .

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a nd S ch if fer , M .B . ( ed i tors ) Modern Ma ter ia l C u l ture : t h e A rchaeo logy o f U s , ( London , A cadem ic P re ss ) 3 03 -321 . CRADDOCK , P .T . 1 980 . T he s o i l p hospha te s u rvey a t t he N ewa rk R oad s ubs i te , F enga te , i n P ryor , F .M .M . E xcava t ion a t F enga te , P e terbo rough , E ng land . T he T h ird R epor t , Nor thamptonsh ire A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety Monograph 1 , 2 13 2 17 . CR IBB , R . 1 983 . On s i te e thnoa rchaeo logy , A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew f rom Cambr idge , 2 .2 , 4 -16 . DOGGART , R . 1 983 . T he u se o f magne t ic p rospec t ing e qu ipmen t i n N or the rn I r e land , i n R eeves -Smy th , T . a nd Hamond , F .W . ( ed i tors) Landscape A rchaeo logy i n I re land , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 6 ) , 3 5 -46 . DOUGLAS , M . 1 966 . P ur i ty a nd Danger , ( London , R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l ) . E IDT , R .C . 1 973 . A r ap id c hem ica l t e s t f i e ld f o r a rchaeo log ica l s i te s urvey ing , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 , 2 06 -210 . E IDT , R .C . 1 977 . D e tec t ion a nd e xam ina t ion o f a n throso ls b y p hospha te a na lys is , S c ience 1 97 , 1 327 -1333 . ENT W ISTLE , R . 1 984 . S o i l p hospha te a na lys i s a nd l i th ic s ca t ters , u npub l ished u ndergradua te d isser ta t ion . R ead ing Un iver s i ty , 1 984 . ENT W ISTLE ,R . a nd PARKER , J . f or thcom ing , i n BARRETT ,J .C . a nd BRADLEY , R . L and scape , Monumen t s a nd S oc ie ty : T he P reh is tory o f C ranborne C hase . GURNEY , D .A . 1 985 . G eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l a na lyses , i n P ryo r , F .M .M . a nd F rench , C .A .I . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t i n t he L owe r We l land V a l ley , Vo lume 2 , E as t A ng l ian A rchaeology 2 7 , 2 79 -81 . GURNEY , D .A . a nd CRADDOCK , P .T . 1 981 . P hospha tes : n ew e v idence f r om t he p loughso i l , P opu lar A rchaeo logy 3 , 3 6 -37 . HA MOND , F .W . 1 983 . P hospha te a na lys is o f a rchaeo log ica l s ed imen ts , i n R eeves -S my th , T . a nd H amond , F .W . ( ed i tors) L andscape a rchaeo logy i n I reland , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts 16 ) , 4 7 -80 . HAYDEN , B . a nd CANNON , A . 1 983 . Where t he g a rbage g oes : r e fuse d i sposa l i n t he Maya H igh lands , J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 2 , 17 -163 . HAZELGROVE , C . MILLETT , M , a nd SM ITH , I . ( ed i to r s ) 1 985 . A rchaeo logy f rom t he P loughsoil ( Depa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory , Un iver s i ty o f S heff ie ld) . HODDER , I . 1 982 . S ymbo ls i n A c t ion . E thnoarchaeo log ica l S tud ies o f Ma ter ial Cu l ture , ( Camb r idge , Un ive r s i ty P ress ) . KEELEY , H .C .M . 1 981 . R ecen t work u s ing s o i l p hospha te a na lys is i n a rchaeo log ica l p rospec t ion , R evue d 'Archeometr ie 5 ,. 8 9 -95 . LA IDLER , B . a nd YOUNG , W .E .V . 1 938 . A s ur face f l in t i ndus t ry f r om a s i te n ea r S tonehenge ,W i / t sh ire A rchaeo log ica l Magaz ine 4 8 ( 1937 -8 ) , 1 50 -160 . L I MBREY , S . 1 975 . S o i l S c ience a nd A rchaeo logy , ( L ondon , A cadem ic P res s ) . LONG WORTH , G . a nd T ITE , M .S . 1 977 . Mossbauer a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty s t ud ies o f i r on o x ide s i n s o i ls f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , A rchaeometry 1 9 , 3 -14 . MATT INGLY , G .E .G . a nd WILL IA MS , R .J .B . 1 962 . A n o te o n t h e c hem ica l a na lys is o f as o i l b u r ied s i nce R oman t imes . J ourna l o f S o i l S c ience 1 3 , 2 54 -258 . MURRAY , P . 1 980 . D iscard l oca t ion : t he e thnog raph ic d a ta , American Ant iqu ity 4 5 , 4 90 -502 . P ITTS , M .W . 1 982 . On t he r oad t o S tonehenge : r epo r t o n i nves t iga t ion s b es ide t he A 344 i n 1 968 , 1 979 a nd 1 980 , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 8 , 7 5 1 32 . PROUDFOOT , B . 1 976 . T he a na lys is a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f s o i l p hospho rus i n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts , i n Dav idson , D .A . a nd S hack ley , M .L . ( ed i tors)G e oa rc h aeolo g y : E ar th S c ience a nd t he P as t , (L ondon , Duckwor th ) , 9 3 -113 .

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REED , J .F . a nd R IGNEY , J .A . 1 947 . S o i l s amp l ing f r om f i e ld s o f u n ifo rm a nd n on u n iform a ppearance a nd s o i l t ypes , J ourna l o f t he Amer ican S oc iety o fAgronomy 3 9 , 2 6 -40 . R ICHARDS , C . a nd THO MAS , J . 1 984 . R i tua l a c t iv i ty a nd s t ruc tu red d epos i t ion i n L a ter Neo l i th ic Wessex , i n B rad ley , R . a nd Ga rd iner , J . ( ed i tors ) N eolithic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts 1 33 ) , 1 77-186 . R ICHARDS , J .C . 1 984 . T he d eve lopmen t o f t he N eo l i th ic l andscape i n t he e nv irons o f S tonehenge , i n B rad ley , R . a nd Ga rd iner , J . ( ed i tors ) N eolithic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s 1 33 ) , 1 77-187 . R ICHARDS , J .C . 1 985 . S cou r ing t he s u rface : a pproaches t o t he p loughzone i n t he S tonehenge e nv irons , A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew f rom Cambr idge 4 . 1 , 2 7 -42 . S CH IFFER , M .B . 1 976 . B ehav ioura l A rchaeo logy ,( London , A cadem ic P ress ) . SCH IFFER , M .B . 1 983 . T oward t he i den t if ica t ion o f f o rma t ion p rocesses , Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 8 , 6 75 -706 . S IEVEK ING , G . d e G . , LONG WORTH , I .H . , HUGHES , Mi . , CLARK , A .J . a nd M ILLETT , A . 1 973 . A n ew s u rvey o f G r imes G raves - F i r s t R epo r t , P roceed ings o ft he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 3 9 , 1 92 -218 . T ITE , M .S . a nd MULL INS , C . 1 971 . E nhancemen t o f t he m agne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty o f s o i ls o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , A rchaeometry 1 3 , 2 09 -219 . W OODS , W .I . 1 977 . T he q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f s o i l p hospha te , American Ant iqu ity 4 2 , 2 48 -252 .

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4 .

A

F ie ld

Me thod

f or I nves t iga t ing t he L ith ic S catters

S pa t ia l

S truc ture

o f

R ichard B rad ley i ncorpora t ing c on t r ibu t ions b y Ma r t in C ook ( magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty ) , R oy E n tw is t le ( phospha te a na lys is ) a nd J u l ie Ga rd iner ( l i th ic a na lys is ) . ' I l e ave y ou t h is s pace T o u se a s y ou r o wn . It h ink y ou w i l l f i nd T ha t u s ing i t i s mo re I mposs ib le t han mak ing i t . H e re i s t he s pace n ow . Wr i te a n I mp lemen t i n i t . ' W .S . G raham ( 1977) , I mp lemen ts i n t he ir P laces . I ntroduct ion L i th ic s ca t ters a re ' s i tes ' w i th o ne d imens ion m iss ing . D esp i te t he s heer r ange o f ma ter ia l o n t he s u rface , e xcava t ion r a re ly l eads t o t he d iscovery o f s ubso i l f ea tures , y e t t he s t r ipp ing o f t he p loughso i l o f ten means t ha t mos t o f i t s c on ten ts a r e s ac r if iced . T h is p aper a rgues t ha t w e c ou ld make more u se o f t he t wo d imens ion s o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord wh ich a re a ccess ib le , a nd t hus t ha t w e s hou ld p ay mo re a t ten t ion t o s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing . I t i s a t r u ism t ha t a l l e xcava t ion i s d es truc t ive a nd t ha t t o ta l e xcava t ion e n ta i ls t o ta l d es truc t ion . T he p loughso i l , h owever , i s a r enewab le r e source , a nd i t s eems t ha t b e tween 4% a nd 7% o f i t s c on ten ts a r e o n t he s u rface a t a ny o ne t ime ( Ammerman 1 985 ; c f . T ing le , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 7 ) . T hese e s t ima tes a re r eassu r ing s ince t hey mean t ha t t here i s r oom f o r f l ex ib i l i ty : t he s a mp l ing f r ac t ion c an b e i ncreased i n o rder t o t e s t o bserva t ions made d ur ing f i e ld s urvey , s ecure i n t he k now ledge t ha t e nough w i l l r e ma in u nd is turbed t o a l low t he f r am ing o f mo re d e ta i led q ues t ions . No t o n ly d o l i th ic s ca t ters l end t hemse lves t o mu l t is tage s amp l ing : r ecen t wo rk , much o f i t r epor ted i n t h is v o lume , h as s hown h ow d e ta i led s u rface s u rvey c an p lay a v i ta l r o le i n d e tec t ing s pa t ia l p a t tern ing , e spec ia l ly o n s i tes o f a s ing le p er iod . T ha t e xper ience a l so s hows t he i mpor tance o f g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l t e chn iques a nd t hese s hou ld b e emp loyed i n t he f i rs t s t age o f a na lys is , r a ther t han b e ing r e lega ted t o p os t - e xcava t ion w ork . T here i s t he a dd i t iona l a dvan tage t ha t s uch me thods a re n on -des t ruc t ive . S im i lar ly , t he c o l lec t ion o f s urface ma ter ia l , h owever i n tens ive , n eed n o t s epa ra te i t f rom i t s a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t - t he f inds c an b e r ecorded a nd r ep laced . Moreover , t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he p opu la t ion f rom wh ich t hey d er ive r ema ins i n t he p loughso i l a nd i s s t i l l a va i lab le f or s t udy . U s ing Ammerman 's f i gu re s , w e c an c a lcu la te t ha t i f 4% o f t he ma ter ia l c omes t o t he s u rf ace e ach t ime a f i e ld i s p loughed , i t wou ld t ake 1 8 c ampa ign s o f f i e ldwo rk t o c o l lec t j us t h a lf t he s u rface a r tefac ts o n t he s i te . A t h i s h igher e s t ima te o f 7% , t h is wou ld s t i l l t ake t en c ampa ign s - amp le t ime , o ne wou ld i mag ine , i n wh ich t o r ef ine a n i n terpre ta t ion . T h is i s n o t p oss ib le w i th e xcava t ion , s i nce work a t a ny o ne p o in t mus t n ecessa r i ly b e d es t ruc t ive f o r a l l t ime . T h is p aper a rgues t ha t w e s hou ld t ake a dvan tage o f t hese l i th ic s ca t ters a re n orma l ly r educed t o t wo d i mens ions ,

3 9

f ea tu res . S ince g rea ter p r ior i ty

s hou ld b e g iven t o d e term in ing t he ir s pa t ia l s t ruc ture , u s ing a f u l l a r ray o f a na ly t ica l t e chn iques b efore a ny e xcava t ion t akes p lace . S ince p loughso i l e xcava t ion c an b e s ma l l s ca le a nd s e lec t ive , i n terac t ion b e tween f i e ldwork a nd a r tefac t a na lys is s hou ld b e f a ir ly s t ra igh tforwa rd a nd h ypo theses c an b e t e s ted a ga ins t f r esh o r l a rger s a mp les . Where e xcava t ion i s c os t -ef fec t ive t here s hou ld b e p len ty o f p loughso i l l e f t . Where s i tes l ack a l ong h i s tory o f c o l lec t ion t he re s hou ld b e p len ty s t i l l l e f t i n t he p loughso i l . Methodology T he a pproach a dvoca ted h ere owes s o me th ing t o r ecen t s t ud ies o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing ( c f . H ie ta la 1 984 ) . I n i t ia l ly s uch wo rk made u se o f mode ls t aken f ro m o ther d isc ip l ines , t e s t ing t he m f or g oodness o f f i t a ga ins t t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( eg Wha l lon 1 973 a nd 1 974 ) . More r ecen t ly , s uch ' g loba l ' a pp roaches h ave g one o u t o f f avou r . E thnoa rchaeo log ica l wo rk h as s ugges ted t ha t a r tefac t d is t r ibu t ions c an b e much l e ss f i ne g ra ined t han w a s o nce e xpec ted , a t t imes u nderm in ing t he who le i dea o f a c t iv i ty a reas ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R ichards , t h is v o lume , Chap ter 3 ) . Ano ther r eason f or a dop t ing a l e ss r i g id me thodo logy h as b een t he n eed t o i den t ify s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord w i thou t c ons t ra in ing t he e nqu iry b y t he u se o f f orma l mode ls . Numer ica l me thods may b e u sed n o t o n ly t o p rov ide c omprehens ive d escr ip t ions o f t he p a t tern ing d e tec tab le w i th in p ar t icu lar s i tes , b u t a l so t o d e tec t t ypes o f a ssoc ia t ion wh ich a re n o t i mmed ia te ly a pparen t ( c f . K in t igh a nd Ammerman 1 982 ) . A c onv inc ing d e mons tra t ion o f t he p ower o f t h is a pproach i s Wha l lon 's a b i l i ty t o r econs truc t t he a c t iv i ty a reas i n a c on tempora ry h un ter -ga therer s i te u s ing t he d i s t r ibu t ions o f d i f feren t a r tefac t s a lone (Wha l lon 1 984 ) . V iewed i n t h is way , s pa t ia l a na lys is b ecomes a h eur is t ic d ev ice - a w ay o f d iscover ing p atterns . T h is i s n o t t o s ay t ha t s pa t ia l p a t tern ing n eed b e s ough t i n at o ta l ly emp ir ica l manner . I f t he s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o f l i th ic s ca t te rs i s t o b e s t ud ied i n d e ta i l , i t mus t s t i l l b e a pproached w i th s pec if ic q ues t ion s i n m ind . B u t t h ese s hou ld b e a rchaeo log ica l q ues t ion s a nd n eed n o t b e e xam ined b y me thod s d er ived d i rec t ly f rom s ub jec ts l i ke p lan t e co logy o r u rban g eography . We r equ ire me thods wh ich d o n o t make i n i t ia l a ssump t ion s b u t p lay t o t he s t reng ths o f s u rface a nd p loughso i l e v idence . We s hou ld r i d o ur se lves o f t he i dea t ha t a n e xcava t ion t ha t d oes n o t f i nd s ubso i l f ea tu res i s o ne wh ich h as s omehow f a i led a nd t ha t t he a bsence o f p i ts a nd p os tho les i s d ue t o ad ef ic ien t r e sea rch d es ign . We c an i lus tra te t h is p o in t o f v iew b y f o l low ing t he d eve lopmen t o f f i e ldwo rk w h ich t ook p lace o n t he Do rse t C u r sus i n 1 984 ( c f . B rad ley e t a l . 1 984a ) . Case S tudy H av ing c ons idered a f ew g enera l p r inc ip les , l e t u s t u rn t o a n e xamp le o f t h is a pproach a nd t he r easons why i t was a dop ted i n t h is c ase . N eo l i th ic s pec ia l is ts f i nd i t d if f icu l t t o d i s t ingu ish b e tween s econdary r efuse d epos i ted d ur ing e veryday a c t iv i t ies a nd ma ter ia l w h ich may h ave b een d epos i ted w i th g rea ter f o rma l i ty . F or s ome a u thor i t ies t he l a t ter s ugges ts t he e x is tence o f ' r i tua l ' a c t iv i ty . I t i s w e l l k nown t ha t t he d i s t r ibu t ions o f a n umber o f c omp lex a r tefac t t ypes t end t o c lus ter a round s o me o f t he l a rger monumen ts o f t h is p er iod . On ly r a re ly i s i t k nown whe ther t hese a r tefac t s w e re f ound i n i s o la t ion o r whe ther t hey o nce f ormed p a r t o f more v a r ied E th ic s ca t ters . A g ood e xamp le o f t h is p a t tern i s f ound n ea r t he Do rse t C u rsus ( Brad ley e t a / . 1 984b , 9 6 ) . A t o ne p o in t t he s u rface f i nd s , w h ich a r e o f L a te N eo l i th ic d a te , e x tend a c ross t he i n ter io r o f t h is monumen t a nd p os tda te i t a l toge ther .

4 0

S amp le e xcava t ion t ook p lace i n o rder t o i nves t iga te t he c ha rac ter o f t h is d epos it We w e re c oncerned w i th t h ree q ues t ions : d id t he s urface f i nds , wh ich i nc luded a macehead , f orm p a r t o f a s pec ia l ised d epos i t , r ef lec t ing t he u nusua l c ha rac ter o f t he e ar l ier monumen t? Was t h is s imp ly a n o ccupa t ion s i te? And , i f s o , h ad t he e x is tence o f t he C ur sus e a r thwork i nf luenced t he w ay i n wh ich i t w as u sed? T here s eemed t o b e s eve ra l w ays i n wh ich t he c ha rac ter o f t h is a ssemb lage c ou ld b e i nves t iga ted : t h rough t he c o l lec t ion o f a r epresen ta t ive s amp le o f t h is i ndus try f rom t he p loughso i l , t hrough t he d e ta i led t echno log ica l a na lys is o f t h is ma te r ia l , a nd t h rough s pa t ia l a na lys is . T h is l a s t a pproach w i l l b e c on s idered h ere . I n p rac t ice i t h ad t wo a spec t s . F i rs t , i t m igh t b e p oss ib le t o t r ace a c t iv i ty v a r ia t ion a cross t he e x ten t o f t he f l in t s ca t ter , s how ing t ha t t he more d is t inc t ive ma ter ia l a l ready k nown f rom t he s i te f ormed o n ly p a r t o f a more v a r ied a nd more w ide ly d is t r ibu ted a ssemb lage . A t t he s ame t ime , i t m igh t b e p oss ib le t o t e s t t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h is ma ter ia l a nd t he e ar l ier monumen t b y c ons ider ing whe ther t he s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t he l i th ic s ca t ter h ad b een i nf luenced b y t he l ayou t o f t he Cursus . I n v iew o f t he l a rge a rea c ove red b y t he s urface e v idence , i t w as d ec ided t o r es t r ic t i nves t iga t ion t o a t r ansec t 1 50m l ong a nd 2 0m w ide , c ross ing t he C ur sus a t r i gh t a ng les a nd e x tend ing o ve r t he f u l l w id th o f t he l i th ic s ca t te r . T he i dea o f i nves t iga t ing a t r an sec t a c ross a l i th ic s ca t ter h ad a l ready p roved i t s wor th i n t he S tonehenge E nv irons P ro jec t ( En tw is t le a nd R ichards , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 3 ) . I n t h is c ase i t h ad t h e p a r t icu la r mer i t t ha t a t t wo p o in t s , t he e as t a nd w es t d i tches o f t he C ursus , i t wou ld b e p oss ib le t o a ugmen t t he e v idence o f t he p loughso i l b y i nves t iga t ing f ea tures w i th s urv iv ing s t ra t ig raphy ( F igure 1 ) . F o l low ing t he p h i losophy s e t o u t e ar l ier , c ons iderab le emphas is w as p laced o n p re -excava t ion s urvey , t he a im o f wh ich was t o s ugges t t he s pa t ia l s t ruc ture o f t he f l in t s ca t te r i n r e la t ion t o t he e a r l ier monumen t . F ive t ypes o f a na lys is w ere u nde r taken : c o l lec t ion o f worked f l in t ; c o l lec t ion o f b urn t f l in t ; p hospha te a na lys is ( by R oy E n tw is t le ) ; magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty a na lys is ( by Mar t in C ook ) a nd f l uxga te g rad iome te r s urvey ( by B as i l T ur ton ) . On ly t he l a t ter me thod w as e xpec ted t o s ugges t t he p os i t ion o f s ubso i l f ea tures . A pa r t f rom f l uxga te s u rvey , t he w ork w as c a r r ied o u t o n a 5m g r id a nd w as c omp le ted b y a d ozen p eop le i n ad ay . B urn t a nd w o rked f l in ts w e re c oun ted a nd w ere l e f t i n t he ir p a ren t g r id s qua res , e ach o f wh ich h ad b een s ea rched b y t wo s epa ra te i nd iv idua ls , a t h ird c heck ing t he i den t if ica t ions o f a l l t h is m a te r ia l i n t he f i e ld . T here w as n o n eed t o r emove t he f i nds . T he r esu l ts o f a l l t hese a na lyses w ere d rawn u p b efore e xcava t ion w as p lanned . A t t h is s t age a n umber o f f a ir ly c l ea r b reak s c ou ld b e o bse rved i n t hese d is tr ibu t ions , s evera l o f t hem s hared b e tween t wo o r more a na lyses . U s ing t h is i nfo rma t ion , i t s eemed a s i f t he t r an sec t c ou ld b e d iv ided i n to a n umber o f z ones , w i th s ome i nd ica t ion t ha t a c t iv i ty o u ts ide t he C u r sus m igh t h ave d i f f ered f r om t ha t i n i t s c en tra l a r ea ( F igu re 1 ) . No a t temp t w a s made t o i n terpre t t hese v ar ia t ions a t t h is s tage ; f or t ha t p urpose d e ta i led t e chno log ica l a na lys is o f t he f l in twork wou ld b e n eeded . A t t he s ame t ime , t he r esu l ts o f f luxga te g rad io me ter s urvey s ugges ted t he p os i t ion o f a n umber o f s ubso i l f ea tu res w i th in t he t r ansec t .

4 1

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P re -Excava t ion S urveys o n aT ransec t A c ross t h e D o rse t C u r sus .

4 2

T hese s ugges t ions o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing d e term ined t he c ourse o f t he e xcava t ion ; t he r e su l ts o f t h e f l uxga te s u rvey w e re n o t t h e ma jor f ac tor i n d ec id ing where t o p lace t h e t r enches . A s w e h ave s e en , e xpe r ience o n o ther s i tes h ad s ugges ted t h a t mo re c ou ld b e made o f t he c on ten ts o f t h e p loughso i l a nd t ha t s ubso i l f ea tures m igh t b e f ew i n n umber a nd n o t n ecessar i ly r epresen ta t ive o f t # e s r ange o f v a r ia t ion o n t h e s i te . I t h ad a l so s hown t h e i mpor tance o f p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty a na lys is i n d e tec t ing a c t iv i ty a r eas , a nd t he r e su l ts o f t h is work w ere g iven t he s ame w e igh t a s t hose o f s urface c o l lec t ion ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R icha rds , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 3 ) . R a ther t han e xam ine t he c on ten ts o f t he p loughso i l o n a g r id o r b y r andom s amp l ing , o u r c h ief p r ior i ty w as t o a s sess t he v a l id i ty o f t h e i n terna l z on ing s ugges ted i n p re -excava t ion s u rvey a nd i f t ha t p roved t o b e r ea l , t o c o l lec t s uff ic ien t f l in twork f rom t he p loughso i l f or u s t o i n terpre t t ha t p a t tern ing . F or t h is r eason , t he i n i t ia l s t ages o f t he e xcava t ion w ere c onduc ted i n a s e r ies o f s hor t t r ansec ts , e ach c ons is t ing o f 2 m . s q . u n i ts s paced a t 4m i n te rva ls . T hese t r an sec ts s ec t ioned t he b ounda r ies b e tween t h e d i fferen t z ones s ugges ted b efore t he e xcava t ion s t ar ted ( F igure 2 ) . Where t hese p roved t o b e u n rea l , r e su l t ing f r om a s ma l l , u n represen ta t ive s amp le o f s urface ma te r ia l , s uch d i s tor t ions w ere s oon e l im ina ted . Where t he s ame t r ends c on t inued t o b e p resen t , h owever , c o l lec t ion o f a c arefu l ly e xcava ted s amp le o f ma ter ia l g ave a dded d ef in i t ion . T h is d id n o t mean t ha t w e w ere u n in teres ted i n t he ' w indows ' p rov ided b y s ubso i l f ea tu res i n wh ich p o t te ry a nd b one m igh t b e r ep resen ted . R a the r , t he e xac t p os i t ions o f t h e t r an sec ts w ere s e lec ted t o c ross b o th d i tches o f t h e C u r sus a nd t h e s ma l le r g eophys ica l a noma l ies , mos t o f wh ich p roved t o b e t he r e su l t o f p ure ly g eo log ica l f ea tures . I n t he e ven t o n ly t h ree p i ts w e re f ound , a l l o f t hem d i s turbed b y b urrow ing a n ima ls . A s f a r a s p oss ib le , t h e e xcava ted ma ter ia l w as e xam ined a t o nce , w i th t he r esu l t t ha t w e c ou ld mon i tor t he s uccess o f t h is e xper imen t a nd make a ppropr ia te a d jus tmen ts t o t he l oca t ion a nd f r equency o f t h e s amp le s qua res . I n r e trospec t i t i s c l ea r t ha t t h is c ou ld h ave b een managed more e f f ic ien t ly w i th t he u se o f a n o n -s i te c ompu ter a nd t ha t i t r equ ires d ras t ic c hanges i n t he u sua l b a lance o f e xcava t ion p er sonne l t o t hose wo rk ing w i th t h e f i nds . E ven s o , t here w as c ons iderab le i n terac t ion b e tween t he t wo g roups . Moreover , b ecause s o l i t t le o f t he p loughso i l w as d i s tu rbed , w e h ave t he o ppor tun i ty e ven n ow t o a dd d e ta i l t o o ur i n te rp re ta t ion . I n t he e ven t , s i x c a tegor ies o f ma ter ia l w ere r ecorded : i mp lemen ts a nd r e touched f l akes ; c ores a nd u n re touched f l akes ; b urn t f l in ts ; magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty ; p hospha te l eve ls a nd i n t he p i ts a nd d i tches , p o t tery a nd b ones . I n o rder t o a s sess h ow c omp le te ly t he p re -excava t ion a na lys is h ad i den t if ied t he ma in d iv is ions o f t he s i te a nd t h e ir r e la t ion sh ip t o t he e ar l ier monumen t , i t w as n ecessary t o l ook a t e ach o f t hese s epa ra te ly a nd i n c o mb ina t ion . L i t t le n eed b e s a id a bou t t he worked f l in ts , s i nce t hese h ave a l ready b een p ub l ished b y J u l ie G a rd iner ( 1985) . T hey s eem t o r e su l t f rom d omes t ic o ccupa t ion a nd t he ma in p o in t t o b e n o ted i s t ha t t e chno log ica l a na lys is s ugges ts t ha t t he s i te h ad b een • u sed f or s o me t ime a nd f or a v ar ie ty o f a c t iv i t ies ; t h is i s n o t a pparen t f rom t he g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l e v idence ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R icha rds , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) . T here w ere s i gn if ican t v ar ia t ions i n t he c ompos i t ion o f t h is ma ter ia l , w h ich s ugges ted t ha t t he e xcava ted t r an sec t c ou ld b e d iv ided i n to f ou r z ones . T he ma in a r eas f or f l in t p rocuremen t w ere t he w es t e ar thwork o f t he C ursus a nd a w ider

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z one t o t he e as t o f t h is monumen t where n odu les c ou ld h ave b een t aken f r om t he c lay -w i th -f l in ts . T he more s he l tered g round j us t i ns ide t he s ame e a r thwork c on ta ined t he w ides t v a r ie ty o f r e touched t oo ls a nd i nc luded a l l t h ree o f t he p i ts . B y c on t ras t , t he h ighes t g round e nc losed b y t he C ur sus c on ta ined a n u nusua l n umber o f s ma l l b roken f l akes b u t d id n o t i nc lude many i mp lemen ts . A lready i t s eemed a s i f t he i n ter ior o f t he C ur sus h ad b een u sed i n a r a the r d i f fe ren t w ay f rom t he a rea t o i t s e as t ( any e x tens ion o f t he s i te t o t he w es t w a s p reven ted b y aP le is tocene r i ver c l if f ) . T he o ther t ypes o f i nforma t ion r a ised s ome p rob lems . T he d is t r ibu t ions o f p o t tery a nd b one c ou ld n o t b e c on s idered b ecause t he f i l l ings o f a l l b u t o ne o f t he s ubso i l f ea tu res w ere d eca lc if ied a nd l i t t le h ad s urv ived . Mo re c ou ld b e made o f t he d is t r ibu t ion o f p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty v a lues , b u t t he mos t o bv ious r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he t wo i n f ac t p roved t o b e d ecep t ive . A t f i rs t t here a peared t o b e a c omp lemen tary r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he a reas o f e nhanced p hospha te a nd t hose w i th h igher magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty . T o s ome e x ten t t he b urn t f l in t was f ound i n t he a rea w i th h igher magne t ic v a lues , b u t n o s pec if ica l ly a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l ma tched t he d is t r ibu t ion o f t he h igher p hospha te r ead ings . I n f ac t t he p hospha te a nd magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty v a lues v a r ied a s a f unc t ion o f t he t ype o f s ubso i l r ecorded when t he s amp les w ere c o l lec ted , b u t a t t he s ame t ime t he a ppa ren t l ack o f a n thropogen ic i nf luence i s e n t ire ly c on s is ten t w i th t he r e la t ive ly l ow l eve l o f a c t iv i ty s ugges ted b y t he d ens i ty o f l i th ic a r tefac ts a nd b y mo l luscan a na lys is o f c on tempora ry l eve ls i n t he C u rsus d i tch ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R icha rd s , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 3 ) . A s econd p rob lem i s t ha t wh i ls t t here i s a g enera l a g reemen t b e tween t he a reas w i th h igher magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty a nd t hose w i th more b u rn t f l in t , t he l a t ter w ere o f u nknown d a te . A l though b o th d is tr ibu t ions g enera l ly ma tched t hose o f N eo l i th ic i mp lemen ts , t h is was n o t e nough t o s o lve t he p rob lem . I t was h ere t ha t t he ' w indows ' p rov ided b y t he s ubso i l f ea tu res w e re s o u sefu l . C ons iderab le amb igu i ty r esu l ted f rom t he d i scovery o f E a r ly I r on Age p o t te ry i n t he l ower l eve ls o f t he p loughso i l a nd e ven a t t he b a se o f a n a tura l g u l ly w i th in t he e xcava ted t r ansec t . T hese l ayers c on ta ined l a rge amoun ts o f b urn t f l in t b u t t hey a l so c on ta ined N eo l i th ic a r tefac ts wh ich w e re o bv ious ly r es idua l . I n t he e ven t w e c ou ld s how t ha t t he I r on A ge l eve l s ea led t he s econda ry f i l l ing o f t he e as t C u rsus d i tch whe re l a rge n umber s o f b u rn t f l in ts w ere f ound w i th N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l . A l though s ome o f t he b u rn t f l in ts i n t he p loughso i l c ou ld s t i l l b e o f I r on Age o r ig in , t he ir s t r ik ing ly c ompac t d is tr ibu t ion s ugges ts o therw ise . T he l a s t p rob lem w as i n r e la t ing t he b u rn t f l in t d is t r ibu t ion t o t he r e su l ts o f magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty s urvey . A l though t hey d id s how a g enera l s im i la r i ty , i t was a l so c l ea r t ha t s o me o f t he h igher magne t ic v a lues e x tended i n to t he c en t re o f t he Cursus , where b urn t f l in ts w ere a bsen t . T h is m igh t b e e xp la ined b y t he f ac to r s wh ich l e ad t o t he p reserva t ion o f t hese t wo t ypes o f e v idence . B urn t f l in ts a r e e ssen t ia l ly p or tab le o b jec ts , l i ke p o t tery o r l i th ic d eb i tage , wh i ls t t he h igher magne t ism i s f i xed i n t he s o i l i t se lf b y i n s i tu b u rn ing ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R icha rds , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) . I n f ac t t h ere i s s o me e v idence t ha t t h is p a r t o f t he s i te ( t he mos t p rom inen t p o in t o n t he h i l l top ) h ad b een u sed i n tens ive ly a nd k ep t c l ean . I t w as p rec ise ly t he s ame a rea wh ich c on ta ined s uch a h igh p ropor t ion o f s ma l l b roken f l akes a nd s uch a l ow p ropo r t ion o f i mp lemen ts . T h is i s e xac t ly wha t w e w ou ld e xpec t t o f ind o n a n i n tens ive ly u sed s urface f rom wh ich d ebr is h ad b een c l ea red a way , t he s ma l l b roken p ieces b e ing t hose wh ich h ad b een t r odden i n to t he

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s ubso i l ( c f . S ch if fe r 1 983 , 6 79 -80 ) . P erhaps t h e h igh d en s i t ies o f wo rked a nd b urn t f l in ts d owns lope f rom t h is a r ea h ad b een a ugmen ted b y t h is p rocess ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R icha rds , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) . H av ing a t temp ted t o a ccoun t f o r t he d i s t r ibu t ions o f o ther t ypes o f e v idence , i t i s r eassur ing t o l ook a ga in a t t h e d i s t inc t ion s s ugges ted i n J u l ie G a rd ine r 's a na lys is o f t he worked f l in t ( Gard iner 1 985) a nd i n p ar t icu la r t o r e turn t o t he p a t tern ing s ugges ted i n p re -excava t ion a na lys is ( F igure 2 ) . Aga in , t he re i s n o n eed t o g o i n to d e ta i l s i nce t h e l i th ic a s semb lage h a s b een p ub l ished . I t w i l l s uff ice t o s ay t ha t t he d iv is ions s ugges ted o n t he b as is o f magne t ic s uscep t ib i l i ty a nd b urn t f l in t d i s tr ibu t ions a gree f a ir ly w e l l w i th t he z on ing o f t h e s i te s ugges ted b y G a rd iner . E ven t h e a ppa ren t a noma ly c r ea ted b y t h e p hospha te d i s tr ibu t ion s eems t o r esu l t f r om s amp l ing a n a r ea o f v ar iab le s ubso i l . I t i s r eassur ing t ha t t he s urface f i nds f rom t he Dorse t C ursus w ere s o r epresen ta t ive o f t he b roader c on ten ts o f t he p loughso i l , b u t much o f t he d e ta i l i n o ur i n terpre ta t ion c an o n ly b e a pp l ied more w ide ly b ecause e xcava t ion was d es igned s pec if ica l ly t o t est t he v a l id i ty o f o ur i n i t ia l p ro jec t ions . I ndeed , w i thou t c lose e xam ina t ion o f t he l i th ic t e chno logy a c ross t he s i te , a nd o f t he a l l i mpor tan t f orma t ion p rocesses i n t he c en t ra l a r ea o f t he C ursus , t here wou ld b e l i t t le p rospec t o f u s ing t h is i n forma t ion t o g ood e f fec t . A s i t i s , w e c an s ugges t t ha t t h e d i s t inc t ive s urface f i nds r ecogn ised o n t h is p ar t icu la r s i te r epresen t o n ly a b iassed s amp le o f wha t w as p robab ly o ccupa t ion d ebr is . We c an a l so s ay t ha t t he s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t he s i te w as d e term ined t o s ome e x ten t b y t he p r io r e x is tence o f t he C u r sus . T he e a r thworks may h ave b een i n d i s repa ir b u t t h ey d o s eem t o h ave d iv ided a n e ssen t ia l ly d omes t ic a r ea f r om o ne w i th a s t ronger i ndus tr ia l c omponen t . T h is s pec if ic c onc lus ion i s mos t r e levan t t o t he a rchaeo logy o f C ranborne C hase , b u t t he me thods emp loyed i n t h is e xcava t ion may b e o f w ider i n te res t . F o r t ha t r eason w e c an c onc lude b y emphas is ing t h e t h ree ma in l e ssons o f t h is c ase s t udy : 1 . I t s eems w or thwh i le t o s t ress t h e s pa t ia l a spec i o f l i th ic s ca t te r s a nd t o make t hem t he ma in f ocus o f o u r f i e ldwork . T h is i s wor th d o ing , n o t o n ly b ecause t hey a re ' s i tes ' w i th a m iss ing d imens ion , b u t a l so b ecause e xper ience s hows t ha t l a rge s ca le e xcava t ion f or s ubso i l f ea tu res r a re ly p rov ides much i n s igh t i n to t he c ha rac ter o f s e t t lemen t . 2 . I t s eems e ssen t ia l t o c a r ry o u t a f u l l r ange o f a na lyses o n t he s ur face e v idence b efore a ny e xcava t ion i s u nder taken a nd e ven b efore a r tefac ts a r e r e moved f rom t he s i te . By c omb in ing a r tefac tua l , g eophys ica l a nd g eochem ica l a na lyses i t may b e p oss ib le t o d i rec t e xcava t ion t owards e luc ida t ing t he s pa t ia l s t ruc ture o f p a r t icu la r s ca t ters . One w ay o f a ch iev ing t h is i s t o u se e xcava t ion t o t e s t i n terpre ta t ion s b ased o n s urface d a ta . T h is may b es t b e a ch ieved i f s ubso i l f ea tu res a r e u sed s imp ly t o p rov ide ' w indows ' where a rchaeo log ica l d epos i ts a re b e t ter p reserved . 3 . E xcava t ion i s n eeded i n o rder t o u nders tand t he f orma t ion p rocesses wh ich l i e b eh ind t he b road p a t tern ing a pparen t i n t he s urface e v idence . On ly b y o b ta in ing u n iform s amp les o f t he ma ter ia l i n a nd u nder t he p loughso i l c an s pa t ia l a na lys is a l so b e i n tegra ted w i th t he e xam ina t ion o f l i th ic t e chno logy o n wh ich p rogress i n s e t t lemen t s t ud ies d epends .

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Acknowledge ments I n a dd i t ion t o t he s pec ia l is ts n amed e a r l ier , Ia m g ra tefu l t o Ma r t in G reen f or mak ing t he e xcava t ion p oss ib le . T he w ork w as f i nanced b y g ran ts f r om t he P reh is to r ic S oc ie ty a nd t he Dorse t A rchaeo log ica l C omm i t tee . T he f i gure d raw ings a re b y Ma r t in C ook .

B ibliography AM MER MAN , A .J . 1 985 . P low -zone e xpe r imen ts i n C a lab r ia , I t a ly , J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 , 3 3 -40 . BRADLEY , R . , CLEAL , R . , GARD INER , J . , LEGGE , A . , RAY MOND , F .a nd THO MAS , J . 1 984a . S amp le e xcava t ion o n t he Dorse t C ursus , 1 984 : p re l im ina ry r epor t , P roceed ings o f t he Dorse t Na tura l H is tory a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety 1 06 , 1 28 -132 . BRADLEY , R . , CLEAL , R . , GARD INER , J . , GREEN , M . a nd BO WDEN , M . 1 984b . T he N eo l i th ic S equence i n C ranborne C hase , i n B rad ley , R . a nd G a rd iner , J . ( ed i to rs ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , 1 33 ) , 8 7-105 . GARD INER , J . 1 985 . I n tras i te p a t tern ing i n t he f l in t a ssemb lage f r om t he Dorse t C ursus , 1 984 , P roceed ings o f t he Dorset Natura l H is tory a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 1 07 , 8 7 -93 . H IETALA , H .J . ( ed i tor ) 1 984 . I n tras i te S pa t ia l A na lys is i n A rchaeo logy , N ew D irec t ions i n A rchaeo logy , ( Cambr idge , Un iver s i ty P ress ) . K INT IGH , K .W . a nd AM MER MAN , A .J . 1 982 . H eur is t ic a pproaches t o s pa t ia l a na lys is i n a rchaeo logy , Amer ican A nt iqu i ty 4 7 , 3 1-63 . S CH IFFER , M .B . 1 983 . T oward t he i den t if ica t ion o f f orma t ion p rocesses , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 , 6 75 -706 . WHALLON , R . 1 973 . S pa t ia l a na lys is o f o ccupa t ion f l oo rs 1 : t he a pp l ica t ion o f d imens iona l a na lys is o f v a r iance , Amer ican A nt iqu i ty 3 8 , 2 66 -278 . WHALLON , R . 1 974 . S pa t ia l a na lys is o f o ccupa t ion f l oo r s 2 : t he a pp l ica t ion o f n eares t n e ighbor a na lys is , Amer ican An t iqu ity 3 9 , 1 6 -34 . W HALLON , R . 1 984 . Uncons t ra ined c lus ter ing f or t he a na lys is o f s pa t ia l d is tr ibu t ions i n a rchaeo logy , i n H ie ta la , H .J . ( ed i tor ) I ntras i te S pat ia l Ana lys is i n A rchaeology , N ew D irec t ions i n A rchaeo logy , ( Cambr idge , Un ivers i ty P ress ) , 2 42 -277 .

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5 . T a les

o f t he Unexpec ted : Approaches I nterpre tat ion o f Museum

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t he A ssessment Co l lect ions

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J u l ie G a rd iner I n a p rev ious p aper ( Gard iner 1 984 ) , t he s t ra tegy o f t he a u thor 's wo rk c oncern ing t he p a t tern o f p reh is tor ic e xp lo i ta t ion o f a l a rge a rea o f s ou thern E ng land w as o u t l ined . T here , t he emphas is was p laced o n p re l im inary r esu lts o f t he s t ud ies : t he p resen t p aper e xp lores f u r ther t h e methods u t i l ised i n t h e s u rvey . More d e ta i led r e su l t s w i l l b e p resen ted i n t h e a u thor 's f or thcom ing d oc tora l t hes is . One o f t he more v a l id a ims o f l i th ic a na lys is i s t he e va lua t ion o f f ac tors wh ich i n f luence b o th t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s t ruck s t one a nd , b y e x ten s ion , t h e l oca t ion o f p reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty o n a r eg iona l s ca le . T he f ac tors m igh t b e n a tu ra l -s o i l t ypes , l oca t ions o f r e sources e t c . -o r c u l tu ra l -t h e s i t ing o f i mpor tan t monumen ts f or e xamp le ( i b id . , 1 5) . Var ious f i e ldworkers h ave a t tempted t o a ch ieve t hese a ims b y u nder tak ing f resh f i e ldwa lk ing p rogrammes ( eg Woodwa rd 1 978 ; F ord , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 8 ) , s o me t imes s uppor ted b y e xcava t ion ( eg T ing le , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 7 ) . I t h as b een t he a im o f t he a u tho r 's s t udy t o e xp lore t h e p o ten t ia l o f t he many t hou sands o f p ieces o f s t ruck s t one wh ich h ave l a in u nd is tu rbed i n museum v au l ts ; l i ke t h e u ndead , t hey c anno t b e l a id t o r e s t , y e t t hey a r e u nab le t o c on t r ibu te t o t he c on tempora ry d eba te . T he n eed f or e xam ina t ion o f t h ese c o l lec t ion s s t ems f r om t h e r ea l isa t ion t ha t t he v as t ma jo r i ty o f a r tefac tua l e v idence f or Meso l i th ic -Ea r ly B ronze Age a c t iv i ty i n s ou thern E ng land c omes f r om s urface f l in t s ca t ter s a nd n o t f r om b ur ia l mounds a nd o ther monumen ta l s i tes wh ich h ave t r ad i t iona l ly p rov ided t he f ocus f or e xcava t ion . I n t h is p aper w e a re c once rned w i th a ssess ing t he i nheren t b iases i n t he c o l lec t ions a nd t he r e l iab i l i ty o f p rovenanc ing a nd c o l lec t ion me thods o f t he i nd iv idua ls c oncerned . I t s e ts o u t t o d emons t ra te t ha t many o f t he p rob lems e ncoun tered c an e i the r b e o ve rcome o r , a t l eas t , s a t isfac tor i ly t aken i n to a ccoun t a nd t ha t s uf f ic ien t u sefu l i n fo rma t ion c an b e o b ta ined f o r c ompa ra t ive s t ud ies t o b e made . T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h is p aper i s c oncerned w i th t he v ery b as ics - h ow t o p roceed f r om o pen ing a b ox o f f l in ts t o a p os i t ion where o ne c an a c tua l ly b eg in t o s t udy i t s c on ten t s . T h is , h owever , i s n o t a manua l f o r d o i t -you r se lf f l in t a na lys is ; s o much d epends o n t h e n a ture a nd c ond i t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l c o l lec t ions b e ing e xam ined t ha t s uch a n A -B-C g u ide i s i mposs ib le . I n f ac t , t h is p ape r h as p roved v e ry d i f f icu l t t o w r i te a nd b y n o m ean s c overs a l l t h e p oss ib i l i t ies n or p rov ides a l l t he a nswers . N eve r the less , a l l t he s ugges ted m e thod s o t r e sea rch h ave b een a dop ted , a t s ome s t age , b y t he a u thor w i th v ary ing d egrees o f s uccess . I t i s r a re ly a q u ick o r s t ra igh tforwa rd p rocess ; s imp ly i den t ify ing , c oun t ing a nd c ommen t ing i s n o t e nough , f or t here i s a g rea t d ea l o f d e tec t ive work n eeded b efore i n terpre t ing t he ma ter ia l c an b eg in . L a ter , w ays w i l l b e s ugges ted i n wh ich t he n ex t s t ep may b e a pproached , b y o u t l in ing a b as ic s ys tem f o r r eco rd ing a nd a s sess ing s ur face

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i n

t h is

T he a ssessmen t o f t he v a lue a nd p o ten t ia l o f museum c o l lec t ions o f s t ruck s tone ( a l mos t e n t ire ly f l in t i n t he a u thor 's s tudy a rea ) i s v ery much a d e tec t ive s t ory . I t s p lo t b eg in s w i th a mys ter ious p i le o f a nc ien t s t one o b jec t s d eep i n t he v au l ts o f a n E ng l ish museum ; i t s l ead ing c harac ter i s a n i nqu is i t ive a rchaeo log is t l ook ing f o r a nswer s t o a f ew q ues t ion s . Where d id t hese o b jec ts c ome f rom? Who p u t t hem t here a nd when? Wha t d id t hey mean? T o b eg in w i th t he re s eem t o b e f ew c lues : ad a te o n a d us ty b ox ; a p iece o f p aper w i th a c oup le o f n ames w r i t ten i n f aded i nk , o ne p robab ly a p erson , t he o ther p erhaps a p lace ; a c ryp t ic e n try i n a r eg is ter w i th a n umber - n o th ing more . How c ou ld t he a rchaeo log is t f i nd o u t wha t s he w an ted t o k now? Wou ld t h e a n swe r b e 4 2? Whe re t o b eg in 7 T h is s cena r io , o r s ome th ing l i ke i t , w as p layed o u t b y t he a u thor o n v ery many o ccas ions d ur ing t hree y ears s pen t work ing i n museum c e l lars a t temp t ing t o i den t ify , c a ta logue a nd i n terpre t t he c on ten ts o f d ozens o f i nd iv idua l c o l lec t ions o f s u rface f l in twork . T he v as t ma jor i ty o f t h is ma ter ia l h ad r ece ived l i t t le o r n o a t ten t ion s ince b e ing a ccess ioned a nd s t ored ( or s imp ly r ece ived a nd d umped ) . I t s c ompos i t ion w as v i r tua l ly u nknown , i t s v o lume u nes t ima ted , i t s p rovenance o bscure a nd i t s v a lue t o a rchaeo log ica l r esearch u n tes ted . Mos t o f t hese c o l lec t ions c ame i n to b e ing d ur ing t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he n ine teen th a nd f i r s t h a lf o f t he t wen t ie th c en tur ies a nd w ere amassed b y a w ide v a r ie ty o f i nd iv idua ls , mos t o f whom h ad n o f o rma l a rchaeo log ica l t r a in ing a nd , o f ten , o n ly a l i t t le k now ledge o f t he ir s ub jec t . A s ma l l m inor i ty w e re a t a l l s ys tema t ic i n t he ir r ecovery o r r ecord ing a nd f ewer s t i l l p ub l ished t he ir f i nd ings . T he mos t i mpo r tan t , b u t a l so t he mos t d if f icu l t a nd t ime -consum ing , p a r t o f work ing w i th museum c o l lec t ions i s t he b ackg round r esearch . T he v a lue a nd n ecess i ty o f t h is r e sea rch c anno t b e o ve r -emphas ised . I t i s a v ery v a l id c r i t is ism t ha t e x is t ing c o l lec t ions a re h eav i ly b iased a nd p oor ly p rovenanced a nd t hey c er ta in ly c anno t b e t aken a t f ace v a lue . I t i s o n ly b y a dop t ing a more o b l ique a pproach a nd e xp lor ing e very a venue o f i nforma t ion a va i lab le t ha t s uch ma ter ia l c an s uccessfu l ly b e r ecorded , r e l iab ly p rovenanced a nd i t s s t reng ths a nd w eaknesses a ssessed . Dur ing t he a u thor 's own p er iod o f wo rk , f or e very d ay s pen t a c tua l ly h and l ing f l in t i n a museum , a t l e as t f i ve d ays w ere n eeded f o r b ackground r e sea rch . T here i s n o e asy w ay r ound t he p rob le ms p resen ted b y t h is ma ter ia l - i t h as n o t b een s ys tema t ica l ly r ecovered b y t ra ined a rchaeo log is ts emp loy ing t he mos t u pto-da te me thodo logy a nd n o r s hou ld i t b e e xpec ted t o p rov ide t he s ame amoun t o r l eve l o f t echn ica l i nforma t ion . We mus t b eg in b y a ccep t ing t ha t t here a re l im i ta t ions a nd t hen p roceed t h rough a n a t temp t t o d ef ine t hose l im i ta t ions u n t i l w e a r r ive a t a p os i t ion where w e c an b eg in t o e s tab l ish j us t wha t k ind a nd l eve l o f i n forma t ion w e c an h ope t o o b ta in . Museu m P roble ms T he f i rs t p rob le ms t o c ons ider r e la te t o t he museum h o ld ing a f l in t c o l lec t ion . Many c o l lec t ion s w i l l h ave c ome i n to t he museum a s b eques ts o r d ona t ions f rom l oca l ' ama teurs ' ; many w i l l h ave b een t here f o r 5 0 y ear s o r mo re . P rob lems a r ise o n t wo l eve ls . I n t he f i r s t p lace w e mus t c on s ider t he l eve l o f r ecord ing made a t t he t ime t ha t t he ma ter ia l w as d epos i ted - h ow much w r i t ten o r v erba l i n forma t ion a ccompan ied i t ? H ow , a nd u nder wha t c ond i t ions , was t he ma ter ia l s t ored? On t he s econd l eve l w e mus t a l so a sk :

5 0

wha t h as h appened t o b o th t he f l in t a nd u nder wha t c ond i t ions i s i t n ow s t o red?

t he

r ecords

s ince ,

a nd

where

a nd

T o t ake t he f orme r g roup o f q ues t ion s f i rs t -t he l eve l o f r eco rd ing d epends l a rge ly o n t he i n teres t a nd k now ledge o f b o th t he c o l lec tor a nd t he c u ra tor . C o l lec t ions amassed b y k een l oca l ' ama teurs ' may w e l l h ave c on s iderab le d ocumen ta t ion . T he b es t o f t hem may a c tua l ly b e i nd iv idua l ly marked b u t more l i ke ly t he re w i l l b e w r i t ten r ecords , p erhaps l e t ters t o a nd f rom t he museum a nd /or s pec ia l is ts a nd p oss ib ly s ke tch maps . S ome ma te r ia l may a l so b e p ub l ished . S ad ly , s uch t horoughness i s r are . More o f ten a c tua l ' r ecord ing ' i s d one b y t he museum s t af f o n t he b as is o f w r i t ten o r v erba l d esc r ip t ion s ; b oxes may b e ma rked w i th a ' s i te ' n ame , b u t n o more ; a ccess ion r eg is ters u sua l ly c on ta in a b a re m in imum o f i n forma t ion a nd d ocumen ta t ion i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een r emoved f rom t he f l in t i t se lf a nd s t ored s epa ra te ly . Mo re o f ten t han n o t , f l in t w as s t ored i n t he o r ig ina l c on ta iner s i n wh ich i t w as d epos i ted ; i ndeed s ome o f t he f ines t s urv iv ing c o l lec t ions o f a n t ique c igare t te b oxes , Oxo t i ns a nd b iscu i t b ar re ls r es ide i n museum f l in t s to res . Obv ious p rob le ms a r ise h ere where l abe ls h ave b een a t tached t o s uch c on ta iners w i th s t icky t ape , wh ich p ee ls o f f , o r h ave b een w r i t ten o n t he e x ter io r a nd f aded . Mo re s e r ious a re c ases where f l in t h a s b een l e f t i n p aper b ags a nd r e levan t i nforma t ion w r i t ten o n ly o n t he b ags wh ich h ave l ong s ince d is in tegra ted . S ome t imes , o n t he d ea th o f a n a v id f l in t c o l lec tor , h i s w idow ( nea r ly a l l t he ' o ld ' c o l lec tor s s eem t o h ave b een men ) w i l l h ave p resen ted h i s c o l lec t ion t o t he l oca l museum . H opefu l ly s he w i l l a l so h ave p assed o n a ny n o tebook s , e t c . , b u t o ccas iona l ly s he may h ave h anded o ver o n ly t he b es t p ieces a nd e i the r t h rown a way t he r ema inder o r h anded i t o n t o f r iends o r f am i ly . I n o ne p a r t icu la r c ase t he ' f r iend ' t o whom ma ter ia l h ad b een p assed w as s t i l l a l ive i n 1 982 when t he a u thor w as a b le t o v i s i t h im , n o t o n ly t o e xam ine t he r es t o f t he c o l lec t ion , b u t a l so t o d i scuss t he wo rk o f t he o r ig ina l c o l lec to r a nd h i s c o l leagues . T he s e lec t ive n a tu re o f many o f t he museum c o l lec t ions i s , o f c ourse , o ne o f t he ma jo r h eadaches i nvo lved i n h and l ing t h is ma ter ia l . T he r ecen t h is tory o f c o l lec t ions i s a l so i mpor tan t . S ome museums h ave e ngaged i n a p o l icy o f r ebox ing , r e-record ing a nd s tor ing t he ir o ld c o l lec t ion s . S ome , s uch a s B a rb ican House , L ewes , a nd t he v a r ious H ampsh ire C oun ty Museum S e rv ice e s tab l ishmen ts , h ave d one t h is e x t reme ly w e l l , f rom t he p o in t o f v iew o f t he r e sea rcher , b u t i n o ther c ases i t h as b een d i sas t rous . A f ew museums h ave s imp ly t h rown o u t , o r h eaped t oge ther i n a n o u thouse , who le c o l lec t ions wh i ls t o thers h ave o p ted f or t he emp loymen t o f n on s pec ia l is ts t o r ebox a nd c a ta logue . One museum v i s i ted s ugges ted work ing o n ly f rom t he n ew c a ta logue b ecause t he f l in ts w ere r a ther d i f f icu l t t o g e t a t , b u t t he f i rs t d ozen e n t r ies u nde r ' Meso l i th ic a xes ' w ere c omp le te ly p o l ished . Ano ther b as t ion o f B r i t ish a rchaeo logy h as d iv ided i t s c o l lec t ions o s tens ib ly b y p er iod a nd r e lega ted t he Meso l i th ic t o a n o u ts ta t ion s ome m i les a way . S ad ly , t he a ss ignmen t o f ma ter ia l t o p er iod s eems t o b e l a rge ly a rb i t ra ry s o t ha t o ne i s o b l iged t o u nwrap t he c on ten t s o f t he Meso l i th ic s t o re i n o rder t o l oca te t he N eo l i th ic . T he mora l o f t he s t o ry i s n o t t o t ake c a ta logues a t f ace v a lue a nd t o i n s is t o n i n spec t ing a l l a va i lab le f l in two rk p ersona l ly . I t i s n o t t he i n ten t ion t o make s weep ing c r it is isms h ere - many e s tab l ishmen ts s imp ly d o n o t h ave t he r esources o r t he manpowe r t o d ea l w i th • t he ir o ld c o l lec t ions , p a r t icu lar ly s ince s o f ew r e searcher s h ave e ver s hown much i n teres t i n t he m . T he i mpor tance o f t he museum ' e nv ironmen t '

5 1

h as b een s t ressed , h owever , b ecause much t ime a nd e nergy c an b e w as ted a nd much i n fo rma t ion m issed i f s uch ma t ter s a s t hose o u t l ined a bove a re n o t g iven c a refu l c ons idera t ion a t t he o u tse t . Col lect ion

P roblems

P rovenancing Accura te p rovenanc ing o f ma ter ia l i s , o f c ourse , v i ta l t o a ny d iscuss ion o f s urface f l in two rk a nd t he mos t i mpor tan t t h ing when a c tua l ly h and l ing t he ma ter ia l i s t o g e t s o me s or t o f f i x f r om wh ich t o w o rk . T h is may b e n o more t han a p a r ish n ame b u t i t may p rove e nough . Museum r eg is ter s , c o l lec tors ' own n o tes a nd p ub l ished r ecords p resen t t he f i rs t a nd mos t o bv ious l i ne o f a t tack . C onduc t ing a l i tera ture s ea rch , h owever , s hou ld n o t o n ly mean l eaf ing t h rough n a t iona l a nd l oca l a rchaeo log ica l j ourna ls a nd monog raphs - p eop le p ub l ish f l in t i n t he mos t u n l ike ly p laces . L oca l S oc ie ty — N o tes a nd Quer ies ' a nd n ews le t ters c an b e g o ldm ines o f i nforma t ion a nd many s ma l l l oca l a n t iquar ian s oc ie t ies h ave a l so p roduced amb i t ious , i f n o t w ide ly -ava i lab le , monographs s uch a s T he V ig i l a nd t he Morrow ( S teven s 1 980 ) , wh ich p resen ts t he r e su l t s o f a s u rvey o f a n t iqu i t ies o n t he E as tbou rne Downs b y t he E as tbourne An t iqu i t ies R esearch G roup . Non -a rchaeo log ica l p ub l ica t ions may a l so c on ta in r epor ts o f f l in twork a nd o ther f i nds . On t he n a t iona l l eve l t hese may i nc lude s uch w e igh ty t omes a s t he P apers o f t he B r i t ish A cademy o r t h e Geograph ical J ourna l , o r , o n al oca l s ca le , v ar ious c oun ty magaz ines ( eg P u l l 1 935) , n on -archaeo log ica l s oc ie ty r epor ts ( perhaps a s t he r e su l t o f a n e ven ing l e c ture ) o r p a r ish magaz ines . V ica r s i n r ura l p ar ishes o f ten s eem t o h ave b een i n teres ted i n a n t iqu i t ies ; t he R everend Macdermo t t o f Bux ted i n S ussex , f or i ns tance , p ub l ished a c ha rm ing l i t t le p amph le t e n t i t led B ux ted t he B eau t ifu l ( 1929 ) i n w h ich h e d esc r ibed a nd i lus t ra ted s ome f l in ts , i nc lud ing a r rowheads , wh ich h ad b een r ecovered i n t he p a r ish a nd d i sp layed i n t he c hurch p o rch . I n a g rea t many c ases , h owever , p ub l ished i n forma t ion w i l l n o t b e a va i lab le .

Maps L oca t ing u npub l ished ma te r ia l a nd p lo t t ing a l l f i ndspo t s o n a map i s t he n ex t s t age . O rdnance S urvey maps a t 1 : 25 ,000 , 1 : 10 ,000 ( o r 1 : 10 ,560 I mpe r ia l ) , o r o ld s e r ies 1 : 2500 where a va i lab le , a re n ecessa ry f or d e ta i led wo rk . Many ' o ld ' c o l lec tors h ave c ompounded t he d if f icu l t ies b y u s ing l oca l o r f i e ld n ames wh ich may n o t a ppear o n modern maps . O lder s er ies maps a re t herefore more u sefu l , p ar t icu lar ly a ny wh ich h ave b een h e ld a nd a no ta ted , f or wha tever r easons , b y l i bra r ies a nd r ecords o f f ices . P erhaps s urpr is ing ly o ne o f t he mos t u sefu l s e ts o f maps i s t h e p re -1900 Geological S urvey s e r ies , p ub l ished a t 1i nch t o t he m i le . T heo re t ica l ly , t h ese maps s hou ld n o t c on ta in a ny more g eograph ica l i nforma t ion t han t he e qu iva len t O rdnance S urvey maps , b u t t ime a nd a ga in t he a u thor w as a b le t o l oca te f i ndspo ts o n t he g eo logy maps wh ich c ou ld n o t b e i den t if ied o n t he c on temporary O rdnance S u rvey . A c ase i n p o in t c oncern s a g roup o f p robab ly E a r ly N eo l i th ic f l in twork , wh ich i nc luded a n umber o f u nf in ished l eaf a r rowheads , f r om t he g arden o f a h ouse c a l led ' P incham ' . T h is ma ter ia l b e longed t o t he Curwen c o l lec t ion a nd was , t herefore , e xpec ted t o h ave c ome f rom s omewhe re o n t he E as t S ussex Down s . ' P incham ' c ou ld n o t b e f ound b u t b ackground r esea rch r evea led t ha t t he h ouse h ad f ormer ly b een k nown a s ' Pomona ' a nd h ad b een d emo l ished i n t he 1 920s . ' Pomona ' a ppea rs o n t he r e levan t 1 898 G eo log ica l S u rvey map i n a n i s o la ted p os i t ion b e tween B eachy H ead a nd N ewhaven . I n teres t ing ly , i t l i es c . 4 00 m f rom a c lose ly s im i lar

5 2

g roup o f ma ter ia l , r ecorded .

a l so

r ecove red

b y

t he

C urwens ,

whose

e xac t

p os i t ion

i s

Many f orme r ly r ura l l oca t ions w i l l , b y n ow , h ave d i sappea red u nde r u rban d eve lopmen t . O ld maps a re o bv ious ly v a luab le i n t r ac ing s o me o f t hese b u t t here a re o ther s ou rces o f i nforma t ion . F requen t ly , f i nds a re a c tua l ly made d ur ing d eve lop men t . T he T a lbo t e s ta te i n Bourne mou th , f or i ns tance , f ormer ly a n a rea o f w ood land a nd h ea th , w as d eve loped d ur ing t he 1 930s a nd l oca l e n thus ias ts H erber t D ru i t t a nd B ernard C a lk in r ecovered many r e touched p ieces . I n t h ese c ases s t ree t maps , t own g u ides , K e l ly 's d i rec to r ies a nd t he E s ta te P ub l ica t ions R ed B ook C oun ty s er ies amongs t o ther s may b e c on su l ted .

A ssess ing t he c o l lec tor s Apa r t f rom t he l ack o f a ccu ra te p rovenanc ing , t he b igges t c r i t is ism l eve l led a t museum c o l lec t ions i s t ha t o f b ia s -t he s e lec t ive n a ture o f t he ma te r ia l a nd t he o ver -represen ta t ion o f l a rge , p o l ished a nd f ine ly -wo rked p ieces a t t he e xpense o f t he more mundane a nd l e ss e as i ly r ecogn ised . T here i s n o a vo id ing t h is p rob lem , b u t t here a re t wo ma in a venues o f a pproach i n c om ing t o t e rm s w i th i t . One i s t o e xam ine t he f l in t i t se lf ( no t y e t i n t e rms o f d e ta i led c ompos i t ion ) a nd t he o ther i s t o f i nd o u t a s much a s p oss ib le a bou t t he c o l lec to rs t hemse lves . I n e xam in ing t he f l in t a t t h is s t age , w e n eed t o l ook f o r a ny i nd ica t ions t ha t w e a re d ea l ing w i th a m ixed a s semb lage - m ixed i n t he s en se t ha t i t h as n o t a l l c ome f r om t he s ame p lace r a ther t han m ixed i n t e rms o f d a t ing - o r w i th a d ub ious p rovenance . F or i ns tance , ma ter ia l s a id t o h ave c ome f rom a s andh i l l 5 0 km f ro m t he n ea res t s ource o f c ha lk f l in t , b u t c ompr is ing a s e lec t ion o f h uge , wh i te -pa t ina ted c ores a nd b roken r oughou t a xes s hou ld a rouse s usp ic ions . T he t ype o f f l in t , i n r e la t ion t o where i t i s s upposed t o h ave b een f ound , i t s c ond i t ion , a nd p a t ina t ion t oge ther w i th t he r ange o f f orms p resen t s hou ld b e t aken i n to c ons idera t ion - t he p oss ib i l i ty o f f orger ies s hou ld n o t b e o ver looked e i ther . T he r ea l d if f icu l ty o f ten l i es i n n o t k now ing wha t w e a r e l ook ing a t -i s i t a c o l lec t ion made b y a d ed ica ted ama teu r r epea ted ly v i s i t ing t he s ame s i te , o r t he r esu l ts o f a S unday a f ternoon s t ro l l? H ad t he i nd iv idua l p icked u p a l l t ha t h e s aw o r j us t a s e lec t ion a nd d id h e e ven k now wha t h e w as l ook ing f o r? H ad h e s imp ly s po t ted s ome i n teres t ing s t ones a nd ' t hough t t hey m igh t b e s o me th ing '? E ven i f a l l t he ma ter ia l i s ma rked a s c om ing f r om o ne p lace , d oes t h is mean t ha t i t w as a l l f r om o ne f i e ld o r h i l ls ide , o r s ca t tered i n t ha t g ene ra l a rea? T he a nswers t o t hese q ues t ion s may n ever b e p rec ise b u t b y f i nd ing o u t a l i t t le a bou t t he i nd iv idua ls i nvo lved w e may o b ta in a c l earer u nderstand ing . I nev i tab ly , f or many c o l lec tors t here w i l l b e n o a va i lab le i nforma t ion b u t f or tuna te ly , where c o l lec t ions a re l a rge a nd p a r t icu la r ly i f p u t t oge ther b y k een members o f t he l oca l An t iqua r ian s oc ie ty much c an b e l ea rned . Aga in , l oca l j ou rna ls , n o tes a nd n ews le t te rs a re a g ood s t a r t ing p o in t a nd o b i tua r ies c an b e p ar t icu lar ly i nforma t ive . Ac tua l p ub l ished r epor ts b y t hese i nd iv idua ls c an p rov ide s ome i nd ica t ion a s t o t he ir t ho roughness i n r ecovery a nd a b i l i t ies a nd f ur ther i n s igh t i n to g enera l c ha rac ter c an b e g a ined f rom r ead ing r epor t s o f l oca l s oc ie ty mee t ings . O ccas iona l ly t oo , t he c on ten ts o f a c o l lec t ion w i l l b e p ub l ished b y s omeone e l se ( cf . f or i n s tance , Ho lden a nd

5 3

R oe 1 974 ) . J . B e rna rd C a lk in 's a ccoun t s o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age i n t he Bournemou th a rea w ere b ased o n t he c on ten t s o f t he D ru i t t c o l lec t ion i n t he R ed House Museum , C h r is tchurch ( Ca lk in 1 951 , 1 962 , 1 966 ) . Ano ther l i ne o f a pproach i s t o s eek o u t a nd t a lk t o f ormer f r iends a nd c o l leagues , a nd t o museum s t af f ( whe ther s t i l l s erv ing o r r e t ired ) w ho a c tua l ly k new o r w orked w i th t he c o l lec tors . T he c ura tor o f o ne museum v i s i ted b y t he a u thor h ad b een i n -pos t f or 6 2 y ea rs , h av ing f ounded t ha t e s tab l ishmen t a s a p r iva te museum , a nd k new t he h is to ry o f e very p iece i n i t a nd e veryone who h ad c on tr ibu ted t o i t . An e lder ly g en t leman i n B r igh ton who h ad d ug a t B lackpa tch i n 1 928 -9 r e membered t ha t t he e xcava tor , J ohn P u l l , f ound s o many r oughou t a xes t ha t h e g ave l a rge n umbe rs o f t hem a way t o v i s i tor s . Conversa t ions w ith modern c o l lec tors a nd l andowners c an a l so b e i n s truc t ive , i n t e rms o f t he ir own c o l lec t ing h ab i ts a nd o bserva t ion s . T h is c an b e p ar t icu lar ly h e lpfu l i n a reas worked b y e ar l ier c o l lec tors , a nd c an a ss is t i n b u i ld ing u p a p ic tu re o f wha t m igh t h ave b een l y ing o n t he s ur face i n f ormer d ecades ( i t c an , f or i n s tance , b e p ar t icu la r ly u sefu l t o k now when a reas f i rs t c ame u nder t he p lough i n modern t imes ) . A ssess ing b iases A ssess ing t he amoun t a nd n a ture o f b ias w i th in t he i nd iv idua l g roups o f f l in twork i s a t r icky a nd i nev i tab ly s omewha t s ub jec t ive b us iness . I n mos t c ases t he g enera l l eve l o f b ias i s f a ir ly o bv ious - f ew c ores , u n re touched f l akes o r s imp le e dge -re touched p ieces a re l i ke ly t o b e i nc luded u n less t here i s s ome th ing p ar t icu la r ly s t r ik ing a bou t t hem a nd t here a re q u i te l i ke ly t o b e more p o l ished a xes t han s c raper s ! F o r tuna te ly , t h is s or t o f b ias i s e a s i ly s po t ted . I f , i n a s l igh t ly d ifferen t s i tua t ion , a n i nd iv idua l 's c o l lec t ion c on ta ins a s ma l l n umber o f a r tefac ts wh ich h ave a l l b een a s s igned t he s ame p rovenance b u t f or wh ich n o o ther i nforma t ion i s a va i lab le , t he re may b e v ery l i t t le t ha t c an b e d one w i th i t . S ome o f t he l a rge c o l lec t ions i ncorpora t ing ma ter ia l f rom a n umber o f l oca t ions c an , h owever , o f ten b e s een t o p ossess a c er ta in i n terna l c on s is tency . T o s o me e x ten t t h is r ef lec ts t he c o l lec tor 's a b i l i t ies a nd a l so h i s p ersona l i n teres ts - t he C la rke c o l lec t ion ( Ba rb ican House , L ewes ) o r t he A t tree c o l lec t ion ( Br i t ish Museum ) , f or i n s tance , c ompr ise mos t ly Meso l i th ic ma ter ia l e ven t hough b o th men worked i n a reas wh ich h ave p roduced a bundan t N eo l i th ic f l in two rk . T he C urwen c o l lec t ion ( Ba rb ican House ) d oes h ave a b ias t owards a xes a nd a r rowheads b u t e xamp les o f v i r tua l ly e very t ype k nown a re p resen t a nd w ere t herefo re r ecogn ised ; a t l e as t o ne e xamp le o f e very t ype r ecovered f r om a g iven l oca t ion s eems t o h ave b een k ep t . One c anno t b e o ne h und red p ercen t s ure o f t h is , b u t a s w e s ha l l s ee b e low t here a re ways a round t ha t p rob lem t oo . T he Wi l l is c o l lec t ion , h e ld b y t he H ampsh ire Coun ty Museum S erv ice , i s a l so o ne o f t he more r e l iab le c o l lec t ion s . V as t amoun ts o f f l in twork w e re r ecovered f r om o ver 5 0 l oca t ion s i n t he B as ings toke a rea a nd t here i s a v ery w ide r ange o f f orms r epresen ted . T here a re n o o bv ious b iases t owards p ar t icu lar t ypes b u t t here i s a p ecu l ia r i ty r e la t ing t o s crapers . T he amoun t o f ma ter ia l f r om e ach l oca t ion v a r ies e normous ly f rom a me re h andfu l o f p ieces t o a s many a s 1 500 r e touched f orms . T he l a rger g roups , h owever , c on ta in b e tween 3 00 a nd 6 00 s c rapers a nd i n teres t ing ly t he q uan t i ty i s n ear ly a lways e xac t ly d iv is ib le b y 5 0 ! I t i s w i th c o l lec t ions l i ke t hose o f t he t ha t o ther , l e ss r e l iab le , ma ter ia l s hou ld

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C u rwens ( f a ther a nd s on ) a nd W i l l is b e c ompared a nd n o t w i th e xcava ted

d a ta ( s ee b e low ) . V ery o f ten k nown f l in t s i tes w i l l h ave b een v i s i ted b y s evera l i nd iv idua ls a nd t hese c o l lec t ions c an b e c ompared i n terna l ly , p a r t icu la r ly i f o ne o f t he more r e l iab le c o l lec tor s i s i nvo lved . I nd iv idua l ly , many o f t he s ma l ler c o l lec t ion s a re n o t v e ry i n forma t ive b u t , l i ke p ieces i n a j i gsaw , t hey c an o f ten b e f i t ted t oge ther t o r evea l a p a t tern . T he l a rge n umbe rs o f a xes r ecorded f r om c er ta in a r eas may b e a n o ver -represen ta t ion o f t ha t t ype i n t e rms o f a bso lu te n umbers b u t i f s uf f ic ien t ly v ar iab le ma ter ia l h as b een r ecovered , t hen i t may a l so b e p oss ib le t o s ugges t t ha t a xes a r e n ot o ve r -represen ted i n r e la t ive t e rm s . T o t ake a n e xamp le , mos t o f t h e c o l lec t ions f r om t he a r ea o f t he S ou th Down s n o r th o f B eachy H ead c on ta in v as t n umber s o f a xes , p icks a nd o ther h eavy -du ty a r tefac ts a nd i ndeed s o me c on ta in n o th ing b u t h eavy p ieces . I n c on t ras t , s eve ra l l a rge a nd r e l iab le c o l lec t ions c over ing t he s ame a rea , i nc lud ing t he C urwen c o l lec t ion , d o a l so c on ta in v ery l a rge n umbe rs o f s ma l l f l ake t oo ls o f many k inds . C lea r ly , t here i s a c on t rad ic t ion h e re . A n umber o f t he s a me c o l lec tors , i nc lud ing t he C u rwens , a l so c o l lec ted ma ter ia l f r om t he d owns n o r th o f B r igh ton b u t t he ma ter ia l f ro m t hese l oca t ions i nc luded f ar f ewer a xes a nd h eavy p ieces o vera l l a nd a much w ider r ange , a nd n umber , o f f l ake t oo ls - y e t t hese s ame c o l lec t ions a re s ub jec ted t o t he s ame b ias t owa rds a xes . E i ther t he i nd iv idua ls i nvo lved w ere i ncons is i ten t i n t he ir r ecovery a nd r ecogn i t ion i n d if fe ren t a reas o r a b road p a t te rn i s b eg inn ing t o eme rge . I n t he e nd , t he s ever i ty o f b ias i n t e rms o f i t s e f fec ts o n o ur i n terp re ta t ion d epends o n h ow much i n fo rma t ion w e e xpec t t o d er ive f rom t he s t udy o f museum c o l lec t ion s a nd h ow w e i n tend t o u se t ha t i n fo rma t ion . I f w e w ish t o k now e xac t ly wha t a c t iv i ty w as t ak ing p lace , a nd w hen , w i th in a g iven a rea , t hen w e w i l l n o t o b ta in a nswe rs f rom t h is s ou rce . L ikew ise , i f w e a re s earch ing f or i n tra -s i te a c t iv i ty p a t te rns o r t he d e ta i led s e t t lemen t h is tory o f , f or i ns tance , a p ar t icu lar b lock o f d own land , t hen w e w i l l a l so b e d i sappo in ted . On t he o ther h and t he r ecovery , h owever h aphaza rd ly , o f a t l e a s t 1 00 a xes f rom t h e s u rface o f o ne h i l ls ide a t L i t l ing ton Down , S ussex , o f a m in imum o f 8 2 a xes a nd 9 5 p icks f rom f i e ld s n ea r P opham , H an ts , o r , a ga in , o f 7 8 a r rowheads , 1 7 p iano -convex a nd d i sco ida l k n ives a nd 1 400 s c rapers f rom t he s ou th -fac ing s i de o f S torr ing ton Down , S ussex , i s s ure ly o f s ome s ign if icance i n t he o verall s cheme o f t h ings . T he c o l lec t ion o f o ther ma ter ia l a ccompany ing t hese a r tefac ts i s b la tan t ly i ncomp le te a nd p robab ly n o t who l ly r epresen ta t ive , y e t t he a r tefac ts e x is t i n l a rge q uan t i t ies a nd d ese rve n o t t o b e i gno red . I n t h is d i scuss ion I h ave t r ied t o i lus t ra te p o in t s u s ing a c tua l e xamp les f r om r e search e xper ience b u t i t mus t , t o s o me e x ten t , r ema in a bs t rac t i n a pproach -t here i s n o mer i t i n a t temp t ing t o d ef ine h a rd a nd f a s t r u les whe re n one i s a pp l icab le . T here a re , w i thou t d oub t , many f l in t c o l lec t ions t ha t c ou ld b e f a r more u sefu l ly emp loyed s evera l i nches u nder t he s urface o f t he n eares t mo torway r a ther t han c lu t ter ing u p p rec ious s t orage s pace i n t he l oca l museum b u t w e s hou ld n o t w r i te o f f a l l ma ter ia l i n t h is w ay w i thou t a t l e as t a t temp t ing t o c ome t o t e rms w i th i t s p oss ib i l i t ies a nd d if f icu l t ies . T here i s , c e r ta in ly , a g rea t d anger o f o ver s ta t ing t he v a lue o f t hese c o l lec t ions i f t hey a re n o t a pproached i n a n a ppropr ia te manne r b u t i t wou ld b e a g rea ter f o l ly t o d ism iss t hem e n t ire ly . Our a t t i tude a nd a pp roach t o s uch ma te r ia l i s v i ta l i n o b ta in ing a v a l id u nders tand ing a nd , i ndeed , s ome o f t he p rob lems c an b e r eso lved s imp ly b y a dop t ing a r e levan t a pproach . T here i s l i t t le p o in t i n i n terroga t ing o ld museum c o l lec t ions o n t he s ame l eve l a s s t ra t if ied a s semb lages f r om modern

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e xcava t ions b u t t he re i s much t o b e g a ined f r om t he s ys tema t ic e xam ina t ion a nd r eco rd ing o f t hese ' u nsys tema t ic ' c o l lec t ions . I n t h is p aper w e h ave n o t , s o f a r , b een c oncerned w i th t he d e ta i led c on ten ts o f i nd iv idua l c o l lec t ions t hey a re n o t r e levan t a t t h is s t age o f t he e nqu iry - b u t h ave c oncen t ra ted i n s tead o n t he e nv ironmen t , h i s tory a nd c on tex t o f who le c o l lec t ion s . We s ha l l n ow a ddress t he q ues t ion o f wha t t he c o l lec t ions c on ta in , w ha t k ind o f a pproach w e s hou ld a dop t i n d ea l ing w i th t hem a nd h ow t o e xam ine a nd c lass ify t hem i n o rder t o max im ise t he i nforma t ion a va i lab le . T he d e tec t ive work may b e c omp le ted b u t t h e r epor t h a s s t i l l t o b e f i led .

Compar ing o ld a nd n ew c ol lect ions We h ave s een t ha t a p ropor t ion o f t he s u rface ma ter ia l s t ored i n museums h as t he p o ten t ia l t o a dd t o t he b ody o f d a ta c o l lec ted u nder c on tempora ry f i e ldwa lk ing r eg i mes . Ma jor p rob lems a r ise , h owever , when a t temp ts a re made t o c ompa re t he c on ten ts o f s urface c o l lec t ions w i th t he r e su l ts o f modern , s ys tema t ica l ly c onduc ted , f i e ld s urvey a nd e xcava t ion a nd i n t he l a t ter p ar t o f t h is p ape r Iw i l l a l so s ugges t a me thod f or t he c la ss if ica t ion a nd a na lys is o f s urface ma ter ia l wh ich a t temp ts t o o vercome s ome o f t he d iff icu lt ies . T he p rob lems c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo p a r ts . F i r s t ly , t o a ch ieve t he d esc r ip t ion o f c hang ing p a t terns o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he l andscape w e mus t l ook a t o u r d a ta f rom a c hrono log ica l p er spec t ive . S econd ly , q ues t ions r e la ted t o t he n a ture o f t ha t e xp lo i ta t ion mus t a l so b e c on s idered . T he d a t ing o f s u rface s ca t te rs i s a p rob lem i n i t se lf , p a r t ly a ga in b ecause o f t he s e lec t ive n a ture o f mos t c o l lec t ions b u t a l so b ecause p os t -depos i t iona l f ac tors , p ar t icu lar ly r epea ted p lough ing , w i l l r e su l t i n t he t horough m ix ing o f ma ter ia l i nco rpora ted i n t he t opso i l . T h is i s a p rob lem wh ich a f fec t s a l l s urface ma te r ia l , wha tever t he c i rcum s tances o f r ecovery a nd i t s hou ld a l so a f fec t t he way i n wh ich w e a pproach a ssessmen t o f t he ma ter ia l . I t i s , f or e xamp le , p a r t icu la r ly e f fec t ive i n mask ing E a r ly N eo l i th ic f l in twork wh ich c ompr ises a r a ther n a rrow r ange o f d is t inc t ive t oo l f orms a nd wh ich may h ave b een s ub jec t t o c i rcums tances o f d epos i t ion d i f feren t f rom t hose o f l a ter ma ter ia l ( c f . H ea ly , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 2 ) . • T ab les 1 a nd 2 , whose p u rpose i s d i scussed b e low , a re d iv ided c h rono log ica l ly a nd i t may s eem t ha t t h is a l ready i n troduces a s ub jec t ive e l emen t . I n f ac t t h is i s n o t t he c ase . T he t ab les d ea l o n ly w i th r e touched i mp lemen t s ( apa r t , t ha t i s , f rom s imp le e dge -re touched f l akes a nd b lades ) s i nce mos t museum c o l lec t ions i nc lude v ery l i t t le ' was te ' . Where q uan t it ies h ave b een r ecovered , F ord 's c lass if ica t ion may b e emp loyed ( t h is v o lume , C hap ter 6 ) , b u t , i n g enera l , t he u n re touched f l ake e lemen t o f mos t museum c o l lec t ions c an b e d isrega rded a s f a r a s d a t ing i s c once rned , a l though c ores c an b e u sefu l where t hey h ave b een c o l lec ted . Where t h e r ange o f t oo ls p resen t i s l a rge ly o f a ccep ted Meso l i th ic f orms t hen T ab le 1 a pp l ies . Any a ccompany ing l a ter ma ter ia l may b e l i s ted s epara te ly a nd t r ea ted a s a s er ies o f s t ray f i nds . Where mos t ly l a te r ma ter ia l i s p resen t t hen T ab le 2 a pp l ies i n t he s ame w ay . Whe re a ssemb lages a re c l ea r ly m ixed t he Meso l i th ic a nd l a ter e l emen ts may b e s epa ra ted o u t . I n t h is c ase t he p resen t a u thor wou ld i nc lude a l l amb iguous ma ter ia l s uch a s t r anche t. a dzes ( s ee b e low) a nd s e r ra ted f l akes u nder b o th c a tegor ies f or p urposes o f d i scuss ion . T he

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p rob lems

a c tua l ly

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a r ise

d i rec t ly

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me thods o f a na lys ing f l in t a ssemb lages f rom e xcava ted s i tes . F unc t iona l a na lys is o f p loughso i l l i th ic a r tefac ts , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he l ong -p loughed e nv ironmen t o f t he a u thor 's s tudy a rea , s eems i mp laus ib le . T he r ange o f a r tefac t t ypes r ema ins a s t he o n ly ' s o l id ' ( cf . E n tw is t le a nd R icha rds , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) means b y wh ich w e c an a t temp t t o a na lyse v a r ia t ion s i n t he s or ts o f a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o u t i n p ar t icu la r a reas o f t he l andscape . E xcava ted ma ter ia l c an b e a na lysed u s ing c onven t iona l f rameworks ( by d iv id ing ma ter ia l i n to d eb i tage a nd r e touched f orms a nd d escr ib ing a nd d a t ing t he a s semb lage o n t h e b a s is o f t he s i ze a nd s hape o f t he w as te ma te r ia l a nd t he r e la t ive p ercen tages o f t oo l types p resen t ) b u t f or s urface s ca t ters , e spec ia l ly u nsys tema t ica l ly c o l lec ted s ca t ters , t h is a pp roach i s p rob lema t ic . T he e s tab l ishmen t o f a b a s ic c l ass if ica t ion o f t oo l types h a s b een a l ong a nd p a infu l p rocess , b u t a l l t he c ommon f orms a nd many o f t he more u nusua l v ar ie t ies o f f l in t a r tefac t h ave n ow b een a dequa te ly d escr ibed i n t he l i tera ture . A c er ta in amoun t o f s ub jec t iv i ty i s s t i l l i nvo lved , h owever , a nd d is t inc t ive , p robab ly r eg iona l , t ypes s t i l l h ave a n as ty h ab i t o f a ppea r ing f r om t ime t o t ime ( c f . f o r i n s tance , Manby 1 974 ; H ea ly 1 979 ; G a rd iner 1 984 ) , s o t ha t n o u n iversa l ly a ccep ted c l ass if ica t ion h as y e t b een d ev ised wh ich c an c ope w i th a l l t he p oss ib i l i t ies . N ever the less , w i th i ncreas ing ly c arefu l r ecovery me thods a nd p a r t icu la r ly w i th t he g enera l a va i lab i l i ty o f c ompu ter s of tware c apab le o f man ipu la t ing l a rge amoun ts o f c omp lex d a ta , t here h as d eve loped a t r end t owards e ver g rea ter r ef inemen t i n t he d ef in i t ion o f t oo l f orms . T here a re , f o r i n s tance , a n e ve r i nc reas ing n umber o f s craper f o rms ( I n o te mos t r ecen t ly t he emergence o f e x tended -end b u t ton s crapers : F ie ld 1 985 , f i g . 1 6 , n o . 1 9 ) ; l eaf a r rowheads o ccur i n more v a r ie t ies t han H e inz ( Green 1 980 ) , a nd m ic ro l i ths c ome i n a t r u ly b ew i lder ing p le thora o f s hapes a nd s i zes ( s ee , f or i n s tance , J acob i a nd T ebbu t t 1 98 1) . T h is v ery d e ta i led a pproach t o c lass if ica t ion c an b e r ewa rd ing i n t he a na lys is o f mu l t i -pe r iod i ndus t r ies f rom w e l l -s t ra t if ied s i tes a nd , t o a l e sser e x ten t , i n d iscuss ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f i nd iv idua l t oo l types , b u t i t i s n o t r ea l ly a ppropr ia te f or t he a na lys is o f l e ss r e l iab le a nd u n s t ra t if ied a ssemb lages . T he ma in r eason s f or t h is h ave a l ready b een o u t l ined a bove - t he i ncomp le te n a ture o f c o l lec t ions , t he i nev i tab le m ix ing o f ma ter ia l r epresen t ing i ndus tr ies o f d if feren t p er iods , a nd t he g enera l r ack o f d e ta i led r ecord ing mus t make t he r esu l ts o f a ny a na lys is , c onduc ted a t t h is l eve l , o f s urface a ssemb lages f rom a l l b u t t he mos t c omprehens ive a nd s ma l l -sca le o f f i e ld s u rveys , h igh ly s pur ious . T he p rob lem i s r ea l ly o ne o f t he s ca le o f a pproach . S ome d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f s urface ma ter ia l i s , o f c ourse , n ecessa ry - i t i s i mpor tan t t o r ecord a l l t he t ypes o f a r tefac t r ecovered f rom o ne l oca t ion e ven i f t ha t c o l lec t ion i s c lea r ly i ncomp le te , b u t w e mus t , a s Ih ave a rgued e l sewhere ( Gard iner 1 984 ) , b e w a ry o f t ak ing t oo n arrow a v iew o f t he ma ter ia l a nd o f e xpec t ing t o b e a b le t o a nswer t oo s pec if ic q ues t ion s . Wi th s urface s ca t ter ma ter ia l , u n less c o l lec t ion h as b een b o th t horough a nd s ys tema t ic a nd p referab ly f o l lowed b y v ery c arefu l e xcava t ion , t he q ues t ion t ha t r ea l ly s hou ld b e a sked i s whe ther w e s hou ld a c tua l ly b e c once rned w i th t he d e ta i led c on ten t s o f i nd iv idua l a s semb lages a t a l l . I wou ld a rgue t ha t t he v a lue o f s urface ma ter ia l , a nd i n p a r t icu lar o f museum c o l lec t ions , i s t ha t t hey c an p rov ide a g ood g enera l o verv iew o f t he d is tr ibu t ion a nd e x ten t o f s e t t lemen t , a nd o ther a c t iv i ty , o ver a w ide g eograph ica l a rea . S pec if ic i nforma t ion w i l l i nev i tab ly b e l a ck ing , h owever , a nd i t i s i mpor tan t t ha t w e g ear o ur l eve l o f q ues t ion ing t o t he l eve l o f t he r e l iab i l i ty o f t he ma ter ia l t ha t w e a re e xam in ing , a nd t ha t w e a dop t a me thod o f c lass if ica t ion a nd

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a ssessmen t wh ich i s e qua l ly a ppropr ia te t o t he , o f ten r a ther l e ss t han r ep resen ta t ive , ' s amp les ' t ha t w e h ave t o d ea l w i th . I t i s a t t he r eg iona l s ca le t ha t mos t u sefu l i nforma t ion i s t o b e g a ined f rom t hese s ources , a s t he a u tho r 's own work o n ma ter ia l f r om t he S ou th D own s a nd a d jacen t a reas h as s hown ( Gard iner 1 984 ; B rad ley e t a / . 1 984 ; c f . a l so T ing le , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 7 ) , a nd i t i s t he a ssessmen t o f t he g enera l c ha rac ter is t ics o f who le g roups o f s urface a ssemb lages t ha t b es t a l lows f o r c ompara t ive s t ud ies t o b e made . T h is p o in t i s p erhaps f u r ther emphas ised b y t he d emons t rab le f ac t t ha t t here a re c er ta in t ypes o f a r tefac t wh ich a re f r equen t ly e ncoun tered amongs t s urface a sse mb lages wh ich h ave r are ly , i f e ver , b een r ecorded f rom e xcava t ions w i th in t he s a me a rea . I n s ome p ar ts o f t he S ou th D owns , f o r i ns tance , s urface s ca t ters a re d om ina ted b y a r ange o f h eavy a r tefac ts i nc lud ing t ypes wh ich a re s imp ly n o t k nown f r om e xcava ted s i tes . I f e ach o f t hese a ssemb lages w ere t o b e e xam ined a t t he l eve l o f t he i nd iv idua l t ypes p resen t , t hen t hese u nusua l i t ems m igh t e as i ly a ssume a d ispropor t iona te s i gn if icance . On a l a rger s ca le , h owever , t hese t ypes c an b e s een t o b e long t o a w ider g roup o f i mp lemen ts f orm ing o ne i mpor tan t e lemen t i n t he c ompos i t ion o f a who le s er ies o f s ca t ters wh ich a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a p ar t icu lar e nv ironmen ta l l oca t ion a nd , a pparen t ly , w i th a p ar t icu la r r ange o f a c t iv i t ies ( Ga rd iner 1 984 ; B rad ley e t a l . 1 984 ) . I n o rder t o h and le a nd make a ny s en se o f s u rface c o l lec t ion s , t hen , w e n eed t o e qu ip o urse lves w i th a me thod o f r ecord ing a nd a na lys is wh ich d oes n o t p lace t oo much emphas is o n i nd iv idua l t oo l types , o ne wh ich i s f l ex ib le e nough t o c ope w i th n ew a nd r a re f orms where t hey a re e ncoun te red a nd wh ich w i l l a l low q u ick a nd mean ingfu l c ompar isons t o b e made . Ou t l ined b e low i s a s imp l if ied c lass if ica t ion o f t oo l -forms f or Meso l i th ic a nd p os t Meso l i th ic f l in twork . I t i s n o t d ynam ic i n t he s ense t ha t i t d oes n o t b reak n ew g round ( nor i s i t a c tua l ly i n tended t o ) b u t i t d oes p rov ide j us t s uch a b as ic h and le w i th wh ich t o g rasp t he e normous v o lume o f s urface ma ter ia l wh ich i s a va i lab le f or s tudy , b u t f or wh ich t r ad i t iona l me thods o f a na lys is a re t oo d emand ing a nd t oo n a r row ly f ocussed . C lassif icat ion o f s urface a ssemblages T ab les 1 a nd 2 b e low r espec t ive ly l i s t t he c la ss if ica t ion f or Meso l i th ic a nd p os t - Meso l i th ic f l in twork u sed b y t he a u thor i n h er wo rk o n ma ter ia l f r om c en t ra l s ou thern E ng land . I t i s b ased o n t he e xam ina t ion o f many t hou sands o f a r tefac ts f rom mos t p a r t s o f t he c oun t ies o f S ussex , H ampsh ire a nd D or se t , b u t s hou ld b e c apab le o f a pp l ica t ion t o ma te r ia l f rom a ny p ar t o f t he c oun t ry . I t d oes n o t a t temp t t o r e -c la ss ify a ny t oo ls a l ready f am i l ia r f r om t he l i tera ture a nd a ccep ted b y f l in t s pec ia l is ts n or t o r ename a r tefac ts , b u t s imp ly s ugges ts a way i n wh ich a r tefac ts may b e g rouped f or e as ier c ompa r ison a nd d iscuss ion a nd i n o rder t o o bv ia te s ome o f t he p rob lems h igh l igh ted a bove . T he 1 0 Meso l i th ic a nd 1 7 p os t - Meso l i th ic g roups a re b ased o n s im i la r i t ies i n t he o vera l l morpho logy , t he t ype a nd e x ten t o f r e touch , a nd t he s i ze o f i mp lemen ts . E ach g roup ( hopefu l ly ) r epresen ts a morpho log ica l ly r e la ted b u t d i s t inc t r ange o f f orms wh ich m igh t b e c on s idered a s s epa ra te e l emen ts i n t he o vera l l c ompos i t ion o f t he i ndus try r epresen ted . T hus v a r ious o f t he g roups r epresen t h eavy a xe l ike f orms a s d i s t inc t f rom h eavy n on -axe f orms o r p ierc ing t oo ls a s d i s t inc t f rom , s ay , s c rap ing t oo ls a nd a r rowheads b roken d own i n to t he a ccep ted t ypo log ica l ( and c hrono log ica l a s i t h appens)

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g roup ings a nd t he ir d er iva t ives , a s w e l l a s more g enera l c a tegor ies i n to wh ich many o f t he more l oose ly d ef ined a nd v a r iab le f orms c an b e s l o t ted . One a dd i t iona l b enef i t o f t h is a pproach i s t ha t i t i s a b le t o c ope w i th s o me o f t he v aga r ies o f f i e ld r ecogn i t ion a ppa ren t i n c e r ta in o f t he c o l lec t ion s . F o r i n s tance , a c o l lec to r who i s o bv ious ly g ood a t r ecover ing c h ise ls m igh t n o t b e a b le t o r ecogn ise a f ab r ica to r i f i t g o t u p a nd b i t h im . C h ise ls , p a r t icu la r ly p o l ished e xamp les , b ea r a s uperf ic ia l r esemb lance t o a xes wh ich p robab ly makes t hem e as ier t o s po t i n t he f i e ld t han f abr ica to rs , wh ich a re g enera l ly more r ough ly worked . Mo rpho log ica l ly , h owever , t he t wo t ypes a re c loser, to o ne a no ther t han t o a xes a nd f a l l w i th in o ne o f my g roups ( G roup 1 2 ) . T h is i s p erhaps a n e xaggera ted e xamp le b u t , n ever the less , a ny c o l lect ion c on ta in ing c h ise ls b u t n o f abr ica tors wou ld s t i l l c on ta in e l emen ts o f G roup 1 2 . Where o ne o r mo re who le g roups o f i mp lemen t a re a bsen t a t l e as t t wo p oss ib i l i t ies emerge - e i ther t he i nd iv idua l(s) who c o l lec ted f rom t ha t l o ca t ion f a i led t o r ecogn ise a ny o f t he a r tefac t s i n a g roup , o r o ne o r more e l emen ts i s m iss ing . I n t he a u tho r 's e xpe r ience t he f i rs t o f t hese i s a c tua l ly n o t v ery l i ke ly amongs t ma ter ia l a l ready a ssessed o n o the r g rounds a s b e ing r e l iab le . T he l a t ter c a se may r e la te t o s i te f unc t ion o r t o t he d a te o f t he a ssemb lage a nd r equ ires f ur ther i nves t iga t ion . T he a c tua l r ange a nd n umber o f i mp lemen ts b e long ing t o , f or i n s tance , G roup 1 6 i s o f ten c l ear ly u nrepresen ta t ive , b u t t h is i s p erhaps t he b es t i lus tra t ion o f t he v a lue o f l ook ing f or t he p resence/absence o f g roups o f i mp lemen ts r a ther t han o f c oun t ing i nd iv idua l t ypes ( cf . H ayden a nd C annon 1 983 ) . T he f ac t t ha t a c o l lec tor was a b le t o r ecogn ise s ome , n o t v ery o bv ious , l i gh twe igh t f l ake t oo ls , e spec ia l ly o n h eavy s o i ls , i s p e rhaps a g ood i nd ica t ion t ha t t he r ange o f o ther i t ems r ecovered f rom t he s ame l oca t ion i s r easonab ly r epresen ta t ive . I t w i l l b e n o ted t ha t t r anche t a dzes h ave b een i nc luded i n G roup 3 o f t he p os t - Meso l i th ic T ab le ( 2 ) . T h is i s q u i te d e l ibera te . T rad i t iona l ly t r anche t a dzes h ave b een r ega rded a s a n e xc lus ive ly Meso l i th ic p heno menon , b u t t here i s g ood r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t hey a re e qua l ly a c omponen t o f t he N eo l i th ic i ndus try . T hey o ccu r i n l a rge q uan t i t ies i n s urface s ca t ters o n t he S ou th Downs a nd a l though i t may b e a rgued h e re t ha t a ny o ther Meso l i th ic ma ter ia l may s imp ly h ave b een o ver looked , t he • o vera ll morpho logy a nd r e touch o f t he i mp lemen ts a nd t he u se o f e xac t ly t he s ame r aw ma ter ia l makes t hem v i r tua l ly i nd is t ingu ishab le f rom o ther h eavy p ieces o f t he N eo l i th ic i ndus t ry . I t i s o n ly i n t he u se o f t he c oup d e t ranchet t ha t t h ey s t and o u t , b u t t he u se o f t r ansve rse s ha rpen ing i s a l so t o b e f ound o n o the r N eo l i th ic i mp lemen ts ( see b e low) . P o l ished e xamp les h ave a l so b een r ecove red ( f or i ns tance , f rom T a lbo t Woods , B ournemou th ) a nd a t l ea s t 1 9 e xamp les a re k nown f r om t he N eo l i th ic f l in t m ines a t C issbury , S ussex . T he c lass if ica t ion b e low g ives t he a ccep ted t oo l n ames r epresen ted i n e ach g roup . S ome t ypes m ay n o t b e r epresen ted a s t hey h ave n o t o ccurred i n a ssemb lages e xam ined b y t he a u thor . F u l l d escr ip t ions o f a l l t ypes , a s u nder s tood a nd u sed b y t he a u thor w i l l b e g iven i n a f or thcom ing d oc to ra l t hes is where t yp ica l e xamp les a re i lus t ra ted a nd f ur ther d iscuss ion o f t he r a t iona le b eh ind t he c l ass ifca t ion g iven . Where f orms may b e u nfam i l iar t o r eaders , r eferences t o p r imary d ef in i t ions a nd d escr ip t ions a re c i ted i n t he t ab les a nd b e low a re b r ief d escr ip t ions o f a f ew u nusua l i mp lemen t t ypes wh ich h ave e i ther n o t b een d escr ibed i n t he l i tera ture r ecen t ly , o r f or wh ich s ome amb igu i ty e x is ts i n p ub l ished s ources . E xamp les a re i lus tra ted i n F igure 1 .

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6 0 Y -Shaped T oo l ; 3 ) H eavy D u ty T oo l ;

T ranche t t oo l ( Tab le 2 , G roup 1 ; F ig . 1 ,N o .1) : T hese may b e s ma l l a nd l i gh t b u t a r e u sua l ly h eavy a nd r ough ly -worked , s ub tr iangu la r i mp lemen ts . T hey may b e e i ther c ore o r f l ake t oo ls . T he i mp lemen t h as a s t eep ' t ranche t ' b lade a nd a t ang , wh ich may b e s hor t o r e longa ted ( gene ra l ly , t he s ma l le r t he t oo l , t he l onger t he t ang i n p ropo r t ion ) a nd i s o f ten a braded a s i f f r om h af t ing . O ccas iona l ly , p o l ished a xes a r e r eworked t o t h is f orm . A pa r t f r om t he ir f r equen t o ccur rence i n s urface s ca t ters t hey a r e a l so k nown f r om G r imes G raves ( Sav i l le 1 981) a nd f r om L a te N eo l i th ic s i tes s uch a s t h e Wes t K enne t Avenue O ccupa t ion S i te ( Sm i th 1 965 ) a nd t he D o r se t C u r sus ( Ga rd ine r 1 985 ) . Y -shaped t oo l s ( Tab le 2 , G roup 1 ; F ig . 1 ,N o . 2 ) : T here i s s o me c onfus ion i n t he l i tera ture a s t o t he d ef in i t ion o f t hese a r tefac ts . H ea ly ( 1979 ) a ppa ren t ly u ses t h e t e rm t o a pp ly t o wha t a r e i n t h is p aper c l ass if ied a s t r anche t t oo ls , b u t t he t e rm i s u sed h e re t o d esc r ibe a n umber o f p ieces o f t r u ly Y -shaped c onf igura t ion wh ich d iffer f rom t r anche t t oo ls i n a n umber o f r e spec ts . F i rs t ly , whereas t he ' b lade ' o n a t r anche t t oo l i s b as ica l ly s t ra igh t , a l l t h ree s i des o f a Y -shape a r e c oncave , o ne u sua l ly ma rked ly more s o t han t h e o the r s . T he p o in t s o f t he Y a r e o f ten worked a nd a b raded a nd t he l ower e dges a re a l so o f ten a braded . T hey a r e q u i te r a re b u t o ccur a l l a cross t he S ou th Downs a nd s eem t o b e a n e x t ravagan t f orm o f t he s o -ca l led ' Sussex h orned s c raper ' ( c f . f o r i n s tance , C u rwen 1 937 ) . Heavy d u ty ( Tab le 2 , G roup 1 ; F ig . 1 ,N o .3 ) : T h is t e rm i s a pp l ied t o a l a rge n umber o f h eavy , c rude ly -worked c ore too ls wh ich h ave n e i ther t h e t h inned a nd s haped b lade o f a r oughou t a xe n or t h e p o in t o f a p ick . T hey o ccu r i n v ery l a rge n umbe rs i n s urface s ca t ters , p ar t icu lar ly i n t hose a ssoc ia ted w i th c l ay -w i th -f l in ts s o i ls a nd a re u sua l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th e qua l ly l a rge n umbers o f p icks , a xes a nd o ther h eavywe igh t t oo ls . T hey a l so o ccu r i n t h e f l in tm ines , b o th i n S u ssex a nd a t G r imes G raves , Norfo lk ( Sav i l le 1 981) , a nd s eem t o b e e xped ien t i mp lemen ts u sed i n t he p r ima ry e x t rac t ion a nd work ing o f f l in t . B lun ted a xe l ike i mp lemen t s ( Tab le 2 , G roup12 ; F ig . 1 ,N o . 4 ) : I n 1 939 , j us t 1 7 e xamp les o f t h is t ype w ere l i s ted b y C urwen . V ery f ew n ew e xamp les h ave c ome t o l i gh t s i nce ( c f . G a rd iner 1 984 a nd 1 985) . T he i mp lemen t i s a xe -shaped a nd may i ndeed b e manufac tu red f rom a b roken p o l ished a xe , b u t t he d i s t inc t ive f ea ture i s t he d e l ibera te ly g round a nd b lun ted ' b lade ' wh ich i s s im i la r i n a ppea rance t o t h e e dges o f s o me p o l ished ' d isco ida l k n ives ' . T o d a te t h e k nown d i s t r ibu t ion i s r e s t r ic ted t o t h e S ou th Downs , mos t ly S ussex , b u t w i th a f ew e xamp les f rom C ranborne C hase , H ampsh ire a nd K en t . M in ia ture a xe a nd a d ze f orms ( Tab le 2 , G roup 1 4 ; F ig . 1 , N os . 5a nd 6 ) : A r ecen t ly -recovered e xamp le o f a m in ia ture a xeform , f r om n ear C issbu ry , w as r epor ted i n t he S ussex A rchaeo log ica l C o l lec t ions a s a n u nusua l f i nd ( F ie ld 1 982 ) . I n f ac t a t l e as t 5 2 e xamp les a r e e x tan t i n t h e c o l lec t ions f r om t he C issbury m ines a l one a nd t h e t ype i s a c tua l ly v ery c ommon o n t h e S ou th Down s a nd b eyond . M in ia tu re a xeform s a r e j us t t h a t -v e ry s ma l l a xes , f l aked o r p o l ished , wh ich o ccur i n a s w ide a v ar ie ty o f s hapes a s t he ir l a rger c ous ins . T he p resen t a u thor d ef ines a ny a xe u nder 1 0 cm i n l eng th a s a m in ia tu re ; t h is i s e ssen t ia l ly a n a rb i t ra ry d iv is ion , b u t i n p rac t ice a xes f r om t he s ou th o f E ng land a r e u sua l ly much l a rger o r c ons iderab ly s ma l ler t han

6 1

t h is . C urwen c ons idered t hese f orms t o b e c h i ldren 's t oys , a n a rgumen t t o wh ich t here i s n o r ea l a nswer , b u t a n umber o f ' a du l t ' f unc t ions a re , p erhaps , r a ther more p laus ib le . M in ia ture t r anche t a nd n on - t r anche t a dzes a l so o ccur q u i te c ommon ly . S ome o f t hese may b e r esha rpened e xamp les wh ich w ere o r ig ina l ly much l a rger b u t , i n teres t ing ly , wh i ls t a g rea t many t r anche t a dze s harpen ing f l akes o ccur i n a reas a way f rom t he c ha lk , v ir tua l ly a l l t he k nown m in ia ture f orms c ome f r om t he S ou th Downs . A r e la ted t ype i s t he ' s lug ' , a m in ia tu re a dze l ike , p r isma t ic t oo l o f d ef in i te s l ug s hape h av ing a g enera l ly f l a t b ase a nd s t eep ly r e touched s ides ( F igure 1 , No . 6 ) . T hey b ear a c loser a f f in i ty t o o ther m in ia ture f orms t han t o f abr ica tors a nd , t hough n o t v e ry c ommon , d o t end t o o ccu r i n f l in t s ca t ter s a l so c on ta in ing m in ia tu re a xes o r a dzes . Conclusion I t i s n o t i n tended h ere t o d i scuss t he r e su l t s o f a pp ly ing t he c la ss if ica t ion t o a c tua l f i e ld d a ta . T he r eader i s r efer red i ns tead t o G ard iner ( 1984 ) a nd B rad ley e t a / . ( 1984 ) . T he p rospec t o f w ork ing w i th museum c o l lec t ion s , w i th t he f oreknow ledge t ha t t hey p resen t many d if f icu l t ies a nd h ide many p i t f a l ls , c an b e v ery d aun t ing b u t w i th t he r i gh t l eve l o f a pproach much p rogress c an b e made . T he a pproach t o r ecord ing a nd a ssessmen t o f c o l lec t ions o u t l ined i n t h is p ape r i s o f fered s imp ly a s a n u ncomp l ica ted a nd s t ra igh tforward me thodo log ica l t oo l f or man ipu la t ing a v as t amoun t o f d a ta f rom s uch v ar ied s ources a s e xcava t ion , s ys te ma t ic a nd u nsys te ma t ic c o l lec t ion . T he me thod o f g roup ing a r tefac ts i s , n o d oub t , j us t o ne w ay i n wh ich s uch ma ter ia l c an b e s uccessfu l ly i n tegra ted . Where more c omp l ica ted s t a t is t ica l a na lyses mus t b e s een a s i napp ropr ia te , s uch a b as ic s ys tem o f c lass if ica t ion s hou ld n o t b e v iewed a s a r e t rog rade s t ep , b u t a s a means o f c om ing t o t e rms w i th t he mos t a bundan t s ource o f a r tefac tua l e v idence a va i lab le t o u s . T h is ma ter ia l h as b een i n l imbo , i gnored a nd d i sm issed f or f a r t oo l ong a nd i t i s h oped t ha t b y s ugges t ing w ays i n wh ich i t may b e s uccessfu l ly a pproached , much more r esearch i n to e x is t ing c o l lec t ions w i l l b e u nder taken . T he r e su l ts a re b ound t o b e r ewa rd ing .

Ackno wledge ments T he r e sea rch o n wh ich t h is p aper i s b ased c ou ld n o t h ave b een c a r r ied o u t w i thou t t he k ind c oopera t ion o f t he c u ra to r s a nd s t af f o f t he f or ty two museums v i s i ted b e tween Ma rch 1 981 a nd S ep tembe r 1 983 . I wou ld a l so l i ke t o t hank t he p r iva te c o l lec tors a nd i nd iv idua ls w ho p rov ided me w i th much b ackground i nforma t ion , a nd t he s t aff o f t he v a r ious l i bra r ies a nd r ecords o f f ices c onsu l ted . Ih ave b enef i t ted f r om d i scuss ion s w i th f e l low s t uden ts a nd o the r s cho la r s a t R ead ing a nd e l sewhere , t o a l l o f whom I am g ra tefu l . I n a dd i t ion , t hank s a re d ue t o R icha rd B rad ley , F rances H ea ly a nd J ohn D av ies f or r ead ing a nd c ommen t ing o n a n e a r l ier d raf t . T he i dea s a nd o p in ions e xp ressed a re my o wn .

B ibliography BRADLEY , R . , CLEAL , R . , GARD INER , J . , GREEN , M . a nd BO WDEN , M . 1 984 . T he Neo l i th ic s equence i n C ranborne Chase , i n B rad ley , R . a nd G ard iner J . ( ed i tors ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : A R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33 ) , 8 7 -105 .

6 2

CALK IN , J . B . 1 951 . T he B ou rnemou th a r ea i n N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age t imes , P roceed ings o f t h e Dorse t N a tura l H is tory a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 7 3 , 3 2 -70 . CALK IN , J . B . 1 962 . T he B ou rnemou th a r ea i n t h e M idd le a nd L a te B ronze Age w i th t he D evere l-R imbury p rob lem r econs idered , A rchaeological J ourna l 19 , 1 65 . CALK IN , J .B . 1 966 . D iscover ing P reh is tor ic B ournemou th a nd Chr istchurch , (C hr is tchurch , R ed H ouse Museum a nd A r t G a l lery ) . CUR WEN , E . , 1 939 . B lun ted a xe l ike i mp lemen ts , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc iety 5 , 1 96 -201 . CUR WEN , E .C . 1 937 . T he A rchaeo logy o f S ussex , ( London , Me thuen ) . F IELD , D . 1 982 . A m in ia ture a xe f r om C is sbury , S ussex A rcheo log ica l C o l lec t ion s 1 20 , 2 05 -207 . F IELD , N . 1 985 . A mu l t i -phased b a r row a nd p oss ib le h enge monumen t a t Wes t A shby , L inco lnsh ire , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 5 1 , 1 03 -136 . GARD INER , J . 1 984 . L i th ic d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t p a t tern s i n c en t ra l s ou thern E ng land , i n B rad ley , R . a nd Ga rd iner , J . ( ed i to r s ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : A R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33 ) , 1 5 -40 . GARD INER , J . 1 985 . I n t ras i te p a t tern ing i n t he f l in t a ssemb lage f rom t he Dorse t Cursus , 1 984 , P roceed ings o f t he Dorset Natura l H is tory a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 1 07 , 8 7 -93 . GREEN , H .S . 1 980 . T he F l in t A rrowhead s o f t h e B r i t ish I s les : aD eta i led S tudy o f Ma ter ia l f rom E ng land a nd Wa les w i th C omparanda f rom S co t land a nd I re land , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 7 5 ) . HAYDEN , B . a nd CANNON , A . 1 983 . Whe re t he g a rbage g oes : r e fu se d i sposa l i n t he Maya H igh lands , J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 2 , 17 -163 . HEALY , F .M .A . 1 979 . T he N eo l i th ic i n N orf o lk , u npub l ished P h .D . t hes is , I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon . HOLDEN , E .W . a nd ROE , D .A . 1 974 . T he Ade c o l lec t ion o f f l in ts a nd a P a laeo l i th ic h andaxe f rom Hassock s , S ussex A rchaeo log ica l C o l lect ions 12 , 1 -8 . J ACOBI , R .M . a nd TEBBUTT , C .F . 1 981 . A L a te Meso l i th ic r ock -she l te r s i te a t H igh Hu rs twood , S ussex , S ussex A rchaeo log ica l C o l lec t ions 19 , 1 36 . MACDER MOTT , G .W . 1 929 . B ux t ed t h e B eau t if u l ,( Br igh ton ) . MANBY , T .G . 1 974 . G rooved Ware S i t es i n Y orksh ir e a nd t h e N or th o f E ng land ( Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s 9 ) . PULL , J .H . 1 935 . T he S tone Age v i l lage s o f d own land , S ussex C oun ty Magaz ine 9 , 4 98 -499 a nd 5 77 -579 . SAV ILLE , A . 1 981 . T he f l in t a s semb lage ,G r imes G raves , N orf o lk , E xcava t ions 1 97 1-72: V o lume I ( H .M .S .O . , D epa r tmen t o f t he E nv ironmen t A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts n o . I ) . SM ITH , I . F . 1 965 . W indm i l l H i l l a nd A vebury , ( Oxfo rd , C la rendon P re ss ) . S TEVENS , L . 1 980 . T he V ig i l a nd t he Morrow , ( Eas tbourne An t iquar ian R esearch G roup ) . W OOD WARD , P .J . 1 978 . F l in t d is tr ibu t ion , r i ng -d i tches a nd B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t p a t terns i n t he G rea t Ouse V a l ley : t he p rob lem , a f i e ld s urvey t echn ique a nd s ome p re l im inary r esu l ts , T he A rchaeo log ical J ourna l 1 35 , 3 2 -56 .

6 3

GROUP 1

T ranche t Adze Non tranche t a dze Axe

GROUP 2

P ick Ha m mer O the r c o re t oo l

GROUP 3

P e t i t

GROUP 4

S craper

GROUP 5

M ic ro l i ths ( sub -d iv ided a s r equ ired ) Unc lass if iab le m icro l i th a nd f r agmen t Microbur in

GROUP 6

S e r ra ted S aw

GROUP 7

F abr ica tor

GROUP 8

P ierc ing

GROUP 9

G raver Kn ife No tched f l ake Bur in M isce l laneous

GROUP 1 0

P ebb le macehead U t i l ised p ebb le O the r n on -f l in t s t one

T ab le

t r anche t ( a l l

a r rowhead

t ypes )

b lade

t oo ls

t oo ls .

1 : C la ss if ica t ion o f Meso l i th ic T oo l -Type s .

6 4

Table

2:

Classification

of

GROUP1

Polished axe Polished axe fragment

GROUP2

Flaked axe Roughout axe

GROUP3 GROUP4

Adze Pick Tranchet adze Leaf arrowhead

GROUPS

Laurel leaf

GROUP6

Post-Mesolithic

Tool

Types

GROUP11

Hammer Tranchet tool Y-shape tool Waisted core-tool Chopper Heavy duty tool Other heavyweight Gore or flake tools

GROUP12

Barbed & tanged a'head Barbed arrowhead Tanged arrowhead Triangular arrowhead

Fabricator Rod (Saville 1980) Chisel (polished/unpol.) Blunted axe-like tool

GROUP13 GROUP14 GROUP15

Piercing tool Miniature axe Serrated flake

GROUP7

Transverse arrowhead (Clark Types A-D)

GROUP16

GROUPS

Oblique arrowhead (Clark Types E-H) Hollow-based arrowhead

GROUP9

Piano-convex knife Discoidal knife (polished/unpolished) Single piece sickle D agger

Knife Backed knife Polished-edge knife Burin Denticul ate Notched flake Other light flake tools

GROUP17

Grouped stone axe Ungrouped stone axe Pebble macehead Shaft-hole axe Battle-axe Pestle Utilised pebble Other non-flint tools

GROUPl0

Scrapers

(sub-divided)

65

6 .

Chrono log ica l

a nd

F unct iona l

A spec ts

o f

F l int

A sse mb lages

S teve F ord T he p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o c on s ider s ome r ecen t w ork o n c hrono log ica l a nd f unc t iona l a spec ts o f B r i t ish p reh is to r ic f l in t a s semb lages . A n umbe r o f p apers h ave s u mmar ised t he c urren t o p in ions o f t he c hrono logy o f f l in t a ssemb lages ( P i t ts a nd J acob i 1 979 ; F ord e t a / . 1 984 ; H ea ley a nd R ober tson MacKay 1 983 ) a nd m ic rowea r s t ud ies h ave t a ck led s o me a spec ts o f f unc t ion ( Kee ley 1 980 ; Moss 1 983 ) . T here a r e , h oweve r , many g aps i n o u r k now ledge . R ecen t ly , much f i e ld s urvey h as b een c oncerned w i th t he r ecovery o f s urface s ca t ters o f a r tefac ts , i n i t ia l ly t o l oca te ' s i tes ' b u t a l so t o u nders tand l and -use a s a who le ( Fo ley 1 981) . Wi th much o f p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t a nd l and -use r epresen ted p erhaps o n ly b y s urface s ca t ters o f l i th ic a r tefac ts , a t temp ts t o p rogress f rom mere ly l oca t ing ' unda ted n uc lea t ions o f f l in ts ' h ave s erved t o h igh l igh t t he d ef ic ienc ies i n o ur k now ledge . T h is p aper w i l l a t temp t t o e xam ine a ssemb lages i n o rde r t o d ef ine s e ts o f c r i ter ia b y wh ich t hey c an b e d a ted a nd g iven f unc t iona l s t a tus i ndependen t o f d a t ing b y a ssoc ia t ion , f or e xamp le w i th r a re d iagnos t ic f l in ts o r p o t te ry . T h is s tudy h as i nvo lved t he e xam ina t ion o f 3 6 f l in t a ssemb lages , ma in ly f r om w e l l -da ted , s t ra t if ied c on tex ts b u t a l so i nc lud ing a f ew s urface s ca t ters , a s t ra t if ied b u t p oor ly -da ted s i te a nd a s ma l l s amp le f r om a s ecure ly s t ra t if ied p i t c on tex t . T he a ssemb lages a re f rom s i tes wh ich a re d a ted a s f o l lows : 4 Meso l i th ic , 1 6 E a r l ie r N eo l i th ic , 8 L a te r N eo l i th ic , 1L a te B eaker a nd 7 B ronze A ge . D e ta i ls o f t he s amp les u sed a ppea r i n Append ix 1 . Funct ional Considerat ions A c ur ious f ea ture o f many s tud ies i nvo lv ing l a ter p reh is tor ic l i th ic a ssemb lages i s t he l im i ted d i scuss ion o f a c t iv i ty e v idence t ha t s uch ma ter ia l may p ossess . A n umber o f s i tes a s a who le h ave b een c on s idered f unc t iona l ly b y t he ir r espec t ive e xcava tors . Quarry s i tes , f or e xamp le , s uch a s M iche ldever R 4 ( Fa sham a nd Ross 1 978 ) a nd O f fham c ausewayed e nc losu re ( Drewe t t 1 977 ) h ave b een d ef ined i n t e rms o f f ac tor s s uch a s t he c ompo s i t ion o f t he f l in t a ssemb lage , a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls a nd a l ack o f d omes t ic ma ter ia l s uch a s p o t tery . I n tra -s i te a na lyses h ave b een u nder taken ( eg a t F enga te : P ryor 1 978 ) wh ich h ave c oncen tra ted o n r e touched p ieces b u t s uch a na lyses wh ich c ons ider t he b u lk o f t he ma ter ia l f rom a ssemb lages , i e . u nmod if ied f l akes , a re r a re ly u nder taken . F rom a p rac t ica l p o in t o f v iew , a lmos t a ny p iece o f f l in t c an b e u sed f o r a lmos t a ny j ob , b u t c e r ta in p ieces d o l end t h emse lves t o c er ta in t a sks .. Apa r t f rom c ommon s ense t here a re a n umber o f a rchaeo log ica l a pproaches w h ich c an b e u sed t o d e term ine t he morpho log ica l c r i ter ia o f f l in ts s u i tab le f or s pec if ic t a sk s . T he m a in c on t r ibu t ion i n t h is f i e ld i s m icrowea r a na lys is a nd i t s n ecessary c lose a ssoc ia t ion w i th r ep l ica t ive u se -exper i men ts ( Kee ley 1 980 ) . T o s upp lemen t s uch s t ud ies , e thnograph ic s ou rces a re a l so u sed ( eg H ayden 1 979 ) . T h is c an s how t ha t e xper imen ta l t e chn iques a re c omparab le w i th t hose u sed b y c on temporary s tone -us ing s oc ie t ies t hough t here a re p rob lems o f d i rec t a na logy ( Hodder 1 982 , C hap ter 1 ) . Work wh ich p resen ts b o th m icrowea r p a t te rns a nd f l ake morpho logy ( eg Mo r r is 1 984 ) a l lows s o me c heck o n t he v a l id i ty o f t he c r i ter ia s e t o u t b e low .

6 7

On t he b as is o f t hese s t ud ies , f o l low ing f unc t iona l c lasses :

u nmod if ied

f l akes

h ave

b een

a ss igned

t o t h e

1 . Manuf ac tur ing d eb i tage T h is c ompr ises s evera l s ubd iv is ions : ( a ) C hunky l umps w i th n o g ood c u t t ing e dges , d i f f icu l t t o h o ld o r d i f f icu l t t o r etouch . ( b ) F lakes w i th c or t ica l e dges . ( c ) F lakes w i th l a rge h inge f r ac tures . ( d ) S pa l ls a nd c h ips . 2 . C u t t ing f l akes T h is c lass c on s is ts

o f

f l akes

p ossess ing

l ong ,

s t ra igh t ,

u n iform

b or ing .

F lakes

e dges

w i th

e dge a ng les c . 30 0 ( c f . Moss 1 986 ) . 3 . Aw ls /Borer s F lakes w i th n a tura l s t rong p o in ts s u i tab le f ormed b y b reakage a r e n o t i nc luded . 4 . O ther f lakes A l l o ther i t em s wh ich d o s u i tab le f or r e touch .

f or

n o t f i t e as i ly i n to t h e

w i th

a bove c a tegor ies e g

p o in ts

f l akes

E ven w i thou t t he me thodo log ica l p rob lems o f o ver lapp ing c harac ter is t ics , t hese a t tr ibu tes o f a ssemb lage c ompos i t ion c an a t b es t b e r ega rded o n ly a s a c oarse measure . On ly t h ree t ypes o f s i te c an b e e xpec ted t o b e d i s t ingu ishab le . T hese a re : 1 . Quarry ing a s ' was te ' ma ter ia l .

d om inan t

f unc t ion ,

r epresen ted

2 . S pec ia l f unc t ion s i tes , r ep resen ted b y ( NB a c tua l f unc t ion u nknown ) . 3 .

b y

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p ropor t ions

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a h igh p ropor t ion o f c u t t ing f l akes

A l l o the r s i tes w i th a h igh p ropo r t ion o f o rd ina ry d omes t ic a c t iv i ty .

F lake c or tex a s af unc t iona l i nd ica tor T he • amoun t o f c o r tex r ema in ing o n a f l ake h as i n t he p a s t b een u sed a s a c hrono log ica l i nd ica tor ( Ford e t a l . 1 984 ) b u t h as a s econda ry f unc t iona l r o le . F lakes made f r om t he o u ter s k in o f f l in t n odu les c an u sua l ly b e r ega rded a s d eb i tage . A t s ou rce t hey m igh t h ave b een r emoved ( and d i sca rded ) t o t e s t t h e q ua l i ty o f t he r aw ma ter ia l o r t o r educe t he w e igh t o f ma ter ia l t o b e t r anspo r ted e l sewhere . T hey w ere s o me t imes u sed a f ter r e touch ing b u t t h e ir l ack o f g ood c u t t ing e dges c omb ined w i th a t endency f or m inor f l aws s ugges ts t ha t t hey a re more l i ke ly t o h ave b een d eb i tage . A s s uch , t he p ropor t ion o f c or t ica l f l akes i n a n a s semb lage m ay g ive s o me c lues t o t h e f unc t ion o f t ha t a ssemb lage . T he me thod u sed w as t o a s s ign b y e ye t h e p ropo r t ion o f t h e r ema in ing c o r tex o n t he d orsa l s u rface t o o ne o f t h ree c l asses - n ame ly l e ss t han 1 / 3 , b e tween 1 / 3 a nd 2 /3 a nd g rea te r t han 2 /3 . S u rfaces w h ich w ere n o t c or t ica l b u t w ere e qua l ly n o t s t ruck ( such a s o ccurs i n g rave l s ources ) w ere i nc luded w i th t r u ly c or t ica l s urfaces .

6 8

Chronological

Considerat ions

I n tac t f lakes T he u se o f t he l eng th :bread th r a t ios o f i n tac t u n re touched f l akes a s a c hrono log ica l i nd ica to r i s n ow w e l l e s tab l ished . P i t ts a nd J acob i ( 1979 ) h ave p resen ted t he mos t r ecen t p ub l ished s umma ry s how ing t he t r end t owards b roade r f l akes t h rough t ime . S ubsequen t ly , t h e t r end t owa rds b roader f l akes h as b een s hown t o c on t inue t h roughou t t h e B ronze Age ( Fo rd e t a / . 1 984 ) b u t t here a r e s t i l l i n suf f ic ien t d a ta t o d e te rm ine i f t h e c hange f r om n a r row f l ake i ndus t r ies t o b roader o nes w as g radua l o r a brup t o r e ven d ue t o f unc t iona l a nd d i sca rd v a r ia t ion . T he p rac t ica l c onsequences o f t hese amb igu i t ies a re t ha t t here i s a n o ver lap i n t he s hape r anges o f E a r l ie r a nd L a ter N eo l i th ic a sse mb lages . F lake t h ickness h as b een u sed o n ly o ccas iona l ly i n t he p as t f or d a t ing p urposes b u t h as b een c ons idered a t l eng th i n a r ecen t p ape r ( Ford e t a l . 1 984 ) where i t w as s ugges ted t ha t t h is p a rame ter may b e u sefu l i n o rde r t o d if feren t ia te b e tween L a ter N eo l i th ic /Ea r l ier B ronze Age a s semb lages a nd t ho se o f l a ter d a te . B roken f lakes I n s ha rp c on t ras t t o t he e xam ina t ion o f i n tac t f l akes , b roken f l akes f rom p os t -g lac ia l a ssemb lages a re u sua l ly i gnored d esp i te a ccoun t ing f or b e tween 3 0% a nd 7 0% o f s ome a ssemb lages . F rom t o ta l c o l lec t ion f i e ldwa lk ing a t Wea thercock H i l l ( Bowden e t a l . , f or thcom ing ) 4 2% o f u n re touched f l akes w e re b roken a nd t hus n o t s u i tab le f or l eng th a nd b read th measuremen ts . T he re a r e s evera l g ood r eason s why b roken f l akes s hou ld b e c on s idered f o r t he ir c hrono log ica l p o ten t ia l . I t h as o f ten b een r ecorded t ha t n a r row f l akes ( b lades ) h ave b een d e l ibera te ly b roken t o p rov ide s egmen ts f or c ompos i te t oo ls . N a r row f l akes a r e a l so much mo re l i ke ly t o b e b roken d u r ing u se t han a re more r obus t b road f l akes a nd , s im i la r ly , p os t -depos i t iona l d i s turbance s uch a s p lough ing i s l i ke ly t o r e su l t i n a h igher p ropor t ion o f b roken n ar row f l akes . F rom t h is , t he c hrono log ica l ly i mpor tan t p ercen tage o f i n tac t n ar row f l akes may b e u nder -represen ted i n c er ta in a ssemb lages b u t s hou ld b e r ef lec ted i n t he b roken f l akes . F or t he p urposes h ere , b roken f l akes w e re a s s igned t o t h ree c l asses : ( a ) ' Broken b lades ' , t ha t i s b roken f l akes whose d imens ions w ere h igh ly l i ke ly , when c omp le te , t o h ave e qua l led o r e xceeded a l eng th :b read th r a t io o f 5 :2 . ( b ) ' Poss ib le b roken b lades ' , t ha t i s b roken f l akes wh ich w ere l i ke ly t o h ave e qua l led o r e xceeded a l eng th :bread th r a t io o f 2 :1 , f or e xamp le s hor t b u t p a ra l le l -s ided n ar row f l ake s egmen ts . ( c ) ' Broken f l akes ' t ha t i s a l l wh ich n ever e xceeded 2 0x20 mm .

o ther

b roken

f l akes

e xc lud ing

f r agmen ts

A s a n a dd i t iona l a t tempt t o q uan t ify t he c hrono log ica l ly s ign if ican t t e chno logy o f b lade p roduc t ion , t he a bsence o r p resence o f b lade s ca rs o n t he d orsa l s ur face o f f l akes w as n o ted . T he r a t iona le b eh ind t h is w as t ha t f l akes wh ich a re n o t t hemse lves b lades c an s how e v idence o f b lade p roduc t ion t e chno logy a nd h ence t h is i s a no ther p oss ib le measure .

6 9

C ores I n c ompa r ison w i th b roken f l akes , c ores h ave b een w e l l s t ud ied b u t t he ir p o ten t ia l f or d a t ing r e fer red t o o n ly o b l ique ly . T he d a t ing p o ten t ia l o f c ores i s q u i te a s imp le p ropos i t ion . A s c ores a r e t he b y -produc ts o f f l ake manufac tu re , t he s hapes o f t h e ir f l ake s ca rs r ef lec t t he s hapes o f t h e f l akes p roduced . I f a n a s semb lage p ossesses a h igh p ropor t ion o f n a rrow f l akes , t herefore , t h is s hou ld a l so b e r ef lec ted i n t he p ropor t ion o f c ores w i th n ar row f l ake s ca r s a nd v i ce v e rsa . I t may b e p oss ib le t o d emon s t ra te , u s ing t he p la tform n umber t ypo logy ( C la rk e t . a / . 1 960 ) t ha t l ow n umbe r s o f p la tforms o n c ores a r e more r epresen ta t ive o f e a r l ier p e r iod s . S uch p a t terns , h oweve r , a r e n o t c l ea r w i th in a s semb lages f r om s i tes s uch a s Durr ing ton Wa l ls (Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th 1 971) , R ackham ( Ho lden a nd B rad ley 1 975) a nd B lackpa tch ( Drewe t t 1 982 ) , wh ich h ave r anges o f c ore t ypes c ompa rab le w i th E a r l ier N eo l i th ic o nes . C or re la t ions b e tween p la tform n umber a nd f l ake s hape h ave a l so n o t b een f or thcom ing ( Hea ley a nd Rober tson - MacKay 1 983 , 2 2 ) . F ac tor s s uch a s s i ze a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls l oca l ly a re more l i ke ly t o h ave i nf luenced n umbe rs o f p la tfo rms ( Hea ley a nd R ober tson - MacKay 1 983 , 2 3) . T here a re a n umber o f r ecogn isab le t r ends o f t echno log ica l a t tr ibu tes wh ich d o n o t r e spec t r aw ma ter ia l s i ze a nd a va i lab i l i ty a nd i t i s t o t h e s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c on tex t s t ha t o ne mus t t u rn f o r ab e t ter e xp lana t ion ( c f . E dmonds , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 1 0 ; B rad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 1) . T o c ove r a l l p oss ib i l i t ies o f c ore t ypes r ecovered , e igh t c l asses o f c o res a r e d ef ined ( Tab le 1 ) r ang ing f r om c er ta in a nd p robab le b lade c ores t h rough b road f l ake c o res t o c o re f r agmen ts a nd ' b ashed l umps ' . F o r t he p urposes o f t h is s cheme s pec ia l c ores ( eg L eva l lo is ) w ere g rouped u nder ' b road f l ake ' c ores a l though a r eco rd w as made o f t he ir p resence . S uch c ores m ay b e c hrono log ica l ly s i gn if ican t b u t a re t oo i nf requen t ly f ound t o h ave much p o ten t ia l i n t h is a na lys is . F o r mos t p urposes h ere c l asses 1 t o 5 a r e ' n ar row f l ake ' c o res , c l a ss 6 i s ' b road f l ake ' c o res a nd c l a sses 7 a nd 8 a r e b ashed l umps a nd c ore f r agmen ts r espec t ive ly .

( 1 )

P r isma t ic b lade c o re w i th n umerous f l ake s ca r s o f L :B r a t io > 5 :2

( 2) C o re w i th mo re t han 3 s ca r s o f L :B r a t io > 5 :2 ( 3) C ore w i th l e ss t han 3 s ca r s o f L :B r a t io > 5 :2 a mongs t o ther s ca rs ( 4) C o re w i th mo re t h an 3 s ca r s o f L :B r a t io b e tween 5 :2 a nd 2 : 1 ( 5) C o re w i th l e ss t h an 3 s ca r s o f L :B r a t io b e tween 5 :2 a nd 2 : 1 a mongs t o ther s cars ( 6) Any o the r b road f l ake c o re w i th more t h an 3 s ca rs ( 7) B a shed l umps - n odu les w i th l e ss t ha t 3 s car s ( 8) C o re f r agmen ts

-f l aked b u t n o e x tan t n ega t ive b u lbs o f p ercuss ion T ab le 1 : C la ss if ica t ion o f C ores

7 0

Results I n t he f o l low ing d i scuss ion a nd g raph ica l t r ea tmen ts t he a s semb lages h ave b een g rouped a ccord ing t o t he a c t iv i t ies l i ke ly t o h ave t aken p lace a t t he s i tes . T he g roup ings w e re made o n t he b as is o f t wo ma in f ac to rs : f i rs t ly , t h e e x ten t o f d omes t ic a c t iv i ty a s s ugges ted b y t he p resence o f p o t tery , b one , h ea r ths , s t ruc tu res e t c . w as t aken i n to a ccoun t a nd s econd ly , t he q uan t i ty o f f l in t l oca l ly a va i lab le , d ue e i ther t o t he s i tes ' l oca t ion o r t o i nc iden ta l q uarry ing o f f l in t a s a b y -product o f monumen t c ons truc t ion , w as c ons idered . N eve r the less , t he a c tua l c ompos i t ion o f s i te a ssemb lages may h ave b een i n t he c on tex t o f r ad ica l ly d i f feren t s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies . T he

g roup ings

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B o th t he c h rono log ica l a nd f unc t iona l f ea tu res o f s t ra t if ied f l in t a ssemb lages w i l l n ow b e e xp lored f ur ther . T he d a ta p resen ted c an t hen b e u sed t o c ha rac ter ise o ther f l in t a s semb lages o r c o l lec t ions u s ing l i th ics a lone . Chronological Var iabil ity S ix a spec ts o f t he d a ta w ere e xam ined , t hese b e ing i n tac t f l akes ( i a nd i ) ; b roken f l akes ( i i ) ; c omb ined i n tac t a nd b roken f l akes ( i v ) ; d or sa l b lade s ca r s ( v ) ; a nd , l a s t ly c ores ( v i ) . E ach w as c ompa red w i th f unc t ion (s ) a nd g eo log ica l l oca t ions o f s i tes . ( i ) I n tac t f lakes ( F igu re 1 ) F igure 1 s hows t he p ercen tage o f i n tac t f l akes w i th a l eng th :bread th r a t io g r ea ter t han 2 : 1 f o r e ach s i te , p lo t ted a ga in s t d a te a nd s i te f unc t ion (s ) . T h ree f ea tures o f t he g raph mer i t n o te . T hose s i tes whose l i th ic a ssemb lage o r ig ina ted p redom inan t ly d ue t o q ua rry ing a c t iv i t ies ( hencefor th ' q uar r ies ') s how a t r end t owa rds b ecom ing l e ss b lade l ike w i th t ime b u t t he p ropor t iona l d i f ferences a r e n o t g rea t . S econd ly , s i tes w i th a p redom inan t ly d omes t ic c omponen t s how a mo re ma rked p a t tern : i f s i te 3 6 , t he Dorse t C ursus , i s e xc luded ( due t o i t s l ow s amp le s i ze ) t he p re -2500 b c s i tes a l l e xceed 1 0% n a r row f l akes . T h is j u s t o ver laps w i th t he h ighes t v a lues o f t he p os t -2500 b c s i tes ( be low 1 3% ) . T h ird ly t he p ercen tage o f n ar row f l akes f r om Meso l i th ic s i tes ( above 3 3%) i s j us t g rea ter t han t he h ighes t v a lue f or N eo l i th ic p re 2 500 b c s i tes ( be low 3 1% ) . ( i ) T he

F lake T h ickness ( F igu res 2 a nd 3 ) g raphs d emon s t ra te a n umber • o f t r ends :

( a ) F lakes f r om p re -2500 b c ' q ua r ry ' s i tes t e nd t o b e t h icker t han t hose f r om ' d omes t ic ' s i tes b u t t h is i s n o t e xc lus ive ly s o . T he v a lues f or p os t -2500 b c ' q ua r ry ' a nd ' d omes t ic ' s i tes t end t o b e more m ixed .

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( F igu re 4 )

( a ) T here may b e ac h rono log ica l t r end o f l e ss BB a nd P BB a f ter 2 000 b c b u t t he w e l l -da ted s i tes a r e t oo f ew t o s ubs tan t ia te t h is p a t te rn . ( b ) Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f s i te 2 9 , H emp Kno l l , p re -2500 b c N eo l i th ic ' d omes t ic ' s i tes h ave a h igher p ropor t ion o f BB a nd P BB t han p os t -2500 b c ' d omes t ic ' s i tes . T he t wo g roups j us t o ver lap a t 1 5% . ( c ) Meso l i th ic s i tes o ver lap w i th t he h ighes t v a lues o f t h e N eo l i th ic p re -2500 b e s i tes . ( i v ) C omb ined b roken a nd i n tac t f lakes ( F igu re s 5a nd 6 ) F igure 5 s hows t he c omb ined p ercen tage o f i n tac t f l akes o f l eng th :bread th r a t io g rea ter t han o r e qua l t o 2 : 1 a s w e l l a s BB a nd P BB . T he s a l ien t p o in t s o f t h is d a ta s e t a r e : ( a ) ' Domes t ic ' s i tes p r ior t o 2 500 b e a re a lmos t d i s t inc t f r om ' q ua r ry ' s i tes w i th t he f ormer h av ing g rea te r t han 1 4% c omb ined ' b lades ' . T he d omes t ic s i te 2 9 , H emp Kno l l , c auses t h e t wo g roups t o o ve r lap . ( b ) P os t -2500 b e ' d omes t ic ' s i tes c an j us t b e s ubd iv ided i n to a L a ter N eo l i th ic g roup ( p re -1500 b e ) w i th g rea ter t han 7% c omb ined b lades a nd a B ronze A ge g roup ( pos t -1500 b e ) h av ing l e ss t han 7% . ( c ) P re -2500 b e N eo l i th ic ' d omes t ic ' s i te v a lues j us t o ver lap w i th t h e h ighes t f o r p os t -2500 b e s i tes a t 1 0% b u t t h e b u lk o f t h e f o rmer v a lues e xceed 1 4% . ( d ) Meso l i th ic s i tes a re e xc lus ive ly more b lade l ike t han t he p re -2500 b e N eo l i th ic s i tes , a l though s i te 3 1 , B r ia r H i l l , j us t r eaches t he l owes t Meso l i th ic v a lue a t 3 6% . ( e ) Ana lys is f or g eo log ica l f ac tor s ( F igure 6 ) f a i led t o i nd ica te t ha t b lade p ropor t ions w ere r esu l t ing s i gn if ican t ly f rom d if feren t ia l a ccess t o r aw ma ter ia ls . A t s i te 3 6 , B r ia r H i l l , s uch a f ac to r may b e r e levan t b u t i t c anno t b e i s o la ted f r om t he e f fec ts o f r e s idua l Meso l i th ic ma ter ia l i n t he a s semb lage wh ich s omewha t e nhances t he b lade p ropor t ion . ( v ) Dorsa l b lade -scars ( F igu re 7 ) F rom F igure 7 i t c an b e s een t h a t : ( a ) Meso l i th ic s i tes a s a g roup a re e xc lus ive w i th g rea ter t han 1 5% b lade s cars . ( b ) P re -2500 b e N eo l i th ic ' d omes t ic ' s i tes a r e j us t d i s t inc t f r om ' q ua r ry ' s i tes b u t n o t ma rked ly s o . T he b u lk o f t he d omes t ic s i tes , h oweve r , e xceed 5% b lade s cars . ( c ) T he b u lk o f t he p re -2500 b e ' d omes t ic ' s i tes a r e d i s t inc t f r om p os t -2500 b e s i tes b u t d o n o t o ver lap .

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( v i ) C ores ( F igu re 8 ) D a ta f o r t h e p ropor t ions o f b lade -co res a r e s hown i n F igure 8 . T he n umber o f a s semb lages u sed i s l e ss t han i n o the r a na lyses d ue t o t h e f r equen t ly s ma l l n umber o f c ores r ecovered . F igure 8 i nc ludes t hose a s semb lages w i th a s l i t t le a s 9 c ores . A n e a r l ier v ers ion o n ly i nc luded t hose s i tes w i th g rea ter t han 1 9 c o res wh ich , d esp i te t h e s ma l l n umber o f v a l id a s semb lages , p rov ided s im i la r c onc lus ions , a s f o l lows : ( a ) Meso l i th ic ( b ) P re -2500 s i tes w i th t h e s u rface s ca t te r . v a lues b e tween Funct ional F our a spec t s

s i tes h ave v e ry h igh v a lues o f b lade c o res ( exceed ing 6 7% ) . b c s i tes h ave e xc lus ive ly more b lade c ores t han p os t -2500 b c e xcep t ion o f s i te 2 6 , Wea thercock H i l l -a L a ter B ronze Age T he r ange o f N eo l i th ic a s semb lages p re -2500 b c i s w ide w i th 2 a nd 3 5% .

Var iab il ity o f f unc t iona l

v a r iab i l i ty

w e re

e xam ined :

( i ) R ema in ing f lake c or tex ( F igu re 9 ) T hree o bse rva t ion s c an b e made a s ar e su l t o f t h e p a t tern s s hown i n F igu re 9 : ( a ) Meso l i th ic a ssemb lages h ave r e la t ive ly l i t t le c orex wh ich s ugges ts t ha t t he ma ter ia l i s t r an spo r ted t o t h e s i tes i n ar oughed -ou t f orm o r t ha t t hey a r e a ch iev ing more f l akes p e r n odu le t han i n l a ter p er iods . ( b ) P re -2500 b c N eo l i th ic q ua r r ies , a s m igh t b e e xpec ted , h ave more c or t ica l f l akes t han d omes t ic s i tes a nd o ver lap w i th m ixed d omes t ic a nd q ua rry a s semb lages . S i te 2 9 , H emp Kno l l , i s a ga in a noma lous . ( c ) F or p os t -2500 b c s i tes , a n o vera l l p a t tern o f mo re c or t ica l f l akes i n q ua r ry a ssemb lages i s v i s ib le b u t s i tes s uch a s n umber 1 6 , S onn ing , a re a noma lous a nd s i te 3 4 , M iche ldever R4 , i s n o t ma rked ly d i s t inc t f rom d omes t ic s i tes . P re -2500 b c N eo l i th ic s i tes t o wh ich f l in t w as i mpo r ted f r om s ome d i s tance d o n o t c on ta in n o t icab ly l e ss c or t ica l f l akes t han o ther s i tes , whereas t h is i s a p a t te rn f o r p os t -2500 b c s i tes ( eg 1 5 , 2 0 , 2 1) . O the r s t ud ies h ave o bserved t ha t when f l in t i s i mpor ted i t i s u sua l ly i n r e la t ive ly l i t t le -a l te red n odu lar f orm ( Sav i l le 1 982 ) . T he e v idence h e re wou ld t end t o s uppo r t t h is v iew f or t he e a r l ier p er iod b u t may n o t a pp ly s ubsequen t ly . Wi thou t a dd i t iona l wo rk i t i s u nw ise t o s pecu la te f u r ther . T he h igher p ropor t ion o f c or t ica l f l akes o n t he q ua r ry s i tes c ou ld b e a r e su l t b o th o f m in ima l t r i mm ing o f n odu les f or u se e l sewhere a nd t he t e s t ing o f n odu les f or s oundness . T he c hrono log ica l v a lue o f r ema in ing c or tex , r e fe rred t o a bove , i s t ha t i t a ss is ts i n d ist ingu ish ing b e tween L a ter N eo l ith ic a nd B ronze Age a ssemb lages ( Ford e t a l . 1 984 ) . T he t r end t owa rds more c or t ica l f l akes i n t he B ronze A ge i s a l so s hown i n F igu re 9 . ( i ) Waste ( F igu res 1 a nd 1 2 ) F or p re -2500 b c N eo l i th ic a s semb lages , a p a t tern c an b e o bserved i n w h ich q ua r ry s i tes h ave mos t w as te f o l lowed b y b u t o ver lapp ing w i th ' q ua r ry -w i th d omes t ic ' s i tes wh ich i n t u rn a r e f o l lowed b y d omes t ic s i tes o r s i tes w i thou t a n i mmed ia te ly a va i lab le f l in t s ou rce . S i te 1 , A lf r is ton o va l b ar row , wou ld n o rma l ly b e r ega rded a s E a r l ier N eo l i th ic a pa r t f r om i t s C 14 d a te o f 2 300 b c . S i te 1 7 , Down F arm r i ng d i tch , i s o n ly d a ted s t ra t ig raph ica l ly t o p re -Ear l ier B ronze Age . I nc lus ion o f b o th s i tes w i th t he p re -2500 b c a ssemb lages

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r e inforces t h is o bserved t r end . S i te 2 9 , H emp Kno l l , i s a ga in a noma lous , h av ing a h igh p ropor t ion o f w as te c ompa red w i th o ther d omes t ic s i tes . T he p os t -2500 b c p a t tern t akes t wo f orms . F or t he g enera l ly p oor ly d a ted s i tes i n t he p er iod 2 500 -2000 b c , t he q uar ry a s semb lages o ver lap w i th t he o ther a s semb lages . F or p os t -2000 b c s i tes q uar r ies t end t o h ave t h e h igher f i gures f or was te b u t a ga in n o t e xc lus ive ly s o . T he o ne d omes t ic s i te ( number 3 3 , R unnymede B r idge , L a ter B ronze Age ) wh ich h as a h igh p ropor t ion o f w as te w as u s ing a n e xceed ing ly b ad s ou rce o f f l in t . A par t f r om t h is o bserva t ion , g eo log ica l a na lys is d oes n o t r evea l a ny c lear p a t terns ( F igure 1 2 ) . ( i i ) Cutt ing ( F igu re 1 3 ) T here i s n o p a t tern ing b e tween ' q ua r ry ' s i tes o r ' d omes t ic ' s i tes f or d i f f eren t p er iods a pa r t f r om a t r end o f l e ss c u t t ing f l akes o n q ua r r ies f o r p re -2500 b c N eo l i th ic s i tes . T he o n ly p a t tern v i s ib le i s t he d ecrease i n c u t t ing f l akes t h rough t ime . ( i v ) I n tac t f lake s i ze ( F igu res 1 4 a nd 1 5 ) T hose i n tac t f l akes f rom e ach s i te wh ich h ad a l eng th :b read th r a t io o f l e ss t han o r e qua l t o 1 . 5 :1 w ere c oun ted i n to f ou r l eng th c l asses . T hese r e la t ive ly s qua t f l akes w ere c hosen s o t ha t e a r ly s i tes wou ld n o t b e o ver -represen ted when l eng th w as u sed a s a s i ze i nd ica tor . F igures 1 4 a nd 1 5 s how t he p ropor t ion s o f f l akes e xceed ing 5 0 mm l ong . I t c an b e s een t ha t p re -2500 b c N eo l i th ic q ua r ry s i tes t end t o h ave more l a rge f l akes b u t s i te 5 , N or th S toke b ank b a r row , i s a noma lous . A s im i la r p a t te rn may b e p resen t a t s i tes d a t ing t o b e tween 2 500 a nd 2 000 b c ( bu t s ee a bove f or d a te o f s i tes 1 a nd 1 7 ) ; c u r iou s ly , n o s uch p a t tern i s d i scernab le a f ter 2 000 b c . F igure 1 5 s hows t he e ffec t o f f l in t s ource o n s i ze . T here i s a ma rked r educ t ion i n s i ze f or g rave l s ou rces c ompa red w i th c ha lk o nes . When F igu re 1 4 i s r econs idered , much b e t ter p a t tern ing i s o bserved f or t hose s i tes o n s im i la r g eo log ies p r io r t o 2 000 b c b u t n o c hange c an b e s een a f ter t h is t ime . D iscussion a nd Conclusions T he r e su l ts o f t he c h rono log ica l a nd f unc t iona l a na lyses a re s umma r ised i n T ab le 2 . I n p r inc ip le , r eference t o T ab le 2 s hou ld b e s u i tab le f or t he c harac ter isa t ion o f f l in t s ca t ters e ven t hough t he c r iter ia a re r a re ly e xc lus ive . No t a l l f l in t s ca t ters , h owever , a re h omogenous a nd t hey may i n s tead r ep resen t s evera l p hases o f a c t iv i ty . T he d a ta i n T ab le 3 e xp lo re t he e ffec ts o f m ix ing o f a ssemb lages f rom d if feren t p er iods i n d if feren t p ropor t ions . A s c an b e s een , t he d eg ree a nd d a te o f t he a dm ix tu re c an h ave q u i te d rama t ic e f fec ts o n t he d iagnos t ic p ropor t ions o f t he a s semb lages . I n p a r t icu la r , s ma l l e a r ly s i tes c an b e e as i ly masked b y l a ter s i tes o r i n c e r ta in c ases , s uch a s a c omb ina t ion o f E ar l ier N eo l i th ic w i th B ronze A ge , a n a pparen t L a ter N eo l i th ic a ssemb lage i s t he r e su l t . T he c r i ter ia i n T ab le 2 h ave , t herefore , t o b e a pp l ied c au t ious ly t o s urface s ca t ter s a nd w i th a g rea ter d egree o f amb igu i ty t han i s d es irab le . T ab le 4 p resen ts a mod if ied v ers ion o f T ab le 2 , i ncorpora t ing t he e f fec ts o f m ix ing o n t he i mpor tan t d a t ing e lemen ts i n a ssemb lages . T h is p aper , t hen , h as a t temp ted t o d ef ine a s e t o f c r i ter ia r e la t ing t o f unc t iona l a nd c hrono log ica l a spec ts o f f l in t a ssemb lages n o t h i ther to a va i lab le f rom p ub l ished s ources . T hese c r i ter ia , w i th c er ta in r e serva t ions , a l low f l in t a ssemb lages t o b e c ha rac ter ised o n t h e b as is o f i n terna l f ea tures

7 8

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( A )

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Meso l ith ic E ar l ier Neo l ith ic I n tac t F lakes L :B > =2 :1

2

L a ter N eo l ith ic

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> 15% 36%

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< 7%

M-EN -LN -BA ( dom . o n ly )

< 2%

M-EN -LN -BA ( dom . o n ly )

C omb ined f l akes > 16% w i th b lade s ca rs

> 3%

B lade

> 9% ( dom .

c ores

> 63%

< 5%

S ize > 50 x 5 0mm ( Cha lk s ource o n ly )

F unc t ion

N eo l i th ic

Quarry On ly

> 5%

M-EN -LN -BA

< 2% o n ly )

( B) E ar l ier

o n ly )

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L a ter

N eo l i th ic

Qua r ry On ly

O ther

< 9%

< 10%

B ronze

Age

Qua r ry On ly

O ther

C or tex

> 16%

< 16%

< 18%

> 26%

< 27%

Was te

> 35%

< 34%

< 50%

> 55%

< 55%

Mean T h ickness ( Cha lk ) ( Grave l) Cu t t ing

> 7 .5 mm > 6 .5 mm

< 8 .0 mm < 6 .0 mm

< 30 .0 mm

> 15 .0 mm

> 9 .5 mm -

7 9

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T ab le

3

Average

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b lades

1

EN

a ssemb lages

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Average

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b lades

5 LN

a ssemb lages

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Ave rage p ercen tage c omb ined b lades ( averages e xc lude q ua r ry s i tes )

4 BA

a ssemb lages

4 . 3%

P e rcen tage c omb ined b lades f o r m ix tu re o f EN a nd LN s i te o f e qua l s i ze 1 5 .8 % P e rcen tage c omb ined b lades f o r m ix ture o f a n EN s i te a nd a LN s i te f our t imes g rea ter 1 .9% P e rcen tage c omb ined b lades f or m ix tu re o f a n EN s i te a nd a BA s i te f ou r t imes g rea ter 7 . 9%

T ab le Meso .

Meso . E a r l ie r N eo .

4 E a r l ie r N eo . / L a te r N eo .

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> 13%

< 13%>7%

< 7%

B lade

c ores

> 63%

> 9%

< 9%>2%

< 2%

F lakes w i th b lade s cars

> 16%

> 3%

-

8 0

a lone . T he d a ta p resen ted , a l though c oa rse a nd s ome t imes amb iguous , may n ow a l low f l in t s ca t ters t o b e d a ted w i th a d eg ree o f c onf idence g rea ter t han t ha t b ased o n t he r ecogn i t ion o f r a re ly -occur ing d iagnos t ic i mp lemen ts o r p o t tery . I t r ema ins t o b e s een h ow t h is c hrono logy , d er ived f r om s t ra t if ied a nd p oss ib ly u nrepresen ta t ive ' s pec ia l ' a ssemb lages , a pp l ies t o s urface s ca t te rs . T h is p ape r p rov ides , a t l e as t , ab a s is o n wh ich t he 3 000 y ea r s o r s o o f u nd if feren t ia ted p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t r epresen ted b y f l in t s ca t te rs may n ow b eg in t o b e e xam ined i n g rea ter d e ta i l . Ackno wledge ments I wou ld l i ke t o t hank t he s t af f o f v a r ious museums f o r a ccess t o c o l lec t ion s a nd t hose e xcava tors who k ind ly a l lowed m e t o e xam ine ma ter ia l p r ior t o t he ir own p ub l ica t ion . I wou ld a l so l i ke t o t hank P au l C hadw ick a nd R icha rd B rad ley f or c ommen t s o n e a r l ier d raf ts o f t h is p aper .

B ibliography ASHBEE , P . , SM ITH , I . F . a nd EVANS , J .G . 1 979 . E xcava t ion o f t h ree l ong b a r rows n ea r Avebury , Wi l tsh ire , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 5 , 2 07 -300 . AVERY , M . 1 982 . T he N eo l i th ic c ausewayed e nc losu re , Ab ingdon , i n C ase , H .J . a nd Wh i t t le , A .W .R . ( ed i tors ) S et t lemen t P a t terns i n t he Oxford R eg ion : E xcava t ions a t t he A b ingdon c ausewayed e nc losure a nd o ther s i tes , ( Counc i l f or B r i t ish A rchaeo logy R esea rch R epor t 4 4 ) , 1 0 -50 . BA MFORD , H .M . 1 985 . B r iar H i l l E xcava t ions 1 974 -1978 , Nor thamp ton sh ire D eve lopmen t C orpora t ion Monograph 3 . BARRETT , J .C . a nd BRADLEY , R .( f o r thcom ing ) L and scape , Monumen t s a nd S oc ie ty : T he P reh is tory o f C ranborne C hase . BED W IN , 0 . 1 981 . E xcava t ions a t t he N eo l i th ic e nc losure o n Bu ry H i l l , Hough ton , Wes t S ussex 1 979 , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 7 , 6 9 -86 . BELL , M . 1 977 . E xcava t ion s a t B ishops tone , S ussex A rchaeo log ica l C o l lec t ions 15 , 1 -299 . BO WDEN , M . , FORD , S . a nd GAFFNEY , V . (f o r thcom ing ) . A L a te B ronze A ge A r tefac t S ca t te r o n Wea thercock H i l l , B erksh ire A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l . CASE , H .J . 1 982a . T he l i nea r d i tches a nd s ou the rn *e nc losure , No r th S toke , i n C ase , H .J . , a nd Wh i t t le , A .W .R . ( ed i tor s ) S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t he O xf ord R egion :E xcava t ions a t t he A b ingdon c ausewayed e nc losure a nd o ther s i tes , ( Counc i l f o r B r i t ish A rchaeo logy R esea rch R epo r t 4 4 ) , 6 0 -75 . CASE , H .J . 1 982b . C a ss ing ton 1 950 -2 : L a te N eo l i th ic p i ts a nd t he b ig e nc losu re , i n C a se , H .J . a nd Wh i t t le , A .W .R . ( ed i tors ) S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t h e O xf ord R eg ion :E xcava t ions a t t he A b ingdon c ausewayed e nc losure a nd o ther s i tes , ( Counc i l f or B r i t ish A rchaeo logy R esea rch R epor t 4 4 ) ,118 -151 . CLARK , J .G .D . , H IGGS , E .S . a nd LONG WORTH , I .H . 1 960 . E xcava t ion s a t t he N eo l i th ic s i te a t Hurs t F en , M i ldenha l l , S uf fo lk , 1 954 , 1 957 a nd 1 958 , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 2 6 , 2 02 -245 . DRE WETT , P .L . 1 975 . T he e xcava t ion o f a n o va l b ur ia l mound o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b c a t A lf r is ton , E as t S ussex , 1 974 , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc iety 4 1 , 19 -152 . DRE WETT , P .L . 1 977 . T he e xcava t ion o f aN eo l i th ic c ausewayed e nc losu re o n O f fham H i l l , E as t S ussex , 1 976 , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 3 , 2 012 41 DRE WETT , P .L . 1 982 . L a ter B ronze Age d own land e conomy a nd e xcava t ion s a t B lack P a tch , E as t S ussex , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 8 , 3 21-400 .

8 1

EVANS , J .G . a nd SM ITH , I . F . 1 983 . E xcava t ion s a t C he rh i l l , N or th Wi l t sh ire , 1 967 , P roceed ings o f t he P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 9 , 4 3 -117 . FASHA M , P .J . a nd ROSS , J .M . 1 978 . A B ronze A ge f l in t i ndus t ry f r om a b a r row s i te i n M iche ldeve r Wood , H ampsh ire , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 4 , 4 7 -67 . FOLEY , R . 1 981 . Of f -s i te A rchaeo logy a nd Human Adap ta t ion i n E as t ern A f r ica : An Ana lys is o f R eg iona l A r tef ac t D ens i ty i n t h e Ambose l i , S ou thern K enya , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , S 9 7 ) . FORD , S . , BRADLEY , R . , HA WKES , J . a nd F ISHER , P . 1 984 . F l in t wo rk ing i n t he me ta l a ge , Oxf ord J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 3 , 1 57 -173 . FORD , S . 1 984 . T he e xcava t ion o f a r i ng d i tch a t Nor th S toke , Oxfo rdsh ire , Oxon iens ia 4 9 , 1 7 . FROO M , F .R . 1 976 . Wawco t t I I : A S tra t if ied Meso l i th ic S uccess ion , ( Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 2 7) . HAYDEN , B . 1 979 . S nap , s ha t ter a nd s uperf rac tures : u se -wea r o f s t one s k in s c rapers , i n Hayden , B . ( ed i tor ) L ith ic U se- Wear Ana lys is , (L ondon , A cadem ic P ress ) , 2 07 -229 . HEALEY , E . a nd ROBERTSON - MACKAY , R . 1 983 . T he l i th ic i ndus t r ies f r om S ta ines c ausewayed e nc losure a nd t he ir r e la t ionsh ip t o o ther E ar l ier N eo l i th ic i ndus t r ies i n s ou thern B r i ta in , L ithics 4 , 1 -27 . HEDGES , J . a nd BUCKLEY , D . 1 978 . E xcava t ions a t a N eo l i th ic c ausewayed e nc losu re , O r se t t , E ssex , 1 975 , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 4 , 2 19 3 08 . HODDER , I . 1 982 . T he P resen t P as t , ( London , B a tsfo rd ) . HOLDEN , E .W . a nd BRADLEY , R . 1 975 . A L a te N eo l i th ic s i te a t R ackham , S ussex A rchaeo log ica l C o l lec t ions 13 , 8 5 -103 . KEELEY , L .H . 1 980 . E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o f S tone T oo l U ses , ( Ch icago , Un ivers i ty P ress ) . MORR IS , G . 1 984 . M ic rowear a nd o rgan ic r e s idue s t ud ies o n Swee t T rack f l in t s , i n C o les , J .M . , O rme , B .J . a nd R ou i l la rd , S .E . S omerset L eve ls P apers 1 0 , 9 7-106 . MOSS , E .H . 1 983 . F unc t iona l A na lys is o f F l in t I mp lemen t s : P inceven t a nd P on t D 'Ambon : Two C ase S tud ies f rom t he F rench F ina l P a laeo l i th ic , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts , S 17 ) . MOSS , E .H . 1 986 . A spec ts o f s i te c ompa r ison : d eb i tage s amp les , t e chno logy a nd f unc t ion , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 8 , 16 -133 . P ITTS , M .W . a nd J ACOBI , R .M . 1 979 . S ome a spec t s o f c hange i n f l aked s t one i ndus tr ies o f t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic i n s ou thern B r i ta in , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 6 , 1 63 -177 . PRYOR , F .F .M . 1 978 . E xcava t ions a t F enga te , P eterborough , E ng land : T he S econd R epor t , ( Toron to , R oya l On ta r io Museum ) . R ICHARDS , J .C . 1 984 . T he e xcava t ion o f aL a te B ronze Age s e t t lemen t a nd d i tch a t B eedon Manor F arm , B erk sh ire , i n C a thera l l , P .D . , B a rne t t , M . a nd McC lean , H . ( ed i tors ) T he S ou thern F eeder . T he A rchaeo logy o f a Gas P ipel ine . ( Br i t ish Gas C orpora t ion ) . ROBERTSON - MACKAY , M .E . 1 980 . A ' h ead a nd h ooves ' b u r ia l b enea th a r ound b ar row , w i th o ther N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age s i tes , o n H emp Kno l l , n ea r Avebu ry , Wi l tsh ire , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 6 , 1 23 -176 . SAVILLE , A . 1 982 . C ar ry ing c ores t o G louces ter sh ire : s o me t hough ts o n l i th ic r esource e xp lo i ta t ion , L i th ics 3 , 2 5 -28 . S LADE , C .F . 1 964 . A L a te N eo l i th ic s i te a t S onn ing , B e rksh ire , B erkshire A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 6 1 , 4 -19 . SM ITH , I . F . 1 965 . W indm i l l H i l l a nd A vebury , ( Oxford , C la rendon P re ss ) . S TART , D . a nd HOLGATE , R . (f or thcom ing ) . A N eo l i th ic P i t a t R emenham , B erksh ire , B erksh ire A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l .

8 2

WA IN WR IGHT ,G . a nd LONG WORTH , I . 1 971 . Durr ing ton Wa l l s : E xcava t ions 1 966 1 968 , R epor ts o f t he R esea rch Co mm i t tee 2 9 , ( L ondon , S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies) . W Y MER , J . J . 1 962 . E xcava t ions a t t he Mag lemos ian s i tes o f T ha tcham , B erksh ire , E ng land , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 2 8 , 3 29 -361 .

8 3

Appendix

1

Sites Used in Analysis County Date Sample Reference Size

Location

1. Wawcott 3

Berks. LM 460

Froom 1976

Reading and BM

2. Thatcham 3

Berks. EM

716

Wymer 1962

·Reading

3. Holyport

Berks.

LM 623

unpub lished

Reading

4. C herhill (Meso.) Wilts. buried soil

LM 345

Evans and Smith 1985

Devizes

5. North Stoke bank barrow

Oxon.

EN

299

Case 1982a

Ashmolean

6. Abingdon Oxon. causewayed enc.

EN

319

Avery 1982

Ashmolean

7. Windmill Hill

Wilts.

EN

346

Smith 1965

Av e bury

8. South Street buried soil

Wilts

EN

298

Ashbee, Smith Av e bury and Evans 1979

Sussex EN 9. Offham causewayed enc.

282

Drewett 1977

Lewes

10. Eton Wick

Berks. EN

197

unpub lished

Reading

11. Alfriston oval barrow

287 Sussex El LN?

Drewett 1976

Lewes

12. Bishopstone

Sussex EN

430

Bell 1977

Brighton

303

Evans and Smith 1983

Devizes

Bedwin 1981

Arunde l

Site

causewayed enc.

13. C herhill (Neo) Wilts. · causewayed enc.

EN

14. Bury Hill

Sussex EN . 421

15. Cassington pits 2 and 5

Oxon.

LN

227

Case 1982b

Ashmolean

16. S on ning

Berks. LN

284

Slade 1964

Reading

17. Down Farm Neolithic ring ditch

Dorset LN

306

Green, M. pers. comm.

Excavator

18. Down Farm Grooved Ware pit 29

Dorset LN

336

Green, M. pers. comm.

Excavator

84

1 9 . Wyke Down H enge p i t R 2 0 .

Dorse t

S u t ton C our tney Oxon . p i ts P a nd T

LN

2 26

G reen , M . p ers . c omm .

E xcava tor

LN

2 55

C ase 1 982b

A sh mo lean

Avebury

2 1 . Wes t K enne t Avenue

Wi l ts .

LN

3 62

Sm i th

2 2 .

S ou th L odge C amp B eaker h o l low

Wi l ts .

B e

4 26

B a r re t t e t a t . ( for thco m ing)

E xcava tor

2 3 . S ou th L odge C amp

Wi l ts .

LBA 3 44

B a r re t t e t a t . ( for thco ming)

E xcava tor

2 4 . Nor th S toke r ing d i tch

Oxon

? BA 2 25

F o rd 1 984

A sh mo lean

2 5 . Down F a rm

Dorse t

LBA 5 29

G reen , M . p ers . c omm .

Excava tor

2 6 . Wea thercock H i l l s u rface s ca t te r

B erks .

LBA 1 587

B owden , F ord , a nd G af fney ( f o r thcom ing )

E xcava tor

2 7 . Do rse t C ursus s urface s ca t ter

Dorse t

? LN

3 18

B a r re t t e t a l . ( for thco m ing)

Excava tor

2 8 . O rse t t c ausewayed

E ssex

EN

2 57

H edges a nd B uck ley 1 978

G rays

2 9 . H emp Kno l l p i t s 1a nd 2

Wi l ts

EN

5 83

Rober tsonMacKay 1 980

B r i t ish

3 0 . B eedon s i te 8

B erks .

LBA 2 87

R icha rds ' 1 984

R ead ing

Nor t e nc . h ants

EN

3 12

B amfo rd

Nor tha mpton

3 2 . Runny mede B r idge ( Neo )

B erks .

EN

3 18

Needham p ers . c omm .

E xcava tor

3 3 . Runny mede B r idge ( LBA )

B erks .

LBA 2 11

Needha m p ers . c omm .

E xcava tor

R 4 Han ts .

MBA 4 47

F a sham a nd R oss 1 978

Winchester H an ts . Museum S erv ice

B erks .

EN

4 8

S ta r t a nd H o lga te E xcava tor f or thco m ing

Dorse t

EN

5 0

B a r re t t e t a l . ( for thco m ing)

e nc .

3 1 . B r ia r H i l l c ausewayed

3 4 . M iche ldever b arrow

3 5 . R e menham

3 6 . Dor se t

p i t

C ur sus

8 5

1 965

1 985

Museum

E xcava tor

7 . I nferen t ia l L im its a nd S urface S cat ters : The Case o f The Madd le F ar m a nd Va le o f t he Wh ite Horse F ie ldwa lk ing S urvey Mar t in

T ing le

I n t he l a s t s ix y ear s a n umber o f f i e ld s urvey p ro jec ts i n s ou thern E ng land h ave a t te mp ted t o e xam ine s ys te ma t ica l ly l a rge a reas o f a rab le l and , emp loy ing v a r ious t echn iques o f s urface c o l lec t ion w i th a v iew t o a ssess ing t he a rchaeo log ica l p r ior i t ies i n a l andscape i n t he f ace o f e ncroach ing d eve lop men t . F ew h ave , a s y e t , r eached p ub l ica t ion , i n p ar t b ecause c oncen tra t ion o n t he c ha lk u p lands r ecovered u n imag ined a nd n ear u nmanageab le q uan t i t ies o f f l in t , a na lys is o f wh ich h as t ended i n i t ia l ly t o p ose many more q ues t ions t han i t a nswer s . T he a ssemb lage d iscussed b e low r epresen ts t he l a rges t c omponen t o f t wo mu l t i -per iod f i e ldwa lk ing s urveys wh ich w ere c ar r ied o u t o n b eha lf o f t he T rus t f or Wessex A rchaeo logy , o n t he B erk sh ire Down s a nd l a ter i n t he V a le o f t he Wh i te Hor se , b e tween 1 980 a nd 1 985 . I n i t ia l ly , t he Madd le F a rm P ro jec t w as e nv isaged a s a s t udy o f a R omano -Br i t ish s e t t lemen t c omp lex a nd i t s e nv iron s . A f ter t he f i r s t s eason , h owever , t he r esea rch s t ra tegy w as mod if ied t o emphas ise t he l and scape , r a the r t han t he s i tes w i th in i t . A t r an sec t i n t he Va le o f t he Wh i te H or se w as s ubsequen t ly e xam ined t o s t udy c on t inu i ty a nd c hange f rom P reh is tor ic , Roman a nd Med ieva l d epos i t ion p a t terns a c ross a v ar ie ty o f s o i l b oundar ies . T he f i e ldwa lk ing emp loyed t he s t anda rd ised me thodo logy o f t he T rus t f or Wessex A rchaeo logy , wh ich i nvo lves s amp l ing w i th in t he O rdnance S urvey 's h ec tare g r id . I n e ach h ec tare , e igh t n or th /sou th r uns , 5 0m l ong a nd 2 5m a par t w ere w a lked ( s ee R icha rd s 1 985 , 3 0 ) . Wh i le t he g r id mark ing t he t r ansec ts was s t i l l i n p lace , u ps tand ing e ar thworks , s o i lmark s o r a ny v i s ib le s ca t ters o f s ubso i l o r n on loca l ma ter ia l w ere ma rked o n a 1 : 2500 map t oge ther w i th t he i den t i ty a nd c overage o f t he i nd iv idua l w a lke rs . A mo re g enera l r ecord o f w ea ther a nd f i e ld c ond i t ions w as a l so k ep t . I n t he f i r s t s eason a l l t he a rab le l and ( 860 h a . o r 6 8% ) i n s ide a 2 km r ad iu s c i rc le , c en tred o n t he Madd le F arm Roman V i l la , was f i e ldwa lked s y s tema t ica l ly ( F igu re 1 ) . T he f o l low ing w in ter a l l t he a rab le l and w i th in a s er ies o f 5 00 m w ide t r ansec ts wh ich e x tended t he s urvey a cross t he n e ighbour ing d ry v a l leys w as s im i la r ly f i e ldwa lked ( 932 h a .) . F ina l ly , a l l t he a va i lab le a rab le ( 420 h a . ) w as w a lked , i n a 2 km w ide c o r r idor r unn ing 1 2 km n or th -nor th -wes t , a t r i gh t a ng les t o t he g eo logy o f t he V a le o f t he Wh i te Ho r se f rom t he n o r thern e nd o f t he Madd le F a rm S u rvey a r ea t o t he C ora l l ian r i dge a t B adbury H i l l . T he c omb ined c overage o f t hese t wo s u rveys w as 2 ,212 h a . , e ach h ec ta re h av ing e igh t r uns , g iv ing a t o ta l o f 1 7 ,936 c o l lec t ion u n i ts . T hese r ecovered more t han 3 8 ,000 w as te f l akes , 1 , 87 1 c ores a nd o ver 1 , 600 i mp le men ts . B efore a d e ta i led a na lys is o f ma ter ia l r ecovered f ro m t he w ide s paced f i e ldwa lk ing c ou ld b eg in , i t w as n ecessary t o c ons ider s evera l f undamen ta l q ues t ions . F irs t ly , w ha t p ropor t ion o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion o f f l akes , c ores a nd t oo ls p resen t i n t he p loughso i l o f t he s urvey a rea w as r ecovered b y t he w idespaced f i e ldwa lk ing? S econd ly , i t w as i mpor tan t t o k now h ow t yp ica l w ere p a t terns wh ich emerged d ur ing f i e ldwa lk ing s urveys . T h ird ly , t he

8 7

-

S u rvey L oca t ions

F IG . 1

7

KEY B

HA DBURY N IL L

W

WAY LANDS S MITHY

L

LAIAB OURN

S

SE VEN BA RR O WS

LONOBA RRO W

F igure 7 . 1 S urvey L oca t ions : F i r s t S eason , C en tred o n Madd le F arm Roman V i l la ; S econd S eason , N e ighbour ing A reas ; T h ird S eason , C or r idor A cross V a le o f t he Wh i te Horse . 8 8

p oss ib i l i t ies o f i s o la t ing s pec if ic c hrono log ica l e l emen ts w i th in t he o vera l l s ca t ter n eeded t o b e a s sessed i n o rder t o i d en t ify t h e c hang ing c ha rac ter o f t he e xp lo i ta t ion a nd u se o f l i th ics , a nd f i na l ly w e mus t a sk h ow s amp le e xcava t ion c an c on t r ibu te t o t he i n terpre ta t ion o f l i th ic s ca t ters .

Quant if ying Col lect ion I t i s g enera l ly a g reed t ha t when f i e ldwa lk ing i n s prou t ing c rops , a w a lke r c an o n ly c o l lec t e f fec t ive ly f rom a n a rea r ough ly 2m . w ide , g iv ing a c ove rage ( u s ing t he T rus t f or Wessex A rchaeo logy m e thodo logy ) o f a bou t 8 00 s qua re me t res i n e ve ry h ec ta re ( 8%) . T he ma ter ia l o n t he f i e ld s u rface i s i t se lf a s amp le o f wha t i s c on ta ined w i th in t h e p loughso i l . I n t he c our se o f t he e xcava t ion o f a f l in t c oncen t ra t ion n ear t he L ambou rn b ar row g roup , s amp les o f t h e p loughso i l w e re s i eved s o t ha t a c ompar ison c ou ld b e made b e tween t he n umber s o f worked f l in ts f r om t he s urface a nd t he p loughso i l . When 5 6 5mm s i eve r es idues w ere c ompa red w i th t he r e su l ts f r om t o ta l c o l lec t ion , t he a verage r a t io o f s urface t o p loughso i l w as f ound t o b e 2 .79% . T h is f i gu re i s r ema rkab ly s im i la r t o t ha t a r r ived a t f r om work i n D evon ( Ber r idge , P . p e r s . c omm .) a nd i ndeed t o a f i gu re o f 2% f r om a s im i la r i nves t iga t ion wh ich w as c onduc ted o n a n earby Roman p o t tery s ca t ter ( Gaf fney a nd T ing le f o r thcom ing ) . T hus t h e s amp le o f o ver 4 2 ,000 p ieces o f f l in t c ou ld r ep resen t a s l i t t le a s 0 .2% o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion o f t he p loughso i l i n t h e a r ea e xam ined . I t wou ld b e u nw ise t o r ega rd t h is f i gure a s u n iver sa l ly a pp l icab le s i nce i t t akes n o a ccoun t o f t h e t endancy o f c er ta in a r tefac t s t o b e o ver r epresen ted o n t h e s urface ( Lewarch a nd O 'Br ien 1 981) a nd v a r ia t ion s i n t he c harac te r is t ics o f d i f fer ing s o i l t ypes . Consistency i n P at terning R icha rds h as s t a ted t h a t " s urface c o l lec t ion i s b y i t s n a ture , n o t s ub jec t t o r ep l ica t ion , a f ac t t ha t d en ies u s t he o ppor tun i ty t o t e s t f o r b iases i n t he r ecord " ( R icha rds 1 985 , 3 0 ) . Wh i le a ccep t ing t ha t s u rface c o l lec t ion w i l l d ep le te t h e p o ten t ia l a rchaeo log ica l r e sou rces o f a n a r ea , t h e e s t ima te a bove o f t he p ercen tage o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion o f t he p loughso i l wh ich i s s ub jec t t o w idespaced c o l lec t ion s ugges ts t ha t t h is w i l l n o t b e a s i gn if ican t f ac tor ( s ee B rad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) . A t t he v ery l e as t , r ewa lk ing a f i e ld s hou ld b e a b le t o p rove t ha t i f b road ly s im i lar * p a t terns a re r epea ted t he o r ig ina l s urface c o l lec t ion w as n o t t he p roduc t o f c hance . I t s hou ld a l so p rov ide s o me i dea o f t he i n forma t ion wh ich c an r e l iab ly b e d rawn f r om t h e s urface c o l lec t ion 's r e su l ts . T o t h is e nd , a2 2 h a . f i e ld w as r e -wa lked b y t he s ame p eop le a t ac ompa rab le s t a te o f w ea ther ing d ur ing 3 c onsecu t ive y ears . T he o n ly f ac tor wh ich c hanged w as t he a gr icu l tura l r eg ime wh ich , i n t he f i r s t 2 y ea rs ( 1982 a nd 1 983 ) , wa s a p rog ramme o f m in ima l a g r icu l ture ( a t e chn ique t ha t i nvo lves o n ly t he c u l t iva t ing o f t h e f i e ld a nd d i rec t d r i l l ing o f t h e c rop ) , f o l lowed b y n orma l p lough ing i n t h e f i na l y ea r . T he r e su l ts ( F igure 2 ) i nd ica te t ha t i n t h is e xamp le , a p lough e xposed n ear ly 5 t imes more l i th ic ma ter ia l o n t h e f i e ld s urface t han d id a c u l t iva tor . Wh i le t he a moun t o f ma ter ia l v a r ied , i t s ' c ha rac ter d id n o t . T here w as a ma rked c ons is tency b e tween 1 982 a nd 1 983 when t he a ssemb lages t o ta l led 4 7 a nd 4 8 f l akes w e igh ing 5 04g . a nd 5 82g . A f ter t he p lough ing i n 1 984 , 1 82 f l akes w ere c o l lec ted . T he m ean f l ake w e igh ts f or t he t h ree y ears w ere 1 0 .72g . , 1 2 .12g . a nd 1 .14g . r e spec t ive ly . Compar ison b e tween t he 1 984 a nd t he 1 982 c o l lec t ions s howed t he p e rcen tages o f t oo ls a nd c o res i n t he a s semb lage t o b e v ery s im i la r ( 7% a nd 1 0% i n 1 982 c ompa red w i th 5% a nd 1 2% i n 1 984 ) a nd e ven t he m ean w e igh t

8 9

9 0

o f t he c ores w ere c ompa rab le a t 6 1g . a nd 5 7g . . A l though s uch a s ma l l s amp le h as o bv ious l im i ta t ions , i t i s c ompa rab le w i th a s im i la r e xerc ise b y T rubow i tz who c onc luded t ha t t here w as " no s i gn if ican t v ar ia t ion i n t he p reh is tor ic s urface d ebr is p a t terns o n t he s i te o ver t he t h ree y ears o f o bserved c u l t iva t ion " ( T rubow i tz 1 978 , 6 4 ) . Dat ing A ssum ing t ha t t h is a rea h ad b een w ide ly i f d i scon t inuous ly p loughed f r om a t l eas t t he l a te p reh is tor ic p er iod i t was n o t e xpec ted t ha t p o t tery f abr ics d a t ing f r om b efore t he L a ter B ronze Age w ere l i ke ly t o s urv ive t o s ugges t p oss ib le d a t ing o f a ny d i sc ree t s ca t ter s ( c f . R icha rds 1 985 , 3 8 ) . A t temp t ing t o d a te p a r ts o f a s u rface a ssemb lage f r om f l in t t oo ls i s s im i la r ly p rob lema t ic s ince t he v as t ma jor i ty o f f l in t i mp lemen ts , s craper s a nd s imp le r e touched p ieces , a re n o more d a tab le t han t he f l akes t hey w ere made f rom ( cf . F ord , t h is v o lume , Chap ter 6 ) . T he c hrono log ica l d iv is ion b e tween E ar ly N eo l i th ic a nd L a te Neo l i th ic /Ear ly B ronze Age s hown b y a r rowheads i s o f l i t t le a ss is tance a s t hey make u p l e ss t han 2% o f t he r e touched ma te r ia l . S ince o ver 2 5% o f t hose r ecove red w e re b roken , a lmos t c e r ta in ly f rom u se , a nd a l l a ppear t o b e d is tr ibu ted a t r andom t hroughou t t he s urvey a rea , d irec t a ssoc ia t ion w i th a ny c oncen tra t ion o r a bsence o f f l in t w as te a t t he s ame l oca t ion i s u nproven . Me t r ica l a na lys is o f t he f l akes f rom t he d own land f a i led t o i so la te t he e l emen t s o f a n a r row f l ake i ndus t ry . T h is w a s i n ma rked c on t ras t t o t he Va le o f t he Wh i te Horse , where a c oncen t ra t ion o f n a r row f l akes w as e v iden t o n t he Cora l l ian r i dge a d jacen t t o B adbury H i l lfor t . When a i r p ho tographs o f t h is a rea w ere e xam ined a n e nc losure w i th t wo c oncen t r ic s egmen ted d i tches a pprox ima te ly 1 50m a nd 2 50m a c ross w as f a in t ly v i s ib le a s a s o i l ma rk . I t i s s ca rce ly c once ivab le t ha t t h is s hou ld b e i n terpre ted a s e v idence t ha t E ar ly Neo l i th ic a c t iv i ty was r es tr ic ted t o t he V a le a nd t he Cora l l ian r idge , e spec ia l ly s ince t he e nv ironmen ta l e v idence f ro m t he e xcava t ions o f t he L ambourn l ong b ar row a nd Way lands Sm i thy s ugges ts t ha t t he re wa s o pen g rass land o n t he d owns f r om t he e a r ly p a r t o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b c , a nd p oss ib ly a s e a r ly a s t he m id -four th ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975) . T he a bundance o f f l in t o n t he d owns m igh t i t se lf a ccoun t f or t he a bsence o f a n a r row f l ake i ndus t ry . I n c ons ider ing f ou r s i tes i n D evon , C a re h as s hown t here t o b e a n i nc rease i n t he n umber s o f n a r row f l akes , r epresen t ing s ome f orm o f f l in t c onse rva t ion , c orrespond ing t o i ncreased d is tance f rom t he f l in t s ou rce a t B eer H ead ( Ca re 1 982 , 2 77) . T he a bundance o f f l in t o n t he d owns c ou ld b e o ne r eason why t here i s n o b lade i ndus t ry t o c ompa re w i th t ha t o n t he Cora l l ian r i dge , b u t a s imp le p o l icy o f c onserva t ion d oes n o t e xp la in why t he l a t te r s hou ld p redom inan t ly u t i l ise r i ver f l in t a l though i t i s o n ly 1 0 km f rom t he d own s . O f t he o ther E a r l ier N eo l i th ic e xcava ted c on tex t s i n t he r eg ion , t he L ambou rn l ong b a rrow p roduced a v ery s ma l l s amp le o f f l in t f rom t he mound , t he p r i mary d i tch f i l ls a nd t he b ur ied l and s urface . I t was o f s uch a n u nd ist ingu ished manufac ture " no t c harac ter is t ic o f n orma l N eo l ith ic i ndus tr ies" (Wymer 1 964 , 1 0 ) , t ha t t he e xcava tor s ugges ts " t he c ores a nd f l akes w ere i n ten t iona l ly s t ruck o n s i te a nd c as t i n to t he make -up o f t he mound " ( i b id . 1 964 ) . T h is s ugges t s t ha t i n s o me w ay t hey w e re n o t i n tended f or t oo l p roduc t ion . Unfo r tuna te ly , t here i s n o d esc r ip t ion o f t he f l in t i n t he a ccoun t o f t he e xcava t ion o f Way land s Sm i thy .

9 1

F l in t r ecovered f rom t o ta l c o l lec t ion s o n t wo R oman o pen s i tes w as e xam ined t o s ee i f t h is r epresen ted a v a l id f o rm o f o f f -s i te t o ta l c o l lec t ion . One a r ea r evea led a v ery l ow d ens i ty c oncen t ra t ion o f f l akes i n wh ich t here w ere a s ma l l n umber o f b lades a nd b lade s egmen ts , o n t he p er iphery o f a R omano B r i t ish s e t t lemen t s i te . I n t he c our se o f s ubsequen t e xcava t ion o f t he R oman f ea tures , i nc iden ta l f i nds f r om t he p loughso i l i nc luded a p r isma t ic b lade c o re a nd a m icro l i th . I f t h is i s r epresen ta t ive o f wha t i s r ecoverab le f rom Meso l i th ic s i tes i n t he r eg ion i t i s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t n one h as p rev ious ly b een l oca ted . I n a s ubsequen t s eason , t he a rea wh ich h ad b een i n ten s ive ly c o l lec ted was r ewa lked a t t he s t anda rd 2 5m s pac ing . A s b efore , s ubs tan t ia l amoun ts o f R oman p o t tery w a s p resen t o n t he f i e ld s urface ; h owever , t he l i th ic ma ter ia l r ecove red t o ta l led t wo s qua t f l akes a nd a s c raper . I t i s a lmos t c er ta in t ha t t he w ide -spaced c o l lec t ion i s t oo c oar se t o l oca te l ow d en s i ty s ca t ters o f t h is p ar t icu la r n a ture . F rom t he i n i t ia l p lo t -ou t o f t he n umbers o f f l akes i n t he f i rs t s eason 's f i e ldwa lk ing o n t he d own s (F igu re 3 ) i t w as c l ea r t ha t t he e n t i re a rea w a s c overed w i th f l in t d eb i tage , w i th d en ser a rea s t end ing t o b e f ound o n t he u ppe r s l opes a nd t he h i l l tops b e tween t he d ry v a l leys . T es t p i ts a c ross t he g ra in o f t he l andscape h ad s hown t ha t t here w a s n o s i gn if ican t d eve lopmen t o f c o l luv ium mask ing ma ter ia l i n t he v a l ley b o t toms . I n c on tras t , i mp le men ts w ere f ound t hroughou t t he s urvey a rea ( F igure 4 ) w ith c oncen tra t ions s ome t imes a ssoc ia ted w i th h i l l top f l ake s ca t ters b u t a l so o ccur ing i n t he d ry v a l leys . T he d enses t f l ake s ca t ters w ere o f ten a ccompan ied b y c oncen tra t ions o f c ores , wh ich s ugges ted t ha t t hey r epresen ted s ome s or t o f q uar ry ing a c t iv i ty where f l in t o u tcropped o n o r b e low h i l l tops ( F igure 5 ) . H ammers tones w ere a lmos t a lways r ecovered a way f rom t he ma jor f l ake c oncen t ra t ion s a nd i ndeed o ver 2 0% w ere f ound i n h ec ta re s qua res t ha t c on ta ined n o c ore s a t a l l . T h is i s p e rhaps a n e xamp le o f t he p henomenon o bserved b y B inford o f a r tefac ts b e ing d isca rded where t hey w e re o f l e a s t i mmed ia te u se ( 1978 , 3 55 ) . I n t he f i rs t a na lys is o f t he w ide -spaced ma ter ia l , t he f l akes f rom t he d own s were s or ted i n to p r imary ( more t han 5 0% c or tex o n t he d orsa l f ace ) , s econda ry ( l ess t han 5 0% c or tex o n t he d or sa l f ace ) a nd t e r t ia ry ( no c or tex ) a nd t he t h ree g roups w ere t hen w e ighed . C ores w ere a l so d iv ided i n to u nsys tema t ic a nd s ys tema t ic ( cores wh ich s howed e v idence o f p la tform p repa ra t ion ) a nd w e ighed . A t h ird c a tegory i nc luded a l l i mp lemen ts , b urn t f l in t , h ammers tone f r agmen ts a nd b roken f l akes . G iven t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he t o ta l a ssemb lage r ecove red made u p l e ss t han 1 % o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion o f t he p lough -zone , i t was f e l t t ha t a s oph is t ica ted me tr ica l a na lys is d eve loped f or s t ra t if ied a ssemb lages wa s u n l ike ly t o j us t ify t he amoun t o f t ime i t wou ld i nvo lve . T he mos t o bv ious v a r ia t ion w a s a marked d iv is ion b e tween t he l i th ic d eb r is r ecovered e i ther s i de o f a d ry v a l ley w h ich s epara tes a n a r ea o f m idd le c ha lk t o t he wes t f rom c lay -w i th -f l in ts i n t he e as t a nd c on ta ins t he L ambourn S even B ar rows g roup . A l though t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma ter ia l i n b o th a reas s eemed s uperf ic ia l ly s im i la r , t here w ere n o d ense c oncen tra t ions o f f l akes a nd c o res o n t he h i l l -s lopes a nd t ops o f t h e c lay -w i th -f l in t s , a s t here w ere o n t he m idd le c ha lk . T he a ve rage w e igh ts o f p r ima ry , s econda ry a nd t e r t ia ry f l akes w ere a l l n o tab ly g rea ter o n t he c lay -w i th -f l in ts a nd h ammers tones f rom t h is e as tern a rea w ere o n a ve rage o ve r t w ice a s h eavy a s t hose f ound t o t he w es t . Obv ious ly , f l in t e x t rac ted f r om v a r ious s o i l t ypes h ad t o b e e xp lo i ted

9 2

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D is t r ibu t ion o f I mp lemen t s f r om F i r s t S eason 's F ie ldwa lk ing . 9 4

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T he s ing le s ign if ican t a r tefac t d is tr ibu t ion wh ich r e la ted t o u ps tand ing monumen ts w as t ha t o f p o l ished a xe f r agmen ts , wh ich o ccur red e xc lus ive ly i n t he t wo d ry v a l leys wh ich h ad l ong b ar rows a t t h e ir h eads (Way lands Sm i thy a nd t he L ambourn l ong b arrow ) . T here w ere o bv ious d i f ferences b e tween t h e ma ter ia l r ecove red f r om t he V a le o f t he Wh i te Hor se a nd t ha t f r om t he d owns . T he a ve rage d ens i ty o f f l akes i n t h e V a le s urvey a r ea w as 1 . 25 p er h a . c ompa red w i th 2 0 .5 p er h a . f r om t h e d own s . T here w a s s im i la r v a r iance i n t he d en s i ty o f i mp lemen t f i nds . Worn a nd b roken t oo ls w e re , h owever , t w ice a s c ommon i n t h e V a le , mak ing u p 3 0% o f t h e a s semb lage . On t he c ha lk e as i ly manufac tured t oo ls , s uch a s r e touched f l akes a nd mos t s crapers , w ere p robab ly d i scarded when t he ir f unc t ion was c omp le ted . T hose t oo ls w i th h igh i nc idences o f w ear a nd b reakage i n b o th a reas w ere s pec ia l is t i mp lemen ts s uch a s a xes , f abr ica tors a nd a r rowheads . No t s urpr is ing ly , a way f ro m t he f l in t s ource i n t he Va le , c ores a nd h ammers tones w ere v e ry u ncommon a nd n o b urn t f l in t w as r ecove red a t a l l . Wh i le t here a re e xamp les o f f l akes a nd t oo ls made f rom r i ver f l in t t h roughou t t he V a le s urvey a r ea , i t i s a s sumed t ha t much o f t he f l in t ( t he a s semb lage f r om B adbu ry H i l l e xc luded ) w as d e r ived f r om t he d owns . One e xamp le o f t he movemen t o f l i th ic r e sou rces i n t he o ppos i te d i rec t ion w as o bserved a t Way lands Sm i thy where t he p ane ls o f t h in d ry w a l l ing b e tween t he wa l l s l abs w ere c omposed o f c ora l r ags tone f r om t he V a le ( A tk in son 1 965 ) . I n c ons ider ing t he r esu l ts o f t he w ide-spaced f i e ldwa lk ing i t i s q u i te i n teres t ing ( i f r a ther u nfa ir ) t o c ompare t hem w i th t he l andscape s urvey t ha t a ppea red i n t h e R ams H i l l r epor t ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 ) w h ich d ea l t w i th much t he s ame a rea , b u t u sed p redom inan t ly a i r p ho tographs a nd museum c o l lec t ion s . S ince t h e a u tho rs d id n o t h ave t h e o ppor tun i ty t o c a r ry o u t l a rge s ca le f i e ldwa lk ing s urveys , t hey v iewed s porad ica l ly r ecovered g roups o f f l in t a s r epresen t ing e v idence o f d i sc ree t f l in t s ca t ters o n t he d owns . T h is w as p ar t icu la r ly m is lead ing i n t he c ase o f t he P assmore c o l lec t ion ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 , 1 88 ) , wh ich s howed ' p os t -Neo l i th ic f l in t s ca t ters ' f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th g roups o f r ound b a r rows . P resumab ly t h e p resence o f t he b a r rows h ad l ed t o i nves t iga t ion i n t h e ir i mmed ia te v ic in i ty a nd t he d i scovery o f p reh is to r ic f l in t wo rk i nev i tab ly f o l lowed . Wh i le t he museum c o l lec t ions u sed b y B rad ley w ere u n represen ta t ive o f s pa t ia l d is tr ibu t ions o f ma ter ia l o n t he d owns i t i s p oss ib le t ha t t hey c on ta ined a r epresen ta t ive s amp le o f d iagnos t ic ma ter ia l . T he f r equency p lan o f a r rowheads f or t he d owns ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 , 1 76 ) w as s urpr is ing ly s im i lar t o r esu lts f rom f i e ldwa lk ing t hough i t i s a lways p oss ib le , s i nce t he s amp le i s s ma l l , t ha t a b ias t owards t he more o bv ious f orms i s b e ing r epea ted . T he f i e ldwa lk ing i n t he V a le p roduced o n ly 4 a r rowheads , a l l o f wh ich w ere l e af -shaped , c as t ing s o me d oub t o n t he s t a temen t t ha t " In t h e v a le t here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t s e t t lemen t e f fec t ive ly c ommenced i n t he p er iod i n wh ich b arbed -and tanged a r rowheads w ere u sed " ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 , 1 91) . Excavat ion F o l low ing t he f i rs t s eason 's f i e ldwa lk ing , a c oncen tra t ion o f f l in t w as te f l akes a nd t oo ls w h ich w as s i tua ted o n a h i l l top o ve r look ing t he L ambou rn S even B ar rows c eme tery w as s e lec ted f or ' t o ta l ' c o l lec t ion a nd s ubsequen t

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F igure 7 .5

Cores a nd H amme rs tones

D is t r ibu t ion o f C ores a nd H ammer s tones f r om F i r s t S eason 's F ie ldwa lk ing .

9 6

s amp le e xcava t ion . A s e r ies o f t e s t p i ts w e re d ug wh ich d emon s t ra ted t ha t c o l luv ia l a ccumu la t ions w ere s l igh t . T he d ep th o f p loughso i l a bove n a tura l c ha lk i n t h e s urvey a r ea w as f ound r a re ly t o e xceed 4 0cm a nd c ou ld b e l e ss t h an 2 0cm . A s t he a r ea w as b o rdered o n t wo s i des w i th p ermanen t p a s tu re i t w as n o t p oss ib le t o d ef ine a ny s or t o f m ean ingfu l e dge t o t h e s ca t te r , b u t a t o ta l o f 1 200 5m s qua res w e re c o l lec ted f r om 3 h a . c en tred o n wha t a ppea red t o b e t h e d en ses t p a r t . On a na lys is , e ve ry c l ass o f a r tefac t a ppea red t o b e r andom ly d i s tr ibu ted t h roughou t t he s i te w i th t he e xcep t ion o f w as te f l akes w h ich , wh i le b e ing u b iqu i tous , s howed o ne s l igh t c oncen t ra t ion .

T he 3 h a . o f i n tens ive c o l lec t ion w ere t oo l a rge t o b e e f fec t ive ly s amp le e xcava ted b y h and s o i t w as t h erefo re d ec ided t o e xcava te 5% o f 3 t r an sec t s w i th in t he t o ta l c o l lec t ion a r ea . T he e xcava t ion r evea led o n ly o ne g roup o f f ea tures c u t i n to t h e c ha lk , c ompr is ing a p i t a nd s evera l l i nea r f ea tu res . T he p i t c on ta ined a s add le q uern , t wo s a r sen r ubb ing s t ones , a f l in t k n if e w i th e dge g loss a nd a s ma l l , p a r t ly worn s c raper . T he l i near f ea tures , o ne o f w h ich w a s c u t b y t h e p i t , w ere u p t o 4m . i n l eng th a nd u p t o 3 0cm . d eep w i th d i s t inc t ive ' V ' p rof i les . T hey c on ta ined o ccas iona l w as te f l akes a nd b urn t f l in t a nd s ma l l q uan t i t ies o f c a rbon ised g ra in . T here w as n o s t ra t if ied p o t tery . T he o n ly i nd ica t ion o f d a t ing f or t he g roup o f f ea tures w as t he k n ife f r om t he p i t , w h ich w as s im i la r t o o ne f r om t he p r ima ry i nhuma t ion o f an ea rby b a r row , p robab ly o f B eake r p hase d a te , L ambourn 3 1 ( Case 1 957 ) .

D iscussion T h is i s n o t t he p lace f o r ad i cuss ion o f t h e l i tera tu re a bou t t h e c omp lex i ty o f d i sca rd b ehav iour , b u t s ome c ommen ts a re n ecessary ( c f . E n tw is t le a nd R ichards , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) . I n a r ecen t ly p ub l ished f i e ldwa lk ing s urvey , S hennan s ugges ts t ha t " t he l oca t ions w i th a bnorma l ly l a rge r e touch p ropor t ions a re mos t l i ke ly t o r epresen t p laces where ma in ta inance a c t iv i t ies w ere c ar r ied o u t a nd t oo ls u t ima te ly d i scarded • s e t t lemen t i n o ther words " ( Shennan 1 985) . A l though a d eve lopmen t o f t he s ugges t ion s i mp l ic i t i n e ar l ier work , t ha t w as te f l ake s ca t ter s r epresen t s e t t lemen t , t h is h a rd ly c oncurs w i th e thnog raph ic s t ud ies o f d i sca rd b ehav iou r s uch a s t hose o f Gou ld ( 1980 ) o r B info rd ( 1976 ) , w h ich l ed F o ley. t o n o te t ha t i t w ou ld b e v a l id t o s ee " an i nverse r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t oo l f unc t ion a nd d i scard l o ca t ion " ( Fo ley 1 981) . T he e xcava t ion a t S even B a r rows w as s omewha t e qu ivoca l o n t h is p o in t s i nce t he a r ea h ad a h igh i mp lemen t d ens i ty a nd e xcava t ion d id r ecove r e v idence , h owever s l igh t , o f h ab i ta t ion . E xcava t ing a f l in t s ca t ter o n t he d owns a nd f i nd ing e v idence o f s e t t lemen t b enea th i t h as l im i ted v a lue i f t he f ea tures a r e n o t s ecure ly d a teab le a nd t he e xcava t ion i s n o t o n t he s ca le ( and g iven t he c ur ren t s t a te o f r e sources , f ew c an b e ) t o d emons t ra te t ha t s e t t lemen t e v idence o f a s im i la r n a tu re w as n o t o ccur r ing a way f r om t h e s ca t te r . G iven t h e t imesca le a nd t he p robab le r ange o f a c t iv i t ies wh ich a r e r ef lec ted i n t h e f i e ldwa lk ing r ecord i t i s mos t u n l ike ly t ha t a c omprehens ive a nd t herefore u sefu l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e t t lemen t s i s p oss ib le . One o n ly h as t o l ook a t t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f R oman ma ter ia l wh ich t he Madd le F arm s urvey r ecovered ( Gaf fney a nd T ing le 1 985) t o r ea l ise t ha t t he p inpo in t ing o f s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion s i s o ne o f t h e l e as t o bv ious a pp l ica t ion s o f t he r e su l t s , a nd t h is f r om ap er iod t ha t l a s ted a me re 4 00 y ea r s .

9 7

I n t he p as t , i t was e xpec ted t ha t f i e ldwa lk ing s urveys w ou ld p inpo in t t he o ccupa t ion s i tes o n t he o therw ise f unerary a nd r i tua l monumen t d om ina ted d i s t r ibu t ion maps o f N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age s ou thern E ng land . T he s t a ted a im o f many f i e ld p ro jec ts , t ha t l im i ted e xam ina t ion o f t he a r ea a round a monumen t w i l l " pu t i t i n i t s c on tex t w i th in t he l andscape " , o f ten s eems r a ther o p t im is t ic . C lea r ly , i n s ome s pec ia l c ases ( eg S tonehenge ) t h is a pp roach i s a v a l id a nd o bv ious o ne , b u t i n l e ss i n tens ive ly s t ud ied a r eas t h e c oncen tra t ion o n a r i tua l monumen t c ou ld r ecover p a t terns o f d epos i t ion wh ich wou ld b e i n terpre ted d i f fe ren t ly b u t f or t he a s sumed l i nk w i th t ha t monumen t . T he p re l im inary f i nd ings f r om t h is c ase s t udy i nd ica te t ha t o n t h e C ha lk u p lands , t here a r e n o d i sc re te s ca t ter s o f e as i ly d a teab le ma ter ia l w h ich c an b e s ub jec t t o r ap id i n terpre ta t ion . Our i nferen t ia l f ramework f or i n terpre t ing s urface s ca t ters i s s imp ly i nadequa te ; t he q ues t ion s w h ich c an b e a sked a t p resen t mus t b e a t a l a rger s ca le t han t ha t c u rren t ly u sed ( c f . G a rd iner , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 5 ) u n less p ro jec t s a r e d es igned a t t h e ir o u t se t t o c ope w i th t he p rob lems o u t l ined a bove . T he s t ra teg ies s ugges ted , f or e xamp le , b y E n tw is t le a nd R ichards ( t h is v o lume , C hap ter 3 ) o r F ord ( t h is v o lume , C hap ter 8 ) may p o in t t o i mprovemen ts i n t he s i tua t ion . T he c ase s t udy f r om Madd le F a rm a nd t h e V a le o f t h e Wh i te Hor se h as b een a b le t o c on tr ibu te t o t he f ur therance o f t he f r amework b y s ugges t ing t ha t r e su l ts f rom f i e ldwa lk ing a re i n terna l ly c ons is ten t ( i n t e rms o f t he p a t terns o bserved d u r ing f i e ldwa lk ing ) a nd f ur thermore , t ha t t he f r ac t ion o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion c o l lec ted b y w ide -spaced f i e ldwa lk ing i s r e la t ive ly c ons is ten t f r om o ne a r ea t o a no ther . T he s pread o f l i th ic d eb i tage t h roughou t t he l andscape more o f ten t han n o t man ifes ts i t se lf a s a mono l i th ic p i le o f c a rdboa rd b oxes b ur s t ing w i th w as te f l akes , t he p rocess ing o f wh ich i s b o th p rob lema t ic a nd t ime c onsum ing . T he f ac t t ha t , i n Wessex a t l e as t , t he s urvey me thodo logy w as s t anda rd ised f r om t he o u tse t a l lows f or d i rec t c ompa r isons t o b e made b e tween s evera l l andscape s urveys . T h is i s l i ke ly t o b e c ruc ia l when t h e b roader r eg iona l t r end s o f l i th ic e xp lo i ta t ion a r e a pp roached . I t i s o n ly when t h e r e su l ts f r om s evera l l andscape s urveys h ave b een p ub l ished t ha t t he ir t r ue v a lue w i l l b ecome c l ear .

B ibliography ATK INSON , R .J .C . 1 965 . Way lands Sm i thy , A n t iqu i ty 3 4 , 1 26 -133 . B INFORD , L . R . 1 976 . F o r ty -seven t r ips : ac ase s t udy i n t he c ha rac te r o f s ome f orma t ion p rocesses o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , i n H a l l , E . ( ed i tor ) Contr ibut ions t o An thropo logy : T he I n ter ior P eop les o f N or thern A laska , ( O t tawa , N a t iona l Museum o f Man , Mercury S er ies 4 9 ) , 2 99 -351 . B INFORD , L .R . 1 978 . D imen s iona l a na lys is o f b ehav iour a nd s i te s t ruc ture : l e a rn ing f r om a n E sk imo h un t ing s t and , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 , 3 30 -361 . BRADLEY , R . a nd ELL ISON , A . 1 975 . R ams H i l l : A B ronze A ge D ef ended E nc losure a nd i t s L and scape ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 9 ) . CARE , V . 1 982 . T he c o l lec t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f l i th ic ma ter ia ls d u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p er iods i n S ou thern E ng land , Oxford J ourna l o f A rchaeology 1 , 2 69 -285 . CASE , H . 1 957 . T he L ambourn S even B ar rows , B erksh ire A rchaeo log ical J ourna l 5 5 , 1 5 -31 . .

9 8

FOLEY , R . 1 981 . O f f -s i te A rchaeo logy a nd Human Adap tat ion i n E as tern A f r ica : An Ana lys is o f R eg iona l A r tef ac t D ens i ty i n t he Ambose l i , S ou thern K enya , ( Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts S 9 7 ) . GAFFNEY , V . a nd T INGLE , M . 1 985 . T he Madd le F a rm ( Be rk s . ) p ro jec t a nd m icro -reg iona l a na lys is , i n Macready , S . a nd T hompson , F .H . ( ed i tors ) A rchaeo log ica l F ie ld S urvey i n B r i ta in a nd A broad , ( Soc ie ty o f An t iqua r ies O cca s iona l P ape r No . 6 ) , 6 7 -73 . GOULD , R .A . 1 980 . L iv ing A rchaeo logy , (C ambr idge , Un iver s i ty P ress ) . LE WARCH , D .E . a nd O 'BR IEN , M .J . 1 981 . T he e xpand ing r o le o f s u rface a ssemb lages i n a rchaeo log ica l r esearch , i n S ch if fer , M .B . ( ed i tor ) Advances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory . 4 , ( London , A cadem ic P ress ) , 2 97 -342 . R ICHARDS , J .C . 1 985 . S cou r ing t he s u r face : a pproaches t o t he p loughzone i n t he S tonehenge Env irons , A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew f rom C ambr idge 4 :1 , 2 7 -42 . SHENNAN , S . 1 985 . E xper imen ts i n t he c o l lec t ion a nd a na lys is o f a rchaeo log ica l s urvey d a ta : t he E as t Hampsh ire S urvey , ( Un ivers i ty o f S heff ie ld , D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory ) . TRUBO W ITZ , N .L . 1 978 . T he p e rs is tence o f s e t t lemen t p a t tern i n a c u l t iva ted f i e ld , i n E nge lbrech t , W . a nd G rayson , D . ( ed i to rs ) E ssays i n Nor theas tern A n thropo logy i n Memory o f Mar ian E . Wh i te , O cca s iona l P ub l ica t ions i n Nor theas tern An thropo logy 5 , ( Frank l in P ierce Co l lege , Depar tmen t o f An thropo logy ) , 4 1-66 . W Y MER , J . J . 1 966 . E xcava t ions o f t he L ambourn L ong B a r row , 1 964 , B erkshire A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 6 2 , 1 16 .

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S uch a ims a re n o t n ew b u t t he r ap id a dvances i n t he l oca t ion a nd s ubsequen t i n terpre ta t ion o f s i tes , f or e xamp le b y a er ia l p ho tography a nd l a rge -sca le e xcava t ion , h ave i n g enera l b een b iased t owards l a ter p er iods o r monumen ta l r e ma ins . T he c o l lec t ion o f s urface a r tefac ts f rom a rab le a reas i s e qua l ly l ong e s tab l ished a nd i t w as q u ick ly r ea l ised t ha t t he d enses t o ccurences o f s u rface s ca t ter s p robab ly i nd ica ted t he l oca t ion o f s i tes . I t w as n o t u n t i l t he 1 970s , h owever , t ha t s ys tema t ic c o l lec t ion o f s urface a r tefac ts w as u nder taken w i th a v iew t o c omp lemen t ing t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord (Woodward 1 978) . I n i t ia l me thodo log ies w ere a l l s i te -or ien ted a nd w ere e vo lved t o c over t he max imum a rea w i th t he l eas t c hance o f m iss ing s i tes . T he u nder ly ing a ssump t ion w as t ha t a s i te s hou ld b e e as i ly r ecogn isab le a s a c lus ter o f ma ter ia l c on tras t ing s t rong ly a ga ins t a n emp ty b ackground . F rom t h is i t w a s c onc luded t ha t t r aver ses a cross f i e lds a t l i nes s paced a t i n terva ls o f 1 0 -30 m s hou ld b e s uf f ic ien t t o l oca te s i tes . T he r e su l ts o f t h is w ork d id n o t f u lf i l e xpec ta t ions f or a n umber o f r easons . F i r s t ly , i n a reas w i th a n a tura l f l in t s ou rce , s t ruck f l in t i s w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t he l andscape a nd d ense c lus ters ( equa ted w i th s i tes ) w ere n o t e asy t o d ef ine . I n s ome l oca t ions h igh d ens i t ies o ccurred o ver 1 0 h a . o r more . I n terpre t ing t hese a s s ing le e n t i t ies w as d if f icu l t a l though l a rge s e t t lemen t a reas w i th d ispersed f oc i a re c la i med f or LBK s i tes i n E urope ( Sherra t t 1 983 ; S ta r l ing 1 985) a nd N eo l i th ic e nc losures s uch a s h enges c an a l so r each t h is s i ze . I n c on t ra s t w e n ow k now t ha t i n f l in t -poo r a r eas s uch a s p a r ts o f E as t B erksh ire , d en s i t ies a r e s o l ow t ha t s i tes c an b e r epresen ted b y a s l i t t le a s 4 o r 5 p ieces p er h ec ta re , a s i tua t ion wh ich c ou ld e as i ly b e c onfused w i th r ando m v ar ia t ion i n d ens i ty o r c o l lec t ion v ar iab i l i ty . T he s econd ma jo r p rob lem i s t ha t 9 9% o f a l l p reh is tor ic a r tefac ts r ecove red a r e s t ruck f l in ts . T he d a t ing o f f l in t a s semb lages r e l ied u pon t he r ecogn i t ion o f

1 01

d iagnos t ic i mp lemen ts a nd t he measure men t o f a s a mp le o f u nbroken , u n re touched f l akes . F or t he d a t ing o f f l in t s ca t ter s t h is w as a p a r t icu la r p rob lem i n t ha t i mp lemen ts r a re ly c ons t i tu ted more t han 3% o f t he t o ta l a nd d iagnos t ic p ieces l e ss t han 1 % . T he p auc i ty o f d is t inc t ive i mp lemen ts i n B ronze Age a nd I ron Age a ssemb lages ( Ford e t a t . 1 984 ) r endered t hem u n iden t if iab le b y s urface c o l lec t ion . Unb roken f l akes a l so a ccoun ted f or o n ly a bou t 5 0% o f t he c o l lec t ions a nd s amp le s i zes o ve ra l l w ere f r equen t ly l ow . A t h ird p rob lem i s t ha t l im i ted e xcava t ion work o n f l in t s ca t ter s i tes h as s ugges ted t ha t s ubsurface f ea tures a re n o t c ommon ( Gar ton a nd B esw ick 1 983) o r a re a bsen t i n c e r ta in p er iods r e la t ive t o o ther s ( Hea ly 1 983 ; t h is v o lume , C hap te r 2 ) . T h is s ugges ts t ha t much o f o ur s e t t lemen t d a ta i s c onf ined t o t he t opso i l a nd t ha t w e a re o b l iged t o d ea l more c a refu l ly w i th a n ew a nd r e s t r ic ted s ource o f e v idence ( s ee a l so B rad ley , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 4 ) Methodology I n o rder t o o ve rcome t hese p rob lems ,

a f our -s tage me thodo logy w as

d ev ised :

( 1) A c hrono log ica l s cheme was d eve loped u s ing s t ra t if ied , d a ted a ssemb lages s pec if ica l ly t o d ea l w i th s urface s ca t ter s . T h is i s d e ta i led i n a p aper e l sewhere i n t h is v o lume ( Chap te r 6 ) . ( 2 ) Me thods a pp l ied .

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i n t he o r ig ina l s tudy (Me l la rs 1 976a , 3 95) . More i n teres t ing ly , Me l la r s ' c a tegory B 1 s i tes ( Ab inger C ommon , F arnham , B eacon , L ea l t B ay a nd P res ta tyn ) a re c lea r ly r epresen ted a s a s ub-group o f t he ' m icro l ith d om ina ted ' a s o pposed t o t h e ' b a lanced ' a ssemb lage c lus ter . S t r ic t ly s peak ing t herefore , t h is m igh t s ugges t t ha t f or t hose w ish ing t o emp loy t h is c l ass if ica tory s ys tem , t ha t Me l la rs ' t ype B 1 b e r ec lass if ied a s t ype A l , w i th t he i nc lus ion o f F arnda le Moo r ( o r ig ina l ly c l ass if ied a s b e ing o f t ype A ) , G reenham a nd N ab Wa te r 3 . S im i lar ly , wh i lst t he ' s craper -do m ina ted ' ( type C ) a sse mb lages ( B lubberhouses Moor , K e t t lebu ry 1 , F reshwa ter Wes t ) d o f orm a r ecogn isab le s ub -c lus ter w i th in t he ' b a lanced ' a ssemb lage c lus ter , t here a re s evera l more p ronounced g roup ings w i th in t he s i tes o r ig ina l ly c l ass if ied a s ' b a lanced ' . I f o ne w ished t o r e ta in t he ' s c raper -dom ina ted ' c lus ter , t h is wou ld n eces s i ta te t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f a t l e as t t h ree a dd i t iona l c lus ter s ; i .

L ow C lone S ou th , S andbed s , S ta r C a r r Down ton , O akhange r 5 , O akhange r 7 , Mo ther S i l le r 's C hanne l I werne M ins ter , P eacehaven .

F rom t he mean p ercen tage v a lues f or t he e ssen t ia l t oo ls i n t hese c lus ters ( Tab le 2 ) i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he p r inc ipa l c harac ter is t ics b eh ind t hese ' t ypes ' a re t he r e la t ive ly s t rong r epresen ta t ion o f b ur ins ( sub -c lus ter 1 ) , d en t icu la tes ( sub -c lus ter 2 ) a nd a xe /adzes ( sub -c lus ter 3 ) . T he f ac t t ha t s uch p oss ib le c lus ters w ere n o t o r ig ina l ly d e tec ted d emons t ra tes t he d ange rs o f p ure ly v i sua l o r i n tu i t ive c a tegor isa t ion o f mu l t iva r ia te d a ta .

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P at terns o f S et t lement T ype V er sus I ndustr ial Change I t s hou ld b e emphas ised t ha t t he p u rpose o f t h is a na lys is w as n o t s imp ly t o c ons truc t a l terna t ive s i te t ypo log ies , b u t r a ther t o e xam ine t he b as is f o r t h e o r ig ina l c lass if ica tory s cheme . F rom t he r e su l ts o b ta ined , i t m igh t a ppea r t ha t t he o r ig ina l t ypo logy o f s e t t lemen t n eed o n ly b e amended t o i nc lude a dd i t iona l a s semb lage ' t ypes ' . T he a na lys is may i ndeed b e i nd ica t ing t ha t t h e Meso l i th ic a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a c tua l ly r ef lec ts a s h if t i n s e t t lemen t s ys tems . T he t endency f o r E a r l ie r Meso l i th ic s i tes t o b e ' b a lanced ' w h i ls t t h e ma jor i ty o f L a ter s i tes f a l l w i th in t h e ' m ic ro l i th -dom ina ted ' ( Me l la r s ' t ype A ) o r , f or wan t o f a b e t ter p h rase , t he ' n ea r ly m icro l i th d om ina ted ' ( Me l la rs ' t ype B 1 o r r ev ised t ype A l) , m igh t s ugges t t ha t t here w as a s h if t i n t h e b a lance o f s i te t ypes a c tua l ly f o rmed . S uch a c onc lus ion m igh t a l so r e la te t o

1 43

Me l la rs ' o bserva t ion s t ha t L a ter i n ter -assemb lage v ar iab i l ity .

Meso l i th ic

s i tes

e xh ib i t

a g rea ter

d eg ree

o f

B efore w e a ccep t s uch c onc lus ions , h oweve r , i t i s n ecessary t o c on s ider s evera l f undamen ta l p o in ts c oncern ing n umer ica l t axonomy . I n o rde r t o i nform u s mean ingfu l ly a nd u namb iguous ly a bou t a ssemb lage t ypes a nd c hanges i n t he b a lance o f t hose t ypes t hrough t ime , the s t a t is t ica l c ompa r ison o f mu l t ivar ia te a ssemb lage d a ta mus t b e f ounded u pon d i rec t ly c ompa rab le o r s t anda rd ised v ar iab les . S uch a f undamen ta l p recond i t ion may n o t a pp ly i n t h is o r i n Me l la rs ' o r ig ina l a na ly s is . T he f undamen ta l f l aw a t t he h ear t o f Meso l i th ic a ssemb lage t ypo log ies c oncerns t he s ign if icance b eh ind t he c hange i n m icro l i th s t y les wh ich d emarca tes t he t r ans i t ion f r om E a r l ie r t o L a ter Meso l i th ic . A s p rev ious ly i nd ica ted , t he c hange f rom r e la t ive ly l a rge n on -geome tr ic t o r e la t ive ly s ma l l g eome t r ic f orms h as p rov ided a f ocus f or a t ten t ion s ince Meso l i th ic r e sea rch i n B r i ta in b ecame e s tab l ished . T hey h ave b een s t ud ied f or t he ir c on t inen ta l p ara l le ls ( C lark 1 932 , 1 955 , 1 958 ; J acob i 1 976 ) , f or t he ir r eg iona l isa t ion o f i nd iv idua l s t y les ( J acob i 1 979 , 1 981) a s w e l l a s f o r t h e i r c hang ing s t y les t h rough t ime ( J acob i 1 973 ; Me l la rs 1 974 , 1 976b ) . A l though t hey h ave b een d i scussed i n t e rms o f t he ir p o ten t ia l a s r eap ing t oo l i n se ts ( C larke 1 976 ) , i t i s a s a rma tures f or p ro jec t i les t ha t t hey h ave b een t r ad i t iona l ly r ega rded . T hrough t he a ccep tance o f t he l a t ter i n terpre ta t ion f o r t he ir f unc t ion , t he r ea l p rob lem a ssoc ia ted w i th Meso l i th ic a s semb lage t ypo log ies c an b e a ddressed . Microl iths a nd w eapons: where n umber s c ount T here i s n ow a b road b ody o f e v idence wh ich s ugges ts t ha t mos t i f n o t a l l m icro l i ths i n t he Meso l i th ic o f t he B r i t ish ma in land w ere i ndeed a rma tures f or p ro jec t i le t e chno logy (Myer s , i n p ress , a ) . S uppo r t f o r s uch a v i ew h as b een f ound f r om t he u namb iguous a s soc ia t ion o f m icro l i th s embedded i n t h e b ones o f p rey a n ima ls ( J acob i 1 980b , 1 75 ) , f r om t he p reserva t ion o f h af ted m icro l i ths a nd f rom p reserved a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he f orm o f t he o r ig ina l m ic ro l i th ic t oo l ( Dav id 1 986 ; Myer s , i n p ress , a ; P e tch 1 924 , 2 9 ) . A l i nk h as g enera l ly b een made b e tween t he c on tras t i n e ar l ier a nd l a te r m ic ro l i th s t y les a nd s ome f orm o f s h if t i n p ro jec t i le t e chno logy . T h is s h if t h as c ommon ly b een p erce ived i n r e la t ion t o t h e a ppa ren t d i sappea rance o f b one a nd /or a n t ler p ro jec t i les wh ich a ccompan ies t he c hange i n m ic ro l i ths . I t h as t en ta t ive ly b een s ugges ted t ha t t he L a ter Meso l i th ic w i tnessed t he manufac ture o f p ro jec t i les u s ing m icro l i th ic i n se ts a s mu l t ip le b a rbs t o p roduce t oo ls s im i la r t o t he a n t ler /bone t oo ls o f t he e ar l ier p er iod ( Me l la rs 1 976a , 3 96 ) . Wh i ls t i t i s n o t c l ea r t o wha t e x ten t m icro l i th ic p ro jec t i le s o f t he L a ter Meso l i th ic w ere a d i rec t f unc t iona l r ep lacemen t o f E a r l ier Meso l i th ic f orms , t he r es truc tur ing o f p ro jec t i le t e chno logy a nd t he c ons truc t ion o f p ro jec t i les u s ing mu l t ip le , r edundan t b arbs a rguab ly r epresen ts o ne o f t he mos t s i gn if ican t a nd p o ten t ia l ly i nforma t ive a spec ts o f t he t r ans i t ion f rom t h e E a r l ier t o L a te r Meso l i th ic ( Myer s , i n p ress , a ) . T he c oncep t o f t echno log ica l • r edundancy h as r ecen t ly b een e xam ined s pec if ica l ly i n r e la t ion t o t he d es ign o f h un t ing w eapons ( B leed 1 986 ) . R edundancy i n t oo ls o r t oo l -k i ts c an b e r ecogn ised t h rough t he p resence o f c omponen ts wh ich a r e d es igned t o p erform i den t ica l f unc t ions . I n t h e e ven t o f f a i lure o r b reakage o f o ne c omponen t , t he o ther c omponen t (s ) e nsure t ha t t he w eapon c an f unc t ion a dequa te ly w i thou t t he n eed f or i mmed ia te

1 44

r epa ir . A s s uch , c omponen t r edundancy , o r t he r ep l ica t ion o f c omponen t f unc t ion , may b e ar e spon se e l ic i ted where t oo ls n eed t o b e v ery r e l iab le ( j e . c apab le o f r ema in ing e f f ec t ive ) b u t where t he a va i lab i l i ty o f t ime f o r t oo l ma in tenance i s l im i ted o r d if f icu l t t o a n t ic ipa te . A s a c oro l la ry , t he i ncorpora t ion o f c omponen t r edundancy m igh t i nd ica te a c oncern f or t he e nhance men t o f w eapon r e l iab i l i ty . C onsequen t ly , e v idence f or c hanges t h rough t ime i n t he d es ign o f p ro jec t i les a nd , f or e xamp le , t he e nhancemen t o f w eapon r e l iab i l i ty b y i nc reased r edundancy c ou ld p rove t o b e i n fo rma t ive w i th r egard t o c hanges i n t he b enef i ts o f h av ing r e l iab le w eapon s (Myer s , i n p ress , a ) . E v idence f or c hange i n l eve ls o f c omponen t r edundancy f or Meso l i th ic c ompos ite p ro jec t i le t e chno logy c an b e f ound i n t he g row ing n umber o f f i nds o f mu l t ip le ( > 1 ) m icro l i ths c l ea r ly i so la ted f rom a ny o ther l i th ic ma ter ia l , o r i n t hose c ases where i nd iv idua l m icro l i th ic t oo ls c an b e r ecogn ised ( Tab le 3 ) . T h rough a n e xam ina t ion o f t hese f i nds i n t e rms o f t he t ypo logy a nd n umbe rs o f m ic ro l i ths , t wo p o in ts c an b e made . F i r s t , i n t he o n ly c ase where E a r l ier Meso l i th ic f orms a re r epresen ted (Wa rm Wi thens ) , j us t t hree m icro l iths w ere p resen t . S econd ly , o f t he r e ma in ing c ases , a l l c on ta in L a ter Meso l i th ic t ypes v a ry ing i n n umber f rom j us t t wo t o more t han f or ty . Wh i ls t i t i s c l ear t ha t s ome o f t hese f i nds may b e p ar ts o f c ompos i te t oo ls a nd t ha t o thers may b e t he r ema ins o f more t han o ne t oo l , t h is wou ld n o t a ccoun t f o r t he a lmos t c omp le te a bsence o f e a r l ier e xamp les . I f o ne a ccep t s t ha t f i nds o f s evera l m icro l i ths a re more l i ke ly t o r each t he a t ten t ion o f a rchaeo log is ts t han a re f i nds o f j us t t wo o r t h ree , t hen i t b ecomes h a rd t o r es is t t he l og ica l c onc lus ion t ha t L a te r Meso l i th ic p ro jec t i les emp loyed s i gn if ican t ly g rea ter n umbe rs o f m ic ro l i th ic c omponen ts t han d id E a r l ier Meso l i th ic e xamp les . I n t hose c ases where e v idence f o r t he f o rm o r l ayou t o f t he c omp le te t oo l h as s u rv ived , i t c an b e d emons t ra ted t ha t L a ter Meso l i th ic p ro jec t i les d id i ndeed c omb ine n umerous m icro l i ths a s a rma tures (Myers , i n p ress , a ) . T he mu l t ip le r ep l ica t ion o f b arbs o n t he t oo ls f ound a t S eamer C an ( Dav id n .d .) , R eadycon D ene ( Pe tch 1 924 , 2 9 ) a nd U r ra Moor (Mye rs 1 986 ; J acob i , p er s . c o mm .) c onf irms t ha t m icro l ith ic p ro jec t i les u nderwen t a s ign if ican t e nhancemen t i n t he ir r e l iab i l i ty d ur ing t he Meso l i th ic . R ecen t r esearch ( Myers 1 986 ; i n p ress , a ) s ugges ts t ha t t hese c hanges i n p ro jec t i le t echno logy a re p ar t o f a b road e ar l ier s even th m i l lenn ium b c t echno log ica l r esponse t o t he c hang ing c harac ter o f r esource p rocuremen t . S ubs is tence h un t ing , i t i s s ugges ted , w as i ncreas ing ly o rgan ised a round s ma l l t a sk -groups who w ere a c t ive ly s ea rch ing f o r t he ir p rey , a s o pposed t o a n E ar l ie r Meso l i th ic s t ra tegy o f s e lec t ing f avourab le p o in ts i n t he l andscape i n o rder t o ' i n tercep t ' a n i ma ls . T h is s h if t f rom ' i n tercep t ' t o ' e ncoun ter ' h un t ing ( B inford 1 978 , 8 5) i n troduced u ncer ta in ty a bou t t he t im ing , l oca t ion a nd l eve l o f t echno log ica l d emand . A s a r e su l t , t he s chedu l ing o f w eapon manufac ture a nd ma in tenance b ecame i ncreas ing ly g eared t owards a ccomoda t ing t h is u ncer ta in ty wh i ls t e nsur ing t ha t w eapons w e re c apab le o f f unc t ion ing a t s hor t n o t ice . T he e nhancemen t o f w eapon r e l iab i l i ty t h rough i ncreased c omponen t r edundancy r epresen ted o ne a spec t o f t he t echno lg ica l r esponse t o t hese n ew s ubs is tence c ha l lenges . Impl icat ions f or i nter -assemblage v ar iabil ity One i mp l ica t ion o f t he c hange i n h un t ing s t ra tegy i s t ha t s e t t lemen t b ehav iou r p a t terns i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord m igh t b e e xpec ted t o d if fe r

1 45

E a r l ie r E .F .

S ite U r ra Moor C ow R idge A rnsg i l l R idge S i ! Howe B og Ho l iday H i l l Cockayne T ag H eys U r ra Moor U r ra Moor U r ra Moor E a s t B i lsda le Moo r Money Howe Wh i te G i l l Wh i te H assocks B lubberhouses Moor B lubberhouses Moor Wh i te H i l l S umm i t G NW o f Windy H i l l T op o f Windy H i l l Manshead H i l l S s i de o f C upw i th H i l l R isby Wa r ren 5 R eadycon Dene N ea r Windy H i l l D ry C lough Windy H i l l 3 B adger S lacks B ox ing Ho le U r ra Moor Wa rcock H i l l N Roseda le Wa rm Wi thens Oxy G ra in s B r idge L yds tep H aven S eamer C a r r S eame r C a rr SW o f Ma rch H i l l Ma rch H i l l Ma rch H i l l

E .F = E a r l ie r F o rm s R h= R hombo id s T ab le 3 . f r om Mye r s

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

R

T

L a te r Rh 0

2 2 7 1 0+ 6 1 4 1 3+ 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 6 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 5 8 9 9 6 4 3 6 9 3 4 2 6 4 8 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 1 7 0 3 9 3

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 7 1 4 5 2 2 2 5 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0

KEY R = R od s 0= O the r s

T abu la t ion o f i s o la ted d i scover ies 1 986 ; s ee a l so Myer s , i n p ress , a ) .

1 46

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B i l l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 3 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

T = T r iang le s B /U= B roken / Uncer ta in o f

' mu l t ip le

m icro l i ths '

( t aken

b e tween t he E a r l ier a nd L a te r Meso l i th ic . E a r l ier Meso l i th ic h un ters t ended t o e xp lo i t s pec if ic p o in ts o r a r eas a s p ar t o f t he ir i n tercep t s t ra tegy . I n c on t ras t , t he L a ter Meso l i th ic p a t tern o f e ncoun ter h un t ing i mp l ies a more g enera l u se o f t he l andscape w i thou t t he l oca t ion -spec if ic emphas is o f t he e a r l ier p er iod . T h is s h if t t owa rds a more u b iqu i tous u se o f t he l andscape s hou ld b e r ef lec ted i n b o th p a t te rns o f s i te l o ca t ion a nd f r equenc ies o f s i te r eoccupa t ion . I t i s s ign if ican t , t herefore , t ha t c on tras ts i n t he l oca t iona l a nd •s i ze c ha rac ter is t ics o f E ar l ier a nd L a ter Meso l i th ic s i tes h ave b een i den t if ied f r om s evera l r eg ions o f ma in land B r i ta in ( Ca re 1 982 ; J acob i 1 973 ; Mor r ison 1 980 , 1 36 ; S hennan 1 985 ) . T he e v idence f o r a more g enera l r epresen ta t ion o f s i tes f o r t he L a ter Meso l i th ic wou ld a cco rd w e l l w i th t he a n t ic ipa ted p a t tern . A l l ied t o t he a pparen t i n f i l l ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l l andscape a f ter c . 6 700bc ( J acob i 1 973 , 2 51) t he re i s a g ene ra l i mpress ion t ha t t he L a ter Meso l i th ic w i tnesses a r educ t ion i n s i te s i ze , w i th s ma l ler q uan t i t ies o f l i th ic ma ter ia l b e ing r epresen ted i n s i te a ssemb lages ( Care 1 982 ) . Wh i ls t t he a na lys is a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f i n tra -s i te s pa t ia l d a ta i s n o tor ious ly c omp lex , p a r t icu la r ly f or t he Meso l i th ic p er iod , s uch a g enera l r educ t ion i n s i te s i ze m igh t b e i nd ica t ive o f a r educ t ion i n t h e f r equency o f s i te r eoccupa t ion . On t h is b as is , i t wou ld c er ta in ly a ppea r t ha t t he g enera l c on t ra s t i n s i te s i ze i d en t if ied b y Me l la rs ( 1976a ) b e tween t ype 1 a nd t ype 2 s e t t lemen ts may , a t l eas t i n p a r t , r ef lec t t he c on tras ts i n p a t terns o f l andscape u se a nd f r equenc ies o f s i te r eoccupa t ion b e tween t h e E a r l ie r a nd L a ter Meso l i th ic . T he c hang ing p a t terns o f r edundancy i n p ro jec t i le t echno logy , h owever , c onvey i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions f or t he r ecogn i t ion o f Meso l i th ic a ssemb lage ' t ypes ' a nd f o r mu l t iva r ia te a na lyses o f s t one t oo l a s semb lages g enera l ly . I f i t i s a ccep ted t ha t c ompos i te p ro jec t i les o f t h e L a ter Meso l i th ic , a rguab ly a s a c onsequence o f e nhanced r e l iab i l i ty , i nvo lved t he emp loymen t o f more c omponen t m icro l i ths p er t oo l t han i n t he ir E a r l ier Meso l i th ic c oun terpa r ts , t hen i t f o l lows t ha t w e s hou ld e xpec t t o s ee r e la t ive ly more d isca rded m icro l i ths i n L a ter Meso l i th ic c on tex ts . T hus , f or t he ' e ssen t ia l t oo l f r equenc ies ' u sed i n t h e a na lyses o f i n ter -assemb lage v ar iab i l i ty b y Me l lar s ( 1976a ) a nd i n t h is p aper , t he l a ck o f d i sc r im ina t ion b e tween e a r l ie r a nd l a ter a ssemb lages means t ha t w e a re c lear ly d ea l ing w i th c ompos i te m icro l i th t oo ls whose c harac ter a nd i mp l ica t ions f or t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd d i f fer ma rked ly . I n o ther wo rds , g iven t h e f ac t t ha t v ar ia t ion s i n t he p e rcen tage r epresen ta t ion o f m icro l i ths a ccoun ted f o r s ome 4 5% o f t h e t o ta l v a r iab i l i ty o bserved i n t he d ef in i t ion o f a s semb lage ' t ypes ' , i t c an b e a rgued t ha t t he t wo ma in c lus ters o r a ssemb lage t ypes , ' m icro l i th -dom ina ted ' a nd ' b a lanced ' , a re p r imar i ly a r tefac ts o f t he c hang ing p a t terns i n h un t ing t e chno logy b e tween t he E a r l ier a nd L a te r Meso l i th ic . B y f a i l ing t o r ecogn ise t he i mp l ica t ion s o f t hese t e chno log ica l c hanges f o r m icro l i th f r equenc ies w i th in t he ' e ssen t ia l t oo l ' i nven tor ies , t he s ea rch f or f unc t iona l ly mean ingfu l i n ter -assemb lage v a r iab i l i ty h as b een u nderm ined . T he t r ans i t ion f r om E ar l ier t o L a ter Meso l i th ic r epresen ts f a r more t han a s imp le mod if ica t ion i n s t y les o f m ic ro l i ths . T here w ou ld a ppea r t o b e ab road r ange o f t echno log ica l a nd s e t t lemen t p a t tern c hanges s ign ify ing a r eorgan isa t ion o f s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t b ehav iour . I t i s n ecessary , t herefore , f or f u ture r esearch t o b e g eared t owards d eve lop ing a n u nders tand ing o f t h e b ehav ioura l s i gn if icance o f t he t r ans i t ion f rom E a r l ier t o L a ter Meso l i th ic . P ar t o f t h is r e search mus t i nc lude t he i ndependent e xam ina t ion o f t h e Meso l i th ic a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f or e a r l ier a nd l a ter

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p hases . I n o ther words , t here i s a c l ear i mpera t ive f or Meso l i th ic a ssemb lage /s i te c lass if ica t ions t o b e e s tab l ished t h rough s epara te a na lyses o f E a r l ier a nd L a ter Meso l i th ic e v idence ( Mye r s 1 986 , 2 39 -249 ) . F ur thermore , i t i s n ow e v iden t t ha t i n a t temp t ing t o r ecogn ise a ssemb lage ' t ypes ' wh ich r ef lec t ' f unc t iona l ' c on t ras ts , i t i s n ecessa ry t o c ons ider t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l i th ics a s t oo ls a nd l i th ics a s c omponen ts o f t oo ls . F o r c er ta in f orms , s uch a s a xes a nd s craper s , w e m igh t f ee l c onf iden t i n r egard ing t hem a s b e ing t he o b jec t o f r educ t ive ma in tenance ( f u r therence o f u se l ife b y r educ t ion ) . O ther f o rms , s uch a s m ic ro l i ths , c l ea r ly f unc t ioned a s c omponen ts i n c ompos i te t oo ls , a nd w ou ld n o t , t he refore , h ave b een t h e f ocus f or r educ t ive ma in tenance . I ns tead , s uch f orms may a c tua l ly c ons t i tu te , t h rough t he ir d i scard a nd r ep lacemen t , p a r t o f t h e m eans o f t oo l ma in tenance . Wh i ls t t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e o b jec t a nd t he m ean s o f t oo l ma in tenance may b ecome o bscured i n c on tex ts whe re a f o rm - o r ig ina l ly t h e o b jec t o f r educ t ive ma in tenance - c anno t b e ma in ta ined f ur ther a nd i s e ven tua l ly d i sca rded a nd r ep laced , i t i s n one the less a u sefu l d i s t inc t ion i n r espec t o f t he t he i mpac t o f d if fer ing ma in tenance s t ra teg ies u pon b o th r a tes a nd ma te r ia l i mp l ica t ion s o f d i sca rd . L ithic methodolog ies : s ome c onclud ing c omment s I t i s r ema rkab le t ha t a s ub jec t wh ich h as f o r s o l ong b een d ependan t u pon l i th ic a na lys is s hou ld o n ly n ow r ecogn ise t he f undamen ta l i mp l ica t ions o f t he c on tra s t b e tween t oo ls a nd t oo l c omponen ts . Why s hou ld t h is b e t he c ase? I n t he p as t , t he s t udy o f l i th ics h as g enera l ly c on t r ibu ted t owa rds t wo d i s t in t a rchaeo log ica l g oa ls . T he f i r s t i nvo lved t he n eed f or a c hrono log ica l o r s equen t ia l f r amework w i th in wh ich t o o rgan ise t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . S ty l is t ic a na lyses o f r e touched l i th ic a r tefac ts , p r ior t o t he d eve lopmen t o f a bso lu te d a t ing t e chn iques , p layed a v i ta l r o le i n d eve lop ing r e la t ive r eg iona l c hrono log ies o n t he b as is o f s t ra t if ied s equences . E ven n ow , t ypo log ica l a na lys is h as a n i mpo r tan t p ar t t o p lay i n t he i n tegra t ion o f d a ted a nd u nda ted ma ter ia ls . T he s earch f or c hrono log ica l ly s ens i t ive l i th ic i nd ica to rs h as a l so l ed a n umber a u thor s t o e xam ine , w i th v a ry ing d eg rees o f s uccess , t he p o ten t ia l o f l i th ic d eb i tage c a tegor ies t o t h is e nd ( Azou ry a nd Hodson 1 973 ; B o rdes 1 950 ; N ewcomer a nd H od son 1 973 ; P i t t s 1 978a , 1 978b ; P i t t s a nd J acob i 1 979 ; S anger 1 981) . B eyond p ure ly c hrono log ica l q ues t ions , h owever , a t ten t ion h as a l so f ocussed u pon t he s econd t r ad i t iona l g oa l o f l i th ic a na lys is - t he i n terpre ta t ion o f v ar iab i l i ty i n t he f o rm a nd c on ten t o f l i th ic a s semb lages . F or t he g rea ter p a r t o f t h is c en tu ry , v a r iab i l i ty i n t he s t y le a nd t ypo log ica l c on ten t o f t oo l a ssemb lages h as b een d i scussed w i th in a f r amework i n w h ich a r tefac ts w ere r ega rded a s ma ter ia l e xpress ion s o f t he s oc ia l i d en t i ty o r e thn ic a f f i l ia t ion (s ) o f t he ir manufac turer s . V a r ia t ion i n t he s t y l is t ic c on ten t o f a s semb lages w as u nders tood a s a measure o f s oc ia l d i s tance o r p rox im i ty o f p reh is tor ic g roups . S uch a pproaches f e l l w i th in t he b road c oncep tua l f r amework p opu la r ised b y C h i lde ( 1929 ) whereby " cu l tures w ere t he ma te r ia l e xpress ions o f p a r t icu la r ' p eop les' ( B inford a nd S ab lof f 1 982 , 1 41) . T he ' Mous ter ian d eba te ' ( B info rd 1 973 ; B info rd a nd B inford 1 966 ; B ordes 1 973 ; B ordes a nd B ordes 1 970 ; C o l l ins 1 970 ; Me l la rs 1 970 ) s e rved n o t o n ly t o s t i mu la te f r esh i n teres t i n t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s t y l is t ic a nd f unc t iona l a t tr ibu tes ( C lose 1 978 ; Dunne 1 1 1 978 ; J e l inek 1 976 ; S acke t t 1 973 ) , b u t h a s a l so

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c on t r ibu ted t o t he g row ing a wareness o f t he p o ten t ia l c omp lex i ty o f f ac tors r espons ib le f or v ar ia t ions i n t he f orm a nd c on ten t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T he ma jor s h if t t owards e co log ica l ly b ased e thnograph ic r e sea rch h as s t imu la ted b o th a n i ncrease i n a nd a b roaden ing o f a rchaeo log ica l r esea rch i n teres t i n h un ter -ga there rs . A s i n te res t i n t he e co log ica l c on tex t o f b ehav iour o f c on tempora ry g roups d eve loped , t hen s o t oo , a rchaeo log is ts b egan t o a sk i ncreas ing ly d iverse q ues t ions a bou t t he p as t . A s n o ted b y Gamb le , " . . .a t ten t ion h as s h if ted f rom t echno logy , a s t he p r inc ipa l i n teres t , t o c ons idera t ions o f r esource e xp lo i ta t ion , d emography , s e t t lemen t l oca t ion , i n terac t ion a nd ma t ing n e tworks " ( 1979 , 3 5) . I n a t te mp t ing t o a ddress t hese n ew c ons idera t ions t hrough t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , h owever , a f undamen ta l g ap b ecame a pparen t b e tween t r ad it iona l a pproaches t o t he a na lys is o f s tone a nd t he me thodo log ica l d emands b e ing made . C once i t ua l ly , l i th ic a na lys is s t i l l c en t red u pon a pproaches wh ich h ad b een d es ign (d p r inc ipa l ly a s a r e sponse t o t he n eed f or e s tab l ish ing c hrono log ies . A s s ich , r e touched a r tefac ts w e re n ecessa r i ly r ega rded a s b e ing ' c omp le te ' s i nce i t w as t h rough t he s t y l is t ic c ompa r ison o f o ne p iece w i th a no ther t ha t t h r g oa ls o f t r ad i t iona l a na lys is w e re a ch ieved . T hus , a m icro l i th wa s c oncep ty i ly a t oo l i n much t he s ame w ay t ha t ah and -axe o r al e af -shaped a r rowhead w as a t oo l . I n t h is f a sh ion , t r ad i t iona l c oncep tua l a pproaches t o l i th ics h ave p ers is ted . I t s hou ld b e c lear , h owever , t ha t f or t he r ecogn i t ion o f b ehav ioura l ly mean ingfu l p a t tern ing i n t oo l a ssemb lages t o s ucceed , t here i s a f undamen ta l n eed t o g o b eyond t r ad i t iona l c oncep t ions o f t oo ls . I t i s n ecessa ry f or l i th ic a na lys ts t o b eg in t o c ons ider l i th ic t e chno logy a s o ne c u l tura l med ium t hrough wh ich p rob lems a r is ing i n o ther s pheres o f b ehav iour may b e managed o r r eso lved . D if feren t s t ra teg ies i n l i th ic t e chno logy mus t b e e xam ined b o th f o r t he ir p rob lem -so lv ing p roper t ies a nd f or t he ir i mp l ica t ions f or d iscard p a t terns i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( B in fo rd 1 976 , 1 979 ; B leed 1 986 ; Myer s 1 986 ; T o r rence 1 983 ) . Wha t i s c l ea r i s t ha t c hanges i n l i th ic s t ra teg ies may a l ter p a t tern s o f d i sca rd o f r e touched l i th ic i t ems . C ompos i te t e chno log ies c lear ly r epresen t a p ar t icu lar p rob lem , g iven t he p o ten t ia l f or c omb in ing morpho log ica l ly s im i lar i nd iv idua l c omponen ts i n who le t oo ls wh ich w e re morpho log ica l ly a nd s t ra teg ica l ly v ery d ifferen t . F a i lure t o r ecogn ise c on tras ts i n t echno log ica l s t ra teg ies man ipu la t ing s im i lar c omponen ts c an , h owever , g ive r i se t o t he m is in terpre ta t ion o f i n ter -assemb lage p a t tern ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . Wh i ls t t h is h as b een t r ue o f t he Meso l i th ic o f ma in land B r i ta in , i t may b e e qua l ly r e levan t f or p reh is tor ic r e search i n o ther a reas a nd t ime p er iods . T he c ha l lenge r ema ins , h owever - c an l i th ic a na lys ts i n tegra te i n a mean ingfu l w ay q ues t ions o f a dap ta t ion a nd b ehav iour? Qu i te c l ea r ly , a nd i r on ica l ly , a t ten t ion n eeds t o b e r efocussed u pon t ha t v ery a spec t o f r e sea rch f r om w h ich a t ten t ion h as s h if ted - n ame ly l i th ic t e chno logy .

No te 1 I n i t ia l ly , f our s epa ra te emp loyed i n a n a t temp t

me thods o f c lus ter a na lys is (W ishar t 1 978) w ere t o r ep l ica te , u s ing i ndependan t m eans , t h e c a tego r ies

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i den t if ied b y Me l lars . T he u se o f c lus ter ing t echn iques f or c lass if ica tory p urposes h as r ece ived c ons iderab le a t ten t ion a nd c r i t ic is m f ro m a rchaeo log is ts ( A ldenderfer 1 982 ; Doran a nd Hodson 1 975 ; Hodson 1 969a , 1 969b ; Hodson e t a l . 1 966 ) a s w e l l a s i n t he b roader r ea lm o f mu l t iva r ia te n umer ica l t axonomy ( Ja rd ine a nd S ibson 1 968 , 1 971 ; L ance a nd W i l l iams 1 967 ; S nea th 1 969 ; Wi l l iams e t a l . 1 971) . Wh i ls t c oncern f or t he ma thema t ica l r i gour o f d iffer ing t echn iques h as d rawn much o f t h is a t ten t ion , s ome o f t he more u sefu l d iscuss ions h ave d ea l t w i th t he p rob lem o f v a l ida t ion . T he a pproach a dop ted h ere c onforms w ith t he r ecommenda t ions made b y A ldenderfer ( 1982 ) who n o tes t ha t i t i s u l t ima te ly p referab le t o emp loy a v a r ie ty o f c lus ter ing me thods wh ich " ref lec t v ery d if f eren t p er spec t ives o n t he n a ture o f c lus te rs a nd t he way i n wh ich c lus ters a re f ormed ." ( op c i t . , 6 3 ) . A ccord ing ly , t he f our t echn iques emp loyed - s ing le l i nkage , c omp le te l i nkage , a verage l i nkage a nd Wa rd 's me thod - were c hosen f or ( a ) t he ir u l t i ma te c omparab i l i ty i n b e ing a gg lo mera t ive h ierarch ica l t echn iques , a nd ( b ) t he ir emp loymen t o f v e ry d if feren t d ef in i t ions o f c lus ter s hape a nd r u les o f c lus ter f orma t ion ( Eve r i t t 1 974 ) .

B ibliography ALDENDERFER , M .S . 1 982 . Me thods o f c lus ter v a l ida t ion f or a rchaeo logy , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 4 , 6 1-72 . AZOURY , I . a nd HODSON , F .R . 1 973 . C ompa r ing P a laeo l i th ic a ssemb lages : K sa r Ak i l , ac ase s t udy , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 4 , 2 92 -306 . B INFORD , L .R . 1 973 . I n te rassemb lage v ar iab i l i ty - t he Mous ter ian a nd t he ' f unc t iona l ' a rgumen t , i n R enf rew , A .C . ( ed i to r ) T he E xp lana t ion o f Cu l ture Change , ( London , Duckwor th ) , 2 27-254 . B INFORD , L .R . 1 976 . F o r ty -seven t r ips : a c a se s t udy i n t he c ha rac ter o f s o me f orma t ion p rocesses o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd , i n H a l l , E .R . ( ed i tor ) C on tr ibu t ions t o A nthropo logy : t he I n ter ior P eop les o f Nor thern A laska , N a t iona l Museum o f Man , Me rcu ry S e r ies 4 9 , ( O t tawa , N a t iona l Museum o f C anada ) , 2 99 -351 . B INFORD , L .R . 1 979 . O rgan isa t ion a nd f orma t ion p rocesses : l ook ing a t c u ra ted t echno log ies , J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 5 , 2 55 -273 . B INFORD , L .R . a nd B INFORD , S .R . 1 966 . A p re l im ina ry a na lys is o f f unc t iona l v a r iab i l i ty i n t he Mous ter ian o f L eva l lo is f ac ies , * Amer ican An thropolog ist 6 8 , 2 38 -295 . B INFORD , L .R . a nd SABLOFF , J .A . 1 982 . P arad igms , s ys te ma t ics a nd a rchaeo logy , J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 8 , 1 37 -153 . BLEED , P . 1 986 . T he o p t ima l d es ign o f h un t ing w eapons : ma in ta inab i l i ty o r r e l iab i l i ty , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 1 , 7 37 -747 . BORDES , F . 1 950 . P r inc ipes d ' une me thode d ' e tude d es t e chn iques d e d eb i tage e t d e l a t ypo log ie d u P a leo l i th ique a nc ien e t moyen , L 'Anthropologie 5 2 , 1 9 3 4 . BORDES , F . 1 973 . On t he c hrono logy a nd c on temporane i ty o f d ifferen t P a laeo l i th ic c u l tures i n F rance , i n R enf rew , A .C . ( ed i tor ) T he E xp lana t ion o f Cu l ture C hange , ( London , Duckwo r th ) , 2 17-226 . BORDES , F . a nd BORDES , D . D e SONNEVILLE 1 970 . T he s i gn if icance o f v a r iab i l i ty i n P a laeo l i th ic a ssemb lages , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 , 6 1-73 . BRADLEY , R . 1 978 . T he P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t o f B r i ta in , ( London , R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l) . BUCKLEY , F . 1 924 .

A M icro l i th ic

I ndus try

p r in ted) .

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o f t h e

P enn ine

C ha in ,

( p r iva te ly

CARE , V . 1 982 . T he c o l lec t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f l i th ic ma ter ia ls d u r ing t he Meso l i th ic a nd Neo l i th ic p er iods i n S ou thern E ng land , Oxford J ourna l o f A rchaeology 1 , 2 69 -285 . CHA MP ION , T . ,GA MBLE , C . , SHENNAN , S , a nd W H ITTLE , A . 1 984 . P reh is tor ic Europe ( London , A cadem ic P ress ) . CH ILDE , V .G . 1 929 . T he Danube i n P reh is tory , ( Oxfo rd , C la rendon P ress ) . CLARK , J .G .D . 1 932 . T he Meso l i th ic A ge i n B r i ta in , ( Cambr idge , Un ivers i ty P ress) . CLARK , J .G .D . 1 955 . A m ic ro l i th ic i ndus t ry f r om t he C amb r idgesh ire f en land a nd o ther i ndus t r ies o f S auve ter r ian a f f in i t ies i n B r i ta in , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc iety 2 1 , 3 -20 . CLARK , J .G .D . 1 958 . B lade a nd t r apeze i ndus t r ies o f t he E u ropean S tone A ge , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 2 4 , 2 4 -52 . CLARK , J .G .D . a nd RANK INE , W .F . 1 939 . E xcava t ions a t F a rnham , S ur rey , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 5 , 6 1-118 . CLARKE , D .L . 1 976 . Meso l i th ic E urope : t he e conom ic b as is , i n S ievek ing , G . , L ongwo r th , I .H . a nd Wi lson , K .E . ( ed i tor s ) P rob lems i n E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A rchaeology , ( London , Duckwor th ) , 4 49 -482 . CLOSE , A .E . 1 978 . T he i den t if ica t ion o f s ty le i n l i th ic a r tefac ts , World A rchaeology 1 0 , 2 23 -237 . COLL INS , D .M . 1 970 . S tone a r tefac t a na lys is a nd t he r ecogn i t ion o f c u l tu re t r ad i t ions , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 , 1 7 -27 . DAVID , A . ( n .d .) A p oss ib le l a te r Meso l i th ic a r row f rom S eamer C a r r , Nor th Yorksh ire , ( Paper p resen ted a t a P a laeo l i th ic / Meso l i th ic o ne d ay mee t ing a t S heff ie ld , 3 1/1/86) . DORAN , J .E . a nd HODSON , F .R . 1 975 . Ma thema t ics a nd Compu ters i n A rchaeology , ( Ed inbu rgh , Un ivers i ty P ress ) . DUNNELL , R .C . 1 978 . S ty le a nd f unc t ion : af undamen ta l d icho tomy , Amer ican Ant iqu ity 4 3 , 1 94 -202 . EVER ITT , B . 1 974 . C lus t er A na lys is , ( London , H e inemann ) . GA MBLE , C . 1 979 . Hun t ing s t ra teg ies i n t he C en t ra l E uropean P a laeo l i th ic , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 5 , 3 5 -52 . G ILLESP IE , R . , GO WLETT , A .J . , HALL , E .T . , HEDGES , R .E .M . a nd P ERRY , C . 1 985 . R ad iocarbon d a tes f rom t he Oxford AMS s ys tem : A rchaeome t ry d a te l i s t 2 , A rchaeometry 2 7 , 2 37 -246 . H IGGS , E .S . 1 959 . E xcava t ions a t a Meso l i th ic s i te .a t Down ton , n ea r S a l isbury , W i l ts . , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 2 5 , 2 09 -232 . HODSON , F .R . 1 969a . S ea rch ing f or s t ruc ture i n mu l t iva r ia te a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 ,9 0 -105 . HODSON , F .R . 1 969b . C lus ter a na lys is a nd a rchaeo logy : s o me n ew d eve lopmen ts a nd a pp l ica t ions , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 , 2 99 -320 . HODSON , F .R . , SNEATH , P .H . a nd DORAN , J .E . 1 966 . S ome e xper imen ts i n t h e n umer ica l a na lys is o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , B iometr ica 5 3 , 3 11-324 . J ACOBI , R .M . 1 973 . A spec ts o f t he ' Meso l i th ic Age ' i n G rea t B r i ta in , i n Koz lowsk i , S . ( ed i tor ) T he Meso l i th ic i n E urope , (Wa rsaw , Un ivers i ty P ress ) , 2 37-266 . J ACOBI , R .M . 1 976 . B r i ta in i n s ide a nd o u ts ide Meso l i th ic E u rope , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 2 , 6 7 -84 . J ACOB I , R .M . 1 979 . E a r ly F land r ian h un te rs i n t he S ou th Wes t , P roceed ings o f t h e D evon A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 3 7 , 4 8 -93 . J ACOB I , R .M . 1 980 . T he e a r ly Ho locene s e t t lemen t o f Wa les , i n T ay lo r , J .A . a nd B owen , R . ( ed i tors ) C u l ture a nd E nv ironmen t i n P reh is tor ic Wa les , ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 7 6 ) , 1 31-206 .

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J ACOBI , R .M . 1 981 . T he l a s t h un ters i n H ampsh ire , i n S hennan , S . a nd S chad la -Ha l l , T . ( ed i tors ) T he A rchaeo logy o f Hampsh ire , ( Hampsh i re F ie ld C lub a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty Monog raph 1 ) , 1 0 -25 . J ARD INE , N . a nd S IBSON , R . 1 968 . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f h iera rch ic a nd n on h iera rch ic c lass if ica t ions , C ompu ter J ourna l 1 , 17 -184 . J ARD INE , N . a nd S IBSON , R . 1 971 . Ma thema t ica l T axonomy , ( New Y o rk , Wi ley a nd S ons ) . J EL INEK , A .J . 1 976 . F orm , f unc t ion a nd s t y le i n l i th ic a na lys is , i n C le land , C .E . ( ed i tor ) C u l tura l C hange a nd C on t inu i ty : E ssays i n Honor o f J ames B . G r if in, ( New York , Academ ic P ress ) , 1 9 -33 . LANCE , G .N . a nd WILL IA MS , W .T . 1 967 . A g enera l t heory o f c l a ss if ica tory s or t ing s t ra teg ies : 1 . H ie ra rch ica l s ys tems , C ompu ter J ourna l 9 , 3 73 -380 . MELLARS , P .A . 1 970 . S ome c ommen t s o n t he n o t ion o f ' f unc t iona l v a r iab i l i ty ' i n s t one too l a ssemb lages , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 , 7 4 -89 . MELLARS , P .A . 1 974 . T he P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic , i n R enf rew , A .C . ( ed i tor ) B r i t ish P reh is tory : a N ew Ou t l ine , ( London , Duckwor th ) , 4 1-99 . MELLARS , P .A . 1 976a . S e t t lemen t p a t terns a nd i ndus tr ia l v ar iab i l i ty i n t he B r i t ish Meso l i th ic , i n S ievek ing , G . , L ongwo r th , I .H . a nd Wi lson , K .E . ( ed i tor s ) P rob lems i n E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A rchaeo logy , ( London , Duckwor th ) , 3 75 3 99 . MELLARS , P .A . 1 976b . T he a ppearance o f ' narrow b lade ' m icro l i th ic i ndus tr ies i n B r i ta in : t he r ad ioca rbon e v idence , i n L es C iv i l isa t ions d e 8 ieme a u 5 ieme m i l lena ire a van t n o tre e re e n E urope , C o l loque 1 9 , 9 ieme C ong res I n terna t iona le d es S c iences P reh is tor iques e t P ro toh is tor iques , N ice , 1 66 1 74 . MORR ISON , A . 1 980 . E ar ly Man i n B r i ta in a nd I r e land , ( London , C room H e lm ) . MYERS , A .M . 1 986 . T he O rgan isa t iona l a nd S truc tura l D imens ions o f L i th ic T echnology: T heoret ical P erspect ives f ro m E thnography a nd E thnoarchaeo logy A pp l ied t o t he Meso l i th ic o f Ma in land B r i ta in w i th a C ase S tudy f rom Nor thern E ng land , ( Unpub l ished P hD t hes is , D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory , Un ive rs i ty o f S hef f ie ld ) . MYERS , A .M . i n p ress , a . R e l iab le a nd ma in ta inab le t e chno log ica l s t ra teg ies i n t he Meso l i th ic o f ma in land B r i ta in , i n T or rence , R . ( ed i to r ) T ime , E nergy a nd S tone T oo ls , ( Camb r idge , Un ivers i ty P ress ) . MYERS , A .M . i n p ress , b . S co t land i n s ide a nd o u ts ide t he Meso l i th ic o f ma in land B r i ta in , S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew . NE WCO MER , M .H . a nd HODSON , F .R . 1 973 . C on s te l la t ion a na lys is o f b u r in s f r om K sa r Ak i l , i n S t rong , D . ( ed i tor ) A rchaeo logy T heory a nd P rac t ice , ( London , S em ina r P ress ) , 8 7 -104 . PETCH , J .A . 1 924 . E ar ly Man i n t h e D is tr ic t o f Hudder sf ie ld , T o lson Memor ia l Museum P ub l ica t ion 3 , ( Hudder sf ie ld , Adver t ise r P ress ) . P ITTS , M . 1 978a . On t he s hape • o f w as te f l akes a s a n i ndex o f t e chno log ica l c hange i n l i th ic i ndus t r ies , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 5 , 1 7 -37 . P ITTS , M . 1 978b . T owa rds a n u nder s tand ing o f f l in t i ndus t r ies i n p os t -g lac ia l E ng land , B u l le t in o f t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon , 1 5 , 1 79 -197 . P ITTS , M . 1 979 . H ides a nd a n t ler s : a n ew l ook a t S ta r C a r r , No r th Y o rk sh ire , E ng land , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 , 3 2 -42 . P ITTS , M . a nd J ACOBI , R .M . 1 979 . S ome a spec ts o f c hange i n f l aked s t one i ndus tr ies o f t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic i n S ou thern E ng land , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 6 , 1 63 -177 . SACKETT , J .R . 1 973 . S ty le , f unc t ion a nd a r tefac t v a r iab i l i ty i n P a laeo l i th ic a ssemb lages , i n R enf rew , A .C . ( ed i tor ) T he E xp lana t ion o f Cu l ture C hange , ( London , Duckwor th ) , 3 17-325 .

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SANGER , D . 1 981 . An a l terna t ive a pproach t o Norweg ian Meso l i th ic c hrono logy , N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 4 , 3 9 -43 . SHENNAN , S . 1 985 . E xper imen ts i n t he C o l lec t ion a nd Ana lys is o f A rchaeo log ica l S urvey Data : t he E as t Hampsh ire S urvey , ( Un iver s i ty o f S heff ie ld , D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh is tory ) . SNEATH , P .H .A . 1 969 . E va lua t ion o f c lus te r ing me thods , i n C o le , J .A . ( ed i to r ) Numer ica l T axonomy , ( London , A cadem ic P ress ) . TORRENCE , R . 1 983 . T i me -budge t ing a nd h un ter -ga therer t echno logy , i n B a i ley , G .N . ( ed i tor ) Hunter -Ga therer E conomy i n P reh istory , ( Cambr idge , Un ivers i ty P ress ) , 1-22 . WA IN WR IGHT , G .J . 1 959 . T he e xcava t ion o f a Meso l i th ic s i te a t F reshwa ter Wes t , P embrokesh ire , B u l le t in o f t h e B oard f or C e l t ic S tud ies 1 8 , 1 96 -205 . WILL IA MS , W .T . , LANCE , G .N . , DALE , M .B . a nd CL IFFORD , H .T . 1 971 . C on t rove r sy c oncern ing t he c r i ter ia f or t axonom ic s t ra teg ies , C omputer J ourna l 1 4 , 1 62 1 65 . WISHART , D . 1 978 . C lustan : U ser Manua l ( 3rd e d i t ion ) , I n ter -Un ivers i ty R esea rch C ounc i ls S er ies R epor t 4 7 . WOODCOCK , A .G . 1 973 . •T he Na ture o f t h e Hor sham I ndus try a nd i t s P lace w i th in t he B r i t ish Meso l i th ic , ( Ch iches te r Museum O ccas iona l P ape r 1 ) .

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F ew p eop le wou ld c on tes t t he o bserva t ion t ha t t he d eve lopmen t o f c harac ter isa t ion t echn iques h as h ad a c ons iderab le i mpact u pon a rchaeo log ica l t hough t . T he a b i l i ty t o l i nk a g roup o r g roups o f p roduc ts w i th a k nown s ource h as p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n t he r e jec t ion a nd r ev is ion o f many p rev ious ly e n t renched i deas . I n B r i ta in , emphas is h as n o t s urpr is ing ly b een p laced u pon t he s uccess a ch ieved i n t he i den t if ica t ion o f p a t terns o f d is t r ibu t ion a way f rom a n i ncreas ing n umber o f i den t if iab le s ources o f n on -f l in t s tone . I n a dd i t ion , s ign if ican t a dvances c on t inue t o b e made i n t he d eve lopmen t o f f l in t c ha rac ter isa t ion t echn iques . A l though w e a re s t i l l s ome w ay f rom b e ing a b le t o s ou rce a l l l i th ic ma ter ia ls , t he d egree o f r eso lu t ion wh ich w e p ossess i s g row ing . T h is c oncern w i th r aw ma ter ia l d is tr ibu t ion i s c lear ly o f c ons iderab le i mpor tance ( Bamfor th 1 986 ) , a nd y e t i t i s a l so c lear t ha t o u r a b i l i ty t o p u t mo re d o t s o n maps i s n o t ma tched b y a s im i la r a b i l i ty t o o f fer s ugges t ions a s t o t he mean ing o f o bse rved p a t te rns , s t i l l l e ss a ny c hanges i n t hose p a t terns t h rough s pace a nd t ime . I n s ome s enses , a p a ra l le l c an b e d rawn b e tween t he u nequa l d eve lopmen ts n o ted a bove a nd t hose a dvances wh ich h ave b een made i n t he a na lys is o f l a ter B r i t ish l i th ic a ssemb lages . T he i den t if ica t ion o f f orma l d ivers i ty i n ma ter ia l c u l ture h as a lways b een a c orners tone o f a rchaeo log ica l p rac t ise a nd d esp i te c hanges i n o r ien ta t ion , o ccup ies a s im i la r p os i t ion t oday . A s a n umber o f a u thors h ave n o ted h owever , t he r ecogn i t ion o f s ign if ican t c hanges i n t he c harac ter o f l i th ic a ssemb lages i s n o t s ynonymous w i th a n e xp lana t ion o f why t ho se c hanges o ccu r red ( P i t t s 1 980 ; T o r rence 1 986a ) . T he c oncern w i th me thodo log ica l i s sues wh ich h as l ed t o t hese d eve lopmen ts i s b y n o means u n i mpor tan t , n or s hou ld i t n ecessar i ly b e r egarded a s s econda ry . I ns tead , i t c an b e a rgued t ha t w e h ave b e en d ea l ing w i th o n ly o ne s i de o f t he c o in . T he o ther , e qua l ly v a luab le s ide i s t he d eve lopmen t o f a ppropr ia te t heoret ica l f rameworks w i th in wh ich t he c harac ter o f t e chno logy a nd t he r o les wh ich i t p lays , c an b e r e la ted t o w ider p a t terns o f h uman b ehav iour . T h is u neven d eve lopmen t a f fec ts d ifferen t a spec ts o f l i th ic a na lys is t o a v ary ing d egree , b u t t he e x ten t t o wh ich w e c an e xp la in p a t terns o f e xp lo i ta t ion a nd u se r e ma ins s omewha t r es t r ic ted . T h is emphas is u pon l a rge ly d escr ip t ive c apab i l i t ies h as l ed t o t he d eve lopmen t o f many f ine g ra ined t e chn iques s uch a s u se -wea r s t ud ies . T he r es t r ic t ions u pon wha t w e c an a c tua l ly s ay a re p a r t icu la r ly e v iden t when a t ten t ion i s f ocussed u pon t he n a ture a nd o rgan isa t ion o f p rocuremen t amongs t s t one too l u s ing g roups . T he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord - a t a l l s ca les o f a na lys is , p resen ts u s w i th a n umber o f o bservab le c hanges wh ich h ave s t imu la ted d i scuss ion a nd d eba te . T hese i nc lude r aw ma ter ia l s e lec t ion , me thod a nd i n tens i ty o f e x t rac t ion , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing a nd a ssemb lage s t ruc ture , a l l o f wh ich may v ary b o th s pa t ia l ly a nd t empora l ly . T he d ivers i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f s ome o f t he a rgumen ts wh ich h ave a t temp ted t o e xp la in t hese c hanges p rov ide a g ood

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i l lus tra t ion o f t he p rob le ms p rocure men t s t ra teg ies .

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T he o bv ious s t a r t ing p o in t f or a ny d i scuss ion h as t o b e t he a va i lab i l i ty o f s u i tab le s t one . Emphas is u pon t he g eo log ica l o ccur rence o f r aw ma ter ia ls s ugges ts t ha t s carc i ty a nd v a r iab le q ua l i ty c an i nf luence t he a dop t ion o f p ar t icu lar t echno log ica l s t ra teg ies , s uch a s ma in tenance o r r ecyc l ing . E nv ironmen ta l f ac tors , s uch a s s ea leve l f l uc tua t ions a nd t he s easona l i naccess ib i l i ty o f s ources , h ave a l so b een c i ted a s i mpo r tan t d e te rm inan ts o f a s semb lage c ha rac ter ( Bamfor th 1 986 ; H enson 1 985 ; P i t ts a nd J acob i 1 979 ) . F ur ther work i n S ou thern B r i ta in h as s ugges ted t ha t f or t he L a ter N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly B ronze Age a t l eas t , t here a ppears t o b e a c or re la t ion b e tween t he c ha rac ter o f c o res a nd t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls ( Sav i l le 1 980 ) . R aw ma ter ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i s c l ea r ly a n ecessa ry f ac tor , b u t I wou ld s ugges t t ha t i t d oes n o t p rov ide a s uf f ic ien t b a s is f or e xp lana t ion s . Wh i ls t i t i s e ssen t ia l t ha t t he a na lys is o f p a r t icu lar l i th ic a ssemb lages i s u nder taken w i th in a f r amework wh ich c ons iders l oca l c ond i t ions ( c f . S av i l le 1 981) , w e mus t a lso emphas ise t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s pec if ic t echno log ica l s t ra teg ies a nd t he w ider s e ts o f s t ra teg ies b e ing p ursued b y p eop le . S uch a v iew i s s uppor ted b y t he o bse rva t ion t ha t d esp i te ma jor d i f f erences i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f r aw ma te r ia ls , many a reas s how a r ema rkab le h omogene i ty i n a pproaches t o s t onewo rk ing . T h is h as a l lowed t he d eve lopmen t o f s t a t is t ica l a na lyses g eared t owards a ss ign ing b road d a tes t o a ssemb lages ( Ford t h is v o lume , C hap ter 6 ; G inge l l a nd H a rd ing 1 981 ; P i t t s a nd J acob i 1 979 ) . F ur ther mode ls h ave emphas ised s oc ia l c on tro l o ver a ccess a nd p roduc t ion a s mechan isms t h rough wh ich a va i lab i l i ty may b e c ons t ra ined . F or a n umbe r o f h igh q ua l i ty a nd /or s pa t ia l ly r e s tr ic ted s ources , t hese a rgumen ts c an s eem a t trac t ive , p a r t icu la r ly a s t hey a re e v iden t i n t he e thnoh is to r ic r ecord ( eg McBryde 1 978) . However a t t rac t ive o r p laus ib le t hese a rgumen ts may a ppea r , t hey r ema in d i f f icu l t t o t e s t wh i le w e l a ck a ny c l ea r d ef in i t ion o f t h e roduc t ion a nd t he c on tex ts i n wh ich r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p rocuremen t , p f e xchange n e two rk s h as s hown , s im i la r o b jec ts c i rcu la te . A s t h e s imu la t ion o p a t tern s o f d i s tr ibu t ion may b e t h e r e su l t o f v ery d i f feren t p rocesses ( E l l io t , 978 ) , wh i ls t d i scuss ions o f p roduc t ion E l lman a nd Hodder 1 978 ; Hodder 1 r ema in u nderdeve loped i n t h is c oun t ry . E thnograph ic s tud ies h ave a l so i nd ica ted t ha t p a t terns o f p rocuremen t , p roduc t ion a nd c i rcu la t ion i n a ny o ne s oc ie ty a re r are ly u n iform . D is t inc t ions may b e d rawn o n t h e b as is o f r aw ma ter ia l t ype s ( Gou ld 1 980 ) o r i n t e rms o f t ypes o f a r tefac ts ( B inford a nd O 'Conne l l 1 984 ) . I n many c ases , b enef i ts a t tached t o t he u se o f p a r t icu lar r aw ma ter ia ls o r t he p ossess ion o f p ar t icu la r a r tefac ts may l i e o u ts ide o f wha t c an b e c a l led t he u t i l i tar ian s phere o f u se , t h e ir s i gn if icance b e ing mo re d i rec t ly d er ived f r om t h e s oc ia l r e la t ions o f p roduc t ion . I t i s i n t h is s en se t ha t a na ly t ica l d i cho tom ies s uch a s t hose b e tween c ura t ion a nd e xped iency ( B inford 1 980 ) , o r s imp le a nd s pec ia l ised ( Zve leb i l 1 986 ) , s hou ld n o t b e s een a s mu tua l ly e xc lus ive c ha rac ter is t ics o f e n t ire a ssemb lages . T he u sefu l d is t inc t ions wh ich t hey make a re f r equen t ly l os t a s t he t e rms b ecome ' embedded ' ( s ic) i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture . I n e ffec t , t hey c ome t o r epresen t o ppos ing r ea l i t ies , r a ther t han b e ing v iewed a s c omp lemen tary s t ra teg ies whose c omb ina t ion i n a ny o ne s ys tem i s wor thy o f e xam ina t ion . A f ur ther g roup o f s t ud ies h ave c ons idered t h e i mpac t o f c hang ing p a t terns o f s e t t lemen t i n t e rms o f t he i mp l ica t ions t hey m igh t h ave f o r t h e s pa t ia l

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r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p eop le a nd s ources o f workab le s t one ( eg C a re 1 982 ) . I n emphas is ing t he e f f ec t o f c hang ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t o n t h is p hys ica l r e la t ionsh ip , o ne i mpor tan t d imens ion h as b een e xp lored . T he a c tua l d emands wh ich a re p laced u pon t he s t ruc ture o f a ssemb lages b y p ar t icu lar s ubs is tence /se t t lemen t r eg imes c ons t i tu te a f ur ther d imen s ion wh ich n eeds t o b e c ons idered . T h is b road a pproach , t ha t o f c ons ider ing t he c on tex t o f u se , h as b een s urp r is ing ly u nderdeve loped , n o t j us t f or s t one t oo ls b u t f or t e chno logy a s a who le . S ince l i th ics a r e t he mos t d u rab le c omponen t o f t he p reh is tor ic a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , t here i s a g rea t d ea l wh ich c ou ld b e g a ined f rom e s tab l ish ing i n terpre ta t ive l i nks b e tween s oc io -econom ic c on tex t a nd t he n a ture a nd o rgan isa t ion o f p rocu remen t a nd p roduc t ion . A l though t he p r imary f ocus o f t h is p aper i s o n t he n a tu re a nd o rgan isa t ion o f p rocuremen t , i t s hou ld a l ready b e c l ear t ha t t he d iv is ions wh ich w e i mpose u pon o ur d a ta c rea te a n umbe r o f p rob lems . We c anno t u nde rs tand p rocuremen t s t ra teg ies o r s pec if ic t echno log ica l p rac t ises s uch a s ma in tenance o r r ecyc l ing u n less w e r e la te t hem t o w ider p a t terns o f a c t iv i ty . T he t e chno log ica l s ys tem c anno t b e l ooked a t i n i s o la t ion . We h ave t o t h ink o f t he r o les w h ich i t p lays w i th in a w ider s oc io -econom ic c on tex t . Any a rgumen ts wh ich w e m igh t w ish t o d eve lop h ave t o b e b ased u pon a c l ea r p ic ture o f wha t t e chno logy r epresen ts . Wh i ls t i nnova t ion o r d eve lopmen t c an h ave s econdary o r u nforseen c onsequences f or t he o rgan isa t ion o f a c t iv i t ies ( Joch im 1 981) , t e chno logy mus t i n t he f i rs t i n s tance b e v iewed a s a r e sponse o r s o lu t ion . P eop le d eve lop , mod ify a nd emp loy c omponen ts o f t he ir t e chno logy a s o ne o f t h e means b y wh ich t h ey a t temp t t o p ursue p a r t icu la r s t ra teg ies i n t h e p hys ica l a nd s oc ia l e nv ironmen t ( Tor rence 1 986b ) . B y v iew ing t echno logy a s a s epara te e n t i ty , we r un t he r i sk o f f a i l ing t o e xp lore t he l i nks b e tween c hanges i n t he ma ter ia ls wh ich w e c an o bserve i n t he a rchao log ica l r ecord , a nd c hanges i n b ehav iour wh ich w e c anno t . We m igh t a ccep t f or e xamp le , t ha t i nnova t ions s uch a s t he d eve lopmen t o f l a rge s ca le i r r iga t ion o r more e ff ic ien t a gr icu l tura l mach inery c anno t b e u nders tood s o le ly i n t he ir o wn t e rms . We h ave , p erhaps b een a l i t t le s l ow i n a pp ly ing s im i la r p erspec t ives t o s t one t oo ls . T h is i s a bou t a s s t a r t l ing a s s ay ing t ha t c ars s e ldom work w i thou t e ng ines . N ever the less , b y s t ress ing t ha t d esp i te a w ide r ange o f e x terna l f ac tor s , i t i s a h uman mo tor w h ich d r ives t e chno log ica l c hange , w e a re f orced t o a sk a n umber o f q ues t ions : Wha t a re t he p rob lems wh ich t e chno logy i s d eve loped t o s o lve? H ow d o p a r t icu la r s t ra teg ies o f s e lec t ion , p rocuremen t , p roduc t ion , u se a nd d i sca rd r e la te t o t hose p rob lem s? F ina l ly , h ow f a r c an w e u se o bservab le c hanges i n t hose s t ra teg ies a s v a l id i nd ica to r s o f w ider s oc io -econom ic c hange? C ost /benef it a nalys is a nd s tone t ools I n a dd i t ion t o t he p rob lems n o ted a bove , w e a l so n eed s o me means o f a s sess ing a nd c ompa r ing d i f feren t s t ra teg ies wh ich i nvo lve s t one t oo ls . T h is m igh t w e l l b e a ccomp l ished t h rough t he u se o f a c os t /benef i t f r amework i n o ur a na lyses . S ince s uch a n a pproach i s b es t u sed i n a r e la t ive s ense , t h e s e lec t ion o f c urrenc ies o n e i ther s i de o f a g enera l e qua t ion n eed n o t b e r estr icted . F or c os ts a s soc ia ted w i th p rocuremen t , w e s hou ld t h ink n o t me re ly i n t e rms o f d i s tance t o a s ou rce , b u t a l so i n t e rms o f t h e o rgan isa t ion o f t h e w ider

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r ange o f a c t iv i t ies wh ich g roups u nder take . F or p roduc t ion , u sefu l measu res o f c os t w i l l o ver lap w i th t hose f or p rocuremen t , b u t may a l so i nc lude a ssessmen ts o f t he t ime a nd e nergy i npu t , t he q ua l i ty a nd r equ ired q uan t i t ies o f s t one . On t he b enef i t s i de , t here a re a v ar ie ty o f u sefu l measures ; a ga in , q ua l i ty o f s t one may b e i mpor tan t ( par t icu lar ly where r ecyc l ing a nd ma in tenance a r e c oncerned ) . We m igh t a l so t h ink i n t e rms o f e f f ic iency , n o t o n ly i n t h e u se o f r aw ma ter ia ls , b u t a l so i n t e rm s o f t he t a sk f or wh ich a n a r tefac t w as i n tended . T hese a nd o ther measures h ave b een u sed i n a v a r ie ty o f s t ud ies , w he re t h e ir u t i l i ty h as b een amp ly d emons t ra ted . S hee ts ' work i n Mesoamer ica u sed s im i la r measures t o t a ck le a rgumen ts r e la ted t o a n umbe r o f i s sues . T hese i nc luded t he manner i n wh ich d if feren t g roups o b ta ined o bs id ian , t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s i tes , a nd t he o rgan isa t ion o f p roduc t ion a t d i fferen t l eve ls i n s oc ie ty ( Shee ts 1 978) . S im i lar ly , Gou ld h as d emons tra ted ( e thnograph ica l ly) t ha t p rocuremen t c os ts c an i nf luence t he d egree o f p re l im inary work ing a t a q uar ry s i te . H is w ork a t t he P un tu t ja rpa r ock s he l ter h as a l so s hown t ha t where a s semb lages c on ta in ma ter ia ls w i th v e ry d i f feren t a ssoc ia ted p rocuremen t c os ts , t hose more ' e xpens ive ' ma ter ia ls may n o t c onfer a ny s t r ic t u t i l i tar ian a dvan tage o ver more l oca l ly a va i lab le a l terna t ives ( Gou ld 1 978 ; 1 980 ) . Whe ther w e a re l ook ing a t t oo ls o r d eb i tage , l i th ics a r e w e l l s u i ted t o t h is f orm o f a na lys is . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e i r d urab i l i ty , t he p roduc t ion p rocess f o r f l aked t oo ls i s e ssen t ia l ly r educ t ive a nd s equen t ia l ( Brad ley 1 975 ; C o l l in s 1 975 ) . T hese p roper t ies make i t p oss ib le f or u s t o i den t ify ( and r ep l ica te ) p ar t icu lar s t ages i n a r educ t ion s equence , a f ford ing u s a g rea ter d egree o f c on tro l o ver t he q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive a spec ts o f s t one t oo l p roduc t ion a nd u se . A l though t here h a s o f ten b een a n emphas is u pon t he u se o f t h ese a na lyses i n s ynchron ic s t ud ies , t hey a re a l so v a luab le f or l ook ing a t t echno log ica l c hange t h rough t ime . T he a pp l ica t ion o f t hese a nd o ther measures g rea t ly a ids t he p rocess o f c ompar ison w i th in a nd b e tween a ssemb lages , b u t t hey n eed t o b e t i ed i n to a y e t w ider e xp lana tory f ra mework . R isk a nd t echnology T he d om inan t f ocus wh ich h as b een a dop ted f o r d i scuss ions o f t e chno logy h as b een u pon t he r o le w h ich i t p lays i n i nc reas ing t he r e l iab i l i ty a nd e ff ic iency o f r esource p rocuremen t ( J och im 1 981; O swa l t 1 976 ; T orrence 1 983 ; 1 986b ) . I f w e a ccep t t h is a s ac en t ra l i s sue , t hen w e mus t a l so a ccep t t ha t a n i mpor tan t mo t ive i n s ubs is tence b ehav iou r i s t he d es ire f or s ecur i ty . A l though t he c ha rac ter o f t h is mo t ive , a nd t h e m ean s b y w h ich i t i s a ch ieved c an b e e xpec ted t o v a ry , i t i s a t heme wh ich c u ts a c ross t h e b oundar ies o f d if feren t s ubs is tence r eg imes ( Cashdan 1 985 ; C o lson 1 979 ; J och im 1 976 ; J ohnson 1 971; Wh i te law 1 983 ; Wiessner 1 982a ; 1 982b ) . Wha t w ou ld b e v a luab le wou ld b e t he u se o f a n i n te rpre ta t ive f r amework , i n wh ich t he c hang ing n a ture o f t he r o le p layed b y s t one t oo ls i n e nsur ing s ubs is tence s ecur i ty c ou ld b e e xam ined . Moves t owa rds s uch a f r amewo rk c an b e s een i n t h e i n teres t wh ich h as b een s hown i n l ook ing a t t he v a r ious means b y wh ich d i f feren t g roups c ope w i th t he r i sks a s soc ia ted w i th s ubs is tence . T here h as b een a g row ing emphas is u pon t he v iew t ha t w e c annno t u nders tand d ifferen t p a t terns o f o rgan isa t ion s imp ly b y c onsu lt ing s ome i ndex o f e nv ironmen ta l c ha rac ter is t ics . Wiessner ( 1982a ) h as c ogen t ly a rgued t ha t w e n eed t o w iden

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o ur c oncep t ions o f t he f ac tors wh ich d e term ine d ifferen t f orms o f o rgan isa t ion . S he s ugges ts t ha t a n umber o f s t ra teg ies e x is t f or d ea l ing w i th o r manag ing r i sk , wh ich h ave a s much t o d o w i th r e la t ions b e tween p eop le a s t hey d o w i th p eop le a nd t he e nv ironmen t : i t w i l l b e n ecessary t o c ons ider v ar ia t ion i n h un ter -ga therer o rgan isa t ion i n t he l i gh t o f s t ra teg ies u sed i n t h e e n t ire p roduc t ive p rocess t hose s t ra teg ies u sed f o r o rgan isa t ion a round r e sou rces , a s w e l l a s t hose u sed i n o rgan isa t ion a round o ther p ersons i n s oc ia l r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion " ( i b id , 1 76 ) . A l though d i scuss ions h ave t ended t o c oncen t ra te u pon r i sk -cop ing s t ra teg ies i n h un ter -ga therer c on tex ts , t here i s a l so g ood r eason t o a rgue t ha t a s im i la r p erspec t ive may b e u sefu l f or l ook ing a t g roups who r e ly p r ima r i ly u pon d omes t ica tes ( Cashdan 1 985 ; C o lson 1 979 ) . A l though t h e n a tu re o f t he r i sk s wh ich g roups w i l l f ace , a nd t he w ay i n wh ich t hey a r e p e rce ived , w i l l b e b o th q ua l i ta t ive ly a nd q uan t i ta t ive ly d ifferen t , t he c op ing mechan isms wh ich t hey a dop t may b e s ubsumed u nde r o ne o r more o f t he f our b road c a tego r ies o u t l ined b y Wiessne r : ( a ) t he p reven t ion o f l o ss ; ( b ) t he t r an sfe r o f r i sk o r l o ss ; ( c ) s t o rage ; a nd ( d ) t h e p oo l ing o f r i sk ( 1982a 1 72 -3 ) . D esp i te t hese b road c a tegor ies , w e s hou ld n o t a ssume t ha t r i sk i s a n u nd if feren t ia ted p henomenon , b u t r a ther t ha t i t c an b e e xpec ted t o v a ry i n b o th c harac ter a nd i n tens i ty ( Joch im 1 981) a nd , b y e x tens ion , t ha t t he p ercep t ion o f r i sk w i l l a l so c hange . T h is p hys ica l v a r iab i l i ty i s t o a l a rge e x ten t a f unc t ion o f t he a bundance o f r e sou rces a nd t he ir a va i lab i l i ty i n s pace a nd t ime . T hese f ac to rs a re i n t u rn d ependan t u pon a w ider s e t o f v a r iab les . F or e xamp le , t empe ra tu re a nd r a infa l l v ar iab i l i ty , t he b ehav iour o f p ar t icu la r s pec ies a nd t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween d i f feren t g roups may a l l c ond i t ion t he a va i lab i l i ty a nd a bundance o f n ecessa ry r e sources . Wh i ls t t he s pec if ic c on tex t wou ld a ppea r t o d e term ine t he c ha rac ter a nd i n tens i ty o f t he r i sks wh ich p eop le f ace , i t i s p oss ib le t o i den t ify t wo p r inc ipa l a xes a long wh ich v a r ia t ion c an b e measured : 1 . T he d egree o r s ever ity o f r i sk c an b e t hough t o f i n t e rms o f t he c onsequences o f l o ss o r f a i lure i n s ubs is tence t a sks . F or e xamp le , t he c onsequences o f f a i lure a t h un t ing i n a h igh ly s pec ia l ised e nv ironmen t w i l l b e f a r more s evere t han t hose wh ich a ccompany a s im i la r f a i lure i n a mo re g enera l ised c on tex t . T he d ifference b e tween t he t wo i s t he g rea ter a va i lab i l i ty o f a l terna t ive r esources i n t he l a t ter c ase . G iven t he v ery d i f feren t s e ts o f c os t s a s soc ia ted w i th t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f p lan t s a nd a n ima ls , t he s ever i ty o f r i sk w i l l d epend u pon t h e n a ture o f b o th f avou red a nd b ack u p r e sources . F or g roups r e ly ing p r ima r i ly u pon d omes t ica tes , c a lcu la t ion s o f t he s eve r i ty o f r i sk h ave t o b e b ased u pon q u i te s epa ra te s e ts o f c r i ter ia , wh ich s t em f rom t he v ery d i f feren t manner i n wh ich t he p rocuremen t o f n ecessa ry r e sources i s o rgan ised . T h is l e ads u s o n t o o ur s econd a x is o f v ar ia t ion : 2 . T he s ca le o f r i sk i s e f f ec t ive ly a m easu re o f t h e p redom inan t t ime s ca le a t wh ich r i sk i s p erce ived a s c r i t ica l i n a g iven c on tex t . A ga in , t h is w i l l b e a n i mpor tan t d e term inan t o f t he c op ing s t ra tegy wh ich i s a dop ted . A l l g roups s t r ive t o c ope w i th r i sk o pera t ing a t a n umber o f s ca les , r ang ing f r om t h e i nd iv idua l e ven t t h rough t o i n ter -annua l f l uc tua t ions i n p roduc t iv i ty . I n a ny g iven c on tex t , h owever , t here w i l l b e a n emphas is u pon p a r t icu lar t empora l s ca les o f r i sk : f or e xamp le , g roups who r e ly u pon h un t ing

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p r i mar i ly mob i le r esources w i l l b e more f r equen t ly c oncerned w i th t he p robab i l i t ies o f l oss o r f a i lure o ver v ery s hor t p er iods ( i .e . i nd iv idua l h un t ing e p isodes ) t han a gr icu l tura l is ts , where t he ma jor r i sks o f s ubs is tence f a i lu re o r l o ss o pe ra te o ver l onge r t ime -span s . I n a dd i t ion t o t h ese t wo a xes , w e a l so n eed t o c ons ider t he ( a rea l) e x ten t o ver wh ich p a r t icu la r r i sk s o pera te , s ince a n i mpor tan t d e term inan t o f t he a ppropr ia te managemen t s t ra tegy w i l l b e ( a ) t he p rox im i ty o f a l te rna t ive r e sources , a nd /or ( b ) t he p rox im i ty o f o the r more s uccessfu l o r u naf f ec ted g roups . T h is s epara t ion o f t empora l s ca les h igh l igh ts o ne o f t he k ey d is t inc t ions b e tween t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f w i ld a nd d omes t ica ted r e sources ; t he p e rcep t ion o f r i sk a nd i t s p red ic tab i l i ty . We h ave t o c on s ide r t he s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l s ca les o f r i sk s wh ich a ccompany d ifferen t r eg imes i n t e rms o f t he e x ten t t o wh ich p red ic t ions a re c r i t ica l t o s uccess , a nd a l so h ow t he n a ture o f t hose p red ic t ions may d om ina te t he a c t ions o f p eop le . T hese t empo ra l d i s t inc t ions a re u sefu l i n t e rms o f t he f l ex ib i l i ty wh ich t hey a l low i n t he a na lys is o f d if feren t c op ing s t ra teg ies . I f w e c an i den t ify t he f ac tor s wh ich c ond i t ion t he s e lec t ion o f p ar t icu la r c op ing s t ra teg ies , w e a re i n a b e t ter p os i t ion t o d iscuss t he ir i mp l ica t ions f or t he c harac ter a nd s t ruc ture o f l i th ic a sse mb lages . Emphas is i n many s tud ies h as b een p laced u pon s t ra teg ies o f r i sk managemen t , whereby r e la t ions w i th in a nd b e tween g roups a re e xp lo i ted t o c ope w i th t he p oss ib i l i ty o f s ubs is tence f a i lure . On ly r ecen t ly h as t he re b een a ny a t temp t t o c ons ider t he r o le p layed b y t e chno logy a s a c oun terpa r t t o o ther measures ( Tor rence 1 986b ) . P red ic t ions f or t he c onsequences o f t r ansfer , s torage a nd p oo l ing h ave dwe l t u pon t he ir i mpac t i n t e rms o f mob i l i ty , s i te s t ruc ture , e xchange a nd s t y le , b u t h ave n o t f u l ly e xp lored t he i mp l ica t ions f or t he c harac ter a nd s t ruc ture o f a ssemb lages . D irec t u t i l i ta r ian s o lu t ions may b e o n ly o ne o f t he m ean s b y wh ich p eop le a t temp t t o ma in ta in o r i nc rease s ecur i ty . We s hou ld t herefore a n t ic ipa te t ha t t he e x ten t t o wh ich s t one t oo ls w i l l h ave a r o le t o p lay w i l l v ary i n t e rm s o f b o th t he l eve l a nd n a ture o f t ha t i nvo lvemen t . I dea l ly , wha t w e r equ ire i s t he a b i l i ty t o p red ic t h ow t he c harac ter o f a ssemb lages w i l l v ary i n c on tex ts c ha rac ter ised b y d i f f eren t d egrees a nd s ca les o f r i sk . An i mpor tan t s t ep t owards t h is g oa l h as b een ' t aken b y T orrence ( 1983 ; 1 986b) i n h er d iscuss ion o f ' s ubs is tan t ' t echno logy amongs t h un ter g a therers . B u i ld ing u pon a n e ar l ier a rgumen t , t ha t many v ar ia t ions i n o rgan isa t ion r epresen t s o lu t ions t o t he p rob lems o f b udge t ing t ime , s he h as more r ecen t ly a rgued t ha t t he a va i lab i l i ty o f t ime i s o ne o f a n umber o f i mpo r tan t d e te rm inan t s o f t he n a ture o f r i sk . A t o ne l eve l , t he a dop t ion o f c op ing s t ra teg ies i s g ea red t owa rds d ea l ing w i th s easona l v a r iab i l i ty i n t he a va i lab i l i ty a nd a bundance o f r e sources . T h is c an b e e xpec ted t o h ave a ma jor i mpac t u pon t he o rgan isa t ion o f t e chno log ica l b ehav iour i n s pace a nd t ime . T or rence h as a l so s ugges ted , h owever , t ha t t he c harac ter o f a ssemb lages w i l l a t t he s ame t ime b e g eared t owa rds t he s o lu t ion o f much s hor ter term r i sks : " T he r i sk o f f a i lu re t o c ap tu re f ood i s me t e very t ime a p o ten t ia l r e source i s e ncoun tered , a l though t he l eve l o f r i sk w i l l v a ry f rom s pec ies t o s pec ies , a nd a ccord ing t o d a i ly s ubs is tence n eeds " ( To r rence 1 986b , 4 ) . I f we c ons ider t h is v ery s hor t t e rm r i sk u nder Wiessner 's c a tegory ' p reven t ion o f l o ss ' , i t i s p oss ib le t o s ugges t t ha t t h e c ha rac ter o f a r tefac ts , a s w e l l a s t he o rgan isa t ion o f p rocuremen t , p roduc t ion a nd u se , may b e d i rec t ly

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g ea red t owa rds e nsu r ing t he r e l iab i l i ty a nd e f f ic iency w i th wh ich r e sources a re o b ta ined . T he e mphas is wh ich i s p laced u pon d ev is ing a t e chno logy c apab le o f p rov id ing t h is s ecur i ty w i l l b e p os i t ive ly c or re la ted w i th t he d egree o r s ever i ty o f r i sk . A s t h e c on sequences o f l o ss o r f a i lure b ecome more s e r ious , s o t here w i l l b e a c ommensura te i nves tmen t i n a n e f f ic ien t t e chno logy wh ich r educes t h e c hances o f f a i lure . I n t e rms o f r e la t ive c o s ts a nd b enef i ts , i ncreased i nves tmen t ( eg i n t ime a nd e nergy ) i n t he p rocuremen t a nd p roduc t ion o f s t one t oo ls a nd c on t ro l o ver t h e ir f o rm , may b e o f f se t b y t he g rea ter b enef i ts wh ich t hey a ccrue i n t e rms o f i ncreased e f f ic iency i n t he t a sks f or wh ich t h ey a r e i n tended . F or g roups e xp lo i t ing w i ld a nd e spec ia l ly mob i le r e sou rces , t h e n eed t o a n t ic ipa te when , w here a nd h ow r esources may b e p rocured w i l l a ffec t a n umber o f l eve ls o f o rgan isa t ion . S tress u pon s hor t term r i sks a nd t i gh t s chedu l ing may d i rec t ly i nf luence t he d egree o f a n t ic ipa tory p roduc t ion a s w e l l a s t he e f f ic iency o f t oo ls , b u t c umu la t ive ly , i t w i l l a l so p lay a ma jor r o le i n s t ruc tur ing a nnua l a nd i n ter -annua l c yc les o f mob i l ity a nd r esource s e lec t ion . F rom a t e chno log ica l p o in t o f v i ew , o ne c ou ld a rgue t ha t t h is n eed f o r f r equen t , c r i t ica l p red ic t ions , may e xer t a c ons iderab le i nf luence o ver t h e o rgan isa t ion o f p roduc t ive t a sk s . T h is may b e r ef lec ted i n t he d eg ree o f s t anda rd isa t ion a nd s pec ia l isa t ion i n a ssemb lages a s w e l l a s t he e x ten t t o wh ich s i tes w ere f unc t iona l ly d i f feren t ia ted . A s w i th h e r a rgumen ts f o r t ime b udge t ing , T or rence h as c ons idered h ow t h e n a ture o f r i sk may c ond i t ion a l l a spec ts o f t echno logy . I n t h is more r e s tr ic ted d i scuss ion o f s t one t oo ls , a s ha rp c on t ras t c an b e d rawn b e tween t he c harac ter o f t e chno log ica l r e sponses n o ted a bove , a nd t hose u nder v ery d i fferen t s ubs is tence r eg imes , where c r i t ica l r i sk s d emand s o lu t ions a t a v ery d ifferen t s ca le . T he o nse t o f d omes t ica t ion h as t r ad i t iona l ly b een t r ea ted a s a n h or izon o f ma jo r s i gn if icance , a nd h as b een t i ed t o a w ide r ange o f mode ls wh ich h ave r e la ted t h is c hange i n s ubs is tence p rac t ises t o a v a r ie ty o f f ac tors . When a pproached f rom t he p erspec t ive o f r i sk a nd t e chno logy , i t i s a ppa ren t t ha t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th a v e ry d i f fe ren t s e t ( o r s e ts ) o f c os ts a nd b enef i ts . A s b efore , w e f i nd t ha t a n umbe r o f f ac tor s i n t h e p hys ica l e nv i ronmen t a r e c r i t ica l t o t hose p rac t is ing a n ima l h usbandry a nd /or c u l t iva t ion . V a r ia t ion s i n t empe ra ture a nd r a infa l l , e ven o n a s pa t ia l ly r e s t r ic ted s ca le , a re f ac to rs t o wh ich c ons iderab le i mpor tance may b e a t tached i n d ec is ion mak ing , a s t hey n o t o n ly a f fec t t he t im ing o f p ar t icu lar a c t iv i t ies , b u t may a l so c on s t i tu te ma jo r ( and i n s o me c ases u np red ic tab le ) t h rea ts . T he p o ten t ia l f o r d rough t , f l ood ing o r d i sease i n a g iven a r ea w i l l i nf luence t he n a ture o f t h e c op ing s t ra teg ies wh ich a re a dop ted , whe ther t o p reven t s uch o ccurrences ( i f p oss ib le) , o r , mo re g enera l ly , t o c ompen sa te f or t he d ras t ic e f fec t w h ich t h ey may h ave u pon p roduc t iv i ty l e ve ls . T hese , a nd o ther f ac tor s s uch a s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion , d ra inage a nd f e r t i l i ty o f s o i ls , may c omb ine t o make p a r t icu la r s t ra teg ies u nsu i tab le . F or e xamp le , e xchange b e tween l o ca l g roups may b e i nappropr ia te i n c i rcums tances where c l ima t ic f ac tors a c t t o t he d e tr imen t o f a much w ide r r eg ion . B es ides t he p hys ica l e nv ironmen t , t h e o nse t o f d omes t ica t ion may e n ta i l f ur ther s t ruc tura l c hanges wh ich w i l l i n f luence b o th t he c harac ter o f r i sk a nd t he a ppropr ia te c op ing s t ra teg ies . Ma jor c hanges i n t he d egree o f r es iden t ia l ( and t a sk g roup ) mob i l i ty w i l l a l ter t he s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a ny o ne g roup , a v a r ie ty o f r e sou rces a nd o ther g roups . T h is m ay

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b e mos t marked f or a gr icu l tura l c ommun i t ies who p lace a n e mphas is u pon t he a ggrega t ion o f n ecessary r e sources . T he c onsequences o f f a i lu re t o s us ta in p roduc t iv i ty a t a n a ccep tab le l eve l u nder s uch c ond i t ion s may w e l l b e a n i nf luence u pon t he e x ten t t o wh ich n e tworks o f e xchange a r e ma in ta ined , p ar t icu lar ly s o , g iven t he s t ochas t ic n a ture o f many l onger t e rm r i sks . G iven t ha t t he w ider p rocess o f s oc ia l r eproduc t ion e n ta i ls c on tac t a nd e xchange b e tween g roups f or p urposes o ther t han t he p ro tec t ion o f p roduc t iv i ty l eve ls , i t s hou ld b e s t ressed t ha t w e c anno t s ubsume a l l e v idence f or e x tens ive n e twork s o f s oc ia l r e la t ions u nder t h e r ubr ic o f r i sk c op ing b ehav iour . I wou ld a rgue , h owever , t ha t w i th t he o nse t o f a g rea ter d egree o f s eden t ism t he n eed t o e nsure s ecur i ty i n s ubs is tence wou ld h ave c on tr ibu ted e i ther t o t h e e s tab l ishmen t , o r t o t h e p rod ig ious g row th , o f c on tac ts b e tween r e la t ive ly s e t t led c ommun i t ies . I f w e p u l l t hese t hemes t oge ther , a v ery d i f fe ren t p ic ture emerges r ega rd ing p o ten t ia l s o lu t ions t o r i sk a nd t h e l eve l a nd n a ture o f t he i nvo lvemen t o f t e chno logy . I n t e rms o f t empora l s ca le , l o ss o r f a i lure w i l l c on t inue t o o ccur a t a r ange o f l eve ls . I t c an b e a rgued , h owever , t ha t t h e emphas is i n b o th p as tora l a nd a gr icu l tura l s oc ie t ies w i l l b e o n s o lv ing p rob lems o f p roduc t iv i ty , wh ich o ccur w i th a l ower f r equency t han t ha t o f t he i nd iv idua l e ven t , a nd wh ich a re p e rce ived i n a v ery d i f fe ren t f a sh ion . T he g enera l c ha rac ter o f t he p redom inan t r i sks wh ich p eop le f ace c an b e s een t o c hange . H ere a ga in , t he n a tu re o f p red ic t ion s i s c r i t ica l . Wh i ls t s hor t term p rob lems w i l l c on t inue t o a r ise , t hey w i l l r equ ire d i ff eren t s o lu t ions . T o a l a rge e x ten t t hese may n o t b e p erce ived a s t he c r i t ica l l eve l a t wh ich s o lu t ions h ave t o b e f ound . Uncer ta in ty a r is ing f rom l onger term r i sk s wh ich c anno t b e p red ic ted i n t he s ame f a sh ion , h owever , w i l l a l so p lay a s i gn if ican t p ar t i n d e term in ing c ourses o f a c t ion . F or s t one t oo ls , t h is c hange h as t wo b road i mp l ica t ions : f i rs t , t he e x ten t t o wh ich s t one t oo ls c an i nf luence t he r e l iab i l i ty a nd e f f ic iency o f r e source p rocuremen t may b e c ons ide rab ly d im in ished . S econd ly , i n a dd i t ion t o t he d ecreased i mpo r tance o f t oo l e ff ic iency , r educ t ions i n t he t i gh t s chedu l ing o f p rocuremen t a nd p roduc t ion may l ead t o a f a l l i n t he d egree o f s t andard isa t ion a nd s pec ia l isa t ion i n a s semb lages . A s a r e su l t , w e m igh t a n t ic ipa te a n i n c rease i n t he r e l iance u pon a l terna t ive s t ra teg ies f or c op ing w i th r i sk s . A f u l l d i scuss ion o f t he f ac tors wh ich d e term ine t h e a dop t ion o f o ne o r more o f t h ese s t ra teg ie s l i es o u ts ide o f t he f ocus o f t h is p ape r . A t t h is v e ry g ene ra l l eve l , h owever , w e c an s ee t ha t t here a re s i gn if ican t i mp l ica t ions f o r c hanges i n t he c ha rac ter o f l i th ic a ssemb lages wh ich a ccompany t he ma jor c hanges i n t he n a ture o f r i sk a ssoc ia ted w i th a s w i tch f rom w i ld t o d omes t ica ted r e sources a s t he p r ima ry s ubs is tence b ase . T h is may n o t o n ly b e af unc t ion o f t h e r educed r o le w h ich s uch ma ter ia ls may p lay i n e n su r ing s ubs is tence s ecur i ty , b u t may a l so r ef lec t t he i ncorpora t ion o f p a r t icu la r c l asses o f ma ter ia l c u l tu re w i th in n ew o r e xpand ing s pheres o f u se . P rocurement i n a c hang ing c l imate o f r i sk T he p o in t w a s made a t t he o u t se t o f t h is d i scuss ion t ha t t h e a r t if ic ia l d iv is ion s wh ich w e p lace u pon t he s t one t oo l s ys tem c an t o s o me e x ten t h inder o u r e xp lana t ions . I t w as a l so n o ted t ha t a b e t ter ' u nder s tand ing o f t e chno logy c ou ld o n ly b e a ch ieved t h rough e xam in ing t h e r o le wh ich i t p lays w i th in a w ider mode o f p roduc t ion . I n p ursu ing t he q ues t ion o f t he n a ture a nd o rgan isa t ion o f p rocuremen t , w e h ave t o c ons ider a n umber o f w ha t h ave b een t e rmed ' c h icken a nd e gg ' p rob lems . T hese r e su l t t o s o me e x ten t f r om u nnecessary a t temp ts t o e s tab l ish a l i near r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he f ac to rs

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wh ich c ond i t i t ion t he s e lec t ion o f p a r t icu la r s t ra teg ies . Mos t c ommon ly , t h is p erspec t ive i s man ifes t i n a t te mp ts t o e xp la in t he c harac ter is t ics o f p ar t icu lar a ssemb lages l a rge ly i n t e rms o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls . T h is i s o n ly t ack l ing p a r t o f t he p rob le m , h owever n ecessa ry t ha t p a r t may b e ( eg B amfor th 1 986 ; S av i l le 1 982 ) . We a l so h ave t o c ons ider h ow c hanges i n s ubs is tence a nd mob i l i ty p a t terns , a nd i n t he o vera l l c l ima te o f r i sk , w i l l a l ter t he emphas is o n s tone t oo ls t o e n sure s ubs is tence s ecur i ty , a nd t hus t he manner i n wh ich r aw ma te r ia l i s s e lec ted a nd p rocu red . C lea r ly t h ese t wo i s sues a r e r e la ted , s i nce t he c os ts wh ich • may b e i ncurred b y t he u se o f a p a r t icu lar r aw ma ter ia l o r t he p roduc t ion o f s pec if ic a r tefac t s , h ave t o b e s e t a ga in s t t he b enef i ts t ha t t hey p rov ide , b o th i n t he i mmed ia te c on tex t o f u se , a nd i n t e rms o f t he s t ruc tu re o f o ther a c t iv i t ies i n s pace a nd t ime . Where a ccess , b y wha tever means , t o a n umber o f r aw ma ter ia l s ources i s p oss ib le , t he s e lec t ion a nd u se o f p ar t icu la r t ypes c anno t b e t hough t o f a s a rb i tra ry . Whe re ma ter ia ls a r e o f d i f fer ing q ua l i t ies , i t wou ld b e t emp t ing t o a ssume t ha t p refe rence w i l l a lways b e s hown f or t he h igher q ua l i ty s t one . T h is n eed n o t b e t he c ase a t a l l , s i nce d i f feren t ma ter ia ls w i l l h ave d i f feren t a s soc ia ted p rocuremen t c os ts . I f t h e s e lec t ion o f s t one i s made o n t he b a s is o f c os t /benef i t d ec is ions , w e h ave t o t h ink o f t he a dvan tages wh ich t he u se o f s pec if ic r aw ma ter ia ls may c onfer . G iven t he c omp lex i ty o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he v ar iab les wh ich i nf luence t he a dop t ion o f p ar t icu lar p rocuremen t s t ra teg ies , o ur d iscuss ion n eeds t o b e b roken d own . A d iv is ion c an b e d rawn b e tween t he o rgan isa t ion o f p rocu remen t amongs t g roups who r e ly u pon w i ld r esources , a nd t hose f o r whom d omes t ica tes p rov ide t he s t ap le r e sou rce b ase . Wild r esources F or g roups r e ly ing p r imar i ly u pon w i ld r esources , t he f i rs t d i mens ion t o c ons ider i s t he u se f or wh ich a t oo l i s p roduced . I f w e a ssume t ha t i nves t men t i n p roduc t ion i s p os i t ive ly c or re la ted w i th t he s uccess w i th wh ich a t oo l c an b e e xpec ted t o p er form a t a sk ( o r t a sk s ) , t he q ua l i ty o f t he r aw ma ter ia l u sed may w e l l b e s i gn if ican t . T he u se o f h igh q ua l i ty s t one a f fo rds g rea te r p rec is ion a nd c on t ro l i n p roduc t ion a nd a l so a l lows f or more e x tens ive r ework ing , e i ther f or ma in tenance o r r ecyc l ing . I n c on tex ts where i t i s a ppropr ia te t o t ack le a h igh d egree o f r i sk t hrough t he p reven t ion o f l o ss o n a s hor t t ime s ca le , t he d emand f or e f f ic ien t a r tefac ts may l e ad t o a n emphas is u pon h igh q ua l i ty s t one . A l though t he r e la t ion sh ip i s u n l ike ly t o b e al i nea r o ne , w e c an s ugges t t ha t t h is empha s is w i l l i n crea se a s t he r a t io o f h igh ly mob i le /p lan t r esources i n t he d ie t i nc reases . T h is i s r ef lec ted i n a move f rom g enera l ised t o more s pec ia l ised e nv ironmen ts , whe re t he a va i lab i l i ty o f a l terna t ive r e sources i s f a r more r e s tr ic ted , a nd i s a l so i n k eep ing w ith T orrence 's a rgumen ts c oncern ing t he p os i t ive c o re la t ion b e tween t he n eed t o b udge t t ime a nd i nc reas ing l a t i tude ( B inford 1 980 ; T o r rence 1 983 ) . A d is t inc t b u t r e la ted f ac tor i s t he l eng th o f t ime o ver wh ich t oo ls r ema in s e rv iceab le . T he i mpor tance o f t he u se l ife o f a t oo l i s l a rge ly a f unc t ion o f t he d egree t o wh ich p rocuremen t a nd p roduc t ion mus t b e s chedu led w i th in o ther t a sks . T h is c once rn w i th s chedu l ing i s i n t u rn a f unc t ion o f t he n a ture o f t he f avoured r e sources a nd t he p a t terns o f mob i l i ty n ecessary f or t he ir e xp lo i ta t ion . D ifferen t p a t terns o f movemen t w i l l c hange t he s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p eop le a nd l i th ic s ources a nd t h is w i l l h ave a d i rec t

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i mpac t u pon t he c ho ice o f r aw . T i a te r ia ls . I n c er ta in c on tex ts , p rocu remen t c an o n ly b e u nder taken a t s pec if ic t imes a nd i n s pec if ic ( bu t p red ic tab le ) p laces , d ue t o t he c ons tra in ts wh ich t he s chedu l ing o f o ther a c t iv i t ies i mpose . I n t hese c ases t h ere may h ave b een a d i s t inc t a dvan tage i n s e lec t ing s tone wh ich wou ld h ave made e f fec t ive r ecyc l ing a nd ma in tenance p oss ib le . T h is wou ld s e rve t o e x tend t he u se l i ves o f a r tefac ts t h rough t he e f f ic ien t u se o f r aw ma ter ia l o ve r t hose p er iods a nd i n t hose a reas where t he c os ts o f p rocur ing a dd i t iona l s t one wou ld b e p roh ib i t ive . T he s t ress i mposed b y t h e n eed f or e ffec t ive s chedu l ing h e lps t o d e term ine t he d egree o f r i sk wh ich a ny o ne g roup m igh t f ace . I n t h is s ense , t he e x ten t t o wh ich p rocu remen t i s ' embedded ' w i th in o ther t a sks i s a l so r e la ted t o t he d egree o f r i sk . A l though a l l g roups p robab ly p rac t ised s ome f orm o f embedded p rocuremen t , p robab ly ow ing t o a w ide r ange o f i mpera t ives , t he f ac t t ha t i t m akes f o r a mo re e f f ic ien t u se o f l im i ted t ime w i l l mean t ha t t h is f orm o f o rgan isa t ion wou ld b e p ar t icu la r ly a dvan tageous i n c on tex ts c harac ter ised b y a h igh d eg ree o f s hor t t e rm r i sk . I n c on tex ts whe re t h is s t re ss i s s eve re , w e m igh t a l so e xpec t t h e u se o f b ack u p s t ra teg ies s uch a s t he c ach ing o f s t one a t s t ra teg ic p os i t ions . S im i la r a rgumen ts f or t he u se o f h igh q ua l i ty s t one wou ld a pp ly i f t he p roduc t ion o f t oo ls w as i t se lf ' embedded ' w i th in o ther a c t iv i t ies . T he i mpac t o f s chedu l ing i n e nv ironmen ts w he re t he d egree o f r i sk i s h igh may a l so b e man ifes t i n t he n a ture a nd l oca t ion o f p rocuremen t s i tes . A l though s ources a re n o t d i s tr ibu ted e ven ly a cross t he l andscape , t hey t end n o t t o move a round a g rea t d ea l , t hus mak ing t he s chedu l ing o f p rocu remen t w i th in o ther t a sk s a p oss ib i l i ty . Where t he s ever i ty o f r i sk i s g rea t , p a t tern s o f d a i ly a nd s easona l movemen t may m ean t ha t t here i s a d i s t inc t a dvan tage i n s e lec t ing a nd r epea ted ly u s ing p ar t ic Ua r s ources whose p os i t ion a nd q ua l i ty p resen t a f avourab le r a t io o f b enef i ts t o c os t s , b o th i n t he c on tex t o f u se , a nd i n t e rms o f t he s chedu l ing o f o the r a c t iv i t ies . I n s i tua t ions whe re t he c onsequences o f l o ss o r f a i lu re a t t he l eve l o f t h e i nd iv idua l e ven t a re f a r l e ss s evere , w e c an p red ic t t ha t t here w i l l b e a r educed emphas is u pon t he q ua l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia ls , a nd t ha t b o th p rocu remen t a nd p roduc t ion may b e u nder taken i n a mo re a d h oc manne r . T h is l e ss s t ruc tu red a pproach i s n o t s imp ly a f unc t ion o f t he a va i lab i l i ty o f s t one , b u t , mo re i mpor tan t ly , i s a l so a r ef lec t ion o f t he r educed s t ress wh ich i s p laced u pon t he r e l iab i l i ty a nd e f f ic iency w i th wh ich t a sk s a r e e xecu ted . T h is i s n o t t h e s ame a s s ay ing t ha t g roups i n t hese l a t ter c on tex ts f ace l i t t le i n t he w ay o f r i sks ; r a ther , t he n a tu re o f t hose r i sk s w i l l b e s uch t ha t d i f fe ren t s o lu t ions m ay b e emphas ised . T he i mpac t o f d ifferen t p a t terns o f mob i l i ty may a l so h ave f ur ther i mp l ica t ions f or t he s e lec t ion o f r aw ma ter ia ls a nd t he c ha rac ter o f a sse mb lages . I h ave a l ready s t ressed t he l i nk b e tween mob i l i ty a nd t he n a ture o f r i sk , b u t t he a c t o f movemen t i t se lf i mposes r e s t r ic t ions u pon r aw ma ter ia l u se . A s E ber t ( 1979 ) h as a rgued , p or tab i l i ty may b e a k ey c oncern f or h igh ly mob i le g roups . T h is c oncern w i th p or tab i l i ty i s a l so l i nked w i th t he n a ture o f s chedu l ing , a s d i scussed a bove . I n c on tex ts where t i gh t s chedu l ing o f a c t iv i t ies i s e ssen t ia l , a n t ic ipa tory p roduc t ion o f t oo ls f or f u tu re u se wou ld b e a dvan tageous , p ar t icu la r ly w hen t he a moun t o f t ime f o r wh ich a r e sou rce i s a va i lab le i s s eve re ly r e s t r ic ted . When t oo ls a r e made i n a dvance o f u se , t he ir p o r tab i l i ty may b e c ruc ia l . T he u se o f h igh q ua l i ty s tone w i l l c er ta in ly r educe t he n umber o f e r rors i n p roduc t ion , t hus r educ ing t he q uan t i t ies wh ich n eed t o b e t r anspor ted . C oncern w i th t he

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w e igh t o f a r tefac ts may s i ze r anges .

a l so b e

m an ifes t i n a t i gh ter c on t ro l

o ver a ccep tab le

F ur ther c ons tra in ts u pon a ssemb lage s t ruc ture may b e c onnec ted w i th t he d eg ree o f mob i l i ty , b u t m ay s t em d i rec t ly f r om t he c on tex t o f u se . T he u se o f h igh q ua l i ty s t one c er ta in ly a l lows t he e f f ic ien t u se o f r aw ma te r ia l , b u t i t a l so a l lows t he c a refu l p roduc t ion o f a r tefac ts wh ich c ou ld b e u sed ( o r r ewo rked ) t o p erfo rm a v a r ie ty o f t a sk s when t he n eed a rose . T h is n eed t o c ope w i th wha t h as b een c a l led ' s i tua t iona l v a r iab i l i ty ' ( B info rd 1 979 ) w i l l b e o f f ar g rea ter i mpor tance t o h igh ly mob i le g roups t han t o more s e t t led c ommun i t ies . T o s t ress a p o in t made e a r l ier , i f p eop le a r e r egu la r ly e xposed t o s evere s hor t t e rm r i sks , t o wh ich s t one t oo ls c an p rov ide e f fec t ive s o lu t ions , w e m igh t e xpec t t ha t t he t e chno log ica l s t ra tegy wh ich i s a dop ted w i l l s how a h igh d egree o f r egu la r i ty , p a r t icu la r ly i f t ha t s t ra tegy i nvo lves t he a n t ic ipa tory p roduc t ion o f t oo ls w e l l i n a dvance o f u se . T h is c an b e c on t ras ted w i th l e ss r egu la r o r s t ruc tured a s semb lages , wh ich wou ld p reva i l i n c on tex ts whe re t he s ever i ty o f r i sk w as l owe r , o r where c ond i t ion s w ere s uch t ha t s t one t oo ls w e re a n i nef fec t ive m ed ium f o r p rov id ing s o lu t ion s . T o t ake o ne b r ief e xamp le , b lades , a nd t o a g rea ter e x ten t m icro l i ths ( i n c ompos i te t oo ls ) a re n o t o n ly a dvan tageous f or t he ir p or tab i l i ty : t hey a l so r e lec t a p a rs imon ious u se o f s t one t o p roduce a r tefac ts wh ich c an b e u sed i n a v a r ie ty o f w ays a nd e f f ic ien t ly r ep laced w hen t he n eed a r ises . I t wou ld b e p roduc t ive t o e xp lore i n more d e ta i l h ow d ifferen t h un ter g a the rer s t ra teg ies f or o rgan isa t ion a round p eop le a nd r e sources wou ld b e man ifes t i n t e chno log ica l t e rms . A l terna t ive means o f c op ing w i th ( or r educ ing ) r i sk may b e f avou red o ver d i rec t t e chno log ica l s o lu t ions , a l though a s Wiessner n o tes , t hese may b e man ifes t i n t he s t y l is t ic d imens ion o f a r tefac ts . A t t he b road l eve l t aken h ere , w e c an make a n umber o f g enera l p red ic t ions . Apa r t f r om a ssessmen t s o f t h e q ua l i ty o f s t one , t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he n a ture o f r i sk a nd i t s s o lu t ion t h rough t he p reven t ion o f l o ss w i l l b e man ifes t i n a n umber o f w ays . Where t e chno log ica l s o lu t ions t o p redom inan t ly , s hor t t e rm r i sks a r e a ppropr ia te , a s t he s ever i ty o f t ha t r i sk i nc reases , w e m igh t e xpec t : 1 . A g rea te r r e l iance u pon s ources o f h igh q ua l i ty s t one . Whe re t h ese a re n o t a va i lab le o r a re s ever ly r e s tr ic ted , b ack -up s t ra teg ies s uch a s c ach ing o r h ea t p re t rea tmen t may b e emp loyed . L ike p roduc t ion o f t oo ls i n a dvance o f u se , t he f ormer p rac t ise w i l l a l lev ia te s ome o f t he p rob lems o f e f fec t ive s chedu l ing . T he l a t ter a l lows t he more e ff ic ien t u se o f r aw ma ter ia l . C on t inued r e l iance u pon s pec if ic h igh q ua l i ty s ources may a l so l ead t o g rea ter a rchaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty a t t he p rocuremen t s i te . 2 . More ma rked e v idence f or t he c arefu l a nd e f f ic ien t u se o f s t one . A t p rocuremen t s i tes t h is may b e man ifes t i n t e rms o f c arefu l n odu le t e s t ing , p la tform p repara t ion /co re t r imm ing w as te a nd r e jec ted ma ter ia l . A t a w ider l eve l , w e m igh t e xpec t t he e t r ends t o c on t inue , t oge ther w i th e v idence f o r e x tens ive r e juvena t ion , ma in tenance a nd r ecyc l ing . T hus t he f r equency o f wo rn o r e xhaus ted c ores w i l l b e h igh . We m igh t a l so e xpec t t h e g rea ter u se o f c lasses o f d eb i tage a s a r ef lec t ion o f t h e s t ress w h ich i s p laced u pon t he e f f ic iency o f r aw ma te r ia l u se . 3 . T he p roduc t ion o f a r tefac ts wh ich c onfer red a dvan tages o f e f f ic iency i n t he c on tex t o f u se . T h is o ver laps w i th p red ic t ion 2 , a s e f f ic ien t t oo ls t end t o r esu l t f rom c arefu l p roduc t ion t echn iques , a l though f unc t iona l e f f ic iency

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may a l so b e s een i n t he p roduc t ion o f i ncorpora ted i n to mo re s pec ia l ised c ompos i te

a r tefac ts t oo ls .

wh ich

c an

b e

e as i ly

4 . F o l low ing o n f r om 3 , w e m igh t a l so e xpec t more c on tro l t o b e e xerc ised o ver t he s i ze o f i nd iv idua l a r tefac ts a nd o ve r t he d eg ree o f s t andard isa t ion i n a ssemb lages . T h is r ef lec ts n o t o n ly a c oncern w i th p or tab i l i ty a nd a dap tab i l i ty , b u t a l so t he e x ten t t o wh ich t e chno log ica l r e sponses a re t i gh t ly s t ruc tured , e ven t o t he p o in t o f a n t ic ipa to ry p roduc t ion . Do mest icated r esources Wi th s i gn if ican t c hanges i n t he c l ima te o f r i sk , t he f r equency w i th w h ich a ny o f t hese f ea tures a ppea r w i l l b e ma rked ly d i f feren t . Wi th t he s w i tch t o p as tora l ism a nd /or a gr icu l ture , t he e x ten t t o w h ich s t one t oo ls c an i nf luence t he r e l iab i l ity a nd e ff ic iency o f r esource p rocuremen t t hrough t he p reven t ion o f l o ss i s s i gn if ican t ly r educed . A s n o ted a bove , t h is r educ t ion s t ems f r om t he e a se w i th w h ich l i th ics c an b e u t i l ised t o c ope w i th a n umbe r o f e ssen t ia l ly i mmed ia te b u t c r i t ica l p rob lems f aced b y h un ter -ga therers . Wh i ls t t he p lann ing o f s ubs is tence t a sks wh ich i nvo lve d omes t ica tes n ecessa r i ly i nvo lves p red ic t ions , f r equen t ly o f a s easona l n a ture , t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he ma jor r i sks o r u ncer ta in t ies c an b e p red ic ted d if fers g rea t ly f rom t ha t wh ich wou ld o b ta in i n h un ter -ga therer c on tex ts . I n s t r ic t f unc t iona l t e rms , p ressure t o i ncrease r e l iab i l i ty a nd e f f ic iency i n r esource p rocure men t may r esu lt i n s o lu t ions b e ing s ough t i n t he t e chno log ica l s phe re . T h is i s l i ke ly t o b e mos t p ronounced , h oweve r , i n t e rms o f t ended a nd u n tended f ac i l i t ies s uch a s a rds , f ences e tc . ( Tor rence 1 983) , s i nce ma jo r i nc reases i n t he e f f ic iency o f many s t one t oo ls w ou ld n o t b e l i ke ly t o o f fer i ncreased s ecur i ty t o p roduc t iv i ty l eve ls . F rom t h e p o in t o f v i ew o f t he s e lec t ion o f r aw m a ter ia ls , w e m igh t e xpec t t ha t t h is r educ t ion i n t he emphas is p laced u pon t h e e f f ic iency o f t oo ls w i l l a l ter t he p erce ived b enef i ts a t tached t o t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f p ar t icu lar s ources . I f h igh q ua l i ty s tone c onfers l i t t le o r n o f unc t iona l a dvan tage i n t he p roduc t ion o f a pprop r ia te a r tefac ts , w e m igh t a n t ic ipa te t he a dop t ion o f ' l eas t c os t ' p rocuremen t s t ra teg ies , t he u se o f l oca l ly a va i lab le s t one , i r respec t ive o f q ua l i ty . R educ t ion i n t he i mpor tance o f f unc t iona l e f f ic iency i s l i ke ly t o b e a ppa ren t i n b o th p as tora l a nd a gr icu l tura l g roups a nd c an b e r e la ted t o t he g row ing i mpor tance o f a l terna t ive means o f c op ing w i th r i sk ( cf . C ashdan 1 985) . However , d if ferences i n t he d egree o f s e t t lemen t a nd t a sk g roup mob i l i ty may b e a pparen t i n b o th t he c ha rac ter a nd s t ruc ture o f l i th ic a s semb lages . Qu i te a pa r t f r om t h e o rgan isa t ion o f p roduc t ive t a sks i n s pace , t here w i l l a l so b e d if ferences i n wha t i s b e ing p roduced . F or l a rge ly p as tora l g roups , e ven t hose p rac t is ing s ome f orm o f l im i ted c u l t iva t ion , t he c on t inued emphas is u pon t he movemen t o f p a r t ( o r a l l ) o f a g roup w i l l h ave a n i mpac t u pon t he manner i n wh ich r aw ma ter ia l i s s e lec ted , p rocu red a nd w o rked . L a rge s ca le movemen t , t o u pper p as ture o r p oss ib ly e ven t o s easona l a ggrega t ion s i tes , may mean t ha t a ccess t o a w ider v a r ie ty o f s ou rces i s p oss ib le . I t m ay a l so mean t ha t a t p ar t icu la r p o in ts i n s pace a nd t ime , t he c os ts o f a dd i t iona l p rocure men t a c t iv i t ies wou ld b e p roh ib i t ive . R educed c oncern o ver e ff ic iency i n t he c on tex t o f u se may mean t ha t t he l eve l o f s t anda rd isa t ion /spec ia l isa t ion v i s ib le i n t oo l-k i ts w i l l b e l ow . P or tab i l i ty a nd a dap tab i l i ty , h owever , a r e s t i l l l i ke ly t o h ave a m a jor i nf luence . G iven t h ese f ac tors , i t i s p robab le t ha t w e s hou ld f i nd e v idence f or t he p roduc t ion o f

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a r tefac ts wh ich r educe t he n ecessary q uan t i t ies o f r aw ma ter ia l , a nd w h ich c an b e u sed f o r a v a r ie ty o f t a sks . T hese c once rn s may a l so b e r ef lec ted i n t he s i ze r ange o f a r tefac ts , a nd i n t he e x ten t t o wh ich t oo ls a nd c ores a r e wo rked a nd r e juvena ted /recyc led t o e xhaus t ion . A lmos t b y d ef in i t ion , a gr icu l tura l c ommun it ies g enera l ly r e ly u pon r e sources wh ich a re a ggrega ted i n a nd a round t he r es iden t ia l s i te . Unde r d i f fe ren t c l ima t ic a nd g eograph ica l c ond i t ions , t h is may h ave a p rofound i mpac t u pon t he s e lec t ion o f a n a ppropr ia te r i sk -managemen t s t ra tegy ( eg t he p hys ica l s ca le o f e xchange s ys tem s a nd /or t he r e l iance u pon s t orage ) . A l though t he o ccur rence o f r aw ma ter ia ls may w e l l b e a f ac tor i n t he l oca t ion o f r e s iden t ia l s i tes , r es t r ic ted p a t terns o f mob i l i ty w i l l mean t ha t p rocu remen t o f r aw ma ter ia ls o u t s ide t he i mmed ia te a r ea c anno t b e s o e as i ly s chedu led w i th in o ther a c t iv i t ies . I n t h is s en se s t ra igh t measu res o f d i s tance may b e a more a pprop r ia te i ndex o f t he c os t s o f p rocuremen t f or s eden tary g roups t han t hey a re f o r more mob i le c ommun i t ies . Under t h ese c ond i t ion s , t he p rocuremen t o f n ecessary s t one may b e u nder taken i n a ny o f t h ree p o ss ib le w ays : 1 ) e xp lo i ta t ion o f l o ca l s t one , i r respec t ive o f i t s q ua l i ty a nd /or s i ze ; 2 ) t he moun t ing o f s pec ia l p rocuremen t t r ips t o more d i s tan t s ou rces ; 3 ) e xchange . G iven o u r p red ic t ions f or r e sponses t o t he c hang ing c l ima te o f r i sk , l oca l o u tc rops o f s t one , whe re a va i lab le , wou ld b e s uf f ic ien t , e ven i f t he ir q ua l i ty l e f t s o me th ing t o b e d es ired . I n a dd i t ion , w i thou t t he c ons t ra in t s i mposed b y a h igh d egree o f mob i l i ty , t here may b e f ur ther c hanges i n a ssemb lage s t ruc ture . Wi th a n i ncrease i n t he d egree o f s eden t ism , t he s t ress u pon p or tab i l i ty a nd a dap tab i l i ty i s l i ke ly t o r ecede . We m igh t a l so a n t ic ipa te a f u r ther d rop i n t he d egree o f s t andard isa t ion a nd e f f ic iency i n r aw ma ter ia l u se , a s p lann ing f o r a r ange o f f u ture t a sk s b ecomes e ven l e ss c r i t ica l . I n p hys ica l t e rms , w e m igh t e xpec t l e ss c on t ro l o ver t he s i ze a nd f o rm o f a r tefac ts , t oge ther w i th a l ower f r equency o f ma in tenance , r ecyc l ing , c a refu l c ore p repara t ion a nd e xhaus ted a r tefac ts . Where g rea t d is tances a re i nvo lved i n t he p rocuremen t o f s pec if ic r aw ma ter ia ls , t he q ua l i ty o f t he s t one may ( i n f unc t iona l t e rms) b e more s i gn if ican t , s ince c os ts i ncur red i n p rocuremen t wou ld b e o f f se t b y t he a moun t o f u se wh ich c ou ld b e g a ined f r om a g iven q uan t i ty o f ma te r ia l . A t a d i s tan t s ource , t h is may b e e v iden t i n t e rms o f a h igher f r equency o f e v idence f or n odu le t e s t ing , p re l im ina ry p roduc t ion a nd t he r e jec t ion o f r aw ma ter ia ls t han w e f i nd a t s ources i n o r c l ose t o s e t t lemen t a r eas . I n a dd i t ion t o q ua l i ty , t he p hys ica l s i ze o f t h e r aw m a ter ia l may a l so p rov ide a mo t ive , e i ther f or more c os t ly d i rec t p rocuremen t s t ra teg ies , o r f or e xchange i n c on tex ts where a l terna t ive ma ter ia ls a re t oo s ma l l t o p roduce l a rger a r tefac ts . A l though s chedu l ing o ver v e ry s hor t t ime p er iods may n o t b e marked , p rocuremen t t r ips w i l l h ave t o b e s chedu led a round t he h igh ( s easona l) i nves tmen ts o f t ime a nd e ne rgy a s soc ia ted w i th c u l t iva t ion . A s a r esu lt , w e c an d raw a t l eas t o ne p ara l le l b e tween s e t t led a gr icu l tura l c ommun i t ies a nd more l og is t ica l ly o rgan ised h un ter -ga therers . B enef i ts wou ld b e g a ined f r om r educ ing s earch t ime b y r e turn ing t o t he s ame l o ca t ion o r e xp lo i t ing t he s ame n e tworks o f c on tac ts . T h is r edef in i t ion o f a p a t tern o f p rocuremen t o ver t ime wou ld g rea t ly i ncrease t he a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty o f t hese s ources . T hese a rgumen ts p resuppose t ha t t he s phere i n wh ich t he p roduc ts o f p ar t icu lar s ources c i rcu la te i s b o th c ons is ten t a nd u t i l i tar ian . Where a

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g rea ter d egree o f s i gn if icance i s a t tached t o t he e xchange o r p rocu remen t o f l i th ic a r tefac ts , t he a s soc ia ted c os t s a nd b enef i ts h ave t o b e a s sessed i n av e ry d ife ren t l i gh t ( Bur ton 1 984 ; Gou ld 1 980 ; H ughes 1 977 ) . Wi th t he d eve lopmen t o f s t ra teg ies f or c op ing w i th r i sk wh ich r evo lve p r imar i ly a round r e la t ions b e tween p eop le , w e mus t c ons ider t he l i ke l ihood t ha t t hese r e la t ions may b e med ia ted a nd d ef ined b y t he movemen t o f ma ter ia l g oods . T he p o in t h as a l ready • b een made t ha t i t w ou ld b e d ange rous t o work f rom t he l a rge ly r educ t ion is t v iew t ha t t he movemen t o f e ven t h e ma jo r i ty o f ma ter ia ls i n n e two rks o f e xchange c an b e u nder s tood i n t e rms o f c op ing w i th v ar ia t ions i n p roduc t iv i ty . Wh i ls t s uch u ses mus t c on s t i tu te a d imens ion i n o ur e xp lana t ions , w e a l so h ave t o a ccep t t ha t t he p rocess o f s oc ia l r eproduc t ion , i nvo lves ( amongs t o ther t h ings) t he ma in tenance a nd man ipu la t ion o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s t h rough t he c i rcu la t ion o f ma ter ia ls . Wi th in t he f r amework o u t l ined h e re i t i s d if f icu l t t o d i fferen t ia te b e tween t hese o ver lapp ing d imens ions o f a c t iv i ty . I n a dd i t ion , w e a l so h ave t o a vo id t he t emp ta t ion t o s ee t he d i s t inc t ion b e tween u t i l ita r ian a nd n on -u t i l i ta r ian a s y e t a no ther ' r ea l is t ic ' d icho tomy . Goods wh ich a re t he s ub jec t o f e xchanges may p lay a w e l l d ef ined f unc t iona l r o le wh i ls t a t t he s ame t ime t h ey may b e i mbued w i th a s i gn if icance wh ich i s d er ived f r om t he g ende r o r s t a tus o f t he p ossessor o r t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p ar t ic ipan ts i n a n e xchange . I t may b e t h is d ua l i ty wh ich i s e xp lo i ted i n t he p u rsu i t o f i nd iv idua l s oc ia l s t ra teg ies . Once a ga in w e h ave t o b e w a ry o f a s sum ing t ha t a n a s sessmen t o f t he p o ten t ia l u t i l i ty o f a r tefac t s w i l l g ive u s c lues a s t o t he l eve l a t wh ich p ar t icu la r o b jec ts may h ave c i rcu la ted i n a n e xchange h iera rchy . T ha t p os i t ion i s c u l tu ra l ly d e term ined , may c hange a cco rd ing t o t he c on tex t o f e xchange , a nd i s o pen t o man ipu la t ion . S ign if ican t a t t r ibu tes may n o t b e s imp ly a q ues t ion o f f orm , b u t may a l so b e r e la ted t o r aw ma ter ia l o r t he n a ture o f h af t ing . I n c ons ider ing t he i mpac t o f a c hang ing c l ima te o f r i sk u pon l i th ic t e chno lgy , w e c an a ssess o r a t l e as t mode l h ow t he c a lcu la t ion o f r e la t ive c os ts a nd b enef i ts may c hange i n d i fferen t c on tex ts . I f w e c an i d en t ify p a r t icu la r ly h igh s e ts o f p rocuremen t a nd /or p roduc t ion c os ts i n c on tex ts where , w i th in t h is f r amework a t l e as t , t here wou ld h ave b een l i t t le i n t he w ay o f s imp le u t i l i ta r ian b enef i ts t o j us t ify t hem , w e may b e a b le t o move t owards d if feren t ia t ing b e tween b road s phe res o f s i gn if icance . Where s uch d iv is ions c an b e d rawn , w e h ave t o l ook t o t he s pec if ic c on tex t a nd a s soc ia t ions f o r t hose a r tefac t s i f w e w ish t o d raw more d e ta i led i n fe rences . F or t he p urposes o f t h is d i scuss ion , t he u t i l i ty o f t he f r amework p roposed h ere c an b e d emons tra ted t h rough a r e la t ive ly b road s ke tch o f t e chno log ica l c hanges i n t he N eo l i th ic o f s ou thern B r i ta in . Wh i ls t a na lyses c ou ld b e p i tched a t a n umber o f t empora l s ca les t he emphas is h ere i s o n i den t ify ing t he c umu la t ive e f fec ts o f d ec is ions t aken a t t he i nd iv idua l o r g roup l eve l o ver a c ons iderab le t ime -span . Aga in , i t s hou ld b e emphas ised t h a t i n a dop t ing s uch a v iew , w e a r e c once rned w i th mon i tor ing t he b road m a ter ia l c ond i t ions - t he c l ima te o f r i sk u nder wh ich p eop le o pera ted a nd t he m eans b y wh ich t hey c oped w i th t h e t h rea t o f s ubs is tence f a i lure . I f w e w ish t o d iscuss e ven p ar t ia l e xp lana t ions f or c hanges i n l i th ic t e chno logy d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic , w e n eed t o c ons ider h ow t hose c hanges r e la te t o p reced ing p a t terns o f e xp lo ita t ion a nd u se . I n t echno log ica l / typo log ica l t e rms , r ecen t s tud ies h ave t ended t o s t ress a

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n umber o f p o in ts o f s im i lar i ty b e tween L a ter Meso l i th ic a nd E a r l ier N eo l i th ic a s semb lages . D esp i te t he d i sappea rance o f m icro l i ths b y c 4000 b c , c on t inu i ty i n c er ta in a spec ts o f s t one work ing a cross t h is h azy t r ans i t ion i nd ica te t ha t s ome o f t he c ons tra in ts u pon p rocuremen t a nd p roduc t ion r ema ined r e la t ive ly u nchanged . Wi th n o tab le e xcep t ions , t he E ar l ier N eo l i th ic i s n o t ma rked b y a ny ma jo r i nc rease i n t he r ange o f a r tefac t t ypes ( Hea ly 1 984) , wh i ls t m e t r ica l a na lys is s hows a c on t inued emphas is u pon n a r row f l akes /b lades ( P i t ts a nd J acob i 1 979 ) . A t a b roader l eve l , s im i la r i t ies h ave b een s ugges ted b e tween L a ter Meso l i th ic ' s ty le z ones ' a nd c ompa rab le p a t te rn s i n t he f o l low ing p hase ( Brad ley 1 984 ; J acob i 1 979 ) . T h is c on t inu i ty h a s a l so b een i n fer red f rom t he p a t terns o f movemen t o f p a r t icu lar a r tefac ts a nd r aw ma te r ia ls ( eg C a re 1 979 ) . I n t e chno log ica l t e rms , t he p ers is tence o f e v idence f or t he e f f ic ien t u se o f r aw ma ter ia ls i s r ef lec ted , n o t o n ly i n t e rms o f c o res , b u t a l so i n t e rms o f c res ted b lades , p repa red /abraded b u t ts a nd a v ar ie ty o f r e juvena t ion f l akes ( eg B rad ley a nd Ho lga te 1 984 ) . S o wha t d o w e t ake t hese s ugges ted s im i la r i t ies t o mean i n t e rms o f w ider p a t terns o f h uman a c t iv i ty? I wou ld a rgue t ha t wha t w e m igh t b e s ee ing i s c on t inu i ty i n o n ly s ome o f t he c ons t ra in ts u pon a ssemb lage s t ruc ture . Where c hange i s r ecogn isab le i t i s c lose ly t i ed t o c hanges i n t he c on tex t o f u se , a nd t hus t o a c hang ing c l ima te o f r i sk . T he i den t if ica t ion o f t hese t r ends i s b es t a ccomp l ished b y b r ief ly d i scuss ing e ach o f o u r p hases i n t u rn . Ear l ier Neol ithic Wh i ls t t he i n t roduc t ion h as s umma r ised s ome o f t he e v idence f or c on t inu i ty i n t e chno log ica l t r ad i t ions , d ue empha s is mus t a l so b e g iven t o r ecogn isab le c hange . I n a r ecen t a r t ic le , S av i l le ( 1982 ) c ommen ts o n t he p rod ig ious i nc rease i n t he s ca le o f l i th ic r e source e xp lo i ta t ion w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f t he N eo l i th ic , wh ich h e s ugges ts may b e l i nked t o b o th p opu la t ion i ncrease a nd t o " grea ter s oc ia l a nd c u l tura l c omp lex i ty " . T he l a t ter i s s een i n t e rms o f a much w ider r ange o f t a sk s f o r w h ich t oo ls w e re n eeded . I f t h is i n c rea se i n s ca le was s imp ly a r esponse t o i ncreased u t i l i tar ian d emand , wha t c onsequences m igh t w e e xpec t t h is t o h ave f or t he c ha rac ter o f t e chno logy? A f ur ther s ign if ican t f ea ture i s t he r educ t ion i n t he d egree o f s t andard isa t ion i n a ssemb lages . A l though w e h ave t ended t o emphas ise t he p ers is tence o f n ar row f l ake /b lade p roduc t ion , t h is l i nk t ends t o mask t he f ac t t ha t E a r l ier N eo l i th ic a ssemb lages g enera l ly e xh ib i t a r educed l eve l o f c on tro l o r c are i n t he e f f ic iency o f r aw ma ter ia l u se a nd i n t he s t anda rd isa t ion o f s e ts o f a r tefac ts . T he s l igh t ly e ar l ier d i sappea rance o f m icro l i ths may b e a f ur ther r ef lec t ion o f t h is d ecrease i n t he r i g id i ty o f c on t ro l o ver t he c ha rac ter o f a ssemb lages . T hese c hanges c an b es t b e e xp la ined i n t e rms o f a c hang ing c on tex t o f u se f o r t he b u lk o f l i th ic a ssemb lages . T he i nc idence o f n ar row f l akes /b lades , c arefu l p repara t ion a nd r e juvena t ion t echn iques a nd a h igh f r equency o f r e touched /u t i l ised f l akes a t tes t t o t he r e ma in ing i mpor tance o f f ac tors r e la ted t o p o r tab i l i ty a nd f l ex ib i l i ty i n u se a s w e l l a s a ccess t o r aw ma ter ia ls . F ord ( t h is v o lume , C hap ter 6 ) n o tes t ha t a s semb lages a way f r om q ua r ry s i tes h ave a h igher f r equency o f b lades t han t hose s i tua ted c lose t o a s ource . T h is p a t te rn o f more e f f ic ien t u se o f s t one a way f r om a s ource i s t o b e e xpec ted , g iven t he s ugges ted r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a va i lab i l i ty a nd t echno logy ( Hea ley a nd R ober tson - MacKay 1 983 ) . A s s ubsequen t c hanges i nd ica te , t he emphas is u pon p or tab i l i ty a nd f l ex ib i l i ty g oes b eyond t he s imp le q ues t ion o f

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a ccess a nd may r ef lec t t he r egu lar a nd p lanned f ea ture

e x ten t t o wh ich c ons iderab le o f s e t t lemen t p a t terns .

movemen t

w as

a

A l though t hey e v iden t ly r e ma in i mpor tan t c oncerns , t he s t ress u pon p or tab i l i ty , f l ex ib i l i ty a nd e f f ic iency may n o t h ave b een a s s evere a s i t w a s d ur ing t he L a ter Meso l i th ic . T aken t oge ther w i th a d ecrease i n t he s t anda rd isa t ion o f a ssemb lages a nd t he r e la t ive ly l ow l eve l o f i nves tmen t i n p roduc t ion , t hese p a t terns s ugges t f ar l e ss s t ress u pon e f f ic iency i n t he c on tex t o f u se . I f t here w as l i t t le p ressure t o p roduce h igh ly e f f ic ien t a r tefac ts f or s pec if ic t a sks , o r t o p roduce e qua l ly e f fec t ive c ompos i te t oo ls , t hen e i ther t he d egree o f r i sk f aced b y p ar t icu lar g roups h as b een s i gn if ican t ly r educed , o r t he c ha rac ter o f t ha t r i sk h as c hanged . I f w e s e t t hese p a t terns a longs ide t he w ide r t r ends wh ich c ha rac te r ise t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic , a n umber o f i n ferences c an b e d rawn . T he t e chno log ica l c ha rac ter is t ics o f t h is p er iod wou ld s eem t o i nd ica te a s i gn if ican t c hange i n t he n a ture o f s ubs is tence , a f ac t wh ich i s b o rne o u t b y o ther e nv ironmen ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . I n t h is s ense , r educ t ions i n t he l eve l o f i nves tmen t i n many a spec ts o f l i th ic t e chno logy s ugges t a d own turn i n t he e x ten t t o wh ich s tone t oo ls c ou ld d i rec t ly c on tr ibu te t o r i sk r educ t ion t h rough t he p reven t ion o f l o ss . I f w e a dd t o t h is p ic ture t h e o bserva t ion t ha t t h e ma jo r i ty o f E a r l ier N eo l i th ic s ca t ters a re v ery l im i ted i n s i ze ( eg G a rd iner 1 984 ; R icha rds 1 984 ) , w e c an b eg in t o make s ugges t ion s a s t o t he n a ture o f s ubs is tence a t a g ene ra l s ca le . T hese t r ends wou ld s eem t o i nd ica te t ha t wh i ls t t here may h ave b een a r e l iance u pon f ixed -p lo t h or t icu l ture i n many a reas , t here was a l so a c ons iderab le emphas is u pon l a rge -sca le p lanned movemen ts , s uch a s t hose wh ich w e wou ld a ssoc ia te w i th t he h usband ry o f a n i ma ls s uch a s c a t t le . I n t h is s en se , t he i ncreased s ca le o f l i th ic r e source e xp lo i ta t ion n o ted b y S av i l le ( 1982 ) may i n p a r t r e f lec t a mo re e xped ien t u se o f s t one t han h ad b een t he c ase i n t he L a ter Meso l i th ic , a nd may b e a f unc t ion o f a r e laxa t ion i n t he s t ress u pon t he t i gh t s chedu l ing o f l a rge ly p red ic tab le s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies . I f w e c ons ider t he r ange o f s ources b e ing e xp lo i ted a nd wha t w e c an a scer ta in r egard ing t he n a ture o f t he ir p roduc ts , h owever , w e may a l so b e s ee ing t he i ncorpora t ion o f c er ta in ma ter ia ls •o r o b jec ts i n to n ew o r e xpand ing s pheres o f u se , wh ich h ave more t o d o w i th r e la t ions b e tween p eop le t han b e tween p eop le a nd s ubs is tence t a sk s . D epar tures f rom a ny p a t tern r equ ire e xam ina t ion , a nd a l though a n umber o f ' a noma l ies ' c an b e i den t if ied , p erhaps t he mos t s i gn if ican t o f t hese i s t he g row th o f m ines a nd q uarr ies a nd t he o ccurrence o f p o l ished t oo ls , p ar t icu lar ly a xes . I r respec t ive o f t he s ca le a nd i n tens i ty o f m in ing a nd q uarry ing , d i mens ions o ver wh ich w e h ave l i t t le c on t ro l , s uch p rac t ises o f fer v ery d i f feren t s e ts o f c os ts , c ompa red w i th t he u se o f l oca l ly a va i lab le s t one a nd t he s imp le f l ak ing o f t oo ls . I n s t r ic t ly f unc t iona l t e rms t he a ppea rance o f m ines s uch a s B lackpa tch a nd C issbury , a pparen t ly b efore 3 000 b c , h as b een s een a s ar ef lec t ion o f t he l im i ted a va i lab i l i ty e l sewhere o f s t one o f a s i ze a nd q ua l i ty s u i tab le f o r t he p roduc t ion o f l a rger a r tefac t s . I f h igher c os ts w ere a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese ma ter ia ls a nd a r tefac ts , w e h ave t o l ook f or p o ten t ia l b enef i ts . S im i la r ly , many o b jec ts p roduced a t ! n ines a nd q uarr ies r ef lec t v as t ly g rea ter l eve ls o f i nves tmen t o f t ime a nd e nergy i n p roduc t ion ( a l though t he e f f ic iency o f i n i t ia l w ork ing i s g ene ra l ly l ow ) . E xper imen ts w i th t he r ep l ica t ion o f a n umber o f f l in t a nd s t one a xes s ugges t t ha z mass ive i ncreases i n p roduc t ion c os ts a ccompany t he s w i tch f rom

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f l ak ing t o p o l ish ing a s a f i n ish ing t e chn ique ( Edmonds n .d . ) . I t i s p oss ib le t ha t t h ese a dd i t iona l c os t s w ou ld b e j us t if ied i f t h ey l ed t o a n i n crease i n t h e e f f ic iency w i th wh ich a t oo l p erformed i t s t a sk , w h i ls t r educ ing t he c hances • o f b reakage . I n m echan ica l t e rms , t he p o l ish ing o f a n e dge r emoves a ny i r regu lar i t ies wh ich may a c t a s p la tforms f r om wh ich f l akes may b e i nadver tan t ly s t ruck d u r ing u se . I n a dd i t ion , p o l ish ing a s o pposed t o s imp le f l ak ing , i s a f a r more e f f ic ien t r e sharpen ing p rocess , e x tend ing t he u se l i fe o f a n a r tefac t c ons iderab ly . T hese f unc t iona l a rgumen t s s eem p laus ib le a nd i t may w e l l b e t ha t t h e p o l ish ing o f a r tefac ts d id f u lf i l l t h is r o le t o s ome e x ten t . When s e t a ga ins t t h e b u lk o f E a r l ier N eo l i th ic a s semb lages , h owever , w e h ave t o c ons ider whe ther o r n o t t here wou ld h ave b een a ny d i s t inc t a dvan tage i n t r ea t ing a r e s t r ic ted s e t o f a r tefac ts i n t h is w ay . T h is i s a l l t h e more n ecessary when w e c ons ider t ha t t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o l ished s t one a r tefac ts d oes n o t r ef lec t t he s imp le i n troduc t ion o f n ecessary t oo ls i n to f l in t -poor a reas . I f r ough ly f l aked a xes r epresen t s o me f orm o f more e xped ien t p roduc t ion /use , why i nves t c ons iderab le t ime a nd e ffor t i n p o l ish ing , p a r t icu lar ly o ver t he who le s urface? It h ink t ha t p a r t o f t h is r i dd le i s s o lved i f w e q ues t ion t h e a s sump t ion t ha t a l l l i th ic a r tefac ts w e re d evo id o f a dd i t iona l s i gn if icance . G iven o ur p red ic t ion s t ha t a s t he c l ima te o f r i sk c hanges s o w i l l t he n a ture o f t he a ppropr ia te c op ing s t ra tegy , i t m igh t w e l l b e t ha t a r e s t r ic ted s e t o f l i th ic a r tefac ts t ook o n a dd i t iona l o r a l te rna t ive r o les . A l though t he movemen t o f a r tefac ts i n d i f feren t s pheres o f e xchange may o n ly b e p a r t ly u nders tood i n t e rms o f r i sk managemen t , t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he p a t tern ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd r ef lec t s t hese c oncerns c anno t b e d i s regarded . I f t h is w e re t he c ase , t h e p o ten t ia l b enef i t s w ou ld h ave t o b e m easured a ccord ing t o v ery d i f fe ren t s e ts o f c r i ter ia , a nd may h ave g one a l ong w ay t owa rds o f f se t t ing a dd i t iona l p rocuremen t o r p roduc t ion c os t s . I n a dd i t ion , w e c an a rgue a t a w ider l eve l t ha t t he c hanges i n t he n a ture o f s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t r ef lec ted i n t he c harac ter o f l i th ic a s semb lages , wou ld b e a ccompan ied b y c hanges i n t he n a ture a nd e x ten t o f c on tac ts b e tween g roups o r r eg ions . O ccas iona l ly w e c an f i nd s uppor t f or t hese i n ferences i n t he c on tex ts o f c er ta in o b jec ts . Qu i te a par t f rom t he p os i t ion o f m ines a nd q uar r ies t h emse lves , i t i s e v iden t f r om t he • p a t tern s o f d epos i t ion o f a r tefac ts s uch a s s t one a xes t ha t w e a r e n o t d ea l ing s imp ly w i th t he r e su l ts o f r andom l o ss . T he h igh f r equency o f d epos i t s i n c ausewayed e nc losures ( eg A very 1 982 ; Sm i th 1 965 ) a nd i n t h e T hames ( Adk ins a nd J ack son 1 978 ) p o in t t o ad egree o f s t ruc tu re a nd c on tro l i n c i rcu la t ion . T h is w ou ld b e e xpec ted i f t h e movemen t o f s uch o b jec ts p layed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n t h e c rea t ion a nd ma in tenance o f s oc ia l r e la t ions . T he r o le o f c e r ta in c ausewayed e nc losures a s c on tex ts i n w h ich a v a r ie ty o f e xchanges may h ave t aken p lace h as b een d i scussed b y B rad ley ( 1982 ) , whose o bserva t ions i nd ica te t he i mpor tance o f c ons ider ing p a t terns o f a ssoc ia t ion a nd a vo idance amongs t d i f feren t c a tego r ies o f ma ter ia l . T he f ac t t ha t t here i s c ons ide rab le v a r iab i l i ty i n t he l i th ic a s semb lages a t s i tes i n t h is c a tegory d oes n o t d e t rac t i n a ny w ay f r om t h e m a in t h rus t o f s uch a n i d ea . I t may w e l l b e t ha t t h is i s mere ly a n i nd irec t r e f lec t ion o f t he d i f feren t ma ter ia l b ases u pon wh ich a h ierarchy o f a c t iv i t ies w as c ons truc ted ( i nc lud ing p rocuremen t ) . V ar iab i l i ty i n a ssemb lage s t ruc ture a t d if feren t s i tes may r ef lec t v ary ing emphases u pon p roduc t ion o r c onsump t ion . I t i s i n teres t ing t o n o te , h owever , t ha t many e xamp les c on ta in a s i gn if ican t p ropor t ion o f n a r row f l akes . T h is may r ef lec t t he r egu la r a nd p lanned

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n a ture o f t he mob i l i ty p a t terns n ecessary f or t he a ggrega t ion o f w ide ly s paced c ommun i tes . I f t he movemen t a nd man ipu la t ion o f ma ter ia ls w a s i mpor tan t f or t he c rea t ion a nd ma in tenance o f s oc ia l r e la t ions , t h en t he re wou ld b e a n a dvan tage i n d e term in ing t he c on tex ts i n w h ich a ccess t o t hose ma ter ia ls w as a ppropr ia te ( eg MacCo rmack 1 981) . I n a dd i t ion t o t h is p hys ica l a spec t o f c on t ro l , t he f ac t t ha t many o f t h ese s i tes a ppea r t o b e i n l oca t ion s p e r iphera l t o s e t t lemen t z ones may a l so b e u nde r s tood i n s im i la r t e rms . A s a n umber o f s t ud ies h ave d emons t ra ted , i t may b e v i ta l t o t he p ursu i t o f i nd iv idua l s t ra teg ies w i th in a s oc ie ty , t o c on tro l t he i n t roduc t ion a nd man ipu la te t he s i gn if icance o f ma ter ia ls f r om o ther g roups ( Gode l ier 1 977 ; G regory 1 982 ) . T aken f r om t h is v i ewpo in t , t he a c t o f p o l ish ing may h ave h ad a n a dd i t iona l v a lue t o t ha t o f e x tend ing t he u se l ife o f a t oo l i n t ha t i t a l lows f a r g rea te r c on t ro l o ver t h e f o rm o f a n a r tefac t . E ven i f w e c ons ide red e xchange o n ly i n t e rms o f c op ing w i th s hor tfa l ls i n p roduc t iv i ty , w e c ou ld a rgue t ha t e xpress ions o f i nd iv idua l o r g roup i den t i ty wou ld b e o f c ons iderab le i mpo r tance (W iessne r 1 982a , Wobs t 1 977 ) . I f w e e x tend o u r s cope t o c ove r t h e f a r mo re v a r ied r a t iona les wh ich may l i e b eh ind e xchange a nd c onsump t ion ( eg D av is 1 985 ; L a r ick 1 985 ) , i t wou ld s eem r e asonab le t o s ugges t t h a t a ga in t he s t y l is t ic d imens ion o f a r tefac ts wou ld b e o f c ons iderab le i mpor tance ( Edmonds a nd T homas , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 1 2 ) . C ompared w i th o ther ma ter ia ls , s t one may n o t a ppear t o b e a v ery f l ex ib le med ium f or t he t r ansm iss ion o f i nforma t ion , b u t t he a dded c on tro l a f forded b y p o l ish ing wou ld s e rve t o i ncrease t ha t p o ten t ia l . Qu i te a pa r t f r om t he s i gn if icance wh ich p a r t icu la r r aw ma ter ia l t ypes may h ave h e ld , i t may w e l l b e t ha t f o r h af ted a r tefac ts , t he b u lk o f i n forma t ion w ou ld h ave b een c a rr ied i n ma ter ia ls wh ich s e ldom s urv ive i n t h e a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . I f s pec if ic r aw ma ter ia ls d id i ndeed h o ld a p a r t icu la r s i gn if icance , a s h as b een s ugges ted f r om t he d i s t r ibu t ions o f a n umber o f s t one a xe t ypes ( eg G roups I a nd V I ) , i t d oes n o t n ecessa r i ly f o l low t ha t t hese p a t terns r ef lec t e i ther mass ive s pec ia l p urpose t r ips o r t he o pera t ion o f a c l a ss o f m idd le -men ( Cumm ins 1 979 ) . S im i la r p a t terns c ou ld b e p roduced b y t he more g radua l movemen ts o f a r tefac ts t h rough a nd b e tween r eg ions , i n r anked s phe res o f e xchange . I f t he e x ten t t o wh ich a dd i t iona l v a lue w as a t tached t o a r tefac ts v ar ied a ccord ing t o t he c on tex ts i n wh ich t hey c i rcu la ted , w e m igh t f i nd p a t terns wh ich c lose ly r e semb le t hose n o ted a bove . P a t terns o f f a l l -of f w i th i ncreas ing d i s tance f orm s ource ( E l l io t , E l lman a nd Hodder 1 978 ) may s ugges t s ome f orm o f r e la t ive ly l oose h and to -hand e xchange , b u t t hey d o n o t p rec lude t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t i n p a r t icu la r c on tex ts ma ter ia ls wh ich moved i n t h is manner may h ave p layed r o les a dd i t iona l t o t hose r equ ired i n t he c on tex t o f u se . T he i mpor tance wh ich w e h ave t o a t tach t o t h e c on tex ts i n wh ich a r tefac ts may h ave c i rcu la ted i s r ef lec ted i n t he c ha rac ter a nd p os i t ion o f m ines a nd q ua rr ies . No t o n ly a r e t h e v as t ma jo r i ty o f k nown e xamp les l oca ted a way f r om a r eas o f ma jor s e t t lemen t : i t wou ld a l so a ppea r t ha t f ew s i tes s how a ny s i gn s o f h igh ly e f f ic ien t o r i n ten s ive p roduc t ion ( eg B rad ley e t a l . 1 985 ) . I t may b e t ha t t he p e r iphera l l oca t ion o f t hese s ou rces w as a n a dd i t iona l b arr ier t o t he ' i nf la t ionary ' i n t roduc t ion o f a l a rge n umber o f a xes i n to r eg iona l n e tworks (Me i l lassoux 1 968) . T he a dded c on tro l wh ich a r emo te s ource may h ave p rov ided c ou ld b e p ar t o f t he r eason why i t i s j us t s uch s ources wh ich h ave a h igh a rchaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty . I f t he i n tegr i ty o f c hanne ls t h rough wh ich a dd i t iona l a r tefac ts w ere i n troduce c ou ld b e

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maintained, even without direct monopolistic control over the source, this might lead to the continued use of those channels. The underlying trends which can be perceived in the bulk of Earlier Neolithic assemblages reflect the relationship between the broad climate of risk and the demands placed upon stone tools. In addition, we can argue that as part of that climate, the degree of mobility also imposes significant constraints upon assemblage structure. With changes in the nature . of subsistence and settlement, our model predicts . that there ·would be changes in the means by which people attempted to cope with shortfalls in productivity, thus altering the emphasis which was placed upon stone tools to ensure security through the prevention of loss.

Later Neolithic If we bring the same issues to bear upon the Later Neolithic, it is possible to see the firm establishment of a trend in stoneworking which extends into the Bronze Age (Drewett 1982; Fasham and Ross 1978; Ford et al. 1984). In. general, there appears to be a similarly low level of investment in the selection and procurement of many raw materials and the production of the majority of artefacts. Together with the move away from narrow flake/blade industries towards more broad and squat flakes (Gingell and Harding 1981 ), we can also see a lower frequency of evidence for careful core preparation and recovery or rejuvenation techniques. Broader flakes themselves can be thought of as a further reflection of this downturn. The reduced level of control over the form of flakes and crude artefacts, together with a lower incidence of retouched/utilised flakes, suggests that the concerns which accompany a high degree of planned mobility were no longer as severe. This trend is further defined by the fact that the distinctions between quarry and domestic sites in the Earlier Neolithic are effectively blurred in the later phase (Ford, this volume, Chapter 6). This blurring can not only be seen in the degree of bladedness of individual assemblages, but also in terms of the increasing thickness of flakes and butt-sizes, which again reflect a lack of control or precision. It is also in this later phase that we can see far less control exerted over the form and size of artefacts. Not only do we find the introduction of classes of larger tools; it is also apparent that a high proportion of this wider range of tools reflect low levels of investment in procurement and production, with a lower frequency of evidence for effective maintenance or recycling. Support for these arguments is also found in the location of settlement. Whilst many later scatters are -situated on or near to lithic sources (eg Gardiner 1984 ), the fact that they are of highly variable quality would seem to suggest that for the majority of artefacts, the quality of stone, and the ·efficiency · with which it co_uld be worked were not critical. It is also possible that broad changes in core technology may also reflect these same patterns. Single or opposed platform cores provide the potential for impleme.n ting rejuvenation or recovery techniques, both on the platform, and on the core face, to a greater extent than cruder multi­ platform types. Whilst there is evidence to suggest that basic raw material availability did influence the extent of working on cores in . particular areas (Saville 1980), the more widespread changes in core types are in keeping with our underlying trend. Suggestions that particular types may have been used· for the production of specific artefacts such as arrowheads may well hold, but it is unclear whether this form of specialisation reflects concern

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over efficiency in the context of use or more directly with the social context in which those artefacts circulated (Edmonds and Thomas, this volume, Chapter 12). These apparent changes in the character of technology can be set against a number of patterns referred to elsewhere in this volume. The dramatic increase in the size of Later Neolithic scatters adds support to the argument that there was a considerable decrease in the degree of mobility compared with the Earlier Neolithic (Bradley et al. 1984; Bradley, this volume, Chapter 11; Gardiner 1984; Richards 1984). Similarly, work in Eastern England has demonstrated that there are major differences in the processes which contributed to discard patterns between the two phases (Healy 1983; this volume, Chapter 2). Although these distinctions have long been recognised, the fact that the changing character of technology reinforces these patterns adds weight to the argument that we are seeing the effects- of changes in subsistence and settlement, with a far greater emphasis upon quite sedentary agriculture. The patterning of Later Neolithic scatters may suggest that. residential locations of a fairly insubstantial nature were repeatedly moved within a well defined area within which necessary resources were Settlement may only have been permanent insofar as the aggregated . degree of planned mobility apparent in the earlier phase was no longer practised. With the passage of time, the relocation of sites within a relatively restricted area would have the effect of. producing an almost continuous scatter across the landscape. If we accept that the third millenium witnesses a change in the character of subsistence and settlement, which is expressed in both spatial patterning and the character of lithic assemblages, we also have to consider a significant methodological problem. In the absence of secure diagnostic artefacts, our attempts to assign a broad date to assemblages recovered from survey are generally based upon metrical analyses. Cha.nges in the attributes which we measure may have some temporal significance which we can use to our advantage, but we have to avoid the assumption that those attributes are independant of the socio-economic context in which they occur. If the character of technology is closely tied to behaviour, rather than being merely a 'fossile directeur', anomalies within a wider trend may be masked. For example, if we recognise Earlier Neolithic · assemblages purely - on the basis of the percentage of narrow flakes, we rule out the possibility of identifying industries created as a result of more sedentary settlement or from the functional specialisation of individual sites. It is with this problem in mind, that we need to develop a clearer appreciation of the quantitative and qualitative consequences of. different technological strategies (Burton Whilst the sheer depth of the patterns identified through metrical 1980). analysis indicates that our broad distinctions are correct, these divisions will never be sharp because decision-making is undertaken largely at the level of the ind_ividual or the group.

Notwithstanding the important dimension level of investment artefacts which make stress upon stone prevention of loss.

possibility that this level of analysis has masked an of variability, our general trends appear to hold. The in the procurement of stone and in the production of up the bulk of assemblages point to a continued lack of tools to ensure subsistence security through the

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A s w i th t he e a r l ier p hase , t he L a ter N eo l i th ic i s a l so c ha rac ter ised b y d epar tu res f ro m t he u nder ly ing t r end s ugges ted h ere , i f a ny th ing t o a g rea ter e x ten t . T h is c an p erhaps b e c or re la ted w i th c hanges i n t he s t ruc tu re o f r eg iona l n e tworks , a nd i n t he c hang ing c on tex ts a nd a ssoc ia t ions o f p ar t icu la r a r tefac ts . D e ta i led d i scuss ion o f t hese c hanges , f or e xamp le , i n t e rms o f t he r o les p layed b y s i tes s uch a s h enges wou ld r equ ire a c lose e xam ina t ion o f t he t r a jec tor ies i n d if feren t r eg ions . T h is i s c lea r ly o f c en t ra l i mpo r tance , b u t i t l i es o u ts ide o f t he s cope o f t h is p ape r . I n s tead , t he t hemes wh ich h ave f ormed t he c ore o f t h is d iscuss ion c an b e b rough t t oge ther t o make a n umber o f g enera l p o in ts . Conclusion I n a t temp t ing t o f ocus u pon t he n a ture a nd o rgan isa t ion o f p rocu remen t u nde r a c hang ing c l ima te o f r i sk , d e ta i l h a s v ery c l ea r ly b een s ac r if iced t o a d i scuss ion o f b roader t r ends t h rough t ime . I t i s wor th r e i tera t ing t ha t t h is p aper h as b een c oncerned w i th g enera l isa t ions c oncern ing t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t echno logy a nd t he b as ic ma te r ia l c ond i t ions u nder wh ich p eop le a t temp t t o p rocure n ecessa ry r esources . I n t ak ing t wo h ypo the t ica l modes o f o rgan isa t ion , my i n ten t ion h as b een t o d e mons tra te t ha t s ign if ican t d i f ferences i n t he mean s b y wh ich r i sks a re p erce ived a nd c oped w i th w i l l h ave a d i rec t i mpac t u pon t he c ha rac ter a nd s t ruc tu re o f l i th ic a ssemb lages . T he o bv ious n ex t s t ep w ou ld b e t o l ook i n mo re d e ta i l a t v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a g enera l c a tegory o f e conom ic p rac t ise , a nd t o c ons ider h ow t ha t v a r iab i l i ty may b e r e la ted t o d if fe rences i n t he p ercep t ion a nd s o lu t ion o f p rob lems o f r i sk ( c f . Mye r s , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 9 ) . I f w e a ccep t t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t a ppa ren t ' anoma l ies ' i n t he l eve l o f i nves tmen t i n p rocuremen t a nd p roduc t ion may i nd ica te t he o ver t u se o f a r tefac ts i n d ifferen t s pheres , w e mus t a l so a cknow ledge t ha t we a re n o t d ea l ing w i th a s imp le t wo -way d iv is ion . I n l ook ing a t i nves tmen t i n s t one t oo ls ,we a re c oncen tra t ing o n o n ly o ne d i mens ion i n wh ich s ign if icance may h ave b een e xpressed i n t he p as t . T he s t y le o f a r tefac ts , t he ma ter ia ls f r om wh ich t hey a re made a nd t he ir a ssoc ia t ions may a l l b e o f c ons ide rab le i mpor tance f or c ommun ica t ing a w ide v a r ie ty o f i deas , many o f wh ich c an b e e xpec ted t o o ver lap a nd i n fo rm e ach o ther ( c f . E dmonds a nd T homa s , t h is v o lume , Chap ter 1 2 ) . Where p ar t icu lar a reas c on ta in c on temporary i ndus tr ies wh ich d isp lay s ign if ican t f orma l d if ferences ( eg H ea ly 1 984) o r h ave d if feren t a ssoc ia ted p rocuremen t /produc t ion c os ts , w e h ave t o w iden o u r . focus . T he u se o f a f r amework wh ich c ons iders t he n a ture o f s t ra teg ies f or c op ing w i th r i sk s hou ld n o t b e a ccompan ied b y t he a ssump t ion t ha t a p erf ec t o r o p t ima l s o lu t ion i s a r ea l i ty f o r wh ich w e s hou ld l ook . T he w ider r ange o f i s sues p er t inen t t o p as t s oc ie t ies a nd t he f ac t t ha t d ec is ion s a re n o t made a t t he l eve l o f s ys tems , w i l l mean t ha t w e a re r ea l ly a pp ly ing a b ase l ine t o t he s t udy o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls . T h is p aper h as a rgued t ha t t he c ha rac ter o f t e chno logy i s n o t t i ed s imp ly t o t he q ues t ion o f r aw ma ter ia l a va i lab i l i ty . F ur thermore , t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween r ocks a nd r i sk i s s uch t ha t w e c an ( a t t he l eve l a dop ted h ere ) i den t ify t he c umu la t ive e f fec ts o f d ec is ion s t aken b y g roups a nd i nd iv idua ls i n t he o rgan isa t ion o f s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies . T he ma in c hanges i n s tonework ing i n s ou thern B r ita in s how s urpr is ing r egu lar i ty , i r respec t ive o f s i tua t ion , a nd t he a noma l ies wh ich h ave b een d i scussed a re more a k in t o s urface c ur ren ts , whose c ha rac ter s t ems f r om t he s oc ia l c on tex ts i n wh ich t hey o ccur . S imp ly b y f ocuss ing o n r i sk , i t i s d i f f icu l t t o s pec ify h ow c er ta in c hanges i n t he l eve l o f i nves tmen t r e la te t o

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t he u se o f s t one t oo ls i n t he p ursu i t o f a w ider r ange o f s t ra teg ies . r eso lu t ion i s e ssen t ia l i f w e w ish t o a dd g rea ter d ep th t o o u r p ic tu re .

T ha t

Ackno wledge ments A n umber o f p eop le h ave p rov ided much n eeded s uppor t i n t he w r i t ing o f t h is p aper . I n p a r t icu la r , I wou ld l i ke t o t hank Rob in T or rence f o r u sefu l d i scuss ion s a nd i deas , J u l ian T homa s a nd R icha rd B rad ley f or r ead ing e a r l ier ( un in te l l ig ib le ) d raf ts o f t he t ex t , a nd F rances R aymond f or t r y ing t o make me s t ick t o t he p o in t . A s e ver , s o le r e spons ib i l i ty f or f au l ts a nd c onfus ion l i es w i th t he a u thor .

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T oo l s ,

( Cambr idge ,

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S e t t lemen t

B rad ley

' Some t imes , s he r emember s , a c h ipped f l in t w ou ld t u rn u p i n af u r row , p ink a s ap eony ( f rom t h e i r on i n i t ) o r a s t h e f l a red t h roa t o f as eashe l l : an omad 's a r t ifac t f i shed f r om t he b ro th , h a lf s ea h a lf l and - h a rd e v idence o f a n u n fa thomed s t a te o f m ind . ' Amy C lamp i t t , ' Imago ' . T he re c an b e l i t t le d oub t t h a t t h e s t udy o f l i th ic t e chno logy h a s moved f r om a d esc r ip t ive p hase t o a g rea ter c once rn w i th e xp lana t ion . I n l ow land B r i ta in , h owever , w e f ace t he p a radox ica l s i tua t ion t ha t w e c an d i s t ingu ish b e tween t he t e chno log ies o f t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p er iods , b u t h ave a r r ived a t t ha t k now ledge t hrough l i t t le more t han a d es ire f or o b jec t ive d ocumen ta t ion . A l l t oo o f ten a na lys is o f o u r ma ter ia l h as b een s ynonymous w i th measu remen t o f t he d eb i tage . T here may b e s o me c onsensus t ha t t he s hape o f u n re touched f l akes d id c hange t h rough t ime , b u t w e h ave l i t t le a pprec ia t ion o f why i t s hou ld h ave d one s o . T he v a lue o f s uch work a s a c h rono log ica l d ev ice i s s t ressed e l sewhe re i n t h is v o lume ( Ford , C hap te r 6 ) . R a ther l a te i n t he d ay , w e h ave t o a sk o u r se lves : wha t a re o u r mea su remen t s measur ing? F or more t han t h ir ty y ears t he ma jor c hrono log ica l p a t terns h ave b een c lear . D if ferences i n t he c ha rac ter a nd p ropor t ions o f b lades h e lp t o d i s t ingu ish t h e t wo ma in p hases o f t he Meso l i th ic ( P i t t s a nd J acob i 1 979 ) . I n t he s a me way B r i t ish N eo l i th ic i ndus tr ies b eg in w i th a s i gn if ican t p ropor t ion o f b lades /na r row f l akes , b u t t hese a re r ep laced b y a b road f l ake i ndus try i n t he l a te r t h ird m i l len ium b c ( Sm i th 1 965 , 8 9 -91) . C or respond ing c hanges a r e d ocumen ted f or t h e p a ren t c ores . T h is f a ir ly s imp le o u t l ine h as b een e x tended i n o n ly t wo w ays . T here h as b een a n i ncreas ing a wa reness t ha t t he d ifferences b e tween L a ter Meso l i th ic a nd E ar l ier N eo l ith ic t e chno logy may n o t h ave b een v ery g rea t ( P i t ts a nd J acob i 1 979 ) ; a nd t h e a noma lous ' b road f l ake ' i ndus tr ies o f t he l a t ter p er iod h ave b een e xp la ined a s t he r e su l t o f p re l im ina ry t r ea tmen t o f n odu les q ua rr ied o n t he s po t ( Ford , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 6 ) . Up t o n ow t here h ave b een f ew a t temp ts t o u nders tand t h ese c hanges , a nd f o r t he mos t p a r t t h ey h ave f ocussed l a rge ly o n t he q ua l i ty a nd a ccess ib i l i ty o f r aw ma ter ia l . T hus f o r P i t ts a nd J acob i t he l ower p ropo r t ion o f f i ne b lade s i n t he L a ter Meso l i th ic i s e xp la ined b y t h e l o ss o f h igh q ua l i ty b each f l in t d ur ing t he p os tg lac ia l r i se o f s ea l eve l ( 1979 , 1 74 -5) . S im i lar ly , t h e more p rod iga l u se o f f l in t d ur ing t h e L a ter N eo l i th ic i s e xp la ined b y t h e o pera t ion o f s pec ia l ised q uar r ies o r m ines , s ome o f t hem work ing u nder p o l i t ica l c on t ro l ( i b id . , 1 76 ) . V e rna C are ( 1982 ) p laced more emphas is o n t he c hang ing p os i t ion o f l i th ic s ources i n t he p a t tern o f s e t t lemen t . F o l low ing B inford 's s ugges t ion t ha t l i th ic p rocuremen t wou ld h ave b een ' embedded ' i n o ther s ubs is tence

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a c t iv i t ies ( 1979 ) , s he a rgues t ha t i n t he Wea ld t he c hang ing c ha rac te r f l in t d eb i tage r esu l ts f r om t he g radua l i ncorpora t ion o f t he d own land i n t he L a ter Meso l i th ic p a t tern o f s e t t lemen t . T hus c hanges o f f l in t t echno logy c ame a bou t b ecause s uch s ources moved f rom a p er iphera l t o a c en tra l p os i t ion i n t he e conom ic l andscape . S uch c hanges , h owever , r e su l ted n o t f rom a l tered p ercep t ions o f t he v a lue o f t h is ma ter ia l , b u t f rom more b a s ic c hanges i n t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t o f t he c ha lk a nd o ther a reas . H er a ccoun t o f N eo l i th ic s t onework ing f o l lows a r a ther s im i la r c our se . B y t he l a ter s t ages o f t h is p e r iod t he a reas w i th s u i tab le r aw ma ter ia l w e re a ga in c en t ra l i n t he p a t te rn o f s e t t lemen t . T he a dop t ion o f s eden ta ry f a rm ing may h ave p erm i t ted mo re l av ish u se o f i n s i tu r aw ma ter ia l , a s w e l l a s a l low ing monopo ly c on t ro l t o d eve lop o ver a ccess t o c er ta in s t one s ources . A l though C are 's a rgumen t d oes h e lp t o e luc ida te t he Meso l i th ic e v idence , a t l e as t i n h er s t udy a rea , a t b es t i t i s a p a r t ia l e xp lana t ion o f t he N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l . T he u se o f n a r row f l akes , s he a rgues , r e su l ts f rom a n eed f or e conomy s ince s o me o f t he ma jor s t one s ou rces l ay b eyond t he s e t t led a r ea . T h is may b e t r ue o f a r ea s w i th l im i ted s ou rce s o f s t one , l i ke h e r o wn e xamp le , S ou th Wes t E ng land , b u t i t d oes n o t d o much t o a ccoun t f or more l oca l p a t te rns o f c hange , s uch a s t hose d ocumen ted i n t he A vebury r eg ion ( Sm i th 1 965) o r t he Upper T hames V a l ley ( Brad ley a nd Ho lga te 1 984 ) , where t he s a me c hanges o ccurred i n a n e nv ironmen t w i th r ead i ly a va i lab le r aw ma ter ia l . Obv ious ly , t he s upp ly o f s u i tab le ma ter ia l e xerc ises a ma jor i n f luence o ver s tonework ing t echn ique , i n p ar t icu lar t he ' was tage r a te ' , b u t i n a r eas where f l in t o r c her t a re w ide ly a va i lab le t h is c anno t b e a s uf f ic ien t e xp lana t ion o f t he p a t tern o f c hange . Moreove r , t he f ac t t ha t t he c l ay -w i th f l in ts w as e x treme ly w ide ly u sed d ur ing b o th t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p er iods e f fec t ive ly r u les o u t t he i dea t ha t m ines w ere t he o n ly s ources o f g ood q ua l i ty s t one ( Ga rd ine r 1 984 ) . A s F ord h as s hown ( t h is v o lume , C hap te r 6 ) , t here i s g ood r eason t o a ccep t t he c onven t iona l v iew o f N eo l i th ic t echno logy , p rov ided q uar r ies a re e xc luded f rom a na lys is a nd wo rk i s c onf ined t o wha t a ppea r t o b e l e ss s pec ia l ised a c t iv i ty a reas - t hose where a r ange o f r e touched a r tefac ts i s f ound . B u t o nce t he s amp le i s r e s t r ic ted i n t h is w ay , i t s eem s e ssen t ia l t o l ook more c lose ly a t o ther f ea tu res o f t hese c o l lec t ions . R ecen t w ork i n l ow land B r i ta in p rov ides h in ts o f f ou r o ther t r ends wh ich s eem t o r un i n p a ra l le l w i th t he c hange f rom n a r row t o b road f l akes : a mass ive i nc rease i n t he n umber o f f indspo ts ; a c or respond ing i ncrease i n t he s i ze a nd d ens i ty o f l i th ic s ca t ters ; a d ecreas ing r e l iance o n r e touched , s er ra ted o r o therw ise u t i l ised f l akes , a nd , f i na l ly , a n e x tens ion i n t he r ange o f r egu la r a r tefac ts b e ing p roduced . Any e xp lana t ion o f f l ake t e chno logy s hou ld t ake a ccoun t o f t hese f ea tures . T he i den t if ica t ion o f t hese p a t terns i s b y n o m eans c on t rove rs ia l , a nd t he e xamp les wh ich f o l low a re n o t i n tended t o b e e xhaus t ive . T he i nc reas ing n umber o f f indspo ts i s e qua l ly o bv ious f r om c eram ic d i s t r ibu t ions . Among t he a r eas i n wh ich i t i s mos t a ppa ren t a r e t he S ussex a nd H ampsh ire D owns ( Ga rd iner 1 984) , s ou thern Wessex ( Brad ley e t a t . 1 984 ) , t he T hames V a l ley ( Brad ley a nd Ho lga te 1 984 ) , E a s t • Ang l ia ( C lea l 1 984 ) a nd t he P eak D is t r ic t ( Brad ley a nd H a r t 1 983 ) . I n p a ra l le l w i th t h is t r end g oes a n e x tens ion i n t he r ange o f e nv ironmen ts b e ing s e t t led ( Brad ley 1 978 , 1 07 -9 ) . I t i s h arder t o i lus t ra te t he s econd p o in t , s i nce b u t a l ready d ec is ive c hanges i n t he e x ten t a nd

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i t r equ ires d e ta i led s urvey , c ha rac ter o f l i th ic s ca t ters

h ave b een s hown b y f i e ldwork i n C ranborne C hase ( Brad ley e t a l . 1 984 ) , S a l isbu ry P la in ( R icha rds 1 984 ) a nd t he Upper T hames V a l ley ( Brad ley a nd Ho lga te 1 984 ) . J u l ian R icha rds ' wo rk i n t he a rea a round S tonehenge s hows t h is c on t ras t v ery w e l l , w i th a n umber o f s ma l l f l in t s ca t te r s i n t he E ar l ie r N eo l i th ic a nd much l a rger a nd d enser c o l lec t ions o f a r tefac ts i n t he L a te r N eo l i th ic ( 1984 , 1 74 f . ) . J u l ie G a rd iner c ommen t s o n much t he s ame p rocess o n t he S ussex a nd H ampsh i re Downs ( 1984 , 2 6 ) . On a s ma l ler s ca le a g ood i lus t ra t ion o f t h is p o in t i s p rov ided b y F rances H ea ly 's s t udy o f t he f l in two rk f r om a n e xcava ted s i te a t T a t tersha l l T horpe i n L inco lnsh ire ( 1983) . H ere a l im i ted i ndus t ry o f E a r l ier N eo l i th ic d a te w a s f ound w i th p o t tery i n a g roup o f p i ts , wh i ls t a much more e x ten s ive i ndu s try o f L a te r N eo l i th ic a nd l a te r d a te c ame f rom t he p loughso i l . T here w as o n ly o ne s ubso i l f ea ture w i th L a ter N eo l i th ic /Ea r l ier B ronze Age p o t te ry . A s H ea ly p o in ts o u t , t h is s ame c on t ras t i s f ound o n o the r e xcava ted s i tes ( Hea ly , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 5 ) . T he l a s t t wo p o in ts a r e n o t s o e a sy t o d ocumen t , e spec ia l ly s i nce i t i s h a rd t o measure i mp le men t d ivers i ty u s ing s amp les o f d ifferen t s i zes ( Jones , G rayson a nd B eck 1 983 ) . E ven s o , H ea ly a nd J acob i h ave c ommen ted o n t he l im i ted r ange o f n ew a r tefac t t ypes k nown i n t he E a r l ier N eo l ith ic ( i n H ea ly 1 984 , 8 3 -4 ) . I n s tead , much u se s eems t o h ave b een made o f r e touched o r s er ra ted f l akes , s o me o f t hem o f t he p ropor t ion s o f t r ue b lades . T he r a t io o f i mp lemen ts t o s uch f r agmen ts i n l a rge e xcava ted a ssemb lages c an b e f rom 1 : 2 t o a t l e as t 1 : 4 . B y c on t ras t , t here c an b e f ewe r r e touched o r u t i l ised p ieces i n L a ter N eo l i th ic a ssemb lages a nd a s omewha t w ider r ange o f r egu lar i mp le men ts i s r epresen ted i n t he l i tera ture . T he r a t io o f i mp lemen ts t o u t i l ised o r r e touched p ieces i s n ow a t l ea s t 4 :1 a nd t he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f i mp lemen t t ypes c an b e u p t o 5 0% , a s w e s ee i n I sobe l Sm i th 's c ompa r ison o f t he ma ter ia l f r om t he p r ima ry l e ve ls o f Windm i l l H i l l w i th t he f i nds f r om Wes t K enne t A venue ( 1965 , 9 1 f . a nd 2 36 f . ) . I n s eek ing t o e xp la in t hese o bserva t ion s , w e wou ld s t a r t b y a sk ing why i t i s t ha t b lade t e chn ique i s s uch a w idespread f ea tu re ( c f . E dmonds , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 1 0 ) . Mos t a u thor i t ies wou ld a gree t ha t i t s ma in v a lue i s i n r educ ing w a s te . Once a c ore h a s b een p repa red , t h is me thod a l lows a n e f f ic ien t , e ven p a rs imon ious u se t o b e made o f t he r aw ma ter ia l . B u t t he re i s mo re t han o ne r eason why t h is s hou ld h appen . I t c ou ld b e b ecause a c t iv i ty w as t ak ing p lace a t s o me d i s tance f r om t he s ou rce o f t he ma te r ia l . T h is w ou ld b e a p a r t icu la r p rob lem i n a mob i le e conomy where s e t t lemen t c ou ld n o t b e i nf luenced t oo d ec is ive ly b y t he l oca t ion o f d ependab le s t one s ources : h owever , t he s a me d eve lopmen t i n l i th ic t e chno lgy c ou ld h appen f or a no ther r eason . No t o n ly d oes b lade p roduc t ion m in im ise t he w as tage o f r aw ma ter ia l : t he u se o f b lades i s e x t reme ly h e lpfu l i n a n e conomy w i th a s i gn if ican t e l emen t o f mob i l i ty , b ecause a n a dap tab le , l i gh twe igh t t oo lk i t w i l l b e a t a p rem ium . E ber t ( 1979 ) h as a rgued t ha t t he s i ze o f l i th ic a r tefac ts p rov ides s o me i n s igh t i n to d egrees o f mob i l i ty i n t he p as t p a t tern o f s e t t lemen t . G iven t he g enera l a va i lab i l i ty o f g ood ma te r ia l i n s ome o f t he a r eas s e t t led i n t h e E a r l ie r N eo l i th ic , n o t o n ly c ou ld t h is i dea e xp la in t he p reference f or n a r row f l akes r a ther t han l a rge r e touched t oo ls : i t m igh t a l so b e t he r eason why s uch a h igh p ropor t ion o f t he d eb i tage was p u t t o u se . I f w e t ook E be r t 's a rgumen t t o i t s l og ica l c onc lus ion ,

i t c ou ld

h ave

t wo

i mp l ica t ions f or t he

B r i t ish

s equence :

1 . T he c on t inued u se o f b lades o r n ar row f l akes f rom t he Meso l i th ic t o t h e N eo l i th ic n eed n o t s ugges t t ha t t he f i rs t d eve lopmen t o f a gr icu l ture w as c onnec ted w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f s eden t ism .

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2 . T he emphas is o n u t i l ised a nd s e r ra ted f l akes /b lades , r a ther t han a w ide r ange o f h eav ier , more s pec ia l ised t oo l t ypes , may mean t ha t E ar l ier Neo l i th ic c ommun i t ies w ere u sed t o t r ave l l ing l i gh t . I ndeed , t he h igh p ropor t ion o f r eused p ieces o n E ar l ier N eo l i th ic s i tes h e lps t o e xp la in why t hey c on ta in s uch l ow n umbe rs o f f l in ts a nd why t h ey a r e s o d i f f icu l t t o l oca te i n t he f i e ld . T hese a rgumen ts c an n ow b e c omb ined w i th t he o bserva t ions made e a r l ier , t ha t i t w a s o n ly i n t he L a ter N eo l i th ic t ha t l i th ic s ca t ter s w ere v e ry e x ten s ive o r p ro l if ic a nd t h a t i n t ha t p er iod a much mo re v ar ied t oo l k i t c ame i n to u se . I t i s s i gn if ican t t ha t s ome o f t he n ew t ypes c ons t i tu te w ha t h a s b een c a l led a ' heavy i ndus try ' ( P iggo t t 1 954 , 2 82 - my e mphas is ) . S eden t ism c anno t b e i nfer red d i rec t ly f r om t h e i nc reased e x ten t a nd a bundance o f l i th ic s ca t te rs mo re c omp l ica ted a na ly t ica l p rocedures a r e n eeded i f w e a r e t o a dd ress t ha t i s sue ( c f . E dmonds , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 1 0 ) - b u t w e c an i n f er t ha t t he p rof l iga te u se o f f l in t o n L a ter N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i tes makes l i t t le s en se i f i t was d epos i ted b y p eop le w ho w ere p rac t is ing a c omp le te ly mob i le e conomy . P or tab i l i ty i s a n i mpor tan t i nf luence o n s t one t e chno logy . T o s um u p , t h is p aper h a s s ugges ted why i t i s t ha t t h e s t one i ndus tr ie s o f t h e E a r l ier N eo l i th ic , s upposed ly a p er iod o f s e t t led a gr icu lture , s hou ld h ave more i n c ommon w i th t he ma ter ia l e qu ipmen t o f h un ter -ga therers t han t hey d o w i th t hose emp loyed d ur ing t he l a te r t h ird m i l lenn ium b c . I n a t temp t ing t o r e la te c hanges i n f l ak ing t e chn ique t o b roader c hanges i n t he d i s tr ibu t ion a nd c ompos i t ion o f s t one t oo l i ndus tr ies , t h is a r t ic le d oub t less r a ises f a r mo re q ues t ion s t h an i t a nswer s . I f w e l ook c l ose ly a t t h e e v idence f or E a r l ier N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t , h oweve r , w e mus t s ure ly wonder why t he i nd ica t ions o f s e t t led f a rm ing , e spec ia l ly c erea l c u l t iva t ion , s hou ld b e s o l im i ted , a nd why o ur e xcava ted s e t t lemen ts s hou ld n orma l ly b e s o i n subs tan t ia l . We c ou ld d o wor se t han q ues t ion t he a u toma t ic e qua t ion made b e tween t he d eve lopmen t o f a g r icu l tu re a nd t he o nse t o f s eden t ism . I ndeed , w e m igh t e ven s ee t he more d ras t ic c hanges i n t he n a ture o f h uman s e t t lemen t o ccur r ing n o t a t 3 500 b c b u t a m i l lenn ium l a te r ( c f . Z ve leb i l a nd R ow ley -Conwy 1 986 ) . We c an a gree t ha t r ea l u nder s tand ing o f t he p rob lem i s s o me w ay of , b u t i n t he mean t ime i t d oes n o h a rm t o a sk o ur se lve s : wha t a re o ur measuremen ts measu r ing?

B ibliography B INFORD , L .R . 1 979 . O rgan isa t ion a nd f o rma t ion p rocesses : l ook ing a t c u ra ted t e chno log ies , J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 5 , 2 55 -273 . BRADLEY , R . 1 978 . T he P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t o f B r i ta in , ( London , R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l ) . BRADLEY , R . , CLEAL , R . , GARD INER , J . , GREEN , M . a nd BO WDEN , M . 1 984 . T he N eo l i th ic S equence i n C ranborne C hase , i n B rad ley , R . a nd G ard iner , J . ( ed i tors ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33) , 8 7-105 . BRADLEY , R . a nd HART , C . 1 983 . P reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t i n t h e P eak D is t r ic t d ur ing t he t h ird a nd s econd m i l lenn ia b c : a p re l im inary a na lys is i n t he l i gh t o f r ecen t f i e ldwork , P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 9 , 1 77 -193 . BRADLEY , R . a nd HOLGATE , R . 1 984 . T he N eo l i th ic s equence i n t h e Upper T hames V a l ley , i n B rad ley , R . a nd G a rd iner , J . ( ed i tor s ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : a R ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33 ) , 1 07 -134 .

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CARE , V . 1 982 . T he c o l lec t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f l i th ic ma ter ia ls d u r ing t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p er iods i n s ou thern E ng land , Oxf ord J ourna l o f A rchaeology 1 , 2 69 -285 . CLEAL , R . 1 984 . T he L a te r N eo l i th ic i n E as tern E ng land , i n B rad ley , R . a nd Ga rd ine r , J . ( ed i to rs ) N eo l i th ic S tud ies : a R ev iew o fS ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33 ) , 1 35 -158 . EBERT , J . I . 1 979 . An e thnoarchaeo log ica l a pproach t o r eassess ing t he mean ing o f v ar iab i l i ty i n s tone t oo l a ssemb lages , i n K ramer , C . ( ed i tor ) E thnoarchaeo logy : I mp l ica t ions o f E thnography f or A rchaeo logy , ( New Yo rk , C o lumb ia , Un ive rs i ty P ress ) , 5 9 -74 . GARD INER , J . 1 984 . L i th ic d i s t r ibu t ions a nd N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t p a t te rns i n C en t ra l S ou the rn E ng land , i n B rad ley , R . a nd G a rd ine r J . ( ed i tors ) Neol ith ic S tud ies : aR ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33 ) , 1 5 -40 . HEALY , F . 1 983 . A re f i rs t i mp ress ion s o n ly t opso i l -deep? T he e v idence f r om T a t tersha l l T horpe , L inco lnsh ire , L i th ics 4 , 2 8 -33 . HEALY , F . 1 984 . F a rm ing a nd f i e ld monumen t s : t he N eo l i th ic i n Nor fo lk , i n B a r r inger , C . ( ed i to r ) A spec ts o f E as t A ng l ian P reh is tory ( Twen ty Y ear s a f t er R a inb ird C larke ) , ( No rw ich , G eo B ook s ) , 7 7 140 . J ONES , G .T . , GRAYSON , D .K . a nd BECK , C . 1 983 . A r tefac t c l a ss r i chness a nd s amp le s i ze i n a rchaeo log ica l s urface a ssemb lages , i n Dunne l l , R .C . a nd G rayson , D .K . ( ed i to rs ) L u lu L inear P unc ta ted - E ssays i n Honour o f G eorge I rv ing Qu imby , An thropo log ica l P apers f rom t he Museum o f An thropo logy , Un iver s i ty o f M ichegan , 7 2 , (M ichegan , Ann A rbor ) , 5 5 -73 . P IGGOTT , S . 1 954 . T he N eo l i th ic C u l tures o f t h e B r i t ish I s les , ( Cambr idge , Un ivers i ty P ress) . P ITTS , M .W . a nd J ACOBI , R .M . 1 979 . S ome a spec t s o f c hange i n f l aked s t one i ndus t r ies o f t he Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic • i n s ou thern B r i ta in , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 6 , 1 63 -177 . R ICHARDS , J . 1 984 . T he d eve lopmen t o f t he N eo l i th ic l andscape i n t he e nv irons o f S tonehenge , i n B rad ley , R . a nd G a rd ine r , J . ( ed i to rs ) Neol ithic S tud ies : aR ev iew o f S ome C urren t R esearch ( Oxford , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 33) , 1 77 -187 . SM ITH , I . F . 1 965 . W indm i l l H i l l a nd A vebury , ( Oxfo rd , C la rendon P ress ) . ZVELEBIL , M . a nd RO WLEY -CON WY , P . 1 986 . F o rager s a nd f a rme r s i n A t lan t ic E urope , i n Z ve leb i l , M . ( ed i tor ) Hun ters i n T rans i t ion , N ew D irec t ions i n A rchaeo logy , ( Camb r idge , Un ive rs i ty P ress ) , 6 7 -9 3 .

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A n umber o f p ape rs i n t h is v o lume h ave s t ressed t ha t i f w e w ish t o m ake s ense o f s equences o f t e chno log ica l c hange o ver t ime , w e h ave t o g o b eyond o b jec t ive d ocumen ta t ion a nd c on s ide r t he a c t ions o f p eop le . I n o ne p ape r i n p a r t icu la r , t h is r eason ing w as e x tended t o s ugges t t ha t t he re w as s ome b a s is f or t he d eve lopmen t o f p red ic t ions c oncern ing t he i nves tmen ts i n l i th ic ( subs is tan t ) t echno logy u nder d ifferen t c l ima tes o f r i sk ( Edmonds , t h is v o lume , C hap te r 1 0 ) . T he p r ima ry c oncern i n t ha t d iscuss ion w as w i th t he v a r ious means b y wh ich p eop le a t te mp ted t o c ope w i th t he p oss ib i l i ty o f s ubs is tence f a i lu re , a nd h ow t ha t m igh t h ave i nf luenced d ec is ions r e la ted t o t he s e lect ion a nd p rocure men t o f ma ter ia ls a nd t he c harac ter o f a ssemb lages . T he a pp l ica t ion o f t h is mode l t o t he c hanges i n l i th ic t e chno logy t h rough t he N eo l i th ic s ugges ts t wo i mpor tan t p o in ts . F i rs t , t ha t i f w e c on s ider t he p rob lem o f s ubs is tence s ecu r i ty w i th in a b road s e t o f ma ter ia l c ond i t ion s f or e x is tence , w e may b e a b le t o make b road p ropos i t ions r ega rd ing t he d egree o f s t ress u pon l i th ic t echno logy . S econd , wh i ls t t h is may s e rve a s a u sefu l a na ly t ica l b ase l ine a nd may b e u sefu l i n l ook ing a t t he f unc t iona l d i f fe ren t ia t ion o f s i tes , i t c an i n n o w ay b e e xpec ted t o p rov ide a c omprehens ive b as is f or u nders tand ing a ssemb lage v ar ia t ion . T he n o te o n wh ich t ha t p aper e nded i s e f fec t ive ly t he s t a r t ing p o in t f o r t h is d iscuss ion . T he mechan isms emp loyed t o c ope w i th r i sk i n d ifferen t s i tua t ions ( eg mob i l i ty , s t orage , e xchange a nd o ther f ace ts o f t he e conom ic r eg ime ) a re a spec ts o f a w ider s e t o f i s sues wh ich c an b e u sefu l ly s ubsumed u nder t he r ub r ic o f r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion . T ak ing t h is a s a s t a r t ing p o in t , w e wou ld a rgue t ha t i n t r y ing t o u nde rs tand v a r ia t ion i n l i th ic a s semb lages , w e h ave t o a t tach e qua l i mpor tance t o a spec ts o f e conom ic a nd s oc ia l r e la t ions wh ich h ave l i t t le o r n o th ing t o d o w i th t he ma in tenance o f s ubs is tence s ecur i ty . T he re a re a n umber o f d if icu l t ies wh ich h ave t o b e f aced i f w e a r e t o make t he r ecogn i t ion o f t h is d i s t inc t ion u sefu l f o r a rchaeo logy . F i rs t a nd f o remos t i s t he q ues t ion o f a ppropr ia te s ca les a t wh ich o ur a na lyses , i ndeed o ur c oncep t ions , s hou ld b e p i tched . One o f t he p r inc ipa l t hemes w h ich a rose o u t o f e ssen t ia l ly f unc t iona l is t a pproaches t o t he p as t w as t ha t i t was a pprop r ia te t o t ake s oc ie t ies a s u n i ts t o w h ich p r inc ip les o f a dap ta t ion a nd s e lec t ion c ou ld b e a pp l ied . F rom t h is p er spec t ive , s oc ie ty c ou ld b e s een a s a n a na logue o f a b io log ica l o rgan ism , wh ich c hanged b y r espond ing t o c hanges i n e x te rna l c ond i t ion s . T he a ccep tance o f s oc ie ty a s t he u n i t o f s e lec t ion d e term ines t he way i n wh ich t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p eop le a nd t he ir w ide r e co log ica l a nd s oc ia l m i l ieu i s u nde rs tood . I t a l so e f fec t ive ly r u les o u t t he q ues t ion o f i mpor tan t i n terna l d ynam ics f ue l led b y c onf l ic t a nd c on trad ic t ion w i th in s oc ie t ies . Over t he p as t f ew y ears t he a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture h as w i tnessed t he d eve lopmen t o f a n umber o f a l terna t ive v iewpo in ts i n wh ich t he p ass ive q ua l i t ies o f ma ter ia l c u l ture h ave b een c ha l lenged ( eg Hodder 1 985 ; M i l ler 1 982 ) . A l though w e h ave g ene ra l ly b een c oncerned w i th t he p oss ib i l i ty o f r ecogn is ing p as t b ehav iour t hrough p a t tern ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd , many s t ud ies h ave f a i led t o a cknow ledge t ha t f a r f r om b e ing a s imp le p roduc t o f s oc ie ty , ma ter ia l c u l ture , o f ten t h rough t he med ium o f s t y l is t ic v ar ia t ion , p lays a n a ctiv _ e _ r o le i n s t ruc tur ing h uman a c t ion . A s

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a rchaeo log ists , b y d ef in it ion w e a re c oncerned w ith t he ma ter ia l e xpress ions o f a c t ion i n t he p as t a nd i t i s t herefore n o t s u rpr is ing t ha t a l though t here may b e w ide g u lf s b e tween d ifferen t t heore t ica l s t ances , t here h as r ecen t ly b een w idespread i n teres t i n t he q ues t ion o f s t y le i n ma ter ia l c u l ture . S ty le F ro m t he i ncep t ion o f a rchaeo logy i n i t s a n t iquar ian g u ise , s ty le h as g enera l ly b een s een a s s ome th ing wh ich c an b e u sed a s a t oo l f or d esc r ip t ion a nd d ifferen t ia t ion . I n t he c on s t ruc t ion o f c u l ture -h is tor ic f r amework s , o r s e ts o f p igeon -ho les w i th wh ich t o d iv ide u p t he p as t , t he c ompa r ison o f d ifferen t ma ter ia ls o r d if feren t e xpress ions w i th in t he s ame ma ter ia l w as u sed t o r efu te o r s uppor t a rgumen ts c oncern ing d if fus ion , i nvas ion a nd s t ab i l i ty . I n a s ense t h is p rocess o f c a tegor isa t ion h as c on t inued i n to t he p resen t , a longs ide a d en ia l t ha t p rocesses o f o bserva t ion , c ompa r ison a nd man ipu la t ion w ere a n i mpor tan t p a r t o f t he d ay to -day e x is tence o f p as t a s w e l l a s p resen t s oc ie t ies . T h is i s t he v ery k ind o f e l i t ism wh ich G idden s ( 1976 ) c r i t ic ises i n t he f a i lure o f s oc ia l s c ien t is ts t o r ecogn ise t ha t t he l ay i nd iv idua l i s e ngaged i n a s k i l led p e rformance i n t he n ego t ia t ion o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s . A l l h uman b e ings a re t hemse lves s k i l led s oc ia l t heor is ts . Wi th more r ecen t d eve lopmen ts i n a rchaeo logy , t here h as b een a marked p o la r isa t ion o f v iews r ega rd ing t he i mpor tance o f s ty le a nd t he e x ten t t o wh ich w e c an make u se o f t he c oncep t w i th in c oheren t i n terpre t ive f r ameworks . F rom o ne p er spec t ive , t he t e rm h as b een u sed ( i n t he s a me f ash ion a s ' r i tua l ' ) t o c over p a t terns wh ich c anno t b e u nders tood i n s imp le e conom ic t e rms . T hus v a r ia t ion a nd e labora t ion o f a r tefac ts wh ich c anno t b e e xp la ined i n t e rms o f t oo l u t i l i t ies i s s een a s s t y l is t ic . A s a n c on sequence o f t h is v iew , t he u se wh ich w e c an make o f s t y l is t ic v ar ia t ion i n a r tefac ts i s s evere ly r es tr ic ted . I t i s s een l a rge ly a s s ome th ing wh ich i s s epa ra te f r om t he i mpor tan t i s sue , t ha t o f f unc t ion ( eg C lose 1 978) , c on t r ibu t ing l i t t le t o u nders tand ing , d ue t o t he f ac t t ha t i t o r ig ina tes i n s upposed ly s t ochas t ic p rocesses ( eg Dunne 1 1 1 978 ) . T hus , s ty l is t ic v ar ia t ion may h e lp i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t ypo log ies b u t may c on t r ibu te l i t t le e l se . F ur ther p erspec t ives wh ich a dhere t o a s im i la r v i ew ' o f s t y le a s a n e s sen t ia l ly p ass ive p henomenon h ave worked f rom t he s l igh t ly d if feren t v iew t ha t t here i s n o s imp le d i s t inc t ion b e tween s t y le a nd f unc t ion ( c f . J e l inek 1 976 ) . S ty le i s s een a s a ma t te r o f c ho ice o r p refe rence , i n wh ich a n umber o f d es ign s o f e qua l u t i l i ty a re p assed o ver i n f avou r o f s pec if ic a l terna t ives . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t hese t wo v iews i s t o s ome e x ten t a s eman t ic o ne wh ich c oun ter s t he a rgumen t t ha t i t i s a pp ropr ia te t o t r y t o s epa ra te s t y l is t ic a nd f unc t iona l v ar iab les . T hey s hare t he more i mpor tan t c oncep t ion , h owever , t ha t t he r e s idua l n a tu re o f s t y le makes i t a t b es t ad imen s ion o f l im i ted v a lue a nd a t wor s t a s ou rce o f c onfus ion wh ich c louds o ur p ic ture o f f unc t iona l v ar ia t ion . More r ecen t ly t here h as b een a g row th i n p erspec t ives wh ich a ss ign a c en t ra l r o le t o t he q ues t ion o f s t y le . Wobs t ( 1977) , f or e xamp le , h a s a rgued t ha t s t y le i s b es t s een a s a means o f t r ansm i t t ing i n fo rma t ion , a nd t ha t t he c ho ice o f t he med ium t h rough wh ich a message i s t r ansm i t ted w i l l b e r e la ted t o t he p hys ica l a nd s oc ia l d i s tance b e tween s ende r a nd r ece ive r . D raw ing o n g enera l s ys tems t heory , h e a rgues t ha t s t y l is t ic c hanne ls may b e u sed t o c ommun ica te c oncep ts r e la ted t o member sh ip o f a g roup , ownersh ip a nd i nd iv idua l r ank o r s t a tus ( c f . C onkey 1 978 ; C ross 1 983 ) .

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S im i la r i s sues h ave b een r a ised b y Hodder 's w ork i n E as t A f r ica , whe re h e h as a rgued t ha t p a r t icu la r a r tefac ts o r ma ter ia l e xpress ion s may s e rve t o i nd ica te e thn ic i den t i ty a nd d e l inea te s oc ia l b ounda r ies , p ar t icu la r ly i n t imes o f s t ress ( Hodder 1 979 ) . A l though w e wou ld a g ree w i th t h e b as ic c oncep t o f s t y le a s af o rm o f c ommun ica t ion , t h e re i s as en se i n wh ich o n ly s ome o f t he b as ic a venues o f e nqu iry h ave b een e xp lored . I t i s p erhaps n o t s urpr is ing t ha t w i th in t he s ys tems f r amewo rk , emphas is h as t ended t o b e p laced u pon u s ing s t y l is t ic v ar ia t ion t o d ef ine o r d ema rca te e thn ic g roups a nd t o a ssess t he n a tu re o f b ounda r ies . I mp l ic i t i n s uch a p e rspec t ive i s t he n o t ion t ha t s t y le i s e ssen t ia l ly a p roduc t , wh ich i s i mpo r tan t b ecause o f wha t i t s ay s t o u s ( i n t he p resen t ) a bou t d i s t inc t ions b e tween l a rge ly d i sc re te c ommun i t ies . I n a dd i t ion ,when d i scuss ion s h ave f ocussed u pon h un ter -ga therer , p as tora l a nd s imp le a gr icu l tura l s oc ie t ies , t he emphas is u pon mon i tor ing r e sponses t o c hang ing e x te rna l c ond i t ions h as b een r e inforced b y t he a s sump t ion t h a t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th l a rge ly u nd if feren t ia ted g roups . I t i s o n ly more r ecen t ly t ha t t he f ocus h a s s h if ted t o c on s ide r h ow ma te r ia ls may h ave p layed a more a c t ive r o le i n s t ruc tu r ing a nd d ef in ing s oc ia l p rac t ice w i th in i nd iv idua l s oc ie t ies i n t he p as t . T h is s h if t c an b e i lus tra ted i n ab r ief d i scu ss ion o f t he d eba te b e tween S acke t t ( 1982 , 1 984 ) a nd Wiessner ( 1983 , 1 984 , 1 985) c oncern ing t he ways i n wh ich w e c once ive a nd make u se o f s t y le i n u nders tand ing t he p as t . T he p o in t o f d epa r ture i n t he S acke t t /W iessne r e xchange i s t he p ropos i t ion t ha t t he v a r iab i l i ty o f ma ter ia l c u l ture e xpresses e thn ic i ty . On t h is p o in t t h ey a re i n s y mpa thy . Wiessne r , l i ke Wobs t ( 1977 ) a nd C onkey ( 1978 ) , s ees s t y le a s a means o f t r ansm i t t ing i n forma t ion t o a t a rge t p opu la t ion . T h is i nforma t ion i s a c t ive ly e ncoded b y t he i nd iv idua l i n p ar t icu lar i t ems (W iessne r 1 984 , 1 92 ) , i n a w ay i n wh ich i t s s i gn if icance c an b e a pprec ia ted b y t he r ec ip ien t ( Conkey 1 978 , 6 4 ) . S ty l is t ic i n forma t ion may b e e i ther ' emb lem ic ' , a nd r efer t o t he g roup a f f i l ia t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l ( a s Wiessner a rgues f or K a laha r i S an p ro jec t i le p o in t s : 1 983 , 2 57) , o r ' a sser t ive ' , i nvo lved i n t he p resen ta t ion o f s e lf b y t he i nd iv idua l ( a s i n t he c ase o f S an b ead h eadbands : Wiessner 1 984 , 1 93 ) . I n t he c ase o f emb lem ic s t y le , c l a ims h ave b een made t ha t t h is t r ansm iss ion o f i nforma t ion r egard ing e thn ic i ty o r g roup i den t i ty i s a c t ive ly emp loyed i n g roup a dap t ive s t ra teg ies ( eg G amb le 1 981) . I t i s t o b e e xpec ted t h a t t he i t ems i nvo lved i n d i sp lay w i l l b e h igh ly v i s ib le . Wiessner c l a ims t ha t S an p ro jec t i le p o in ts f u lf i l l t h is p red ic t ion s i nce , a l though s ma l l i n s i ze , t hey a r e w ide ly e xchanged ( 1983 , 2 60 ) . S acke t t , o n t he o ther h and , s ugges ts t ha t t he b u lk o f i n fo rma t ion wh ich w e c an u se t o d e tec t e thn ic i ty i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s n o t a ct ively e ncoded ( 1985 , 1 57-158) . On t he c on t rary , h e s ugges ts t ha t mos t o f t h is v a r iab i l i ty i s " i sochre s t ic " o r " equa l i n u se " ( 1986 , 2 68 ) . B y t h is h e mean s t ha t wh i le i nd iv idua ls c an i den t ify t he workmansh ip o f o ther g roups , t he p rocess o f s t y l is t ic g enera t ion i s n o t ac onsc ious o ne ; t h ey s imp ly c opy t h e w ays i n w h ich t he i r i mmed ia te c on tac ts d o t h ings : " Incu lca ted a s much b y i n s inua t ion a s b y i n s t ruc t ion , a nd t herefore a l l t he more u nques t ioned , t h ese d es ign n o t ions t hus c ons t i tu te a k ind o f s ubs t ra tum t o t he g roup 's s t y le " ( i b id . , 2 74 -275 ) . H ea ted a s t he d eba te h as b een , i n s o me r e spec ts Wiessner 's a nd S acke t t 's v i ews a re n o t a s f a r r emoved f r om e ach o ther a s t hey m igh t s ugges t . I ndeed , o n s ome i mpor tan t p o in ts t h ey s eem t o o ccupy s im i la r p os i t ions . B o th a dm i t

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t o t he e x is tence o f b o th ' i con ic ' a nd ' i soch res t ic ' s t y le ( Sacke t t 1 985 , 1 57 ; Wiessner 1 984 , 1 95) . Where t h ey d i f fer i s i n t he s i gn if icance w h ich t hey a t t r ibu te t o e ach . S acke t t h o lds t ha t , s i nce i s ochres t ism a ccoun ts f or a lmos t a l l o f t ha t v a r ia t ion wh ich i s l i ke ly t o b e e ncoun tered i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd , t h is s hou ld b e t he a spec t mo s t d ese rv ing o f s t udy . Wiessner i s mo re c oncerned w i th t he s t ra teg ies o f t he p eop le i nvo lved a nd p resumab ly c on s ider s s t udy o f t imes i n wh ich t hey a re mos t a c t ive ly e ncod ing m essages w i l l b e t he mos t r ewa rd ing . I n a s ense , t hey b o th d raw a r i g id d i s t inc t ion b e tween t he i con ic a nd t he i s ochres t ic a nd a re a rgu ing t he s eman t ics o f wha t c on s t i tu tes ' s ty le ' . T hey s eem t o b e l e ss c oncerned w i th t he i n teg ra t ion o f b o th t ypes o f v a r iab i l i ty i n to a b roader b ody o f t heory c oncern ing t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween ma ter ia l c u l ture a nd h uman a c t ion . I n t h is a r t ic le w e w i l l a t temp t t o o verco me t he i mpasse wh ich h as b een r eached i n t he l i tera tu re o n s t y le i n l i th ics . Wha t i s n eeded i s n o t a n ew d ef in i t ion o f s t y le b u t t he i ncorpora t ion o f r ecen t c oncep t ion s w i th in a b ody o f g enera l s oc ia l t heory . S acke t t 's c oncern w i th t he u nconsc ious g enera t ion o f s t y le i s i n teres t ing , a s i t p a ra l le ls t he r ecen t f ocus o n h ab i tua l a c t ion i n s oc ia l t heory . T he g rea t b u lk o f h uman a c t ion i s b o th r ou t ine a nd n o t d i rec t ly mo t iva ted ( G iddens 1 979 , 2 17) . A t t i tudes a nd p rac t ices a re c on t inua l ly ' r eg rooved ' t h rough t he r epe t i t ious a nd h ab i tua l n a ture o f s uch a c t ion ( i b id . , 1 28 ) . S o , a s S acke t t i mp l ies , mos t ma ter ia l p roduc t ion i s c ar r ied o u t i n a n u ncons idered a nd r ou t in ised manner . I n a ccep t ing t ha t t he b u lk o f s t y l is t ic v a r ia t ion may b e p roduced t h rough a n a dherence t o t r ad i t iona l ways o f d o ing t h ings , h oweve r , S acke t t a ppears t o s ugges t t ha t t he p ass ive i ncu lca t ion o f i deas c oncern ing a ppropr ia te f orm h as l i t t le t o d o w i th t he s t ruc tur ing o f s oc ia l p rac t ice . B u t h ab i tua l p rac t ices h ave a n i mpo r tance wh ich g oes b eyond t h is . Mundane , r epea ted a c t ion s a re t he p r inc ipa l w ay i n wh ich t he ' s e lf -ev iden t ' wor ld o f t h ings a nd v a lues wh ich s urround a s oc ie ty a re c ons tan t ly r ep roduced . B ourd ieu ( 1977 , 7 8 ) i n t roduced t he t e rm ' Hab i tus ' t o d esc r ibe t he h ab i ts a nd a ccep ted w ays o f d o ing t h ings w h ich a re s hared b y a c ommun i ty . T hese n orms a re e n t ire ly a rb i t ra ry , b u t r ou t ine a c t ions , b y c ons tan t ly r ecrea t ing a nd r eaff irm ing t he c a tegor ies a nd c lass if ica t ions o f a g iven s oc ie ty , a re a c t ive ly e ngaged i n t u rn ing " h is tory i n to n a ture " ( i b id .) , c onver t ing t he a rb i trary i n to t he t aken -for -gran ted . I n t he k inds o f s imp le , p re -s ta te a g rar ian s oc ie t ies w i th wh ich w e a r e l i ke ly t o b e c oncerned t h roughou t mos t o f B r i t ish p reh is tory , t he d iv is ion o f l abou r w as p robab ly b ased u pon a symme t r ies i n g ender a nd a ge r e la t ion s ( Co l l ie r & R osa ldo 1 981 , 2 81) . C u l tura l ly p roduced g ende r a nd a ge r o les a re i ncu lca ted i n to i nd iv idua ls i n t he ir d ay to -day l i fe . T he c on tex ts o f h ome , h ear th a nd h and icraf ts a re t hose i n wh ich a rb i t ra ry v a lues a re i n terna l ised . T hose ma ter ia l i t ems wh ich a re c rea ted t h rough h ab i tua l p rac t ices ( f l in twork , p o t tery , c lo th ing a nd s o o n ) a nd wh ich e xpress g ender a nd a ge r e la t ions a r e a c tua l ly a n a c t ive p ar t o f t he p rocess o f i n s inua t ion t h rough w h ich t he h ab i tus i s t aken o n b oa rd b y t he i nd iv idua l . T he r ou t in ised p roduc t ion o f ma ter ia l a c t ions i s t hus a c ons t i tuen t e le men t o f t he r eproduc t ion o f r e la t ions o f p roduc t ion . S ince i t i s t he d iv is ion o f l abour i t se lf w h ich i s b e ing r emade a nd r e inforced t h rough t hese p rac t ices , t hey a re u n l ike ly t o c hange w i thou t a c hange i n t he mode o f p roduc t ion i t se lf a nd t hey p rov ide a ma rked s ource o f c onserva t ism i n t r ad i t iona l s oc ie t ies . I ndeed , a s G idden s ( 1979 , 2 19 ) p o in ts o u t , r ou t ine i s mos t e f fec t ive i n s oc ia l r ep roduc t ion w hen i t i s s anc t ioned

b y

t r ad i t ion .

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I f t he g rea ter p a r t o f t h e c r ea t ion o f ma ter ia l i t ems w as c a r r ied o u t i n a ' n on mo t iva ted ' manner , y e t s t i l l c onveyed mean ing i n s o me s ense , t here s t i l l r ema ins t he q ues t ion o f t h e a c t ive , s y mbo l ic u se o f s uch mean ings . B o th S acke t t a nd Wiessner o n ly d ea l w i th t h e w ay i n w h ich i t ems s i gna l t he i den t i ty o f e t hn ic g roups , o r i n W iessner 's c ase , p ro jec t t h e i mage o f t h e i nd iv idua l . A s Hodder 's work i n t he B ar ingo a r ea h as s hown , h owever , ma ter ia l i t ems a re o f ten emp loyed i n w i th in -group s t ra teg ies ( 1982 , C hap te rs 4 a nd 5 ) . T hus , c a labash d eco ra t ion i s s een a s b e ing " invo lved i n t h e s t ra teg ies o f women i n r e la t ion t o o lder men " ( i b id . , 6 8 ) . We c onc lude f r om t h is t ha t , w h i le i n mos t c ases t he s i gn if icance o f i t ems w as a ccrued p ure ly t h rough t he r ou t in ised p rocess o f ma te r ia l p roduc t ion , a t s pec if ic h i s tor ica l j unc tures i t ems w i l l h ave b een ' p u l led o u t ' o f t he b ackground a nd p u t t o s t ra teg ic u se b y g roups a nd i nd iv idua ls i n t h e n ego t ia t ion o f s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ips . T h is c an o n ly h ave b een d one b ecause a l l ma ter ia l c u l tu re a l ready h ad mean ings a t tached t o i t a nd w as a l ready i nvo lved i n s oc ia l r eproduc t ion , i n h owever p ass ive a s ense . I t i s t h is a b i l i ty o f ma ter ia l c u l tu re t o s l ide i n a nd o u t o f t h e ' c en t re s t age ' o f p ower r e la t ions wh ich b o th S acke t t a nd Wiessner m iss e n t ire ly , t h rough t he ir i n s is tence o n a r i g id d iv is ion b e tween i con ic a nd i s och res t ic b ehav iou r . T h is r i g id i ty c an b e u nders tood i n h is tor ica l t e rms ; i n t he p rocess o f c a tegor isa t ion , t h ere i s a t endency ( ev iden t i n ma ter ia l t ypo log ies ) t o wo rk a s i f h a rd a nd f a s t d i s t inc t ions e x is t b e tween t ypes - i n t h is c ase ' t ypes ' o f mean ing o r a c t ion . I t i s p e rhaps more p roduc t ive t o t h ink i n t e rms o f a s pec t rum o f mean ings a nd a s soc ia t ion s . I nd iv idua l i d eas o r c oncep t s c anno t b e t r ea ted a s a na ly t ica l ly s epa ra te s i nce t hey i n form e ach o ther i n a r ecurs ive f a sh ion . I n t h is s en se , t h e w ay i s l e f t o pen f or t h e man ipu la t ion o f mean ing wh ich h as r ecen t ly b een d i scussed b y Hodde r ( 1985) . T hese p o in t s c an b e a mp ly i lus t ra ted i n t h e c ase o f t h e s ymbo l ic u se o f s pea r s i n E as t A f r ica . F or t h e L o ikop ( Samburu ) , s pea rs f unc t ion a s much a s s ymbo ls a s t h ey d o w eapon s ( Lar ick 1 986 , 2 71) : " The f orm o f a man 's s pea r r ead i ly c ommun ica tes h i s s oc ia l s t a tus t o w hoeve r h e mee ts " ( La r ick 1 985 , 2 08 ) .

e conom ic ,

p hys ica l

a nd

L o ikop s pears e xpress b o th e thn ic i ty a nd a ge g rades . F ur thermore , i n t he B a r ingo a r ea , s pea r s ymbo l ism h as c ome t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t he r e s is tance b y y oung men t o t he d om ina t ion o f t he o ld ( Hodder 1 982 , 6 7) . T h is d emons tra tes t he p o lysem ic n a tu re o f ma te r ia l s ymbo ls ( Turner 1 967 , 5 0 -51) ; d epend ing u pon c on tex t a nd a ud ience , a s ymbo l may c onvey d if feren t i n fo rma t ion . S o a n i t em may d i sp lay e thn ic i ty b u t a t t h e s ame t ime i t may b e a c t ive ly i nvo lved i n t h e d i srup t ion o f e thn ic i den t i ty a t a no ther l eve l . I t i s a l so n o tab le t ha t w hen ma ter ia l i t ems b ecome ' a c t ive ' i n s oc ia l s t ra teg ies , t he i deas wh ich a re e xp ressed a re f r equen t ly c onnec ted t o t he s ame b as ic s oc ia l c a tegor ies wh ich p rov ide t he c on tex t f or ma ter ia l p roduc t ion , s uch a s a ge a nd g ende r r o les . T h is i s o n ly t o b e e xpec ted , f o r t h e c a l l ing i n to q ues t ion o f t h ese f undamen ta l i deas i mp l ies a n a t temp t a t t h e r e -eva lua t ion o f t h e ir c on tex t o f g enera t ion . I n a dd i t ion , r ecen t work o n t he r o le o f h ered i ta ry emb lems i n s t ra t if ied s oc ie t ies h igh l igh ts a f ur ther d imens ion i n wh ich a rb i trary c a tego r ies may b e c r ea ted o r c hanged . D av is ( 1985) n o tes t ha t i n c ases where t h e f orms a nd a t t r ibu tes o f ma rker s r ema in c on s tan t , a s h if t i n t h e i d eas t h ey e xpress may b e man ifes t i n c hang ing c on tex ts o f u se a nd p a t terns o f a s soc ia ton . I n o ur v iew , t h is s uppor ts t he c ase f or a dop t ing a c on tras t ive a pproach t o t h e d a ta , i n o rder t o i d en t ify s i gn if ican t c hanges i n t h e n a tu re o f t h e message b e ing e xpressed t h rough ma ter ia l c u l ture .

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T he s oc ia l r ole o f a rchery i n Neol i th ic B r i ta in Wh i le t he c ompos i te moun t ing o f m icro l i ths wh ich c harac ter ised t he p ro jec t i le p o in ts o f t he L a ter Meso l i th ic ( C la rk 1 963 ; c f . Mye r s , t h is v o lume , C hap ter 9 ) w ere u sed p r imar i ly f or g ame , t he s h if t f rom h un t ing a nd g a ther ing t o t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f d omes t ic s t ock s eems t o h ave b een a ccompan ied b y a c hange i n t he r o le o f a r chery . T he l e af -shaped a r rowhead i s c l ea r ly a h eavy -du ty p iercer a nd i t s s uccess a s a l e tha l w eapon i s d ocumen ted b y h uman b ur ia ls i n wh ich a r rowheads a ppea r t o h ave e n tered t he b ody . T hese i nc lude F enga te ( Pryor 1 976 ) , A sco t t -under - Wychwood ( Green 1 980 , 3 31) , L aunces ton Down ( P iggo t t a nd P iggo t t 1 944 , 7 4 ) a nd t h e b ody i n t he d i tch o f t he S teep le ton e nc losu re a t H amb ledon ( Me rce r 1 980 , 5 1) . T he i den t if ica t ion o f l e af a r rowheads a s w eapons o f w a r i s f ur ther s uppor ted b y t he ir i n t ima te a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he a t tack a nd d es t ruc t ion o f e nc losed s e t t lemen ts a t C r ick ley H i l l ( D ixon 1 979 , 1 88 ) , C a m nB rea ( Mercer 1 981) a nd t he S teep le ton e nc losu re ( Mercer 1 980 ) . I t i s p erhaps s i gn if ican t t ha t t he b ow a nd a r row i s o ne o f t he v ery f ew r ecur ren t r epresen ta t iona l mo t if s i n t he mega l i th ic a r t o f Wes tern E urope . B ows a nd a r rows a r e d ep ic ted a t B a rnenez , G av r in is a nd p robab ly I l e L ongue i n B r i t tany ; i n t he p assage g rave o f S t . P ia t ( Eure e t -Lo ire ) ( Shee -Twoh ig 1 981 , 6 3 a nd 7 7 ) a nd P iggo t t h as i n te rpre ted s l ab 3 a t P e t i t -Chasseu r ( Va la is ) a s o r ig ina l ly h av ing b een a s t a tue -menh ir d ep ic t ing a f i gure c ar ry ing a b ow a nd a r row ( 1971 , 8 9 ) . T he i mpor tance o f t h ese r epresen ta t ions l i es i n t h e f ac t t ha t t hose i mages mos t o f ten f ound i n t h ese c on tex ts , l i ke t he c a t t le a nd h af ted a xe o n t he G avr in is /Tab le d es Marchands menh ir ( Le Roux 1 985 ) , u sua l ly r ef er t o f ac to rs f undamen ta l t o t he N eo l i th ic l i fes ty le . We i n f er f r om t h is t ha t a rchery a s a n a c t iv i ty w as o f s i gna l i mpor tance i n t he e a r l ier p a r t o f t he Wes t E uropean N eo l i th ic . F ur thermore , w e s ugges t t ha t t h is i mpor tance w as n o t a p ure ly f unc t iona l o ne b u t a l so l ay i n i t s s t a tus a s a l a rge ly ma le a c t iv i ty . T he s ugges t ion t ha t a r chery w as a ma le a c t iv i ty d oes n o t r e s t s o le ly u pon i t s w ar l ike n a ture . T he g rea t ma jor i ty o f b u r ia ls o f t h ird m i l len ium d a te w i th l e af o r l ozenge a r rowheads a r e o f men ( G reen 1 980 . ,2 32 ) . T h is i s e as ier t o s ubs tan t ia te i n t he c ases o f s i ng le i nhuma t ions l i ke Win terbou rne S toke 3 5a ( K innes 1 979 ) o r b u r ia l 5 a t Dugg leby Howe ( K innes e t a l . 1 983 , 8 6 ) t h an i n t he more c onfused s ke le ta l r ema ins i n c orpora te t ombs a nd l ong b ar rows . F or i n s tance , a l e af a r rowhead w as a s soc ia ted w i th t h e e lder ly ma le s ke le ton I i n t he Nor th -Eas t c hamber a t Wes t K enne t t ( P iggo t t 1 962 , 4 6 ) , b u t i t i s u nc lear whe ther t he a r row e n tered t he t omb w ith o r i n . t h e b ody . Two l e af a r rowheads w ere l oca ted i n t h e Nor th c hamber a t R odma r ton , wh ich s howed a p redom inance o f o lder ma le b od ies ( Thurnam 1 869 ) b u t s uch e v idence i s h a rd ly c onc lus ive . I n teres t ing ly , o ne e xamp le o f a ' f ema le ' a s soc ia t ion f or a l e af -a r rowhead i n a l ong mound c on tex t i s a t C hu te 1 , where a n a r rowhead was f ound i n c lose a s soc ia t ion w i th a d i sa r t icu la ted f ema le p e lv is ( Passmore 1 942 ) . S im i lar ly , a t Way land 's Sm i thy t h ree a r rowheads w ere f ound , e ach i n c on tac t w i th a p e lv is ( A tk in son 1 965 , 1 30 : d e ta i ls o f s ex ing n o t g iven ) . Wh i le t hese i t ems may b reak t h e p a t tern o f ma le a s soc ia t ions f o r l e af -a r rowheads , we f ee l t ha t i t i s e qua l ly l i ke ly t ha t s o me o ver t ly s exua l s ymbo l ism , man ipu la t ing ma le a nd f ema le i t ems , may w e l l h ave b een i nvo lved . T o s um u p , w e c on tend t ha t i n t he e a r l ier t h ird m i l len ium b e i n B r i ta in , l e af s haped a r rowheads r ep resen ted a n i t em o f d i s t inc t ive ly ma le k i t . T o d esc r ibe

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t hem a s ' p res t ige i t ems ' wou ld b e a g ross o vers ta temen t . K i te -shaped a nd o g iva l v ar ie t ies s eem t o h ave b een made f r om a n e qua l ly e a r ly d a te a s t h e s t anda rd l e af s hape ( G reen 1 980 , 9 7 -99 ) , b u t t h ese a ppea r t o h ave b een m ere ly t he c onsequence o f l oca l p a t terns o f manufac tur ing ( i b id . , F igs . 3 4 a nd 3 5 ) . I ndeed , G reen 's s ca t ter p lo t o f l e af -a r rowhead m e t r ica l a na lys is ( i b id . , F igs . 3 a nd 4 ) d i sp lays a c l ass ic u n imoda l d i s t r ibu t ion . T here i s l i t t le mo re t o b e s a id f r om t h is o ther t han t ha t s o me l e af -a r rowheads w ere l onger o r w ider t han o the r s : t hey d o n o t f orm d i sc re te g roups . Wh i le i t s eems t ha t l a rger e xamp les may h ave b een s e lec ted f or d epos i t ion i n f unera ry c on tex ts , i t a ppea r s t ha t t h e ' message ' b e ing c ommun ica ted w as a v e ry s imp le o ne a nd t ha t t he v a r iab i l i ty wh ich c an b e d e tec ted w as o f t he s o r t wh ich S acke t t w ou ld c a l l ' i soch res t ic ' . I n b e ing p a r t o f a p anop ly o f a r cher 's e qu ipmen t wh ich wou ld h ave i nc luded b ows , q u ivers , a r row s haf ts a nd f l igh ts ( a l l o f wh ich m igh t h ave p rov ided c on tex ts f or d ecora t ion ) , l eaf a r rowheads wou ld h ave b een emp loyed i n t he p roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion o f a n i mage o f ' ma leness ' i n t h e E a r l ier N eo l i th ic . We wou ld a rgue , h owever , t ha t t he d egree o f s t ra tegy o r c onsc ious a c t ion i nvo lved i n t h is p resen ta t ion wou ld h ave b een l ow . E v idence o f a rchery i n t he L a ter N eo l i th ic p resen ts a ma rked c on t ras t w i th t h is p ic ture . C la rk ( 1935) p o in ted o u t t he d iver s i ty o f t he v ar ious t ypes o f p e t i t t ranche t d e r iva t ive a r rowheads i n u se i n t he p er iod . T he c hange f rom l eaf t o p e t i t t ranche t f orms i t se lf r equ ires e xp lana t ion . Numerous a u thors ( i nc lud ing B rad ley 1 978 , 1 982 ; T homas a nd Wh i t t le 1 986 ; T ho rpe a nd R icha rd s 1 984 ; Wh i t t le 1 978 , 1 981) h ave i nd ica ted t h a t t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m i l len ium b c w a s ap er iod o f p rofound s oc ia l c hange i n many p a r ts o f B r i ta in . T he c ausa l mo tors f avoured t o e xp la in t h is p rocess h ave i nc luded o verpopu la t ion , i n ter g roup c ompe t i t ion a nd w i th in -group c on trad ic t ions , b u t i t i s u n impo r tan t f or t he a rgumen ts e xpressed h ere wh ich o f t hese s chemes i s p refer red . A l l t ha t w e a rgue i s t ha t c hanges i n a r rowhead t e chno logy mus t b e e xp la ined w i th r eference t o t hese c hanges i n s oc ia l s t ruc ture . None the less , we wou ld s t rong ly r es is t t he p opu la r o p in ion t ha t t r ansverse a r rowheads w ere a dop ted i n o rder t o h un t w i ldfow l a nd s ma l l g ame i n t he ' r egenera ted wood land ' o f t he l a ter t h ird m i l len ium . C lark ( 1963 ) h as p o in ted o u t t ha t t hese a r rowheads wou ld h ave b een mos t u nsu i tab le f o r t hese p urposes : a b lun t , u n t ipped a r row i s r egarded a s mos t a pp ropr ia te f or t ak ing b i rds , s i nce i t n e i ther b reaks s ma l l b ones n o r r e su l ts i n f ea ther s b e ing s oaked i n b lood . A c ons idera t ion o f t he mechan ica l p roper t ies o f p e t i t tranche t a r rowheads m igh t b e u sefu l a t t h is p o in t . B e ing f o r t h e mos t p a r t a symme t r ica l i n s hape , t hese a r rowheads wou ld h ave b een n e i ther a s a ccura te n or a s f a r -f ly ing a s l e af -shaped e xamp les . I t i s t hus t o b e a s sumed t ha t t hey w ere f o r u se a t c l ose r ange . Any d oub t a bou t t he p ene t ra t ing c apab i l i t ies o f p e t i t tranche t t ypes s hou ld b e d i spe l led b y t h e e xamp le l odged i n a n h ypogee i n t h e v a l ley o f t h e P e t i t Ma r in ( G reen 1 980 , 1 77 ) . None the less , t he s h if t f r om l e af -shaped t o p e t i t t r anche t a r rowheads i mp l ies a c hange i n t he emphas is f r om p ene tra t ion t o t he i n f l ic t ing o f w ide , p rofuse ly b leed ing wounds a nd t he c u t t ing o f t endon s a nd s i news . F ur thermore , t he r i pp le -f laked o b l ique a r rowheads may t o s ome e x ten t r ef lec t t he s ame i n ten t ion a s l e ads mode rn h un ters d raw a f i le a c ross t he b lade o f a me ta l a r rowhead ( Myer s , p ers . c omm .) - t o c rea te a n i r regu la r wound a nd e ncourage h aemor rhag ing . T aken ‚ t oge ther , w e s ugges t t ha t t hese p o in t s f i t w e l l i n to a p ic ture o f s oc ia l c hange i n wh ich t h e n a ture o f w a rfa re h ad a l so b een t r ansformed . I n s tead o f p i tched b a t t les b e tween l a rge g roups o f i nd iv idua ls , c u lm ina t ing i n t h e a ssau l t

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o f p i tched b a t t les b e tween l a rge g roups o f i nd iv idua ls , c u lm ina t ing i n t he a ssau l t a nd s ack o f d efended s e t t le men ts , o ther p ic tu res c ou ld n ow b e p u t f orward . T hese may h ave i nc luded r i tua l ised c omba ts , e ndem ic w a rfare , c a t t le r a id ing a nd f eud ing b e tween sma l l g roups . A s t he e thnograph ic r ecord d e mons t ra tes , a s er ies o f g raded c onf l ic ts , r ang ing f rom i nd iv idua l c omba t t hrough t o l a rger s k irm ishes a re o f ten g overened b y s t r ic t r u les r egard ing a ppropr ia te a c t ion a nd a ccep tab le o u tcomes . Under t hese c i rcums tances , where emphas is i s p laced more u pon d isp lay a nd a s ymbo l ic e xpress ion o f c onf l ic t a s a means o f g a in ing ma ter ia l w ea l th o r s t a tus , w ip ing o u t o ne 's o pponen ts may b e r ega rded a s i nappropr ia te . I n e ach c ase , i nf l ic t ing s pec tacu lar a nd p a infu l wounds m igh t h ave b een p referab le t o o u tr igh t k i l l ing ( and l e ss l i ke ly t o i ncur r epr isa l) i f t he i n ten t ion w as mere ly t o p u t t he o pponen t o u t o f c omba t . I f t h is i n terpre ta t ion c overs t he c hange i n a r rowhead morpho logy , i t r e ma ins t o c ons ider t he i ncreased r ange o f v ar iab i l i ty . C la rk ( 1935 ) d i s t ingu ished n ine s t y les o f p e t i t tranche t d er iva t ive . T hese d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een r e la ted t o r eg iona l p references ( Green 1 980 , 2 60 ) . I f t h is v a r iab i l i ty c an b e d ef ined a s s t y l is t ic , a nd t he s t y les a re ' e qua l i n u se ' , t he i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t mo re i nforma t ion was b e ing t r ansm i t ted i n a r rowhead f o rm t han h ad b een t he c ase i n t he E a r l ier N eo l i th ic . T ha t a mo re ' c omp lex ' message was i nvo lved i s s ugges ted b y t he c on tex ts i n wh ich t hese a rrowheads were d epos i ted . T he c lose a ssoc ia t ion b e tween o b l ique a r rowheads a nd G rooved Wa re h as f r equen t ly b een n o ted (Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th 1 971) a nd t h is m igh t i nd ica te t he ir i nc lus ion i n a ' p ackage ' o f h igh s t a tus i t ems ( Brad ley 1 982 ) . T h is a ssoc ia t ion h o ld s t h roughou t B r i ta in , b u t i n s ou the rn Wessex t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f o b l ique a r rowhead s i s p ar t icu la r ly s kewed t owards h enge s i tes ( Green 1 980 , 1 09 ) , c oncen t ra t ions o ccur r ing a t Woodhenge a nd Dur r ing ton Wa l ls . S t ray f i nds o f o b l ique a r rowheads a re n o t o n ly r arer t han t hose o f c h ise l / t ransverse t ypes , b u t a ppea r t o b e r e s t r ic ted s pa t ia l ly . T h is o f ten t akes t he f orm o f a c oncen tra t ion a round ma jor monu men ts . I t s eems , t hen , t ha t o b l ique a r rowheads w ere i n s ome w ay s oc ia l ly r e s t r ic ted i n t he ir d is t r ibu t ion . T h is b e ing t he c ase , w e wou ld i n fer t ha t i n t he L a ter N eo l i th ic , a r rowheads w ere a ssoc ia ted w i th a w ider r ange o f i deas wh ich w ere b u i l t u pon u ncon s idered d imens ions o f g ender a nd /or a ge a nd wh ich b ecame o ver t ma rkers o f s t a tus i n a s oc ie ty o f i ncreased c omp lex i ty . We s hou ld n o t l i ke t o g ive t he i mpress ion t ha t t h is p rocess w as l im i ted t o a r rowhead d es ign . R e la ted p henomena i nc lude t he i ncrease i n d ecora t ion o n p o t tery , t he i ncreased v ar ie ty o f p o ten t ia l ly p res t ig ious i t e ms l i ke maceheads , b e l t s l iders , b one p ins a nd f l in t k n ives wh ich b ecame a va i lab le a nd p resu mab ly a n i ncrease i n o ther f orms o f b od i ly a dornmen t wh ich s e ldom l eave t r aces i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . A t t h is p o in t , t hen , t he v ar ia t ion s een i n s evera l f orms o f ma ter ia l c u l ture s h if ted f rom a n e ssen t ia l ly u ncons idered t o a more o ver t mode o f s ty l is t ic e xpress ion . C once ivab ly , t h is p rocess r e la ted b o th t o t h e e xp ress ion o f a w ider r ange o f s oc ia l s t a tuses a nd t o t he d eve lopmen t o f c on trad ic to ry s oc ia l s t ra teg ies a nd i den t i t ies . I n t he L a ter N eo l i th ic , a r rowheads b ecame a s much ' weapon s o f e xc lus ion ' ( Doug la s a nd I sherwood 1 978 ) a s w eapons o f w a r . B y t he B eake r p hase , i t i s e v iden t t ha t t he n a tu re o f a rche ry h ad o nce a ga in c hanged . A l l t he p arapherna l ia o f a rchery s eems t o h ave b een r i g id ly r e s t r ic ted t o a ' ma le ' s phe re o f a c t iv i ty . O f n ine teen s exed b ur ia ls a ssoc ia ted w i th a r rowheads a nd /or a rcher 's b race rs l i s ted b y C la rke ( 1970 , 4 34 -447 ) , a l l

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are of men. Stylistic vanat10n was greatly diminished if comparisons are drawn with the Later Neolithic; form was restricted to the basic barbed-and­ tanged type. Within this category, however, it is possible to recognise a duality between those arrowheads intended for use and those for display. This provides an interesting parallel with the separation of a fine/funerary class of Beaker ceramics (Clarke 1972). The sharpness of the division is emphasised by burials like that at Radley 203, accompanied by five fine arrowheads (a quiver?), but with a far coarser example located near to �he spine, presumably the cause of death (Bradley, Chambers and Halpin 1984,15Similarly crude arrowheads were found· lodged in the "Beaker-Age" 19). burial at Stonehenge (Evans 1984, 16). The 'fine' barbed-and-tanged arrowheads of Green's "Conygar" and "Green Low" types are found comparatively rarely as stray finds (Green 1980, 242). While the Beaker situation may represent a reversion to a simple expression of masculinity, we would argue that the burials with fine arrowheads and bracers and items like the Beaker-associated bow pendants of Continental Europe (Piggott 1971) relate to a far more active strategy of representation than had been practised in the Earlier Neolithic. In a social milieu in which individual burials had· become a far more important element in the power strategies of the living indeed, had become an integral element in social reproduction - the emphasis upon the portrayal of male identity, possibly as warriors, archers and craftsmen, may have played an active part in reaffirming ambiguous gender relations with reference to the division of labour. Discussion

It is perhaps worth stressing that this paper does not purport to offer a new, all-embracing definition of the concept of style which extends our ability to categorise formal variation in artefacts. We have been concerned more directly with exploring existing ideas of how material culture not only conveys information, but also actively plays a part in the reproduction of social practice. Whilst the development · of more sensitive descriptive techniques is certainly important, we can only make further use of the concept of style if we set it within a coherent body of social theory. If we work from the premise that unconsidered and routinised behaviour plays an important part in the reproduction of arbitrary social categories, it is possible to sidestep many of the distinctions which have characterised archaeological debates about style. The. emphasis which has been placed upon changes in the 'social role' of archery does not amount to a rejection of more functional arguments. Although functional explanations �ay be found to fit the patterns which we recognise, the point we would li�e to stress is that we need to go beyond thinking in largely one-dimensional terms. The analytical separation of fields of enquiry (eg form, function, symbol, production etc.) is both based upon and reaffirms the assumption that such rigid distinctions were drawn by the producers and users of artefacts in the past. It is not surprising, therefore, that we have had difficulty in accepting. that artefacts and the actions which create them may be seen in a number of dimensions simultaneously. The fact that we can find examples of artefacts whose form would have rendered them practically useless, has contributed to the idea of a distinct 'symbolic sphere'. In fact, we would contend that artefacts can only function in an overtly symbolic sense, precisely because the potential exists for the manipulation of meanings attached to materials produced in an unconsidered and routinised manner - in the world of 'taken-for-granteds'.

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I n r ep roduc ing a n a rb i t ra ry c oncep t o f t h e wo r ld a nd o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s , t h e i nd iv idua l c rea tes a f r amework f or e xper ience wh ich i nvo lves a l l o f t he d imens ions wh ich w e i s o la te a nd s cru t in ise . I f w e a ccep t t ha t t hese d imens ion s s imu l taneous ly i n form a c t ion s , w e c an b eg in t o l ook f or c on tex ts i n wh ich b lur red a nd u ncon s idered c oncep ts may h ave s napped i n to s ha rper f ocus . C r i t ica l t o t h is a pproach i s t he i d ea o f c on t ra s ts . A s t h e e xamp les i n t h is p aper d emons tra te , t he a c t ive e voca t ion o f mean ings d er ived f rom h ab i tua l p rac t ice may n o t o n ly b e man ifes t i n t he f orms o f a r tefac ts t hemse lves . I t i s a l so v i ta l t ha t w e e xam ine t h e c on tex ts , a ssoc ia t ions a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o f a r tefac ts . I n t h is w ay , i t may p rove p oss ib le t o i den t ify ' d is junc tures ' - c on tras ts i n t he manner i n wh ich c er ta in ma ter ia ls ( or p laces) a re t r ea ted - wh ich r ef lec t a more a c t ive e voca t ion o f t he ir a ssoc ia t ions . I f t h is me thod i s a l l ied t o a t h eore t ica l a pprec ia t ion o f t he l i ke ly s ou rces o f c on f l ic t a nd c on trad ic t ion i n s oc ie t ies , w e may b e a b le t o s hed f u r ther l i gh t o n t he c on s tan t p rocess o f s oc ia l c hange . S im i lar p erspec t ives wou ld a l so b e v a luab le i n e xam in ing c hanges i n t he f orm , c on tex ts a nd a ssoc ia t ions o f o ther c l asses o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( eg s ma l l t humbna i l s crapers ) ; i ndeed , t he p rocess o f c ross -referenc ing i s a bso lu te ly c r i t ica l . T hey may a l so b e v a l id f or l ook ing a t t he A ra o f p roduc t ion i t se lf . T he p roce ss o f mak ing a t oo l n ecess i ta tes a s e r ies o f mo tor a c t ions w i th in c ons t ra in ts s e t b y t he r aw ma te r ia l . I t a l so e n ta i ls a n i d ea o f t he a ppropr ia te t e chn iques t o b e emp loyed a nd t he f o rm t ha t t he p roduc t s hou ld t ake ( however e xped ien t ) . A l though t he a c t o f ma ter ia l p roduc t ion w as p robab ly u nder taken i n a l a rge ly u ncon s idered a nd r ou t in ised f a sh ion , i t s c ha rac ter r ef lec t ing s ome o f t he c ons t ra in ts i mposed b y t he n a ture o f s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t , t he p oss ib i l i ty mus t s ure ly h ave e x is ted f or t he a c t i t se lf t o t ake t he c en tre s t age . T he f r equen t o ccur rence o f k napp ing c lus ters i n t he make u p o f c a irns , i n a s soc ia t ion w i th b ar rows a nd w i th d i tches a t a n umbe r o f s i tes , h as o f ten b een s een a s t h e r e sponse t o ac hance r ecovery o f r aw ma ter ia ls , o r t o t he r e -use o f a n e a r l ier s i te f or t he p rocuremen t o f r aw ma te r ia ls . Wh i ls t t h ere may b e a g ood d ea l o f t r u th i n t hese a rgumen ts , t he f ac t t ha t a n umber o f c lus ters c an b e r e f i t ted t o r ecrea te a c omp le te c ore may s ugges t t ha t t h e a ccep ted w ay o f d o ing t h ings was o ccas iona l ly u nder taken i n a f a r mo re f o rma l manner . I t i s n o more t han c o inc idence t ha t w e , l i ke Wiessner , h ave l ooked a t c hanges i n t h e r o les p l ayed b y a rrowheads . Ou r s e lec t ion w as d e term ined b y t he r e la t ive e ase w i th wh ich d a ta c ou ld b e o b ta ined a nd w e a cknow ledge t ha t t he p rocess o f t ak ing i nd iv idua l c lasses o f a r tefac t may l ead t o a n o vers imp l if ied i mpress ion o f t he w ay i n wh ich many o f t hem w ere i n t ima te ly c onnec ted i n t h e e voca t ion o f ac omp lex o f i d ea s . T h is p aper h as a t temp ted t o p resen t a p e rspec t ive o n s t y le i n s t one t oo ls wh ich s hou ld b e s een a s c omp lemen ta ry t o o ther i n terpre ta t ive f r amewo rk s . A t a v ery g enera l l eve l , i t s ha res w i th a n umber o f o ther p aper s i n t h is v o lume t he f i rm o p in ion t ha t l i th ic ma ter ia l r ema ins u nder -exp lo i ted a s a s ource o f e v idence . I f t h is c on tr ibu t ion s t imu la tes f ur ther a venues o f r e search wh ich s uppor t o r r efu te t he o bserva t ions made h ere , i t w i l l h ave s e rved a u sefu l p u rpose . Acknowledge ments: T he a u thors wou ld l i ke t o e xpress t he ir t h anks t o Andy Myers a nd S ande r V an d er L eeuw f or h e lpfu l c ommen ts a nd d i scuss ion . R espons ib i l i ty f or t h e c onc lus ions w e h ave d rawn r e s t s e n t ire ly w i th u s .

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